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.'WiiTKM Addleman Ganoe The History of the 
United States Army George Washington The History of the 
United States Army 
BY 
WILLIAM ADDLEMAN GANOE 
MAJOR OF INFANTRY, U. B. A. 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
NEW YORK :: MCMXXIV :: LONDON FOREWORD 
What follows is meant to be neither a study of campaigns 
and battles nor a treatment of military policy. Those subjects 
have been covered thoroughly under their own titles. The 
coming chapters strive to tell a plain, straightforward story of 
those of our people who have answered our country's voice in 
its many cries for help and protection. The tale records the 
homely and the heroic service of the soldier in the sweat of 
peace as well as in the ruck of war. And there results a life 
history of that institution wThich has been the greatest single 
factor in the building of our nation-the United States 
Army. 
Other countries have long ago told with care and affection 
the histories of their armies. For us, up to this time, there 
have been no collected sketches and few authoritative accounts. 
No chronological record of the soldier's existence from 1775 
to 1923 has ever been set down in any one place. 
When the publishers of this book first approached the author 
with the suggestion of such a work, the prospect, frankly, did 
not look inviting. But, as the five years of research went along, 
so much unexplored matter and so many amazing episodes 
came to light that interest increased in spite of obstacles. As 
a consequence, there are statements in this volume which have 
heretofore found little publication; some which have been pur- 
posely withheld from general knowledge, and others which have 
never been published at all. In releasing this material the 
author has not scrupled to tell the truth, both pleasant and 
unpleasant, wherever the telling might be constructive. 
Naturally, in the limited size of this narrative, many inter- 
esting details had to be discarded in order to preserve balance 
and perspective. 
VII VIII 
FOREWORD 
Page references to authorities consulted have not been used 
because of the fretting interruption to the reader. Instead, the 
bibliography and dates are carefully given. If there be a 
desire on the part of any one for more specific authority, the 
author will be glad to furnish any information desired. 
W. A. G. CONTENTS 
CHAPTER PAGE 
I. Drab Beginnings (1775-1776) 1 
II. The Army Learns to Walk and Run (1776- 
1777) 24 
III. The Army Finds Discipline and Success (1778- 
1781) 50 
IV. The Army Flung Aside (1781-1811) ... 79 
V. The Army in Name (1812-1820) .... 116 
VI. The Army Blazes the Trail (1821-1844) . . 158 
VII. The Army Wins and Widens the Boundaries 
(1845-1859) 196 
VIII. The Army Divides and Multiplies (1860-1865) 244 
IX. The Army's Dark Ages (1865-1880) . . . 298 
X. The Army's Renaissance 
First Phase (1881-1898) 355 
Second Phase (1899-1916) 397 
Epilogue (1917-1923) 463 
IX X 
CONTENTS 
APPENDICES 
PAGE 
A. Containing Names of Incumbents of all Principal 
Offices in the Army since its Creation . . . .491 
B. Showing Tremendous Number and Distribution of 
Labor Strikes which the Army was called upon to put 
down between 1886 and 1895 501 
C. Showing Large Number of Troops Engaged in Philip- 
pine Hostilities between February 4, 1899, and July 
4, 1902 506 
D. Showing Pay Scale in 1867 508 
E. Showing Organizations of Regular Army Necessarily 
Used in Philippines from 1899 to 1912 .... 510 
F. Statistics of the Punitive Expedition under Brigadier 
General John J. Pershing, 1916 ... . 512 
G. Tremendous Distribution of Units of the Army, Sep- 
tember, 1872 517 
H. Schools in the Army in 1920 520 
I. General Organization of the Army, 1879 .... 521 
K. Actual Dispersion of Army, Fall, 1865 .... 523 
L. Great Dispersion, Fall, 1866 525 
M. Organization of Army, 1867 528 
N. Organizations and Commanders of Cuban Expedition, 
1898 529 
Selected Bibliography 531 
Index 567 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
FACING PAGE 
George Washington .... F rontispiece 
Frederick von Steuben 60 
Soldiers with Arms 164 
Sylvanus Thayer 172 
Winfield Scott 228 
Emory Upton . 356 
Arthur Lockwood Wagner 422 
Army of the United States ........ 463 
XI The History of 
The United States Army 
CHAPTER I 
DRAB BEGINNINGS 
(1775-1776) 
WHEN" Washington, accompanied by the uncertain 
Charles Lee and Horatio Gates, entered the American 
lines besieging Boston, he unconsciously marked the 
start of the United States Army. Although the groups of armed 
countrymen, scattered in a semi-circle from Charlestown Neck 
to Boston Neck, were not then known by such a name, they 
were nevertheless by his coming transformed from separate 
New England militia into a single force fighting for the rights 
of all the colonies. The thirteen little governments by this move 
abandoned their previous roles of independent pioneers and for 
the first time united for defense under one properly constituted 
leader. His arrival, then, is bound up with our first national 
military establishment, whose growth for the next eight years 
is a part of him and to a great extent a result of him. 
It had taken eleven days for him to make the journey on 
horseback from Philadelphia, whence he had set out four days 
after the battle of Bunker Hill and five days after the Con- 
tinental Congress had selected him as commander in chief. 
His election had been a queer one, where violent prejudices 
had swept aside sound judgment. John Hancock, a wholesale 
merchant of no military experience, desired the command of 
the forces. Artemas Ward, a former officer of the French and 
Indian wars, was, since he was already in charge of the Massa- 
July 3 
1775 
1 2 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
chusetts troops, a rival for the office. Hancock, President of 
Congress and an ardent patriot, appealed to the people of New 
England. Ward was pushed by Paine, who had been a fellow 
student at Harvard, and by another member who volunteered 
the pleasant argument that the soldiers seemed satisfied with 
Ward. But the southern delegates objected, not because Han- 
cock was a flabby merchant nor because Ward was too fat to 
mount a horse, but because they would have none of a New 
Englander. Besides, Hancock was a bit too anxious for the 
position in the presence of John Adams, whose natural antag- 
onism to the wishes of others was acutely aroused. It was soon 
felt that the new incumbent would have to be a person who 
could unite the north and the south, the puritan and cavalier, 
the forces engaged and not engaged. Washington, a man of 
quiet manners, a resident of the borderland between the two 
parties, and the husband of the wealthiest woman in the coun- 
try, answered the trifling qualifications imposed by the legis- 
lators. The more he was mentioned, the more negatively 
prominent he became particularly because he did not blight 
any one's whims. He was finally unanimously elected without 
the slightest question having been raised concerning his fitness 
as a soldier or commander. It is doubtful if many of the mem- 
bers knew that he had been an expert scout, the hero of Fort 
Necessity, the aide-de-camp to General Braddock, and the head 
of the Virginia militia. It is certain they did not care, any 
more than they had been interested in the fitness of Ward and 
Hancock, who possessed none. So, at the very birth of our 
government, feeling supplanted wisdom, pettishness crowded 
out calculation, and hot favoritism overruled cold reason. The 
ominous sound of such legislative talk is going to echo disas- 
trously through the succeeding pages of this story. At this 
point it remains for us to be thankful that Washington was a 
meritorious accident. In spite of sewing-society methods he, 
the preeminent military leader of the country, became com- 
mander in chief. 
He accepted the honor with expressions of his unworthiness, 
refused a salary, and set out for Cambridge to meet his com- 
mand and to attempt to bring order and discipline out of 
irregularity and insubordination. One year and one day before 
June 21 
1775 DRAB BEGINNINGS 
3 
the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, under the 
elm which afterwards bore his name, he drew his sword in the 
presence of his heterogeneous army and formally took com- 
mand. 
Was ever a commander presented with a more motley 
throng? In the same companies were blue coats faced with 
buff, black coats faced with red, and hunting shirts of brown 
trimmed with fringes, streamers and scarlet needlework. The 
townsman, clad in gay hues and covered with coat or blanket, 
touched elbows with the woodsman wearing his dull homespun. 
A company of Stockbridge Indians in feathers, paint and nak- 
edness vied in color with the Connecticut dragoons in vivid red 
coats not unlike the British. There were long trousers, overalls, 
and breeches with or without gaiters or with fringed leggings of 
deerskin. Stuck in the triangular hat were gaudy sprigs of 
various sizes and shapes. Irish, German, Scotch, Puritan, and 
Quaker contrasted their Caucasian faces with the shiny African 
in his powdered wig, while graybeard and child stood side by 
side. Even the officers had no distinctive uniforms. 
Nor did this sundry collection of male beings live in a true 
camp. That term implies to us regimental blocks of company 
streets in straight, regular rows, with officers' tents at one end 
and picket-lines at the other. The soldier of the Boston 
Siege lived in the open or in a kennel of his own making. The 
higher officers billeted themselves in near-by houses, Washing- 
ton being accorded a deserted Tory mansion. Save in some 
companies of Rhode Island regiments where tents had been 
secured, the rank and file contented itself with rolling up in 
a blanket under the trees or stars. When the elements com- 
pelled some sort of shelter, it was built according to the caprice 
and choice of site of the occupant. There were structures of 
linen, sailcloth, boards, stones, brush, and turf, and all possible 
combinations of these. There were booths and huts of varying 
shapes and sizes, with or without windows. Such shacks clung 
in scattered patches about the various earthworks to be de- 
fended. 
Cooking was an individual or club performance undertaken 
at such hours as the stomach dictated. So long as duties were 
attended, it little mattered how or when nourishment might be 4 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
prepared. Habakkuk Simpkins, being a reclusive puritan, 
broiled his steak alone meal after meal, and drank his mug of 
beer in holy thought; whereas Patrick O'Brien messed in com- 
pany with a dozen Ezras and Ezekiels and with loud oaths 
smacked his lips over the savory stew concocted by one of the 
number. 
Everything bespoke irregularity, especially the organiza- 
tions. Previous to Bunker Hill the barest fractions of com- 
mands had reported for duty. The shortages were accentuated 
by casualties in that battle and sickness afterward. Even had 
the organizations in the beginning been thoroughly complete, 
the rolls would have differed remarkably in effective strength, 
for each state added to the chaos by having its units independ- 
ently constructed. Massachusetts varied from 590 to 649 men 
per regiment, whereas Connecticut authorized 1,000. Steuben 
later declared he saw regiments ranging from 3 to 23 com- 
panies. A Massachusetts company consisted of a captain, a 
lieutenant, and 59 men. A Connecticut company added 11 
men, 4 corporals, and a second lieutenant. A Massachusetts 
general was also a colonel of a regiment. Rhode Island field 
officers were also captains of companies. When a colonel was 
absent from his company, it was commanded by a captain lieu- 
tenant. The scheme was evidently devised to reduce the num- 
ber of officers, but it produced discord and placed double 
responsibility upon officers incapable of handling one organiza- 
tion. 
Added to the discouragements attendant upon this conglom- 
erate mass of men, which resembled in discipline, uniform and 
organization more nearly a Greek ekklesia than an army, was 
the low type of commissioned officer. The pernicious system 
by which he was obtained explains his inefficiency. Any popu- 
lar member of a community who could enlist the necessary quota 
for a company became a captain; likewise for a regiment, a 
colonel. The remainder of the company officers were generally 
elected by the privates; and the field officers, by the company 
officers. However, in Maryland all the officers were elected by 
popular vote just as municipal officials at a town meeting. 
Everywhere rum and bribery played important parts in recruit- 
ing and electioneering. By these methods the commander was DRAB BEGIKKIKGS 
5 
beholden to the commanded, and the qualifications of an officer 
were confined to popularity, zeal in raising men, ability to pay 
the tavern bills and, perchance, some questionable inducements. 
Just how little military knowledge or training influenced selec- 
tion can be seen from the account of a New Jersey private: 
"After this we chose our officers. When on parade our 1st 
Lieutenant came and told us he would be glad if we would 
excuse him from going, which we refused; but on consideration 
we concluded it was better to consent, after which he said he 
would go, but we said: 'you shall not command us, for he whose 
mind can change in an hour is not fit to command in the field 
where liberty is contended for.' In the evening we chose a 
private in his place." 
This prudish picture of democratic punishment for vacillation 
is no less that of the private controlling the officer. Stock- 
jobbing, insubordination, desertion, and mutiny flowed natu- 
rally from such a source. It was difficult for Obadiah Perkins 
to take orders from Israel Hampton on parade in the evening, 
after Israel with jollified flow of spirits had lured Obadiah with 
blunted senses into signing the enlistment blank in the morning. 
It was easy to slip from under Israel's authority and to go 
home when the hay was to be put under cover. Who was Israel 
to instruct him? A creature of his own contrivance. No won- 
der Obadiah, when on sentry duty, allowed the British to pur- 
loin his rifle, or failed to show any courtesy toward his 
superiors. Scarcely able to read or write, he easily confused 
the new national freedom with personal liberty, and resented 
any inroads upon the abandon that had been his with his own 
dog and gun, in his own woods. Nor was his officer prone to 
reprimand or punish him when there was a vote to be lost or 
popularity to be curtailed. 
Not stopping in the regiment, this method of election 
crossed the threshold of Congress and controlled the choice of 
general officers. Already Washington's election has suggested 
the personal whims and petty jealousies prevalent in the pro- 
ceedings of that body. The attributes of the major generals 
first chosen will reveal somewhat the success of its methods. 6 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
They were in order of rank: Artemas Ward, already partially 
described, but in addition accused of cowardice at Bunker Hill; 
Charles Lee,1 former British officer with service in many 
European campaigns, who turned out to be more despicable in 
treachery than Benedict Arnold; Philip Schuyler, politician, 
delegate to Congress, with former service in the French and 
Indian wars, a loyal officer but possessed of a demeanor which 
operated against him; Israel Putnam, a farmer, a former pri- 
vate in the French and Indian wars, of great energy but meager 
military ability. Not a very promising collection of right-hand 
men. But Congress afterward, more on account of the ineffi- 
cacy of its system than any inherent malevolence, accustomed 
itself to supplanting the worthy with the unworthy, withholding 
praise from the meritorious and bestowing it upon the inglori- 
ous, and even plotting against Washington himself. Little 
doubt is left that he would have been removed before 1777 had 
it not been for the universal regard in which the army held him. 
So absorbed was he in his huge task, however, that he had 
little time for self-consciousness or sensitiveness to criticism. 
The quality and quantity of his supplies, as well as of his men, 
gave a determined check to any immediate offensive and turned 
his efforts into channels of desperate reconstruction. 
Powder was short. It is estimated that at the beginning of 
hostilities there were on sale not a hundred pounds in all the 
colonies. Thirty rounds per man in the American camp is a 
high estimate. Washington himself mentions the exploit of 
maintaining around Boston, within gunshot of the British, a 
thirteen-mile chain of sentries who had not an ounce of powder. 
Even salutes with the cannon were forbidden on account of the 
waste. 
Lead would have been as rare as powder had not the statue 
of George III, on Bowling Green, New York, been handily 
melted down, cooled, dissected, and dealt out in small quantities 
to the soldiers. They, in turn, during dull afternoons in camp, 
remelted their weighty allotments in melting pans, poured the 
contents into bullet molds, and saved the product for individual 
use. The bullet thus fashioned by hand was suited to the par- 
i Not of the Robert E. Lee family of Virginia. DRAB BEGINNINGS 
7 
ticular caliber of firearm by means of different-sized holes in 
the bullet mold. 
These missiles at close range were possibly as deadly as any 
small projectile ever contrived. In their construction the junc- 
tion of two hemispheres of molten metal left a ridged seam 
which operated much as does the soft-nosed or "dum-dum" 
bullet of to-day. It tore out whole muscles, smashed bones and 
rent the flesh, leaving large ragged wounds from which where 
were comparatively few recoveries. Aside from the tearing 
effect, the impact of the bullet was enough to stop a man in 
motion more effectively than the modern high-velocity projec- 
tiles. 
During the hot July afternoon, when the soldier had com- 
pleted molding the bullets for his or his mate's use, he had to 
turn his attention toward the personal manufacture of car- 
tridges. It was found quite early in the war that there resulted 
greater speed and safety in loading with a previously prepared 
casing for the ammunition than with the loose powder and ball. 
Accordingly, the private rolled, as the cigarette maker does his 
tobacco, each one of his bullets and an inch or so of powder into 
paper cylinders about the diameter of the bore of his piece. 
These he stowed carefully in a leather pouch or box which 
usually contained places for twenty-three cartridges. 
The remainder of the equipment of the individual was 
mostly what the recruit could bring with him. An enlistment 
blank enjoined the soldier to "furnish a good firearm, cartouch 
box, blanket, and knapsack." In lieu of the firearm he was 
directed to bring a good cutting sword, cutlass, or tomahawk, 
and later a shovel, spade, pickax, or scythe straightened and 
made fast to a pole. The powderhorn was included without the 
saying, for its delicate legend usually revealed the strong per- 
sonal attachment of the owner. His "cartouch box" slung on 
one hip, and his powder horn or flask on the other, both sus- 
pended by broad straps of leather or web, gave to the Revolu- 
tionary volunteer his well-known, cross-belted appearance. 
Some were fortunate enough to own a wooden canteen resem- 
bling a small truncated barrel, or a bayonet fashioned by the 
nearest smith into a long bulging knife and attached to the 
individual rifle in the simplest way. During this stationary 8 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
warfare very few of these awkward drinking vessels or sheathed 
short swords dangled from the persons of the Americans. Later 
on, marching and fighting brought about a natural increase. 
The main weapon of the Revolution, however, was the fire- 
lock or flintlock as it was indifferently called. Its mechanism 
and peculiarities account largely for the parts played by both 
sides in subsequent fighting. The fact that Washington lacked 
from three to four thousand, in order to arm his force com- 
pletely, reduced his effectiveness to the equivalent of less than 
twelve thousand.2 
The question naturally arises as to why there should exist 
this lack among people dependent in a great measure upon a 
firearm for protection and sustenance. The answer resolves 
itself into that of expense. A townsman looked askance in 
those days upon a luxury that cost from two to five pounds and 
represented to him what the purchase of a piano or an auto- 
mobile means to the average citizen of to-day. 
Those who were the proud owners of a musket or rifle 
appear to us as scarcely to have possessed a defensive weapon. 
Its firing device consisted of a three-and-a-half to four-foot 
barrel along the under side of which ran a steel ramrod; a 
hammer into which a piece of flint was inserted; a "battery" 
or upright piece of steel against which the spark was struck; 
and a flashpan containing loose powder which, upon receiving 
the spark from the battery, ignited through a small hole the 
charge in the chamber. Such were the clumsy means of pro- 
2 "In 1744 a Philadelphian wrote to a member of Parliament that there 
were sufficient gun makers in the colonies to make 100,000 stand of muskets 
per year at 28 shillings each, and powder was already made. Yet, although 
the Revolution was imminent, and the need of a store of firearms apparent, 
the home consumption was such that the outbreak of hostilities found the 
colonists poorly provided. This negligence on the part of the colonists 
seems inexcusable. 
"For more than a year the outbreak of hostilities was expected daily. 
Committees of correspondence had been active, and a union of the thirteen 
colonies against the mother country was assured; there was no national 
government, no executive, yet each colony for self-protection should have 
established armories-and did not. In New England small stores of am- 
munition and old guns were collected from the people and from old town 
supplies stored since the French wars or before, but the main reliance 
seems to have been upon the personal property, arms which existed in 
almost every household throughout the land."-Charles Winthrop 
Sawyer, Firearms in American History. DRAB BEGINNINGS 
9 
jecting an ounce ball through a short and highly curved trajec- 
tory. 
Yet the undisciplined woodsman with his seven-foot, four- 
teen-pound mass of wood and steel would deliver a bulls'-eye hit 
in the face of a smashing kick. The farmer was not so accurate 
at long range, and the townsman very little better than the pres- 
ent generation as a whole. But as a rule the Revolutionary 
Army shot well. 
Shortly after he took command Washington arranged a 
spectacular review for the purpose of showing the New England 
militia the effect of accurate shooting on the part of the woods- 
men. A pole was set up and a marksman stepped off 250 paces. 
The farmer or townsman would scarcely have wasted powder 
at such a range. But the riflemen from the forest, firing singly, 
rarely missed the pole. 
In one early battle the farmers with their muskets (usually 
the Brown Bess) finding themselves without bullets, loaded 
their weapons with scrap iron, nails, or jagged odds and ends 
of metal, waited until the enemy was within easy range, aimed 
at the foot or knee, and let the jump of the piece disembowel the 
victim. Many a Revolutionary soldier was certain to hit a 
small target at 60 yards. There is one instance of a soldier 
who at that range, while his brother held a board 5 by 7 inches 
between his knees, fired, without a rest and from the standing 
position, 8 balls through the target without touching his kins- 
man. A British officer at Bunker Hill noticed such a person 
to have brought down 20 epauleted redcoats before the expert 
rifleman himself fell. But at the same battle it took the Ameri- 
can so long to reload that the British rushed in with the bayonet 
and forced a retreat. 
The disadvantage was due to the impossibility of reloading 
quickly and the lack of bayonets. After his piece was dis- 
charged, the soldier, instead of merely pulling his bolt, had to 
execute tedious motions. He reached in his box for a cartridge, 
bit from the end enough paper to let out the powder, a small 
portion of which he shook into the pan, and poured the re- 
mainder into the barrel through the muzzle. He then rammed 
home the bullet and paper sheath. Replacing the ramrod he 
was again ready to fire. 10 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The proceeding was all the more delayed in the early days 
of the Revolution when the powderhorn was used instead of the 
handmade cartridge. If the wind was blowing, it was almost 
impossible to place any powder in the pan, and if the uneven 
mixture of sulphur, carbon and saltpeter was damp, there was 
little reason for putting it into the rifle at all. The barrel, even 
after a few discharges, became so hot that the weapon was most 
uncomfortable to hold. The flint, too, was good for an average 
of only sixty firings. 
Added to these handicaps, there were in use in the begin- 
ning of the war, no less than thirteen different kinds of muskets, 
three kinds of musketoons and as many kinds of rifles as there 
were gunsmiths to make them. The calibers varied from thir- 
teen-gage to thirty-gage (gage meaning the number of spherical 
balls to the pound). There were master armorers and private 
factories at Westfield, Massachusetts, at Rappahannock Forge, 
Virginia, and at Philadelphia, but no manufacturing arsenals 
in the present sense of the word. Soldiers side by side in ranks 
could scarcely use one another's weapons and could not load 
with one another's bullets. 
Necessity naturally led to some sort of precision and uni- 
formity in handling the weapon, if for no other reason than the 
prevention of accidents. 
One soldier forgetful of the proximity of his uncorked 
powderhorn started a conflagration that burned for several 
hours and caused him discomfort for several weeks. Another 
having snapped his piece on a "delayed" charge was, upon 
recocking and firing, promptly kicked to death. John M'Mur- 
try, not realizing that there was a load in his rifle, sent a bullet 
through a double partition of inch boards, a single board of a 
berth, the breast of a man named Penn, and left a mark against 
a stone chimney. Nowadays, we are prone to forget the force of 
black powder close at hand, and the fact that the Continental 
developed as great respect for his own rifle as for the enemy. 
The drill of the time attempted to systematize loading and 
to familiarize the enlisted man with the proper use of his savage 
weapon. But there were as many regulations as there were 
methods of putting the same regulations into effect. No two 
companies drilled alike, and all drilled badly. A Marylander DRAB BEGINNINGS 
11 
in 1776 watching the home contingent on parade remarked that 
it was the finest body of men he had ever seen out of step. The 
"Sixty-fourth" edition of the British Manual, the Norfolk 
Discipline, Timothy Pickering's Easy Plan and Colonel 
Bland's treatise were all used indiscriminately. They differed 
to a great extent from each other and were taken up at the whim 
of the locality. The commands for firing and loading in one 
set consisted of 19 separate motions as follows: 
1. Half-cock your firelocks! (1 motion) 
2. Handle your cartridges! (1 motion) 
3. Prime! (1 motion) 
4. Shut your pans ! (2 motions) 
5. Charge with cartridge! (2 motions) 
6. Draw your rammers! (2 motions) 
7. Ram down your cartridge! (1 motion) 
8. Return your rammers ! (1 motion) 
9. Shoulder your firelock! (2 motions) 
10. Poise your firelocks! (2 motions) 
11. Cock your firelocks! (2 motions) 
12. Present! (1 motion) 
13. Fire! (1 motion) 
It is hardly remarkable that the British routed the depend- 
able Revolutionary marksman while all this was happening. 
With our overwrought sense of fire effect from magazine rifles, 
automatics and machine guns capable of deluging the enemy in 
an instant with mortal sleet, the enforced slowness of the soldier 
of 1775 is hard to conceive. If we are apt at times to criticize 
the vigor of Washington in not overwhelming his opponents 
with a ponderous volume of fire, let us remember the heavy tech- 
nic through which he had to labor. 
The larger weapons of artillery were fewer and less effective 
than the small arms. At the time of Washington's arrival there 
had not been much effort to obtain an adequate supply of big 
guns. Brass and iron cannons were so uncomfortably absent 
that he, until the few days preceding the British evacuation, 
was unable to contend with the fire of the enemy. Congress 
made a mild legal attempt to manufacture a uniform type of 12 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
these weapons, but the records fail to show any enforcement of 
the law. Colonel Richard Gridley, left in command of the 
artillery of Massachusetts, was on account of his senility disin- 
clined to exertion in obtaining cannons and balls elsewhere. 
The hard service of the "gun pointers," "bombardiers," and 
"mattrosses," as the enlisted artillerymen were styled, made the 
work as distasteful as that of a stevedore. In fact the besieging 
force had to sit calmly exposed to the fire of the besieged. So 
common did the sprinkle of heavy projectiles become that an 
order had to be issued to keep the American soldier from at- 
tempting to stop the rolling balls with his feet. It appears that 
more casualties occurred from this characteristic performance 
than from the accuracy of the enemy. 
Beyond the material lack of firelocks, ammunition, equip- 
ment, and cannon, that which essentially distressed the com- 
mander in chief was the immeasurable deficiency in trained and 
disciplined manhood. 
Peculation and stockjobbery were rife among the officers. 
Little conception of the dignity and honor necessary to inculcate 
discipline was found in them. When captain, lieutenant, and 
ensign placed their salaries in a common fund with the enlisted 
men, drawing at the end of the month each the same share, the 
official intent was doubtless generous and democratic, but such 
officers commonized themselves and made it easy for Lieutenant 
Jones to filch Private Smith's blanket. 
Mediocrity and cowardice were more common than theft 
and embezzlement even among officers who had never before 
been intrusted with funds. It can safely be said that a distinc- 
tion, especially in the New England regiments, between officer 
and men did not exist. Lieutenant Whitney was tried and 
convicted later for "infamous conduct in degrading himself by 
voluntarily doing the duty of an orderly sergeant." A cavalry 
staff officer was found unconcernedly shaving one of his men 
while visitors were present in camp. Others were tried for 
undue brutality in beating their men into insensibility. The 
attempt at discipline manifested itself either in extreme famil- 
iarity or brutality and often both. Cowardice also had been 
especially manifested at Bunker Hill. One officer before the 
battle informed his company that he would overtake them di- DRAB BEGINNINGS 
13 
rectly. He did-the next day. On the authority of General 
Lee and Captain Chester it is known that during the action 
many companies had not so much as a corporal to command 
them. The captain goes so far as to say that "the most of the 
companies of this Province are commanded by a most despi- 
cable set of officers." No doubt he was right but he was scarcely 
allowing for the fact that much of courage comes with disci- 
pline, the self-confidence accompanying the skill, as was demon- 
strated many times later. 
