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Bureau of Animal Industry 
of the 
United States Department 
of Agriculture 
ITS ESTABLISHMENT, ACHIEVEMENTS 
AND CURRENT ACTIVITIES 
By 
U. G. HOUCK, B.S., V.M.D. 
i" 
with the collaboration of other members of the Bureau Staff 
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 
1924 HAYWORTH PRINTING COMPANY - WASHINGTON D C Hon. HENRY C. WALLACE 
Secretary of Agriculture 
Appointed March 5, 1921 DR. D. E. SALMON 
First Chief of the Bureau 
Appointed^Chief May 31, 1884. Resigned November 1, 1905 DR. A. D. MELVIN 
Second Chief of the Bureau 
Appointed Chief December i, 1905. Died December 7, 1917 DR. JOHN R. MOHLER 
Third and Present Chief of the Bureau 
Appointed Chief December n, 1917 PREFACE 
In preparing this brief sketch of the establishment, 
growth and work of the Bureau of Animal Industry I 
have assembled only the more important facts, events and 
accomplishments in handy form for reference by those 
who have helped to make Bureau history and those who 
are interested in the activities of the organization. 
Bureau and other publications have been quoted freely, 
and I am indebted to the chiefs and members of the staffs 
of the different divisions and offices of the Bureau for 
collaborating in preparing the sketches of their respective 
operations and to the Editorial Office for editorial as- 
sistance. 
It is hoped that this publication will fulfill its purpose 
by placing on record the more important activities of the 
Bureau which has done so much to assist in promoting the 
livestock industry, advancing agriculture and guarding 
the public health. 
U. G. Houck, B. S., V. M. D. 
May, 1924. CONTENTS 
Page 
Preface vii 
Introduction ix 
Outline of organization of the Bureau of Animal Industry xi 
Commissioners and Secretaries of Agriculture xvii 
Part I 
Conditions Leading Up to the Creation of the Bureau 1 
Part II 
Forty Years of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry 38 
The Experiment Station 48 
Pathological Division 55 
Zoological Division ; 87 
Quarantine Division 125 
Biochemic Division 156 
Dairy Division : 187 
Animal Husbandry Division 218 
Meat Inspection Division 255 
Field Inspection Division 278 
Division of Hog-Cholera Control 304 
Tick Eradication Division 318 
Division of Virus-Serum Control 342 
Tuberculosis Eradication Division 350 
Bureau Personnel and Veterinary Education 371 
Editorial Office 379 
Conclusion 387 
VIII INTRODUCTION 
Today the Bureau of Animal Industry completes its fortieth year 
of service. It began with a small staff consisting of a chief, one clerk, 
and a force limited to 20 persons. With no ambition as to size, but 
seeking only to render efficient public service, it has grown steadily. 
By the will of the people as expressed through Congress, it has under- 
taken one activity after another. The first work was almost entirely 
that of controlling and eradicating animal diseases. Later, Congress 
assigned to it the responsibilities of protecting the public health 
through meat inspection and other regulatory measures. Other steps 
in its development have related to investigating and promoting dairy- 
ing, better methods of breeding, feeding and managing livestock, and 
the care and handling of their products. 
The duties of the Bureau now include scientific research, educa- 
tion, relieving animal suffering, guarding the public health, promot- 
ing the livestock industry, protecting property, stimulating domestic 
commerce in animals and their products, and preserving and extend- 
ing export trade. To conduct all this work properly requires a per- 
sonnel which averages close to 4,500 employees. These workers are 
distributed among 19 divisions and offices of the Bureau. Less than 
10 per cent are stationed in Washington; the nature of the work calls 
for the principal distribution of employees among all the States of 
the Union and several foreign countries. 
The first big task of the Bureau was the eradication of contagious 
pleuropneumonia from the cattle of this country, and its conquest 
was the first great achievement of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
The last big task in the 40-year period of the Bureau is the 1924 cam- 
paign against foot-and-mouth disease in California which is taxing 
our energies as this is written. In all our outbreaks there has been 
a vexatious and inexplicable lapse of valuable time between the ap- 
pearance of this infection upon our soil and its definite recognition. 
Fortunately in this outbreak that period was relatively short. This 
permitted the inauguration of the campaign of eradication before the 
infection had become so widespread as to defy control. The largest 
and best trained force ever assembled in one State for foot-and-mouth 
disease eradication was placed in the field, but notwithstanding the 
strenuous efforts made the disease spread to 16 counties. This shows 
the persistent and treacherous nature of this intensely infectious ani- 
mal plague. 
Many obstacles not encountered in previous outbreaks have had to 
be overcome in this one. Among them has been the spread of the 
disease to large range herds and flocks in a rough, inaccessible, and 
IX poorly fenced country, suffering from the worst drought experienced 
in thirty years. Progress is being made, however, and at this writ- 
ing the disease is believed to have been stamped out in all but 4 
counties, and in these control is being rapidly established. The mag- 
nitude of this outbreak is shown by the fact that in only 3 months 
approximately 95,000 animals have been involved. In the 1914 out- 
break, which was the largest ever experienced in this country and 
which lasted for a period of 18 months, 172,000 animals were affected. 
The success of the work conducted by the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try depends on the interest and efficiency of its individual employees. 
Because of such responsibility, and because many of our employees 
have an incomplete knowledge of the purpose, scope and policies of 
the Bureau, I commend the action of Dr. Houck and his colleagues in 
preparing this interesting and instructive book. The information 
contained should prove to be beneficial both to the employees of the 
Bureau and to the general public. Without a publication of this kind 
it is scarcely possible for persons within the Bureau, or others dealing 
with it, to grasp the spirit of public service which caused its organiza- 
tion and has guided its development. We find that the public knows 
little of some of the most important branches of Bureau work, due 
perhaps to the fact that the Bureau has conducted its operations 
quietly and without ostentation, although it has been suggested re- 
peatedly that more publicity be given to its achievements. As Chief 
of the Bureau, I am pleased to know that such a feeling prevails- 
that we have much more of interest to say than has been said. 
Records of the research, experimental work, and the regulatory 
activities of the Bureau in cooperation with the States, that have been 
conducted during the 40 years of its existence, are scattered through 
numerous volumes, reports and articles. In this brief historical sketch 
the most important facts, events and accomplishments have been as- 
sembled, with their dates, in order to have them handy for reference 
by those who are interested in the Bureau's activities. 
This book may be considered as a souvenir of the fortieth anniver- 
sary of the birth of the Bureau as well as a tribute to each of its work- 
ers, past and present, who by their creative and constructive minds, 
their enterprise and perseverance, have made such splendid contribu- 
tions to science and have done so much to elevate the Bureau to the 
position of respect, confidence and usefulness that it now occupies. 
John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D., D. Sc 
May 29, 1924. 
X Outline of Organization of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry 
Early progress made by the Bureau in behalf of the livestock indus- 
try increased the popularity of its work and also the demands for 
assistance. In order to meet the demands most effectually, it became 
necessary in 1891 to organize the Bureau into four divisions, each 
under a chief, and assign specific duties to each division. In order 
to trace its development through the following pages of this historical 
sketch, the organization of the Bureau from its beginning to the pres- 
ent time is outlined as follows: 
1883, May 1. Veterinary Division established in the Department of Agri- 
culture by Dr. D. E. Salmon, who was called to Washing- 
ton for that purpose. 
1883. A pathological laboratory was established by Dr. D. E. Sal- 
mon. April 1, 1891, the name was changed to Division of 
Animal Pathology. 
1883. An experiment station was established on leased property 
in the suburbs of Washington, on Benning Road. July 1, 
1897, the station was transferred to its present location, 
about five miles north of Washington, D. C., on the Rock- 
ville road, at Bethesda, Md. 
1884, May 29. The U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry established by Act of 
Congress. 
Zoological Division. 
1886, Aug. 1. Zoological Laboratory established. 
1901. Zoological Laboratory changed to Zoological Division. 
Biochemic Division 
1890, Jan. 1. Biochemic Laboratory established. 
1896, July 1. Biochemic Laboratory changed to Biochemic Division. 
Reorganization of the Bureau 
1891, April 1. Bureau organized in four divisions, as follows: 
1. Inspection Division.-To the Inspection Division was assigned all 
work of an executive nature, including the eradication of con- 
tagious diseases, the inspection of export and import animals, 
meat inspection, vessel inspection, and the regulation of the 
movement of southern cattle. 
2. Division of Animal Pathology.-To this Division was assigned all 
scientific investigations in regard to the nature, cause, preven- 
tion and treatment of animal diseases. The name of this Divi- 
sion was changed to Division of Pathology, and later, to Patho- 
logical Division. 
3. Division of Field Investigations and Miscellaneous Work.-To this 
Division was assigned various duties, principal among which 
were investigations in the field of the location, character and 
prevalence of outbreaks of the various diseases reported. It 
maintained a corps of field correspondents from whom informa- 
XI tion was collected as to the condition of livestock, outbreaks of 
disease, and other conditions in regard to which the farmers 
needed information. It also was charged with the supervision 
of the expenditures and accounts of the whole Bureau. It looked 
after poultry diseases, the animals in the District of Columbia, 
and answered inquiries made by letter. To some extent this Divi- 
sion was intended as a bureau of information. 
4. Division of Quarantine.-To this Division was assigned the duties 
of issuing permits for the importation of animals, the super- 
vision of importations of livestock on arrival at the port of 
entry, their removal from the ship to the quarantine station, 
and also their supervision while being held in quarantine. 
Quarantine Division 
1891, April 1. Division of Quarantine established. 
1896, July 1. Division of Quarantine changed to Miscellaneous Division. 
1903, July 1. Miscellaneous Division changed to Quarantine Division. 
1922, May 1. Quarantine Division combined with Field Inspection Divi- 
sion under the title of Field Inspection Division. 
Dairy Division 
1895, July 1. Dairy Division established. 
1902, July 1. Dairy research laboratories established. 
Animal Husbandry Division 
1901, July 1. George M. Rommel appointed expert in animal husbandry, 
and work in animal husbandry begun. This work grew 
in a few years into the Animal Husbandry Office. 
1910, Jan. 1. Animal Husbandry Office changed to Animal Husbandry 
Division. 
Meat Inspection Division 
1890, Aug. 30. Federal meat-inspection service first established and placed 
under the administration of the Bureau. 
1891, April 1. Meat inspection placed under newly organized Inspection 
Division. 
1912, July 1. Meat Inspection Division established as a separate division 
through the separation of the meat-inspection work from 
the Inspection Division. 
Field Inspection Division 
1912, July 1. Field Inspection Division established as a separate division 
through separation from the Inspection Division. 
1922, May 1. Field Inspection Division and Quarantine Division combined 
under the title of Field Inspection Division. 
Division of Hog Cholera Control 
1913, July 1. Field investigations and demonstrations begun on a wide 
scale under direction of the Biochemic Division. (The 
investigation of hog cholera was commenced by Dr. D. E. 
Salmon in 1883 and was continued by the Biochemic 
Division.) 
.1916, Jan. 1. Office of Hog Cholera Control established through the sep- 
, aration of the hog-cholera field work from the Biochemic 
Division. 
XII 1919, April 16. Office of Hog Cholera Control changed to Division of Hog 
Cholera Control. 
Tick Eradication Division 
1917, May 1. Tick Eradication Division established as a separate division 
through the separation of the tick eradication work from 
the Field Inspection Division. (The investigation of 
Texas fever was begun by Dr. D. E. Salmon soon after 
July 1, 1881, when he was appointed special agent in the 
Department of Agriculture. On July 1, 1906, tick eradi- 
cation was begun by the Bureau under the direction of 
the Inspection Division in cooperation with the States.) 
Division of Virus-Serum Control 
1917, Feb. 17. Office of Virus-Serum Control established. (Work was be- 
gun July 1, 1913, under the Biochemic Division.) 
1920, July 1. Office of Virus-Serum Control changed to Division of Virus- 
Serum Control. 
Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
1917, May 1. Tuberculosis Eradication Division established through sep- 
aration from the Quarantine Division, which had been 
conducting the tuberculosis eradication work in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia and in many herds outside of the Dis- 
trict since May 27, 1907. 
Office of Personnel 
1903, July 1. Appointment Section was established in the Quarantine Di- 
vision, when the name of the Miscellaneous Division was 
changed to Quarantine Division. 
1906, Sept. 1. The Appointment Section became a separate section through 
separation from the Quarantine Division. 
1914, July 1. Appointment Section included in Miscellaneous Division. 
1921, May 1. Appointment Section changed to Office of Personnel, on abo- 
lition of Miscellaneous Division. 
Office of Accounts 
1906, Sept. 1. Office of Accounts established as a separate office through 
separation from the Quarantine Division. 
Editorial Office 
1898, Mar. 1. George F. Thompson transferred from the Division of Pub- 
lications to the Bureau to do editorial work. 
1903, Mar. 20. Editorial Office established when Mr. Thompson was ap- 
pointed editor. 
Office of Legal Adviser 
1916, Feb. 1. Office of Legal Adviser established in the Bureau. Previous 
to this date the Bureau obtained all legal advice direct 
from the Solicitor of the Department. 
Miscellaneous Division 
1914, July 1. Miscellaneous Division organized. Charged with work re- 
lating to personnel, supervision of veterinary colleges, 
keeping records and data relating to projects of work, and 
other matters not handled by other divisions and offices. 
(For earlier outline, see Quarantine Division.) 
1921, May 1. Miscellaneous Division abolished. Duties continued by Office 
of Personnel. 
XIII Chiefs of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
Dr. D. E. Salmon, May 31, 1884, to Oct. 31, 1905. 
Dr. A. D. Melvin, Dec. 1, 1905, to Dec. 7, 1917. 
Dr. J. R. Mohler, Dec. 11, 1917, to the present. 
Assistant Chiefs of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
Dr. A. M. Farrington, Oct. 8, 1887, to April 1, 1891. 
Mr. William Dickson, April 1, 1891, to May 12, 1891. 
Dr. Charles B. Michener, May 12, 1891, to Sept. 15, 1893.. 
Mr. Daniel G. Hatch (Acting), Sept. 15, 1893, to Jan. 16, 1896. 
Dr. G. M. Brumbaugh, Jan. 16, 1896, to Jan. 1, 1899. 
Dr. A. D. Melvin, Jan. 1, 1899, to Dec. 1, 1905. 
Dr. A. M. Farrington, Dec. 1, 1905, to June 30, 1914. 
Dr. J. R. Mohler, June 30, 1914, to Dec. 11, 1917. 
Mr. B. H. Rawl, Oct. 1, 1918, to June 6, 1921. • 
Administrative Assistant 
Mr. Charles C. Carroll, April 1, 1920, to the present. 
Chief Clerks of Bureau 
Mr. Miles Fuller, July 1, 1884, to Nov. 15, 1889. 
Mr. William J. Cowing, Nov. 15, 1889, to June 1, 1893. 
Mr. P. L. Lyles, June 1, 1893, to April 20, 1896. 
Mr. Herman H. Gerdes (Acting), April 20, 1896, to Jan. 1, 1897 
Col. S. R. Burch, Jan. 1, 1897, to Sept. 1, 1903. 
Mr. Edwin B. Jones, Oct. 1, 1903, to Aug. 1, 1908. 
Mr. Charles C. Carroll, Aug. 1, 1908, to March 31, 1920. 
Mr. J. R. Cohran, April 1, 1920, to the precent. 
XIV PRESENT ORGANIZATION 
The present organization of the Bureau of Animal Industry is as follows 
Chief: John R. Mohler. 
Administrative Assistant: Charles C. Carroll. 
Chief Clerk: J. R. Cohran. 
Editor: D. S. Burch. 
Legal Adviser, Harry Coding. 
Animal Husbandry Division: L. J. Cole, Chief. 
Biochemic Division: M. Dorset, chief. 
Dairy Division: C. W. Larson, chief. 
Division of Hog Cholera Control: U. G. Houck, chief. 
Division of Virus-Serum Control: D. I. Skidmore, chief. 
Field Inspection Division: A. W. Miller, chief. 
Meat Inspection Division: R. P. Steddom, chief. 
Pathological Division: John S. Buckley, chief. 
Tick Eradication Division: R. A. Ramsay, chief. 
Tuberculosis Eradication Division: J. A. Kiernan, chief. 
Zoological Division: B. H. Ransom, chief. 
Experiment Station: E. C. Schroeder, superintendent. 
Office of Accounts: George F. Tucker, in charge. 
Office of Personnel: George H. Russell, in charge. 
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Divn. Commissioners and Secretaries of Agriculture 
Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, of Connecticut, Commissioner of Patents 
from 1836 to 1845, was the first official of the National Government 
who gave active attention to agricultural matters. During the time 
that he was Commissioner of Patents he received from Government 
representatives abroad and from other sources quantities of choice 
seeds and many plants which he distributed to enterprising farmers 
in different parts of the country. 
Largely as a result of his efforts, in 1839 Congress appropriated 
$1,000 for the purpose of collecting and distributing seeds and pro- 
curing agricultural statistics. This money was to be taken from the 
Patent Office fund and the work was to be done under the direction of 
the Commissioner of Patents, who at that time was an official of the 
Department of State. The distribution of seeds and the collection 
and publication of argricultural information continued under suc- 
ceeding Commissioners of Patents. 
When the Department of the Interior was established in 1849 the 
Patent Office, including the work relating to agriculture, became a 
part of it. In 1857 the staff of the Section of Agriculture of the 
Patent Office consisted of eight members. 
David P. Holloway, of Indiana, who became Commissioner of Pat- 
ents in 1861, made an earnest plea to Congress for the establishment 
of a separate department of the Government to handle agricultural 
matters. Mr. Holloway's arguments were supported by agricultural 
societies and prominent individuals throughout the country. Congress 
passed the law approved May 15, 1862, establishing the Department of 
Agriculture, effective July 1, 1862. The heads of this Department 
from the beginning to the present time are shown in the following list: 
Commissioners of Agriculture 
Isaac Newton, of Pennsylvania, Commissioner of Agriculture, 1862-1867, 
Formerly Chief of the Section of Agriculture in the Patent Office. Ap- 
pointed by President Lincoln and took charge July 1, 1862. On June 19, 
1867, Commissioner Newton died as the result of heat stroke. 
John W. Stokes, Acting Commissioner of Agriculture, 1867. Mr. Stokes, 
Chief Clerk of the Department, was appointed Acting Commissioner fol- 
lowing Commissioner Newton's death, and served until December 4,1867. 
Gen. Horace Capron, born in New York, appointed from Illinois. Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture, 1867-1871. Appointed by President Johnson No- 
vember 29, 1867, and took charge December 4, 1867. Resigned June 27, 
1871, to accept the position of Advisor to the Commission which had 
been appointed by the Japanese Government to develop agriculture in 
that country. 
Judge Frederick Watts, of Pennsylvania, Commissioner of Agriculture, 
XVII 1871-1877. Appointed by President Grant to fill the vacancy caused by 
the resignation Of Commissioner Capron. 
William G. Le Duc, of Minnesota, Commissioner of Agriculture, 1877-1881. 
Appointed by President Hayes and assumed control July 1, 1877. 
Dr. George B. Loring, of Massachusetts, Commissioner of Agriculture, 1881- 
1885. Appointed by President Garfield and took charge July 1, 1881. 
Norman J. Colman. Born in New York, appointed from Missouri. Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture, March 4, 1885, to February 9, 1889. Appointed by 
President Cleveland and took charge April 3, 1885. 
Secretaries of Agriculture 
Norman J. Colman, Secretary of Agriculture, 1889. On February 9, 1889, 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, which had been established by 
the Act of Congress approved May 15, 1862, was raised to the first rank 
in the executive branch of the Government, when Commissioner Colman 
was appointed by the President the first Secretary of Agriculture. 
Jeremiah M. Rusk. Born in Ohio, appointed from Wisconsin. Secretary 
of Agriculture, 1889-1893. Appointed by President Harrison and took 
charge March 7, 1889. 
J. Sterling Morton. Born in New York, appointed from Nebraska. Secre- 
tary of Agriculture, 1893-1897. Appointed by President Cleveland and 
took charge March 7, 1893. 
James Wilson. Born in Scotland, appointed from Iowa. Secretary of 
Agriculture, 1897-1913. Appointed by President McKinley and took 
charge March 5, 1897. Secretary Wilson enjoyed the distinction of 
serving continuously longer than any other Cabinet officer in the his- 
tory of our Government. 
David F. Houston. Born in North Carolina, appointed from Missouri. Sec- 
retary of Agriculture, 1913-1920. Appointed by President Wilson and 
took charge March 6, 1913. Resigned February 1, 1920, to become Sec- 
retary of the Treasury. 
Edwin T. Meredith. Born in Iowa and appointed from Iowa. Secretary of 
Agriculture!, February 2, 1920, to March 4, 1921. Appointed by Presi- 
dent Wilson to fill the vacancy created through the resignation of Secre- 
tary Houston. 
Henry C. Wallace. Born in Illinois, appointed from Iowa. Secretary of 
Agriculture, 1921 to the present time. Appointed by President Harding 
and took charge March 5, 1921. 
XVIII PART I. 
Conditions Leading Up to the Creation 
of the Bureau 
There were so many important conditions and events prior to the 
existence of the Bureau of Animal Industry that indicated the need 
for a strong, efficient veterinary organization operated under the 
patronage of the National Government, that it seems proper to review 
them briefly before discussing the establishment, growth and achieve- 
ments of this important branch of the Department of Agriculture. 
The success of diversified agriculture throughout the world depends 
largely upon the production of livestock, and success in livestock 
production depends largely upon the control of destructive animal 
diseases. 
In his report for the year 1837, Henry L. Ellsworth, Commissioner 
of Patents, called attention to the rapid improvements that were 
being made in the implements of agriculture and labor-saving ma- 
chines, and suggested the desirability of extending assistance to 
farmers through a regular system for the selection and distribution 
of seeds of the choicest varieties for agricultural purposes. In the 
performance of his official duties the Commissioner of Patents was 
brought into close personal contact with the inventors of agricultural 
implements. In discussing agricultural subjects with the inventors 
and other persons interested in farming in different sections of the 
country he was frequently requested to furnish information and 
advice. In this way the Patent Office gradually assumed the duty 
of looking after agricultural interests and became the chief source 
of official information on agriculture and livestock matters. 
In a letter of January 22, 1839, to the chairman of the Commission 
on Patents, Mr. Ellsworth said: 
In the discharge of official duties I could not fail to notice facts 
deeply connected with the subject of agriculture, and, so far as I was 
able, without the neglect of primary obligations, to give all the ad- 
vantageous aid in my power to this important branch of national 
industry. 
The Commissioner of Patents continued to give considerable atten- 
tion to agricultural matters, including those relating to livestock, and 
in 1860 the Agricultural Division of the United States Patent Office 
was established and Thomas G. Clemson was made Superintendent 
of the new'division. 2 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The Department of Agriculture was established by Act of Congress 
of May 15, 1862, and entered into operation July 1 of that year. 
In the report of the Agricultural Division of the Patent Office for 
the year 1860 attention was called to the prevalence of hog cholera. 
This was the first report of the National Government calling attention 
to the prevalence of animal diseases in this country. 
By 1869 the losses from animal diseases were attracting much at- 
tention, but up to that time no action had been taken by the National 
Government to give any assistance to livestock raisers further than 
to publish in the yearly reports some articles on livestock production 
and the care of animals. In his report to Congress in 1869 recom- 
mending the establishment of a Division of Veterinary Surgery in 
the Department of Agriculture, Horace Capron, Commissioner of 
Agriculture, said: 
The numerous epizootic and zymotic diseases by which our cattle 
are infected demand the intelligent consideration of the general Gov- 
ernment and of the several States. The experiences of the past few 
years have demonstrated the necessity of such facilities and I there- 
fore strongly recommend the establishment of a Division of Veteri- 
nary Surgery in connection with this Department. 
In 1870 Commissioner Capron repeated his recommendation. 
Finally on May 1, 1883, Dr. D. E. Salmon, who had been in the 
service of the Department since July 1, 1881, was called to Washing- 
ton to establish a Veterinary Division of the Department of Agri- 
culture. Dr. Salmon was an investigator of animal diseases, and the 
Veterinary Division was established immediately with the view of 
providing facilities for the investigation of such diseases. Hog cholera, 
contagious pleuropneumonia, sheep scab, Texas fever, anthrax, black- 
leg, contagious abortion, fowl cholera and other animal diseases had 
existed in this country for years. There had been outbreaks of foot- 
and-mouth disease and equine influenza. Heavy losses were reported 
each year from various sporadic diseases, and unfavorable conditions 
had arisen in connection with our export trade. Therefore, in con- 
nection with the investigation of animal diseases there was urgent 
need for the establishment of a veterinary organization in the De- 
partment of Agriculture, provided with funds and authority to pre- 
vent and control communicable diseases, to prevent the importation 
of foreign plagues, to collect information that would be valuable to 
the stock grower and necessary to the profitable development of our 
animal industries, and to enable us to secure free entrance of our 
products into the markets of the world. Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
3 
Contagious Pleuropneumonia 
. The presence of contagious pleuropneumonia in some of our Eastern 
States, and the necessity of eradicating it in order to prevent its 
spread to the herds on the open plains of the West and to protect 
our export cattle trade, was the most important factor leading to the 
action of Congress in establishing the Bureau of Animal Industry as 
a permanent organization in the Department of Agriculture.* 
Although contagious pleuropneumonia had existed in this country 
since 1843, the importance of eradicating it while it was yet possible 
to do so was not fully appreciated until 1879. The disease was first 
introduced in the United States from England in 1843, one year after 
its appearance in that country. Peter Dunn, a milkman located near 
South Ferry, New York City, purchased a ship cow from the captain 
of the English S. S. Washington. This cow carried the infection to 
Mr. Dunn's herd, and from there it spread to many others in the 
vicinity of New York City and Brooklyn. The character of the 
disease did not seem to be recognized, or if it was the owners of the 
infected herds endured their losses without complaint and kept their 
opinions to themselves. 
Contagious pleuropneumonia prevailed uninterruptedly in some 
of the dairy herds in the vicinity of New York City from the be- 
ginning in 1843 and did not attract public attention until 1862, when 
a commission from the State of Massachusetts, where efforts were 
then being made to eradicate the disease, visited New York and 
Brooklyn for the purpose of learning the reason for the losses re- 
ported in the dairy herds of that section. The commission reported 
that they found some cows sick with the disease in the acute form, and 
having conducted a post-mortem on one animal in the last stages of 
the disease, stated that it showed a typical case of the same malady 
which existed in Massachusetts. 
The plague had been introduced into Massachusetts on July 23, 
1859, in the bodies of four Dutch cows imported by Winthrop W. 
Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston. These cows had been shipped 
from Rotterdam, Holland, an infected city. They were all so sick 
when they arrived at Boston that only two were able to walk from 
the boat to Mr. Chenery's farm. The character of the disease in this 
instance was soon recognized, but, unfortunately, not until after the 
infection had escaped to other herds in the vicinity, and within the 
next four years the disease had appeared in twenty towns or town- 
* See "The Eradication of Contagious Pleuropneumonia," page 38. 4 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
ships in Massachusetts. By the following spring the State had been 
roused to its danger and on April 4, 1860, the State Legislature passed 
an act providing for the appointment of three commissioners who 
were required to take measures for the extirpation of this new in- 
vader. The commissioners were authorized and instructed to visit the 
places where the disease was known or supposed to exist, and were 
empowered to quarantine and appraise all diseased and exposed cattle 
and to cause them to be killed and buried, and the premises where 
they were kept to be cleaned and disinfected. 
The commissioners promptly entered upon their duties, and it was 
soon found that the disease had spread over a larger area than it was 
at first supposed to have reached. The appropriation of $10,000 
placed at their disposal by the legislature was soon exhausted, along 
with a like amount contributed from the State Agricultural Society 
and liberal public-spirited individuals. 
More funds were required, and the Governor summoned an extra 
session of the legislature. After the report of the commissioners had 
been received and considered, they were released from the necessity 
of slaughtering all diseased and exposed stock' and at their option 
they were empowered to carry out a system of isolation and quar- 
antine. With various intervals this and succeeding commissions were 
kept in existence for six years, sufficient funds were provided, and 
finally the last remnants of the plague were extinguished in 1864, and 
it did not reappear in that State. Dr. E. P. Thayer, of Newton, 
Mass., was the veterinary commissioner who brought this work to a 
successful end. 
The infection was carried from Massachusetts into Connecticut 
during the early part of the outbreak and reached Pennsylvania in 
1860, Delaware in 1861, and Maryland, Virginia and the District of 
Columbia in 1868. 
The disease reached New Jersey first in 1847 in an importation 
made by a Mr. Richardson, who slaughtered his whole herd, valued 
at $10,000, to prevent the spread of the disease. Other affected cattle 
were later brought into the State from New York and from there the 
infection spread to Pennsylvania and Delaware, and thence to Mary- 
land, Virginia and the District of Columbia. 
Connecticut, profiting by the experience of her neighbor State, 
followed the example of Massachusetts and was successful in eradicat- 
ing the outbreak, but her proximity to New York City and Long 
Island brought upon her a series of invasions, which she combated Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
5 
vigorously and successfully. Massachusetts and Connecticut were 
the only ones of the infected States that by their own efforts alone 
succeeded in eradicating contagious pleuropneumonia. 
From time to time during the years succeeding the successful ef- 
forts of Massachusetts to eradicate the plague, the attention of Con- 
gress and of the public was called to the desirability of a combined 
effort by all the infected States to exterminate this insidious and 
destructive disease while it was yet confined to narrow limits along 
the Atlantic coast, but no such action was taken. In his report to 
Congress in 1878, William G. Le Duc, Commissioner of Agriculture, 
stated in referring to the prevalence of contagious pleuropneumonia: 
The interests involved in this case are of so vast a character, and 
of such overshadowing importance both to the farming and com- 
mercial interests of the country, as to require the active intervention 
of the Federal Government for their protection, and for this reason 
the considerate attention of Congress is respectfully asked to this 
important matter. 
It was not until 1879 that the livestock men and the State and Na- 
tional authorities became aroused to the serious situation that con- 
fronted the country. It was recognized that if the infection could be 
carried from the plague-stricken States to adjacent States it could 
be carried farther, even to the unfenced plains of the West. The 
terrible consequences of such a contingency were apparent. It would 
mean the general infection of eastern herds, the permanent estab- 
lishment of the disease on our great plains, the extinction of our for- 
eign livestock traffic, and finally the imposition of a tax on the country 
which would necessarily increase with coming years in ratio with the 
increase in animal population. 
An outbreak in New Jersey caused by a cow brought from Ohio 
in the early part of 1879, suggested the possibility of the disease hav- 
ing already reached the latter State, an occurrence which was in- 
evitable sooner or later, but the actual existence of which would enor- 
mously increase the dangers. 
An article appeared in the New York Weekly Tribune on Novem- 
ber 27, 1878, calling attention to the necessity for concerted action in 
connection with the prevalence of the disease around Washington, 
D. C., and its gradual spread from one State to another. This article 
was immediately quoted by various English papers and a demand 
was made for an embargo on American cattle. This demand was 
soon followed by the condemnation at Liverpool of a cargo of beef 
cattle shipped in January, 1879, on the S. S. Ontario from Portland, 6 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Maine, also by the institution of special inquiries by representatives 
of the English Government in this country and by the action of the 
Privy Council in promulgating an order dated February 6, 1879, 
effective March 3, that all American cattle arriving at English ports 
should be slaughtered within a limited time on the docks at the port 
where they were landed. 
The order of the Privy Council caused much excitement in the 
United States and had more effect than all that had been done in 
arousing the States to take action to eradicate the disease. The re- 
striction imposed by order of the Privy Council upon our export cat- 
tle trade resulted in lowering the price of our steers in the English 
market on an average of $10 each below the price paid for similar 
animals shipped from Canada. As we were at that time shipping at 
least 100,000 beef cattle abroad each year, it meant a loss to our cattle 
industry of at least $1,000,000 annually, or enough to clear our 
country of the disease. 
These conditions resulted in stimulating the States to take action 
immediately with a view of eradicating the plague. On April 15, 
1878, the New York Protective Bill became law, but no practical ap- 
plication of it was made until February 6, 1879, when Governor Rob- 
inson appointed Dr. James Law to head a commission for the suppres- 
sion of the disease in the State of New York. A corps of able vet- 
erinarians were employed to assist Dr. Law and the work was com- 
menced with an energy that gave promise of a speedy suppression of 
the disease by the safest and only effectual method, that is, by the 
condemnation and immediate slaughter of all infected animals and 
the segregation and quarantining of all exposed herds. A large num- 
ber of animals were condemned and slaughtered, but it was soon 
found that the appropriation made for this purpose was insufficient 
and the work had eventually to be suspended in the fall of that year 
for the want of means to carry it forward. 
Partial efforts for the suppression of the malady were also made by 
the States of Newr Jersey and Pennsylvania soon after New York inau- 
gurated operations, but these efforts were not prosecuted with suffi- 
cient energy and determination to inspire much hope of their success, 
while Maryland and Virginia made no efforts to combat it. 
It soon became apparent that where the work of suppressing disease 
of this character was undertaken by the States separately and indi- 
vidually, many difficulties were encountered and some of them were 
found to be almost impossible to surmount. There was not the essen- 
tial perfect concert of action and harmony of purpose on the part of Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
7 
all the States interested. In some sections the cattle owners opposed 
the methods of eradication that were employed and persisted in hiding 
the disease and trafficking in affected animals. Frequently the in- 
spectors were refused admittance to premises suspected of harboring 
the infection. The work was not thoroughly done, and the stables in 
infected districts were never under complete supervision. In some 
States the assertion was made again and again that they were entirely 
free from pleuropneumonia, and yet it was known that a thorough 
inspection by competent veterinarians could not fail to reveal a con- 
siderable number of cases, especially chronic cases. At best the at- 
tempts of the States were spasmodic. While one State was earnestly 
striving to accomplish something, an adjacent one would allow the 
shipment of diseased cattle and thus counteract what had been accom- 
plished in the former. Quarantines were opposed by annoying and 
burdensome retaliations which caused the work of eradication to drag 
and little was being accomplished in eliminating the disease. 
It was generally felt that under existing conditions the efforts to 
expel the invader would not be successful and the livestock industry 
must continue indefinitely to endure the losses and to be harassed by 
the rigid quarantine restrictions imposed by various States for their 
protection or as retaliation. 
The best-informed livestock owners and veterinary authorities came 
to realize that a national direction of the activities for the extermina- 
tion of the malady would overcome the worst and most discouraging 
features which prevented the efforts of the individual States from 
being effective. The traffic in affected catlte would cease, the work 
would be more thorough and energetic, because the inspectors would 
not be directly or indirectly dependent upon the good will of the in- 
terested cattle owners for their positions, and the excuse so often pre- 
sented of the inability of the States to pay for the diseased cattle 
would also be overcome. 
In an article published early in 1879 Dr. Law said: 
It matters little whether controlled by State or National Govern- 
ment, if vigor and uniformity of action can be secured; but, as much 
combined and unflagging work is necessary, it could be best con- 
trolled by an intelligent central authority. The United States Gov- 
ernment is as much called upon to defend her possessions against an 
enemy like this-so implacable, so relentless, and so certain, if not 
repelled, to lay us under an incubus which will increase with the 
coming centuries, and dwarf the prosperity to which we are entitled, 
-as against the less insiduous one who attacks us openly with fire 
and sword. Let the National Congress consider this well. Let every 
stockholder press it upon his Representatives as a matter that can- 
not be safely ignored even for a single day. 8 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Public sentiment grew rapidly in favor of prompt eradication of 
the disease, and earnest appeals were made to the National Govern- 
ment to take charge of the work in all the infected States, but at this 
time there was no National organization that was prepared to handle 
the situation. 
Before the National Government could take charge of this work it 
would be necesasry for Congress to provide funds, enact appropriate 
laws, and establish an organization with authority to carry into effect 
measures to cope with the disease and the situation as it existed. As 
the English agricultural press made it a point of keeping representa- 
tions before the public intended to create further prejudice and con- 
tinue the opposition of the authorities to our invasion of foreign mar- 
kets, it was apparent that to protect our export cattle trade measures 
must be inaugurated at once to satisfy the English that we were de- 
termined to stamp out and keep out all contagious and infectious 
diseases. Thus, the necessity for establishing an organization to stamp 
out contagious pleuropneumonia in order to protect our export cattle 
trade was the most important factor leading to the organization of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Export Trade in Cattle and Meats 
Certain conditions developed in connection with our export cattle 
and ineat trades prior to 1884 that required the attention of the 
National Government to protect these industries. 
By 1870 our livestock industry had growm to such an extent that 
it seemed exceedingly desirable to find an outlet in foreign markets 
for the surplus livestock and meat products. The month of October, 
1875, records an important era in the development of the resources 
of this country. It was then that the export shipment of fresh meat 
as a business was begun by Timothy Eastman of New York. A few 
live cattle had been sent to foreign markets before this period, but a 
regular trade in either cattle or dressed meats had not yet been estab- 
lished. Timothy Eastman may be properly considered the pioneer in 
this enterprise, being the first to establish a paying trade in fresh- 
meat exportation; but the fact should be recorded that John J. Bates 
of New York made several experiments in this direction before Mr. 
Eastman commenced to ship. Mr. Bates tells the story of his experi- 
mental operations as follows: 
On the 11th of February, 1875, I shipped by the Steamer Baltic, in 
refrigerator, twelve quarters of beef, twelve sheep and six hogs. 
The managers of the White Star Line thought so little of the en- 
terprise that they refused me the use of steam to run the fan- Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
9 
blower. The meat reached Liverpool in good condition by the use 
of hand-power to operate the fan. On June 6 following I shipped 
on the Steamer Wisconsin ten carcasses of beef, thirty sheep, and 
twelve hogs. The meat reached Liverpool in good condition. On 
August 10, following, I shipped on the Steamer Britannic twelve car- 
casses of beef and one hundred and forty sheep in refrigerator. 
The meat arrived in Liverpool in good condition. Used steam. In 
October following Mr. T. C. Eastman made the next and all suc- 
ceeding shipments. 
During the year 1876 Mr. Eastman forwarded to Liverpool 26,333 
carcasses of cattle, 14,929 of mutton, 200 hogs and 45 veal; to Glas- 
gow, Scotland, 13,666 carcasses of beef, 5,567 of mutton, and 13 veal; 
to Le Havre, France, 261 carcasses of beef. 
By 1877 the shipments of dressed beef had increased to about 600 
tons weekly. The success of the experiments caused a sensation in 
England among producers and consumers. Although the quality of 
our meat was indorsed by the best English authorities, the English 
livestock growers and others immediately endeavored to discourage 
its extensive consumption by attempting to create prejudice against 
the American product. 
The Agricultural Gazette of London of January 29, 1877, contained 
the following item: 
On Wednesday last the S. S. City of Richmond arrived at Liverpool 
with 808 quarters of American beef, consigned to Messrs. Archer 
and Malthouse, of the Central Meat-Market, London; 650 quarters 
were sold in the large towns in the north of England and 158 in the 
London market. The prices realized for the whole, by the carcass, 
was 6% d per pound. 
The sale of American beef in Dublin on Saturday was very con ■ 
siderable. The butchers' shops in which it was sold in different parts 
of the city were regularly besieged by purchasers. The beef was sold 
8d and lOd per pound. A panic had almost been caused by the sale 
of the beef, which is pronounced better than home produce. 
The following extract from the London Mark Lane Express of 
January 15, 1877, is also of interest to show the growing fears from 
the American invasion of the English market: 
The excitement upon the subject of the importation of meat from 
America increases as the news of large freights received circulates 
through the country; losing nothing, we may depend, in its course. 
There is no doubt that the large supplies recently sent to London 
and Liverpool have had a considerable effect upon the trade of those 
important meat markets although up to the present, prices in the 
country have not been appreciably affected But there are 
those who tell us that the trade is only in its infancy, and as we 
know but little of the resources of America for meat-producing, we 
cannot disprove the prediction. Only last week one large importer 
stated that he had a thousand carcasses of beef, and as many of 
both mutton and pork as well, on the sea between New York and 
Liverpool. Such little recitals as that are calculated to cause alarm; 
but until we know more about American resources it will be foolish 10 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
to gladden the hearts of consumers and cause producers to tremble 
with visions of cheap meat. 
Our export trade continued to grow. American meats were becom- 
ing more and more popular in foreign markets, and the trade was 
carried on without interruption until 1879, when it was alleged that 
the English veterinarians had found on postmortem examination 
lesions of contagious pleuropneumonia in a cargo of cattle that had 
been shipped from Portland, Maine, to Liverpool in January of that 
year.* As a result of these claims by the English veterinarians and 
the demand from English livestock producers and others for an em- 
bargo against American cattle, the Privy Council issued its order of 
February 6, 1879, effective March 3, 1879, requiring that all American 
cattle arriving at English ports must be slaughtered within ten days 
on the docks where landed. The reason given by the English authori- 
ties for issuing the cattle order was the discovery of contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia in cattle from the United States. 
In the same year restrictions on the importation of sheep into Great 
Britain were based upon alleged importation of foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease from this country. As this disease had never exsited in the 
United States except in two or three instances when cattle landed 
from England were found to be affected with it, and had never been 
allowed to spread here, it seems evident that the sheep in question 
must have contracted the disease on vessels that had previously been 
infected by English cattle. 
The records also show that German regulations followed a shipment 
of American cattle to that country in 1880 which prevented the devel- 
opment of a profitable trade with Germany, as further American cat- 
tle shipments were thereby prohibited. 
The reports continued to arrive that American cattle affected with 
pleuropneumonia were being landed in England. An investigation 
was made in the United States which demonstrated clearly that the 
animals in question originated in western States where there was no 
infection. The existence of the disease in these animals was held in 
doubt and it was decided to carry the investigation to the other side. 
Dr. C. P. Lyman, a graduate of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, 
and held in high esteem as a veterinary surgeon in the State of Massa- 
chusetts, was selected to perform this delicate and important task. 
Dr. Lyman spent July and August, 1880, in England. Out of nearly 
1,100 cattle landed and examined during his stay in Liverpool in no 
case could pleuropneumonia be detected in the living animal, and the 
* See Pathological Division, page 58. Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
11 
inspectors of the veterinary department of the Privy Council con- 
demned after post-mortem examination only six pairs of lungs from 
animals shipped from Boston to Liverpool on four different steamers. 
In all thirteen pairs of lungs were condemned from July 7 to Novem- 
ber 21, 1880. All of the steers in question were from the States of 
Missouri, Iowa, Illinois and Ohio-States in which there was no infec- 
tion known; they were transported to the port of export over railroad 
lines located away from the areas of infection and they did not pass 
through any market centers that were even suspected of harboring the 
infection. 
From the results of his macroscopic examinations, Dr. Lyman did 
not regard the pathological conditions observed in the lungs as con- 
tagious pleuropneumonia. However, samples were taken and turned 
over to Dr. Whitney, an eminent microscopist of Harvard College, for 
further examination with the aid of the microscope. In his report re- 
ferring to the results of Dr. Whitney's examination, Dr. Lyman said: 
Therefore, if we may place any value upon facts as evidenced 
by the microscope-and who will say we cannot?-the absolute fact 
is well shown that not only were the lungs condemned in my pres- 
ence as being affected with pleuropneumonia contagiosa not affected 
with that disease,- but that the changes noticed in them, in all but 
one case, were due to a chronic interstitial pneumonia with peribron- 
chitis, with necrosis and the formation of small cavities at and with- 
in the lung tissue proper; and further there are evidences amount- 
ing to a certainty in one case at least that the disease known as 
tuberculosis probably plays a more or less important part in the 
etiology of these changes. 
Prof. Williams of Edinburgh was called to Liverpool to see the 
lesions in question. When he was asked for an opinion he replied: 
"I have as yet no opinion to give, and shall have none until I have 
been able to make a more thorough examination of the lungs." He 
took specimens back with him to Edinburgh and during the next six 
months received various fresh specimens and finally he reported that 
he had ''not the slightest hesitation in saying that in no case has he 
found them to exhibit the characteristic lesions of contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia. " The opinion of Prof. Williams was supported by the 
conclusions of other experts who had examined specimens of the lungs 
in question. 
It was hoped that Dr. Lyman's visit to England would result in a 
modification or withdrawal of the order of the Privy Council of Feb- 
ruary 6, 1879. But as reports continued to arrive of the condemna- 
tion of American cattle at English ports on account of pleuropneu- 
monia, and as it was feared that American pork would be excluded 
from the English market on account of trichinosis, it was decided that 12 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Dr. Lyman should return to England in the summer of 1881, accom- 
panied by Dr. Whitney, the microscopist, to continue the investiga- 
tions inaugurated the previous year of the diseases found in American 
animals on arrival at foreign ports. 
This investigation was made possible through an Act of the Con- 
gress passed at the preceding session, appropriating $15,000 for the 
purpose of enabling the Department of Agriculture to ascertain as 
accurately as possible all facts in relation to the existence of disease 
among cattle of the United States. At the same time investigations 
were being pursued in the United States by several experienced vet- 
erinarians who were appointed for that purpose in March, 1881. 
Accordingly, Dr. Lyman sailed for England in June, 1881, under 
a letter of instructions from Hon. George B. Loring, Commissioner of 
Agriculture, as follows: 
You will on or about the 10th day of June, proximo, take passage 
for Great Britain, and having arrived there you will continue your 
investigations undertaken for the Department of Agriculture in 
England, last season. These examinations may be pursued by you 
during the summer months or such a part thereof as may be found 
necessary, at such port or ports of Great Britain as the circum- 
stances existing from time to time may seem to demand. 
It will be well if you can persuade the veterinarians employed by 
the Government of Great Britain to join you in making a thorough 
examination of any animals, or lungs thereof, arriving from the 
United States that may appear to them to show symptoms or lesions 
of contagious pleuropneumonia, with a view to the settlement, if 
possible, of the present contested question as to whether the animals 
now so freely condemned by them as showing the presence of this 
disease really do have it, or if the lesions of some other disease 
have been mistaken for it, as is shown by the result of your own 
examination of the lungs of animals that were pronounced by the 
British authorities to be unmistakably affected by pleuropneumonia 
contagiosa. 
As a part also of your duties you will, so far as possible, examine 
in a proper manner the hogs arriving in Great Britain from the 
United States during your stay there, with a view of ascertaining 
to how great an extent they are diseased or are infected with 
trichinae. 
You will also investigate, so far as possible and as circumstances 
may seem to demand, the question of the existence of any other con- 
tagious disease that may be present or alleged to be present among 
any animals arriving in Great Britain from this country. 
Dr. Lyman arrived in London June 24 and the next day called upon 
the Right Hon. Mr. Mundella, vice-president of the Privy Council, to 
whom he presented his credentials and stated the objects of his 
mission. 
During the whole of Dr. Lyman's stay in England, which was until 
August 16, no cattle from the United States were condemned for con- 
tagious pleuropneumonia, and before he left England to return to the Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
13 
United States the veterinarian in chief, Prof. Brown, assured Dr. 
Lyman that he did not think there need be any occasion for alarm 
in the future; that if our country was entirely free from pleuropneu- 
monia no condemnations would be made upon lungs presenting the 
appearances only of those that were condemned in Dr. Lyman's pres- 
ence during his visit in 1880. 
From January 1 to August 16, 1881, thirty-seven pairs of lungs 
from American cattle were condemned for contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia. 
The predominating evidence indicates that the lesions found in the 
lungs of cattle from the United States on arrival at English ports were 
not those of contagious pleuropneumonia. It was not asserted by the 
United States authorities that the English veterinarians willfully 
made diagnoses which they knew to be incorrect or false, but it 
seemed quite evident that the English authorities as well as the vet- 
erinarians were eager to take advantage of every opportunity to han- 
dicap our export cattle and meat trade which was developing so rap- 
idly in Great Britain to the great disadvantage of the livestock grow- 
ers of that country. 
As a further illustration of the attitude of some of the British 
people toward our invasion of foreign markets, in two cases of meat 
poisoning which occurred in England in 1881 a bacillus was found 
in the meat by Dr. Edward E. Klein of the Medical Department of 
the Local Government Board and the suggestion soon followed from 
other persons that this might be the bacillus of swine plague, or if not, 
that it was probably equally dangerous and hence another reason for 
prohibiting American pork. In this instance inquiry developed that 
fortunately the park in question was from a hog raised and slaugh- 
tered in England. 
In January, 1881, the United States Department of Agriculture 
was notified by the veterinary department of the Privy Council that 
fifty-nine head of cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease had 
been landed at Deptford (London) from New York by the S. S. 
France. In a few days it was reported that 267 cattle from the S. S. 
City of Liverpool from New York had been similarly condemned. 
Other notifications were received and finally on March 23, with the 
condemnation of 371 cattle from the S. S. City of Liverpool, the mani- 
festation of the disease among our animals stopped as suddenly as it 
had begun. Other condemnations were made at Liverpool and Glas- 
gow in cattle shipped from Boston, Portland and New York. 
As there was no foot-and-mouth disease in this country at that time, 14 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
and these reports tended further to react unfavorably against our ex- 
port meat trade, Dr. Lyman was instructed to inquire into the reason 
for these reports in connection with his investigations in England. He 
soon discovered that the Deptford and Liverpool lairages were in- 
fected from diseased cattle from France in September, 1880, and that 
it was the habit of cattle shippers to bring back to the United States 
and use again headropes that had done previous service upon animals 
in the contaminated lairages at English ports. In this way the infec- 
tion was conveyed to the cattle aboard ship on their way from Ameri- 
can ports to England. It was also revealed that the S. S. France sail- 
ing from London for New York January 7, 1881, carried in 
addition to the mixed cargo of wool, hides, etc., two bulls and eight 
heifers, consigned to the American Horse Exchange, Ltd., in New 
York, which upon arrival January 21 were found to be affected with 
foot-and-mouth disease. These animals were quarantined for ninety 
days and we fortunately escaped an outbreak of the disease in this 
country. 
On March 31, 1874, the canning of beef was commenced in this 
country by the Wilson Packing Company of Chicago. By 1880 we 
had developed a paying foreign trade in canned meats and cured 
pork. This invasion of foreign markets by our enterprising packers 
also met with opposition. In 1878-79 reports were received from for- 
eign countries that our pork was considered dangerous to human 
health because it was heavily infested with trichina. The finding of 
trichinas in these products was seized upon as a pretext for excluding 
our pork from the principal markets of Europe. 
An investigation showed that some sections of this country were en- 
tirely free from the affection, and out of 1,889 hog carcasses examined 
only 2.7 per cent showed trichinosis. On inquiry it was learned that 
of 103,528 samples examined by the French inspectors only 2 per cent 
were found infected, and of the 97,750 samples examined by the Ger- 
man inspectors only 2.09 per cent were found affected. Out of a total 
of 298,782 samples that were inspected at home and abroad in 1880-81 
only 2.1 per cent showed infection, which was much less than existed 
in the countries that placed an embargo upon American pork. 
England, however, deferred declaring an embargo against Ameri- 
can pork. In the report of the veterinary department of the Privy 
Council office for the year 1879 the following statements appear: 
The inspectors of the Veterinary Department examined 279 sepa- 
rate portions of swine's flesh which were sent from Liverpool and 
detected living trichinae in three specimens; .... but it was not 
deemed expedient to prohibit the introduction of American pork into Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
15 
this country, for the reason that such a measure would have dam- 
aged the trade without producing any satisfactory results. A large 
proportion of the objectionable meat would have been sent to this 
country by a circuitous route, and thus the object of the restriction 
would have been defeated, besides which, trichinosis among swine 
is known to exist in Germany, and it probably exists in other ex- 
porting countries, so that nothing short of a total prohibition of 
swine flesh in all forms from all foreign sources would have been 
effectual. 
At this time our export trade was hampered by various impedi- 
ments. Without good and sufficient reasons our cattle were excluded 
from European markets except English markets that were provided 
with facilities for slaughtering the cattle within a limited time at the 
port where they were landed, our pork products were excluded from 
the principal markets of Europe on a frail pretext, and we had no 
veterinary organization prepared to cope with this serious situation. 
It was apparent, too, that our Government should have veterinary 
representatives stationed in European countries, especially in Eng- 
land, our greatest foreign market. 
Texas Fever 
Texas fever is one of the oldest of animal diseases and has been 
reported in France, Italy, Turkey, West Indies, Mexico, Central 
America, South America, Australia, Africa, Ireland, Finland, south' 
ern Russia, China, Java, Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and also 
along the Danube River in Rumania. 
While our export cattle and meat trade was seriously hampered as 
a result of the existence of contagious pleuropneumonia in this coun- 
try, the general livestock industry was being seriously affected by the 
ravages of Texas fever, hog cholera and other destructive animal 
diseases. 
There appears to be no question that Texas fever was introduced 
into this country through importations of cattle from the Spanish 
colonies of the West India islands and Mexico. Although it is recorded 
that cattle were brought to our mainland from these sources as early 
as 1610, it is not known definitely when the disease first appeared in 
our colonies. 
It seems that our first accounts of Texas fever did not come from 
those sections where it wTas generally supposed to be indigenous, but 
from localities where it had been carried by the movement of cattle 
from the South. Probably the earliest published account of the 
disease is a lecture delivered by Dr. James Mease on November 3, 
1814 before the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture. 16 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
In his lecture Dr. Mease called attention to the ability of cattle from 
a certain district of South Carolina to carry the disease to all others 
with which they mingled in their progress to the North. As an 
illustration, Dr. Mease referred to a herd of cattle that was driven in 
1796 from South Carolina to Pennsylvania, where the disease broke 
out in Lancaster County and other places. He had traced the out- 
break to the southern herd and stated that the people of Virginia 
prohibited the passage of North Carolina cattle through that State; 
that these cattle infected others while they themselves were in perfect 
health, and that cattle from Europe or the interior taken to the sea- 
coast section of our country south of Virginia were attacked by the 
disease and it generally proved fatal. In a paper read before the 
same society, September 20, 1'825, he said: ' ' The circumstances of 
cattle from a certain district in South Carolina affecting others with 
this disease has long been known," but the precise locality, or its 
extent, he was unable to ascertain. 
Mr. J. Wilkinson of Athens, Ga., reported to the Department of 
Agriculture in April, 1867, that cattle seldom contract the disease 
unless removed from where they were raised; that if they were taken 
from the mountain country to the low country, they soon took the 
fever and died without communicating the disease to the native 
cattle; that cattle taken from the low land into the elevated country 
continued to improve, while they communicated the infection to the 
animals with which they came in contact, but after remaining in the 
colder country for a time they lost the power of communicating the 
infection. 
Little was known of this disease in the Northern States prior to 
1866, although as early as 1795 the State Legislature of North 
Carolina passed a law requiring that- 
No person shall hereafter drive any cattle from those parts of 
of this State, where the soil is sandy and the natural production or 
growth of timber is the long-leaf pine, into or through any of the 
highland parts of the State where the soil or growth of timber is 
of a different kind, between the first day of April and the first day 
November in every year, under the penalty of four dollars for each 
and every head of cattle so driven, to be recovered and applied as 
before mentioned. 
In 1814 the State of Virginia refused to allow the passage through 
the State of cattle from certain sections of South Carolina. A law 
was passed by the North Carolina legislature at its 1836 session to pre- 
vent the driving of cattle into the State from either South Carolina or 
Georgia between April 1 and November 1. Notwithstanding these Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
17 
laws and their modification from time to time during the next forty- 
two years, the disease spread to the Blue Ridge Mountains and became 
planted even beyond this natural barrier. Its progress was likened 
by Mr. Lenoir, in his letter published in 1879, to the spread of ring- 
worm, slowly advancing, with an angry external border line, and 
apparently dying away in the district over which it passed. 
With the extension of settlements, the growth of the livestock indus- 
try and the development of markets and transportation facilities, it 
gradually spread over the entire South and frequently to different 
sections of the North, so that by 1877 it was the cause of much alarn 
throughout the country, and especially along the avenues of trans- 
portation and at the centers of the cattle trade. Along the routes 
where cattle from Texas and other Southern States w'ere driven to 
northern markets they invariably left disease and death in their 
paths. By far the greatest losses seem to have been occasioned by 
driving Texas cattle through Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, and Indian 
Territory, for distribution as feeders in various Western States. As 
far back as 1852 the "murrain" was reported destructive in Missouri, 
and from 1858 to 1861 it had increased to such an extent along the 
Texas cattle trails that Missouri in 1861 framed laws to regulate the 
movement of herds from the South. Other States soon followed the 
example of Missouri. The people in these States were aroused to 
great indignation because some Texas cattlemen persisted in driving 
their herds north, and armed parties confronted and turned back the 
invading herds. Such vigorous enforcement of the laws had a benefi- 
cial effect in preventing further losses. 
The disease ceased in all of these border States during the war, 
but immediately after the close of the war, when the Texans again 
sought an outlet through Kansas and Missouri for their accumulated 
livestock, it reappeared. In order to avoid the hostile opposition met 
in the adjacent States, Texas cattlemen were forced to resort to ship- 
ping their livestock up the Mississippi River by boat. By 1867 Cairo, 
Illinois, had become the chief point of transshipment of cattle from 
steamboat to railroads. During the Spring of 1867, beginning April 
23, about 30,000 cattle were landed at Cairo. Although most of these 
animals were butcher stock and went direct to the large abattoirs, 
the disease was spread to many native herds in southern Illinois. 
The river traffic continued to increase and in 1868 Texas cattle landed 
at Cairo were shipped eastward by train in large numbers and spread 
infection and consternation into the heart of the country from Illinois 
to Massachusetts. 18 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The experiences of 1868 aroused the farmers of the North from their 
apathy and skepticism to a realization of the increasing dangers from 
the fever or "murrain" disseminated by southern cattle and the 
necessity for decisive and energetic action against it. State laws and 
regulations were enacted and strengthened from time to time, yet the 
border line of the infected area continued to advance steadily north- 
ward and frequent outbreaks occurred in many States, so that by 1879 
cattle owners in many parts of the country were in the greatest con- 
sternation and alarm. Cattle were dying on every side. Men in the 
South who had invested their earnings in livestock to improve their 
herds after the Civil War saw their savings and hopes vanish together 
with the death of their highly prized animals, and they were powerless 
to prevent it. No one knew of an efficacious remedy. No one knew 
why only southern cattle communicated the plague and why it dis- 
appeared in the winter time. No one could understand how perfectly 
healthy southern cattle could convey such a deadly poison to northern 
cattle, while the northern animal sick with the disease seemed unable 
to communicate it to others. On every hand was doubt and uncer- 
tainty as to the cause of the disease, how it was disseminated, and how 
its ravages might be prevented. It was evident that medication 
proved of little benefit, and immunity from its fatal effects seemed 
to lie only in prevention if the way could be pointed out. 
It happened that Dr. John Gamgee, an eminent authority of 
England, who had investigated animal diseases in various European 
countries, was in the United States in 1868 when an extensive outbreak 
occurred in Illinois. He was induced by the Pork Packers' Associa- 
tion of Chicago to head a commission consisting of himself, Dr. Blaney 
and W. E. Richardson, appointed to visit the localities where the dis- 
ease had appeared and report on the matter. This investigation was 
begun on July 29, 1868, and continued until August 4. On August 
5 Prof. Gamgee was requested to continue the investigations for the 
Department of Agriculture in other sections of the country. At the 
request of the Commissioner of Agriculture the Surgeon General of 
the Army detailed Doctors J. S. Billings and E. Curtis, Assistant 
Surgeons, U. S. Army, to assist Prof. Gamgee in his investigations and 
laboratory experiments. Mr. H. W. Ravenel, an eminent botanist of 
South Carolina, accompanied Professor Gamgee in the field work. The 
investigations were continued for ten months, when Professor Gamgee 
reported his conclusions as follows: Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
19 
1. That southern cattle, especially from the Gulf Coast, are af- 
fected with a latent or an apparent form of the disease. 
2. That they become affected in consequence of the nature of the 
soil and vegetation on which they are fed, and the water which they 
drink. 
3. That their systems are charged with poisonous principles which 
accumulate in the bodies of acclimatized animals that enjoy 
immunity. 
4. That southern cattle may be driven so as to improve in condi- 
tion; and yet for some weeks, and probably not less than three 
months, continue to excrete the deleterious principles which poison 
the cattle of the States through which the herds are driven on their 
way north or west. 
5. That all breeds of cattle in States north of those on the Gulf 
Coast, without regard to age or sex, if they feed on grass contamin- 
ated by southern droves, are attacked by the splenic fever; that the 
disease may be, but is very rarely, propagated through the feeding 
of hay. 
6. That the disease occurs mainly during the hot months of sum- 
mer and autumn, and never after the wild grasses have been killed 
by frosts, until the mild weather in spring returns; that then the 
grasses are healthy, and continue healthy, unless fresh droves of 
Texas or of Florida cattle are driven over the land. 
7. That heat and drought aggravate the disease in individual 
animals. 
8. That there is not the slightest foundation for the view that the 
ticks disseminate the disease. 
9. That the splenic fever does not belong to that vast and deadly 
group of purely contagious and infectious diseases of which the 
rinderpest, the lung plague, and eruptive fevers are typical. 
10. That it is an enzootic, due to local influences, capable of only a 
limited spread, and analogous to or identical with the "black water" 
of various parts of Europe. 
11. That, however warm the weather may be, cattle affected with 
splenic fever have not developed in their systems any poison like 
the anthrax poison; and that the flesh, blood, and other tissues of 
animals are incapable of inducing any disease in man or animals. 
12. That splenic fever is not malignant typhus or typhoid fever. 
That it has no analogue among human diseases, but is, however, de- 
veloped under conditions which prevail where the so-called malaria 
injuriously affects the human health. 
In these conclusions Prof. Gamgee summarized the character and 
extent of our knowledge and views of Texas fever up to 1870. 
In the autumn of 1879 Dr. D. E. Salmon, a promising young vet- 
erinary surgeon, was appointed by Commissioner of Agriculture 
Le Duc to investigate animal diseases in the Southern States with 
particular reference to Texas cattle fever. Dr. Salmon pursued his 
investigations in the laboratory and field with characteristic zeal and 
skill. Much time and effort were devoted to a study of the nature of 
the disease and the character of the contagion, how the infection is 
spread and preserved from season to season, how it is taken into the 
system, why animals though exposed did not sicken usually until 
after the middle of July, etc. Diligent efforts also were made to 20 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
ascertain the boundaries of the permanently infected area, the rate 
at which the northern boundary line was moving north, and the 
amount of losses along the slowly advancing line. Although the cause 
of the disease was not determined, much of practical benefit was 
learned through these early investigations of Dr. Salmon. 
The cattle tick, with which southern cattle were generally infested, 
had for a number of years been suspected by cattlemen as being 
intimately connected with the spread of the disease. Prof. Gamgee 
states in 1868 that "the tick theory has acquired quite a renown dur- 
ing the past summer, but little thought should have satisfied anyone of 
the absurdity of the idea." In his report to the Secretary of Agri- 
culture in 1869 Mr. J. R. Dodge, the Statistician of the Department 
of Agriculture, said: "Many believe the ticks which infest the North 
Carolina cattle and were communicated to the natives attacked, caused 
the disease. There is no evidence that these parasites have anything 
to do with its diffusion or virulence." 
In his report to the Commissioner of Agriculture in 1880 Dr. Salmon 
said: ' ' The tick theory scarcely explains a single one of the many 
peculiar phenomena of the disease." Scientific men generally were 
inclined to regard the tick theory as absurd. However, Dr. Salmon's 
observations had satisfied him that infection resulted when susceptible 
animals were allowed to graze on the trails of cattle from the South or 
in pastures occupied by them. His field investigations led to the 
further conclusion that in order to protect the cattle industry of the 
North from repeated invasions of the disease from the South it would 
be necessary to establish a quarantine line between the infected and 
free areas and regulate the movement north of all cattle originating 
below this line. He directed his work accordingly, and by the end 
of 1883 had succeeded in locating about 200 miles of this line extend- 
ing from the Atlantic Coast west through the State of Virginia. 
The plan of establishing a quarantine line was heartily approved by 
those who were engaged in the cattle industry north of the infected 
area. But in order to carry it into effect funds were needed, laws 
were necessary that would absolutely prevent the movement of cattle 
from the infected sections except under safe restrictions, and to carry 
out the plan successfully would require an efficient national organiza- 
tion. Hence the conditions that confronted the National Government 
in 1883 in connection with the investigation and control of Texas 
fever indicated the need of a strong veterinary organization under the Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
21 
National Government with authority to regulate the interstate move- 
ment of southern cattle, and was an important factor leading to the 
establishment of the Bureau of Animal Industry on May 29, 1884. 
However, this Act of Congress, which in addition to establishing the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, provided means for the suppression and 
extirpation of pleuropneumonia and other contagious diseases among 
domestic animals, specifically provided- 
That the so-called splenetic, or Texas, fever shall not be considered 
a contagious, infectious or communicable disease within the meaning 
of sections four, five, six, and seven of this Act, as to cattle being 
transported by rail to market for slaughter, when the same are un- 
loaded only to be fed and watered in lots on the way thereto. 
Hog Cholera* 
In urging his recommendation on Congress in 1868 that a Division 
of Veterinary Surgery be created in the new Department of Agri- 
culture, which had been established by the Act of Congress of May 
15, 1862, and commenced its operations as a separate and independent 
department July 1, Commissioner Horace Capron said: 
The prevalence of fatal maladies among all varieties of farm 
animals, resulting in the annual loss of not less than $50,000,000, de- 
mands the prompt attention of this Department, the vigilance of the 
Agricultural Association, and National and State legislation. 
Although for several years previous there had been a gradual in- 
crease in the losses from various animal diseases, the recommenda- 
tion of Commissioner Capron was prompted especially on account of 
the despondency among swine breeders at that time due to the in- 
creasing prevalence of hog cholera and their inability to protect 
themselves against the ravages of this persistent, destructive plague. 
This malady is said to have made its first appearance in this coun- 
try in the State of Ohio in 1833, where it received the name of hog 
cholera, which is a misnomer. It was not a new disease, as it had 
long been known in Europe, where it was classed with the malignant 
anthrax affections of animals. By 1853 no less than 90 separate 
areas of infection were known to exist and the malady was becoming 
very much dreaded by the breeders of swine. Dr. George Sutton and 
Dr. E. M. Snow were prominent among those who from 1858 to 1862 
devoted time and study to this disease, but as the real character and 
cause of the disease were not then known, their work did not result 
* See "Biochemic Division," page 158, and Division of Hog-Cholera Control, page 304. 22 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
in any great benefit in lessening either the spread of the infection or 
the losses resulting from it. 
In 1867 it was reported that from 15 to 60 per cent of the swine in 
many of the infected counties had died of the disease, resulting in a 
monetary loss that year of not less than $15,000,000. In some sec- 
tions the mortality was so high that it resulted in practically de- 
stroying the swine industry in those sections, and the discouraged 
swine breeders were not disposed under existing conditions to under- 
take it again. 
In his report to the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1875, 
J. R. Dodge, the Department Statistician, says: " It is very probable 
that $100,000,000 represents scarcely more than the annual losses of 
farm animals from disease and neglect, of which half could un- 
doubtedly be saved by efficient means of cure and prevention." The 
following year (1876) the total monetary loss from hog cholera and 
all other swine diseases was estimated to be about $23,500,000, and 
hog cholera was responsible for by far the greater part of this loss, 
probably 90 per cent. 
The report of the Statistical Division of the Department showed 
that in 1879 more than 34,000,000 hogs were produced in this coun- 
try, which was greatly in excess of the number of any other class of 
food animals produced that year. The rapidly growing export trade 
in hog products had a stimulating effect on our swine industry, and 
there was a general feeling that veterinary science should direct its 
energies to discover some means for the protection of this important 
industry against the losses from hog cholera. Appeals were made 
to the National Government for assistance not only on account of the 
heavy losses sustained by the farmer but also to protect our export 
trade. 
Reports of the existence of cholera and trichinosis in American 
hogs purposely spread in European countries had been seized upon 
in the early part of the year 1879 as pretexts for prohibiting the 
entry and sale of our salted and smoked meats to markets where the 
business had been remunerative. Some work of an investigational 
nature had already been undertaken but not in time to avert the 
embargoes against our products. Congress had appropriated $10,000 
in 1878 for the investigation of animal diseases. Agents were ap- 
pointed for a period of two months to make investigations of hog 
cholera during the fall in New York, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Mis- Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
23 
souri, North Carolina and Virginia, and Dr. Detmers was returned 
to Illinois to continue the work he had begun in the fall and winter 
of 1877. The appropriation was renewed each year thereafter and 
was increased as the exigencies of the work demanded. 
The most important results were obtained through the investiga- 
tions of Dr. James Law in New York, Dr. H. J. Detmers in Illinois, 
and Dr. D. E. Salmon in North Carolina and Washington, D. C. In 
1878 Dr. Detmers announced that he had discovered the micro- 
organism of hog cholera and named it "bacilli suis." Dr. Detmers's 
discovery agreed with the findings of Dr. Edward E. Klein, an 
eminent authority officially connected with the Medical Department 
of the Local Government Board of England. 
The investigations of Dr. Salmon in 1879 and 1880 led him to sus- 
pect a "micrococcus" as being the causative agent of the disease, and 
he stated his reasons for this opinion in his official report covering 
his research work in 1880. A repetition of his observations and ex- 
periments in 1881 corroborated his findings of the previous year, and 
he was supported in his views by Professor Megnin. In 1880 Dr. 
Detmers expressed the opinion that he probably had given a faulty 
name to his bacillus and should have called it "swine plague schizo- 
phitse" instead of "bacilli suis." 
The scientific work with this disease was carried on energetically, 
but up to the close of the year 1883 no additional discoveries of great 
importance had been made, the cause of the disease was in dispute, 
and no one had offered a remedy that proved of much value. Our 
pork had been excluded from important European markets and it was 
evident that in order to establish confidence abroad it was necessary 
to inaugurate a national veterinary service in this country comparable 
to the service that existed in the most progressive foreign countries. 
Thus hog cholera was another important factor that indicated the 
need for the establishment of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Animal Transportation* 
(Domestic and Foreign) 
With the development of railroad and water transportation facili- 
ties, trailing gradually gave way to the more modern and rapid meth- 
ods of moving livestock to market. In some respects this change was 
an improvement while in others it was not. The cars and yards for 
* See "Quarantine Division," page 139. 24 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
handling livestock were crude in the early history of the railroads 
compared with modern equipment, and the cruel practices in hand- 
ling animals in transit resulted in much criticism and many protests 
from various sources. 
All authorities agreed that the transportation of these animals by 
rail and boat was attended with great suffering to the animals from 
want of feed, water and rest; also from overcrowding, and the crowd- 
ing of smaller animals under the larger in the same cars so that many 
of them died in transit, many more became diseased, and the loss in 
weight was heavy. In 1870 a bunch of 194 cattle was shipped from 
Brigham Young's farm in Utah to Chicago, and it was chronicled in 
the Chicago papers as a remarkable fact "that in riding 1,500 miles 
the shrinkage was only 210 pounds a head." 
Between Indianola, Texas, and New Orleans, La., cattle were carried 
on steamers, under deck, in crowded condition, 'with poor ventilation, 
four and five days and sometimes more without feed or water. In 
one instance reported, out of 150 cattle shipped forty died on the 
short voyage. 
Dr. Manheimer, of the Chicago Board of Health, in a letter from 
Texas in December, 1869, wrote as follows: 
I would be astonished to find Texas cattle in good condition upon 
their arrival at their places of destination. The manner in which 
they are crowded on ship board and cars, after being exhausted by 
hurried journeys over the immense prairies of Texas, necessarily de- 
velops any latent germs of disease and may cause disease in the 
healthiest cattle. For instance, thousands are shipped to New Or- 
leans from Indianola and Lavacca, a journey of from three to six 
days, during which they receive neither food nor water. At New 
Orleans they are transferred to boats for Cairo, and thence by rail 
to Tolono, Ill. During the entire trip they have food and water but 
about three times. 
The people of Boston were aroused by criticisms of the cattle trans- 
portation and reports of diseased meats found in their markets, and 
in April, 1871, a joint special committee of the Aidermen and Com- 
mon Council was appointed to collect information and to ascertain 
what legislation was necessary to protect the public health. In a 
communication to this committee the Chicago Live Stock Reporter 
said: 
There is great cruelty in transportation. Cars are terribly over- 
crowded, and animals are carried great distances without food or 
water. The result is that they are taken out of the cars at Chicago 
with bruises and sores, and legs and horns are broken; many of them 
dead and more almost dead; and sometimes cattle and hogs, and 
sometimes cattle and sheep, are packed in the same car which re- Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
25 
suits in the smaller animals being trampled upon by the larger. 
The men employed to drive them into the cars (at Chicago) are 
armed with saplings weighing often from eight to ten pounds, with 
sharp spikes or goads at the end. They rush upon the cattle, yelling, 
swearing, and punching them with these spikes often twenty, thirty, 
or forty times, taking little care to avoid the eyes. Eighteen to 
twenty cattle are thus forced into thirty-foot cars, giving less than 
two feet space to the animal and not unfrequently smaller animals- 
calves, sheep and swine-are crowded under them. In this way they 
are often carried for days without food, water or possibility of lying 
down. 
It appeared that this same system of loading and transportation 
prevailed over the United States, as similar reports were received from 
many livestock shipping points. 
The Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners in their report of Jan- 
uary, 1871, said: 
The shrinkage between Chicago and Boston is estimated to be 
from ten to fifteen per cent. Cattle trains yield the road to most 
others, and pass hours on sidings; the animals are without food or 
water, and often with insufficient ventilation in summer or shelter 
in winter; they are jolted off their legs and then goaded till they 
struggle up, for they cannot be permitted to lie down; they thus ar- 
rive at destination trampled upon, torn by each others' horns, bruised, 
bleeding; having in fact suffered all that animals can suffer and 
live. The whole system of cattle transportation in the United States 
as at present conducted is an outrage on the first principles of 
humanity. 
These are examples of the scathing criticisms of the cattle trans- 
portation in 1871. Their publication from time to time aroused great 
indignation and finally resulted in the introduction of a bill in Con- 
gress in 1871 to regulate cattle transportation. This bill was finally 
passed and became a law known as the Twenty-eight Hour Law, 
March 3, 1873. It provides that livestock while in the course of 
interstate transportation shall be unloaded for food, water and res* 
every 28 hours, or every 36 hours when the owner, in writing, au- 
thorizes their confinement in the cars for the latter period. It further 
provides that the unloading shall be perfomed in a humane manner 
into properly equipped pens, where the animals must receive proper 
food, water, and at least 5 consecutive hours of rest before reloading. 
A penalty of $100 to $500 is provided for violations of this law by 
the carrier.* 
The steamship transportation of export cattle w'as almost as vigor- 
ously criticised and condemned as the methods employed in moving 
animals by rail. Commissioner of Agriculture Le Duc in his report 
* See "Field Inspection Division," page 301. 26 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
to Congress in 1880 called attention to the heavy losses sustained by 
export shippers and the discrimination in insurance rates as a result 
of these losses on cattle exported from the United States as compared 
with those shipped from Canada. The losses at sea were due to im- 
proper care and handling of the animals while in transit from the 
point of origin to the seaport and the faulty equipment of the steam- 
ships engaged in this branch of the export trade. 
The following quotation from the report of the Commissioner of 
Agriculture for 1880 gives an idea of the extent of the losses sustained 
by cattle exporters: 
July, 12,137 cattle shipped to Liverpool, 114 died on the ocean 
voyage. 
August, 9,464 cattle shipped to Liverpool, 272 died on the ocean 
voyage. 
September, 10,826 cattle shipped to Liverpool, 619 died on the 
ocean voyage. 
The insurance rates on cattle from Montreal in August was 2^4 to 
2% per cent and from Boston 3 to 6 per cent. 
In September the rates on American cattle from Boston were 
raised from 5% to 10 per cent. 
The rates of insurance were based on actual experience, and the 
question suggests itself, What was the difference in the experience 
of insurance companies between Canadian and United States ship- 
ments? This difference was attributed to a proper veterinary in- 
spection at Canadian ports under proper laws, both of which were 
rigidly maintained by the Canadian Government. The United States 
insurance companies themselves finally resorted to employing veteri- 
narians to inspect the animals to be insured and would accept no 
risks on cattle unless they were inspected and passed by their in- 
spectors. 
In his recommendation to Congress in 1880 the Commissioner of 
Agriculture said: 
The remedy is plain, and already indicated by the methods of the 
Canadian Government, viz, proper laws properly executed; which 
can be made so that while no injustice is done the southern breeder 
they will protect the interests of the western, northern and eastern 
breeders, traders and shippers. 
It was urged that "laws should be enacted even though we may 
be unable at first to effectively enforce them," to prevent cruelties 
to animals in the course of transportation and to protect the interests 
of those engaged in interstate and export cattle trade. 
The twenty-eight hour law was passed March 3, 1873, but as time 
passed it became more and more evident that a strong national veteri- Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
27 
nary organization, provided with funds and clothed with authority, 
was needed to enforce it. The Department of Agriculture had neither 
the means nor the authority to take charge of the administration of 
this law. 
The losses of American export beef cattle on the ocean voyage was 
a subject that received a great deal of attention in the public press. 
The conditions aboard ship and the cruelties perpetrated on those 
dumb, helpless animals were usually exaggerated in our own papers 
and were intensified abroad by the evident desire to limit American 
competition. Here again was the need of laws to regulate and pro- 
tect the export cattle trade and of a competent veterinary organiza- 
tion to administer the laws. 
Thus the demands for regulating and supervising both the inter- 
state and export transportation of livestock to prevent cruel practices 
and the deterioration or disease of the animals the flesh of which was 
to be used for food, further indicated the need of a Bureau of Animal 
Industry. 
Meat Inspection* 
A Growing Demand 
The sufferings and cruelties to which animals were subjected in 
transportation resulted in deterioration and disease which affected the 
wholesomeness of the meat for food. This, together with the existence 
of hog cholera, Texas fever, and other prevalent animal diseases, 
aroused a sentiment in favor of laws and the adoption of measures in 
their enforcement looking to the protection of the public health. 
As early as 1861 Dr. E. M. Snow, in a report on the prevalence of 
hog cholera, said: 
It is also interesting to all classes of the community on account 
of the relations of this disease to epidemic diseases which afflict the 
human race, and on account of its effects upon the supply of animal 
food for cities. 
The Cattle Commissioners of New York in their report for 1869 
said: 
By the 8th of August, 1868, it became apparent to the Metropolitan 
Board of Health, in New York City, that the alarming increase of 
obstinate and fatal diarrhoea in the Metropolitan District was caused 
by the use of diseased meats. There was revealed to the Commis- 
sioners such an amount of reckless barbarity toward animals, and 
criminal indifference to the public health on the part of many who 
furnished meat to consumers, that one almost wonders how the city 
has escaped a pestilence. 
* See "Meat Inspection Division," page 255. 28 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The Massachusetts State Board of Health in their report of Janu- 
ary, 1871, said that "meat taken from diseased cattle should be con- 
demned, and no meat should be put into the markets without thorough 
inspection. ' ' 
Mr. Horace W. Jordan, member of the Brighton Board of Health, 
testified before a Boston committee in 1871 as follows: 
I think it would be an excellent thing if the public could know what 
comes from Chicago. The public are imposed upon by meat from 
Chicago, and I think they will be more. At Chicago all the poor cattle, 
bulls, stags, and everything disgreeable is picked up, etc. This is 
what you get from Chicago and when the meat is examined here it 
is almost impossible to tell whether the animal was diseased. 
Mr. George T. Angell, President of the Massachusetts Society for 
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in an essay on Cattle Trans- 
portation in 1871, said: 
But the question which at once suggests itself is, what security 
have we that animals slaughtered in Chicago were in good shape 
there? What security that we may not be eating the meats of dis- 
eased animals, which because they could not be brought further 
alive, were slaughtered there? 
Mr. Angell then suggests as a remedy: 
First by informing and arousing public opinion, and carrying 
information upon the subject to the various persons and corporations 
especially interested; and second, by the enactment and enforcement 
of stringent laws (upon the necessity of which all will agree), for 
the careful inspection of all animals slaughtered in the neighborhood 
of our large cities, and of all meats while being dressed for market, 
and before they are offered for sale. 
The health officer of the Board of Health of Chicago, in February, 
1871, reported that "nearly one-half of all the beef, pork and mutton 
offered for sale in that city was damaged, and poor from disease and 
unfit for food." 
In 1870 Commissioner of Agriculture Horace Capron said, in urg- 
ing the establishment of a veterinary division in the Department of 
Agriculture: "The value of stock lost annually from disease is enor- 
mous and threatens not only to decimate our animals but to expose 
the human family to disease from the consumption of unwholesome 
meats." 
Commissioner Le Duc in recommending to the Congress the estab- 
lishment of a Division of Veterinary Science in the Department of 
Agriculture, said: ' ' The health of the people and the maintenance of 
their large and valuable foreign trade in cattle now grown into an 
important factor of commerce, alike call for prompt action in the 
matter in the direction here indicated. ' ' Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
29 
Dr. D. E. Salmon, in his report to the Commissioner of Agriculture 
in 1883, said: 
Again it is asserted that many cattle affected with Texas fever 
are killed and their flesh sold as food in the public markets and 
consequently the local boards of health feel inclined to entirely pro- 
hibit the entrance of such cattle within their jurisdiction. Such a 
restriction necessarily acts as a double hardship. It prevents the 
people in these cities from obtaining the only really good and well- 
fatted beef that comes to them and it withdraws the best markets 
that have heretofore been open to the cattle-raisers of a large section 
of the country. 
The demand for protection of the public health in preventing the 
sale of unwholesome meats was followed in some of the larger cities by 
the establishment of a local meat-inspection service under the super- 
vision of boards of health. This service was conducted with varying 
degrees of success and satisfaction. In addition to the need for a 
better protection of the public health in our own country, it was be- 
coming apparent that in order to establish confidence abroad in our 
export meats it would become necessary eventually to be able to cer- 
tify their wholesomeness and freedom from disease. There was some 
discussion of this subject when our meats were excluded from foreign 
markets, but up to 1883 no action had been taken. The need for a 
national system of meat inspection indicated the necessity of proper 
laws and a veterinary organization such as our present Bureau of 
Animal Industry to enforce them. 
Quarantine Against Foreign Importations of Livestock 
The protection of our rapidly growing livestock industry against 
invasions of destructive foreign diseases was a duty that devolved 
upon the National Government. No steps were taken in this direction 
until 1865, when rinderpest for the second time made its appearance 
'in England. 
The first Federal legislation on this subject, entitled "An Act to 
prevent the spread of foreign diseases among the cattle of the United 
States," was passed at the first session of the Thirty-ninth Congress, 
December 18, 1865. Under this law the importation of cattle was 
prohibited, and the act was amended on March 6, 1866, to prohibit 
also the importation of the hides of neat cattle. The Secretary of the 
Treasury was charged with the responsibility of promulgating appro- 
priate regulations to carry the law into full and immediate effect. This 
law was enacted as a part of the Revised Statutes in 1874. The first 
prohibition under this law was issued July 31, 1875, by the Secretary 
of the Treasury against the importation of neat cattle and the hides 30 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
of neat cattle from Spain on account of the prevalence of foot-and- 
mouth disease in that country. This order remained in effect until 
October of that year. A similar order was issued November 3, 1875, 
against importations from Great Britain and Ireland on account of 
another outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in those countries. This 
order, however, was modified March 16, 1876, to allow the importation 
of "blooded stock" from Great Britain and Ireland when accom- 
panied by a certificate issued by a United States consular officer to 
the effect that such animals were at the date of shipment in a sound 
and healthy condition. 
On receipt of information from authentic sources that contagious 
pleuropneumonia existed in England the Treasury Department on 
February 26, 1879, issued an order closing all Atlantic seaports to 
English cattle until otherwise ordered. This prohibition against Eng- 
land was modified the following July 19 so as to permit importations 
from English ports, provided all cattle imported were kept in quar- 
antine ninety days on arrival under the supervision of customs officers, 
"except where State or municipal laws provided for the quarantine 
of such cattle, and in such cases collectors will permit the proper of- 
ficers to quarantine them in such manner as the State or municipal 
authorities require. ' ' 
Notwithstanding the existing laws administered by the Secretary 
of the Treasury, foot-and-mouth disease gained entrance to the United 
States in 1870, and it is surprising that it did not spread itself over a 
greater area than it did. The disease was brought to this country 
by cattle shipped from an English port in August, 1870. The cattle 
showed signs of the disease when two days at sea, passed through the 
worst stages on the ocean, but conveyed the infection to the stock 
among which they were placed on their arrival in Canada. Its ex- 
istence in Oneida County, New York, was reported in September, 
1870, about the time of the State agricultural show at Utica, and it 
was believed to have been brought there by Canadian cattle exhibited 
at the show. At the time, some were of opinion that it was first 
brought to the Albany stockyards by Canadian cattle. At different 
times from November 15 to December 7 it was brought into Dutchess 
County, New York, by five separate droves from the Albany yards. 
From Dutchess County, New York, the infection was conveyed into 
Connecticut and spread to New Milford, Sherman and Kent. Another 
drove from Albany carried it to the valley of the Connecticut River, 
where it spread to five townships. Also it was an Albany shipment 
that infected the stockyards at Brighton, Mass., from where it spread Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
31 
over a considerable area around Boston and into the State of New 
Hampshire. 
In the early part of 1871 the disease still lingered at several points 
in New England, but it disappeared before the end of the year. The 
mild form of the disease, the lack of railroad and steamboat transpor- 
tation facilities in New England, the drift of the cattle trade toward 
the Boston market, and the severity of the winter weather that year 
were favorable conditions that assisted in eliminating this outbreak 
without the necessity of resorting to slaughter of infected herds. 
Again we were very fortunate in escaping an extended outbreak of 
foot-and-mouth disease from the importation of two bulls and eight 
heifers that arrived at the port of New York from England on the 
S. S. France, January 21, 1881, and were quarantined in that city for 
a period of ninety days. 
Generally there was a lack of confidence in the ability of the Treas- 
ury Department to administer efficiently the quarantine laws. It 
was felt that the officials of the Treasury Department did not possess 
a sufficient knowledge of animal diseases and that such matters should 
be placed under the supervision and direction of competent veterina- 
rians. Some of the orders of the Treasury Department were criticized 
severely in the public press, as, for instance, the order of July 19, 
1879. In referring to this order in the August, 1879, issue of the 
National Live Stock Journal, Dr. James Law said: "On the basis of 
these facts the Treasury Department should at once exclude all im- 
portations, either direct or by way of Canada, not only from England 
but from France, Belgium, Holland and Germany." 
The editor of the National Live Stock Journal in the August, 1879, 
issue said: 
The Treasury Department has promulgated orders that have been 
so silly as to excite the ridicule of the whole country. It has closed 
our Atlantic ports against importations of cattle from England but 
has left an open door for such importations by way of Canada; and 
while this ridiculous show of surveillance has been kept up over im- 
portations from one country only, no attempt has been made at su- 
pervision over those from other European countries that are known 
to be the very hot beds of plague and contagion. 
Such criticisms, together with the action of the Privy Council of 
Great Britain in discriminating against American cattle by requiring 
them to be slaughtered at the port of landing, led to the appointment 
of the Treasury Cattle Commission, consisting of Prof. James Law, 
Dr. E. F. Thayer and Mr. J. H. Sanders. Funds were appropriated 
by the Act of Congress of March 3, 1883, for the purpose of establish- 
ing quarantine stations at ports along the Atlantic coast for the de- 32 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
tention of imported cattle. The Cattle Commission directed its atten- 
tion to locating and developing these stations at Portland, Me., Bos- 
ton, Mass., New York, N. Y., and Baltimore, Md. 
An order was issued by the Secretary of the Treasury, July 30, 
1883, requiring that all neat cattle from any part of the world except 
North and South America be held in quarantine at the station at the 
port of entry for a period of ninety days. 
The appointment of the Treasury Cattle Commission was recognized 
as a step in the right direction, but as the members of the commission 
acted in an advisory capacity to the Treasury Department in con- 
nection with their regular vocations, the conditions were not yet en- 
tirely satisfactory. In addition to the inspection immediately on land- 
ing of all animals imported, there was evident need for the inaugura- 
tion of a system of inspection at the port of embarkation of all ani- 
mals intended for export from this country; also there was need for a 
close supervision over fitting vessels engaged in the export cattle trade 
and the care of animals on the sea voyage. In order efficiently to carry 
out such a system of inspection and supervision, law, funds, and a 
larger veterinary organization were needed. These conditions also 
were important factors leading to the establishment of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry. 
Opposition to the Establishment of the Bureau 
It was estimated that on January 1, 1883, there were on the farms 
of this country 10,838,111 horses, 1,871,079 mules, 41,171,762 cattle, 
49,237,291 sheep and 43,270,086 hogs, or a total of 146,388,329 ani- 
mals valued at $2,338,241,519. 
The growth of the livestock industry had been rapid and enterpris- 
ing stockmen were continually improving our breeds through im- 
portations of the choicest animals gathered from the best herds and 
flocks of the Old World. The glowing prospects of an extensive ex- 
port trade in animals and their products gave an impetus to the live- 
stock industry and brought our people to realize more fully the im- 
portance of this profitable phase of agriculture. 
But up to 1883 the livestock industry had been left to drift without 
much beneficial assistance from either State or National Governments. 
Contagious pleuropneumonia had existed along the Atlantic Coast 
for fifty years. From 25 to 30 million dollars' worth of hogs were 
dying each year from hog cholera. Sheep raising had become preca- 
rious in many sections because of scab and other parasitic diseases. 
Tuberculosis and contagious abortion were spreading. Anthrax and Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
33 
blackleg were on the increase in most of the States. Cattle raisers 
were in a state of consternation from fear of Texas fever. The causes of 
the most destructive animal diseases were unknown or in dispute, and 
livestock owners were defenseless, as veterinary science had not been 
able to provide effectual prophylactic or medicinal treatment. Vexa- 
tious and expensive quarantines were increasing for protection and 
retaliation. Our system of interstate and export animal transporta- 
tion was denounced as a disgrace and an outrage on the first princi- 
ples of humanity. There was a growing demand for protection of the 
public health in connection with the meat supply. Our export cattle 
and sheep were denied admission into Great Britain and were con- 
demned to slaughter within a limited time on the docks where they 
landed, and our pork had been prohibited entrance into most of the 
markets of continental Europe. 
There was urgent need of reliable official information concerning 
the nature and prevalence of animal diseases and of the means re- 
quired to control and eradicate them. To meet this need the Vet- 
erinary Division of the Department of Agriculture was established in 
1883. Dr. D. E. Salmon was appointed chief of the new Veterinary 
Division, and a farm consisting of seven acres of land was secured at 
Benning Road, near Washington, D. C., to be used as an experimental 
station. 
It soon became apparent to the livestock men of the country that 
the necessity of having an efficient executive agency to carry into 
effect laws and regulations essential to control and eradicate disease 
and to protect the rapidly developing animal industry at home and 
abroad had become an even more pressing necessity than the research 
work. The injurious conditions from the prevalence of animal dis- 
eases and the unfavorable status of our export cattle and meat trade 
became so burdensome and annoying and aroused such grave appre- 
hensions for future contingencies that there were vigorous agitation 
and insistent demands for governmental assistance which finally cul- 
minated in the Act of Congress of May 29, 1884, establishing the 
United States Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Desirable as w'e now know a central executive veterinary agency to 
be for the development, protection and extension of the livestock in- 
dustry, the bill creating the Bureau of Animal Industry did not get 
through Congress without serious opposition. There were lawmakers 
jealous for the rights and powers of the States, who feared that a 
strong Federal bureau would infringe upon the authority of the 
States. They contended that such matters should be left to State 34 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
action, notwithstanding the fact that with the exceptions of Massachu- 
setts and Connecticut no State had been able to cope effectively with 
contagious pleuropneumonia. The familiar question of constitutionality 
was raised. There were also those who saw in the proposed organiza- 
tion nothing but an army of jobholders or a political machine, and 
some objected to the expense. Even the presence of pleuropneumonia 
in the United States was doubted and questioned. The veterinary pro- 
fession, then struggling for recognition in America, came in for ridi- 
cule, and objection was made to having a "horse doctor" at the head 
of the proposed bureau. 
The bill was championed on the floor of the House of Representa- 
tives by Hon. William H. Hatch, of Missouri, then chairman of the 
Committee on Agriculture. Patiently Mr. Hatch explained the va- 
rious features and provisions of the bill; skilfully and often with a 
touch of humor he met objections; forcefully he urged the importance 
of the measure. Some of his remarks in defense of the veterinary 
profession deserve to be quoted in this connection. In answering a 
critic he said: 
I desire to present to the- House for its consideration a short 
sketch of a few so-called "horse-doctors." This is not the first time 
that on this floor, when presenting some bill or resolution from 
the Committee on Agriculture, I have had to meet sneers and jeers 
and epithets in place of arguments. I have heard gentlemen apply 
to this bill the terms "granger," "cow bill" and every other epithet 
that could be invented to injure it. I do not, however, ask any im- 
munity from such treatment. I stand here ready to properly resent 
such sneers, and to defend the committee, of which I have the honor 
to be the chairman, a committee that has entrusted to its charge the 
interests of that great class who in numbers constitute one-half of 
the people in this country, and who embrace one-half of its wealth. 
Let gentlemen who wish to defeat a measure which is designed for 
the benefit of the great agricultural interests of this country try to 
sneer it down if they choose by calling it a "horse-doctor bill." Who 
are the "horse-doctors" of this age? I feel assured that the gentle- 
man, if he had read a little recently upon this subject, would not have 
started out on that line of argument. 
Henri Bouley, a veterinarian, and formerly professor at the Alfort 
Veterinary School, is today the leading scientific man of France. 
He has had every honor accorded to him that a scientific man can 
hope to obtain. He has been president of the Paris Academy of 
Medicine and of the Academy of Sciences, and is a member of the 
French Institute. He was the first, the most able, and the most per- 
sistent advocate and exponent of the investigations and discoveries 
of Pasteur. And although he took up the contest in the Academy of 
Medicine almost singlehanded against the leading scientists of France, 
he has been uniformly successful, is looked upon as the most pow- 
erful debater and writer of the day, and within a few years has 
produced a revolution in the medical views of his country so far 
as concerns the subject of contagious diseases. He has lately at- 
tracted much attention as the advocate of the free admission of 
American pork, and is doing more than almost any one else to show Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
35 
the frivolous character of the objections that have been brought 
against it. 
Professor Chauveau, director of the Veterinary School of Lyons, 
a life-long veterinarian, is the most accomplished anatomist, physi- 
ologist, and investigator of the time. His work on the anatomy of 
domestic animals is used the world over, not only by veterinarians 
but by scientific naturalists. He was the first to demonstrate that 
contagious diseases are caused by living germ; in this he leads Pas- 
teur and Koch by several years. He has made more original inves- 
tigations and more important discoveries than any man who has 
ever worked with contagious diseases, and it is conceded by all that 
he has no peer for the clearness with which he marks out his lines 
of research and the satisfactory and convincing character of his 
experiments. 
Professor Colin, of the Veterinary School of Alfort, is one of the 
most eminent physiologists, and is author of a work on animal phys- 
iology which is used and quoted wherever science is studied. 
Arloing, Comevin, and Thomas, three young veterinarians, asso- 
ciated themselves together a few years ago to study the disease 
known in this country as black-quarter, a very destructive malady 
of young cattle. They discovered the germ which causes the dis- 
ease, learned the drugs and chemicals most fatal to it, and succeeded 
in preventing it by a peculiar method of vaccination. Their whole 
study of the nature and character of the disease is remarkable for its 
ability and success. Such a thorough and scientific investigation of a 
contagious disease has never been made in all the history of human 
medicine. 
Professor Toussaint, of Toulouse, has the reputation of being the 
most brilliant of the young scientific men of France. He discovered 
the germ of fowl cholera, which enabled Pasteur to make his world- 
renowned discovery in regard to vaccination for animal diseases. He 
also originated the method of attenuating or weakening a virus by 
heat, so that it could be used for preventing the disease by vac- 
cination. 
Besides these, the names of Megnin, Leblanc, Degive, Trasbot, 
Magne, Zundel, Lefosse, Delafond, Nocard, and many others are 
known not only as veterinarians but as scientists and authorities 
on the great medical questions of the day. 
In Germany and Austria the names of Roloff, Spinola, Johne, 
Franck, Gering, Hertwig, Roll, Feser, Schmidt, Adam. Harms, and 
Wehenkel are as well known as scientists as they are as veterinarians. 
In England, Fleming has made a reputation by his veterinary 
writings, which makes his name familiar to every student of medical 
science. It is often remarked by leading physicians that the medical 
profession has nothing that can be compared to the two volumes of 
Fleming's on the Origin, History and Prevention of Animal Plagues. 
His manual of Veterinary Sanitary Science and Police and other 
special works are equal either from a literary, scientific, or practical 
standpoint to the best that the members of any profession have ever 
produced. 
Williams, Walley, Robertson, Brown, Steele, and Axe are all ac- 
knowledged to be scientific and very able men. 
Besides the veterinarians mentioned above, many physicians and 
scientists have made their reputations by studying the diseases of 
animals. Among these are Pasteur, Koch, Klebs, Bollinger, Burdon- 
Sanderson, and Klein. 
Coming to America, we find that in spite of the admitted fact that 
the most destructive diseases of people can never be thoroughly un- 
derstood until more is known of the diseases of animals; in spite of 
the annual loss of more than $50,000,000 from preventable diseases 36 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
among animals in the United States, the veterinary profession has 
been held in the background, discouraged and sneered at by those 
who should have assisted and defended it. Even in the Congress of the 
United States, which is supposed to represent the intelligence and 
the most progressive sentiment of the country, such terms of re- 
proach and scorn as "horse-doctor" and "scientific cranks" are hurled 
at those who are trying to prevent these enormous losses from fall- 
ing on the livestock industry and to assist in throwing light on the 
most destructive plagues of the human race. 
A few men have been brave enough to face the sneers and derision 
and the loss of social position which in the early days of the pro- 
fession were about the only rewards which they received for a life- 
long devotion to the interests of their country and to the cause of 
humanity. The American veterinary profession, though fewer in 
numbers, begins to rank in ability and scientific attainments with 
any in the world. 
Professor James Law, of Cornell University, a native of Scotland, 
and educated in the best schools of Europe, was selected because of 
his great attainments to head the veterinary department of Cornell 
University, and has been one of the best known professors of that 
institution since 1868. In 1870, when the dreaded foot-and-mouth 
disease was introduced into the State of New York, and when the 
cattle interests of that great State were threatened with the most 
terrible losses, all were but too glad to seek information from this 
veterinarian. Again, when in 1878 Congress made its first appro- 
priation for investigating the destructive diseases of swine which 
were discouraging the farmers over vast sections of the country, 
Professor Law was called upon to mark out an intelligent line of 
investigation. In 1879 the veterinary direction of the work for 
stamping out pleuropneumonia in New York was placed in his hands, 
and after clearing the greater part of the infected district in that 
State ''f the disease he was obliged to stop for want of funds. 
Professor A. Liautard, a native of France, is well known as the 
head of the American Veterinary College in New York, and is an 
eminent scientific man. 
Dr. Charles P. Lyman, formerly veterinarian of the Department 
of Agriculture, has been selected by Harvard University as a proper 
person to organize a veterinary department in that institution. 
Dr. R. S. Huidekoper is another well-educated veterinarian selected 
by the University of Pennsylvania to organize a veterinary depart- 
ment in that institution. 
Dr. Salmon, the present veterinarian of the Department of Agri- 
culture, is a graduate of Cornell University. He studied also at the 
leading veterinary school in France, and has long been widely known 
in this country as a correspondent of our leading agricultural jour- 
nals and as one of the very few men in the world who have success- 
fully investigated contagious diseases. 
Besides these there are a considerable number of educated and 
practical veterinarians in this country who have been of great value 
to the owners of domestic animals. 
It is true the profession is still small, but it is rapidly growing; 
it has fought its way against every obstacle and discouragement; its 
members have sought education and knowledge in every department 
of science and in every language where assistance was to be found; 
and the appreciation of its usefulness, beginning with the masses, 
has permeated all classes of our society, until praise and favor have 
taken the place of contumely everywhere with the single exception 
of the House of Representatives of the United States. 
Dr. Salmon, the present veterinarian of the Department of Agri- 
culture, whose exhaustive report is embodied in the report made Conditions Leading to Its Creation 
37 
by the Committee on Agriculture accompanying this bill, contains 
the latest information on the subject of pleuropneumonia, its ex- 
istence and spread in the United States. That paper is published 
in the Record, and as an exhibition of scientific knowledge and re- 
search as well as literary composition, will compare favorably with 
the effort of any gentleman who has spoken for or against this bill. 
The strength of the opposition and the closeness of the contest is 
shown by the vote by which the House of Representatives passed the 
bill, 155 to 127. The bill also passed the Senate, and on May 29, 1884, 
it received the approval of the President. PART II. 
Forty Years of the U. S. Bureau of 
Animal Industry 
The U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry came into existence on May 
29, 1884, with the approval of the Act of Congress entitled "An Act 
for the establishment of a Bureau of Animal Industry, to prevent the 
exportation of diseased cattle, and to provide means for the suppres- 
sion and extirpation of preuropneumonia and other contagious dis- 
eases among domestic animals." 
The title of the act indicates the immediate purposes for which the 
Bureau was established. It is specified in the act that a competent 
veterinary surgeon should be Chief of the Bureau, that the force 
should not exceed twenty persons at any one time, that the Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture was authorized to appoint two competent agents 
who should be either practical stock raisers or experienced in live- 
stock business matters, that it should be the duty of the Commissioner 
to prepare such rules and regulations as he deemed necessary for the 
speedy and effectual suppression and extirpation of pleuropneumonia 
and other contagious, infectious and communicable diseases, that the 
Commissioner of Agriculture should cooperate with the Secretary of 
the Treasury in establishing regulations governing the transportation 
and exportation of livestock, that transportation companies were pro- 
hibited from accepting for transportation animals affected with any 
contagious, infectious or communicable disease, and the sum of 
$150,000 was appropriated to carry the law into effect. 
The Eradication of Contagious Pleuropneumonia 
It is evident from the wording of the act establishing the Bureau 
that its first duty was to take charge of the eradication of pleuro- 
pneumonia in cooperation with the State authorities where the disease 
existed. The previous efforts of the National Government had not 
proved effectual on account of the failure of the States to cooperate 
effectively by passing necessary laws and appropriating sufficient 
funds to carry on the work successfully. Massachusetts had succeeded 
in permanently eradicating the disease in October, 1865. Connecticut 
had repelled repeated invasions from New York, but the other in- 
fected States had been spasmodic in their efforts and persisted in ap- 
plying only temporizing measures in compliance with the demands of 
cattle dealers and some others. As a consequence, the disease had 
38 Organization and Early Work 
39 
spread from the foci of infection on Long Island, where it first ap- 
peared in the United States in 1843, until by 1884 it had reached 
Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, West Vir- 
ginia, and the District of Columbia, and Connecticut had become re- 
infected, and, on January 7, 1885, an outbreak was reported in 
Delaware.* 
The first work to be done evidently was to make a preliminary in- 
vestigation of the prevalence and location of the disease. Steps were 
taken at once to organize a force to make the investigation, prepara- 
tory to the application of eradication measures. Competent veterina- 
rians were scarce in those days, but by July 1, 1885, the Bureau force 
consisted of the following officers and employees: 
Title and Name Whence Appointed Compensationf 
Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry 
D. E. Salmon - North Carolina $3,000.00 
Clerk 
Miles Fuller Illinois 1,500.00 
Agents 
S. H. Standart Colorado p. d. 10.00 
H. M. Taylor. Colorado p. d. 10.00 
Assistant in Laboratory 
Theobald Smith New York „ 1,600.00 
Messenger 
William Alexander. Dist. of Columbia... 720.00 
Superintendent, Experimental Station 
William H. Rose 1,600.00 
Laborer 
B. F. Yates - 600.00 
Assistant Veterinarians 
William B. E. Miller New Jersey p. d. 8.00 
H. W. Rowland „_New Jersey _..p. d. 8.00 
T. J. Herr -New York p. d. 8.00 
C. B. Michener. New York p. d. 8.00 
J. W. Hawk New Jersey p. d. 8.00 
M. R. Trumbower Missouri p. d. 8.00 
L. McLean New York p. d. 8.00 
C. K. Dyer New Jersey p. d. 8.00 
Lawrence Wilson Kansas p. d. 8.00 
E. W. Perry Illinois..™ p. d. 8.00 
J. N. Bradley. ....Missouri „.,p. d. 8.00 
George Marx. Pennsylvania 2,000.00 
James Harkness Missouri p. d. 8.00 
H. D. Walker North Carolina p. m. 100.00 
J. Gerth, Jr New Jersey p. d. 8.00 
S. P. Cunningham Texas p. m. 150.00 
* See "Contagious Pleuropneumonia," page 3. 
t Compensation per annum unless otherwise indicated (p. d. meaning per day and p. m 
per month). 40 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The Chief of the Bureau was handicapped by the restriction im- 
posed by the law in regard to the number of employees that might 
be appointed, and it was not until the passage of the appropriation 
act for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1886, that this restriction 
was removed. 
The governments and local authorities of the infected States were 
requested to cooperate with the .new Bureau and to grant to its in- 
spectors authority to enter upon premises of citizens of those States 
in order to make the necessary inspections. Some objections were 
raised against such inspections on the ground that more cases of 
disease would be found than the States could dispose of with their 
limited appropriations, and it was argued with much feeling that 
the publication of the number of cases existing in these States would 
create unnecessary alarm and interfere greatly with the commerce 
of the infected sections without accomplishing beneficial results, since 
sufficient provision had not been made for exterminating the disease. 
Many stockmen in the United States were skeptical in regard to the 
contagious nature of contagious pleuropneumonia and were opposed 
to the drastic measures proposed for its eradication. 
Ah this feeling was reflected in Congress to some extent, it was 
arranged to slaughter three affected cows at the Experiment Station 
near Washington, D. C., on January 12, 1884, in order to demon- 
strate the character of the disease. Hon. James Wilson of Iowa, 
member of the House Committee on Agriculture, a number of dis- 
tinguished veterinarians, and delegates from the Chicago convention 
of stockmen witnessed the demonstration. To prove the contagious- 
ness of the disease that existed in the United States, experiments 
were conducted at the Experiment Station, Washington, D. C., and 
on Barren Island in New York Bay. The test was begun on Barren 
Island September 20, 1884, and by January 3, 1885, 22 out of 31 
animals in the test had contracted the disease, and 30 out of 41 ani- 
mals contracted the disease in the test begun at the Washington Ex- 
periment Station on November 1, 1884. 
The preliminary investigations were proceeding in the known in- 
fected States when the alarming news was received of a malady 
suspected to be contagious pleuropneumonia wliich had recently 
appeared among some breeding herds in the western part of Illinois. 
Fortunately the trend of the cattle trade had been toward the eastern 
markets, but those who were most familiar with the situation recog- 
nized the increasing danger of a spread westward because of the 
growing demand since 1880 for purebred and grade Jersey cattle to Organization and Early Work 
41 
improve the dairy herds in the Western States. At first they were 
taken from the New England States, but as the demand increased 
and the supply in these sections became exhausted, dealers extended 
their search even to the infected States and shipped young calves 
and cows in carload lots to Missouri, Iowa and Illinois. 
On July 15, 1884, Dr. M. R. Trumbower was called to examine a 
cow on the premises of Mr. C. A. Keefer at Sterling, Ill. This cow 
and others in the vicinity were found to be affected with pleuro- 
pneumonia. On August 20, 1884, Hon. George B. Loring, then Com- 
missioner of Agriculture, issued a circular announcing the first out- 
break in the West. An investigation revealed that in all probability 
the infection originated in a shipment of grade Jerseys bought in 
the vicinity of Baltimore, Md., in November, 1883, and shipped to 
Mr. C. R. C. Dye, Troy, Ohio, on December 28. Five of Mr. Dye's 
cattle, including one of the lot from Maryland, were sold at a public 
sale held at Virginia, Cass County, Ill., on February 21, 1884. Mr. 
Dye's entries arrived at Virginia January 4, 1884, and it is believed 
that the Maryland cow carried the infection to Illinois. In tracing 
the animals sold at the Virginia sale, known as the Epler sale, in- 
fected animals were found in valuable herds at Geneva, Sterling, 
Peoria, Danvers, Springfield, Jacksonville and Rushville, Ill., and 
Cynthiana, Ky. The disease had existed eight months west of the 
Allegheny Mountains before it was discovered; it had been carried 
to three different States, and exposed cattle had gone to seven dif- 
ferent States, but fortunately in the majority of cases they did not 
carry the infection with them. A combination sale at Chicago was 
advertised for September 1, 1884, into which were entered some 20 
animals from two infected herds. If that sale had been allowed to 
take place the disease would doubtless have been scattered to every 
part of the West. It was by a succession of the most fortunate coinci- 
dences that the contagion had not already spread from Illinois to 
the herds on the ranges. 
On March 5, 1885, the disease was discovered in the dairy herd at 
the Missouri State Lunatic Asylum, Fulton, Mo. Through the 
splendid cooperation received from the State authorities and a ruling 
of the Comptroller of the Treasury on April 21, 1885, allowing ex- 
penditures from the regular annual appropriation of the Bureau for 
the purpose of purchasing and destroying animals found affected, 
the State was freed of the disease by May 1 of the same year. 