With such a set of officers it is not astonishing that the 
enlisted men were expressions of a misconstrued liberty or 
freedom. Men departed to their homes at will after Bunker 
Hill, often having obtained a substitute from home, more often 
having omitted that courtesy. Washington stated of them that 
"they regarded their officers no more than broomsticks." Any 
direction or interference emanating from above was a violation 
of their personal liberty for which they were fighting. They 
had come out of their own accord to drive the British from 
Boston. That work had better be accomplished before Decem- 
ber, for then their enlistment would run out and they would 
depart willy-nilly. 
In the face of Washington's earnest entreaty, his appeal to 
their manhood and patriotism to stay with him only one month 
longer in order to save the Revolutionary Army from extinc- 
tion, the Connecticut militiamen callously walked home in a 
body when their enlistments expired. A large part of the other 
militia did likewise. 
It was not because they were in need that they forsook the 
cause. The privates of Massachusetts militia were receiving 
$36 every lunar month as pay, an equivalent of at least $150 
in modern purchasing power, and, in addition, the following 
ration authorized by the Third Provincial Congress: 
"One pound of bread, half a pound of beef, and a half 
pound of pork, and if pork canot be had, one pound and a 
quarter of beef; and one day in seven they shall have one pound 
and a quarter of salt fish instead of one day's allowance of meat. 
One pint of milk, or, if milk cannot be had, one gill of rice; 
one quart of good spruce or malt beer; one gill of peas or 14 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
beans, or other sauce equivalent, six ounces of good butter per 
week; one pound of good common soap for six men per week; 
half a pint of vinegar per week per man, if it can be had." 
Conceding what he provided for himself, we learn that the 
private at the outset of the Revolution was receiving more from 
the states than in 1918 before Chateau-Thierry. It is a curious 
fact that these very patriots who resented so thoroughly the 
mercenary troops sent against them from England were them- 
selves but highly paid hirelings of their own government. In- 
deed, where a private citizen had been drafted by his own 
municipality it was common for him to be excused by paying a 
stipulated sum. Either in shirking or enlisting, the soldier 
was a commodity. In the average case he appears to have been 
actuated less by zeal in defense of his country than by greed for 
reward. His pusillanimous conduct became so common later 
that Congress could enlist very few recruits in competition with 
the states which generally paid higher wages and bounty. In 
an address to the soldiers in November of '75 the General said: 
"Never were soldiers whose pay and provision have been so 
abundant and ample. . . . There is some reason to dread that 
the enemies to New England's reputation may hereafter say it 
was not principle that saved them, but that they were bribed 
into the preservation of their liberties." 
Something is to be said on the other side. The Middle 
States and Virginia responded nobly to a call for volunteers by 
sending 12 companies of riflemen who enlisted for one year and 
marched in some cases 800 miles to the siege. These first troops 
raised by continental authority became the backbone of the force 
which finally achieved independence. Massachusetts itself 
furnished more men than any other state during the war. If 
there was reluctance, much of it can be attributed to the lack of 
system in these dim beginnings and to the small assets of a 
people who had not yet become rich by manufacture. Back on 
the farm there was very little laid by for Mollie and the chil- 
dren. And many of the higher officers who had means and an 
old-world intolerance of the lower caste were inconsiderate of a 
private's position. DRAB BEGINNINGS 
15 
The discouragements which beset Washington were of 
greater magnitude than those General Schuyler, in the North 
at this time, described as being such that if Job had had to bear 
them his "name had not been so famous for patience." Ill- 
disciplined and cowardly officers, deserting soldiers, and lack of 
every supply necessary for campaign, placed the commander in 
chief in the position of a hunter with an empty rifle confronting 
a grizzly. But to heighten his difficulty telling troubles arose 
in other quarters. 
Sickness was breaking out in camp. Already smallpox was 
scourging the troops in Boston, and it was a question as to how 
soon it would enter the American camp. Sanitation was foreign 
to the militiamen. Dirt and filth were kept down at home 
through the natural instinct of womanhood, but away from that 
environment tho soldier took little care of his person and per- 
sonal surroundings. The medical department mainly consisted 
of a number of jealous, bickering doctors with no chief. Hos- 
pitals were but pesthouses where the stricken victim was 
dropped upon the floor or straw to die or recover at the pleasure 
of Providence and with the annoyance of quackery. It had not 
yet become fashionable for women to nurse the soldier. No 
comforting attentions of feminine care reached his cold, bleak 
shelter where he groaned through torturous days and nights, 
awaiting death as a restful deliverance. The effective strength 
of Washington's army kept dwindling and the attractiveness 
of the soldier's life before Boston kept diminishing. 
In the meantime, Quebec added another loss to the army. 
Washington, shrewdly estimating Arnold's brilliant ability, gave 
him 1,050 men for the surprise of the Canadian stronghold. 
Arnold had pleaded his power to duplicate the surprise of 
Ticonderoga. The little force started out with great hopes, 
crossed Massachusetts and New Hampshire and struck through 
the Maine wilderness. The unbroken country, inconceivably 
thick, impeded their march. Supplies gave out, bateaux of 
provisions were lost, and hunger became so frightful that three 
dogs, entrails and all, were eaten in one afternoon. Swampy 
ground, limited shelter, and frozen clothing brought sickness 
and death. The progress for 83 miles up Dead River is one 
ghastly tale of misery. The band of about 700 which emerged 
Sept. 
1775 
Sept. 11 
1775 16 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
two months later on the St. Lawrence had undergone frightful- 
ness only to meet defeat. Arnold's message, which should have 
apprised Montgomery of his presence, fell into the hands of the 
British commander at Quebec. In the attack the noble Mont- 
gomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and the American 
force repulsed. Although Arnold showed masterly skill in 
drawing off his men and escaping to safety, the expedition was 
none the less a disaster numerically and morally to the incipient 
Revolution. 
Washington felt this defeat acutely, especially since the un- 
dertaking had met with his sanction. But long before the news 
of its result had reached him he had been met with misunder- 
standings from a more hectoring source. 
Congress, two hundred miles from the seat of activities, at 
a time when mails were slow and telegrams unknown, ques- 
tioned the wisdom of a commander who lay with a superior 
force inactive for months before the enemy. They could not 
realize that the largest part of his numbers existed only on 
paper. Neither could they visualize the hampering effect of his 
disorganization and needs. The populace was crying "On to 
Boston!" So this little body of delegates, who made laws that 
could not be executed and raised money that could not be col- 
lected, undertook to tell him not only what to do but how to do 
it. One member suggested, when there was scarcely enough 
powder all told to fire a full-fledged salute, that he bombard the 
British ships in the harbor. 
Above the calumnies of people and lawmakers Washington 
kept his temper serene and his energy unflagging. All his 
efforts bent toward the correction of evils for the sole purpose 
of taking the offensive. He raised the standards of discipline 
throughout the command by the establishment of courts and the 
trial of offenders. In general orders he announced that bravery 
would meet with reward and cowardice with certain justice, no 
connections, interest, or intercessions, availing to prevent the 
strict execution of punishment. He dismissed colonels and cap- 
tains alike, and brought to time enlisted men as well. The 
simple process of the martial law of the period possibly gave 
quicker returns than modern technical methods. 
Although the punishments of drumming out of camp, the DRAB BEGINNINGS 
17 
wooden horse, the pillory and flogging by rawhide on the naked 
back seem to us now to be severe, they were in vogue at that 
period of the world and seemed proper to the men of that time. 
Unusual punishments, such as branding on the hand and pour- 
ing salt and water on the lacerated back of the victim who had 
a few hours before received fifty lashes, were other delicate 
attentions of the law. Washington seems, however, to have dis- 
couraged the wooden horse, a peaked device on which the 
culprit in a sitting posture was strapped so that the end of his 
spine supported rigidly the weight of his body against the sharp 
edge. After a very few minutes he fainted and in most cases 
was injured permanently. Reprimands, extra hours of labor, 
riding on a rail, and apologies were used for lesser offenses. 
Sometimes a culprit was made to walk slowly at the point of a 
bayonet between the lines of his comrades while they smote him 
with belts, switches or any handy implement on the naked back. 
Naturally, the stricter enforcement of discipline on Washing- 
ton's part induced among men, whose previous lives had been 
expressive of personal liberty, more desertions than before. On 
the other hand, those who remained were receiving the schooling 
necessary for the soldier and the future of the Revolution. 
Of bringing the besieging force up to adequate strength, 
Washington finally showed Congress the necessity. A Congres- 
sional Committee visited him with the avowed intention of giv- 
ing him enough men. With representatives from the north- 
eastern states it came to the conclusion that 20,370 were re- 
quired to man the lines adequately. Accordingly, 26 regiments 
were requisitioned: 16 from Massachusetts, 5 from Connecti- 
cut, 2 from Rhode Island, and 3 from New Hampshire, with 
the hope that most of the necessary levies might be obtained by 
reenlistment of the troops then around Boston. One month 
later the new force totaled 966 men; two months later, 5,917; 
and three months later only 10,500 of the required 20,'370. In 
the meantime, 50 men of each regiment had to be granted fur- 
loughs in order to induce them to reenlist. Thus, Washington 
lost immediately the use of a large proportion of the 10,000. 
Besides, nearly the whole of the former army around Boston 
would vanish because of the completion of enlistment at the end 
of the year. After all this effort to get men, Washington was 
Oct. 
1775 
Nov.-Dec. 
1775 
Jan. 14 
1776 
Dec. 1 
1775 18 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
compelled to call out 5,000 militia and minute men from the 
adjacent colonies. Many of these refused to come and those 
who responded would do so only on condition that their service 
would expire early the next year, or after less than one month's 
service. Thus at the beginning of the year Washington had 
practically no army. 
In collecting what he had, his task of selection seemed im- 
possible. He told the President of Congress early in the fall 
that 
"they (the privates) will not enlist until they know their 
colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, and captain, so it is necessary 
to fix the officers the first thing." 
Here Washington had to turn aside from organizing his rank 
and file in order to determine what officers should be chosen. 
Congress had sent him blank commissions to be filled out and 
returned. Before he could make up a single unit he must 
attempt to sort out a few possibilities from the mass of the unfit. 
Evidently he called upon his general and field officers for this 
purpose, as regimental rosters afterwards showed. As a matter 
of fact these men were scarcely superior to their juniors in char- 
acter and ability. Some of their remarks foreshadow the 
"Efficiency Reports" and "Qualification Cards" of the present 
day, and reveal largely that partiality and animus were not 
eliminated from the recommendations. First Lieutenant 
Joseph Youngs is described as "a very low-lived fellow"; Cap- 
tain David Hobby, "a bad officer and at present under an arrest 
and will, in all probability, be cashiered"; Second Lieutenant 
Elihu Marshall, "a good officer, will make a good adjutant"; 
Captain Ames Hutchins, "of a low-turn and had better be dis- 
missed the service." Washington in this way, although possibly 
by imperfect means, gained some idea of who should be com- 
missioned. 
To improve the artillery he succeeded in having appointed 
Colonel Henry Knox as its chief. That aggressive officer trans- 
ported, on sleds and trucks over the hills of Vermont and Massa- 
chusetts, more than fifty cannons, including mortars and how- 
itzers, captured at Crown Point and Ticonderoga. Shells were 
obtained from the plundered King's store in New York. 
Jan. 15 
1776 
Nov. 11 
1775 DRAB BEGINNINGS 
19 
The powder shortage was more distressing and less easily 
remedied. Washington's reluctance in acknowledging the 
scarcity is shown in his correspondence where, lest the com- 
munication fall into the hands of the enemy, he omits the name 
of the coveted article in describing its absence. No powder 
plants turning out tons of ammunition, nor laden trucks of shot 
and shell to be kept sedulously from the prying eyes of spies, 
existed then in the colonies. Explosives came from abroad or 
were crudely mixed together in the private home. One country- 
man brought to the hall of Congress a whole barrel of powder 
he had himself manufactured. The Committee of Safety in 
Philadelphia published a description of the process of making 
saltpeter and sent trained men from town to town to instruct 
others in the art. Washington called upon the adjacent states 
for as much as they could furnish and kept beseeching Congress 
incessantly. One Governor, in answer to his request, com- 
plained that he had not enough powder to repel even a short 
attack upon his town. But the uninterrupted pleas began after 
a time to meet with more response. 
The increase of firelocks was not so rapid. This coveted 
treasure would be carried away by the deserting men and left 
at home as an asset to the family store along with the spinning 
wheel and harpsichord. If the soldier by chance felt inclined 
to reenlist he would do so in another regiment, thereby acquir- 
ing a new weapon. Some are said to have accumulated as high 
as eight rifles in this thrifty way. Washington in the autumn 
of '75 issued an order for the prevention of this practice by 
seizing the firelock of the departing soldier and purchasing it 
if it was fit for use. In spite of his efforts to retain these 
weapons, two thousand men in the following February lacked 
arms. 
The health of the army was keenly desired by Washington 
even at that early stage of medical science. He repeatedly 
issued orders for the cleanliness of the camp and men, and for- 
bade the unlicensed sale of liquor to the soldiers. He re- 
quested Congress to regulate the hospitals. The legislators 
responded by providing him with a medical staff under a di- 
rector general. 
Even the matter of uniform as an aid to military respect 20 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
was of moment to the Revolutionary leader. Since funds were 
lacking for the adherence to any widespread order in this re- 
gard, he contented himself with the announcement that the com- 
mander in chief, generals, aides, field officers, captains and 
subalterns would wear ribbons and cockades of an appropriate 
color for each grade. 
Congress had actually placed on Washington the burden of 
making an army as well as manipulating it. He was compelled 
to build when he longed to fight-to settle the issue. He was 
forced to be a collector of supplies when he hoped to be a leader 
of men. He was urged to wage hot war against a well-trained 
army, while his means were transient bodies of irregulars who 
went more than they came. The months of '75 passed away in 
dismissing and commissioning officers, begging for powder, 
arms, and men, and disciplining those who stayed long enough 
to be organized. 
At the very beginning of the next year Congress made a 
move which, though not immediately fruitful, was to have a 
decided effect upon the final outcome of the Revolution. It 
decided to govern apart from the militia and minute men the 
little handful of soldiers it had directly raised. Because it 
made the term of enlistment longer for these continental troops 
than that which the colonies prescribed for their men, Washing- 
ton was to have a small, stable nucleus about which he could 
congregate the constantly changing recruits sent by the gover- 
nors. In the dark hours to come, it was this constant little 
band that was to make possible the continuance of the Revolu- 
tion. 
It is interesting to note that on the very day Congress de- 
termined upon such a course, there was raised over Boston camp 
the single flag of the colonies. It consisted of the crosses of 
St. George and St. Andrew and thirteen alternate white and red 
stripes. This fluttering hint of unity and autonomy supplanted 
the various banners of the different localities such as the "Pine 
Tree" emblem and the British banner on which was written 
"Liberty and Union." 
Such a bright omen of the first day of the year of Inde- 
pendence was touchingly in contrast to the real state of affairs. 
While the country was face to face with a stout invader, one 
Jan. 1 
1776 DRAB BEGINNINGS 
21 
American army had casually disappeared from the front, while 
barely half of the other had reluctantly assembled there. It 
was fortunate that the enemy remained astonishingly inactive 
of its own apparent volition. It was also a blessing for the 
Revolutionists that Howe was so charged with Whig sentiment 
that he would not attack the untrained, ill-supplied fragments 
of provincials whom he could easily have defeated. The 5,000 
New England militia called in December would be gone on the 
15th of January. The 10,500 of the new force were decimated 
by furloughs. The man-powTer was at a lower ebb than at any 
period since Washington had assumed command. To add to the 
tension it was understood that spring would bring reenforce- 
ments from England into Boston harbor. The commander in 
chief beheld six months' anguish and appeals to patriotism con- 
summated in a product of impotence. 
Notwithstanding his discouraging outlay, he called a coun- 
cil of war with the hope of some aggressive action. The gen- 
erals agreed that an attack should be made, but could not 
conjure up any visions of success. It was finally decided to ask 
the New England colonies to raise 13 regiments for three 
months. In response to Washington's call only 10 of those 
organizations arrived about a month later, 3 being dispatched 
to lessen the imminent danger of Schuyler in the north. 
Slight activity began to express itself along the lines in the 
shape of sharp skirmishes. But Washington was waiting for 
powder and ice. With the support of the latter he would cross 
the harbor and with enough of the former he would deal a hard 
and unexpected blow. Again he called a council of war, but his 
project for attack was vetoed because it was thought to be too 
hazardous. Instead it was decided that Dorchester Heights, 
which the vacillation of Howe had left unoccupied and whose 
possession would render Boston untenable, should be seized and 
fortified. 
At once Washington notified the near-by towns that they 
should have their militia ready to march at a moment's notice 
for three days' service. He collected fascines, gabions, hay, 
barrels, bateaux, floating batteries, bandages, carts, and in- 
trenching tools. In spite of deserting soldiers and quarreling 
officers he felt several weeks later that he had enough powder 
Jan. 16 
1776 
Early 
February 
1776 
March 2 
1776 22 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and men to warrant operations. To disguise his scheme he 
Icept up for several hours on three successive nights a heavy 
artillery bombardment. So furious did the cannonading ap- 
pear to one excited spectator that he declared he had seen as 
many as seven cannon balls in the air at one time! 
Late in the evening of the third day General Thomas with 
2,000 men went forward to occupy the heights. Working with 
approximately 800 men in the darkness, he succeeded by silence 
and exertion in completing two redoubts before dawn. For the 
expected assault he prepared barrels filled with earth and 
stones to be rolled from the fortress down the hill upon the 
enemy. But this device of the days of Xenophon was not to 
be used. 
The British awoke on the morning of the fifth to see a 
phantom fort in the place of the pastoral hill of the night before. 
Howe, in speaking of the occurrence later, stated: "It must 
have been the employment of at least 12,000 men." He 
realized that this mirage or reality spelled attack or evacuation 
for his idle troops. Storms for several days prevented his cross- 
ing the harbor in boats to the assault. The delay let the Ameri- 
can force so strengthen its works that the British commander 
assured himself of their impregnability, whereupon he, in turn, 
called a council of war which came to the conclusion that the 
evacuation of Boston was the only alternative. A fortnight 
afterward that decision was converted into action by Washing- 
ton's fortifying Nook's Hill. 
Curious things have happened to troops in their rounds of 
striking diversities of campaign, but it is safe to say no spec- 
tacle in a similar situation ever presented itself to a commander 
quite like the one Washington viewed from his threatening hill 
on St. Patrick's Day, 1776. After having impersonated for 
eight months the part of a bold and harmless menace, like a 
child with outstretched arms barring the sidewalk to a man, he 
witnessed 11,000 hostile troops in neat red uniforms, with bulg- 
ing knapsacks and polished cartridge boxes crammed with good 
ammunition, marching peacefully towards their commanding 
ships lying off shore. No gun disturbed the quiet; nor confu- 
sion, the repose. A few silent cannons pointed from a fortified 
eminence were literally pushing Howe into the sea. 
March 2, 3, 4 
1776 
March 4 
1776 
March 4,5 
1776 
March 17 
1776 DRAB BEGINNINGS 
23 
So it came about that after the British had sailed ostensibly 
for Halifax, the American commander found in the city large 
stores of wheat and ammunition together with 250 pieces of 
-artillery. He discovered also that during the whole siege ex- 
tending over two thirds of a year he had actually lost by death 
in action less than twenty men. In spite of the desertions, dis- 
honesty, strolling and ill-disciplined troops, losses by sickness 
and disaster, the veritable quicksand of disappearing soldiery 
and lack of the commonest essentials for decent defense, this 
first venture of the Revolution was such a miraculous success 
that the Congress voted a medal to the commander in chief. It 
also gave thanks to God. 
March 20 
1776 CHAPTER II 
THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
(1776-1777) 
A FTER Howe had put to sea, leaving Boston to Washington 
ZA and his curious following, the American commander 
turned his attention to the central avenue of the country, 
the Hudson. He felt that the next place of attack by the enemy 
would be New York City. Having provided a holding force of 
about 5,000 against a possible return of the British to Massachu- 
setts, he hastened south and west with the remainder. Except 
for the numerous armed journeymen who had oscillated at will 
between the siege and their firesides, the Revolutionary army for 
the first time became a mobile force. The hardships of march, 
bivouac and temporary camp-the true rigors of war-began 
to settle their dampness upon the ardor of the patriot soldier. 
Over the primitive roads, narrow trails and grassy lanes of 
New England, the long line in Indian file threaded its strag- 
gling way to New London. Behind each company of mus- 
keteers followed the fifer and drummer giving vent to such 
enlivening strains as "The Pioneer's March" or "Roslin 
Castle." Banners of red, brown and yellow bearing homemade 
legends preceded the battalions. Gaps of varying sizes opened 
and closed within and between companies. Cannons mounted 
on rickety carriages rumbled along on awkward and noisy cart 
wheels. Farmer Stout going into the fields in the early morn- 
ing beheld the epauleted generals in the van of the column; 
returning to his dinner he watched the progress of the multi- 
form companies; and walking between the furrows in the dusk 
of the evening he heard the loud cries of the cart drivers and 
tinkling bells of the cattle bringing up the rear. 
Impressed by this big display of a small force, the gawking 
March 17 
1776 
24 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
25 
yokel and adventurous townsman took down their fowlingpieces 
from over their fireplaces, and fell in behind their kinsmen or 
friends in the hope that they too might take part in the general 
excitement of bagging a few redcoats. 
Where the eager came by ones, the disheartened left by twos. 
The Massachusetts militiamen grew timid at the sight of the 
strange wilderness of Connecticut far from home. He was 
physically uncomfortable, too. His feet, bound in low, ill- 
fitting shoes and unused to the long stretches and rapid, even 
gait of the march, were hot and blistered. Added to the twenty 
pounds of lead, steel, wood and leather on his person, he had 
accumulated at some recently visited farmhouse a frying pan, 
salt pork, dried venison or a coffeepot with which he had care- 
fully bulged his homely hunting shirt. Had he not done so he 
would have lacked nourishment at the end of the day's march, 
for under General Mifflin's service of supply the wagons either 
dumped their contents far from the hungry or did not arrive 
at all. 
In consequence of such discomfort, the near-by thicket, the 
wayside tavern, or the smiling face of a maid was an attraction 
too strong to be withstood by the young soldier, especially when 
his officers and noncommissioned officers had neither force nor 
semblance of disciplinary power to call back the truant. After 
the long line had passed from sight over the next hill, he slowly 
drifted homeward and was gathered unto his people. At his 
own threshold he was met by the saintly mother, the good wife 
and the village smith who agreed they could not exactly see why 
a Massachusetts Bay man should fight under a New Jersey 
officer for the sake of New York settlers. 
Washington finally arrived in New York, where he found 
that Lee, who had been sent ahead from Boston and was then in 
the south, had well begun the work of defense. Kingsbridge 
at the northern end of Manhattan, redoubts around the southern 
end, and earthworks at Brooklyn Heights on Long Island were 
under way. At once the American commander set to work to 
complete these widely separated fortifications, in which task he 
found his soldiers most skillful. Sapping, like shooting, was 
an art in which the American was expert. The frontiersman 
and Maine woodsman proved to be ready with the ax and dex- 
April 13 
1776 26 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
trous in matting revetments out of the tangle of wildwood 
infesting the Bronx and the Battery. 
To gain recruits Washington marched and countermarched 
his ragamuffin collection up and down the Island. But the 
wavering loyalist, instead of being enraptured, was inclined 
to be disgusted at the sight of the ill-clothed soldiers and coarse 
officers. With his mediocre official family Washington was 
hampered by sporadic drills, puerile instructions and lament- 
able ignorance of discipline. Colonels were repeatedly in- 
structed in orders that unless they broke sentries of the prac- 
tice of sitting down on post, the delinquents could not justly be 
shot for sleeping thereon. Captains had to be directed to see 
that every man when he came into action had twenty-four cart- 
ridges in his pouch and a good flint in his piece. Subalterns 
were desired to salute at ceremonies by doffing their caps 
until they could master the intricate operation of presenting 
their fusees. 
Such was the summer's work of the dwindling force. Its 
play was that of Tory-baiting, a mild pastime which consisted 
in catching a luckless loyalist, stripping, tarring, feathering 
and riding him on a rail or in a cart as an object of ridicule and 
missiles. In many cases the victim was permanently injured. 
Another expression of this sport was that of collecting about the 
house of some British sympathizer in the dead of night and of 
raising a sudden cry of "Fire" 1 In that period of the world 
when no snorting engines or convenient hydrants played their 
prompt parts in the quenching of flames, such a sinister sound 
meant to those within the wooden dwellings suffocation or 
cremation. Naturally, the occupants came pouring forth in 
scant attire only to find themselves objects of indignity on the 
part of a heterogeneous soldiery, some of whom immediately 
began looting the house. 
Washington found himself powerless to check these misde- 
meanors or to enforce discipline in general on account of lax 
officers and floating recruits. He was so distraught by the weak 
character of his personnel that he recommended to the Commit- 
tee of Safety that Congress provide a proportion of two to one 
against the British in order to make up in numbers for the 
American deficiency in quality. THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
27 
On account of the limited powers of the delegates, Congress 
was then busy making laws it could not enforce, voting money 
it could not raise, and making armies it could not assemble. It 
called out 13,000 militia from Connecticut, New Jersey, New 
York, and Massachusetts, and provided for a "flying camp" of 
10,000 in New Jersey to be enrolled from Pennsylvania, Mary- 
land and Delaware. As to the militia they were slow in com- 
ing and the "flying camp" really never materialized. Though 
the name of the latter has a brisk, American sound, it should 
more appropriately have been termed evanescent or fleeting 
camp. The idea was to collect the armed inhabitants into a 
large reserve without having regular enlistments. But when 
the majority of those who were regularly enrolled would not 
stay, it is easy to see why those who had to take no obligations 
would not come at all. In gaining troops, Congress was truly 
in the position of calling "spirits from the vasty deep." 
The fact that the recruit was hard to get should have con- 
vinced the members that once he was obtained his term of 
service should be for a relatively lengthy time, if for no other 
reason than the training derived from experience in the field. 
It does not seem possible that reasonable men should repeat the 
mistakes of the previous year by limiting enlistment periods 
to six months and less, in the face of Washington's entreaty to 
the contrary. But that was exactly what the delegates did. 
On the other hand, they framed a resolution for a per- 
manent committee of five to form a Board of War and Ord- 
nance. This body, to which all military questions were to be 
referred, was the first suggestion of a War Department. But 
such organization was unimportant in comparison to the 
Declaration of Independence. The formal separation from the 
parent country should have shown the civilians and the army 
that they were officially alone and self-reliant. Whether the 
soldiers realized the added burden placed upon them is difficult 
to infer from Washington's description of the reception of this 
daring document which he ordered to be read at the head of 
each brigade. "The measure" he wrote, "seemed to have their 
most hearty assent." 
Following the Declaration, however, Congress found it 
necessary to increase the "flying camp" because of the quick 
June 3 
1776 
June 12 
1776 
July 4 
1776 
July 8 
1776 28 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
efflux and slow influx of recruits. As one "would raise his bank 
account by merely adding figures in his check book, so the law- 
makers created four battalions of militia from Pennsylvania, 
three from New Jersey, and two of continentals from Virginia. 
The colonies made it continually more difficult for the central 
government to obtain soldiers. Connecticut and Massachusetts 
began offering to their recruits $33.33 over the bounty allowed 
to the continentals or regulars enlisted by Congress for the dura- 
tion of the war. New Jersey bid $53.33, whereupon Massa- 
chusetts and New Hampshire raised their offers to $86.66. No 
wonder the soldier went to the highest bidder, especially when 
that bidder, the commonwealth, required only a "few months' 
walk" in return for this enormous gift. It was too much to 
ask of human nature that a man serve ten times longer for far 
less bounty. And to add to the temptation for militia service, 
the states were paying in sound money while the Congress, if it 
remitted at all, was dealing out depreciating notes. Miracu- 
lously the Amos Farnsworths stayed with the continental colors 
despite the poor profit and lengthy discomfort, but they 
were of the handful who believed independence to be a 
vision of God and the fight for it beyond the vanities of this 
W'orld. 
Congress indulged itself also in making four new major 
generals: Heath, Spencer, Sullivan and Greene. It passed 
over Pomeroy, Wooster and Thomas, for apparently no reason 
other than that described by Chase of Maryland when he stated 
that the delegates were persisting in the error of recommending 
"persons from personal friendships who were not suitable." 
John Adams, who, as Belcher asserts, was "unhappily incapable 
of seeing conspicuous merit in any one but himself," stated 
there would be "less danger in vesting the power (of appoint- 
ment) in any assembly than in giving it to a general." On the 
other hand, Duane of New York declared he would "rather take 
the opinion of Washington than of any convention." It after- 
wards transpired when the commander in chief took over the 
appointing power that subordinates were selected because of 
their familiarity with the business of arms. 
Howe, whose army had landed on Staten Island the day fol- 
lowing the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, finally 
July 19 
1776 
Aug. 9 
1776 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
29 
determined to venture over to Long Island. He took with him 
at least 20,000 effectives from his total force of 35,000. 
The American army was in the incubation period of its 
chronic complaint-torpid enlistment. Congress had legislated 
over 50,000 men into the service, yet Washington in order to 
oppose the British general could collect barely 8,000 fit for 
duty. 
It is not remarkable that Howe by an admirable turning 
movement overwhelmed the little outpost of 2,500 near Flat- 
bush, as one would pinch a piece of pulp between the thumb and 
forefinger. According to one captured American, who confessed 
after the battle that his duties had been to "flank a little and 
carry tidings," it would appear that the service of security and 
information had been carried along very well. As a matter of 
fact the Americans had no cavalry, nor had they much idea of 
the use of patrols. The five officers who had been employed for 
that purpose over the Jamaica road, the forefinger of the Brit- 
ish attack, were easily captured as the enemy's column came 
along. Putnam, in his usual zealous blundering, sent more 
troops into the trap after he was made cognizant of the force on 
the flank. Another American leader ingenuously stated that 
the Jamaica road was a "route we never dreamed of." Stirling 
and Sullivan were captured, the latter while hiding in a corn- 
field. One brilliant colonel, outstripping the others in the gen- 
eral retreat, destroyed without authority a very necessary 
bridge, thus aiding the British in scooping more successfully 
the flying Americans. About 2,100 were killed or captured, 
some few making their way back to Brooklyn Heights. 
How little the private realized the results of the battle is to 
be gleaned from one diarist who set down this effective epitome: 
"Our Army on Long Island Have ben Engaged in battle 
with the Enimy and Killd And taken a good many on Both 
sides." 
That afternoon six hours of daylight remained for Howe to 
exterminate not over 5,500 disheartened Americans and so end 
the Revolution. Being immersed in Whiggish thought, he did 
not move. The next morning rain rendered the American 
Aug. 22r 
1776 
Aug. 27 
1776 
Aug. 28 
1776 30 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
powder useless. Again the British opportunity for easy victory 
with cold steel must have impressed Howe. And again he 
ignored the invitation. Certainly the scattering fire encour- 
aged by Washington among those who could keep their powder 
dry did not deceive a tried soldier like the British commander. 
Taking advantage of Howe's hesitancy, Washington or- 
dered Mifflin, his quartermaster general, to "collect every flat- 
bottomed boat and other craft ... fit for transporting troops." 
The little army had at its back a deep channel and in its front 
an overwhelming number of the best trained soldiers of Europe. 
A large percentage of the colonial troops had left their blankets 
and equipment on the battlefield several miles away. Their 
powder was wet with rain and their spirits dampened by defeat. 
Under cover of a fog Washington completed the transporta- 
tion of this entire force to the Manhattan shore. Thanks to 
its sagacious leader, London weather and a British general, 
the American army lived to fight another day. 
But that day, as will be seen when Howe arrived in pursuit 
several weeks later, adds no brilliant luster to American arms. 
In the meantime, Congress received from Washington the 
description of the effect upon the troops of the disaster of Long 
Island: 
"The check our detachment sustained on the 27th ultimo 
has dispirited too great a proportion of our troops and filled 
their minds with apprehension and despair. The militia in- 
stead of calling forth their utmost effort to a brave and manly 
opposition in order to repair our losses, are dismayed, intract- 
able, and impatient to return. Great numbers of them have 
gone off-in some instances almost by "whole regiments, by half- 
ones, and by companies at a time." 
John White, writing from Rhinebeck after these parties had 
time to arrive home, confirms Washington's statement by say- 
ing: 
"I suppose there are not less in this and the Northeast 
Precinct than thirty (deserters) who keep in the woods and are 
supported by their friends." 
Aug. 29 
1776 
Sept. 15 
1776 
Letter 
Sept. 2 
1776 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
31 
When Howe landed at what is now East 34th Street, the 
effect upon the untrained colonial levies was what might have 
been expected. Washington again records, in characteristically 
conservative style, this pitiful event: 
"As soon as I heard the firing, I rode with all possible des- 
patch toward the place of landing, when, to my great surprise 
and mortification, I found the troops that had been posted in 
the lines retreating with the utmost precipitation, and those 
ordered to support them (Parson's and Fellow's brigades) fly- 
ing in every direction and in the greatest confusion, notwith- 
standing the exertions of their Generals to form them. I used 
every means in my power to rally and get them into some order, 
but my attempts were fruitless and ineffectual, and on the 
appearance of a small party of the enemy, not more than 60 
or 70, their disorder increased, and they ran away in the great- 
est confusion without firing a shot." 
"Every means in my power" consisted in riding in among the 
fugitives and beating officer and man unavailingly with the flat 
of the saber until the scourger himself was barely rescued from 
the enemy. The one defect that aroused the anger of the Father 
of his Country was cowardice. 
The letter quoted had no more than reached Congress be- 
fore that body made two enactments affecting the army. One 
was the completion of the "The Articles of War" with the 
injunction that they be read every two months at the head of 
each company, troop and regiment. Two hours were required 
in mouthing this legal recital of offenses and penalties, four- 
teen of which prescribed death. The unlettered soldier, know- 
ing how few of the punishments were actually executed, was 
far from being impressed. The other act promulgated after 
great reluctance on the part of the delegates was fully as fruit- 
less. It called for the creation of 88 battalions of continentals 
or regulars to be taken proportionally from all thirteen colonies. 
If the soldier engaged for the entire "war he wTas offered $20 
in money and from 500 acres of land for a colonel to 100 for 
a private. The weak central government now raised its induce- 
ment and began to bid against the powerful colonies. But it 
Sept. 15 
1776 
Sept. 16 
1776 32 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
gave to the states the right of naming the officers of this force, 
Congress perfunctorily issuing commissions. 
The 88-battalion measure showed advancement in the attempt 
to establish a regular continental army for which Washington 
had contended through so many months, but the bounty system 
was the inauguration of wasteful legislation. Further, in 
delegating to the states the appointment of officers, Washing- 
ton's plans of organization were frustrated. He could not 
advance or appoint a single subordinate without first consulting 
the governors who were in many cases several months' journey 
away. Invariably it turned out that state preference lay with 
the influential novice rather than with the able veteran. 
The day Howe, by the very appearance of landing, put so 
many Americans to flight, he could easily have entrapped Put- 
nam at the southern end of the Island by merely moving on- 
ward. Although he was conversant with this fact, he chose to 
accept an invitation to dine at the Murray House on Murray 
Hill with some charming ladies. Putnam being unopposed was 
extremely successful in making his escape. 
The next morning, Washington, finding Howe still inert, 
determined to develop his whereabouts. Selecting a body of 
120 rough and ready mounted men known as Knowlton's 
Rangers, he sent them forward to gain contact. In a skirmish 
known as Harlem Heights they acquitted themselves nobly by 
pursuing the foe and giving more blows than they took. Al- 
though from a military point of view the engagement ■was inde- 
cisive, it did much to restore the failing courage of the Ameri- 
cans. 
Yet it did not check desertions enough to show any effect 
upon the dwindling force. Signs of absenteeism were particu- 
larly noticeable in the service of supply where great quantities 
of beef were left to putrefy on the ground. Congress acknowl- 
edged the general disintegration by adding to its bid for con- 
tinental troops an annual gift of two linen hunting shirts, two 
pairs of overalls, one leather or woolen waistcoat ■with sleeves, 
one pair of breeches, a hat or leather cap, two shirts, two pairs 
of hose and two pairs of shoes. Nevertheless, Washington's 
backing fell off so materially that he was forced to retreat to 
White Plains or be cut off. 
Oct. 8 
1776 
Oct. IS 
1776 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
33 
The British, in following him, were met by Glover's brigade 
at Pell's Point, where the red-coated ranks in the open were 
mowed down by the Americans behind stone walls. The un- 
trained woodsmen again demonstrated their ability to hit the 
target as long as there was a sufficient barrier between the 
enemy's bullet and their bowels. In this uneven action the 
Americans had 16 casualties against some 800 of the British, 
so that the morale of the retreating army received another 
slight pulsation. 
When the actual battle of White Plains occurred, however, 
nothing but a rainstorm which wet the ammunition and stopped 
temporarily all hostilities, saved Washington's puny force from 
decisive defeat. In his disadvantageous position he was com- 
pelled to withdraw to the heights of Newcastle for safety. 
Then came the disaster of Fort Washington, which gave 
Long Island, Manhattan and New Jersey to the enemy. Over 
a month previous Washington had sent word to Greene, the 
commander of the fortress, that the place was untenable and 
should be abandoned. Here Congress intervened by directing 
Greene not to relinquish it except under dire necessity. In 
consequence, Howe surrounded and captured it with an over- 
whelming force and by a well-planned maneuver, taking 2,600 
prisoners with many stores and provisions. Not only was it a 
serious loss in itself, but its fall necessitated the precipitate 
evacuation of Fort Lee across the river. In all, Congress by 
its interference in a business to which it was an absolute 
stranger and from which it was far removed, contributed to 
the British 146 pieces of artillery, 12,000 shot, 2,800 small 
arms, and 400,000 musket cartridges. 
A regimental adjutant before the assault, becoming an "old 
countryman" (deserting to the enemy), with all the plans of 
the fort, furthered congressional effort. In taking over the 
prisoners the British were highly amused at the "butcher and 
baker" who made up the commissioned personnel, and especially 
at one captain who insisted upon styling himself "keppun." 
The campaign of New York was ended with Washington 
fleeing south. As he crossed the Hudson, the New York and 
the New England militia of four states left him almost in a 
body. He was pushed so rapidly across the Hackensack that 
Oct. 18 
1776 
Oct. 22 
1776 
Nov. 16 
1776 
Nov. 20 
1776 34 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Nov. 28 
1776 
he had to abandon much of his commissary stores, baggage, and 
over thirty cannons. As he moved out of Newark, Cornwallis 
on his heels entered the other end of the town. Indeed, if 
the British had not been retarded by Howe, the patriot rem- 
nants could easily have been swallowed up or put to flight. 
The colonial troops were only too anxious to depart. The 
New Jersey and Maryland militia, finding that their terms had 
expired, left the colors forthwith in the face of Washington's 
most earnest entreaties. Only the sturdy continentals remained. 
Winter was coming on. Clothing was ragged and scant. Many 
a man was marching in his bare feet so that lameness and 
sickness resulted. 
The soldier blamed the colonial assemblies for neglect. The 
assemblies blamed the people at large, where the onus seems 
justly to lie. For it is proved by several authorities, among 
whom is Dr. Benjamin Rush, that the townsmen were not 
pinched but rather were living in a prosperous and well-fed 
condition. In their complaisant and ignominious apathy they 
heeded neither the Revolution nor the suffering soldier. So 
low did the hungry, footsore, cold tatterdemalions sink in num- 
bers that it was seriously projected, when they had crossed the 
Delaware into Pennsylvania, that they retire to Augusta 
County, Virginia, in order to conduct a lawless, predatory war- 
fare wherever and whenever they could harass the British. 
Such a course would nominally have ended the Revolution. 
To add to the losses by desertion Washington had to suffer 
from those of defection. Lee who had been left behind in the 
north did not move after repeated orders from his commander 
in chief to join the main body. Already he had begun his 
insidious plotting. Being second in command he felt that, 
with a little success on his part, say, cutting the British line 
of retreat in New Jersey, he could supplant Washington. After 
inexcusable delay he moved out at the speedy rate of 40 miles 
in 8 days! While at a farmhouse, three miles outside his own 
lines, where he had been engaged in writing disloyal notes to 
Gates, he was surprised and captured by a few British. The 
enemy felt that it had spirited away the brains of the Revo- 
lution. Nothing could have better promoted cooperation with 
the commander in chief than the removal of this despicable 
Nov. 39 
1776 
Dec. S 
1776 
Dec. 13 
1776 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
35 
conspirator, unless, perhaps, Gates had also been taken. As 
it turned out Stirling,1 next in command, immediately marched 
to Washington's aid with all dispatch. 
Panicked by the British advance through New Jersey, Con- 
gress packed its portmanteaus, hoisted its printing press aboard 
a wagon and fled to Baltimore. There, before any news of 
Washington's coming successes could reach it, it breathlessly 
"vested him with full, ample, and complete powers to raise 
and collect sixteen battalions of infantry ... to appoint all offi- 
cers below the rank of brigadier general ... to take, wherever he 
may be, whatever he may want for the use of the army." In ad- 
dition to this plenipotentiary arrangement it allowed him to 
raise 3,000 light horse, 3 regiments of artillery, and a corps of 
engineers, and to establish their pay. Congress was not averse 
in times of great extremity to unloading responsibility on the 
already weighted shoulders of Washington. 
To his lot little beyond the blackest cowardice, desertion 
and defeat had fallen since the Declaration of Independence. 
After having been despoiled of means, he was rudely saddled 
with complete authority. The force at his immediate disposal 
was not more than '3,300, half of whom were volatile militia. 
At the existing rate of dissolution ten days more would end 
the army and make freedom a byword. Under this yoke the 
heart of a man and the soul of leadership alone changed the 
course of events. Singly and without show, while shattered 
and all but forsaken, Washington determined upon an offensive. 
Since he had collected all the Delaware River boats, he was 
unassailable until the enemy could construct rafts. His in- 
formation from patriots in New Jersey showed that the British 
were scattered throughout the state in small garrisons. Rall was 
at Trenton with 1,500 men, and Dunlop at Bordentown with 
a similar number. The Hessians had thrown up no intrench- 
ments and Christmas day would be an occasion of feasting and 
drunkenness. Besides Sullivan and Gates had joined Wash- 
ington with their northern reenforcements. 
The plan was simple and audacious. Christmas night Gates 
was to cross the river against Dunlop. Ewing was to cross just 
Dec. 25 
1776 
1 Sullivan and Stirling had both been exchanged. 36 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
below Trenton in order to cut off Rall's retreat, while Washing- 
ton was to cross nine miles above the town. Three parallel 
columns were simultaneously to sally into the enemy's country. 
Just one third of the plan was executed. Gates complained 
of being ill, but was not so indisposed as to be prevented 
from hastening away in order to intrigue with Congress. 
Ewing found the river very full of ice and was certain that 
Washington must have failed in his attempt. The desperate 
northern column was left to make its way between the floating 
cakes unassisted. All night long in sleet and darkness Wash- 
ington and Knox toiled and urged the miniature transports. 
Not until three o'clock was the force safely landed and not 
until eight did they come in sight of their objective. Drunk- 
enness and overconfidence let the town lie in unpreparedness 
until the Americans were within musket shot. Otherwise, 
bereft of a part of his army and delayed by the slow crossing, 
Washington's shivering soldiers could easily have been scat- 
tered, while the Trenton Hessians escaped to Dunlop. As it 
turned out the Americans took nearly 1,000 prisoners, 6 field 
pieces, 4 flags and 12 drums with the loss of 2 officers and 1 
private wounded. A private described the engagement as fol- 
lows : 
"This morning at 4 a clock we set off with our field pieces, 
marched 8 miles to Trenton whare we ware atacked by a num- 
ber of Hushing & we toock 1000 of them besides killed some. 
Then we marchd back And got to the River at Night and 
got over all the Hushing." 
Nevertheless, this apparently elated diarist refused to be 
tempted by the $10 extra bounty which Washington, pledging 
his own private fortune, was compelled to offer the militia as 
an inducement to stay with the colors for a few days more. 
Neither was it particularly significant to this patriot that the 
Americans had taken so many "Hushing" and that there had 
occurred the first offensive action and real victory of the war. 
Like many others he drew his wages and bounty money and 
departed. 
Before the remainder could do likewise, Washington re- 
crossed the river into the land of the enemy, and occupied 
Dec. 29 
1776 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
37 
Trenton with not more than 5,000. In the meantime Corn- 
wallis had collected 8,000 trained men at Princeton. Leaving 
3 regiments in the town the British commander set out for the 
American army, arriving within striking distance by nightfall. 
Washington was not only compelled to shift his position 
to the south of the town but was in the same plight in which 
he found himself at Long Island-deep water in his rear and 
an overwhelming force in front. This time, however, due to the 
determined skill of the American leader the little army did not 
retreat. At one o'clock a.m., it moved out over the roundabout 
Quaker Road, leaving 700 men behind to keep the fires burn- 
ing and to imitate camp noises. It arrived in Cornwallis' 
rear near Princeton at sunrise when the British brigade of the 
rear guard was crossing Stony Brook to join the main force 
near Trenton. Perceiving a small party of Americans (Mer- 
cer's men), Colonel Mawhood (English) faced about in order 
to capture what he estimated to be a few colonial companies. 
For some time he was successful on account of the superiority 
of the British bayonet. But suddenly he found himself con- 
fronted with Washington and the whole American army which 
was supposedly twelve miles away at Trenton. Washington 
pursued the British regiments as far as Kingston. He made 
prisoners of 200 cooped in old Nassau, and inflicted a loss of 
about 400 on other troops. Since his men were too fatigued 
to carry out the original intention of seizing the stores at 
Brunswick, and had vastly exceeded their resources in their 
daring, he camped that night at Somerset Court House. The 
next day he went into winter quarters on the heights of Morris- 
town. 
Washington's daring and skill had caused his little force to 
outnumber that part of the enemy he had attacked. Had he 
failed in any part of his plan he would have been annihiliated 
and gone down in history as a fool. As it was, when Corn- 
wallis wheeled about, Washington knew that his own superi- 
ority had fallen to inferiority. The astute American com- 
mander quickly took the defensive. 
To this movement he was forced as much on account of 
the condition of his men as their numbers. Marching in the 
frigid cold without proper nourishment and uniform, the sol- 
Jan. 3 
1777 
Jan. 4 
1777 38 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
dier's sufferings were possibly greater than those at Valley 
Forge.2 It was estimated by eyewitnesses that the ill-fed, ill- 
clothed, ill-supplied and exhausted American army could then 
have been put to flight at Morristown by one well-equipped and 
drilled battalion. 
Obscured by the brilliant skirmishes of Trenton and Prince- 
ton, the true situation between the contending forces should not 
be overlooked. The British in their victorious battles around 
New York had taken almost as many prisoners as Washington 
had soldiers in his camp. The untrained, come-and-go patriot 
had been an easy prey to the seasoned veterans from abroad. 
The American had not yet learned to march in the open, under 
fire and against breastworks. Through lack of discipline and 
training he was bound to be an easier victim than the soldier 
who* knew what to do instinctively and made offensive action 
possible. 
The treatment of the American prisoners certainly did not 
stimulate the patriot to try conclusions with the British. Ethan 
Allen during his incarceration wrote that he had suffered every- 
thing short of death. Many others were sharing a like fate. 
To prevent ill treatment to Lee, Washington informed Howe 
that every cruel act would meet with retaliation. The mockery 
of this thoughtfulness is expressed in the fact that Lee at that 
very hour was concocting plans for the complete overthrow of 
Washington's army and the American cause. 
It is certain, though, that Howe was attempting to make 
captivity for the "rebels" more distressing than death. The 
prison ships, Jersey, Hunter, Whitby, Scorpion, Stromboli and 
Good Hope, were floating "black holes." The hatches and 
other openings of the crowded traps were so sparse and barred 
as to make air and light real luxuries. The stacking up of the 
dead was as regular as sunrise. The highest privilege a pris- 
oner could receive was to go ashore with a burial party. The 
emaciated bodies were flung into shallow holes in the sand only 
to be washed by the next storm about the vessel where they 
floated before the occasional view of the next victims. During 
the war 10,000 are said to have perished on the Jersey alone. 
Jan. 13 
1777 
2 To be described in the next chapter. THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
39 
In the sugar houses and churches of New York, the land 
prisons of the British, conditions were even worse. Unprin- 
cipled overseers are said to have fed the dead and starved the 
living. The deceased captives, mortifying in their own filth, 
were often found to have placed in their mouths pieces of 
stone or plaster, their last hope of nourishment. Very few of 
the released survived, some dying in their tracks before reach- 
ing home. 
It is possible that Howe's prison system was one of the 
principal deterrents to recruiting. It may in part explain the 
reluctance of the American soldier to reenlist even after being 
stirred by Tom Paine's Crisis read at the head of each regi- 
ment: 
"These are the times that try men's souls. The summer 
soldier and the sunshine patriot will in this crisis shrink from 
the service of his country, but he that stands now deserves the 
love and thanks of man and woman." 
At Morristown those parts of the militia which had with 
effort been induced to stay on after Trenton were leaving in 
shoals, taking with them what Government property suited 
their fancy. After two years of war Washington's whole energy 
had to be expended in pleading with Congress and the country 
for an army. He was left with nothing whatever with which 
to undertake operations. Consequently, the hostilities of the 
remainder of the winter manifested themselves only in ineffec- 
tive partisan warfare among New Jersey farmers. 
Congress did not increase its prestige by appointing Stirling, 
Mifflin, Saint Clair, Stephen and Lincoln as major generals, 
passing over Arnold, the senior brigadier, who had demon- 
strated more soldierly qualities and leadership than any other 
general save Washington and perhaps Greene. Dissatisfaction 
arose among the troops in that their natural leader should be so 
treated. The unjust situation is explained by the fact that 
Arnold was a friend of Schuyler, and Schuyler, due to Gates' 
plotting, was persona non grata to Congress. 
By March, thanks to the indifference of a well-fed and 
erroneously revered population, the force at Morristown had 
Feb. 19 
1777 40 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
dwindled to less than 3,000, over 2,000 of whom were worth- 
less militia who would depart the next month. Within two- 
days' march was a British army of 10,000 trained soldiers which 
could have taken the Americans with less loss than it was ex- 
periencing from the rebel community. 
To add to Washington's misfortunes, General Tryon, the 
royal governor, had landed near Fairfield, Connecticut, and 
marched to Danbury where he captured more than 1,600 tents 
and other stores. Generals Silliman and Wooster pursued the 
British, harassing them at Lexington until Wooster was killed. 
Arnold, who had been on a visit in the neighborhood, volun- 
tarily led in his impulsive way several hundred militia to the 
fray. Although he had two horses shot under him he suc- 
ceeded in inflicting much loss on the escaping British. Con- 
gress, forced to recognize him for this exploit, reluctantly made 
him a major general but did not restore him to his former rela- 
tive rank. 
Finally after four months, the army at Morristown under 
the act creating 88 battalions came up to a total of about 7,500. 
Although Washington was able to move out of camp he was 
not strong enough to undertake an offensive. Selecting a strong 
position near Brunswick he placed himself between Howe and 
Philadelphia. Then ensued a series of adroit maneuvers on 
the part of Howe to entice Washington into giving battle. After 
three attempts to lure the Americans toward unfavorable 
ground, during each of which Washington returned to his 
strong position, the British took to their boats on Staten Island 
and sailed Washington knew not where. For two months Howe 
at sea and Washington on land played at hide and seek. The 
Americans first moved north as far as Haverstraw on the Hud- 
son, then returned as far south as Philadelphia and had partly 
retraced their steps northward, when verification of the news 
that the British were in the Chesapeake turned them again 
south. 
Although the army had been harassed by marching and 
countermarching and knew with a vengeance the meaning of 
locomotion, it did not, while Howe was in obscurity, lose in 
numbers. Congress had again resorted to the fickle militia, 
calling out approximately 11,000 from the surrounding states. 
April 26 
1777 
May 24 
1777 
June 30 
1777 
Aug. 22 
nn THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
41 
When Washington finally marched through Philadelphia with 
drums beating, the flag of the Union (13 stars and stripes) 
flying, the generals and their aides all gold and lace riding on 
frisky mounts, and the "ragged, lousy, naked regiments" car- 
rying burnished arms, the whole force came up to the magnifi- 
cent total of 11,000 fit for duty. 
Before the army travels further, it is necessary to speak 
of a curious malady-"foreignitis"-which affected it most 
strangely. The American agents in France had been besieged 
and besought by European adventurers for commissions in our 
service. Most of the applicants were without merit or interest 
in the cause. That Franklin in his Parisian apartments was 
not deceived by them is evidenced by the closing sentence of 
one of his replies: 
"If, therefore, you have the least remaining kindness for 
me, if you would not help to drive me out of France, for God's 
sake, my dear friend, let this your twenty-third application be 
your last." 
Silas Deane was less discerning. He made great promises 
to trained and untrained alike. In consequence, little foreign 
migrations waited upon Congress and importuned Washington 
when he had just been given plenary powers and was in the 
thick of his troubles after Trenton. In one instance Deane had 
given Du Courdray a commission as major general of artillery. 
Knox, as brigadier, and chief of that arm had served success- 
fully for over a year. Greene and Sullivan shook hands with 
Knox that they would all resign their commissions provided 
the displacement occurred. Washington, besides, protested 
against the appointment because he would be saddled with a 
man whose qualities he did not know and about whom he 
should have been consulted. Congress was forced to repudiate 
Du Courdray's commission. But others came who could not 
be warded off so easily. Upon their advent the junior Ameri- 
can officers protested that they themselves were native born, 
had served from the beginning and were now unfairly 
"jumped" by a foreigner. The enlisted men detested being 
ordered about by a titled fellow with a broken accent. This 
Aug. 24 
1777 42 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
antipathy caused even Canadian officers to be tried and retried 
on the flimsiest pretexts until many were forced to resign their 
commissions. 