The appearance of the malady in the West made it necessary for 
the new Bureau to divert its attention from the Eastern States to 42 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
the outbreaks west of the Allegheny Mountains. It did not have 
sufficient authority under the law of May 29, 1884, to enforce its 
regulations within a State and was obliged to operate under existing 
State laws. Most of the States had neither adequate laws nor funds 
to cooperate effectively, and some showed a disinclination to enforce 
existing statutes. For instance, no attempt was made in Kentucky 
to enforce the State laws. Diseased cattle were handled in that 
State so recklessly that many others were infected unnecessarily. 
The plague notoriously existed in the herd of Messrs. Frisbie & Lake, 
of Cynthiana, who carried the disease into Kentucky from Illinois, 
but no legal measures were adopted in accordance with the plan so 
forcibly outlined by the Governor of Kentucky in his communication 
of September 24, 1884, to county judges and other officers of the law. 
Frisbie & Lake even succeeded in shipping 125 cattle from their 
infected premises to Austin, Texas, for public sale, which the Texas 
authorities allowed to take place on February 12, 1885, in spite of 
the efforts of the Department of Agriculture to prevent it, and know- 
ing that only 95 of the 125 animals shipped from Kentucky remained 
alive on the day of the sale. Another shipment of 24 animals from 
the Frisbie & Lake herd was purchased by Dr. F. B. Hamilton, 
president of the Tennessee Jersey Breeders' Association and shipped 
to Jackson, Tenn., early in June, 1885. 
The infected premises of Frisbie & Lake finally were quarantined 
by the authority of the Kentucky State Board of Health on June 
15, 1885. Early in March, 1886, the State Legislature enacted a law 
authorizing the State Board of Health to slaughter infected herds 
and appropriated money to compensate the owners. The slaughter 
began on March 15, and on March 27 the last infected animals in the 
State were destroyed and the disease did not reappear in Kentucky. 
This was our first demonstration of promptly eradicating a contagious 
disease by the slaughter and disinfection method. 
The State Legislature of Illinois passed an act on May 31, 1884, 
to suppress and prevent the spread of contagious pleuropneumonia. 
Good cooperation was received from the State authorities under this 
law and at the end of the year 1885 it was believed that the State had 
been freed of the disease. But early in September, 1886, Dr. Case- 
well, then State Veterinarian of Illinois, made the startling dis- 
covery that pleuropneumonia existed among dairy herds in the City 
of Chicago, not far from the Union Stock Yards, through which 
cattle were passed to all parts of the country. The infection was 
found to center in the stables of the Phoenix and the Empire dis- Organization and Early Work 
43 
tilleries and the Shufeldt stables. The milkmen in the vicinity of 
the distilleries at first denied the existence of any disease among 
their cattle, but when the evidence became too strong to be longer 
contested, it was admitted that they had recognized the presence of 
lung trouble in their cattle since some time in 1884 and they were 
resorting to inoculation, a practice which originated in Belgium, to 
lessen the mortality. On November 28, 1886, slaughtering was begun 
in order to empty the distillery stables as soon as possible. 
The Act of Congress appropriating funds for the year ending June 
30, 1887, authorized the purchase of diseased animals when necessary 
to prevent the spread of pleuropneumonia from one State to another, 
but the statutes then in force in Illinois required the slaughter of 
affected animals without compensation, which prevented rapid 
progress in getting rid of the disease. In the act of March 3, 1887, 
appropriating funds for the fiscal year 1888, Congress modified the 
law to give authority to the Department of Agriculture to purchase 
and destroy both diseased and exposed cattle and increased the ap- 
propriation from $100,000 to $500,000, making $100,000 of this sum 
immediately available to meet the emergency in the West and to 
facilitate the eradication in the East. Arrangements were made with 
the Illinois authorities to cooperate under this law, and on April 
20, 1887, Dr. James Law was placed in charge of the eradication 
work in Illinois on behalf of the Bureau. 
On May 24, 1887, Cook County in Illinois, with the exception of 
the Union Stock Yards, and Westchester, Kings, Queens, Suffolk, 
Richmond and New York Counties in the State of New York, and 
Baltimore, Howard, Carroll and Prince Georges counties in the State 
of Maryland were placed in quarantine. 
In the latter part of July, 1886, a conference was held in Phila- 
delphia at which representatives of the States of New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware and Maryland were present. As a result of this 
conference the first rules and regulations for combating the disease 
were issued by the Secretary of Agriculture August 2, 1886, and they 
were sent to the Governors of the interested States for their accept- 
ance. Maryland was the first State to accept the regulations of the 
Department for cooperation. The Governors of New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania and Virginia failed to accept them and the authorities of 
New York decided that it would be unwise to attempt to control the 
plague in that State with the small appropriation they had, in view 
of the large number of infected herds known to exist on Long Island 
.and in the vicinity of New York City. After the passage by Congress 44 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
of the act of March 3, 1887, revised rules and regulations were issued 
April 15, 1887, and sent to all of the States and Territories in the 
Union. The Governors of 34 States and Territories at once accepted 
these regulations and agreed to cooperate with the Bureau. As a 
result of the thorough measures employed under the new regulations, 
the progress of the disease in Illinois was promptly checked. The last 
acute case in that State was destroyed on July 28, 1887, and the 
quarantine was raised on April 1, 1888. It cost the National Gov- 
ernment $79,938.65 to eradicate the disease in Illinois. Ohio had 
been free of contagious pleuropneumonia since September, 1884. By 
the end of the year 1885 Missouri was free, and no cases appeared 
in Kentucky after March, 1886. 
There are few if any cases on record where the dairies of a city 
of the size of Chicago, when once infected with pleuropneumonia, 
have been cleared of this contagious plague without years of constant 
effort and the expenditure of vast sums of money. The prompt eradi- 
cation of pleuropneumonia from the herds of Chicago and the State 
of Illinois within a few months at so little expense and with so little 
inconvenience to commerce and without permitting the escape of the 
infection through the Union Stock Yards and other channels of the 
cattle trade was a sufficient achievement to establish confidence in 
the efficiency of the new Bureau of Animal Industry. The continued 
existence of the disease in the vicinity of the Union Stock Yards, 
the largest livestock center in the country, would certainly have led 
to the infection of the whole country within a few years with dis- 
astrous results to a profitable cattle industry. 
The success attained in eradicating the outbreaks in the West had 
a beneficial effect in stimulating a desire for a more vigorous prose- 
cution of the work in the East. On November 10, 1887, the State 
Live Stock Sanitary Board of Maryland issued an order quarantin- 
ing all bovine animals within six miles of the City Hall of Balti- 
more and prohibiting any movement of cattle within the quarantined 
district without permit. On April 5, 1888, the Maryland Legislature 
passed a law recognizing the work of the Bureau in that State and 
providing for cooperation. About the same time arrangements were 
made for more effective cooperation with the New Jersey, New York 
and Pennsylvania State authorities. Up to this time the work had 
not progressed satisfactorily in any of these States, especially in 
Pennsylvania, where the State officers had opinions as to the meas- 
ures necessary to eradicate the disease which were not shared by the 
authorities of other States or by the majority of the members of the Organization and Early Work 
45 
veterinary profession. They not only practiced inoculation, but they 
spared those animals which were mildly affected and after the ordi- 
nary period of quarantine allowed them to mingle again with other 
cattle and to be sent to the public markets of Pennsylvania and other 
States. The eradication in Pennsylvania progressed rapidly after 
the State authorities agreed to the proposition of the Department in 
April, 1888, to purchase and slaughter without cost to the State all 
exposed cattle which the local authorities were unwilling to destroy 
at State expense. It was further agreed that the Governor of Penn- 
sylvania would issue a proclamation placing in quarantine all cattle 
which were on any premises situated within eight miles of the City 
Hall of Philadelphia. The proclamation was issued to take effect 
upon April 9, 1888, and remained in effect until December 15, 1888, 
when it was believed that the State of Pennsylvania was entirely free 
from the disease. 
A satisfactory understanding in regard to cooperation to rid the 
District of Columbia of pleuropneumonia had not yet been reached, 
but on July 18, 1887, by request of the Commissioner of Agriculture 
the Commissioners of the District of Columbia issued an order au- 
thorizing the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry to act as 
veterinarian for the District, and that order has never been revoked. 
On December 1, 1887, Dr. James Law was withdrawn from Illi- 
nois and placed in charge of the work of the Bureau in the whole 
State of New York. Steps were taken immediately by him to tag 
and register all bovine animals in the quarantined counties of West- 
chester, New York, Richmond, Kings and Queens, as had been done so 
successfully in Cook County, Illinois. 
In order to hasten the eradication work on Long Island more 
radical measures were adopted early in the year 1889. In cases 
where the disease had reappeared several times on the same premises, 
the dilapidated stables that could not be properly cleaned and dis- 
infected were torn down and burned. There appeared to be a wide- 
spread opinion among the cattle dealers in the vicinity of New York 
City that the Department of Agriculture had no power to enforce its 
regulations in preventing cattle in the infected districts from pastur- 
ing in common and mingling together on the pastures and highways. 
It was determined to put a stop to this practice by seizing and 
slaughtering all cattle found off their owners' premises without a 
permit from the chief inspector. The first seizure included over 100 
head of cows, and this was followed immediately by others. This 
procedure had the desired effect and from that time the disease 46 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
rapidly disappeared. Dr. R. W. Hickman, who remained with the 
Bureau until March 31, 1922, is credited with making the first 
seizure on Long Island. 
The great obstacle to the speedy conclusion of the eradication of 
the plague was not in any inherent difficulties in the work itself, but 
in the impossibility of securing under the State statutes a strict en- 
forcement of the necessary regulations, apparently /because the 
sympathy of the local officers was with the offenders in their districts 
rather than with those who were trying to eradicate the disease. It 
was often found difficult or impossible to secure the prosecution and 
conviction of persons who violated the State laws under which the 
regulations were made. Some who wilfully violated the regulations 
and even assaulted the officers of the Department had their cases 
dismissed by justices of the peace or by the grand juries before which 
the matter was brought, with the intimation that prosecution for 
such offenses would not be countenanced by them. Then, too, as 
eradication progressed and success seemed assured, the State officials 
manifested an increasing disposition to relax their regulations, to 
allow violations to go unpunished, to remove restrictions before 
safety was certain, and the Bureau authorities had no power under 
National law to curb them. 
To overcome the most embarrassing difficulties in the prosecution 
of the work, the Chief of the Bureau in his report to the Secretary 
for the year 1888 recommended that the law establishing the Bureau 
be amended to impose a penalty upon any person who removed or 
caused to be removed any bovine animal from a section declared by 
the Secretary of Agriculture to be an infected district to any other 
State or Territory, or who transported or caused to be transported 
any such animal upon any railroad or vessel which formed part of 
a transportation line from one State or Territory into another, but 
this change in the law was not made until the passage of the act of 
March 3, 1895. 
By the end of 1890 the disease was confined to areas around New 
York City and Jersey City, and by the end of 1891 Hudson and 
Essex Counties, New Jersey, were the only areas that had not been 
declared free of the plague. The last case of contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia in the United States was traced and found in the suburbs 
of Newark, N. J., on March 25, 1892, by Dr. W. S. Devoe and Dr. 
J. W. Hawk, and on September 26, 1892, the following proclamation 
was issued: Organization and Early Work 
47 
PROCLAMATION-ERADICATION OF PLEUROPNEUMONIA 
U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Office of the Secretary 
To all whom it may concern: 
Notice is hereby given that the quarantines heretofore existing in the 
counties of Kings and Queens, State of New York, and the counties of 
Essex and Hudson, State of New Jersey, for the suppression of contagious 
pleuropneumonia among cattle, are this day removed. 
The removal of the aforesaid quarantines completes the dissolving of 
all quarantines established by this Department in the several sections of 
the United States for the suppression of the above-named disease. 
No case of this disease has occurred in the State of Illinois since De- 
cember 29, 1887, a period of more than four years and eight months. 
No case has occurred in the State of Pennsylvania since September 29, 
1888, a period of four years within a few days. 
No case has occurred in the State of Maryland since September 18, 
1889, a period of three years. 
No case has occurred in the State of New York since April 30, 1891, a 
period of more than one year and four months. 
No case has occurred in the State of New Jersey since March 25, 1892, 
a period of six months, and no case has occurred in any other portion of 
the United States within the past five years. 
I do therefore hereby officially declare that the United States is free 
from the disease known as contagious pleuropneumonia. 
J. M. Rusk, Secretary. 
Done at the City of Washington, D. C., this 26th day of September, 
A. D. 1892. 
It cost the National Government $1,509,100.72 to eradicate the dis- 
ease in the United States and required about five years. If the 
States had been prepared with laws and funds as they are now pre- 
pared, probably it could have been accomplished within one year. 
The United States was the first of the large nations of the world 
up to that time which, having been once extensively infected with 
contagious pleuropneumonia, was able to extirpate it completely. 
When it is considered that there were grave doubts entertained of the 
possibility of eradicating pleuropneumonia, that the States were not 
prepared to cooperate effectively, that serious opposition -was met on 
almost every hand, and that other countries had labored a much 
longer time and made greater expenditures of money without suc- 
cess, the favorable outcome must be regarded as a great achievement 
for the new Bureau of Animal Industry. It accomplished the first 
great thing it undertook, the paramount purpose for which it was 
created. ■ ' । rhe Experiment Station 
The Experiment Station of the Bureau of Animal Industry is im- 
portant not only on account of the original research work performed 
by its scientific staff, but also because it is an ally of the other scien- 
tific branches of the Bureau; they either refer their problems to it for 
solution, or use its facilities to carry on their investigations and ex- 
periments. Owing to the fact that the history of the Experiment 
Station is so intimately interwoven with that of the various research 
divisions of the Bureau, it is practically impossible to write a history 
of the Station without duplicating a great deal of the history of the 
divisions of the Bureau. Therefore, but a brief reference will be 
made to the Experiment Station of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
although it is a very important branch of a Bureau that has numbered 
among its workers men of the highest rank because of their creative, 
constructive, analytical minds and to whom lasting honor is due for 
the splendid contributions they have made to the advancement of 
human knowledge, the protection of public health, and the develop- 
ment and prosperity of our great livestock industry. 
Before the Bureau of Animal Industry was created by Act of 
Congress, the research work of the Veterinary Division of the De- 
partment of Agriculture, under the guidance of Dr. D. E. Salmon, 
had developed to a stage that made it urgently desirable to secure 
facilities to maintain domestic animals, affected with infectious and 
contagious diseases, under closely guarded, experimental, but other- 
wise customary farm and field conditions. Consequently, at the 
direction of the Honorable George B. Loring, Commissioner of Agri- 
culture, early in the year 1883, a small tract of land, located in the 
suburbs of Washington, D. C., on Benning Road, about a quarter of 
a mile from what was at that time looked upon as the northeast 
boundary of the city, was leased for the purpose. 
The tract of land, with an area of between six and seven acres, 
improved by a brick dwelling, three small stables, several hog pens 
and one or two minor structures, to which a small frame building for 
use as a laboratory and autopsy room was soon added, served as the 
Experiment Station for a period of fourteen years, or until the 
year 1897. 
The first superintendent of the Station was Dr. W. H. Rose, who 
served in this capacity from July 1, 1884, to August 15, 1885, when 
he was succeeded by Dr. F. L. Kilborne, who served until June 30, 
48 Experiment Station 
49 
1894, and who was in turn succeeded on July 1, 1894, by the present 
superintendent, Dr. E. C. Schroeder. 
In the year 1897 (effective July 1) the Station was moved from 
Benning Road to its present location, about five miles north of Wash- 
ington, D. C., on the Rockville Road at Bethesda, Md. At Bethesda 
a tract of 18 acres of land, on which a frame dwelling was located, 
was leased with a three-year purchase option. A small, one-story, 
frame laboratory, a breeding house for small experiment animals, a 
tool and carriage house and four stables were at once erected at the 
expense of the Bureau of Animal Industry. The stables provided 
thirty box and twenty open stalls for horses and cattle. 
The leased land, with the improvements on it, and an adjacent two 
acres, were purchased by the Government in the year 1899 (July 8) 
for $20,000, thus giving the Experiment Station a permanent 
home. Three years later, in the year 1902 (July 15) a second pur- 
chase of land adjoining the first was made, of 30 acres, for which 
$10,000 was paid, increasing the area of the Station to 50 acres. 
A detailed account of the various buildings erected from time to 
time on this land, its division into experiment lots, fencing, drilling 
wells, the erection of water tanks, the laying of water and gas pipes, 
etc., would be unprofitable and tedious, as an active experiment sta- 
tion is an establishment that is continuously undergoing alterations 
to meet the requirements of its ever-changing work; but several build- 
ings merit a little separate attention. 
As the needs of the Station outgrew the original small frame labora- 
tory building, the construction of a larger two-story, fire-proof lab- 
oratory was undertaken. The first story and basement were com- 
pleted in the year 1906, but the upper story and permanent roof, 
ow'ing to lack of money, were not completed until three years later. 
This building, the cost of which was upwards of $25,000, is fairly 
well equipped for the study of the infectious diseases of the lower 
animals, and moreover, supplies a reasonably safe place for housing 
the records of the Station's investigations and those conducted by it 
for and in cooperation with the other scientific divisions of the 
Bureau. 
The original breeding house for small experiment animals was re- 
placed in the year 1910, at an expenditure of about $5,000, by a 
larger and better house, which, owing to the difference between the 
prices for which small experiment animals required in biological in- 
vestigations and tests can be bred and raised and for which they can 
he purchased, to say nothing of the better quality of animals pro- 50 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
duced under proper supervision and known conditions, nets an annual 
saving in expenditures fully equal to its cost. 
Experience has shown that the more desirable kind of stable at an 
experiment station for the study of the infectious diseases of animals 
is a small structure which can accommodate from three to four horses 
or cattle, and the internal equipment of which is so arranged that it 
can be changed quickly at little expense in a way that will make it 
serviceable for animals of any species, either large or small. In addi- 
tion to a number of larger stables, the Experiment Station now has 
more than a score of the smaller kind. 
The 50 acres of land purchased for and owned by the Station be- 
came so crowded in the year 1907, largely owing to space needed for 
work in the line of animal husbandry as distinct from the study of 
animal diseases, that it was necessary to secure the use of additional 
land, and this was provided by leasing an adjacent farm of a little more 
than 60 acres, and in the year 1909 Congress appropriated $25,000 
to purchase either this farm or other desirable land. 
As all land adjacent to and near the Station at that time was 
held at what seemed to be unreasonably high prices, the appropria- 
tion was used to purchase a farm at Beltsville, Maryland, which is 
now known as the Experiment Farm of the Dairy and Animal Hus- 
bandry Divisions of the Bureau of Animal Industry. This relieved 
the Experiment Station from the need to provide facilities for studies 
in animal husbandry and dairying, and made a clear and desirable 
distinction between the investigation of animal diseases and other 
conditions that affect the value and productivity of animals. 
The investigational work of the Experiment Station, beginning in 
the year 1883 with tests relative to the contagiousness of pleuropneu- 
monia of cattle, which was at that time prevalent in the United 
States, has been continuously in progress more than 40 years. What 
the state of our knowledge regarding the infectious diseases was 40 
years ago, or in the year 1883, may be judged by the following quo- 
tations from one of the text-books of the time on pathology available 
in the English language: 
Some of these diseases, especially the epidemic pestilences or 
plagues, have from ancient times been suspected to be due to or- 
ganized poisons. The suspicion has now and again been re-expressed; 
but is only within the last twenty years that, in a few instances at 
least, the fact has been demonstrated. 
The researches of the last ten years have shown that there are 
bacterial fungi which are able, by virtue of their specific properties, 
to affect the animal body and generate disease in it. On the other 
hand, we find such fungi in the blood and tissues of persons affected 
with infective disease. We must admit beforehand that the available Experiment Station 
51 
observations on this head have not the extent or exactness which 
we could desire. Only in the case of a few diseases is the bacterial 
nature of the virus demonstrated by indefeasible histological and ex- 
perimental investigation. In others the presence of bacteria has been 
demonstrated in single cases, but their causal relation to the disease 
has not been proved. In many others, neither the one point nor the 
other has hitherto been made out. As the question at present stands 
then, we can only say-that among the infective diseases there are 
certainly some which are due to the invasion of a microphyte, and 
that it is highly probable the others have a like origin. 
The part played by these micrococci (which are not found in every 
case) is by no means certainly determined. Of some we can only say 
that they are frequently or always found in connection with the cor- 
responding disease (small-pox, scarlatina, measles, haemophilia neo- 
natorum). Of others (as in wound-infections) we know, by experi- 
mental investigations, that they are only able to attack the tissues 
when they find in the system poisonous products of tissue-necrosis, 
or of fermentive decomposition set up by bacteria like themselves. 
Of many (such as those found in simple and phlegmonous erysipelas) 
we have every ground for believing that they can develop in the sys- 
tem without any special auxiliary conditions (other than slight trau- 
matic injury).* 
In the above quotation it is peculiarly striking that the names of 
the four diseases, virtually inferred to be due to micrococci, are evils 
of which the prime etiological factors have evaded isolation even down 
to our time. The author was notably unfortunate in his selection of 
examples. A better selection would have been anthrax, tuberculosis, 
glanders and rouget as diseases caused by specific microparasites. 
However, although the etiology of anthrax was well known at the 
time, the work of Koch, Lbffler and Schutz, and Pasteur, respectively, 
on the bacilli of tuberculosis, glanders, and rouget, was not published 
until 1882, and we must expect that text-books on a rapidly develop- 
ing science will be a little out of date before they leave the press. Our 
knowledge of the nature of the infectious diseases two-score years ago 
certainly was in its infancy; it was like a child beginning to prattle 
and take a few steps on its own feet. 
In an important work on the Principles and Practice of Veterinary 
Medicine, published in the same year, the statement is made that 
"sometimes, however, contagious diseases originate spontaneously," 
and it is pointed out that anthrax, rabies and glanders are maladies 
that belong in this category.! 
Though Koch had announced the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, 
and the specific organisms of several other infectious diseases had been 
correctly defined, pathologists of the highest rank continued to talk 
about the microparasitic theory of infectious diseases, and the fact 
* Text Book on Pathological Anatomy and Pathogenesis, by Ernest Ziegler, translated and 
edited for English students by Donald MacAlister, M. A., M. B., London, 1883, pp. 290, 292. 
f Williams, Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine, first American edition. New 
York, 1883, p. 82. 52 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
that such diseases are the product of specifically stable microparasites 
was by no means generally or even commonly accepted by members of 
the medical and veterinary professions. If we bear in mind the enor- 
mously rapid progress our knowledge has made since that time, and 
that the Bureau of Animal Industry not only kept pace with this 
progress but, in many instances, proved itself a great pioneer leader, 
and that the work of the Experiment Station and that of the other 
scientific divisions of the Bureau are so interwoven that the history of 
one can not well be written without that of the others, it will be ap- 
parent at once that a detailed account of the Station's work would fill 
several large volumes. 
In the year 1884 the study of swine diseases was undertaken at the 
Station and it was proved by inoculation tests that swine plague in 
America, and rouget or swine erysipelas in Europe, on which Pasteur 
had published his investigations two years earlier, are separate and 
distinct affections. In 1885 and 1886 the distinction between swine 
plague and hog cholera was made and investigations were undertaken 
regarding the life histories of the larger parasites of domestic animals. 
Investigations were also made on the immunization of hogs against 
swine plague and hog cholera. During the years 1887 and 1888 these 
investigations were continued and the brilliant work of Doctors Theo- 
bald Smith and F. L. Kilborne which solved the mysteries of Texas 
or southern cattle fever was begun. For the first time in history 
it was proved conclusively that the essential etiological factor of an 
infectious disease may be a microparasite that reaches its victims 
only through an intermediate host, and this revealed why a truly in- 
fectious disease may in no respect be contagious. 
The Texas fever investigations of the Bureau; the discovery of the 
microorganism of the disease, an animal and not a vegetable micro- 
parasite; the discovery that this microzoon attacks cattle in nature 
only through the progeny of cattle ticks that have lived on infected 
cattle, and the discovery that infected immune cattle may carry the 
parasite in their blood long periods of time without showing the re- 
motest symptoms of disease, but in a way that leads to the infection 
of the ticks that grow on their bodies and the transmission of the dis- 
ease through the progeny of such ticks to susceptible cattle, may 
reasonably be characterized as epochal in the history of our knowl- 
edge concerning infectious diseases. 
In 1889 hog cholera, swine plague, Texas fever, glanders, tubercu- 
losis, poultry diseases, etc., received consideration at the Station, and Experiment Station 
53 
during the following three or four years much work was done to deter- 
mine the diagnostic value of tuberculin and mallein. 
On the subject of tuberculosis the work from the year 1885 to the 
present time would easily fill a good-sized volume.* It includes stud- 
ies on the mode of infection with tubercle bacilli; the mode of elimina- 
tion; the latency of tubercle bacilli in animal bodies; the source of 
tuberculosis among hogs; the relation between human and animal 
tuberculosis; the treatment of tuberculous subjects with tuberculin 
and other products of the tubercle bacillus; treatment with serum ob- 
tained from animals injected with tubercle bacilli and their products; 
the occurrence of tubercle bacilli in other animals than cattle and 
hogs; the kind of exposure required for the transmission of tubercu- 
losis from diseased to healthy animals; methods of deriving healthy 
from tuberculous herds of cattle; the occurrence, persistence and sig- 
nificance of tubercle bacilli in dairy products; the efficiency of pas- 
teurization to secure protection against tubercle bacilli in such prod- 
ucts; the relation between the location of tuberculous lesions in the 
body and the portal of infection; immunization against tuberculosis; 
the conditions and the subjects on which the perpetuation of the dif- 
ferent types of tubercle bacilli depend; the occurrence of tubercle 
bacilli in the circulating blood; the diagnosis of tuberculosis among 
hogs, cattle and other animals; modes of disinfection against tubercu- 
losis ; the standardization of tuberculin; the supervision of commer- 
cially prepared tuberculin relative to its purity and potency, etc., etc. 
Such diseases as anthrax, blackleg, septicemia, sheep scab, forage 
and botulinus poisoning, and others have not been neglected, to which 
must be added numerous tests of alleged cures for various infectious 
diseases of animals; tests of material suspected to be infected with 
foot-and-mouth disease and other viruses; special investigations re- 
garding unusual outbreaks of disease among animals; tests of nu- 
merous dips and other preparations for the destruction of cattle ticks, 
sheep scab, etc., etc. 
During recent years the two major projects dealt with at the Sta- 
tion have been tuberculosis and infectious abortion disease of cattle,f 
and the study of these evils and various other diseases will be con- 
tinued until their mysteries have been revealed and methods for their 
control and eradication discovered. 
* See "Pathological Division," page 68 ; "Quarantine Division," page 146 ; "Tuberculosis 
Eradication Division," page 350. 
f See "Pathological Division," page 64. 54 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Directors of the B. A. I. Experiment Station: 
Dr. W. H. Rose 1883 to 1885 
Dr. F. L. Kilborne 1885 to 1894 
Superintendent of the Station: 
Dr. E. C. Schroeder ; 1894 to date 
Assistant Superintendent of the Station: 
Dr. W. E. Cotton 1917 to date 
Veterinary Inspectors and Scientific Assistants: 
Dr. W. E. Cotton 1893 to 1917 
Dr. G. W. Brett 1911 to 1919 
Dr. Arthur B. Crawford 1919 to date 
PERSONNEL OF THE B. A. I. EXPERIMENT STATION Pathological Division 
Reports of losses among livestock in various sections of the country 
caused the Commissioner of Agriculture to engage Dr. D. E. Salmon 
on July 1, 1881, to investigate certain diseases that were becoming 
more prevalent and destructive each succeeding year. Most of Dr. 
Salmon's time from the date of his appointment to early in 1883, 
when he was called to Washington to establish a Veterinary Division 
in the Department of Agriculture, was occupied in investigating 
Texas fever in the Southern States. But before the Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry was created he had fitted up a laboratory in Washington 
and had also established an experiment station on the outskirts of 
the city. This laboratory was the beginning not only of the present 
Pathological Division but also of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Dr. Salmon was appointed Chief of the Bureau immediately when 
it was established. As much of the Chief's time was occupied with 
administrative matters, additional help was sought to carry on and 
extend the scientific investigations. It was important that the inves- 
tigation of Texas fever be diligently continued and that a careful 
study be made of hog cholera and also a number of other prevalent 
contagious diseases. 
Dr. Theobald Smith was appointed an inspector in the Bureau, 
effective July 1, 1884, and placed in charge of "Investigations of 
Infectious Animal Diseases." Dr. W. H. Rose was appointed on the 
same date and assigned as Superintendent of the Experiment Station, 
which was intended as a place to conduct experiments in connection 
with the laboratory work. Dr. F. L. Kilborne was added to the force 
on August 15, 1885, and Dr. Cooper Curtice accepted an appointment 
on August 1, 1886. These men were the first selected to assist the 
Chief in developing and extending the Bureau's activities in the field 
of research in pathology, and they, with others who entered the ser- 
vice later, helped to make Bureau history. 
The pathological laboratories and executive office of the Bureau 
were located on the upper floor of the main building of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture at Thirteenth and B Streets Southwest. Dr. 
Salmon was deeply interested in all the work that was being car- 
ried on and spent much time in personally conducting laboratory 
investigations. 
The Annual Report of the Bureau covering its activities for the 
year 1884 shows that considerable progress had been made during 
the first year of its existence in the study of animal diseases. This 
55 56 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
report gives good descriptions by laymen of the symptoms and post- 
mortem lesions of blackleg, but the remedies advised seem very em- 
piric in these days of effective vaccines and filtrates. 
Considerable loss was reported on western ranges during the spring 
months of 1884 from livestock eating poisonous plants. Those who 
reported the losses were very anxious that the species of the injurious 
plants be determined and the name published to assist livestock own- 
ers in taking measures to prevent losses. 
An outbreak of ergotism in Kansas in 1884 caused considerable ex- 
citement among livestock men in the central West, as the disease was 
reported to be foot-and-mouth disease.* The study which the Bureau 
made of ergotism during this outbreak resulted in the valuable addi- 
tion to veterinary literature of a treatise on the growth of ergot and 
the pathological lesions which result from the ingestion by cattle of 
forage contaminated with fungus. 
Texas fever presented many perplexing problems to be solved. 
Some progress had been made in determining the northern boundary 
of the permanently infected area, and an order issued by the Com- 
missioner of Agriculture requiring the isolation of southern cattle in 
separate pens at public stockyards and railroad feeding stations was 
the first step in controlling the spread of Texas fever among northern 
cattle. Outbreaks of glanders were very serious at that time, while 
tuberculosis apparently was attracting very little attention. 
A study of verminous bronchitis of calves and gape disease of 
fowls was begun by the Bureau in 1885. The most serious infectious 
disease which confronted the new Bureau was pleuropneumonia. This 
disease had spread from the original foci of infection in the vicinity 
of New York City to the herds of Connecticut, New York State, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, the District of Columbia 
and, later, it appeared in Missouri, Kentucky and Illinois. The rec- 
ord of the activities of the Bureau in eradicating this disease is given 
in a separate chapter under the heading "Contagious Pleuro- 
pneumonia." 
Extensive experiments were performed with Texas fever of cattle 
in efforts to determine the cause of the disease and to devise addi- 
tional means for controlling its spread to cattle in the North. Dr. 
Smith, in the course of experiments ranging from 1886 to 1891, dis- 
covered and proved that the causative agent of Texas fever is a 
microscopic ^protozoan parasite which attacks the red blood cor- 
puscles. In 1889 Dr. F. L. Kilborne obtained the first evidence by 
♦ See "Field Inspection Division," page 282. Pathological Division 
57 
experiment that the disease was carried from animal to animal by 
cattle ticks, and furthermore, that southern cattle from which the 
ticks had all been removed were quite harmless if placed in contact 
with susceptible northern cattle.* 
It is interesting to note that discoveries made by the Bureau at the 
Experiment Station furnished the first experimental proof that some 
infectious diseases are carried from victim to victim only through the 
activities of an intermediate host of their causative microparasites. 
This mode of spreading protozoan infections has since become quite 
familiar to the public by the discovery that certain species of mos- 
quitoes spread malaria and yellow fever to man and that the tsetse 
fly may transmit to man the infection of sleeping sickness. 
The first outbreak of disease among swine in this country reported 
to be hog cholera occurred in Ohio in 1833. From its original center 
the infection spread until it had become a serious menace by the time 
the Bureau was established. There were many affected herds of 
swine near Washington, and the Bureau inaugurated extensive in- 
vestigations both in the laboratory and in the field, in the endeavor 
to find some means of checking the spread of the disease. At first 
no distinction was recognized between hog cholera and swine plague, 
but by 1886 it was found that two separate diseases existed, although 
both were frequently encountered in a single animal. Tests for the 
prevention of hog cholera were attempted by recovering bacteria 
from the bodies of hogs that had died of cholera, attenuating these 
microorganisms with heat and then using them on susceptible hogs 
for immunizing purposes. This was the first attempt made to im- 
munize animals with killed bacterial cultures. 
The amount of work required of the Bureau laboratory constantly 
increased. Problems connected with investigations of remedies for 
hog cholera and swine plague, derived from biological products, had 
become urgent, and on January 1, 1890, Dr. E. C. Schroeder, who 
had been engaged in the eradication of pleuropneumonia, "was se- 
lected to assist in the investigations that wTere being made. Dr. 
Schroeder served in that capacity until July 1, 1894, when he was 
appointed Superintendent of the Experiment Station of the Bureau. 
On the same day that Dr. Schroeder joined the Bureau forces, Dr. 
E. A. de Schweinitz was engaged as chemist, and he at once began 
a chemical study of bacterial products, of which high hopes were 
entertained by the scientific world. Dr. de Schweinitz was appointed 
Chief of the Biochemic Division on July 1, 189'6. 
* See "Texas Fever," page 15, and "Tick Eradication Division," page 318. 58 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Some attention was given to the laboratory study of parasitic dis- 
eases of livestock in the early days of the Bureau, but investigations 
seem to have been chiefly centered upon pleuropneumonia, swine dis- 
eases, and Texas fever. A careful microscopic survey of pork prod- 
ucts for trichinae was made in Chicago for the Bureau by Dr. H. J. 
Detmers, and numerous samples of pork were examined in Washing- 
ton by Dr. Smith, in addition to which similar inspections were con- 
ducted by Dr. F. S. Billings in Boston, Dr. Deveron in New Orleans, 
Dr. Simpson in Atlanta, and Drs. Osler and Clements in Montreal. 
As a result of these investigations it was found that about 2 per cent 
of the hogs from certain sections were infested with trichinae, while 
the hogs in some States were quite free of these parasites.* 
The work assumed by the new Bureau grew rapidly and soon be- 
came so extensive that it was thought advisable to separate the va- 
rious lines of activity and create divisions to handle the work to bet- 
ter advantage. Therefore, the Division of Quarantine, the Inspec- 
tion Division, the Division of Animal Pathology (later known as the 
Pathological Division), and the Division of Field Investigations and 
Miscellaneous Work were formed on April 1, 1891.t In August of the 
same year the divisions engaged in laboratory work were installed 
in a new building located at 1362 B Street Southwest, where room 
was available for continued expansion. The discoveries made up to 
this time in connection with swine diseases and Texas fever were so 
important and comprehensive as to revolutionize previously accepted 
views in regard to the nature of these diseases. With the more com- 
plete equipment afforded by the new laboratories the work of the 
Division of Animal Pathology was gradually extended to include 
studies of actinomycosis, glanders, rabies and poultry diseases. 
The Annual Report of 1891 contains some of the early drawings 
prepared by Mr. W. S. D. Haines, who has remained with the Bureau 
up to the present time. The favorable attention attracted by publica- 
tions of the Bureau has been partly due to the skillful technique and 
accuracy of their illustrations. 
The charge by the English authorities that some of the steers landed 
in England from American ports were affected with pleuropneumonia 
necessitated a careful study by the Division of Animal Pathology of 
the lesions found in cases of sporadic pneumonia as compared with 
those found in true contagious pleuropneumonia. $ 
On May 15, 1895, Dr. Theobald Smith resigned from the Bureau, 
* See "Meat Inspection," page 27, and "Meat Inspection Division," page 255. 
t See "Organization," page xi. 
J See "Export Trade in Cattle and Meats," page 8. Pathological Division 
59 
and Dr. Veranus A. Moore, who had been laboratory assistant since 
December 22, 1886, was appointed Chief of the Division of Animal 
Pathology. He was assisted by Dr. Charles F. Dawson, who was 
appointed on September 10, 1893, and together they gave attention 
especially to the study of rabies in man and domestic animals, tu- 
berculosis in swine, diseases of poultry, and continued investigations 
regarding the presence of bacteria in milk and dairy products, which 
were begun several years earlier. 
During the decade and more that Dr. Smith was directing the in- 
vestigations of the Division, its work became well organized, the lab- 
oratory workers were established in efficient procedures of investiga- 
tion, and although many discoveries of scientific and economic im- 
portance were made, many perplexing problems continued to face 
the workers of the Division. 
Dr. V. A. Moore resigned as Chief of the Pathological Division on 
September 30, 1896, and was succeeded by Dr. Victor A. Norgaard, 
a native of Denmark, who had been appointed veterinary inspector 
in the Bureau at Chicago on August 1, 1891. Numerous dips and 
preparations were tested in the laboratory and in the field under his 
direction to ascertain their effectiveness in destroying ticks on cattle.* 
In November, 1901, a most unusual outbreak of disease occurred 
among the cattle in a dairy barn in the District of Columbia, from 
the effects of which a number of cows were lost. Investigations 
showed that this enzootic disease was caused by bacilli of the enteri- 
tidis group. 
On December 1, 1901, Dr. Norgaard resigned as Chief of the Patho- 
logical Division and Dr. John R. Mohler, who had been Assistant Chief 
of the Division since June 1, 1900, was appointed Chief. 
The building occupied by laboratories of the Bureau since August, 
1891, was rented. The many advantages to be enjoyed should the 
Government own the buildings in which its workers were employed 
became obvious, and plans were drawn in 1903 for new buildings to 
be located on public lands then occupied by the Department of Agri- 
culture. The completed buildings were accepted in March, 1908, and 
the Pathological Division soon became established in its present com- 
modious rooms, where an abundance of light for microscopic work 
is available from windows on the north side of the building and where 
direct sunlight does not interfere. 
On July 1, 1914, Dr. Archibald R. Ward was appointed Chief of 
the Pathological Division to succeed Dr. Mohler, who was advanced 
* See "Tick Eradication Division," page 318. 60 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
to the position of Assistant Chief of the Bureau. Soon after Dr. 
Ward assumed the direction of the Division, foot-and-mouth disease 
appeared in Michigan and most of the laboratory force was trans- 
ferred to the field to assist in eradicating the outbreak. 
Dr. Ward was succeeded on July 1, 1915, by Dr. Adolph Eichhorn, 
who had been working in the laboratories since his transfer to the 
Pathological Division on May 1, 1906. Dr. Eichhorn held this posi- 
tion until December 31 of the following year, when he resigned, and 
Dr. John S. Buckley became Acting Chief of the Division. On Janu- 
ary 1, 19191, Dr. Buckley was appointed Chief of the Division. He 
entered the service of the Bureau March 1, 1898, and was transferred 
to the Pathological Division on December 1, 1900. 
Glanders* 
In August, 1888, the Commissioners of the District of Columbia 
requested Dr. Salmon to take charge of matters relating to the health 
of horses in the District. After a survey of the situation he sub- 
jected all suspicious horses to the Strauss test for glanders. This was 
the first extensive application by the Bureau of laboratory tests in 
diagnosing glanders. The Strauss method proved of great assistance 
in detecting centers of infection, as results could be obtained more 
quickly and more reliably than by the culture tests previously em- 
ployed. Later Konew's precipitation test began to attract favorable 
attention and from 1908 to 1910 it was employed by the Pathological 
Division as a confirmatory test. In 1910 all previous methods of diag- 
nosing glanders gave way to the complement-fixation test, which is 
more rapid and more reliable than any of the earlier tests. 
While engaged in the eradication of pleuropneumonia the inspect- 
ors of the Bureau discovered an unexpected amount of glanders among 
the horses and mules of the country, and concerted efforts were made 
in cooperation with the States to combat this disease. Centers of in- 
fection were found in widely separated regions, usually in stables that 
housed large numbers of animals under one roof, but occasionally 
farm animals were found infected. Great difficulty was encountered 
generally in securing suitable destruction of the diseased animals. 
The infection of glanders was introduced among the Army horses 
stabled at St. Asaph, Va., during the winter of 1900 and 1901, and 
before the seriousness of the outbreak was fully appreciated the dis- 
ease had spread to many animals. The Pathological Division was 
called upon to verify the diagnosis and to assist in eradicating the 
♦ See "Field Inspection Division," page 299. Pathological Division 
61 
outbreak. In all cases where a decided reaction to mallein had been 
obtained, the diagnosis was confirmed by animal inoculation. 
Study of Milk* 
Shortly after the tuberculin test, in the early nineties, revealed that 
tuberculosis was more common among dairy cows than we previously 
had reason to believe, studies were begun in the Division of Animal 
Pathology to determine the frequency with which virulent tubercle 
bacilli occur in dairy products. These studies afterwards were con- 
tinued, in the form of both independent and cooperative investiga- 
tions, by the Division of Animal Pathology and the Experiment 
Station at Bethesda, Md., and yielded results that have materially 
influenced the methods now in use to protect public health against 
bovine tuberculosis. 
The earlier studies were mainly tests with samples of milk from 
the general commercial supply, and definitely proved that the occur- 
rence of virulent tubercle bacilli in all grades of market milk, from 
the highest to the lowest, was ominously common. Later studies in- 
cluded butter, cheese, cream, etc., and investigations regarding the 
sources of the tubercle bacilli in dairy products, the duration of their 
virulence in different dairy products, the kind of cows that expel tu- 
bercle bacilli in a way that leads to their introduction into milk and 
its products, the types of the bacilli in dairy products, methods 
through which the public health can be protected against tubercle 
bacilli in dairy products, etc. 
A detailed account of the investigations would fill several large 
volumes; therefore, nothing more can be done here than to give a 
brief statement of the more important results obtained. 
It was shown that tubercle bacilli are of common occurrence in the 
milk of tuberculous dairy herds; that the frequency with which milk 
is infected with tubercle bacilli cannot be satisfactorily explained by 
the presence of udder tuberculosis among dairy cows, or the elimina- 
tion of tubercle bacilli from the bodies of tuberculous cows through 
udders to which the disease has not extended; that the commonest 
way for tubercle bacilli to be expelled from the bodies of tuberculous 
cows is through their bowels with their feces; that many apparently 
healthy tuberculous cows, or cows that would not be suspected to be 
subjects of tuberculosis without the aid of the tuberculin test, expel 
tubercle bacilli from their bodies with their feces; that partly digested 
vegetable matter, undoubtedly feces, is not infrequently an impurity 
* See "Experiment Station," page 48. 62 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
in cows' milk; that it is easily possible for tubercle bacilli to enter 
milk with cow feces, even if the milk is obtained from a healthy 
member of a tuberculous dairy herd; that the presence of a single 
unsuspected case of tuberculosis in a dairy herd may lead to the 
periodic contamination of the milk from the herd; that the propor- 
tion of the tubercle bacilli in milk which clings to the cream globules 
is larger than that which sinks with the sediment, no matter whether 
the cream is separated from the milk with $ centrifuge or simply 
permitted to rise to the surface; that upwards of one quarter of the 
samples of the sediment which collects in cream separators of public 
creameries examined is contaminated with tubercle bacilli; that tu- 
bercle bacilli are present in cream, ice cream, butter and cheese made 
from infected milk; that tubercle bacilli in milk remain virulent 
longer than the time required for the milk, through decomposition, 
to become unfit for use as food; that tubercle bacilli in ordinary 
salted and unsalted butter remain alive the better part of six months; 
that tubercle bacilli, in ordinary salted butter, cause tuberculosis in 
hogs that eat the infected butter after it is more than three months 
old, in quantities no greater than the average person consumes; that 
virulent tubercle bacilli may be a source of danger in fresh cheese 
but rarely occur in cured cheese; that bovo-vaccination, or the injec- 
tion of cattle with tubercle bacilli of the human type to protect them 
against tuberculosis of the kind caused by tubercle bacilli of the 
bovine type, is very dangerous, as it too often converts the treated 
animals into unsuspected, apparently healthy disseminators of tuber- 
cle bacilli of the human type; that the tubercle bacilli in dairy prod- 
ucts almost invariably are of the bovine type; that tuberculous lesions 
in the udders of cows may long remain too small to be detected 
through physical examination and yet seriously infect their milk; 
that tuberculosis, through its spread from other parts of the body 
of an apparently healthy tuberculous cow, may very rapidly lead to 
the presence of extensive and superlatively dangerous tuberculous 
lesions in the udder; that pasteurization of milk, using a tempera- 
ture and a period of time insufficient to affect its taste, odor or di- 
gestibility, kills the tubercle bacilli it may contain, and that, under 
existing conditions, no better advice regarding the protection of 
public health against bovine tuberculosis can be given than the 
following: 
All milk should be obtained from dairy herds that have been proved 
free from tuberculosis with the tuberculin test, or should be pasteur- 
ized before it is used as food in any form. Pathological Division 
63 
Regarding definite practical results from these studies, it may be 
well to give one or two examples. Bovo-vaccination, which showed a 
tendency to become a common method for controlling tuberculosis 
among cattle, was found to have so many objectionable and danger- 
ous features that its use has gone wholly out of existence. A number 
of years ago it was found that about 14 per cent of the samples of 
cream cheese on the market was contaminated with virulent bovine 
tubercle bacilli. This evil was at once fought, and the periodic tests 
that are now being made and will be continued in the future show 
that the corrective measures recommended to the producers of cream 
cheese are effective and are regularly being practiced. Ten years ago 
cream cheese, an elegant, palatable, nutritious food, recommended by 
physicians for children and invalids, was found to be more commonly 
contaminated with virulent tubercle bacilli than any other dairy 
product; and now, so far as tubercle bacilli are concerned-and this 
statement is based on hundreds of carefully made tests-there is not 
a safer dairy product on the market. 
What the significance of this work for public health is may be 
judged when we know that recognized authorities like Dr. E. R. Bald- 
win of the Tuberculosis Sanitarium at Saranac Lake, New York, and 
Dr. W. H. Park, the Director of the New York City Research Labora- 
tories, estimate that 10 per cent of the deaths from tuberculosis 
among children are due to bovine tuberculosis, and that such men as 
the English tuberculosis investigators, Cobbett and Griffith, believe 
that the danger to which public health is exposed through the pres- 
ence of tuberculosis among dairy cattle is in excess of rather than be- 
low the general estimates.* To get a clear idea of the harm chargeable 
to bovine tuberculosis, we must add to the deaths it causes among 
children the much larger number of children who suffer attacks which 
interfere with and greatly reduce their health, happiness and effi- 
ciency, and often end in only a partial recovery, or the kind of re- 
covery through which the victim, after the cessation of the actual dis- 
ease, is left permanently more or less crippled. 
During the summer and fall of 1901 cattle owners in many sections 
of the Middle West became alarmed at the appearance in their herds 
of a. disease affecting the mouths and feet of cattle, which bore con- 
siderable similarity to foot-and-mouth disease. The outbreak was 
carefully investigated by Dr. Mohler and found to be mycotic stoma- 
Mycotic Stomatitis 
* See "Tuberculosis Eradication Division," page 366. 64 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
titis, caused by eating grasses upon which certain red and black rusts 
had formed. 
This disease appears in some sections of the country nearly every 
year as a result of climatic conditions. When autumnal rains fall 
in a section that has been badly drouth-stricken during the preceding 
summer months, the troublesome rusts develop quickly, followed by 
disease and the loss of some cattle. In 1903 Dr. U. G. Houck of the 
Bureau was sent to California to investigate a suspected outbreak of 
foot-and-mouth disease, but it proved to be mycotic stomatitis. 
Abortion Disease* 
In 1896 Dr. Bang of Denmark announced his discovery of a bacillus 
which was named Bacillus abortus (later revised to Bacterium abor- 
tum), which was believed to be the causative agent of infectious abor- 
tion of cattle. The Pathological Division began the study of this 
disease in 1900. In the Chief's description of the Division's activities 
for that year may be found the following statements: 
It appears that infectious abortion in cattle is constantly spreading 
among the dairy herds of the United States and numerous oubreaks 
have been reported during the last fiscal year. The disease is caused 
by a specific bacillus, pure cultures of which have been obtained from 
an outbreak among the cattle at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, District of 
Columbia. 
The records of the Division for the years 1900 and 1901, further- 
more, show that a diagnosis of infectious abortion was established in 
numerous instances as a result of the isolation of the abortion organ- 
ism from diseased bovine placental membranes. It may thus be ob- 
served that not only was the seriousness of the malady attracting at- 
tention at this time, but that a sufficient understanding of the cultural 
requirements was available for conducting bacteriological diagnostic 
procedures, and that the Pathological Division was among the early 
investigators of the disease. 
During the year 1910 the symptoms, modes of transmission, agents 
of dissemination, pathogenesis, pathological anatomy, and methods of 
prevention and treatment were studied. More satisfactory methods 
of diagnosis were perfected and utilized as a result of the application 
of the serological tests. As a result of these studies information was 
obtained w'hich has been of value in reaching a better understanding 
of the disease. 
The 1914 Report of the Chief of the Bureau contains a reference to 
immature and hairless pigs, that in the light of our present knowledge 
regarding swine abortion deserves mention. It reads as follows: 
* See "Experiment Station," page 53. Pathological Division 
65 
In March, 1914, a fully developed hairless pig was received from 
Middlebury, Ind., with a history that it was two weeks premature, 
and that other sows on the same farm had also aborted. No further 
information from this source was obtained, although requested. Cul- 
tures made from the liver, stomach contents and kidneys revealed an 
organism resembling Bacillus abortus in cultural and morphological 
characteristics. These cultures when used as antigens in both agglu- 
tination and complement-fixation tests gave the same results with 
two known negative, two known positive, and with unknown bovine 
sera, as were obtained with antigens prepared from B. abortus of 
Bang from bovine origin. 
This statement merits interest because it calls attention to the 
hitherto unrecorded fact that aborted swine fetuses may constitute a 
host for organisms that morphologically, culturally, and serologically 
are identical with Bacterium abortum of Bang. 
During the latter part of 1916, as a result of a special appropria- 
tion by Congress, the Division was enabled to give increased atten- 
tion to the investigation of abortion. Plans were accordingly made 
to study the disease from as many angles as possible and under a 
variety of conditions. An opportunity was presented for the pur- 
chase of a small experimental herd of cattle. Efforts were directed 
toward gaining more information as to how diseased animals eliminate 
the causative organism, how the infection gains entrance into healthy 
subjects, where the infection localizes and propagates in the bodies of 
animals, and how immunizing agents or other methods may be uti- 
lized in preventing and controlling the disease. As a result of the 
experiments conducted with this herd and other studies a somewhat 
clearer conception of the malady was gained. 
Skin Disease in Horses 
For some years horses running upon the ranges of the Umatilla 
Indian Reservation in Oregon suffered from a disease causing an ab- 
normal loss of hair during certain seasons of the year. The condition 
finally became so serious that in 1901 the Pathological Division was 
asked to study this disease with the hope of finding some remedy. 
It was found that the skin affection was due to the presence of a fun- 
gus, Fusarium equinum. Numerous tests led to the selection of a 
mixture of light dynamo oil and sulphur, wThich proved effectual in 
treating the disease. 
Rabies 
Rabies had been more or less prevalent in and around the District 
of Columbia since December, 1892, when the first case was scientif- 
ically diagnosed. The increase of the disease during the year 1899 
led the Pathological Division to devote more time to the study of this 66 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
disease, including the perfecting of methods of staining suspected 
tissues for the purpose of reaching a diagnosis. At first laboratory 
animals were inoculated as a means of determining the presence or 
absence of rabies. In 1900 the microscopic examination of the plexi- 
form nerve ganglion was found by Gehuchten and Nelis of Louvain, 
Belgium, to afford a sufficient basis for a diagnosis. This method of 
examination was used by the Division for about three years, as it was 
more rapid than any method of examination used up to that time. 
The discovery of minute protozoan bodies within the nerve cells of 
rabid animals as indicators of the presence of rabies was made by 
Adelchi Negri of Italy in 1903, which led to a complete change of pro- 
cedure in the work of our laboratory. The microscopic examination 
of the brain tissue of suspected animals, as recommended by Negri, 
shows that rabies is still prevalent in the District of Columbia and 
in most of the States of the Union. 
Rabies vaccines, used to protect exposed animals, have been under 
scientific scrutiny during the past year and have not apparently 
measured up to claims made for them, but the investigations are not 
yet concluded. 
The presence of dourine in this country was first suspected in 1885, 
and was definitely recognized in 1886. In 1892 the Pathological 
Division commenced an investigation. It was found that the initial 
outbreak occurred in Illinois, where it was introduced by an imported 
stallion, and from which point it spread, and horses in several States 
had been destroyed by its attacks. By 1903 the disease had appeared 
in so many States that it was decided to take aggressive steps toward 
its suppression. As this was a new disease in the United States, Dr. 
Mohler, Chief of the Division, was sent to the National Veterinary 
School at Alfort, France, to make a thorough study of dourine and 
the methods of combating it. He brought back to the United States 
a dog that had been infected with the protozobn, Trypanosoma equi- 
perdum, obtained from a horse affected with dourine. After numer- 
ous attempts, artificial growths of the protozobn were obtained, but 
no satisfactory immunizing material was produced from these cul- 
tures, although every procedure that seemed promising for the at- 
tainment of this end was employed. 
So many affected animals were found in South Dakota, Montana, 
New Mexico and Arizona that it became necessary to enlarge the 
equipment of the laboratory in order that diagnoses might be made 
Dourine* 
"See "Field Inspection Division," page 279. Pathological Division 
67 
more promptly of the large numbers of samples of serum that were 
being sent to the Washington laboratory. As the complement-fixation 
test was giving very satisfactory results in testing other diseases, suit- 
able antigens were devised for testing dourine samples by that method. 
The single type of graduated pipette first used in making complement- 
fixation tests for glanders and dourine was very satisfactory, but it 
was too slow for the Bureau's purpose. The ingenuity of the men 
who were testing dourine serum in the pathological laboratory was 
called into play in 1916. A multiple pipette charging 12 tubes at 
once was devised w'hich has proved of great value in hastening the 
tests. As many as 1,200 samples are tested in a single day with this 
equipment. Apparently the disease has been about extirpated from 
horses kept on farms, but it still exists in a few bands that run at 
large under range conditions. 
Malta Fever* 
In 1905 the Department of Agriculture imported a number of 
goats from the Island of Malta for the purpose of obtaining founda- 
tion stock of choice milking strains. The presence of some disease 
was discovered in the goats while they were held in quarantine at the 
port of entry. Samples of diseased tissues were forwarded to the 
Pathological Division, where the presence of the causative agent of 
Malta fever was found. Following the identification of this disease 
all the animals in the importation were destroyed as a means of pre- 
venting the spread of infection to goat stock in this country. 
Surra' 
An importation of Zebu cattle from India arrived at the port of 
New York in 1906. Dr. Mohler requested permission to inspect the 
cattle the day before the quarantine period was to expire. Two of 
the Zebus seemed abnormal and at once aroused his suspicions. Blood 
was drawn from them and injected into rabbits which were procured 
in the vicinity, with the result that surra parasites wyere found. The 
quarantine was continued and a systematic study made of all the ani- 
mals. The cattle that had developed the disease were promptly de- 
stroyed. Each animal of the apparently healthy portion of the herd 
was confined to an individual screened stall; thus they were held in 
a fly-proof stable on Carteret Island at the entrance of New York 
harbor until repeated blood examinations had shown that they were 
free from surra parasites, and until frosts four months later had re- 
* See "Quarantine Division," page 135, and "Animal Husbandry Division," page 244. 68 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
moved all danger of the transfer of virulent blood from animal to 
animal by means of blood-sucking flies. Through the detection of the 
surra parasite in this importation, our livestock industry was saved 
from great damage. An extensive study of surra as it appeared in 
this importation was made in the Pathological Division and much 
was learned of the character of surra and of closely allied diseases. 
Trypanosomes Discovered at a Quarantine Station 
About 130 horses belonging to officers of the Army were held in 
quarantine at Newport News, Va., on August 31, 1919, when they 
returned to this country from overseas service. Complement-fixation 
tests with the blood of these animals revealed the presence of trypano- 
somiasis in one horse. This animal was destroyed and the diagnosis 
was confirmed by post-mortem examination. 
Recently, in 1923, in an importation of camels, trypanosomes of a 
species as yet unidentified were encountered. . These animals orig- 
inated in India, from which country they came only a few months 
before. 
Smelter Fumes 
For some years prior to 1906 stock owners in the vicinity of the 
copper smelters had complained of great losses of animals under con- 
ditions which seemed to indicate slow, insidious poisoning. In the 
fall of 1906 the Pathological Division participated in a study of the 
affected animals. It was found that the stack of a single copper 
smelter in Montana was ejecting from 22 to 30 tons of arsenic every 
twenty-four hours. The effects of the fumes and deposits on vegeta- 
tion could be traced for 12 miles. Many horses, cattle and sheep in the 
affected areas showed the symptoms and lesions of chronic arsenic 
poisoning. Experiments revealed that similar symptoms and lesions 
could be produced by the continued feeding of arsenic. 
Tuberculosis* 
The increasing prevalence of tuberculosis in some of our most valu- 
able dairy herds in the early nineties made a more extended study of 
this disease almost imperative. 
Tuberculin was introduced by Dr. Robert Koch in 1890. Its value 
as a diagnostic agent was studied by Drs. Smith and de Schweinitz 
in 1891-92 with the result that its reliability in the detection of tu- 
berculosis in our country was gradually established and the manu- 
* See "Experiment Station," page 53; "Quarantine Division," page 125 ; "Tuberculosis 
Eradication Division," page 350. Pathological Division 
69 
facture of the product in large quantities was immediately undertaken 
in the laboratories of the Bureau. As a result of other studies Dr. 
Theobald Smith was enabled to announce in 1895 that two varieties of 
tubercle bacilli affect mammals. These were designated the human 
type and the bovine type. 
The question of the effect of bovine tuberculosis upon the health of 
man, through the use of both milk and meat from tuberculous ani- 
mals, and of the danger to man arising from caring for a tuberculous 
herd, as well as the propriety of allowing tuberculous attendants to 
care for healthy animals, also received attention. 
Investigations relative to the immunization of cattle against tubercu- 
losis were made in 19X35-6. Cattle known to be tuberculous were pur- 
chased and treated by various methods with living, attenuated and 
sterilized cultures of tubercle bacilli, in the hope of finding a method 
of treatment which would serve to check the advance of the disease or 
possibly overcome it completely. Cattle that were free from tubercu- 
losis were also purchased and treated in the same manner with a view 
to immunizing them against the infection of this disease. 
A plan was developed in 1906 for eradicating tuberculosis from all 
cattle in the District of Columbia and surrounding territory, and 
the Pathological Division inaugurated the work. The test was ap- 
plied to many herds in Virginia, Maryland and the District of Co- 
lumbia. The Pathological Division continued in charge of the work 
until May 27, 1907, when it was turned over to the Quarantine Divis- 
ion as a regulatory instead of a research activity. 
In connection with the testing of the dairy cows for tuberculosis, 
a careful study was made of milk to determine the effect of certain 
bovine diseases upon the milk supply. Investigations were also made 
at this time to ascertain the length of time that typhoid bacilli would 
remain alive in contaminated milk, and how long tubercle bacilli 
would remain alive when present in butter or cheese/ As a result 
of the work conducted by the Pathological Division and the Experi- 
ment Station, the recommendation was made that no milk from cows 
suffering from anthrax, rabies, gastroenteritis, septic condition or 
showing clinical symptoms of tuberculosis should be used for human 
food even though pasteurized. 
In 1901 Dr. Robert Koch announced that tuberculosis of the bovine 
species presented no material dangers to members of the human fam- 
ily. This claim was not in conformity with the views of most sci- 
entists. Leading laboratories of the world, including the Patholog- 
ical Division, immediately undertook to investigate the matter. The 70 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
final conclusions drawn from several years of research as shown at 
the International Tuberculosis Conference held in Washington in 
September, 1908, were that while bovine tubercle bacilli were seldom 
found in the adult human lung, still fully 9 per cent of the cases of 
tuberculosis in children are caused by tubercle bacilli of the bovine 
type, showing that the presence of bovine tuberculosis is a matter of 
concern to the human family. 
A flock of milk goats was brought from Europe to the United 
States in the summer of 1920. Little is known relative to the condi- 
tions under which they were kept in their native land, whether they 
were closely stabled with tuberculous cattle or not, but after they 
reached their destination it was discovered that several of the ani- 
mals were tuberculous. It seems probable that the goats contracted 
the disease from tuberculous cattle, since the cultures of tubercle 
bacilli that were recovered from lungs of the affected goats corre- 
sponded very closely to the characteristics of the bovine type of 
tubercle bacillus. 
Avian Tuberculosis 
The increasing prevalence of avian tuberculosis was recognized 
by the Pathological Division and during 1908 a systematic study 
of the disease in fowls was inaugurated for the purpose of deter- 
mining its relationship with mammalian tuberculosis, and especially 
with regard to transmissibility to hogs. Among the interesting re- 
sults of the investigation was a demonstration of the ready suscep- 
tibility of hogs to avian tuberculosis through eating carcasses of 
fowls dead of the disease, and the finding of virulent tubercle bacilli 
in eggs from infected hens. 
Foot-Rot in Sheep 
Serious outbreaks of foot-rot in sheep in the Middle West in 1906, 
followed a year or two later by the appearance of lip-and-leg ulcer- 
ation, led to the study of Bacillus necrophorus (later known as 
Actinomyces necrophorus) and its economic importance. This bacil- 
lus was found to be one of the destructive organisms present in cases 
of foot-rot of sheep and cattle, in lip-and-leg ulceration of sheep, in 
necrotic stomatitis of swine, and in calf diphtheria. The Pathologi- 
cal Division devised methods for the control of necrobacillosis in the 
field, and after getting this work firmly established, it was trans- 
ferred to the Field Inspection Division to be continued as a regu- 
latory activity. Pathological Division 
71 
Ophthalmia 
Occasionally in the fall of the year cattle arrive at various public 
stockyards totally blinded because of enlarged eyes showing opaque 
corneas. Bacteriological study of the affected eyes showed the pres- 
ence of diplococci, but all attempts to transmit the disease to other 
cattle failed. Another investigation made in 1917 also was un- 
successful. 
Effects of Feeding Cottonseed Meal 
Laboratory tests demonstrated the presence of pyrophosphoric 
acid in certain cottonseed meals. Feeding experiments demonstrated 
that when this salt was fed in even less amounts than were found 
is one pound of the meal it would, if fed daily, induce symptoms in 
pigs closely resembling those observed after feeding cottonseed meal 
ground from the seeds of certain varieties of cotton plants. It was 
also found that certain varieties of cottonseed are practically non- 
toxic unless heated. 
In 1902 foot-and-mouth disease made its appearance in eastern 
Massachusetts, and again in 1908 it suddenly developed in cattle 
shipped to the Buffalo yards from Michigan. It was noted that both 
of these outbreaks originated near farms where calves were kept 
which had been used in the cultivation of smallpox vaccine. Dr. 
Mohler succeeded in getting some of the imported seed virus that 
had been used by the vaccine laboratories during 1908 on the calves 
w'hich carried the disease from the laboratories to the farms where 
they were sent. In cooperation with the Hygienic Laboratory of the 
U. S. Public Health Service, he tested the virus on susceptible calves 
and sheep, with the result that typical cases of foot-and-mouth 
disease were produced. This made it evident that the 1908 outbreak 
of foot-and-mouth disease in this country was introduced through 
contaminated imported vaccine, and the outbreak of 1902 probably 
had a similar origin. This Division also took a prominent part in 
confirming the diagnosis and in outlining the methods of procedure 
in combating the foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks of 1902, 1908 
and 1914-15. 
Foot-and-Mouth Disease* 
Bighead of Sheep 
A disease of sheep known as bighead took heavy toll from the 
flocks on the ranges of Idaho, Utah and Wyoming for many years. 
Many theories had been advanced as to the cause of these losses, 
* See "Field Inspection Division," page 280, and "Expert Trade in Cattle and Meats," 
page 8. 72 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
such as drinking alkali water, breathing gases emanating from 
cracks in the ground, or drinking water from melting snow. The 
investigation of this disease in 1910 resulted in the collection of 
important information which seems to point to the ingestion of 
certain species of plants present on the range combined with certain 
atmospheric conditions as the probable cause of the disease. 
Forage Poisoning 
A number of other investigations of importance to the farming 
public have been made by the Pathological Division, among which 
may be mentioned the study of forage poisoning in horses. The 
theory of the relationship of botulinus poisoning as a possible factor 
in, the etiology of the disease was developed during the investigation 
of this disease. During 1912 and 1913 the losses of horses from 
forage poisoning were extremely heavy. Kansas and Nebraska were 
the principal sufferers, although the trouble was prevalent in 
Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, Oklahoma and Oregon. 
While the active agent in the development of the disease is not yet 
definitely known, it is evidently conveyed to the animal by means of 
feed or water, since the spread of the infection is usually promptly 
checked by complete change of pasture. 
Hemorrhagic Septicemia 
Various outbreaks of hemorrhagic septicemia have been inves- 
tigated by the Pathological Division. The organism has been iden- 
tified in cattle, hogs, sheep, goats, buffaloes, horses, rabbits and 
fowls. Bacilli from all these various species of animals have been 
recovered and grown upon artificial media for many years in our 
laboratory. 
In December, 1911, a request was received from the Director of 
the National Park Service, through Dr. E. J. Cary of the Bureau 
of Animal Industry, that an investigation be made into the losses of 
buffaloes in the Yellowstone National Park. It was stated that 22 
buffaloes had died in two weeks. Tissues were forwarded to the 
Pathological Division, and from them the bipolar organism causing 
hemorrhagic septicemia was isolated. A vaccine was prepared with 
which the entire herd was vaccinated once a year during the years 
that have ensued, and by this means the disease apparently has been 
controlled. 
Extensive investigations were made during the past year on the 
question of the cause of a souring of hams, the results of which Pathological Division 
73 
indicated that the packing-house manipulations were at fault, rather 
than a diseased condition of the meat as had been suggested. 
Chronic Bacterial Dysentery 
In 1908 the attention of the Bureau was directed toward a heifer at 
the quarantine station at Athenia, N. J., that was gradually growing 
thinner and weaker in spite of the best of care and feed. Dr. Mohler 
was called to Athenia to make an investigation, and it was soon 
learned that the animal was suffering from an attack of chronic bac- 
terial dysentery. This was one of the early recorded cases in which 
the presence of this disease in the United States was definitely proved 
by the usual clinical and bacteriological examinations. 
Control of Biological Products* 
A law was passed by Congress on March 4, 1913, regulating the 
manufacture, sale and shipment of viruses, serums, toxins and 
analogous products used in the treatment of domestic animals. This 
law became effective on July 1, 1913, and the Bureau of Animal 
Industry was charged with its administration. A portion of the 
work indicated by the law was assigned to the Pathological Di- 
vision, including the examination of stock cultures used by com- 
mercial establishments in the preparation of biological products, and 
the inspection of samples of the finished products, to insure their 
potency and freedom from contamination. During the first year 
the law was in effect the Pathological Division rejected 2,813,003 
cubic centimeters of commercial biological products, as worthless or 
contaminated. 
An extensive investigation of the effectiveness of the ophthalmic 
mallein test for the diagnosis of glanders was made in the year 1914. 
Practicing veterinarians, State and municipal officials throughout 
the country cooperated with the Bureau in conducting this test. 
Ophthalmic mallein was furnished gratis to reliable veterinarians 
who desired to make a careful study of the ophthalmic test to deter- 
mine its reliability. A large majority of those who used this test 
seemed to prefer it to the subcutaneous application of mallein. 
Numerous letters were received during the year 1921 calling at- 
tention to rat viruses on the market, represented to be sure extermi- 
nators of rats. Samples of these viruses were obtained and sub- 
jected to careful tests with the result that most of them were found 
to be absolutely worthless as rat destroyers. 
* See "Division of Virus-Serum Control," page 342. 74 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Blackleg and Anthrax 
Early in 189'7 the Pathological Division began the manufacture 
and free distribution of a vaccine for immunizing susceptible cattle 
against blackleg. This undertaking grew rapidly until in 1917, 
when more than six million doses were being supplied yearly to 
cattle raisers. The use of this vaccine brought marked relief to the 
cattlemen who had become greatly discouraged owing to the heavy 
losses they had sustained. The preparation and distribution of the 
vaccine was discontinued June 30, 1922, by Act of Congress. 
Anthrax vaccines on the market in 1913 and for some time prior 
were proving unsatisfactory in many cases. An investigation by the 
Pathological Division revealed that the vaccines then in use fre- 
quently lost potency if stored for several weeks before being used. 
Experiments were made in the hope of finding a way of correcting 
this fault, and finally the spore vaccine used by Sclavo of Italy was 
substituted for the bacterial vaccine then in general use. It was 
learned that the spore vaccine would retain its original potency 
longer than other forms of cultural vaccine, although it could not be 
relied on indefinitely. Serum derived from the blood of hyperim- 
munized horses was used with the spore vaccine for protective pur- 
poses, but it seemed also to possess some value as a cure. 
Caseous Lymphadenitis of Sheep 
In 1899 an investigation was made of a disease of sheep which, on 
post-mortem examination, were found to be affected with enlarged 
caseous lymph glands. It was first reported from southern California 
in 1897, soon after meat inspection was established there. As a result 
of this study it was determined that the disease was caused by an 
organism called Bacillus pseudo-tuberculosis of Preisz. The disease 
prevails in certain districts of the United States, but owing to its 
benign nature and very chronic course, its presence is seldom noted 
except on post-mortem examination of the affected animals. All classes 
of sheep are equally susceptible, but fatal cases are rarely known. In 
some instances the lungs may be studded with caseous nodules, pro- 
ducing a condition which may be mistaken for tuberculosis. The liver 
and spleen and in rare instances the kidneys may also contain one or 
more of the characteristic nodular lesions. 
Diseases of Birds and Poultry 
Much valuable work on the diseases of birds and fowls has been 
accomplished in the Pathological Division. Various diseases of birds, Pathological Division 
75 
known to exist in other countries, were recognized here as a result of 
laboratory investigation, and several new diseases were discovered. 
More effective means of combating outbreaks of disease have been 
devised, and publications having for their object the dissemination 
of information to veterinary practitioners, poultry owners, and those 
engaged in avian disease investigations have been issued. 
It was reported to the Bureau in the fall of 1893 that infectious 
enterohepatitis (blackhead) was destroying many turkeys in New 
England. In some sections the disease had become so prevalent and 
destructive that turkey raising was being discontinued. Dr. Smith 
began an investigation of the disease that led to the discovery by 
him in 1894 of a minute parasite in the internal organs of the affected 
turkeys which he demonstrated to be the cause of the disease, and 
named it Amoeba meleagridis. 
In 1895 a description was given of a disease of fowls which no doubt 
had been frequently mistaken for cholera. The disease was called in- 
fectious leukemia and its causative microorganism Bacterium san- 
guinarium. This disease is now known as fowl typhoid and is one of 
our most common poultry diseases. 
From the time the Bureau was established it has been interested 
in the welfare of the animals, birds and reptiles exhibited at the 
National Zoological Park. Fatalities are reported regularly to the 
Bureau and postmortems are conducted by some representative of 
the Pathological Division. Thus, in connection with rendering as- 
sistance in maintaining the health of these animals in the Pari? 
an unusual opportunity is presented for the study of diseases having 
a wide range of characteristics. 
Early in 1901 a highly fatal disease of chickens was investigated by 
the Division and was found to be caused by a nonpyogenic strepto- 
coccus. Methods were developed for immunizing susceptible birds. 
The disease, not having previously been described, was given the name 
apoplectiform septicemia. It was later observed affecting chickens in 
Sweden and the results above mentioned were confirmed. 
Bacillary white diarrhea of baby chicks is one of the most de- 
structive diseases of poultry. Since its primary source is the in- 
fected hen, and the causative microorganism, Bacterium pullorum, 
is transmitted through the egg, the principal problem in its control 
is the detection and elimination of the adult carriers. During 1916 
an intradermal test for application in the field was developed and 
found to compare favorably with the laboratory serum test. 
Coccidiosis is another disease which causes heavy losses of chicks 76 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
between three and eight weeks old. This disease was investigated by 
the Pathological Division during the year 1907 and found to be 
caused by a protozoan organism named Eimeria avium. 
Extensive experiments for the purpose of establishing an immu- 
nity in fowls against fowl cholera were conducted during 1915 and 
1916. It was found that bacterins did not serve as immunizing 
agents, but that a marked resistance against the disease could be 
induced by the injection of a living culture of a non-virulent strain 
of the fowl cholera organism. 
A highly contagious and rapidly fatal disease of quail, designated 
"quail disease," was first studied by the Bureau during the year 
1906. The colon bacillus was found associated with the lesions, as 
had been shown by Klein in England. This disease has proved very 
destructive among the quail captured in Mexico and shipped to the 
United States for stocking game preserves. A further study of this 
disease in birds of Mexican origin in the spring of 1920 disclosed the 
fact that a eoccidium is a causative agent in the production of the 
disease. It was found that recovered quail remain carriers of the 
organism and that fowls are not susceptible to this species of 
coccidium. 
During January of 1916, an investigation of a disease among 
imported quail resulted in the discovery that these birds are sus- 
ceptible to bird pox, and experiments disclosed that the disease could 
be transmitted from quail to chickens. 
Considerable variation in tolerance to drugs of a toxic nature ex- 
ists in animals of different species. While these variations have been 
pointed out in the case of mammalian species, little information is 
found in literature on the toxicity to the avian class of drugs or 
poisonous substances which may be of value in the treatment or 
control of bird diseases. During 1918 experiments were carried out 
for the purpose of determining the toxic and lethal doses for fowls 
of 27 of the more commonly used medicinal agents, and of poisonous 
substances to which fowls not infrequently have access. 
Takosis of Goats 
Considerable interest developed in dairy sections in goat raising in 
1901 and 1902, and many goats were shipped from southern localities, 
where they were numerous, to more northern sections. After such 
transportation a destructive disease appeared in many instances, and 
extensive investigation was at once begun to determine the nature of 
the disease. The lungs and digestive organs of the goats were affected, Pathological Division 
77 
causing a steady wasting of the diseased animal, hence the name 
takosis was applied to the disease. The losses were caused by a small 
coccus which spread rapidly into the various tissues of the goat. To 
this destructive organism the name Micrococcus caprinus was given. 
Measures for checking the spread of takosis among goats were devised. 
Milk Fever 
For many years dairymen whose herds were composed of heavy- 
milking cows had suffered serious losses from milk fever. In 1904 
great relief from this scourge was given by the discovery in Europe 
that distention of the udder of the affected cow with oxygen or sterile 
air would give relief, and in many instances would save the life of the 
animal. Studies carried on by the Division at this time proved that 
the injection of filtered atmospheric air w'as very effective in curing 
the trouble and an apparatus was perfected for its administration. 
Amebic Dysentery in Monkeys 
In 1916 a study was made of an outbreak of a fatal disease among 
the monkeys at the National Zoological Park. The disease occurred 
among a group of spider monkeys. Eight of the nine which became 
affected died of dysentery. Protozoan organisms having the general 
structure and characteristics of the ameba generally considered the 
causative agent of human "tropical dysentery" were isolated from 
the diseased animals. 
Coccidioidal Granuloma 
An infection of cattle known as coccidioidal granuloma wras ob- 
served and studied in 1918. Natural infection of the bronchial and 
mediastinal lymph glands was determined, and the causative parasite 
recovered. 
Swamp Fever 
A destructive disease known as swamp fever, typhoid of horses, and 
infectious anemia, appeared among horses in several Western States 
that were kept in low-lying sections and was called to our attention in 
1906, when the Division began an investigation. Many valuable facts 
were learned regarding the disease, especially in regard to its trans- 
mission from horse to horse. By making use of these facts horses 
could be saved from contracting the infection, although no satisfac- 
tory remedy has been discovered for curing cases that are once 
established. 78 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Vesicular Stomatitis 
In November, 1916, a shipment of 130 head of cattle from Wauneta, 
Nebr., was held at the Kansas City stockyards because 57 of the 
animals showed symptoms and lesions suspicious of foot-and-mouth 
disease. Immediately the Bureau began a series of experiments which 
established the diagnosis of vesicular stomatitis. Among the subjects 
that received consideration during the study of this outbreak was the 
nature of the causative organism, its virulence, resistance and trans- 
missibility, and immunization and the effects on the virus of its pas- 
sage through a series of calves. It was developed in the study of 
vesicular stomatitis in this country that in any future outbreaks of 
disease bearing a resemblance to foot-and-mouth disease horses should 
be inoculated with suspected material. The outbreak of 1916 was the 
first outbreak of vesicular stomatitis in the United States brought to 
the attention of the Bureau, and its work on this outbreak was the 
first, so far as is known, that was done in the United States. 
Butter Color Toxicity 
In 19'18 the Pathological Division cooperated with the Bureau of 
Chemistry in an investigation of the toxicity of various butter- 
coloring preparations that were on the market for sale to the public. 
Several of the colors then in use were found to possess irritant 
properties when applied to the skin and mucous membranes of test 
animals, but most of the colors proved to be harmless. 
Botulism 
During the year 1920, several opportunities were presented for 
the Pathological Division to cooperate with the Bureau of Chem- 
istry in a study of Clostridium botulinum (formerly known as 
Bacillus botulinus') obtained from cans of spoiled olives, spinach and 
corn. Cultures of the organism from these sources were found to 
be extremely poisonous for test animals, 0.0001 cubic centimeter 
proving fatal to guinea-pigs. The growth of C. botulinum in canned 
vegetables is accompanied by the production of gas, as well as the 
formation of its specific toxin. Antitoxin for both types of C. 
botulinum were prepared and considerable quantities of the product 
have been sent to other laboratories for experimental use. In several 
instances this antitoxin was supplied for use in treating human and 
equine cases of botulism. 
Swine Erysipelas 
The appearance of swine erysipelas in the United States has not 
been marked by any serious outbreaks resulting in large numbers Pathological Division 
79 
of fatalities, as have been known to occur in European countries 
where the disease is prevalent. In fact the presence of this disease 
in the United States was not positively demonstrated until 1920 
when Dr. Creech, of the Pathological Division, in a number of cases 
isolated an organism from urticarial lesions of swine, or the so-called 
"diamond skin disease," which possessed all the characteristics, cul- 
turally, serologically and in its pathogenicity for experimental 
animals, of Erysipelothrix porci (formerly Bacillus erysipelatis 
Suis'). As a result of his findings the conclusion was reached that 
"diamond skin disease," which has long been known to exist in this 
country, is caused by E. porci and should therefore be classed as a 
chronic form of swine erysipelas. More recently a few isolated cases 
of the disease in the acute form have been observed in this country. 
Poisonous Plant Investigations 
The investigations of poisonous plants and their effects seem to 
have been started in the United States Department of Agriculture 
with the appointment in 1894 of Mr. V. K. Chesnut as assistant 
botanist in charge of poisonous-plant investigations. The work to be 
conducted by Mr. Chesnut was assigned to the Division of Botany 
(afterwards made a part of the Bureau of Plant Industry). The 
first laboratory space assigned to poisonous plant investigations was 
in the Bureau of Animal Industry under Dr. de Schweinitz; later, 
laboratory space was occupied in the Bureau of Chemistry, and still 
later, laboratory and office space was assigned for this work in the 
Thirteenth Street building. During the time in which Mr. Chesnut 
was connected with the poisonous-plant work, Dr. Reid Hunt car- 
ried on some pharmacological studies, particularly on death camas, 
doing the chemical work in the Bureau of Chemistry, while the 
pharmacological work was done in Johns Hopkins University. Dr. 
Hunt probably did the first pharmacological work which was under- 
taken in the Department of Agriculture. Dr. Torald Sollmann, who 
also participated in the poisonous-plant investigations, made a 
special study of the lupines. His laboratory work was done in 
Western Reserve University. 
In the late summer and fall of 1903 Dr. H. T. Marshall was em- 
ployed by Mr. Chesnut to make a special investigation of the loco 
problem in Montana. During Mr. Chesnut's connection with this 
work a considerable number of valuable papers were published, the 
most important being Bulletin No. 26, entitled "The Stock Poisoning 
Plants of Montana," by V. K. Chesnut and E. V. Wilcox. Mr. 80 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Chesnut organized in a detailed way an administrative office, and 
amongst other things left a most valuable card index of poisonous 
plants. He continued in charge from 1894 to 1904, and after his 
separation from the Department he continued for a year or more to 
serve as a collaborator. 
After Mr. Chesnut left the Department of Agriculture, the in- 
vestigation of poisonous plants was assigned to Dr. Rodney H. True, 
whose title at that time was physiologist in charge of drug plant, 
poisonous plant and tea investigations. During the summer of 
1904, under Dr. True's direction, and with the cooperative assist- 
ance of Mr. Chesnut, Dr. H. T. Marshall carried on a series of field 
experiments with loco plants in Montana. The results of these loco 
experiments were not published by the Department, but appeared 
some years later in a bulletin published by the University of 
Virginia. 
In 1905 Dr. C. D. Marsh was engaged by Dr. True as an expert to 
begin a series of field investigations of loco poisoning. Dr. Marsh 
later received the title of physiologist in charge of poisonous-plant 
investigations, and has continued in that work up to the present 
time. The loco investigations which were begun by Dr. Marsh were 
initiated largely through the efforts of certain citizens of Hugo, 
Colo., especially Judge C. M. Miles and Mr. J. J. Keppel. A house 
and land suitable for pastures were obtained at Hugo, Colo., where 
the work was carried on for four years. This work was conducted 
in cooperation with the Agricultural Experiment Station of Colo- 
rado, the Experiment Station furnishing the first lot of animals that 
was used for experimental purposes. 
During the time the station was located at Hugo a subsidiary 
station was operated at Woodland Park, at the base of Pike's Peak. 
Another station was located at Imperial, Nebr., with the cooperative 
assistance of the Experiment Station of Nebraska. 
After the closing of the Hugo station in 1908, another station was 
established in 1909 on the Gunnison National Forest Reserve in 
Colorado, for the special purpose of studying the problem of lark- 
spur poisoning. This station was furnished by the Forest Service 
through a cooperative agreement, and investigations were conducted 
there for three successive summers. In addition to other assistance, 
a botanist had been engaged for this work during the occupation of 
the Hugo station. During the period of occupation of the Gunnison 
National Forest station, two botanists were connected with the 
force. For some years the Forest Service assumed the salary of one Pathological Division 
81 
botanist, as well as the expense of providing an experiment station. 
At the conclusion of the work on the Gunnison National Forest 
Reserve, a station was established in 1912 near Greycliff, Mont., for 
the special study of poisonous-plant problems in the Yellowstone 
Valley. This station, too, was provided by the Forest Service, and 
was occupied for three successive summers. 
In 1915 an experiment station was established on the Fishlake 
National Forest at Salina, Utah. This station also was provided by 
the Forest Service through a cooperative arrangement. The preced- 
ing stations had many inconveniences, as they were regarded as 
temporary. The new Salina Experiment Station was somewhat more 
elaborate than any of the previous stations, as three houses, a barn 
and extensive corrals were built, and the large pastures were fenced. 
Since 1915 the experimental work in the investigation of poison- 
ous plants has been carried on by the Pathological Division of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry. The force engaged in this work has 
been gradually enlarged until at the present time, in addition to the 
general experiments to ascertain the effect of poisonous plants on 
animals, attention is also given to a study of the chemical and patho- 
logical properties of these plants. 
Many improvements have been added in the conduct of the work 
of the station, so that it is now run as a fairly complete animal 
hospital. A careful record is kept of the symptoms exhibited by 
poisoned animals, of the results of a study of the poisonous prin- 
ciples of the plants, of the habits and distribution of the plants, and 
of measures which can be taken to reduce the extremely heavy losses 
of range animals. Most of the investigations have been confined to 
the ■western United States because of the extremely heavy losses of 
animals on the range. Some work, however, has been done on poison- 
ous plants found in the East. 
The poisonous-plant investigations have been conducted in coop- 
eration with other agencies. Formal cooperative assistance has been 
received from the State Experiment Stations of Colorado and Ne- 
braska. The railroads of the "West have in many ways rendered 
most important assistance. The Forest Service has cooperated in 
material ways, and the Bureau of Plant Industry has given great 
assistance by furnishing a botanist for the force. Assistance has 
been received at various times also from the Bureau of Chemistry, 
although there has been no formal cooperation from that Bureau. 
While the project was under the direction of Dr. True, Dr. A. C. 
Crawford was engaged for the chemical and pharmacological work 82 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
and remained in the Bureau of Plant Industry until 1908. He was 
then transferred to the Pathological Division of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, where for two years he was engaged in the study 
of loco weeds, mistletoe and cottonseed. Later in the year Dr. C. L. 
Alsberg took Dr. Crawford's place in the Bureau of Plant Industry 
and devoted part of his time to chemical and pharmacological work 
on poisonous plants. When Dr. Alsberg became Chief of the Bureau 
of Chemistry in 1912, Mr. 0. F. Black continued the chemical work 
until the Bureau of Animal Industry took up the poisonous-plant 
investigations. 
While the work was being carried on at Hugo, Colo., in addition 
to other temporary assistants, Mr. A. B. Clawson became a perma- 
nent member of the force. He has had immediate charge of much of 
the experimental work and is now the pathologist of the office. 
Some of the heaviest losses among range animals are due to 
poisonous plants. It has been estimated that in Colorado alone the 
annual loss from this cause is $1,000,000. The annual loss of sheep 
in Wyoming is also very great. A few years ago the plants causing 
these losses were not known, but research in the field and in labora- 
tories has revealed a number of them. Measures have been taken to 
protect the stock by advising the owners of animals of the varieties 
of plants which are poisonous, their location, habits, etc. The losses 
from poisonous plants, through this information, are being rapidly 
reduced. 
Colloidal Gold Test 
During the year 1922 the colloidal gold test was applied to the 
spinal fluids of a number of animals which had died of various dis- 
eases. Particular attention was paid to dourine because of its 
analogy to syphilis, which responds to the colloidal gold test. 
The Schick test was applied to horses during the year 1922 to 
demonstrate the presence of diphtheria antitoxin. It was found that 
serum from certain normal horses in quantities of 1 cubic centimeter 
would neutralize several minimum lethal doses of diphtheria toxin 
for guinea-pigs. This protection was demonstrated by the applica- 
tion of the Schick test to be due to the presence of diphtheria 
antitoxin. 
The Pathological Division has been in existence for thirty years, 
every day of which has been employed in the betterment of con- 
ditions of the livestock of the United States. It has been and still is 
Conclusion Pathological Division 
83 
used as a court of last resort by veterinarians and State officials in 
the diagnosis of obscure diseases of animals, by which means ma- 
terial aid has been given in quickly checking dangerous diseases of 
animals. Many outbreaks of anthrax, rabies, blackleg, etc., have 
thus been "nipped in the bud." 
The workers of the Bureau of Animal Industry have been ex- 
ceedingly modest in seeking public acclaim, but on numerous 
occasions results of their research have been used to excellent 
advantage in various Government activities not of the character 
of research. For instance, the discovery by Dr. Mohler of surra in 
an importation of Zebu cattle kept this disease out of the country. 
The detection of Malta fever in a shipment of goats from Europe 
doubtless saved goat herds of this country from becoming infected. 
The results obtained from the investigations in the laboratories has 
nroved of great assistance to practicing veterinarians of the 
country, who freely consult the research laboratories. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
1884. Bureau established, May 29. 
Dr. Theobald Smith appointed, July 1. 
Ergotism in Kansas studied. 
Glanders outbreak investigated. 
Parasitic bronchitis of calves studied. 
Trichiniasis in American hogs determined. 
1885. Gapes in chickens studied. 
1886. First inoculation with hog-cholera virus for prevention of disease. 
Hog cholera and swine plague proved separate diseases. 
1887. Examination of cholera hogs from various points shows presence 
of constant bacteria. 
1888. Dr. Salmon given charge of D. C. horses for eradication of glanders. 
Strauss method of diagnosis of glanders used. 
First attenuation of hog-cholera germs by heat. 
1889. Inoculation of hogs for the prevention of hog cholera. 
Noticeable spread of tuberculosis observed. 
Piroplasma bigeminum discovered as the cause of Texas fever. 
Agency of ticks in the transmission of Texas fever discovered. 
1890. Tuberculin introduced by Dr. Robert Koch. 
Mallein discovered in Russia by Helman and Kalning. 
1891. Division of Animal Pathology (afterwards Pathological Division) 
established, April 1. 
Dourine discovered in Nebraska. 
W. S. D. Haines's drawings first appear in Annual Report. 
Mallein investigated as to effectiveness and reliability. 
Tuberculin studied by Smith and De Schweinitz. 
1892. First case of rabies in the District of Columbia scientifically 
proved. 84 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
1893. Slaughter of horses affected with dourine in Nebraska and South 
Dakota. 
Blackhead in turkeys investigated by Dr. Theobald Smith. 
Active study of tuberculosis begun. 
1894. Study of infectious leukemia begun. 
1895. Dr. Theobald Smith announces difference between human and 
bovine tubercle bacilli. 
Various forms of pneumonia described. 
1897. Free distribution of blackleg vaccine begun. 
1898. Bacteriological study of milk begun. 
Experiments with cattle dips for killing ticks. 
1900. Plexiform ganglion used in the diagnosis of rabies. 
Bacillus of infectious abortion isolated from cows in D. C. 
1901. Mycotic stomatitis of cattle investigated. 
Dermal mycosis of horses studied. 
Tests made on army horses at St. Asaph for glanders. 
1902. Foot-and-mouth disease occurs in New England. 
Enteritidis affects cattle at St. Elizabeth's Hospital. 
Infectiveness of milk from tuberculous cattle studied. 
Study made of takosis in goats. 
1903. "Negri bodies" in rabies discovered by Negri of Italy, and the 
demonstration of these bodies has been used as a rapid diag- 
nostic procedure in this laboratory since then. 
1904. Foot rot of sheep and Bacillus necrophorus (Actinomyces ne- 
crophorus) studied. 
Dourine studied at Alfort, France. 
1905. Malta goats imported. 
Successful artificial growing of protozoa in Pathological laboratory. 
Bee parasites determined. 
1906. Zebu cattle imported. 
Experiments in immunization against tuberculosis. 
Study of tuberculosis in hogs. 
Experimental feeding of cottonseed. 
Tuberculin testing of D. C. cattle begun. 
Quail disease investigated. 
Eradication of tuberculosis from D. C. cattle begun. 
1907. Effect of cattle diseases upon milk supply studied. 
White diarrhea of incubator chicks studied. 
1908. Moved to permanent laboratory in East Wing. 
Effects of smelter fumes investigated. 
Foot-and-mouth disease discovered at Buffalo. 
Konew's method of diagnosing glanders adopted. 
Transfer of avian tuberculosis to mammals. 
Length of life of typhoid bacilli in milk studied. 
1909. Infectious ophthalmia of cattle investigated. 
Viability of tubercle bacilli in butter and cheese studied. 
1910. Cottonseed meal studied. 
Complement-fixation adopted for the diagnosis of glanders. 
Bighead of sheep studied. 
Chronic bacterial dysentery of cattle investigated. 
1911. Ringworm of sheep studied. 
Hemorrhagic septicemia in buffaloes at Yellowstone Park. Pathological Division 
85 
1912. Investigation of Malta fever in Texas. 
Forage poisoning in Kansas and Nebraska. 
Systematic study of abortion disease begun. 
Botulism of horses studied in an experimental way. 
1913. Federal control of viruses and serums begun. 
1914. Foot-and-mouth disease appears in Michigan and other States. 
Reliability of ophthalmic test for glanders studied. 
Hairless pigs investigated. 
1915. Investigation of plant poisoning of stock transferred to the 
Division. 
Experiments in anthrax vaccination made. 
1916. Investigation of various treatments for anthrax. 
Observations made on amebic dysentery in monkeys. 
Chicken pox discovered in quail. 
New method of diagnosis for presence of Bacterium pullorum. 
Immunity tests in fowl cholera. 
Multiple pipette devised. 
1917. More than 6,000,000 doses blackleg vaccine distributed. 
Investigation of anthrax germs in tannery refuse. 
1918. Examination of a disease of the eyes of cattle. 
Improvement of methods in complement-fixation test for dourine. 
Experiments in avian toxicology. 
Coccidioidal granuloma in cattle studied. 
1919. Experiments made with butter colors. 
Army horses tested on return from World War. 
1920. Study made of botulism. 
Tuberculosis occurs in a flock of goats. 
Study made of swine erysipelas. 
Natural transmission of quail disease investigated. 
1921. Softened, cured hams investigated. 
Various rat viruses examined. 
1922. Colloidal gold test of dourine samples investigated. 
Schick test applied to horses for detection of antidiphtheria toxin. 
Botulinus antitoxin prepared. 
1923. Studies of rabies immunization method made. 
Detection of tryDanosomes in blood of imported camels. 
Studies made of ham souring. 
PERSONNEL OF THE PATHOLOGICAL DIVISON 
Chiefs of Division: 
Dr. Theobald Smith, from July 1, 1884, to May 15, 1895. 
Dr. Veranus A. Moore, from May 15, 1895, to Sept. 30, 1896. 
Dr. Victor A. Norgaard, from November 1, 1896, to December 1, 1901. 
Dr. John R. Mohler, from December 1, 1901, to July 1, 1914. 
Dr. Archibald R. Ward, from July 1, 1914, to July 1, 1915. 
Dr. Adolph Eichhorn, from July 1, 1915, to December 31, 1916. 
Dr. John S. Buckley, from January 1, 1919, to date. 
Acting Chief of Division: 
Dr. John S. Buckley, from January 1, 1917, to January 1, 1919. 
Assistant Chief of Division: 
Dr. Henry J. Washburn, from February 1, 1907, to January 16, 1909. 86 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Acting Assistant Chiefs: 
Dr. Charles F. Dawson, from May 15, 1895, to March 1, 1900. 
Dr. John R. Mohler,, from March 1, 1900, to December 1, 1901. 
Dr. Henry J. Washburn, from December 1, 1901, to February 1, 
1907, and from January 16, 1909, to July 1, 1915. 
Dr. John S. Buckley, from July 1, 1915, to December 31, 1916. 
Dr. Henry J. Washburn, from January 1, 1917, to date. Zoological Division 
General Review 
The Zoological Division was apparently first recognized as a dis- 
tinct entity in 1891, when Dr. Charles Wardell Stiles was appointed 
as Assistant in the Division of Animal Pathology June 3, 1891, and 
placed in charge of the branch known as the Zoological Laboratory. 
Before the establishment of the Zoological Laboratory, however, 
Dr. Cooper Curtice, who entered the Bureau August 1, 1886, and 
served under his first appointment until May 31, 1891, had con- 
ducted investigations on the parasites of domestic animals and had 
contributed some highly important facts to our knowledge of these 
organisms, among others' the essentials of the life history of the 
Texas fever tick* (published in 1891), description of the parasite 
causing nodular disease of sheep ((Esophagostomzim columbianum 
Curtice, 1890), discovery of the migration of ox-warble larvae in 
early stages from the esophagus toward their final location beneath 
the skin of the back (1890-1891), and formulation of the probable 
life cycle of this parasite which has been verified by subsequent in- 
vestigators except as to the mode of entrance of the larvae into the 
body. Dr. Curtice overlooked the fact, more recently established, 
that the newly hatched larvae penetrate the skin at the base of the 
hairs on which the eggs of the fly are laid and later appear in the 
esophagus. He assumed that the larvae are taken into the mouth 
as a result of the cattle licking themselves and thus reach the wall 
of the esophagus where they spend a considerable period of their 
life history before continuing their migration up to the back to 
complete their larval development. 
Dr. Stiles continued in charge of the Zoological Laboratory until 
June 1, 1903, having, however, resigned his appointment in the 
Department of Agriculture, August 5, 1902, to accept a position as 
Chief of the Division of Zoology of the Hygienic Laboratory of the 
U. S. Marine Hospital Service (now the U. S. Public Health Serv- 
ice), devoting thereafter, through a cooperative arrangement be- 
tween the two Bureaus, a portion of his time to the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, pending selection of his successor in that Bureau. 
During the service of Dr. Stiles in the Bureau of Animal Industry 
he carried out many investigations on animal parasites, as is at- 
tested by the copious bibliography of Stiles, Stiles and Hassall, and 
Salmon and Stiles, on subjects such as trichinosis and other zoological 
* See "Tick Eradication Division," page 319. 
87 88 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
questions relating to meat inspection, tapeworms of cattle and sheep, 
roundworms of cattle, sheep and goats, flukes of cattle, sheep and 
swine, hookworms, zoological nomenclature, and numerous other 
subjects. 
For about a year, beginning in the spring of 1898, Dr. Stiles rep- 
resented the Department of Agriculture as Scientific Attache to the 
American Embassy at Berlin, conducting some investigations in 
Germany which demonstrated the incorrectness of certain allegations 
relative to the frequent origin of trichinosis cases in Germany from 
imported American pork.* Dr. Stiles showed that no cases that 
could be traced to American pork had occurred in Germany, and 
on the other hand that over 32 per cent of the cases of trichinosis in 
that country during a period of about 18 years could be traced to 
pork that had been inspected and passed by German inspectors as 
free from trichinae, thus demonstrating very clearly the frequent 
failure of microscopic inspection as a prophylactic measure, and also 
throwing considerable light upon the true reasons for foreign dis- 
crimination against American pork. 
Probably the most noteworthy contribution made by Dr. Stiles 
during his service in the Bureau of Animal Industry was his dis- 
covery of the American hookworm of man, Necator americanus 
(Stiles, 1902), and the establishment of the fact that hookworm 
disease is not only widely prevalent in the Southern United States, 
but is one of the most important public-health questions of the 
South. This work on hookworms has led to great improvements in 
rural sanitary conditions. The world-wide campaign for hookworm 
eradication which has been in progress for several years under the 
auspices of the International Health Board may be looked upon 
historically as tracing back more or less directly to the hookworm 
work of Dr. Stiles. 
Dr. Brayton H. Ransom was appointed Scientific Assistant in 
charge of the Zoological Laboratory June 1, 1903, and has continued 
in charge until the present time. With him have been associated a 
number of other investigators, among them Dr. Cooper Curtice, Dr. 
Albert Hassall, Dr. Maurice C. Hall, Dr. Marion lines, Dr. E. A. 
Chapin, Miss E. B. Cram, Dr. H. B. Raffensperger, Dr. Benjamin 
Schwartz, Dr. II. W. Graybill, Mr. Howard Crawley, and Dr. H. G. 
May, of whom the first eight named are still engaged in the Division. 
It is uncertain when the Zoological Laboratory first began to be 
* See "Export Trade in Cattle and Meats," page 8, and "Meat Inspection Division," 
page 261. Zoological Division 
89 
known informally as the Division of Zoology or Zoological Division. 
The latter names appear for the first time in the Annual Report of 
the Bureau for the year 1901. 
Under the direction of Dr. Ransom the Division has continued to 
contribute to the advance of knowledge in the subject of parasi- 
tology. Among the investigations carried on in the Zoological Di- 
vision since 1903, the results of which have been published from 
time to time, may be mentioned investigations on gid in sheep, 
tapeworms and eye nematodes of poultry and other birds, stomach 
worms, hookworms and other nematodes of ruminants, scabies of 
cattle, sheep and swine, lice of hogs and cattle, cattle ticks, ear ticks, 
sheep ticks, sheep tapeworms, parasitic protozoa, tapeworm cysts 
of the muscles of cattle, sheep, hogs and reindeer, trichinosis, nema- 
todes of horses, gapeworms of chickens and turkeys, intestinal 
roundworms of hogs, gullet -worms of cattle, sheep and hogs, anthel- 
mintics, ox-warbles, toxins of parasites, tapeworms of dogs and other 
carnivores, and parasites of various wild animals. In these investi- 
gations many facts new to science of more or less importance have 
been discovered. 
Work done (19*07-1912) in the Zoological Division on the arsenical 
dip, that indispensable agent in tick eradication, proved it to be a 
highly efficacious remedy for cattle ticks when properly used in 
proper strength, and established the strength and methods of use 
that would insure the destruction of the ticks without injury to the 
cattle. Investigations that established the thermal death point of 
trichinse and the effects of refrigeration and various curing processes 
upon trichinaa led to the present methods used by the Bureau in 
dealing with the trichinosis question (1913-1920). The tapeworm 
cysts common in the muscles of sheep were proved to be the inter- 
mediate stage of a previously unrecognized species of dog tapeworm, 
instead of a dangerous human tapeworm as formerly supposed 
(1912-1913). The principal facts in the life history of the sheep 
stomach worm were determined in the Zoological Division (1906). 
Following various experiments on a smaller scale relating to the 
control of stomach worms in sheep, more extensive experiments 
have been in progress since 1914, when a farm of 160 acres near 
Vienna, Va., was leased for the purpose. By the investigational 
work done on this farm, a method of preventing stomach-worm 
losses among lambs has been devised, consisting in systematic dosing 
with 1 per cent copper sulphate solution combined with supplemen- 
tary sanitary measures, which promises to prove satisfactory under 90 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
practical conditions. Other schemes that have been tried have failed 
to prevent losses, and others that prevented losses have proved un- 
suited to practical conditions or otherwise uneconomical. 
Investigations in the Zoological Division have shown that the 
gullet worms of cattle, sheep and hogs have their intermediate stages 
in dung beetles (1914), and that a common stomach worm of horses 
passes its intermediate stage in the house fly-this latter discovery 
(1911) leading to the further important discovery by French, Bel- 
gian and Australian investigators that the larvse of this and closely 
related worms which cause "summer sores" and dermal granulomata 
are introduced into the skin by infested flies feeding on wounds and, 
moist surfaces. Numerous important facts have been discovered 
concerning anthelmintics, including the establishment (1921) of the 
anthelmintic properties of carbon tetrachlorid, which has proved 
a very valuable remedy for hookworms, ascarids and certain other 
parasites. In fact carbon tetrachlorid is not only a very valuable 
remedy for the treatment of certain intestinal worms of domestic 
animals, but appears destined to assume a similar importance in the 
treatment of human hookworm to that of quinine in the treatment 
of malaria and has already been used in the treatment of many 
thousands of patients in various parts of the world, with results 
highly superior to those obtained from any other remedy. 
Investigations on gapeworms conducted in the Zoological Division 
during recent years (1916-1920) have shown that turkeys are a com- 
mon source of gapeworm infection among chickens, that young 
chickens lose their susceptibility as they become older, whereas old 
as well as young turkeys are susceptible and commonly harbor gape- 
worms without showing evidence of infection, facts of immediate 
importance in the control of gapeworm disease and of considerable 
scientific interest in their bearing on the general question of 
parasitism. 
The theory advanced by one investigator that rats and mice serve 
as intermediate hosts of the common intestinal roundworm of human 
beings and hogs, based on observations made by him as to the mi- 
grations of the larvas of this parasite, in artificially infected rats and 
mice, from the intestines to the lungs, and back again to the intes- 
tines before they are passed out of the body in the feces, and thus 
supposed to contaminate food or drinking water of human beings or 
pigs, has been disproved by extensive investigations begun in 1917 
and carried on in the Zoological Division since that time, which 
have clearly demonstrated that in pigs as well as in small laboratory Zoological Division 
91 
animals the larvae after hatching out in the intestine migrate to the 
lungs, and then back to the intestines, but in the pigs settle down in 
the intestine upon their return and develop to maturity, instead of 
passing out of the body in the feces as they do in the smaller labora- 
tory animals. It has also been shown that the passage of the larvae 
through the lungs of young pigs is liable to cause severe symptoms 
of the type commonly designated as "thumps," and that many of 
the losses of common occurrence among young pigs are caused by 
infection writh this parasite. Another point of great importance 
from a practical standpoint that has been determined in the course 
of the investigations on the roundworm of the pig is the diminish- 
ing susceptibility to infection as pigs grow older. This and various 
other facts that have been learned have led to the development of a 
successful method of minimizing losses among pigs by taking certain 
simple precautions which more or less completely prevent round- 
worm infection until the pigs are past the most susceptible age. 
This method, which has been called the McLean County (Ill.) sys- 
tem of swine sanitation, has been demonstrated to be of great value 
in the practical prevention of verminous and other filth-borne dis- 
eases of swine, and is rapidly coming into use not only in McLean 
County but elsewhere in Illinois and in other States in the Middle 
West. The popularization of this method has been greatly facilitated 
by a motion picture film entitled "Exit Ascaris" which was pre- 
pared and issued by the Department in 1921. 
Many new species of parasites have been discovered and described 
in the course of investigations carried on in the Zoological Division. 
The collection of specimens of parasites belonging to the Division is 
one of the largest in the world. 
Another feature of the work of the Zoological Division which de- 
serves special comment is the Index-Catalogue of Medical and 
Veterinary Zoology. This catalogue, which has been prepared in 
cooperation with the Public Health Service, has proved extremely 
valuable to all workers in the field of parasitology, and is one of the 
most important reference works in parasitology that has ever been 
published (1902-1921). 
Throughout its history the Zoological Division has been active in 
research in the field of parasitology. As evidence of this activity, 
apart from the brief review which has been given above, it may be 
noted that the scientific books, pamphlets, and articles in periodicals 
published from the Division number more than 500. 
Some of the activities of the Zoological Division that have been 92 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
mentioned in the foregoing general review are considered more in 
^detail in the following discussion of various subjects that have been 
investigated in the Division. The subjects selected for special dis- 
cussion are not necessarily those in which the most important re- 
sults have been secured in the investigations carried on in the 
Zoological Division. The material presented should be taken as ex- 
amples of work done in the Division and not as a comprehensive 
and well-balanced account of all that has been accomplished. The 
preparation of such a history in which the numerous parts com- 
prising it are arranged in proper perspective, and emphasized or 
subordinated in accordance with their importance, has not been 
possible in the time available. 
Fringed Tapeworm of Sheep (Thysanosoma actinioides) 
The first parasitological investigation undertaken by Dr. Curtice 
after his appointment in the Bureau in 1886 was a study of sheep 
tapeworms in Colorado. Dr. Curtice's investigation of these para- 
sites which he identified as the fringed tapeworm, a species first de- 
scribed from South America by Diesing in 1835, was carried on in 
Colorado in the late summer and autumn of 1886 and in the spring 
of 1887, and also in Washington, specimens and infested animals 
having been shipped from Colorado for the purpose. Dr. Curtice 
came to the conclusion that the fringed tapeworm, which then was, 
as it still is, one of the most common internal parasites of range 
sheep in the Western United States, has a considerable influence 
upon the health of the sheep and is very detrimental, especially to 
lambs and yearlings, and though sheep do not die from tapeworm 
disease alone, the parasite appears to render them more susceptible 
to other affections and less able to withstand the inclement weather 
of the winter. Then as now the fringed tapeworm was limited in 
its distribution to the portion of the United States west of the Mis- 
sissippi. It has never become established in the East. Dr. Curtice 
found that the parasite persists in the adult stage in older sheep 
throughout the year. He discovered very small forms in lambs as 
early as the beginning of the third month of life and determined that 
it takes at least six months for the worms to attain their full growth. 
Young parasites may be found in sheep of any age at any time 
of year excepting possibly the winter months. Trials of various 
remedies failed to give satisfactory results. Attempts to infect lambs 
by feeding mature segments of the tapeworm and by keeping them in 
pens with infested sheep gave negative results. The investigations Zoological Division 
93 
threw no light on the question of the mode of infection. This, as 
in the case of all unarmed tapeworms of herbivorous animals, still 
remains a profound mystery, though we assume by analogy with 
what is known concerning the life histories of tapeworms, and con- 
sidering the food habits of sheep, that the fringed tapeworm prob- 
ably has an intermediate stage in some small invertebrate, possibly 
an insect, that is likely to be swallowed by sheep while grazing or 
drinking. Our knowledge of the fringed tapeworm has been ex- 
tended but little since Dr. Curtice's investigations in 1886 and 1887. 
Other workers in the Division (Ransom, Hall) have since made in- 
vestigations on this parasite and have spent much time and labor 
in attempting to find out the mode of transmission from one sheep 
to another without success. Experiments conducted by Ransom and 
Hall (reported in 1912) with extract of male fern as a remedy, 
claimed by de Renzi and others to give good results in certain cases 
of somatic taeniasis and found by Railliet, Moussu and others to be 
an efficacious remedy against Fasciola hepatica, which like Thysano- 
soma actinioides lives in the bile ducts, gave negative results. We 
are therefore still in the dark with reference to both prophylaxis 
and treatment of the fringed tapeworm. 