Just as the convalescent can sometimes attribute good ef- 
fects to certain diseases, so to a few exceptions among the for- 
eigners, without whose aid it is doubtful if America had won 
the war, the country owes deep gratitude: Steuben, Lafayette, 
Pulaski, Kosciusko and Du Portail. Of these Steuben by his 
ability and Lafayette by his affluence, influence and noble atti- 
tude were preeminent. 
Congress, in bestowing the rank of major general on Lafay- 
ette, gave forth these democratic sentiments: 
"That in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family and 
connections he have the rank of major general in the army of 
the United States." 
Nowhere in the history of the Revolution did our lawmakers 
intimate by the slightest token that there existed such a thing 
as military technic or efficiency. Family, caste, friendship, 
favor and politics seemed to be the determining factors in 
awarding splendid commissions. Arnold, the most brilliant 
divisional commander of the war, was passed over time after 
time by incompetents until he finally responded to ill treatment 
with treason. 
Two days after Lafayette's arrival Washington received 
the news that Howe was in the Chesapeake. The American 
commander marched south to meet the British, having obtained 
reliable information by the service of scouts; but finding the 
opposing force superior, he withdrew to a defensive position 
north of Chad's Ford across the Brandywine. 
Howe tried the same pinching movement he had used at Long 
Island. This time, however, he changed the relative positions 
of the thumb and forefinger. Knyphausen moved out over the 
eastern thumb in order to keep Washington occupied and make 
him believe he was opposed by the entire force. Howe with 
Cornwallis made a detour over the long forefinger in order 
to cross the western forks of the Brandywine and surprise the 
American flank. 
Sept. 11 
1777 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
43 
Washington, perceiving the plan, sent Sullivan across the 
upper reaches of the river in order to keep Howe engaged, 
while he, Washington, could cross and overwhelm the inferior 
force of Knyphausen's before help could arrive. Sullivan, 
without making sufficient reconnaissance, reported that there 
was no enemy across the river so that he was consequently 
withdrawn. Shortly afterward the news came to Washington 
that the whole British army had crossed near the point where 
Sullivan should have kept the enemy engaged. It was too late 
for the American army to carry out the original plan. It could 
not defeat the weak fraction on the thumb while the larger 
force on the tip of the forefinger was absent. Howe was al- 
ready hitting Washington on two sides. Sullivan's militia on 
the right flank gave way like sheep and the rout began. Al- 
though Greene came to the rescue and covered the retreat, 
Washington was forced to withdraw to Chester with losses about 
equal to those of the British. 
Next day he moved north to Germantown, where, upon 
finding that Howe was still inactive, he prepared to force the 
issue again. Crossing the Schuylkill he hastened south. The 
two armies met at Warwick Tavern where the rain began to 
fall in torrents. The Americans without rainproof clothing 
of any kind, in their tight-fitting, uncomfortable, unsuitable 
garments, were drenched to the skin. Their "cartouch" boxes 
were soaked through so that all idea of any engagement, other 
than with bayonet or bow and arrow, vanished. Washington 
removed his saturated musketeers behind the Schuylkill near 
Perkiomen. 
Convinced that Philadelphia would soon be in British hands 
Congress3 again precipitately packed off westward, this time 
to York. Finding the burdens of war excessive and quite out 
of hand, it magnanimously passed them over to Washington 
who was virtually given dictatorial powers within seventy miles 
of his headquarters for sixty days. His hands were free to 
meet the enemy in any way he chose. 
Finding that Howe was moving westward along the south 
bank of the Schuylkill, he attempted along the north bank to 
keep pace with him. But the disaffection of the Germans and 
Sept. 12 
1777 
Sept. 16 
1777 
Sept. 17 
1777 
3 It had returned from Baltimore. 44 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Quakers in that vicinity withheld valuable information, so 
that, when Ilowe suddenly wheeled eastward, Washington was 
not apprised of the fact. The British were across the river 
and well on their way to Philadelphia before Washington was 
aware of the countermarch. 
At Germantown Howe retained 6,000 men while he scattered 
the remainder, with the exception of 3,000 in Philadelphia, 
throughout New Jersey. As soon as Washington was satisfied 
of this faulty disposition, he at once decided to fall upon the 
inferior force at Germantown and overwhelm it. By setting 
out at night he would march with four columns along parallel 
roads, converge and attack simultaneously at dawn. The militia 
was to close in around the British flanks and cut off its re- 
treat while the continental troops made the main attack in the 
center. All arrived near their separate destinations, and the 
plan would have been carried out admirably had not any one 
of the following occurrences taken place. A dense fog settled 
over the troops so that forty feet was the visual limit. The 
militia on one flank never appeared; on the other, they fired a 
few random shots over the creek which they were to cross and 
dispersed. The Chew House in rear of the American objective 
had been barricaded by five companies of British so that no 
amount of cannonade, torch flame or rifle fire could dislodge 
the occupants. General Stephens in a drunken condition led 
his column off the trail and fired into Wayne's troops. Greene, 
thinking the firing at the Chew House and in his rear was 
that of the main body of the enemy, withdrew. A general 
panic and retreat ensued. Washington was glad to collect all 
his forces at Skippack Creek by nightfall without the loss of 
his cannons. 
The troops of Washington's army so far had begun and 
ended their open fighting by running. They had scarcely been 
present long enough as a whole to be trained to do otherwise. 
The men had no chance to exhibit their natural courage so 
long as many of their leaders were ill-disciplined. General 
Conway, for instance, was found, during the action at German- 
town, resting in a farmhouse. When asked by two field officers 
why he was not with his brigade, he mumbled a feeble excuse 
about the indisposition of his horse. 
Oct. 4 
1777 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
45 
While Washington was impotently beating himself away 
against Howe in the south, Burgoyne's army in the north was 
streaming down from Canada in an endeavor to join Clinton 
so as to separate New England from the remainder of the 
colonies. Ticonderoga had fallen because Saint Clair had 
omitted the obvious precaution of seizing a commanding hill. 
The Americans then retired, leaving no usable article in their 
wake, so that Burgoyne's army, cutting its way through a 
denuded wilderness, made slow and difficult progress. 
If the British force had been hampered by hardship and 
disease, the American force had grown thin in addition by 
desertion. In August 2 Massachusetts regiments had left the 
northern camp while Washington was gaining recruits in the 
south. Schuyler's force was decreasing to such an extent that 
only 4,000 troops remained to him, one third of whom were 
negroes, boys and old men too aged for field service. 
Smallpox, too, as well as "inoculation frolics" had wrought 
fearful havoc. At that time vaccination was a novel immunity, 
administered by transmitting the infection from the stricken 
to the well. In civil life, where people were healthy and com- 
fortably surrounded, this method of transmission of the disease 
induced no great amount of mortality. The doctor's argument, 
that more died from the epidemic taken in a natural way than 
from inoculation given while in a healthy condition, seemed to 
prove itself with the civil population. But when the malady 
was transported out of its time to the army, consideration was 
not given to the wasted, exposed, and emaciated condition of 
the subject. With the soldier, shoes, whole breeches, and over- 
coats were absent quantities, and hunger ever present. More 
died from wounds by bacilli than from lead. The doctors in 
the field became violent spreaders of contagion rather than 
skillful guardians of health. The remedies of quackery of that 
age, snakeroot, rum and gentian, distilled earthworms, and 
lukewarm snail-water added not over much to recovery. In 
spite of the general's specific orders to the contrary, surgeons 
so persisted in their pernicious scratchings that they had to be 
tried by court-martial. 
A change in the moral tone of the troops came with the 
battle at Bennington, Vermont, where in their advance the Brit- 46 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
ish had attempted to round up some supplies and had been met 
and defeated by an overwhelming number of farmers. The 
victory gave to Schuyler many new recruits. To add to the 
general revival, Arnold was returning from meeting Saint 
Leger who had advanced from Oswego to join Burgoyne. By 
a clever ruse the American commander and his reenforcements 
had scattered the Canadians, English, and Indians, leaving the 
valley of the Mohawk cleared of the enemy. His successful 
600 would soon lend personal aid to the main body. 
Just when Schuyler had successfully built up optimism 
from depression and was gaining adequate numbers, Congress 
decided on the brilliant scheme of sending the subtle Gates to 
take over the northern command. Schuyler received the blow 
without comment, increased his energies in building up his 
positions and prepared to meet the enemy descending upon him. 
When Gates arrived, although the fruits of victory were 
ready to be plucked, the new general did his utmost to let them 
rot on the limb. The American army far outnumbered the 
British and Kosciusko had skillfully planned the fortifications 
on Bemis Heights. Nevertheless the British approached the 
flank of the strong position in such a way as to threaten to 
enfilade the lines. Gates refused to move, more interested in 
showing the teamsters an easy way of retreat than in forging 
ahead into battle. Arnold, realizing the danger of passive re- 
sistance, forced his new commander by moral suasion to order 
the left wing forward. With the expectation of aid to follow, 
Arnold fell upon the enemy at Freeman's Farm, but was unable 
to dislodge them. Seeing himself in a disadvantageous position 
and with no reenforcements, he whirled about and attacked 
the British center. Even with the odds against him he would 
have held his own had not British reenforcements arrived. All 
this time Gates withholding aid from his subordinate had sat 
behind entrenchments when he could not have helped knowing 
that his overpowering forces would have routed the British. 
Even as it was, night fell upon the two armies with more 
losses to Burgoyne than to Arnold. 
Of this engagement Gates sent a report to Congress in which 
he made no mention of Arnold and his heroic deeds. Schuyler's 
staff officers having attached themselves to Arnold felt the THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
47 
slight so much that a feud arose which was heightened in bit- 
terness by Gates' inexplicable delay throughout the next eigh- 
teen days. Arnold's natural ardor and bravery chafed under 
such unwarrantable inaction. After one heated argument with 
his chief he applied for permission to leave the army. When 
his application was immediately granted, he found himself 
besought by his officers and men to remain. Gates, however, 
refused to receive him back so that he occupied a singularly 
unofficial status without command. 
In the meantime Lincoln, after retaking Mount Independ- 
ence, joined Gates, raising the latter's force to more than twice 
that of the British. Still Gates sat looking into the distance. 
Burgoyne, who had already set October 12 as his limit of time 
for holding out, determined to force a passage to Clinton farther 
down the Hudson. Again he attacked the American left. 
Unable to bear the sight of the American inaction in the face 
of such an offensive, Arnold, with fury and without authority, 
rode at the head of his men, who followed him amid cheers. 
He drove Burgoyne into his camp, repulsed Balcarras and took 
a strong redoubt, where he ended a day of heroism and victory 
by being carried from the field wounded. While all this was 
happening, Gates in his own tent held ethical discourse with 
a captured British aide as to the merits of the Revolution. 
Following much wrangling, during which Gates had learned 
of the fall of Fort Montgomery and of the contemplated ad- 
vance of Clinton and during which Burgoyne was in ignorance 
of these events, the British surrendered at Saratoga. The 
victory was credited to a hero who was in reality a dilatory 
weakling. It belonged to an intrepid, skillful leader who after- 
wards succumbed to treason. 
One soldier in his diary wrote his estimate as follows: 
"Arnold was a smart man; they didn't serve him quite 
straight." 
Another characterized him thus: 
"A bloody fellow he was. He didn't care for nothing; he'd 
ride right in. It was 'Come on, boys!' twasn't 'Go boys!'- 
Oct. 8 
1777 
Oct. 17 
1777 48 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
there wasn't any waste timber in him. He was a stern-looking 
man but kind to his soldiers. They didn't treat him right- 
but he ought to have been true." 
On the other hand, this remark seems to epitomize another 
soldier's opinion: 
"Gates was an old granny-looking fellow." 
This summary seems to be the only surviving camp description 
of this reclusive warrior. 
The country went into hysterics over this first decisive vic- 
tory. Gates was at once a national hero paramount to all 
others. Many acclaimed him and denied Washington. 
The news of the capture of Burgoyne came as a boon to 
the ragged, defeated main army at Skippack Creek. The hopes 
of Washington's command were to a degree revived. But they 
were also alloyed with the significant knowledge that Howe had 
moved into Philadelphia and, with his 20,000 trained troops, 
was spending his third winter in another large and luxurious 
American city, this time the capital of the country. As the 
cold weather came on, desertions in the Revolutionary ranks 
grew to large proportions. Washington moved to Whitemarsh, 
where he remained three weeks. Then he sought winter quar- 
ters at Valley Forge. 
These first lessons in mobility for the army had been hard 
and discouraging. Trenton, Princeton and Saratoga were the 
only visible returns of over a year's effort. Though the first 
two were brilliant, bold strokes, they were candidly but skir- 
mishes having little bearing on the outcome of the war. Sara- 
toga, then, was the single prize of all this grueling. The 
British effort to cut the country into two parts had been para- 
lyzed, and a large force had been captured. 
On the other hand, the troops from overseas had won Long 
Island, New York, White Plains, Forts Washington and Lee, 
the Brandywine and Germantown. As a consequence Howe 
had moved practically when and where his fancy took him. 
In the meantime a prosperous people had begrudged its 
suffering army a miserly support. Its Congress had fussily 
Oct. 19 
1777 
Dec. 19 
1777 THE ARMY LEARNS TO WALK AND RUN 
49 
pecked at Washington and his following without returning any- 
thing palpably constructive. As a body it had rebuked Stark, 
displaced Schuyler, ignored Arnold, cast aspersions on Greene 
and Knox, court-martialed Sullivan, Saint Clair, Wayne, and 
Matthews because they had lost engagements, and ousted Trum- 
bull, the commissary general, so that shoes and clothing lay 
rotting in hogsheads by the roadside undelivered to the needy 
troops. But greatest of all, many of the delegates had plotted 
with the coward Conway against Washington himself. The 
majority held Charles Lee and Horatio Gates in the highest 
repute and left the main army to work out its own deliverance 
at Valley Forge. CHAPTER III 
THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
(1778-1781) 
Dec. 19 
1777, to 
June 18 
1778 
VALLEY FORGE stands as the Gethsemane of American 
history. It has come to be the national equivalent of 
vicarious sacrifice. It commonly suggests no other claim 
for greatness. What hardships our soldiers at other times have 
endured, and what Valley Forge really accomplished for the 
United States, are totally eclipsed by records of frozen feet and 
hungry stomachs close to a comfortable city. 
When the British took up winter quarters in Philadelphia, 
Washington put the hills and the Schuylkill between himself 
and Howe. His army found itself in an undeveloped, wooded 
country which was so dense that every effort had to be bent on 
making it fit for existence. The soldiers at once were set to 
work to cut fuel and such logs as would do for building. Huts 
were reared, chinked with mud or clay and thatched with 
straw. Window openings, usually two in number, were closed 
with oiled paper. The construction of these rude shelters was 
arranged so that each regiment reaped the result of its own 
labor and laid out its own street. The brigades, each having 
two such streets, stretched beween Trout Creek and Valley 
Creek in the shape of a wide V whose point was away from 
the river. 
So scarce was straw, because the farmers refused to haul 
it, that many roofs were incomplete and many a soldier had to 
sleep on brush or bare ground. Washington was compelled to 
issue a proclamation which made it plain to the surrounding 
population that the grain would be immediately threshed and 
the straw sold, or the whole would be taken and paid for as 
straw. Even then it was almost impossible to carry out the 
Dec. 20 
1777 
50 THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
51 
threat because of the lack of transportation. Had not soldiers 
harnessed themselves to carts of their own making, very little 
provender of any sort would have been brought into the camp. 
To the mismanagement and neglect of the lawmakers and 
to the apathy and defection of a large part of the civilian popu- 
lation can be justly attributed this unnecessary suffering. Gen- 
eral Mifflin had resigned as quartermaster general. Congress 
had wraited a month before it acted upon his resignation, and 
then three months before it appointed a successor. In the 
meantime horses starved to death by the hundreds, and pro- 
visions and clothing lay rotting in many places by the roadside. 
In Valley Forge there was at one time not a "single hoof of 
any kind to slaughter, and not more than twenty-five barrels 
of flour." At another, the army went a week without any kind 
of flesh to eat. When there was any, it was so poor that one wag 
among the soldiers declared, when he saw a butcher carrying 
a hindquarter, that it was so thin he could see the latter's 
breeches buttons through it. Though Washington issued a 
proclamation ordering the people to have the cattle fattened, 
it did little good. The soldier was glad to get meat of any 
quality. His diet was often fire-cake and water for days at a 
time. The commander in chief in an appeal for aid stated 
that the soldiers had scarcely tasted vegetables of any kind, 
had but little salt or vinegar and no proper drink. Along the 
line of huts in the evening could be heard the cry, "No meat, 
no meat!" James Thacher, while speaking with Washington 
in the camp, heard through the chinks in the logs voices ex- 
claiming, "No pay, no clothes, no provisions, no rum!" The 
following poem addressed to Washington may or may not in 
its facetiousness have some underlying truth in it: 
And for the beef-there needs no puff about it; 
In short, they must content themselves without it, 
Not that we mean to have them starved-why, marry, 
The live stock in abundance, which they carry 
Upon their backs, prevents all fear of that! 
Even clothing sufficient to cover officers and men was lack- 
ing. Lafayette in his memoirs stated that "the unfortunate 
soldiers were in want of everything; they had neither coats, 
Oct. 10 
1777 
Dec. 22 
1777 
Feb. 
1778 52 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
nor hats, nor shirts, nor shoes; their feet and legs froze until 
they grew black, and it was often necessary to amputate them." 
One old soldier, having received a furlough, had to spend two 
days in cutting up a blanket from which he made a coat and 
moccasins- so that he might undertake the journey home. On 
December 23 there were 2,898 men unfit for duty on account 
of lack of shoes and clothing; on February 5 the number had 
risen to 3,989. 
Officers were no better off than the men. One general1 
stated that he saw officers at a grand parade "mounting guard 
in a sort of dressing gown made of an old blanket or woolen bed 
cover." This same general's aides gave a dinner to which only 
officers who did not possess a whole pair of breeches were in- 
vited. Guests were abundant. 
It was probably due to these conditions that Washington rec- 
ognized the impractical type of clothing of the time and sug- 
gested to Governor Trumbull a woolen double-breasted jacket 
and overalls or trousers. But any clothing would have been 
satisfactory to the commander in chief, for he said disgustedly, 
"Perhaps by midsummer, he (the soldier) may receive thick 
stockings, shoes, and blankets, which he will contrive to get rid 
of in the most expeditious manner. In this way, by an eternal 
round of most stupid management, the public treasure is ex- 
pended to no kind of purpose, while the men have been left 
to perish by inches with cold and nakedness." 
Camp sanitation, under conditions that were insanitary and 
with soldiers who were ignorant, was almost unknown. Wash- 
ington reiterated his orders on cleanliness so often that they 
appear to have grown customary rather than useful. He showed 
how carcasses of dead horses lay in and near camp, how offal 
lay unburied near the commissary stalls and how much "filth 
and nastiness" lay among the huts. To show his appreciation 
of contrary conditions, he states that "nothing does or can con- 
tribute more to the health of soldiers than a clean camp, clean 
clothes and victuals well-dressed." However, in huts unpro- 
vided with chimneys, poorly ventilated and crowded beyond 
capacity, where the smarting smoke from the cooking mingled 
Jan. 
1778 
March 13 
1778 
1 Steuben. THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
53 
with the stench of the unbathed bodies and where the mass of 
occupants was suffering with itch and scurvy, it is not sur- 
prising that virulent diseases abounded. 
Such hardships among undisciplined men were natural 
forerunners of every sort of absenteeism. The knowledge that 
warm houses contained sleek men with paunches, who spoke 
loftily of "the cause" but casually forgot the colonies' defenders, 
did not spread a feeling of patient endurance. To a consider- 
able distance from the camp the countryside was filled with 
straggling soldiery. The death penalty for desertion was rarely 
inflicted; and the next heavier, 100 lashes, was in no wise a 
deterrent. A Tory stated that 1,134 deserters had come into 
Philadelphia and given themselves to the enemy. 
Passes into the city had to be forbidden. Officers granted 
leaves and furloughs so promiscuously that Washington was 
compelled to arrogate those powers to himself. Through the 
loose detached service methods a company's rolls were no indi- 
cation of who was in camp. In one case where 12 men were 
marked "present," they -were truthfully accounted for as fol- 
lows : one, as valet to a commissary, had been 200 miles away 
from the army for 18 months; another as valet to a quarter- 
master, had been absent in the north for 12 months; and the 
remainder as drivers of carriages, bakers, blacksmiths, car- 
penters and coal porters had been gone for years. Officers 
themselves left their organizations on flimsy pretexts and many 
were captured through their own folly or carelessness. So, for 
one reason or another, Washington's army by March was re- 
duced to 4,000 fit for duty against an enemy of 20,000. 
Congress, at a safe distance from possible activities, could 
not understand why Washington did not drive the British from 
Philadelphia. He was met with everything from mild lack of 
confidence to downright abuse. John Adams, who never strayed 
far from the comforts of civilization, gave it out that he was 
"sick of Fabian systems . . . and weary with so much insipidity." 
Such sentiments soon grew to be those of the civilians in gen- 
eral. Few of those in power visited the camp to see for them- 
selves the suffering and dwindling of the little army, and few 
others were directly interested in the deplorable conditions 
forced on these defenders of liberty. Yet the urge of the "stay- 
March 3 
1778 
March 26 
1778 
March 15 
1778 54 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
at-homes" grew apace and by no means increased the morale 
of the officer and soldier. 
Into this unhappy situation there suddenly came a fortune 
as great as it was unforeseen. There was bestowed upon our 
ragged troops the greatest gift that they could have received- 
the gift of discipline. That automatic obedience to authority, 
which transforms crowds into units, had previously been notice- 
ably lacking. Its absence had often caused brave men to ex- 
hibit themselves as cowards. But now in this dark hour it 
fell providentially from the hands of a foreigner so that the 
troops began to function as an army, and Valley Forge became 
a Pentecost instead of a Gethsemane. 
Curious fact! this new stamina was imparted by a Prus- 
sian; and more curious still, by a Prussian who, because he 
lived before the days of Prussianism, suited the genius of the 
American soldier exactly. Lafayette had brought zeal, soldiers 
and money, but von Steuben brought efficiency, an efficiency he 
tempered with energy, tact and kindness. 
We must remember that von Steuben had come from the 
court of the great Frederick, the Frederick who despised the 
German tongue and persisted in employing French customs and 
language exclusively. Von Steuben had been an aide on that 
versatile leader's staff. He combined the thoroughness of Ger- 
man drill and training with French adroitness and imagination. 
He told Congress that he had come to serve "a nation en- 
gaged in the noble enterprise of defending its rights and lib- 
erties." He asked only to have his necessary expenses de- 
frayed while in the service and to be reimbursed for the loss 
of his own income only in case the cause was successful. 
On arrival at Valley Forge he was shocked to see the dis- 
tress of the forces. He was surprised to find no uniform drill, 
no similarity of organization and no team work of any kind. 
He observed afterwards that he had found more quartermasters 
and commissaries in the camp than in all the armies of Europe 
together. 
In spite of the fact that his French cook took French leave 
the minute the kitchen facilities-one camp kettle under a tree 
-were pointed out, and that the Baron was compelled from 
then on to lead a life of Spartan frugality and discomfort, he 
Dec. 
1777 
Feb. 23 
1778 THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
55 
set in motion at once the business of organization, discipline 
and training. For Washington, having recognized Steuben's 
particular merits, had not waited for Congress to act but had 
immediately appointed him as inspector. 
Rising at three in the morning, smoking his pipe and drink- 
ing his cup of coffee, Steuben proceeded to the parade ground, 
where he personally taught drill movements. He would illus- 
trate the manual of arms by using the musket in his own hands. 
Such a democratic demonstration shocked the higher officers 
who were still imbued with the British idea of aristocratic 
aloofness. But Steuben's tact and his sensible dealings made 
even the cavalier see the fruitlessness of trusting everything 
to the noncommissioned men. Steuben forced the discovery 
that in a country where caste is obnoxious an officer must gain 
results by more direct means. Accordingly there was estab- 
lished that dignified contact between officer and soldier wherein 
respect is engendered by fairness and ability. 
At first the new inspector was particularly struck with the 
attitude of the officers. He said "the captains and colonels 
did not consider their companies and regiments as corps con- 
fided to them by the United States for the care of the men as 
well as the preservation of order and discipline. The idea 
they had of their duty was that the officers had only to mount 
guard and put themselves at the head of their regiment or 
company when they were going into action." He forthwith 
organized the officers into squads, sections and companies for 
drill under his personal direction. In this way he raised up 
an excellent corps of instructors. Some time after this plan 
had been in operation he beheld a colonel instructing a recruit, 
whereupon he exclaimed, "I thank G-od for that!" 
He was instrumental in having a guard of honor for the 
commander in chief augmented. The order is significant. 
"Headquarters, Valley Forge, 
"March 17, 1778. 
"One hundred chosen men are to be annexed to the guard 
of the commander in chief, for the purpose of forming a 
corps, to be instructed in the maneuvers necessary to be intro- 
duced into the army, and to serve as a model for the execution 56 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of them. As the general's guard is composed of Virginians, 
the hundred draughts will be taken from the troops of the 
other states. 
"Description of the men. 
"Height, from 5 feet 8 to 5 feet 10 inches; age, from twenty 
to thirty years; robust constitution, well limbed, formed for 
activity, and men of established character for sobriety and 
fidelity. They must be Americans born." 
Taking particular pains with these, Steuben succeeded in 
presenting to the whole army a concrete example of the proper 
evolutions. Since drill then was the largest part of the train- 
ing, the service performed shed its helpful influence on many 
later military events. 
His drill regulations show his good sense and humanity. 
On them are based all subsequent ones in our service, and by 
them long-needed exercises were put in vogue for the first time. 
He reduced the number of motions for loading to fifteen. He 
prescribed a uniformity of arms and accouterments throughout 
the army. He formed the "company in two ranks at one pace 
distance, with the tallest men in rear" ... and "the shortest men 
in the center." He divided the company into two sections or 
platoons and the regiment into eight companies. He split regi- 
ments of more than 160 privates into two battalions. He as- 
signed to the flank companies the most experienced officers 
actually present with these units.2 He established such a sen- 
sible "position of the soldier without arms" that for hygienic 
reasons alone many of its features might with advantage be 
used to-day. "He (the soldier) is to stand straight and firm 
2 The order from right to left was: first captain, colonel, fourth cap- 
tain, major, third captain, lieutenant colonel, fifth captain, second captain. 