In 18891 Dr. Curtice worked out the essentials of the life history of 
the Texas fever cattle tick, demonstrating that the parasite grows to 
maturity on the animal to which it attaches as a seed-tick, which 
was a novel fact, as all other species of ticks whose life history was 
at that time known fall from the host at the completion of each stage 
and attach to a new host after molting. Dr. Curtice also noted the 
time required for the various stages to pass through their develop- 
ment from the beginning of the egg stage to the engorgement of the 
female. His experiments demonstrated that it was possible to rear 
ticks on cattle after hatching the seed ticks from eggs deposited by 
engorged female ticks in the laboratory, and, thus facilitated the 
crucial Texas fever experiments carried out by Theobald Smith in 
1890, in which cattle without exposure to Southern cattle or to 
ground contaminated by them were infected with Texas fever by 
placing upon them seed ticks that had emerged from eggs deposited 
by female ticks taken from Southern cattle. 
Another noteworthy contribution made by Dr. Curtice to the 
cattle tick question was in 1896 when he read a paper before the 
Cattle Ticks* 
* See "Tick Eradication Division,'' page 318, and "Biochemic Division," page 174. 94 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Virginia State Veterinary Medical Association in which he urged 
that the eradication of ticks be undertaken and outlined procedures 
by which this could be accomplished. During the years 1902 to 1906 
Dr. Tait Butler made a practical demonstration of tick eradication 
on an extensive scale in North Carolina following up work begun 
in 1899 by Dr. Curtice as State Veterinarian of North Carolina, and 
finally tick eradication as a Federal project was launched in 1906. 
In 1907 some extensive investigations on the effects of arsenical 
dips on ticks were begun in the Zoological Division, following some 
experiments the year before by Dr. J. W. Parker of the Bureau field 
force in Texas, which he had undertaken by direction of the Chief 
of the Bureau, who had been favorably impressed by the reports of 
the results of some trials of arsenical solutions as tick destroyers 
made by Dr. N. S. Mayo in Cuba. Simultaneously with Dr. Parker's 
experiments, tests were made by the Live Stock Sanitary Board of 
Texas, all of which indicated that arsenical solutions were valuable 
tick destroyers, confirming Dr. Mayo's experience in Cuba and the 
still earlier experience of others in Australia. It was finally estab- 
lished by the investigations made in the Zoological Division that 
ticky cattle if dipped twice at an interval of about a week in an 
arsenic, soda, and pine tar mixture (containing arsenic equivalent 
to 0.22 of 1 per cent of arsenic trioxid in the form of sodium arsen- 
ite, as shown by analyses of the dipping baths made by the Bi- 
ochemic Division) would be freed from ticks, and could then be 
moved to clean ground without carrying viable ticks with them. 
In these investigations it was found that arsenic does not kill all of 
the ticks promptly and that some few may even survive to deposit 
eggs. In such cases, however, if the dipping is properly done, the 
ticks that survive to deposit eggs deposit smaller numbers than they 
normally do, and of those deposited few, if any, hatch, and the seed 
ticks hatching under these conditions do not long survive. The in- 
vestigations also showed that cattle dipped in arsenical dip, if they 
continue to occupy tick-infested places, will rarely become re- 
infested with ticks until several days have elapsed. Thus it is evi- 
dent why the method of tick eradication in general use at the present 
time-dipping in arsenical solution every 14 days-is effect- 
ive. The ticks that get on the cattle between dippings are either 
killed or so seriously injured by later dippings that they produce 
few, if any, progeny, and, meanwhile, after each dipping the cattle 
are protected from reinfection for a period of several days. Thus 
the chances that the ticks will successfully complete their life cycle Zoological Division 
95 
after systematic dipping has begun are so greatly reduced that the 
degree of infestation rapidly decreases. Fewer and fewer ticks are 
found on the cattle, and at the same time the seed ticks on the pas- 
ture are dying from starvation if they do not become attached to the 
cattle; if they do attach they are caught by the next dipping. After 
about 16 dippings tick infestation of both cattle and pastures en- 
tirely disappears. It has been found in practice that when repeated 
dippings are given every two weeks a somewhat weaker arsenical 
solution can be used than that (0.22 per cent) established as effica- 
cious in ridding cattle of ticks in two dippings. 
From time to time following Dr. Curtice's early investigations 
various life-history studies of cattle ticks have been made in the 
Zoological Division and data have been collected and published by 
Graybill and others that have been very useful in practical tick 
eradication. Considerable attention has also been paid to the ques- 
tion of differentiation between the Texas-fever tick and the ticks of 
other species likely to be mistaken for it, and several publications 
have been issued giving the results of investigations on the taxon- 
omy and morphology of ticks (Salmon and Stiles; Stiles and 
Hassall). 
Nodular Disease of Sheep 
During the winter of 1888-1889 Dr. Curtice discovered the cause 
of nodular disease of the intestines of sheep, a very prevalent disease 
in the Southern and Eastern United States, commonly before and 
since that time mistaken for tuberculosis because of the gross appear- 
ance of the lesions. The cause of this condition was found to be the 
larva of a parasitic worm, a nematode belonging to a previously un- 
described species of the genus (Esophagostomum, named by Curtice 
in 1890 (Esophagostoma (properly (E sophagostomum) columbianum. 
The larval worms which cause the nodules as a result of the irrita- 
tion set up by their presence in the intestinal wall, after a certain 
amount of development, escape into the lumen of the intestine and 
live in the colon, where they develop to maturity, producing eggs that 
pass out of the body of the host in the feces. The nodules, at first 
resembling very small watery vesicles, increase in size and become 
filled with a cheesy material (hence the resemblance to tuberculosis 
lesions) which later, after the young worms have escaped or died in 
the nodules, may become more or less completely calcified. In some 
cases the nodules are extraordinarily numerous, and though their pre- 
ferred location is the wall of the cecum they may be found anywhere 
along the intestine from the duodenum to the anus. Since Curtice's 96 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
observations were made the nodules have also been seen not uncom- 
monly on the diaphragm and parietal wall of the abdominal cavity 
beneath the peritoneum, and superficially on the liver, in the mesen- 
teric lymph nodes, and on the omentum. Dr. Curtice did not follow 
the life cycle of the worm from the time the eggs escape from the 
sheep's intestine until the young worms that hatch from them again 
return to a sheep's intestine and penetrate into the intestinal wall. 
In fact, all of the steps in this probable series of events have not even 
yet been definitely established for this particular species. 
Ox Warbles 
In 1890 Dr. Curtice published the results of some observations on 
ox warbles, which he at first considered to belong to the species Hypo- 
derma bovis but later (1891) recognized as belonging to the other 
species of ox warble, Hypoderma lineatum, that materially modified 
the former conception of the life history of these parasites. It had 
previously been supposed that the young larvae that hatched from 
the eggs deposited on the hairs of cattle by warble flies burrowed into 
the skin of the back and there developed into the large grubs which 
form the swellings on the backs of cattle commonly known as war- 
bles, these grubs leaving the cattle when fully grown and after pass- 
ing through a quiescent stage in the ground-the pupa-finally 
emerging as adult flies ready for reproduction. Dr. Curtice, how- 
ever, was led to suggest from his observations that the young larvae 
after hatching from the eggs on the hairs are swallowed as a result 
of the cattle licking themselves, or that the larvae thus taken into the 
mouth lodge in the back of the mouth or in the esophagus, that they 
then remain for a considerable period in the wall of the esophagus, 
and later migrate from the esophagus up to the back of the animal. 
This theory was based on the appearance of the grubs in the walls of 
the esophagus in November (observations at Washington, D. C.) 
long before they are found in the backs, which is not until about the 
end of December. At the time of their first appearance beneath the 
skin the grubs were observed to be no larger than those found in the 
esophagus at that time and altogether similar. By the latter part of 
January or early February all of the grubs were found to have dis- 
appeared from the esophagus together with all traces of inflammation 
in that organ so noticeable in cattle slaughtered in January. Dr. 
Curtice also found in the month of November larvae in the same stage 
as those in the esophagus in apparent course of migration along the 
ribs and in connective tissues adjacent to the spleen. Hinrichsen had Zoological Division 
97 
already in 1888 found grubs in the spinal canal, without, however, ex- 
plaining their presence. This theory advanced by Dr. Curtice, ex- 
cept as to one point, is still accepted and has been substantiated by 
the work of later investigators. In recent years, however, it has been 
proved by Carpenter, Hadwen and others that the newly hatched 
larvee actually burrow into the skin at the base of the hairs that bear 
the eggs from which they have hatched, and they need not be swal- 
lowed to reach the esophagus, as Dr. Curtice assumed, but get there, 
apparently, by an active migration through the connective tissues from 
the point at which they penetrated the skin, later migrating from the 
esophagus up to the back. 
During recent years considerable attention has been devoted to the 
difficult problem of preventing the damage done by ox warbles, the 
investigations having been directed especially toward the discovery of 
methods of treatment for the destruction of the grubs or for the re- 
pulsion of the flies. Results of experiments reported by Imes and 
Schneider in 1921 indicate that wading tanks containing insecticidal 
or fly-repellent solutions may prove helpful in reducing warble in- 
festation among cattle that can not readily be subjected to the handling 
necessary in the methods of treatment that have thus far been found 
efficacious. 
Since as early as 1881, when the Department of State instituted an 
inquiry into the pork industry with reference to causes that might 
operate to render pork products dangerous to human health, the 
Federal Government has shown considerable concern over the ques- 
tion of trichinosis, and the subject has at various times been under 
investigation in the Zoological Division. The earlier investigations 
were stimulated largely by the restrictions placed upon American 
pork by foreign governments because of its alleged dangerous char- 
acter dependent upon the prevalence of trichinae in American hogs. 
As a matter of fact, practically all pork shipped to Europe has been 
exported in the cured state and it has long been known that thorough 
curing is destructive to the vitality of trichinae, so that consumers of 
American pork in Europe have never been in serious danger of trichi- 
nosis from that source. Moreover, no cases of trichinosis in Europe 
have been definitely traced to American pork. As already noted, the 
recorded cases of trichinosis in Germany, a country which had been 
particularly severe in restrictions on imported pork, were carefully 
studied by Stiles (1898-1899), and he was unable to find evidence of 
Trichinosis* 
* See "Meat Inspection Division," page 261. 98 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
cases originating from American pork, though he did discover that 
about a third of several thousand cases that occurred during a period 
of 18 years had been caused by pork which had been microscopically 
inspected and passed as free from trichinae by German inspectors. The 
United States Government from 1892 until 1906 conducted micro- 
scopic inspection for trichina?, but this was done frankly to meet the 
requirements of foreign trade and was applied only to export pork, 
the position taken being that microscopic inspection is not an efficient 
safeguard against trichinosis, and that its great expense does not 
justify it as a prophylactic measure. In the United States, therefore, 
microscopic inspection by the Federal Government has been carried 
on only because certain European countries, notably Germany, would 
not permit the importation of American pork without prohibitive re- 
strictions unless it had been microscopically inspected. Finally in 
1906, after a requirement was imposed by some of the European 
countries that American pork be reinspected in those countries not- 
withstanding its inspection in this country, microscopic inspection 
was abandoned by the United States Government. From time to 
time there have been agitations directed toward the establish- 
ment of microscopic inspection as a routine of Federal meat in- 
spection, a measure, however, that if applied to all hogs slaugh- 
tered under Federal inspection and thoroughly done would cost as 
much as or more than the several millions of dollars now spent 
annually on the meat-inspection service. As a result of investigations 
carried out in the Zoological Division the trichinosis problem so far 
as concerns Federally inspected pork has been solved in a way that is 
believed to be much more satisfactory than any possible solution 
based upon the inherently faulty practice of microscopic inspection 
and at a cost that is infinitesimally small compared with the millions 
that would have to be spent in microscopic inspection. 
Until it was discovered by Ransom in 1913 and announced in 1914 
that trichinae in pork could be destroyed by refrigeration it was con- 
sidered that the parasites were unaffected by cold. It has been shown, 
however, that if the temperature is low enough the trichinae invariably 
die in a comparatively short time. Trichinous pork kept at a temper- 
ature not exceeding 5° F. for a period of 20 days becomes quite 
innocuous. 
Studies made in the Zoological Division by Ransom and Schwartz, 
the detailed results of which were published in 1919, established def- 
initely the thermal death point of trichinae, concerning which many 
conflicting and loose statements were previously current, and the Zoological Division 
99 
Bureau now recognizes a temperature of 137° F. as ample for the de- 
struction of trichinae. 
As comparatively little actual experimental work had ever been 
done on the effects of curing upon trichinae, some investigations on 
this question were begun in 1914, the detailed report of which was 
issued in 1920 (Ransom, Schwartz and Raffensperger). Based on 
these investigations a number of practical methods of curing for ap- 
plication to various kinds of pork products customarily eaten without 
cooking have been formulated which can be depended upon to destroy 
the vitality of any trichinae that may be present. 
Finally it has been shown by experiments reported by Schwartz 
(1920, 1921) that the viability of trichinae may be destroyed by x-rays 
in massive doses. No practical method of using x-rays for trichina 
destruction, however, has been discovered. 
With the results of the investigations referred to above as a basis, 
the following scheme of handling the trichinosis question in relation 
to Federal meat inspection has been devised: 
Fresh pork and ordinary varieties of cured pork which are consid- 
ered proper for human consumption only after cooking are subjected 
to no special control with reference to the possibility of the presence of 
trichinae. There appears to be no practicable way by which any method 
of sanitary control by the Government can protect consumers of pork 
in general from the danger of trichinosis if they eat uncooked or im- 
properly cooked pork. Fortunately, the great mass of the American 
people do not like pork unless it is well cooked. To help in the edu- 
cation of the public as to the importance of properly cooking pork, 
attention is called to this point by press notices issued from time to 
time from the Department. 
All products containing any muscle tissue of pork that are pre- 
pared in establishments operating under Federal inspection to be 
sold as cooked products are required to be cooked under the super- 
vision of inspectors according to certain methods which it has been 
found will insure a sufficiently high temperature to destroy any trichi- 
nae that may be present. Accordingly the consumer of pork products 
cooked in establishments operating under Federal inspection is ade- 
quately protected from the danger of acquiring trichinosis from this 
source. 
Finally, as concerns the class of pork products prepared customarily 
to be eaten without cooking (of which large quantities are manufac- 
tured in establishments operating under Federal inspection to supply 
a considerable demand from consumers with food customs of foreign 100 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
origin involving the use of pork prepared in various ways by curing, 
drying, smoking, etc., and eaten without cooking), strict regulations 
are in force governing the preparation of such products and they are 
kept under close supervision in order to insure their freedom from 
viable trichinae when released from the manufacturing establishment 
into the channels of trade. Various alternative methods of prepara- 
tion are permitted in which refrigeration and certain processes of cur- 
ing, smoking, and heating may be used, so that the manufacturer has 
a considerable latitude of choice and can follow the methods among 
those established as efficacious in destroying trichinge that he finds 
most suitable to his circumstances. 
The methods above outlined have now been in successful operation 
for several years, and during this time no cases of trichinosis have 
come to light that could be traced to cooked products or to products 
customarily eaten without cooking that were prepared in establish- 
ments operating under Federal inspection, though cases traced to 
other sources have been not infrequent. 
Probably the most striking contribution made by Dr. Stiles during 
his service in the Bureau was his discovery in 1902 of the prevalence 
of hookworm disease in certain sections of the Southern United States, 
together with his discovery the same year of a new species of human 
hookworm, Necator amcricanus, at first named Uncinaria americana 
and later transferred to the new genus Necator. Necator amcricanus 
is now known also in many other parts of the world, and the other 
common species of human hookworm, Ancylostoma duodenale, known 
in Europe since 1843, is not rare in the United States. Dr. Stiles 
demonstrated that hookworms, which had been practically overlooked 
in this country, affected a high percentage of the rural population in 
many parts of the South, and that these parasites were responsible 
for much of the illness of the people in these localities, often ■wrongly 
described as laziness, shiftlessness, etc. 
Since the remarkable findings made by Dr. Stiles, great improve- 
ments in health conditions in rural communities in the South have 
been brought about through a campaign for hookworm eradication 
by counties and States, and the world-wide campaign for hookworm 
eradication that was undertaken a number of years ago by the Inter- 
national Health Board had its origin more or less directly in the 
hookworm investigations made by Stiles. 
Recently the Zoological Division has made another contribution 
Hookworm Disease Zoological Division 
101 
which promises to play an exceedingly important part in hookworm 
eradication, in the discovery by Dr. Hall in 1921 of the anthelmintic 
value, particularly against hookworms, of carbon tetrachlorid. As a 
result of Dr. Hall's discovery, this remedy is already being used in 
many parts of the world, and in the Fiji Islands alone prior to June, 
1922, had been used on over 12,000 cases with results much superior 
to those of any remedy before known, the reports stating that it re- 
moved over 98 per cent of the hookworms present and cured over 90 
per cent of the patients with a single treatment. Carbon tetrachlorid 
appears destined to take a similar rank in the treatment of hook- 
worm disease to that which quinine holds in the treatment of that 
other great scourge of the warm countries of the earth, malaria. 
Stomach Worms of Sheep 
The common stomach worm of ruminants (Hcemonchus contortus), 
a particularly serious pest of sheep, was first carefully studied with 
reference to its life history by Ransom in 1905 and 1906. Prior to 
these investigations very little was definitely known concerning the 
life history of this parasite. It was found that the larvaa, after hatch- 
ing from the eggs that occur in the feces of infested animals, reach an 
infective stage in from ten days to two weeks and are then ready to 
be taken into the body. The eggs and newly hatched larvae were 
found to be very easily killed by freezing or drying, whereas the 
larva in the infective stage is highly resistant and can remain alive 
for long periods of time even amid very dry surroundings, or when 
continuously or repeatedly frozen. It was also shown that under cer- 
tain conditions of moisture (dew, fog or rain) the infective larvae 
commonly crawl up grass blades, becoming quiescent with a change 
in these conditions, and crawling still higher when the conditions 
again become favorable. Veglia recently (1916), from work carried 
on in South Africa, has found that the larvae may also crawl back 
again to the ground under certain conditions. This upward migration 
when a film of moisture is present on grass blades or other objects 
was also noted by Ransom to characterize the larvae of two other 
nematodes of sheep, CEsophagostomum columbianum and Bunostomum 
trigonocephalum, the nodular worm and hookworm, which indicated 
that this habit, a favorable one for the parasite because it increased 
its chances of being ingested by grazing animals, would likely be 
found a common one among the related parasites of the herbivora. In 
sheep that were fed stomach-worm larvae in the infective stage it was 
found that the parasites developed to egg-producing maturity in 102 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
about three weeks. These investigations, which were reported in 
1906, established the main facts in the life history of the stomach 
worm and were the starting point of numerous studies and experi- 
ments that have since been made in the Zoological Division bearing 
upon the practical control of this parasite. 
Since 1914, when a farm of 160 acres at Vienna, Va., near Washing- 
ton, was obtained on lease by the Bureau for the purpose, extensive 
tests have been in progress of various methods of managing sheep 
under farm conditions to prevent stomach-worm losses among lambs. 
At the present time, after trying many different plans, Dr. Cooper 
Curtice, who has been in charge of the experiments, has settled upon 
a method involving the systematic administration every three or four 
weeks of a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate to all sheep on the 
farm as the most practical means of control yet discovered, the treat- 
ment being supplemented by certain changes of pasture that fit in 
readily with usual farm practices. Pasture changes alone without 
medicinal treatment have proved either too complicated for general 
use or not adequate to prevent stomach-worm losses. 
Gullet Worms in Cattle, Sheep and Poultry, and Thread Worms 
in the Tongues of Hogs 
Soon after entering the Bureau, Dr. Stiles (1892) published an 
account of Gongylonema scutatum, a common parasite in the mucosa 
of the esophagus of sheep and cattle, enlarging upon the earlier more 
imperfect descriptions. About twenty years later the life history of 
this parasite was worked out in the Zoological Division by Ransom 
and Hall (results first reported in 1915), who found that the eggs 
passed in the feces of the host were ingested by dung beetles of va- 
rious species, that the larvae developed to certain stages in these in- 
sects, and completed their development to maturity when infested in- 
sects were ingested by sheep or cattle, as is likely to happen naturally 
while the animals are grazing, dung beetles often being present on 
blades of grass and hence often swallowed by grazing animals. In 
the investigations on the life history of Gongylonema scutatum it was 
discovered that cockroaches, though obviously not the normal inter- 
mediate hosts, could readily be infested, and these insects proved 
very useful in studying the larval stages of the parasite. 
In 1904 Dr. Ransom described a new species of Gongylonema (G. 
tngluvicola) which occurs in the wall of the crop of chickens. This 
same parasite, apparently, was seen in the Division of Animal Path- 
ology in 1885 in a chicken that was in some experiments on the gape- Zoological Division 
103 
worm, but it was recognized only as a nematode present in the mu- 
cous lining of the crop and was not studied in detail. 
Recently (1922) Dr. Chapin of the Zoological Division has described 
as a new species of Gongylonema (G. ransomi) a thread worm com- 
mon in the mucosa of the tongues of hogs in the United States. This 
parasite, which has been looked upon by others, including Ransom 
and Hall, who experimented with it in connection with their life- 
history studies on Gongylonema scutatum, as of the same species as 
the European parasite known as Gongylonema pulchrum, has been 
found by Chapin to show certain differences from the descriptions of 
the European form that have previously been overlooked, differences 
that indicate that the American form is not the same as Gongylonema 
pulchrum. The Gongylonema from the tongues of hogs may prove 
to be the same as Gongylonema hominis first reported by Ward in 
1916 as a human parasite, which was found in the mucosa of a child's 
mouth in Arkansas, but this is as yet uncertain. Thus far three cases 
of Gongylonema in man are known, all reported from the United 
States. In 1921 thread worms in the tongues of hogs began to attract 
considerable attention in the Federal meat inspection, and because 
of their prevalence as determined by examination of many thousands 
of hog tongues at the various meat-inspection stations, the rule of 
requiring the removal of the mucous membrane from hog tongues 
prepared for use as human food has been generally adopted in packing 
establishments operating under Federal meat inspection. Removing 
the mucous membrane also removes the worms, which are objectionable 
in meat for human consumption even though not directly transmissible 
to man from that source. 
Miscellaneous Nematodes of Ruminants 
In 1907 a brief paper by Ransom was published in which several 
new species and genera of nematodes parasitic in the alimentary tract 
of ruminants were noted, and in 1911 a more extensive paper on the 
subject was published. In 1920 the result of a study of the genus 
Nematodirus by May was published which has cleared up some of the 
uncertainties concerning specific identities in this group of nematodes. 
In 1907 Ransom recorded the results of investigations on the life his- 
tory of Strongyloides papillosus, a common intestinal nematode of 
sheep which is transmissible also to rabbits, and showed that the larvae 
which penetrate the skin migrate to the intestine and there develop to 
maturity; this being the first instance in which the adult stage of a 
species of Strongyloides had been experimentally produced in the 104 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
intestine as the result of penetration of the skin by the larvae. 
The first record of a gapeworm in cattle in the Western hemisphere 
was made in 1920, the parasite having been discovered in Porto Rico 
by Dr. Bague, who forwarded specimens to the Zoological Division. 
On examination these were found to be probably identical with Syn- 
gamus laryngeus, hitherto known only from the Orient. This finding 
suggests that the parasite was probably imported at some time with 
Zebu (Brahman) cattle, and its establishment in Porto Rico indicates 
the likelihood of its establishment sooner or later in the United States. 
A small nematode, Cooperia punctata, which occurs in the small in- 
testine of cattle, sometimes in enormous numbers, was shown by Ran- 
som in 1920 to have the habit of burrowing in the adult stage into 
the wall of the intestine, producing lesions somewhat resembling on 
casual examination the lesions caused by CEsophagostomum larvae. 
In 1861 Carter in India described some nematodes which he had 
found to be of common occurrence in the common house fly. The sig- 
nificance of these nematodes (Habronema, muscoe), which were often 
observed afterwards in flies in various parts of the world, remained 
unknown for 50 years, until it was determined through investigation 
in the Zoological Division (Ransom, 1911) that they are the larval 
stages of a nematode that occurs as an adult in the stomach of the 
horse. The maggots of houseflies in the manure of infested horses 
ingest the eggs of the parasite, and the larvae develop within the 
bodies of the maggots, reaching a stage at which they are ready to be 
transferred to the horse at about the time the fly transforms from the 
pupa into the adult. The young worms collect commonly in the pro- 
boscis of the fly, and, as has been recently demonstrated experi- 
mentally by Johnston and Bancroft (1920) in Australia, escape in 
the presence of warmth and moisture, as, for example, when a fly is 
sucking moisture from the mucous membranes, or from abrasions on 
the skin of a horse. Horses swallow many flies (and fly pupa?, which 
are common in the chaff in the bottoms of mangers), and in this way 
also the nematodes, as well as by escape from the proboscis of flies, 
reach their final host, in whose stomach they develop to maturity. 
Another chapter in the story of these parasites of flies and horses 
was added by Decazeaux (1915), Bull (1916, 1919), and Van Saceg- 
hem (1917, 1918), who recognized that the larval nematodes found 
in cutaneous granulomata, summer sores, and verminous nodules on 
the nictitating membrane are identical with the larva? of Habronema 
Stomach Worms and Summer Sores of Horses Zoological Division 
105 
musca or related species, these latter also occurring in flies as larvae, 
and in the stomach of the horse as adults. Van Saceghem further- 
more was able to produce conjunctivitis and verminous nodules on 
the nictitating membrane by introducing the larval nematodes taken 
from flies, and typical summer sores by exposing wounds on the skin 
of a horse to the attacks of flies known to be infested with Habronema 
muscce, thus confirming the results of morphological comparisons be- 
tween the nematodes of summer sores and those found in flies. Bull 
also has produced a typical cutaneous granuloma by the subcutaneous 
inoculation of a horse with larvee of Habronema megastoma taken 
from flies. 
Horse Strongyles and Swamp Fever 
In 1917 Ransom and Hadwen, representing respectively the U. S. 
Bureau of Animal Industry and the Canadian Health of Animals 
Branch, undertook a cooperative investigation into the possible rela- 
tion between horse strongyles, which are very common and often 
occur in enormous numbers in the large intestine, and so-called swamp 
fever. An infected region in Saskatchewan, Canada, was visited by 
Hadw'en in 1917 and by Ransom and Hadwen in 1918 and a consider- 
able number of cases resembling swamp fever were examined. Over 
30 autopsies were made in 1918 (September and October), and in 
practically each case careful collections of internal parasites were 
made. Material was also obtained for later inoculation experiments- 
blood, feces, and dried worms and bots. Cases of infectious anemia 
were later produced at Washington by inoculations of the blood 
brought from Saskatchewan, but no transmission of the disease was 
secured by inoculation of the dried worms and bots from infected 
horses, nor by infection with larval strongyles reared in cultures made 
from the feces of infected horses. Horses exposed to soil in which 
swamp-fever horses were kept for long periods, and which thus be- 
came contaminated by larval strongyles from the diseased horses, 
failed to acquire the disease except in the autumn, and as some cases 
of the disease also appeared among horses kept in neighboring pad- 
docks, the soil of which had not been contaminated by the diseased 
horses, the results of the experiment were more in harmony with the 
theory of insect transmission than with a hypothesis involving the 
strongyles. In the Canadian horses on which autopsies were made 
ulcers, often of considerable size, were of frequent occurrence in the 
fourth division of the colon marking the location of nests of a blood- 
sucking strongyle, Triodontophorus tenuicollis. The other two species 
of this genus which were also common were not observed to bear any 106 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
relation to ulcer formation. Prior to the work of Ransom and Had- 
wen another author had called attention to these ulcers, but the fact 
that only one of several species of Triodontophorus appears capable 
of causing the ulcers in question was first announced with the publica- 
tion in 1918 of some of the results of the first year's work in Canada. 
Beef and Pork Measles 
About 1911 Bureau inspectors, notably at the Omaha meat inspec- 
tion station, then in charge of Dr. W. N. Neil, began finding a con- 
siderable number of cases of tapeworm cysts (Cysticercus bovis), 
the intermediate stage of the unarmed tapeworm of man, Tccnia sagi- 
nata, in cattle slaughtered under Federal inspection. This evidently 
was the result of improved methods of inspection rather than of a 
sudden increase of the frequency of the parasite, which formerly 
was not often found in cattle slaughtered in the United States. In 
cooperation with many of the meat-inspection stations, investigations 
on different aspects of the question of beef measles were carried out 
by the Zoological Division. Data were obtained as to the distribution 
and relative frequency of the parasites in different portions of the 
carcass, various methods of inspection were tried to determine the 
most practical and efficacious methods of discovering the parasites, 
the effects of refrigeration upon the vitality of the parasites were 
studied, shipments of cattle showing high percentages of infestation 
were traced back to the point of origin and the conditions under 
which they had been kept and fed were investigated, and various 
other phases of the question were given consideration. On the basis 
of the results of these investigations the present Federal regulations 
governing the methods of inspection and disposal of carcasses found 
affected by these parasites were formulated. Among other facts of 
practical importance determined by these investigations may he men- 
tioned those relating to the effects of freezing upon the vitality of 
Cysticercus bovis, in accordance with which slightly infested carcasses 
may be passed for food after they have been solidly frozen and kept 
under refrigeration at a temperature not higher than 15° F. for not 
less than six days. 
During the last 10 years the frequency of Cysticercus bovis among 
cattle slaughtered under Federal inspection has materially decreased. 
This may be due in part to improved sanitary conditions on farms 
and in cattle feed-lots (that there has been much improvement in 
this respect is questionable), but is undoubtedly largely the result of 
the efficient inspection of beef for tapeworm cysts, which eliminates Zoological Division 
107 
practically all danger of the spread of tapeworm infection from beef 
slaughtered under Federal inspection, correlated with which is the 
fact that even on farms in the districts in which most of the beef 
cattle are produced, and not alone in the cities and towns, most of the 
meat that is consumed comes from establishments operating under 
Federal inspection. 
The pork measle parasite (Cysticercus cellulosce), the intermediate 
stage of the armed tapeworm of man, Tcenia solium, which is very 
rare in this country compared to the beef measle parasite, has been 
studied in the Zoological Division with reference to the details of its 
morphology in connection with the question of the identity of the 
sheep measle parasite and of the reindeer measle parasite, but no ex- 
tensive investigations in other directions have been made on the para- 
site. It is of interest to note that in test inspections of about 1,000,000 
hog hearts in 1913, these hearts coming from the hogs slaughtered 
during a period of two weeks at meat-inspection stations in all parts 
of the United States, only 28 hearts were found infested with Cysti- 
cercus cellulosce. In a considerable number of the 28 cases the diag- 
nosis was uncertain and in only a few of them was it definitely de- 
termined that the parasite was present. Since that time there has 
been no apparent increase in the prevalence of C. cellulosce. The com- 
paratively few cases that are found each year trace back in most in- 
stances to localities with a large Mexican population. 
Tapeworm cysts in mutton were first observed in 1866 in England 
and were named Cysticercus ovis by Cobbold in 1869, afterwards 
being recorded also in France, Germany, Algeria, German Southwest 
Africa and New Zealand. They were looked upon generally as Cysti- 
cercus cellulosce, the pork-measle parasite, occurring in an unusual 
host, the sheep, instead of in the usual host, the pig, and were so con- 
sidered in the meat-inspection regulations of various countries. A 
few observers considered them to be Cysticercus tenuicollis, the in- 
termediate stage of Tcenia hydatigena (Tcenia marginata), a dog tape- 
worm, in an unusual location, that is, in the muscles instead of in re- 
lation with serous membranes. Early in 1912 it was reported almost 
simultaneously by Dr. 0. B. Hess from Seattle and by Dr. S. E. Ben- 
nett from Chicago that a number of sheep carcasses had been re- 
tained on account of tapeworm cysts in the muscles. On the basis of 
degenerated specimens that were forwarded to Washington for exam- 
ination and examined by Dr. Ransom, a diagnosis of Cysticercus cel- 
Sheep Measles 108 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
lulosce was made in accordance with the generally accepted opinion 
of meat-inspection authorities as to the identity of mutton cysticerci. 
A little later, however, information was received that large numbers 
of sheep carcasses were being found affected with cysticerci at Chicago 
and Seattle. It then became apparent that the diagnosis of Cysticercus 
cellulosce could scarcely be correct, as it was very unlikely that a para- 
site known to be rare in the United States in its usual host should be so 
common in an unusual host. A study of numerous specimens obtained 
in Chicago showed that the sheep parasite was certainly not C. cellu- 
losce, though very similar to it in certain characters. It was also seen 
that it was different from C. tenuicollis. By feeding the tapeworm 
cysts to dogs the adult tapeworm was reared and found to be of a 
species not before recognized. Sheep in turn were fed the eggs of 
the tapeworms and in due course of time the cystic stage was recov- 
ered from their muscles. 
The investigations of the mutton cysticercus made in the Zoological 
Division have proved that it is not Cysticercus cellulosce, a parasite 
transmissible to man, but the intermediate stage of a dog tapeworm, 
and as such, its presence in sheep carcasses involves a less stringent 
disposal of the affected carcasses, from the meat-inspection stand- 
point, than if it were actually C. cellulosce, as had formerly been as- 
sumed. The same investigations also have shown what is necessary 
to prevent the spread of the parasite, namely, the proper manage- 
ment of dogs on farms and on the sheep ranges. 
Gid 
The first well-authenticated case of gid in the United States was 
reported in 1905 by Ransom on the basis of some specimens found 
by Professor Cooley of the Montana Agricultural College in the brains 
of sheep that died at Bozeman, Montana. Further studies were after- 
wards made by Hall, who, among other findings, established the fact 
of the occurrence of the adult stage of the parasite in coyotes as well 
as in dogs. As yet, except for a few sporadic cases elsewhere, the 
parasite appears to be confined to the State of Montana, where it is, 
however, evidently well established and whence it is likely to spread 
to other localities sooner or later. Among the sporadic cases, one out- 
break in New York in 1907 is of interest, as when brought to the at- 
tention of the Bureau through the publication of a paper in 1910 by 
Taylor and Boynton of Cornell University it was largely responsible 
for the inauguration in 1910 of a Federal quarantine on imported 
sheep dogs, this outbreak having been traced by Taylor and Boynton Zoological Division 
109 
to imported sheep dogs. Under the provisions of this quarantine all 
imported sheep dogs are subjected to fecal examination for the pres- 
ence of tapeworm eggs, and if found infested with tapeworm are re- 
quired to be treated for the removal of the parasites before release 
from quarantine. Since this quarantine was first established fecal 
specimens from over 2,900 imported sheep dogs have been examined 
in the Zoological Division, and of these 381 were found infested with 
tapeworms of various species and treated for the removal of the 
parasites. In only one case was the tapeworm definitely determined 
as the gid tapeworm, though there were many other cases in which 
there was present a species of tapeworm that is very difficult to dis- 
tinguish from the gid parasite, and some in which the tapeworm may 
actually have been the gid tapeworm though determined as belong- 
ing to the other closely similar species. 
Ascaris 
Following the important discovery made in 1916 by Lt. Col. Stew- 
art of the Indian Medical Service of the migration of the newly 
hatched larvae of Ascaris litmbricoides from the intestine to the lungs 
and back again to the intestine of rats and mice experimentally in- 
fected, a discovery which has led to a modification of the former con- 
ception of the life history of this parasite and to the development of 
a better understanding of the disease caused by it, the Zoological 
Division has made extensive studies on Ascaris which have brought to 
light a number of facts that are of great importance in their scientific 
and practical aspects. Stewart's experimental results were confirmed, 
but his suggestion that rats and mice act as intermediate hosts of 
Ascaris was not substantiated. It was found that the migration of 
the larvae from the intestine to the lungs and back to the intestine 
which occurs in rats and mice also occurs in other animals, including 
the pig, one of the usual hosts of the parasite, man being the other. 
In rats, mice, guinea pigs and rabbits, experimentally infected, the 
larvae do not long remain in the intestine after their journey through 
the lungs but soon pass out of the body in the feces, the occurrence of 
which in his experimental rats and mice led Stewart to offer the sug- 
gestion that these animals act as intermediate hosts and that after be- 
coming infected by swallowing the eggs of the parasite found in the 
feces of infested human beings and pigs they pass on the infection 
to human beings and pigs by contaminating food and drinking water 
with their feces containing the young worms that have undergone 
partial development during their journey through the lungs. The 110 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
results of the experiments conducted in the Zoological Division, how- 
ever, have failed to show that rats and mice are of importance as 
spreaders of Ascaris as suggested by Stewart, but go to prove that no 
intermediate hosts are necessary. 
In pigs (and likewise in human beings) the larvae behave as 
they do in the small laboratory animals, but when they return to 
the intestine after passing through the lungs instead of soon leaving 
the body in the feces they settle down and develop to maturity. Young 
sheep and goats have been found to occupy an intermediate position 
in their adaptability as hosts of Ascaris between rats, mice, etc., and 
the usual hosts (man and pig), inasmuch as the larvae after return- 
ing to the intestine are able to continue their development but do not 
reach fertile maturity. Stewart observed that his experimental rats 
and mice commonly died from pneumonia during the invasion of the 
lungs by the young worms, and investigations in the Zoological Divis- 
ion have shown that similar cases are of common occurrence among 
young pigs both under experimental and field conditions. In fact, 
many of the cases of so-called "thumps" in pigs are the results of 
Ascaris infection. The investigations have also shown that pigs be- 
come more resistant to infection as they become older and also less 
susceptible to injury by the lung stage of the parasite, and after 
reaching an age of about four months they are little likely to become 
seriously infected, which is an important point in the system of round- 
worm control that has been worked out on the basis of experimental 
work and that has now been for four years in successful use, particu- 
larly in McLean County, Illinois, where a considerable number of the 
members of the County Farm Bureau have cooperated with the 
Bureau of Animal Industry in the practical tests of the method in 
question, on which account it is frequently referred to as the McLean 
County System of Swine Sanitation. Incidentally it has also been 
found that this method is of value in preventing losses not only from 
worms but from certain diseases, such as necrotic stomatitis and en- 
teritis, that are so frequently associated with the use of permanent 
hog lots. 
In 1921 the results of investigations were published which demon- 
strated step by step the path of migration followed by the larvae of 
Ascaris in their journey through the body by way of the blood stream 
and lymphatics, including also proof of the fact that the migrating 
larvae commonly reach the peripheral lymph nodes, showing that 
they sometimes return to the heart from the lungs and are distributed 
to various parts of the body in the systemic circulation. Zoological Division 
111 
In 1921 also the motion picture film entitled "Exit Ascaris" was 
made in cooperation with the Office of Motion Pictures of the Depart- 
ment. This film, which presents the principal facts in the life his- 
tory of the roundworm, its effects on pigs, and the method of control, 
has proved very popular and useful in bringing the recent knowledge 
of the parasite to livestock owners. To supply the large demand for 
the film, 36 copies have been put into circulation by the Department 
up to the present, besides which a considerable number of copies have 
been purchased by various agricultural organizations, farm bureaus, 
agricultural schools, etc. 
Gapeworms 
One of the articles in the First Annual Report of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry is a translation by Theobald Smith of a memoir on 
gape disease of fowls by Megnin, and in the Annual Report for 1885 
some experiments were reported which showed that earthworms were 
not, as Walker had suggested, necessary intermediate hosts for the 
parasite. No further investigations of importance on the disease were 
carried out in the Bureau of Animal Industry until comparatively re- 
cently, when some studies were made in the Zoological Division (1915- 
1920) that have added a number of interesting points to the knowledge 
of this serious malady of chickens, of great practical value in their 
bearing on the problem of prophylaxis, and have contributed also 
some facts that have an important bearing upon certain questions in 
the general biology of parasites. It has been found that the gape- 
worm is a parasite that appears to be better adapted to the turkey 
than to the chicken, inasmuch as adult turkeys are commonly infested 
(though they may at the same time show no symptoms) in localities in 
which the parasite is absent from adult chickens, and as chickens are 
susceptible to infestation only while very young, whereas turkeys of 
all ages may be readily infected. 
The history of gapeworm disease in various parts of the world, so 
far as can be determined from the published records, also indicates 
that the turkey has been chiefly responsible for the introduction of the 
parasite into the various localities where it occurs. Furthermore, in 
the localities in which the question of the relation of the turkey to 
gapeworm disease has been investigated by the Zoological Division, 
the evidence obtained has shown that the most serious gapeworm 
trouble occurs among chickens when they are associated with turkeys, 
and that in the absence of turkeys the parasite is unlikely to be trou- 
blesome and tends to disappear. Another interesting point is that 
in turkeys the gapeworm commonly grows to nearly twice the size 112 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
that it attains in chickens, which is in accord with other evidence 
that the turkey is a more favorable host than the chicken. 
The case of the gapeworm also adds another example to the list of 
those parasites that, though they cause comparatively-little inconveni- 
ence as a rule to the hosts to which they are well adapted, seriously 
injure the strange hosts in which they are able to live but in which 
they do not find the conditions for their existence altogether favorable. 
Parasitic Protozoa 
Studies of a considerable number of parasitic protozoa have been 
made in the Zoological Division, including Piroplasma, coccidia, fla- 
gellates, Sarcosporidia, and other groups. Stiles in 1893 named and 
described three species of Sarcosporidia from birds. One of these, 
Sarcocystis rileyi, which forms very large cysts of striking appearance 
in the breast muscles of various species of wild ducks, was more com- 
pletely studied with special reference to its spores by Crawley in 1911. 
Crawley described two new species of Sarcosporidia in 1914, and in 
1914 and 1916 published the results of studies on the life history of 
Sarcocystis muris of the mouse in which he followed the early evolu- 
tion of the parasites in the intestinal cells following the feeding of in- 
fected meat. He was able also to confirm the work of Negre (1907), 
who found that the feces of mice from the 15th to the 60th day after 
feeding with infected meat contain a resistant stage that will survive 
drying and that will produce Sarcocystis infections in other mice. 
This work on the Sarcosporidia of mice suggests a possible means by 
which strictly herbivorous animals such as sheep, cattle and horses, 
in which Sarcosporidia are very common, become infected, that is. 
some carnivorous animal which has eaten infected meat becomes in 
fested with the intestinal stage and then spreads the infection in its 
feces where it may be picked up by herbivorous animals while grazing 
or drinking. 
Crawley in 1909 and 1912 published the results of studies on a try- 
panosome, which he named Trypanosoma americanum in 1909, that ho 
found to be of common occurrence in the blood of American cattle. 
T. americanum is readily discovered by means of bouillon cultures 
of cattle blood drawn under aseptic conditions although very scarce 
in the circulating blood and rarely seen in smears. This parasite mul- 
tiplies profusely in cultures at ordinary room temperature. It is 
apparently the same form as that found in Japanese cattle by Miya- 
jima (1907) and by Martini (1909) in Philippine cattle. Miyajima 
believed the trypanosome to be a stage in the life history of the Texas Zoological Division 
113 
fever parasite, but Crawley was able to show that trypanosomes occur 
in the blood of cattle which have never been exposed to the possibility 
of Texas fever, as well as in cattle from Texas fever districts. Try- 
panosoma americanum is very similar to if not identical with Try- 
panosoma theileri, which has been reported from cattle in various 
parts of the world, and like the latter it is apparently non-pathogenic 
to cattle. 
Crawley in 1913 (observations published in 1916) found in smears 
made from infectious cattle fever ticks and from crushed eggs which 
they had deposited, small cigar-shaped protozoan parasites of similar 
appearance to those considered by Koch (1906), who worked in South 
Africa, to be a stage in the development of the Texas fever organism, 
and resembling also a certain stage in the development of Piroplasma 
canis described by Christophers (1907) from dog ticks (Rhipicephalus 
sanguineus). In the same ticks in which the supposed stage of the 
Texas fever parasite was found, Crawley also observed spirochetes, 
possibly the same species (Spirochaeta theileri) that occurs in South 
African fever ticks, which are known in South Africa to transmit to 
cattle not only Texas fever but another disease caused by the spiro- 
chetes. As yet no disease of cattle in this country caused by spiro- 
chetes has been recognized. 
Sheep Scab* 
In 1898 Salmon and Stiles prepared a careful compilation of the 
existing knowledge of sheep scab, and also reported the results of ex- 
periments in its treatment. Their judgment in limiting the remedies 
approved for use in official dippings to lime-sulphur and to nicotin, 
which had already long been established as standard remedies for 
sheep scab, has been vindicated by the many years of experience that 
the Bureau has had with the question of treatment since that time. 
Experiments carried on by the Zoological and Bioehemic Divisions in 
1906 and following years with so-called coal-tar dips resulted so fa- 
vorably that the use of such dips if they came up to certain standards 
of composition was for a time permitted by the Bureau, but it was 
soon discovered that the good results obtained under experimental 
conditions could not be assured under practical conditions, and the 
coal-tar dips were soon abandoned so far as concerned their use in 
official dippings for sheep scab. Numerous experiments carried on in 
the Zoological Division of the Bureau have failed to reveal any better 
remedies for sheep scab than lime-sulphur and nicotin. 
* See "Field Inspection Division," page 295. 114 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The most recent investigations on sheep scab carried on in the Zoo- 
logical Division have been those made by Dr. Imes and under his 
direction. The results obtained that are of practical importance are 
incorporated in a Farmers' Bulletin on this subject that was issued 
in 1916 and revised in 1920. 
Miscellaneous External Parasites of Livestock 
Investigations made by the Zoological Division on several of the 
many species of external parasites that affect domesticated animals 
have been referred to elsewhere. In addition to these investigations 
other studies on various external parasites have been made. For ex- 
ample, in 1905 the results of a study by Stevenson on the hog louse 
and methods of treatment were published. A Farmers' Bulletin on 
hog lice and mange issued in 1920 is based on experiments carried 
out by lines, who was placed in charge of investigations in the Zoo- 
logical Division on the treatment and control of external parasites of 
livestock in 1914. Among other investigations in this field carried 
out by Dr. Imes or under his direction may be mentioned investiga- 
tions on the sheep tick, cattle scab, sheep scab (which has been else- 
where mentioned), cattle lice, and the ear tick, the results of which 
in each case have been utilized in the preparation of a Farmers' Bul- 
letin. The series of Farmers' Bulletins written by Dr. Imes forms a 
very valuable library on the practical control and eradication of the 
various external parasites in question. 
Since the establishment of the Federal Insecticide and Fungicide 
Board in 1910 the Zoological Division has cooperated with this Board 
in investigating by experimental methods the efficacy of numerous 
proprietary preparations and of their ingredients in the treatment of 
livestock for insect parasites, these investigations having reference to 
claims of efficacy made by the manufacturers of these preparations. 
Much useful assistance has thus, as well as by expert testimony in 
connection with legal actions on the part of the Board, been furnished 
by the Zoological Division to the Insecticide and Fungicide Board in 
the enforcement of the law. 
Anthelmintics 
Various workers in this division have summarized from time to 
time the important papers on anthelmintics in connection with the 
publications on parasitic diseases, and in addition experiments along 
the line of treatment have been conducted from time to time. Thus 
in 1896 Stiles published experiments in regard to the tolerance of Zoological Division 
115 
chickens for copper sulphate solution and for turpentine. In 1902 
Stiles reported the results of experiments indicating that arsenic, 
thymol and creosote were not of value in expelling the fringed tape- 
worm of sheep, that intratracheal injections, fumigations and the 
oral administration of substances eliminated through the lungs were 
not of value in killing lungworms, and that copper sulphate, gasoline, 
thymol and creosote were of some value in controlling stomach worms 
and other nematodes of ruminants. Stiles also reported that where 
sheep were in a standing position when dosed, the liquids administered 
went directly to the fourth stomach for the most part, this conclusion 
being based on the experimental administration of colored fluids, the 
animal treated being then killed and immediately examined post mor- 
tem. The efficacy of the anthelmintics tested in the above experiments 
was judged in part from the results of fecal examinations after treat- 
ment, in part from post mortem examination of the animals treated, 
and in part from clinical improvement. The same year, 1902, Stiles 
and Pfender reported the results of experiments to determine the 
efficacy of thymol in removing whipworms from dogs. In these ex- 
periments feces were examined after treatment to some extent and 
the animals subsequently examined post mortem. In 1912 Ransom 
and Hall made some experiments on the effect of anthelmintics on 
parasites situated outside of the lumen of the digestive tract. 
In 1915 experiments carried on by Foster indicated that oil of 
chenopodium was quite effective in removing ascarids from swine. 
The results of the treatment in these experiments were ascertained by 
fecal examinations. This same year the subject of anthelmintic treat- 
ment was made a separate project of the division and experiments 
were begun by Hall and Foster. The method adopted for testing 
drugs consisted in administering definite doses of drugs to animals, 
carefully collecting all parasites from the feces passed up to the time 
the animal was killed, usually a period of 4 days, and then collecting 
all worms present post mortem. In this way the efficacy of a drug 
could be accurately ascertained for the doses used and under the 
conditions of the experiment. As a result of critical tests of this sort 
numerous anthelmintics recommended on the basis of clinical experi- 
ence for the removal of various worms from various host animals 
have been found ineffective and unreliable, while other anthelmintics 
recommended on the same basis have been found as effective as clinical 
experience indicated. In some cases the therapeutic dose has been defi- 
nitely ascertained for these drugs for the first time and in other cases 
the proper technique and procedure in administering the drug has 116 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
been ascertained. A comprehensive study of this sort was published 
by Hall and Foster in 1918. 
In further investigations, substances not in use as anthelmintics 
were tested and one such substance, carbon tetrachlorid, has been 
found to be a very effective anthelmintic. This drug was found to be 
more effective than any of the drugs in use for removing hookworms. 
It was first established as the best drug for the removal of hookworms 
from dogs and was recommended in correspondence with veterinarians 
for trial as a drug for removing hookworms from fur foxes. It was 
also shown to be quite effective in removing ascarids from dogs and is 
much used for removing these worms from dogs and foxes owing to 
the fact that it is distinctly safer than the somewhat more effective 
oil of chenopodium. It is now established in veterinary medicine as 
the best treatment for removing hookworms from dogs and foxes. On 
the basis of these facts, of toxicity tests on monkeys made in cooper- 
ation with the Hygienic Laboratory, and of the absence of unpleasant 
symptoms when the indicated therapeutic dose of the drug for man 
was taken by the investigator (Hall), the drug was brought to the 
attention of the medical profession. The Rockefeller Foundation 
promptly undertook the work of testing this drug in human medi- 
cine and the published reports up to the present time show that 
the drug has been given to over 100,000 patients and has so far 
proved more effective, safer, cheaper and less unpleasant in its 
effects on the patient than any of the drugs heretofore in use against 
hookworms. The drug has the advantage of being a definite chemical 
and not a variable mixture, as is oil of chenopodium. While this drug 
needs more study, it appears destined to have an extensive use in 
human and veterinary medicine in controlling certain parasitic worms 
and especially hookworms. 
Largely as a result of the studies noted above, we now have a num- 
ber of dependable treatments, established by critical tests, for many 
of the parasitic diseases. For centuries the drugs known as anthel- 
mintics have been a heterogenous group of "worm medicines," con- 
cerning which we had little definite knowledge. Effective and in- 
effective drugs were alike recommended on the basis of clinical ex- 
perience. Today we have dependable treatments, based on exact in- 
formation, for a number of the parasitic worms of domesticated ani- 
mals and an established experimental method of proved value for 
finding such treatments for other worms. Zoological Division 
117 
Verminous Toxins 
During the years 1916-1920 various studies were made in the 
Zoological Division, notably by Schwartz, of the effects of the toxins 
of parasitic worms and of other parasites on animals, by injecting 
into experimental animals substances isolated from the tissues of the 
parasites and by observing the reactions upon blood produced by these 
substances in vitro. A method of serum therapy for trichinosis pro- 
posed by one investigator on the basis of the results of certain experi- 
ments he had conducted was tested and found inefficacious. Con- 
siderable attention has been paid to so-called parasitic anaphylaxis, 
and some interesting contributions (Ransom) have been made to the 
knowledge of this phenomenon. 
Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoology 
An important piece of work done in the Zoological Division, which 
was begun by Dr. Hassall in the spring of 1891 soon after his arrival 
in Washington and later continued by Stiles and Hassall, is the Index- 
Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoology, one of the most val- 
uable reference works in parasitology ever published. The first part 
of this catalogue published as Bulletin 39 of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry was issued in 1902, and succeeding parts appeared from 
year to year. The last part of this Bulletin was issued in 1912, the 
36 parts published having a total of 2,766 pages and giving as com- 
plete a list as it was possible to obtain of the published books and 
articles relating to parasitology. Supplementing this bulletin the 
portion of the Index-Catalogue in which the literature of parasitology 
is indexed by subjects has been issued as Bulletins of the Hygienic 
Laboratory, U. S. Public Health Service, through a cooperative ar- 
rangement, Dr. Stiles having continued to maintain his interest in the 
catalogue after leaving the Bureau of Animal Industry. Hygienic 
Laboratory Bulletin 37 containing the Index on Trematoda and Tre- 
matode Diseases (401 pages) was issued in 1908, Bulletin 85 on 
Cestoda and Cestodaria (467 pages) was issued in 1912, and Bulle- 
tin 114 on Roundworms (886 pages) wTas issued in 1920. Another 
portion of the catalogue indexing all known species of parasites ac- 
cording to the hosts in which they occur is now in preparation for the 
printer. This great work will form an enduring monument to the 
tireless industry and painstaking care of the authors, an exceedingly 
tedius task of the most exacting nature in its requirements for ac- 
curacy of detail and completeness of scope, the successful accomplish- 
ment of which has been of incalculable benefit in facilitating research 118 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
in parasitology by providing the means by which any worker can 
readily trace the literature on the particular subject or subjects in 
parasitology in which he is interested. 
Collection of Parasites 
The collection of specimens of parasites belonging to the Zoological 
Division which was begun by Stiles and Hassall in 1891 has become 
one of the largest and most complete collections of the kind in the 
world. It has proved of great value for study and reference and has 
been extensively used not only by the staff of the Division but by 
other parasitologists to whom it has in various ways been rendered 
available. Up to the present time (June, 1922) over 10,000 entries 
have been made in the catalogue of the collection. In addition to the 
specimens covered by these catalogue entries there are several thou- 
sand specimens entered in another catalogue and deposited by the 
Bureau in the U. S. National Museum. 
Miscellaneous 
Among the various subjects that have been investigated in the 
Zoological Division and the results of which have been published the 
following not specifically mentioned elsewhere in this review of the 
activities of the Division, may be noted: 
Flukes of cattle, sheep and swine; thorn-headed worms of swine; 
tapeworms of hares and rabbits; nematodes of rodents; parasites of 
the fur seal; country slaughterhouses in their relation to disease; 
methods of fecal examination for the presence of parasites; tape- 
worms of dogs and cats; tapeworms of poultry and other birds; para- 
sites of foxes; fly repellents; parasites of reindeer; frogs, toads and 
carp as eradicators of fluke disease; stomach worms of swine; echino- 
coccus ; worms in the eyes of chickens and other birds; coccidiosis; 
flukes of the family Heterophyidae; lungworms; kidney worms; dogs 
as carriers of parasites and disease; prevalence and distribution of 
the parasites of sheep and cattle; and relation of parasites to the 
southern livestock industry. 
Among the parasites of the domestic animals which have been de- 
scribed by the Zoological Division as new species are the following: 
Dicrocoelium complexum from the cat; Diplospora bigemina, Tamia 
balaniceps, Taenia ovis (first description of adult worm) and Multi- 
ceps gaigeri from the dog; Agamodistomum suis, Hyostrongylus 
rubidus and Gongylonenia ransomi from swine; Moniezia trigo- 
nophora, (Esophagostomum columbianum, Ostertagia trifurcata, Zoological Division 
119 
0. marshalli, 0. occidentalis, 0. bullosa, Cooperia pectinata, Nemato- 
dirus furcatus, Capillaria brevipes and C. longipes from sheep; Tri- 
chostrongylus falculatus from goats; Trichostrongylus capricola and 
Nematodirus abnormalis from sheep and goats; Moniezia pianissimo, 
Nematodirus helvetianus, Oncocerca lienalis and Trypanosoma ameri- 
canum from cattle; Nematodirus dromedarii from the dromedary; 
Gongylonema ingluvicola from chickens; and Ornithostrongyhis quad- 
riradiatus from pigeons. Two new hookworms, N ecat or americanus 
of man and Uncinaria lucasi of fur seals, were also described from 
this laboratory. A large number of new species of parasites of dther 
animals, notably those of rabbits and rodents, have been been de- 
scribed in the course of miscellaneous investigations. 
Important contributions have been made in the Zoological Division 
in connection with the life history of the following parasites: Hypo- 
derma lineatum, Margaropus annulatus, Ornithodoros megnini, CEso- 
phagostomum columbianum, Hcemonchus contortus, Nematodirus 
filicollis (or N. spathiger), Strongyloides papillosus, Habronema 
muscoe, Gongylonema scutatum, Syngamus trachealis, Ascaris lumbri- 
coides, Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, Cysticercus ovis, and Pi- 
roplasma bigeminum. 
Certain lesions, symptoms and other pathological conditions have 
been reported for the first time from this laboratory in connection 
with Thysanosoma actinioides, Ornithostrongyhis quadriradiatus, 
Cooperia punctata, Triodontophorus tenuicollis and Ascaris lumbri- 
coides. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
1886. Aug. 1. Dr. Cooper Curtice appointed in charge of parasitological 
investigations. Investigation of fringed tapeworm begun. 
1887. Studies on flukes in liver and lungs of cattle published. 
1888. Early stages of rabbit tapeworms described. 
1889. The disease due to fringed tapeworm in sheep first described. 
1890. Observations on the ox warble published with a formulation of the 
life history. 
"Parasites of sheep" published, covering, among other things, the 
description of CEsophagostomum columbianum Curtice, 1890, as 
the cause of nodular disease, or knotty guts. 
1891. The essential features of the life history of the Texas fever tick 
first described. 
Dr. Albert Hassall transferred to Zoological Laboratory, March 7. 
Dr. Cooper Curtice resigned May 31, 1891. 
Dr. Charles Wardell Stiles appointed in charge of Zoological Labora- 
tory, June 3. 
Work begun on the Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary 
Zoology, and the parasite collection of the Bureau. 120 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
1892. Intermediate host for thorny-headed worm of swine in United States 
first reported. 
Strongylus ostertagi (Ostertagia ostertagi) first reported from the 
United States. 
A new coccidian (Coccidium bigeminum Stiles, 1892) reported from 
dogs. 
A new stomach worm, Strongylus rubidus Hassall and Stiles, re- 
ported from swine. 
Detailed description of gullet worm of sheep and cattle published. 
1893. Revision of the adult cestodes of cattle, sheep and allied animals 
published, including description of the new species Moniezia 
pianissimo, Stiles and Hassall, 1893, and M. trigonophora Stiles 
and Hassall, 1893. 
1894. Detailed description of Fasciola magna published, with a compari- 
son with other flukes and a summary of outbreaks of fascioliasis. 
First record of Distoma westermani (Paragonimus westermani) 
from the United States published. 
A protozoan, Icthyopthirius multifiliis, reported from fish in the 
United States, with measures for its control in aquaria. 
Trichinosis experimentally produced in Spermophilus tridecemli- 
neatus. 
Catalogue of American parasites published. 
A new fluke, Distoma (Dicrocoelium) complexum Stiles and Hassall, 
1894, reported from cats in the United States. 
A new fluke, Distomum tricolor Stiles and Hassall, 1894, reported 
from hares and rabbits in the United States. 
1895. Report on the rarity of Taenia solium in the United States pub- 
lished. 
Six new tapeworms described from hares and rabbits. 
1896. Report on tapeworms of poultry published . 
Report on adult tapeworms of hares and rabbits published. 
1898. Publication on flukes and tapeworms of cattle, sheep and swine, 
with special reference to the inspection of meats. 
Report on sheep scab published. 
Publication of inventory of genera and subgenera of the trematode 
family Fasciolidae. 
Dr. Stiles appointed Scientific Attache to American Embassy at 
Berlin, Germany. 
1899. Report on internal parasites of the fur seal, with the description 
of a new hookworm, subsequently named Uncinaria lucasi Stiles 
and Hassall, 1901, as a cause of deaths among seals. 
1900. Studies published on a muscle fluke of swine, lung flukes in swine, 
and the conical amphistome in cattle. 
Report on kidney worm of swine published. 
1901. Report on cattle ticks of United States published. 
Report published on hookworm disease in man and animals in the 
United States. 
Treatment published for roundworms in cattle, sheep and goats. 
Report published on trichinosis, showing that cases of trichinosis 
in Germany had been erroneously attributed to eating American 
pork and that microscopic inspection for trichinae was not an 
effective preventive measure as practiced. 
Report on verminous diseases of cattle, sheep and goats in Texas. 
A pupa-like stage described in the development of Ornithodoros 
megnini, the spinose ear tick. 
Boophilus australis reported from Cuba and Porto Rico. 
1902. A new hookworm, Uncinaria americana Stiles, 1902, reported from Zoological Division 
121 
man in the United States, and the probable distribution and im- 
portance of this parasite indicated. 
Lamblia duodenalis reported for the first time from the United 
States. 
Emergency report on surra published. 
Anguillula aceti reported from human bladder. 
Publication begun on the Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veteri- 
nary Zoology: Authors. 
Report on thymol as ineffective for removing whipworms from 
dogs. 
Dr. C. W. Stiles resigned August 5 to enter U. S. Public Health and 
Marine Hospital Service, but continued supervision of the Zoolog- 
ical Laboratory until June 1, 1903. 
1903. Dr. B. H. Ransom appointed in charge of Zoological Laboratory, 
June 1. 
1904. A new nematode, Gongylonema ingluvicola Ransom, 1904, described 
from American chickens. 
The eye-worm, Oxyspirura mansoni, first reported from American 
chickens. 
A new nematode, Strongylus quadriradiatus Stevenson, 1904, de- 
scribed as the cause of losses among pigeons. 
Davainea echinobothrida, and not Davainea tetragona as formerly 
assumed, shown to be cause of nodular tseniasis of intestines of 
American chickens. 
1905. The first well authenticated case of gid reported from the United 
States. 
Report on tapeworms of American chickens and turkeys published. 
Report published on external parasites of swine, with methods of 
control. 
1906. Microscopic examination for trichinae abandoned in meat inspection. 
Life history of the stomach worm, Hsemonchus contortus, described. 
1907. Dr. Maurice C. Hall appointed June 20. 
Development in intestine of adult nematodes of the genus Strongylo- 
ides, following cutaneous infection, first published. 
Descriptions published of new genera and species of nematodes from 
cattle, sheep and goats, including Trichostrongylus capricola, Os- 
tertagia trifurcata, O. marshalli, O. occidentalis and Cooperia 
pectinata. 
Probstmayria vivipara reported for the first time from the United 
States. 
1908. Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoology: Trematoda and 
Trematode Diseases, published in collaboration with Hygienic 
Laboratory. 
Cysticerci in the muscles of sheep reported from the United States 
for the first time. 
Fasciola magna reported from sheep for the first time. 
1909. Trypanosoma americanum described from American cattle. 
Report published on the tsenioid cestodes of North American birds. 
Studies published on the control of Texas fever tick by pasture 
rotation methods. 
1910. Distribution of gid in the United States ascertained and coyote 
shown to be a host of the gid tapeworm. 
Historical review of the gid parasite and allied parasites published. 
A new tapeworm, Taenia balaniceps Hall, 1910, described from the 
dog in the United States. 
Federal quarantine on imported sheep dogs established to prevent 
introduction of dangerous worms. 
Methods of control of stomach worm of sheep proposed. 122 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
1911. The life history of a stomach worm of horses, Habronema muscx, 
described. 
Monograph of nematodes of ruminants published, including, among 
other things, 2 new species, Capillaria brevipes Ransom, 1911, 
and C. longipes Ransom, 1911. 
Investigations begun on beef measles to determine meat inspection 
procedure. 
A new nematode, Trichostrongylus falculatus Ransom, 1911, de- 
scribed from the goat. 
Physocephalus sexalatus first reported from the United States. 
Studies published on methods of examining feces for parasites. 
Studies published on the biology of the Texas fever tick. 
1912. Studies published on arsenical dip for cattle ticks, indicating that 0.22 
per cent of arsenic trioxid is approximately the safe and effective 
arsenic content and that 2 dippings at a 7 to 10-day interval will 
free cattle of ticks. 
Cysticerci in muscles of reindeer reported from North America for 
first time. 
Studies published on nematodes of swine and injuries due to them. 
A new nematode, Ostertagia bullosa, Ransom and Hall, 1912, de- 
scribed from sheep. 
The distribution of some important parasites of sheep and cattle in 
the United States ascertained and published. 
Studies on the protozoan parasites of domestic animals published. 
Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoology: Cestoda and 
Cestodaria, published in collaboration with the Hygienic Labo- 
ratory. 
1913. Experiments published showing that arsenical dip containing 0.1869 
per cent of arsenic trioxid will protect cattle from infestation for 
2 days but not for 5 days, the protection being due to a killing 
action, not a repellent action, of the arsenic. 
The cysticerci in muscles of sheep shown to be the larvae of a dog 
tapeworm and not to be Cysticercus cellulose as formerly sup- 
posed. 
1914. The destruction of trichinae by refrigeration reported as a control 
measure for trichinosis. 
Sheep farm established at Vienna, Va., for investigation of sheep 
parasites with Dr. Cooper Curtice in charge. 
Methods of destroying Cysticercus bovis by refrigeration reported. 
Studies on repellents for protecting animals from flies reported. 
Publication of experimental demonstration of the life history of 
Sarcocystis muris, confirming Negre's work. 
A new protozoan, Sarcocystis leporum Crawley, 1914, reported 
from rabbits. 
Dr. Marion Imes placed in charge of investigations on control and 
treatment of external parasites, Septembei' 1. 
1915. The life history of the gullet worm, Gongylonema scutatum, ascer- 
tained and published. 
Investigations of gapeworm of poultry begun. 
Syngamus laryngeus reported from the Philippines for the first 
time, this being the second report of this parasite. 
The third American case of Dipylidium caninum in man reported. 
Studies published on the dog as a carrier of parasites and disease. 
1916. Dr. M. C. Hall resigned September 16. 
Monograph published on nematodes of rodents. 
A new tapeworm, Multiceps gaigeri Hall, 1916, with a larval stage in 
goats, described from the dog. 
Report published on the parasites of cattle. Zoological Division 
123 
Report published on stages of Piroplasma bigeminum occurring in 
Texas fever ticks and their eggs. 
Report on sheep scab and methods of control published. 
1917. Oil of chenopodium found effective in removing ascarids from swine. 
Studies published covering new facts in the life history of ascarids 
of swine, including the fact that ascarid larvae may cause serious 
or fatal pneumonia in the course of their migration through the 
lungs of young pigs, and the fact established that no intermediate 
host is necessary. 
Studies published on sheep tick and methods of control. 
1918. Studies published on cattle lice, cattle scab and spinose ear tick, 
with methods of control. 
Studies on anthelmintics published, showing efficacy of chenopodium 
for removing ascarids of dogs and swine. 
Studies published on horse strongyles, reporting for the first time 
Triodontophorus tenuicollis as the cause of ulcers in the large 
intestine. 
Observations published on the life history of trichinae. 
Keeping sows clean just before and after farrowing and cleanliness 
of surroundings for young pigs suggested as a basis for prevent- 
ing ascarid infestation in pigs. 
1919. Dr. M. C. Hall reappointed April 1. 
Larval ascarids in the lungs reported as a common cause of so-called 
thumps in young pigs. 
Monthly treatment with copper sulphate solution combined with 
pasture rotation reported as a control measure for stomach worms 
in sheep. 
The turkey shown to be the important factor in gapeworm disease of 
poultry, the adult turkey harboring the gapeworm and serving as 
a carrier without symptoms. 
Experiments on the efficacy of sanitary measures in preventing as- 
carid infestation in pigs begun in McLean County, Illinois, in 
charge of Dr. H. B. Raffensperger. 
Results of experiments establishing the thermal death point for the 
destruction of trichinae by heat published. 
Studies nublished on a blood-destroying substance in Ascaris lum- 
bricoides. 
Monograph of the tsenioid cestodes of dogs, cats and allied carni- 
vores published. 
1920. Index-Cata1ogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoology: Roundworms, 
published in collaboration with the Hygienic Laboratory. 
Publication of methods of curing pork ascertained as effective in 
destroying trichinae. 
Studies of effect of x-rays in destroying trichinae published. 
Studies published on nematodes of the genus Nematodirus, describ- 
ing the new snecies N. abnormalis. N. helvetianus, N. furcatus and 
N. dromedarii from domesticated ruminants. 
Studies published on hemolysins of parasitic worms. 
1921. Cooperia punctata shown to cause pronounced lesions of digestive 
tract in calves, with resultant injury and death. 
Species of Oncocerca, including either 0. reticulata or O. cervicalis 
or probably both, reported from the United States. 
Carbon tetrachlorid reported for the first time as an anthelmintic; 
shown to be more effective in removing hookworms from dogs 
than other remedies in use and brought to the attention of the 
medical profession as possibly superior to drugs in use in human 
medicine for this purpose. This drug also shown to be effective 
in removing Strongylus and ascarids from horses. 124 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Publication of studies on parasites of sheep with control measures. 
The swine hookworm, Crassiosoma urosubulatum, reported for the 
first time from the United States, together with cases of sheep and 
dog hookworms in swine. 
The swine kidney worm, Stephanurus dentatus, reported for the 
first time from cattle. 
1921. Dipylidium sexcoronatum reported from the cat for the first time. 
Syngamus laryngeus reported for the first time from the Western 
Hemisphere. 
Insecticidal solutions in wading tanks found of value in controlling 
ox warble. 
Detailed studies published on the migration of ascarid larvae in the 
host. 
A new record published of Hymenolepis diminuta in man. 
Motion picture film "Exit Ascaris" made and exhibited. 
Studies published on the toxins of parasitic worms and effects of 
these on host blood. 
1922. Studies published on animal parasites of foxes. 
Nematodirus reported as cause of serious injury to sheep. 
Studies published on lungworms of domestic animals. 
Successful control measures reported for stomach worms in lambs. 
A new gullet worm, Gongylonema ransomi Chapin, 1922, described 
from American swine, and measures taken in meat inspection 
service for the removal of this worm from hog tongues. 
Alaria americana reported from the cat for the first time and 
Oxyuris compar of the cat shown to be 0. ambigua of the rabbit. 
Studies published on common parasites of live-stock and treatments 
for removing them. 
Studies published on roundworms of swine. 
Studies published on the toxic effects of ascarid fluids on man. 
Triodontophorus tenuicollis, T. brevicauda, Gyalocephalus equi, Cy- 
licostomum coronatum, C. pseudo-catinatum, C. nassatum var. 
parvum. C. longibursatum and C. minutum reported from horses 
in the United States for the first time. 
Field work on the control of stomach worms of sheep begun in Schuy- 
ler Co., Mo., under Dr. E. M. Nighbert. 
1923. Studies published on carbon tetrachlorid as an anthelmintic. 
Rectal injections of anthelmintics found effective in removing cecum 
worms from poultry; intravenous injections ineffective in destroy- 
ing strongyles in aneurisms. 
Studies published on arecolin hydrobromid as an anthelmintic. 
Successful experimental production of intrauterine infestation of 
pups with dog ascarids. 
Studies published on the prevention of intestinal worms in swine. 
Studies published on internal parasites of dogs and cats and treat- 
ments for removing them. 
Studies published on hookworms of swine. 
PERSONNEL OF THE ZOOLOGICAL DIVISION 
Chiefs of Division: 
Dr. Cooper Curtice, appointed in charge of parasitological investiga- 
tions August 1, 1886. Resigned May 31, 1891. 
Dr. Charles Wardell Stiles, appointed in charge of Zoological Labor- 
atory June 3, 1891. Resigned August 5, 1902, but continued in 
charge until June 1, 1903. 
Dr. Brayton H. Ransom, appointed in charge of Zoological Laboratory 
June 1, 1903. Title changed to Chief of Zoological Division 
July 1, 1906. Quarantine Division' 
With the view of preventing the introduction of foreign diseases 
of cattle into the United States, the first session of the 29th Congress, 
under date of December 18, 1865, passed the first act providing for 
the prohibition of the importation of cattle from foreign countries. 
The same Congress, under date of March 6, 1866, amended this act, 
making it apply likewise to the hides of neat cattle. The Secretary of 
the Treasury was directed to make such regulations as were necessary 
to put the law into immediate effect. This same law was reenacted in 
1878 as a part of the Revised Statutes. 
The first prohibition under the act was issued by the Secretary of 
the Treasury on July 31, 1875, excluding neat cattle and the hides of 
neat cattle from Spain on account of the presence of foot-and-mouth 
disease. This order was withdrawn in October of the same year, and 
on November 3, 1875, a similar order was made prohibiting the im- 
portation of neat cattle and the hides of neat cattle from Great Britain 
and Ireland on account of the prevalence of foot-and-mouth disease. 
This order remained in effect until March 16, 1876, when the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury allowed the importation of blooded stock from 
Great Britain and Ireland, provided they were accompanied by a cer- 
tificate from the United States consular officer that such animals were 
at the date of exportation in a sound and healthy condition and free 
from foot-and-mouth disease or any indication thereof. When in 
1879 the Treasury Department learned that contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia existed in England, the ports along the Atlantic seaboard 
were closed on February 26 of that year to English cattle until other- 
wise ordered. This prohibition against England was revoked July 1, 
1879, and suspended as to European ports, provided all cattle were 
kept in quarantine on arrival not less than 90 days under customs 
officers at the expense of the parties interested. 
On July 30, 1883, the Secretary of the Treasury issued an order 
requiring that all neat cattle from any part of the world, except 
North and South America, be subjected to a quarantine of 90 days 
at the port of entry. Stations for the accommodation of imported 
cattle were provided at the ports of Portland, Me., Boston, Mass., New 
York, N. Y., and Baltimore, Md. Animal quarantine stations have 
* Since the history of the Quarantine Division was written the activities and responsi- 
bilities of that Division have been transferred to the Field Inspection Division ; therefore, 
the history of what was formerly the Quarantine Division properly would come under the 
heading of Field Inspection Division, but for convenience we prefer in this sketch to 
maintain the identity of the Quarantine Division and give its history separate from the 
Field Inspection Diyision, 
125 126 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
been continuously maintained at the ports of Boston, New York and 
Baltimore since 1883. 
By a provision of the Sundry Civil Bill approved July 7, 1884, 
money appropriated for establishing and maintaining quarantine 
stations for neat cattle was to be expended by the Commissioner of 
Agriculture under the supervision of the Secretary of the Treasury. 
Accordingly, on August 25, 1884, the Commissioner of Agriculture, 
George B. Loring, issued an order specifying that all neat cattle ar- 
riving in the United States from any part of the world except North 
and South America be landed only at such ports along the Atlantic 
seaboard as were provided with cattle quarantine accommodations 
under control of officers of the Department of Agriculture, and that 
persons contemplating importation of cattle must obtain permits from 
that Department. George B. Loring was Commissioner of Agricul- 
ture 1881-1885. He was succeeded by Norman J. Colman, who served 
as Commissioner from 1885 until February 11, 1889, when he was 
appointed by the President the first Secretary of Agriculture. The 
law of August 25, 1884, applied to only one class of livestock, namely, 
neat cattle. 
Transfer of Authority from Treasury Department to Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 
On August 25, 1884, the year in which the Bureau was established, 
an order was promulgated over the signature of Hon. George B. 
Loring, Commissioner of Agriculture, and Mr. Charles E. Coon, Act- 
ing Secretary of the Treasury, giving notice that after that date all 
regulations governing the quarantine of neat cattle would be issued 
by the Commissioner of Agricuture. This order specified that the 
ports then provided with quarantine stations at which cattle might 
be landed subject to specified conditions were Portland, Me., Boston, 
Mass., New York, N. Y., Baltimore, Aid., and such additional ports 
as might be provided with quarantine accommodations approved by 
the Commissioner of Agriculture and supervised by the proper offi- 
cers under provisions of the order. A number of temporary stations 
had been provided, and on July 1, 1885, an order of the Commissioner 
of Agriculture was issued abolishing the quarantine stations at Port- 
land, Me., Coopersburg, Pa., Chester, Pa., and New Orleans, La., and 
establishing a station at San Francisco, Calif. On October 1, 1885, 
the Commissioner ordered the removal of the quarantine station at 
Waltham, Mass., to Littleton, Mass., and designated that station Lit- 
tleton Neat Cattle Quarantine Station. Quarantine Division 
127 
On May 1, 1883, Dr. D. E. Salmon had been called to Washington 
by Commissioner George B. Loring to establish a veterinary division 
of the Department of Agriculture. Commissioner Loring, who was 
educated as a physician, but from about 1857 had devoted his time to 
scientific farming and politics, gave special attention to the diseases 
of animals. The law passed on May 29, 1884, providing for the 
establishment of a Bureau of Animal Industry enabled him to ap- 
point Dr. Salmon as the first Chief of the Bureau, which appointment 
took effect on May 31, 1884. It was on this date that the organization 
of the Bureau began under Dr. Salmon's direction. 
Establishment of Permanent Quarantine Stations 
The Sundry Civil Bill of July 7, 1884, having empowered the Com- 
missioner of Agriculture to expend money appropriated for estab- 
lishing and maintaining quarantine stations, Dr. Salmon, in the First 
Annual Report of the Bureau (1884), in referring to quarantine sta- 
tions at the ports of Boston, New York and Baltimore, made the fol- 
lowing recommendations: 
As the necessity for these stations will be permanent, it would 
seem advisable for the Government to acquire more secure possession 
either by long lease or purchase of suitable grounds which could be 
placed in a satisfactory condition for cleaning and disinfection. 
While not entirely free from objections, the present arrangements 
must be considered as very satisfactory when we take into account 
their temporary character, the small appropriations for establish- 
ing them and the short time during which they have been in oper- 
ation. 
Under the direction of Dr. Salmon the practice of maintaining a 
number of small quarantine stations near a port of entry was aban- 
doned and arrangements were perfected for the maintenance of but 
three quarantine stations on the Atlantic seaboard. The station for 
the port of Boston was located at Littleton, Mass., some 32 miles west 
of Boston. This station had been transferred from Waltham to Lit- 
tleton in 1885. The Littleton station was located on leased property 
consisting of about 32 acres. The quarantine station for the port of 
Baltimore, known as the Patapsco Station, was located at Halethorp, 
Md., on a leased tract of about 15 acres. The animal quarantine 
station established by the Treasury Department for the port of New 
York was also located on leased land, at Garfield, N. J., the stables, 
fencing, water supply and other equipment having been provided by 
the Government. This tract of land consisted of about 30 acres. 
While none of these stations was on the water front, they were readily 
accessible from the respective ports by rail and were each provided 128 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
with a railroad siding and suitable facilities for the unloading and 
reloading of cattle. 
Being on leased land, the buildings constructed at these stations 
were naturally of a somewhat temporary character and in course of 
time began to show the effects of age. While the leases of the various 
properties were favorable to the Government as regards tenure and 
privilege of cancelling the lease on short notice, it became more and 
more apparent that the quarantine of imported livestock was to be a 
permanent practice, and an effort was begun to obtain appropriations 
from Congress which would make possible the purchase of suitable 
lands and station equipment for these three Atlantic seaboard ports, 
thus assuring, as recommended by Dr. Salmon in 1884, stations in a 
satisfactory condition for cleaning and disinfection. 
In October, 1888, a quarantine station was established at Mount 
Airy, near Philadelphia, with Dr. A. C. Young as superintendent, but 
was used for only two shipments of cattle entering that port from 
Antwerp, viz, 11 head of Swiss and 6 of Holstein cattle. At this time 
Dr. Young was stationed at Philadelphia in charge of contagious 
pleuropneumonia eradication work in that section. 
Among the early superintendents of quarantine stations were Dr. 
Madison Bunker at the Waltham, Mass., station (1884) ; Dr. A. H. 
Rose at the Patapsco, Md., quarantine station (1884) ; Dr. F. Bridge, 
Coopersburg, Pa. (1884) ; Dr. A. H. Rose, Littleton, Mass. (1886- 
1888) ; Dr. A. M. Farrington, Garfield, N. J., station .(1884-1886) ; 
Dr. W. H. Lowe, Garfield, N. J., station (1887-1893). Later super- 
intendents were Dr. J. B. Hopper, Garfield, N. J., station (1894-1897) ; 
Dr. W. B. E. Miller, Garfield, N. J., station (1898-1899) ; Dr. George 
W. Pope, Garfield and Athenia, N. J., station (1900-1908) ; Dr. E. T. 
Davison, Athenia, N. J., station 1909 to present date. When meat 
inspection was inaugurated at Boston and Baltimore the inspectors in 
charge of meat inspection were placed in charge of the quarantine 
stations at these ports. 
Establishment of Quarantine Period 
On account of the danger of importing disease in other classes of 
animals, the Act of August 30, 1890, was passed, including sheep, 
other ruminants and swine with neat cattle and prohibiting the im- 
portation of any such animals as were diseased or affected with any 
disease or which had been exposed to such infection within 60 days 
next before their exportation. The administration of this law was 
entrusted to the Secretary of Agriculture, who was authorized to Quarantine Division 
129 
place and retain in quarantine all neat cattle, sheep, other ruminants 
and swine imported into the United States at such ports as he should 
designate. The regulations now in force for the inspection and quar- 
antine of cattle, sheep, other ruminants and swine imported into the 
United States are made under authority of this act (approved 
August 30, 1890) supplemented by later acts. The period of quar- 
antine was fixed by the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture 
at 90 days for cattle, counting from the date of shipment, and 15 days 
for sheep and other ruminants and swine, counting from date of 
arrival at the quarantine station. 
The Act of August 30, 1890, provides for the inspection and quar- 
antine of imported sheep, other ruminants and swine in addition to 
cattle. In conformity with the act, Hon. J. M. Rusk, Secretary of 
Agriculture, on October 13, 1890, issued regulations, with the ap- 
proval of the Secretary of the Treasury, similar to those already in 
effect which were issued by the Treasury Department on July 19, 
1879, signed H. F. French, Acting Secretary of the Treasury. These 
regulations provided for the inspection and quarantine of cattle, sheep 
and other ruminants and swine imported into the United States and 
that they must be entered through certain designated ports on the 
Atlantic and Pacific seaboards, and along the boundary between the 
United States and Mexico, and between the United States and British 
Columbia and Canada. These regulations and the rules prescribed 
therein for conducting quarantine stations have, with certain modi- 
fications, remained in effect until the present date. 
In the Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the 
years 1889 and 1890 Dr. Salmon expressed the belief that these regu- 
lations would not only protect our herds and flocks, but in view of 
the assurances received from the British authorities would probably 
result in the revocation by the British Government of its regulation 
excluding American sheep from Great Britain. 
Under provisions of these regulations, issued October 13, 1890, the 
quarantine period for cattle except those from North, Central and 
South America, was 90 days, counting from date of arrival at the 
quarantine station. By regulations effective March 1, 1900, the quar- 
antine period for cattle was changed to 90 days counting from the 
date of shipment, except that in the case of cattle from countries of 
North and Central America, and effective May 1, 1903, the quarantine 
period for cattle from Great Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands 
was reduced to 60 days, counting from date of shipment, and effective 
October 1, 1909, to 30 days for cattle from Great Britain, Ireland and 130 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
the Channel Islands, counting from the date of arrival at the quar- 
antine station. The quarantine period of 15 days, counting from 
date of arrival at the quarantine station, was continued in effect for 
sheep and other ruminants and swine from across seas. 
The operation of these periods of 30 and 15 days was continued 
under revised regulations effective May 1, 1923, with a provision for 
60 days quarantine counting from the date of arrival at the port of 
entry in the case of all cattle from any part of the world except Great 
Britain, Ireland, the Channel Islands, Canada, Mexico, Central 
America and the West Indies. 
Development of Division 
The Annual Report of the Bureau for 1891 to 1892 shows that Dr. 
D. E. Salmon designated as the Quarantine Division that section hav- 
ing chiefly to do with the importation, quarantine and exportation of 
animals, the importation of hides and the disinfection of vessels. On 
February 1, 1890, Mr. R. G. Blaine was appointed Superintendent of 
Quarantine Stations. His designation on March 27, 1891, was changed 
to Chief, Quarantine Division. This position was abolished April 15, 
1893, and Mr. Blaine resigned from the Bureau service May 15, 1893. 
Following this date, the quarantine work was administered more di- 
rectly by the Chief of the Bureau until 1896, when the Quarantine 
Division, with its added duties, including the Bureau's accounts, was 
designated as the Miscellaneous Division, and Dr. A. M. Farrington 
was appointed Chief July 1, 1896. Dr. Farrington was succeeded by 
Dr. T.'A. Geddes January 1, 1899, who served as Chief of the Mis- 
cellaneous Division until November, 1900, when he in turn was suc- 
ceeded by Dr. R. W. Hickman November 1, 1900. On July 1, 1903, 
the Miscellaneous Division was again officially designated the Quaran- 
tine Division, and was continued as such under the direction of Dr. 
Hickman as Chief until his retirement on March 31, 1922, at which 
time he had completed an uninterrupted term of 34 years in the 
Bureau's service. 
The continuous expansion and increasing volume of wrnrk in con- 
nection with the various accounts necessitated in 1906 the organiza- 
tion of a separate Office of Accounts. After that time the duties of 
the Quarantine Division were primarily those related to the inspec- 
tion and quarantine of import livestock, supervision over import ani- 
mal by-products, the inspection of export livestock and the disinfec- 
tion and fitting of ocean steamers for their shipment, under provisions 
of regulations issued by the Secretary of Agriculture. Quarantine Division 
131 
Following the retirement of Dr. Hickman, Dr. George W. Pope, 
who since August 1, 1917, had been Assistant Chief of the Quaran- 
tine Division, conducted the work as Acting Chief until May 1, 1922, 
when the Quarantine Division was merged into the Field Inspection 
Division. 
Tuberculin Testing Abroad 
Prior to 1900 the tuberculin test had never been required for im- 
port cattle, and it was felt by Dr. Salmon that cattle coming forward 
almost continuously from Great Britain might be the means of dis- 
seminating tuberculosis among the valuable herds of purebred cattle 
in the United States. Accordingly B. A. I. Order 56, issued December 
28, 1899, provided that all cattle over 6 months old imported into 
the United States after March 1, 1900, which were subject to quar- 
antine and except as otherwise provided in the regulations, should be 
tested with tuberculin after their arrival at quarantine. Soon after 
this regulation became effective it appeared evident that as a result 
of tuberculin testing import cattle after arrival in the United States 
importers would suffer serious losses through the condemnation of 
their animals, and on November 10, 1900, an amendment to Order 56 
was issued to provide that all cattle of this kind over 6 months old 
imported after December 1, 1900, should be tested with tuberculin by 
an inspector of this Department stationed in Great Britain or after 
arrival at the quarantine station in the United States. Dr. Geddes 
was relieved as Chief of the Miscellaneous Division and assigned to 
London for the special purpose of supervising export shipments to 
the United States and to apply the tuberculin tests in these cases. 
The Bureau continued to provide for the tuberculin testing of cattle 
in the United Kingdom prior to their shipment to the United States 
until regulations effective May 1, 1923, required that such cattle be 
accompanied by a satisfactory tuberculin test certificate of an official 
veterinarian of the national government of origin, with a further 
provision for a subsequent tuberculin test made by a Bureau inspector 
during the last ten days of the quarantine period in the United States. 
Under the Act of April, 1897, the President of the United States 
was authorized to suspend the prohibition against the importation of 
neat cattle and the hides of neat cattle whenever the Secretary of 
Agriculture should certify to him what countries or parts of coun- 
tries were free from contagious or infectious diseases of domestic 
animals. By an Act of August 5, 1909, this authority to suspend the 
Transfer of Authority 132 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
prohibition against neat cattle and the hides of neat cattle was trans- 
ferred to the Secretary of the Treasury. 
There have been various reenactments of the law giving the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury authority to control the importation of neat 
cattle and the hides of neat cattle, the last of which appeared in the 
Tariff Act of October 3, 1913. Under the authority of this law the 
Secretary of the Treasury was to determine officially and give public 
notice thereof whenever a prohibition against the importation of cat- 
tle or the hides of neat cattle was suspended as applying to any for- 
eign country or countries or any parts of such country or countries. 
The Tariff Act approved September 21, 1922, transferred this au- 
thority to the Secretary of Agriculture in the following language: 
Sec. 306. (a) That the importation of neat cattle and the hides 
of neat cattle from any foreign country into the United States is 
prohibited under such rules of inspection as the Secretary of Agri- 
culture may determine. 
(b) If the Secretary of Agriculture shall determine that such im- 
portation will not tend to the introduction or spread of contagious 
or infectious diseases among the cattle of the United States, he shall 
officially notify the Secretary of the Treasury and give public notice 
that the operation of subdivision (a) of this section shall be sus- 
pended as to any foreign country or countries, or any parts of such 
country or countries. 
Under authority of this law the Secretary of Agriculture on De- 
cember 27, 1922, issued B. A. I. Order 280, authorizing the impor- 
tation, subject to regulations of the Department of Agriculture, of 
neat cattle from the Dominion of Canada, Mexico, the Channel 
Islands, Great Britain, Ireland and New Zealand, and, subject to 
joint regulations of the Treasury Department and the. Department 
of Agriculture, the importation of neat cattle hides from any foreign 
country. 
PURCHASE OF PROPERTY FOR QUARANTINE STATIONS 
Administration of the law applying to import livestock has made 
necessary the continuous maintenance by the Bureau of animal quar- 
antine stations at the ports of Boston, New York and Baltimore since 
first authorized by Congress in 1883. The requirement of quarantine 
for sheep, other ruminants and swine in addition to cattle increased 
the demand for more adequate facilities at the Atlantic Coast quar- 
antine stations. 
Port of New York.-It was not until May, 1900, that Congress made 
the appropriation which enabled the Bureau to take active steps in 
procuring land for a new animal quarantine station for the port of 
New York. An effort was made by Bureau officials to procure prop- Quarantine Division 
133 
erty for a station accessible by both water and rail. It was found, 
however, that the funds voted by Congress were not adequate to pur- 
chase water front acreage within a practicable distance from the 
great harbor of New York. After careful search, a tract of land at 
Athenia, N. J., was found which it was considered would meet the 
requirements. This property consisted of about 43 acres, adjoined 
the Erie Railroad, and was a quarter of a mile from the Delaware, 
Lackawanna & Western road. The property was purchased from six 
owners at a reasonable price and without litigation. 
After the State of New Jersey had ceded jurisdiction to the 
United States Government and the former owners had been given the 
requested time for vacating, the active work of establishing a new 
station was begun on April 1, 1901. Within a few months temporary 
buildings were moved from Garfield and permanent buildings had 
been erected upon the station grounds and the station was opened for 
the reception of import livestock. 
In 1903 a special appropriation was made by Congress for the pur- 
chase of about 9 acres additional, increasing the land area of the 
station to about 52 acres. Most of the temporary stables were re- 
placed at intervals by permanent brick stables, until there have been 
erected 18 substantial brick stables with cement floors and iron fit- 
tings and a cattle capacity of 462 head, affording, with the old frame 
buildings still remaining, a total capacity at this station of 625 head. 
Port of Baltimore.-In 1906 a survey was begun for a race course 
adjoining the animal quarantine station at Halethorp near Baltimore. 
This, together with the dilapidated condition of the buildings on the 
station, made it seem advisable to abandon the station and find a new 
location. Funds were provided by Congress, and the Bureau was suc- 
cessful during the fiscal year 1911 in purchasing for a quarantine 
station for the port of Baltimore a tract of land at Turner Station on 
the Baltimore & Sparrows Point Railway, with a good water front on 
the Patapsco River about five miles from the cattle steamer docks and 
within the lighterage area. The grounds, consisting of 17 acres, were 
rapidly equipped with fencing, a water system, a superintendent's 
dwelling and nine stables with concrete foundations, floors and side 
walls. The cattle capacity of the station at present is about 300 head 
with room on the grounds for the construction of several more stables 
with adequate yards. 
During the World War the station was closed to livestock and 
turned over to the War Department for the storage of munitions. 
The War Department constructed on the property two large storage 134 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
buildings and concrete roads extending through the grounds and to 
the end of the dock, and dredged a channel leading from the main 
channel of the Patapsco River to the station dock, of sufficient depth 
for the largest tugs operating in that harbor. When vacated by the 
War Department following the war the two specially constructed 
storage buildings became available for the accommodation of livestock. 
Port of Boston;-The animal quarantine station for the port of 
Boston, transferred from Waltham to Littleton in 1885, was main- 
tained with 11 quarantine stables upon leased property at the latter 
place until the year 1911, when the tract, consisting of 3134 acres, 
was purchased by the Government. This completed the acquirement 
under Government ownership of the three stations on the Atlantic 
seaboard. 
Pacific Coast Ports.-Importations of livestock at Pacific Coast 
ports from countries other than those of North America have been 
practically limited to occasional shipments of sheep from New Zea- 
land. The volume of these imports has not been sufficient to warrant 
the purchase of land and equipment for a quarantine station on the 
Pacific Coast. When importations have been permitted the importer 
has been required to provide a suitable place meeting with the ap- 
proval of the Bureau for quarantine purposes. 
Importations Under Special Laws 
In conformity with section 9 of "An Act to provide further for the 
National security and defense by stimulating agriculture and facil- 
itating the distribution of agricultural products," approved August 
10, 1917, and an act approved November 21, 1918, to enable 
the Secretary of Agriculture to carry out during the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1919, the purposes of the aforesaid act, appro- 
priate regulations were issued. These acts were to be operative only 
during the continuance of the war, and the regulations made under 
them were known as Treasury Department and Department of Agri- 
culture Joint Order No. 3, effective May 1, 1918, and Amendment 1 to 
same, effective January 1, 1919. The purpose of these laws and regu- 
lations was to render possible and govern the importation into the 
United States of tick infested slaughter cattle from Mexico, South 
and Central America, the Islands of the Gulf of Mexico and the 
Caribbean Sea, in order to increase our meat supply. Primarily the 
entry of such cattle was limited to States below the southern cattle 
quarantine line, but the privilege was extended by the amendment to 
include Norfolk, Va., Baltimore, Md., Philadelphia, Pa., New York, Quarantine Division 
135 
N. Y., Boston, Mass., San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco, 
Calif., and Seattle, Wash. Armour & Co. made four shipments con- 
sisting of 1,983 cattle during February and March, 1918, from Costa 
Rica for entry and immediate slaughter at Jacksonville, Fla. 
There were included also in the amendement provisions for render- 
ing these regulations inapplicable in the case of tick-infested cattle 
imported from Mexico into Texas for purposes other than immediate 
slaughter, and for the importation of tick-infested cattle from the 
Virgin Islands into Porto Rico for any purpose when the cattle were 
otherwise free from disease. Under the latter provision cattle were 
imported into Porto Rico from the Virgin Islands as follows: 
January, 1919 59 head 
April 1, 1919 148 " 
July 1, 1920, to June 30, 1921 204 " 
July 1, 1921, to June 30, 1922 326 " 
July 1, 1922, to June 30, 1923 1,936 " 
Prior to the passage of the Act of November 21, 1918, cattle were 
shipped under agreement between the Navy Department and the De- 
partment of Agriculture as follows: 
June 13, 1918 40 head 
August 19, 19'18 45 " 
September 14, 1918 _ 39 " 
October 23, 1918 66 " 
This arrangement was made through conferences of officials of the 
Department of Agriculture and the Navy Department. As both Porto 
Rico and the Virgin Islands belong to the United States, the control 
of the Virgin Islands was under the direction of the Navy Depart- 
ment, and the laws of the United States did not apply. The laws of 
the Government of Denmark, which latter country had sold the Vir- 
gin Islands to the United States, were still in effect and administered 
by officials of the Navy Department. 
Efficiency of Quarantine System 
It is a gratifying fact that our quarantine system has been success- 
ful in excluding contagious disease of livestock from the United 
States. While there have been occasional outbreaks of foot-and- 
mouth disease in this country since the organization of the Bureau, 
none of them have been traceable to import livestock or products 
over which the Bureau maintains supervision. On at least two occa- 
sions diseases of a serious nature have been discovered in animals dur- 
ing the quarantine period. 
Malta Fever.-In 1905 Malta fever was discovered by Dr. John R. 136 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Mohler, Chief of the Pathological Division, in an importation of 65 
goats from the Island of Malta, during the period of quarantine at 
New York. It was found necessary to destroy all of the importation 
in order to prevent the introduction of this disease with these 
animals.* 
This importation of goats was undertaken by the Bureau in an 
effort to obtain a herd of clean, healthy, hardy animals, especially 
for the purpose of serving as foundation stock to supply those in- 
terested in the building up of a milk goat industry in this country. 
Mr. George F. Thompson, at that time Editor of the Bureau, who had 
spent considerable time in studying the different breeds of goats, was 
detailed to make this importation. Mr. Thompson proceeded to the 
Island of Malta early in the summer of 1905 and shipped the goate 
to New York via Antwerp, arriving at the former place on Septem- 
ber 23, 1905. The goats were immediately taken to the Quarantine 
Station of the Bureau at Athenia, N. J. 
It is understood that about the time Mr. Thompson was in Malta a 
commission of the British Government was investigating the cause 
of Malta fever in British troops on that Island and had about reached 
the conclusion that the disease was conveyed through the milk of 
goats. Mr. Thompson, who, apparently, doubted the theory of Malta 
fever being conveyed by goats' milk, drank milk from the animals 
very freely during the voyage to the United States. He died rather 
suddenly early in January, 1906, from pneumonia. On one occasion 
several weeks before his death he remarked that his ailment might be 
Malta fever and suggested that his blood be tested. Unfortunately, 
this was not done. As pneumonia is a frequently observed accompani- 
ment of Malta fever, it seems probable that he became infected with 
the latter disease either while on the Island or during the return 
journey. 
An elderly lady at the Athenia Quarantine Station was in poor 
health at the time the goats arrived. She was given the milk from 
the goats for nourishment, and as it agreed with her she used it daily 
for some time. She was taken with fever and painful swelling of the 
joints in October, 1905, and passed through a typical attack of Malta 
fever, diagnosed by the symptomatology and from the fact that her 
blood gave a positive agglutination reaction with the Malta fever or- 
ganism (Micrococcus melitensis). 
Surra.]'-Surra was discovered by Dr. Mohler, Chief of the Patho- 
* See "Pathological Division," page 67, and "Animal Husbandry Division," page 243. 
f See "Pathological Division," page 67. Quarantine Division 
137 
logical Division, in an importation of Zebu cattle shipped from Bom- 
bay, India, in 1906, but the disease was not allowed to escape from 
the special quarantine established for the importation on an Island 
near Staten Island, New York. The cattle were imported by Mr. A. P. 
Borden for the Pierce Ranch at Pierce, Texas. The Secretary of Agri- 
culture consented to allow Mr. Borden to import the animals subject 
to certain especial precautions, including a provision that Dr. William 
Thompson, veterinary inspector of the Bureau, who had served two 
years in the veterinary service of the Philippine Islands, proceed to 
India at Mr. Borden's expense and inspect the animals before pur- 
chase, to inquire into the history of the cattle as far as possible and 
to accompany them on the steamship to the United States. Despite 
the fact that the blood of these cattle was examined microscopically 
on two occasions in India and twice again during the ocean voyage 
en route to New York, with negative results, it was deemed advisable, 
as mentioned on page 67, to make a more exacting test by rabbit 
inoculations before accepting the cattle as free from the surra para- 
site. As a result of the primary rabbit inoculation test it was found 
that some of the animals in the herd were infected with surra, and 
following the original test and frequent retests it was necessary dur- 
ing the quarantine period to slaughter 18 of the 51 cattle originally 
landed and quarantined. The carcasses of the animals slaughtered, 
with all their parts, including hides, were either incinerated or deeply 
buried after being covered with quicklime and sulphuric acid. 
Bureau Representatives Abroad 
The conditions in connection with our export cattle and meat trade 
prior to the establishment of the Bureau in 1884 have been stated 
in Part I of this sketch. In view of the circumstances it was consid- 
ered desirable that this Bureau should be represented by its own offi- 
cials at the post-mortem examinations made on American cattle at the 
foreign animal wharves. Through the active cooperation of the De- 
partment of State the privilege was obtained from the British Gov- 
ernment of stationing three veterinary inspectors in Great Britain. 
Dr. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau, proceeded to England, accom- 
panied by Dr. W. H. Wray, Dr. A. D. Melvin and Dr. J. F. Ryder. 
They arrived in England in August, 1890. 
Dr. Wray was assigned to London effective August 1, 1890, and 
remained at that post continuously until his death, August 24, 1923. 
Dr. Melvin was assigned to Liverpool on July 16, 1890. He was 
returned to Washington on April 1, 1892. 138 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Dr. Ryder was assigned to Glasgow effective August 1, 1890. Upon 
the return of Dr. Melvin to Washington, Dr. Ryder was transferred 
from Glasgow to Liverpool . He was returned to the United States 
and assigned to Boston, Mass., on March 1, 1904. 
Dr. James Johnston, an inspector on the Bureau force at Boston, 
Mass., was transferred to Liverpool, England, effective January 2, 
1904, and succeeded Dr. Ryder, remaining there until June 15, 1906, 
when he was returned to the United States. 
These inspectors were allowed every facility for participating with 
local officers in the work of inspecting and making post-mortem ex- 
aminations on American cattle landed in British ports. Since this 
work was established in August, 1890, the Bureau has maintained 
continuously one or more veterinary inspectors in England. 
As has been previously stated, Dr. T. A. Geddes was sent to Great 
Britain in 1900. He was assigned to London on November 6, 1900. 
His particular work, however, was the tuberculin testing of cattle 
prior to their shipment to the United States. On May 1, 1906, he 
was transferred from London to Liverpool. On August 31, 1909, 
Dr. E. P. Schaffter was sent to Liverpool to relieve Dr. Geddes, and 
Dr. Geddes was returned to the United States and assigned to the 
Chicago station on October 15, 1909. On August 7, 1912, Dr. Schaff- 
ter was ordered to return to the United States, and on September 1 
of that year he was placed in charge of the Bureau station at De- 
troit, Mich. 
On September 1, 1913, Dr. A. E. Rishel was assigned to Dr. Wray 
at London, to continue the work of tuberculin testing of cattle for- 
merly performed by Dr. Schaffter. As a result of reduced shipments 
of livestock from Great Britain incidental to war conditions, Dr. 
Rishel was returned to the United States on June 20, 1916, and placed 
in charge of supervisory work at New York City incidental to impor- 
tations of hides, skins and other animal by-products offered for im- 
portation into the United States at that port. 
It appearing necessary in 1921 to furnish Dr. Wray again with an 
assistant, Dr. E. M. Nighbert was assigned to London and directed to 
report to Dr. Wray on May 15, 1921. Repeated outbreaks of foot-and- 
mouth disease in England having interfered seriously with importa- 
tions of cattle from not only Great Britain but also the Channel 
Islands, it appeared unnecessary to continue to maintain two in- 
spectors in Great Britain, and Dr. Nighbert was ordered to return 
to the United States in June, 1922. 
Dr. R. W. Tuck, our present representative in Great Britain, was Quarantine Division 
139 
assigned to the position made vacant by the death of Dr. Wray. He 
took charge of the station on October 15, 1923, with headquarters at 
the American consulate, in Cavendish Square, London, England. 
Tagging for Identification 
The Act of August 30, 1890, providing for the inspection of all 
export cattle, sheep and swine, made it possible to introduce a sys- 
tem of tagging export cattle, the purpose of which was to enable the 
Bureau to trace to the point of origin in the United States any animal 
which might be found at a foreign port affected with contagious dis- 
ease. On October 20, 1890, the Secretary of Agriculture issued an 
order and regulations for the inspection and tagging of cattle and 
sheep for export. This system of tagging cattle with serial num- 
bered metal tags attached to the ear was continued for a number of 
years with gratifying results. 
Fitting of Vessels 
The steamship transportation of export animals had been criticized 
severely by humanitarians and also on account of the losses sustained 
by export shippers.* It was evident that some measure should be 
taken promptly to insure the safe and more humane handling of live- 
stock going forward to foreign countries, especially cattle. The 
insurance rates were high, and the British Government, owing to the 
heavy losses and bad condition in which many animals were found 
upon arrival in Great Britain, had been seriously considering the 
prohibition of the traffic. 
As a result of improved conditions in cattle ships and fittings, and 
the enforcement of these regulations, it is shown in the report of the 
Bureau for 1905, when we were exporting an average of 325,000 
cattle a year, that in the first year that the regulations went into 
effect the losses of livestock, which had previously been about 4 per 
cent for cattle and somewhat higher in the case of sheep, were re- 
duced to 1.6 per cent for cattle and 1.7 per cent for sheep. This loss 
was further reduced year after year, until it reached the low point 
of 0.138 per cent for cattle and 0.751 per cent for sheep. In the mean- 
time the insurance upon export livestock was reduced from 8 per cent 
to one-third of 1 per cent. 
The percentage of loss has continued low, and at the present time 
the only complaints received by the Bureau are from those who 
through selfish motives desire less stringent regulations and a modi- 
* See "Animal Transportation," page 23. 140 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
fication in requirements which will enable them to avoid expense inci- 
dental to the construction of proper fittings. Receiving governments, 
insurance companies, humane societies, consignees of livestock and a 
large majority of the consignors are apparently in full sympathy 
with the requirements and purposes of the regulations. 
Export Cattle Tested 
With an increasing demand in certain foreign countries, especially 
those of South America, for dairy and breeding cattle from the 
United States, it became essential that purebred export cattle upon 
leaving the United States should be accompanied by tuberculin-test 
certificates which would assure receiving governments that every 
effort had been made to guard against the shipment of any cattle 
affected with tuberculosis. The necessity for such a provision was 
emphasized when eight out of ten Holstein cattle from the United 
States which arrived in Buenos Aires in November, 1913, were slaugh- 
tered there on account of being infected with tuberculosis. These 
cattle were purchased by the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture of 
the Argentine Republic in his private capacity. The animals orig- 
inated in the State of New Jersey and prior to shipment had been 
tuberculin-tested by a veterinarian in the employ of the State of 
New Jersey. 
As a result of this unhappy incident, the Bureau regulations were 
amended May 26, 1914, to provide that all dairy and breeding cattle 
for export must pass a satisfactory tuberculin test by an inspector of 
the Bureau. On June 5, 19191, B. A. I. Order 139 was superseded by 
Order 264, in which it was specified that tests in these cases be ap- 
plied by an inspector of the Bureau or by a duly authorized repre- 
sentative of the country to which the animals were to be exported. 
The Bureau found it difficult to respond promptly to all requests for 
a tuberculin test in these cases, and frequently it was not possible to 
test cattle owing to the fact that they had just previously been tested 
for interstate shipment. Accordingly, Amendment 1 to Order 264 
was issued, effective November 1, 1919, providing for the acceptance 
of test certificates in these cases issued by veterinarians of the various 
States who were authorized by the State to test cattle for interstate 
shipment. 
Following the establishment of the accredited herd work for the 
eradication of tuberculosis, and the accrediting of local veterinary 
practitioners, it was considered advisable to confer upon these ac- 
credited men also the privilege of testing export cattle. This seemed Quarantine Division 
141 
especially desirable in view of the fact that shipments were fre- 
quently made from accredited herds which had recently been tested 
by either a Bureau inspector or an accredited practitioner.* The Bu- 
reau regulations were accordingly further amended on May 19, 1921, 
to provide that all dairy and breeding cattle must pass a satisfactory 
tuberculin test by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry, by 
a duly authorized representative of the country to which the animals 
are exported, or by a State inspector or other veterinarian accredited 
for testing accredited herds. These are the present requirements 
for dairy and breeding cattle for export. 
Following the World War there was an increased demand for 
American livestock on the part of certain foreign countries. This 
was especially apparent in efforts which were being made to restore 
the devastated agricultural sections of France and Belgium. The 
Quarantine Division, with the aid and cooperation of the Tuberculo- 
sis Eradication Division, undertook the tuberculin testing of all dairy 
and breeding stock purchased for shipment to foreign countries ex- 
cept in cases where the importing governments assumed the respon- 
sibility of inspection and testing of the cattle. Belgium issued an 
order in 1919 removing all restrictions on shipments from the United 
States, and in the fiscal years 1920, 1921, 1922 and 1923, 55,809 
American and Canadian cattle were forwarded to that country from 
United States ports. In 1920 and 1921 shipments of dairy cattle 
aggregating 1,485 head were made to Germany without Bureau in- 
spection and certification but under the supervision of a representa- 
tive of the German Government. During the fiscal years 1919 and 
1920 approximately 11,000 head of dairy cattle accompanied by 
Bureau tuberculin-test certificates were shipped to France. An ex- 
perienced vessel inspector was transferred from New York to New- 
port News, Va., to supervise the fitting of vessels of the United States 
Shipping Board for the carrying of these cattle, and every effort was 
made by the Quarantine Division to assist in the proper handling and 
safe transport of this export stock. 