The establishment of 1778 allowed to each battalion of infantry 477 
privates with pay at $6.66 per month; artillery, 336 matrosses at $8.33 per 
month; cavalry, 324 dragoons, $8.33 per month; provost, 43 provosts or 
privates, $8.33 per month; three companies in the engineering department, 
each to have sixty privates at $8.33 per month. A regiment of infantry 
had 1 colonel (who was also a captain), 1 lieutenant colonel (also captain), 
1 major (also captain), 6 captains, paymaster, adjutant, quartermaster, 
1 surgeon, 1 surgeon's mate, 8 lieutenants, 9 ensigns, 1 sergeant major, 
1 quartermaster sergeant, 27 sergeants, 1 captain lieutenant (over the 
colonel's company), 1 drum major, 1 fife major, 18 drums and fifes, 27 
corporals, 477 privates: in all 585. THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
57 
upon his legs, with his head turned to the right so far as to 
bring the left eye over the waistcoat buttons; the heels two 
inches apart; the toes turned out; the belly drawn in a little, 
but without constraint; the breast a little projected; the shoul- 
ders square to the front and kept back, the hands hanging down 
to the sides, with the palms close to the thighs." He intro- 
duced a "common" step of 24 inches and a cadence of 75 to 
the minute, which seemed to suit the rugged country, the heavy 
accouterments, the dense lines and slow firing with which the 
soldier then struggled. 
The march in general had been limited to crude formations 
in line and column of files. Steuben not only made these move- 
ments uniform, but added the column of platoons, thus les- 
sening the unnecessary length of road space for tactical move- 
ment and the opportunity for straggling.3 He caused the 
platoon to wheel much as it does now in "platoon right" and 
to execute the "oblique step" in order to break from, and form, 
company. The latter was a curious sidling movement in which 
the soldier stepped off to the right or left oblique while he kept 
his "shoulders square to the front." But the evolutions them- 
selves were quite simple. For instance, at the preparatory com- 
mand, "Take care to display column to the left," all under- 
stood that the column of platoons was to form line to the left 
front. At the second command, "To the left-face!" all ex- 
cept the leading platoon faced to the left. At the third com- 
mand, "March!" all the rear platoons obliqued to their places 
where their commanders halted them and dressed them to the 
right. The sagacity with which he made every man in ranks 
an integral part of the drill is illustrated by the way he dis- 
carded sole dependence upon music or the beat of the drum, 
and made each individual soldier responsible that he regulated 
his march by watching the gait of the officer or element in front 
of the platoon. Whenever there was no such officer or element, 
a sergeant was to be placed six paces to the front. Such were 
some of the sensible drill movements (which in those days were 
battle movements also) that Steuben found useful. 
Knowing, however, that drill was valueless without the 
3 Marching and wheeling by fours or squads did not come into vogue 
until many years later, after the Civil War. 58 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
discipline of daily routine, lie went minutely into field and 
company administration. He prescribed that troops should 
camp by battalions. He allowed sinks to be dug no nearer to 
occupied tents than 300 feet. He charged field officers with 
seeing that their camps were pitched regularly and properly, 
especially that kitchens and sinks were put in sanitary places. 
Ho outlined methods of getting wood and water by means of 
an organized system of signals and formations. He established 
roll calls of "troop" and "retreat" under arms and the "reveille" 
and "noon" without arms. He charged the noncommissioned 
officers with the making of an accurate check of their squads 
at tattoo to see that the men were in bed. At the "troop beat- 
ing" he required company officers to "inspect into the dress of 
their men," to "see that the clothes are whole and put on prop- 
erly, their (the soldiers') hands and faces washed clean, their 
hair combed, their accouterments properly fixed and every ar- 
ticle about them in the greatest order." He inaugurated the 
Saturday-morning inspection which the captains were to con- 
duct for their individual companies in order to "examine into 
the state of the men's necessaries." 
If his technic was simple and fitting, his application of it 
was just and human. 
Let us quote from his regulations, in use at Valley Forge, 
and afterwards published in 1779 under the authority of Con- 
gress, the first standard set of regulations for our army: 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CAPTAIN 
A Captain cannot be too careful of the company the state 
has committed to his charge. He must pay the greatest atten- 
tion to the health of his men, their discipline, arms, accouter- 
ments, ammunition, clothes and necessaries. 
His first object should be to gain the love of his men by 
treating them with every possible kindness and humanity, 
inquiring into their complaints, and when well founded, seeing 
them redressed. He should know every man of his company 
by name and character. He should often visit those who are 
sick, speak tenderly to them, see that the public provision, THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
59 
whether of medicine or diet, is duly administered, and procure 
them besides such comforts and conveniences as are in his 
power. The attachment that arises from this kind of attention 
to the sick and wounded is almost inconceivable; it will, more- 
over, be the means of preserving' the lives of many valuable 
men. 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE LIEUTENANT 
He should endeavor to gain the love of his men, by his 
attention to everything which may contribute to their health 
and convenience. He should often visit them at different 
hours; inspect into their manner of living; see that their pro- 
visions are good and well cooked, and as far as possible oblige 
them to take their meals at regulated hours. He should pay 
attention to their complaints, and when well founded, endeavor 
to get them redressed; but discourage them from complaining 
on every frivolous occasion. 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ENSIGN 
The ensign is in a particular manner charged with the clean- 
liness of the men, to which he must pay the greatest attention. 
When the company parades, and whilst the captain and 
lieutenant are examining the arms and accouterments, the 
ensign must inspect the dress of the soldiers, observing whether 
they are clean, and everything about them in the best order 
possible, and duly noticing any who in these respects are de- 
ficient. 
He must be very attentive to the conduct of the noncom- 
missioned officers, observing that they do their duty with the 
greatest exactness; that they support a proper authority, and 
at the same time do not ill treat the men through any pique 
or resentment. 
Here is the golden text of all leadership-his "first object 
should be to gain the love of his men by treating them with 
every possible kindness and humanity." Such consideration 60 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Steuben immediately couples with the duty of infinite care of 
the company that the state has committed to the charge of the 
captain. Then the vital advice of individual treatment-of 
knowing every man by name and character-is all too well 
understood by any one who has ever attempted to handle man- 
hood in the mass. And finally the special visitation of the 
sick rounds out the thoughtful attitude a company officer 
should school himself to employ. When analyzed, this simple 
paragraph spells self-control, high sense of duty, fidelity of per- 
formance and loyalty to the inferior as well as to the superior. 
Knowing full well that the captain could not, without 
specific help, bring his company up to standard, Steuben as- 
signed the subalterns particular tasks. The lieutenant was to 
be zealous in regard to the "health and convenience" of the 
soldier, and the ensign in regard to "neatness and cleanliness." 
Steuben here discreetly laid emphasis on the development of 
self-respect and pride, qualities which are the leading strings 
of success. Then he capped the whole by setting a check upon 
ill treatment which arises through "pique or resentment." Un- 
derstanding how partiality and prejudice may be the ruin of 
discipline, he closed his instructions by putting a special guard 
on that sort of injustice. 
Steuben spent much time in developing a keen sense of 
responsibility in the company officer in comparison to that of 
the field and general officer. He knew that if the individual 
soldier had affection and regard for his immediate leaders, the 
higher commands would take care of themselves. He realized 
that the pride and bearing of the rank and file were the key- 
notes to achievements in the field, as was demonstrated many 
times in the World War. 
Could any set of instructions more grippingly embrace the 
essentials of discipline ? Have so few words ever more per- 
fectly tempered kindness with justice and balanced rule and 
appeal ? By following these simple principles, could not any 
body of men, whether soldier or civilian, be directed without 
friction ? Why, then, were these doctrines omitted from later 
regulations ? Why did they have to be ferreted out from a 
dusty volume whose leaves were yellowed with age and whose 
print was in old script with its "s's" that looked like "f's"i Painted from life by Ralph Earl. 
Courtesy of William M. Austin, New York City. 
Frederick von Steuben THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
61 
Mainly because training, as we shall see, was discarded for 
a long time after the Revolution, did the true picture of 
Steuben grow indistinct. Naturally only the rigors of neces- 
sary discipline were remembered in connection with him. He 
has thus been tabled in later years as a hard taskmaster. Legis- 
lators have held his work up to contempt in that he early molded 
our army into Prussian inflexibility. The substance of such an 
attitude seems to rest on the fact that he hailed from Prussia. 
By the same argument objection was once made to Christ on 
the ground that he came from Nazareth. Writers and speakers 
have been erroneously thankful that the army has survived 
Steuben's hard lines whereas, in truth, he brought us up out of 
unsuitable aristocracy, unspeakable chaos and, above all, the 
misuse of authority. He knew that leading was better than 
driving and he proved that his human methods were practical 
and successful. 
That he followed his own advice is shown by many in- 
stances. For example, once after Arnold's treason, when Steu- 
ben was standing by listening to the roll call of a company, he 
heard a man answer to the name of Arnold. Promptly inviting 
the soldier to his tent, the baron told the private that he was 
too good a man to bear a traitor's name, whereupon he gave him 
permission to be known as Steuben. 
Due to such painstaking care and labor, the festering camp 
began to take on the semblance of order and organization in 
spite of the lack of supplies. Disease was lessened. Arms 
remained with the colors.4 Soldiers on detached service as 
servants were returned to the fighting force. Officers began 
to father their organizations. The human touch, zeal and dig- 
nity that have since characterized the best American leaders 
became noticeable. Troops began to be complimented in orders 
on their drill. By taking the attitude that the "indifferent 
quality of clothing instead of excusing slovenliness and unsol- 
dierly conduct, ought rather" to excite each man to compensate 
for those deficiencies by redoubled attention to his personal 
appearance, Steuben was successful in building morale upon 
less than nothing. 
April 14 
1778 
4 During the next year, 1779, only twenty firelocks disappeared in con- 
trast to the thousands missing before Steuben came. 62 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
So a foreigner with such a thick brogue that he was largely 
unintelligible, against odds of national and provincial jealousy 
and notwithstanding the powerful calumny that was usually 
heaped upon the efficient friends of Washington, earned a sub- 
stantial reputation. His work could not be ignored. Congress 
was morally forced to recognize him. Accordingly Washing- 
ton's orders one day announced to the camp that von Steuben 
had been made a major general and inspector general of the 
army. 
We are soon to see some of the direct effects of his efforts. 
The spirits of the little army that strove with its emaciated 
self in pitiful efforts at training were unexpectedly raised by 
the news of the French Alliance. Washington proclaimed a 
holiday. The ragged, but clean, soldiers had a chance to show 
on parade their new and well-acquired maneuvers. The com- 
mander in chief dined in public with his officers; cannons were 
discharged, fusees were fired, toasts were drunk and huzzas 
were given by the officers and men with great ceremony. The 
form and precision here displayed heightened the pride of corps 
throughout the rank and file. 
Out of this alliance came the necessity of giving Lafayette 
a command, for which he had been constantly begging. Wash- 
ington assigned him 2,500 picked men ostensibly for the pur- 
pose of conducting a reconnaissance toward Philadelphia. At 
Barren Hill this small but vital American force found itself 
completely surrounded by an overwhelming number of British. 
The only means of possible escape was the apparently impass- 
able Schuylkill in the patriots' rear. A ford, however, was 
accidentally discovered over which the troops would have to 
pass rapidly while pressed by the enemy. This highly difficult 
crossing was to be a test of discipline in the American soldiers. 
As a matter of fact, they wTere formed by their officers without 
hesitation or confusion, were marched across the stream without 
crowding and were well on the way before the British dis- 
covered the escape. The drill and training acquired under 
Steuben were chiefly accountable for the survival of Lafayette 
and his command. 
With the coming of spring and the prospect of help there 
came internal relief for the army. Food and clothing grew 
May 9 
1778 
May 6 
1778 
May 18 
1778 THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
63 
better, almost sufficient. Greene, at the solicitation of a com- 
mittee from Congress, had been appointed quartermaster- 
general to succeed Mifflin.6 Jeremiah Wadsworth had, in addi- 
tion, been made commissary general. Their services were 
efficient, though Congress and the country accused them of 
extravagance. The troops fared for over a year following their 
appointment better than at any time previous, and there were 
fewer recorded complaints. As Washington had predicted, 
summer saw the soldier at last provided with heavy clothing. 
When Howe decided to sail back to England without hurt- 
ing the American army in the field and Clinton relinquished 
Philadelphia, Washington, leaving Arnold in that city, pursued 
the British through New Jersey. Having now the usual in- 
crease of "sunshine patriots" he outnumbered the enemy by 
1,000. At Monmouth Court House the advance guard of the 
Americans came upon the rear guard of the British. Washing- 
ton ordered Lee to attack with the hope of getting the enemy's 
wagon train. Evidently through jealousy or defection Lee not 
only failed to carry out his commander's intentions, but was 
actively responsible for the breaking up of the troops and their 
retirement to the rear. Although they were pursued by the 
British and, through lack of proper leadership, retreated in 
more or less disorder, nevertheless they were capable of being 
reformed quickly into a proper battle line, after what would 
formerly have been a demoralizing retreat. Again the work 
of Steuben became the deciding factor. The Americans having 
rallied, drove off the British. But the defeat of Clinton's forces 
was impossible, because the day had been cleverly wasted by 
Lee. The enemy slipped away under cover of darkness to New 
York. The temperature throughout the action had been very 
high, reaching, some say, ninety-six, so that there were more 
casualties from the heat than from firearms. Soldiers were 
found dead without a mark on them. In the north this was the 
last general engagement of the war, because the British were too 
strong for Washington to take the offensive again. But the 
action showed that the American troops with a fair amount of 
discipline and training and against nearly an equal force, could 
give a good account of themselves. 
June 28 
1778 
5 Greene was allowed to retain his line commission. 64 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The next attempted offensive in New England was con- 
spicuously impotent. General Sullivan had collected 10,000 
New England militia and untrained troops for the purpose of 
taking Newport. Washington, besides, had sent him Lafayette 
with 2,000 men and allowed him 4,000 French troops. With 
a force between 13,000 and 15,000 he was to overwhelm the 
British garrison of 6,000. When he moved over to Butts' hill 
a storm tore down the tents, killed some horses, wet the powder 
and discomfited the men. Many of the militia forthwith went 
home. Finally Sullivan began the investment of the city. But 
the French fleet refused to cooperate, whereupon the militia 
deserted so fast that Sullivan and Greene e felt they would soon 
have no force at all. Sullivan retreated to Butts' hill where the 
British attacked. The remaining Americans, among whom was 
a black regiment under Colonel Christopher Greene, fought 
well from behind earthworks; but they finally had to withdraw 
from the island. 
In the "far west" near Pittsburgh another part of the army, 
though small, was preparing to do a great service for the coun- 
try. Lieutenant Colonel George Rogers Clark, with 150 men, 
set out to take what are now Kentucky, Illinois and parts of 
Michigan, Indiana and Ohio away from the British, hostile 
Indians and the French. After hardships, similar to those of 
Arnold in his march to Quebec and far worse than those of 
Valley Forge, Clark succeeded in capturing Kastaskia without 
bloodshed. When 80 men left him because of the expiration of 
their enlistments, he simply recruited young Frenchmen of the 
neighborhood and hung on. By a combination of apt arrogance 
and soft words that prevented a struggle, he won over the whole 
of the Illinois country, including Vincennes. Although that 
town was shortly retaken by a superior force of British, he 
made an unexpected winter march, and by a well-planned attack 
with exhausted troops recaptured the place. After reading 
Roosevelt's Winning of the West one is convinced that this little 
campaign ranks as a combination of suffering and daring ahead 
of anything of the kind in history. For these men moved to 
their goal so fast that huts were impossible. The harsh winter 
Aug. 15 
1778 
Aug. 20 
1778 
Aug. 29 
1778 
July 4 
1778 
Feb. 25 
1779 
6 General Nathaniel Greene. THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
65 
found them digging fresh holes in the snow each night, caught 
them often advancing waist-high in mud and ice water for 
hours at a time, and saw them ever alive to the terror of the 
lurking tomahawk. Clark finally won the "Old Northwest" 
for the United States, and was promoted to the grade of briga- 
dier general. 
The Indian massacres in northern Pennsylvania and south- 
ern New York drew other expeditions. General Sullivan with 
2,500 men moved up from Easton, Pennsylvania, along the 
Susquehanna to Elmira, New York. At the same time he sent 
Colonel Brodhead with 600 men up the Allegheny from Pitts- 
burg and General James Clinton with 1,500 men along the 
Mohawk Valley and the upper reaches of the Susquehanna. 
The purpose was that of terrorizing the Indians and destroying 
their crops, villages and warriors. It was felt that the protec- 
tion of the settlers had to be gained at any cost, so that women 
and children among the redskins sometimes suffered the fate 
of the men. Such a mission was distasteful to the officers and 
baneful to the soldiers. The callous coating left upon the 
patriot's mind is revealed by an incident quoted from a lieu- 
tenant's diary: 
"At the request of Major P , sent out a small detach- 
ment to look for some dead Indians-returned without finding 
them. Toward morning they found them and skinned two of 
them from their hips down for boot-legs, one pair for the 
Major, the other for myself." 
The object was achieved with great thoroughness. Sulli- 
van's army returned to New Jersey after a difficult march of 
over 700 miles. 
After Monmouth the main army took up winter quarters at 
White Plains. Later Washington placed 7 brigades at Middle- 
brook and Elizabethtown and 6 at West Point. This winter, 
due to its mildness and to Greene and Wadsworth, seems to 
have found the army in better condition with regard to clothing, 
food and shelter than ever before. But the soldiers were 
ragged, and officers in general were in a destitute condition. 
Congress did not gain many recruits by allowing Washington 
July 3- 
Nov. 11 
1778 
July 
1779 
Oct. 
1779 
Nov. 
1778 66 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Sept. 
1778 
to offer secretly $10 extra bounty. Those who left the army, 
even after the bounty of $80 and half pay for seven years (that 
Congress had previously offered and that the soldier rarely got) 
did not give glowing accounts of their military life. The 
militia went home to find that the civilian did not feel the war 
at all. It was this splendid heedlessness on the part of the pub- 
lic rather than the hardship of camp that disgusted the soldier. 
Washington said in a letter to Harrison: 
"If I were to be called upon to draw a picture of the times 
and of the men, from what I have seen, heard, and in part 
know, I should in one word say that idleness, dissipation and 
extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that 
speculation, peculation and an insatiable thirst for riches seem 
to have got the better of every other consideration, and almost 
every order of men." 
Naturally the patriot said, "Why should I suffer and die for 
such people?" Had the states actually given good food and 
clothing, recruiting would have been successful without any 
bounty. As it was, the country profiteered, bankrupted itself 
and gave Washington no proper force. 
In the south, the taking of Savannah by the British did not 
raise the spirits of the army. After that occupation, Lincoln 
took command in Charleston. With about 3,600 ill-disciplined 
men the new southern commander tried to advance to the 
Savannah River. But his force, made up principally of raw 
recruits, fled whenever hardship or the enemy were to be en- 
countered and in those dense regions became disorganized raid- 
ing parties. In minor engagements Colonel Moultrie drove off 
the British from Port Royal Island and Colonel Pickens scat- 
tered some loyalist guerrillas. When Lincoln moved on 
Augusta, his 1,500 troops under General Ashe were surrounded 
by the British and practically annihilated. Reenforced by fresh 
militia, Lincoln continued his advance. But the English 
crossed the Savannah and drove Moultrie back to Charleston, 
who seems to have had a difficult time in keeping the enemy 
from getting the city. The following extract from one of his 
letters throws light on some of his experiences: 
Dec. 
1778 
Deo. 29 
1778 
Fei). 
1779 
April 
1779 
May 3 
1779 THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
67 
"As the enemy was so near, I was desiring one of my aides 
to go and bring off our rear guard from Coosohatchie to join us 
immediately; but Colonel John Laurens (who joined me two 
days before) being present, he requested me to permit him to 
go on that service; which I readily consented to, thinking him 
to be a brave and experienced officer; I told him at the same 
time that I would send 150 good riflemen to cover his flanks, 
lest the enemy should be too close upon him; I accordingly sent 
Capt. James with one hundred and fifty picked men, and 100 
men of the out piquet to join him; these altogether made a body 
of 350 men, which was one-fourth of my little army; but in- 
stead of Colonel Laurens' bringing off the guard, as he was 
desired, he very imprudently crossed the river to the east side; 
and drew them up on the opposite bank of the river, taking 
those 150 who w'ere sent to cover his flanks, and the 100 men of 
the out piquet and joined them to the guard; while he left the 
houses on the hill for the British to occupy; in this situation 
did he expose his men to the fire, without the least chance of 
doing them any injury; after remaining some time he got a 
number of men killed and wounded; and was wounded himself; 
he desired Capt. Shubrick, who commanded after he left the 
field, to stay a little longer and then to bring off the men; had 
not Capt. Shubrick moved off at the very instant that he did, his 
party would have been cut off from their retreat and every man 
of them would either have been killed or taken prisoner; we 
heard the firing very distinctly at Tullifiny, and supposed it 
was our retreating guard coming in; but presently Col. Laurens 
came up to me, wounded in the arm; I said to him: 'Well, 
Colonel, what do you think of it ?' 'Why, sir,' said he, 'your 
men won't stand.' Upon which I said; 'If that be the case I 
will retreat.' " 
Between official ignorance and troop inconstancy General 
Moultrie had his troubles. His resolution and thrift, however, 
saved the city. Then the southern army went into summer 
quarters at Sheldon. 
In the north, Washington, on account of the dearth of every- 
thing needful for campaign, could undertake but desultory 
offensives. Wayne with a small force and rare bravery cap- 
July 16 
1779 68 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
tured Stony Point with the bayonet. But Clinton with a 
superior force later took it back. Then "Light Horse Harry 
Lee" 7 captured 200 of the enemy at Paulus Hook where Jersey 
City now stands, and the military work in the north was ended. 
In the south D'Estaing suddenly appeared off Savannah 
and began a siege of that city. Lincoln joined him in these 
operations. When the French commander found that he had 
to put to sea, a premature assault was decided upon. But the 
British, having been apprised by a deserter of the plans of the 
allies, drove them off with great loss. What was left of the 
little southern army made its way safely across the river, but 
the whole of the country south of Charleston passed into the 
hands of the British. 
The main army in the north was again ill-supplied with 
clothing. Congress recommended to the states that they pro- 
vide clothes for their own soldiers, and voted to the officers one 
"suit" consisting of one hat, one watch coat, one body coat, four 
vests, four pairs of breeches, four shirts, four stocks, six pairs 
of stockings and four pairs of shoes. But this pretentious out- 
fit was not provided. Later, clothing arrived from France but 
there was not enough. General Glover wrote: 
"The whole army has gone into winter cantonments except- 
ing General Nixon's and my brigades, who are now in the field 
(eight hundred of my men without shoe or stocking) enjoying 
the sweets of a winter campaign while the worthy and virtuous 
citizens of America are enduring the hardships, toils and 
fatigues incident to parlors with good fires and sleeping on beds 
of down." 
Although Congress had offered $200 to a recruit to enlist 
for the period of the war, and one of the states had reached 
$750, a suit of clothes once a year and 100 acres of land, Wash- 
ington's force scarcely totaled 26,000 effectives. He himself 
says: 
"That of this number, comprehending four hundred and 
ten invalids, fourteen thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight 
Aug. 19 
1779 
Sept. 23 
1779 
Oct. 8 
1779 
Oct. 19 
1779 
Sept. 18 
1779 
Nov. 25 
1779 
Nov. 18 
1779 
f The father of Robert E. Lee. THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
69 
are stated as engaged for the war; that the remainder by the 
expiration of enlistments, will be decreased by the 31st of 
December, two thousand and fifty-one; by the last of March, 
six thousand four hundred and twenty-six; by the last of April, 
eight thousand one hundred and eighty-one; by the last of June, 
ten thousand one hundred and fifty-eight-and shortly after 
twelve thousand one hundred and fifty-seven." 
This winter was spent by the main army at Morristown, 
New Jersey. For suffering it was worse than Valley Forge. 
The pay was far in arrears. A large proportion of soldiers 
had no suitable covering at night and often the whole army went 
for five or six days without even bread. The cold was so severe 
that for forty days at the other camp near West Point no water 
dripped from the roofs. 
While the northern troops were suffering at Morristown and 
West Point the southern troops were being pressed in campaign. 
Sir Henry Clinton with Cornwallis and 10,000 men landed 
from New York below Charleston. The little force of Ameri- 
can regulars and volunteers in that city should have tried to 
escape and save itself. But Lincoln, not realizing his power- 
lessness, as one more skilled in the art of war might have done, 
let himself be surrounded. When Fort Moultrie fell, he saw 
that it was useless to hold out and surrendered the city with 
5,000 men. The entire south now belonged to the enemy. 
There the colonists confined themselves to partisan strife. 
Sumter on the Catawba and Broad rivers, Marion among the 
Peedee swamps and Pickens and Clark along the Saluda made 
a predatory warfare on all Tories. The actions were bloody 
and useless. 
In the meantime Knyphausen in the north, having been left 
in command of New York by Clinton when the latter went 
south, misinterpreted the attitude of mind of the impoverished 
American soldier. He crossed into New Jersey in the hope of 
winning over some of the army at Morristown by promises of 
comfort. But the Whig patriot was not so easily influenced. 
Although he might grumble at a greedy and neglectful populace 
that would cheerily let him starve, he despised the Tory with an 
ingrained hatred. Accordingly the militia all along Knyp- 
1779-1780 
Feb. 11 
1780 
April 11 
1780 
May 12 
1780 
June 6 
1780 70 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
hausen's march made it very uncomfortable for the British so 
that he was forced to return to New York. 
When Clinton arrived back from Charleston and heard of 
the fate of Knyphausen's expedition, he himself determined to 
attack Morristown. Greene, however, blocked the roads so 
successfully when the British approached the town, that he 
stemmed the advance. Although he Avas finally forced to retire, 
the American troops acted with such precision that Clinton had 
to content himself with the burning of Springfield and to return 
to New York. Here again was a recovery due mainly to the 
teaching of Steuben. 
A new commander in the south was necessary since the fall 
of Charleston. Washington desired Greene to have the post, 
but Congress appointed Gates, "the hero of Saratoga." The 
new commander took over a force of about 2,300 men at Hills- 
boro that had been operating under De Kalb. Of these, 900 had 
never been in action and were ignorant of the use of bayonets. 
Gates sat still for a couple of days until Cornwallis had time to 
reenforce Rawdon and then set out to meet the enemy. The 
forces engaged near Camden. Gates seems to have made no 
reconnaissance, no estimate and no definite plan. He allowed 
the poorest militia to be placed opposite the best trained vet- 
erans of the British. It was natural that the former fled at the 
first onset and thereby left the American regulars to be cut to 
pieces in their tracks. Gates disappeared so fast that he 
reached Charlotte sixty miles away that night. The smaller 
British force had killed, wounded and captured about 2,000 
Americans, whereas it had lost barely 300. This battle or rout 
was the most disgraceful defeat of the war. The Revolutionary 
southern army had vanished. 
The northern army in the vicinity of Tappan, N. Y. (near 
the New Jersey state line), had practically evaporated also. 
Not only had the expiration of enlistments taken place, as 
Washington had foretold, but the men had deserted by the 
hundreds, many to the British. In addition to the few regulars 
trained under Steuben, only that militia which came out solely 
to protect its own fireside remained. This small band had so 
little to eat that it practically had to live off the country. 
The following order issued in another northern camp reveals 
June 23 
1780 
July 25 
1780 
Aug. IS 
1780 
Oct. 
1780 THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
71 
the pathetic attempt of the remnants to preserve order and 
discipline in the face of the last act of the tragedy of this dark 
year. 