Import Hides and Other Animal By-Products 
Prior to the organization of the Bureau of Animal Industry, regu- 
lations governing the inspection and quarantine of import cattle and 
the sanitary handling and control of import hides were issued by the 
Treasury Department. That Department continued to issue the hide 
importation regulations until the termination of IDIG, though they 
* See "Tuberculosis Eradication Division,'' page 359. 142 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
were administered by the Department of Agriculture through this 
Bureau. The last regulations issued by the Treasury Department in 
connection with hide importations were dated May 2, 1910. These 
were superseded by Treasury Department and Department of Agri- 
culture Joint Order No. 1, effective January 1, 1917, followed by 
Joint Order No. 2, effective January 1, 1918. The Treasury Depart- 
ment regulations provided that hides of a character requiring dis- 
infection which were not accompanied by a proper certificate of dis- 
infection would be treated as prohibited importations and denied 
entry, while the Joint Orders provided for the disinfection of hides 
and other animal by-products either prior to shipment from a foreign 
country or after arrival at destination in the United States. 
The Public Health Service of the Treasury Department is primarily 
concerned in the regulations governing the importation of animal by- 
products in so far as they afford protection to tannery workers and 
the handlers of hides, skins, etc. The Bureau of Animal Industry is 
interested more especially in protecting the livestock of this country 
from the infection of foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest and anthrax, 
and aims to guard against the pollution of streams receiving effluents 
from tanneries. Therefore the Public Health Service and the Bureau 
confer in preparing regulations. 
In view of the authority granted the Chief of the Bureau under 
Joint Order No. 2, it became necessary to issue Bureau Order 256, 
effective January 1, 1918, specifying methods for the disinfection of 
hides and skins prior to shipment from a foreign country and also 
after arrival at destination in the United States. This Bureau 
Order, which is still in effect, also specifies methods for the disinfec- 
tion of import glue stock, bones, hoofs, horns, hay, straw, etc. The 
promulgation of these regulations made it necessary for the Bureau 
to provide for a general supervision over importation of animal by- 
products at the important ports of entry in the United States and 
also a supervision over a large number of tanneries and establish- 
ments handling animal by-products. This supervisory work be- 
came an important duty of the Quarantine Division. While these 
regulations still in effect have not been administered without dif- 
ficulty and a considerable tax upon Bureau resources, they apparently 
afford a good measure of protection and at the same time admit of the 
importation of hides and skins which in many instances under pre- 
vious regulations would have been prohibited. The educational influ- 
ence of their administration has likewise resulted in a more careful 
and intelligent handling of these products by those engaged in their 
importation and preparation for tanning. Quarantine Division 
143 
Investigations in Foreign Countries 
The Quarantine Division has always endeavored to keep a record 
of diseases affecting livestock in foreign countries. These for the most 
part have been based upon official reports received from American 
consuls through the Department of State. Reports of this character 
have naturally been incomplete in some instances. While the final 
inspections of import livestock are made at the port of entry and 
during the period of quarantine, there are some instances in which 
inspections and direct investigations have been made relative to dis- 
eases of animals in foreign countries which have desired to ship live- 
stock to the United States. 
Porto Rico.-In August, 1907, Dr. William Thompson, the vet- 
erinary inspector who was detailed to visit India in 1906 in connec- 
tion with an importation of Zebu cattle, was assigned to Porto Rico 
to make certain investigations with reference to tick infestation and 
the importation into that Island of animals from Cuba and other 
countries. Dr. Thompson completed his work and returned to New 
York in April, 1908. Since that time the Bureau has maintained 
a representative in Porto Rico to inspect occasional shipments of 
livestock entering the Island and to report outbreaks of disease. The 
inspector now located at San Juan is commissioned at a per diem 
rate for days actually employed. 
Honduras.-In March, 1910, Dr. William Thompson, veterinary 
inspector, and Mr. James E. Downing, expert in livestock investiga- 
tions, were sent to Honduras to obtain first-hand information relative 
to livestock conditions and prevalent diseases of Honduran livestock. 
This action was taken owing to numerous applications for permission 
to import cattle from that country. It seemed essential under the 
circumstances to determine whether or not the importation of cattle 
from Honduras could be permitted under the Act of August 30, 1890, 
which prohibits the importation of neat cattle, sheep and other rumi- 
nants and swine which are diseased or infected with any disease or 
which shall have been exposed to such infection within 60 days next 
before their exportation. These investigations required a journey in 
Honduras of approximately 1,325 miles on mule back and 50 miles 
by railroad, and occupied the time from March 29 to July 7, 1910. 
Mexico.-In November, 1913, a disease affecting the feet and mouths 
of horses and cattle was reported to the Bureau as being prevalent in 
the vicinity of Tampico, Mexico. The reported severity and extent 
of this disease led the American consul at Tampico to fear that it 
might be foot-and-mouth disease and would be carried into the United 144 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
States. He accordingly reported the fact to the Department of State. 
As cattle were being permitted importation from Mexico, it was 
deemed advisable to have an investigation made, and accordingly in 
November, 1913, Dr. Cooper Curtice was detailed to make an inves- 
tigation of dairy herds in the vicinity of Tampico. Dr. Curtice ar- 
rived at Tampico November 20, 1913. It was determined as a result 
of his investigation, covering approximately three months, that this 
disease affecting Mexican cattle was mycotic stomatitis. 
Colombia.-In 1915 the Department was urged to' permit the im- 
portation of cattle from Colombia, it having been represented that 
the cattle of that country were free from disease and, in some sec- 
tions, from ticks, and that they could accordingly be certified as re- 
quired by the regulations of the Department of Agriculture govern- 
ing the importation of livestock into the United States. It was de- 
cided to make an investigation of conditions in Colombia. In April, 
1915, Dr. H. H. Ladson, a veterinary inspector in the Bureau, was 
directed to proceed to Colombia with Mr. Ignatius Uribi, an attache 
of the Colombian Legation at Washington. Dr. Ladson's trip con- 
sumed three months and his investigation covered the principal cattle- 
raising section of Bolivar, the territory of the Sinu Valley, the de- 
partments of Antioquia, Calidas, Tolima, Magdalena and Atlantico 
and the Cauca Valley. It was found that the cattle tick was quite 
generally present in Colombia and that anthrax was present in cer- 
tain departments, that foot-and-mouth disease was unknown to the 
ranchmen and that a disease affecting horses, believed to be mal de 
caderas, or surra, was present in certain sections. From Dr. Ladson's 
description it was believed that surra may have caused severe losses 
in that country, as thousands of horses, mules, asses, and, in some 
instances, cattle were said to have died from diseases, the description 
of which was indicative of surra. 
Guatemala.-In June, 1915, Dr. Henry Burke, veterinary inspector, 
and Mr. S. H. Ray, scientific assistant in beef cattle investigations, 
proceeded to Guatemala on a mission, the purpose of which was some- 
what similar to that of Dr. Thompson and Mr. Downing when they 
visited Honduras in 1910. Requests had been made for permission to 
import cattle from Guatelama into the United States at New Orleans. 
Mr. Ray returned to the United States several weeks in advance of 
the date set for sailing for home. Dr. Burke remained to conduct 
some further inspections near Guatemala City, after which he ob- 
tained passage on the steamship Marowijue, a United Fruit Company 
boat, which left Puerto Barrios on July 13, 1915. A few hours after Quarantine Division 
145 
this ship left port a terrific West Indian hurricane swept over the 
Gulf of Mexico and the Marowijue was lost with all passengers and 
the crew. All data and notes which Dr. Burke had collected during 
the trip were lost with him. From observations reported by Mr. Ray 
it appeared that conditions in Guatemala as regards tick infestation 
were not very different from those observed by Dr. Thompson and 
Mr. Downing in Honduras, and that cattle from Guatemala were ac- 
cordingly not eligible for importation into the United States under 
existing laws and regulations. This was confirmed when a trial ship- 
ment of Guatemala cattle that passed inspection by Dr. Burke and also 
by Bureau inspectors at New Orleans were found upon arrival at 
National Stock Yards, Ill., to be infested with the cattle tick Margaro- 
pus australis. 
The death of Dr. Burke is not the only instance in which a'Bureau 
inspector engaged in Quarantine Division activities has lost his life 
in the discharge of his duties. Dr. Harry M. Hart, veterinary in- 
spector on the El Paso, Texas, force in March, 1916, proceeded under 
orders from El Paso to Columbus, N. Mex., for the purpose of in- 
specting cattle at Columbus. He arrived too late on March 9 to make 
the inspection and procured lodging for the night at a local hotel, 
which was burned that night by Mexican bandits under the leader- 
ship of Francisco Villa. It was reported by the wife of the proprietor 
of the hotel that she saw the bandits take Dr. Hart from his room 
down one flight of stairs and then shoot him. His charred remains 
were later found in the ruins of the building. 
Countries in South America.-Dr. S. 0. Fladness, a veterinary in- 
spector of the Bureau, left the United States in July, 1916, for South 
America and returned in June, 1918, spending the greater part of 
the fiscal years 1917 and 1918 in Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil and 
Paraguay. This assignment of Dr. Fladness was for the purpose of 
procuring information relative to the animal diseases of South Amer- 
ica, especially those that must be considered in connection with meat 
inspection and the importation of meats and animal by-products into 
the United States. 
Guatemala.-On March 12, 1923, Bureau inspectors L. Enos Day 
and Howard L. Darby sailed from New Orleans for the Republic of 
Guatemala for the purpose of studying a reported outbreak of foot- 
and-mouth disease in that country and also to make arrangements 
for preventing the disease from reaching the United States. The 
report of their investigation showed that although a mild form of 
foot-and-mouth disease was reported to have appeared in great num- 146 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
bers of cattle in Guatemala during the months of November and 
December, 1922, and the early part of January, 1923, it apparently 
disappeared about the middle of January. During practically a 
month of travel they were unable to find any disease in cattle in 
Guatemala which simulated foot-and-mouth disease. They obtained 
assurances from Guatemalan officials of their desire to cooperate in 
the event of future outbreaks to prevent the spread of the disease to 
the United States. They returned from their mission in April, ar- 
riving at New Orleans April 19. 
Miscellaneous Activities 
Tuberculin Tests of Dairy Cattle Supplying the District of Columbia 
The task of applying the tuberculin test to dairy cattle in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia and vicinity was begun in the spring of 1906 under 
the direction of the Pathological Division, but on May 27, 1907, Dr. 
B. T. Woodward was transferred from the Pathological Division to 
the Quarantine Division, at which time this tuberculin test work was 
taken over by the Quarantine Division.* The principal object was to 
assist the Health Department of the District of Columbia in its efforts 
to create a milk supply free from contamination with the germs of 
tuberculosis. From the beginning of the work in the spring of 1907 
up to the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 1908, the test was applied 
to 2,468 cattle in the District of Columbia, Maryland and Virginia, 
of which number 387, or 15.68 per cent, reacted. Of the reacting ani- 
mals 126 were slaughtered under the Bureau's inspection and in all 
but a single case the presence of tuberculosis was demonstrated after 
post-mortem examination. The diagnosis by the tuberculin test was 
therefore confirmed in 99.21 per cent of the animals slaughtered. 
These tests were without charge and upon the voluntary request of 
the owners provided that they sign a form of agreement for the 
proper control and disposal of any reacting cattle. 
In connection with this work it is interesting to note that the first 
accredited herd in the United States was established in the State of 
Maryland on April 27, 1908. The agreement necessary for the owner 
to sign in order to participate in the Bureau activities looking to the 
eradication of tuberculosis provided for the slaughter of the 
animals which reacted to the test, or their removal from the herd 
and segregation under the Bang method of handling tuberculous ani- 
mals; and it also provided for the sterilization of the milk from 
* See "Experiment Station," page 53; "Pathological Division," page 69 ; "Tuberculosis 
Eradication Division," page 349. Quarantine Division 
147 
such segregated cows, the restricted use of segregated bulls, the re- 
moval at birth of the calves from segregated cows, the cleaning and 
disinfection, under supervision, of infected premises, the marking of 
all animals tested, the testing of all animals by a public official before 
admitting them to the tested herds, and a pledge to comply with all 
reasonable sanitary measures, indicated by the proper officials of the 
State or Territory wherein the herd was located. In addition to the 
agreement, there was a system of identifying animals by the use of 
ear tags. Under this agreement the herd of cattle owned by Messrs. 
Ford & Graham, Garrett Park, Md., was established as fully accred- 
ited. No reactors being found in the herd on the second annual test, 
a certificate was issued to Messrs. Ford & Graham on April 27, 1908, 
as follows: 
To Whom It May Concern: 
This is to certify that on April 21-22, 1908, the entire herd of 
cattle of Messrs. Ford & Graham, at the Hermitage Dairy Farm, 
Garrett Park, Maryland, was tuberculin-tested by an inspector of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry . 
The herd consists of eighty-two (82) Jersey cattle, all free of tu- 
berculosis, and tagged "U. S. B. A. I. 1403-1487" inclusive. 
This certificate was signed by Dr. A. D. Melvin, Chief of the 
Bureau. This herd was kept under supervision by the Bureau and 
tested annually, certificates being issued upon the completion of each 
free test. Without question this herd, now the property of George L. 
Goodacre, Silver Spring, Md., was the first in the United States to 
be accredited under a definite plan of tuberculosis eradication, based 
on the stringent requirements of the present uniform methods and 
rules. 
Special Tuberculosis Investigations Begitn 
In accordance with a provision in the Act of Congress making the 
appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1909, the Secretary was authorized to investigate the 
prevalence and extent of tuberculosis among dairy cattle in the 
United States. The Bureau, through the Quarantine Division, in- 
augurated steps during that year to collect this information by ap- 
plying the tuberculin test to cattle in various parts of the country. 
The outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease during that year, however, 
seriously interfered with this work. 
Tuberculin Tests for Interstate Shipment 
During the fiscal year 1909 ten States adopted a requirement that 
dairy and breeding cattle be tuberculin tested as a prerequisite for 148 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
their admittance into those States. Previous to this time certain other 
States had established the same requirement, and it was during this 
year that cooperative arrangements were made with the authorities 
of a number of States for the application of the tuberculin test to 
cattle for interstate shipment. This work was carried on under the 
supervision of the Quarantine Division at eight of the large stock- 
yards of the country located at Denver, Colo.; Lancaster, Pa.; Min- 
nesota Transfer, Minn.; Portland, Oreg.; Salt Lake City, Utah; 
Sioux City, Iowa; South Omaha, Nebr.; and South St. Paul, Minn. 
Cooperative Tests With City and Indian School Authorities 
It was likewise during this same fiscal year (1909) that the Bureau, 
through the Quarantine Division, began the application of the tu- 
berculin test to dairy cattle in various parts of the country in coopera- 
tion with State and municipal authorities. This was primarily tu- 
berculosis-eradication work and distinct from that of testing for 
interstate shipment. 
This cooperative work was begun May 24, 1909, and was under- 
taken in cooperation with the State authorities of Nebraska and Iowa, 
especially in the cities of Omaha, Nebr., and Waterloo, Iowa. Among 
8,819 cattle tested, 744 reactors and suspects were found. 
At the same time an investigation was begun of the milk supply 
of the various United States Government Indian schools from the 
standpoint of tuberculosis and sanitation. The institutions included 
in the first investigation were the schools at Carlisle, Pa.; Stewart, 
Nev.; Chamberlain, S. Dak.; Green Bay, Wis.; Lawrence, Kans.; 
Hayward, Wis.; Lac du Flambeau, Wis.; Lapwai, Ida.; Phoenix, 
Ariz.; Rapid City, N. Dak.; and the Indian insane asylum at Canton, 
S. Dak. During the following year, 1910, on request of the Office of 
Indian Affairs, cattle at 31 Indian schools and reservations were 
tested for tuberculosis. This work was continued by the Quarantine 
Division until tuberculosis eradication activities were taken over by 
the Tuberculosis Eradication Division, May 1, 1917. Cooperation 
with the Office of Indian Affairs resulted in an improvement in the 
quality of cattle and in the sanitary conditions under which milk 
was produced at these institutions, and also in the eradication of 
tuberculosis from their herds. 
Tracing Tuberculosis to Farms 
An important line of work was also undertaken in 1909 as regards 
locating centers of tuberculosis infection by tracing the origin of Quarantine Division 
149 
cattle and swine that were found affected with tuberculosis through 
the meat-inspection service of the Bureau. The names and addresses 
of the former owners or feeders of diseased animals were obtained 
when possible, and notification of the finding of tuberculosis was sent 
to those persons and to the State sanitary officers of the State of 
origin. This was the beginning of a system which has been continued 
and has enabled the State authorities to locate many centers of tu- 
berculosis infection and to undertake measures in cooperation with 
the owners for the eradication of the disease from their herds. 
Eradication of Tuberculosis in the District of Columbia. 
On November 26, 1909, there was issued an order of the Commis- 
sioners of the District of Columbia for the suppression and prevention 
of tuberculosis in cattle within the District of Columbia. Under the 
provisions of this order a permit was required for the entry of cattle 
into the District of Columbia, and when not accompanied by a satis- 
factory test chart the animals -were quarantined and tested by an 
inspector of the Bureau. Further, it was provided that all the cattle 
already within the District, regardless of whether or not the products 
of such animals were offered for sale, must conform to the regulation. 
This order specifically provided as follows: 
Any person, firm or corporation desiring to bring any cattle into 
the District of Columbia, except as provided in section 3, paragraph 
(c), shall first make application and obtain a permit from the Chief 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry or from the Health Officer of the 
District of Columbia. The said application shall be in writing, stat- 
ing the number, sex and the age of the cattle, whether over or under 
6 months old, the exact place, date and time at which it is desired 
to enter said cattle, and their destination within the District of 
Columbia, together with a declaration showing clearly the purpose 
for which the cattle are desired to be entered, whether for immediate 
slaughter, feeding or breeding purposes or for milk production. 
Cattle offered for entry into the District of Columbia must be ac- 
companied by a permit as provided in section 2 and must be iden- 
tified by an official veterinarian of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
or of the Health Department of the District of Columbia, and must 
be appropriately tagged before entrance is permitted except as pro- 
vided in paragraph (c) of this section. Cattle over 6 months old 
for purposes other than immediate slaughter, unless accompanied by 
a satisfactory certificate of tuberculin test by a veterinary inspector 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry or an official veterinarian of the 
Health Department of the District of Columbia or of the State from 
which brought, must be immediately taken after identification as 
provided in paragraph (a) of this section, to a place designated by 
the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry or Health Officer of the 
District of Columbia and there quarantined apart from all other 
cattle until officially tuberculin tested and disposed of in accordance 
with these regulations: Provided, That no indemnity shall be allowed 
for such cattle as shall be slaughtered on account of their being 
deemed to be tuberculous. When accompanied by certificate of tu- 150 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
berculin test as herein provided the said certificate must show the 
place and date, within thirty days of being offered for entry, of 
inspection and tuberculin testing, also temperature chart, descrip- 
tion of the animal or animals, age, markings, and tag numbers, if 
tagged. 
Cattle under 6 months old for purposes other than immediate 
slaughter when not accompanied by certificates as indicated in para- 
graph (b) may be brought into the District of Columbia as provided 
in paragraph (a), but said cattle must be accompanied by affidavits 
by the breeder or feeder and by the owner or shipper; said affidavits 
to state that tuberculosis has not been known to exist on the prem- 
ises, during the six months immediately preceding the offer for 
entry, upon which said animals have been kept. 
Cattle over 6 months old already within the District of Columbia 
shall be inspected and tuberculin tested by a veterinary inspector of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry or of the Health Department of the 
District of Columbia. Cattle under 6 months old shall, in the same 
manner, be inspected and, when deemed necessary, shall be tubercu- 
lin tested, said inspection and tuberculin testing to be repeated an- 
nually, or at such times as the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try or the Health Officer of the District of Columbia may direct. All 
such cattle shall be officially tagged "U. S. B. A. I." with a serial 
number, or "U. S. B. A. I. Reacted" with a serial number. 
Any person violating any of these regulations, or entering cattle 
by fraudulent means, or using false or fraudulent tags, or interfer- 
ing in any way with the work of any official, or using any false or 
fraudulent means to enable any cattle to pass the tuberculin test 
shall be punished by a fine of not more than forty dollars nor less 
than five dollars 
This order was approved by the Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of 
Agriculture, on November 27, 1909. The Bureau offered its services 
to the herd owners involved. The Annual Report of the Chief of the 
Bureau for the fiscal year 1916, pertaining to the tuberculosis eradi- 
cation work conducted by the Quarantine Division, shows as a result 
of tuberculin tests conducted that year a reduction in tuberculous 
cattle in the District of Columbia since the work was begun in 1909 
from 18.87 per cent to 1.1 per cent. 
Work Transferred to Other Divisions 
In 1911 the tuberculin testing of cattle for interstate shipment was 
transferred to the Field Inspection Division, and on May 1, 1917, at 
which time there was a general reorganization of the Bureau, includ- 
ing the establishing of a separate division-the Tuberculosis Eradi- 
cation Division-all other activities relating to the tuberculin testing 
of cattle, except those for importation and exportation, were trans- 
ferred to the Tuberculosis Eradication Division.* During the last 
year that the Quarantine Division supervised the tuberculin testing of 
dairy and breeding cattle for interstate movement, 7,159 cattle were 
tested in 12 different States. Of this number, 181 animals reacted 
* See "Tuberculosis Eradication Division," page 350. Quarantine Division 
151 
and 32 were considered suspicious, the percentage of reactors and 
suspicious together being 2.98 per cent. 
Dourine Eradication.* 
In June, 1911, dourine, which it was believed had been eradicated 
from the United States several yea'rs previously, was found to exist 
in Iowa, and prompt measures were immediately taken under the di- 
rection of the Quarantine Division for the eradication of the disease 
in cooperation with State authorities. In July, 1912, the disease was 
reported among horses in Montana, and as a result of investigations 
made at that time it was found that the disease had become more or 
less prevalent in the eastern part of Montana and the western portions 
of North Dakota and South Dakota. In December, 1913, this work 
was extended to include an area in northeastern Wyoming, and in 
October, 1914, into Nebraska. As a result of investigations begun in 
March, 1914, the disease was traced to the Navajo Indian Reservation 
in Arizona and New Mexico. 
Very fortunately the Pathological Division of the Bureau had 
found it possible to adopt the complement-fixation test as a diagnos- 
tic agent for dourine, and the plan followed in the handling of this 
work consisted of the round-up of horses in suspected areas and the 
procuring of samples of blood serum, which were forwarded to the 
Pathological Division for examination. This was followed by the 
slaughter of reacting animals and a later retest of the herd. On 
May 1, 1917, as a result of reorganizing work in the Bureau, the 
eradication of dourine was taken over by the Field Inspection 
Division. 
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Eradication^ 
During the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in 1914-1915, the 
Quarantine Division assisted in formulating and was charged with 
the responsibility of administering regulations of the Secretary of 
Agriculture covering the interstate shipment of domestic hides, skins, 
other animal by-products, hay, straw, feed, etc. Much care and judg- 
ment were essential in order to place proper safeguards about ship- 
ments and at the same time avoid prohibitive requirements upon 
these essential materials of commerce. 
Miscellaneous Correspondence 
While the foregoing represent the chief activities of the Quarantine 
Division, other important duties were assigned to the Division from 
* See "Pathological Division," page 66, and "Field Inspection Division," page 279. 
t See "Field Inspection Division," page 280. 152 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
the time of its inception. Letters received by the Bureau in large 
numbers pertaining to subjects directly or remotely related to animal 
diseases, sanitation, etc., were referred to this Division, and for years 
a considerable part of the work of the Division was devoted to the 
study of questions raised in these cases and to the preparation of 
suitable replies to such inquiries, records of which in correspondence 
files afford much valuable information on veterinary subjects. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
Dec. 18, 1865 First Act of Congress to prevent introduction of disease 
in imported cattle. 
March 6, 1866 Act amended and Secretary of Treasury directed to make 
regulations and put into immediate effect. 
1878 .....Same law re-enacted as a part of the Revised Statutes. 
July 31, 1875 First prohibition under above act by Secretary of Treasury. 
Oct. 1875 Prohibition withdrawn. 
1875 Exportation live cattle begun. 
Nov. 3, 1875 Prohibition importation of neat cattle and hides of neat 
cattle from Great Britain and Ireland on account of 
prevalence foot-and-mouth disease. 
March 16, 1876 Prohibition withdrawn. 
Feb. 26, 1879 Treasury Department issued prohibition on account of con- 
tagious pleuropneumonia of cattle in England. 
July 1, 1879 Revoked same year and suspended as to European ports, 
provided all cattle quarantined 90 days. 
Feb. 6, 
(effective 
March 3, 1879) 
1879 British Privy Council issued order requiring slaughter of 
all American cattle within 10 days on docks where 
landed on account of contagious pleuropneumonia al- 
leged by English veterinarians to have been discov- 
ered among them. 
1879 Similar claim by British veterinarians of foot-and-mouth 
disease in American cattle. 
July,Aug., 1880 United States investigations in England of contagious 
pleuropneumonia reported in American cattle by Eng- 
lish veterinarians. 
June-Aug.,1881 United States investigations in England of foot-and-mouth 
disease reported in American cattle by English vet- 
erinarians. 
July 30, 1883 Secretary of Treasury ordered quarantine of neat cattle 
at port of entry from any port of world except North 
and South America, and designated Portland, Me., 
Boston, Mass., New York, N. Y., and Baltimore, Md., 
as ports of entry. 
1883 Dr. D. E. Salmon called to Washington to establish vet- 
erinary division of Department of Agriculture. 
May 29, 1884 Law enacted for establishment of Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry. 
May 31, 1884 Dr. Salmon appointed Chief of Bureau and its organiza- 
tion begun. Quarantine Division 
153 
July 7, 1884 Money appropriated by Sundry Civil Bill for establishing 
and maintaining quarantine stations. 
Aug. 25, 1884 Transfer of animal quarantine stations from Treasury 
Department to Department of Agriculture. 
Aug. 25, 1884-.. Commissioner of Agriculture issued order requiring per- 
mits to import cattle and their landing only at desig- 
nated ports where cattle quarantine accommodations 
maintained. 
March 7, 1885 Norman J. Colman appointed Commissioner of Agricul- 
ture. 
Feb. 11, 1889 Norman J. Colman designated first Secretary of Agricul- 
ture. 
March 7, 1889 J. M. Rusk appointed Secretary of Agriculture. 
Aug. 1, 1890 Three Bureau inspectors assigned to ports in England. 
All sailed together. 
Aug. 30, 1890 Special Act of Congress applying to importations of rumi- 
nants and swine. 
Oct. 13, 1890 Quarantine regulations promulgated similar to those al- 
ready in effect issued by Treasury Department July 
19, 1879. 
Oct. 20, 1890 Tagging of export cattle begun. 
June 6, 1891 Vessel inspection inaugurated under Act of March 3, 1891. 
July 1, 1896 Quarantine Division designated "Miscellaneous Division." 
Nov. 6, 1900 Inspector sent to Great Britain to test cattle. 
Dec. 1, 1900 Tuberculin test required for import cattle. 
May, 1900 Appropriaion for purchase of quarantine station property 
for port of New York. 
April 1, 1901 Purchase of land at Athenia, N. J., effected and construc- 
tion of quarantine buildings begun. 
July 1, 1903 Miscellaneous Division becomes Quarantine Division. 
1903 Additional land purchased for Athenia quarantine station. 
1905 Malta fever discovered in importation of goats. 
1906 Work of accounts taken from Quarantine Division. 
1906 Surra discovered in an importation of cattle from India. 
May 27, 1907 Tuberculin testing of dairy cattle supplying District of 
Columbia begun. 
Aug., 1907 Special investigations made in Porto Rico. 
May 27, 1909 Special tuberculosis investigations begun. 
May 27, 1909 System of testing for interstate shipment inaugurated. 
May 27, 1909 Beginning of cooperative test work with city and Indian 
school authorities. 
Nov., 1909 Plan inaugurated for tracing tuberculous cattle and swine 
from slaughtering establishments to farms. 
Nov. 26, 1909 Eradication of tuberculosis in District of Columbia cattle 
begun. 
May 2, 1910 Treasury Department regulations applicable to import 
hides, etc. 154 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Nov., 1910 Special investigations made in Honduras. 
March 4, 1911 Purchase of land at Turner, Md., for quarantine station. 
1911 Purchase of land at Littleton, Mass., for quarantine station. 
1911 Testing cattle for interstate shipment transferred to Field 
Inspection Division. 
1911 Dourine discovered in Iowa and eradication work begun. 
1912 Dourine found in Montana and North and South Dakota. 
1913 Dourine eradication work extended to sections of Wyoming. 
Nov. 20, 1913 Special investigations made in Mexico. 
1914 Dourine eradication work extended to sections of Nebraska. 
1914 Dourine traced to Navajo Indian Reservation. 
1914 and 1915 Quarantine Division takes active part in eradication of 
foot-and-mouth disease. 
May 26, 1914 Tuberculin test required for export cattle. 
June, 1915 Special investigations made in Guatemala. 
July, 1915 Tragic death of Inspector Henry Burke. 
March 10, 1916 Brutal murder of Inspector Harry M. Hart. 
Jan. 1, 1917 Joint Treasury Department and Department of Agricul- 
Jan. 1, 1918 ture regulations issued for import of animal by-prod- 
ucts. Orders 1 and 2. 
1917 and 1918 Inspector sent to countries of South America for special 
investigations. 
May 1, 1917 Tuberculin test work transferred to Tuberculosis Eradica- 
tion Division. 
May 1, 1917 Dourine eradication work taken over by Field Inspection 
Division. 
May 1, 1918 Special provision for importation of tick-infested cattle 
(war measure). 
1918 Four shipments made by Armour & Co. from Costa Rica 
for immediate slaughter at Jacksonville, Fla., aggre- 
gating 1,983 cattle. 
1918 190 head of cattle shipped from Virgin Islands to Porto 
Rico. 
1919 Belgium removed all restrictions on cattle from United 
States. 
1919 and 1920 411 head cattle shipped from Virgin Islands to Porto Rico. 
1920 Approximately 11,000 head dairy cattle accompanied by 
Bureau tuberculin test certificates shipped to France. 
1920 and 1921 48,271 cattle shipped to Belgium. 
1920 and 1921 1,485 dairy cattle shipped to Germany without Bureau 
inspection and test (under supervision of German au- 
thorities) . 
March 31, 1922 Dr. R. W. Hickman retired as Chief of the Quarantine 
Division after 34 years' continuous service in the 
Bureau. 
April 1-30,1922 Dr. George W. Pope, who since August 1, 1917, had been 
Assistant Chief of the Quarantine Division, was Acting 
Chief. 
May 1, 1922 Quarantine Division merged into Field Inspection Division, 
Dr. A. W. Miller, Chief. 
Sept. 21, 1922 Tariff Act approved transferring from the Secretary of 
the Treasury to the Secretary of Agriculture authority 
to determine and give public notice concerning cdun- 
Special investigations made in Honduras. Quarantine Division 
155 
tries from which cattle and hides of cattle might be 
imported. 
March 12, 1923 Two inspectors sent to Guatemala to investigate a re- 
ported outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. 
PERSONNEL OF THE QUARANTINE DIVISION (AND 
MISCELLANEOUS DIVISION) 1896-1922 
Division Chiefs, Miscellaneous Division: 
Dr. A. M. Farrington July 1, 1896, to Dec. 31, 1898 
Dr. T. A. Geddes Jan. 1, 1899, to Oct. 31, 1900 
Dr. R. W. Hickman Nov. 1, 1900, to June 30, 1903 
Division Chief, Quarantine Division: 
Dr. R. W. Hickman July 1, 1903, to March 31, 1922 
Assistant Chief: 
Dr. George W. Pope Jan. 1, 1913, to April 30, 1922 Biochemic Division 
The Biochemic Division had its origin on January 1, 1890, when 
Dr. Emil A. de Schweinitz was appointed Chemist to the Bureau. 
Even at that early date it had become evident that a thorough under- 
standing of the activities of the disease-producing bacteria and of 
the intricate problems of immunity could be attained only by 
coupling chemical studies with investigations in pathology and pure 
bacteriology. 
It was natural that the first work of the Biochemic Laboratory 
should have been directed toward a study of the chemical products 
produced by the so-called hog-cholera bacillus, which was then be- 
lieved to be the cause of hog cholera, and of the tubercle bacillus, 
because in the years immediately preceding the establishment of 
this laboratory the activities of the Bureau of Animal Industry had 
been largely concerned with studies of the causes and with methods 
of prevention and diagnosis of these diseases. 
For some years the Biochemic Laboratory served chiefly as an 
agent for obtaining chemical data relating to problems and investi- 
gations by other sections of the Bureau of Animal Industry, but as 
time went on it was found that really effective results could be best 
obtained by placing in close contact in the same division trained 
bacteriologists and chemists. On July 1, 1896, the designation of 
the Biochemic Laboratory was changed to Biochemic Division with 
Dr. de Schweinitz as Chief. 
About this time certain definite projects were assigned to the 
Division for study, chief among these being investigation of dips and 
disinfectants for various animal diseases, the systematic production 
of tuberculin and mallein, which had already been begun in a small 
way in the year 1892, the relationship of bovine and human tuber- 
culosis, and the production of a vaccine or antiserum for hog cholera. 
These lines of work covered the most important of the Division's ac- 
tivities up to the year 1906, and during that period there was accom- 
plished a better standardization of the various substances used in 
official dipping. Valuable contributions were made to our knowledge 
of bovine tuberculosis infection in children. The true cause of hog 
cholera was found to be a filtrable virus, and not Bacillus cholera 
suis as had previously been thought. This latter discovery proved to 
be of fundamental importance in the campaign against hog cholera 
which had been waged by the Department of Agriculture since 1878, 
156 Biochemic Division 
157 
and led shortly thereafter to the discovery of the present widely used 
anti-hog-cholera serum.* 
In 1906, the activities of the Division were increased in many ways. 
The passage of the meat inspection law on June 30, 1906, made it 
necessary for the Bureau to organize a force for the chemical investi- 
gation of meats and meat food products. This task was allotted to 
the Biochemic Division, and branch laboratories were established in 
six different cities outside of Washington. 
At the same time the hog-cholera investigations were rapidly ap- 
proaching success, and in the years from 1906 to 1913 the newly dis- 
covered anti-hog-cholera serum was proved, not only experimentally 
but by tests under farm conditions, to be effective and practicable. 
In 1913 extensive field experiments involving a number of counties 
in the Corn Belt region were inaugurated, the idea being to give an 
object lesson so as to demonstrate positively the value of the serum. 
Large veterinary forces were employed, not merely to carry out the 
work of the immunization of hogs in the selected counties, but also to 
carry on extension work in cooperation with State agricultural col- 
leges, explaining to farmers and veterinarians generally the methods 
to be used for the control of losses from hog cholera. 
About the same time Congress passed the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act 
of March 4, 1913, and it became necessary for the Bureau to organize 
a large force of inspectors to enforce that law. 
At about this period of its history the Biochemic Division had grown 
in the number of its employes from 20 in 1905 to 185 in 1915. Until 
the year 1906 the activities of the Division had been almost entirely of 
a research nature, but beginning in 1906 there was a continual and 
more or less rapid increase in the amount of regulatory work assigned 
to the Division, and as a consequence there was a marked and unfortu- 
nate diminution in its research activities. To correct this condition 
and to restore the Division to its research character, the field work on 
hog cholera, which was regulatory or extension in character, the in- 
spection of hog-cholera serum plants, which was entirely regulatory, 
and the chemical meat-inspection work, which was also routine regu- 
latory work, were all separated from the Biochemic Division to form, 
in the case of the hog-cholera field work, the Office of Hog Cholera 
Control, in the case of the inspection of serum plants, the Office of 
Virus-Serum Control, and in the case of the chemical meat inspection, 
the Meat Inspection Laboratory of the Meat Inspection Division. At 
the same time there was established in the Biochemic Division a new 
* See "Division of Virus-Serum Control," page 342. 158 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
section for meat-inspection research. To this section were referred 
the meat-inspection problems requiring investigation. 
The organization of the Division has been practically unchanged 
since the reorganization described above, and it has been clear that 
the changes made in 1914 and 1915 were wise and that they have re- 
sulted in the betterment of both the regulatory and the research work. 
In order to give a clear idea of the work of the Biochemic Division 
since its organization, it is desirable to discuss the various lines of 
endeavor separately, tracing each from its beginning down to the 
present time. 
Hog Cholera Investigations* 
The investigations of hog cholera by the Department of Agri- 
culture began in 1878. Prior to that year the Department had no 
funds available for the study of contagious diseases of animals. On 
June 20, 1878, however, the sum of $10,000 was appropriated for "in- 
vestigating diseases of swine and infectious and contagious diseases to 
which all other classes of domestic animals are subject." With the 
funds thus appropriated the Commissioner of Agriculture employed a 
number of scientists to investigate and classify the diseases of swine, 
the appropriation being renewed from year to year, although a consid- 
erable proportion of the available funds was used in the study of other 
animal diseases. ' 
With regard to the work done and the results obtained during the 
period from 1878 to 1885, it will suffice to say that laboratories were 
established in the Department, the Bureau of Animal Industry was 
organized, and a comprehensive study of swine diseases was carried 
out. This early work consisted for the most part of studies of the 
distribution, classification, and mode of transmission of swine diseases, 
supplemented by laboratory investigations, which were intended to 
discover the cause or causes of those diseases. These investigations 
established the fact that one or more plagues of swine existed in prac- 
tically all sections of the country. They showed further that those 
plagues were contagious, and led to the suggestion of quarantine and 
disinfection for preventing their spread. Coincidently with the field 
observations rapid progress was made in the laboratory investigations, 
and in the year 1885 announcement was made by the Department 
that one of the great causes of losses among swine was a contagious 
disease designated "hog cholera," caused by a motile bacterium, which 
was named the "hog-cholera bacillus." These fundamental researches 
received general confirmation from other institutions. 
♦ See "Hog Cholera," page 21. Biochemic Division 
159 
The first period of the Department's researches culminated, there- 
fore, in the establishment of the fact that at least a great proportion 
of the losses of swine was due to hog cholera and in the reported dis- 
covery of the micro-organism which caused that disease. 
Immediately following the discovery of the supposed cause of hog 
cholera, the Bureau of Animal Industry began a long series of inves- 
tigations which had for their object the development of a method 
of treatment or vaccination that would cure or prevent hog cholera. 
While all of the early researches were carried out by the first Chief 
of the Bureau, Dr. D. E. Salmon, or by Dr. Theobald Smith, the first 
Chief of the Pathological Division, the Biochemic Laboratory was as- 
sociated with these studies from the time of its organization in 1890, 
and by 1897 had been given entire control of the investigation of vac- 
cines and serums for hog cholera. These investigations were all based 
on the belief that the so-called hog-cholera bacillus was the cause of 
hog cholera, therefore that micro-organism was used for the produc- 
tion of vaccines and serums. ■' ; " 
None of these experiments met with success, although at times the 
results in the laboratory wTere such as to encourage the belief that the 
problem had been solved. This was particularly true of a series of 
experiments in which large animals such as horses, cattle and donkeys 
were inoculated with the hog-cholera bacillus and its products. The 
object of these experiments was to cause the development of an anti- 
toxin in the blood of the horses, cattle or donkeys, so that their blood 
serum might be used to cure or prevent hog cholera. The serum thus 
produced was considered to be of such promise that a series of field 
experiments was begun in 1897 and carried out on a fairly large scale 
during the years 1898-1901. Though apparently yielding a certain 
measure of success, this serum was finally proved to be unsatisfactory 
for practical use. 
Discovery of the Filtrable Virus 
The uniform failure to produce an effective vaccine or serum, 
when taken in consideration with the fact that the natural disease, 
hog cholera, is always followed by complete immunity in recovered 
hogs, led to the suspicion that possibly after all the true cause of hog 
cholera was not understood. This suggested possibility that the hog- 
cholera bacillus was not the only factor involved in the disease gave 
rise to a series of experiments which resulted, in 1903, in the dis- 
covery that there existed in the State of Iowa a fatal disease of hogs, 
indistinguishable in its characteristics from hog cholera, which was 160 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
not caused by the hog-cholera bacillus but by an invisible micro-organ- 
ism (Bureau of Animal Circular 41, by de Schweinitz and Dorset) 
which existed in the blood and other body fluids of sick hogs. This 
invisible micro-organism is either so minute or else of such structure 
that it can not be discerned by the highest powers of the microscope, 
nor is it retained by porcelain filters which effectually prevent the 
passage of all visible bacteria. 
These discoveries naturally suggested the idea that this invisible 
micro-organism might be concerned in all outbreaks of hog cholera, 
and that the lack of success of earlier attempts to produce an effective 
vaccine or serum might be due to a failure to recognize the presence 
of the invisible micro-organism as a factor in the causation of the 
disease. Practically the entire year 1904 was, therefore, devoted to 
experiments which had for their object the determination of (1) the 
true cause of hog cholera; (2) the relationship of the hog-cholera bacil- 
lus to hog cholera; (3) the extent of the distribution of the disease 
found in Iowa and caused by the invisible virus. These experiments 
were exhaustive and led to conclusions of far-reaching importance. 
The results of the investigations of 1904 may be summarized as 
follows: 
1. Hog cholera is caused by an invisible micro-organism which 
exists in the blood and other body fluids of sick hogs. 
2. The so-called hog-cholera bacillus is not the cause of hog cholera 
and at the most is merely an accessory factor in the disease. 
3. Hogs that recover from hog cholera are thereafter immune. Hogs 
that recover from artificial infection with the invisible virus are ren- 
dered immune against the natural disease, whereas infection with the 
so-called hog-cholera bacillus does not confer immunity against hog 
cholera. 
The importance of these investigations can not be overestimated, for 
they at once indicated the cause of the earlier failures to produce 
effective vaccines and serums, and pointed the way for new experi- 
ments looking toward the development of reliable methods of preven- 
tion and control. The conclusions reached as a result of these experi- 
ments have been entirely confirmed by investigators in Germany, 
France, England, Austria-Hungary and other countries where hog 
cholera exists. 
Development of Anti-Hog-Cholera Serum 
In the year 1905 experiments which had for their object the devel- 
opment of a protective serum against hog cholera were begun. Even Biochemic Division 
161 
before this time suggestions had been made looking to the utilization 
of hogs themselves as a source of a protective serum, and efforts 
had been made to prepare a vaccine by using diseased blood which 
had been subjected to heat and to the action of various chemicals for 
the purpose of attenuation. Toward the close of the year 1905 it 
was demonstrated conclusively by Dr. M. Dorset and his assistants that 
hogs can be protected from hog cholera by the following method: 
A hog which is immune against hog cholera, either naturally or as 
a result of an attack of the disease, is injected with large amounts of 
blood taken from a pig sick of hog cholera. The injection when 
properly performed does no material harm to the immune. Within 
a week or ten days blood is drawn from the immune hog, and this 
blood, after defibrination, is used to protect susceptible pigs. 
Only a few tests were possible in the year 1905, but the results 
of the experiments were so favorable that they were continued and 
extended into 1906. 
With the satisfactory progress of this method of protecting hogs 
from hog cholera it appeared desirable to insure that the people of the 
country should have secured to them the free use of the method de- 
veloped in the Department's laboratories. Therefore an application 
for patent was made by Dr. Dorset, who had been made Chief of 
the Division after the death of Dr. de Schweinitz on February 15, 
1904, and a patent wras granted by the United States Patent Office, 
giving to the Government, or any of its officers or employees in the 
prosecution of work for the Government, or to any person in the 
United States, the right to use this method without the payment of 
any royalty thereon. 
The experiments carried out in the years 1905 and 1906 are all re- 
corded in detail in Bulletin 102, by M. Dorset, C. N. McBryde and 
W. B. Niles, of the Bureau of Animal Industry. The facts brought 
out by these experiments are, briefly, as follows: 
1. When hogs immune against hog cholera are injected with suit- 
able amounts of blood taken from hogs sick of hog cholera, the blood 
serum of the immune acquires the power to protect nonimmune hogs 
against an otherwise fatal exposure to the disease. This method of 
producing serum is known as "hyperimmunization." 
2. The serum from hyperimmunized hogs may be used to protect 
susceptible hogs in one of two ways: (a) The serum alone is in- 
jected. This confers an immunity lasting from three weeks to two 
months, (b) The serum is injected simultaneously with a minute 
amount of blood taken from a hog sick with hog cholera. This is 162 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
known as the "simultaneous method," and it produces an immunity 
which lasts for many months, if not for life. 
3. The serum is essentially a preventive. It does not cure hogs 
already visibly sick, but it may be used successfully as a cure if 
administered in the very early stages of the disease. 
Up to the year 1907 the work with this new serum was conducted 
entirely on hogs kept in experimental pens on premises controlled 
by the Department. The results of the tests were so uniformly favor- 
able that arrangements were made to test the effect of the serum 
when used under field conditions. Therefore a considerable quantity 
of serum was prepared and applied to approximately 2,000 hogs on 
47 different farms in central Iowa. The method of carrying out these 
practical tests and the results were, briefly, as follows: 
Class 1. Healthy herds treated for the purpose of protection, 
against hog cholera existing on near-by farms.-In each herd a certain 
number of hogs were not treated, but were left to serve as controls. 
In most of the herds in this class the disease did not appear in either 
the treated hogs or the controls. In a few of these herds, however, 
hog cholera appeared, some weeks after vacinnation, among the con- 
trols, the average loss being 68 per cent of the untreated controls, 
while of the treated hogs in the same herd associating with the sick 
control animals none died. 
Class 2. Herds exposed to disease through the entrance of a sick 
hog from a neighboring diseased herd, but at the time of treatment 
apparently well.-In these exposed herds 4 per cent of the treated 
hogs died, while more than 89 per cent of the untreated control 
animals succumbed. 
Class 3. Herds in which hog cholera existed at the time of treat- 
ment.-In this class the effort was made to treat only those herds 
where disease had not progressed very far, as past experience had 
shown that the serum was essentially a protective agent rather than 
a cure. As a general rule this third class of herds contained com- 
paratively few visibly sick hogs, but yet a sufficient number to show 
clearly that hog cholera was present, this being confirmed by post- 
mortem examination in each ease. In these sick herds 13 per cent of 
those that received the serum were lost, whereas of the untreated con- 
trol animals 75 per cent died. 
The success of these practical tests, following the uniformly good 
results obtained in the previous experimental work, was sufficient to 
show that in this new serum the Department possessed a means Biochemic Division 
163 
which could be utilized to reduce, if not ultimately to eliminate 
entirely, losses from hog cholera. Therefore a notice of the Depart- 
ment's findings was sent to each of the States of the Union, inviting 
a representative to the small experimental farm maintained by the 
Department at Ames, Iowa, in order that they might observe the 
methods of serum production in actual operation and have explained 
to them the exact methods of application. During the year 1908 
representatives of 25 States responded to this suggestion for a con- 
ference and were instructed in the Department's methods. 
Practical Application of the Serum 
During the years immediately following these conferences a num- 
ber of the Middle Western States began the production of this new 
serum for the benefit of farmers within their borders. At the same 
time the Department continued its work, improving the technique or 
serum production and doing such demonstrational work as could be 
arranged with the funds available to acquaint stockmen with the value 
of this serum. Particularly striking were the results obtained in the 
stockyards at Omaha and Kansas City. At the latter place the De- 
partment was much assisted by Hon. Mason S. Peters, who was early 
convinced of the value of this new method of combating-hog cholera. 
At the same time a few commercial plants were organized for the 
production and sale of this hog-cholera serum. By the year 1913 the 
serum was being produced on a large scale by the States of Ohio, 
Indiana, Missouri, Kansas, Minnesota, Michigan, North Dakota and 
California and by a large number of commercial plants as well. 
On March 4, 1913, Congress passed the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act, 
which required that all viruses, serums, toxins and analogous products 
intended for use in the treatment of domestic animals, before being 
shipped interstate or imported into the United States, should comply 
with the regulations which the Secretary of Agriculture was em- 
powered to make. The sum of $25,000 wras set aside for enforcement 
of this law. At the same time Congress for the first time appropriated 
a definite sum ($75,000) for demonstrating the best method of pre- 
venting and eradicating hog cholera. 
For carrying out the provisions of the last-named appropriation, 
field experiments were inaugurated in four selected areas, and the 
work of controlling hog cholera was begun in Dallas County, Iowa, 
on July 1, 1913, with Dr. O. B. Hess in charge; in Montgomery 
County, Indiana, on July 15, 1913, with Dr. U. G. Houck in charge; 164 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
in Pettis County, Missouri, on August 1, 1913, with Dr. B. W. 
Murphy in charge; and in an area comprising portions of Gage and 
Johnson Counties, Nebraska, on November 1, 1913, with Dr. S. E. 
Cosford in charge. The object of this work was first of all largely 
through the cooperation of the State colleges to instruct farmers con- 
cerning the methods of preventing hog cholera; secondly, to enforce, 
with the cooperation of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board 
and State Veterinarian, the necessary sanitary quarantine regula- 
tions; and thirdly, to apply the hog-cholera serum produced by the 
Bureau at its plant at Ames, Iowa, Dr. W. B. Niles in charge, in 
such a way as to prevent disease and curtail losses from hog cholera. 
The work in each of these areas was so signally successful that on 
February 23, 1914, Congress appropriated the sum of $450,000 for 
continuing and extending this project, so that during the year 1914 
similar work was begun in the following areas: Renville County, 
Minnesota; Branch County, Michigan; Maury County, Tennessee; 
Allen County, Ohio; Marshall County, Kansas; the irrigated district 
in the neighborhood of Twin Falls, Idaho; Henderson County, Ken- 
tucky; Clark County, Iowa, and Kankakee County, Illinois. 
During the same year, in addition to this intensive control work, 
there was organized a system of demonstrations among farmers gen- 
erally throughout the various States, this being carried out in co- 
operation with the county advisors and farm demonstrators already 
employed in various parts of the country. The cooperating State 
representative was generally the president or dean of the Agricul- 
tural College, and the plan was in conformity with the principle laid 
down in the Lever Bill. 
This great increase in the work necessitated setting up in the 
Biochemic Division separate sections, one to supervise the area control 
work and the other to have charge of the educational work. Dr. 0. B. 
Hess and Dr. U. G. Houck were called to Washington to assume imme- 
diate direction of these activities. 
By January 1, 1916, the intensive control work and the hog-cholera 
educational work, which had both been begun in an experimental way 
to determine the results that might be accomplished by certain definite 
plans of field work and of education, had reached a stage where they 
were no longer of a research character. The effectiveness of the serum 
and the possibility of controlling losses from hog cholera had by that 
time been thoroughly demonstrated; consequently, in accordance with 
the policy of the Department to segregate the research work, a new 
office known as the Office of Hog Cholera Control was established Biochemic Division 
165 
under the direction of Dr. O. B. Hess, and the field work previously 
carried out under the direction of the Biochemic Division was trans- 
ferred to that office. 
The Virus-Serum-Toxin Act of 1913.* 
As stated above, the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act of 1913 was ap- 
proved by the President on March 4, 1913, and became effective on 
July 1, 1913. The first regulations for the enforcement of this act 
were issued in June, 1913, and the supervision of the enforcement of 
the law was divided between the Biochemic Division and the Patho- 
logical Division, the Biochemic Division being allotted the supervision 
of the manufacture of hog-cholera serum and virus and tuberculin 
and mallein, while the preparation of all other veterinary biological 
products was supervised by the Pathological Division. The first in- 
spector assigned to this work was Dr. F. A. Imler, who was trans- 
ferred from the Meat Inspection Division on October 31, 1913, and 
was given headquarters at Kansas City, and the force was increased 
as rapidly as men could be trained for the work. Dr. H. J. Shore, 
of the Biochemic Division, was placed in charge of a section in the 
Division which devoted its time entirely to the supervision of this 
inspection work. By July 1, 1916, there had been licensed to manu- 
facture anti-hog-cholera serum 89 plants, which during the calendar 
year 1015 produced 208,571,232 cubic centimeters of anti-hog-cholera 
serum. 
After this work had been completely organized, about February, 
1917, in conformity with the policy of segregating the regulatory and 
research work, a separate office known as the Office of Virus-Serum 
Control was established, with Dr. H. J. Shore as Chief, and all of the 
work of enforcing the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act was allotted to that 
office. However, the laboratory work, including the testing of samples 
and such research as was necessary, has remained in charge of the 
Biochemic and Pathological Divisions. 
Later Researches on Hog Cholera 
While the work on hog cholera during the period from 1906 to 1916 
was devoted for the most part to practical tests of the newly discov- 
ered hog-cholera serum, to extension work designed to familiarize hog 
raisers with the value and methods of the use of this product, and to 
the control of interstate commerce in the serum, assuring thereby a 
more uniform and more reliable product, much research work was 
* See "Division of Virus-Serum Control," page 342. 166 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
also done along minor lines. The hyperimmunization, which was at 
first done by subcutaneous injection, was found to be accomplished 
more expeditiously and more economically by intravenous injection of 
the virus blood. The method of drawing serum from the tail of the 
immunized hog was developed, and it was found that • carbolic acid 
had comparatively little effect on the virus of hog cholera in blood 
obtained from sick hogs. This latter observation made practical the 
wide general use of the simultaneous process of immunization, for it 
was found that hog-cholera blood preserved with one-half of 1 per 
cent of carbolic acid would keep in good condition for some weeks 
without rendering the virus impotent. 
Other researches showed that the immunizing properties of the 
anti-hog-cholera serum resided in the serum portion of the defibrinated 
blood and not in the red cells, and that the antibodies of this serum 
could be separated from the remainder of the serum along with the 
globulins. Up to this time the hog-cholera serum of commerce was 
prepared exclusively in the form of carbolated defibrinated blood. 
This was done because of the fact that in hog's blood it is difficult to 
separate the serum completely and economically from the red cells. 
In 1914 and 1915, when foot-and-mouth disease was widespread 
among cattle and hogs in the United States, certain batches of virus 
and serum prepared by two commercial establishments located in the 
vicinity of the Chicago stockyards became contaminated with the 
virus of foot-and-mouth disease and served to cause outbreaks of foot- 
and-mouth disease among hogs treated with such contaminated lots. 
This occurrence brought home forcibly the necessity for producing a 
hog-cholera serum which could be rendered free of all danger of 
foot-and-mouth disease in cases of emergencies such as those of 1914 
and 1915. 
On May 29, 1916, M. Dorset and R. R. Henley, of the Biochemic Di- 
vision, described in the Journal of Agricultural Research a method for 
producing clear and sterilized anti-hog-cholera serum, the process 
being based on the fact that an extract made from navy beans had the 
property of causing an agglutination of the red blood cells of hogs. 
It was also found that by the addition of a certain amount of salt at 
the same time a decided contraction of the red cells could be brought 
about. It was thus that the bean-salt method of producing clear anti- 
hog-cholera serum came into existence. The bean extract and a small 
amount of saturated salt solution are added to the defibrinated hog's 
blood or to the citrated hog's blood and this mixture is centrifugalized. 
The red cells are agglutinated and become firmly packed in the Biochemic Division 
167 
centrifuge so that perfectly clear serum can be poured off. This clear 
serum can then be heated to a temperature sufficient to destroy foot- 
and-mouth disease virus and other infectious agents without mate- 
rially diminishing the potency. This method has been put into prac- 
tical use by commercial firms and clear anti-hog-cholera serum is now 
obtainable on the market. The process and the product were patented 
by Dorset and Henley, the rights 'to use the process being assigned to 
the Government or any person in the United States in the usual 
manner. 
New processes were devised for refining, clarifying and sterilizing 
old hog-cholera defibrinated blood serum. Among these the process 
devised by R. R. Henley and published in March, 1922, deserves 
especial mention. By the combination of chloroform with the bean- 
salt method a perfectly clear and almost colorless anti-hog-cholera 
serum can be prepared from old defibrinated blood. The process 
serves to remove practically all hemoglobin, together with the cell 
debris, and bacteria. 
Aside from these studies on hog-cholera serum, much time has been 
given since 1916 to a study of the ways in which hog cholera is 
spread. It was shown that the virus contained in the meat of 
diseased hogs might survive the ordinary process of brine curing, 
inducing the disease in susceptible pigs when fed to them. Pens 
occupied by cholera pigs were found in the summer months, in Iowa, 
to become quickly noninfectious, whereas during the colder months 
in the same latitude the disease persisted in the pens for a number 
of weeks. It was found possible to convey hog cholera by means of 
house flies and biting flies, but experiments left the impression that 
flies were probably not the most important factor in conveying the 
disease. Birds likewise were found not to convey the disease readily 
on their feet. In fact most of these researches pointed to the diseased 
hog and to the meat from diseased hogs as being the principal sources 
of danger. 
During this period several individuals appeared with what were 
claimed to be new and improved methods of preventing hog cholera 
or of cultivating the filtrable virus of the disease. In no case were 
these claims found to be well founded. 
During the entire period from 1906 to 1924 there has been main- 
tained by the Division a field station consisting of a rented farm of 
about 50 acres, with temporary buildings, in the vicinity of Ames, 
Iowa. At this station most of the practical tests have been carried 168 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
out. The station throughout this period has been in charge of Dr. 
W. B. Niles. 
Tuberculosis Investigations 
Very soon after the organization of the Biochemic Laboratory, 
researches of various kinds were begun on tuberculosis, and in 1894 
de Schweinitz described an attenuated tubercle bacillus which he 
had cultivated and with which he appeared to secure immunity in 
guinea-pigs against virulent cultures of tuberculosis. De Schweinitz 
followed this work with the attenuated tubercle bacillus by attempt- 
ing to produce antituberculosis serum by injecting horses, mules and 
donkeys with emulsified cultures of the attenuated germ. This serum 
was used extensively in the Loomis Sanitarium but was finally dis- 
continued. 
In 1895 the first results of chemical studies of the bodies of human 
tubercle bacilli were published by de Schweinitz and Dorset, the 
results dealing mainly with the ether-soluble portions of the bacilli, 
which were found to approximate 35 per cent of the dry weight. Later 
similar analyses were made of bovine, swine, horse, and avian tubercle 
bacilli, and the mineral constituents of tubercle bacilli were also 
determined by analysis (Journal of the American Chemical Society, 
August, 1898). The interesting part of these later chemical studies 
was the observation that the ash of tubercle bacilli consisted largely of 
salts of phosphoric acid. This observation led to a change in ihe method 
of cultivating the tubercle bacilli in the laboratories of the Bureau. 
Acid potassium phosphate wyas substituted for sodium chlorid, which 
was found not to be utilized. 
Dr. Theobald Smith, then Chief of the Pathological Division, was 
the first to call attention, in 1894 and 1895, to difference in types of 
tubercle bacilli. This observation was followed in 1901 by the state- 
ment of Dr. Robert Koch, at the London Tuberculosis Congress, that 
bovine tuberculosis is not a matter of importance to human health. 
This statement of Koch aroused scientific interest and started investi- 
gators to work in all parts of the world. The Biochemic Division, 
among others, began a study which was intended to cast light on this 
subject. One of the greatest obstacles to such work, however, was the 
difficulty in isolating the tubercle bacilli from animal tissues, the 
bacillus being extremely difficult to grow and the only successful 
method being that of Koch, who used coagulated blood serum. Thn 
work of isolating cultures of tubercle bacilli from natural cases in 
man was assigned to Dorset, who, finding great difficulty in obtaining Biochemic Division 
169 
satisfactory results with blood serum, successfully employed coagulated 
hens' eggs as a medium. This method not only proved successful in 
the work of the Biochemic Division but has found favor generally in 
bacteriological laboratories everywhere. 
In carrying on the study of the relation of bovine tuberculosis to 
tuberculosis in man, a number of cultures of tubercle bacilli were 
isolated from the diseased tissues of children who had died of tubercu- 
losis in Washington hospitals. Among these cultures three were 
found which were capable of producing generalized disease in cattle 
and which possessed a virulence for rabbits known only in bovine 
types of the tubercle bacillus. Since those researches it has, of course, 
come to be well recognized that the bovine bacillus is a serious source 
of infection in children, and the work of the Division on this line, 
although carried out on a small scale as compared with that of other 
investigators, may be regarded as one of the factors that contributed 
to this conclusion. 
The results of these tuberculosis investigations were published as 
Bulletin No. 52, Parts I, II and III, of the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try, the authors being E. A. de Schweinitz, M. Dorset, E. C. Schroeder 
and W. E. Cotton. 
Tuberculin 
Tuberculin, discovered by Robert Koch in 1890 and 1891, was first 
used in the United States for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle 
on March 3, 1892, by Dr. Leonard Pearson, the distinguished 
veterinarian of the State of Pennsylvania. A very short time after- 
wards, in the year 1893, the Bureau of Animal Industry, through its 
Biochemic Laboratory, began the preparation of tuberculin for the 
use of its inspectors in enforcing the quarantine regulations, and it 
was decided at the same time to supply the substance free of charge 
to properly constituted health officers and official veterinarians of 
the various States and Territories, the object being to cooperate with 
State officials in their efforts to restrict and eradicate tuberculosis 
under the authority conferred by Act of Congress. The tuberculin 
produced by the Bureau of Animal Industry was furnished to State, 
county and municipal officials on condition that they should supply 
the Bureau of Animal Industry with records of all tests and with 
the results of autopsies on all animals slaughtered. It wTas further 
required that all tests should be conducted under official supervision 
by skilled veterinary practitioners. The tuberculin produced was al- 
ways of the form intended for subcutaneous use until the year 1918, 170 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
when the manufacture of intradermic and ophthalmic tuberculin was 
begun. The demand for tuberculin increased steadily and in the year 
ending June 30, 1906, there were distributed 103,510 doses of sub- 
cutaneous tuberculin. 
The inauguration in 1917 of the country-wide campaign for the 
eradication of bovine tuberculosis served to increase greatly the 
demand for tuberculin, so that in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922, 
there were distributed to officials of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
and to State officers cooperating with the Bureau in the eradication 
of tuberculosis 619,306 doses of subcutaneous tuberculin, 5,133,725 
doses of intradermic tuberculin and 1,577,880 discs. 
It is worthy of record that tuberculin in disc form for the ophthalmic 
test was prepared first in the laboratories of the Biochemic Division, 
where the method of making these discs was worked out. Prior to 
the preparation of these discs the ophthalmic testing of cattle was on 
an uncertain footing. The results obtained had been conflicting and 
at times confusing. Now, however, the ophthalmic disc has become an 
important and necessary instrument in the tuberculosis eradication 
campaign. 
Mallein 
The production of mallein was begun in 1893 coincidently with the 
production of tuberculin, and its distribution has been carried out on 
the same plan as that used for tuberculin. During the World War 
the Bureau laboratories supplied all the mallein used by the American 
Expeditionary Forces in France, 3,464,702 doses being furnished to 
the War Department for the use of the Army. At the present time 
glanders is not widely prevalent in the United States and the use of 
mallein is consequently not so extensive as in years past. It is 
employed now chiefly for the testing of horses being imported into 
this country or being exported to Canada. 
Laboratory Meat Inspection 
Even as early as 1896 the Biochemic Division was doing some chem- 
ical work on meat products for the Inspection Division of the Bureau. 
Studies were made of lards, imported sausages and other like pro- 
ducts. It was not, however, until the passage of the Meat Inspection 
Law, June 30, 1906, that the Division took up the laboratory study of 
meats and meat products as a definite and regular part of its ac- 
tivities. 4 
When the decision was made, about August 1, 1906, to have carried Biochemic Division 
171 
out by the Bureau the necessary laboratory inspection of meats and 
meat food products under the Meat Inspection Law, this work was 
naturally assigned to the Biochemic Division. Not only wTas it neces- 
sary to arrange for the regular laboratory inspection of meat pro- 
ducts subsequently to 1906, but it was necessary to sample and ex- 
amine chemically all meats or meat products on hand in the United 
States at that time, because these could not be shipped interstate 
under the law until the examination had been completed. The force 
of chemists already employed in the Division was wholly inadequate 
to take care of this new work without seriously impairing the re- 
searches along other lines. It was found very difficult to procure 
the necessary number of adequately trained chemists in so short a 
time. Furthermore, it was evident that the routine inspection of 
meat food products produced after October 1, 1906, could not be 
carried out in one central laboratory in Washington, but that it 
would be necessary to install and equip laboratories at a number 
of the more important packing-house centers in different parts of 
the country. Notwithstanding these obstacles, a central meat-in- 
spection laboratory was established in Washington and branch labo- 
ratories in Chicago, Ill., New York, N. Y., Kansas City, Kans., Omaha, 
Nebr., and San Francisco, Calif., and all were ready for work prior 
to October 1, 1906. Shortly thereafter a seventh laboratory was 
installed in Cincinnati, Ohio. This last-named laboratory was trans- 
ferred about March 1, 1907, to East St. Louis, Ill. 
The inspection of meat food products prepared prior to October 
1, 1906, resulted in the refusal of the Department to permit the ship- 
ment in interstate commerce of more than 100 different varieties 
of meat food products on the market, which were found to conflict 
with the meat-inspection regulations. 
This laboratory inspection work, which now became a regular 
part of the Division's activities, steadily increased in efficiency and 
became wider in scope. The water supplies of all packing houses 
were investigated, and in many cases it was found necessary to 
require the installation of purification plants or an entire change 
in the source of water used in preparing meats. Bacteriological in- 
vestigations were undertaken with the idea not only of determin- 
ing the proper disposal of spoiled cans but also of devising methods 
for preventing serious losses 'which resulted therefrom. The num- 
ber of samples examined by the seven laboratories gradually in- 
creased in number until in the fiscal year 1914 they reached a 
total of 31,839 samples. 172 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
On July 1, 1914, in conformity with the order of the Secretary 
of Agriculture previously explained, the research and the regula- 
tory work were separated. This resulted in the transfer, on the 
date mentioned, of the meat-inspection laboratory work to the Meat 
Inspection Division, the research work relating to meat inspection 
being left in the Biochemic Division. 
Meat Inspection Research Work 
A certain amount of research work was necessary to improve the 
efficiency of the laboratory meat inspection as well as to aid the 
Bureau in deciding various questions which arose from time to time. 
At the time the meat-inspection law was passed, all meats which 
were officially inspected were marked by means of a label known 
as the Howard label, this being printed in a transferable ink on 
soluble gelatin. These labels were not wholly satisfactory because 
they frequently failed to leave an imprint and at times could be 
removed and applied for a second time if any one was inclined to 
do so. Furthermore, the Department in the year ending June 30, 
1907, expended more than $158,000 for these labels, which were 
manufactured by a private firm. It was estimated that if the De- 
partment continued to use labels at the price it was at that time 
paying, it would, owing to the very greatly increased scope of the 
inspection, be forced to expend approximately $500,000 per annum 
for marking all inspected meats. In the year 1906 Dr. Dorset, 
Chief of the Biochemic Division, devised an ink which was non- 
poisonous and which could be applied to meats when either wet or 
dry, warm or cold, to produce a legible, indelible inspection mark. 
It wras but a short time before this ink completely replaced the 
Howard label. The saving effected in this way has certainly ex- 
ceeded $1,000,000. 
Research work which is deserving of especial mention may be 
epitomized as follows: 
A study of the coloring matter of salted meats which was begun 
in 1907 by Ralph Hoagland led to a better understanding of the 
changes that take place in the hemoglobin of meats which have 
been cured in brine containing saltpeter. A practical method for 
detection of beef fat in lard was developed by James A. Emery 
in 1908. Bacteriological studies by C. N. McBryde led to a better 
system for handling defective cans found during the process of 
canning meats and also led to a discovery of the cause of ham 
souring, indicating ways for preventing this trouble, which was the 
source of considerable loss to the meat industry. Biochemic Division 
173 
Certain harmless colors were permitted to be added to meats and 
meat food products, but where these were present in mixture their 
separation and identification were extremely difficult. A method 
was worked out by T. M. Price for the separation and identifica- 
tion of the various permitted colors. 
Chemical studies of the effect of fats and oils on metals were made 
by James A. Emery and R. R. Henley, and the effect of these metals 
on the rancidity of fats was also the subject of a publication. The 
same workers published an important paper on ''Meat Extracts; 
Their Composition and Differentiation." Special investigations were 
made by Robert H. Kerr on the detection of vegetable fats in mix- 
ture with lards. 
In 1913 the meat-inspection research work, which up to that time 
had dealt largely with methods of analysis designed to facilitate 
the inspection work, was segregated and carried on as a distinct 
project, though always in collaboration with the routine laboratories. 
One of the chief lines of activities begun at that time was a study 
of the changes which take place in meat during storage. This 
work was undertaken by Ralph Hoagland, W. C. Powick and C. 
N. McBryde, and the project was completed in 1916. The results 
showed that fresh beef could be held in cold storage at tempera- 
tures above freezing for as long as 77 days, but it was not thought 
possible to hold it in many packing-house, coolers for longer than 
about 55 days. This difference is due to the relatively greater 
humidity of some packing-house coolers, so that evidently the length 
of time during which fresh beef can be held in storage is dependent 
upon a number of factors, among which are temperature and hu- 
midity of the storage room and the character of the beef when 
placed in storage. Storage tended to render the beef more tender 
and to change its flavor in certain respects. Bacteria and molds 
which grow on the surface of cold stored meats do not penetrate 
the muscular tissue to any great depth, and the increased tenderness 
in the stored meats can not be attributed to the direct action of bac- 
teria, but is probably due largely to enzymotic action. The chemical 
changes in the stored beef appeared to be without appreciable effect 
on either the nutritive value or the wholesomeness of the muscular 
tissue, but in the case of the longer periods of storage the changes 
in the kidney fat and external fatty tissue seem to render them 
unsuitable for human consumption. A bulletin on the subject was 
published, with Ralph Hoagland, W. C. Powick and C. N. McBryde 
as authors. This work led to the publication of a number of papers 
as bulletins and in the scientific journals. 174 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
During the period of the World War the meat-inspection re- 
search was turned largely toward a study of subjects which ap- 
peared to be of importance at that time. A survey was made of 
the curing materials used in meat-packing establishments, as well 
as of the wastage of curing materials in discarded pickling solu- 
tions. A resume of rapid and reliable methods for detecting poisons 
in meats was prepared. A study of glucose as a substitute for cane 
sugar in meat curing was completed and published. 
Substitutes for lard oil in signal oil were given extensive investi- 
gation. In 1919 there was begun an important project which is 
leading to valuable results. This project consisted in a study of 
the composition and nutritive value of the edible viscera of cattle, 
sheep and swine. Coupled with this was a study of the biological 
value of the proteins of the edible viscera and muscle and a study of 
the vitamin content of the flesh and viscera of cattle, sheep and swine. 
The first portion of this work, namely, the vitamin B content of the 
muscular tissue and edible viscera of cattle, sheep and swine, by 
Ralph Hoagland, has been published, and the other portions are 
approaching completion. Special investigations are under way on 
the nature of the changes which take place in rancid fats. Investiga- 
tion of the chemistry of the edible tissues of emaciated carcasses as 
compared with that of normal healthy carcasses is also nearing 
completion. 
Dips and Disinfectants 
The work of the Biochemic Division with dips and disinfectants 
was developed from very small beginnings, such as the analysis of 
dipping fluids, which began about the year 1896. These early analyses 
dealt with the composition of dips intended to destroy the Texas- 
fever cattle tick and the mites which cause scabies in cattle and sheep. 
The work during this period was carried out in cooperation with the 
Pathological Division and with the Zoological Division, which investi- 
gated the effect of the dips on the different parasites as well as on 
the cattle and sheep. 
Dips for Texas Fever * 
About the year 1893 the use of petroleum oil as a dip for ticky 
cattle was proposed, and special attention was given to the crude oils 
which contained sulphur, since sulphur was regarded as being endowed 
with particular insecticidal properties. The Division conducted many 
analyses of crude oils from various parts of the country, and the crude 
* See "Zoological Division,'' page 93. Biochemic Division 
175 
oil dips, both in the form of a layer of oil on the water in the dipping 
bath and also in the form of an emulsion made with soap, were used 
extensively. This crude oil continued to be the chief dipping agent 
up to about the year 1910, when studies were first begun by the 
Biochemic Division, in cooperation with the Zoological Division, on 
arsenical cattle dips, the work of the Bureau being actuated by the 
reports of successful work carried out in other countries with a dip 
composed of sodium arsenite and a special grade of pine tar. The 
results of these investigations led to the adoption of the arsenical dip 
for Texas fever, crude oil being found to be much less satisfactory 
in a number of respects. 
The first arsenical dip was made from white arsenic, soda and pine 
tar, and is described in B. A. I. Bulletin 144. It was first permitted 
for use in official dipping by Bureau of Animal Industry Order 178, 
in 1911. About the same time a proprietary dip which contained 
arsenite of potash and other ingredients in very concentrated form 
was permitted for use in official dipping after field experiments 
observed by the Zoological and Tick Eradication Divisions had shown 
it to be effective. 
In the latter part of the year 1916 another firm produced an 
arsenical dip which was found to be satisfactory and which was per- 
mitted for use in official dipping. Other manufacturers have since 
entered the field, so that at the present time the greater part of the 
dipping is done in solutions prepared from these concentrated pro- 
prietary dips. They appear to be effective, with the advantage of 
being very simple to use, and the farmers and inspectors are nor 
required to go through the troublesome process of manufacturing the 
dip themselves. All of the permitted proprietary dips are required 
to meet a standard of composition prescribed as a result of work by 
the Biochemic Division and they are controlled by chemical analyses 
of samples taken by inspectors from time to time. 
Even in the experimental period of arsenical baths, in 1910, it 
became evident that something was happening to the arsenic. The 
analyst frequently found much less arsenic than was positively known 
to be present. The question was assigned to A. V. Fuller, who, in 
1911, discovered the phenomenon of oxidation of arsenic by the growth 
of micro-organisms in the bath (B. A. I. Circular 183). It was later 
found that Briinnich in Australia had already observed the occurrence 
of oxidation, but Fuller was first to suspect that micro-organisms were 
the important cause of it. In 1913, Laws, of South Africa, suggested 
that there might also be reducing organisms sometimes present. This 176 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
afforded a clue to some puzzling phenomena, and the question was 
studied by Chapin in 1913 and 1914, Fuller having left the Bureau. 
The work is covered by Department Bulletin 259, and showed the 
effects which might be expected in the field under varying conditions, 
and that in fact these could be explained only through the presence 
of organisms of both kinds. No attempt was made to identify the 
micro-organisms involved. 
The idea of a field test came from Dr. C. J. Becker in a letter in 
August, 1911. He suggested that hydrometers be supplied so that 
inspectors ''could at any time test the strength of the solution in the 
vat, and have a definite way to add enough of the concentrated ar- 
senical solution to bring it up to the required standard." Though a 
hydrometer was not practical, once the necessity appeared a practical 
field test was devised by Chapin in 1911, thoroughly tested the fol- 
lowing spring, and put into immediate use. Soon after Dr. Becker's 
suggestion was received, a published note regarding a method of test 
already devised and patented by Watkins-Pitchford in South Africa 
was received. But the details of the mechanism of the test were too 
meager to be of assistance, so the Bureau's test •was developed inde- 
pendently. When full details of Watkins-Pitchford's test were later 
obtained, it was found that the Bureau's test was far superior in ac- 
curacy and convenience. The test, by securing the use of baths of 
definite strength, has been a tremendously important factor in expe- 
diting the progress of tick eradication. The outfits and chemicals 
for making the tests have been supplied to field inspectors by the Bio- 
chemic Division to meet yearly demands which amounted to 960,000 
tests in 1922. 
Dips for Sheep Scab 
"While the Bureau of Animal Industry had for some years been 
engaged in a study of sheep scab and methods for preventing it, and 
the Biochemic Division had carried out chemical work relating to the 
problems, it was not until August 10, 1899, that specific dips for 
scabby sheep were approved. These dips were the tobacco and sul- 
phur dip, which contained 0.05 of 1 per cent of nicotine and 2 per 
cent flowers of sulphur, and the lime-sulphur dip, which was made 
with 8 pounds of unslaked lime and 24 pounds of flowers of sulphur 
to each 100 gallons water. B. A. I. Order 38 was the first order ap- 
proving certain dips. This order was superseded by B. A. I. Order 
108, dated April 3, 1903, but the dips prescribed remained unchanged 
until the issuance of B. A. I. Order 143, which went into effect April Biochemic Division 
177 
15, 1907. This order permitted the use in official dipping of the fol- 
lowing dips: (1) Nicotine and tobacco dips with sulphur, provided, 
however, that the sulphur could be omitted at the first dipping if the 
amount of nicotine present in the solution was increased from 0.05 
to 0.07 of 1 per cent. (2) Lime-sulphur home-made dips, as in the 
past, on the basis of the 8-24 formula. In addition there were pro- 
visions for permitting proprietary lime-sulphur solutions on the basis 
of 2 per cent sulphid sulphur in the dipping bath. (3) Cresol dips, 
consisting of a mixture of cresylic acid with soap, which, when diluted 
for use, which were required to contain 1/^ of 1 per cent cresylic acid. 
(4) Coal-tar creosote dips, consisting of a mixture of coal-tar creosote 
or coal-tar oils and cresylic acid with rosin soap in varying propor- 
tions. These dips were required to contain, when diluted ready for 
use, certain specified amounts of coal-tar oils and cresylic acid. 
In this Order 143 specific provisions were made for the first time 
for permitting in official dipping the use of proprietary products, and 
special rules were laid dowm to govern their use in official dipping. 
Manufacturers were required to standardize their products and sub- 
mit a standard sample, and to recommend on their labels a dilution 
found to be permissible after analysis of the standard sample in the 
Biochemic laboratories. 
The admission of new dips and the recognition of proprietary ar- 
ticles, all of which required examination and analysis before they 
could be used in official dipping, made it necessary to make a great 
number of analyses of proprietary dips submitted by manufacturers 
as well as of samples sent in by inspectors from the field. The 
methods then available for the analysis of coal-tar creosote dips as 
well as of tobacco extracts and nicotine solutions were far from sat- 
isfactory. It was difficult for two chemists working in different lab- 
oratories to obtain concordant results, hence special investigation was 
given to these problems and there were developed in the laboratories 
of the Biochemic Division new methods which not only aided greatly 
in standardizing dips but which have been since generally adopted by 
analysts in this country as standard procedures. 
The methods for the analysis of coal-tar creosote and cresylic sheep 
dips were published as B. A. I. Bulletin 107 and B. A. I. Circular 167, 
both being prepared by Robert M. Chapin. The new methods for the 
analysis of nicotine solutions and tobacco extracts were published as 
B. A. I. Bulletin 133. The use of flowers of sulphur as an addition to 
nicotine and tobacco dips was abandoned by the Bureau on May 1, 
1911 .(Amendment 5 to B. A. I. Order 143). 178 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Analyses of samples of dips prepared and used in the field showed 
conclusively that the dipping baths in practice could not under con- 
tinued use be maintained at standard strength without some means of 
determining at the vat side the actual amount of active substances in 
solution. Consequently a method for the field testing of lime-sulphur 
baths was devised. This field test is of such a nature that the in- 
spector, even though he does not possess chemical knowledge, can yet 
make a quick and sufficiently accurate chemical determination of the 
strength of the dipping bath by using the portable outfit and chem- 
icals furnished by the Bureau and described by Chapin in Depart- 
ment Bulletin 163 in 1915. The necessary simple apparatus and 
chemicals have since that time been prepared in the laboratories of 
the Division in sufficient quantity to meet the needs of the Field In- 
spection Division. There have been shipped yearly a varying amount 
of the supplies for testing lime-sulphur dips. In some years the 
amount was sufficient to make 4,000 tests, while in others sufficient 
for 20,000 tests has been supplied. 
With the establishment of the field test for the lime-sulphur dips 
the required strength of sulphid sulphur in the bath was reduced to 
1^ per cent on July 1, 1914 (B. A. I. Order 210). The Bureau, hav- 
ing become convinced that successful dipping could be carried out 
only by a careful chemical field control of the dipping solutions, dis- 
continued the use of the cresol, coal-tar creosote and nicotine dips, the 
principal reason being that no means was available for testing such 
dips in the field. This action by the Bureau stimulated research on 
the part of the more important manufacturers of nicotine prepara- 
tions, and by the year 1915 a satisfactory field test for the nicotine 
dips was developed by R. H. Mewbome, who had the cooperation of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry in his work. The development of a 
field test for the nicotine dip resulted in Amendment 4 to B. A. I. 
Order 210, effective March 1, 1915, by which the use of the nicotine 
dips in official dipping was again permitted. The addition to this dip 
of 2 per cent of flowers of sulphur was required. The use of sulphur 
was abandoned October 1, 1917 (Amendment 2 to B. A. I. Order 245), 
since which date the requirements for all sheep dips have remained 
unchanged. The necessary supplies and apparatus for testing nico- 
tine dips have been supplied by the Division and have been shipped in 
quantities sufficient to make from 3,000 to 7,500 tests annually. 
About this period rather extensive studies were made of methods 
for the analysis of lime-sulphur solutions and of the composition of 
dips made according to various formulas (Department Bulletin 451, 
December 14, 1916). Biochemic Division 
179 
Dips for Cattle Scab 
Active investigations relating to dips for cattle scab were not un- 
dertaken by the Bureau until about the year 1902, and the first order 
requiring official dipping prior to interstate shipment of infected cat- 
tle was issued in March, 1904 (B. A. I. Order 123). The dips for 
cattle scab, for the most part, from that time on, have followed the 
general plan for dips for sheep scab. Laboratory work on the sheep 
dips was equally applicable to cattle dips, and the field test outfits 
developed for sheep dips were likewise applied to dips used for cattle 
scab. B. A. I. Order 143 permitted the use in official dipping for 
cattle scab of (1) lime-sulphur; (2) nicotine and sulphur; (3) oil 
emulsions. The provisions for analysis and standardization of pro- 
prietary products were similar to those for sheep dips. Sulphur was 
eliminated as a required constituent of nicotine dips by Amendment 
9, B. A. I. Order 143, August 18, 1913, and on July 1, 1914 (B. A. I. 
Order 210) all dips for cattle scab were discarded in official dipping 
except lime-sulphur dip, this being due, as in the case of sheep scab, 
to the lack of suitable field-test methods for the other classes of dips. 
After the development of the field test for nicotine that dip was again 
permitted by Amendment 4 to B. A. I. Order 210, on March 1, 1915. 
Flowers of sulphur was omitted from the nicotine cattle dip on Octo- 
ber 1, 1917, Amendment 2 to B. A. I. Order 245, since which time 
there has been no change in the methods. 
Disinfectants 
It was natural that the Biochemic Division, as the only chemical 
organization then existing in the Bureau, should have begun at an 
early date a study of the various disinfectants used in combating 
animal diseases and in enforcing the various quarantine regulations 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry. In the beginning this work con- 
sisted almost entirely of routine analyses, though some study was 
given to the development of new methods for the analysis of disin- 
fecting solutions, those available being far from satisfactory. 
In January, 1904, in a paper before the Sioux Valley Medical Asso- 
ciation, Dr. George A. Johnson, of Sioux City, Iowa, inspector of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, who had taken part in the eradication of 
the 1902 outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in New England, pub- 
lished a description of a simple method for generating formaldehyde 
gas, which consisted practically of mixing formaldehyde solution with 
permanganate of potash. This paper was published in the Medical 
Herald, St. Joseph, Mo., in March, 1904. This was the first published 180 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
description of this method of generating formaldehyde gas, which is 
now employed almost universally by health officers. It is not known 
whence the first suggestion for such a method came, but Dr. Johnson, 
to whom belongs the credit for the first published description of such 
a method, obtained his information while in New England, as the 
method was used in connection with the eradication of the 1902 out- 
break of foot-and-mouth disease. The Biochemic Division promptly 
gave considerable study to the question in order to determine the 
most favorable proportions in which to use the permanganate of pot- 
ash and the formaldehyde solution. It was found that the propor- 
tions recommended by Dr. Johnson were not favorable, as a compara- 
tively small quantity of the formaldehyde was given off in the form 
of vapor. The most favorable proportions were found to be 6 ounces 
of 40 per cent formaldehyde solution to 5 ounces of pure crystals of 
potassium permanganate. This resulted in the vaporization of 51 
per cent of the formaydehyde present in the solution. These results 
were published in 1905. 
B. A. I. Order 143, effective April 1^, 1907, provided for the use of 
(a) pure carbolic acid, 5 per cent solution; (b) a solution of pure car- 
bolic acid mixed with lime; (c) a solution of chlorinated lime; and 
(d) a solution of cresol, 2 per cent and soap. By Amendment 3 to 
that order (April 1, 1908) coal-tar creosote dips permitted for sheep 
were also permitted for disinfection when used at five times the dip- 
ping strength, but when the use of coal-tar creosote dips for sheep 
scab was discontinued their use as disinfectants was also abandoned. 
In B. A. I. Order 210, July 1, 1914, the disinfectants prescribed for 
use in official disinfection covered by that order were limited to solu- 
tions of pure carbolic acid and solutions of compound solution of 
cresol, U. S. P., the latter product appearing very satisfactory ex- 
cept with respect to the cost. Some research carried out by the lab- 
oratories showed that the cost could be materially reduced by substi- 
tuting a lower grade of cresol, thus making a less expensive but fully 
as effective a disinfectant. This was provided for by Amendment 5 
to B. A. I. Ordei' 210, October 1, 1915. In cases of disinfectants not 
conforming to the U. S. P. standard, manufacturers were required to 
submit samples for a laboratory examination before the use of their 
products was permitted. Solutions of chlorinated lime were again 
permitted by this amendment. 
Continued efforts to decrease the cost of disinfectants resulted in 
the demonstration that linseed oil, which was used as a basis for the 
soap in the disinfectants, could be reduced from 35 per cent to 28 per Biochemic Division 
181 
cent, and that potash, which was also previously required, could be re- 
placed by a smaller proportion of the less expensive caustic soda. 
Official approval of these changes was contained in Amendment 6 to 
B. A. I. Order 210, issued February 1, 1916. Further work along this 
same line showed that the cheaper soy-bean oil could be substituted 
for linseed oil and that the still cheaper fatty acids of the soy-bean oil 
could be used. Therefore, disinfectants in which the soy-bean oil and 
soy-bean fatty acid were employed were permitted in official disinfec- 
tion by Amendment 1 to B. A. I. Order 263 in July, 1919. Finally in 
B. A. I. Order 273, on July 1, 1921, the use of compound solution of 
cresol, U. S. P., was discontinued because experience had shown that 
this product was frequently labeled incorrectly. After this date all 
manufacturers were required to submit samples and to receive special 
permission for the use of their products in official disinfection. 
As previously indicated, during all of this period much research 
work was done on disinfection and disinfectants. This work covered 
not only the disinfectants used on railway cars and for public stock- 
yards, but also disinfectants used on hides,- skins and other untreated 
animal products. An extended bacteriological study of methods for 
the disinfection of hides infected by anthrax spores was completed by 
F. W. Tilley and published in 1915. This study showed that the Sey- 
mour-Jones method, involving the use of mercuric chlorid and of 
formic acid, was not sufficient for disinfecting hides against anthrax 
unless considerably greater quantities of mercuric chlorid were used. 
It showed that the hydrochloric acid method of Schattenfroh was 
apparently entirely effective. Following this work attempts were 
made to determine the practicability of the use of this method for 
disinfecting hides and skins. The results were such as to lead to 
grave doubt as to the safety of either process. In other words, there 
seemed to be a possibility that not only would the ordinary routine 
of the tanneries be interfered with and not only were the disinfecting 
processes quite expensive, but there was also danger of injury to the 
hide substance. 
A comprehensive study of the germicidal value of chlorine disin- 
fectants was completed and published in 1920 (F. W. Tilley). This 
study was interesting in showing that the different chlorine disinfec- 
tants, such as Dakin's solution, Eusol and mercuric chlorid, varied 
greatly in their effects on various micro-organisms, one being very 
much more effective, for example, against Staphylococcus aureus than 
the others, and that one being perhaps much less effective against 
Bacillus pyocyaneus (Pseudomonas pyocyance). It was shown fur- 182 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
ther that the chlorine disinfectants are apparently of little value for 
destroying Bacillus tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), which 
is quite resistant to all of the chlorine disinfectants. 
Studies have also been made of the various processes for determin- 
ing the phenol coefficients of disinfectants, and these have rather led 
to the conclusion that the methods employed for determining phenol 
coefficients are quite artificial, that they do not represent conditions 
met with in practice, and that instead of depending upon coefficients 
it is perhaps wiser to determine whether or not any given disinfectant 
is effective under the conditions in which it is used. Decision as to 
what disinfectants to use should be governed by such data rather than 
by arbitrary laboratory tests. 
Enforcement of the Insecticide Act of 1910 
By an order dated December 22, 1910, the Secretary of Agriculture 
created the Insecticide and Fungicide Board and appointed four 
members, one each from the Bureaus of Animal Industry, Plant In- 
dustry, Chemistry and Entomology. Dr. M. Dorset was designated 
as the representative of the Bureau of Animal Industry on the board, 
and he was at the same time appointed chairman of the board by the 
Secretary of Agriculture. Regulations for the enforcement of the 
Insecticide Act were prepared and promulgated and the work of the 
board was organized. This required a large amount of executive work 
by the Bureau representative. 
There was organized in the Biochemic Division about January 1, 
1911, a special laboratory charged with the examination and analysis 
of insecticides and fungicides used for the treatment of diseases of 
cattle, sheep, swine and goats. Three chemists were assigned to this 
work, R. M. Chapin being in charge. The work of this laboratory 
consisted of the analyses and the preparation of charges to be pre- 
sented to the courts in cases where insecticides and fungicides were 
found to be in conflict with the Insecticide Act of 1910. 
In the fall of 1912 Dr. Dorset resigned his membership on the board 
in order that more attention might be given to the research work of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry. Dr. J. A. Emery, of the Biochemic 
Division, was designated to represent the Bureau of Animal Industry 
in place of Dr. Dorset. 
In 1916 Mr. Chapin, who had previously directed the insecticide 
and fungicide laboratory work of the Division, relinquished his con- 
nection with it, and the supervision of the laboratory work was taken 
over by Dr. Emery, with the direct assistance of Dr. H. H. Custis. Biochemic Division 
183 
This section of the Division, although concerned almost wholly with 
regulatory work, has published several papers of value relating to 
methods of analysis. In 1921 a veterinarian was added to the force 
of this laboratory to deal with questions which concerned primarily 
the effect of insecticides on animals. The work and organization of 
this section have remained unchanged since that date. 
Other Work 
The preceding account of the activities of the Biochemic Division is 
in reality but a brief resume of the most important accomplishments. 
On account of lack of space, much valuable work could not even be 
mentioned. For example, the story of the researches on hog cholera 
gives hardly more than a suggestion of the large amount of work 
done on diseases allied to hog cholera, such as swine plague and "hog 
flu." The extensive studies of the chemical composition of anti-hog- 
cholera serum are barely mentioned, and only accomplishments which 
are of outstanding importance in the technique of producing that 
serum have been selected from among the many important observa- 
tions which have been recorded in the literature. Valuable contribu- 
tions have been made to the metabolism of bacteria and to the meth- 
ods of analysis of foods, disinfectants and dips. Studies of the bacte- 
rial content of the milk supply of Washington were conducted before 
the Dairy Division took up that line of work. Study was made of the 
water supplies of dairy farms and of problems relating to the handling 
and storage of eggs. Furthermore, the Division carried out a number 
of tests of drugs and biological products which were claimed to be 
remedies for hog cholera, and innumerable samples of disinfectants 
and medicines proposed for use against animal diseases have been 
analyzed. 
It goes without saying that the accomplishments of the Division are 
the direct result of the high attainments and unswerving devotion of 
those who have made up the personnel, encouraged, as they have al- 
ways been, by the sympathetic support of the Chief of the Bureau. 
They, like many others in the Department of Agriculture, have found 
their greatest reward in the consciousness of work faithfully done and 
of service rendered. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
Apr. 1,1890. Establishment of Biochemic Laboratory in old Museum Build- 
ing, Department of Agriculture grounds. 
Inauguration of chemical studies in bacterial metabolism. 
1891. Laboratory moved to 1362 B Street S. W. 
Preparation of mallein begun. 
1892. Preparation and distribution of tuberculin begun. 184 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Aug. 1,1894. Chemical study of tubercle bacilli begun. 
Use of attenuated tubercle bacillus to produce immunity in 
guinea pigs. 
July 1,1896. Biochemic Division established. 
1897. Continued investigations of hog cholera, tuberculosis, and of 
methods for preparing nicotine and lime-sulphur dips. 
Treatment of experimental tuberculosis with antitoxic serum 
(de Schweinitz). 
1898. Determination of mineral constituents of tubercle bacilli. 
Production of serum for hog cholera by injecting cattle 
and horses with cultures of Bacillus cholerae suis. Began 
experiments with serum in Page County, Iowa. 
1899. Hog-cholera eradication experiments continued in Page 
County and extended to include Fremont, Mills and Mont- 
gomery Counties, Iowa. John McBirney, W. B. Niles, 
A. M. Adams and H. B. Waldron, respectively, in charge 
of work in these counties. 
1901. Continued studies of hog cholera, further studies of tubercle 
bacilli, development of egg medium for cultivating Bacil- 
lus tuberculosis (Dorset). Comparative study of human 
and bovine tubercle bacilli begun. 
Special field experiment station for hog-cholera studies es- 
tablished at Sidney, Fremont County, Iowa, W. B. Niles in 
charge. 
1903. Discovery that disease of swine in Iowa was caused by fil- 
trable virus. 
1904. Dr. de Schweinitz died in Washington, February 15. 
Experiments concerning tuberculosis completed. Filtrable 
virus proved to be cause of hog chelora. 
Digestion experiments with poultry completed as B. A. I. 
Bulletin 56. 
1905. Experiments looking to production of anti-hog-cholera serum 
by use of filtrable virus completed. Serum proved to be 
effective. Bacillus cholerae suis shown to play role of sec- 
ondary invader only. Hog-cholera field station transferred 
to Ames, Story County, Iowa. 
1906. Cooperative experiments with Zoological Division and South 
Dakota Experiment Station to determine value of cresol 
and coal-tar creosote dips for sheep scab. 
Discovery of new serum for hog cholera officially announced. 
Method patented by M. Dorset, all rights being dedicated 
to the public. 
Laboratory meat inspection organized October 1, 1906. Lab- 
oratories established in New York, Cincinnati, Chicago, 
Kansas City, Omaha and San Francisco. 
1907. Branding ink for use of meat inspection service devised 
(M. Dorset). Use of Howard label discontinued. 
Meat-inspection laboratory at Cincinnati transferred to East 
St. Louis. 
Experiments with coal-tar dips in South Dakota completed 
and these dips permitted for use in official dipping. 
Successful practical test of anti-hog-cholera serum on farms 
in central Iowa. 
1908. Establishment of laboratory of dips and disinfectants. 
Demonstration of new hog-cholera serum to representatives 
of fifteen States. 
1909. Discovery of cause of ham souring (C. N. McBryde). 
1910. Additional demonstrations of effectiveness of hog-cholera 
serum. 
Production of hog-cholera serum begun by the various States. 
1911. Dr. Dorset appointed chairman of newly created Insecticide Biochemic Division 
185 
and Fungicide Board of Department and designated as 
representative of Bureau of Animal Industry on that 
board. 
Additional studies on hog cholera and field demonstrations 
of effectiveness of serum. 
First arsenical dip for Texas fever permitted in official 
dipping. 
1912. Dr. Dorset resigned as chairman of Insecticide and Fungi- 
cide Board and as Bureau representative. Dr. J. A. 
Emery, Assistant Chief of the Biochemic Division, chosen 
to represent Bureau of Animal Industry on that Board. 
Field test for arsenical dip devised. 
1913. Inauguration inspection of hog-cholera-serum plants, Dr. 
H. J. Shore in charge of section. 
July 1. Inauguration of hog-cholera-control work in Dallas 
County, Iowa. 
July 15. Similar work begun in Montgomery County, Ind. 
Aug. 1. Hog-cholera-control work begun in Pettis County, Mo. 
Nov. 1. Hog-cholera-control work begun in Johnson and 
Gage Counties, Nebr. 
Establishment of laboratory for meat-inspection research, 
Ralph Hoagland in charge. 
July 1,1914. Use of cresol and coal-tar dips for sheep scab discontinued. 
July 1. Meat Inspection Laboratory transferred to Meat In- 
spection Division. 
Field tests for lime-sulphur and nicotine dips devised. 
Apr. 1. Field work on hog cholera divided into (1) control 
work (0. B. Hess in charge) ; (2) demonstrational and 
educational work (U. G. Houck in charge). 
1915. Substitute for U. S. P. compound solution of cresol permit- 
ted in official disinfection. 
1916. Development of bean extract and salt method for producing 
clear anti-hog-cholera serum (Dorset and Henley). 
Jan. 1. Hog-cholera field work transferred to new Office of 
Hog Cholera Control, under direction of 0. B. Hess. 
1917. Regulatory inspection of hog-cholera serum placed in new 
Office of Virus-Serum Control (H. J. Shore in charge). 
Disinfection of tannery effluents by chlorine instituted. 
1918. Completed studies on salvage of pickling materials and on 
substitutes for sugar in meat curing. 
Supplied U. S. Army with mallein. 
Began supplying field inspectors with ophthalmic tuberculin 
discs and intradermic tuberculin. 
1919. Publication of studies on immunity of young pigs from hog 
cholera. 
1920. New method for refinement of anti-hog-cholera serum de- 
veloped (R. R. Henley). 
Spread of hog cholera by insects investigated. 
Study of hop' "flu" begun. 
1921. Effect of feeding on hog cholera "breaks" investigated. 
Vitamin content of various kinds of animal tissues studied. 
1922. First portion of vitamin studies of meats completed. 
PERSONNEL OF THE BIOCHEMIC DIVISION 
Division Chiefs: 
E. A. de Schweinitz, Chief of Biochemic Laboratory, from Jan. 1, 1890, 
to July 1, 1896. 
E. A. de Schweinitz, Chief of Biochemic Division, from July 1, 1896, to 
Feb. 15, 1904. 
Marion Dorset, Chief of Biochemic Division, from Feb. 15,1904, to date. 186 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Assistant Chiefs: 
Marion Dorset, from Jan. 1, 1900, to Feb. 15, 1904. 
James A. Emery, from Feb. 15, 1904, to date. 
Scientists in charge of sections: 
Hog Cholera Field Station, Sidney, Iowa: 
W. B. Niles, from 1901 to 1906. Ames, Iowa, 1906 to date. 
Chemical Meat Inspection Laboratory: 
T. M. Price, Oct. 1, 1906, to July 1, 1914. 
Meat Inspection Research Laboratory: 
Ralph Hoagland, 1913, to date. 
Dip and Disinfectant Laboratory: 
J. A. Emery, July 1, 1905, to Jan. 1, 1908. 
R. M. Chapin, Jan. 1, 1908, to date. 
Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory: 
R. M. Chapin, Jan. 1, 1911, to July 1, 1916. 
J. A. Emery, July 1, 1916, to date. 
Hog Cholera Control Section: 
O. B. Hess, April 1, 1914, to Jan. 1, 1916. 
Hog Cholera Educational and Demonstrational Section: 
U. G. Houck, April 1, 1914, to Jan. 1, 1916. 
Inspection of Hog-Cholera-Serum Plants: 
H. J. Shore, Jan. 1, 1914, to Feb. 17, 1917. 
Tuberculin and Mallein Laboratory: 
E. A. de Schweinitz, 1893 to Aug. 1, 1894. 
Marion Dorset, Aug. 1, 1894, to Feb. 15, 1904. 
James A. Emery, Feb. 15, 1904, to date. Dairy Division 
While dairying has been an important industry in this country 
since the first settlements, it was not until near the close of the 
Nineteenth Century that the pressure of foreign competition and the 
desirability of improving our cattle and products made it necessary 
to establish a central agency to aid and encourage this rapidly grow- 
ing industry. 
In 1890 the annual total value of dairy products produced was 
estimated at $411,000,000, and in the classification of annual farm 
crops covering the years between 1859 and 1889 dairy products ranked 
sometimes third and sometimes fourth in value, being surpassed by 
meat products and by corn and in some years by hay. 
By the year 1894 there were more than 16,000,000 dairy cows in 
the United States and the number was increasing rapidly each year. 
Since 1850 there had been an increase of about 10,000,000 cows, and 
between 1880 and 1890 the rate of increase had been especially gre^t, 
amounting to about 4,000,000 cows in 10 years. 
The average annual production of these cows was low. Statistics 
show that there had been a gradual improvement during the previous 
two or three decades, but the progress was too slow and the average 
production per cow was estimated at less than 3,000 pounds of milk 
in a year. Classified by sections, the North Atlantic States had the 
highest average production per cow, which amounted to 3,681 pounds; 
the North Central States were second with 2,821 pounds; the South 
Atlantic followed with 2,081 pounds, and the South Central, with 
1,574 pounds. Among States and districts, however, the District of 
Columbia led with 4,584 pounds, while New Mexico stood last with a 
little more than 327 pounds per cow. 
That these averages were rather low and that the need for improve- 
ment was recognized, was shown by the growing interest in purebred 
cattle and the large increase in the number registered between 1885 
and 1895. This increase is shown in the following table: 
Cattle registered 
Breed. 
1885. 
1895. 
Ayrshires 
- 
12,867 
18,750 
Brown Swiss 
1,930 
Guernseys 
_ 
. 4,947 
12,547 
Holstein-Friesians 
- 
. 21,138 
90,325 
Jerseys 
~ 
. 51,000 
150,000 
At this time also the production of buttter had reached enormous 
proportions. More than one billion pounds of butter were being made 
187 188 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
each year on the farms alone, and the production of factory butter, 
which, by the way, was increasing very rapidly, had reached the 300 
million mark. Much of this butter, and especially that made on the 
farms, was of inferior quality and there was a very apparent need for 
more information and its application in improving the quality of our 
butter. 
The cheese industry grew steadily and by 1894 about 270 million 
pounds were being made each year, but our export trade was rapidly 
declining. As a result of foreign competition and prejudice against 
American cheese our exports decreased from nearly 150 million 
pounds in 1880 to about 75 million pounds in 1894. This prejudice 
was caused largely by the exportation of large quantities of filled 
cheese. It is interesting to note that as our cheese exports fell off 
Canada's exports of this product increased. Formerly cheese from 
the United States was preferred on the London market to Canadian 
cheese and brought a higher price. The Canadian Government, how- 
ever, inaugurated systematic efforts to educate the dairymen of that 
country. Printed information was distributed, practical men were 
sent to demonstrate improved methods, and the importance of making 
high grade cheese was emphasized. As a result Canadian cheese 
was greatly improved and it soon came to be preferred on the London 
market. This was a pointed lesson for our own people. 
The market milk business in the cities had also developed to large 
proportions. Little attention, however, was being given to the handling 
of milk from a sanitary standout, or to the inspection of milk sup- 
plies and plants, and no uniformity existed in the methods of handling 
the product in different cities. Regulations and ordinances were in 
force in only a few cities, which is not surprising when it is remem- 
bered that the first instance of regulation of milk supplies occurred 
in 1856, when laws were passed in Massachusetts relating to watering 
and skimming. It was some years after this that the first regulations 
in regard to sanitation were passed. One of the greatest needs, 
therefore, for the protection of consumers and for the welfare of 
the industry was the introduction of more sanitary methods and the 
standardization of methods of handling milk in the different cities 
and towns. This, it was believed, could best be accomplished through 
the leadership of a national agency or organization. 
It was obvious that improved dairy methods were needed in the 
United States. They were needed to secure better products at home 
and to recover and retain foreign markets. Dairy Division 
189 
Dairy Division Organized. 
As an aid to bringing about improvements in our dairy industry, 
the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry was organized 
on July 1, 1895, with Major Henry E. Alvord as Chief. Some idea 
of the purpose of this new division may be obtained from a statement 
of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry in his Annual Report 
for 1895. After stating that the original scientific investigations must 
be postponed until a foundation had been laid and facilities ac- 
quired, he continues as follows: 
There is, however, a vast amount of information of the greatest 
value to the dairyman which may be secured by observation and cor- 
respondence. This relates to the condition of the industry, statistics 
of production and trade, markets, and improvement in the manner 
of producing and handling dairy products. The present is an era of 
rapid changes, and the dairyman on this account needs a reliable 
source from which to obtain a knowledge of the latest modifications 
in the trade and the most desirable improvements which have been 
suggested. The great dairy interest has so long been neglected by 
the United States Department of Agriculture that a special effort 
should now be made to press forward the work outlined above and 
to establish intimate relations with the dairy organizations of the 
country. 
This, then, was the purpose for which the Dairy Division was 
organized. 
Early Work of the Dairy Division 
The early work of the Division was largely confined to collecting 
and disseminating information relative to dairying as carried on in 
the United States and foreign countries. It was hoped by those in 
charge of the work that the Division would prove to be of great educa- 
tional advantage to the farmers of the "country, but it was believed 
that it was not the province of the Division to do more than instruct 
people plainly how to help themselves. 
The first year's work of the Division included a survey of the 
dairy industry of the United States and collecting such information 
as was needed for forming an intelligent idea of the magnitude, con- 
dition, and needs of the dairy industry. A number of bulletins were 
issued, for which there was a great demand, and much satisfaction 
was expressed by those interested in dairy matters that the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture had established this Division. 
The Department Yearbook for 1897 included a series of articles 
for the farmer on the work of the Department. Under this heading 
the following statement is made about the Dairy Division: 
The milk supply and service of large cities has been made a spe- 
cial subject of investigation, with the object of assisting in the im- 190 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
provement of the quality of milk and its condition upon delivery to 
the consumers. 
The depressed condition of the exports of dairy products for a 
number of years emphasizes the desirability of active measures to 
assist and encourage this branch of the foreign trade. With a view 
to this, a number of experimental shipments of carefully selected 
butter from creameries in the great butter-producing sections of the 
country were made during the last year. These have furnished much 
information concerning the difficulties that are encountered by the 
trade and as to the requirements of foreign markets. They have also 
convinced English merchants of reputation and influence of the high 
quality of butter obtainable in this country, and of the practicability 
of placing it in British markets without appreciable deterioration. 
It is proposed during 1898 to repeat these trial shipments and to ex- 
tend them to a wider field. 
The experimental exports of butter, begun May 5, 1897, were 
continued on a larger scale in 1898. The butter sent abroad was of 
the best quality and a decided gain was evident in the favorable 
impression made by United States butter upon the best class of trade 
in London and Manchester, England. 
In 1899 the possibilities of building up an export trade in Great 
Britain, France, Germany, China, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands and 
the Philippine Islands were investigated. These countries were vis- 
ited by a representative of the Division, and trial shipments of dairy 
products to Germany and France demonstrated that for choice prod- 
ucts these markets were by no means so good as those of Great 
Britain. Regular shipments were continued to Manchester, England, 
for more than a year and a steady market was created. Such a good 
reputation was built up for American butter that when the shipments 
were discontinued the English merchants attempted to buy direct 
from American producers. The price received in this country for 
choice butter, however, was so high as to preclude exports on a com- 
mercial basis. 
In 1900 a study of dairy sanitation was begun which resulted in 
the publication of a bulletin on the milk supplies of 200 cities of this 
country. This was the first work done by the Division with market 
milk. 
Comprehensive exhibits were made at the Paris Exposition in 1900, 
at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in 1901, and at the Louis- 
iana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904. Major Alvord, Chief 
of the Dairy Division, died at the latter Exposition October 1, 1904. 
After 1902 the scope of the work began to broaden to such an 
extent that from time to time it was necessary to create special sub- 
divisions or sections in the Division to handle the different lines of 
work. In 1902, for instance, the dairy research laboratories were Dairy Division 
191 
established to study research problems. In 1905 Ed. H. Webster, 
who was appointed Chief of the Division in January of that year, or- 
ganized sections to conduct dairy farming extension and market milk 
investigations. In 1906 investigations in dairy manufacturing were 
also organized. B. H. Rawl became Chief of the Division in Jan- 
uary, 1909. In 1910 the Division acquired its Experiment Farm at 
Beltsville, Md. Investigations in dairy cattle breeding were begun 
in 1911. 
All of these sections are still functioning, and as the work of the 
Division has become so definitely divided it would perhaps be more 
advantageous to discuss the work of the Dairy Division under these 
classifications. 
Dairy Extension 
The section dealing with dairy extension is interested in cow-testing 
associations, bull associations, cottage cheese work, utilization of dairy 
products, community development and demonstration farms. 
Extension Work in the South 
The first large piece of dairy extension work was carried on in the 
Southern States, and the real beginning of this work was in the 
winter of 1905 when Mr. Webster, Chief of the Division, attended a 
meeting of the South Carolina Livestock Association and later offered 
B. H. Rawl, secretary of the association, a position with the Depart- 
ment to take charge of dairy work in the South. 
There was a desire to do something of a broad, fundamental nature 
in the interest of dairying in the South, and after Mr. Rawl accepted 
the position he made a tour of the southern agricultural colleges to 
study conditions and formulate plans for definite extension work. 
An appropriation of $20,000 was obtained for this project and work 
was immediately begun in the States of North Carolina, Tennessee, 
Mississippi, Texas, South Carolina and Georgia, when extension men 
were assigned to work in each State. The Dairy Division bore all the 
expense of the work with the understanding that if it proved profit- 
able the States would gradually assume the expense and eventually 
relieve the Department of this project. 