"Headquarters, 
"Orange Town, Sept. 26, 1780. 
"The truly martial appearance of the Troops yesterday, the 
order and regularity with which they made the different 
marches, and the facility with which they perform'd the several 
manoeuvers, do them the greatest credit, and open the most 
flattering prospect of substantial service to the country, and 
military glory to the Army. 
"Nothing can be more pleasing to the Officers who feel for 
the honor of the Army, and the Independence of America, than 
to see the rapid progress which has been made by the Troops in 
military discipline. The good conduct of all the officers yester- 
day, gave the Gen'l the highest satisfaction and the particular 
service of the Inspector-General,8 and those in that line, deserve 
his especial thanks. 
"Treason of the Blackest Dye was yesterday discovered. 
General Arnold, who commands at West Point, lost to every 
sentiment of honor, of private and public obligation, was about 
to deliver up that important Post into the hands of the enemy. 
Such an event must have given the American cause a deadly 
wound.-Happily the Treason was discover'd in time to pre- 
vent this fatal mischief. The providential train of circum- 
stances which led to it, affords the most convincing proof that 
the Liberties of America are the object of Divine Protection. 
Our enemies, despairing of carrying their point by force, are 
practising every base art to effect, by bribery and corruption, 
what they cannot accomplish in a manly way. 
"Great honor is due to the American Army that this is the 
first instance of Treason of the kind, where many were to have 
been expected from the nature of the dispute; and nothing 
more brightly ornaments its character, than the firm resistance 
with which it has constantly met the seductions of an insidious 
enemy. Arnold has made his escape to the enemy; but Mr. 
8 Von Steuben. 72 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Andre, the Adjutant-General of the British Army, who came 
out as a spy to negotiate the business, is our Prisoner! 
"His Excellency the Commander in Chief has arriv'd at 
West Point from Hartford, and is no doubt taking the proper 
measures to unravel fully so Hellish a plot." 
The letters of Washington and the French officers show that 
they despaired at this time of the independence of the states. 
The only redeeming feature of the year was the partisan battle 
of King's Mountain in the south. Campbell, McDowell, Shelby 
and Sevier surrounded Ferguson and killed, wounded and cap- 
tured about 900 with little Whig loss. But this small affair 
was little compensation for the fall of Charleston, the defeat of 
Camden, the plunder of the country, the treason of Arnold and 
the lack of an army. 
Nevertheless the war had to be pressed in the south or the 
southern states would be lost. Greene, who had resigned as 
quartermaster-general,9 on account of new organization which 
permitted corruption, was sent to succeed Gates. He took com- 
mand of 2,300 men at Charlotte, 1,100 of whom were regulars. 
All the wagons had been lost, there was not a dollar in gold in 
the whole force and the naked soldiers were living after the 
manner of animals. But if his army was worn down and he 
was confronted by Cornwallis, Bawdon, and Tarleton, he yet 
had Steuben, Morgan and Kosciusko to depend upon. 
While Greene was trying to bring the southern military 
patient to life, the remnants of the northern army were trying 
to reconcile the inequality of the bounty, the complete absence 
of pay and the utter contempt for the soldiers' agonies. Some 
states were offering as high as $1,000 per man over the sum 
provided by Congress. Such lavishness gave to the unstable 
militiaman, who served only for a short time, almost a fortune 
in contrast to the pittance allowed but seldom given to the Con- 
tinental who stayed on year after year and suffered all manner 
of tortures. Accordingly, six regiments of the Pennsylvania 
line reached the limit of their endurance. Instead of deserting 
as the militia had done, they rose to press their long series of 
grievances. 
Oct. 7 
1780 
Sept. 30 
1780 
Dec. 2 
1780 
J an. 1 
1781 
9 Timothy Pickering, President of the Board of War, succeeded him. THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
73 
After an officer had been killed in the attempt to restore 
order, the rioters marched toward Princeton with an "astonish- 
ing regularity and discipline." Wayne, who was in command 
at Morristown, was allowed to accompany them. Congressional 
representatives finally pacified them by promising to make up 
the arrears in pay, and to give each soldier a pair of shoes, over- 
alls and a shirt. That the legislators felt themselves properly 
on the defensive is shown by the fact that they readily agreed to 
bring no one to trial for the outbreak. 
The mutineers refused to accept bribes from General Clin- 
ton who offered them every consideration if they would come 
into the British service, but rather gave his representatives up 
to be shot as spies. 
At this time the reduction of the Continental army and its 
reorganization went into effect. Just when soldiers of this 
character -were most pressingly needed, Congress through lack 
of funds was forced to cut down their number. Officers were to 
choose among themselves who should be retired. The establish- 
ment was to consist of "4 regiments of mounted and dismounted 
dragoons, or legionary corps; 4 regiments of artillery; 49 regi- 
ments of infantry;-and 1 regiment of artificers." An infan- 
try regiment was to consist of 612 files, exclusive of officers, 
sergeants and musicians. The officers displaced as well as those 
who remained were to have half pay 10 for life. 
The New Jersey line, hearing of the apparent success of the 
Pennsylvanians, decided to mutiny also. One night at Pomp- 
ton Colonel Shreve, suspecting their feelings, ordered his men 
to fall in, but only a few obeyed him. They then marched 
toward Chatham and after having much debate with the state 
commissioners, returned to Pompton. In the meantime, the 
American General Howe with his brigade had arrived by Wash- 
ington's order from West Point. At daybreak the mutineers 
found themselves surrounded. Howe ordered them into ranks 
without arms, executed two of the leaders on the spot, rebuked 
the rest and the mutiny was over. 
While the northern army was in the throes of organization 
and disorganization, some of Greene's troops were having 
Jan. 1 
1781 
Jan. 20 
1781 
Jan. 27 
1781 
10 This they never received. But Greene was successful in having some 
of the ousted ones placed in command of militia organizations. 74 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
activity in the south. Cornwallis sent Tarleton to capture Mor- 
gan's inferior force which at this time was separated from 
Greene. Morgan took up a position near Hannah's Cowpens 
with an unfordable river in his rear. This curious selection 
he explained as follows: 
"I would not have a swamp in the view of my militia on 
any consideration; they would have made for it and nothing 
could have detained them from it.-As to retreat, it is the very 
thing I wished to cut off all hope of. I would have thanked 
Tarleton had he surrounded me with his cavalry. It would 
have been better than placing my own men in the rear to shoot 
down those who broke from the ranks. When men are forced 
to fight they will sell themselves dearly." 
This true hero of Saratoga had learned to know the militia. 
He placed the really raw ones very far in front and told them 
that all he expected of them was to fire two volleys. Then they 
could run as usual and as they would do anyway, but they must 
run in a certain direction around the flanks. He showed them 
the path they should follow and warned them not to disturb 
the good regulars in rear. Then he apprised the remaining 
troops of the outlined flight so that there would be no misunder- 
standing as to its meaning. The militia did not quite get 
through with their volleys but they did go where they were told 
and formed again in time to help complete the discomfiture of 
Tarleton. 
This ingenious adaptation of tactics to human weaknesses 
caught the superior British force between two fires and com- 
pletely routed it. Out of its total of 1,150 men, 784 were killed, 
wounded or captured against 11 Americans killed and 61 
wounded. Tarleton himself barely escaped with his life. 
Congress was forced to recognize Morgan 11 with a medal. 
Greene at this time was following Cornwallis whom he met 
later at Guilford Court House (Greensboro, N. C.). The 
southern army of 4,400 men was composed of raw militia and 
Jan. 17 
1781 
March 16 
1781 
ii At Saratoga, Morgan had been as brave and successful as Arnold. 
But Congress had treated him almost as badly as the latter. THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
75 
of regulars who had never been in action. Greene's dispositions 
were similar to those of Morgan just described, but Cornwallis 
fought more carefully than Tarleton and Greene's troops were 
physically and mentally poor. The battle lasted five hours with 
much slaughter on both sides. During the long strain many 
Americans dropped exhausted from lack of food. Greene him- 
self fainted when the action wras all over. 
Although it was an apparent victory for the British, Greene 
pursued the victor until the Virginia militia refused to go any 
further because their time had expired. 
In the meantime Lafayette, whom Congress had assigned 
the task of capturing Arnold, had been marching his 1,200 
American veterans up the Delaware and down again in the hope 
of seizing his prey. In one of his marches north, Washington 
gave him command of the army of Virginia which had lately 
been made and put under Steuben. Before going south to take 
over that force, Lafayette put shoes and clothing on his men by 
issuing drafts on the French treasury. When he arrived in 
Richmond, he found the Virginia army in a good state of disci- 
pline under Steuben who placed himself under his youthful 
commander's orders without hesitation and with the utmost 
loyalty. But Lafayette's command, although good in quality, 
was so small that it had to spend its time during the summer 
in dodging the strong British forces. 
Greene, farther south, fought an indecisive action with 
Rawdon at Hobkirk's Hill. Marion, "Harry" Lee and Sumter 
managed to drive the British out of the up-country of the Caro- 
linas with the exception of Ninety-six, which Greene besieged. 
When Rawdon brought British reenforcements, Greene had to 
raise the siege and take his men into summer quarters on the 
High Hills of the Santee. The heat now was too intense for 
either army. 
Because Lafayette's force was "not strong enough even to be 
beaten," he could be well pleased at his success in merely keep- 
ing out of the w'ay of Cornwallis. But when that British com- 
mander retired to Williamsburg and later to Yorktown with 
7,000 men, Lafayette sent Wayne to keep Rawdon from re- 
enforcing Cornwallis. His idea of keeping the British sepa- 
rated was, as we shall see, most appropriate. 
Feb. 
1781 
April 29 
1781 
April 18 
1781 
April 23 
1781 
Aug. 
1781 76 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Aug. M 
1781 
Greene simultaneously decided to carry the war into the 
enemy's country and forthwith marched toward Eutaw Springs. 
When the British retired from that place, he vigorously 
attacked and drove them from the field with great loss. But 
the undisciplined American militia in pillaging the British 
camp drank so much rum that they were useless on the counter- 
attack of the enemy. Eutaw Springs was retaken. In extenua- 
tion it may be said that many of Greene's soldiers were so naked 
that they had to tie pieces of moss on their shoulders and sides 
to keep the firelocks and cartridge boxes from chafing the skin. 
Three things happened now which gave Washington a plan 
and a hope. The administration of the army became more 
sound under a civilian superintendent of finance instead of a 
Board of Treasury; a clothier general operating under the 
superintendent, Robert Morris, began to get clothing to the 
troops; and De Grasse wrote that he was sailing for the Chesa- 
peake with 25 ships. Washington secretly decided to bottle up 
Cornwallis. He collected in that country between the Bronx 
and Dobb's Ferry, the French from southern New England and 
the Americans from the Highlands, as if to lay siege to New 
York. Then he marched to Sandy Hook, having written to the 
various governors of his contemplated attack on New York. 
He was well on his way to Philadelphia before his intentions 
were suspected. 
At that place Rochambeau gave the troops $20,000 in gold 
which bought them many necessaries and raised their spirits. 
At the Head of Elk in Maryland they were joined by the 
French who were surprised at the large number of ragged sol- 
diers among the Americans. From there and from Annapolis 
the rest of the journey was made by boats. The allies with 
8,800 Americans, 7,800 French and a French fleet of 20,000 
sailors and 2,000 guns invested Yorktown, while Cornwallis, 
who could have escaped, calmly watched the process. 
In the meantime Clinton in New York sent Arnold to harass 
New England in order to call some of Washington's troops 
away from the south. But Washington was not so easily turned 
aside. Arnold, however, pressed the New Londoners. How 
they responded can be inferred from the following extract from 
Colonel Hemstead's diary; 
Sept. 8 
1781 
Summer 
of 1781 THE ARMY FINDS DISCIPLINE AND SUCCESS 
77 
"Soon after our arrival, the enemy 12 appeared in force in 
some woods about half a mile S. E. of the Fort, from whence 
they sent a flag of truce, which was met by Capt. Shapley, 
demanding an unconditional surrender, threatening, at the 
same time, to storm the Fort instantly, if the terms were not 
accepted. A council of war was held, and it was the unanimous 
voice, that the garrison was unable to defend themselves against 
so superior a force. But a militia Colonel who was then in the 
fort, and had a body of men in the immediate vicinity, said he 
would reenforce them with two or three hundred men in fifteen 
minutes, if they would hold out; Col. Ledyard agreed to send 
back a defiance, upon the most solemn assurance of immediate 
succor. For this purpose Col. started, his men being then 
in sight; but he was no more seen, nor did he even attempt a 
diversion in our favor." 
The taking of New London, however, was quite useless to 
the British as long as Clinton did not directly reenforce Corn- 
wallis. Yorktown was bound to fall with the French odds alone 
so great against the town. But Lieutenant Feltman in his 
journal was not altogether pleased with the conduct of Ameri- 
can troops: 
"Page 20. 15th Oct'r. '81. . . . The enemy threw a num- 
ber of shells this day and wounded a great number of men, 
especially the militia; several were wounded this day in their 
sleep, such is the carelessness of those stupid wretches who are 
not acquainted with the life of a soldier." 
Yorktown capitulated without more glory to our army than 
that the siege was conceived by Washington and aided by 
American troops. Had not the French outfitted them with 
clothing and shoes, it is doubtful if they could have been pres- 
ent at the capture, except in the nude. Had not the French 
had an overwhelming amount of men and materials, it is cer- 
tain Yorktown could not have been captured before Clinton 
could have aided Cornwallis. 
Sept. 
1781 
Oct. 15 
1781 
Oct. 17 
1781 
12 The British under Arnold. 78 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
But those American soldiers who had been through the 
training at Valley Forge gave good accounts of themselves at 
the siege. Many a life was saved by Steuben's discipline and 
training and many lost for lack of them. 
When it was all over "Light Horse Harry" Lee made this 
tragic lament: 
"Convinced as I am that a government is the murderer of 
its citizens which sends them to the field uninformed and un- 
taught, where they are to meet men of the same age and 
strength, mechanized by education and discipline for battle, I 
cannot withhold my denunciation of its wickedness and folly." 
How pathetic, in this story of men willing to brave death for 
those at home that those at home responded by killing through 
neglect more of them than did the enemy 1 
This ghastly truth apparently failed at this time to make any 
impression upon the public, for training and discipline in the 
intervals between calamities are going to be thrust down. Pre- 
ventive medicine, applied to war, is about to be a thought for- 
eign to the public mind. Unready youths are going to be fed 
by the government into the flaming breach as helpless babes 
before the burning mouth of Moloch. CHAPTER IV 
THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
(1781-1811) 
YORKTOWN did not end the war. Only a small division 
had been taken. Our army had at no time been able to 
force the British from the Continent. Still luxuriating 
in New York, Charleston, and Savannah, wrere almost three 
times as many of the enemy as those lost by Cornwallis. 
Washington had to husband his strength. Of the French, 
only Rochambeau with a small army remained. Lafayette and 
De Grasse had sailed for France and the West Indies. The 
American army wras going through the usual stages of deple- 
tion. The commander in chief sent Lincoln north to prepare 
winter quarters for the main army in New Jersey and along 
the Hudson, and Saint Clair and Wayne south to reenforce 
Greene. 
With these additions Greene came out of summer quarters 
to start active operations. But the nudity and hunger of his 
men drove him to negative measures. Now that a great victory 
had been won the people gave less than ever any thought to the 
troops. Supplies failed for long periods. The soldiers, forced 
to live off the near-by farmer or townsman, simply heightened 
their unpopularity. Being much of the time without food and 
clothing, they besides grew loathsome. Greene wrote that 
"numbers of brave fellows who had bled in the cause of their 
country had been eat up with maggots." In a position he took 
up near Charlestown his savage-looking men fared better. But 
the relief was temporary, for soon one third of his force was 
reported so naked that the men could not leave their tents and 
were reduced to such nourishment as they could find or filch. 
Nov. 19 
1781 
Oct. 25 
1781 
79 80 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Dec. 6 
1781 
Although the northern troops had more clothing, they also 
had more cold. The scarcity of food was about the same. Mr. 
Comfort Sands, most unsuitably christened, undertook to sup- 
ply the army. But he supplied it so much according to his own 
profit that the soldier's appetite was quite overlooked. He 
would arrange to have the cattle driven into camp just when 
hunger had reached the limit of endurance. He would make the 
officers draw rations when it suited his convenience rather than 
their needs. So the northern camps lived alternately well and 
poorly according as Sands' caprice satisfied or intensified 
natural cravings. 
In the spring Congress made a scale of rations and pay for 
officers.1 The major general received the grand sum of $31.60 
a month and five rations. The lieutenant received $3.15 a 
month and one ration. It is interesting to compare these sums 
with the $1,000 bounty already offered the private for enlisting. 
In this instance, the money and provisions were to be treated as 
separate items. If the officer could not draw his rations 
monthly they were forfeited, for they could not be commuted 
April 22 
1782 
i Rank 
Rations 
Per Day 
Pay 
Per Month 
A Major general 
.. 5 
$31.60 
Brigadier general 
.. 4 
25.30 
Colonel 
. . 2 
12.60 
Lieutenant colonel commandant 
.. 2 
12.60 
Lieutenant colonel 
• • 1% 
11.00 
Major 
• • 1% 
8.00 
Chaplain 
• • 
8.00 
Captain 
.. 1 
6.30 
Subaltern 
.. 1 
3.15 
Surgeon 
.. 1% 
4.60 
Surgeon's mate 
.. 1 
3.15 
Quartermaster-general 
.. 4 
25.30 
Deputy quartermaster, with the southern army. 
.. V/2 
12.60 
Deputy paymaster, with the southern army .... 
.. 1% 
11.00 
Deputy clothier with the army 
.. 1 
3.15 
Deputy paymaster with the army 
.. 1 
Commissary forage 
.. 
11.00 
Field commissary 
.. 1 
6.30 
Field commissary with southern army 
.. 1 
6.30 
Director-general hospitals 
.. 2 
.... 
Chief physician 
.. 2 
.... 
Hospital surgeon 
.. 1 
Mates 
.. 1 
. .. . 
Stewards 
.. 1 
Wardmasters 
.. 1 
. . . . THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
81 
into money. However, these figures are merely studies in black 
and white, because the soldier seldom received his pay in any 
shape. 
Parades and reviews, the military exercises of that day, 
were the constant work of Washington's officers in spite of their 
penury. The little army of about 6,000 was kept up to as high 
a state of morale as living conditions would permit because of 
the expected resumption of activities. The commander in 
chief's orders abound in appreciation here and condemnation 
there for some well or badly executed maneuver. 
On one occasion he instructs the commandant of artillery, 
who seems to have been a sort of ordnance officer, to issue ten 
rounds of blank ammunition per man. Shortly afterward ap- 
pears, "A Plan for Conducting the Rejoicing on Thursday," 
the birthday of the Dauphin of France. For this ceremony a 
great colonnade was built upon the parade ground at West 
Point. Washington dined at four o'clock in the afternoon with 
his officers and ladies. All the surrounding garrisons on both 
banks of the Hudson turned out their troops so that they could 
"display 2 in full view of West Point." A running fire of 
artillery and musketry was delivered at prearranged signals. 
After dinner thirteen separate toasts were drunk "and each 
toast announced by the discharge of artillery." As soon as the 
thirteenth was quaffed, the officers rose from the table and 
j'oined their respective commands. After more musketry and 
cannonading, "the officers commanding corps with an audible 
voice" prayed "to God to bless the Dauphin of France." 
Though such a ceremony seems to be as much a test of capacity 
as religion, it lent spirit to the troops in their hard life. 
That target practice was one of the functions of drill is 
apparent from one of Washington's observations. Although 
the light infantry had "performed with great precision," he 
was "sorry to find . . . that they did not take so good aim as he 
expected." 
The following order will disclose both the pains then taken 
and the officer responsible for the training. 
May 31 
1782 
June 16 
1782 
2 Be in regimental front. 82 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
"Head-Quarters, 
"Newburgh, June 18, 1782. 
"The review of this army by brigades being now completed, 
the Commander-in-chief is happy in this opportunity to present 
his thanks to major general the Baron Steuben, for the inde- 
fatigable assiduity and singular attention exhibited in the late 
inspections and reviews, and for his eminent services in pro- 
moting the discipline of the army on all occasions; and at the 
same time to express his approbation of the present laudable 
disposition and pride of corps which seem to be diffused 
throughout the army. From this spirit of emulation, and a 
consideration of the amazing contrast between the past and 
present appearance of the troops, the General anticipates the 
happiest consequences; but, being persuaded that appearance 
alone is not sufficient to establish the reputation and ensure the 
success of our arms, and that frequent and repeated exercise is 
absolutely necessary to constitute the perfection of discipline, 
he requests in the most pointed terms, that the commanding 
officers of divisions and brigades will punctually exercise the 
troops alternately every other day, in brigade and by detail. 
"In the course of these exercises the officers are permitted 
to vary the maneuvers as time, circumstances and inclination 
may prompt, provided they do not deviate from the established 
principles. But, in all cases, the General entreats the officers to 
pay the most minute attention to the soldier's method of prim- 
ing and loading, as well as of leveling and taking aim. This is 
a matter of great consequence; he hopes, therefore, that the 
utmost pains may be taken to instruct every individual in this 
essential part of his profession." 
Many means were invented by the higher commanders for 
the purpose of offsetting the low spirits induced by hunger and 
raggedness. It was at this time that the "service stripe" or war 
chevron seems to have had its origin. Any soldier who had 
served more than three years with "bravery, fidelity and good 
conduct" was to wear on his left sleeve a stripe "of angular 
form." If he had served more than six years he was to wear 
two stripes. All stripes were to be of the color of the "facings" 
of the corps to which the man belonged. 
Aug. 7, n 
1782 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
83 
The hat seemed to be the most difficult article to obtain and 
the one dearest to the soldier's pride. Those who could get it, 
cut it, cocked it and decorated it according to the regimental 
design. Those who were without it were in a sorry plight. 
They had no chance to cut a military figure. Washington 
placed this deficiency on the part of a certain regiment side 
by side with the "want of exactness in performing . . . maneu- 
vers" due to "the badness of their position in the mountains." 
As to insignia of rank, worsted shoulder knots were pre- 
scribed for noncommissioned officers. The sergeant was to have 
two, one on each shoulder, whereas the corporal was to have 
only one on the right shoulder. For officers, Washington had 
recommended to the army two years previously that major gen- 
erals wear two epaulets with two stars upon each, that briga- 
diers wear two but have only one star on each, that field officers 
all alike wear two plain gold epaulets and that captains wear 
only one on the right shoulder and subalterns one on the left.3 
It is likely that before this time officers or men had had little 
opportunity to comply generally with this order. At this date 
a nicety and self-respect in dress seem to have accompanied the 
state of developed discipline, so far as the officer's purse could 
permit. 
But throughout the rank and file it was most difficult to 
obtain a uniform mode of wearing the hair. In those times of 
dyed wigs and long locks it was a knotty problem to have the 
hair trimmed and tied in the same manner or the wigs of the 
same color in any organization. The tonsorial allowance of 
two pounds of flour and one-half pound of rendered tallow may 
or may not have succeeded in giving a sleek appearance. 
A more suitable organization seems to have been one of the 
greatest concerns of this year. The artillery, cavalry, sappers 
and miners were placed upon a more sound basis. The light 
infantry companies-one in each regiment-were formed into 
separate battalions. The personnel of these foot troops had 
been picked with a view to obtaining men of good physique and 
marching ability who could act as pioneers. Since Steuben had 
May 14 
1782 
Aug. 21 
1782 
3 The generals, in addition, wore feathers in their hats and different 
clothing from the soldier. The other officers wore the clothing of the corps 
to which they belonged. 84 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
prescribed advance and flank guards for the march, it is likely 
that these companies performed a great part of reconnoissance 
duty. Yet other troops helped out in this work because he had 
been careful to show that men so engaged should be frequently 
relieved. 
Shortly after the separation of the light infantry, Washing- 
ton ordered a general removal of all troops down the river to 
Verplanck's Point. The journey was attended with extreme 
orderliness. The little force disembarked and prepared a clean 
and well-decorated camp. On the new site were entertained 
Rochambeau's soldiers who were returning overland from the 
south and were on their way to New England where they were 
going to embark for France. Levees and festivities were con- 
ducted on a grand scale for over a month. French officers ex- 
pressed surprise at the good appearance and efficiency of the 
American soldier whose reputation gained in his undisciplined 
years was hard now to overcome. 
After the national courtesies, the American troops returned 
to the hills back of Newburgh for another winter. They had 
become expert in building rude temporary structures. They 
now made cabins sufficient to hold eight soldiers comfortably 
and larger ones for noncommissioned officers. They went so far 
as to have a great assembly hall, called the chapel, where 
services, courts-martial and public entertainments were held, 
it is said on good authority that the timbers of these buildings 
were joined so skillfully that they neither had nor required a 
nail or other piece of metal. 
This, the eighth winter of the war, saw the soldiers as much 
as ever derided and neglected by the country. Economy was 
made to bear hardest upon those who had shouldered the bur- 
dens of the conflict. The half pay promised to the officers had 
never been produced. They were humiliated on social occasions. 
They had received not over one sixth of their pay during the 
whole Revolution. Their private resources were at an end and 
their friends were wearied out and disgusted with their re- 
peated applications. They could not invite foreign officers or 
associates to a meal, so scant was the ration and so wanting 
any funds. Since nothing had been given them for clothing 
after 1777 they were constantly chilled by the zero weather and 
Sept. 
1782 
Oct. 
1782 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
85 
often in the unspeakable hospital. They had waited in the vain 
hope of relief by Congress. The "deranged officers," who had 
been squeezed out of the service by the union of smaller regi- 
ments and who had been provided for in no way, oftentimes 
had to sell their clothing for support or to beg. They were 
treated by the public as idlers living on the public bounty and 
were derided by their neighbors as "half-pay officers." These 
very leaders who had risked their lives to quell mutinies, who 
had stood before death and torture in order to make the country 
safe and independent, were ridiculed and neglected. So great 
was the public stigma on these men that the word "soldiering" 
came into use as a synonym of idleness. 
If the country had given the continental soldier public 
honor and had made him independent for the rest of his life it 
could not have begun to repay him for his services. But when 
it failed in its promises and even scorned him in public the 
name of ingrate is scarcely a strong term. As shall later be 
seen, this attitude is not going to be confined to Revolutionary 
days. 
Under such punishment for having committed the crime of 
bearing untold misery for one's country, it would not have been 
criticizable had there been a continuous round of mutiny or 
even an overthrow of the weak central government. On the 
contrary, these officers, now disciplined under Steuben's hu- 
mane regime, decided merely to address those in power with 
their pleas. The shame lay in their having to beg for that 
which was their just due. 
The Massachusetts officers agreed first to approach their 
own legislature. Accordingly a committee went to Boston 
where it was well received and was promised everything by 
Hancock and Adams. But upon a weak excuse of a private let- 
ter from a congressional delegate who discouraged the half pay, 
the matter was postponed indefinitely. Although this action 
caused more discontent, the officers, following Washington's 
advice, refrained from resigning. Instead they began to pre- 
pare a petition to Congress. Officers of other states were invited 
by the Massachusetts line to join in the request. Accordingly 
a joint memorial was drawn up. The facts set forth in their 
conservativeness, simplicity and pathos should have drawn 
Sept. 
1782 
Dec. 
1782 86 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Jan. 6 
1783 
humiliation from an ogre. When the paper was presented to 
the central legislative body, the members were inclined to be 
incensed at the apparent irregularity of such a procedure, but 
they conceded the point under pressure and reluctantly referred 
the matter to a committee. While the decision was still pend- 
ing, a copy of the King's speech in parliament seemed to indi- 
cate peace. Congress then went into a committee of the whole 
on funds. The army's condition was considered as of no more 
importance than other questions. So it was attempted to refer 
the claims of the officers to the states, but the motion failed. 
The committee then brought in a report to give five years' full 
pay, but the proposition was rejected. 
At this juncture the famous Newburgh addresses were 
mailed to Congress by Washington. 
These two anonymous tracts had been distributed through- 
out the camp.4 Their fiery style had the double effect of ad- 
miration and conviction. The first one called for a meeting of 
all the officers on a certain date and implied that plans would 
be made to resort to force. Washington, who had had his ear 
to the ground all this time, realized the peril. He issued an 
order which condemned the anonymous call and postponed the 
meeting four days. By such action he properly compromised 
the effect of the document and gained time for reflection. But 
the author of the first publication embarrassed the commander 
in chief still further by issuing a second address and stating 
that Washington's recognition in orders was equivalent to his 
sympathy. 
In the "Chapel" or "Temple" the officers met on the date 
set by Washington. He himself unexpectedly appearing among 
them was naturally the first to speak. In that calm dignity so 
peculiarly his own, he explained how the substance of the ad- 
dresses appealed to their passion rather than their reason, how 
his past life would show that he was not indifferent to the inter- 
est of the army, and how foolish it would be to sully by one rash 
act the glory they had already attained. He then called upon 
them to give "one more distinguished proof of unexampled 
patriotism and patient virtue" so that posterity could say, "Had 
Feb. 13 
1783 
March 10 
1783 
'March 12 
1783 
4 Later found out to be the work of Major John Armstrong, aid-de- 
camp of General Gates. THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
87 
this day been wanting, the world had never seen the last stage 
of perfection, to which human nature is capable of attaining." 
Few eyes were dry when he had finished. This magnificent 
man capped his physical and mental triumphs with the greatest 
moral victory attainable-the victory "over jealousy, just dis- 
content and great opportunities." 
Washington wrote the President of Congress again. This 
time he enclosed new resolutions of moderation and wisdom 
made at his advice after the meeting just described. The dele- 
gates voted in consequence a commutation of five years' full 
pay in cash or in six-per-cent securities at the option of Con- 
gress, mainly because they feared to do otherwise. Although 
this amount was less than satisfaction, the officers were in such 
need of relief that they had to accept the measure. 
The rank and file were in a worse plight. In addition to 
the sufferings the officers had borne, they had had to build all the 
quarters and perform other menial tasks without exterior aid. 
In other words, they had been compelled to carry their own 
comfort into the wilderness and in return to jeopardize their 
lives for the saving of the nation. 
When Congress announced the cessation of hostilities, the 
discharge of the men enlisted for the war became a new puzzle. 
In the publication of this event to the soldiers Washington was 
rightly fearful that they could not distinguish between cessa- 
tion of hostilities and actual declaration of peace. He felt it 
would be hard to hold them in the service, especially in view 
of the fact that the Connecticut noncommissioned officers were 
already claiming half pay. To solve the dilemma, Congress 
promptly put the responsibility on Washington of granting 
either furloughs or discharges as he chose. And then, as an 
achievement of great generosity, it permitted the soldiers to 
keep their arms and accouterments. 
Hostilities ceased unexpectedly because of the situation 
abroad rather than our power. As a consequence neither offi- 
cer nor soldier foresaw the predicament of either waiting in 
the service until some future payment should be made or of 
going home penniless in the hope that he might at some time 
receive something. When the order for granting furloughs 
was issued, all appealed to Washington in pathetic frenzy. But 
March 18 
1783 
April 11 
1783 
April 19 
1783 
May 
1783 88 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the most he could do was to send a message to Philadelphia 
urging the immediate issue of the contemplated six-month 
certificates of three months' pay. A faint prospect of three 
months' pay after the half pay promised by Congress and 
wrung through such misery and self-restraint! But the fur- 
lough was too strong a temptation to both soldier and officer 
so that they left without any pay. Only about a thousand three- 
year men were retained to watch New York, the only place of 
British occupancy remaining. In the south the enemy's troops 
had been withdrawn principally for European political rea- 
sons. So the army went home without even a ceremonious 
"thank you" from the nation. To this day most of them are 
unpaid-and will be. 
It was the recruits only who mutinied; 280 of them from 
Lancaster and Philadelphia bloodlessly drove Congress to seek 
safety at Princeton. Washington sent General Howe, who had 
suppressed the New Jersey malcontents, to do the same in 
Pennsylvania. But the affair had already subsided when the 
regulars reached the scene of difficulty. On account of the 
uprising 4 men received corporal punishment. 
Without further ado the army kept dwindling until Con- 
gress ordered its disbandment. Washington's last general order 
issued to the troops at Princeton, sent them out into the new 
democracy with sagacious words of construction. So from their 
leader within the army they received encouragement but from 
no one without. 
With the one regiment of infantry and two battalions of 
artillery that remained, the commander in chief later marched 
into one end of New York while the British under Sir Guy 
Carleton marched out at the other. 
Not long afterward Washington's officers assembled at 
Fraunces' Tavern to bid him farewell. Gathered in the high- 
ceilinged room were the infantry officers with their blue cut- 
away coats faced with white, their white buttons, silver 
epaulets, black gaiters, and white-braided cocked hats with 
black plumes; the artillery officers with their scarlet facings, 
yellow buttons, gold epaulets and yellow-braided cocked hats 
with black and red plumes; and here and there a general offi- 
cer in his blue and buff and with stars upon his gold epaulets. 
June 13 
1783 
Nov. 2 
1783 
Nov. 25 
1783 
Dec. 4 
1783 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
89 
Under these picturesque uniforms beat the hearts of true men 
who loved their commander. For the last time they stood be- 
fore him who had always been wise and kind. For eight years 
he had suffered with them all manner of ills. Having formed 
the habit of trust in such unfailing control, they were about 
to scatter into a country of doubtful management and cold 
attitude. Their depression was keen. When in the silence 
it was necessary for the great man to speak, he tried to advise 
them; but his voice broke. Filling a wine glass, he gave a 
simple toast to their happiness, and requested them to take him 
by the hand. Stifled by emotions they accompanied him to 
Whitehall Ferry, where they watched his boat until it slowly 
passed from sight. 
At Annapolis he formally resigned his commission to Con- 
gress and quietly retired into private life. 
Though Mr. H. G. Wells5 is content with disposing of 
Washington with the single colorful statement that "he was a 
conspicuously indolent man," Mr. Green, the great English 
historian, speaks of him thus: 
"No nobler figure ever stood in the forefront of a nation's 
life. Washington was grave and courteous in address, his 
manners were simple and unpretending; his silence and the 
serene calmness of his temper spoke of a perfect self-mastery; 
but there was little in his outer bearing to reveal the grandeur 
of a soul which lifts his figure, with all the simple majesty of 
an ancient statue, out of the smaller passions, the meaner im- 
pulses of the world around him. ... It was only as the weary 
fight went on that the colonists discovered, however slowly and 
imperfectly the greatness of their leader: his clear judgment, 
his heroic endurance, his silence under difficulties, his calmness 
in the hour of danger or defeat, the patience with which he 
waited, the quickness and hardness with which he struck, the 
lofty and serene sense of duty which never swerved from its 
task through resentment or jealousy, that never through war 
or peace felt the touch of a meaner ambition, that knew no aim 
save that of guarding the freedom of his fellow countrymen, 
Dec. 22 
1783 
5 Outline of History. 90 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and no personal longing save that of returning to his own fire- 
side when their freedom was secured. It was almost uncon- 
sciously that men learned to cling to Washington with a trust 
and faith such as few other men have won, and to regard him 
with a reverence which still hushes us in the presence of his 
memory." 
After the peace, the discharged soldier or officer went about 
the country hunting to adjust himself. Uis occupation was 
gone, his means were used up, his body was ailing, hurt or 
emaciated, and his unkempt, ragged appearance brought only 
gibes from the people. Ex-soldiers, who had suffered most, 
died quickly. The remainder went often from town to town 
in order to find work. Many of the officers in following the ex- 
ample of Greene and Washington had used their private means 
to finance the war, and were bankrupt. General Clarke, who al- 
most single-handed had presented the states with an empire, 
was deprived of his commission and died in misery and poverty. 
Knox, who succeeded Washington, had to continue to dis- 
band the remainder of the army until it numbered less than 
700 men. Finally Congress passed this astounding legislation: 
"And whereas, standing armies in time of peace are incon- 
sistent with the principles of republican governments, danger- 
ous to the liberties of a free people, and generally converted 
into destructive engines for establishing despotism; 
"It is therefore resolved, That recommendations in lieu of 
requisitions shall be sent to the several States for raising the 
troops which may be immediately necessary for garrisoning the 
Western posts and guarding the magazines of the United States, 
unless, Congress should think it expedient to employ the Con- 
tinental troops now at West Point in the service aforesaid; 
"Resolved, that the commanding officer be and he is hereby 
directed to discharge the troops now in the service of the United 
States, except twenty-five privates to guard the stores at Fort 
Pitt and fifty-five to guard the stores at West Point and other 
magazines, with a proportionable number of officers, no officers 
to remain in service above the rank of captain." 
Jan. 3 
1784 
June 2 
1784 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
91 
How sane men could come to a result so far at variance with 
the incidents of their own time seems to us inexplicable. Had 
it not been the "standing" part of the army that had been 
responsible for the few successes of the Revolution ? Had it not 
been the need of stability that led Washington to say: 
"Regular troops alone are equal to the exigencies of mod- 
ern war as well for defense as offense, and whenever a substi- 
tute is attempted it must prove illusory and ruinous. No 
militia will ever acquire the habits necessary to resist a regu- 
lar force. The firmness requisite for the real business of fight- 
ing is only to be attained by a constant course of discipline 
and service. I have never yet been a witness to a single in- 
stance that can justify a different opinion, and it is most ear- 
nestly to be wished that the liberties of America may no longer 
be trusted, in any material degree, to so precarious a de- 
pendence." 
Eighty men-the army! Even they, it was specified, were 
"to guard the stores." Picture them at West Point, all that 
remained of Alexander Hamilton's battery,6 oiling the trun- 
nions of three and six pounders, mowing grass on the maga- 
zines and doing their turn at guard. The army-a few watch- 
men not even glorified. All the training, all the safeguard 
that Washington and Steuben had built up with such great 
care was wantonly tossed aside. But even this sacrifice would 
not have been so terrible were not hundreds of lives to be lost 
by the discard. 
Congress had, however, indulged in a vague legislation 
which called out from the different states for twelve months 700 
enlisted men and a proper proportion of officers. An officer 
from one state, under this law, might command men from 
another. The purpose of the enactment was to garrison the 
frontier posts to be evacuated by the British according to the 
treaty. But this tepid measure was to prove useless. 
Hardly a year had elapsed when it was demonstrated that 
June 3 
1784 
6 Afterwards Battery F, Fourth Artillery. 92 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
this force could not be raised so as to be effective in the face of 
so short an enlistment. The Indian depredations were coming 
on so fast that it was impossible to recruit a new levy every 
year. And in the meantime frontier settlers were being mas- 
sacred. 
Accordingly the term of service was extended to three years. 
The organization was a mixed regiment of 8 companies of 
infantry and 2 of artillery. The officers were: 1 lieutenant 
colonel commandant, 2 majors, 8 captains, 10 lieutenants (1 
as adjutant, 1 as quartermaster and 1 as paymaster), 10 en- 
signs, 1 surgeon and 4 surgeon's mates. The highest ranking 
officer received $82 per month and the private $4.7 
General Knox as Secretary of War and Lieutenant Colonel 
Harmer as commandant were in charge of this regimental army. 
Although it was the first organization to have the functions of 
regular troops, it was not so styled. Congress had said that 
"standing armies were dangerous to a republic" and it was 
going to stick to its original story in spite of the facts. 
Other happenings proved that such a force was insufficient. 
The British, Spanish, French and Indians on the frontiers, 
April 1, 
7, 12 
1785 
Sept. 
1785 
Compensation Per Month 
Hank 
Salary 
Cash 
Lieutenant colonel commandant 
$50.00 
Major 
45.00 
Captain 
35.00 
Lieutenant 
26.00 
Ensign 
20.00 
Surgeon 
45.00 
Mate 
30.00 
Sergeants 
6.00 
Corporals 
5.00 
Musicians 
5.00 
Privates 
4.00 
Subsistence 
Lieutenant colonel commandant 
20.00 
Major 
20.00 
Captain 
12.00 
8.00 
Ensign 
8.00 
Surgeon 
16.00 
Mate 
8.00 
Forage 
Field Officers 
12.00 
Surgeon 
6.00 
Regimental Staff 
6.00 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
93 
where the foreign trappers had little faith in the new govern- 
ment, made such numerous incursions that the army had to be 
increased; 1,340 additional noncommissioned officers and pri- 
vates were authorized, who were to be on the same footing as 
the previous 700. The whole was to be called a "legionary 
corps." Of the new men only 2 companies of artillery were 
ever enrolled. Consequently the entire resistance of the coun- 
try-less than 1,000 men-was tied to the chain of forts in 
the northwest and south, and along the coast. 
Lonely garrisons dotted the border from Fort Pitt to Vin- 
cennes. Great tracts of dense woods full of bear, panther and 
deer cut the little parties of from 25 to 100 soldiers away from 
civilization. So wild was the life, so certain the attack of the 
savage that the officers or men dared not take with them wives 
or families. 
The fort was usually built in stockade form. Its rectangu- 
lar fence of logs, pointed at the tops and loopholed for the 
flintlocks and iron and brass cannon, was reenforced at the 
four corners by blockhouses. The enclosure was usually divided 
into two parts by a high stockade fence similar to the outer 
one. In case a blockhouse or other wooden part was burnt or 
a breach made in the outer fence, the occupants could retreat 
to one side or the other. The two enclosures contained, on the 
one hand, the guardhouse and parade-and, on the other, the 
quarters of the officers and men and the magazines. The sup- 
plies were usually placed in the blockhouses. 
The officers' quarters were log shacks consisting of two 
rooms, each one occupied by an officer. Although the command- 
ing officer might have two and a hall, such an assignment was 
a luxury. The enlisted men huddled together in small bar- 
racks for the sake of warmth. With only open fireplaces to 
heat the buildings, with supplies coming by boat or caravan 
very occasionally and with the chill of winter and monotony, 
it is no wonder that rum was popular. 
Yet these men with their smart cocked hats, their tight 
gaiters, their polished cartridge boxes, their clean white belts, 
their shaven faces and their powdered hair turned out daily 
for drill, guard mounting and parade as if the eyes of the 
world were upon them. Every few nights each soldier, muf- 
Oct. so 
1786 94 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
fled in bear and coon skin, watched as a sentry in the unheated 
blockhouses or at a desolate post outside. The lurking red- 
skin was ubiquitous. A wink of sleep, a tomahawked sentinel 
and one pine torch well applied meant death to the garrison. 
These soldiers had built the fort with their own hands. 
It was really theirs more than the government's. But not for 
a moment did they forget their duty to their nation and to 
each other. Each day there were quantities of fuel to cut, 
sinks to fill and the policing of every cranny of the inclosure 
for health's sake. There were drills and parades. But what 
recreation? Hunting was so dangerous on account of the In- 
dian that often it had to be forbidden. There were no movies, 
no libraries, no illustrated magazines. Even a book was a 
rarity. Although few of the men could read and write, a 
Bible or a letter was soon frayed from excessive fingering. Eat- 
ing with the same men, seeing the same faces, doing the same 
chores-imprisoned on the outskirts of one's own country! 
Thus the little garrisons carried on in order to keep murder 
and rape from the contiguous settlers. Every single soldier 
who could be enlisted and many more were needed on the 
frontier. There was consequently no foot-loose command with 
a chance for proper training or for use in defense in the entire 
country. 
Accordingly, in Massachusetts, when dispute over debt 
arose, Daniel Shay collected some old soldiers of the Revo- 
lution, easily dispersed the militia and forced the court to 
adjourn. With no ready troops to oppose the movement Shay 
led 2,000 men to the arsenal at Springfield where he was held 
at bay. It took General Lincoln with 4,000 soldiers raised by 
the state to disperse Shay's force, after bloodshed and much 
tumult. 
The obsession of universal peace had played its usual part 
after eight years of unstable equilibrium. Civilization had 
been torn by what then appeared to be a world war. The wish 
being father to the belief, it was decided by the public there 
would be no more resort to arms. Shay's rebellion awakened 
the states to the realization that the smallest apparent causes 
can sometimes, presto, be the largest ructions. Because of the 
current feeling John Adams was actuated to say: 
'Dec. 
1786 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
95 
"National defense is one of the cardinal duties of a states- 
man. . . . The subject has always been near to my heart. The 
delightful imaginations of universal peace have often amused, 
but have never been credited by me." 
Accordingly the Congress went to the magnificent extreme 
of allowing the original 700 enlisted men to reenlist for an- 
other three years, thus attempting to save transportation by 
retaining the former troops. The infantry was arranged in a 
regiment by itself and the artillery was separated into four 
companies of the same size each as those of the infantry. This 
small force was the invitation of over three million people for 
more bloodshed. 
Such was the futile provision when the country created its 
Constitution which made the President commander in chief 
of the army, and also made Congress responsible for the na- 
tion's defense. The actual number of men then in the service 
was 595. Under the new government the Department of War 
was established with its secretary whose duties covered military 
commissions, land grants and naval and Indian, as well as 
army affairs. Knox and Harmer were continued in office. 
Every person enlisted or commissioned was required to take 
an oath of allegiance. The commissioned officers were ap- 
pointed by the President and all persons in the army were 
referred to as "in the service of the United States." 
The reaction from the Constitution was first materially felt 
in the military establishment when the new strength of the 
army was placed at 1,216 enlisted men. This law which re- 
pealed the provisions of the year before was extensively de- 
tailed. It made the length of service three years for officers 
as well as for the rank and file. It allowed 2 inspectors with 
"pay and subsistence of captain." It provided that subalterns 
as adjutants should receive $10 and "Quarter and Pay masters" 
$5 extra pay per month. It raised the forage for majors and 
surgeons from $6 to $10, and gave to the enlisted man the 
following clothing and rations: 
"One hat, or helmet, one coat, one vest, two pair of woolen 
and linen overalls, four pair of shoes, four shirts, two pair of 
Oct. 3 
1787 
1788 
Sept. 29 
1789 
April 30 
1790 96 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
socks, one blanket, one stock and clasp, and one pair of buckles 
(annually). 
"One pound of beef or three quarters of a pound of pork, 
one pound of bread or flour and half a gill of rum, brandy or 
whiskey (daily.) 
"Two quarts of vinegar, two pounds of soap and one pound 
of candles (every hundred days)." 
It then tore down the whole structure by cutting the pay 
of the private to $3 per month, and deducting besides $1 for 
hospital stores and clothing, so that he really received only 
$2 in cash; then it added a little salve by giving officers wounded 
or disabled in line of duty a pension of $9 per month, and 
enlisted men $5. 
The entire force was to be organized into 1 infantry regi- 
ment of 3 battalions, and 1 artillery battalion. Each bat- 
talion was to have 4 companies, 1 major, 1 adjutant, 1 quar- 
termaster and 1 surgeon or surgeon's mate. The infantry com- 
pany was to consist of 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 ensign, 4 
sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 musicians and 61 privates. The artil- 
lery company was provided with 2 lieutenants instead of a 
lieutenant and ensign. 
Shortly after this law was passed the western settlers wrere 
marauded by the Indians aided and abetted by the British. 
Since the Revolution over one thousand souls in the vicinity 
of Kentucky alone had perished by arrow and tomahawk. Con- 
gress was besieged for aid. But there was yet no army outside 
of the little garrisons scattered on the frontier, and President 
Washington was powerless to call out a single additional regu- 
lar soldier. 
Therefore, Governor (General) Saint Clair of the North- 
west Territory raised about 1,100 militia which under the 
system of the time consisted of "old men, boys and untrust- 
worthy substitutes," untrained and undisciplined. The leader 
chosen by Saint Clair proved to be incompetent and was often 
drunk. However, General Harmer added 320 regulars to this 
force, superseded in command Saint Clair's choice and led the 
whole force into the Maumee country. It was not long until 
one of his detachments was ambushed and 400 of the remainder 
July 15 
1790 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
97 
at the Maumee River had half of its number killed or wounded. 
What was left of the main force escaped, but the Indians were 
filled with new courage for murder and rapine so that hun- 
dreds of settlers were killed and plundered as a result of the 
disadvantage. General Harmer was exonerated from blame 
on acount of the poor quality of his troops. 
From this affair came the creation of a second regular regi- 
ment of infantry. The pay schedule and organization was to be 
the same as that of the previous regiment, but the strength was 
to be 50 men less. To this toy army there was added a major 
general, brigadier general, brigade major, quartermaster and 
chaplain.8 In addition, levies for six months were allowed to 
be raised by the President. 
Instead of paying the soldier a sum sufficient to get a good 
type of man, Congress again resorted to the pernicious bounty 
system, which allowed to each recruit of the regulars $6 and 
of the levies $3. More pernicious still was the allowance to each 
recruiting officer of $2 for each new man enlisted by him. Not 
only was a low type of soldier obtained but desertion and waste 
were the results as in the Revolution. 
In the meantime the ravages of the Miami Indians became 
so hurtful that General Saint Clair was sent against them. 
His force was made up of men "purchased from prisons, wheel- 
barrows and brothels at $2 per month." On his way he built 
Fort Hamilton (north of Cincinnati) and Fort Jefferson (near 
Greenville). The levies under this system turned out to be 
more disgraceful in desertion and disorder than the militia 
had been. When the Indians charged at a branch of the 
March 3 
1791 
Nov. 3 
1791 
8 "Sec. 6. That in case a major general, brigadier general, quarter- 
master, aid-de-camp, brigade major, and chaplain, should be appointed, 
their pay and allowances shall be respectively, as herein mentioned: the 
major general shall be entitled to $125, monthly pay, $20 allowance for 
forage, monthly, and for daily subsistence fifteen rations, or money in lieu 
thereof, at the contract price. The brigadier general shall be entitled to 
$94, monthly pay, with $16 allowance for forage, monthly, and for daily 
subsistence twelve rations, or money in lieu thereof, at the contract price. 
That the quartermaster shall be entitled to the same pay, rations, and for- 
age, as the lieutenant colonel commandant of a regiment. That the aid- 
de-camp be entitled, including all allowances, to the same pay, rations 
and forage, as a major of a regiment. That the brigade major be entitled, 
including all allowances, to the same pay, rations, and forage, as a major 
of a regiment. That the captain be entitled to $50 per month, including 
pay, rations and forage." 98 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Wabash, these untrained men fled through the regulars, whose 
regimental officers were all killed in trying to stem the tide. 
General Saint Clair had eight bullet holes in his clothing. An 
equal force of Indians routed these poor troops, killing 632 
and wounding 264 out of about 1,400. 
In addition to the above losses another calamity visited the 
army. The Indians had become bold and arrogant by their 
successes over our impotent troops. As a consequence Lieu- 
tenant Colonel Hardin and Major Trueman, sent on a pacific 
mission to the hostile towns of the Indians, were treacherously 
murdered. 
These disasters again threw Congress into a whirlpool of 
army legislation, but, as always, too late to prevent disaster. 
The lawmakers authorized the recruiting of the existing 2 
regiments of infantry up to 960 men apiece. It created 4 
more regiments of the same strength, one of which was to con- 
sist of 2 infantry battalions and a squadron of 4 troops of light 
dragoons. Each troop was to be officered by 1 captain, 1 lieu- 
tenant and 1 cornet; and each infantry company by 1 captain, 
1 lieutenant and 1 ensign. The dragoons were to serve dis- 
mounted when so ordered. The pay was made free of all de- 
ductions. The monthly cash ranged from $166 for a major 
general to $3 for a private. 
A curious feature was an additional indefinite cavalry 
force for the frontiers, raised for such periods, with such organi- 
zation and with such strength as the President might decide. 
The 3 additional infantry regiments were to be raised or dis- 
charged at the discretion of the President. 
A little later Congress authorized a maximum of four briga- 
dier generals for the army. 
Then came the universal militia law which made every 
male citizen between 18 and 45 years a constructive soldier. 
The captain or company commander was to be responsible for 
the enrollment of every eligible man in his district. Each sol- 
dier notified was to equip himself, within six months, 
"with a good musket or firelock, a sufficient bayonet and belt, 
two spare flints, and a knapsack, a pouch, with a box therein 
to contain not less than twenty-four cartridges, suited to the 
March 5 
1792 
March 28 
1792 
May 8 
1792 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
99 
bore of his musket or firelock, each cartridge to contain a proper 
quantity of powder and ball; or, with a good rifle, knapsack, 
shot pouch and powder horn, twenty balls, suited to the bore 
of his rifle, and a quarter of a pound of powder; and shall 
appear, so armed, accoutered, and provided, when called out 
to exercise, or into service; except, that when called out on 
company days exercise only, he may appear without a knap- 
sack. That the commissioned officers, shall, severally, be armed 
with a sword and hanger, and espontoon; and that, from and 
after five years from the passing of this act, all muskets for 
arming the militia, as herein required, shall be of bores suffi- 
cient for balls of the eighteenth part of a pound. And every 
citizen so enrolled, and providing himself with the arms, 
ammunition, and accouterments, required as aforesaid, shall 
hold the same exempted from all suits, distresses, executions, 
or sales, for debt, or for the payment of taxes." 
Here was a distinct attempt to standardize the calibers of 
the flintlocks throughout the country. The whole force was to 
be organized into divisions and brigades. The lower units were 
to be organized as those of the regular army. One company of 
"grenadiers, light infantry or riflemen" was to be created for 
each battalion; and 1 company of artillery and 1 troop of horse, 
for each division. The commissioned officers were to furnish 
themselves with good horses of at least fourteen and a half 
hands high and were to be "armed with a sword, and a pair 
of pistols, the holsters of which to be covered with bearskin 
caps." The state adjutant general was to distribute all orders 
from the commander in chief of each commonwealth. 
Then followed the legionary organization promoted by Gen- 
eral Knox, secretary of war. The militia comprising the able- 
bodied men of the entire country were to be divided into 3 
corps. The advanced corps was to consist of those between 
the ages of 18 to 20; the main corps, between 21 to 45; and 
the reserved corps, between 46 to 60. Of the advanced corps 
the men under 20 were to receive instruction for thirty days 
at "annual camps of discipline." 