Up to this time very little had been done in these States for dairy- 
ing and the industry was in its infancy. Dairying centered around 
the cities, where there was a market for milk and cream, and occa- 
sionally there was found a farmer in an outlying district who was 
making butter or shipping cream. The principal agricultural crop 
was cotton, and the agricultural colleges were therefore confining a 192 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
large part of their efforts to this crop. Dairying had not been 
thought of sufficient importance to warrant extension work, and the 
colleges were therefore skeptical as to any practical results which 
might be obtained. This attitude was greatly modified as year by 
year the work grew more successful, and the colleges finally became 
so thoroughly convinced of its value that they took over all the work 
when the Department withdrew in 1920. This awakening of the 
colleges to the possibilities of dairying in the South is believed to be 
one of the greatest accomplishments of the Department's extension 
work. 
The early work of the extension men was centered around better 
methods of feeding, building silos, keeping herd records, and encour- 
aging the breeding of better cattle. At first a large amount of per- 
sonal work was done with the individuals in order to have definite 
accomplishments. These accomplishments served as examples in their 
respective communities and the better methods of dairying soon began 
to spread. This acquaintance with individual farmers also opened 
the way to problems such as the raising of calves, remodeling of 
barns, improvement in the quality of butter, and heading herds with 
purebred bulls. 
With the growth of interest in dairying on the part of the farmers 
the attention of the State authorities was attracted to the benefits 
of the practical lines of work conducted. North Carolina and Missis- 
sippi in a very short time showed their appreciation by financial con- 
tributions. The original appropriation by Congress of $20,000 was 
never increased, consequently the only increase in the work that 
could be made came from money provided by States to assist in sup- 
porting the work. 
In 1914 extra funds were secured for carrying on livestock im- 
provement work in areas which had been freed from cattle ticks. 
This work proved very successful. One of the greatest single accom- 
plishments has been the inauguration of the silo movement and the 
feeding of silage to herds in Southern States. 
An interesting epoch in the work was the development of creamery 
promotion activities in 1909. Promoters organized seven plants in 
Georgia, although conditions were such at the time that there were 
few if any places in that State where creameries could successfully 
operate. The promoters were forced to withdraw, and the failure of 
these creameries proved detrimental to the development of cream- 
eries later on. As time went on and the development of dairying in 
certain sections of the South made it possible to support creameries, Dairy Division 
193 
efforts were made to establish them where conditions warranted. The 
establishment of cooperative creameries at Hickory, N. C., in 1910, 
and at Lebanon, Tenn., exerted a wide influence in encouraging the 
dairy industry and supplying a market for dairy products. Since 
that time the development of creameries has been rapid, and for the 
year ending January 1, 1920, more than one and one-half million 
pounds of butter were made in 93 creameries in the South. In 1924 
the creameries had increased to 217 with an especially rapid develop- 
ment in the State of Mississippi. 
The inauguration of the cheese work in 1914 must be regarded as 
one of the epochs in the Dairy Division's work in the South. The 
condition in the mountain regions seemed to be favorable for making 
cheese, and an extension man of the Dairy Division began work in 
cheesemaking in 1914. In 1915 the first cooperative cheese factory 
was organized. In 1920 there were 54. factories in operation, all pro- 
ducing a uniform type of American Cheddar cheese. Thirty of these 
factories alone turned out 481,000 pounds of this product in 1920. 
The bull association movement, which gained enthusiastic support 
in the South, was the first organized effort to head herds with pure- 
bred bulls. There are now 70 bull associations in operation in the 
Southern States, and the enthusiasm for better cattle which these as- 
sociations have created makes this movement rank among the most 
important. Incidentally, it might be added that the number of milk 
cows in the South has increased 50 per cent since 1907, and that the 
improvement in quality is very marked. 
Cow testing work was also carried on in the South with favorable 
results. Testing associations have generally been organized in the 
territories where individual herd record work was carried on in 
earlier years. There are now 24 such associations. 
The work of establishing dairying in the sections where the boll 
weevil had impaired the cotton raising industry is especially impor- 
tant. A territory in Mississippi which in 1912 was floundering for 
some means of livelihood has been transformed into one enthusiastic 
for dairying. The farmers have been led from primitive methods of 
handling cows to a point where they are now engaged in dairying 
on a profitable and reasonably modern basis. 
Southern extension work, except that with cheese factories and 
creameries, was discontinued on July 1, 1920, due to decreased ap- 
propriations of funds. A gratifying testimonial to the effectiveness 
of the work is found in the fact that with one exception all extension 194 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
men in the employ of the Division when the work was discontinued 
were taken over by the agricultural colleges of the States in which 
they worked. 
Extension Work in the West 
The growing importance of dairying in the Western States, the 
lack of a market for large quantities of alfalfa and grains, and the 
opening up of irrigation projects caused the Dairy Division in 1910 
to begin extension work in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain 
States. The object of this work was to improve and develop the 
business of dairying in the Western States by introducing better 
methods of dairying through personal work among the farmers, by 
carrying on educational work to improve the quality of market 
milk, and to introduce better methods of manufacturing dairy prod- 
ucts. Silo building and improved feeding and breeding were given 
particular attention, and assistance was given to creameries and 
cheese factories in improving their products, and to State and city 
boards of health and State dairy commissions in improving methods 
of inspection of milk supplies. 
The field men in dairy farming work cooperated with the county 
agents in developing their projects, including the development of 
cow-testing associations and bull associations. This work, carried on 
in cooperation with the various State agricultural colleges, was con- 
ducted in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New Mex- 
ico, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. 
In 1912 the work had progressed to a point where it seemed ad- 
visable to create a separate office for its supervision, and the western 
office of the Dairy Division was therefore established at Salt Lake 
City, Utah. This arrangement was in force until September 4, 1917, 
when the office became a part of the dairy extension section under 
the name of western dairy extension. 
The first bull association in western territory was organized in 
Oregon in 1915. Since that time other States have been added to the 
list until there are now a total of 45 associations in 7 States, Idaho 
leading with 29 associations. 
The cow-testing work has been making steady advances since the 
first association was organized in California in 1909. There are now 
68 associations in the Western States, California leading in the num- 
ber organized with a total of 27. Some of these California associa- 
tions are unusually large. The one at Ferndale, which includes 100 
herds of 4,400 cows, is the largest cow-testing association in the Dairy Division 
195 
United States. Some of these associations have shown remarkable 
improvement in average production and in economy. 
In the market milk work the surprise milk contests have been ex- 
tensively and effectively used. In these contests, carried on in co- 
operation with city health authorities, the milk of various companies 
is sampled without previous notice and tested for bacteria count, 
sediment, etc., and each given a rating. This has created a spirit of 
friendly rivalry to produce the best milk. Where poor milk is found 
the specialists aid the milk plant to trace the cause to its source and 
remedy the fault. Often this leads to work among the producers in 
better methods of handling milk and in the use of cooling tanks and 
sterilizers. As a result of this work with market milk, very notice- 
able improvement in the quality of the milk supply of many western 
cities has been reported. 
Specialists in cheesemaking for some years have been making per- 
sonal visits to cheese factories, as an aid to improving the quality 
of cheese produced. Short courses of instruction in the methods of 
making cheese have been given from time to time in cooperation 
with the State agricultural colleges. These have been effective also 
in standardizing both the output and the methods of production. 
On February 12, 1920 a creamery specialist was detailed to the 
West to assist in improving the quality of butter made there. In 
late years cream-grading systems of buying cream have been in- 
stalled in several creameries, and sweet-cream butter is also being 
made at some points as a result of the specialist's efforts. As a 
better quality of butter often depends upon obtaining a better qual- 
ity of cream from the producers, it was found necessary to give con- 
siderable attention to the creamery patrons. Cooling tanks have 
been installed on many farms and more attention is now being given 
to farm sanitation. 
In 1915 cooperative relations with the Northern and Middle West- 
ern States in the maintenance of extension field work were begun, 
and by the following year these cooperative relations had attained 
considerable extent, mostly on the half-and-half basis. The organ- 
ization of cow-testing associations was the principal line of work, 
though market milk and creamery work were also done and in some 
States were made the principal activity. The practice was to work 
through community organizations rather than directly with indi- 
vidual farmers, as had been the rule in the South and the Far West, 
where dairying conditions w'ere less advanced. 196 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Cow-Testing Associations 
The cooperative cow-testing association work was begun on May 1, 
1908, when Helmer Rabild accepted appointment in the Dairy Divi- 
sion. These associations consist of groups of dairymen who cooper- 
atively hire an expert to assist them in determining which cows are 
profitable and which are unprofitable. In order to do this the milk 
produced by each cow is tested and weighed against the amount of 
feed consumed. The results have been very encouraging and the 
number of cow-testing associations has become so large as to exert 
a decided influence on improving the dairy herds of this country. 
At first only one man was assigned to the work in the entire coun- 
try. The movement was new and untried on this continent, so his 
time was largely devoted to explaining to those in charge of dairy 
extension in the several States the purpose of the association and the 
method of operation, and to organizing communities that were will- 
ing to undertake the work. From one association organized in Mich- 
igan in 1905 the movement has grown until at present there are 627 
associations in active operation in 39 States, including more than 16,- 
500 members owning approximately 280,000 cows. 
All cow-testing association work is now carried on in cooperation 
with State extension forces or other agencies within the States that 
have the work in charge. The number of Dairy Division extension 
men engaged in cow-testing work was reduced to four in 1920. That 
the cow-testing associations actually improve the herds is shown by 
the fact that the average yearly production of butterfat of cow- 
testing association cows is 247 pounds, as compared with 160 pounds 
which is the estimated average production of all cows in the United 
States. Since 1920 this work has largely developed into a study of 
cow-testing association records. 
Bull Association Work 
In 1908 the Michigan Agricultural College organized a bull asso- 
ciation which was the first in this country. The year 1911 marked 
the organizing of the first cooperative bull association in the United 
States by the Dairy Division. This association was composed of 
breeders of Guernsey cattle in the vicinity of New Windsor, Md. 
The need of some method whereby the smaller dairymen could obtain 
good purebred bulls at a small cost for the purpose of improving 
their herds had long been recognized. The bull association seemed 
to be the solution of this problem. Dairy Division 
197 
In 1911-12 two associations were organized, and in 1915 an ex- 
tension man was assigned to this branch of the work. Since that 
time the number of associations has increased rapidly so that at 
present there are 218 active associations in 37 States. Included in 
this number of associations are 6,881 members owning 45,445 cows, 
of which 8,551 are purebred. 
In 1921 the number of dairy specialists on bull association work 
■was increased to three and work was begun in the South, the Middle 
West and the northeastern dairy sections. One more man was added 
in 1922. The movement has been especially well received in the South. 
About one-third of the bull associations in this country are located 
in the South, which is a growing dairy section. 
Cottage Cheese Work 
During the war every effort was made to eliminate waste of food 
materials. It was ascertained that 29 billion pounds of skim milk 
were produced annually as a by-product of the butter industry. 
Much of this was being wasted, and as a means of utilizing it the 
Dairy Division in 1918 organized a nation-wide campaign to stimu- 
late interest in the making and eating of cottage cheese. Demon- 
strations in the making of cottage cheese were given in cities and in 
rural districts, in clubs, kitchens, schools, cafeterias and other places 
throughout the country. Enormous quantities of cheese were made 
before the campaign was completed in July, 1919. 
Stimulating Consumption of Milk 
When the war came to an end in 1918 the dairy industry was con- 
fronted with the problem of taking care of the increased production 
of milk and dairy products. As an aid in utilizing this surplus, 
and at the same time to decrease the per cent of undernourishment 
found among children and adults, a project was outlined for stimu- 
lating the consumption of milk and dairy products, in both city and 
rural districts. In the spring of 1919 educational milk campaigns 
were organized by milk specialists of the Division in several cities, 
including Detroit, Mich., Boston, Mass., and in some rural communi- 
ties. In these campaigns the value of milk as a food was emphasized. 
Aided by the cooperation of local civic associations, schools and clubs, 
the campaigns proved so successful that the movement spread rapidly 
to all parts of the country. By 1921 almost all of the larger cities 
and many of the smaller cities and rural communities had put on 
milk campaigns. Among the cities which held such campaigns were 198 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Pittsburgh, Detroit, Portland, Seattle, Spokane, Kansas City, Boston, 
Baltimore, Akron and Madison. 
The campaigns lasted about one week and during that time an ef- 
fort was made to bring before as many citizens as possible a knowl- 
edge of the food value of milk. Lectures were given in schools, clubs, 
and factories; posters, motion pictures, window displays and other 
means were used to accomplish this end. The increases in the con- 
sumption of milk reported from the cities ranged from 5 to 50 per 
cent, and substantial increases were also reported for other dairy 
products, such as butter and cottage cheese. The Dairy Division, 
working with the States Relations Service of the Department, coop- 
erates in these campaigns only when requested to do so by local State 
agricultural colleges. 
Some of the States and also certain national dairy organizations 
are beginning to take up the work of conducting milk campaigns, and 
it is hoped that eventually the Department may be relieved of the 
work, for, as with other extension work, it is felt that the Dairy Di- 
vision should act only as a leader in introducing desirable movements, 
and that once they are successfully under way the Division should 
turn its attention to other new problems. 
Dairy Demonstration Farm 
In 1907 a project was started to demonstrate the value of dairying 
in connection with building up worn-out soils. A typical worn-out 
cotton farm at Denison, Texas, was purchased by a stock company of 
business men of Denison and stocked with ordinary scrub cows. The 
Dairy Division furnished supervision but all other expenses were 
borne by the company. Purebred Jersey bulls were used, with the 
result that the herd became of more uniform type and the yearly 
butterfat production was raised from an average of 139 pounds to 
241 pounds per cow. The average production of heifers with three 
lactation periods was 5,208 pounds of milk and 252 pounds of butter- 
fat. The fertility of the soil was greatly increased also, and the 
excessive erosion formerly present was practically stopped. Having 
served its purpose, the Denison project was discontinued in 1919. 
Community Dairy Development 
In 1910 a dairy field man was stationed at Algona, Iowa, to work 
with the patrons of the creamery to aid the community through the 
promotion of dairying. Assistance and advice were given by the field 
man, and the herds were improved by record keeping and the use of Dairy Division 
199 
purebred bulls. Proper crop rotations and changes in the feeding of 
the herds were suggested. Many silos, dairy buildings and a new 
creamery building were constructed. The work was continued for 
five years, with the result that in 1915 the same number of patrons of 
the creamery sold 21,071 pounds of butterfat more than in 1911. 
While at the beginning of the project there were only 6 purebred 
dairy bulls in use among the patrons, at its close there were 28 such 
bulls, and 88 head of purebred dairy cows had been brought into 
the community. By improving the quality of cream delivered to 
the creamery a better grade of butter was made, which resulted in the 
market price for butterfat being increased 2.9 cents per pound. 
In 1916 it was thought advisable to unite the community develop- 
ment work with work in a creamery at Grove City, Pa., which was 
placed at the disposal of the Dairy Division for experiments in 
creamery management and in various manufacturing processes. The 
Grove City creamery was erected in 1915. The work there involved 
concerted action by all the branches of the Dairy Division, involving 
extension work in dairy farming, market milk, sanitation and cream- 
try management, and also experimental work in various lines of 
dairy manufacturing, including butter, condensed milk, various kinds 
of cheese, casein, milk sugar and other by-products. The coopera- 
tion of a bank was also obtained in encouraging progressive agri- 
culture in the community. 
Before the development work was begun there were no farmers' 
organizations of any kind in the community and little cooperation 
between the farmers and business men of Grove City. There were 
only five purebred cows in the district, barns were far from modem, 
pastures were poor, and the average milk production per cow was 
low. 
In comparison our latest information shows that 30 of the 200 
members of the Grove City Commercial Club were farmers, 120 farm- 
ers belonged to local breeders' associations, 100 were members of bull 
associations, 700 joined the creamery patrons' association, and 47 be- 
longed to the Grove City Cow-Testing Association. The young peo- 
ple also became interested in better farming and now have their own 
clubs. The farmers of that community now own more than 3,000 
purebred dairy cows and heifers and 300 purebred dairy bulls. They 
own 9,000 tuberculin-tested cattle, and over 350 dairy herds are on 
the tuberculosis-free accredited list. The farmer patrons of the cream- 
ery receive in the neighborhood of $340,000 a year for their milk 200 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
and cream, and since 1915 their bank deposits have grown from one- 
half million dollars to one and one-half million. 
The Grove City community has served as an example for hun- 
dreds of other communities, and each year it is visited by representa- 
tives from many parts of the United States who have been sent there 
to study the methods used in bringing the community to its present 
state of advancement. 
Market Milk Investigations 
The section conducting work relating to market milk is engaged 
in projects involving score-card inspection systems, dairy sanitary 
research problems, milk and cream contests, milk-plant management, 
requirements for milk production, milk transportation studies, ma- 
chinery efficiency and labor costs, flavors and odor of milk, cleaning 
milking machines, whipping qualities of cream, etc. It was organ- 
ized in 1905. Attention at first was given only to sanitary aspects of 
dairy farm conditions, but later the product was followed to the city 
and even as far as the consumer's ice box. 
Score-Card System 
One of the greatest accomplishments of the market milk work has 
been the development and extension of score-card systems of inspec- 
tion. Under this system farms, milk plants, milk and cream are 
graded according to a numerical valuation of the various elements 
involved, on a scale of 100 for perfect. From 250 to 300 cities have 
adopted the score-card system. The efficiency of official inspection 
has been greatly enhanced, resulting in better milk supplies. Uni- 
form efficient inspection has resulted also in improving the sanitary 
conditions of dairy farms and herds supplying milk to cities. 
Sanitary Surveys 
The drafting and recommendation of model ordinances for regu- 
lating milk supplies in cities and communities has been an important 
activity. Such recommendations generally follow a survey of the 
city in regard to quality and method of handling the milk supply. 
These surveys have been conducted in a large number of cities and 
towns and involve all factors entering into the handling of the milk. 
Many dairy farms supplying the milk, transportation agencies and 
milk-handling plants in cities were inspected. Bacterial counts were 
made on the entire supply. In addition, studies were made of meth- 
ods of pasteurization. After the surveys were made the representa- Dairy Division 
201 
tives of the Department instructed the inspectors and laboratory 
men in the technique of inspection work. 
In 1917 surveys of the dairy farms, milk plants, transportation fa- 
cilities and other factors involved in connection with the milk sup- 
plied to some of our army cantonments were undertaken. This work 
resulted in greatly improving conditions through the elimination of 
undesirable milk and an increase in properly pasteurized milk. So 
far as can be ascertained, there was not a single case of milk-borne 
disease at any of the camps or naval bases where such assistance 
was given. 
Milk and Cream Contests 
One of the great educational factors in improving market milk 
supplies has been the holding of milk and cream contests in coopera- 
tion with State and municipal health authorities. They were begun 
in 1906, and since that date many milk and cream contests have been 
held in cooperation with the Dairy Division. Thousands of samples 
of milk and cream from all parts of the country have been scored. 
The samples are submitted and judged on the basis of bacteria, flavor 
and odor, visible sediment, chemical composition, and the appearance 
of the package. These contests have been of considerable value in 
improving the quality of milk. Also, consumers were taught by 
means of lectures and addresses to appreciate the advantages of clean 
milk, and of the additional cost of its production. 
In 1912 the first systematic work on milk-plant economics was 
begun. Surveys of the plants of city milk distributors in various 
parts of the country have been made. This work includes the com- 
pilation of data on labor costs, the efficiency of various types of ma- 
chinery, etc. Circular letters are issued every month to milk-plant 
operators. These letters deal with various problems confronting the 
milk dealer and give information relative to increasing the efficiency 
of handling and distributing milk. 
As much assistance as possible is given to dealers who contemplate 
the building of new plants or the reconstruction of old ones. Infor- 
mation is furnished also in regard to needed equipment, costs, laying 
out of plans, etc. 
Studies in Cost of Production 
In 1915 an investigation of the actual cost of producing market 
milk was first undertaken by the Division, and the inquiry was carried 
out to include details. Figures on cost of production were obtained 202 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
in market milk sections of Indiana, Vermont, Washington, North 
Carolina, Louisiana, Nebraska and Delaware. 
In each section a group of representative farms was selected and 
intensive studies were conducted on each farm over a period of two 
years. One entire day out of each month was spent on each farm, 
studying the kinds and quantities of feeds, milk produced, labor ex- 
pended and other factors involved in production. At the end of each 
two years' study these figures were compiled into useful tables and 
published for the information of dairymen and others interested 
in cost of production. The field work on this project was completed 
in 1921. 
Milk Transportation Studies 
With the development of the market milk business and the ever 
increasing demand for more milk, it has been found necessary to draw 
on territories more distant from the cities for milk supplies. This 
condition brings with it the problem of keeping milk in good condition 
while being transported. 
To obtain reliable data on the best methods of transportation and 
types of containers, work was begun in July, 1918, on a milk transpor- 
tation project. As spoilage generally occurs during the hot summer 
months, the work is done largely at that season. In 1918 shipments 
of milk were made between cities in both baggage and refrigerator 
cars, using different types of cans for the milk. Information on 
temperature of the milk, amount of ice required and time in transit 
was obtained for study and recommendations. Studies were also 
conducted with methods of handling milk on the farm prior to ship- 
ping. In 1919 and 1920 these studies were continued on a larger 
scale. The work resulted in recommendations which have been 
adopted by transportation companies and milk dealers with consider- 
able saving in ice and in decreased losses of milk through spoilage. 
Further studies are being made of tanks for transporting milk on auto 
trucks and railway cars. 
Care of Milking Machines 
The lack of definite information as to the best methods of cleaning 
and sterilizing milking machines caused the Dairy Division to take 
up this problem in the spring of 1919. Through a series of practical 
tests with heat and with chemicals information has been obtained 
from which there has been evolved a simple, practicable method to be 
used by the average farmer. Dairy Division 
203 
Effects of Feeds on Flavor and Odor of Milk 
In 1912 the market milk section began experiments to determine 
the effect of various feeds and feeding practices on the flavor and 
odor of milk. For the first few years experiments were conducted 
on a very small scale with available cows at the Beltsville Experi- 
ment Farm. In 1917 a special stable was built at the farm so 
that the cows undergoing test could be kept under absolutely 
controlled conditions. The first experiment was to determine the 
accuracy of a statement frequently made that oats in the ration 
improve the flavor of the milk. It was found that there is no foun- 
dation for this statement. Experiments were also conducted in 
feeding garlic or wild onion tops to cows at varying periods before 
milking. This led to a recommendation that cows be withdrawn 
from garlic-infested pastures at least four hours before milking. 
In 1914 studies were made of the effect of wet and dry beet pulp 
and of high and low protein rations on the flavor and odor of milk. 
The largest phase of the flavor and odor work, begun in 1918, is 
the effect of different silages. The results of these experiments 
have been brought together and published. Data have also been 
published in regard to green alfalfa, green corn and turnips. 
Dairy Manufacturing Investigations 
The work of dairy manufacturing investigations comprises exten- 
sive activities with creameries and cheese factories, United States 
Navy butter work, renovated butter inspection and the operations 
conducted at the Grove City Creamery. 
With the work of dairy extension and market milk investigations 
well under way in 1906, attention was turned to the manufacturing 
side of the dairy industry. For some time it had been realized in 
the Dairy Division that to put these branches of the industry on a 
more efficient and profitable basis there was need for special work 
in the cheese factory and creamery field. Inefficient management of 
many of the creameries was resulting in a lack of profit for the cream- 
eries and their patrons. They were getting extremely low overrun, 
had few records of operation, and were dependent on the dealers to 
whom they consigned their butter for judgment on its quality and 
value. The work taken up by the Division in the beginning was 
mainly centered around the stopping of losses and leaks, and as a 
means of determining them, creameries -were requested to send in 
monthly reports to the Division for analysis and suggestions. This 204 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
type of work was continued until 1917, when the Bureau of Markets 
took over the marketing w'ork. The field men gave considerable at- 
tention to individual creameries. This work, begun in 1907, is still 
being carried on. 
An investigation of the matter of fuel and power costs and the 
causes of fuel waste was made in 248 creameries. During this in- 
vestigation it was found that a saving could be made by replacing 
the steam engine with electric power or with a gasoline or a kerosene 
engine. 
In connection with the southern dairy work, farm buttermaking 
demonstrations were conducted, and cheesemaking was established 
in suitable localities. This work is being extended in the Rocky 
Mountain region. 
In 1908 the Dairy Division induced the owners of a cheese factory 
in Wisconsin to put in equipment for making whey butter and gave 
personal assistance in starting and developing the work. As a result 
of this work more than 250 cheese factories in this country skim the 
whey. The value of the butter made annually from what was form- 
erly a waste product is probably in excess of $500,000. 
U. 8. Navy Butter 
Each year since 1902 the Dairy Division has supervised, for the 
Navy Department, the manufacture of from 500,000 to 10,000,000 
pounds of butter, all of which is made from sweet pasteurized 
cream. The butter is made according to specifications, and inspec- 
tors under the supervsion of the Dairy Division see that all butter 
made for the Navy meets the required standard. 
The specifications for Navy butter were worked out in the Dairy 
Division with a view to producing a butter which would hold its 
quality during long periods of storage. The Navy butter has given 
remarkable satisfaction for the purpose intended, and many samples 
which were rescored after one year in storage have scored 93 or 
more. 
Renovated Butter 
The year 1902 marked the beginning of the renovated butter in- 
spection by the Dairy Division. Inspectors under the direction of 
the Division continue to make frequent inspections of the factories 
engaged in renovating butter. All marks and labels must be ap- 
proved before being used, raw materials are examined and factory 
sanitation is closely watched. The number of factories making such Dairy Division 
205 
butter, and the amount of product made, have been decreasing year 
by year. 
Grove City Creamery 
A creamery operated under the direction of the Dairy Division was 
established at Grove City, Pa., in 1915. The object of the creamery 
was to provide facilities for conducting investigations which could 
not be carried on in the laboratories in Washington. These investi- 
gations include the factors causing changes in flavor of butter and 
the utilization of creamery and cheese-factory by-products. 
The creamery building was constructed by a stock company or- 
ganized by the business men of Grove City, and taken over by the 
Department of Agriculture on a long-term lease. The creamery is 
operated on the cooperative plan. The principal products manu- 
factured are butter, condensed skimmed milk, and Swiss, Roque- 
fort, Camembert, Cheddar and cottage cheese. Pasteurized milk and 
cream also are sold. 
The creamery began operations in July, 1915, and during that 
month 11,164 pounds of butterfat and 4,540 pounds of skim milk 
were purchased from farmers in the vicinity. The total production 
of butter for the first year was 208,715 pounds. At present approx- 
imately 580,000 pounds of butterfat are purchased annually to be 
made into butter and other products. 
Dairy Research 
The work in dairy research includes investigations in milk secre- 
tion, butter production, foreign varieties of cheese, bacteriological 
and chemical problems with milk, ice cream and the utilization of 
by-products. 
The Dairy Division had not been in existence long before it became 
apparent that in order to function in the most effective manner, 
facilities must be provided to carry on original research work in 
the Department of Agriculture. Some research work was being 
carried on by certain States, but there were many problems of a 
broad and fundamental nature which had not been touched. In 
1902 L. A. Rogers was appointed in the Biochemic Division to do 
research work on some of the more pressing problems. During the 
first three years the work was carried on in the Biochemic labora- 
tories of the Bureau. One of the first projects undertaken was to 
determine the factors influencing the keeping qualities of butter. 
The cooperative arrangement with the Biochemic laboratories con- 
tinued until soon after Mr. Webster became Chief of the Dairy 206 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Division. At this time cooperative arrangements were made with 
certain State experiment stations for investigational work in their 
laboratories. Work was undertaken at Storrs, Conn., on soft cheese, 
at Madison, Wis., on Cheddar cheese, at Columbia, Mo., on milk 
secretion, and at Iowa State College on butter. 
Milk Secretion 
The milk secretion work was discontinued for a time after the 
termination of the agreement with the Missouri station, but in 1915 
a physiologist was appointed in the Dairy Division to take up this 
problem and laboratories were established on the Beltsville farm. 
While the work at Columbia, Mo., had been concerned chiefly with 
the influence of breed, feed, individuality and other factors on the 
composition and yield of milk, the new work was directed more es- 
pecially toward the actual mechanism of the secretion itself. It was 
soon found, for instance, that there is a direct relation between 
the phosphorus and calcium compounds of the blood and the feed 
on the one hand and the secretion of milk on the other. A contin- 
uation of this investigation demonstrated that in many cases the milk 
yield was limited by the inability of the cow to obtain sufficient 
minerals from the feed furnished. This could be corrected by 
changing the quantity or nature of the feed, or even by adding in- 
organic salts to the ration. 
Another contribution to the knowledge of milk secretion has been 
the fact recently established that the precursors of the casein of milk 
are the amino acids of the blood. A remarkably rapid removal of 
these bodies by the mammary gland has been demonstrated. 
The work at Beltsville was supplemented by cooperative work at 
the Pennsylvania State College under the direction of the late Dr. 
Henry Prentiss Armsby. This work was begun in 1915 and sus- 
pended in 1920 on account of a lack of funds. It was resumed in 
1922. 
Butter Investigations 
On the termination of the work on butter at Ames, Iowa, one year 
after it was begun, investigations on this product were begun on a 
laboratory scale in Washington. In 1907 arrangements were made 
through the Minnesota station for the use of a cooperative creamery 
at Albert Lea, Minn., for experimental purposes, and laboratories 
were equipped in a rented building on the creamery grounds. On 
account of the distance from Washington, this arrangement was Dairy Division 
207 
not entirely satisfactory, and a similar arrangement was made with 
a creamery at Troy, Pa., in 1911. This creamery was used by the 
Division until it was converted into a condensery. 
The investigations on butter have demonstrated that .many of the 
deteriorations in butter are chemical in their nature and can be con- 
trolled by simple methods. This knowledge resulted in the adoption 
by the Navy Department, on the advice of the Dairy Division, of the 
so-called sweet-cream butter for use on shipboard. The results ob- 
tained with the butter stored by the Navy have been so striking that 
the method is gradually coming into general use for making butter 
for immediate use as well as for storage. 
Cheese Investigations 
The cooperative work at Storrs, Conn., was confined to a study of 
the methods of making and ripening Camembert and Roquefort, two 
varieties of cheese which had never been made successfully in this 
country. When this work was moved to Washington, provision was 
made for making and curing cheese in the laboratories under care- 
fully controlled conditions. The milk from cows on the Beltsville 
farm is used for this purpose. The organisms essential to the de- 
velopment of the required flavor in these varieties of cheese have 
been isolated and proper methods for their propagation in the 
cheese developed. Roquefort has presented the greatest difficulties, 
since this cheese is made in France from sheeps' milk, while to intro- 
duce its manufacture into this country required methods adapted to 
the use of cows' milk. In France Roquefort cheese is ripened in 
caves through which there flow naturally currents of cold, damp air. 
In making such cheeses in this country it has been necessary to 
produce these conditions artificially. This has been done success- 
fully, and both Camembert and Roquefort are now made commer- 
cially at Grove City. 
The problem of Swiss cheese is somewhat different, since the manu- 
facture of this variety has been established in this country for many 
years. It was well known at the time that the average quality of 
the domestic cheese was inferior to that imported from Switzerland 
and the price was correspondingly lower. When the laboratory was 
established at the creamery in Albert Lea, Minn., in 1907, facilities 
were included, for making Swiss cheese on a small scale. When this 
laboratory was abandoned the work was continued at State College, 
Pa., until provision could be made for it at Washington. 
The first advance was the discovery that the abnormal fermenta- 208 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
tion which frequently spoiled the cheese could be controlled by the 
use of an especially active acid-forming culture. In this way home- 
made rennet by which the Swiss-cheese maker unknowingly propa- 
gated this starter could be replaced by the more carefully made 
commercial rennet and the fermentations of the cheese brought under 
more perfect control. Later it was found that the " eye''-forming 
and flavor-forming bacteria of the imported cheese could be inocu- 
lated into the domestic cheese by the use of small quantities of the 
cheese itself. The specific organism was finally isolated and the re- 
sults can now be obtained with pure cultures. 
Bacteriological and Chemical Investigations of Milk 
Early in the work the necessity of bacteriological and chemical 
investigations on some of the fundamental problems confronting the 
milk producer and dealer was recognized, and in 1908 a bacteriologist 
was appointed to give his entire time to this question. The force has 
been increased until at the present time two bacteriologists and two 
chemists are engaged in these lines of research. When this wrork was 
begun there was much difference of opinion in regard to the value 
of pasteurization, and the majority of physicians opposed it on vari- 
ous grounds. The work of the Dairy Division showed that proper 
pasteurization left the milk, from the bacteriological standpoint, in 
the condition of fresh milk produced under sanitary conditions 
with the danger from pathogenic bacteria eliminated. It also dem- 
onstrated that pasteurization by approved methods produced no ob- 
jectionable chemical changes in the milk. 
Extensive studies have been made on the relative importance of 
various factors in contributing to bacterial contamination. In ad- 
dition to the results of immediate practical value some important 
contributions have been made to the knowledge of bacteria in general. 
This has included an intimate study of some of the groups of bacteria 
of importance in dairying and their separation into species or varie- 
ties with a determination of their origin. An investigation on the 
influence of hydrogen-ion concentration on the growth of bacteria 
has attracted the attention of workers in all the biological sciences 
and has resulted in a distinct advance in bacteriological methods. 
On the basis of these results a method was developed for making 
citric acid from sugar by fermentation and is now 'being used to 
make citric acid in competition with that imported from southern 
Europe, "where it is made from citrus fruits. Dairy Division 
209 
Ice Cream and Condensed Milk Investigations 
The rapid development of the ice cream industry has brought 
forward new problems which the laboratory is helping to solve. One 
of these is the cause and methods of controlling "sandiness," a de- 
fect which has given ice cream manufacturers no little trouble. The 
investigations have proved that this condition is due to a crystalliza- 
tion of milk sugar, and methods of control are now being worked out. 
The condensed and evaporated milk industry has been developed 
so completely by individual effort that it is only quite recently that 
public agencies have taken any part in studies on these products. 
In 1914 a chemist was appointed for this work and condensing 
equipment was installed in the laboratory. In addition to bacterio- 
logical studies on the causes of deterioration, results have been ob- 
tained on some of the manufacturing factors influencing the quality 
of the product. 
Utilization of By-Products 
The changing economic conditions in the dairy industry have 
greatly increased the necessity of utilizing all of the milk, not only 
to conserve the food value but also to augment the returns to the 
producer and to improve the quality of the major product by making 
it profitable to bring the whole milk to the factory in good condition. 
Methods for making casein especially suited to the manufacture of 
waterproof glue have been perfected, and extensive work has been 
done on the utilization of skim milk and buttermilk by making cottage 
cheese and by condensing. The manufacture of some of the hard 
Italian cheese from skimmed or partly skimmed milk is being 
studied. Milk powder, one of the newer developments in the dairy 
industry, is receiving attention. 
The equipment and personnel available for the study of these 
problems are now complete and well suited to the needs of the in- 
vestigations. In addition to the bacteriological and chemical labora- 
tories, equipment is available in Washington for the manufacture 
on a small scale of butter, all kinds of cheese, condensed and evap- 
orated milk and milk powder. 
The farm at Beltsville, with its complete barns, dairy and labora- 
tories, affords facilities for work on problems requiring contact with 
farm conditions. 
It was early recognized that to complete many of the investiga- 
tions it was necessary to have means of carrying them through the 
commercial stage before they could be given to the public. Contracts 210 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
with private institutions proved unsatisfactory in many ways, and in 
1915 the work was transferred to the Grove City creamery. In 
addition to its value for experimental purposes and demonstration 
this creamery has served as a training school for field men in manu- 
facturing work. 
Dairy Cattle Breeding 
In 1917 an extensive dairy cattle breeding project was undertaken. 
The object of the work is to determine the methods of breeding that 
will insure the uniform transmission of large production. In the 
investigations, which involve a large number of cattle and will extend 
over a long period of years, line breeding is being compared with out- 
breeding, and inbreeding compared with outbreeding. The results 
of these experiments should furnish valuable data for determining 
the relative merits of these systems of breeding, since the same foun- 
dation animals will be the basis of both the inbred and outbred 
herds. This will make the inbred animals comparable, generation by 
generation, with the outbred animals. In like manner the same 
foundation animals will be the basis of both the line-bred and out- 
bred herds, making the line-bred animals comparable with the out- 
bred animals. The use for generation after generation of sires that 
have proved their ability to transmit uniformly high production to 
their daughters is also being carried out with the hope of breeding 
a strain that will be prepotent for high production. Experiments are 
also under way to determine the reliability of the "nicking" theory, 
and to test the increased vigor that accompanies outbreeding. 
This work is the result of a long-felt need for greater knowledge 
of the fundamental principles of breeding. The need for this work 
was recognized for some time, and while experiments had been car- 
ried on from time to time by other institutions or individual 
breeders, such experiments were necessarily limited as to number of 
animals involved and duration of the experiment. It seems that the 
Dairy Division, with its facilities for carrying on such an experiment 
on an extensive scale and over a long period of years, is the logical 
agency to take up the work. 
In 1918 herds of purebred Holsteins were gathered together at 
Beltsville, Md., Ardmore, S. Dak., and Huntley, Mont., and were 
used in the comparison of line breeding versus outbreeding and in 
the project demonstrating the value of the continuous use of proved 
sires. In 1923 thirty-eight of the Holstein-Friesian cows at Belts- 
ville had completed official yearly records ranging from 415 to 927.8 Dairy Division 
211 
pounds of butterfat, the average being 597.34 pounds of butterfat 
and 17,636 pounds of milk. In 1921 a herd of 12 purebred Holsteins 
was established on a dry-land farm at Woodward, Okla. Four of 
these cows have broken the Oklahoma State records for production 
in their respective classes. 
A herd of purebred Jerseys was purchased and sent to the Iberia 
experiment farm at Jeanerette, La., for use in the project on contin- 
uous use of proved sires. Another herd of Jerseys was installed at 
Beltsville, where they are being used in an experiment comparing in- 
breeding with outbreeding. In this herd also an interesting project 
has been begun to determine if by mating animals from prominent 
Jersey families a type of animal can be obtained of greater uniform- 
ity in vigor and producing and transmitting ability than has been pro- 
duced by line breeding or inbreeding within these families. Represen- 
tatives of eight of the more prominent Jersey families are being mated 
and the third generation animals will have the combined blood of all 
the eight families. These representatives consist of cows from the St. 
Lambert, Oxford Majesty, Fauvic's Prince and St. Mawes families 
and bulls from the Karnak Noble, Sophie's Tormentor, Golden Glow's 
Chief and Owl-Interest families. Twenty-nine Jersey records have 
been completed to date at Beltsville, ranging from 252 to 810 pounds 
of butterfat with an average of 524.5 pounds of butterfat and 9,320 
pounds of milk. These records included eleven 2-year old heifers. 
To carry on most of these breeding experiments, proved sires are 
necessary. Such sires are difficult to find and when found are gen- 
erally offered at prices that are prohibitive. To obtain such sires, 
therefore, young animals of exceptional breeding are purchased or 
bred and tried out for a number of years. By 1922 fifty-eight young 
bulls had been lent to farmers, institutions and colleges for the 
purpose of proving their transmitting ability for milk and butterfat 
production. Those proving to be unusually prepotent sires will be 
used in the breeding project. 
Clemson College (South Carolina), University of Idaho, Washing- 
ton State College, New Jersey Experiment Station, University of 
West Virginia, University of Maryland, Michigan Agricultural 
College, University of California and University of Nebraska are 
cooperating in the breeding experiments. Promising young bulls are 
lent to such colleges with the understanding that records of feed 
and production of all their daughters will be kept. The colleges main- 
tain the bulls and in return obtain the progeny. 212 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Dairy Experiment Farms 
Tn 1910 the Bureau of Animal Industry purchased the farm at 
Beltsville, Md.,* to provide facilities for carrying on experimental 
work. One hundred and ninety acres of this farm were assigned to 
the Dairy Division and are now operated under the superintendence 
of T. E. Woodward. This farm has been fenced, a large portion of 
it drained, and the fertility greatly increased by a proper cropping 
system and liberal applications of manure. As a result of these 
improvements, land which in 1911 produced 4 tons of corn for silage 
per acre in recent years produced 12 tons. 
Sixteen scrub cows and 1 purebred bull were purchased in 1913. 
Since that time cattle have been purchased from time to time until 
there are now 200 head of dairy cattle on the farm. 
The farm also makes it possible to carry on work with various 
forage crops which show promise of being valuable as a dairy feed. 
Experiments with silage are conducted and consist in growing dif- 
ferent crops under various conditions, the idea being to find out 
the adaptability of different crops for silage. Extensive investigations 
have also been completed to determine the nature and extent of the 
losses which take place in the silo. Efforts are being made to deter- 
mine the relative merits of wood and concrete as silo-building ma- 
terials, to find out the best mixture to use in making concrete, and to 
devise means to protect'the concrete from the acids of the silage. 
Experiments in the care of dairy cattle included a comparison of 
the open-shed type of barn with the ordinary closed type and a com- 
parison of different kinds of stable floors. An experiment to deter- 
mine the influence of the different factors of the bacterial count of 
milk has also been undertaken. For this work a specially constructed 
barn was built. The stable, cows and lot are first allowed to become 
very insanitary, then, by gradually cleaning up, the influence of 
each factor upon the number of bacteria in the milk is ascertained. 
By according extra feed and care, and milking three times a day 
instead of twice, it has been found possible to increase the produc- 
tion 60 per cent on the average. Stabling the cows in a box stall 
instead of confining them by a stanchion was found to increase pro- 
duction 5 per cent. Milking three times a day instead of twice re- 
sulted in a 12 per cent increase. Milking four times a day instead 
of twice resulted in 6 per cent more milk. 
The experiments on dairy cattle breeding described under that 
* See "Animal Husbandry Division," page 219. Dairy Division 
213 
heading are carried on largely at the Beltsville farm. The investi- 
gations on the physiology of milk secretion described under research 
work are also conducted there. 
At the Iberia experiment farm, Jeanerette, La., experiments and 
demonstrations with horses, mules, beef cattle, dairy cattle and hogs 
are conducted for the purpose of bringing before farmers of the 
South the value of livestock production in the cane-sugar and cotton 
districts. This work, which was begun in 1914, is carried on under 
the direction of a committee consisting of representatives of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, Bureau of Plant Industry and the 
Louisiana State Experiment Station. A dairy herd of grade and 
purebred Jerseys used in the dairy cattle breeding experiments is 
maintained at this farm. Experiments have also been conducted 
on the cost of raising heifer calves to the ages of one and two years, 
and on the amount of profit per cow. The suitability of various 
silage crops and other feeds easily grown in this section is deter- 
mined through experiment. 
At Ardmore, S. Dak., and Huntley, Mont., experiment farms 
were established in 1916 to investigate the problems encountered in 
establishing the industries of dairying and meat production in the 
semiarid and irrigated sections, particularly with reference to the ef- 
fective utilization of forage and grain crops produced in those sec- 
tions. At both of these farms herds of cattle are maintained for the 
breeding experiments outlined under that heading and for feeding 
experiments in connection with the crops grown in the localities. 
In 1921 the Dairy Division was authorized to take over a farm of 
160 acres at Woodward, Okla. A herd of 12 purebred Holstein cows 
and I Holstein bull were placed on the farm. Methods of establishing 
dairy farming on lands adjacent to Woodward are being investigated 
with a view to furnishing a profitable means of disposing of dry-land 
crops produced in the community; also problems regarding the value 
of various crops as dairy feeds are under investigation. 
Dairy Engineering 
Architectural and engineering work was begun in the Dairy Divi- 
sion in 1905, and consisted of the study of the best designs and con- 
struction of dairy buildings, including dairy barns, silos, milk houses, 
creameries, milk plants, cheese factories, etc. At the beginning of 
1911 an engineer was appointed and this work has been extended to 
include equipment, sanitation, water supply and the application of 
electricity, steam and refrigeration to the dairy industry. While the 214 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
architectural work has been transferred to another bureau, the engi- 
neering work required for the experiment stations and for the re- 
search laboratories of the Division is still being continued, and in- 
cludes not only the design, construction and equipment of buildings 
for the Dairy Division but also the preparation of bulletins and an- 
swering of correspondence relative to engineering subjects concerning 
the dairy industry. 
Dairy Statistics 
In 1915 a study of dairy statistics was begun and has been contin- 
ued up to the present time. Figures on the production, consumption, 
imports, exports and prices of dairy products in all countries were 
compiled and prepared for convenient reference. Studies of the 
trends of the dairy cattle industry, the butter industry and the .cheese 
industry were made and the results published in bulletin form. The 
statistics are kept up to date and given to the public from time to time 
in the form of charts, bulletins and news items. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
July 1, 1895. Dairy Division organized in the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Major Henry E. Alvord appointed first Chief, with one 
assistant and two clerks. 
May 5, 1897. Experimental exports of butter begun for the purpose of 
building up a market for United States butter in foreign 
countries. 
1899. Experimental exportations of butter extended to England, 
France, Germany, China, Japan, Hawaiian Islands and 
Philippine Islands. 
1900. Study of dairy sanitation begun and data compiled on milk 
supplies of 200 cities. Dr. R. A. Pearson inaugurated this 
work. 
1900. A dairy exhibit prepared by the Dairy Division and shown 
at the Paris Exposition was awarded the Grand Prix and 
other prizes. 
1901. A dairy exhibit prepared and shown at the Pan-American 
Exposition, Buffalo, N. Y. 
1902. Laboratory research work begun, in charge of L. A. Rogers, 
and a cooperative arrangement made with the Biochemic 
Division to use the Biochemic laboratories. 
May 9, 1902. Inspection of renovated butter factories authorized, to take 
effect July 1, 1902, and inspection work begun. 
1902. First work done on inspection of butter purchased for the 
United States Navy. 
1904. A dairy exhibit was prepared and shown at the Louisiana 
Purchase Exposition, St. Louis. 
Oct. 1, 1904. Major Alvord, Chief of the Division, died at the Louisiana 
Purchase Exposition, St. Louis. 
1905. Cooperative arrangements made with State experiment 
stations for investigational work in their laboratories at 
Storrs, Conn., Madison, Wis., Columbia, Mo., and State 
College, Pa. This work was discontinued in 1912, except 
at Pennsylvania. Dairy Division 
215 
1905. Market milk investigations organized and C. B. Lane placed 
in charge. 
1905. Appropriation of $20,000 for southern dairy development 
work included in the agricultural bill. 
1905. Work begun to collect information on bacteria found in milk, 
and methods of studying them. 
1905. Southern dairy development work begun in North Carolina, 
Tennessee, Mississippi, Texas, South Carolina and Geor- 
gia. 
1906. Equipment of the experimental laboratories commenced, and 
independent laboratories established on B Street S. W., 
Washington. 
1906. Milk and cream contest work begun. 
1906. Dairy manufacturing investigations organized, with B. D. 
White in charge. 
1907. Field work with individual creameries inaugurated. 
1907. A project to demonstrate the value of dairying in increasing 
the fertility of the soil begun at the Denison, Texas, dem- 
onstration farm. 
1908. Cooperative cow-testing association work inaugurated and 
one worker, Helmer Rabild, assigned to the project. 
1908. First students' national contest in judging dairy cattle held 
in connection with National Dairy Show. (Contest organ- 
ized in 1907.) 
1908. First equipment for making whey butter installed by a 
Wisconsin cheese factory, as a result of dairy manufac- 
turing extension work. 
Spring, 1908. The experimental laboratories and the entire Dairy Division 
moved from 1358 B Street S. W. to the east wing of the 
Department of Agriculture building. 
Sept. 1910. A community development project organized at Algona, 
Iowa, to raise the economic status of the community 
through dairying. 
1910. Farm of 190 acres at Beltsville, Md., acquired for experi- 
mental purposes. 
1910. Extension work in Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States 
begun, to promote better methods of dairying and intro- 
duce it in newly settled regions. 
March 5, 1912. Dairy work in the boll weevil sections of Mississippi begun 
and one man assigned to the work with headquarters at 
Brookhaven. 
1912. Studies begun at Beltsville farm on the effect of various 
feeds on the flavor and odor of milk. 
1912. The first systematic work on milk-plant economics inaugu- 
rated. 
March 1913. Branch office at Salt Lake City, Utah, established. 
1914. Cooperative work on livestock demonstrations in the cane- 
sugar and cotton area of Louisiana begun on the Iberia 
experiment farm, Jeanerette, La. This work is conducted 
under the direction of a committee composed of represen- 
tatives of the Bureau of Animal Industry, the Bureau of 
Plant Industry and the Louisiana State Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station. 
1914. Investigations on milk-condensing problems begun. 
1914. An item of $25,000 included in the tick eradication appro- 
priation, for carrying on dairy work in the tick-freed area 
of the South, and work begun. 216 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
October, 1914. Cheese factory extension work begun in the mountain sec- 
tions of the South. 
Spring, 1915. First cooperative cheese factory in the southern mountain 
section organized at Cove Creek, N. C. 
July 1, 1915. One man assigned to work of organizing cooperative bull 
associations. 
1915. Investigations commenced on the requirements and cost of 
producing market milk in seven representative dairy sec- 
tions of the United States. 
1915. Grove City, Pa., cooperative creamery, which is used for 
experimental purposes by the Dairy Division, organized. 
1915. Beginning of studies on the physiology of milk secretion 
under direction of Dr. E. B. Meigs. 
July 1, 1915. Metabolism studies with dairy cows commenced at State 
College, Pa., under direction of Dr. H. P. Armsby. Com- 
pleted in 1920. 
1916. Dairy experiments in the semiarid and irrigated districts 
begun at the Ardmore, S. Dak., and Huntley, Mont., ex- 
periment farms, in cooperation with Bureau of Plant 
Industry. 
Sept. 1, 1917. An extensive breeding project, in charge of R. R. Graves, 
begun for the purpose of determining the best method of 
breeding for obtaining the higher-producing dairy cattle 
in large numbers. 
1918. A nation-wide campaign for utilization of skim milk as cot- 
tage cheese inaugurated. 
Sept. 4, 1917. Name of dairy farming investigations changed to dairy ex- 
tension, and all extension work was put under latter sec- 
tion. 
Spring, 1919. First campaigns organized for better utilization of milk and 
dairy products. 
July 1, 1920. A large part of the dairy extension work discontinued, due 
to curtailment of funds. 
1920. Authorization by Congress for the Dairy Division to estab- 
lish a dairy at Woodward, Okla., to demonstrate methods 
of dairy farming in that section. 
PERSONNEL OF THE DAIRY DIVISION. 
Division Chiefs: 
Major Henry E. Alvord, July 1, 1895, to October 1, 1904. 
Ed. H. Webster, Jan. 1, 1905, to Dec. 31, 1908. 
B. H. Rawl, Jan. 1, 1909, to Feb. 14, 1921. 
C. W. Larson, Feb. 15, 1921, to date. 
Assistant Chiefs: 
R. A. Pearson, July 1, 1895, to Sept., 1901. 
Harry Hayward, Sept., 1902, to Jan., 1903. 
Clarence B. Lane, Nov. 1, 1903, to June 30, 1909. 
C. W. Larson, July 1, 1919, to Feb. 14, 1921. 
Various chiefs of sections acted as Assistant Chiefs of Division be- 
tween July 1, 1909, and June 30, 1919. 
Special Employees, 1895 to 1902: 
From 1895 to 1902 dairy experts were employed from time to time 
for special work. Among these were Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the Uni- Dairy Division 
217 
versity of California; V. D. Gilbert, secretary New York State Dairy- 
men's Association; Levi Chubbuck, George M. Whitaker and S. M. 
Tracy. 
Heads of Sections. 
Research Laboratories: 
L. A. Rogers, July 1, 1902, to date. 
Dairy Farming Investigations (afterwards Dairy Extension) ; 
B. H. Rawl, April 1, 1905, to Dec. 31, 1908. 
Helmer Rabild, Jan. 1, 1909, to May 31, 1921. 
E. V. Ellington, May 31, 1921, acting to Dec. 31, 1921. 
S. C. Thompson, Jan. 1, 1922. (Combined with Dairy Manufacturing to 
form the Dairy Introduction Section). 
Market Milk Investigations: 
Clarence B. Lane, 1905, to June 30, 1909. 
George M. Whitaker, July 1, 1909, to Jan. 1, 1912. 
Ernest Kelly, Jan. 1, 1912, to date. 
Dairy Manufacturing Investigations: 
B. D. White, July 16, 1906, to Jan. 31, 1911. 
S. C. Thompson, Feb. 1, 1911, to Jan. 31, 1919. 
William White, Feb. 1, 1919, to Sept. 22, 1920. 
S. C. Thompson, Sept. 22,1920, to Dec. 31, 1921. (Combined with Dairy 
Farming Jan. 1, 1922, to form Introduction Section.) 
Dairy Cattle Breeding Investigations: 
R. R. Graves, September, 1917, to date. 
Dairy Introduction: 
S. C. Thompson, Jan. 1, 1922, to date Animal Husbandry Division 
After the establishment of the Dairy Division by Congress in 1895, 
the next development of the Bureau of Animal Industry in studying 
problems of animal production was suggested in December, 1897, by 
Director Henry Prentiss Armsby, of the Pennsylvania Experiment 
Station, who proposed to the Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, 
that work in animal nutrition similar to that done by Atwater on 
human beings be undertaken by the Bureau. His suggestion was 
cordially received, and the Bureau of Animal Industry undertook 
to assist him in developing the institution at State College, Pa., which 
is now known as the Pennsylvania Institute of Animal Nutrition of 
the Pennsylvania State College. Dr. Armsby was appointed on the 
Bureau rolls effective July 1, 1898. In the fall of the same year 
he planned for the erection of a respiration calorimeter at State Col- 
lege. The first work undertaken with the calorimeter was a study of 
the influence of age and other factors on the metabolism of beef cat- 
tle, and similar work regarding dairy cattle was taken up later. The 
cooperative work continued until late in 1920. A large number of bul- 
letins and articles were published giving the results -of the experi- 
ments. Armsby's work has had a decided effect on cattle feeding 
methods, the methods used by students in calculating energy values 
being largely based on his publications. Dr. Armsby died October 
19, 1921. 
The first step to make animal husbandry work an integral part of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry was taken in 1901, when Secretary 
Wilson suggested to Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau, that an 
animal husbandman be appointed. Dr. Salmon offered the position 
of Expert in Animal Husbandry to George M. Rommel, a graduate 
of the Iowa Wesleyan College and Iowa State College, who was then 
in charge of the experimental farm of the Oregon Railway & Naviga- 
tion Company at Walla Walla, Wash. Mr. Rommel accepted, and 
took up his duties July 1, 1901. 
In January, 1905, Mr. Rommel was given the title of Animal Hus- 
bandman, and as the work under his charge grew it came to be known 
about 1907 as the Animal Husbandry Office. The name of the office 
was changed to Animal Husbandry Division by order of Secretary 
Wilson, effective January 1, 1910, and at the same time Mr. Rommel 
was given the title of Chief of the Animal Husbandry Division. He 
continued in that position until October 31, 1921, when he resigned 
from the Department. 
218 Animal Husbandry Division 
219 
On July 1, 1903, E. G. Ritzman was appointed as student assistant 
and assigned to assist Mr. Rommel. Mr. Ritzman left the Bureau 
in 1908. 
G. Arthur Bell, a graduate of Cornell University, entered the ser- 
vice as Assistant Animal Husbandman February 1, 1905. Mr. Bell 
continued as first assistant in the animal husbandry work until his 
resignation from the Department, October 15, 1920. 
Beginning of Experimental Work and the Experiment Farm 
The first specific congressional appropriation for animal husbandry 
investigations was an item of $25,000 in the Agricultural Appropria- 
tion Act for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1904. Some of Dr. 
Armsby's work was done under this appropriation. 
The first experimental work in animal husbandry directed from 
Washington was begun July 9, 1904, with an importation of Bar- 
bados sheep. These animals were sent from the quarantine station to 
the Experiment Station at Bethesda, Md. 
On July 15, 1905, experiments were commenced with hogs, to study 
the effect of cottonseed meal feeding. At the time this work was 
undertaken the Bureau had no land which could be used specifically 
for this purpose, but arrangements were made to begin on a small 
scale at the quarantine station at Halethorp, Md., on the main line of 
the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, seven miles southwest of Baltimore. 
Feeding experiments with poultry were begun at Halethorp on 
August 6, 1906. 
On September 16, 1907, the pigs were transferred to a tract of land 
leased by the Bureau, adjoining the Experiment Station at Bethesda. 
The poultry followed a month later, and the work was carried on 
here until April 17, 1911. 
The appropriation act for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, pro- 
vided $25,000 for the purchase of additional land for experimental 
purposes. After a rather prolonged search for suitable land in the 
vicinity of Washington, a location was found in Prince Georges 
County, Md., less than a mile from the Beltsville station on the Bal- 
timore & Ohio Railroad, 111/2 miles from Washington.* This farm 
comprises 475 acres of tillable and timber land and was purchased 
on June 30, 1910, for the sum of $25,000. It was to be developed as 
an experimental farm to be used by both the Animal Husbandry and 
the Dairy Divisions. Mr. B. H. Rawl, then Chief of the Dairy Divi- 
sion, suggested that the most effective administration would probably 
* See "Dairy Division," page 212. 220 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
be obtained by dividing the farm, placing part of it under the super- 
vision of the Dairy Division with the superintendent reporting to the 
Chief of that Division, and the remainder under the supervision of 
the Animal Husbandry Division with its superintendent reporting to 
the Chief of that Division. 
The first farm superintendent for the Animal Husbandry Division 
was Mr. H. H. Reese, who took his station at the farm on January 1, 
1911. On December 1, 1912, Mr. Reese was transferred to Front 
Royal, Va., in charge of the Second Horse-Breeding District, and was 
succeeded at Beltsville by Mr. Ralph J. Carr, who was in charge of 
the farm until July 1, 1913, when he was succeeded by Mr. E. L. 
Shaw. Mr. Shaw was in charge of the farm until April 1, 1917. Mr. 
Shaw's successor was Mr. B. F. Brandon, a Purdue graduate, who is 
still in charge. 
The purpose of Secretary Wilson in encouraging animal husbandry 
work in the Department was, doubtless, to carry out to its fullest 
extent the organic act of May 29, 1884, creating the Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry. The organization of the Dairy Division in 1895 was a 
step in this direction. The encouragement given by Secretary Wil- 
son to Dr. Armsby was the second step. The appointment of an ani- 
mal husbandman in the Bureau was the third. 
The development of the Animal Husbandry Division during the 
last twenty years has been directed along the lines of specialization 
according to the class of animals studied. It required time for this 
idea to be put fully into effect. It was not until 1917 that a specialist 
was definitely assigned to swine husbandry, although work in swine 
husbandry was one of the first subjects to receive attention after the 
Bureau inaugurated animal husbandry work. The various offices per- 
taining to the subject-matter lines of animal husbandry-beef cattle 
husbandry, horse and mule husbandry, poultry husbandry, sheep and 
goat husbandry, and swine husbandry-although branches of the 
Animal Husbandry Division and in the closest contact with one 
another, have a distinct entity, and the subject of animal genetics, 
touching every phase of animal production, is recognized on an 
equal footing. 
The development of experimental farms has been recognized as 
an important feature of the Bureau work. The farm at Beltsville, 
Md., the Morgan Horse Farm at Middlebury, Vt., and the Sheep 
Experiment Station at Dubois, Idaho, are among the outstanding jn- 
POLICIES OF THE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY DIVISION Animal Husbandry Division 
221 
stances of a recognition by Congress of the necessity for field sta- 
tions where research work in animal production may be conducted. 
Such laboratories as are needed in connection with these stations were 
provided, notably the laboratories at Beltsville for the study of live- 
stock problems, including genetics, wool, meats, and nutrition. 
In addition to the development of experimental farms such as those 
just mentioned, there has been a considerable development of sta- 
tions where the land, buildings, equipment and animals are provided 
by private individuals, such as the station at Lewisburg, W. Va., 
where work in beef production has been under way for ten years, and 
the earlier beef cattle stations in Alabama, Mississippi and North 
Carolina. 
Among the most successful attempts at State cooperation are the 
beef cattle work in West Virginia, in Kansas, at Jonesboro, Ark., and 
the Coastal Plain Experiment Station at McNeil, Miss., which is con- 
ducted on a strictly cooperative basis with the Mississippi Experi- 
ment Station. An outstanding instance of successful cooperation 
with States on a broad regional basis is the soft pork project, which 
is carried on in cooperation with nearly a dozen experiment stations 
in the South and in the Corn Belt. Incidentally, the soft pork project 
includes not only cooperation with State authorities, but with the 
Association of Southern Agricultural Workers, the National Swine 
Growers' Association and the Institute of American Meat Packers. 
All hogs handled in the cooperation are slaughtered at the Beltsville 
farm abattoir, and each station cooperating has prompt access to the 
results pertaining to the work and complete freedom of action. 
The Animal Husbandry Division is a research institution, the pur- 
poses of which are (1) to bring to the Bureau of Animal Industry 
contacts with the livestock producers of the United States, (2) to 
study broad regional and national problems pertaining to animal 
production from the standpoint of the producer, and (3) to articulate 
with each branch of the Department of Agriculture and with State 
and National organizations which may be in a position to assist in 
the solution of these problems. 
Investigations in Animal Genetics 
Research work in animal genetics was begun July 1, 1906, with 
Dr. E. H. Riley in charge. The specific problem outlined at the be- 
ginning was a comprehensive study of the effects of inbreeding, using 
guinea pigs as material. The work was begun at the Experiment 
Station of the Bureau at Bethesda, Md., and has been continued since 222 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
1910 at the Beltsville Farm. Matings were made from the Bureau's 
stock, which had already been somewhat closely bred, the entire stock 
having descended from a small number of animals which had been 
transferred to Bethesda from the old location near Benning, D. C. 
Twenty-three separate families were started, each from a single pair, 
and were maintained exclusively by matings of brothers with sisters. 
Seventeen of these families were still on hand in 1917, when the num- 
ber was reduced to permit the extension of other experiments. One 
of these families has now reached the twenty-fifth generation of 
inbreeding. 
Dr. Riley resigned June 16, 1913. On September 1, 1915, Dr. 
Sewall Wright (Sc. D., Harvard), took charge of the work in genetics 
as Senior Animal Husbandman. 
The history of the inbred stock as a, whole in comparison with that of 
a control stock is described in Part I of Bulletin 1090 of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. A study of the differentiation among the 
twenty-three inbred families derived from a rather homogeneous 
foundation stock forms the subject of Part II of Bulletin 1090. Since 
1916 an extensive study of the effects of crossing different inbred 
families has been made and has led to definite conclusions presented 
in Department Bulletin 1121. In these studies most attention has 
been paid to such characteristics as rate of growth and adult weight, 
fecundity as indicated by size and frequency of litters, and vitality 
as indicated by the death rate at birth and later. 
On March 14, 1919, cooperative investigations were begun with 
Dr. Paul A. Lewis of the Phipps Institute in Philadelphia, for the 
purpose of studying the importance of heredity and inbreeding on re- 
sistance to tuberculosis. A preliminary account of the results has 
been published (American Naturalist, Vol. 55, pp. 24-50, 1921). 
Other studies have been made of the heredity of such characteris- 
tics as coat color, and the production of monstrosities. Much atten- 
tion has also been devoted to the development and application of 
biometric methods in connection with such problems as the relative 
importance of heredity, external environment and irregularities in 
development in determining variations in different characteristics and 
in working out the theoretical consequences of different systems of 
mating (according to the current theory of heredity) for comparison 
with those actually observed. Some thirty papers have been pub- 
lished in which the results of these various studies have been 
presented. 
Since the work was begun in 1906 more than 35,000 animals have 
been recorded. Animal Husbandry Division 
223 
Beef Cattle Investigations 
Reference has already been made to the fact that Congress made 
its first direct appropriation for animal husbandry investigations in 
the appropriation act for the fiscal year 1905, which contained an 
item of $25,000 for experiments in animal feeding and breeding in 
cooperation with State agricultural experiment stations. The direc- 
tion of this work was placed under the Animal Husbandry Office. 
Southern Beef Production 
Among the projects undertaken was the study of beef production 
under southern conditions. The Alabama Experiment Station was 
selected as the point at which these studies should begin, and a con- 
tract was made with that station effective December 7, 1904. Feed- 
ing experiments with steers were carried on at the station at Auburn 
for three successive winters. Soon after the beginning of the work 
it was felt to be desirable to conduct experiments under practical 
farm conditions. The farm of J. S. Kernachan in the Tennessee Val- 
ley of Alabama, near Florence, was selected, and the assistant who 
had been in charge of the feeding experiments at Auburn was sta- 
tioned on the Kernachan farm to conduct the work and keep the rec- 
ords. This assistant was W. F. Ward, who remained with the Bureau 
for twelve years, except one year of intermission. Mr. Ward was 
called to Washington to take charge of beef cattle investigations 
January 2, 1913. He resigned from the Bureau April 5, 1917, to 
become manager of a large commercial cattle-raising enterprise in 
Florida. 
Mr. Ward was succeeded on May 1, 1917, by F. W. Farley, who 
had been the Bureau's beef-cattle specialist in Mississippi for two 
years. He resigned June 30, 1919, and was succeeded by Professor 
E. W. Sheets, of West Virginia, who since July 1, 1918, had been 
employed to stimulate meat production in accordance with an Act of 
Congress of November 21, 1918. Mr. Sheets was designated Acting 
Chief of the Animal Husbandry Division at the time of Mr. Rom- 
mel's resignation, October 31, 1921. W. H. Black, a graduate of 
State College of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, who was employed as beef 
cattle specialist by the Animal Husbandry Division and the State of 
Florida from June 16, 1918, to June 1, 1920, was later assigned to act 
in charge of beef cattle investigations. Mr. Black was transferred to 
the Washington office June 1, 1920, where he has devoted special at- 
tention to beef cattle investigations in the Corn Belt. 
In 1907 tuberculosis wiped out the Kernachan herd in Alabama 224 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
and it was necessary to find a new location. Accordingly the farm of 
Cobb and McMillan, in Sumter County, Alabama, was selected. This 
farm is situated in the limestone alfalfa-growung section of Alabama, 
a natural livestock country. The work continued on the Cobb and 
McMillan farm until March 31, 1914, when it was discontinued. On 
June 1, 1914, the work was transferred to the Canton Stock Farm 
near Canton, Miss. On July 1, 1917, work was also begun on the 
farm of Hugh McIntosh near Collins, Miss. 
During the fall of 1918 the authorities of the Mississippi Experi- 
ment Station proposed that representatives of the Bureau take over 
the direction of the work of the branch experiment station at Mc- 
Neill, Miss. This station is situated on the edge of the Coastal Plain. 
Most of it is cut-over pine country, and the topography is that which 
is common to the lower part of the brown loam section of the State. 
It appeared to offer advantages for investigational work superior to 
those which had formerly been available on privately owned farms. 
An agreement between the Bureau and the Director of the Mississippi 
Experiment Station was signed February 21, 1919. Nothing was done 
in the way of beginnig work until November 1, 1919, when S. W. 
Greene was transferred from the Washington office to take charge of 
the station, its designation being made the Mississippi Coastal Plain 
Experiment Station. Mr. Greene represents both the Bureau and 
the Mississippi Experiment Station. The studies include manage- 
ment, production costs, breeding up by purebred sires, parasite con- 
trol, and also pasture forage crop investigations in cooperation with 
the Bureau of Plant Industry. The Forest Service began coopera- 
tion in a study of reforestation in its relation to pasture development 
and grazing in the cut-over pine regions in January, 1923. 
Other work in studying livestock problems in the Coastal Plain In 
which this Division has been interested are the investigations on the 
Iberia Livestock Experiment Farm, Jeanerette, La., which the De- 
partment conducts in cooperation with the Louisiana Experiment Sta- 
tion, and a year's study of range cattle problems in Palm Beach 
County, Florida. The work in Palm Beach County began May 5, 
1919, and was discontinued June 12, 1920. 
Beef Production in the Appalachian Region 
Beef production has always been a prominent feature of the agri- 
culture of the Appalachian region, particularly south of New York 
State. In order to study problems in that section, the Division has 
conducted several years of cooperative work with the North Carolina Animal Husbandry Division 
225 
State Experiment Station. This work was begun July 9, 1913, on 
the farm of T. L. Gwin, Springdale, N. C., and was carried on at 
that point until October 1, 1919, when it was discontinued, as the 
problems were pretty well worked out. 
On December 22, 1914, in cooperation with the West Virginia 
Experiment Station, work was begun on the farm of David Tuck- 
willer at Lewisburg, W. Va. During the first two years of the work 
E. A. Tuckwiller was in charge. In 1916 he was succeeded by R. H. 
Tuckwiller. One of these projects in the bluegrass area of West 
Virginia is conducted to determine the growth factors among others 
which influence beef production. One of the objects was to determine 
the influence of winter rations and the methods of wintering upon 
the utilization of pasture by steers the following summer. These re- 
sults apply wherever bluegrass or similar fattening pastures are pro- 
duced. Winter feeding for the most efficient utilization of pasture 
was regarded one of the problems not only of immediate but of grow- 
ing importance, as it is recognized, first, that the cost of wintering 
the steer to be fattened on grass the following summer is approxi- 
mately two-thirds of the cost of keeping him a year; and, second, 
because pasture in such areas is the cheapest source of beef and is 
becoming more and more an important factor in economical beef 
production elsewhere. It is, of course, probably true that the 
choicest beef will continue to be produced from cattle fed on grain 
rations made up largely of corn, yet beef will undoubtedly be pro- 
duced most economically by making the best possible use of pasture. 
This is only one of the many factors being considered in this and other 
experiments with growing and fattening cattle, involving cows, calves, 
and steers of different ages. This work is still in progress. 
Beef Production in the Corn Belt 
One of the early acts of Secretary David F. Houston was to appoint 
a committee for the study of the meat situation. This committee was 
appointed in the summer of 1913 and spent much time and effort in 
the study of the subject. The Animal Husbandry Division cooperated 
with the Office of Farm Management in the prosecution of studies of 
beef production. After this first study was completed there was a 
lapse of some years. On August 15, 1919, cooperative relations were 
resumed with the Office of Farm Management and a study of meth- 
ods and costs of producing beef cattle in the Corn Belt was begun. 
The object of this work was to study methods and obtain data on 
the fundamental basic requirements of feed, labor and miscellaneous 226 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
cost items pertaining to the various phases of beef production in the 
Corn Belt, and to study the relations between the beef cattle enter- 
prise and the organization and productiveness of the farm. This 
work is still in progress. At the close of the winter of 1922-23, rec- 
ords had been obtained of more than 90,000 cattle in the States of Illi- 
nois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, and Nebraska. 
Beef Production on Western Ranges 
In January, 1919, a plan was outlined to conduct investigations in 
beef production on western ranges, and the work was begun with a 
preliminary survey in June, 1919, when the Division began a study 
of the methods and costs of growing and handling beef cattle in the 
Western range area in cooperation with the Bureau of Agricultural 
Economics. This work consists of an exhaustive study of ranches 
and farms in representative areas. 
Breeding Shorthorn Cattle 
One of the early projects planned by the Animal Husbandry Divi- 
sion, and one which requires a long time for its completion, is the 
study of the breeding of Shorthorn cattle to determine the relation- 
ships between milk production and meat production. On September 
1, 1906, work was begun in cooperation with the Minnesota Experi- 
ment Station. A number of farms were selected in Minnesota on 
which herds of purebred Shorthorn cattle were maintained. The 
cows were milked regularly and records were kept of the milk pro- 
duction and feed requirements and also of the steers which became 
good beef animals. This work brought out interesting data from 
several of the herds under observation. The cooperation of the Min- 
nesota station was discontinued June 30, 1912. 
Two years later Prof. W. A. Cochel, then with the Kansas Experi- 
ment Station, outlined an Adams Fund project entitled "Sex Type 
as Related to Functional Development and Performance." Professor 
Cochel called attention to the success which had attended the Kansas 
State Agricultural College with its Shorthorn cattle and outlined his 
project with the following objects: 
1. Is the milking tendency in beef cattle transmitted mainly by the dams 
through the male line of descent? 
2. To what extent does the milk-giving function of the dam influence the 
beef character of the progeny? 
3. By mating thickly fleshed bulls whose dams were heavy milkers and 
beef cows which transmit beef character to their progeny, is it possible to 
establish a heavy milking strain of beef cattle within a breed, the female 
progeny of which will be double-purpose beef and milk animals and the 
males strictly of the beef type? In other words, is it possible to retain the Animal Husbandry Division 
227 
typical beef form in the male animals and increase the milking tendency in 
the females? 
4. Is the present standard of selecting beef cows conducive to the pro- 
duction of the best beef type in the breed? 
Professor Cochel suggested that if the Department would furnish 
the foundation cows the station would carry the maintenance ex- 
penses. Congress provided $5,000 for this purpose. The project was 
approved May 29, 1915, and the money became available July 1 of 
that year. Professor Cochel and W. F. Ward selected from the lead- 
ing herds of the Corn Belt twenty heavy milking, thick fleshed Short- 
horn cows. While the original cows were selected as nearly as pos- 
sible from heavy milking dams and as. good milkers themselves, they 
were selected primarily on account of their conformation to modern 
Shorthorn standards, and it was said of them by good judges that 
they made one of the best foundation herds of Shorthorn cows which 
had ever been assembled in the United States. These cows were bred 
to the college herd bull, which was an outstanding sire of Shorthorn 
steers and whose dam was a heavy milker. The calves produced have 
been raised by nurse cows and hand feeding. The foundation cows 
have been milked and accurate records have been kept of their milk 
production and feed consumption. Several steers and bull calves 
from this herd have shown unusual merit and some have been prize 
winners at livestock shows. Envious Dale, a son of College Emma, 
with a milk record of 7,061.5 pounds, was first prize junior yearling 
steer at the International Livestock Exposition held at Chicago In 
1919. Several bull calves have been sent to other herds for breeding 
purposes, and a number of the heifers produced have been found 
good enough to replace cows in the breeding herd. Six of the cows 
in the herd have been accepted by the American Shorthorn Breeders' 
Association for its Registry of Merit. Some of the cows have produced 
more than 10,000 pounds of milk in one year. 
To foster the development of our animal industry the United States 
Government has encouraged the free importation of animals intended 
for breeding purposes. One of the earliest tariff acts on the statute 
books is that of February 27, 1793, which provided "that the several 
laws of the United States, imposing duties on goods, wares, and mer- 
chandise imported into the United States, so far as they may be 
deemed to impose a duty on horses, cattle, sheep, swine, or other use- 
ful beasts imported into the United States, for breed, shall be 
repealed. ' ' 
Certification of Pedigrees 228 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Except for four years, from May 16, 1866, to July 14, 1870, every 
tariff law enacted since that time has placed breeding animals on the 
free list. The Tariff Act of July 14, 1870, required the submission 
to the Secretary of the Treasury of satisfactory proof of pure breed- 
ing. This remained unchanged for twenty years, until the passage 
of the McKinley Tariff Act, October 1, 1890. The Tariff Act of 
March 3, 1893, provided "that the Secretary of Agriculture shall 
determine and certify to the Secretary of the Treasury what are rec- 
ognized breeds and purebred animals," under the provision of the 
McKinley Act then in force When the Dingley Act was passed, July 
24, 1897, this provision was included in the paragraph regarding the 
importation of animals for breeding purposes. 
On October 14, 1904, the Bureau published B. A. I. Order 130, 
prescribing regulations for the certification and supervision of books 
of record and pedigree record associations. Seventeen amendments 
to this order were issued, and on June 20, 1906, it was superseded 
by B. A. I. Order 136, to which twelve amendments were made. 
Up to 1910 the Department recognized both foreign and American 
pedigree record associations. Early in 1910, however, owing to a rul- 
ing of the Solicitor of the Department that the Secretary was not 
authorized to recognize American pedigree record associations, be- 
cause the law applied only to importations, the recognition of Ameri- 
can pedigree record associations was withdrawn. Accordingly, B. A. 
I. Order 175 was issued November 25, 1910, to replace Order 136 and 
to take effect January 1, 1911. This order provided that the pedi- 
grees of all animals imported for breeding purposes under the pro- 
visions of the tariff law should be submitted to the Department of 
Agriculture and checked with the records, the description in the pedi- 
gree certificate compared with the description of the animal obtained 
by the Government official, usually an inspector of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, at the port of entry, and a certificate of pure breed- 
ing issued when all papers were found to be satisfactory. This order 
was published shortly after the Canadian Government had passed its 
act creating the Canadian National Records, and it signalized the de- 
termination of the authorities of the United States Department of 
Agriculture to have nothing to do of a regulatory character with pedi- 
gree record associations unless there was a strong popular demand 
for it. Six amendments were issued to B. A. I. Order 175. On Janu- 
ary 18, 1912, it was superseded by B. A. I. Order 186, of similar 
tenor, to which four amendments were issued. 
Prior to the passage of the Underwood Tariff Act of October 3, Animal Husbandry Division 
229 
1913, the law provided that the Secretary of Agriculture should cer- 
tify to the Secretary of the Treasury what are recognized breeds and 
purebred animals. The Treasury officials were not interested in hav- 
ing the certifications of the Secretary of Agriculture, and nothing was 
gained by this requirement. The Act of 1913 gave direct authority to 
the Secretary of Agriculture to recognize breeds and books of record. 
Accordingly, B. A. I. Order 206, bearing date November 11, 1913, was 
issued, only horses, dogs and cats being recognized. Four amend- 
ments to this order were issued before the passage of the Emergency 
Tariff Act of 1921. With the passage of this act, under date of May 
27, 1921, cattle and sheep became dutiable and it became necessary to 
restore these breeds and their records to the recognized list, and 
Amendment 5 to B. A. I. Order 206 was issued, effective on and after 
July 15, 1921, placing various foreign books for cattle and sheep on 
the recognized list. On October 4, 1921, the Canadian National Rec- 
ords were recognized for foxes as well as other animals. 
The Solicitor of the Department early in 1922 rendered an opinion 
that the Secretary may legally recognize American studbooks in con- 
nection with the administration of the provisions of the Tariff Act. 
Inasmuch as such recognition relates only to importations, the Bureau 
considers the recognition of American societies only in connection with 
actual importations of animals, and when the requirements of the 
Bureau in connection therewith are fully met. 
With the passage of the Tariff Act of 1922, which became effective 
September 22, 1922, B. A. I. Order 278, dated October 9, 1922, was 
issued. The provisions of this order are similar to those of the pre- 
vious order governing the recognition of breeds and purebred animals 
imported for breeding purposes under the provisions of the Tariff Act 
of October 3, 1913, except that books of record for cattle, sheep and 
hogs were added and the recognition of the Canadian National Rec- 
ords for black and silver foxes was withdrawn. Amendment 1 to 
B. A. I. Order 278 became effective January 10, 1923. 
Horse and Mule Investigations 
The Division's work in horse husbandry was begun during the 
fiscal year beginning July 1, 1904, when the first direct appropria- 
tion for animal husbandry investigation became available. This ap- 
propriation was obtained largely through the activity of E. H. Grubb, 
of Carbondale, Colo., and W. L. Carlyle, then connected with the 
Colorado Experiment Station. In the beginning the horse husbandry 
investigations were conducted by the Chief of the Division. With the 230 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Division's growth, however, it became necessary to delegate the horse 
husbandry investigations to others, and G. Arthur Bell was placed 
in charge. He continued in this position until the time of his resig- 
nation, October 15, 1920, when he was succeeded by John 0. Williams, 
who is in charge of the work at the present time. Mr. Williams had 
been connected with the horse work of the Department for several 
years. 
Breeding American Utility Horses 
When the appropriation became available it was decided after 
some discussion to undertake studies to determine the practical util- 
ity of horses of trotting blood. At that time carriage horses were a 
special feature of every horse show, and some of the most notable 
horses in the show rings at that date were trotting bred. Some of 
them were Standardised and registered. It was not the intention 
at the beginning to confine the breeding operations to registered stock, 
but to attempt to develop by suitable matings a type of horse which 
would be serviceable under western conditions for general purposes, 
the best of which would make high-class carriage horses. This work 
has been continued along the lines which were originally proposed, 
although less emphasis is now placed on the carriage feature than 
formerly. 
The first purchase was made by Prof. W. L. Carlyle in Wyoming 
on December 28, 1904, and included six mares from the Diamond 
ranch, then owned by W. S. Rainsford of New York City. This ranch 
has always been famous for its horses, which are a blend of Thorough- 
bred, Morgan and trotting blood. The first mares purchased were in 
foal to a French Coach stallion, but all these colts were discarded. 
In February, 1905, the Standardbred stallion Carmon and 12 mares 
were purchased in Chicago. Carmon had been famous as one of the 
"Glorious Four" exhibited by Thomas W. Lawson of Boston, Mass. 
The mares were show mares of good type. Carmon remained in ser- 
vice until his death September 26, 1921, at 26 years of age. 
On this foundation a stud of extremely high-class horses has been 
developed. Albion, the best sire yet bred in the project, was by Car- 
mon out of Arizona, one of the Rainsford mares. 
The work was carried on at the Colorado Experiment Station until 
July 1, 1919, when the cooperation of the station was discontinued 
and cooperation with the State of Wyoming was begun. The horses 
were transferred to the old Fort McKinney military reservation near 
Buffalo, Wyo. Since July 1, 1923, this horse-breeding work has been 
located at Laramie, Wyo., where it is being conducted in cooperation 
with the University of Wyoming. Animal Husbandry Division 
231 
Stallions have been distributed among ranchmen in "Wyoming and 
adjoining States. The stallions used in the stud are Albion and the 
Standardbred stallions Wilmering and Harvest Aid. The number of 
mares maintained varies from 20 to 25. E. B. Krantz is the Animal 
Husbandman in charge of this project. 
Breeding Morgan Horses 
Work on the breeding of Morgan horses was begun in Vermont 
■with the signing of a contract with the Vermont Experiment Station, 
September 6, 1905. The first purchase of horses was made June 6, 
1906. The Vermont Experiment Station contributed the services of 
Cassius Peck, one of its staff, who acted as advisor in the work 
and continued in that capacity until his death, July 12, 1913. The 
barn at Burlington wTas ready for the horses in the spring of 1906, 
and the first purchase was made June 6, 1906. At the same time 
W. F. Hammond, a native of Vermont, was appointed Expert in Ani- 
mal Husbandry and assigned to supervise the Morgan horse-breeding 
project. 
In the fall of 1906, Joseph Battell, then owner of the American 
Morgan Register and a prominent breeder, informed the Depart- 
ment that he would be glad to donate some of his Addison County 
lands in the town of Weybridge, Vermont, along Otter Creek, 
to be used as a farm where the breeding could be carried on. He made 
his first donation of 280 acres on February 1, 1907. Other donations 
followed until the total amount reached 435 acres. On April 1, 1907, 
Mr. Hammond was transferred to the new location. The farm was 
first designated as the Battell Farm, but on account of strenuous ob- 
jection from Mr. Battell the name was changed to U. S. Morgan 
Horse Farm. Mr. Hammond continued with the service until March 
31, 1920, when he resigned. He was succeeded by H. H. Reese, a 
graduate of Purdue University. 
On October 1, 1921, a beautiful bronze statue of a Morgan horse 
was unveiled at the U. S. Morgan Horse Farm, with ceremonies befit- 
ting this memorable occasion. This handsome life-size statue stands 
on a magnificent Vermont granite pedestal, which bears the follow- 
ing inscription': 
1921 
Given by 
The Morgan Horse Club 
to the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture 
in memory of 
JUSTIN MORGAN 
who died in 
1821 232 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
It was quite fitting that this enduring memorial to the founder of 
a great breed of American horses should be unveiled by Miss 
Elizabeth Stillman, the daughter of C. C. Stillman, Secretary of the 
Morgan Horse Club. It was presented in an address by E. A. Dar- 
ling, President of the Club, and received on behalf of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture by Dr. J. R. Mohler, Chief of the Bureau, who 
has always shown a deep interest in the rehabilitation of the Morgan 
horse. 
In June, 1923, the investigational work at the Morgan Horse Farm 
was organized into definite projects having the following objectives 
in view: 
1. To develop under New England conditions a uniform type of horse 
suitable for general farm work, riding and driving, and to fix this type so 
that stallions produced will be suitable for improving the light horse stock 
in sections where such type is desired. 
2. To test the endurance and stamina of purebred and grade Morgans 
and to demonstrate the proper methods of training and conditioning horses 
for long, severe tests. 
3. To determine correlation of period of pregnancy with season of foal- 
ing, and to determine the prevalence of specific breed characters in Morgan 
horses, such as the five lumbar vertebras and the effects of these characters 
within the breed. 
The number of mares maintained at the farm is about 25, but varies 
slightly from time to time. 
That superior Morgans are being produced is attested by the fact 
that the demand for surplus animals far exceeds the supply, and 
many have been sold at good prices for saddle purposes, and horses 
bred at the farm, sired by Government-bred stallions, have been con- 
spicuous winners whenever shown in open competition, or whenever 
they have participated in endurance tests. The gelding Castor, by 
General Gates, dam by Bob Morgan, successfully participated in three 
of the annual 300-mile endurance rides. He was placed fourth in the 
1921 ride, which terminated in Washington, and was one of the two 
horses which went sound on the morning after the ride was finished. 
The gelding Gladstone, by General Gates, dam by Troubadour, has 
participated in two of the rides, being awarded second prize in the 
1922 ride in competition with 17 other horses. Bennington, by Gen- 
eral Gates, a stallion produced at the Morgan Horse Farm, was cham- 
pion Morgan stallion at the Eastern States Exposition, Springfield, 
Mass., in 1923, and Troubadour of Willowmoor, premier stallion at 
the farm, was champion Morgan stallion at the International Live- 
stock Exposition in 1919. Animal Husbandry Division 
233 
Military Horse Breeding 
In 1910 the Secretary of War suggested to the Secretary of Agri- 
culture that the difficulty in obtaining horses for the mounted ser- 
vice, particularly the cavalry, was such that it seemed desirable for 
the Government to begin the consideration of measures designed to 
encourage the production of horses for that purpose. In the Appro- 
priation Act for the fiscal year 1913 $50,000 was appropriated by 
Congress to begin the work. Various public-spirited horsemen, no- 
tably August Belmont of New York, President of the Jockey Club, 
presented to the War Department Thoroughbred stallions to be used 
in this work. Notable among Mr. Belmont's donations were the stal- 
lions Henry of Navarre and Octagon. Both stallions remained in the 
remount work until their death. Octagon in particular proved to be 
a remarkable sire. 
The War Department transferred these stallions to the Agricultural 
Department on March 1, 1912. The appropriation for the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture became available July 1, 1913, and the work 
was organized into three districts. The first district had headquar- 
ters at Middlebury, Vt., with W. F. Hammond in charge; the second 
at Front Royal, Va., with H. H. Reese in charge, and the third at Lex- 
ington, Ky., with Dr. R. G. Lawton in charge. Department stallions 
as well as the Belmont stallions were used. The work of the Depart- 
ment clearly showed definite possibilities for the production of horses 
for the mounted service by the use of properly selected sires, and the 
public became interested in the matter of supplying horses for the 
mounted service. 
On July 1, 1920, an appropriation of $200,000 became available to 
the Army for horse breeding, on the strength of which the Army has, 
through the Remount Service, placed stallions throughout the country. 
To avoid unnecessary duplication of work, the Department of Agricul- 
ture transferred to the War Department, on September 1, 1920, as 
much of the material and as many of its horses and personnel as the 
War Department desired. 
Farm Power Studies 
Early in 1919 an important project in the horse husbandry inves- 
tigations, the study of farm power, was begun in cooperation with 
the Office of Farm Management and the Bureau of Public Roads and 
Rural Engineering. At the suggestion of the Department and in 
cooperation with the Horse Association of America, agricultural col- 
leges and tractor and farm implement interests, a public conference 234 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
was held at Chicago to consider the whole question of the power sup- 
ply for farms. The conference worked diligently for two days and 
drew up a report which was submitted to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
the essence of which was published in March, 1920, as Circular 149 of 
the Secretary's Office. As a result of the recommendations of the con- 
ference, the Secretary appointed a committee on January 16, 1920, 
which has been designated the Farm Power Committee. This com- 
mittee at present is composed of Dr. H. C. Taylor, Chief of the Bureau 
of Agricultural Economics, Chairman; E. W. Sheets, of the Bureau 
of Animal Industry, and Thomas H. McDonald, Chief of the Bureau 
o? Public Roads. 
A survey was made in the Corn Belt in 1920 to study the relative 
efficiency of horse-drawn and tractor-drawn machinery and in the 
winter wheat belt in Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska in 1921. This 
work was conducted with the assistance and advice of the State agri- 
cultural colleges in the respective States visited and is not yet 
completed. 
Zebra Hybrid Breeding 
One of the projects of the Animal Husbandry Division which at 
the time attracted considerable attention, and in which certain interest- 
ing scientific and practical results were obtained, was the experiment of 
crossing Grevy zebras with mares and asses, which was begun in the 
spring of 1905. The original Grevy zebra Dan, a beautiful specimen 
which had been presented to President Roosevelt by the King of Abys- 
sinia, was transferred from the National Zoological Park to the Bureau 
Experiment Station in the fall of 1906, and, with other Grevy zebras 
procured later, was used in the breeding. The experiment was de- 
scribed in the American Breeders' Magazine, volume 4, No. 3, pub- 
lished at Washington, in 1913. The project was terminated June 30, 
1913, when the mare hybrid Juno and the male zebra Jerry were turned 
over to the National Zoological Park. One ass hybrid had previously 
been turned over to the Park, and the other ass hybrids had been 
sold to circus organizations for exhibition in their shows. 
Poultry Investigations 
The importance of the poultry industry was recognized by the 
authorities of the Bureau of Animal Industry before the appointment 
of a poultryman. A number of Farmers' Bulletins had been written 
by various persons. When animal husbandry activities began to de- 
velop in the Bureau, work with poultry was soon taken up. The first 
Assistant Animal Husbandman appointed, G. Arthur Bell, undertook Animal Husbandry Division 
235 
as his first task the preparation of a bulletin on poultry management, 
which was issued as Farmers' Bulletin 287 and has enjoyed long popu- 
larity and a large distribution. 
Investigations in poultry breeding figured in the first work done 
under the appropriation for the fiscal year 1905. The Maine Experi- 
ment Station had attracted a great deal of attention with its studies 
of poultry breeding, and the Bureau offered is cooperation. The sta- 
tion accepted, and the cooperation was begun August 1, 1904, and 
continued until June 30, 1913. A poultry assistant was appointed 
July 16, 1906, in the person of Rob R. Slocum, a graduate of Cornell 
University. Mr. Slocum continued in charge of the poultry work up 
to December 31, 1911, when he resigned. He was reappointed August 
5, 1914, as scientific assistant, and again resigned October 11, 1921. 
He re-entered the service of the Department in the Bureau of Agri- 
cultural Economics, where he is now Assistant in Poultry Marketing. 
During his service in the Bureau of Animal Industry Mr. Slocum 
wrote several publications which attained wide popularity, notably 
the series of Farmers' Bulletins on Standard Varieties of Chickens. 
On April 18, 1910, Harry M. Lamon, of New York, entered the 
service as Junior Animal Husbandman in Poultry Husbandry and 
was immediately assigned to the field in Kansas, to study the possibil- 
ity of improvement in methods of handling eggs on the farm so as 
to prevent loss in storage and in transit. Two years' work was done 
m Kansas by Mr. Lamon and his associates, and the outcome has 
been the development of the trade in infertile eggs throughout the 
United States. Two bulletins were published, B. A. I. Bulletin 141, 
"The Improvement of the Farm Egg," and B. A. I. Bulletin 160, 
"The Care of the Farm Egg." Extensive studies were also made at 
this time at the poultry fattening stations of Kansas, the results of 
which were published in B. A. I. Bulletin 140, "Fattening Poultry," 
and Department Bulletin 21, "Commercial Fattening of Poultry." 
On June 1, 1912, Mr. Lamon was called to Washington to take charge 
of the Division's work in poultry husbandry. He continued in charge 
until February 28, 1922, when he resigned to take up commercial 
poultry work. Alfred R. Lee, who had been associated with the 
Bureau's poultry work for several years, was the acting head of the 
poultry work from the time of Mr. Lamon's resignation until July 1, 
1923, when Dr. M. A.. Juli was appointed Senior Poultryman and 
placed in charge of the poultry investigations. 236 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Poultry Breeding 
Experiments in poultry breeding and feeding on a large scale have 
been carried on at the Beltsville Farm beginning in 1912, when Mr. 
Lamon began with entirely new stock. Two thousand laying hens 
are maintained there and four thousand or more chicks are hatched 
annually 
At the inception of the breeding experiments the policy was adopted 
of mating only birds that displayed qualifications under the American 
Standard of Perfection, and it was decided that the selection of the 
birds kept for breeding purposes should be made not only in accord- 
ance with their conformation to breed type, but according to utility 
for egg production as well. The success of this policy and of the 
work which has been done at Beltsville has been demonstrated re- 
peatedly at the leading shows of the country. Birds of the Single 
Comb White Leghorn, Single Comb Rhode Island Red, Barred Ply- 
mouth Rock and Dark Cornish breeds exhibited at the Madison 
Square Garden Show have been good enough to win in the open 
classes if they were shown in competition. Many of the male birds 
shown, particularly of the White Leghorns, are out of 200-egg hens 
and have 200-egg hens for granddams. A record is kept of each indi- 
vidual produced, together with the necessary data concerning weight, 
growth and other peculiarities. 
Experiments are being conducted in which the effects of close in- 
breeding on egg production are being studied. Two years' work has 
been completed in the study of the selection of fowls by external 
characters, especially late molting. Stock is produced from these spe- 
cially selected birds, and a big improvement has been made by this 
method of selection without the use of trap nests. 
A laboratory building has been erected and the necessary equip- 
ment purchased to begin experiments in the incubation of eggs by 
calorimeter studies, in which all changes occurring in eggs during 
incubation will be obtained. The primary need for this work is to 
find out why so many chicks die in the shell during incubation. 
One of the features of the poultry breeding work at Beltsville has 
been the development of the Lamona breed, named, with the approval 
of the Secretary of Agriculture, for its producer, Mr. Lamon. 
Poultry Feeding 
In the fall of 1912 the Division began experiments at Beltsville to 
note the effects of feeding on egg production, using 6 pens of 30 pul- 
lets each. The object of these tests was to find out what feeds gen- Animal Husbandry Division 
237 
erally available on farms throughout the country would give the 
most economical production when combined in simple rations. The 
Division has also tried out at different times a number of feeds which 
are waste by-products or grains that are relatively cheap products in 
certain sections of the country. The poultry-feeding investigations 
have grown steadily each year until they are now carried on with 
32 pens of 30 fowls each. These tests have yielded an abundance of 
data on the amount of feed required to produce a dozen eggs both for 
the general-purpose and the egg breeds. Extensive experiments also 
have been conducted with high vegetable and animal protein feeds, 
to determine the relative values of these feeds for poultry, including 
the use of various commercial milk products. These animal protein 
feeds are the most expensive part of the poultry ration and add very 
materially to the cost of feeding. 
Vitamin Studies* 
In the summer of 1922 this Division began its cooperation with the 
Biochemic Division in studying the vitamin content of poultry and 
eggs. It is expected that the results of these studies will be published 
during the coming year. 
Pigeon Breeding 
A small loft of pigeons for squab production was purchased in 
1918 and this work has been increased so that it now includes four 
lofts, one of each of the most popular breeds used in squab breeding 
work. Extensive data have been obtained on the cost of producing 
squabs, the best feeds for squab production, and the average returns 
which a loft will produce. A loft of Racing Homing pigeons was built 
up during the late war, in which birds making very excellent records 
in competitive flights were produced, one of the birds flying from 
Chicago to Washington making the best record in speed for a long- 
distance flight that has ever been made in this country. This Racing 
pigeon loft has been materially reduced since the close of the war, but 
a small breeding nucleus of the best stock has been retained. 
Poultry Studies in the Southwest 
In the appropriation act for the fiscal year 1914 appeared an item 
of $2,500 for experiments in th'e feeding and breeding of ostriches. 
For some years previous to that time the ostrich industry had been 
carried on in the Southwest, especially in Arizona, but it showed 
decided signs of decadence, and Congress listened to the appeal for 
* See "Biochemic Division," Page 174, and "Animal Husbandry Division," page 246. 238 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
studies to determine whether the industry had a place in southwest- 
ern agriculture. Arrangements were made to cooperate with the Ari- 
zona Ostrich Breeders' Association, which provided a location for 
an ostrich experiment station in the Salt River Valley in Arizona. 
The first year's work was devoted to making a study of the situation. 
A choice collection was made of some of the finest birds in the South- 
west, and work was begun in December, 1914. It was eventually clear, 
however, that there were much more remunerative forms of farming 
in the Southwest than ostrich raising, and interest lagged to such an 
extent that the Division's flock was left almost 11 alone in the desert." 
With the decline in the ostrich industry came an increasing de- 
mand for poultry investigations on the site of the ostrich station. 
Accordingly, work with chickens was begun at this station, and the 
work with ostriches was discontinued. The best of the ostriches re- 
maining on hand were sent to the National Zoological Park, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 
The collapse of the cotton boom in 1920 increased tremendously the 
interest in the chicken industry in the Salt River Valley. The Division 
had sent to Arizona on July 1, 1920, Nat. E. Luce, who gave material 
assistance to those farmers interested in poultry raising in the com- 
munity and carried out experiments at the station, the results of which 
were eagerly studied by poultrymen. 
In the winter and early spring of 1921 the people in the vicinity of 
Glendale, Ariz., raised a fund of $2,500 to buy 10 acres of land near 
that town to be used as a permanent United States Poultry Experi- 
ment Station. The Glendale citizens promptly proceeded with plans 
for the celebration of "Chicken Day" on May 20, 1921, when the 
deed to the land for the new station was tendered to the Department 
representatives. Some of the buildings on the first location were 
transferred to this new station, and a well-equipped plant has now 
been established, where experiments are being conducted with differ- 
ent breeds of poultry. 
A new line of work begun at this station in 1922 was the raising 
and management of turkeys, which work is not conducted at any 
other station of the Bureau. The time of laying and the production 
of the turkey hens, and the amount of feed consumed by the growing 
poults, as well as the weight of the poults, have been carefullly re- 
corded. Pedigree records are being kept on these young turkeys. 
Sheep and Goat Investigations 
Sheep industry was the first branch of the Animal Husbandry Divi- 
sion to possess animals used in official animal husbandry investigations Animal Husbandry Division 
239 
directed by the Washington office. Sheep husbandry investigations 
as we have them today began in September, 1906, when the range 
sheep breeding project was commenced with the purchase of ewes to 
be used in cooperation with the Wyoming Experiment Station. E. L. 
Shaw, an animal husbandman formerly on the faculty of the New 
Hampshire Agricultural College and a graduate of the Ohio State 
University, was appointed to take charge of the sheep husbandry 
branch on July 1, 1907. From October 15, 1910, to October 30, 1911, 
he was furloughed to the United States Tariff Board and conducted 
the Board's investigation of the sheep industry in the range States. 
He was again placed in charge of the sheep and goat investigations 
from the latter date until his transfer of the Beltsville Farm, July 1, 
1913. F. R. Marshall, a graduate of Ontario Agricultural College 
and Iowa State College, was in charge of the sheep and goat investiga- 
tions from September 1, 1913, to April 1, 1920. Mr. Marshall was 
succeeded on July 1, 1920, by D. A. Spencer, the present occupant of 
the position, who for two and a half years previously had been the 
Division's sheep extension specialist in Missouri. 
Range Sheep 
The project in range sheep investigation was begun with the sign- 
ing of a contract with the Wyoming Experiment Station on Septem- 
ber 1, 1906. Fifty-five Rambouillet ewes and four Delaine ewes were 
bought in time to be bred in 1906 to leased bucks, and the Rambouillet 
rams were bought in June, 1907. 
This was first planned to be essentially a breeding project, and until 
the time that the United States Sheep Experiment Station in Idaho 
was occupied, breeding problems were studied largely to the exclu- 
sion of problems of management and range utilization. The project 
was originally planned to study the possibility of developing a breed 
of sheep which would combine the factors for wool and mutton pro- 
duction and which would stand flocking in large numbers. The 
Wyoming Experiment Station had no range where this work could 
be conducted, and arrangements were made to run the sheep on the 
ranch of the F. S. King Brothers, near Laramie, Wyo. On June 30, 
1910, the cooperation with the Wyoming Station was discontinued, 
but the Bureau continued the investigations on the King ranch until 
October 22, 1917, when the sheep were transferred to the United 
States Sheep Experiment Station in Idaho. 
This station was established on October 30, 1915. It is located on 
the rolling grazing lands northeast of Idaho Falls and comprises 240 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
28,000 acres. In addition to this land, 16,650 acres of summer graz- 
ing land were set aside from public domain in December, 1922, for the 
use of this station. This land is about 20 miles northeast of the orig- 
inal area and is in the State of Montana. In the fall of 1916, V. O. 
McWhorter was placed in charge of the new station. Mr. McWhorter 
resigned September 12, 1922,-and was succeeded by William A. 
Denecke. - j • 
Four principal lines of investigation were inaugurated: (1) The 
breeding of a heavy-shearing type of Rambouillet sheep, with de- 
sirable mutton form; (2) the study of the different types of cross- 
bred sheep for the purpose of producing that type best suited to west- 
ern ranges; (3) the comparative study of different methods of sup- 
plying water on dry ranges; and (4) the production of crops on arid 
lands that may be utilized for the winter feeding of sheep. 
Some years before the transfer of the work from Wyoming, steps 
were taken to begin studies of cross-breeding for range sheep produc- 
tion. The appropriation act for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1914, 
carried an item of $10,000 for the importation of Corriedale sheep 
from New Zealand. The first shipment of 9 bucks and 65 ewes arrived 
January 1, 1915, and were carried through the winter in California 
and sent to Wyoming in the early spring. This was one of the first 
importations of Corriedale sheep into the United States. The re- 
mainder of the importation, consisting of 12 ewes, arrived in San 
Francisco April 21, 1915. 
In addition to the Corriedale project, crosses of Rambouillet ewes 
were made with bucks of the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold and Romney- 
Marsh breeds. This work was begun in the fall of 1912. One of the 
Lincoln bucks selected was a remarkable individual, known on the 
project records as Lincoln 39. When Mr. Marshall took hold of the 
project in the fall of 1913 he conceived the idea of using the offspring 
of this buck and Rambouillet ewes to determine the possibility of im- 
proving on the methods ordinarily used by range sheep men in cross- 
breeding. The selection in three crosses showed a definite type, which, 
of course, increases in uniformity with each succeeding mating. The 
name Columbia has been given to these sheep. 
The grazing studies were begun so recently that definite results 
are not yet available. However, it has been found that the 17,000- 
acre fenced area on the station has been reseeding and is furnishing 
much more feed than the unfenced range outside. 
Watering the sheep on the range is also being studied. The water 
supplied to the sheep during the spring, fall and winter, when they Animal Husbandry Division 
241 
are kept on the station reserve, is taken largely from the well at the 
main headquarters. Records are kept of the amount supplied to the 
livestock and of expense of utilizing dry range by fencing and artifi- 
cial watering. 
The experiments in crop production on arid lands has been con- 
fined largely to sunflower production. In 1920 thirty acres of sun- 
flowers were produced and stored in a silo. The silage was fed to a 
range band of ewes with very good results. The first year of expe- 
rience in the production and feeding of sunflowers on the high, arid 
land at the station indicates that sunflowers are an efficient and eco- 
nomical crop under those conditions. 
Farm Sheep 
In November, 1909, E. L. Shaw, who was then in charge of sheep 
and goat investigations, selected from the Huntleywood flock of Sir 
George Drummond in Canada, which was regarded as one of the best 
of the breed in North America, 29 purebred Southdown ewes and 1 ram 
to establish a flock of sheep at the Morgan Horse Farm, Middlebury, Vt. 
These ewes were mated with two rams at the Huntleywood farm and 
with the ram Babraham Hercules purchased there. The Division's 
flock has sustained the reputation of the parent flock. In 1917 a 
wether bred in the Morgan Horse Farm flock was grand champion of 
all breeds at the International Live Stock Exposition, and since then, 
in 1918 and 1920, two grand champions have been fitted from this 
flock. 
On November 26, 1915, 43 Southdown ewes were shipped to Belts- 
ville from the Morgan Horse Farm, and subsequent shipments were 
made in 1918 and 1920. In August, 1920, the remainder of the South- 
down flock, consisting of 15 ewes and a ram, was transferred to the 
Beltsville Farm, and the Morgan Horse Farm flock was continued as 
a grade flock, Southdown and Shropshire bucks being used on ewes 
selected from western stock. 
The sheep breeding work of the Beltsville Farm, designed to study 
the possibilities of farm sheep production under intensive conditions, 
was commenced in 1916. Approximately 100 acres of the farm were 
set aside for the sheep studies, and have been designated "Sheep 
Acres." 
The Beltsville flock was at first exclusively Southdown except for 
the Barbados and Karakul projects, which will be mentioned later. 
In 1919 eight Shropshire ewes were added and in 1920 four Hamp- 
shires were purchased from the McLaughlin flock in West Virginia, 242 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
and six Corriedales were sent from the Sheep Experiment Station 
via the Morgan Horse Farm. Further additions were made to both 
the Shropshire and Hampshire flocks at Beltsville during the summer 
of 1921, when 12 imported Shropshire ewes of Cooper and Duke of 
Westminster breeding, selected from the Glimmerglen Farms flock at 
Cooperstown, N. Y., 12 imported Hampshire ewes selected from the 
flock of Lowell Huntington, Oneonta, N. Y., and 10 Hampshire ewes 
selected from the flock of Earl D. Brown, Ilion, N. Y., together with 
a Hampshire ram imported from the famous flock of Alfred Black- 
well, were purchased for use at that station. An imported Shropshire 
ram bred by the Duke of Westminster and an imported Southdown 
ram bred by Sir Jeremiah Colman were added to the Beltsville flock 
in 1922. 
Karakul Sheep 
The production of Persian lamb fur in the United States presents 
commercial possibilities. Karakul sheep, in addition to their fur 
value, appear to have great resistance to drought and severe climatic 
conditions, especially in arid regions, and many authorities believe 
that they would be extremely valuable to use in the improvement of 
the native sheep of the Southwest. 
In 1909 fifteen head of Karakul sheep were imported into the 
United States from Bokhara, Asia, by Dr. C. C. Young, then of Texas. 
The results obtained with these sheep and their descendants and with 
others imported in 1913 and 1914 have made it appear that the pro- 
duction of Persian lamb fur can be made a profitable commercial en- 
terprise in the United States. 
On account of the difficulty of importing Karakul sheep in suffi- 
ciently large numbers, the future of the industry in this country will 
depend largely on the results obtained by mating Karakul rams with 
ewes of our native breeds. 
Recognizing this fact, the Animal Husbandry Division began experi- 
ments in 1911 planned to show the value of lambs by Karakul sires 
out of dams of a number of well-known breeds. This project also in- 
cluded the rearing of stock from successive matings of Karakul sires 
with ewes having various proportions of Karakul blood. Serious de- 
lays were occasioned by the fact that the Division owned none of the 
Karakul sires used. In 1911 and 1912 two crops of half-bred Karakul 
lambs were born and two sets of three-quarters-bred Karakuls were 
born in 1913 and 1914. All but four head of the sheep retained in 
the experiment were lost through the burning of the barn at the 
Experimental Farm at Beltsville in March, 1915. Animal Husbandry Division 
243 
The first project of the Division in animal breeding began with the 
importation on July 9, 1904, of four ewes and one buck from ihe Island 
of Barbados in the West Indies. These sheep were brought to the 
attention of the Department by Sir Daniel Morris, then Imperial Com- 
missioner of Agriculture for the West Indies. They were represented 
as being extremely prolific and producers of mutton of very fine 
quality. After being kept during the summer at the quarantine sta- 
tion at Athenia, N. J., the sheep were sent to the Experiment Station 
at Bethesda, Md., arriving there on October 19, 1904, and were kept 
there until transferred to Beltsville, Md., in April, 1911. One of the 
first crosses made with these sheep was with Delaine Merino ewes pur- 
chased in Ohio. After the Southdown flock was established at Belts- 
ville, a definite project was undertaken to blend these crosses with 
down blood, and to cross Southdown and Barbados sheep directly. 
The project had for its object the development of a breed of sheep 
similar to the Southdown in conformation, with the fecundity of the 
Barbados and the habit of breeding at any time of the year. The 
project was well on the road to successful completion when the loss of 
the sheep barn at Beltsville by fire in March, 1915, caused the destruc- 
tion of practically all the sheep in this project as well as in the 
Karakul project. 
Barbados Sheep 
Wool Studies 
Another project of importance at the Beltsville Farm in connection 
with the sheep investigations is the studies of wool. At each shearing 
a 12-ounce sample of wool is taken from the side of the fleece. These 
samples are sent to the laboratory at Beltsville, where each one is 
scoured by an original process and the net yield of scoured wool 
determined. Separate determinations of grease and dirt content are 
also made. This work is done for its genetic value. It is believed that 
the wTool laboratory at Beltsville is the only one of its kind in ex- 
istence and that the Division's records on net yields of wool and sep- 
arate percentages of grease and dirt are the first of this sort to be 
obtained on a large experimental scale. 
Goats 
In the Department Yearbook for 1898 Captain Almont Barnes, then 
connected with the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agri- 
culture, published an article on the Angora goat. This article at- 
tracted so much attention that the Department soon became somewhat 244 
Bureau oe Animal Industry 
embarrassed for means to answer the correspondence resulting from 
it. Someone suggested to George Fayette Thompson, Editor of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, that he undertake the task of handling 
this correspondence. It was only a short time until the Department 
discovered that Mr. Thompson was rapidly becoming known as an 
authority on Angora goats. He served on the jury for sheep and 
goats at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. 
It was only natural that Mr. Thompson should be drawn into the 
field of the milking goat, and here, too, he made his influence felt. In 
1905 he was commissioned by the Department to proceed to Europe 
to select a flock of milk goats for the inauguration of investigations 
by the Department. The result of his journey was the ill-fated im- 
portation of Maltese milk goats, all of which were eventually de- 
stroyed.* There is reason to believe that the consumption of milk 
from these goats on the voyage was responsible for Mr. Thompson's 
untimely death in January, 1906. 
The Division maintains at the Beltsville Farm a small flock of milk 
goats. These goats are bred up from a foundation of native stock, 
obtained in the hills of Alabama and other Southern States in 1909. 
The first stock was sent to the Experiment Station at Bethesda, and 
was transferred to Beltsville with the rest of the stock in April, 1911. 
Some hope was held out that it might be possible by selection to de- 
velop a profitable milking breed of goats from native material, but 
this was found to be too slow, and after two years' experimentation 
of this sort, purebred Saanen and Toggenburg bucks were used in 
grading up the native material on hand. 
At present the Bureau's herd consists largely of does having seven- 
eighths and fifteen-sixteenths blood of the pure breeding. A few of 
the younger does are thirty-one thirty-seconds pure, which is the 
purity required for registration as an American purebred milk goat. 
The grading up has resulted in increased milk production, and there 
is a great demand for does of the Bureau's herd. The milk is being 
used primarily for studies of its use in the diet of infants and invalids. 
Swine Investigations 
Swine husbandry investigatidns were begun July 15, 1905, at the 
Bureau's quarantine station at Halethorpe, Md. For several years 
the swine investigations were largely confined to studies in feeding. 
Attention was given to the effect of cottonseed meal in pig feeding. 
One of the most interesting facts discovered was the resemblance be- 
tween cottonseed poisoning in pigs and beriberi in human beings. 
* See "Pathological Division," page 67, and "Quarantine Division," page 135. Animal Husbandry Division 
245 
The work in swine husbandry was under the personal supervision 
of the Chief of the Animal Husbandry Division, until April 1, 1918, 
when E. Z. Russell assumed charge of the swine investigations. His 
first task was to establish a purebred herd at the Beltsville Farm, 
and to broaden out the work to include studies in breeding and man- 
agement as w'ell as studies in feeding. 
The herd of hogs at Beltsville includes first-class representatives of 
the Poland China, Chester White, Duroc Jersey, Hampshire and Tam- 
worth breeds. 
Experiments in swine breeding are being conducted for the pur- 
pose of determining the value of purebred sires when used on sows 
of inferior breeding and scrub sows from the standpoint of gains in 
weight from the usual hog feeds. Another line of experiments is to 
determine the effects of close inbreeding among hogs on the size and 
vitality of litters and on the feeding qualities of the progeny. This 
■work is being conducted at the Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Md. 
Sivine Breeding 
By-products of Fisheries 
The experimental work on fishmeal as food for swine, which was 
begun on January 19, 1915, developed information of much practical 
importance to the swine industry, particularly in States adjoining 
the sea coast. These investigations show that fishmeal has a value 
equal to that of tankage as a corn supplement, and that the common 
practice of using fish waste solely as fertilizer does not return the 
fullest possible value of this product. The work was conducted in 
cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry of this Department and 
the Bureau of Fisheries of the Department of Commerce. New sources 
of supply have been discovered and the investigations have been 
broadened to include a great variety of forms of fishery by-products 
which might be used for pig feeding, including shrimp cannery wastes. 
Experiments at the Beltsville Farm have proved that fishmeal does 
not impart a fishy flavor to the pork. 
The cause of soft pork is a problem of great economic importance 
to swine producers in some sections of the country. T-o enable the 
Division to take up the study of the subject and determine if possible 
how to obviate the objectionable features occasioned by lack of firm- 
ness of carcasses in some market hogs, Congress provided $20,000 in 
the Appropriation Act for the fiscal year 1920. This fund became 
Soft Pork 246 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
available July 1, 1919, and steps were taken without delay to organize 
the work on a national scale. The Division asked and obtained the 
cooperation of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations in North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, 
Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kentucky, Indiana and Pennsylvania, 
also the Association of Southern Agricultural Workers, the National 
Swine Growers' Association and the Institute of American Meat 
Packers. Arrangements were made for complete chemical studies 
in the laboratories at the Beltsville Farm, and all hogs used thus far 
in the experiments at the cooperating stations have been shipped to 
the Beltsville abattoir for slaughter and examination. 
Three main questions are involved in this work: (1) Can hogs that 
have been made "soft" by feeding peanuts, rice meal or soybeans be 
made ' ' firm ' ' by changing the feed to corn, tankage, barley, cottonseed 
meal or some other feed? (2) Can soft-pork-producing feeds be fed in 
limited quantities and supplemented by other feeds so as to produce a 
firm, marketable carcass at slaughtering time? (3) Do so-called soft 
hogs show a greater or less dressed percentage when slaughtered 
than firm hogs, and will the meat from these hogs show a greater or 
less shrinkage in the processes of curing, smoking and storage than 
firm hogs? 
At a meeting of representatives of the agencies cooperating in the 
soft-pork investigations, held in Atlanta, Ga., April 24, 25 and 26, 
1923, the following statement was formulated and adopted for issu- 
ance to the press on May 15, 1923: 
Three years of continued investigation of the soft-pork problem by 
the North Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi and South Carolina Experi- 
ment Stations in cooperation with the United States Department of 
Agriculture showed that when hogs started at a weight of approxi- 
mately 100 pounds were fed on peanuts for a period of 60 days a 
soft carcass was produced, and that it was impossible to produce a 
hard carcass by feeding corn and tankage or corn and cottonseed meal 
to these soft hogs for a subsequent period of 60 days. 
Since the four years' work has been summarized the results show 
that 100-pound pigs softened on peanuts during a period of 60 days 
are made firmer by subsequent feeding of hardening fged. However, 
it is yet impossible from these data to recommend a practical method 
of producing a strictly hard carcass from such hogs. 
Vitamin Studies* 
Investigations have been carried on jointly by the Animal Hus- 
bandry and Biochemic Divisions since July 12, 1923, to determine the 
effects of feeds on the vitamin content of the flesh and edible viscera 
of hogs. 
* See "Biochemic Division," page 174, and ''Animal Husbandry Division," page 237. Animal Husbandry Division 
247 
Preliminary investigations have been made to determine the variety 
of vitamins present in the flesh, fat and organs of hogs through the 
examination of samples of meat and tissues obtained at the abattoir at 
Beltsville, Md. 
Immunization of Sucking Pigs* 
The Animal Husbandry Division has cooperated with the Biochemic 
Division since November 21, 1922, in hog cholera research to deter- 
mine the minimum and most favorable age at which swine can be 
successfully immunized against hog cholera by the serum-virus treat- 
ment and the duration of such immunity; the effects of immunization 
at different ages on young pigs in their growth and development. 
In addition to the work being carried on at the Beltsville Farm, 
the studies have recently been extended to include all pigs at the fol- 
lowing field stations: Huntley, Mont., Newell, S. Dak., Ardmore, 
S. Dak., McNeill, Miss., and Jeanerette, La. These pigs have been 
vaccinated at varying ages from less than 24 hours old to the recom- 
mended weights of 50 and 60 pounds at ages of 6 to 10 weeks. Of 
those pigs immunized from 4 days old to weaning ages large numbers 
have been subsequently tested at periods varying from 4 to 14 months, 
through the injection of active hog cholera virus, while untreated or 
"check" pigs have been subjected to similar doses. 
Animal Husbandry Extension Work 
Extension work in the Department began in the Bureau of Plant 
Industry. With the development of the work, however, animal spe- 
cialists became necessary, and the Bureau of Animal Industry was 
requested to furnish men trained in animal husbandry who could be 
used as extension specialists and organizers of animal clubs. 
The first boys' pig club in the United States was organized in 1910 
in Caddo Parish, Louisiana, by E. W. Jones, Superintendent of Rural 
Schools, and numbered 59 boys. In 1911 the Louisiana State Univer- 
sity appointed W. H. Balis, a graduate of the University of Illinois, 
to devote his entire time to club work in animal husbandry, especially 
to pig club organization. In the fall of 1912 Dean W. R. Dodson of 
the Agricultural College of the Louisiana State University requested 
the cooperation of the Bureau in the organization of pig clubs among 
the farm boys and girls of that State. This request was approved 
and the Bureau began paying part of Mr. Balis's salary on October 2, 
1912. From the beginning made in Louisiana, animal club work 
* See "Biochemic Division," page 165. 248 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
among boys and girls on farms has spread all over the United States 
and into foreign countries. 
The Bureau of Animal Industry can not claim to be the pioneer in 
animal club work, as that honor belongs to the Louisiana State Univer- 
sity. The Bureau was the pioneer, however, in the poultry club work 
when it sent J. W. Kinghorne, a graduate of the Maryland Agricul- 
tural College, to Virginia, March 1, 1913, to devote his entire time to 
the organization of poultry clubs among the boys and girls of that 
State. 
F. W. Farley, while on the extension staff of the Mississippi Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College, organized the first baby beef club in 
this country in the fall of 1914. 
When the appropriation bill for the fiscal year ending July 1, 
1914, was passed, the tick eradication item carried a provision for the 
expenditure of $50,000 for livestock demonstration work in the areas 
that had been freed from ticks. This was divided evenly between the 
Dairy and Animal Husbandry Divisions. It inducted the Animal 
Husbandry Division into southern livestock extension work and re- 
sulted in the placing of what became known as beef cattle specialists 
in the Southern States. The first beef cattle specialist placed under 
the provisions of this appropriation was C. J. Goodell, a graduate of 
Purdue University and an Illinois livestock farmer, who was sent to 
Georgia December 1, 1914. After a service of some years in Georgia 
Mr. Goodell was transferred to Washington. 
With the passage of the Smith-Lever Act and the growth of appro- 
priations to the agricultural colleges under its provisions, Congress 
began to manifest a decided feeling that appropriations should not 
be made to "subject-matter bureaus" in the Department for the 
conduct of extension work. In the Appropriation Act for the fiscal 
year beginning July 1, 1919, the $50,000 item for livestock demon- 
stration work in areas which had been freed from ticks was dropped. 
The Animal Husbandry Division was thus left without funds to carry 
its southern beef cattle specialists, and it was necessary to discontinue 
their services June 30, 1920. The States, however, arranged to take 
over these men in order to continue the work. 
As time went on it became apparent that still further reductions 
in the extension work would be necessary, and the Division was forced 
to choose between extension work and research work. The situa- 
tion was frankly laid before the extension directors at their conven- 
tion in Washington on February 2, 1921, who were told by Mr. Rom- 
mel, Chief of the Division, that it was apparent that Congress did Animal Husbandry Division 
249 
not seem inclined to support extension work in "subject-matter bu- 
reaus" and that it would probably be necessary to discontinue at the 
termination of June, 1921, the services of all extension specialists in 
animal husbandry and poultry husbandry then working in coopera- 
tion with the Animal Husbandry Division. It was finally necessary 
to take this action. Except for the small amount of work which the 
Division is doing in certifying the pedigrees of animals imported for 
breeding purposes, its efforts are now devoted to research work. 
Cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry 
On September 22, 1913, Dr. W. A. Taylor, Chief of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry, addressed a memorandum to the Assistant Secretary, 
Dr. B. T. Galloway, calling attention to conferences between B. H. 
Rawl, Chief of the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try, and E. C. Chilcott, in charge of Dry Land Agriculture in the 
Bureau of Plant Industry, concerning the advisability of cooperation 
in dairying at the Ardmore, S. Dak., station of the Bureau of Plant 
Industry. Dr. Taylor stated that there was need of work of this char- 
acter not only at Ardmore but also at other points where the Bureau 
of Plant Industry maintained field stations, especially those for studies 
of dry land agriculture and western irrigation agriculture, and added 
that "in any case the inclusion of livestock in the agriculture will be 
necessary to the productivity of lands." Consequently a joint com- 
mittee was appointed September 26, 1913, consisting of Mr. Chilcott 
as chairman, Mr. Rawl, Mr. Rommel and C. S. Scofield, in charge of 
Western Irrigation Agriculture of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 
The committee drew plans for the inauguration of this work, and 
as a result of these recommendations Congress appropriated $40,000 
for the fiscal year 1917. The work was established on the dry-land 
station at Ardmore, S. Dak.; in the Belle Fourche reclamation project 
at Newell, S. Dak.; in the Huntley reclamation project at Huntley, 
Mont., and in the North Platte reclamation project at Mitchell, Nebr. 
Studies under the direction of the Animal Husbandry Division were 
confined to pork production at Huntley, Newell and Mitchell, and to 
beef production at Ardmore. The committee continued in charge of 
this work until March 17, 1921, since which time the work has been 
continued as a cooperative project between the two bureaus. 
The Animal Husbandry Division as an Emergency Organization 
Two features of the Animal Husbandry Division's history in emer- 
gency work are noteworthy. The first is the work conducted during 250 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
the war; the second, the relief work conducted in 1917, 1918 and 1919 
to move livestock out of the drought-stricken areas of the West to 
farms and ranches elsewhere. 
War Pork Production Campaign 
The first appropriation by Congress for war work by the Depart- 
ment provided $254,220 for activities intended to stimulate pork and 
poultry production. This appropriation became available August 10, 
1917, and allowed very little time for the promulgation of a program 
for increasing pork production that year. It was recognized that a 
larger number of pigs should be farrowed during 1918 than had 
been produced in 1917, in order to meet the urgent needs of the 
United States and the allied countries. After consulting officials of 
the Food Administration it was decided that an increase of 15 per 
cent over 1917 should be asked for, which increase should be pro- 
rated among the different States in proportion to the size of their corn 
crops. The program was finally prepared and given to the country 
in time to be used during the fall breeding season. The campaign 
was given tremendous impetus and force through the action of the 
Food Administration, affecting the price of hogs, and resulted in an 
increase of at least 15 per cent in the number of pigs farrowed in the 
spring of 1918, and probably an increase of 25 per cent in the total 
quantity of pork and lard produced. Plans for a further increase in 
1919 were carefully formulated, but the close of the war made it un- 
necessary to carry them to completion. 
War Poultry Program 
The poultry program during the war was carried out on a different 
basis from the meat animal programs. The first effect of our entrance 
into the war and the restriction on food consumption was a blow to 
the poultry industry. Wheat could not be used for feeding poultry, 
and the increase in the price of all feed caused poultry production on 
farms to decline seriously. The breeders of standardbred poultry 
were especially hard hit. Many poultrymen were left without occu- 
pation. The entire situation contributed to the success of the Bureau's 
campaign. The fact that so many poultrymen were unemployed gave 
the Bureau an opportunity to employ poultrymen of greatest skill 
and wide experience throughout the country, many of whom had 
had journalistic experience, to assist in the campaign. These men 
were willing to serve at small salaries, partly because many of them 
were out of employment, but mainly because of the opportunity to Animal Husbandry Division 
251 
perform a patriotic service. A poultry program was drafted without 
any limitation on volume of production. This program was based on 
the following principles: 
1. Keep better poultry. 
2. Select vigorous breeders. 
3. Hatch the chicks early. 
4. Preserve eggs for home use. 
5. Produce infertile eggs. 
6. Cull the flocks. 
7. Keep a back-yard flock. 
8. Grow your poultry feed. 
9. Eat more poultry and eggs. 
An organization was rapidly built up in Washington. Effective 
publicity was undertaken and attractive publications were prepared. 
The response of the country to the poultry campaign was instanta- 
neous and effective. 
The total war emergency appropriation for animal husbandry for 
the fiscal year 1919 was $544,600. On account of the cessation of hos- 
tilities this money was not all needed, and $225,167.75 was turned 
back into the Treasury. 
Studies in Livestock Economics 
After the armistice the committee of the Animal Husbandry Divi- 
sion which drafted the war programs was allowed to lapse. "With the 
development of the acute situation surrounding the livestock indus- 
try on account of the depression in 1920 and 1921, it seemed desirable 
to revive the activities of the livestock committee. This was done at 
the suggestion of the Chief of the Bureau on June 24, 1921, and the 
committee was enlarged to include not only other branches of the 
Bureau but other bureaus of the Department as well. 
Drought Relief Work. 
The drought relief work is an example of what the National Gov- 
ernment can do to assist private enterprise in an emergency. A 
drought which affected the entire Southwest, especially Texas, began 
in 1916 and continued without interruption until the fall of 1918. 
A drought in Montana began in 1918 and lasted until the fall of 1919, 
when it was most disastrous. Both droughts necessitated the sacrifice 
of cows and calves and brought severe hardships to farmers and 
ranchmen in the localities affected. The Texas drought was brought 
to the attention of the Animal Husbandry Division in the early part 
of June, 1917. At this time feed conditions in the South, east of the 
Mississippi River, were exceptionally good. It seemed that an effort 252 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
to bring together the owner of starving cattle on the one hand and 
the owner of surplus pasture and feed on the other would be a con- 
servation measure of much practical value. An organization was put 
into effect with great rapidity. S. S. Jerdan was ordered from his 
Mississippi station to Fort Worth to get into immediate touch with 
ranchmen, to determine how serious the situation was, where cattle 
were being sacrificed and to what extent, and to determine prices at 
which cattle were offered. C. J. Goodell was ordered from Washing- 
ton to take the road up and down the Coastal Plain and through 
other parts of southern territory, to determine every possible location 
where cattle might be sent and the probable number of cattle wanted. 
Goodell's information was sent to Jerdan and Jerdan's information 
to Goodell, and also to extension directors in the eastern territory. 
The Railroad Administration was interested and stationed a man at 
Fort Worth to supervise the supply and movement of motive power 
and cars. As the result of this effort 150,000 cattle were sent from 
Texas into Eastern States, some as far as Florida. The cost of this 
work to the Department was less than 8 cents a head of cattle moved. 
In 1919, when the drought situation became acute in Montana, 
northern Wyoming and other parts of the Northwest, Texas and other 
parts of the Southwest were covered with a wealth of grass. The 
drought of three years' duration in the Southwest, however, had so 
depleted cattle stocks that there were not sufficient cattle for the grass 
at hand. The first rush of Montana and Wyoming ranchmen was into 
the Dakotas, where pastures were soon filled to capacity. The Depart- 
ment 's problem, therefore, was to look farther for feed supplies. These 
existed in the Southwest, in western Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska, 
in the Corn Belt and in the cut-over lands of Minnesota, Wisconsin 
and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. 
On July 15, 1919, a public conference under the Department's 
auspices was held at St. Paul, Minn., attended by more than 100 men 
interested in the situation. Every railroad traversing the drought 
area sent its general freight agent. Reduced freight rates on feed 
shipped in and on livestock shipped out to be returned later were 
later announced by the Railroad Administration. The Department 
appointed a committee with E. W. Sheets as chairman and set up an 
organization which centered in the different livestock markets of the 
Middle West and reached out into the drought territory. As a result 
of this effort, in cooperation with the other agencies interested, at least 
300,000 cattle and between 500,000 and 600,000 sheep were moved 
out of the drought area to other sections where feed was available. Animal Husbandry Division 
253 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
July 1,1901. George M. Rommel appointed as expert in animal husbandry. 
July 1,1904. First direct appropriation by Congress ($25,000) for animal 
husbandry investigations became available. 
July 9,1904. Importation of Barbados sheep arrived at New York and was 
sent to the Bureau Quarantine Station at Athenia, N. J. 
July 28,1904. Contract signed with Pennsylvania Experiment Station for 
cooperative investigations in animal nutrition. Coopera- 
tion between the Bureau and the State in this work had 
already been under way since July 1, 1898, and had been 
paid for out of miscellaneous funds of the Bureau. 
Aug. 1,1904. Contract signed with Maine Experiment Station for co- 
operative investigations in poultry breeding. 
Oct. 19,1904. Barbados sheep arrived at Bureau Experiment Station, 
Bethesda, Md. 
Dec. 7,1904. Contract signed with Alabama Experiment Station for co- 
operative investigations in southern beef production. 
Dec. 28,1904. Contract signed with Colorado Experiment Station for co- 
operative investigations in horse husbandry. 
July 15,1905. Swine husbandry investigations begun at Halethorpe, Md. 
Aug. 6,1906. Poultry husbandry investigations begun at Halethorpe, Md. 
Sept. 1,1906. Contract signed with Wyoming Experiment Station for co- 
operative investigations in range sheep breeding. 
Apr. 1,1907. Department took possession of U. S. Morgan Horse Farm, 
Weybridge, Vt. 
Sept. 16,1907. Poultry transferred from Halethorpe, Md., to Bureau Ex- 
periment Station, Bethesda, Md. 
Oct. 15,1907. Hogs transferred from Halethorpe, Md., to Experiment Sta- 
tion, Bethesda, Md. 
Jan. 1,1910. Animal Husbandry Division established by order of Secre- 
tary Wilson. (Designation changed from Animal Hus- 
bandry Office.) George M. Rommel made Chief of Division. 
June 30,1910. Farm at Beltsville, Md., purchased. 
July 6,1910. First horses and mules transferred from Bethesda to the 
new Experiment Farm at Beltsville. Between this date 
and October 21 the remaining horses, the zebra, the don- 
keys and the zebra hybrids were transferred from Be- 
thesda to Beltsville. 
Apr. 17,1911. Sheep, goats, hogs, guinea pigs and poultry equipment trans- 
fererred from Bethesda to Beltsville, Md. 
Aug. 10,1912. Appropriation of $50,000 became available for experiments 
in breeding horses for military purposes. 
July 1,1914. Appropriation of $10,000 for importation of Corriedale sheep 
became available. 
Oct. 30,1915. U. S. Sheep Experiment Station at Dubois, Idaho, estab- 
lished by Executive Order of the President. 
July 1,1917. Appropriation of $15,000 became available for the purchase 
of additional land for U. S. Morgan Horse Farm. 254 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Mar. 1,1921. "Sheep Acres" at Beltsville Farm designated by order of the 
Secretary. 
Apr. 23,1921. Secretary officially approved the name "Lamona" for the 
new breed of chickens developed at the Beltsville Farm. 
May 20,1921. "Chicken Day" held at Glendale, Ariz., and site donated to 
the Department for Southwestern Poultry Experiment 
Station. 
June 18,1922. Provisions for nutritional and meat investigations, including 
the employment of specialists and the arrangement of 
laboratories, approved by the Chief of the Bureau, under 
appropriation in Act of Feb. 26, 1923. 
Apr. 15,1924. President Coolidge signed the bill transferring jurisdiction 
over the Fort Keogh Military Reservation, Mont., to the 
Department of Agriculture for experiments in stock rais- 
ing and growing of forage crops. 
PERSONNEL OF THE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY DIVISION 
Expert in Animal Husbandry: 
George M. Rommel, July 1, 1901, to Jan. 7, 1905. 
Animal Husbandman (in charge of Animal Husbandry Office) : 
George M. Rommel, Jan. 7, 1905, to Jan. 1, 1910. 
Chief's of Division: 
George M. Rommel, Jan. 1, 1910, to Oct. 31, 1921. 
Dr. Leon J. Cole, July 2, 1923, to date. 
Acting Chief of Division: 
E. W. Sheets, Nov. 1, 1921, to July 1, 1923. 
Assistant Chief of Division: 
E. W. Sheets, July 2, 1923, to date. 
Assistants in Charge of Sections: 
G. Arthur Bell, first assistant animal husbandman, Feb. 1, 1905, to 
Oct. 15, 1920. 
Dr. E. H. Riley, specialist in animal genetics, July 1, 1906, to June 
30, 1919. 
Rob R. Slocum, poultry, July 16, 1906, to Dec. 31, 1911. 
E. L. Shaw, chief husbandman, July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1921. 
Harry M. Lamon, in charge of poultry husbandry, June 1, 1912, to Feb. 
28, 1922. 
W. F. Ward, in charge of beef cattle husbandry, Jan. 2, 1913, to April 
15, 1917. 
F. R. Marshall, in charge of sheep and goat husbandry, Sept. 1, 1913, 
to March 31, 1920. 
Dr. Sewall Wright, in charge of investigations in animal genetics, 
Sept. 1, 1915, to date. 
E. Z. Russell, in charge of swine husbandry, April 1, 1918, to date. 
E. W. Sheets, in charge of beef cattle husbandry, July 1, 1919, to date. 
D. A. Spencer, in charge of sheep and goat husbandry, July 1; 1920, 
to date. 
John O. Williams, in charge of horse and mule husbandry, Oct. 16, 
1920, to date. 
Dr. M. A. Jull, in charge of poultry husbandry, July 2, 1923, to date. Meat Inspection Division* 
The first legislation providing for Federal meat inspection was 
passed by Congress in August, 1890. That act, however, was but a 
feeble attempt to satisfy the appeals of our livestock interests and the 
packing industry for a service that would inspect and certify to 
foreign governments the healthfulness of our animals and the whole- 
someness of our meats. Application of the law very soon demonstrated 
its ineffectiveness, and, on March 3, 1891, Congress passed a law of 
sufficient force and breadth to enable the establishing of a meat- 
inspection service of real value and which would command the con- 
fidence of the European purchasers of our products. Meat inspection 
primarily is a service in hygiene and sanitation, but the arguments 
which moved Congress to its first enactments on the subject were 
based wholly on economic considerations. 
The period of the eighties of the last century was marked by wide 
expansion in our livestock industry, and there was great need of free 
access to foreign markets in which to dispose of the growing surplus 
of food animals and meats. Further, the industry faced the fact that 
various European governments had imposed prohibitions or serious 
restrictions against the importation of our animals and products, 
chiefly as follows: In 1879 Great Britain put into effect an order 
which required that imported American cattle be slaughtered within 
a limited time on the docks where they were landed. That order was 
issued on the ground that contagious pleuropneumonia in cattle existed 
in the United States. In the same year Italy and Austria-Hungary 
issued decrees against admitting American pork, alleging the presence 
of trichinae. Similar decrees against American pork were issued by 
Germany and Spain in 1880; by France, Turkey and Rumania in 
1881; by Greece in 1883, and by Denmark in 1888. 
The existence of contagious pleuropneumonia in cattle and of 
trichinae in pork could not be denied, and the governments concerned 
were within their rights in setting up the restrictions which they 
deemed necessary for their own protection. However, the extent to 
which the alleged conditions existed in the United States was the 
subject of exaggeration so gross and of reports so sensational as to 
work great injustice to the reputation of American meat, and there 
is substantial ground for believing that the exaggerations and sensa- 
tional reports originated in quarters whose interest lay in preventing 
* See "Export Trade in Cattle and Meats," page 8 and "Meat Inspection," page 27. 
255 256 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
the competition of American products. This comment on the matter 
should not be read as implying that the governments concerned were 
moved by other than proper motives in issuing their prohibitory 
decrees; its purpose is to point out that their prohibitions served well 
the purpose of those who desired the elimination of American com- 
petition in their markets. 
The facts of the situation forced the American producers to face 
the fact that measures satisfactory to the foreign governments would 
have to be adopted if the bars set up by them against American 
products were to be lowered. Widespread and active discussion of the 
matter led to the conclusion that Congress should be urged to provide 
for the inspection and certification of meat and meat products destined 
to foreign markets. 
In response to appeals from meat packers, livestock producers and 
others, the first Federal meat-inspection law was passed August 30, 
1890. That act provided for the inspection of salted pork and bacon 
intended for exportation when the laws, regulations or orders of any 
foreign government required inspection, or when any buyer, seller or 
exporter of such meats requested inspection; and it also provided for 
the inspection of all cattle, sheep, other ruminants and swine for 
export. It was provided that the inspection should be made at the 
place where the meats were packed or boxed, and that the meats 
should be stamped after inspection. The inspectors were authorized 
to issue certificates of inspection to the shipper of the meat and to the 
consignee. It will be noted that the act provided only for an inspection 
of cured meats and of certain live animals, and did not accom- 
plish the more important object of determining whether or not the 
animal from which the meat was derived was sound or diseased at the 
time of slaughter. 
The inadequacy of the law soon became apparent, and the foreign 
governments refused to recognize the inspection certificates issued 
thereunder. The Secretary of Agriculture called the attention of 
Congress to the situation and suggested a more effective enactment. 
In accordance with that suggestion Congress passed the Act of March 
3, 1891. That law provided that the Secretary of Agriculture should 
cause to be made a careful inspection of all cattle intended for export 
as live animals, and also of cattle the meat of which was intended for 
exportation, the inspection to be made at such times, places and 
manner as the Secretary might deem proper; and for this purpose he 
was authorized to appoint inspectors to make the necessary examina- Meat Inspection Division 
257 
tions and to give official certificates stating the condition of the 
animals or of the meats. It was further provided that no clearance 
could be given any vessel having on board cattle or meats for exporta- 
tion to a foreign country unless the owner or shipper thereof had an 
official certificate stating that the cattle or the meats were sound and 
free from disease. The law also provided that an inspection should 
be made prior to slaughter of the cattle, sheep and hogs which were 
the subjects of interstate commerce, and that in addition to an inspec- 
tion of the live animal the Secretary could, whenever he deemed it 
necessary or expedient, cause to be made a post-mortem examination 
of the carcasses of cattle, sheep and hogs about to be prepared for 
human consumption and interstate commerce. The act made it un- 
lawful to transport in interstate commerce the carcasses of any cattle, 
sheep or swine or the food products thereof which had been examined 
in accordance with the law and found to be unsound or diseased, and 
violation of the law was made punishable by a fine not exceeding 
$1,000 or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both. Animals 
slaughtered by a farmer upon his farm were exempted from the opera- 
tions of the law. 
The regulations issued under the law of 1891 provided for an 
examination before and at the time of slaughter by veterinarians of 
all animals slaughtered for export or interstate trade, the condemna- 
tion of all animals found to be diseased, and the proper identification 
of the carcasses and other products entering into these two classes 
of commerce. Each establishment was given an official number. The 
first inspection under the regulations was in New York City at the 
plant of Eastman & Co., May 12, 1891, and was confined to the 
inspection of their export dressed beef. In June, 1891, inspection 
was inaugurated in Chicago and soon thereafter at South Omaha, 
Kansas City, Milwaukee, Jersey City, and at Hammond, Ind. 
The regulations also provided for a microscopic examination of 
hogs after slaughter to determine their freedom from trichinse and to 
certify them accordingly. The microscopic examination of pork for 
trichinse was commenced at Chicago, on June 22, 1891, and was 
gradually extended to the meat-packing establishments doing export 
business in the following cities: Buffalo, Boston, Cincinnati, Cleve- 
land, Kansas City, Omaha, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Ottumwa, Cedar 
Rapids, Sioux City and South St. Joseph. 
The inspection and the carrying out of the regulations were care- 
fully observed by representatives in this country of foreign govern- 258 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
ments, and the first result of the microscopic examination of pork was 
an order by the German Government, on September 3, 1891, removing 
its prohibition against the importation of American pork products. 
Within a short time similar action was taken by Denmark, Italy, 
France and Austria. With the removal by Germany of the prohibition 
against American pork the exports from this country increased largely, 
and in 1892 there were exported 38,152,874 pounds of inspected pork. 
The benefits arising from meat inspection as carried on under the 
law of 1891 made it apparent that the inspection should be extended. 
In his report Secretary Rusk pointed out the need for extending the 
inspection to cover all animals slaughtered for human food, in order, 
first, to secure for the American consumers the most healthful meats, 
and to maintain the reputation of American meat products abroad. 
By 1894 meat inspection had become the most important and ex- 
tensive part of the work of the Bureau of Animal Industry. At first 
the inspection of hogs consisted of the microscopic examination for 
trichinae, but in the year above mentioned the ante-mortem and post- 
mortem examinations were extended to hogs at the various abattoirs 
where inspection had been established, thus greatly increasing the 
field of this service. In that year inspection was carried on at 46 abat- 
toirs in 17 cities. In the first year of meat inspection 22 abattoirs had 
inspection. 
Pursuant to the suggestions and recommendations of Dr. D. E. 
Salmon, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Congress, on March 
2, 1895, amended the law of March 3, 1891, and conferred upon the 
Secretary of Agriculture authority to make such rules and regulations 
as he deemed necessary to establish more complete control in respect to 
the condemned carcasses or parts of carcasses of cattle, sheep or swine 
which had been inspected in accordance with the provisions of the law. 
In 1897 the Committee on Agriculture presented to the House of 
Representatives a bill proposing that the Secretary of Agriculture 
should charge for the inspection of meat at specified rates according 
to the species inspected. It was claimed for this proposal that the ex- 
penses of the Bureau of Animal Industry had increased and that the 
beneficiaries of the service should pay at least a portion of this ex- 
pense. It was contended that the packers who had inspection were the 
beneficiaries because they enjoyed market advantages not possessed by 
the owners of meats not so inspected and certified. The bill failed, and 
no further legislation affecting meat inspection, other than the annual 
appropriations, was enacted by Congress until the passage of the Meat 
Inspection Act of June 30, 1906. Meat Inspection Division 
259 
The authority conferred by the laws of 1891 and 1895 was not suffi- 
ciently broad to control sanitation and to provide that inspection and 
supervision of the preparation and labeling of products which is essen- 
tial to a comprehensive or well-rounded system of inspection. Never- 
theless it was ample to establish and maintain an efficient ante-mortem 
and post-mortem inspection on a scale sufficient to cover a very consid- 
erable per cent of the animals slaughtered for domestic consumption, 
and also for maintaining a well-guarded export certification- for meats 
and animals exported. Although Federal inspection was primarily es- 
tablished to meet economic needs, its hygienic benefits were not limited 
to the foreign consumer of our products. In fact, the natural and 
proper development of the service logically made it a national service 
in hygiene, and this has long been its dominant value, while its im- 
portance from the economic viewpoint remains undiminished. 
As showing the growth and magnitude of Federal meat inspection 
and as indicating its value as a national health agency even in its 
earlier years reference is made to the official reports covering the 
animals given inspection under the laws of 1891 and 1895. In the 
fiscal year 1892, the first full year under inspection, 3,809,459 animals 
were inspected, and in the fiscal year 1906, the last full year of opera- 
tion under the above laws, the number of animals given post-mortem 
inspection totaled 42,901,284. In the latter fiscal year alone 194,151 
animals were condemned on account of disease or other condition 
which rendered them unfit for food. These figures suffice to show the 
growth and importance of the service at that time. 
The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 was the culmination of the agita- 
tion created early in that year by a widely read novel entitled "The 
Jungle." The story was laid in Packingtown (the stockyards district 
of Chicago, Ill.) and pictured working abuses and grossly insanitary 
conditions as existing in all the large packing plants. It was apparent 
to all who were acquainted with the facts that the book was extremely 
sensational and misleading as to the essential facts and conditions. 
The book stirred the public and aroused a strong sentiment for legis- 
lation extending Federal supervision of operations and for definitely 
establishing sanitary control. The force which did most to translate 
this sentiment into legislation was the energetic support given it by 
President Theodore Roosevelt. The resulting legislation, at that time 
referred to as the Beveridge Amendment, was passed and approved 
June 30, 1906. That enactment, now officially referred to as the Meat 
Inspection Act, enlarged the authority of the Secretary of Agriculture 260 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
and required that inspection, reinspection and supervision of the 
processing, preparation and labeling of meats and products be pro- 
vided and that rigid sanitary control be exercised. The act made 
mandatory many things not contemplated in the previous enactments. 
The law took effect July 1, 1906, but the provisions relating to the 
transportation of meats did not go into effect until October 1, 1906. 
However, there was no change nor had there been any proposal to 
change the agency through which the new law would be administered. 
The Bureau of Animal Industry was designated by the Secretary of 
Agriculture to take on the enlarged duties and responsibilities. 
In this connection it should be added that the act grants a qualified 
exemption from inspection to retail dealers and butchers supplying 
their customers, and exempts from inspection the meats derived from 
animals slaughtered by a farmer on the farm. Control of the ship- 
ments made under exemption is maintained through requiring such 
dealers to operate under certificates issued by the Department, and by 
requiring that the character of each shipment of meat or product, re- 
gardless of kind or origin, be declared through the use of prescribed 
forms and certificates. 
The service required by the new law called for a very great expan- 
sion in the meat-inspection personnel. The following brief compari- 
sons of the fiscal years 1906 and 1908 (the last full fiscal year under 
the old laws and the first full fiscal year under the new one) indicate 
in some measure this expansion. In 1906 inspection was maintained in 
163 establishments located in 58 cities; in 1908, 787 establishments in 
211 cities. In 1906 the total number of cattle, sheep, calves and swine 
slaughtered under inspection was 42,901,284, and in 1908 this total 
was 53,973,337. The meat-inspection force in the fiscal year 1906 con- 
sisted, approximately, of 760 employees, of whom about 300 were vet- 
erinary inspectors, while in 1908 the total had risen to 2,280 employees, 
of whom 620 were veterinarians. 
The new law, it will be noted, brought within the scope of the in- 
spection a very great number of small slaughtering and processing es- 
tablishments which previously had operated without inspection. The 
largest sum ever expended for meat inspection in any one year before 
the passage of the new law was $800,000. The new law provided for a 
permanent annual appropriation of $3,000,000. This annual appro- 
priation was ample for the regular needs and extension of the service 
for a time, but within a few years the point was reached through 
normal growth of the service, and necessary increases in the salary Meat Inspection Division 
261 
rates for inspectors, where the fixed appropriation was inadequate, 
and from that time to the present writing (1924) additions to the 
standing appropriations of $3,000,000 have been made annually. The 
total appropriation made for meat inspection for the fiscal year 1924 
was $3,866,180. 
Microscopic Examination of Pork for Trichina 
In the fiscal years 1892 to 1906, inclusive, the Bureau maintained a 
microscopic examination for the detection of trichime in pork to be 
exported to countries requiring such inspection.* The amount so in- 
spected annually was determined by the sales of American pork to 
such countries. The smallest amount inspected in any one fiscal year 
was 8,059,758 in 1903, and the largest 120,110,356 in 1898. The 
average for the fifteen years of such inspection was about 38,400,000 
pounds per year. That inspection was discontinued at the termination 
of the fiscal year 1906. 
No evidence has appeared at any time to cast doubt on the wisdom 
of the Bureau's action in discontinuing the microscopic inspection of 
pork. Undoubtedly much good has been accomplished through the 
Bureau's publicity work to educate and warn the public against the 
danger of eating uncooked pork. However, such warnings have not 
reached or have not convinced a certain part of our people that the 
danger is sufficiently real to be feared. Therefore, among such people 
the habit of eating certain kinds of products containing uncooked pork 
has persisted. The seriousness of this fact could not be ignored, and 
affirmative action of some kind regarding it was deemed proper. Ac- 
coringly, the Bureau placed in effect a regulation (regulation 18, sec- 
tion 7, paragraph 4, B.«A. I. Order 211) which provides that no 
product containing the muscle tissue of pork and which is of a kind 
customarily eaten without cooking shall be prepared at an official es- 
tablishment unless such product, or the pork content thereof, has been 
subjected to a temperature sufficient to destroy live trichinae, or unless 
it be subjected to some other treatment sufficient to destroy them.f 
Effective curing and temperature formulas have been developed by the 
Bureau to enable official establishments to conform to this require- 
ment. The regulation has been in effect for about eight years, and so 
far as is known to the Bureau no case of trichinosis has occurred from 
eating pork prepared in accordance with the Bureau's formulas. 
* See "Pathological Division," page 58. 
f See "Zoological Division," page 97. 262 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The Imported Meat Act 
The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 contains no provision which makes 
it applicable to the inspection and control of meats imported from 
foreign countries. This omission is explained by the circumstance 
that when the bill was before Congress, that body also had before it 
the Food and Drugs Bill, which among other things provided for a 
certain measure of control over all food imported, including meats. At 
no time has this omission of such control from the meat-inspection law 
impaired the effectiveness of the latter in the broad field in which it 
governs. Both bills in their final form were approved June 30, 1906. 
At that time the control provided in the Food and Drugs Act in re- 
spect to imported meats appeared adequate; but when a few years 
later it became apparent that large instead of very small importations 
of meats would become common, it also became apparent that the 
changed conditions could best be met by transfer of the imported meat 
inspections to the Bureau of Animal Industry and by making the es- 
tablished meat-inspection regulations instead of the Food and Drug 
regulations directly applicable to imported meats and products. Ac- 
cordingly when the Tariff Acts of October 3, 1913, and September 21, 
1922, provided for the admission duty free of fresh and preserved 
meats, they also provided for inspection of the same under the direc- 
tion of the Secretary of Agriculture and in accordance with the pro- 
visions of the Meat Inspection Act of June 30, 1906. For convenience 
this section of the tariff law is designated 1 ' The Imported Meat Act. ' ' 
Since the enactment of that law inspection and control of imported 
meats have devolved on the meat-inspection service of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry. Under the terms of the law and regulations meats 
and products which have been inspected, passed and granted admis- 
sion are deemed and treated as domestic meats. 
In anticipation of the Imported Meat Act and of the development of 
a large trade in the importation of meats from certain countries in 
South America and from Australia and New Zealand, an investigation 
of the South American meat inspection and meat industry was made 
in person, late in the summer of 1913, by Dr. A. D. Melvin, Chief of 
the Bureau. In his report covering that investigation Dr. Melvin said: 
The investigation was undertaken primarily for the purpose of 
ascertaining at first hand whether the meat inspection was adequate 
and whether the conditions under which food animals were slaugh- 
tered and the meat prepared for export were such as would rea- 
sonably insure that the product was sound and healthful, as is re- 
quired by our laws. Meat Inspection Division 
263 
A similar investigation of the meat-inspection service in Australia 
and New Zealand was made in the latter part of 1913 by Dr. E. C. 
Joss, Bureau inspector then in charge at Portland, Oreg. 
The information collected in the investigations made by Dr. Melvin 
and Dr. Joss placed the Bureau in position to deal more intelligently 
and effectively than it could otherwise have done with the work of es- 
tablishing inspection for imported meats and products. Further, the 
investigations aided in promoting desirable improvements in the in- 
specton services of foreign countries. 
Later Special Enactments 
The Act of July 24, 1919, making appropriations for the Depart- 
ment for the fiscal year 1920, contained two provisions particularly 
affecting meat inspection. One authorized the Secretary to provide 
inspection for horse meat and meat food products thereof, and for the 
animals from which they were derived; the other authorized him, at his 
discretion, to pay employees of the Bureau of Animal Industry em- 
ployed in establishments subject to the provisions of the Meat Inspec- 
tion Act for all overtime work performed at such establishments, at 
such rates as he might determine, and to accept from such establish- 
ments reimbursement for any sums paid out by him for such overtime 
work. 
Horse Meat Inspection 
The arguments which led up to providing inspection for horse meat 
were produced chiefly by w'ar-time conditions. During the war-time 
effort for increased production and conservation of food it was 
strongly urged in some quarters that the many horses running wild in 
the great plains of the West and Southwest ought to be slaughtered 
and the flesh utilized as human food. It was asserted that horses of 
this kind, aggregating many thousands of animals, were consuming 
great areas of valuable pasturage, and that through their elimination 
this pasturage would be made available for the production of beef and 
mutton. It was argued that a profitable trade in supplying horse meat 
to several of the countries of continental Europe could be established, 
also that very probably an important domestic market could be de- 
veloped in those centers of our country having a considerable foreign 
population. The sentiment in favor of governmental action to help 
inaugurate this program did not end with the armistice, but continued 
for some time after with considerable force. 
In response to these appeals and arguments Congress enacted the 264 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
law of July 24, 1919, and pursuant to the authority conferred by that 
law the Bureau prepared and issued, effective August 5, 1919, Amend- 
ment 9 to Order 211, defining the conditions under which the inspec- 
tion and certification were provided for horse meat intended for food 
and for sale or shipment as articles of interstate or foreign commerce. 
Soon a number of persons in different parts of the United States sig- 
nified their intention of entering the business, chiefly for export trade, 
and several made application for inspection. However, time has failed 
to fulfill the predictions of those who urged the legislation upon the 
Department and Congress. Up to this writing inspection has been 
granted to four horse slaughtering plants, of which two operated only 
for a short period. The total number of horses slaughtered by these 
plants in the four fiscal years, 1920 to 1923, inclusive, was but 5,071. 
A part of the product was exported for use as human food, while a 
very considerable part wras disposed of to zoological gardens for feed- 
ing carnivorous animals. 
This was not the first time that the Bureau furnished inspection to 
cover horses and horse meat. The appropriation for meat inspection 
for the fiscal year 1899 carried a provision that live horses and horse 
meats were entitled to the same inspection as the other animals and 
products named in the bill. This provision wras continued in the ap- 
propriations for the succeeding fiscal years up to and including 1903. 
In that period one establishment devoted exclusively to the slaughter 
of horses operated under inspection at Linnton, Oreg. The output of 
the establishment was not prepared for domestic trade but for export. 
That plant operated from 1899 to 1903, and slaughtered 12,776 horses. 
If horse meat is to become, even in a very small measure, a part of 
the Nation's food supply, such meat should of course be inspected for 
the protection of the consumer. Our experiences furnish no ground 
for assuming that horse meat will become an important part of the diet 
of the people of this country. 
The provision relative to overtime pay for inspectors assigned to 
official establishments was made effective in a memorandum, dated 
August 4, 1919, by the Secretary. The memorandum provided for pay 
at the rate of one and one-half the inspector's regular pay for time in 
excess of eight hours on regular work days, and at the rate of double 
such pay for all services rendered on a Sunday or a national holiday. 
At various times it has been urged in one quarter or another that 
Overtime Pay Meat Inspection Division 
265 
the cost of the inspection should be borne, at least in part, by the es- 
tablishments at which inspection is maintained. Such proposals have 
been before Congress, but so far the only proposal along this line ap- 
proved by Congress has been that which imposes upon establishments 
the overtime provision. 
Meat Inspection Laboratories 
A system of meat inspection to be complete should have facilities 
for making various chemical and technical examinations of all kinds 
of meats and animal products and of the numerous materials used in 
the curing and preparation of meats and their products. To provide 
such facilities well-equipped laboratories located at convenient points 
throughout the country were established shortly after the Act of June 
30, 1906, became effective. There are seven of these meat inspection 
laboratories, including a central or chief laboratory in Washington, 
D. C., and six field laboratories located as follows: New York, N. Y.; 
Chicago, Ill.; St. Louis, Mo.; Omaha, Nebr.; Kansas City, Kans., and 
San Francisco, Calif. In the fiscal year 1923 alone these laboratories 
examined a total of more than 64,000 samples of meats, meat products, 
water, and of the numerous materials regularly used in official estab- 
lishments. Research work was conducted in these laboratories in addi- 
tion to their routine duties, the results of which have been of practical 
value to the meat industry. In addition to its own laboratories the 
Meat Inspection Division has available to it, and constantly uses, the 
services and co-operation of the laboratories of the Pathological, 
Zoological and Biochemic Divisions of the Bureau. 
Regulations 
The first meat-inspection regulations, entitled "Regulations for the 
Inspection of Salt Pork and Bacon for Export," were issued by Sec- 
retary J. M. Rusk under date of September 12, 1890. These regula- 
tions were superseded on March 25, 1891, by "Regulations for the 
Inspection of Livestock and Their Products." Supplemental regula- 
tions were issued on September 13, 1893, February 14 and June 19, 
1894, and on December 21, 1894, an order was issued entitled "Modi- 
fication of Regulations Relating to Meat Inspection." A compilation 
of the Bureau's various regulations, including meat-inspection regula- 
tions, dated June 14, 1895, was published in Bulletin No. 9, "Rules 
and Regulations Governing the Operations of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry." Succeeding meat-inspection regulations appeared as 
B. A. I. Order 33, issued March 15, 1899, and B. A. I. Order 125, effec- 
tive June 24, 1904. 266 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The regulations first issued under the authority of the Meat Inspec- 
tion Act of June 30, 1906, were embodied in B. A. I. Order 137, effec- 
tive July 25, 1906. While these were comprehensive and complete for 
their period, the greatly widened scope of the inspection and the great 
expansion of the service soon called for a revision and amplification of 
the regulations in order to establish uniformity in the conduct of the 
work. Accordingly B. A. I. Order 150 was issued, effective April 1, 
1908. These regulations embodied new and important rulings evolved 
from a careful study of questions and conditions growing out of en- 
forcement of the new Meat Inspection Act. 
In this connection it is interesting to note that before B. A. I. Order 
150 was adopted an important step was taken in regard to the regula- 
tions governing the disposal of animals and carcasses affected with 
diseases and abnormal conditions. These were submitted to a commis- 
sion of scientists outside of the Department for their criticism and rec- 
ommendations. That commission was composed of Dr. William H. 
Welch, Chairman, Professor of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University; 
Dr. L. Hektoen, Professor of Pathology, University of Chicago; Dr. 
Joseph Hughes, President of the Chicago Veterinary College; Dr. V. 
A. Moore, Professor of Comparative Pathology, Cornell University; 
Dr. Leonard Pearson, Dean of the Veterinary Department, University 
of Pennsylvania; Dr. M. J. Rosenau, Director of the Hygienic Labora- 
tory, United States Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, and 
Dr. Ch. Wardell Stiles, Secretary, Chief of the Division of Zoology, 
Hygienic Laboratory, United States Public Health and Marine Hos- 
pital Service. The report of the commission was published in the 
Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Bureau (1907). The regulations 
submitted were substantially approved, and as indicating its judgment 
that the regulations afforded the consumer ample protection the com- 
mission added this comment: "Several sections could be made less 
stringent without any danger to the health of the consumer. ' ' 
In 1914 there was issued Bureau of Animal Industry Order 211, 
' ' Regulations Governing the Meat Inspection of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture." That order was made effective November 
1, 1914, excepting Regulation 27 relating to imported meats, which 
became effective January 1, 1915. From time to time amendments to 
the order were issued as changing conditions and the needs of the 
service required. In 1922 the order was revised by certain but not 
numerous changes in the text and by the incorporation of the amend- 
ments in effect. The order was designated B. A. I. Order 211 Meat Inspection Division 
267 
(Revised), effective November 1, 1922. It is believed that in its en- 
tirety B. A. I. Order 211 embodies the most complete and comprehen- 
sive set of meat-inspection regulations ever prepared and published in 
the English language. 
In 1913 the Hon. D. F. Houston, Secretary of Agriculture, re- 
quested the scientists and hygienists named below to observe carefully 
the conduct of Federal meat inspection at a number of designated 
stations and to report to him their findings and recommendations. The 
persons selected were: Veranus A. Moore, M. D., V. M. D., Dean of 
the New York State Veterinary College and Professor of Comparative 
Pathology and Meat Inspection, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; 
Mazyek P. Ravenel, M. D., Professor of Hygiene in the University of 
Wisconsin and Director of the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, 
Madison, Wis.; William T. Sedgwick, Ph. D., Hon. Sc. D., Professor 
of Biology and Public Health and Director of the Sanitary Research 
Laboratory and Sewage Experiment Station of the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology, Boston, Mass., also a member of the Advisory 
Board of the Hygienic Laboratory of the United States Public Health 
Service; and J. W. Connaway, D.V. S., Professor of Veterinary 
Science in the College of Agriculture, University of Missouri, Colum- 
bia, Mo. 
In his letter of appointment for the purpose stated the Secretary 
said : 
With a view to safeguarding public health and maintaining the 
highest degree of efficiency in the meat-inspection service of this De- 
partment, it is my desire that you report directly to me fully and 
frankly the conditions as you find them at the various packing es- 
tablishments, together with such recommendations looking to the im- 
provement of the service as in your judgment may seem best. 
Personal affairs made it impossible for Dr. Connaway to serve, but 
the others named investigated the service, as requested by the Secre- 
tary, and rendered reports, which were published as Circular 58 of 
the Office of the Secretary. The reports show that the observations 
had been carefully made and the findings were favorable to the work 
and in many respects highly commendatory as regards its efficiency 
and reliability. 
Scientists Approve the Service 
Inspections for the Navy 
An expert inspection of the foods, especially of the meats and meat 
food products, purchased by the Navy is of importance. It is essential 
that definite assurance be had that the supplies for a ship at sea shall 268 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
not fail in any respect. Therefore, before deliveries are accepted it is 
necessary to see that foods are sound and wholesome; that they con- 
form to contract specifications as regards kind, weight and quality, 
and that they are packed in substantial containers suitable for ship 
storage. In its endeavor to provide such an inspection the Bureau of 
Supplies and Accounts of the Navy Department requested of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry its co-operation and assistance. The first 
step taken in this direction by the Navy Department was in 1907, 
when request was made that inspection be furnished for meats deliv- 
ered to certain ships and stations. The cooperation begun at that 
time has continued without interruption and has expanded so that all 
the inspection of meats and meat food products for the Navy is per- 
formed by inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry. The w'ork 
of cooperation has included the preparation of numerous standard 
specifications to which meats must conform as regards kind, grade, 
quality and manner of packing and marking. The specifications pro- 
vide in all cases that only meats and products which have been "U. S. 
inspected and passed" and so marked will be accepted. 
At the present time eleven Bureau inspectors are detailed to Navy 
yards and bases and devote their entire time to Navy inspections. In 
addition a part of the time of forty other inspectors is devoted to this 
work. The statistics covering the inspections performed for the Navy 
are published annually in the reports of the Chief of the Bureau. 
Inspections for the Army 
When the United States entered the war against Germany the War 
Department requested the Bureau's cooperation in the inspction of 
meats for the Army. To this request the Bureau gave immediate and 
full response. Sixty-four carefully selected Bureau inspectors were 
detailed to various cantonments, forts, posts, etc., designated by the 
War Department. Through these inspectors and the cooperation of 
inspectors in official establishments, a thorough inspection was estab- 
lished. Meats were examined on arrival at the cantonments, forts, 
posts, etc., to see that they were sound and wholesome and to see that 
they conformed to contract specifications. If held in storage they were 
again examined for soundness and fitness when issued for use. This 
inspection was not only an important sanitary service to the Army, 
but it protected its expenditures through rejection of deliveries of 
meats and products which were found to be below the grade or quality 
named in the purchase specifications. This service was maintained Meat Inspection Division 
269 
until the Veterinary Corps of the Army had been properly organized 
and equipped to take it over. However, at a number of camps, posts, 
etc., the Bureau inspectors were kept on duty until after the armistice. 
The total of meats and meat products inspected for the Army by 
Bureau inspectors during the war was 376,298,310 pounds. Of this 
amount 7,761,633 pounds were rejected, failure to conform to contract 
specifications being the ground on which much the larger part of the 
rejections were based. 
Since August, 1920, the Bureau has been inspecting meats for the 
Marine Corps. 
Early in 1922 there was completed an interchange of correspond- 
ence, initiated by the Department of Agriculture, between the United 
States and British Governments, through which a substantially freer 
and larger access to British markets for American fresh pork was ob- 
tained. The Bureau issued a modified meat-inspection stamp contain- 
ing the special certification required by the British authorities. Prior 
to this arrangement the exports of fresh pork to Great Britain were 
negligible; while, in the first full fiscal year after the agreement had 
become effective, the modified stamps and certificates issued for the ex- 
port of fresh pork to Great Britain showed, in round numbers, 20,000,- 
000 pounds. This is practically the equivalent of 100,000 mature hogs. 
In September, 1923, and in April, 3 924, the Government of the 
Netherlands and France, respectively, agreed to the admission of 
American fresh pork subject to compliance with certain specified re- 
quirements as to refrigeration, and provided that all such shipments 
are accompanied by the prescribed meat-inspection export certificate 
issued by the Department. Sufficient time has not elapsed since the 
agreements became effective to permit of making an estimate as to 
the value of these concessions. However, it is believed that time will 
prove them to be of considerable value to our meat industry. 
Export Markets 
Designations and Number of Employees 
In preparing to establish ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection 
under the Act of March 3, 1891, the Bureau gave full recognition to 
the importance of the personnel basis of such a service. It was clearly 
perceived that establishing and conducting the service efficiently would 
require scientific knowledge, particularly in special and general veter- 
inary pathology; also technical knowledge of a kind which must be ac- 
quired through experience, practice and training. Accordingly, the 270 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
guiding personnel of the service has always consisted of veterinarians. 
Only veterinarians who are graduates of accredited veterinary schools 
and who have passed the U. S. Civil Service examinations for the posi- 
tion of veterinary inspector receive permanent appointment. The per- 
sonnel also includes laboratory inspectors and an architect and expert 
in sanitation. The employees in the nonprofessional branch are desig- 
nated lay inspectors. Although called nonprofessional, the duties of 
practically all these employees require such measure of knowledge and 
skill that "technical" is a more accurate classification for them. 
From time to time appropriate changes have been made in the titles 
by which the different groups of employees were designated, more par- 
ticularly as regards the nonprofessional. Early in the service it was 
aimed to make the title of a group indicate quite specifically the nature 
of its duty or work. For instance, the chief duty of the employee 
called "stock examiner" was to perform or to assist in performing the 
ante-mortem inspections; the ' ' tagger ' ' was one whose chief work was 
to mark or to supervise the marking or tagging of animals and car- 
casses. Since that time the service has become too complex to admit of 
such distinctions. Therefore, aside from certain necessary exceptions, 
the designations "veterinary inspector" and "lay inspector" are the 
only titles used. The exceptions refer to such designations as "in- 
spector in charge," "traveling veterinary inspector," "supervising 
veterinary inspector" and "supervising lay inspector." During the 
war the depletion of the forces made necessary, for a temporary 
period, the employment of women to perform certain lay-inspector 
duties. These women employees are designated "assistants in meat 
inspection. ' ' 
The number of employees regularly assigned to meat inspection nec- 
essarily is subject to some fluctuation, chiefly on account of the sea- 
sonal variations incident to the packing business. However, the num- 
ber on the rolls June 30, 1923, may be regarded as the minimum for 
several years prior to that date. On that date the total was 2,430, 
divided as follows: Veterinary inspectors, 680; chemists and labora- 
tory inspectors, 26; lay inspectors, 1,600; various, 124. 
The names of the chiefs of the Inspection Division who by virtue of 
that position administered the meat-inspection service are as follows: 
Mr. Robert S. Forbes, April 1, 1891, to November 30, 1893; Mr. D. G. 
Hatch, May 1, 1894, to July 31, 1895; Dr. A. D. Melvin, August 1, 
1895, to December 31, 1898; Dr. A. M. Farrington, January 1, 1899, 
to December 31, 1905; Dr. Rice P. Steddom, January 1, 1906, to June Meat Inspection Division 
271 
30, 1912; Dr. U. G. Houck, from July 1, 1906, to April 15, 1907, as 
Associate Chief of the Inspection Division to assist in establishing the 
greatly enlarged meat-inspection service in accordance with the Meat 
Inspection Act of June 30, 1906. 
Effective July 1, 1912, the Inspection Division of the Bureau was 
reorganized as two divisions, one of which was named the Meat Inspec- 
tion Division, which, as the name indicates, is devoted to the adminis- 
tration of the meat-inspection service. Dr. Rice P. Steddom was ap- 
pointed Chief of this Division. 
Scope of the Service 
The Federal meat-inspection service of the United States is the 
largest and most comprehensive meat-inspection service in the world. 
In addition to being a National service in hygiene and sanitation it is 
the medium through which a very important part of our export trade 
has been secured and preserved. As an indication of its magnitude the 
figures covering its principal operations for the fiscal year 1923 are 
cited. In that year inspection was conducted at 867 establishments in 
261 cities and towns. The animals inspected were, in round numbers, 
cattle, 9,029,000; calves, 4,337,000; sheep, 11,400,000; goats, 25,000; 
swine, 48,600,000, a total of more than 73,400,000 animals. The total 
condemnations on the post-mortem inspection on account of disease or 
other condition which rendered the meat unsafe or otherwise unfit for 
food were 294,851 whole carcasses, and in addition there were con- 
demned many hundred thousand organs or parts of carcasses affected 
with some disease or condition that made the part or organ unfit for 
food but without injury to the meat of the carcass. More than forty 
diseases or conditions are recorded as causes for condemnation. The 
number of inspections and reinspections of meats and products when 
measured by pounds reached the aggregate of more than 8,888,000,000. 
The condemnations made necessaray on account of sourness, taint, un- 
cleanness, rancidity or other unwholesome conditions total more than 
14,000,000 pounds. 
The following tables give statistics of the Federal meat inspection 
over a period of years: 272 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Fiscal 
Year. 
Cattle. 
Calves. 
Sheep. 
Goats. 
Swine. 
Horses. 
1 
Total. 
Microscopic Examination 
of Swine. 
Carcasses. 
Pieces. 
1891...... . 
83,891 
3,167,009 
83,891 
3,809,459 
2,216 
1,267,329 
1892 
59,089 
583,361 
1893 
3,922,174 
3,861,594 
3,722,042 
92,947 
96,331 
116,093 
870,512 
1,020,764 
1,428,601 
4,885,633 
12,626,835 
18,883,275 
1,960,069 
1,372,410 
905,050 
1894 
7,648,146 
13,616,539 
1895 
1896 
1,005,365 
510,355 
1,331,018 
875,008 
3,995,461 
4,253,850 
4,433,181 
257,836 
273,911 
245,155 
4,633,342 
5,213,894 
5,501,657 
14,278,219 
16,839,034 
20,936,840 
23,164,858 
26,580,689 
31,116,833 
469,025 
550,291 
1,927,838 
1897 
1898 
1899...... 
4,398,746 
4,861,994 
5,244,154 
5,589,691 
247,119 
315,969 
414,580 
556,551 
5,609,119 
6,125,095 
6,646,561 
7,443,953 
23,904,939 
23,428,996 
24,720,482 
25,311,781 
3,232 
5,559 
1,992 
1,649 
34,163,155 
34,737,613 
37,027,769 
38,903,625 
2,227,740 
999,554 
733,196 
681,865 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
6,165,890 
6,383,080 
670,173 
767,927 
8,598,175 
8,269,133 
21,827,047 
24,170,230 
344 
37,261,629 
39,590,370 
489,667 
315,045 
1904 
1905 
6,134,388 
6,925,526 
850,227 
1,102,775 
7,878,973 
8,223,630 
25,357,425 
26,649,353 
40,221,013 
42,901,284 
346,026 
536,997 
1906 
1907 
1908 
52,149 
45,953 
69,193 
115,811 
54,145 
63,983 
7,621,717 
7,116,275 
7,325,337 
7,962,189 
7,781,030 
7,532,005 
1,763,574 
1,995,487 
2,046,711 
2,295,099 
2,219,908 
2,242,929 
9,681,876 
9,702,545 
10,802,903 
11,149,937 
13,005,502 
14,208,724 
31,815,900 
35,113,077 
35,427,931 
27,656,021 
29,916,363 
34,966,378 
50,935,216 
53,973,337 
55,672,075 
49,179,057 
52,976,948 
59,014,019 
1909 • 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 
7,155,839 
6,724,117 
6,964,502 
7,404,288 
9,299,489 
10,938,287 
2,098,484 
1,814,904 
1,735,902 
2,048,022 
2,679,745 
3,323,077 
14,724,465 
14,958,834 
12,909,089 
11,985,926 
11,343,418 
8,769,498 
56,556 
121,827 
165,533 
180,356 
174,649 
149,503 
32,287,538 
33,289,705 
36,247,858 
40,482,799 
40,210,847 
35,449,247 
56,322,882 
56,909,387 
58,022,884 
62,101,391 
63,708,148 
58,629,612 
1916 
1917 . 
1918 
1919 
11,241,991 
9,709,819 
3,674,227 
4,227,558 
11,268,370 
12,334,827 
125,660 
77,270 
44,398,389 
38,981,914 
70,708,637 
65,332,477 
1920 
1921 .. 
1,089 
1,335 
1,898 
1,459 
8,179,572 
7,871,457 
9,029,536 
3,896,207 
3,924,255 
4,337,780 
12,452,435 
11,968,434 
11,403,703 
20,027 
13,758 
25,129 
37,702,866 
39,416,439 
48,600,069 
62,252,442 
63,196,241 
73,397,676 
1922 
1923 
Totals..... 
213,000,121 
52,390,552 
280,717,256 
1,511,502 
890,652,372 
18,557 
1,438,290,360 
14,784,318 
2,721,746 
ANIMALS SLAUGHTERED UNDER FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. Meat Inspection Division 
273 
NUMBER OF EXPORT CERTIFICATES ISSUED AND WEIGHT OF 
PRODUCTS CERTIFIED FOR EXPORT. 
Horse Meat Products 
Inedible Products. 
Fiscal 
Certificates 
Weight of Products 
Weight 
Weight 
Year 
Issued 
Pounds Certificates 
Pounds Certificates 
Pounds 
1899...,. 
64,945 
748,994,191 
14 
347,048 
1900 
55,738 
766,679,419 
8 
188,800 
1901 
43,186 
720,812,363 
9 
249,900 
1902.... 
38,357 
640,177,250 
11 
170,968 
1903 
33,284 
526,880,701 
1 
28,000 
1904....... 
38,727 
583,233,831 
1905 
38,057 
531,454,343 
1906 
45,888 
618,920,486 
1907.... 
105,101 
1,358,492,781 
1,661 
16,347,957 
1908 _ 
122,295 
1,545,761,808 
2,626 
26,007,484 
19O9.._ 
104,232 
1,181,809,650 
2,066 
19,307,140 
1910...... 
72,032 
815,362,150 
2,174 
17,676,942 
1911..., 
90,424 
975,066,006 
2,836 
25,553,053 
1912.... 
103,529 
1,114,279,558 
2,599 
23,058,627 
1913...... 
90,653 
977,182,936 
2,049 
17,412,924 
1914..... 
90,197 
904,256,881 
2,259 
18,432,526 
1915.... 
87,998 
1,391,180,516 
1,362 
18,087,495 
1916 
124,694 
1,895,863,936 
752 
10,335,646 
1917...... 
114,584 
1,953,093,309 
430 
6,370,434 
1918 
87,218 
2,510,446,802 
214 
3,639,895 
1919...... 
93,555 
3,492,070,795 
536 
15,071,507 
1920...., 
97,652 
2,086,980,265 
21 
153,762 
996 
19,513,950 
1921 
81,440 
1,699,721,167 
19 
263,287 
1,359 
20,465,386 
1922 
102,160 
1,718,083,728 
14 
335,781 
2,487 
40,339,757 
1923 
123,863 
2,041,103,337 
10 
183,484 
2,672 
51,467,350 
Total.- 
2,049,809 
32,797,908,209 
107 
1,921,030 
29,078 
349,088,073 
INSPECTION OF IMPORTED MEAT AND MEAT FOOD PRODUCTS. 
Inspected and 
admitted, 
Condemned and 
refused entry, 
Total 
inspections, 
Fiscal year 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
1914 (9 months) , 
197,389,348 
551,859 
197,941,207 
1915....' ' , 
245,023,437 
2,090,745 
247,114,182 
1916 , 
110,514,476 
412,183 
110,926,659 
1917 
29^138'996 
396^771 
29,535,767 
1918 
59'025'484 
1,404,368 
60,429,852 
1919 
179,911'142 
842,160 
180,753,302 
1920 
77'781'329 
521'504 
78,302,833 
1921 
162'042'627 
522,712 
162,565,339 
1922 . 
41,913,496 
12'411 
41'925,907 
1923 
49^847'714 
41'202 
49,888,916 
Total 
1,152,588,049 
6,795,915 
1,159,383,964 
Sanitation. 
Sanitation is one of the essential and basic features of the Federal 
system of inspection. The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 authorizes the 
Secretary of Agriculture to define the sanitary requirements and to 
see to their enforcement at the establishments granted inspection. 274 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
When the law became effective a survey of the establishments to which 
it applied showed many plant buildings which were susceptible of 
being readily maintained in a satisfactory sanitary condition, but it 
also brought to light some in which it would not be possible to maintain 
the sanitary standards which must ultimately prevail. In applying 
the law it was necessary to decide whether inspection should be with- 
held from all establishments of the latter type, or be granted condi- 
tionally and then the attainment of fully satisfactory sanitary condi- 
tions sought by a continuous upbuilding or evolutionary process. The 
latter course was adopted, and although the rate of progress often ap- 
peared to be somewhat slow, its movement was on substantial grouml 
and in the right direction. The majority of the packers were in 
sympathy with the extended inspection under the new law and will- 
ingly cooperated with the officials of the Bureau from the beginning in 
meeting the requirements of the regulations. 
Several stages have marked the development of the sanitary 
standards which now obtain in official establishments. First, from the 
structural standpoint, was the installing of modern toilet, lavatory and 
other sanitary facilities and the providing of increased and improved 
dressing-room accommodations. Following this was the order requir- 
ing that the rooms and departments in which edible products are pre- 
pared or stored shall be separate from those in which inedible products 
are stored or handled. In many instances full compliance with the 
order required extensive structural changes, but at no time was the 
wisdom of that order successfully questioned, and the sanitary im- 
provement resulting from its adoption has been almost immeasurable. 
From the first the requirement upon which special emphasis was 
placed was for cleanliness in rooms and equipment and cleanliness in 
the conduct of operations and in the handling of meats and products; 
in short, cleanliness throughout the establishment. The progress made 
in the attainment of this part of the program as regards rooms and 
departments was excellent in those plants of modern and sanitary con- 
struction, and as good as could be expected in those which did not 
possess the advantages of that type of construction. 
From the beginning it was apparent that the maintenance of proper 
sanitary standards was so closely related to good structure as to make 
the terms practically synonymous. This was true not only in regard 
to buildings, but of equipment as well; for in comparatively few es- 
tablishments was the meat-handling equipment of a type and quality 
that would now be acceptable. It was repeatedly demonstrated Meat Inspection Division 
275 
through experience that cleanliness in operation and the handling of 
products was very largely dependent on the use of equipment which 
made compliance with the requirements easy and partly or wholly 
automatic. To design and install such equipment was a slow, experi- 
mental and laborious process and was largely accomplished through 
the example of a number of companies actuated by progressive ideas 
and through cooperation with those inspectors whose ability and judg- 
ment in mechanics proved to be of valuable assistance. That period 
was marked by some complaints against too frequent requests for 
changes and improvement in equipment. Nevertheless the progressive 
establishments and the Bureau had the right goal in view, and the 
way was opened for others to follow and share in the benefits. The 
comment that progress was slow and laborious is not to be regarded as 
a complaint against any official establishment, but is simply to be read 
as history, and as leading to the declaration that we believe the 
standard as to cleanliness in the conduct of operations and in the 
handling of product now obtaining in official establishments generally 
is not surpassed in the world, and further to express the belief that 
official establishments generally view their achievement with satisfac- 
tion and pride. 
Calendar 
Y ears. 
1879. Great Britain put into effect a restriction that American cattle be 
slaughtered within 10 days upon the docks where they were landed. 
Italy and Austria-Hungary prohibited the importation of Ameri- 
can pork, alleging the presence of trichinae. 
1880. Spain and Germany prohibited the importation of American pork. 
1881. France, Turkey and Rumania prohibited the importation of American 
pork. 
1883. Greece prohibited the importation of American pork. 
1888. Denmark prohibited the importation of American pork. 
1890. Congress enacted the first meat-inspection legislation (approved 
August 30) providing for the inspection of salted pork and bacon 
intended for export and the inspection of export cattle, sheep, 
swine and other ruminants. 
First meat-inspection regulations issued, entitled "Regulations for 
the Inspection of Salt Pork and Bacon for Export" (Sept. 12). 
1891. Congress enacted legislation (approved March 3) providing for the 
inspection of live cattle, sheep and swine, also inspection of same 
at time of slaughter. Terms of the law applicable to animals and 
carcasses intended for interstate or export commerce. Meat in- 
spection established by the Bureau under the above law. 
"Regulations for the Inspection of Livestock and Their Products" 
issued March 25. 
Bureau of Animal Industry reorganized by order of Secretary of 
Agriculture into four divisions, namely, (1) Inspection Division; 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 276 
Bureau of Animal Industry ' 
(2) Division of Animal Pathology; (3) Division of Field Investi- 
gations and Miscellaneous Work, and (4) Division of Quarantine. 
Inspection Division established April 1. 
Microscopic inspection and certification of pork established. 
The following European countries modified regulations against Amer- 
ican pork so as to admit pork certified by the U. S. Government as 
microscopically inspected: Germany, Denmark, Italy, France, 
Austria-Hungary and Spain. 
1893. "Supplementary Regulations for the Inspection of Livestock and 
Their Products," issued September 13. 
1894. Denmark, Belgium, France and various States of Germany prohibited 
importation of cattle from United States, alleging prevalence of 
Texas fever, pleuropneumonia, etc. 
Amendment to the meat-inspection regulations February 14. 
Additional meat-inspection regulations, "Condemned Carcasses in 
Cooling Room with Edible Meats," issued June 19. 
"Modification of Regulations Relating to Meat Inspection Service" 
issued December 21. 
1895. Legislation enacted by Congress (approved March 2) strengthening 
the meat-inspection law of March 3, 1891. 
Meat-inspection regulations issued June 14 and published in Bulletin 
9, "Rules and Regulations Governing the Operations of the Bureau 
of Animal Industry." 
1899. Meat-inspection regulations published as B, A. I. Order 33, March 15. 
1904. Meat-inspection regulations published as B. A. I. Order 125, June 24. 
1906. All previous Federal meat-inspection regulations superseded by the 
Meat Inspection Act (approved June 30). 
Microscopic inspection of pork discontinued (effective June 30). 
Meat-inspection regulations published as B. A. I. Order 137, June 30. 
1908. Meat-inspection regulations published as B. A. I. Order 150, April 1. 
1912. Inspection Division reorganized and a new division, the Meat Inspec- 
tion Division, established (effective July 1, 1912). 
1913. By the acts approved October 3, 1913, and September 21, 1922, the 
provisions of the Meat Inspection Act of June 30, 1906, made ap- 
plicable to imported meats and meat food products. 
1914. B. A. I. Order 211, "Regulations Governing the Meat Inspection of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture," issued November 1. 
1915. Regulation No. 27, B. A. I. Order 211, relating to imported meats, 
effective January 1. 
1919. Congress enacted legislation (approved July 24) providing inspection 
for horses and horse meats and products. 
Legislation enacted by Congress (approved July 24) providing for 
payment by official establishments for overtime inspection service. 
1922. B. A. I. Order 211 (Revised) issued November 1. 
PERSONNEL OF THE MEAT INSPECTION DIVISION 
Division Chiefs: 
Mr. Robert S. Forbes appointed the first Chief of the Inspection Di- 
vision,, April 1, 1891; served in that capacity to November 30, 1893. 
Mr. D. C. Hatch appointed Chief of the Inspection Division, May 1, 
1894; served to July 31, 1895. 
Dr. A. D. Melvin appointed Chief of the Inspection Division, August 1, 
1895; served to December 31, 1898. Meat Inspection Division 
277 
Dr. A. M. Farrington appointed Chief of the Inspection Division, Jan- 
uary 1, 1899; served to December 31, 1905. 
Dr. Rice P. Steddom appointed Chief of the Inspection Division, Jan- 
uary 1, 1906. Had served as Assistant Chief of the Division since 
August 28, 1905. 
Dr. U. G. Houck appointed Associate Chief of the Inspection Division, 
July 1, 1906, with special consideration to meat-inspection organiza- 
tion; served to April 15, 1907. 
Dr. Rice P. Steddom appointed Chief of the Meat Inspection Division, 
which was established as a result of the reorganization of the Inspec- 
tion Division, effective July 1, 1912. Dr. Steddom is the present Chief 
of the Division. Field Inspection Division 
Although the efforts of the Bureau of Animal Industry were devoted 
largely to the eradication of contagious pleuropneumonia and the 
study of Texas fever and hog cholera for several years after its estab- 
lishment on May 29, 1884, it did give attention also to the study of 
such diseases as sheep scab, dourine, anthrax, glanders and other dis- 
eases, but it did not take up regulatory activities in connection with 
these diseases until later. 
Dr. D. E. Salmon, who was Chief of the Bureau from its beginning 
until November 1, 1905, personally supervised and directed all of the 
animal disease work of the Bureau until 1891. On April 1, 1891, 
the Bureau was organized into four divisions, one of which was the 
Inspection Division.* To this Division was assigned all field work of 
an executive nature, including the field investigation of contagious 
diseases and the regulation of the movement of southern cattle. On 
September 1, 1912, the Inspection Division was divided into the Meat 
Inspection Division and the Field Inspection Division. All of the 
work that the Inspection Division had been carrying on, other than 
meat inspection, was placed in charge of the Field Inspection Divi- 
sion. 
During its existence as such, the Inspection Division was headed as 
follows: 
Mr. Robert S. Forbes, from April 1, 1891, to December 30, 1893. 
Vacant, from December 31, 1893, to April 30, 1894. 
Mr. Daniel G. Hatch, from May 1, 1894, to July 31, 1895. 
Dr. A. D. Melvin, from August 1, 1895, to December 31, 1898. 
Dr. A. M. Farrington, from January 1, 1899, to December 31, 1905. 
Dr. R. P. Steddom, from January 1, 1906, to August 31, 1912. 
Dr. R. A. Ramsay was the first Chief of the present Field Inspec- 
tion Division. He held that position from September 1, 1912, to 
April 30, 1917, when he was placed in charge of the Tick Eradication 
Division. Dr. A. W. Miller, the present Chief of the Field Inspection 
Division, succeeded Dr. Ramsay on May 1, 1917. 
Following the retirement on March 31, 1922, of Dr. R. W. Hick- 
man, Chief of the Quarantine Division, after thirty-four years of 
service, all the activities of that Division were taken over on May 1, 
1922, by the Field Inspection Division. 
At the present time the personnel of the Field Inspection Division 
comprises 305 employees, including 149 veterinary inspectors, 103 lay 
inspectors, 22 clerks, and 53 otherwise designated. The present scope 
* See "Organization of the Bureau of Animal Industry," page XI. 
278 Field Inspection Division 
279 
of the field activities of this Division includes the administration of 
the regulations governing the importation and exportation of live- 
stock, the joint regulations of the Treasury Department and the De- 
partment of Agriculture for the sanitary handling and control of 
hides, skins, wool, other animal by-products, hay, straw, etc., offered 
for entry into the United States, the eradication of outbreaks of foot- 
and-mouth disease when they occur, and the control or eradication, 
in co-operation with the States, of such diseases as dourine, sheep and 
cattle scabies, glanders and anthrax, also conducting inspection at 
public stockyards for contagious diseases and the enforcement of the 
twenty-eight-hour law and quarantine regulations. 
Dourine 
Dourine, also known as maladie du coit, was introduced into this 
country in horses imported from France in 1884. The disease was 
first discovered in the vicinity of Bloomington, Ill., in 1885, by Dr. W. 
L. Williams, who was then a veterinary practitioner in Illinois. Later 
it was found to have spread through the shipment of a diseased stal- 
lion to northwestern Nebraska. The first official report of its exist- 
ence in the latter vicinity is found in a communication to the Bureau 
dated June 10, 1892, from Dr. George C. Faville, one of its veterinary 
inspectors. The infection was confined principally to range horses, 
and as the complement-fixation test was then unknown, the eradication 
work for a number of years did not give the results hoped for. All 
animals in localities in which the disease was known to exist were in- 
spected and those found affected were purchased and slaughtered. 
From 1892 until 1902 the disease continued to reappear in north- 
western Nebraska and South Dakota after it had apparently been 
stamped out on several different occasions by inspectors of the Bureau. 
In 1902 a more vigorous and systematic campaign was inaugurated 
for the suppression of the disease. On January 20, 1903, the Depart- 
ment issued regulations governing the transportation of horses af- 
fected with maladie du coit. This order placed under quarantine the 
counties of Dawes, Box Butte, Sheridan and Cherry in the State of 
Nebraska, and the counties of Custer and Fall River and the Pine 
Ridge and Rosebud Indian Reservations in the State of South Da- 
kota. It prohibited the movement of animals from the sections de- 
fined until they had been inspected and certified for shipment by an 
inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry. A small outbreak of 
dourine occurred in Iowa in 1904. Gratifying progress was made in 
stamping out the disease and by 1905 it was practically eradicated 
from the areas in which the work was being carried on. 280 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Originally the field work for the control and eradication of dourine 
was handled by the Division of Field Investigation and Miscellaneous 
Work, and later and until May 1, 1917, by the Quarantine Division, 
of which Dr. R. W. Hickman was Chief. The work accomplished in 
combating this disease from June 1, 1911, to April 30, 1917, is out- 
lined in that part of this review which deals with the activities of the 
Quarantine Division.* On May 1 ,1917, dourine eradication work was 
transferred to the Field Inspection Division. 
The progress made in the control and eradication of the 1912 out- 
break, the most extensive this country has ever experienced, is indi- 
cated in the following table: 
1913 
No. of Laboratory 
Tests 
4,970 
No. of Reactions 
634 
1914 
51,293 
2,550 
1915 : 
52,896 
1,515 
1916 
45,100 
1,400 
1917 
49,585 
1,225 
1918 
45,651 
1,018 
1919 
46,819 
1,143 
1920 
18,468 
257 
1921 
22,855 
515 
1922 
14,549 
243 
1923 
11,530 
364 
Foot-and-Mouth Disease! 
Europe has never been entirely free from foot-and-mouth disease 
since it made its appearance there. In 1886 it became much more 
widely disseminated in European countries than usual. Although 
the United States was in great danger from this source, it escaped 
any serious outbreaks up to 1902. In 1870 the contagion was intro- 
duced by way of Canada into the State of New York and spread 
to New England. The type of the disease at that time appears to 
have been mild and the conditions were not favorable for the 
spread of the malady. In 1880 and 1881 two or three lots of affected 
cattle were brought to the United States, but they were discovered 
in time to prevent any spread of the contagion.! In 1884 there was 
a small outbreak in the vicinity of the quarantine station at Port- 
land, Maine. Owing to the sparse animal population of the invaded 
area and the favorable weather conditions during that cold winter, 
this outbreak was easily suppressed by the ordinary measures of 
quarantine and disinfection. 
* See "Quarantine Division," page 151, and "Pathological Division," page 66. 
t See "Export Trade in Cattle and Meats," page 8, and "Pathological Division," page 71. 
$ See "Quarantine Against Foreign Importations of Livestock," page 29. Field Inspection Division 
281 
Early in the spring of 1884 the country was startled by a report 
of the appearance of a virulent outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease 
in the West. On March 3, Dr. Wilhite, a local practitioner, visited 
the farm of Daniel Kieth, Coffey County, Kansas, near Neosho Falls, 
and diagnosed foot-and-mouth disease among Mr. Keith's cattle. The 
same day G. W. Glick, Governor of Kansas, telegraphed Hon. George 
B. Loring, Commissioner of Agriculture, informing him of the out- 
break and requesting assistance. Dr. M. R. Trumbower was directed 
to proceed to Kansas and reached there March 9. In the meantime 
Dr. A. A. Holcombe, of the Army veterinary service, had been 
detailed at the request of the Governor of Kansas to make an 
investigation. Dr. Holcombe arrived at Neosho Falls March 6, and 
after a hurried examination of the affected herds in that locality 
confirmed the diagnosis of Dr. Wilhite. When Dr. Trumbower 
arrived he found the people much excited. Relying rather on the 
representations of others than on what he was actually able to see, 
he was led to concur in the opinion of the veterinarians who had 
been upon the ground for the preceding three or four days. On 
March 10 Dr. Holcombe made his formal report to the Governor. 
The excitement became great and such exaggerated accounts were 
circulated that a feeling of alarm and insecurity spread rapidly 
among all engaged in the livestock industry of the West. On March 
19, Dr. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau, visited Neosha Falls and after 
a careful examination telegraphed the Commissioner of Agriculture 
that the affection was not foot-and-mouth disease but ergotism. 
While in the West Dr. Salmon visited affected herds in other places 
and found them to be suffering with the same condition but found 
no foot-and-mouth disease. 
On April 9 information was received that Dr. Duncan McEachran, 
Principal of the Montreal Veterinary School and livestock inspector 
for Canada, had visited Neosho Falls and other places and positively 
asserted that the malady was the real foot-and-mouth disease of 
Europe. On April 10 the State Agent of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for Kansas wired that the State Veterinarian 
reported to the Governor that six healthy animals had contracted 
the disease from contact with sick animals. A few days later an 
item appeared in the press, stating that cases of sickness among 
cattle which had been most carefully examined had turned out to 
be true foot-and-mouth disease. 
It seemed that a repetition of the former excitement and panic 282 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
was about to occur, and Dr. Salmon again visited Kansas, reaching 
Emporia April 20, where he was met by the State Veterinarian and 
Professor James Law on the morning of April 21. At this con- 
ference the State Veterinarian announced that all attempts to convey 
the disease by inoculation had failed as well as the second attempt 
to convey the disease by contact, and he was satisfied that the disease 
was not foot-and-mouth disease. The trouble among the cattle in 
question was proved to be ergotism. 
The Outbreak in 1902 
An unexpected outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease was discovered 
in New England in November, 1902, which was the most extensive 
that had appeared in the United States up to that time. 
The Department of Agriculture first received an intimation of the 
existence of the disease on November 14, 1902, when a letter was 
received from Dr. Austin Peters, Chief of the Cattle Bureau of 
Massachusetts, stating that a disease had been discovered in Rhode 
Island which resembled foot-and-mouth disease. On November 17 
Dr. Peters telegraphed that he believed the malady to be foot-and- 
mouth disease. Dr. J. R. Mohler, Chief of the Pathological Division 
of the Bureau, was sent to investigate the nature of the disease. On 
November 24 he reported that a calf and two sheep which he inocu- 
lated contracted the disease within two, four and five days, respec- 
tively, confirming the opinion of the State authorities. This opinion 
was further confirmed in a joint report, November 27, from Dr. 
Mohler, Dr. Leonard Pearson, Dean of the Veterinary Department of 
the University of Pennsylvania, and Dr. James Law, Dean of the New 
York State Veterinary College, who had been sent to New England 
to confer with Dr. Mohler. Orders were issued by Hon. James 
Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, the same day, quarantining the 
States of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Vermont and 
prohibiting the exportation of animals from the port of Boston, Mass. 
New Hampshire was not placed under quarantine until March 7, 1903. 
Headquarters was established at Boston and a number of Bureau vet- 
erinarians and lay inspectors from various parts of the country were 
hastily summoned there to assist Dr. S. E. Bennett, who was placed 
in immediate charge of the forces in Connecticut, Rhode Island and 
Massachusetts. Dr. F. A. Rich of Burlington, Vt., was especially en- 
gaged and put in charge of the work in Vermont. On December 1 
Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau, arrived at Boston personally 
to supervise and direct the Federal work of eradicating the outbreak. Field Inspection Division 
283 
Investigation revealed that the infection had existed in Massachu- 
setts since some time in August, 1902. By the time the Federal quar- 
antine was established the disease was spreading rapidly. After 
carefully considering the conditions and the great danger that 
menaced the livestock industry of the country, and after conference 
with Dr. Pearson, Dr. Law and other interested authorities, it was 
decided to resort to the drastic measures of quarantine, slaughter and 
disinfection which had proved so successful in the United States in 
eradicating contagious pleuropneumonia. It was agreed that the 
National Government would pay 70 per cent of the expense of eradi- 
cation in each infected State, including the appraised value of 
animals slaughtered, and the State would pay the remaining 30 per 
cent. 
On February 2, 1903, the Act of Congress was approved giving the 
Secretary of Agriculture greater powers in dealing with contagious 
diseases of animals, and various orders and regulations were issued 
from time to time to meet the developments of the situation. Al- 
though there was considerable opposition to the heroic measures em- 
ployed, the work of eradication progressed rapidly and inside of 60 
days from the beginning the country was practically free of the 
plague. Connecticut was released from quarantine December 22, 
1902; Rhode Island, May 9,1903; Vermont, September 11; Massachu- 
setts and New Hampshire, October 14. The outbreak extended to 
twelve counties in the four last-mentioned States, as follows: Provi- 
dence County, Rhode Island; Windsor and Windham Counties, Ver- 
mont; Middlesex, Worcester, Essex, Norfolk, Plymouth and Bristol 
Counties, Massachusetts, and Hillsboro, Rockingham and Merrimac 
Counties, New Hampshire. During the outbreak, 3,637 cattle were 
destroyed at an average cost of $34.03 per head, 235 calves at $7.17 
per head, 360 hogs at $6.85 per head, and 229 sheep and goats at 
$4.30 per head, making a total of 4,461 animals slaughtered. 
In the beginning this outbreak appeared in a very mild form and 
was not recognized by the inexperienced cattle owners and veter- 
inary practitioners of Massachusetts for more than four months. It 
gradually became more virulent, and by the time the disease was 
diagnosed 39 herds, comprising 940 animals, had apparently recov- 
ered. It was decided not to slaughter them, but the premises were 
cleaned and disinfected to destroy any infection that might remain. 
Later the owners of a number of the spared herds reported that a 
large proportion of their cows had failed to return to their normal 284 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
milk yield, many had contracted garget or chronic lameness, and 
some had aborted; generally, the animals were no longer profitable 
and the owners requested that the entire herds be condemned and 
slaughtered. At first their request was refused, but on reconsidera- 
tion all of the cows showing garget or deformed feet were purchased 
and destroyed for fear these chronic lesions might have retained 
some of the virus which would cause a recurrence of the disease in 
these herds or new outbreaks in other localities to which some of the 
cattle might be removed. 
The total cost to the National Government of eradicating this out- 
break was about $300,000. The source of the infection remained a 
mystery, but information obtained in connection with the source of 
the next outbreak seemed to indicate that contaminated smallpox 
virus imported into this country was the source of the 1902 outbreak. 
The Outbreak in 1908 
The outbreak in 1908 came as unexpectedly as did the preceding 
one. There was no history of infected animals having arrived at the 
quarantine stations. The disease was first observed early in Novem- 
ber on the farm of Jacob M. Shultz, near Danville, Pa. Both the 
owner of the cattle and Dr. J. 0. Reed, a local practitioner, regarded 
the affection as suspicious and reported the cases to Dr. Leonard 
Pearson, State Veterinarian of Pennsylvania, on November 7, who 
after a personal investigation notified Dr. A. D. Melvin, Chief of the 
Bureau, on November 10, of the existence of foot-and-mouth disease 
in this country. Dr. Melvin, Dr. J. R. Mohler, Chief of the Patho- 
logical Division, and Dr. R. P. Stcddom, Chief of the Inspection 
Division of the Bureau, proceeded immediately to the infected herds, 
and after a careful examination they concurred in the diagnosis. 
Columbia, Montour and Northumberland Counties, Pennsylvania, 
were quarantined on November 13, 1908. A few days later some 
cases were found in the vicinity of Akron, N. Y., and on November 
19 the quarantine was extended to include the entire territory of 
Pennsylvania and New York. 
In tracing the origin of the disease it was found that it was 
carried into Pennsylvania by two lots of cattle which came through 
the public stockyards at Buffalo, N. Y. About the same time word 
was received that the disease had been found in several herds near 
Detroit, Mich. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, and 
Dr. Melvin proceeded immediately to Buffalo and Detroit to give Field Inspection Division 
285 
personal attention to organizing the eradication work and making 
arrangements with the State authorities in regard to sharing the ex- 
penses and cooperating in other ways. On November 25 the State of 
Michigan was quarantined. At about the same time infection was 
found in Maryland and that State was quarantined on November 27. 
The plan adopted for eradicating the disease was practically the 
same as that which had proved so successful in combating the out- 
break of 1902, except that it was agreed that the National Govern- 
ment would pay two-thirds of the expense of eradication and the 
States would pay one-third. Dr. S.*E. Bennett was placed in charge 
of the Bureau forces in Pennsylvania and Maryland, Dr. U. G. 
Houck was put in charge in New York, and Dr. P. H. Mullowney in 
Michigan. The State cooperation in Pennsylvania was carried on 
under the direction of Dr. Leonard Pearson, State Veterinarian; in 
New York under the direction of Commissioner of Agriculture R. A. 
Pearson, brother of Dr. Leonard Pearson; in Michigan under the 
direction of Mr. H. H. Hinds, Chairman of the State Live Stock 
Sanitary Board, and in Maryland under the direction of Dr. F. H. 
Mackie, State Veterinarian. The affected States were all provided 
with livestock sanitary officials, and quite a number of the veter- 
inarians in the Bureau had had experience in the New England out- 
break of 1902, so there was no delay in beginning operations. The 
Bureau force at one time numbered 572 employees, of whom 159 
were veterinarians. In Pennsylvania the Bureau inspectors made 
69,836 farm visits and revisits, in New York 24,748, in Michigan 
8,393, and in Maryland 4,884. In addition, 822 farm visits were 
made to other States in tracing shipments from the Buffalo stock- 
yards, making a total of 108,683 such visits, comprising the inspec- 
tion and reinspection of 1,565,699 animals. So rapidly was the work 
of eradication carried on that by December 19, or within six weeks 
from the beginning, all diseased and exposed animals so far as known 
at that time had been destroyed, and only a few additional infected 
herds were found later. The outbreak was practically eradicated 
within six weeks. 
In this outbreak the disease appeared on 101 premises in 15 
counties of Pennsylvania; on 45 premises in 5 counties of New York; 
on 9 premises in 2 counties of Michigan, and on 2 premises in 1 
county of Maryland. During the outbreak 2,025 cattle, 1,329 hogs, 
275 sheep and 7 goats were destroyed, at an appraised value of 
$90,033.18. The total cost to the National Government of eradicating 
this outbreak was a little less than $300,000, 286 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The quarantine regulations were modified from time to time to 
meet the conditions, and all restrictions were removed from Mary- 
land and Michigan March 15, New York March 26 and Pennsyl- 
vania April 24, 1909. 
In tracing the origin of the infection in the outbreak of 1908 it 
was learned that some calves that had been furnished by Shaw 
Brothers to a biological laboratory in Detroit, Mich., for propagating 
smallpox vaccine were the first to develop the disease. This aroused 
a suspicion that the vaccine which was used on the calves September 
23 and October 26 might have been contaminated with the virus of 
foot-and-mouth disease. As the U. S. Public Health and Marine- 
Hospital Service at that time had the supervision of biological prod- 
ucts used in human medicine, that Service was requested to join the 
Bureau of Animal Industry in making an investigation. Dr. J. R. 
Mohler, representing the Bureau, and Dr. Milton J. Rosenau, Direc- 
tor of the Hygienic Laboratory of the Public Health Service, under- 
took the investigation, which revealed that undoubtedly the small- 
pox vaccine in question was the cause of the outbreak. The Detroit 
firm had obtained this particular strain of vaccine from a Philadel- 
phia firm in May, 1908, and tests of the vaccine of the latter com- 
pany showed that it likewise was contaminated. The Philadelphia 
firm had imported the vaccine from Japan in 1902. While it is not 
known positively how long the infection existed in the Philadelphia 
establishment, the fact that the outbreak in Massachusetts appeared 
first in the vicinity of a biological establishment located in Chelsea, 
Mass., where the first cases appeared in 1902, suggests that in all 
probability that outbreak originated from the same source. The im- 
porting licenses of both the Detroit and Philadelphia firms were at 
once suspended, all of the contaminated and suspected vaccine and 
virus on hand at these establishments was destroyed, and all prod- 
ucts on the market that were probably contaminated were recalled 
and destroyed in order to prevent further trouble. 
The Outbreak of 1914-15 
The whole country was astonished on October 15, 1914, to learn 
that the livestock industry again was threatened by an outbreak of 
foot-and-mouth disease. This outbreak made its first appearance on 
August 2 among hogs on the farm of W. E. Hoadly, situated near 
Niles, Berrien County, Mich., a place remote from any seaport. Local 
practitioners as well as the State livestock sanitary authorities and a 
Bureau veterinarian of Dr. E. P. Schaffter's meat inspection force at Field Inspection Division 
287 
Detroit, who was called in consultation on September 3, failed at that 
time to recognize the true character of the malady. This was due to 
the mild type of the disease, its disinclination to spread rapidly in 
the beginning, the presence of mixed infection and the absence of the 
characteristic vesicles in the advanced stage of the disease when the 
affected animals were examined. On October 10 a letter was re- 
ceived from Dr. E. P. Schaffter stating that on October 5 he, in com- 
pany with the State Veterinarian and the President of the Live Stock 
Sanitary Commission of Michigan, had returned to Niles for the pur- 
pose of examining some of the affected animals. "While he did not 
make a positive diagnosis, the symptoms described pointed to the 
possibility of foot-and-mouth disease. Dr. Adolph Eichhorn, Chief 
of the Pathological Division, was sent to Niles on the first train 
after the letter was received, and calves were inoculated at the 
Washington Experiment Station with material sent from Michigan 
by Dr. Schaffter. A positive diagnosis of foot-and-mouth disease 
was made on October 15. The Secretary of Agriculture quarantined 
Berrien and Cass Counties, Michigan, and St. Joseph and Laporte 
Counties, Indiana, on October 19. By the time the quarantine order 
was issued 39 infected herds had been found in Michigan and 7 in 
Indiana. 
The Union Stock Yards at Chicago became infected and were 
placed in quarantine October 31, 1914. By the end of November, or 
within 30 days after the outbreak was discovered, the infection had 
been spread to 20 States and the District of Columbia. 
As soon as the disease was positively diagnosed a corps of experi- 
enced veterinarians and lay inspectors were assembled and the worl? 
of eradication was begun along the lines pursued in previous out- 
breaks. Arrangements were made whereby the National and State 
Governments shared equally the expenses for the purchase, slaughter 
and burial of affected and exposed animals and for the disinfection 
of infected premises. Animals were appraised at their actual meat 
or dairy value by representatives of the State and National Govern- 
ments in the presence of the owner or his representative. Very great 
care was taken to avoid the possibility of the infection being carried 
from affected to well animals by persons who were obliged to visit 
or care for affected animals. The inspectors and others whose duties 
brought them in contact with susceptible animals were, as in the out- 
breaks of 1902 and 1908, required to wear rubber boots, gloves, coat 
and hat when on duty, and all of the rubber outer clothing was 288 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
thoroughly washed with a disinfectant immediately before the in- 
spectors left premises where any susceptible animals were kept, irre- 
spective of whether or not any infection was found. In addition, 
a suitable rubber cape was supplied to each inspector and he was re- 
quired to fumigate his clothing with gas generated by mixing for- 
maldehyde and permanganate of potassium even after the liquid disin- 
fectant had been applied freely to the rubber outer garments with 
a sponge. 
The National Dairy Show was held October 22 to 31, 1914, in 
buildings situated just outside of the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 
although the officials in charge of the show were warned of the 
danger previous to the opening. Dr. Melvin, Chief of the Bureau, 
requested that the animals in the show be held for a few days after 
the close of the show so that it might be ascertained if any infection 
had been carried to them. Dr. 0. E. Dyson, State Veterinarian of 
Illinois, quarantined the herd. On November 1 one of the cows de- 
veloped lesions of foot-and-mouth disease. Immediately the herd, 
consisting of over 700 of the choicest breeding animals in the 
country, was placed under a more rigid quarantine. On account of 
the breeding value of these animals and the fact that they were con- 
fined to brick buildings where it was possible to maintain a stricter 
quarantine than could be maintained on farms, it was decided to try 
to save them. Dr. W. E. Cotton of the Bureau Experiment Station 
at Washington was detailed to Chicago to observe the progress of 
the disease and to represent the Bureau in carrying out the pre- 
scribed quarantine and to conduct certain tests before the herd was 
released. After apparently complete recovery of the animals that 
remained of the original herd it was released from quarantine May 
31, 1915. 
The herd received the most skillful surgical and medical attention 
that could be obtained. During the time it was in quarantine most 
of the very young calves died as a result of the disease and its com- 
plications. Several animals developed metritis and a few others 
were found to be affected with tuberculosis. The expense connected 
with the care and maintaining the quarantine of this herd under the 
most favorable conditions was so great that it exceeded several times 
the average value of farm cattle and showed conclusively that it 
would not pay to attempt to save farm animals under ordinary farm 
conditions. 
By June 18, 1915, it appeared that the outbreak of 1914 had been Field Inspection Division 
289 
completely eradicated, but on July 28 infection was found among 
some herds in a small valley in Steuben County, New York. Doubt- 
less the infection had been smouldering in this valley for several 
months. Seven herds were slaughtered in Steuben County and it 
seemed again that the country was free of the disease. 
On August 8, 1915, however, the disease reappeared in Illinois 
among herds of hogs, and about the same time a diseased herd of 
hogs was found in Indiana and another in Minnesota. The infection 
spread from swine to other susceptible animals, and vigorous 
measures were necessary to stop the progress of this new outbreak. 
On investigation it was ascertained that this second outbreak in 
Illinois, Indiana and Minnesota was due to infected hog-cholera 
serum produced at a Chicago establishment where foot-and-mouth 
disease had not appeared and where these products were tested 
carefully for foot-and-mouth disease infection before they were 
marketed. After repeated tests involving 62 animals, one of the 
last series developed the disease, demonstrating that the serum was 
the source of infection. 
The last animals to become infected through the natural spread 
of the disease in this outbreak were slaughtered on the premises of 
James Norris, Christian County, Illinois, on February 21, 1916. 
On May 2, 1916, reinfection appeared on the previously infected 
farm of A. J. Houk, near Taylorville, Christian County, Illinois, 
among some animals that had been placed there to test the premises 
before the owner was allowed to restock fully. The slaughter of 
these animals on May 3 and the recleaning and disinfection of the 
premises concluded the complete eradication of the outbreak of 
1914-15, which extended to 22 States and the District of Columbia. 
The quarantines were modified from time to time and the last re- 
strictions were removed June 5, 1916. 
About 450 veterinary inspectors of the Bureau and nearly as 
many State employees and private practitioners participated in the 
eradication work. 
The extent of the outbreak and the number of animals 
slaughtered are shown in the following table: 290 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
State. 
Counties 
T5 
Animals slaughtered. 
'S 
cS 
W o . 
p 73 « 
Duration of outbreak. 
73 
O 
Eh 
<D 
0) 
w 
5 
K 
d 
73 
o 
Q 
£ 
co 
P. 
CD 
CD 
X 
CO 
o 
0 
p 
o 
Eh 
Connecticut 
8 
3 
35 
701 
175 
876 
$48,366 
8,068 
7,139 
Nov., 1914, to April, 1915. 
Nov., 1914, to Dec., 1914. 
Nov., 1914, to Mar., 1915. 
Delaware 
3 
1 
12 
152 
49 
22 
223 
District of Columbia 
4 
48 
39 
87 
Illinois - 
102 
54 
1,226 
31,074 
45,560 
1,866 
J66 
78,566 
2,569,102 
Nov., 1914, to May, 1916. 
Indiana ... 
92 
20 
118 
2,437 
3,973 
640 
- 
7,050 
179,731 
Oct., 1914, to Aug., 1915. 
Iowa 
99 
9 
49 
1,547 
2,335 
32 
3,914 
125,297 
Nov., 1914, to Mar., 1915. 
Kansas _ - 
105 
4 
12 
1,218 
313 
1,531 
76,097 
Feb., 1915, to May, 1915. 
Kentucky - 
119 
11 
82 
2,942 
866 
216 
1 
4,025 
135,000 
Nov., 1914, to June, 1915. 
Maryland 
24 
10 
70 
1,008 
2,066 
1,784 
6,088 
313 
3,105 
8,238 
69,038 
217,848 
Nov., 1914, to May, 1915. 
Nov., 1914, to Oct., 1915. 
Massachusetts 
14 
9 
103 
78 
6 
Michigan 
83 
16 
272 
2,951 
4,108 
818 
7,877 
212,334 
Oct., 1914, to Aug., 1915. 
Minnesota 
86 
1 
1 
25 
35 
60 
2,384 
67,603 
Aug., 1915. 
Nov., 1914, to Jan., 1915. 
Montana 
31 
3 
42 
1,416 
11 
240 
1,667 
New Hampshire 
10 
1 
3 
78 
26 
104 
4,960 
Nov., 1914, to Jan., 1915. 
New Jersey 
21 
8 
52 
1,315 
815 
9 
6 
2,145 
123,387 
Nov., 1914, to June, 1915. 
New York 
62 
21 
219 
5,737 
625 
150 
33 
6,545 
476,578 
Nov., 1914, to Aug., 1915. 
Ohio 
88 
39 
228 
4,069 
5,003 
3,070 
12,142 
359,971 
Nov., 1914, to Apr., 1915. 
Pennsylvania 
67 
34 
892 
15,294 
10,634 
368 
33 
26,306 
947,958 
Nov., 1914, to Apr., 1915. 
Rhode Island 
5 
3 
59 
985 
379 
33 
1,397 
1,028 
102 
71,096 
27,744 
4,050 
Nov,, 1914, to Mar., 1915. 
Nov., 1914, to Mar., 1915. 
Virginia 
100 
3 
9 
378 
650 
Washington - 
39 
1 
1 
102 
Nov., 1914. 
West Virginia 
55 
3 
27 
194 
189 
149 
531 
12,814 
119,155 
Feb., 1915, to Apr., 1915. 
Nov., 1914, to May, 1916. 
Wisconsin - 
71 
12 
40 
1,503 
1,435 
1,764 
1 
4,703 
Total •. 
1 Including 9 deer. 
1,284 
266 
3,556 
77,240 
85,092 
9,767 
*123 
172,222 
$5,865,720 
Oct., 1914 to May, 1916. 
Statistics of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreak of 1914-1916. Field Inspection Division 
291 
The cost to the National Government and the States of eradi- 
cating this, the most extensive outbreak that has appeared in this 
country, was approximately $9,000,000, which is a small sum com- 
pared with the damage that would have resulted if the disease had 
been allowed to spread and become permanently implanted in this 
country. 
Preparation for Future Outbreaks 
Following the outbreak of 1914 the Department began immediately 
to make preparations for future outbreaks. Experienced men were 
listed and leaders in the various lines of foot-and-mouth disease activi- 
ties were selected to insure promptness in organization and action in 
event of another outbreak. In addition 2,000 copies of a booklet were 
printed giving information and instructions regarding methods to be 
followed in the eradication of future outbreaks of foot-and-mouth 
disease for the guidance of those that may be called upon for such 
work. A small number was distributed to our various stations and 
cooperating agencies, but the remainder was held for distribution 
in case of emergency. 
On May 22, 1917, the following letter was sent to the livestock au- 
thorities in every State in the Union: 
In a letter dated January 16, 1917, you were informed that the 
Department is desirous of formulating some definite plan of action 
to be followed in cooperation with the various States in the event that 
the country should be visited by another outbreak of foot-and-mouth 
disease. All authorities in charge of livestock sanitary affairs at this 
time no doubt appreciate the importance of making preparations for 
combating future outbreaks. It is deemed important that there be 
an understanding between the Department and your State in regard 
to cooperation and a plan of action. In case of a future outbreak, it 
is proposed to follow in general the plan that proved successful in 
eradicating the outbreaks in this country in 1902, 1908 and 1914. The 
main features of this plan are application of quarantine, slaughter 
of affected herds, subsequent cleaning and disinfection of infected 
premises and sharing of expenses between the State and Federal Gov- 
ernment. The Department has been making preparations so as to be 
ready to respond promptly to any State's request for assistance. It 
has outlined its proposed plan of action and this plan is submitted 
herewith for your consideration and approval. In order effectively 
to carry out the plan for eradicating foot-and-mouth disease, the 
State laws should provide for: 
1. A livestock sanitary board or other executive head with a wide 
range of power to promulgate regulations without delay to meet con- 
ditions as they arise and act independently on matters of detail. The 
regulations should be in conformity with Federal regulations. 
2. An adequate emergency fund immediately.available or authoriz- 
ing the Governor to issue interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness 
for meeting promptly all expenses incurred in connection with eradi- 
cation work, including the payment for animals and other property 
destroyed. 
3. Cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture 292 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
in controlling and eradicating contagious diseases of animals, espe- 
cially foot-and-mouth disease. 
4. A State veterinary organization with representatives located in 
the important livestock districts. 
5. Veterinary practitioners to report immediately to the proper au- 
thorities all cases of foot-and-mouth disease that come to their 
attention. 
6. The sterilization of public creamery by-products before they are 
returned to the farm. 
7. Authority lodged with the livestock sanitary board or other ex- 
ecutive head to establish quarantines of infected herds, exposed herds 
and as much territory within the State as is deemed advisable. 
8. Authority for entering premises and compelling the destruction 
of animals and property. 
9. The appointment of an appraiser or appraisers. 
10. The fixing of a just maximum valuation for grade and pure- 
bred registered animals of affected herds. 
11. Penalties for violations of the law and regulations. 
If you have not now all the facilities for carrying out this plan, 
what prospect have you of securing them and how soon do you think 
your State legislature could provide them? 
Following is the plan of procedure which was approved by the 
authorities of every State: 
1. Request the State authorities immediately to quarantine any 
animals or herds as soon as they are suspected of being affected with 
foot-and-mouth disease, and to hold these animals and premises under 
quarantine until a definite diagnosis has been made. 
2. Request the State immediately to place guards on the premises 
when suspicious animals are found and quarantined. A guard will 
be maintained continuously on all infected premises from the time 
the disease is discovered until the diagnosis has been proved incor- 
rect or if proved correct, until the premises have been cleaned and 
disinfected. 
3. Confirm the diagnosis. Since infectious vesicular stomatitis has 
made its appearance in this country it will require an expert to dif- 
ferentiate by inoculation tests this disease from foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease. If the disease proves to be foot-and-mouth disease the plan of 
procedure would be as follows: 
4. Quarantine a sufficient area to include all probable foci of in- 
fection. As the foci of infection have been located and the spread 
of infection brought under control, reduce the areas quarantined. 
The circular zone quarantine will be applied where it is considered 
practicable to do so and territory will be released as rapidly as con- 
ditions warrant it. 
5. Request the State authorities immediately to quarantine all in- 
fected premises and also a sufficient area surrounding the infected 
herds. When centers of infection are located, urge the State authori- 
ties to draw their regulations to correspond with the Federal regula- 
tions in regard to extent of territory to be quarantined and the dura- 
tion of the quarantine. 
6. Dispatch representatives of the Department immediately to make 
arrangements with the State authorities in regard to the details of 
Federal and State cooperation. 
7. Notify by wire the livestock sanitary authorities of all other 
States and request them to use all their facilities to detect the first 
appearance of the disease in their respective States. 
8. Notify by wire the officials of all railroads tributary to the in- 
fected areas and request them to call in for cleaning and disinfec- 
tion before they are again used all cars that had carried livestock Field Inspection Division 
293 
into or out of the infected territory within a definite period preceding 
the outbreak. 
9. Use telegraph in assembling a sufficient number of veterinarians, 
lay inspectors and other employees of the Department to participate 
in the different lines of eradication work. 
10. Order by wire equipment sent from the places where it is now 
stored to the area or areas of operation. 
11. Order by wire or telephone disinfectants and any new equip- 
ment necessary. 
12. Immediately start tracing infected cars. 
13. Immediately start tracing probable infected shipments of live- 
stock and ask the States to do likewise. 
14. Immediately quarantine all stockyards where the indications 
are that infection has reached them. 
15. Immediately station men at car-cleaning stations, at railroad 
points on the borders of the infected areas, and increase the inspec- 
tion force in public stockyards. 
16. Immediately establish headquarters in the area of operations 
and others as new areas of infection are discovered. 
17. Immediately start tracing the origin of the outbreak. 
18. Immediately commence educational work, including meetings, 
distribution of literature, press articles, etc. 
19. Urge owners of infected herds to slaughter under the super- 
vision of inspectors all the healthy exposed animals that they will 
need for their own use and thus conserve all the meat possible. 
20. Immediately slaughter all herds found to be affected with the 
disease. Much has been said about saving purebred herds on farms. 
Such a policy is considered dangerous. 
21. The "Instruction for Employees Engaged in Eradicating Foot- 
and-Mouth Disease" give further information in regard to the details 
of our plan of action for field operations. 
22. The expenses shall be shared equally between the Department 
and the State for: 
(a) Animals destroyed. 
(b) Burial of affected herds. 
(c) Property destroyed in connection with the cleaning and disin- 
fection of infected premises. 
(d) Cleaning and disinfecting infected premises, including labor, 
disinfectant, teaming, pumps and their equipment, and the imple- 
ments used in cleaning. 
(e) Hiring of guards. 
(f) Office rents. 
(g) Guns and ammunition. 
23. The U. S. Department of Agriculture shall jointly direct the 
work of eradication in cooperation with the State Live Stock Sani- 
tary authorities. 
24. Appraisals of affected and exposed animals shall be made by 
an appraisal board consisting of a representative of the Department, 
a representative of the State and the owner or his representative. 
25. Federal and State officials cooperating in an infected district 
will carry on their work from the same headquarters in order that 
they may confer when necessary on matters relating to the work. 
Outbreak of 1924 
This country was entirely free from foot-and-mouth disease from 
the termination of the 1914 outbreak until February, 1924, when the 
malady suddenly appeared in the vicinity of Oakland, California. 
Within an hour after the telegram was received on February 23 an- 294 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
nouncing a positive diagnosis the Secretary of Agriculture issued a 
quarantine order and the Bureau office force was busily engaged in 
preparing telegrams ordering picked, experienced men to proceed to 
California to reinforce the Bureau and State forces in that State, no- 
tifying railroads and stockyard companies, preparing press notices, 
dating and sending out circular letters and other literature which had 
been prepared for such an emergency, and forwarding office supplies, 
including forms for reporting the field work. Livestock sanitary 
officials and Government inspectors throughout the country, espe- 
cially west of the Mississippi, were promptly advised regarding the 
appearance of the disease in California. In addition, radio stations 
cooperated with the Department in broadcasting warnings and advis- 
ing livestock owners to watch for symptoms of the disease and to re- 
port promptly any suspicious cases to either the State or Federal 
officials. ' 
Headquarters were established at Oakland and Dr. Rudolph Sny- 
der, inspector in charge of the field forces regularly assigned to Cali- 
fornia and who had previous experience in foot-and-mouth disease 
eradication work, was placed in charge of the Bureau field force. At 
the request of the Bureau, Dr. S. E. Bennett, who had directed Bureau 
forces in the outbreaks of 1902, 1908, and 1914, and who happened to 
be in California at the time of the outbreak, was released by the Union 
Stockyards Company to serve in an advisory capacity to Dr. Snyder 
and the State officials. The State cooperative activities were headed 
by Mr. G. H. Hecke, Director of Agriculture, and Dr. J. P. Iverson, 
Chief of the State Division of Animal Industry. County and munici- 
pal officials, peace officers and public-spirited stockmen, also the rep- 
resentatives. of numerous organizations, extended their support and 
assistance to the Federal and State officials in a united effort to eradi- 
cate the disease. Later, at the request of Governor Friend W. Rich- 
ardson of California, the Federal and State forces were combined 
under the leadership of Dr. U. G. Houck, effective April 24, 1924. 
The source of this outbreak is unknown at present, but it is believed 
that the infection was carried to California from the Orient. The 
disease first appeared in hogs that were being fed on garbage obtained 
from ships which docked at the Mare Island Navy Yard in San Fran- 
cisco harbor. 
As in previous outbreaks, the policy of promptly slaughtering in- 
fected herds, the cleaning and disinfecting of infected premises, and 
the remuneration of owners was adopted immediately, as this pro- 
cedure had proved effectual in previous outbreaks and seems to be the Field Inspection Division 
295 
only certain way of protecting as far as possible the nation's eight- 
billion-dollar livestock industry against this disease. 
Rapid progress was made in stamping out the disease in the three 
counties, Alameda, Contra Costa and Solano, in which it first ap- 
peared and to which it was confined until March 22. On that date 
infection was discovered in a large herd of range cattle in Merced 
county. Shipments leaving that county for slaughter before the 
disease was discovered there, carried infection to stock yards in Los 
Angeles, Stockton and San Francisco. From Merced the infection 
was also spread to Madera county. The outbreaks in Merced, Madera 
and Los Angeles counties were extensive and serious and control was 
not established until early in May. Other counties in which out- 
breaks have occurred are Kern, Stanislaus, San Bernardino, Orange, 
Tulare, Tuolumne and Fresno. In this group outbreaks have been 
limited and have been eradicated or appear to be under satisfactory 
control, except in Tuolumne county, where the disease was found in 
range herds. Additional time must elapse before the seriousness of 
the outbreak in that county can be determined. The extent of the 
disease up to May 19 when this chapter went to press is shown by 
the following figures: Total infected herds 379, involving 41,753 
cattle, 20,158 hogs, 22,462 sheep, and 538 goats. 
Scabies in Sheep* 
In reviewing the early reports of the Bureau it is found that 
sheep scab caused heavy losses. In a communication in 1890, cov- 
ering conditions in New Mexico, the following statement on this 
subject is noted: 
One of the greatest difficulties that has beset flockmasters of New 
Mexico has been the careless, indifferent management regarding scab. 
Those flockmasters that use the proper precautions were found handi- 
capped by the slipshod sheep owner so that it became necessary to 
move them by legislative enactment. 
The Chief of the Bureau in his report for the fiscal year 1895 
recommended that regulations under the Acts of May 29, 1884, and 
March 2, 1895, be issued to prohibit the shipment from one State 
into another of any animal affected with sheep scab or certain other 
contagious, infectious or communicable diseases. He stated that 
such diseases were disseminated and were to a large extent due to 
contagion carried through channels of interstate commerce, and that 
they could never be controlled or their ravages greatly diminished 
until these interstate channels of commerce were thoroughly super- 
vised and purified, and that this purification must include all these 
* See "Zoological Division," page 113. 296 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
channels, the stockyards in which the animals are unloaded, watered 
and fed, as well as the railroad cars and boats which transport them. 
In the same report, the fact was mentioned that a large export 
trade in live sheep which had recently been established was men- 
aced by the discovery of scab in many lots when they were landed 
in foreign countries. Great Britain in 1896 prohibited the impor- 
tation of live sheep from this country on account of the large num- 
ber of scabby sheep sent abroad by our exporters. This action im- 
pelled the Federal Government to take steps to bring the disease 
under control. At first employees were stationed at public stock- 
yards to inspect animals offered for export. It was found, that the 
disease continued to appear during the voyage after all affected lots 
had been rejected. 
June 18, 1897, the Department issued an order governing the 
transportation of sheep affected with scabies. This order, the first 
that had been issued pertaining to this disease, notified managers 
and agents of railroads and transportation companies, stockmen 
and others that the contagious disease known as sheep scab, or 
scabies of sheep, existed among sheep in the United States, and that 
it was a violation of the law to receive for transportation or to 
transport from one State to another stock affected with this disease. 
This order also required the cleaning and disinfection of railroad 
cars, boats or other vehicles which had been used in the transpor- 
tation of scabby sheep. Federal inspectors were then placed at the 
principal feeding points of all the railroads leading to market cen- 
ters to inspect and supervise the shipping of sheep. 
July 20, 1899, an order was issued requiring that all sheep shipped 
from stockyards to other States for feeding purposes be dipped 
in some preparation that would kill the parasites. About 770,000 
animals were so treated during that year, and the statement was 
made that the indications were it would soon be possible to make 
the stockyards and cars and other channels of interstate commerce 
safe and free from infection. The question of dips was receiving 
consideration, as some of those on the market were unsatisfactory 
in that they did not kill the mite. In July of this year an order 
was issued that from and after August 10, 1899, no sheep affected 
with scabies and no sheep which had been in contact with others 
so affected should be allowed shipment interstate unless said sheep 
shall first have been dipped in a mixture approved by the Depart- 
ment. The approved dips were tobacco and sulphur and lime and 
sulphur. Field Inspection Division 
297 
The following year special sheep inspectors were stationed at a 
number of points in the western range States, and various live- 
stock sanitary officials issued dipping orders. In 1903, 8,306,000 
sheep were dipped. As the work progressed, it was found that in- 
spection at public stockyards and at the principal feeding points 
was not sufficient to eradicate the disease. Inspection was grad- 
ually extended to the points at which the sheep originated and were 
accepted for interstate shipment. 
While this plan got nearer to the trouble and was more satisfac- 
tory to the sheep growers and transportation companies, it still did 
not accomplish the desired results. Accordingly June 1, 1905, 
Federal quarantine was placed on all the territory west of the east- 
ern border of North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, Oklahoma and 
Texas, which included an area of more than 1,700,000 square miles. 
A plan of co-operation which provided for the inspection of all sheep 
and the proper treatment of all flocks found to be affected with or 
exposed to the disease was arranged by the Department with the 
sheep sanitary commissions of the several States. This plan, which 
included a range inspection of all sheep in the quarantined area, 
was found to be very effectual, and from 1905 on continued progress 
was made toward the eradication of the disease until the beginning 
of the World War, when the work was somewhat disorganized by 
the demands for war service. As a result of this disorganization, 
there was a considerable spread of the disease. Since the war the 
work has been vigorously conducted and most of the ground lost has 
been regained. 
On July 1, 1923, all of the area originally quarantined for sheep 
scabies, which comprised 1,785,345 square miles, had been released 
except 33,415 square miles. The latter area consisted of ten coun- 
ties and one island in the State of California and three parishes in 
the State of Louisiana. 
Lime-sulphur and nicotin were the dips principally used. In 
1907, however, as a result of laboratory experiments and field tests, 
permission was given, pending further investigation, for the use of 
creosote dips in the official dipping of sheep for scabies. After ex- 
perimenting a number of years with the last two mentioned pro- 
ducts, it was found that they did not give the results that had been 
hoped for, and on August 18, 1913, an order was issued which pro- 
vided that no dip other than lime-sulphur or nicotin would there- 
after be given Department permission for use in official dipping of 298 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
sheep for scabies, unless it was shown to the satisfaction of the Bu- 
reau that the strength of the bath prepared therefrom might be 
satisfactorily determined in the field by a practicable portable test- 
ing outfit. Since that year all official dipping has been accomplished 
in either lime-sulphur or nicotin solution. 
The magnitude of the work involved in the eradication of sheep 
scabies is shown in the following table: 
Inspections and Dippings of Sheep for Scabies. 
Fiscal year. 
Inspections. 
Dippings. 
1900 
1,801,392 
626,838 
1901....... 
7,912,724 
1,034,368 
1902 
11,186,661 
1,017,162 
1903 
16,444,370 
2,167,002 
1904 
40,967,961 
9,578,476 
1905 
53,680,786 
16,873,659 
1906 
59,246,288 
12,396,976 
1907 
62,625,831 
12,133,466 
1908 
59,471,141 
17,589,578 
1909 1. 
59,762,512 
15,597,823 
1910 
52,749,920 
12,153,356 
1911 
56,584,129 
12,715,631 
1912 
62,261,620 
13,891,648 
1913 
59,370,477 
12,557,457 
1914 
20,639,428 
7,517,578 
1915 
15,659,624 
3,790,967 
1916 
19,555,969 
6,473,419 
1917 
18,645,071 
5,539,919 
1918 
19,630,126 
5,585,543 
1919 
22,394,561 
10,518,196 
1920 
20,371,965 
9,515,720 
1921 
22,114,154 
8,273,450 
1922 
24,190,956 
8,869,386 
1923 
22,796,623 
6,714,961 
Scabies in Cattle 
.The first reference to scabies in cattle is found in the report of 
the Chief of the Bureau for 1902. At that time numerous inquiries 
were being received with regard to this disease, which was com- 
monly known as Texas itch. Preliminary inspections and dippings 
were accomplished during 1903, and on March 18, 1904, regulations 
were issued to prevent the spread of scabies (mange) in cattle. This 
order placed in quarantine that part of the United States lying west 
of the Mississippi Biver and the eastern boundary of Minnesota 
and outlined the manner in which animals originating in that sec- 
tion might be moved interstate therefrom. It provided for the dip- 
ping of diseased and exposed animals and the cleaning and disin- 
fection of infected premises. 
June 1, 1905, a Federal quarantine embracing 1,269,844 square Field Inspection Division 
299 
miles was placed on those States and parts thereof in which the 
disease was quite prevalent. In the same year a large force of in- 
spectors was detailed to take up the work of inspecting and dip- 
ping. As the work progressed the area under quarantine was grad- 
ually released. At the present time, while cattle scab prevails to 
some extent in several of the western range States, no territory is 
under Federal quarantine. 
The scope of these activities during the period from 1904 to 1923 
is shown in the figures given below: 
Inspections and Dippings of Cattle for Scabies. 
Fiscal year. 
Inspections. 
Dippings. 
1904 
1,124,321 
162,554 
1905 . 
14,085,267 
563,394 
1906 
14,983,260 
243,826 
1907 
15,243,323 
466,623 
1908 
16,920,100 
1,527,280 
1909 . ... 
17,656,934 
1,559,477 
1910 
18,190,456 
1,336,829 
1911 ... 
18,593,251 
1,234,123 
1912 
17,920,364 
1,180,296 
1913 
17,462,824 
1,134,476 
1914 
2,812,632 
1,807,950 
1915 . 
1,264,009 
588,228 
1916 
2,934,098 
691,715 
1917 
1,924,970 
343,517 
1918 
1,829,532 
642,831 
1919 
1,707,917 
935,539 
1920 
2,925,712 
1,657,418 
1921 
2,797,001 
1,073,696 
1922 
1,508,924 
453,708 
1923 
2,398,646 
952,857 
Glanders 
Glanders is mentioned in the earliest reports of the Bureau as 
causing considerable losses in horses.* In 1890 unsuccessful ex- 
periments were being conducted for the purpose of ascertaining if 
animals could be rendered immune from the disease by treatment 
similar to that adopted for hog cholera. The preparation and free 
distribution of mallein was commenced in 1893. 
In 1899 the use of mallein as a diagnostic agent for glanders was 
becoming quite general. The Bureau from that year until the pres- 
ent time has carried on investigational work in determining the re- 
liability of mallein as a diagnostic agent, and upon request of State 
authorities, transportation companies and others, has detailed its 
* See "Pathological Division," page 60. 300 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
employees to assist in carrying out measures for the control and 
eradication of glanders. So successful has been the co-operative 
work between the Bureau and the livestock sanitary officials of the 
various States that the disease has been nearly suppressed. 
Public Stockyards Inspection 
An order issued October 20, 1890, requiring inspection at public 
stockyards of cattle for export, was the beginning of the present 
system of public stockyards inspection. The scope of this work 
was gradually enlarged. For several years Texas fever was the 
only disease that was controlled by this inspection. Later, about 
1898, the inspection of sheep for scabies and swine for hog cholera 
was inaugurated, and the service from that time on was gradually 
extended until in 1905 the inspection for contagious, infectious and 
communicable diseases of all livestock received at public stockyards 
was required. With the perfection of the anti-hog-cholera serum- 
and-virus treatment, the immunization of swine as a regular activity 
at public stockyards was taken up under B. A. I. Order 210, ef- 
fective July 1, 1914. 
The inspections and dippings of cattle and sheep and the immu- 
nization of swine against hog cholera at public stockyards from 
1915 to 1923, inclusive, are indicated by the following figures: 
Inspections and Dippings of Cattle. 
Fiscal year. 
Inspections. 
Dippings. 
1915... 
. 12,634,444 
18,332 
1916 
14,451,291 
7,942 
1917.. 
18,069,218 
20,963 
1918.. 
. 20,987,998 
52,092 
1919. 
22,594,329 
10,897 
1920. 
20,063,290 
24,628 
1921.. 
• 
18,625,203 
30,293 
1922.. 
- 
18,475,991 
11,611 
1923.. 
20,904,267 
12,775 
Inspections and Dippings of Sheep. 
1915 
21,397,574 
784,849 
1916 
20^538^977 
868,689 
1917 
19,368,277 
973,272 
1918 
17,019,386 
651,339 
1919 
20,597,232 
884,294 
1920 
23,472,528 
2,744,481 
1921 
22,658,919 
1,825,729 
1922 
20,462,270 
1,059,801 
1923 
19,516,344 
1^004'480 Field Inspection Division 
301 
Immunization of Swine. 
1915 
20,759 
1916 
56,494 
1917 
94,720 
1918 
254,731 
1919 
614,673 
1920 
574,558 
1021 
386,130 
1922 
383,295 
1923 
458,097 
Enforcement of the Twenty-eight-Hour Law 
The original act known as the Twenty-eight Hour Law was 
passed March 3, 1873. To comply with the act, transportation com- 
panies provided feeding, watering and resting facilities at conven- 
ient places on their lines. The conditions under which livestock 
were handled in transit were improved slightly under this law.* 
Very little consideration was given to the habits of the different 
classes of animals. The facilities at many of the feeding stations 
were inadequate. Fences of sufficient strength were not provided 
at some yards; at others watering troughs were lacking. Dissatis- 
faction which arose among the shippers on account of these features 
and the frequent unloading of the animals finally led to the repeal 
of this act and the enactment of the present law of June 29, 1906. 
The enforcement of the latter law has resulted in better facilities 
being provided for feeding, watering and handling livestock in 
transit and also has been a means of compelling the railroads to 
expedite the movement of livestock while in transit. The present 
law has reduced considerably the shrinkage in transit by causing 
the animals to be fed at regular intervals and by quickening their 
journey to market. The Act of 1906 does not authorize measures 
to prevent overcrowding, the loading of swine or calves under cat- 
tle, or the use of long-spiked prod poles. Much has been accom- 
plished through cooperation on the part of the Bureau, transportation 
companies, shippers, commission men and other interested agencies 
in controlling abuses of this nature. At the present time animals 
are arriving at market centers in a great deal better physical con- 
dition than formerly, and every possible effort is being exerted to 
reduce the number of animals that die or suffer injuries in transit 
which render them worthless or of little value upon arrival at des- 
tination. A very marked reduction has been noted in the last two 
or three years in the number of hogs dying in transit from suffoca- 
tion as a result of heat and overloading. 
* See "Animal Transportation," page 23. 302 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
1870. First outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the United 
States. 
March 3,1873. Original Twenty-eight Hour Law enacted. 
1880. Another small outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the 
United States. 
May 29,1884. The Bureau of Animal Industry established. First few 
years devoted largely to eradication of contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia. 
1884. Foot-and-mouth disease again occurred in the United 
States. 
Oct. 20,1890. Present system of public stockyards inspection had its be- 
ginning in order issued requiring inspection of cattle at 
public stockyards for export. 
April 1,1891. Bureau of Animal Industry organized into four divisions, 
one of which, the Inspection Division, handled all work 
of an executive nature relating to contagious diseases. 
Sept. 26,1892. Proclamation issued giving notice that the United States 
was free from contagious pleuropneumonia. 
1896. Great Britain prohibited importation of live sheep from the 
United States on account of large number of scabby sheep 
sent abroad by exporters. This caused the Federal Gov- 
ernment to take steps to bring the disease under control. 
June 18,1897. First order issued governing transportation of sheep af- 
fected with scabies. 
July 20,1899. Dipping required of all sheep shipped interstate from pub- 
lic stockyards for feeding purposes. About 770,000 so 
treated. 
April 1,1902. A vigorous and systematic campaign was inaugurated for 
the suppression of dourine. 
Nov. 14,1902. First extensive outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. It ex- 
tended to twelve counties in the States of Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire, Vermont and Rhode Island. Cost to 
Federal Government about $300,000. 
Jan. 20,1903. Regulations issued governing transportation of horses af- 
fected with dourine. Order quarantined portions of Ne- 
braska and South Dakota. 
March 18,1904. Regulations issued to prevent spread of scabies in cattle. 
June 1,1905. Sheep scabies quarantine placed on all territory west of the 
eastern boundary of North Dakota, South Dakota, Kan- 
sas, Oklahoma and Texas, comprising area more than 
1,700,000 square miles. 
June 1,1905. Cattle scabies quarantine placed on area comprising 1,269,- 
844 square miles. 
1905. Public stockyards service gradually extended until inspec- 
tion for contagious, infectious and communicable dis- 
eases of all livestock received now required. 
June 29,1906. Present Twenty-eight Hour Law enacted. 
Nov. 7,1908. A serious outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease occurred. It 
appeared in fifteen counties in Pennsylvania, New York, 
Michigan and Maryland. Cost of eradication to Federal 
Government about $300,000. Field Inspection Division 
303 
July 30,1912. Dourine discovered in Montana. Investigation showed it 
also prevailed in North Dakota, South Dakota, Arizona, 
New Mexico, Wyoming and Nebraska. 
Sept. 1,1912. Inspection Division divided into Meat Inspection Division 
and Field Inspection Division. 
July 1,1914. First regulation governing immunization of swine at pub- 
lic stockyards. 
Oct. 15,1914. The most serious outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. It 
spread to twenty-two States and the District of Colum- 
bia. 172,222 animals were slaughtered. Cost of eradi- 
cation to Federal Government about $4,600,000. 
May 3,1916. Last animals affected with foot-and-mouth disease slaugh- 
tered. 
June 5,1916. Foot-and-mouth disease quarantine restrictions entirely re- 
moved. 
April 15,1918. Last cattle scabies quarantine released. 
July 1,1921. 34,415 square miles remained in quarantine for sheep 
scabies. 
May 1,1922. All activities of the Quarantine Division transferred to 
Field Inspection Division. 
PERSONNEL OF THE FIELD INSPECTION DIVISION 
Chief's of Division: 
Dr. R. A. Ramsay, September 1, 1912, to April 30, 1917. 
Dr. A. W. Miller, May 1, 1917, to date. 
Assistant Chiefs of Division: 
Dr. W. P. Ellenberger, September 1, 1912, to April 30, 1917. 
Dr. S. O. Fladness, July 1, 1917, to September 19, 1920. 
Dr. W. P. Ellenberger, September 20, 1920, to date. 
Dr. George W. Pope, May 1, 1922, to date. Division of Hog-Cholera Control* 
We have no record of the presence of hog cholera in the United 
States prior to the outbreak in Ohio in the year 1833. Apparently 
this was the first appearance of the disease in this country. It spread 
from Ohio and eventually reached every State in the Union. While 
hog cholera has been a constant menace to the hog-raising industry 
for over 90 years, it has been exceptionally prevalent at certain pe- 
riods. During these periods nearly all the swine in some communities 
were destroyed. 
No medicinal or prophylactic treatment which proved effectual in 
coping with this highly contagious plague had been discovered before 
the development of the present immunization treatment. 
Extensive demonstrations were undertaken in a number of coun- 
ties located in some of the States of the Middle West in 1913 to show 
the feasibility of reducing losses from hog cholera through the use of 
anti-hog-cholera serum as an immunizing agent and the improvement 
of sanitation in raising hogs. In conducting these demonstrations 
serum, virus and the services of trained veterinarians were furnished 
to swine growers by the Bureau free of charge. 
The field work was conducted under the supervision of the Bio- 
chemic Division of the Bureau until the end of the calendar year 1915. 
On January 1, 1916, owing to the large volume of work of the Bio- 
chemic Division, and in accordance with the policy adopted at that 
time of segregating research and regulatory activities, the hog cholera 
field work was made a separate function of the Bureau and placed in 
the newly created Office of Hog Cholera Control under the super- 
vision of Dr. 0. B. Hess, who had been brought to Washington on 
April 2, 1914, to assist the Chief of the Biochemic Division in the 
administration of cholera control activities. At that time hog cholera 
field work was being carried on in 16 counties in 13 States, as follows: 
Decatur County, Georgia; Montgomery and Hendricks Counties, 
Indiana; Dallas and Clay Counties, Iowa; Davison County, South 
Dakota; Gage and Johnson Counties, Nebraska; Maury County, Ten- 
nessee; Henderson County, Kentucky; Marshall County, Kansas; 
Rentville County, Minnesota; Branch County, Michigan; Pettis 
County, Missouri; Twin Falls County, Idaho, and Muskogee County, 
Oklahoma. In addition to these county projects, statewide educa- 
tional work was being conducted in nine States: Alabama, Arkansas, 
California, Florida, Virginia, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas and North 
Carolina. 
* See "Hog Cholera," page 21, and "Biochemic Division," page 158. 
304 Division of Hog-Cholera Control 
305 
Activities in 1916 
Texas.-On August 16, 1916, the project, which had been entirely 
educational, was modified to include regulatory work, and the head- 
quarters of the inspector in charge were moved from Bryan to Fort 
Worth. 
Iowa.-The work was extended from county projects to intensive 
activities in larger areas, and the headquarters were changed from 
Adel in Dallas County and Spencer in Clay County to Des Moines 
on July 1, 1916. 
Georgia.-On July 1, 1916, the county project and the educational 
work were discontinued and regulatory activities were extended to 
the principal hog-raising districts in cooperation with the regulatory 
officials of the State. The headquarters were located at Atlanta. 
Indiana.-The work, which had been confined to two counties, was 
changed to intensive efforts in a larger territory. The official station 
was located at Indianapolis, July 1, 1916. 
Michigan.-On July 1, 1916, the work was extended from one 
county to include several counties and the headquarters were moved 
from Coldwater to Lansing. 
North Carolina.-Regulatory work was taken up September 1, 1916, 
a joint project agreement having been entered into with the State reg- 
ulatory authorities and the officials of the State Agricultural College. 
Elizabeth City was selected as the official station. 
Kansas.-Headquarters were changed from Marysville to Topeka 
on October 20, 1916, and several counties were added to the territory. 
Tennessee.-The county project was discontinued on September 18, 
1916, and was replaced by statewide educational work in November 
of the same year. 
Ohio.-Intensive work comprising four counties was taken up on 
August 16, 1916, headquarters being located at Columbus. 
Oklahoma.-The county project was discontinued June 19, 1916, 
also the educational work in the following month. 
Missouri.-The territory was extended from one county to 11 
counties, the headquarters remaining at Sedalia. 
Idaho.-In June, 1916, the work was extended from one county to 
intensive regulatory activities in four counties comprising the prin- 
cipal hog-raising sections of the State. The headquarters remained 
at Twin Falls. 
Kentucky.-The county project was moved from Henderson County 
to Bourbon County on June 17, 1916. At a meeting of the Kentucky 306 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Live Stock Sanitary Board, August 8, 1916, Jefferson, Bullitt, Har- 
din and Nelson Counties were selected as the territory for intensive 
hog-cholera work. The headquarters remained at Frankfort. 
Minnesota.-The county project was discontinued in October, 1916. 
On October 9, 1916, Dr. T. P. White was brought to Washington 
from a field assignment in South Dakota to assist in the administra- 
tion of hog-cholera control work. During the year the activities were 
extended to 127 counties. On account of the rapid growth of the 
work and the limited appropriation, the Bureau found it necessary, 
effective January 1, 1916, to discontinue supplying serum and virus 
for the immunization of swine herds. In the counties in which con- 
trol work had been carried on there was an increase in the number 
of hogs raised from 859,910 in 1912 to 1,334,644 in 1915. At the 
same time there was a decrease in the number of hogs killed by cholera 
from 132,296 in 1912 to 30,668 in 1915, which meant an increase of 
474,734 and a saving of 121,628 animals. It was estimated that 
cholera killed 59.6 hogs per 1,000 throughout the country. 
During the fiscal year 1916-17 intensive regulatory activities were 
extended to 295 counties in the following States: Georgia, Iowa, In- 
diana, South Dakota, Nebraska, Tennessee, Kentucky, Kansas, Mis- 
souri, Idaho, Michigan, Oklahoma and Texas. The project in Ohio, 
directed by the Extension Division of the Agricultural College, in- 
cluded the same class of activities as were being performed in other 
States in cooperation with the regulatory authorities. General exten- 
sion of the work made a change of headquarters necessary in many 
of the States where projects were already established, as well as lo- 
cating new stations in States to which activities were being extended 
at this time. 
With the increase in territory covered it was found necessary to 
adopt new plans and policies. It was recognized that less personal 
service could be rendered than had been done when working in small 
territories such as the county units; therefore it was thought of more 
advantage to all concerned to carry on the work along the following 
lines: On receipt of a report of an outbreak, the inspector proceeded 
to the infected locality. If cholera was found the Bureau veterina- 
rian investigated the outbreak to find the source of infection and the 
extent to which it had spread in the community. He conferred with 
farmers and local veterinary practitioners on methods to control the 
disease and prevent losses. The owners of infected and exposed herds 
Activities in 1917 Division of Hog-Cholera Control 
307 
were advised as to treatment and sanitary measures to be applied. 
Where practicable either warning cards were posted at the entrance 
to the infected premises or quarantine was imposed. Neighboring 
hog owners were informed of the existence and location of outbreaks 
in order that they might guard their herds against exposure. Assist- 
ance was offered to local practicing veterinarians, especially those 
whose experience in the use of serum and virus was limited. 
In States where laws were adequate and enforced, infected farms 
were placed under quarantine until such time as the herds had recov- 
ered, the dead animals had been properly burned or buried, and the 
premises had been thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. In sections of 
the Southern States where the services of veterinarians were not 
available it was found necessary for Bureau inspectors to treat as 
many hogs as possible for the farmers until other satisfactory ar- 
rangements could be made. In some communities, provided the State 
laws permitted, laymen were trained to administer the treatment so 
that protection might be available in case of serious outbreaks. While 
the Bureau generally does not encourage the use of such dangerous 
agents as hog-cholera virus by laymen, the plan is still adhered to 
in those localities in order to promote the swine industry while await- 
ing the time when veterinarians may be available. 
During the year 1917 regulatory work was established in a num- 
ber of additional States. These projects were placed as follows: 
Tennessee, January 1, 1917 
Arkansas, March 1, 1917 
Maryland, March 5, 1917 
Illinois, May 11, 1917 
Oklahoma, September 5. 1917 
South Carolina, November 19, 1917 
Wisconsin, November 19, 1917 
Delaware, December 3, 1917 
Utah, December 16, 1917 
Montana, December 17, 1917 
Colorado, December 16, 1917 
In Maryland and South Carolina the educational and regulatory 
work were combined. 
The headquarters were located as follows: 
Tennessee .. .'Nashville 
Arkansas Little Rock 
Maryland College Park 
Illinois Springfield 
Oklahoma ; Oklahoma 
Wisconsin Madison 
Delaware Newark 
Utah .. Salt Lake City 
Montana Helena 
Colorado Denver 
South Carolina Clemson College 
South Dakota.-The work, which had been confined to one county, 
was changed and extended to statewide educational efforts and the 308 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
headquarters were moved from Mitchell to the Office of Extension of 
the A. & M. College at Brookings, July 1, 1917. 
Nebraska.-The work, which had been confined to two counties, was 
extended to larger areas and the headquarters were changed from 
Beatrice to the University Farm, State Agricultural College, Lincoln, 
July 27, 1917. 
North Carolina.-On November 1, 1917, the headquarters were 
moved from Elizabeth City to Raleigh and regulatory efforts were 
extended to larger districts in the State. 
Kentucky.-The official station was moved from Frankfort to Lou- 
isville, January 22, 1917. 
Educational work was established during the year (1917) in the 
following States on the dates stated: 
Louisiana. November 15; headquarters, Baton Rouge. 
Illinois, November 19; headquarters, Urbana. 
Utah, December 3; headquarters, Logan. 
Colorado, December 24; headquarters, Fort Collins. 
West Virginia, December 24; headquarters, Morgantown. 
During the year 343,822 hogs were given the preventive serum 
treatment by Bureau inspectors in the course of demonstrational 
work. Farm visits were made to the number of 15,560, and 2,056 
meetings were held, with an attendance of 100,190 persons interested 
in the suppression of hog cholera. Successful efforts were made in 
bringing about better cooperation on the part of practicing veterina- 
rians, resulting in more uniform and better methods of treatment and 
more equitable charges. According to the best information available, 
the number of hogs decreased 313,000 during the year and the loss 
from cholera was reduced to 43.7 per 1,000 hogs, a decrease of ap- 
proximately 30 per cent from the death rate of the preceding year. 
Activities in 1918 
An increased appropriation for the fiscal year 1917-18 made it pos- 
sible to place in the field an average force of 175 veterinarians, and 
to extend regulatory work from a limited number of counties in 21 
States to statewide activities in 31 States, namely: Alabama, Arizona, 
Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, 
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mis- 
sissippi, Montana, Missouri, Maryland, Nebraska, North Carolina, 
North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, 
Utah, Virginia and Wisconsin. The work in West Virginia and New 
Mexico remained wholly educational in character. Division of Hog-Cholera Control 
309 
Illinois.-Educational work was discontinued on March 9, 1918, 
a regulatory project being established in the State in cooperation with 
the office of the State Veterinarian at Springfield. 
Delaware.-Headquarters were moved from Newark to Dover 
January 1, 1918. 
California.-Regulatory work was inaugurated on April 25, 1918, 
headquarters being located at Sacramento. 
Missouri.-The official station was changed from Sedalia to Jeffer- 
son City on March 26, 1918. 
Ohio.-The regulatory phase of hog cholera work, which had been 
administered from the Office of Extension, Ohio State University, 
Columbus, in connection with the educational features, was trans- 
ferred to the regulatory officials of the State and headquarters estab- 
lished with the State Veterinarian in the Annex State House, Colum- 
bus, April 8, 1918. The educational project continued in force in co- 
operation with the University. 
Kentucky.-On April 4, 1918, in order to bring about a closer con- 
tact in the administration of cooperative regulatory work, the head- 
quarters were moved from Louisville to Frankfort, an office being 
established with the State Veterinarian in the State Capitol. 
Alabama.-The official station was moved from Auburn to Mont- 
gomery January 1, 1918, and from there to Troy the following 
September. 
Louisiana.-On August 15, 1918, the educational project in Lou- 
isiana was combined with regulatory work, headquarters remaining at 
Baton Rouge. 
South Carolina.-The official station was moved from Clemson Col- 
lege to Columbia September 9, 1918. 
Mississippi.-A project agreement was entered into with both the 
regulatory and educational forces and work established March 25, 
1918. Headquarters were located at Jackson. 
Kansas.-A.n educational project was placed with the State College 
of Agriculture on August 1, 1918, headquarters being located at 
Manhattan. 
Georgia.-An educational project was reestablished March 1, 1918, 
with headquarters at Athens. 
Oklahoma.-Educational work was reinaugurated in September, 
1918, with headquarters at Stillwater. 
The St. Louis Conference 
Early in 1918 the Secretary of Agriculture (Hon. D. F. Houston) 
called a meeting at St. Louis, Mo., to discuss policies involved in con- 310 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
ducting hog cholera work. The meeting was held on January 12, 
1918, and was attended by representatives of the Bureau, officials of 
State agricultural colleges of principal hog raising States, and also 
by State regulatory authorities. Discussion and exchange of views 
on the various phases of the work brought about an understanding 
which proved beneficial to all concerned in the hog cholera activities. 
The following tentative outline defining regulatory and educational 
activities in cooperative hog cholera work was adopted: 
Educational (Extension) 
General instruction on hog cholera in conformity with Bureau publica- 
tions and policies. 
Lectures and demonstrations in the use of serum. 
Lectures and demonstrations in the use of virus, when authorized by 
proper State authorities. 
Giving information regarding rules and regulations of livestock board. 
Organization of farmers for educational purposes on hog cholera. 
Control (Regulatory) 
Diagnosis of disease. 
Post-mortem demonstration. 
Establish quarantine on definite areas. 
Enforcement of rules and regulations of livestock sanitary board re- 
garding quarantine, disinfection, etc. 
Kind of serum and virus permitted. 
Establishing serum depots or perfecting plans for supply and distribu- 
tion, regulating veterinary fees, etc. 
Appointing deputies, either veterinarians or laymen, and instructing 
them in regard to their duties. 
Organization of quarantined farmers where adequate organizations do 
not exist. 
Specific instructions on reasons for quarantine. 
Specific instructions on methods to be adopted to have quarantine removed. 
Finally, the removal of quarantine. 
Cooperative Work 
Educational agents should cooperate with regulatory authorities in edu- 
cational work on hog cholera in quarantined districts. 
Regulatory authorities should be advised of hog cholera condition by edu- 
cational agents outside quarantined areas. 
In these areas outside of quarantine, general educational work on hog 
cholera should be done by the educational agency, but when these areas are 
placed under quarantine, then regulatory authorities shall request the assist- 
ance of educational agents as above mentioned. 
Extension divisions should solicit cooperation with the regulatory forces 
of the State in drawing up plans for statewide educational hog cholera 
work and provide in these plans for the assistance of the State regulatory 
forces in all educational work such as farmers' meetings, extension 
schools, etc. 
Following the adoption of this division of work, it was moved and carried 
that this conference recommend to the United States Secretary of Agricul- 
ture that the Bureau of Animal Industry be authorized to enter into agree- 
ments with the State regulatory authorities to furnish Bureau of Animal 
Industry inspectors to assist in regulatory work, according to the definition 
adopted by this conference; also that Bureau of Animal Industry inspectors 
be assigned to the State agricultural colleges to assist in educational work, 
as per definition of this conference, according to the needs and desires of 
the respective officials. Division of Hog-Cholera Control 
311 
During the fiscal year efforts were concentrated on stimulating pro- 
duction and conservation of swine as a war measure. As a part of 
the activities of Bureau inspectors, 38,046 calls for assistance were 
answered, 371,792 farmers were interviewed and advised, and about 
5,000,000 hogs were treated by cooperating veterinarians. There was 
an increase of 3,921,000 in the number of hogs according to the pub- 
lished estimates, and the losses from hog cholera were reduced to 37.9 
per 1,000, the lowest death rate in swine since the inauguration of 
hog cholera work. 
An important part of the work was the attention given to hogs 
brought to farms from public stockyards for feeding purposes. This 
phase of the swine industry had grown to a large extent since 1914, 
in which year the Bureau took charge of the immunization and dis- 
infection of such hogs at the stockyards. These shipments had in- 
creased from 20,759 hogs in 1915 to 254,731 in 1918. The field men 
on hog cholera work kept in touch so far as possible with these ship- 
ments after they reached destination. These precautions were taken 
in order to give further encouragement to these shipments and to pro- 
tect the feeders from losses while finishing these animals for market. 
Activities in 1919 
Statewide activities were continued in 34 States during the year 
1919 and practically the same number of veterinarians were kept in 
the field as in the preceding year, though it became necessary to re- 
duce the force toward the close of the year in order to keep expendi- 
tures within the limits of the appropriation. 
On April 15, 1919, Dr. 0. B. Hess resigned as inspector in charge 
of the Office of Hog Cholera Control. The following day Dr. U. G. 
Houck was placed in charge of the work. The designation of this 
branch of the Bureau was changed from Office of Hog Cholera Control 
to Division of Hog Cholera Control, April 16, 1919. 
West Virginia.-Following the resignation of the inspector in charge 
of the educational project, July 15, 1919, no one was assigned to fill 
the vacancy. 
Kansas.-On December 31, 1919, the educational project, which had 
been administered in cooperation with the Extension Division of the 
Agricultural College at Manhattan, was discontinued. 
Colorado.-The educational project was discontinued January 
1, 1919. 
Missouri.-At the request of the Director of Extension of the Mis- 
souri State College of Agriculture, an educational project was placed 312 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
in that State December 23, 1918. The project was withdrawn on 
October 10 of the following year. 
During the fiscal year 51,022 calls for assistance were answered, 
53,586 post-mortem examinations were made to diagnose swine dis- 
eases, 93,512 farms were visited, 2,743 meetings were held with an 
attendance of 78,584 persons, and 315,357 farmers and others in- 
terested in the swine industry were interviewed and advised. The 
records show that 238,987 hogs were immunized by Bureau veterina- 
rians, while in addition it is estimated that more than 12,000,000 hogs 
were given the treatment by cooperating veterinarians. There were 
investigated 12,336 outbreaks of hog cholera, and in cooperation with 
State officials 9,564 farms on which hog cholera existed were quar- 
antined. Of the farms quarantined 4,382 were cleaned and disin- 
fected under supervision. 
The number of hogs in the United States increased from 71,374,000 
on January 1, 1918, to 75,587,000 on January 1, 1919, an increase of 
4,315,000 hogs. This increase was largely due to the advance in price 
as a result of the war and because of the protection afforded swine 
growers through the cooperation of the Bureau with the various State 
agencies to reduce losses from hog cholera. 
According to official estimates the losses from hog cholera during 
the year were reduced to 37 per 1,000. The shipment of stocker and 
feeder hogs from public stockyards to farming communities continued 
to increase, the number returned to farms to be finished for marketing 
reaching 614,673. The field inspectors kept these shipments under 
supervision, and gave considerable attention to hogs fed at garbage- 
feeding establishments. 
Activities in 1920 
During the greater part of the fiscal year 1920 there were main- 
tained in the field approximately 140 veterinarians. This number 
was gradually reduced in the last quarter owing to a reduction of 
the appropriation and consequent curtailment of activities in the next 
fiscal year. While the Bureau had discontinued treating hogs in com- 
munities where the services of veterinary practitioners were available, 
it was found necessary to render a certain amount of personal ser- 
vice in suppressing outbreaks in sections of the South where veter- 
inary service was not available, and Bureau inspectors continued to 
train laymen to administer serum and virus in localities where it was 
deemed advisable and where State laws permitted such practice. 
In the principal hog-raising States supplied with veterinary prac- 
titioners the work was of an advisory and supervisory nature. Out- Division of Hog-Cholera Control 
313 
breaks of hog cholera reported by county agents, veterinarians, farm- 
ers and others who cooperated were investigated so far as the num- 
ber of field inspectors would permit, and diagnoses were made and 
proper advice was given to swine owners as to methods of treatment, 
cleaning and disinfecting. As much time as possible was spent with 
local practitioners, discussing problems of cholera control. 
New York.-An educational project was placed in New York, in co- 
operation with the Extension Division of the Agricultural College at 
Ithaca, effective January 1, 1920. 
Arizona.-The inspector in charge of regulatory work resigned on 
April 15, 1920, and in view of the limited production of swine in that 
State the vacancy remained unfilled. 
California.-The inspector in charge of educational work resigned 
on April 5, 1920. The vacancy remained unfilled. 
Oklahoma.-The inspector in charge of educational work resigned 
on May 31, 1920. The vacancy was not filled. 
Idaho.-The headquarters were moved from Twin Falls to Boise in 
September, 1920. 
The activities for the year are summed up as follows: Number of 
meetings, 1,005; attendance at these meetings, 62,144; number of hogs 
treated for demonstration, 347,702; attendance at demonstrations, 
8,725; number of farms visited, 46,125; number of farms quaran- 
tined, 6,129; premises cleaned and disinfected, 2,099; interviews on 
hog cholera prevention, 200,034; number of laymen trained to ad- 
minister the treatment against hog cholera, 472. There were reported 
to the inspectors in the field through various sources 9,788 outbreaks 
of hog cholera. The mortality rate was estimated that year to be 46.3 
per 1,000 hogs. 
Activities in 1921 
A greatly reduced appropriation for the year 1921 compelled the 
reduction of the field force on hog cholera work from 140 veterinarians 
to 54. Efforts during the year were directed especially to preventing 
the spread of infection from primary outbreaks with a view to saving 
as many hogs as possible. In view of the reduction of funds and the 
attitude of Congress toward duplication of work by the Bureau and 
the extension service of the agricultural colleges, all projects which 
were purely educational in character were withdrawn at the begin- 
ning of the fiscal year. Such projects were in effect at that time in 
Florida, Georgia, New Mexico, New York, South Dakota and Ohio. In 
Georgia and New Mexico the colleges assumed the payment of the sal- 
aries and the traveling expenses of the Bureau inspectors and the 
work was continued under the direction of the extension officials. 314 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Even with the greatly reduced force, a great amount of good re- 
sulted from the work in the field. During the year 1,202 meetings 
were held with an attendance of 50,928. Demonstrations in the use 
of serum and virus were given to the number of 3,420, in which 
67,295 hogs were treated. These demonstrations were witnessed by 
8,140 persons. Investigations were made on 29,423 farms; 3,888 au- 
topsies were held; 2,268 infected premises were quarantined; 656 
such places were cleaned and disinfected; 96,115 farmers and others 
interested in the control of hog cholera were interviewed and advised, 
and 432 laymen were trained to administer the serum treatment. The 
mortality rate in swine from hog cholera during the year was estimated 
to be 39.3 per 1,000. 
Activities in 1922 
The work in 1922 was administered and conducted along similar 
lines as in 1921. There was an increase in the amount of funds pro- 
vided which made it possible to maintain approximately 80 veterina- 
rians in the field during the year. Activities were continued in the 
following States: 
Alabama 
Arkansas 
California 
Colorado 
Delaware 
Florida 
Georgia 
Idaho 
Illinois 
Indiana 
Iowa 
Kansas 
Kentucky 
Louisiana 
Maryland 
Michigan 
Mississippi 
Missouri 
Montana 
Nebraska 
North Carolina 
North Dakota 
Ohio 
Oklahoma 
South Carolina 
South Dakota 
Tennessee 
Texas 
Utah 
Virginia 
Wisconsin 
California.-A new project agreement was signed with the State 
officials embodying both regulatory and educational features. Sacra- 
mento was made the headquarters under the new agreement, which 
was made effective July 1, 1921. 
West Virginia.-Regulatory work in cooperation with the State 
authorities was begun on June 19, 1922, with headquarters at Charles- 
ton. The work was placed under the supervision of the inspector in 
charge of tuberculosis eradication, adding another State to the num- 
ber in which the projects are combined. 
During the fiscal year 1922 a total of 1,074 meetings were held, at 
which 67,408 persons interested in hog cholera work were present. 
In connection with these activities 171,325 farmers and others were 
interviewed, and 47,137 farms were visited for investigation, in the 
course of which 5,390 autopsies were held to diagnose swine diseases. 
Out of 7,920 outbreaks of swine diseases reported Bureau inspectors 
were able to investigate 6,333 cases, and diagnoses were made as fol- Division of Hog-Cholera Control 
315 
lows: Cholera, 3,887; hemorrhagic septicemia (swine plague), 55; 
necrobacillosis, 368; pneumonia, 499; tuberculosis, 88; other condi- 
tions, 1,436. A total of 1,401 farms were quarantined and 439 prem- 
ises were cleaned and disinfected. Demonstrations in the use of 
serum and virus were given in 4,343 herds before a total attendance 
of 26,428 persons, 86,846 hogs being treated in these demonstrations. 
During the year 246 laymen were trained to administer the serum 
treatment. 
It was estimated that during the year 48.7 hogs per 1,000 died of 
cholera as compared with 39.3 in 1921. The increased loss was the 
result of extensive outbreaks in various sections of the country early 
in the year. Many farmers in those localities were financially unable 
to purchase serum for immunization, and before the outbreaks could 
be checked considerable losses had been sustained. 
Activities in 1923 
During the year ending June 30, 1923, approximately 80 veterina- 
rians were maintained in the field doing work on similar lines as in 
the preceding year. Again the appropriation for the ensuing year 
(1924) was reduced, which compelled a reduction of the field force to 
about 47 veterinarians during the latter part of the year. Many of 
the excess men who were to be transferred on July 1 were placed in 
other lines of work on March 1 and at later dates as opportunities 
were presented. 
Florida.-The hog cholera work was combined with tuberculosis 
eradication work on April 9, 1923, and the two projects placed under 
the direction and supervision of one inspector in charge. 
New Mexico.-An educational project was placed in New Mexico on 
October 1, 1922, but owing to the reduction of funds for 1924 the 
work was discontinued on June 1, 1923. 
West Virginia -'The regulatory project was withdrawn on June 
19, 1923. 
During the fiscal year 1,418 meetings were held at which 84,896 
persons were in attendance. In the course of the year 51,306 visits 
were made to farms to investigate conditions and 183,545 interviews 
were held with farmers and others for the purpose of advising them 
in the control of hog cholera. There were reported from all sources 
7,074 cases of hog cholera, 5,182 autopsies were made through which 
hog cholera was diagnosed in 4,081 cases and other diseases in 1,101 
cases. In addition to the diagnoses through autopsies, diseases of 
swine other than cholera were diagnosed in 1,411 cases without mak- 316 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
ing autopsies. There were 1,632 premises quarantined and 896 were 
cleaned and disinfected. A total of 4,855 demonstrations in the use 
of serum and virus were given, during which 108,472 hogs received 
the treatment and 21,547 persons were present. There were 320 lay- 
men trained in the use of the simultaneous treatment in sections 
where no veterinary services were available. The mortality rate for 
the year was placed at 40.4 per 1,000, estimating that 80 per cent of 
losses from all causes was due to cholera. 
Consolidation of Animal Disease Activities 
From time to time, in accordance with the Bureau's policy of com- 
bining its several disease-control activities in a State under one in- 
spector in charge, the hog cholera work was consolidated with other 
projects in the field. So far, the work has been combined in the 
following States on the dates mentioned: 
Missouri, December, 1918 
California, December, 1918 
South Dakota, December, 1918. 
Kansas, February, 1919 
Ohio, May, 1919 
Tennessee, June. 1919 
Colorado, July, 1919 
Kentucky, August, 1919 
Louisiana, October, 1919 
South Carolina, October, 1919 
Montana, December, 1919 
Arkansas, January, 1920 
Texas, July, 1920 
Indiana, April, 1920 
Nebraska, April, 1920 
Iowa, May, 1920 
Utah, July, 1920 
Idaho, September, 1920 
Oklahoma, November, 1920 
Georgia, March. 1921 
Mississippi, November, 1921 
West Virginia, June, 1922 
Florida, April, 1923 
North Carolina, December 26, 1923 
Tick eradication has been kept under separate supervision except 
in South Carolina, Louisiana, Texas and Oklahoma. 
The appropriations have not been sufficient to undertake systemat- 
ically the eradication of hog cholera, but through field work during 
the past 11 years our knowledge concerning this dreaded malady 
has been materially increased and many times the cost of the field 
work has been saved to the swine industry. There seems to be no 
doubt that when public sentiment becomes more favorable and suffi- 
cient funds are provided, hog cholera can be eradicated as successfully 
as we have eradicated contagious pleuropneumonia, foot-and-mouth 
disease, dourine, and sheep and cattle scabies, and as successfully as we 
are now eradicating bovine tuberculosis and the southern cattle tick. 
Appropriations 
No special appropriation was made for hog cholera field work prior 
to the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914. The money spent for such 
work before that date was allotted by the Bureau from available 
funds. The appropriations for field work were as follows: Division of Hog-Cholera Control 
317 
1914. Regular appropriation $ 75,000 
1915. Special appropriation 450,000 
(Available February 23, 1914, and until exhausted) 
1916. Regular appropriation „ 110,000 
Out of special funds 136,000 
Total $246,000 
1917. Regular appropriation 150,000 
Out of special funds 48,710 
Total $198,710 
1918. Regular appropriation . 208,800 
War emergency funds _ 138,065 
Total $346,865 
1919. Regular appropriation 247,600 
War emergency funds 202,965 
Total $450,565 
1920. Regular appropriation 446,865 
1921. Regular appropriation 192,200 
1922. Regular appropriation 285,480 
1923. Regular appropriation 285.080 
1924. Regular appropriation 181,500 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
Jan. 1,1916. Office of Hog Cholera Control created. 
Jan. 1,1916. The supplying of free serum discontinued. 
July 1,1917. Work made statewide instead of limited to counties. 
Jan. 12,1918. St. Louis Conference. 
Dec. 1918. Policy of combining hog-cholera activities with other animal- 
disease control projects under one inspector in charge 
inaugurated. 
Apr. 16,1919. Office of Hog Cholera Control changed to Division of Hog 
Cholera Control. 
PERSONNEL OF THE DIVISION OF HOG-CHOLERA CONTROL 
In charge: 
Dr. M. Dorset, Chief of the Biochemic Division, in charge of hog-cholera 
work to January 1, 1916. 
Dr. 0. B. Hess, in charge of Office of Hog Cholera Control, January 1, 
1916, to April 15, 1919. 
Chief of Division: 
Dr. U. G. Houck, April 16, 1919, to date. 
Assistants: 
Dr. U. G. Houck, July 16, 1913, to April 1, 1914. 
Dr. O. B. Hess, April 2, 1914. to January 1, 1916. 
Dr. T. P. White, October 9, 1916, to date. Tick Eradication Division 
The field studies of Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of the new Bureau, 
convinced him that the losses which occurred so regularly every sum- 
mer from Texas fever were largely the result of ignorance of the dis- 
tricts from which it was dangerous to bring cattle in summer and to 
which adult cattle could not be taken with safety at any season of the 
year unless for immediate slaughter. State laws and regulations had 
failed to accomplish their purpose, as outbreaks had occurred in New 
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, 
Ohio, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas and Dakota, and in most of these 
States the disease had appeared repeatedly. Therefore it seemed 
that an approximately correct determination of the northern boun- 
dary of the permanently infected area was a matter of supreme 
importance at that time. In 1883 the northern boundary line of this 
area had been determined for 200 miles west from the Atlantic Ocean 
through Virginia. During the year 1884 it was extended to the Mis- 
sissippi River, in 1885 to the Rio Grande River, and in 1895 it was 
extended from the Rio Grande to the Pacific Coast. This line has 
been modified from time to time to correspond with the progress made 
in eradicating the tick. Little work was done on Texas fever between 
1884 and 1888 besides determining the northern boundary of the in- 
fected area and collecting data on the disease, as the efforts of the 
Bureau were concentrated on the eradication of contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia and on hog-cholera investigations. 
On July 3, 1889, the first Texas fever quarantine order was issued 
by the Bureau. This order required that cattle from the quarantined 
area en route to northern markets be yarded away from native cattle 
in separate pens, and that the cars in which they were transported 
be cleaned and disinfected before they were again used. The order re- 
mained in effect until November 1 of that year, and similar orders 
have been issued every year since that time. 
Discovering the Cause of Texas Fever 
The Bureau was fortunate in obtaining the services of Dr. Theobald 
Smith* on July 1, 1884, to take charge of the investigations of infec- 
tious animal diseases under the supervision of the Chief of the Bureau. 
It was during the summer of 1888 that Dr. Smith first noticed the de- 
struction of the corpuscles in the blood of cattle sick with Texas fever, 
and he began to formulate theories as to how it came about. His ob- 
servations in 1888 led to systematic experiments, beginning June 27, 
* See "Texas Fever," page 15, and "Pathological Division," page 55. 
318 Tick Eradication Division 
319 
1889, which were at once fruitful in confirming a previous discovery- 
made in 1886, of a peculiar microorganism in the red blood corpuscles, 
a protozoon which later studies proved to be the true cause of the 
disease. Dr. R. C. Stiles was the earliest and the only observer 
hitherto who had laid any stress upon the changed condition of the 
blood corpuscles in this disease. His description would lead one to 
believe that he saw the microorganism of Texas fever in the red cor- 
puscles of the blood of infected cattle in 1868, but he did not prove 
its relation to the disease. And Babes had diagnosed these organisms 
as bacteria (haematococcus) for Starcovici, who found them in the 
blood of Rumanian cattle in 1888. 
At the same time that Smith discovered this organism in the blood 
corpuscles, other experiments indicated that the cattle tick was some- 
how necessary to the transmission of the disease, and finally Texas 
fever was caused experimentally by putting recently hatched ticks on 
susceptible cattle protected from any other possible source of infection. 
Dr. Cooper Curtice, a member of the Bureau force, began the study 
of the life history of the tick in the fall of 1889, and on December 16 
his first experiment was completed. It was discovered quite acci- 
dentally that adult females kept confined in .bottles or other recep- 
tacles always lay their eggs. Such a stock of eggs furnished the start- 
ing point for Dr. Curtice's investigations. Some of these young ticks 
were placed on a calf in an artificially heated stable November 15, 
1889, for the purpose of studying the life history of the parasite. The 
calf became sick but the cause of the sickness was not determined. In 
all probability if a count had been made of the blood corpuscles of 
this calf the relation of the tick to Texas fever might have been dis- 
covered at that time. Dr. Curtice succeeded in working out the life 
history of the Texas fever tick. He placed the parasite in a new 
genus, Boophilus, calling it Boophilus bovis, which name later became 
Boophilus annulatus, after it was recognized that the tick described 
by Riley in 1869 as Ixodes bovis was the same as that described from 
deer in Florida in 1821 by Say. More recently the scientific name 
Mar gar opus annulatus has been commonly used. 
In referring to his studies of this parasite Dr. Curtice stated, in 
a paper which he read on February 3, 1890, before the Washington 
Biological Society: "Having learned to breed the ticks in quantity, 
I conceived the experiments of taking northern calves and placing 
young ticks upon them to determine the extent and kind of injury 
ihat the ticks should cause their hosts." 320 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Dr. Smith says in his report on the early investigations: 
During the summer of 1889, Dr. F. L. Kilborne, in arranging the 
various inclosures at the experiment station for the exposure of 
native cattle to the infection of Texas fever, conceived the happy 
idea of testing this popular theory of the relation of ticks to the 
disease. 
The first test was made during the summer months, and others fol- 
lowed in September, all of which pointed directly to ticks as being in 
some way the carriers of Texas fever. The tentative conclusions 
reached from the work of 1888 and 1889 were that: 
Texas fever is a disease not produced by bacteria. 
Texas fever is probably caused by a protozoon living for a time 
within the red corpuscles of the blood of infected animals. 
Southern cattle without ticks can not infect pastures. 
Ticks alone scattered on a pasture will produce the disease in sus- 
ceptible cattle. 
Investigations were planned for 1890 to confirm or refute the 
preliminary conclusions already reached, but the field experiments 
were interrupted by a heavy rain which washed ticks or eggs from 
one field containing ticky southern cattle to other fields where experi- 
ments were under way. However, in the investigations in which ticks 
were hatched artificially and placed on cattle, Texas fever resulted in 
every case, and a clear proof of the transmission of the disease by 
ticks was secured. 
During the year 1891 the disease was transmitted from sick to 
well animals by blood inoculations, and the tentative conclusion that 
the tick is the intermediate host of the protozoon which destroys the 
blood corpuscles in the course of the disease was further substan- 
tiated by the experiments conducted. 
The final experiments conducted in 1892 confirmed those of 1888, 
1889, 1890, and 1891, and on February 6, 1893, B. A. I. Bulletin No. 1 
was issued, giving a review of the investigations and the conclusions 
reached as to the nature of the disease, its cause and the manner in 
which it is transmitted from infected to susceptible animals. 
Dr. Theobald Smith entered the service of the Bureau July 1, 
1884; Dr. F. L. Kilborne, July 29, 1885; Dr. Cooper Curtice, August 
1, 1886; Dr. V. A. Moore, December 22, 1886; Dr. E. C. Schroeder, 
August 15, 1887; Dr. Emile A. de Schweinitz, January 1, 1890. We 
cannot conceive that it would have been possible at that time to select 
a group of men better fitted for their respective duties in the new 
Bureau, and it was inevitable that such a staff of scientists, organized 
and working harmoniously under the direction of their able chief, Dr. Tick Eradication Division 
321 
Salmon, would accomplish much in the fertile fields of investigation 
and research that lay before them. Naturally they discussed among 
themselves new features in connection with their investigations and 
conferred with one another on perplexities as they arose. There 
seems to be no doubt that Texas fever was the most engrossing sub- 
ject of thought and activity at the Experiment Station from 1888 
to 1892. Each member of the staff performed his duties well and to 
each belongs his share of the glory for what he contributed toward 
the discovery of the cause of Texas fever. 
It was definitely proved that the tick is instrumental in carrying 
the infection from one animal to another, but up to this time the 
infective agent had not been observed in the body of the tick. In 
1906 Koch reported the discovery of certain bodies in engorged female 
ticks of the African variety of our Texas fever tick and also in their 
.eggs, which bodies he identified as developmental stages of the micro- 
organism. In 1907 Christophers recorded similar results in connec- 
tion with his study of the dog tick which transmits canine piroplas- 
mosis, and in 1916 Crawley of the Zoological Division of the Bureau 
found in Texas fever ticks and their eggs bodies evidently correspond- 
ing to the forms described by Koch and Christophers. 
Texas fever has the distinction of being the first disease caused by 
a microorganism proved to attack its victim exclusively through the 
agency of an intermediate host or carrier of its causative germ or 
microparasite, and the Bureau of Animal Industry has the distinc- 
tion of being the first institution to discover that a disease can be 
transmitted in this manner. This is regarded as one of the greatest 
and most beneficent achievements in medical research, as it led to 
the discovery that other dreaded diseases, including yellow fever, ma- 
laria, typhus fever, African sleeping sickness, Rocky Mountain spot- 
ted fever, nagana and others, are carried through an intermediate 
host. In referring to this achievement, Dr. Mohler in his address as 
President of the American Veterinary Medical Association on Sep- 
tember 1, 1913, in New York City, said: "It has made possible such 
triumphs of sanitary science as have been accomplished on the Isthmus 
of Panama and without which the great canal could not have been 
constructed so expeditiously and with so little loss of human life." 
Dr. E. C. Schroeder, who participated in conducting some of the 
original investigations and is now Superintendent of the Bureau 
Experiment Station, stated in a lecture on "The Economic Advan- 
tages Derived from Animal Experimentation," delivered at George- 
town University May 16, 1920, that "the Panama Canal would not 322 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
have been built if animal experimentation had not revealed the etiol- 
ogy of yellow fever. The French failed to build it not because they 
lacked intelligence, courage, or perseverance, but because they did 
not know how to control yellow fever." 
Dr. Simon Flexner, of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Re- 
search, in a lecture at Georgetown University on March 28, 1920, ex- 
pressed the opinion that "our knowledge of yellow fever would in all 
likelihood have been delayed if the work of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture on Texas fever had 
not been done." 
Early Quarantined Areas 
The Secretary of Agriculture, the Department having been raised 
to the status of a cabinet department in 1889, issued an order on 
February 26, 1892, putting the following States and the Indian Ter- 
ritory within the permanently infected area: South Carolina, Georgia,. 
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas and Louisiana. The southern 
portions of the following States crossed by the quarantine line were 
also included in the order: Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, 
Oklahoma and Texas. In 1894 outbreaks of Texas fever in Nevada, 
Kansas and Missouri, were reported as apparently caused by cattle 
originating in California, and Mr. W. E. Hill, an inspector of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, was sent to California to investigate, 
with the result that it was found that a large part of this State was 
permanenly infested with the Texas fever tick. Accordingly in 1895 
California was included in the infested or quarantined area. The de- 
termining of the northern boundary line of the permanently infected 
area was a contribution to the investigations of Texas fever that fig- 
ured next in economic importance to the discovery of the cause of the 
disease and the manner of its transmission. 
The enforcement of regulations controlling the movement of cattle 
from the quarantined area resulted in largely preventing the heavy 
losses that had occurred previously each year, and the Bureau has 
continued to supervise the movement of southern cattle ever since 
the first order was issued. 
Experiments in Immunization 
After the cause of Texas fever had been determined definitely, in- 
vestigations were directed by the Bureau and various State agencies 
to discover some chemical agent or combination which might be ap- 
plied to cattle by dipping or otherwise to free them from ticks, also to 
work out a method of inoculation or vaccination by which northern Tick Eradication Division 
323 
cattle might be immunized against the disease before they were shipped 
south for breeding or other purposes, and also to ascertain whether 
it was feasible to eradicate the ticks in large infested districts and by 
what means. The investigations were continued along these three 
lines from 1892 to 1906, when systematic tick eradication was taken 
up by the Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the States. 
It was suggested by the experiments of the Bureau in 1892 and 
1893 that through the production of a mild, nonfatal attack of Texas 
fever in northern cattle a very considerable amount of protection 
would be produced against the disease when these cattle were subse- 
quently exposed to the infection on tick-infested pastures. The meth- 
ods proposed for procuring such a mild, nonfatal attack were (1) the 
artificial inoculation either into a vein or under the skin of susceptible 
animals, during the fall or winter, of defibrinated blood from an im- 
mune bovine; or (2) the less certain way consisting of the exposure 
of the nonimmune animals to ticks by confining the animals to an 
inclosed pasture after scatterig ripe, egg-laying ticks over the grass. 
Up to 1897 most of the investigations along this line were directed 
toward the preparation of an effectual serum which could be admin- 
istered with safety. Artificial serum, spleen pulp, sterilized blood 
serum and other preparations were used, but the results were not 
generally satisfactory. The simple hypodermic injection of fresh 
blood taken from immune southern cattle displaced all other methods 
of immunization and seemed quite promising. 
In October, 1895, Moore and Schroeder, of the Bureau Experiment 
Station at Washington, D. C., inoculated 11 head of susceptible cattle 
with fresh blood from immune cattle. Five of the 11 showed no sign 
of the disease after the treatment, while the remainder had mild at- 
tacks, but soon recovered. Four out of five checks that were not 
inoculated developed the disease and died, while the fifth suffered 
severely but recovered. 
Dr. M. Francis, of the Texas Experiment Station, and Dr. J. W. 
Connaway, of the Missouri Experiment Station, were the first inves- 
tigators to use the fresh-blood method on a sufficiently large scale to 
test its merits in actual practice. Dr. J. C. Robert, of the Mississippi 
Experiment Station, and Dr. W. H. Dalrymple, of the Louisiana Ex- 
periment Station, began serum inoculation with fresh blood early in 
1897. Pond and Hunt planned a similar line of investigation and 
began to carry it out in Australia in 1897. Various veterinarians 
were working independently to perfect immunization against Texas 
fever, but the methods and results of immunization by blood injections 324 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
were not well understood until 1898. The results of the work of some 
of those early engaged in immunization experiments were published 
in 1904, as follows: 
C. A. Cary, Alabama 45 immunized, 8.9 per cent loss 
Charles F. Dawson, Florida 26 immunized, 11.5 per cent loss 
W. H. Dalrymple, Louisiana 200 immunized, 3.5 per cent loss 
J. C. Robert, Mississippi 200 immunized, 6.0 per cent loss 
J. W. Connaway, Missouri 1,800 immunized, 8.0 per cent loss 
Tait Butler, North Carolina 63 immunized, 1.6 per cent loss 
G. E. Nesom, South Carolina 388 immunized, 0.77 per cent loss 
M. Francis, Texas - 2,028 immunized, 9.2 per cent loss 
Average loss, 7.6 per cent. 
Young animals were used largely in these experiments, as the mor- 
tality in calves following immunization was much lower than in adult 
animals. These results were considered rather successful at the time 
from a scientific point of view, but this method of combating the dis- 
ease did not prove entirely satisfactory in practice and gave way to 
other methods that were more certain. 
Experiments in Dipping Cattle to Destroy Ticks 
Various substances and combinations suggested for spraying, dip- 
ping and smearing cattle to kill the ticks were tested between 1892 
and 1906, with the hope of finding one that would accomplish the de- 
sired object, but none was found that proved entirely satisfactory, as 
they either did not kill the ticks or affected the cattle too severely to 
be of practical value. 
Under the quarantine regulations cattle from below the quarantine 
line could be shipped to market for purposes other than slaughter 
only between November 15 and February 15. The restrictions placed 
upon the transportation and marketing of southern cattle had such 
a depressing effect upon the cattle industry south of the quarantine 
line that the discovery of some method of destroying the ticks upon 
all cattle, or even upon those intended for marketing, was regarded 
as second in importance only to the discovery of the cause of Texas 
fever. Therefore the Bureau directed its efforts toward finding a 
suitable dip. 
Dr. Victor A. Nbrgaard, who later was appointed Chief of the 
Pathological Division of the Bureau, was detailed to conduct dip- 
ping experiments in Texas. R. J. Kleberg, manager of the Santa 
Gertrudes ranch in Nueces County, Texas, designed and built the 
first vat used by the Bureau in its dip investigations. This vat was 
placed at the disposal of the Bureau early in 1895, together with the 
ticky cattle on the ranch. During the following five years 25,000 Tick Eradication Division 
325 
cattle were passed through this vat in testing the tick-destroying 
properties of various disinfecting preparations. 
The best results were obtained during the first year from the use 
of Chloronaptholeum and the Lone Star cattle and sheep wash, two 
coal-tar preparations. In August, 1897, the Fort Worth Stock Yards 
Company built a large cattle-dipping plant and placed it at the dis- 
posal of the Bureau, and the experiments were transferred from the 
Santa Gertrudes ranch to the Fort Worth Stock Yards. 
The so-called paraffin lubricating oils were tested at Fort Worth. 
The results obtained at first with these oils were so satisfactory that 
in September, 1897, a meeting was called at Fort Worth to demon- 
strate dipping with this substance. The meeting was attended by 
delegates from Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Okla- 
homa, Texas and the Indian Territory. The results of this demon- 
stration did not prove entirely satisfactory, but it was decided to 
continue the experiments. 
On April 1, 1898, the experiments with paraffin oil were resumed 
at the Santa Gertrudes ranch, where it was less difficult to obtain 
ticky cattle. The results on the ranch were not uniformly satisfac- 
tory, and paraffin oil was discarded. Next, two oils with sulphur 
added were tried, but they, too, failed to give the results desired, and 
the experiments were again discontinued at the ranch. 
In June, 1898, the experiments were resumed at Fort Worth. 
"Extra dynamo oil" was used, and after a few trials, sulphur was 
added to this oil. The results obtained from dipping in this oil 
seemed so pleasing that it was decided to test it on quite a large num- 
ber of cattle and ship them north immediately after dipping. Ac- 
cordingly, 311 cattle were dipped on July 22 and shipped to Rock- 
ford, Illinois, the following day. The weather was rather hot and 
the cattle suffered severely in transit. The oil killed the ticks, but 
eight cattle died en route and eight "downers" were left behind at 
unloading stations. The greatest barrier to success in dipping cattle 
was that the ticks were better able to resist the effects of dips than 
were the cattle. 
Dips containing as the main ingredients carbolic acid, tobacco ex- 
tract, sodium sulphate, glycerin, lime and sulphur and numerous 
other substances either singly or in combination were tried and found 
to be unsatisfactory. Dr. M. Francis, of the Texas Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, was the first to suggest the use of oil as a dip. Cot- 
onseed oil was tried first at his suggestion, and after it was found that 
this oil did not prove satisfactory he suggested crude mineral oil. In 326 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
1903 attention was given to testing the value of crude mineral oil. 
Beaumont crude petroleum (from the vicinity of Beaumont, Texas) 
gave better results generally than any other crude oil or any other 
dip that had been tried, and it was used almost exclusively from 
1903 to 1911 as a spray, a smear and a dip in freeing cattle of ticks. 
The Beginnings of Tick Eradication 
While efforts were being made to develop a safe, effectual system 
of immunization and various dips were being investigated, experi- 
ments were conducted in ridding pastures of ticks. From Dr. Cur- 
tice's study of the life history of the tick it was learned that it can 
mature and reproduce its kind only by passing a portion of its exist- 
ence upon an animal, preferably bovines, and that the whole progeny 
will die out within a few months if they can not reach such animals. 
It was demonstrated conclusively that by excluding animals from 
infested premises for a few months the ticks in the pasture would 
perish for want of a host, as they can not mature without the nourish- 
ment that they normally get from the blood of an animal. And if at 
the expiration of the required time after removal from an infested 
pasture the cattle were cleaned of ticks by hand picking, spraying or 
dipping and placed in a clean pasture, they remained free from them. 
Freeing cattle of ticks thus in connection with the rotation of pas- 
tures was the plan first used for exterminating the pest on an exten- 
sive scale. Experience showed that ticks could be exterminated 
quickly by this method in communities where farms and fields were 
fenced, but it was appreciated that it would be very difficult if not 
impossible to carry out the plan on the ranges and in territory where 
there was no fence law. 
In a paper read June 24, 1896, before the Virginia State Veterinary 
Medical Association, Dr. Cooper Curtice said: "It is the relationship 
between the tick and the disease and the means of eradicating them 
from Virginia and the United States to which I invite your atten- 
tion." This paper of Dr. Curtice's probably contained the first pub- 
lished statement of the possibility of tick eradication. In introducing 
Dr. Curtice in a lecture tour in Alabama, Representative Richmond 
P. Hobson referred to Dr. Curtice as "the father of tick eradication." 
By 1906 the following methods of eradicating ticks had been de- 
veloped and tried in different sections of the South: 
1. Picking and brushing ticks off of cattle. 
2. Smearing or spraying cattle with a disinfecting solution. 
3. Dipping in a vat containing a substance that would destroy the 
ticks without undue injury to the cattle. Tick Eradication Division 
327 
4. The "soiling" method. 
5. Freeing pastures of ticks: 
a. By excluding cattle from the pasture to be freed of ticks for a 
definite period (the "starvation method"). 
b. By cultivation of the pasture. 
c. By burning the grass off of the pasture. 
6. Freeing cattle and pasture of ticks at the same time: 
a. By the "feed-lot" method, as recommended by Morgan of 
Louisiana. 
b. By pasture rotation, which combined the suggestions of Curtice, 
Butler and Morgan. 
Long before it was known that ticks were the carriers of the infec- 
tion, cattlemen had learned through unfortunate experiences that 
for unknown reasons at uncertain times some ranges were dangerous 
for cattle. In many instances, after losing nonimmune cattle that 
had been grazed on an infested range, these pastures were avoided 
for a season or longer; thus the starvation method of freeing pastures 
of ticks was unconsciously applied. Also some ranchmen had been in 
the habit, for many years before tick eradication work was begun, of 
removing ticks from cattle by the use of a curry comb, or by the 
application of some kind of medicine or dip. Usually only the most 
heavily infested animals were thus treated. In some instances the 
cattle were crowded into a chute and sprayed through the cracks of 
the chute. In other instances on the Pacific Coast ranchmen drove 
their cattle into the ocean surf from time to time, which resulted in 
some good, as the largest ticks were dislodged by the force of the surf. 
Some good was accomplished, but of course none of these palliative 
measures resulted in permanent relief, as the work was only par- 
tially done. 
The national interest and activity in the work of tick eradication 
was stimulated by the successful pioneer work done in North Carolina 
by Dr. Tait Butler, State Veterinarian, from 1902 to 1906. The method 
he used was the application of Beaumont crude petroleum, and the 
removal of cattle from pastures from September 1 to May 1, or the 
rotation of pastures. In 1902 only sixteen of the northwestern coun- 
ties of the State were free from the Federal quarantine. At the end 
of 1906 twenty counties had been freed of ticks in North Carolina. 
South Carolina also was active in tick-eradication work. Dr. Louis 
A. Klein was appointed State Veterinarian to succeed Dr. G. E. 
Nesom October 1, 1904. During the remainder of that year he fin- 
ished the immunizing experiments begun by Dr. Nesom. Dr. J. R. 328 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Mohler, Chief of the Pathological Division of the Bureau, who had 
conducted successful tick-eradication work on some farms in Virginia 
during 1904, went to South Carolina in the fall of 1905 to enlist the 
services of Dr. Klein in conducting some cooperative tick eradication 
experiments in Oconee County of that State. These experiments 
were conducted to determine the practicability of attempts to get rid 
of ticks by applying crude petroleum to the cattle while they con- 
tinued to use tick-infested lots, barns and pastures in the usual man- 
ner, and to determine the best time to begin the applications and 
how often and at what intervals it would be necessary to reapply 
the oil in order to free the cattle and premises from ticks. The most 
satisfactory results were obtained in South Carolina from a plan 
arranged by Dr. Mohler. With this plan a part of the pasture was 
not used for five months at a time in order to starve the ticks. The 
cattle were freed from ticks by being kept for three successive periods 
of twenty days each in three separate lots or fields. Up to this time 
some States had centered their activities on immunization experi- 
ments. The results of Dr. Mohler's studies of tick eradication and 
his observations in the field inspired him with confidence that the 
complete eradication of ticks from the South was a feasible under- 
taking, a feeling that was not shared confidently by all of his supe- 
riors at that time. 
There are others who deserve recognition in connection with the 
pioneer tick-eradication work. Dinwiddie, of the Arkansas Experi- 
ment Station, was an early investigator. Morgan, of the Louisiana 
Agricultural Experiment Station, reported investigations conducted 
in Louisiana having to do with the various stages of the tick, espe- 
cially with regard to the influence of heat, cold and light and the 
effects of water upon the tick and its eggs. Later, Morgan discussed 
and emphasized the practicability of freeing cattle and pastures of 
ticks by following pasture-rotation methods based upon known facts 
in the life history. Newell and Dougherty, of the State Crop Pest 
Commission of Louisiana, made a comprehensive study of the ticks, 
and they, too, formulated a pasture rotation method of ridding cattle 
and farms of ticks, adapted to conditions prevailing in Louisiana. 
Cotton, of the Tennessee Experiment Station, published life-history 
notes on ticks and suggested a number of rotation methods for tick 
eradication. Also the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of 
Agriculture issued a bulletin by Hunter and Hooker which incor- 
porated the results of comprehensive investigations conducted by 
these authors at Dallas, Texas, and Graybill and Sewallen of the Tick Eradication Division 
329 
Bureau of Animal Industry made further important contributions 
to the knowledge of the life history from work done at Auburn, Ala. 
The seventh annual convention of the Southern States Associa- 
tion of Commissioners of Agriculture was held at Richmond, Va., No- 
vember 22, 23 and 24, 1905. Addresses relating to different phases of 
tick eradication were delivered by Dr. Tait Butler, Veterinarian of 
the North Carolina Department of Agriculture; Dr. C. A. Cary, of the 
Alabama Experiment Station, and Dr. J. R. Mohler, Chief of the 
Pathological Division of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry. There 
were some at this meeting who doubted the possibility of eradicating 
ticks in large areas, and in replying to them Dr. Butler said: "But 
it is being done; it has been done." 
Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, attended the con- 
vention, and was so impressed with the addresses and the sentiment 
expressed in favor of tick eradication, the possibility of exterminating 
the pest, and the need of the States for asistance from the National 
Government, that after conferring with Dr. Mohler he telegraphed 
to Dr. A. D. Melvin, then Acting Chief of the Bureau, Dr. D. E. Sal- 
mon having resigned October 5, to come to Richmond immediately 
for a conference. After his conference with Dr. Melvin and Dr. Moh- 
ler, the Secretary, in addressing the convention, announced his deci- 
sion to lay the matter before Congress and ask for an appropriation 
to enable the Bureau to cooperate with the States more actively in 
the eradication of the cattle tick. On the way back from Richmond 
the Secretary informed Dr. Melvin that he would be appointed Chief 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and expressed the belief that tick 
eradication would be the paramount activity of the Bureau for sev- 
eral years to come. On the recommendation of the Secretary and the 
representations of prominent State livestock authorities and cattle- 
men who had satisfied themselves that tick eradication was both pos- 
sible and practicable in the South, Congress appropriated the sum 
of $82,500, available July 1, 1906, to begin the work of freeing the 
South of cattle ticks. 
Anticipating the favorable action of Congress, inspections were 
continued along the quarantine line to locate tick infestation, and an 
investigation was commenced soon after the meeting in Richmond in 
November, to ascertain if the States had laws under which the Na- 
tional Government could cooperate effectually in the work of tick 
eradication. It was learned that while some State laws afforded 
ample provisions, other States either had no laws bearing on the sub- 
ject or the statutes were inadequate. At that time only seven States, 330 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Kenucky, Tennessee, Oklahoma, 
and California, had laws which would enable the Bureau to cooperate 
with them. 
Systematic Tick Eradication Undertaken 
Tick eradication was commenced in earnest in July, 1906, under 
the direction of the Inspection Division of the Bureau. Dr. Rice P. 
Steddom, Chief of that Division, was relieved from all other duties 
from July 1 to the latter part of the following January in order 
that he might devote all his time and efforts to organizing and pres- 
sing forward this new project. 
The infested territory was divided into five districts as follows: 
1. California.-Headquarters at Los Angeles. Dr. W. M. MacKel- 
lar in charge. 
2. Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Arkansas and Louisiana.-Head- 
quarters at Kansas City, Mo. Col. Albert A. Dean in charge. 
3. Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama and Mississippi.-Headquarters 
at Nashville, Tenn. Dr. W. P. Ellenberger in charge. 
4. Georgia and South Carolina.-Headquarters at Atlanta, Ga. Dr. 
A. J. Payne in charge. 
5. Virginia and North Carolina.-Headquarters at Lynchburg, Va. 
Dr. Cooper Curtice in charge. 
The Bureau veterinarians in charge of these districts were in- 
structed to direct their efforts from the quarantine line south. 
Considerable trouble was experienced in procuring a sufficient 
number of competent veterinarians for the tick work, as the meat- 
inspection law of 1906, which required a large increase of the meat 
inspection force, became effective at about the same time that the 
tick eradication work was begun. However, by the end of the year 
97 Bureau veterinarians were at work in the field. 
Although the field operations were not commenced until late in 
July, by November 1, 1907, 29,315 herds, numbering 548,844 cattle, 
located in 82 counties, had been inspected. Of this number 328,064 
were found infested and 220,780 were found free of ticks. On No- 
vember 1, 1907, 37 counties and 19 portions of counties in Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, Ken- 
tucky, Arkansas, Texas, Missouri, California, Louisiana and the Ter- 
ritory of Oklahoma, comprising a cleaned area of 40,970 square miles, 
were released from quarantine. This was considered a very creditable 
accomplishment the first year, in view of the fact that considerable 
time was spent at first in doing advance educational and demonstra- Tick Eradication Division 
331 
tional work before placing quarantine restrictions on individual prem- 
ises and otherwise applying intensive methods. 
At the close of the year 1907 the Bureau tick-eradication force 
numbered 220 men. Most of the work was done contiguous to the 
quarantine line, but encouragement was given to local work in any 
part of the quarantined area by assuring those who contemplated 
local activities that when any considerable area, such as a county, 
was rendered free of ticks it would be released from quarantine. Two 
parishes in Louisiana, Lincoln and Claiborne, were the first local areas 
situated away from the quarantine line to receive the benefits of this 
provision. They were given provisional quarantine November 1, 1907. 
Although the more intelligent cattle owners manifested much en- 
thusiasm in tick eradication, it was found impossible to guard against 
infractions of the regulations in maintaining the quarantine line. 
Local butchers persisted in violating the regulations in driving 
butcher stock; ox teams carried ticks into territory that had been re- 
leased from quarantine; stray cattle were allowed to roam at will 
over unfenced pasture land; and the man who owned livestock and 
did not believe in tick eradication was a constant menace. Inspectors 
were derided and ridiculed and looked upon with great suspicion by 
many people who still had in mind the "carpetbagger" of recon- 
struction days. To many persons cattle-tick eradication seemed an 
impossible proceeding because they could not be induced to recognize 
that any difference existed between ticks found on the various small 
wild animals and the cattle ticks with which their cattle, horses and 
mules were infested. 
The most discouraging conditions with which the inspectors had to 
contend were the need of adequate State laws, the disinclination of 
State authorities to enforce existing law, the lack of State and county 
funds to carry on the work, and the prevailing ignorance and preju- 
dice encountered everywhere. A troublesome factor, and one which 
added to the prejudice against the work, was the fact that in the 
quarantined area immediately below the original quarantine line, no- 
tably in northern Arkansas, and in Tennessee and Kentucky, some 
cattle were oftentimes found as grossly infested as elsewhere and no 
losses were sustained from Texas fever. Inspectors assigned to the 
work were frequently embarrassed when urging the importance of 
tick eradication in these areas by the insistence of cattle owners and 
State officials that cattle-tick infestation was not a serious menace. 
It was later found that the ticks in these particular sections had been 
brought in by horses, mules and colts which had been removed from 332 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
pastures in Texas where no cattle had been kept, and that these ticks 
were not engorged with the blood of Texas fever hosts and therefore 
could not transmit the disease to other cattle. 
During the first year of the work many articles were prepared for 
the press, also two bulletins were written by Dr. Mohler pertaining to 
the life history of the cattle tick, the points of differentiation between 
different species of ticks found in the South, the methods of eradica- 
tion that had proved most successful in different sections of the in- 
fested area, the damages to the cattle industry from ticks, and the 
benefit that would be derived in the South from the eradication of this 
pest. These bulletins were distributed widely, meetings were held at 
which tick eradication was discussed, and other means, including the 
press, were employed to enlighten cattle owners and interest them in 
the great work that had been undertaken in their behalf. 
A uniform method of procedure could not be outlined, as the con- 
ditions differed in different sections. It was essential that the in- 
spectors assigned to duty on the plains of the Southwest be proficient 
in the use of the lariat in securing animals for inspection, and in the 
open range country the dipping vat was found the most practicable 
means of applying an insecticide. In the Southeast, where the herds 
were small, hand dressing and the rotation of pastures could be used 
to advantage. In all of this work the representatives of the Bureau, 
State or county found it necessary to apply the insecticide, or at least 
assist, or often it would not be done. 
As might be expected where so many State and Bureau men were 
assigned to a new work under unfavorable conditions, some through 
ignorance and others in their enthusiasm did not at first display as 
much tact and judgment as the circumstances required. A confer- 
ence of Federal and State representatives was called to meet at 
Nashville, Tenn., December 5 and 6, 1906, for the purpose of discus- 
sing plans for tick eradication and methods of procedure. At this 
conference it was decided to hold a series of meetings for instructing 
State and Federal representatives who were to engage in tick eradica- 
tion in farm management, the rotation of crops and such other sub- 
jects as would better fit them to deal with the question in the different 
localities where the work was to be done. Accordingly two meetings 
were held, one at Chattanooga, Tenn., the latter part of April, and 
the other at Richmond, Va., early in May, 1907. These meetings or 
schools were addressed by persons selected by the State authorities. 
The Bureau worked only in States and counties or parishes where 
State and local authorities were prepared to assist and where public Tick Eradication Division 
333 
sentiment was favorable. The work continued to spread and by 1909 
some of the benefits were being realized in territory freed of ticks. 
An investigation was made that year which revealed through letters 
received from livestock men that- 
More cattle were being raised in areas freed of ticks than before the 
ticks were eradicated. 
Cattle put on flesh more rapidly during the grazing season, and in 
the fall were in better condition for wintering. 
Cattle could be marketed without quarantine restrictions, which re- 
sulted in an increase in price of from $3 to $15 a head above cattle of 
the same grade from tick-infested territory. 
Dairy cows gave a larger yield of milk and higher prices were 
being obtained. 
Calves grew faster and were worth twice as much as in ticky 
territory. 
Values in farm lands were increasing with the development of the 
cattle and dairy industries. 
By 1910 the efforts of the Bureau to eradicate cattle ticks had at- 
tracted the attention of the officials of the various railroads in the 
Southern States and also the management of some industrial concerns, 
as well as most banking institutions interested in the development of 
the South. Great impetus was given to the work by some of these 
organizations through the publication and wide distribution of litera- 
ture stressing tick eradication as an economic measure of national 
importance affecting not only the cattle owners of the South but the 
merchants, bankers and all other business proportionately. Tick 
eradication began to assume the proportions of a great business en- 
terprise, and skepticism regarding its practicability rapidly disap- 
peared. The duties of the Federal inspectors, which up to that time 
had been in the nature of personal service, for the first time became 
really supervisory in character. 
Development of the Arsenical Dip 
At the Nashville meeting in 1906, Dr. Joseph W. Parker reported 
that since July of that year he had been working under instructions 
froni the Chief of the Bureau in cooperation with the Live Stock Sani- 
tary Commission of Texas in experimenting with an arsenical dip 
based on an Australian formula which had been used with promising 
results by Dr. N. S. Mayo, Chief Veterinarian of Cuba. Dr. Parker's 
report indicated that this dip was worthy of further trial. Follow- 
ing the experimental work of 1906, the Zoological Division, in co- 334 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
operation with the Biochemic Division, undertook an extensive study 
of this dip. In California in 1907, following unsatisfactory expe- 
rience with oils and other disinfectants, the arsenical dip, with the 
addition of soap, was used extensively, with such good results that 
this dip was given official approval by State authorities and was gen- 
erally used from that time until the work in that State was finished. 
The arsenic-soda-pine-tar preparation, which later became known as 
"boiled dip," came into favor rapidly, and, effective November 1, 
1911, an order was promulgated permitting the use of arsenical solu- 
tion as an official dip for the interstate movement of cattle originating 
in the quarantined area. 
The development of the arsenical dip proved a boon to tick eradi- 
cation, for the activities in the field were beginning to lag by 1911, 
owing to the fact that none of the methods used in the eradication 
work up to this time had proved entirely saisfactory. The oil dips 
proved irritating to the skin of cattle in too many instances, espe- 
cially where the animals were exposed to the rays of the sun or were 
exercised severely after dipping. Hand dressing had proved too slow 
and expensive. Spraying was often done carelessly, with disappoint- 
ing results. Pasture rotation methods were effective where applicable, 
but many farmers did not have the facilities to carry these methods 
into effect and some were lacking in inclination. Funds were lacking 
to make rapid progress with these methods. The development and 
official approval of the arsenical dip in 1911 gave an impetus to tick 
eradication that has continued to the present. Also by this time the 
people of the South had come to realize that on account of the ravages 
and rapid spread of the boll weevil in the cotton districts, they must 
give more attention to diversified farming and stock raising. While 
much had been accomplished in improving the hog and poultry in- 
dustries, it was pretty generally realized that their cattle raising and 
dairy industries could never be developed to a high degree of success 
under the handicap imposed by Texas fever ticks. Thus the value of 
the work being done at that time in exterminating ticks became more 
apparent. 
But the arsenical dip did not always prove effective. Even in the 
experimental period of arsenical baths in 1910 it became evident'that 
something was happening to the arsenic which lowered the efficiency 
of the solution. In 1911 A. V. Fuller, of the Biochemic Division, dis- 
covered the phenomenon of oxidation of the arsenic by the growth of 
microorganisms in the bath, and it was found by investigations in the 
Zoological Division that oxidized arsenic is less efficacious in destroy- 
ing ticks than the unoxidized arsenic in the freshly made dip. Tick Eradication Division 
335 
The variation noted from time to time in the effect of the dip was 
perplexing and annoying to the field inspectors. Dr. C. J. Becker in 
a letter in August, 1911, suggested that hydrometers be supplied so 
that inspectors "could at any time test the strength of the solution in 
the vat, and have a definite way to add enough of the concentrated ar- 
senical solution to bring it up to the required standard." Though a 
hydrometer test was not practicable, the suggestion of Dr. Becker 
gave a clue, and a practicable field test was devised by R. M. Chapin 
of the Biochemic Division in 1911. 
The safe disposal of the poisonous contents of the vats next received 
attention. The matter of detoxication was first brought to the atten- 
tion of the Bureau in a letter of June 15, 1911, by Dr. W. H. Dalrym- 
ple, of the Louisiana Experiment Station, who suggested the use of 
ferrous sulphate to precipitate the arsenic and thus render the super- 
natant liquid safe for disposal. On investigation the Bureau found 
that lime would accomplish the purpose. 
Progress from 1906 to 1911 
Although the eradication of ticks did not progress as rapidly from 
the first as was expected, the results obtained from July 1, 1906, to 
April 1, 1911, were very encouraging. 
In Virginia there still remained infected 6 counties and parts of 2 
counties, while 24 had been freed of ticks. 
In North Carolina the ticks had been eliminated from 30 counties 
out of 72 infected in 1906. 
In South Carolina 4 counties out of 42 infected in 190~6 had been 
released and 8 others were nearly clean. 
In Georgia, 3 out of 144 counties infected in 1906 had been released. 
The work in Kentucky had been finished. 
In Tennessee 26 counties and parts of 8 counties out of 42 had been 
released. 
In Mississippi 3 counties and nearly all of 2 other counties out of 
78 had been released. 
In Arkansas 10 out of 75 counties had been released. 
In Oklahoma 7 counties out of 59 had been released. 
In Texas 7 counties and parts of 5 counties out of 190 had been 
released. 
In California 11^ of the 15 originally infected counties had been 
released. 
In Missouri the work was finished in all but 4 counties. 
In all, 127 counties and parts of 20 counties, comprising an area of 336 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
approximately 139,821 square miles, out of 927 counties, comprising 
an area of 741,515 square miles, originally infested, had been released 
from quarantine in five years, and the work was partially finished in 
many other counties. 
Later Progress 
With the perfection of a practicable, economical, speedy and ef- 
fectual means for the disinfection of cattle for ticks by dipping, an 
all-important step was taken in furthering and popularizing the work. 
Compared with the grease rag or spray pump which had been used 
in the application of disinfecting material, the dipping vat was a 
device approaching in importance the cotton gin as compared with 
the hand method formerly used in handling cotton. 
The next great task in tick eradication was to effect the systematic 
dipping of all cattle and exposed horses and mules at regular inter- 
vals in order to accomplish the eradication of the tick in a given area 
in one summer. This was apparently necessary because of the estab- 
lished custom in the Southern States of allowing cattle to run at large 
during the winter months, even in areas where stock laws were on the 
statute books. Accordingly county officials of areas desiring to engage 
in the work were induced to provide material to build a sufficient 
number of dipping vats so that vats would be conveniently located 
and the cattle owners usually would not be required to drive stock 
more than two miles for dipping. The dipping vats were constructed 
and maintained by community labor. The systematic dipping of the 
cattle was accomplished by designating a specific date for each vat in 
an area and posting notices to that effect, and assigning a county- 
paid inspector to be present on such dates to supervise the dipping 
and keep a record of the animals dipped, the condition of the cattle, 
etc. In some sections there was some opposition to the regular gath- 
ering and dipping of cattle as required by the laws and regulations, 
and some vats were destroyed by dynamite. In such instances the 
dynamiting was usually done by someone who owned only one or two 
cattle or sometimes by irresponsible persons who owned no cattle or 
other property. 
On July 1, 1912, the Field Inspection Division was established in 
dividing the work of the Inspection Division, and Dr. R. A. Ramsay, 
who had held the position of Associate Chief of the Inspection Divi- 
sion, was designated as Chief of the Field Inspection Division. The 
work of the Field Inspection Division included tick eradication, the 
eradication of scabies of cattle and sheep, and supervision of the inter- Tick Eradication Division 
337 
state transportation of livestock. This organization continued until 
May 1, 1917, when, on account of the rapid growth of the field inspec- 
tion work, the further provision made by Congress for additional dis- 
ease eradication projects, and the further fact that the appropriation 
for tick eradication was greatly augmented, the Tick Eradication 
Division was organized. Dr. Ramsay was placed in charge and has 
continued up to the present time as Chief of that Division. 
Although tick eradication progressed quite steadily from the begin- 
ning, the most rapid strides were made after the arsenical dip was 
officially recognized and a method for testing the dip in the vats was 
developed. This is shown by the territory released from Federal 
quarantine each year, as follows: 
TERRITORY RELEASED FROM QUARANTINE 
Year 
1906 
Square 
Miles 
4,445 
1907 
12,549 
1908 
40,798 
1909 
13,544 
1910 1 
57,518 
1911 
10,965 
1912 
22,827 
1913 
24,556 
1914 
28,704 
Year 
1915 
Square 
Miles 
37,255 
1916 
31,358 
1917 
40,111 
1918 
67,308 
1919 
79,217 
1920 
50,555 
1921 
32,171 
1922 
4,347 
1923 
6,362 
The cost of tick eradication may be briefly stated as follows: 
The Department expenditures for the fiscal years 1907 to 1923, in- 
clusive, amounted to approximately $ 7,129,598 
The State expenditures for the years 1907 to 1923, inclusive, 
amounted to approximately 2,995,111 
The county expenditures for the years 1907 to 1923, inclusive, 
amounted to approximately. 13,318,123 
PROGRESS OF TICK ERADICATION, JULY 1, 1906, to DEC. 31, 1923 
States 
Alabama 
Counties quarantined 
Counties 
released to 
Dec. 31, 1923 
60 
Released counties 
tick-free Nov. 1, 1923 
26 
July 1, 1906 
67 
Dec. 31, 1923 
7 
Arkansas 
75 
39 
36 
21 
California 
15 
15 
15 
Florida 
....... 58 
54 
4 
3 
Georgia 
157 
4 
153 
119 
Kentucky 
: 2 
2 
2 
Louisiana 
65 
33 
32 
3 
Mississippi 
81 
21 
60 
47 
Missouri 
4 
4 
4 
North Carolina 
75 
14 
61 
46 
Oklahoma 
61 
6 
55 
47 
South Carolina 
44 
44 
35 
Tennessee 
42 
42 
41 
Texas 
199 
98 
101 
49 
Virginia 
30 
4 
26 
- 
1 
■ ■ 
■ 
■ ' » 
Total 
975 
280 
695 
458 338 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Benefits of Tick Eradication 
An experiment conducted by the Dairy Division, in cooperation 
with the Zoological Division, showed that dairy cows when lightly 
infested with ticks produced 18.6 per cent less milk than when tick- 
free, and that when heavily infested some produced as low as 42.4 
per cent below their production when free of ticks. The census for 
the year 1920 shows that the average milk production of dairy cows 
in the tick-free counties of eight Southern States was 47 per cent 
more than in the tick-infested counties of the same States. 
Following the elimination of ticks from a territory the farmers 
have increased the size of their herds and improved them by the addi- 
tion of purebred and good grade stock; more people have gone into 
the dairy business; new dairy barns, silos and milk houses have been 
built, and silage and leguminous crops are being raised for roughage. 
There are now 11 cow-testing associations, 60 bull associations, 172 
creameries and 40 cheese factories in territory of Southern States 
formerly infested with ticks. 
As a result of tick eradication there has been a large increase in 
the number of animals in the South. The increase in cattle is espe- 
cially noticeable in those States that have done most in tick-eradica- 
tion work, as is shown in the following table: 
INCREASE IN CATTLE SOUTH OF THE QUARANTINE LINE 
State 
Number in 1906 
Number in 1921 
Virginia 
145,752 
864,000 
North Carolina 
486,848 
639,000 
South Carolina 
342,898 
425,000 
Georgia .. 
887,991 
1,195,000 
Florida 
751,261 
869,000 
Alabama 
799,734 
1,021,000 
Mississippi 
873,356 
1,218,000 
Tennessee 
247,000 
1,092,000 
Arkansas 
894,535 
1,065,000 
Indian Territory 
1,499,364 ) 
1 981 000 
Oklahoma 
743,360 J 
Louisiana 
670,295 
811,000 
Texas 
6,654,764 
6,436,000 
California 
579,867 
2,012,000 
Total 
15,577,025 
19,650,000 
The development of the cattle industry in the South is also apparent 
from the number of beef cattle from territory south of the original 
quarantine line that have won prizes at the International and the 
American Royal cattle shows, and dairy cattle that have won first 
prize at the National Dairy Show. A partial compilation shows about 
50 southern prize-winners at these exhibitions from 1913 to 1922, in- 
cluding several grand champions. Tick Eradication Division 
339 
If it had not been for the tick eradication the South could not boast of 
its prize-winning herds, its cow-testing associations, its creameries and 
cheese factories, and its development in diversified agriculture. Tick 
eradication has proved to be one of the greatest and most beneficial 
undertakings in which the Bureau of Animal Industry has engaged. 
In commenting on the tick-eradication work the editor of the Chi- 
cago Daily Drovers' Journal said, in the issue of March 30, 1922: 
Since 1906, when the tick-eradication work began, the Government 
officials have succeeded in freeing from quarantine 523,837 square 
miles of territory that was once the domain of the tick, and within 
a short time, unless plans go wrong, the entire country will be free. 
A recent statement of the Department of Agriculture says: "There 
seems to be little question that the time is approaching when there 
will be no more of the insects in the country." 
The work of quarantining, inspecting and dipping has not been 
without its difficulties, and even tragedies. Just recently, for in- 
stance, a cattle tick inspector in Arkansas was shot from ambush 
and killed and other inspectors in the same territory intimidated. 
Tick eradication work has already been worth untold millions of 
dollars to the Southern States, by making possible the development 
of beef and dairy cattle industies-a development that, by the way, 
is just getting well started. The work has cost nearly $23,000,000, 
over two-thirds of which has come from the States and counties where 
the work has been done. Looking at it from either a national or a 
sectional viewpoint, it is probably one of the best investments the 
peop^ of this country ever made. 
But what impresses us most about the tick-eradication work is the 
faith of the men who undertook it, and of their successors who have 
carried it on. At the outset it was a tremendous undertaking. The 
educational program necessary to the success of the enterprise was 
alone a task of vast proportions. And while the work is not yet com- 
pleted, the end is approaching. 
The veterinary profession of this country is to be credited with 
many notable achievements, among which the eradication of ticks 
will take its proper place. Our livestock industry has had good ser- 
vice at the hands of our veterinary friends. 
During February, 1923, Max Lockridge, a Bureau agent in tick 
eradication, was shot and killed, and Roy S. Ritchie, another Bureau 
employee, was seriously wounded, by a leader of a lawless element 
opposed to tick eradication in Echols County, Georgia. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
1795. North Carolina State Legislature passed a law relative to moving 
cattle from lowlands to highlands within the State between April 1 
1 and November 1. 
1814. The State of Virginia refused to allow passage through that State 
of cattle from certain sections of South Carolina. 
1814. Nov. 3. Dr. James Mease, in a lecture before the Philadelphia Society 
for the Promotion of Agriculture, gave an account of Texas fever. 
This was probably the first published account of the disease. 
1836. Law passed by the State Legislature of North Carolina to prevent 
the driving of cattle into the State from either South Carolina or 
Georgia from April 1 to November 1. 340 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
1861. Missouri enacted laws to regulate movement of cattle from the South 
into or through Missouri. 
1867. Cairo, Ill., was the chief point of transshipment of cattle from steam- 
boat to railroads. In the spring of that year about 30,000 southern 
cattle landed at Cairo. 
1868. July 29. Dr. John Gamgee commenced an investigation of Texas fever. 
1869. Mr. J. R. Dodge, Statistician of the Department of Agriculture, in 
his report, referred to the belief of many that the ticks which in- 
fested cattle were in some way responsible for Texas fever. 
1879. In the fall of 1879 Dr. D. E. Salmon was appointed by Commissioner 
of Agriculture Le Duc to investigate animal diseases in the South- 
ern States with particular reference to Texas fever. 
1883. Work commenced on Atlantic Coast to establish the northern line of 
infestation, which later became the quarantine line. 
1884. May 29. Bureau of Animal Industry established. 
1884. July 1. Dr. Theobald Smith entered the Bureau service and was given 
charge of the investigation of infectious diseases of animals. 
1888. During the summer Dr. Smith first noticed the destruction of blood 
corpuscles in the blood of cattle sick with Texas fever. 
1889. July 3. First Texas fever quarantine order issued. 
1889. Dr. Cooper Curtice began the study of the life history of the cattle 
tick in the fall and finished December 16. 
1889. Dr. F. L. Kilborne began to test the theory advanced by some that 
ticks were in some way related to Texas fever. 
1892. Feb. 26. Order issued placing South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, Arkansas and Louisiana in quarantine, also 
parts of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Oklahoma and Texas. 
1892. Beginning of experiments on immunization against Texas fever; also 
on dips and methods of eradicating ticks from infested areas. 
1893. Feb. 6. B. A. I. Bulletin No. 1 issued, announcing the discovery that 
the tick was the carrier of Texas fever. 
1895. Dr. Victor A. Norgaard detailed by the Bureau early in the spring to 
conduct field tests of dips for destroying ticks on cattle. Investiga- 
tions commenced on Santa Gertrudes Ranch, Neuces County, Texas. 
1895. Southern quarantine line extended to Pacific Coast. 
1897. August. Fort Worth Stock Yards Company built a dipping station 
at the Fort Worth Stock Yards for the use of the Bureau in con- 
ducting experiments with dips. 
1905. Nov. 22, 23, and 24. Meeting of the Southern States Association of 
Commissioners of Agriculture at Richmond, Va., at which Secre- 
tary of Agriculture James Wilson announced his decision to take 
up tick work in cooperation with the States. 
1906. July 1. First appropriation ($82,500) for tick eradication became 
available and work commenced in cooperation with the States. 
1906. Dec. 5 and 6. Conference of Federal and State officials held at Nash- 
ville, Tenn. 
1911. Field test for arsenical dip developed by Chapin, of the Biochemic 
Division, put into use in testing the dip in vats. Tick Eradication Division 
341 
1911. Nov. 1. Arsenical dip recognized officially on the basis of experiments 
and investigations by the Zoological Division, begun in 1907, that 
determined the effective strength and the conditions of use of ar- 
senical solutions for the destruction of ticks. 
1911. System developed by Chapin^, of Biochemic Division, for detoxicating 
arsenical contents of dipping vats. 
1917. May 1. Tick Eradication Division established and Dr. R. A. Ramsay 
made Chief. 
PERSONNEL OF THE TICK ERADICATION DIVISION 
Chief of Division: 
Dr. R. A. Ramsay, May 1, 1917, to date. 
Assistant Chiefs of Division: 
Dr. W. P. Ellenberger, May 1, 1917, to Sept. 16, 1920. 
Dr. Roy E. Jackson, Sept. 16, 1920, to June 26, 1922. 
Dr. W. M. Mac Kellar, Nov. 16, 1922, to date. Division of Virus-Serum Control* 
The existence of hog cholera was first recognized in the United 
States in 1833. By 1884, the year the Bureau of Animal Industry 
was established, it had become one of our most prevalent and de- 
structive diseases of swine. Soon after the Bureau was organized it 
began a study of hog cholera with the view of discovering the cause 
of the disease and devising some form of treatment to prevent the 
increasingly heavy losses that were reported from different sections 
of the country. 
The investigations resulted in the discovery that the true cause of 
hog cholera is a filterable virus; this fact was announced to the public 
in Bureau Circular 41, dated September 28, 1903. During the period 
from 1903 to 1906 a serum was developed by Dr. M. Dorset, assisted 
by Drs. W. B. Niles and C. N. McBryde, all of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry, which proved effectual as an immunizing agent against the 
disease.! 
Following the publication by the Bureau of the method of pre- 
paring and using anti-hog-cholera serum, commercial concerns under- 
took its production in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. Owing 
to a lack of knowledge of the importance of sanitation and care in 
the preparation of such biological products on the part of some serum 
producers, and the lack of honesty on the part of others, impotent 
and contaminated serum and virus were marketed. In some instances 
considerable damage was caused in the herds treated, and by 1912 
hog growers in certain sections of the country were losing faith in 
the treatment that was so earnestly recommended by the Bureau. 
Anti-hog-cholera serum was only one of many biological products 
that were being produced by 1912 for use in treating animals. As 
State supervision of commercial laboratories was inadequate, the 
situation was one that demanded the attention of the National Gov- 
ernment in the interests of the livestock industry. 
The Virus-Serum-Toxin Law 
On March 4, 1913, Congress passed the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act, 
which makes it unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to pre- 
pare, sell, barter, exchange, or to ship or deliver for shipment in 
interstate commerce, any worthless, contaminated, dangerous or 
harmful biological product intended for use in the treatment of do- 
mestic animals. The act also makes it unlawful for any person, firm 
* See "Pathological Division," page 73. 
t See "Biochemic Division," page 161. 
342 Division of Virus-Serum Control 
343 
or corporation to prepare, sell, barter, exchange, or ship outside of 
the State where prepared, any virus, serum, toxin or analogous prod- 
uct unless it is prepared in an establishment holding an unsuspended 
and unrevoked license issued by the Secretary of Agriculture. The im- 
portation of biological products for use in the treatment of domestic 
animals is prohibited by the act except under a permit from the Sec- 
retary of Agriculture. The Department of Agriculture is authorized 
by the act to examine and inspect all biological products intended for 
use in the treatment of domestic animals which are offered for im- 
portation. Any products which are found to be worthless, contam- 
inated, dangerous or harmful are denied entry and are to be de- 
stroyed or returned to the point of origin. The Secretary of Agricul- 
ture is also authorized to make and promulgate from time to time 
such rules and regulations as may be found necessary to enforce the 
act, and also to issue permits and licenses. The act also provides 
that these licenses or permits may be revoked, after an opportunity 
for hearing has been accorded the holders, if it is found they are used 
to facilitate or effect the preparation, sale, barter, exchange or ship- 
ment of worthless, contaminated, dangerous or harmful products. 
Authorized inspectors or agents of the Department of Agriculture 
are permitted by the law to enter and inspect from time to time any 
establishment that has been licensed under the act. The law also pro- 
vides that any person violating its provisions shall, upon conviction, 
be punished by a fine or imprisonment, or both. 
Administration of the Law* 
The Department of Agriculture was charged with the administration 
of the Virus-Serum-Toxin Law. Dr. M. Dorset, Chief of the Biochemic 
Division of the Bureau, was placed in charge of the administration of 
the law when it went into effect. A part of this work was conducted 
in cooperation with the Pathological Division. Dr. Dorset remained in 
charge until February 17, 1917, when, in accordance with the policy 
adopted at that time of separating the research and investigational 
work from the regulatory work, the Office of Virus-Serum Control 
was created as a separate section of the Bureau to carry out the pro- 
visions of this law. Dr. H. J. Shore, who had been assisting Dr. Dor- 
set, was placed in charge of this new office, and Dr. D. I. Skidmore 
was called to Washington from the field to assist him. On April 15, 
1919, Dr. Shore resigned and Dr. Skidmore became acting head of 
the office until July 1, 1920, when the designation of the office was 
See "Biochemic Division," page 165. 344 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
changed to Division of Virus-Serum Control. Dr. Skidmore was 
appointed Chief of the Division and Dr. R. E. Holm was selected as 
Assistant Chief. 
One of the first tasks after the Act of March 4, 1913, became effec- 
tive on July 1, 1913, was to supervise the remodeling of plants and 
equipment which did not meet the requirements. Another important 
matter was to systematize the methods of production and operation in 
plants placed under Federal supervision. In order to accomplish 
the purpose effectively, regulations were issued to guide serum pro- 
ducers and employees of the Bureau. Following this preliminary 
work, approved methods of producing serum were adopted and have 
become well established. Now, before a license is issued to a new 
establishment, plans and specifications of the plant must be submitted 
to the Bureau for examination and approval. 
Regulations 
To date the following general regulations governing the prepara- 
tion, sale, barter, exchange, shipment and importation of viruses, 
serums, toxins and analogous products intended for use in the treat- 
ment of domestic animals have been issued: 
B. A. I. Order 196, dated May 31, 1913, effective July 1, 1913. 
B. A. I. Order 265, dated Aug. 1, 1919, effective Sept. 1, 1919. 
B. A. I. Order 276, dated Aug. 18, 1922, effective Nov. 1, 1922. 
Establishments, Stations and Employees 
During the first six months of the operation of the law, or up to 
January 1, 1914, twelve licenses were issued for establishments pro- 
ducing anti-hog-cholera serum and virus, and 12 for establishments 
producing other products, making in all 24 establishments. At the 
time the Office of Virus-Serum Control was changed to a division, 
July 1, 1920, there were operating under Federal license 84 estab- 
lishments situated in 56 cities in 18 States. On July 1, 1923, there 
were 95 such establishments in 58 cities in 22 States. 
In order to supervise the operation of licensed establishments 
throughout the country, it became necessary to establish stations with 
trained Bureau veterinarians in charge and a sufficient number of 
qualified veterinarians and lay inspectors to assist them. On January 
1, 1924, there were 18 Virus-Serum-Control stations with 43 substa- 
tions in the United States outside of Washington. The force of the 
Division on that date consisted of 62 veterinarians, 30 lay inspectors 
and 9 clerks or stenographers. Division of Virus-Serum Control 
345 
The following table shows the yearly appropriations that have 
been made by Congress for supervising the operations of licensed 
establishments: 
Appropriations for Administration of the Law 
Fiscal year ending 
Appropria- 
June 30- 
tion 
1914 
.. $ 25,000 
1915 
50,000 
1916 
... 50,000 
1917 
175,000 
1918 
172,240 
1919 . 
.. 167,240 
Fiscal year ending 
June 30- 
1920 
1921 
1922 
Appropria- 
tion 
.... $163,560 
.... 188,280 
... 195,000 
1923 
.... 195,000 
1924 
... 195,000 
1925 
.... 195,000 
Classes of Products Produced in Licensed Establishments 
A large variety of biological products are produced in licensed es- 
tablishments. The following classification covers the products that 
are now produced: 
Aggressins.-Blackleg aggressin and blackleg filtrate. 
Antiserums.-Anti-abortion serum; anti-anthrax serum; anti- 
blackleg serum; anti-botulinus serum; anti-distemper serum, canine 
and equine; anti-hemorrhagic septicemia serum, bovine, equine, lepine, 
ovine and porcine; anti-hog-cholera serum; anti-influenza serum, 
equine; anti-mixed-infection serum, porcine; anti-navel-ill serum, 
equine; anti-pyogenes bacillus serum, equine; and anti-tetanic serum. 
Serums.-Normal serum is produced by a few establishments. 
Bacterins.-Abortion bacterin, bovine, equine and porcine; colon 
bacterin, bovine and equine; distemper bacterin, canine and equine; 
hemorrhagic septicemia bacterin, avian, bovine, equine, lepine, ovine 
and porcine; influenza bacterin, equine; keratitis bacterin, bovine; 
mastitis bacterin, bovine; mixed-infection bacterin, avian, bovine, 
canine, equine, lepine, ovine and porcine; navel infection bacterin, 
equine; pneumonia bacterin, equine; rhinitis mixed bacterin, porcine; 
scours bacterin, bovine; staphylococcic bacterin, canine and equine; 
streptococcic bacterin, equine; and suipestifer bacterin. 
Diagnostic agents.-Mallein and tuberculin. Tuberculin from the 
avian type of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is also produced. 
Serobacterins and serovaccines.-.Abortion serobacterin and sero- 
vaccine, bovine and equine; distemper serobacterin and serovaccine, 
canine; hemorrhagic septicemia serobacterin and serovaccine, bovine; 
influenza serobacterin and serovaccine, equine; pyogenes bacillus sero- 
bacterin and serovaccine, bovine; and scours serobacterin and serovac- 
cine, bovine. 
Vaccines, viruses and toxins.-Abortion vaccine, bovine; anthrax 346 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
vaccine; blackleg vaccine; chicken-pox vaccine; chicken-pox virus; 
hemorrhagic septicemia vaccine, bovine, ovine and porcine; hog-cholera 
virus; rabies vaccine; and tetanus toxin. 
Training of Inspectors 
In carrying on the work of the Division it has been found necessary 
to train employees especially for the purpose. Since 1914 a large 
force of veterinarians and laymen has been given special training, 
and during April and May, 1917, inspectors in charge of the field sta- 
tions were instructed at the Washington laboratories of the Bureau 
in the fundamental principles employed in the production of biologi- 
cal products which are produced commercially in the various licensed 
establishments. These men in turn have trained other Bureau em- 
ployees and have also been able to render valuable assistance to pro- 
ducers of biological products. 
Inspection and Control of Establishments 
Iii addition to requiring direct inspection and supervision of all 
operations in anti-hog-cholera serum plants, certain stipulations are 
required with respect to the proper labeling of all biological products 
intended for veterinary use. A more uniform system of terminology 
has been adopted for these products, so that the name applied in- 
dicates either the disease for which a product is intended or the or- 
ganisms used in its production. The formula used in the production 
of practically all biological products produced under Federal license 
now appears on trade labels, also instructions concerning the dosage 
and proper use of the product.' 
From time to time inspectors are instructed to collect subcultures 
of organisms used in the preparation of products produced under 
license, also samples of the finished products, for laboratory examina- 
tion and animal tests. These examinations and tests are made by the 
Bureau under arrangements of the Division of Virus-Serum Con- 
trol with the Pathological Division, the Biochemic Division and the 
Experiment Station. This procedure has not only resulted in im- 
provement of the quality of the products placed on the market, but 
has served to stimulate better technique in licensed establishments. 
As a result of the cooperative arrangement of the Division of 
Virus-Serum Control with the Bureau of Chemistry, many so-called 
"cures" for hog cholera and other swine diseases have been found 
worthless for the purpose indicated in the advertising literature. In 
such cases appropriate action was taken to protect the interests of 
hog growers. Division of Virus-Serum Control 
347 
The Division examines all applications of persons or firms desir- 
ing to import into the United States products intended for veterinary 
use and handles problems and correspondence concerning the impor- 
tation of such products. Permits have been denied consistently to 
persons desiring to import certain products, such as anti-hog-cholera 
serum, produced in countries in which foot-and-mouth disease exists. 
Imported Biological Products 
Results of Administration of the Law 
The enforcement of the Virus-Serum-Toxin Law has resulted in 
the feeling on the part of livestock people that products prepared 
under license or imported under permit have been properly pro- 
duced. Reasonable assurance is also felt that the spread of destruc- 
tive animal plagues will not result from the use of biological prod- 
ucts prepared in licensed establishments. 
Great improvement has been made in the quality and efficiency of 
many biological products. Suggestions made by the Bureau have 
been welcomed by the producers and cooperation has resulted in 
most cases in the production of more refined, superior and uniformly 
potent products. 
The confidence shown in the use of anti-hog-cholera serum and 
virus and the growth of the industry, for instance, is evident from 
the amount of these products that have been produced and marketed 
in this country, as shown in the following table: 
AMOUNTS OF ANTI-HOG-CHOLERA SERUM AND HOG-CHOLERA 
VIRUS PRODUCED 
Calendar 
year 
Ordinary 
c. c. 
Anti-hog-cholera serum- 
Clear 
c. c. 
Total 
c. c. 
Hog-choiera virus 
c. c. 
1915 
208,571,232 
208,571,232 
6,560,041 
1916 
220,095,808 
220'095'808 
7,597403 
1917 
248,390'184 
248490484 
10,974,607 
1918 
524,316'572 
524,316,572 
16,171,423 
1919 
622'983,217 
622483'217 
20,928,513 
1920 
350'395,925 
39,832,984 
390,228,909 
22,443,378 
1921 
440,158,658 
36,797,347 
476,956,005 
26,252,175 
1922 
733,542,370 
110,721,149 
844,263,519 
36,298,200 
1923 
597,071,453 
176,341,460 
773,412,913 
44,933,499 
The value of animals saved from disease and death by the use of 
modern biologies cannot be accurately estimated, but it is obvious 
that it amounts to a very large figure. As the tendency of modern 
medicine is toward prophylaxis, we may expect great developments, 
not only in the further perfection of the biological products now in 
use, but in the production of new products. 348 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
June 12,1906. Process of production of anti-hog-cholera serum patented. 
Mar. 4,1913. Virus-Serum-Toxin Act of Congress approved. 
May 31,1913. B. A. I. Order 196 issued; regulations promulgated under 
authority of the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act. 
July 1,1913. Virus-Serum-Toxin Act became effective. 
Aug. 5,1913. First U. S. Veterinary License covering the production of 
anti-hog-cholera serum issued, No. 18, to Stock Yards 
Serum Co., Kansas City, Kans. 
Nov. 27,1913. First field inspector, Dr. F. A. Imler, assigned to Virus- 
Serum-Control work. 
Feb. 18,1916. Methods of the H. K. Mulford Co. for production of a prod- 
uct described as refined hog-cholera serum approved. 
June 9,1916. Production of clear anti-hog-cholera serum using the bean- 
salt method discovered by Dorset and Henley begun by 
E. R. Squibb & Sons, License No. 83. 
Feb. 17,1917. Office of Virus-Serum Control created. Dr. H. J. Shore 
placed in charge. 
Apr. 15,1919. Dr. H. J. Shore resigned. Dr. D. I. Skidmore given tempo- 
rary charge of the Office. 
Sept. 1,1919. B. A. I. Order 265, superseding B. A. I. Order 196, issued. 
July 1,1920. Office of Virus-Serum Control made Division of Virus-Serum 
Control. Dr. D. I. Skidmore designated as Chief and Dr. 
R. E. Holm Assistant Chief. 
Oct. 10,1922. B. A. I. Order 276 issued; effective Nov. 1, 1922. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
In Charge: 
Dr. M. Dorset, Chief of Biochemic Division, in charge of administration 
of Virus-Serum-Toxin Act from July 1, 1913, to Feb. 16, 1917. 
Dr. H. J. Shore, in charge of Office of Virus-Serum Control, from Feb. 
17, 1917, to April 15, 1919. 
Dr. D. I. Skidmore, acting in charge of Office of Virus-Serum Control, 
from April 16, 1919, to June 30, 1920. 
Chief of Division of Viruis-Serum Control: 
Dr. D. I. Skidmore, from July 1, 1920, to date. 
Assistants: 
Dr. H. J. Shore, from July 1, 1913, to Feb. 16, 1917. 
Dr. D. I. Skidmore, from Sept., 1915, to April 15, 1919. 
Dr. R. E. Holm, from Aug. 16, 1919, to date. 
PERSONNEL OF THE DIVISION OF VIRUS-SERUM CONTROL Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
Although animal tuberculosis is not so prevalent in the United 
States as in most European countries, it has become a serious menace 
to our livestock industry. It seems that this disease was introduced 
into the United States through the importation of cattle, and it grad- 
ually spread until it has reached every State in the Union. Many of 
our breeders have attempted to establish herds of fine cattle only to 
find later that their foundation stock had been infected. 
On March 3, 1892, a herd of Jersey cattle belonging to Dr. J. E. 
Gillingham, Claremont Farms, Villa Nova, Pa., was tested with tuber- 
culin which Dr. Leonard Pearson, Dean of the Veterinary Depart- 
ment of the University of Pennsylvania, brought from Europe. Tu- 
berculin had recently (1890) been developed by Dr. Robert Koch of 
Germany, and the Gillingham herd was the first tested with tuber- 
culin in the United States. Of the 79 animals in the herd 30 reacted 
to the test. The results obtained by Dr. Pearson from the use of 
tuberculin promptly led others in this country to use it as a diagnostic 
agent. The reports of the tests made in different States revealed 
that a surprising number of animals among our breeding herds were 
tuberculous. 
In 1901 Drs. Russell and Hastings of the Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station published the following report which attracted 
much attention from livestock sanitary officials and breeders: 
Results of Some Tuberculin Tests of Cattle Made Prior to 1901 
(Compiled by Drs. Russell and Hastings) 
States 
Number 
tested 
Number of 
reactors 
Per cent of 
reactors 
Vermont 
60,000 
2,390 
3.9 
Massachusetts 
24,685 
12,443 
50. 
Mass. Entire Herds 
4,093 
1,080 
26.4 
Connecticut 
6,300 
895 
14.2 
New York, 1894 
947 
66 
6.9 
New York, 1897-98 
1,200 
163 
18.4 
Pennsylvania 
34,000 
4,800 
14.1 
New Jersey 
2,500 
535 
21.4 
Illinois, 1897-98 .. 
929 
112 
12. 
Illinois, 1899 
3,655 
560 
15.3 
Michigan 
13. 
Minnesota 
3,430 
381 
11.1 
Iowa 
Wisconsin: 
Experiment Station tests: 
873 
122 
13.8 
Suspected herds 
323 
115 
35.6 
Non-suspected herds 
State Veterinarian's tests: 
935 
84 
9. 
Suspected herds 
Tests of local veterinarians under 
State Veterinarian on cattle 
intended for shipment to States 
588 
191 
32.5 
requiring tuberculin certificates 
3,421 
76 
2.2 
349 350 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Number 
Number 
Per cent 
Herds of Various Institutions in 
herd 
tuberculous 
tuberculous 
Maine State Agricultural College 
51 
51 
100. 
Soldiers' Home, Washington, D. C 
63 
53 
84.1 
Government Hospital for Insane, Wash- 
ington, D. C 
102 
79 
77. 
Massachusetts Agricultural College 
32 
25 
78.1 
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment 
Station 
42 
25 
59.5 
Kansas Agricultural College 
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
56 
15 
26.8 
tion - 
Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs 
30 
26 
86.6 
Experiment Station 
Colorado Agricultural College 
49 
31 
19 
10 
38.8 
32.2 
Vermont Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion 
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 
33 
21 
63.6 
first test 
30 
14 
46.6 
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station... 
Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
21 
10 
47.6 
tion 
New Hampshire College of Agriculture 
22 
7 
31.8 
and Mechanic Arts 
New York (Geneva) Agricultural Ex- 
55 
10 
18.2 
55.5 
periment Station 
27 
15 
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station . 
New Mexico Agricultural Experiment 
18 
13 
72.2 
15.8 
Station 
Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, 
19 
3 
55.3 
Canada 
38 
21 
Other Reports 
A report published by Pearson and Ravenel in 1901 showed that of 
12 herds containing 599 cattle, 484, or 80.8 per cent, were classed as 
reactors. Russell, in a Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station 
Bulletin published in June, 1906, gave similar statistics on 70 herds 
containing 853 cattle, which were tested by the Wisconsin State Live- 
stock Sanitary Board during the years 1903 and 1904, of which 50 
per cent were found to be tuberculous. 
The post-mortem reports of the Bureau covering animals slaughtered 
in establishments operating under the Federal meat-inspection law 
also were helpful in revealing the extent of tuberculosis in this coun- 
try. These reports for the year 1907 showed that 1 per cent of the 
swine slaughtered in that year were found to be affected with tu- 
berculosis. The number of swine found affected increased at the 
rate of 1 per cent annually from 1907 to 1917. During the year 1917 
a total of 9,299,487 cattle were slaughtered in official establishments, 
of which 218,928 were found to be affected, and of 40,217,847 swine 
slaughtered, 3,978,168 showed lesions of the disease. 
Many spasmodic attempts were made prior to 1917 by the livestock Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
351 
sanitary officials of various States and the health officers of various 
municipalities to control tuberculosis. Much good was accomplished, 
but permanent results were not conspicuous, as these attempts lacked 
uniformity and force. Sufficient educational work had not been con- 
ducted to convince the owners of cattle of the wisdom of attempting 
to eradicate the disease, and members of the veterinary profession 
itself had not acquired sufficient knowledge concerning the detection 
and prevention of tuberculosis to handle the situation properly in 
their respective localities. It is regrettable that in some instances 
unscrupulous cattle owners, assisted by dishonest veterinarians, abused 
the use of tuberculin by the so-called "plugging" of cattle, which 
aided in disseminating the disease. 
The Bureau, through its Pathological Division and Experiment 
Station, early engaged in experimental w'ork looking to the estab- 
lishment of herds known to be free from the disease. Beginning in 
1906 many herds were tested with tuberculin by the Pathological 
Division. After the work was wrell established it was turned over to 
the Quarantine Division to be continued as a regulatory measure. 
The herds tested were located principally in the States of Maryland 
and Virginia and in the District of Columbia. As a result of an order 
of the Commissioners of the District of Columbia for the suppression 
and prevention of tuberculosis in cattle within the District of Colum- 
bia, an opportunity was offered to the Bureau to obtain much valuable 
information. The results obtained indicated that tuberculosis could 
be eradicated from individual herds and from groups of herds. The 
following table shows the number of cattle tested in the District of 
Columbia and vicinity since January 1, 1910: 
Eradication of Tuberculosis from the District of Columbia, 1910 to 1922, 
Inclusive 
Fiscal year 
Cattle tested 
Per cent reacted 
1910 
1,701 
18.87 
1911 
1,967 
3.71 
1912 
1,390 
2.30 
1913 
1,534 
1.83 
1914 
1,628 
2.03 
1915..., 
1,078 
1.75 
1916 
1,184 
1.1 
1917 , 
1,060 
.84 
1918 
1,206 
.99 
1919 
1,264 
.63 
1920 
1,173 
.25 
1921 
1,373 
.36 
1922 
1,166 
.17 
When the Tuberculosis Eradication Division took over the work 
May 1, 1917,* the annual retest in the District of Columbia was being 
* See "Quarantine Division," page 146. 352 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
conducted. The results of this retest revealed that for the first time 
since the work was begun less than 1 per cent of tuberculosis in cattle 
was disclosed. The history of the reactors discovered since 1917 in- 
dicates that they were brought into the District from infected herds. 
The experience obtained in eliminating tuberculosis from the herds 
in the District of Columbia was helpful and encouraging. Dr. Salmon 
stated publicly in 1906 that "when public sentiment favors the 
eradication, of tuberculosis in animals, the task will not be found an 
impossible one." 
Tuberculosis Eradication in Cooperation with States 
Having become convinced of the possibility of inaugurating a 
successful campaign, the Bureau, through interested livestock owners, 
obtained an appropriation from Congress, which became available on 
July 1, 1917. By direction of the Chief of the Bureau, Dr. A. D. 
Melvin, a division known as the Tuberculosis Eradication Division was 
organized on May 1 of that year, with Dr. John A. Kiernan as Chief. 
On December 24, 1917, Dr. Alexander E. Wight was transferred from 
Little Rock, Ark., and assigned as Assistant Chief of the Division. 
Field offices were opened on July 1, 1917, at the following points: 
Indianapolis, Ind.; Portland, Ore.; Richmond, Va.; St. Paul, Minn.; 
Salt Lake City, Utah; Springfield, Mass. 
Since that time additional stations have been established as follows: 
Nov. 1,1917 Birmingham, Ala. 
Nov. 3,1917 Jackson, Miss. 
Nov. 5,1917 Atlanta, Ga. 
Nov. 17,1917 Columbia, S. C. 
Dec. 19,1917 Albuquerque, N. M. 
Apr. 1,1918 Chicago, Ill. 
Apr. 1,1918 New Orleans, La. 
May 1,1918 Omaha, Nebr. 
May 10,1918 Albany, N. Y. 
May 16,1918 St. Albans, Vt. 
June 1,1918 Denver, Colo. 
June 1,1918 Tallahassee, Fla. 
June 17,1918 Harrisburg, Pa. 
July 1,1918- Oklahoma, Okla. 
July 1,1918 Trenton, N. J. 
July 1,1918 Clarksburg, W. Va. 
July 1,1918 Sacramento, Calif. 
Aug. 1,1918 Boston, Mass. 
(Transferred from Springfield) 
Aug. 1,1918 Ft. Worth, Texas 
Sep. 9,1918 Des Moines, Iowa 
Oct. 1,1918 Lansing, Mich. 
Dec. 2,1918 Bismarck, N. Dak. 
Dec. 2,1918 Helena, Mont. 
Dec. 2,1918 Pierre, S. Dak. 
Dec. 17,1918 Montpelier, Vt. 
(Transferred from St. Albans) 
Jan. 1,1919 Madison, Wis. 
Feb. 2,1919 Jefferson City, Mo. 
Feb. 2,1919 Topeka, Kans. 
Apr. 1,1919 Lincoln, Nebr. 
(Transferred from Omaha) 
May 16,1919 Columbus, Ohio 
May 19,1919 Charleston, W. Va. 
June 2,1919 Baltimore, Md. 
June 2,1919 Nashville, Tenn. 
Aug. 1,1919 Frankfort, Ky. 
Jan. 1,1920 Little Rock, Ark. 
June 16,1920 Augusta, Me. 
July 1,1920 Hartford, Conn. 
Sep. 1,1920 - Boise, Idaho 
Sep. 6,1920 Cheyenne, Wyo. 
Sep. 20,1920 Olympia, Wash. 
Sep. 1,1921 _ Raleigh, N. C. 
These offices are conducted in cooperation with the State livestock 
sanitary officials in the States in which they are located. Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
353 
Efforts were made to encourage owners of purebred cattle to place 
their herds under the joint supervision of the State and the Bureau 
for the purpose of establishing disease-free herds. Owners who de- 
sired to have their herds tested were required to sign an agreement 
which briefly provided for tuberculin testing their cattle, quarantine 
or slaughter of the reacting cattle, cleaning and disinfection of the 
premises and to observe prescribed precautions in making additions to 
their herds. 
In handling herds on this basis the Department prescribed three 
projects under which the funds appropriated for tuberculosis eradi- 
cation would be expended, viz: 
1. The eradication of tuberculosis from purebred herds of cattle, 
or the "accredited-herd plan." 
2. The eradication of tuberculosis from circumscribed areas. 
3. The eradication of tuberculosis from swine. 
In addition, arrangements were made for the tuberculin testing 
of cattle at public stockyards. 
On December 4, 1917, steps were taken at the meeting of the United 
States Live Stock Sanitary Association, held at Chicago, to effect a 
more perfect organization. At this meeting a committee composed 
of representatives of all the purebred cattle breeders' associations of 
the country, members of the United States Live Stock Sanitary Asso- 
ciation and the Bureau formulated what is known as the "Uniform 
Methods and Rules for Tuberculosis-Free Accredited Herds." This 
plan was approved by the Bureau on December 23, 1917. The rules 
of procedure as they were amended at the last meeting of the Asso- 
ciation on December 7, 1923, are as follows: 
1. A tuberculosis-free accredited herd is one in which no animal affected 
with tuberculosis has been found upon two annual or three semi-annual 
tuberculin tests, and bv physical examination, applied by a regularly em- 
ployed veterinarian of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry or of 
the State in which cooperative tuberculosis eradication work is conducted 
by the United States Department of Agriculture and the State, or one in 
which no animal affected with tuberculosis has been found upon two annual 
or three semi-annual tuberculin tests applied by an accredited and a Federal 
or State veterinarian in a manner provided in Rule 6. 
Section (a). The subcutaneous, intradermic and ophthalmic methods of 
applying the tuberculin test are approved. 
Section (b). The initial testing in accredited herd work may be by either 
the subcutaneous or intradermic method, but the ophthalmic method shall 
be Used only in combination with the subcutaneous or intradermic method. 
Section (c). A herd which in any previous test shows evidence of infec- 
tion before being accredited, the final test shall be by a combination of rec- 
ognized tuberculin tests applied at the discretion of the Federal and State 
authorities. 
Section (d). A herd which has been removed from the accredited list on 
account of a reactor shall, when ordered by the proper livestock sanitary 354 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
official of the State, be reinstated on tests applied by accredited veterina- 
rians, provided such tests are made in accordance with this plan. 
2. The entire herd, or any cattle in the herd, shall be tuberculin tested 
or retested at such times as is considered necessary by the Federal and State 
authorities. 
3. No cattle shall be presented for the tuberculin test which have been 
injected with tuberculin within sixty days immediately preceding, or which 
have at any time reacted to a tuberculin test. 
4. An accredited herd in which not more than one reactor is found at a 
subsequent tuberculin test may be reinstated to the list if the entire herd 
passes a successful test without reactors; said test to be applied not less 
than four months from the date when the reactor is removed from the herd 
and farm, provided the owner has complied with all the requirements with 
reference to the introduction of additional animals to the herd, and also 
other requirements of the accredited herd plan. 
5. No cattle other than those of an accredited herd shall be added to an 
accredited herd or to a herd that is in the process of accreditation, until 
they have passed two tuberculin tests applied at intervals of not less than 
sixty days or more than ninety days by a regularly employed State or Fed- 
eral veterinarian or by a veterinarian specially authorized by the State and 
Bureau to conduct such tests. The cattle may, after passing the first test, 
be placed on the farm or premises containing an accredited herd or one in 
the process of accreditation but must not be allowed to associate with said 
herd until after passing the second test. 
6. (a) When a herd has been officially accredited by the United States 
Department of Agriculture and State, it shall be, when ordered by the live- 
stock sanitary officials of the State, tuberculin tested annually by any vet- 
erinarian whose name is upon the accredited list of veterinarians approved 
by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, provided that before any 
Veterinarian other than one who devotes his entire time to the work of any 
State or the Bureau of Animal Industry can be approved for accredited 
herd work, he shall have passed an examination conducted by the proper 
livestock sanitary officials of the State in which he resides and the Bureau of 
Animal Industry. He then shall be eligible to conduct annual tuberculin 
tests upon herds which have been officially accredited upon dates approved 
by the proper State livestock sanitary official and the inspector in charge 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry in the State wherein the herd is located. 
(b) No herd tests can be made by such an accredited veterinarian unless 
he has instructions in writing from the State officials to that effect. The 
date of the annual tests for each herd shall be recorded in the State office 
and also in the office of the inspector in charge. On any annual test the 
State and the Bureau reserve the right to have a regularly employed official 
present on the farm to supervise the testing done by the accredited 
veterinarian. 
(c) The accredited veterinarian shall conduct each test strictly in ac- 
cordance with instructions issued by the Bureau of Animal Industry to em- 
ployees engaged in cooperative tuberculosis eradication work. At the con- 
clusion of each test the accredited veterinarian shall submit to the State 
Veterinarian and the inspector in charge of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
a copy of the record of the test. 
(d) Any animal of a herd under supervision which may react in any 
herd tuberculin tested by an accredited veterinarian shall be marked for the 
purpose of identification in accordance with the regulations of the State in 
which the animal is located. 
(e) Tuberculin tests applied by veterinarians other than those reguldrly 
employed by the State and Feleral Bureau of Animal Industry shall be paid 
for by the owner of the herd. 
(f) Upon written instructions from the proper State officials, accredited 
veterinarians may conduct tuberculin tests at the owner's expense on herds 
in the process of accreditation in States which approve this method of test- 
ing, until all animals in the herd have passed one negative test; provided, Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
355 
however, that in such herds Federal indemnity shall be payable only in 
accordance with the regulations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
which further provide that when 15 per cent of the total Federal indemnity 
allotted to each State is not sufficient to meet the demands in a given State, 
for cattle which may react to tests conducted under this plan by accredited 
veterinarians, then an additional amount of the State allotment shall be 
used, provided sufficient funds remain available. 
7. Before a herd can be accredited the stables and premises shall be 
placed in a sanitary condition. When reactors are disclosed as the result of 
any test, they must be immediately removed from the farm and the stables 
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before the herd shall be identified as in 
process of accreditation. 
8. Prior to each tuberculin test satisfactory evidence of the identity of 
the registered animals shall be presented to the inspector. Any grade cattle 
maintained in the herd or associated with the animals of the herd shall be 
identified by a tag or other marking satisfactory to the State and Federal 
officials. 
9. All removals of cattle from the herd, either by sale, death or slaughter, 
shall be reported promptly to the said State or Federal officials, giving the 
identification of the animal and, if sold, the name and address of the person 
to whom transferred. If the transfer is made from the accredited herd to 
another accredited herd the shipment shall be made only in properly cleaned 
and disinfected cars. No cattle shall be allowed to associate with the herd 
which have not passed a tuberculin test approved by the State and Federal 
officials. 
10. All milk and other dairy products fed to calves shall be those produced 
by an accredited herd, or if from outside or unknown sources it shall be 
pasteurized by heating to not less than 150° F. for not less than twenty 
minutes. 
11. All reasonable sanitary measures and other recommendations by the 
State and Federal authorities for the control of tuberculosis shall be com- 
plied with. 
12. (a) That the requirements for tuberculosis-free area work be similar 
to the tuberculosis-free accredited herd work and to be applied to all cattle 
located in said area. 
(b) That before any area shall be recognized as tuberculosis-free, after 
having complied with paragraph (a) of this section, there must be satisfac- 
tory assurance of official livestock sanitary police restrictions to prevent re- 
infection of said area. 
(c) Modified Accredited Areas.-Areas may be classed as modified ac- 
credited areas, provided the following requirements are complied with: 
1. The extent of the proposed modified accredited area shall be deter- 
mined by the cooperating Federal and State authorities in conjunction with 
other cooperating agencies within the proposed area. 
2. Definite quarantine rules and regulations shall be determined upon and 
inaugurated within said area, and must be in force from the beginning of 
the work. 
3. The area designated shall be classed as modified accredited area by the 
cooperating Federal and State departments, if as the result of any one com- 
plete test including all cattle in said area the total number of reactors does 
not exceed one-half of 1 per cent; and it is further provided that individual 
quarantine shall be established in less than sixty days from date of original 
test, and all subsequent tests shall be made in accordance with the uniform 
accredited herd plan. 
4. No cattle shall be imported into said area unless from an accredited 
herd or after having passed a satisfactory tuberculin test applied by an 
approved veterinarian; an exception to be made, however, in the case of 
cattle for immediate slaughter and steers for feeding and grazing purposes. 
The cattle for immediate slaughter must be so disposed of within ten days, 
and during this interval must be held separate and apart from any other 
cattle. Steers for feeding and grazing purposes brought into said area 
without an approved tuberculin test shall be placed in official quarantine 
and held separate and apart from any other cattle. 356 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
5. Upon compliance with the aforesaid provisions this area shall be offi- 
cially and jointly declared by the cooperating Federal and State authorities 
as a modified accredited area for a period of three years, provided the degree 
of infection does not exceed one-half of 1 per cent at any time. 
(d) If paragraphs 1 and 2, section (c), are complied with, and as the 
result of any one complete test including all cattle in said area the total 
number of reactors equals 1 per cent or more of all cattle in said area, then 
all cattle in said area shall be retested; however, if the percentage of re- 
actors is between one-half of 1 per cent and 1 per cent of all cattle in said 
area, subsequent tests shall be applied to all infected herds in said area, 
and when their percentage of reactors is not over one-half of 1 per cent the 
area may then be officially classed as a modified accredited area. 
13. Cattle from an accredited herd may be shipped interstate, by cer- 
tificate obtained from the office of the State livestock sanitary officials of 
the State in which the herd is located, or from the office of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, without further tuberculin test, for a period of one year, 
subject to the rules and regulations of the State of destination. 
14. Strict compliance with these methods and rules shall entitle the 
owner of a free herd to a tuberculosis-free accredited herd certificate to be 
issued by the Federal and State departments. Said certificate shall be good 
for one year from date of test unless revoked at an earlier date. 
15. A supplementary list shall be made to the accredited herd list to con- 
tain the names of the owners of purebred herds that are found free from 
tuberculosis on two annual tuberculin tests but in which the herd bull re- 
acted. Such herds shall not receive an accredited herd certificate. The re- 
acting bull may be used under the following conditions: 
1. He shall have passed a satisfactory physical examination and be kept 
in isolation and quarantine under State supervision. 
2. When it is desired to breed cattle to the reacting bull, such cattle shall 
be taken to the bull and bred on neutral ground. The bull shall be 
controlled on a staff or halter. 
3. After the bull is no longer used in the herd, that herd may be fully 
accredited after two successful tuberculin tests applied not less than 
six months apart. 
16. Failure on the part of the owners to comply with the letter or spirit 
of these methods and rules shall be considered sufficient cause for immediate 
cancellation of cooperation with them by the State and Federal officials. 
Approved, December 17, 1923. 
The principal changes made in this plan since its original adoption 
provide for the participation of practicing veterinarians, for the rein- 
statement of herds which have been removed from the list by reason 
of one reactor having been found, for the defining of a tuberculosis- 
free area, and other minor changes intended to clarify the different 
paragraphs. 
The following table showing the number of field offices maintained 
and the average number of Bureau and State veterinary inspectors 
employed for the fiscal years from the organization of the work to 
June 30, 1923, indicates the rapidity of its growth: 
Fiscal 
Field offices, 
Average Bureau 
Average State 
year 
end of year 
inspectors 
inspectors 
1918 
17 
53 
36 
1919 
32 
135 
62 
1920 
35 
155 
101 
1921 
40 
194 
148 
1922 
43 
246 
172 
1923 
43 
230 
178 Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
357 
Appropriations 
The first appropriation made by Congress for tuberculosis eradi- 
cation work was included in the regular fund for inspection and quar- 
antine work for the fiscal year 1918. A specific appropriation of 
$500,000 was made for the fiscal year 1919. The act specifically 
stated: 
For investigating the disease of tuberculosis of animals, and for 
researches concerning the cause of the disease, its mode of spread, 
methods of treatment and prevention, including demonstrations, the 
formation of organizations, and such other means as may be neces- 
sary either independently or in cooperation with farmers' associa- 
tions, State, territory or county organizations. * * * Provided, how- 
ever, that in carrying out the purpose of this appropriation, if in the 
opinion of the Secretary of Agriculture, it shall be necessary to de- 
stroy tuberculous animals and to compensate owners for loss thereof, 
he may in his discretion, expend in the City of Washington or else- 
where out of moneys of this appropriation such sums as he shall de- 
termine to be necessary for the reimbursement of owners of animals 
so destroyed in cooperation with such States, counties or municipali- 
ties as shall by law or suitable action in keeping with its authority 
in the matter and by rules and regulations adopted and enforced in 
pursuance thereof provide inspection of tuberculous animals and for 
compensation to owners of animals, but no part of the money hereby 
appropriated shall be used in compensating owners of such animals 
except in cooperation with and supplementary to payments to be 
made by State, county or municipality where destruction of such 
animals shall take place; nor shall any payment be made hereunder 
as compensation for or on account of any such animal destroyed if 
at the time of inspection or test of such animal or at the time of 
destruction thereof it shall belong to or be upon the premises of any 
person, firm or corporation to which it has been sold, shipped or de- 
livered for the purpose of being slaughtered: Provided, further, that 
out of the money hereby appropriated no payment as compensation 
for any tuberculous animal destroyed shall exceed one-third of the 
difference between the appraised value of such animal and the value 
of the salvage thereof; that no payment hereunder shall exceed the 
amount paid or to be paid by the State, county or municipality where 
the animal shall be destroyed; and that in no case shall any pay- 
ment hereunder be more than $25 for any grade animal or more than 
$50 for any purebred animal and that no payment shall be made 
unless the owner has complied with all lawful quarantine regulations. 
Appropriations have been made for the investigation and control of 
tuberculosis, as shown in the following table: 
Fiscal 
year 
Operating 
expense 
Indemnity 
Estimated State 
appropriations 
1918 
$ 75,000 
1919 
500,000' 
$2,000,000 
1920 
500^000 
$1,000,000 
2,500,000 
1921 
800,000 
1,085,440' 
3,000,000 
1922 
978,800 
1,600,000' 
4,000,000 
1923 
850,000 
2,027,600 
4,000,000 
1924 
850,000 
2,027,600 
5,000,000 
Amount appropriated by Congress 
'Includes indemnity. 
includes deficiency appropriation. 358 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Beginning July 1, 1919, Congress deemed it wise to provide specific 
sums for operating expenses and a separate fund for the payment of 
indemnities for animals slaughtered on account of being tuberculous. 
The funds provided annually for operating expenses were sufficient 
to permit an extension of work, but the indemnity fund for the year 
ending June 30, 1921, became exhausted on April 1, 1921. To meet 
this emergency Congress appropriated an additional sum of $405,000 
to indemnify owners of tuberculous animals which were slaughtered 
prior to June 30, 1921. Again in December, 1921, Congress appro- 
priated $600,000 additional indemnity funds, available December 16, 
to carry on the work to the end of the fiscal year 1922. Notwithstand- 
ing these increased appropriations it was necessary to make imme- 
diately available $300,000 of the indemnity fund for the fiscal year 
1923. This bill was approved May 11, 1922, and the major portion 
of this allotment was used in paying indemnity for cattle slaughtered 
prior to June 30, 1922. 
The demand for the work continued to increase steadily. The rec- 
ords show that on February 1, 1924, there were on the waiting list 
219,702 herds containing approximately 2,255,682 head of cattle. In 
addition there were many county units and others asking for cooper- 
ation and assistance in eradicating the disease. 
Accredited Herd Work 
The accredited herd feature of the tuberculosis eradication problem 
was pushed at the beginning of the cooperative work. It was found 
that there were a number of herds which had been placed under the 
supervision of the Bureau in its investigational work or under the 
supervision of various livestock sanitary officials. The owners of 
these herds were in a position to take up the work promptly. The 
first herd accredited under the present "Uniform Methods and Rules" 
was that owned by the U. S. Soldiers' Home, Washington, D. C., cer- 
tificate No. 1 being issued in favor of this herd on February 6, 1918, 
practically 60 days after the plan was adopted. 
While the U. S. Soldiers' Home herd was the first to be accredited 
under the present "Uniform Methods and Rules," it was not really 
the first herd in the United States to be accredited. As stated in the 
history of the Quarantine Division, the dairy herd owned by Ford & 
Graham, Garrett Park, Md., was certified by the Bureau on April 27, 
1908, as being free from tuberculosis. 
The following table shows the progress of the tuberculin testing 
of cattle from the beginning in 1917 to February 1, 1924: Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
359 
Progress of Tuberculin Testing of Cattle 
Fiscal 
year 
1917 
Cattle 
tested 
20,101 
Reactors 
found 
645 
Pct. 
3.2 
Total accredited- 
Total once-tested free- 
Herds 
Cattle 
Herds 
Cattle 
1918 
134,143 
6,544 
4.9 
204 
6,945 
'883 
22,212 
1919 
329,878 
13,528 
4.1 
782 
19,021 
6,535 
117,243 
1920 
700,670 
28,709 
4.1 
3,370 
82,986 
16,599 
197,577 
1921 
. 1,366,358 
53,768 
3.9 
8,201 
193,620 
49,814 
643,233 
1922 
. 2,384,236 
82,569 
3.5 
16,216 
363,902 
161,533 
1,548,183 
1923 
. 3,460,849 
113,844 
3.3 
28,526 
615,156 
312,281 
2,724,497 
19241 
2,782,036 
97,111 
3.5 
'37,389 
784,975 
438,284 
3,812,859 
Total 11,178,271 
1 To February 1. 
396,718 
3.5 
The great success of the accredited herd work in a majority of the 
States was due to many causes, chief among which were increased 
knowledge on the part of the livestock owners concerning the tuber- 
culosis eradication movement and the arrangement made by the 
National Government and States to pay indemnity for diseased 
cattle. From the beginning it was realized that eventually it would 
be impossible to take care of the demands for service with the regu- 
larly employed veterinary inspectors of the Bureau and States. On 
December 3, 1919, the "Uniform Methods and Rules" were amended 
so that practicing veterinarians, subject to a practical examination by 
Bureau and State officials, might be detailed at the expense of the 
owners to apply the tuberculin test to herds of cattle which had been 
on the accredited list for two years. On December 3, 1920, the plan 
was further amended to permit accredited herds to be turned over 
immediately to eligible local practitioners. Examinations have been 
held in all the States, resulting in the establishment of a list of 5,517 
"accredited" veterinarians. The plan of 1921 provided that ac- 
credited men, under supervision, could make the first test on a herd 
in process of becoming accredited. With the assistance of these prac- 
titioners this phase of the work grew beyond all expectations. 
Circumscribed Area Work 
It was realized from the beginning that tuberculosis could not be 
entirely eradicated under the 11 accredited herd" plan, which contem- 
plated only the establishment of single tuberculosis-free herds. The 
area project was, therefore, included in the plans, the idea of its 
feasibility being based on the demonstrations made in the District of 
Columbia. During the fiscal year 1918-19 some preliminary work on a 
similar basis was done in the States of New York, Mississippi and 
Wisconsin. However, it was not until 1919 that concerted efforts to 
test all cattle within a given county were begun. 360 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Clay County, Mississippi, inaugurated the area plan on November 
1, 1919, and completed the work on January 31, 1920. During this 
drive 1,113 herds containing 9,563 cattle were tuberculin tested by 
five men. 
In order to extend area work it was necessary first to establish 
methods by which cooperation could be extended by county units. In 
a number of States, among which were included Iowa, Massachusetts, 
Minnesota and Washington, the laws did not permit of independent 
appropriations on the part of county officials. Numerous forms of 
cooperation were established. In States where the laws permitted and 
where funds were available, appropriations were made by the various 
county boards of commissioners for the employment of veterinarians 
to cooperate with the Bureau and State forces. In some States sim- 
ilar assistance was obtained through farm bureaus. In other States 
the work was performed by State and Federal inspectors, and in still 
others a Bureau veterinarian was placed in charge of a county, with 
the understanding that the county authorities or the farm bureau 
would pay half his salary and traveling expenses. All these forms of 
cooperation were generally successful, but the Bureau encouraged the 
employment of official county veterinarians wherever appropriations 
were available. 
By February 1, 1924, 96 counties and the District of Columbia had 
completed one or more official tests of all the cattle within those areas, 
and 175 were engaged in an active campaign contemplating the testing 
of all the cattle within those counties. Arrangements have been made 
to provide for modified accredited areas in various parts of the United 
States. These areas are those where all the cattle in a county or dis- 
trict have been tuberculin tested, and where tuberculosis does not ex- 
ist to more than 0.5 per cent. The first list of counties, of this kind 
was made July 23, 1923, and included 17 counties in the States of 
Indiana, Michigan, North Carolina and Tennessee. The following 
table shows the status of the area project on February 1, 1924: 
Counties having com- 
Counties intensively 
States 
pleted one or more 
engaged in testing 
tests of all cattle 
cattle 
Arizona 
1 
2 
California 
- 
3 
District of Columbia 
1 
Idaho 
2 
5 
Illinois 
1 
26 
Indiana 
4 
7 
Iowa 
- 
25 
Kansas 
- 
1 
Status of Area Eradication, February 1, 1924 Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
361 
Kentucky 
Maine 
4 
10 
Maryland 
- 1 
2 
Michigan 
14 
4 
Minnesota 
2 
. 
Mississippi 
3 
1 
Missouri 
12 
5 
Montana 
2 
4 
Nebraska 
4 
1 
New Mexico 
- 
1 
New York 
2 
18 
North Carolina .... 
16 
15 
North Dakota 
1 
- 
Ohio 
- 
12 
Oregon 
10 
3 
Pennsylvania 
1 
2 
Tennessee 
3 
- 
Utah 
1 
3 
Virginia 
1 
1 
Washington 
3 
17 
West Virginia 
1 
- 
Wisconsin 
12 
3 
Total 
97 
175 
Eradication of Tuberculosis from Swine 
Investigations were conducted to ascertain the extent of tubercu- 
losis in swine. It was found that in the hog-growing sections of the 
Middle West approximately 96 per cent of the infection in swine was 
traceable to- 
1. Following tuberculous cattle. 
2. Feeding skimmed milk on the farm, or by-products from 
creameries, condensaries, etc. 
3. Feeding tuberculous carcasses of various animals, including 
fowls. 
About 65 per cent of the infection was traceable to dairy sources. 
In no instances where tuberculosis had been traced to a farm through 
infection reported in the hogs did the inspectors fail to find reactors 
when the cattle were tested. Agents of livestock commission com- 
panies and exchanges in the principal slaughtering centers were in- 
terviewed and urged to inform Bureau officials of the origin of ship- 
ments received at slaughtering centers which contained tuberculous 
swine. A system of notifying owners of infected shipments by means 
of form letters was begun in 1909 by the Quarantine Division. These 
letters specified the pathological conditions found when the animals 
were slaughtered and suggested that a tuberculin test be applied to all 
cattle on the premises. 
The practicability of tattooing hogs shipped to establishments oper- 362 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
ating under Federal meat inspection, in order that tuberculous ani- 
mals might be properly traced to their origin, was successfully demon- 
strated. This work was carried out at Waterloo, Iowa; Sioux Falls, 
S. Dak., and Reno, Nev., during the year 1920. The following.records 
of the Meat Inspection Division of the Bureau covering the period 
from July 1, 1920, to March 31, 1921, inclusive, show the importance 
of active measures to control tuberculosis of swine: 
Total 
Total 
retained 
condemned 
Total swine 
for 
Per 
for 
Per 
City 
killed 
tuberculosis 
cent 
tuberculosis 
cent 
Sioux City, Iowa 
812,389 
121,191 
14.91 
2,950 
0.35 
Albert Lea, Minn 
184,337 
51,121 
27.7 
.... 
.16 
Chicago, Ill 
4,725,359 
791,417 
16.74 
12,570 
.26 
Omaha, Nebr 
1,355,670 
192,962 
14.23 
3,386 
.25 
Sioux Falls, S. Dak... 
263,768 
69,912 
26.5 
585 
.22 
Milwaukee, Wis 
797,675 
210,212 
25.35 
1,787 
.22 
Fort Worth, Tex 
235,635 
5,777 
2.45 
87 
.03 
Cincinnati, Ohio 
594,292 
39,341 
6.62 
233 
.04 
Denver, Colo 
145,670 
6,478 
4.44 
101 
.06 
Baltimore, Md 
582,665 
8,572 
1.45 
457 
.07 
Indianapolis, Ind 
St. Louis, Mo 
882,896 
55,379 
6.27 
624 
.07 
.... 1,237,909 
50,773 
4.1 
926 
.07 
Entire country 
27,807,310 
3,290,098 
11.83 
45,145 
.16 
Meat-Inspection Statistics of Tuberculosis in Swine 
The Bureau advocates the proper pasteurization of all creamery 
by-products when they are returned to farms to be fed to swine. The 
Wisconsin Legislature appropriated funds in 1921 for carrying out 
this work. 
The eradication of swine tuberculosis includes the tracing of the 
sources of infected swine, the tuberculin testing of the cattle on those 
premises, the pasteurization of creamery by-products fed to swine, 
means of identifying hogs at the time of slaughter, and the applica- 
tion of sanitary precautions. 
Interstate Regulations for the Control and Prevention of 
Tuberculosis in Cattle * 
The infection of new herds in territory practically free from tuber- 
culosis invariably pointed to purchases of cattle in other States and 
their movement interstate on certificates of health required by the 
State officials of the State of destination. Each State drafted its own 
regulations regarding the entrance of cattle, and practically all 
required a tuberculin test record, but there was a lack of uniformity 
in the requirements. 
Prior to July 1, 1919, the Department of Agriculture assumed no Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
363 
authority governing the interstate movement of cattle in so far as the 
question of tuberculosis was involved, other than to prohibit, under 
authority of, the Act of Congress of May 29, 1884, the movement of 
animals known to be diseased. The act of 1884 did not establish a 
complete and comprehensive system of inspection or the quarantine 
of cattle in interstate commerce. It specifically invited the partici- 
pation of the respective States and made such participation an essen- 
tial part of the national system of livestock inspection. 
Further legislation was enacted on February 2, 1903, directing the 
Secretary of Agriculture to establish rules and regulations concerning 
the interstate transportation of livestock. It provided further that 
whenever an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry should issue 
a certificate showing that he had inspected any cattle which were 
about to be shipped in interstate commerce and had found them free 
from infectious diseases, such animals so inspected and certified might 
be transported in interstate commerce without further restriction. 
This legislation was in support of the act of 1884 and was enforced 
as an aid to the States in the exercise of the police powers vested in 
the State livestock sanitary officials. 
In 1905 Congress again spoke on this subject, indicating its inten- 
tion to exercise exclusive control of the inspection and quarantine of 
livestock in interstate commerce. This act (1905) authorizes and 
directs the Secretary of Agriculture to quarantine any locality when 
he shall determine that infectious diseases of the animals exist there. 
Further, it prohibits the interstate movement of cattle from such 
quarantined territory except as provided. It also authorizes the Sec- 
retary of Agriculture to promulgate rules and regulations with regard 
to the movement and handling of cattle from quarantined localities. 
The act made it unlawful to move any cattle from such localities ex- 
cept under conditions prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture. 
This was the situation with reference to legislation in 1918, when 
the State Veterinarian of Missouri informed the Bureau that because 
of Federal legislation on the subject the State tuberculosis regula- 
tions had been declared by the courts of Missouri to be null and void, 
and he requested that the Secretary of Agriculture promulgate regu- 
lations under the authority granted him in order that the State of 
Missouri might receive the necessary protection against the transpor- 
tation of diseased cattle. 
Realizing the utter impossibility of controlling the spread of tu- 
berculosis without drastic Federal and State regulations, and knowing 
that such regulations could not be enforced by the limited number 364 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
of regularly employed veterinary inspectors, the Bureau developed a 
plan of utilizing the services of authorized practicing veterinarians 
for this work. Regulations were drafted based on the act of Febru- 
ary 2, 1903, and became effective July 1, 1919. They were identified 
as Regulation 7, B. A. I. Order 263. Briefly, these regulations pro- 
vided that a practitioner to be eligible for this work must be a grad- 
uate of a recognized veterinary institution, must be recommended by 
the proper State sanitary official of the State in which he resides, and 
be approved by the Chief of the Bureau. A veterinary practitioner 
having obtained such approval was given a certificate authorizing him 
to conduct tuberculin tests on cattle intended for interstate move- 
ment in accordance with the regulations of the Bureau. The records 
of the Bureau indicated that on July 1, 1923, there were on the list 
8,389 approved practitioners to conduct this class of work. Veteri- 
narians who test animals for interstate movement are required to 
submit copies of test records through the proper State livestock of- 
ficial to the Bureau. These records are checked and apparent inac- 
curacies or discrepancies in the test are noted and called to the atten- 
tion of the practitioner by letter. These men cooperate splendidly 
and are of material assistance in making Regulation 7 effective. 
In addition to the tuberculin testing done by local practitioners, 
the present regulations provide that cattle transported interstate to 
public stockyards where the Bureau maintains inspection may be 
tuberculin tested by veterinary inspectors of the Bureau. 
An amendment to the regulation dated July 1, 1921, provides for 
the shipment of tuberculous purebred cattle interstate if for inclusion 
in a " Bang herd ' ' at destination. 
Methods of Tuberculin Testing 
The success of any system for the control and eradication of tuber- 
culosis depends primarily on the proper administration of tuberculin 
and the proper interpretation of the results obtained. Various 
methods of administering tuberculin have been devised. The prin- 
cipal tests advocated have been the subcutaneous, the intradermic, 
the intrapalpebral and the ophthalmic. In connection with experi- 
mental work the Bureau has used all these methods. 
The only method officially sanctioned by the Bureau at the time the 
Tuberculosis Eradication Division was organized was the subcuta- 
neous method. Experiments with the different tests during a period 
of two and one-half years demonstrated that the intradermic test was 
equally as reliable as the subcutaneous test and was more easily and Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
365 
rapidly applied. This method especially fits into the plans for in- 
tensive area work, because many more herds can be tested within a 
given time than by the subcutaneous method. Accordingly, on March 
1, 1920, the intradermic test was recognized by the Bureau for all 
official work. Much experimental work was also carried on with the 
ophthalmic test. 
It was deemed advisable in badly infected herds to use a combina- 
tion of two and sometimes three methods of applying tuberculin. 
These combination tests aid materially in overcoming the possible 
failures of tuberculin administered by one method alone. Tuberculin 
itself was never believed to be an infallible agent; however, as a 
result of such combination tests many reactors have been detected 
which would react to one test and fail to react to another. In work- 
ing out these combination tests it was shown that the most satisfactory 
combinations are either the intradermic and ophthalmic or the sub- 
cutaneous and ophthalmic. The value of these combinations was 
recognized and at the meeting of the United States Live Stock Sani- 
tary Association held in Chicago on December 3, 1920, an amendment 
was made to the "Uniform Methods and Rules" whereby a herd to 
become fully accredited must at its final test for accreditation satis- 
factorily pass a combination of at least two tests. 
Since the intradermic test has been in use alone or in combination 
with other tests many calves under six months of age have been found 
to be reactors. The following table contains data collected from 
January 1, 1921, to January 1, 1924, which show the results obtained 
from testing calves with tuberculin: 
Results of Tuberculin Testing of Calves, 1921 to 1923, Inclusive 
Number 
Number 
Per cent 
tested 
reactors 
reactors 
Calves under 6 months 
56,806 
1,704 
3.0 
Calves 6 months to 1 year 
83,691 
4,057 
4.8 
Total 
140,497 
5,762 
4.1 
The following table gives data gathered in the field from October 
1, 1920, to January 1, 1924, which show results obtained from the 
use of the different methods of applying tuberculin. 
Method of test 
Lots 
Cattle 
Reacted 
Subcutaneous 
27,703 
548,876 
27,440 
Intradermic 
647,659 
6,939,668 
202,401 
Ophthalmic 
794 
8,098 
251 
Combination 
78,766 
1,644,947 
93,174 
It is a matter of record that the intradermic test is now accepted, 
with some reservations, by all the States. 366 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Tuberculosis Eradication and the Public Health* 
The question of the transmissibility of bovine tuberculosis to the 
human family has been widely discussed since Koch made his famous 
statement in 1902 that bovine tuberculosis was not transmissible to 
the human family. He based this statement on the fact that he had 
been unable to transmit human tuberculosis to calves. This statement 
has been disproved many times, through the investigations of Park 
and Krumweide of the New York City Department of Health, also of 
Novick, Ravenel and many others. It can not be doubted that a large 
percentage of tuberculosis in children, some writers stating as high 
as 33 per cent, is directly traceable to bovine origin. When these 
facts are considered the question of the eradication of bovine tuber- 
culosis assumes a prominent position in public health work. 
When the Division was organized in 1917, its efforts were based 
especially on the economic importance of the eradication of tuber- 
culosis. But many instances have been reported where tuberculosis 
of children on farms and in other places was traceable directly to 
tuberculous cattle on the premises. During 1920 and 1921 reports 
were received from the various field offices showing that many muni- 
cipal health boards had enacted ordinances requiring the tuberculin 
test for dairy herds furnishing milk or other dairy products for 
consumption in cities and towns. 
Efforts were made to engage the cooperation of agencies interested 
in the question of public health with a view to furthering sentiment 
favoring dairy products from tuberculosis-free herds of cattle. At- 
tempts to ignore the public health phase of tuberculosis eradication 
would have been detrimental to the progress of a movement intended 
to eradicate bovine tuberculosis completely. 
Conferences-Short Courses-Publicity 
In line with the general policy of the Tuberculosis Eradication 
Division in regard to cooperation and the dissemination of informa- 
tion, it was decided to hold a series of conferences. The first of these 
meetings, held at Chicago, Ill., on October 6, 7 and 8, 1919, was 
attended by a majority of the livestock officials of the various States 
and by Bureau officials, representatives of livestock organizations, 
veterinary practitioners and many livestock owners. The proceedings 
of this meeting were published in pamphlet form and widely dis- 
tributed. The Chicago meeting was followed by a number of sectional 
conferences as follows: Portland, Maine, July 13, 14 and 15, 1920; 
* See "Pathological Division," page 68. Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
367 
Philadelphia, Pa., October 11, 12 and 13, 1920; Chicago, Ill., Novem- 
ber 27 and 28, 1920; Atlanta, Ga., May 2, 3 and 4, 1921; Boston, 
Mass., June 22, 23 and 24, 1921; Chicago, Ill., November 25 and 26, 
1921; Hartford, Conn., June 6, 7 and 8, 1922; Concord, N. H., June 
12 and 13, 1923. These meetings were well attended and proved 
beneficial to the progress of the work and to all concerned. 
In addition to these conferences the Bureau has given assistance in 
conducting short courses at State agricultural colleges on bovine 
tuberculosis, and has responded to many invitations from various 
State organizations, including State veterinary medical associations, 
to participate in the discussions at their meetings. Short courses were 
given at the following State colleges in preparation for the examina- 
tions in June and July, 1921, to establish a list of accredited veteri- 
nary practitioners: Alabama, Kentucky, Michigan, North Dakota, 
Nebraska. 
Commencing July 1, 1918, the progress of the accredited-herd work 
was given publicity by the publication of the names of owners of 
accredited herds and those whose cattle had passed one free test in 
process of accreditation. Successive accredited-herd lists were pub- 
lished on April 1, 1919, and June 30, 1920. The names became so 
numerous after this date as to render further publication imprac- 
ticable. 
In order to determine the extent of favor with which the accredited- 
herd plan was regarded by owners of accredited herds and of herds 
that had successfully passed one tuberculin test, a questionnaire was 
sent out on January 12, 1921. Approximately 13,000 of these ques- 
tionnaires were forwarded to the cooperating cattle owners, and about 
6,500 replies were received. A request for suggestions as to the 
handling of the problem in the future and an invitation for criticism 
was placed in this paper. The replies received were extremely inter- 
esting and contained many valuable suggestions. They indicated that 
public sentiment was in favor of eradicating tuberculosis from the 
livestock of our country. 
In October, 1919, a new Farmers' Bulletin, No. 1069, "Tuberculosis 
in Live Stock; Detection, Control and Eradication," was prepared by 
Drs. J. A. Kiernan and A. E. Wight. This bulletin has been widely 
distributed, the various issues totalling more than 450,000 copies. 
At the tuberculosis eradication conference held in Chicago, Ill., 
November 25 and 26, 1921, the following resolution was adopted, and 
at the meeting of the United States Live Stock Sanitary Association 
in December, 1921, the same resolution was adopted: 368 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
We request the Bureau of Animal Industry to gather data on the 
different tests and at the next meeting called by the Bureau for this 
purpose, to present to this conference the data secured and to desig- 
nate the proper technic to be used in all tests including the intra- 
dermic, ophthalmic and subcutaneous. 
In accordance with this resolution a Department Circular, No. 249, 
"Tuberculin Testing of Livestock," was prepared by Drs. L. B. 
Ernest and Elmer Lash of the Bureau. This circular was distributed 
in December, 1922, with the object of standardizing all tuberculin 
test work. 
A map was prepared on May 1, 1922, showing the extent of bovine 
tuberculosis in all the counties in the United States. The information 
collected was the first material of its kind ever obtained. It approxi- 
mates with a fair degree of accuracy the number of tuberculous cattle 
throughout the entire country. The following table was prepared 
from this map: 
Extent of Bovine Tuberculosis in the United States 
Approximate extent 
Total 
square 
miles 
Per cent 
square 
miles 
Total 
cattle 
Per cent Per cent 
cattle 
41.2 
tuberculous 
0.6 
1 per cent or less 
1,673,616 
46.4 
28,338,254 
More than 1, not more than 
3 per cent 
More than 3, not more than 
780,856 
21.7 
17,484,566 
25.4 
2.1 
7 per cent 
More than 7. not more than 
952,664 
26.4 
12,397,445 
18.1 
4.9 
15 per cent 
143,827 
4.0 
7,590,487 
11.0 
10.4 
More than 15 per cent 
53,739 
1.5 
2,960,954 
4.3 
26.0 
Total 
3,604,702 
100. 
68,771,706 
100. 
4. 
This table indicates that 46.4 per cent of the total area of the United 
States in square miles, which area contains 41.2 per cent of all the 
cattle in the United States, is infected with bovine tuberculosis to the 
extent of only 0.6 per cent. A further observation of the table shows 
that only 15.3 per cent of the cattle of the Nation, located in 5.5 
per cent of the entire area, are regarded as being badly infected with, 
the disease, these figures being taken from those areas containing 
more than 10 per cent of diseased cattle. This map has had a wide 
distribution and is valuable in estimating the extent of the problem 
involved in freeing the various areas from the disease. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
March 4,1917. Act of Congress providing $75,000 for tuberculosis eradica- 
tion work included in inspection and quarantine funds. 
May 1,1917. Tuberculosis Eradication Division organized. 
Dec. 4,1917. U. S. Live Stock Sanitary Association meeting, Chicago, Ill. 
Steps taken to effect a uniform method of conducting tu- 
berculosis work. Tuberculosis Eradication Division 
369 
Dec. 23,1917. Uniform rules and methods for tuberculosis-free accredited 
herds approved by Bureau. 
May 4,1918. State veterinarian of Missouri requested Federal Bureau to 
provide regulations governing the interstate movement 
of cattle to protect Missouri against tuberculosis. 
July 1,1918. Accredited Herd List No. 1 published. 
Oct. 1,1918. Act of Congress appropriated $500,000 for tuberculosis 
eradication work; first specific appropriation for this 
purpose. 
Oct. 1,1918. Appropriation act passed by Congress provided for move- 
ment interstate of known tuberculous cattle, which had 
previously been prohibited under act of 1884. 
April 1,1919. Accredited Herd List No. 2 published. 
July 1,1919. Regulation 7, B. A. I. Order 263, governing interstate move- 
ment of livestock in reference to tuberculosis, became 
effective. 
July 24,1919. Act of Congress provided $1,500,000 for operating expense 
and indemnity in tuberculosis eradication work for fiscal 
year 1920. 
Oct. 1,1919. Farmers' Bulletin 1069, "Tuberculosis in Live Stock," pub- 
lished. 
Oct. 6,1919. Conference of Bureau and State livestock sanitary officials 
and others on tuberculosis, Chicago, Ill. 
Nov. 1,1919. Circumscribed area work inaugurated in Clay County, Miss. 
This was the first county in the United States to under- 
take area work under the "Uniform Methods and Rules" 
plan of eradicating tuberculosis. 
Dec. 3,1919. U. S. Live Stock Sanitary Association meeting, Chicago, 
Ill. Uniform methods and rules amended enabling the 
Bureau and State authorities to include practicing vet- 
erinarians in the accredited herd plan, after herds had 
been accredited for a period of two years. 
Jan. 31,1920. Circumscribed area work completed in Clay County, Miss. 
March 1,1920. Intradermic test officially recognized by the Bureau. 
May 31,1920. Act of Congress provided $1,480,440 for operating expense 
and indemnity in tuberculosis eradication work for fiscal 
year 1921. 
June 26, 1920. First examination for "accredited veterinarians." This ex- 
amination was held in Virginia and North Carolina. 
June 30,1920. Accredited Herd List No. 3 and supplements published. 
July 13,1920. Sectional conference on tuberculosis eradication at Port- 
land, Maine. 
Oct. 11,1920. Sectional conference on tuberculosis at Philadelphia, Pa. 
Nov. 27,1920. Conference on tuberculosis at Chicago, Ill. 
Dec. 3,1920. Uniform plan again amended so that accredited herds may 
be turned over immediately to accredited veterinarians. 
Amendment also provided that a herd to be fully ac- 
credited must as its final test satisfactorily pass a com- 
bination of at least two tests. 
Jan. 12,1921. Questionnaire on tuberculosis sent to owners of accredited 
and once-tested herds. 370 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
March 3,1921. Act of Congress provided $1,978,800 for operating expense 
and indemnity in tuberculosis eradication work for fiscal 
year 1922. 
May 2,1921. Sectional conference on tuberculosis at Atlanta, Ga. 
June 15,1921. Congress appropriated $405,000 deficiency appropriation for 
tuberculosis eradication work. 
June 22,1921. Sectional conference on tuberculosis at Boston, Mass. 
June 30,1921. Data compiled on tuberculin testing of calves under 6 months 
of age indicated that 8.4 per cent were reactors. 
Sept. 23,1921. Conference of Bureau inspectors in charge held at Wash- 
ington, D. C. 
Nov. 29,1921. U. S. Live Stock Sanitary Association meeting, Chicago, Ill. 
Uniform methods and rules amended. 
Dec. 15,1921. Congress appropriated $600,000 emergency appropriation 
for payment of indemnity. 
Jan. 24,1922. Examinations for "accredited veterinarians" held in 29 
States. 
May 11, 1922. Appropriation providing $2,027,600 for indemnity and $850,- 
000 for operating expenses for fiscal year 1923 approved. 
June 6-8,1922. Third annual New England conference held at Hartford, 
Conn. 
Dec. 8,1922. U. S. Livestock Sanitary Association meeting at Chicago, 
Ill. Uniform methods and rules amended and "modified 
accredited area" described. 
Feb. 26,1923. Appropriation providing $2,027,600 for indemnity and $850,- 
000 for operation for fiscal year 1924 approved. 
March 1,1923. B. A. I. Order 282 making some changes in method of pay- 
ing indemnity effective. 
June 12,13,1923. Fourth annual New England conference at Concord, N. H. 
July 16,1923. Amendment 2 to B. A. I. Order 273 issued, permitting in- 
terstate movement of cattle from modified accredited 
areas without tuberculin test. 
July 23,1923. B. A. I. Order 283, placing the following counties in "Modi- 
fied Accredited Area": INDIANA: Dearborn; MICHI- 
GAN: Hillsdale, Charlevoix, Antrim, Emmet; NORTH 
CAROLINA: Scotland, Rowan, Pender, New Hanover, 
Davie, Davidson, Cumberland, Cabarrus, Buncombe, For- 
sythe; TENNESSEE: Bradley, Marshall. 
Feb. 5,1924. Amendment 1 to B. A. I. Order 283 "modified" following 
counties: ILLINOIS: Edgar; INDIANA: Ohio; MICHI- 
GAN: Grand Traverse; NORTH CAROLINA: Alamance, 
Greene, Iredell, Robeson, Wayne; TENNESSEE: Giles. 
PERSONNEL OF THE TUBERCULOSIS ERADICATION DIVISION 
Division Chief: 
Dr. J. A. Kiernan May 1,1917, to date 
Assistant Chief: 
Dr. A. E. Wight Dec. 24,1917, to date 
Tuberculosis Eradication Investigations: 
Dr. L. B. Ernest Dec. 1,1917, to date 
In Charge of Enforcement of Regulation 7: 
Dr. Elmer Lash july 7> 1919> date Bureau Personnel and Veterinary Education 
Bureau Personnel 
On January 16, 1883, Congress passed what is known as the Civil 
Service Law, which created the United States Civil Service Commis- 
sion. Gradually the jurisdiction of the Commission was extended to 
include the different branches of the Government service. 
By an Executive Order of President Cleveland dated May 28, 1894, 
and effective July 1, 1894, the 69 veterinarians already in the em- 
ploy of the Bureau were brought into the classified service. 
The Executive Order of President Cleveland dated May 24, 1895, 
brought under civil service control 787 employees of the Bureau, in- 
cluding the chiefs of divisions, experts, artists, statistical agents, mi- 
croscopists, assistant microscopists, taggers, stock examiners, clerks 
and certain agents. 
There yet remained in the Bureau 115 employees, such as experts 
and agents, who had been appointed without competitive examina- 
tion. These employees were transferred to a civil-service status by 
an Executive Order of President Taft dated August 26, 1912. 
The Bureau has engaged in a variety of activities w'hich has made 
it necessary to employ chemists, pathologists, bacteriologists, zoolo- 
gists, animal husbandmen, dairymen, veterinarians, etc., but always 
laymen have constituted the largest group of employees. The Bureau 
had in its employ a number of laymen whose duties were to assist the 
veterinarians in the work of meat inspection. Some were employed 
regularly in tagging inspected and passed carcasses or quarters, and 
from the nature of their work they were designated as "taggers." 
Others were designated "stock examiners," as their duties consisted 
chiefly of inspecting live animals in the stockyards and tagging those 
that showed evidence of disease or other objectionable conditions, so 
that the veterinarians on the killing floors would be able to identify 
them before making the post-mortem inspections. Other laymen 
were given field assignments where they assisted veterinarians in 
the control or eradication of animal diseases, such as dourine, sheep 
and cattle scabies and the Texas fever tick. 
On April 9, 1898, the Secretary of Agriculture designated Dr. A. D. 
Melvin, Assistant Chief of the Bureau, and Col. S. R. Burch, Chief 
Clerk of the Bureau, to be appointed by the Civil Service Commis- 
sion as auxiliary members of the Promotion Board for the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture to represent the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Under this designation Dr. Melvin and Col. Burch were instructed 
371 372 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
to hold examinations for the promotion of taggers to the position of 
stock examiners. The first examination of that kind was held at In- 
dianapolis, Ind., April 11 and 12, 1898, under authorization of the 
Civil Service Commission which was granted early in that year. 
The title of tagger was used officially until July, 1907, when an 
order was issued by the Secretary of Agriculture to change the des- 
ignation to inspector's assistant or skilled laborer, depending on 
the result of an examination. The examination was held July 30, 
1907; and the titles were changed March 1, 1908. If a tagger passed 
the examination with a mark of 70 or over, his designation was 
changed to inspector's assistant; if he failed to make a mark of 70, 
his designation was changed to skilled laborer. The title of stock 
examiner was not changed at that time. 
With the inauguration of the Meat Inspection Law in 1906, a new 
class of employees was created, known as meat inspectors, who en- 
tered the service through civil-service examination. In October, 
1909, steps were taken to discontinue examinations for meat in- 
spectors and to fill such positions through the promotion of in- 
spectors' assistants. However, it is of record that meat inspectors 
were appointed from the names that remained on the eligible list as 
late as March, 1914. 
On November 1, 1914, all existing titles of lay employees in the 
Bureau, except clerks, mechanics and laborers, were changed to lay 
inspector. The stock examiners and meat inspectors became lay in- 
spectors, grade 2, and the inspectors ' assistants became lay inspectors, 
grade 1. On April 1, 192Q, the qualifying term grade 1 and grade 2, 
designating different classes of lay inspectors, were eliminated, and 
since that date all in this class of employees have been designated as 
lay inspectors. 
In June, 1891, there was added to the Bureau force a class of em- 
ployees known as microscopists and assistant microscopists. This 
group was made up of female employees whose duties consisted in 
making a microscopical inspection of certain cuts and carcasses of 
hogs to ascertain if they were free from trichinae. This inspection 
was authorized by a law passed by Congress in March, 1891, by which 
pork shipped to certain foreign countries might be examined micro- 
scopically and certified if found free from trichinae, in order to meet 
the requirements of those countries. This force was gradually in- 
creased until 1901, when it numbered 268. Beginning with 1902 this 
work was gradually decreased until in June, 1906, it was entirely 
discontinued. Bureau Personnel and Veterinary Education 
373 
Veterinarians in the employ of the Bureau were originally desig- 
nated "inspector" and "assistant inspector," according to the im- 
portance of their assignments. The title of inspector was given to 
those in charge of projects, or who performed work .of a special 
character, and assistant inspector to those assigned to routine duties 
under immediate supervision. On January 1, 1907, the designations 
of all assistant inspectors and all inspectors were changed to "vet- 
erinary inspector." - .... 
In June, 1894, just prior to the date that Bureau veterinarians 
were placed in the classified service, the first examination of veter- 
inarians for positions in the Bureau was held under civil-service regu- 
lations. The following are the subjects, with their relative weights, 
which that examination covered. 
Subjects , . Weights 
1. Veterinary anatomy and physiology 20 
2. Veterinary pathology 30 
3. Meat inspection 50 
First Subject.-V eterinary Anatomy and Physiology 
Question 1. Through what passage does the peritoneal cavity communi- 
cate with exterior of the body? Describe fully. 
Question 2. Name and give the situation of the most important groups 
of lymphatic glands, which should be examined for the detection of tubercu- 
losis in the bovine species. 
Second Subject.-Veterinary Pathology 
Question 1. Starting from the mesenteric gland, in what direction and 
through what channels might an infectious organism be carried, and in what 
organs might it finally lodge? 
Question 2. What pathological condition may be the cause of fluid in the 
abdomen ? 
Question 3. What is inflammation and to what different conditions may 
it lead? 
Question 4. What is pus made up of, and how does it appear to the 
naked eye? 
Third Subject.-Meat Inspection 
Question 1. Under what general pathological conditions is the flesh of 
animals to be considered unfit for human food? 
Question 2. Where are the lesions of hog cholera chiefly found? 
Question 3. In what diseases are lesions found which may be mistaken for 
tuberculosis? How would the diagnosis be made by the meat inspector after 
the animal's death? 
Question 4. In what stage of tuberculosis must the flesh be regarded as 
infected? 
Dr. John Forbes was among those who took this examination and 
was the first to be appointed under civil-service regulations. Dr. 
Forbes's appointment became effective August 16, 1894. 
From the beginning the Bureau cooperated with the Civil Service 
Commission in conducting examinations for entrance to the Bureau Ser- 
vice. Dr. William S. Washburn and Dr. E. G. Seibert, physicians, were 374 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
commissioned and employed by the Civil Service Commission to con- 
duct these examinations, but as their education and training were in 
human medicine, pathology and anatomy, the Commission relied to 
some extent on the Bureau for assistance. In 1901, Dr. R. W. Hickman, 
of the Bureau, was detailed to assist the representatives of the Civil 
Service Commission in grading the papers of veterinarians competing 
in examinations for the position of assistant inspector, a duty which he 
performed for several years, until he was relieved by other officials 
of the Bureau. 
Veterinary Education 
As the work of the Bureau increased and became more exacting, 
and the problems dealing with animal plagues became more intricate, 
increased efforts were made by the Department to procure the best- 
trained veterinarians available. The scope of the examination was 
broadened and the questions were made somewhat more comprehen- 
sive in order to eliminate those applicants whose limited veterinary 
education and training did not qualify them to perform efficiently 
the responsible duties that would be required of them in the Bureau. 
There were a number of private veterinary schools in the United 
States at this time which were not equipped to give thorough instruc- 
tion in veterinary subjects. The faculties were not complete, and in 
Some instances not competent; the courses of study were too short. 
As a consequence the graduates of some schools were not up to the 
standard desired for Bureau work. Veterinary education generally 
in the United States was progressing, but some schools were lagging. 
In order to obtain men thoroughly qualified by education to fill 
positions in the Bureau, it was deemed advisable to prescribe a 
standard of veterinary education for schools that desired to prepare 
their graduates to qualify to take the civil-service examination for po- 
sitions in the Bureau. The Civil Service Commission approved this 
arrangement, and in February, 1908, the Secretary of Agriculture 
appointed a committee consisting of five leading veterinarians of the 
country for the purpose of obtaining information regarding the courses 
of instruction then given at the various veterinary colleges, and to 
make recommendations as to lengthening and arranging the courses 
of instruction properly to qualify graduates of these colleges for posi- 
tions in the Bureau. The members of this committee were Dr. Rich- 
ard P. Lyman, Secretary of the American Veterinary Medical Asso- 
ciation; Dr. Joseph Hughes, President of the Chicago Veterinary 
College; Dr. Tait Butler, Secretary of the Association of Veterinary Bureau Personnel and Veterinary Education 
375 
Faculties and Examining Boards of North America and State Vet- 
erinarian of North Carolina; Dr. Paul Fischer, State Veterinarian 
of Ohio; and Dr. A. M. Farrington, then Assistant Chief of the 
Bureau. 
The committee met in Chicago February 27, 1908, and organized 
with Dr. Lyman as chairman and Dr. Farrington as secretary. At 
this meeting a definite plan was formulated for visiting the colleges 
and obtaining the desired information, and on February 28 the com- 
mittee commenced its investigations. The veterinary colleges of the 
^United States and one in Canada, comprising in all seven State insti- 
tutions and fourteen private schools, were visited. On April 20, 1908, 
the committee met in Washington and submitted to the Secretary of 
Agriculture its report, which specified the minimum course of instruc- 
tion which the committee considered necessary to qualify graduates 
to become eligible for the position of veterinary inspector. The re- 
port embodied also recommendations as to faculties, equipment and 
teaching. This report and recommendations were published in Bu- 
reau Circular 133, dated July 6, 1908, and sent to the veterinary col- 
leges in the United States and Canada. In September of the same 
year these recommendations were approved by the American Vet- 
erinary Medical Association. 
On January 21, 1909, the Chief of the Bureau invited the repre- 
sentatives of the various veterinary colleges to Washington to discuss 
with Department officials the report of the committee, including the 
recommendations. The following institutions were represented at the 
eonference: 
Chicago Veterinary College 
Colorado State College 
Indiana Veterinary College 
Kansas City Veterinary College 
New York State College 
Ohio State University 
San Francisco Veterinary College 
Grand Rapids Veterinary College 
McPhillip Veterinary College 
University of Pennsylvania Veterinary Department 
Cincinnati Veterinary College 
United States College of Veterinary Surgeons 
After a two days' conference and a full discussion of the problems, 
the recommendations made by the committee were approved by the 
officials of the colleges represented at the conference. 
In March, 1909, there was appointed within the Bureau a commit- 
tee on veterinary education consisting of Dr. R. W. Hickman and Dr. 
A. M. Farrington. Commencing March 17 of that year, this commit- 376 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
tee visited the principal veterinary colleges in the United States and 
Canada. The work of the committee consisted of examining matricu- 
lation papers and credentials, making inquiry concerning the subjects 
studied, number of hours devoted to each, and inspecting the facilities 
and equipment for teaching and for laboratory work. All possible in- 
formation was obtained regarding the manner in which each college 
was complying with the provisions of Circular 133, and delinquen- 
cies were brought to the attention of the proper college officials. Gen- 
erally the veterinary colleges cooperated willingly with the Bureau, 
and they deserve much credit for the splendid spirit displayed and 
the effective manner in which they met the Bureau's requirements. 
Private schools predominated in number up to the year 1918, when 
there were 23 schools in the United States which gave full courses in 
veterinary medicine. Twelve of these schools were private institu- 
tions and eleven were connected with State colleges or received State 
aid. There were also two State agricultural colleges which gave two- 
year courses on veterinary subjects. As the private schools were sus- 
tained entirely by tuition fees, there was keen rivalry among them, 
and this, in some instances, led to a laxity in accepting matriculants. 
Usually the private schools did not maintain such high standards of 
veterinary education as the colleges which received State aid. At 
present (July 1, 1923) there are only three private veterinary schools 
in the United States and it may be expected that eventually they 
will cease to exist, as it is difficult for a private veterinary school to 
maintain the required standard and compete with colleges that 
receive financial aid from the States. 
Following are the names of the veterinary colleges in the United 
States and foreign countries which were on the accredited list 
July 1, 1923: 
Alabama Polytechnic Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, Au- 
burn, Ala. 
Colorado State College, Division of Veterinary Medicine, Fort Collins, 
Colo. 
Georgia State College of Agriculture, Veterinary Division, Athens, Ga. 
Indiana Veterinary College, Indianapolis, Ind. 
Iowa State College, Division of Veterinary Medicine, Ames, Iowa. 
Kansas State Agricultural College, Veterinary Department, Manhat- 
tan, Kans. 
Michigan Agricultural College, Division of Veterinary Science, East 
Lansing, Mich. 
New York State Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 
Ohio State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, Ohio. 
St. Joseph Veterinary College, St. Joseph, Mo. 
State College of Washington, Veterinary Department, Pullman, Wash. 
Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College, School of Veterinary Medi- 
cine, College Station, Texas. Bureau Personnel and Veterinary Education 
377 
United States College of Veterinary Surgeons, Washington, D. C. 
University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 
University of Toronto, Ontario Veterinary College, Toronto, Ontario, Can- 
ada .(to include those graduated during or prior to 1897 and those in 
attendance beginning session 1918-19). 
Graduates of the following-named colleges which no longer exist 
are admitted to civil-service examinations: 
American Veterinary College, New York, N. Y. 
Columbia Veterinary College, New York, N. Y. 
■ • Chicago Veterinary College, Chicago, Ill. 
Cincinnati Veterinary College, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
New York State Veterinary College, New York University, New York,N.Y. 
Columbian University, Veterinary School, Washington, D. C. 
George Washington University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 
Grand Rapids Veterinary College, Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Harvard University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Boston, Mass. 
Kansas City Veterinary College, Kansas City. Mo. 
McGill University, Veterinary Department, Montreal, Canada. 
McKillip Veterinary College, Chicago, Ill. 
National Veterinary College, Washington, D. C. 
New York College of Veterinary Surgeons. New York. N. Y. 
New York-American Veterinary College, New York. N. Y. 
San Francisco Veterinary College. San Francisco, Calif. 
Terre Haute Veterinary College, Terre Haute, Ind. 
Graduates of the following-named foreign colleges are admitted to 
civil-service examinations: 
Glasgow Veterinary College, Glasgow, Scotland. 
Royal Veterinary College, London, England. 
Royal Veterinary College of Ireland. Dublin, Ireland. 
Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edinburgh. Scotland. 
The New Veterinary College, Liverpool, England. 
Veterinary College of Lemberg, Poland. 
University of Melbourne Veterinary School, Melbourne, Australia. 
University of the Philippines, College of Veterinary Science, Manila, P. I. 
Royal College of Veterinary Science and Agriculture, Cophenhagen. 
Denmark. 
Royal Superior Veterinary School, Naples, Italy. 
From 1908 to the present time the Bureau has spared no efforts to 
help our veterinary colleges increase the efficiency of veterinary edu- 
cation and elevate the standard of the veterinary profession in this 
country. 
Beginning with the school year of 1908, it was required, in accord- 
ance with the recommendations contained in Circular 133, dated May 
28, 1908, that the course in veterinary science should cover a period 
of three years of not less than six months in each year, exclusive of 
final examinations and holidays, and have a minimum of 150 days in 
each year of actual teaching, and a minimum of 3,200 actual teaching 
hours for the entire three years. 
These regulations were modified on September 1, 1909 (Circular 378 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
150), increasing the three-year course to not less than six and one- 
half months in each year, exclusive of final examinations and holi- 
days, and reducing the number of actual teaching hours of the 150 
days from 3,200 to 3,000. 
The regulations governing entrance to the veterinary inspector 
examination which became effective on and after March 1, 1917, in- 
creased the course of study to a period of four years of not less than 
six and one-half months in each year, exclusive of final examinations 
and holidays, and required that the course of instruction should 
have a minimum of 150 days of actual teaching in each year and a 
minimum of 3,380 actual teaching hours in the entire four years. 
The matriculation requirement for admission to accredited vet- 
erinary colleges was raised to not less than four years' high school 
education of at least fourteen full units or their equivalent. 
It was also required that at least five graduate veterinarians be on 
the faculty of each accredited veterinary college teaching major sub- 
jects, 4'each of whom shall have had not less than one year's addi- 
tional training in some accredited veterinary college, or three years' 
experience in teaching or in practicing veterinary science, subsequent 
to graduation from an accredited veterinary college." "Not more 
than three of the five veterinarians in charge of major subjects on 
each college faculty shall be graduates of any one veterinary college, 
unless they have had at least one year's additional training in another 
veterinary college." "The five veterinarians on the faculty of each 
veterinary college shall have charge of the following major subjects: 
(1) Anatomy; (2) Practice of Comparative Medicine; (3) Surgery, 
and any two of the following three subjects: Pathology, Materia 
Medica, or Physiology." 
The regulations prescribed and adopted for the education of vet- 
erinary students who might desire to seek appointment under civil 
service are applied by all of the leading veterinary colleges, and as 
their courses of instruction are made uniform it follows that those 
graduates who enter the field of practice, as well as those who enter 
the Bureau, receive the benefits of a higher standard of veterinary 
education and training. As a result of the Bureau's action, higher 
veterinary education has been given increased impetus which helped 
greatly in elevating the veterinary profession in the United States 
to its present position. Editorial Office 
The Bureau's Publications 
The printed page has always been an important factor in carrying 
on the work of the Bureau of Animal Industry. In the forty years 
of the Bureau's existence it has issued nearly 2,000 different publi- 
cations, ranging all the -way from one-page leaflets to books of sev- 
eral hundred pages. This literature has served to disseminate much 
valuable information for the development and improvement of the 
livestock industry and contains the record of some notable discov- 
eries in the field of science. 
In the early years the publications consisted mainly of reports of 
investigations by veterinarians and others into the prevalence and 
nature of animal diseases in the United States and reports of the 
progress of the work of eradicating contagious pleuropneumonia, with 
occasional regulatory orders. During the few years prior to the 
formation of the Bureau (1879-1884) five volumes of reports of in- 
vestigations by Dr. D. E. Salmon and others were issued by the De- 
partment. With the creation of the Bureau there was begun a series 
of Annual Reports which for twenty-eight years reflected the Bureau's 
varied activities and recorded its work. These reports contained ac- 
counts of the Bureau's operations and special articles on various live- 
stock subjects and were volumes varying in size from 127 to 706 
pages with numerous illustrations. Their value was soon recognized by 
Congress and provision was made for printing them as Congressional 
publications for distribution by Senators and Representatives. 
With the growth and expansion of the Bureau's activities the pub- 
lications became more numerous and covered a wider range of sub- 
jects. There were reports of scientific investigations of animal dis- 
eases and parasites and breeding and dairy problems; technical and 
popular treatises on diseases and parasites of animals; orders and 
regulations for carrying out sanitary regulatory measures; adminis- 
trative reports; and bulletins and leaflets on stock raiding and 
dairying. 
The Special Report on Diseases of the Horse, commonly known as 
the Government "Horse Book," issued in 1890, has been one of the 
most popular and widely circulated of the Bureau's numerous pub- 
lications. This work, made up of chapters written by several vet- 
erinary authorities, with many illustrations, has gone through sev- 
eral editions, including five revisions. No less than a million and a 
half copies have been printed. A companion volume on Diseases of 
379 380 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Cattle, first published in 1892, has enjoyed almost as great popularity. 
Most of the copies of these books have been distributed free by Sena- 
tors and Representatives in Congress, but thousands have been bought 
at $1 each from the Government Printing Office by persons unable to 
get them otherwise because the free supply was often exhausted. 
A notable publication from the scientific standpoint was the report 
by Smith and Kilborne of their investigations in which they discov- 
ered the cause and mode of transmission of Texas or tick fever of cat- 
tle and established the principle of the transmission of disease by in- 
termediate parasitic hosts. This work was included in the Eighth and 
Ninth Annual Reports (for 1891 and 1892) and was also issued sep- 
arately as No. 1 in the series of Bureau Bulletins begun in 1893. A 
series of Bureau Circulars, comprising minor publications, usually of 
a popular nature, was also begun in 1893. 
Regulations for the control and eradication of animal diseases and 
for other regulatory work in connection with the livestock industry 
were issued for several years without serial numbers, but in 1897 
the series of B. A. I. Orders was established in order to systematize 
the numerous publications of this character. 
The enlargement of the meat inspection following the passage of 
the law of 1906 showed the need of a convenient medium for com- 
municating information and instructions to the members of the en- 
larged field force of the Bureau. This need was met by establishing 
in May, 1907, a monthly publication known as Service Announce- 
ments. At first this periodical was intended only for Bureau em- 
ployees, but later its distribution was extended to meat-packing firms 
under inspection, to public officers dealing with livestock matters, and 
to the press. This publication was found so helpful in the conduct of 
administrative work that at the beginning of 1914 the Secretary of 
Agriculture extended the plan to other branches of the Department 
that were doing regulatory work, and the uniform title of Service 
and Regulatory Announcements was adopted. 
In 1889 the Department began a series of Farmers' Bulletins, con- 
sisting of brief, popular treatises on various subjects relating to agri- 
culture. These bulletins have had an enormous circulation running 
up into many millions of copies. The Bureau of Animal Industry 
has contributed a large proportion of them. Those on poultry raising 
have had the largest distribution of any in the series. The Bureau 
has also supplied numerous papers of a popular nature for the 
Department Yearbooks. 
In 1913 the Secretary of Agriculture decided on a change in the Editorial Office 
381 
plan of the Department's publications. Most of the series of the 
various bureaus were discontinued, and two new series, known as 
Department Bulletins and Circulars, were begun. The Journal of 
Agricultural Research was established as a medium for publishing 
the results of research work. As a result of this rearrangement the 
series of Annual Reports, Bulletins and Circulars of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry were discontinued, and thenceforth most of the 
material of the kinds that had gone into these publications was issued 
in the new Department series and in the Journal, while the Farmers' 
Bulletins were continued. The brief administrative annual report 
of the Chief of the Bureau and the B. A. I. Orders were continued 
as before. 
An idea of the amount of literature put out by the Bureau in the 
forty years of its history may be gained from the accompanying 
table, which shows the number of new and revised publications is- 
sued each year and the number of pages, with data as to material 
contributed to the news service and to outside periodicals during the 
latter part of the period. 
For the first five years the literary output consisted only of the 
Annual Reports and a few regulatory orders. After the first three 
years the Annual Reports were issued biennially for a time, the re- 
ports for two years being combined in one volume. This fact, and 
the occasional issuance of special publications of considerable size, 
accounts for the large variation in the number of pages for several 
years. The activities for promoting food production during the 
World War and in eradicating an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease 
during the same period are reflected in the large numbers of publi- 
cations issued in the fiscal years 1915 to 1917. The tendency in recent 
years has been to issue publications of fewer pages but in larger 
editions. 
The Output of Publications 
PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY 
Fiscal 
year. 
Number 
of publications 
(new and revised). 
Pages. 
Articles 
contributed 
to Department's 
news service. 
Articles con- 
tributed to out- 
side periodicals. 
1885 
2 
880 
1886 
3 
693 
7887 
5 
472 
1888 
1 
11 
1889 
2 
707 
1890 
6 
105 
1891 
8 
1,481 
1892 
10 
290 
1893 
11 
1,850 382 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
1894 
14 
1,003 
1895 
17 
284 
1896 
..... 54 
728 
1897 
42 
851 
1898 
32 
462 
1899 
30 
1,119 
1900 
48 
1,221 
1901 
55 
1,782 
1902 
65 
2,052 
1903 
85 
1,497 
1904 
76 
3,251 
1905 
100 
3,094 
1906 
78 
2,108 
5 
1907 
83 
2,290 
7 
1908 
79 
2,446 
28 
1909 
Ill 
2,953 
50 
1910 
89 
1,970 
14 
1911 
105 
2,891 
12 
1912 
89 
3,773 
9 
1913 
95 
2,208 
22 
3 
1914 
89 
1,653 
88 
16 
1915 
159 
1,678 
31 
11 
1916 
119 
1,186 
62 
26 
1917 
107 
2,791 
61 
46 
1918 
95 
1,753 
90 
37 
1919 
85 
1,321 
247 
(a) 
1920 
78 
1,302 
323 
(a) 
1921 
94 
1,958 
196 
78 
1922 
71 
1,304 
270 
71 
1923 
76 
1,691 
190 
62 
(a)Record incomplete, 
The publications may be classified as follows: 
Annual Reports, Nos. 1 to 28 (1884 to 1911). 
Reports of the Chief of the Bureau (in separate pamphlet form, 1889 
to date). 
Special Reports. 
Bureau Bulletins, Nos. 1 to 167 (1893 to 1913). 
Bureau Circulars, Nos. 1 to 218 (1893 to 1913). 
Unnumbered orders and regulations (1885 to 1896). 
B. A. I. Orders, Nos. 1 to 287, with numerous amendments (1897 to date). 
Service Announcements, Nos. 1 to 80 (1907 to 1913). 
Service and Regulatory Announcements, Nos. 81 to 204 (1914 to date). 
Farmers' Bulletins (1889 to date). 
Department Bulletins (1913 to date). 
Department Circulars (1913 to date). 
Circulars of the Secretary's Office. 
A. I. Leaflets, Nos. 1 to 38 (1914 to 1922). 
Separates from Annual Reports. 
Yearbook Separates. 
Papers in Journal of Agricultural Research and separates of same (1913 
to date). 
Miscellaneous publications (leaflets, documents, reports, etc., numbered 
and unnumbered). 
Posters. 
Maps. 
Pictures in Livestock Improvement Series. 
(The last three groups are not included in the statistical table.) Editorial Office 
383 
Establishment and Work of the Bureau Editorial Office 
For the first several years of the Bureau's existence the publica- 
tions were personally supervised and in large part written by the 
Chief, Dr. D. E. Salmon, who was an accomplished writer as well as 
a capable research worker and executive. The increasing demands on 
his time, however, and the growing volume of the Bureau's literature 
led him to arrange for the transfer of a member of the Department's 
editorial staff, George Fayette Thompson, from the Division of Publi- 
cations of the Department to the Bureau of Animal Industry on 
March 1, 1898. One of Mr. Thompson's first tasks under the new 
assignment was the preparation of the Fourteenth Annual Report 
for 1897. Assistants were added as the work grew in volume and ex- 
tent. Mr. Thompson died January 6, 1906.* 
The principal work of the Editorial Office has consisted in editing 
manuscripts for the various publications; compiling and preparing 
some of the material for these publications; reading proof; reviewing 
manuscripts for outside publication; reviewing forms and ordering 
job printing; compiling data for various uses in connection with the 
Bureau's work; keeping records of manuscripts and printing; super- 
vising the Bureau's mailing lists and the distribution of its publica- 
tions, and attending to correspondence on publication matters and 
miscellaneous subjects. Translating and the supervision of dupli- 
cating work have been minor activities. Other functions and duties 
have been added from time to time. 
For the first twenty years very little was done in the way of pre- 
paring material for the agricultural and general press. Beginning 
about 1907, more attention was given to this means of disseminating 
information in the interest of the livestock industry and making the 
Bureau's work better known to those concerned. Following the for- 
mation in 1913 of the Department's Office of Information (later the 
Press Service), the Bureau through its Editorial Office cooperated 
actively in preparing and supplying material for publicity purposes. 
This activity has been considerably enlarged in recent years. 
For many years the Editorial Office has made compilations, from 
meat-inspection records and other sources, of statistical data on meat 
production, consumption and foreign trade. This information is 
much sought by the meat trade, by statistical organizations and by 
other branches of the Government. 
For the information of Bureau and Department officials the office 
* See "Quarantine Division," page 136, and "Animal Husbandry Division," page 243. 384 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
issues periodically a mimeographed summary of public opinion known 
as "The Range Finder." This contains extracts of news items, both 
foreign and domestic, and a digest of editorials and leading articles in 
the agricultural press relating to subjects in which the Bureau is 
concerned. 
In addition to representing the Chief of the Bureau in publication 
matters, the Editorial Office has worked closely with the various divi- 
sions in making suggestions for presentation of subject matter. Such 
work has included the preparation of charts, assistance in gathering 
and arranging material for addresses, and the development of motion 
picture scenarios. 
It has rendered assistance also on special occasions in obtaining in- 
formation for immediate use of the various divisions. For instance, 
at the time of a visit of a foreign commission desiring to purchase cat- 
tle, the Editorial Office issued in one day a unique Farmers' Bulletin 
composed of typewritten material, interspersed with photographs, deal- 
ing with the determination of the age of cattle by the teeth. Copies 
of this "publication" served the immediate purpose and proved so 
useful that it was later published in printed form as a Farmers' 
Bulletin. 
An example of miscellaneous nature of editorial work was the 
preparation of an outline for conducting mock trials for scrub sires, 
a plan which has been largely used by extension workers. 
In 1913 the Department undertook the production of motion pic- 
tures as a means of giving information and instruction, and the 
Editor of the Bureau of Animal Industry was made a member of the 
Department's Committee on Motion Picture Activities. 
The Editorial Office has continued to aid the Motion Picture Office 
of the Department in the preparation and making of motion pictures 
and in planning new films and revising old ones, and has prepared 
the scenarios of several of the Bureau's pictures. 
The greater popularity of motion pictures which have human in- 
terest, compared with those of strictly educational nature, has re- 
sulted in the preferred policy of combining a story with subject mat- 
ter wherever possible. Such stories often involve dramatic scenes 
and a progressive plot, thereby making the picture more impressive 
and of interest to mixed audiences rather than merely to groups of 
persons interested only in the particular subject shown. The Edito- 
rial Office has aided specialists in various divisions in developing pic- 
tures along these lines. 
Motion Pictures and Lantern Slides Editorial Office 
385 
The office has also selected pictures for making sets of lantern 
slides illustrating various phases of the Bureau' work. The motion 
pictures and lantern slides have been of special value in promoting 
tick eradication and tuberculosis eradication. 
Livestock Improvement Campaigns 
In 1919 the Chief of the Bureau requested the Editorial Office to 
cooperate with the Animal Husbandry and Dairy Divisions in plan- 
ning and inaugurating an educational campaign for livestock im- 
provement by the use of purebred sires. The campaign is carried 
on locally by county agricultural agents and livestock organizations 
in most States. It includes all classes of farm animals and poultry. 
The plan involves an enrollment blank which the participant fills out 
and which entitles him to a certificate and also to a sign, "Purebred 
Sires Exclusively Used on This Farm." More than 13,000 farmers, 
owning nearly two million head of livestock and poultry, have en- 
rolled. Records show that the use of purebred sires quickly results 
in improved herds and flocks. The need for such work is indicated 
by the very small proportion of purebred livestock in the United 
States. According to the last census, purebred livestock was approxi- 
mately only 3 per cent of the total. 
As adjuncts to the plan of work the Editorial Office, in cooperation 
with other branches of the Bureau and of the Department, has devel- 
oped posters, bulletins, exhibits, etc., that are used in promoting in- 
terest and giving information. 
The Editorial Office has likewise made some statistical studies and 
analyses of the relative merits of purebred and common livestock. 
The efficiency of purebred livestock on a utility basis is shown to be 
approximately 40 per cent greater than that of ordinary livestock. 
In 1923 the Editorial Office, in cooperating with other branches of 
the Department, developed a feeding service for individual farmers 
whereby their feeding problems are analyzed and advice is given by 
mail. This service is supplemented by posters and by a handbook 
giving information for the better feeding of livestock. 
Exhibits 
In cooperation with the Department's Office of Exhibits and the 
exhibit specialist of the Bureau,-the Editorial Office has designed a 
large number of exhibits and has aided in the development of plans 
for special exhibits at interstate, national and international events. 386 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Radio Talks 
With the development of radio the Editorial Office has prepared a 
series of talks for broadcasting. Most of these have been prepared 
by request and deal with the activities of various divisions of the 
Bureau and also with specific topics. This field is being developed, 
and it is now a common occurrence to receive requests for literature 
of which livestock owners have learned through "listening in'' by 
radio. 
SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
1885. First Annual Report of the Bureau (for 1884) issued. 
1890. Special Report on Diseases of the Horse issued. 
1892. Special Report on Diseases of Cattle issued. 
1893. Series of Bureau Bulletins begun with No. 1, "Investigations Into the 
Nature, Causation, and Prevention of Texas or Southern Cattle 
Fever," by Theobald Smith and F. L. Kilborne. 
Series of Bureau Circulars begun. 
1897. Series of B. A. I. Orders begun. 
1898. March 1. George F. Thompson transferred from Division of Publi- 
cations to Bureau of Animal Industry to do editorial work. 
1907. May 15. Issuance of monthly Service Announcements begun. 
1913. New plan adopted for Department publications. Bureau Annual 
Reports, Bulletins and Circulars discontinued. Department series 
of Bulletins, Circulars and Journal of Agricultural Research es- 
tablished. 
Department's motion picture activities begun. First Bureau film, 
"Cooperative Cow Testing in Vermont," produced in 1914. 
1919. "Better Sires-Better Stock" campaign inaugurated. 
Publicity service broadened. 
1922. Radio talks begun. 
1923. Feeding service inaugurated. 
Editors in Charge: 
George Fayette Thompson, from March 1, 1898, to Jan. 6, 1906. 
James M. Pickens, from Jan. 16, 1906, to Oct. 21, 1918. 
John Roberts (acting), from Oct. 22, 1918, to Dec. 4, 1918. 
D. S. Burch, from Dec. 5, 1918, to date. 
PERSONNEL OF THE EDITORIAL OFFICE Conclusion 
A Bureau of Animal Industry became a national necessity by 1884. 
The horses, cattle, sheep and hogs on the farms of the United States 
at that time were valued at more than two and one-half billion dollars. 
This large national industry had been neglected, both by National 
and by State Governments. Destructive animal diseases were spread- 
ing, and unorganized veterinary opposition was not making satisfac- 
tory progress in coping with them. Farmers were constantly asking 
for information and advice which the Department of Agriculture was 
not in position to furnish. Our cattle had been denied admission into 
Great Britain since early in 1879 on the ground that contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia existed in the United States, and the markets of Continen- 
tal Europe had been closed to our pork products since 1879 with the 
explanation that our swine were infected with trichinae. 
The extension and improvement of transportation facilities and 
the rapid development of our export trade in animals and their 
products from 1870 to 1879 gave an impetus to the livestock indus- 
try, and it became essential to find an outlet for the surplus. The 
closing of foreign markets to our animals and their products aroused 
considerable indignation among our livestock producers and allied 
interests, and there was an insistent demand for assistance from the 
National Government. Thus the attitude of foreign governments 
toward our export trade hastened the action of Congress in estab- 
lishing the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
The new Bureau proceeded immediately to meet the objections of 
foreign governments. Contagious pleuropneumonia was eradicated 
and a system of microscopic examination of pork for export was es- 
tablished, which resulted in reclaiming much of our export meat trade. 
Since its establishment the Bureau has been called on from time to 
time to assume many duties varying widely in character, and its re- 
sponsibilities have been increased, until it has become one of the most 
important organizations of the National Government. 
As a result of the zealous efforts of the members of the scientific 
staff, able administration, harmony and cooperation, it is able to 
point with satisfaction to many important achievements, among 
which are the following: 
The eradication of contagious pleuropneumonia, in cooperation 
with the livestock sanitary authorities of the infected States. 
The discovery of the nature of Texas fever and how it is conveyed 
from infected to susceptible bovines by an intermediate host. 
387 388 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
The development of a practicable method of ridding the Southern 
States of the ticks which convey the infection of Texas fever from in- 
fected to susceptible animals. 
The discovery that hog cholera is caused by a filtrable virus. 
The development of a serum which when used with virus produces 
lasting immunity against hog cholera. 
The speedy eradication of every outbreak of foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease that has occurred in the United States. 
The practical eradication of tuberculosis from livestock in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia, demonstrating the possibility and practicability of 
eradicating this disease. 
The perfection of a serological method of diagnosing dourine in 
horses. 
The success achieved in preventing livestock plagues of foreign 
countries from reaching the United -States. 
The establishment of a national meat-inspection service in the 
United States that is not surpassed in efficiency by that of any other 
country. 
The discovery of a new species of human hookworm in the South, 
and recently the discovery of a new remedy for hookworm, carbon 
tetrachloride. 
The development of a method of controlling the losses caused by 
roundworms in swine. 
The development of a method of destroying the vitality of trichinae 
in pork by refrigeration, whereby pork infested with trichinae can be 
rendered harmless. 
The development of a method of making butter of uniform quality 
with exceptional keeping qualities by churning sweet pasteurized 
cream. 
Extensive contributions to our knowledge of the bacteriology of 
milk; the factors which influence the thickening of sweetened con- 
densed milk, and the abnormal coagulation of evaporated milk in 
sterilizing, etc. 
Experiments revealing the importance of the true chemical reac- 
tion of the medium in which bacteria are grown and accurate methods 
for its determination. 
The determination of the relation of certain bacteria to the normal 
ripening and to the abnormal fermentation of Swiss cheese. 
The development of a method applicable to American conditions 
for making from cow's milk a cheese of the Roquefort type. Conclusion 
389 
The development of cow-testing associations and bull associations 
as organized efforts toward more profitable dairying. 
The studies made of feeds and feeding and the production and 
handling of milk. 
The improvement of horse stock in the United States. 
The investigational work on farm power conducted in cooperation 
with the Bureau of Public Roads and the Bureau of Agricultural 
Economics. 
Stimulation of the beef-cattle industry in the Southern States 
through the aid of specialists. 
The determination, in cooperation with the Bureau of Agricultural 
Economies, of the cost of beef production in the Corn Belt. 
The development of the Columbia breed of sheep and the Lamona 
variety of chickens. 
Development of practical systems of watering sheep on dry grazing 
lands and shed lambing on the range. 
Development of a practical method of determining grease and dirt 
in wool, and a system of sampling fleeces to determine clean wool 
content. 
Important work in animal genetics. 
The development of improved methods of making tuberculin for 
diagnosing tuberculosis in cattle and swine. 
Improvement of methods of handling livestock in interstate and 
export trade. 
The development of suitable dips for freeing animals of ticks, lice 
and other external parasites, and means for testing at any time the 
strength of the dips in vats. 
The investigations of tuberculosis, contagious abortion, blackleg, 
anthrax, glanders and many other diseases of animals, which have 
contributed much of importance to our knowledge concerning these 
destructive diseases and the means for combating them. 
It would be of historical interest to record in detail the Bureau's 
efforts in behalf of the livestock and allied industries, the various 
devices that have been developed or perfected by the employees to 
facilitate their work, all the discoveries that have been made, and 
the methods that have been worked out and employed in the labora- 
tories and in the field which have served so well in accomplishing the 
results that have helped to make the Bureau's record; but we have 
aimed to mention only the more important activities, events and 
achievements which have marked the development and progress of 
its work. 390 
Bureau of Animal Industry 
Among the workers of the Bureau, past and present, many earnest, 
energetic, capable men and women have devoted all the useful years 
of their lives to this branch of the public service. Love for their 
work has imbued and held them rather than the inadequate remun- 
eration which they received. Many have figured so prominently in 
the activities of the Bureau that they deserve special consideration 
in preparing a history of the organization, for its success has been 
largely due to the application of their ability and the exercise of their 
energy and perseverance under able direction. 
It was fortunate for the livestock industry of the country that a 
veterinarian with the qualifications of Dr. D. E. Salmon was found to 
head the Bureau when it was first established. It was largely due to 
his keen perception in selecting able assistants, his ability as an or- 
ganizer, his capacity as an executive, and, above all, his genius as an 
investigator, that the Bureau came so rapidly into prominence and 
has been able, independently and in cooperation with the States, to 
accomplish so many useful things. 
It is a great compliment to the veterinary profession of the United 
States that it was able to supply such men as Dr. A. D. Melvin and 
Dr. John R. Mohler, who proved worthy successors of the first Chief 
of the Bureau. Dr. Salmon laid a good, firm foundation, upon which 
his successors have continued to build up an organization that has 
become known throughout the civilized world and which universally 
commands confidence and respect. And the prospects are that with 
the proper support of the livestock producers of the country the 
Bureau of Animal Industry will continue to grow in importance and 
usefulness.