All the regular troops were to become a legion. The author- 
ized 5,120 were to have 4 sublegions. The regiment as an or- 
Dec. 27 
1792 100 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
ganization was discarded. There was to be no rank intervening 
between a brigadier general and a major. Each sublegion was 
to consist of 1,280 men commanded by a brigadier general, and 
was to be made up of 12 battalions of infantry, 1 battalion of 
riflemen, 1 company of artillery and 1 troop of dragoons. The 
whole legion was to be commanded by a major general. The 
intention was apparently to cut down the number of officers 
and to avoid the horrid term, "regular army." 
The legion for the regulars was to have a short life, but the 
law and legionary organization for the militia became dead 
letters almost as soon as enunciated. The states were not 
penalized for failure to raise troops nor was the soldier for 
omitting to provide himself with so much equipment. The 
federal government took no steps to raise or organize this force. 
But the law is interesting in that it recognized at this early 
date the principle that every able-bodied citizen should be an 
active defender of his country. It remained inactive and was 
often noticed as a pretty statute on the books for over a century, 
during which time it was to be our only militia law. 
The regular army of the borders was now extremely pressed 
by the Indians who were bold and confident from their previous 
victories. The lives of innocent settlers w'ere being lost while 
all these sentiments were being written into enactments. 
Things came to such a pass that Washington chose Anthony 
Wayne to organize a force and suppress the rapacious tribes 
in the west. Wayne arrived at Pittsburg and began a work 
of discipline and training that was to last almost a year. It 
was necessary for him to stop and prepare while savage depre- 
dations were continuing. Although the caliber of recruits was 
the same as before, he claimed in the next spring to have 2,500 
"worthy of being trusted in campaign." Moving the legion 
to what is now Cincinnati he there awaited orders which ar- 
rived in time in the fall to let him march to Greenville which 
he named in honor of General Nathaniel Greene. Here he 
gave his soldiers intensive drill so that later he was able to send 
a strong detachment to the scene of Saint Clair's defeat where 
he built Fort Recovery and repulsed 2,000 Indians with heavy 
loss. After having been joined by some mounted Kentuckians, 
he started toward the Maumee towns. His army numbered 
June 
1792 
May 
1793 
Oct. 
1793 
Dec. 
1793 
June 30 
1794 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
101 
2,643, all that he could obtain from the 5,120 authorized. With 
this comparatively small band he was to combat a greatly su- 
perior force of redskins. At the junction of the Maumee and 
the Anglaise rivers he built Fort Defiance. When the Indians 
refused peace, he went to meet them in the vicinity of Presque 
Isle. 
He disposed his troops with the injunction that they fire 
once and then drive the Indian from cover with cold steel. The 
battleground, "Fallen Timber," was a wide path in the woods 
made by a previous tornado. The twisted trunks and branches 
embedded in artificial and natural entanglements of brush made 
an ideal cover for the savages. Even their brilliantly painted 
faces were hidden. But the hunting shirt and cap of the United 
States soldier were in evidence. The white, red, yellow and 
green plumes 9 of the sublegions made four separate bands of 
color in the surrounding foliage. The dragoon with the white 
horsehair crest of his brass helmet flying in the wind charged 
the fierce fire without wavering. The men with their bayonets, 
the company officers with their short sabers, the field officers 
with their longer ones and the trooper with his still longer 
horseman's sword hunted the Indian out of his hiding place 
and ran him through or simply ran him. For these officers in 
their half-boots and these men of the odd numbered sublegions 
in black wigs and even numbered sublegions in white, were 
drilled and disciplined troops. The savage afterwards stated 
that he "could not stand up against the sharp ends of the guns." 
Neither could he face soldiers who by time and practice had 
assimilated precision and obedience. The victory was complete, 
the Indians losing at least twice as many as the Americans. 
As a consequence, the frontier settler lived in peace for a long 
time. 
The other regular troops at this period were scattered as 
follows: 
398 at posts on the upper Ohio. 
73 in the Southwest Territory. 
July 27 
1794 
Aug. 
1794 
Aug. 20 
1794 
9 The officers and men when not in the field wore cocked and round hats 
respectively. The officer wore the plume of his sublegion, and the soldier 
wore on his round hat, which had a brim 3 inches wide, a strip of bearskin 
7 inches high and 7 inches wide. 102 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
146 in Georgia. 
369 at seacoast fortifications and recruiting rendezvous. 
During the spring of this year Congress had made several 
feeble laws affecting the army. It authorized one or two more 
arsenals in addition to the ones at Carlisle and Springfield. 
Harper's Ferry was chosen. To the legion of the United States 
it added 764 enlisted men, with a proper proportion of officers, 
to be known as the corps of artillerists and engineers. After 
absorbing the 4 companies of artillery already in the service, 
the corps was to consist of 4 battalions of 4 companies each, to 
be commanded by a "lieutenant colonel, commandant." The 
company was to be officered by 1 captain, 2 lieutenants and 2 
cadets. A cadet was to have the pay, clothing and rations of 
a sergeant. An extra ration of "four ounces of beef, two 
ounces of flour, a half a gill of rum or whisky" was to be 
tendered to the frontier soldier. 
While Wayne was pursuing the Indians, universal peace at 
home was disturbed by the whisky insurrection. After riots, 
not without bloodshed, 7,000 men in Pennsylvania refused to 
disperse at the order of the President. It was necessary, be- 
cause there was no regular force, to call upon the governors 
of Pennsylvania and the surrounding states for militia. Al- 
though the troops of the Keystone State could not be collected 
on account of sympathy -with the rioters and were therefore 
useless, the militia of some other states succeeded finally in 
dispersing the malcontents and saved the nation further em- 
barrassment. No one has ever answered the question, "What 
would the President have done had all the states refused ?" 
The insurrection led to another series of acts featuring the 
army. A premium was placed on the reenlistment of the 
trained soldier by raising the monthly bounty, clothing and 
pay allowance to $9 for a sergeant major down to $6.66 for 
a private, gunner or bombardier. When the cavalry officer or 
private furnished his horse, arms and accouterments he was to 
receive 40 cents a day in addition to his pay, and when the 
enlisted man furnished his own rations and forage he was to 
receive 25 cents a day. The militia who had gone with Wayne 
were to be included in this scale. The pay in cash for all 
April 2 
1794 
May 9 
1794 
June 7 
1794 
Aug. 
1794 
Jan. 5 
1795 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
103 
grades of enlisted men was to be raised $1 per month, in 
addition to an initial bounty of $16 for those who reenlisted, 
and $14 for recruits. Congress was beginning to realize it 
must pay decently for decent men, but it continued the wasteful 
bounty system. 
The legion was to be completed to 4,800 enlisted men,10 all 
enlistments to be terminated at the whim of the government, 
although three years was specified. The pay allowances and 
rations were to continue at practically the same rate. In addi- 
dition to their pay all persons in the service were to receive 
a definite number of rations: a major general 15, a brigadier 
12, a major 4, and so on down to a private, who received 1. 
Scarcely had this legislation been carefully enacted before 
the legion was abolished. The army from then on was to 
consist of 4 regiments of infantry, 2 companies of light dra- 
goons and the corps of artillerists and engineers as already 
organized. Instead of the previous 5 legionary generals, there 
were to be but 2, a major general with two aides and a brigadier 
general. Three legionary generals had to be either "deranged" 
or demoted two grades.11 The pay, rations and forage remained 
about the same. 
This act also provided that the President must confirm 
court-martial sentences which in time of peace included the 
death penalty or the "dismission" of an officer. 
The next year a Judge Advocate, to be taken from the line 
and to have extra pay and rations, was for the first time pro- 
vided. The office of major general was abolished. A quarter- 
master-general and a paymaster-general were also created, who 
with the Judge Advocate and brigadier general were to form 
a "General Staff." 12 The pay of lieutenants and ensigns was 
raised and officers commanding separate posts were to have their 
rations doubled. Officers "deranged" by the previous act were 
to be given six months' pay and subsistence. 
Hoyt's Treatise on Military Art, published "according to 
act of Congress," presented a set of drill regulations for the 
March 3 
1795 
A Law 
May 30 
1796 
Effective 
Oct. 31 
1796 
March 3 
1797 
1798 
i° Exclusive of the corps of artillerists and engineers. 
11 The grade of colonel had not existed since the Eevolution. 
12 Although a general staff in name, it had none of the great functions 
of such a body, such as wisely foreseeing weaknesses in case of war. 104 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
cavalry. The author frankly stated that the manual was an 
adaptation to mounted troops of the principles of Baron von 
Steuben. The regiment was divided into 2 squadrons of 4 
troops each. But Hoyt improved on Steuben by having the 
cadence in the manual the same as the intervals between parts 
of the command rather than a "second of time." Throughout 
the treatise the dragoon is armed with sword and pistol. 
The imminent trouble with France caused the legislators 
to increase the corps of artillerists and engineers by 3 regi- 
ments, to be enlisted for five years. A company was to be 
officered by 1 captain, 2 lieutenants and 2 cadets, and other- 
wise to be made up of 4 sergeants, 4 corporals, 42 privates, 
sappers and miners, 10 artificers, and 2 musicians. 
The harbors were to be thoroughly defended. The sum of 
$1,150,000 was voted to erect and improve fortifications, to 
purchase cannon, small arms, and military stores; and for the 
hire, purchase and employ of foundries and armories virtually 
as the President saw fit. This provision was an early intima- 
tion of the lavishness of the country with regard to war ma- 
terial. Quite in contrast was the attitude toward discipline 
and training. The comprehension of their value has always 
been awkward for the American mind. 
In the event of war the President was authorized to call 
out 10,000 enlisted men for three years at a bounty of $10, 
to organize and officer this force about as he chose and to ap- 
point a lieutenant general at $250 per month, who was allowed 
4 aides and 2 secretaries. The Executive was empowered to 
appoint an inspector general with rank of major general and 
an adjutant general with rank of brigadier. Soldiers were 
exempted from all "personal arrests for any debt or contract" 
during their service. This army was never called out. 
The next law voted 30,000 stands of arms to be sold to the 
governments of the respective states. 
Since war was apparently at hand, a frenzy of legislation 
took place. The regular infantry regiment was increased by 3 
extra staff officers, an adjutant, a quartermaster and a pay- 
master who had heretofore been selected from the existing lieu- 
tenants. A surgeon and 2 mates were added to the regiment. 
Its companies were increased by 2, each one consisting of 1 
April 27 
1798 
May 28 
1798 
July 6 
1798 
July 16 
1798 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
105 
captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 ensign, 4 sergeants, 4 corporals, 1 
musician and 60 privates. The regimental staff was made up 
of 1 sergeant major, 1 quartermaster sergeant and 2 senior 
musicians. Three brigadier generals having been subtracted 
when the legion was abolished were now again authorized. 
Twelve additional regiments of infantry and 6 troops of 
dragoons were to be enlisted for, and during, "the existing 
differences between the United States and the French Repub- 
lic." A regiment of light dragoons-the first regiment of horse 
provided for by the new government-was to be formed from 
the 2 old troops and 6 new ones. The bounty was $12 for these 
men. The volunteers were never called out, because it had 
already become customary in the United States to be engaged 
in war before training could begin. 
The first indication of a medical establishment was given 
in Congress the following year. A physician general, an apothe- 
cary general, a purveyor and "a competent number of hospital 
surgeons" were authorized.13 
The war scare still being prevalent, a contemporary law 
provided, in case of imminent war "between the United States 
and a foreign European power," to raise additionally 24 regi- 
ments of infantry, a regiment and battalion of artillerists and 
engineers and 3 regiments of cavalry. The complete nullifica- 
tion of this grand paper force was that it was not required to 
serve outside its particular state for more than three months. 
The organization of the regular infantry and cavalry regb 
ments was changed again by adding a cadet to each company 
and by making a regiment consist of 2 battalions of 5 companies 
March 3 
1799 
March 3 
1799 
13 ' ' Sec. 6. That the compensations of the said several officers shall 
be as follows: of the physician general, $100 pay per month, and $50 per 
month, which shall be in full compensation for forage, rations, and travel- 
ing expenses; of the purveyor, $100 pay per month, in full compensation 
for his services, and all expenses; of the apothecary general, $80 pay per 
month, and $30 per month in full compensation for forage, rations and all 
expenses; of each of his deputies, $50 pay per month, and $16 per month, 
in full compensation for forage, rations, and all expenses; of each hospital 
surgeon, $80 pay per month, and $40 per month, in full compensation for 
forage, rations, and all expenses; of each mate, $30 pay per month, and 
$20 per month, in full compensation for forage, rations, and all expenses; 
for each steward, $25 pay per month, and $8 per month in full compensa- 
tion for forage, rations, and all expenses; Provided, That none of the 
officers aforesaid shall be entitled to any part of the pay or emoluments 
aforesaid, until they shall, respectively, be called into actual service." 106 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
each. The artillery was changed to 4 battalions of 4 com- 
panies each with 2 cadets per company. The titles of ensign 
and cornet were abolished and replaced by second lieutenant. 
The office of colonel did not yet exist. The pay for a private 
was raised to $5 and one ration; for a cadet to $10 and two 
rations; for a major of cavalry to $55 and four rations; for 
a major of infantry to $40 and three rations; and for a lieu- 
tenant colonel $75 and six rations. An allowance for forage 
was given all mounted officers. Two regiments were to con- 
stitute a brigade and 2 brigades a division. It was apparent 
that the soldiers had heretofore been clothed entirely from 
standard sizes, for the law now allowed 25 cents a garment 
for alterations to "coats, vests, overall and breeches" so as to 
fit the wearer. 
The uniform at this time was changed to suit the new 
organization of the army. The commander in chief had three 
silver stars on his gold epaulets. The general officers wore blue 
coats with lining, cape and cuffs of buff, with no lapels, and 
with caps, cuffs and pockets embroidered. The general offi- 
cers (except the staff) wore white plumes, and line officers red 
plumes. 
The shoulder strap made its first appearance. A lieuten- 
ant colonel still wore two silver epaulets, but a major one 
epaulet on the right shoulder and a strap on the left. A cap- 
tain wore an epaulet on his right shoulder, a lieutenant one 
on the left shoulder (there being no apparent distinction be- 
tween first and second lieutenants), and a cadet only a strap 
on his left shoulder. The noncommissioned officers wore red 
worsted epaulets; staff sergeants, one on each shoulder; line 
sergeants, one on the right shoulder; and corporals, one on 
the left shoulder. The artillery and infantry wore blue coats 
with red facings whereas the cavalry wore green coats with 
white facings. All wore cocked hats with a black cockade 
having an eagle in the center. The enlisted man's cockade 
was of leather and his eagle of tin. The regiments were dis- 
tinguished by the numbers on their white buttons. 
How all this new organization and these numerous regu- 
lations could have been put into effect in the face of an ap- 
proaching French army can be answered when we look at the THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
107 
turmoil and powerlessness in which the country found itself 
thirteen years later. We can only be thankful that the well- 
trained French army never appeared. 
The disturbances of these times call attention to the un- 
disciplined condition of the country. One John Fries led a 
rebellion in Pennsylvania. He had collected a large body of 
men who were opposed to the war tax. Although a presidential 
proclamation ordered the rioters to disperse, an armed force 
was necessary to put down the insurrection. 
In the midst of all this furor, an event occurred which 
should have made the populace stop and think. Washington 
died suddenly at Mt. Vernon. The nation had not yet learned to 
appreciate the greatness of this man. But the Revolutionary 
soldiers knew him, missed him, and mourned him. They had 
been close beside him when the fire tested him and them to- 
gether. They knew that he was the Revolution-he was the 
new country. Iron-hearted and soft-handed he had been their 
friend and leader. He had met the blackest of men and times 
and turned both to account. The members of the army told 
the nation these things about the fireside, near the forge, over 
the counter and in the churches. And the country listened, 
but not till many years later did it quite comprehend. 
No sooner had Washington died and the trouble with 
France apparently passed over, than Congress tore down the 
greater part of the military structure it had raised. It violently 
threw into the discard his soundest counsel. All regular forces 
except the first 4 regiments of infantry, 2 regiments of artil- 
lerists and engineers, 2 troops of light dragoons and "the gen- 
eral and other staff" were ordered to be discharged; 3,399 men 
were cast out of the service. 
That some few who remained evidently had an interest in 
their profession, is shown from the attention to details. For 
the 2 remaining troops of dragoons there appeared from the 
press of E. A. Jenks "an exact set of cavalry exercises, an 
approved work." The volume explained the manual of the 
pistol and sword, and exact movements for the horsemen. 
Effort at Harper's Ferry was made to standardize the rifle 
by the manufacture of the model 1800. By it a single caliber 
of .62 was devised for the whole army. In rifle regiments 
March 7 
1799 
March 14 
1799 
May 14 
1800 108 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
officers carried it instead of a sword. The weapon for them 
was slightly lighter and more ornamented than the enlisted 
man's. A rampart rifle weighing 20 pounds or more was also 
made at the arsenal. It was used solely to fire over parapets. 
In spite of the fact that the actual strength of the army, 
notwithstanding the organization provided, numbered only 
248 officers, 9 cadets and 3,794 enlisted men, Congress was not 
satisfied with this reduction. 
There being every indication of peace, that body further 
scorned Washington's sentiments and contracted the fighting 
force of the country to 2 regiments of infantry, 1 regiment of 
artillerists of 4 battalions (of 5 companies each), and 1 corps of 
engineers consisting of 1 major, 2 captains, 2 first lieutenants, 
2 second lieutenants and 10 cadets. Three military agents 14 
were also provided for, and the grade of colonel for the first 
time since the Revolution came into being in the artillery. Of 
the general officers, a brigadier was the only one allowed. The 
pay, subsistence and forage remained about the same, except 
that the brigadier received $225 per month and nothing else. 
The great redeeming feature of this legislation was the 
actual establishment, under the guise of a corps of engineers, 
Dec. 19 
1801 
March 16 
1802 
Effective 
June 1 
1802 
14 ' ' Sec. 17. That it shall be the duty of the military agents, desig- 
nated by this act, to purchase, receive, and forward to their proper desti- 
nation all military stores, and other articles for the troops in their respective 
departments, and all goods and annuities for the Indians, which they may 
be directed to purchase, or which shall be ordered into their care by the 
department of war. They shall account with the department of war, 
annually, for all the public property which may pass through their hands, 
and all the moneys which they may expend in discharge of the duties of 
their offices, respectively; previous to their entering on the duties of their 
offices, they shall give bonds with sufficient sureties, in such sums as the 
President of the United States shall direct, for the faithful discharge of 
the trust reposed in them; and shall take an oath faithfully to perform 
the duties of their respective offices. . . . 
"Sec. 27. That the said corps, when so organized, shall be stationed 
at West Point, in the state of New York, and shall constitute a military 
academy; and the engineers, assistant engineers, and cadets of the said 
corps, shall be subject, at all times, to do duty in such places, and on such 
service, as the President of the United States shall direct. 
' ' Sec. 28. That the principal engineer, and in his absence the next 
in rank, shall have the superintendence of the said military academy, under 
the direction of the President of the United States; and the secretary of 
war is hereby authorized, at the public expense, under such regulations as 
shall be directed by the President of the United States to procure the neces- 
sary books, implements, and apparatus for the use and benefit of the said 
institution. ' ' THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
109 
of the educational institution that was to have such a decided 
influence upon the future of the country. The United States 
Military Academy at West Point was born. 
Washington, as early as 1793, had indicated the desirability 
of a Military Academy in his message to Congress. Timothy 
Pickering had earlier suggested West Point as the place. Al- 
though Washington was opposed in his views by Jefferson, 
the first President showed in 1796 that his original desire had 
been intensified. But when Jefferson, after he had studied the 
question, became a most zealous advocate of the plan, the idea 
of a Military Academy seemed to be right from every point of 
view. 
George Barron, a civilian, had established, previous to the 
above act, a mathematical school at West Point for the few 
cadets then in the service. But the government of young mili- 
tary men appeared to be incompatible with the systems in vogue 
in ordinary schools, for the "institution ran into disorder and 
the teacher into contempt." 
Even after the act of 1802 only a few of the officers author- 
ized were appointed. Major Jonathan Williams became the 
first superintendent. To his lot fell such instruction as reading 
lectures on fortifications, teaching the use of instruments and 
conducting practical exercises in the field. The two captains, 
W. A. Barron and Jared Mansfield, taught algebra and geom- 
etry. The limited curriculum of this nebulous school wTas also 
hindered by the intermittent appearance of the teachers, who 
were ordered away for such duty as erecting fortifications in 
various parts of the country. 
Cadets were quartered in the old "Long Barrack" of the 
Revolution. They were instructed in a two-story "academy" 
building which was also the dwelling of the superintendent. 
They were limited by no entrance examinations and no age, 
physical or mental qualifications. They wTere not amenable to 
martial law, had no class rank and demanded the right to 
select such branch of service as pleased them. But the Corps 
was begun and the foundation of great possibilities laid. 
Much could hardly be expected immediately from such a 
school. In these times when the most exciting duty for an 
officer away from the frontier was to sit on a court for the trial 110 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of a lieutenant colonel who refused to cut off his cue and trim 
his whiskers to a prescribed line, of a major for selling milk to 
his command or of a lieutenant for shooting his captain's ducks, 
little could be expected in the way of teaching bristling, preg- 
nant, trenchant truths. These officers, trussed up in their great 
single-breasted blue coats with high standing collars that ham- 
pered relaxation, could scarcely have the speed of olive drab. 
While West Point wTas being established the country was 
disturbed by the ominous prospect of a war with Spain. Con- 
gress accordingly issued a host of militia calls that were to 
stretch over several years. First of all 80,000 were authorized 
for one year. Then a similar law made the period of service 
six months. Later 30,000 were authorized to be enlisted for 
one year. All these enactments were inoperative almost as 
soon as made. 
During this inconsequential agitation, 2 army officers, Cap- 
tain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark,15 with 
4 sergeants, and 23 privates and Indian interpreters traversed, 
between midsummer, 1803, and the autmn of 1806, the entire 
continent from east to west and back again from west to east. 
The exploit is so famous in general history that little need be 
said of it here. Following the Missouri they made their way 
to the coast. Taking accurate surveys and constructing maps 
and creating friendships with the Indians, many of whom were 
seeing a white man for the first time, they picked their way 
from prairie to mountain and from mountain to the coast. To 
the suffering, hardihood and daring of these soldiers the United 
States owes the opening of the west. 
While Lewis and Clark were gone, the idea occurred to 
General Wilkinson, commander of the army and governor of 
Louisiana Territory, to send out a similar expedition. Lieu- 
tenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike (afterwards General) with 
1 sergeant, 2 corporals and 17 privates explored the head waters 
of the Mississippi. After enduring much that Lewis and Clark 
had undergone, he returned less than nine months later to St. 
Louis, having made peace with the northern Indians and 
learned much of their country. Without an educated partner 
March 3 
1803 
April 18 
1806 
Feb. 24 
1807 
April 30 
1806 
15 Brother of George Rogers Clark. THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
111 
he had acted as astronomer, surveyor, commanding officer, clerk, 
spy and guide for the expedition. 
General Wilkinson was so much pleased with the results 
that he sent Pike with 1 lieutenant, 1 sergeant, 2 corporals and 
16 privates south toward the mouth of the Mississippi. The 
mission of this young officer was to effect an interview and 
good understanding with the Yanctons, Tetons and Comanches 
and to return certain captured Osage Indians to their home. 
Not only was Pike successful in this enterprise, but he ex- 
plored the region about the peak which bears his name and 
beguiled the Spaniards into taking his party prisoners to Santa 
Fe, where he learned much of Spanish intentions, customs and 
the nature of the country. The exploration furnished unusu- 
ally valuable information and was given the personal appro- 
bation of the President. 
To return to the army proper the little force had dwindled 
at one time during this exploration period to 175 officers, 12 
cadets and 2,'389 enlisted men. Morale in the service was low. 
The older officers were, as a rule, idle, ignorant and intemperate 
because appointments were dependent almost entirely on poli- 
tics. It was not difficult to sidetrack into the service "swag- 
gerers, dependents, decayed gentlemen" and those thought fit 
for nothing else. The Military Academy had furnished but 
a very few junior officers. Besides, the soldier had come to be 
such a plaything of the government that often excellent men 
hesitated to accept a position that might unexpectedly be no 
more to-morrow. 
Here is an instance of the laxity with which the people 
handled military matters. Twenty-six years after the virtual 
close of the Revolution, the country woke up to the fact that 
it had not dealt fairly with those who had fought in that 
war. With most of the actually deserving ones deceased, it 
generously provided for the remainder. This anachronism 
emphasized not only a lack of past justice but the extravagance 
of spending almost $20,000,000 for widows who survived till 
almost as late as our war with Spain in '98. But most of the 
soldiers who really deserved this pension never received it. 
In the meantime the war with Great Britain was threat- 
ening. Again the army, which recently had been cut down, 
July 
1807 
Fei). 4 
1805 
April 10 
1806 
April IS 
1808 112 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
was increased; 5 regiments of infantry, 1 regiment of rifle- 
men, 1 regiment of light artillery and 1 regiment of light dra- 
goons, to be enlisted for five years were added. Two cadets 
were to be assigned to each company or troop. The regiment 
of dragoons was to be composed of 8 troops, whereas the other 
regiments were to have 10 companies. The pay was to remain 
about the same.10 But the failure to increase the staff made 
the work of raising and organizing these 6,000 additional men 
almost impossible. 
The reason for the "light artillery" in this legislation may 
be due to the fact that Maneuvers of Horse Artillery by Gen- 
eral Kosciusko appeared that year. The manual's introduction 
enunciates this remarkable principle: 
"The use of artillery in battle is not against the artillery 
of an enemy, for that would be a waste of powder, but against 
the line of the enemy in a diagonal direction when it is de- 
structive in the extreme." 
The maneuvers consisted of detaching limbers, making fast 
prolonge and drag and executing similar evolutions to those in 
Steuben's regulations for infantry. The book showed the arma- 
ment of the company to be six pounders and two five-and-a-half- 
inch howitzers, although four and eight pounders might be 
used. 
In 1810 little of account happened for the army. The uni- 
form was radically changed to single-breasted coats without 
facings and with silver lace along the buttonholes. There was 
also prescribed the silk hat (much like the civilian one at pres- 
ent) with a cockade on the side. 
West Point's faculty was increased by teachers of "draw- 
ing and of the French Language." 
Congress was far from negligent of its fortifications and 
seacoast defenses. It mistakenly had the notion that such con- 
struction would keep an enterprising enemy from landing on 
our shores. Although it had accepted archaic plans of pur- 
1808 
1810 
I0 The brigadier was to receive $104 a month, 12 rations and $16 for 
forage. THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
113 
ported engineers in political favor and had used them with 
great loss and against the advice of Major Joseph G. Swift,17 
it still had a mass of fortresses along the coast to show for the 
several millions it had expended. Just before the second war 
with Great Britain there existed 24 forts, 32 inclosed batteries 
and works of masonry with an armament of 750 guns of various 
calibers; 12,610 soldiers were needed to man these strongholds. 
While Great Britain was about to strike from the east and 
north, the savages were again breaking out in the west. The 
hostile Indian tribes under Tecumseh and his prophet brother 
were collecting in force with manifest intentions of bringing 
destruction to the white settlers along the Wabash. General 
William Henry Harrison collected a band of regulars and 
militia to combat them. His knowledge of the savage caused 
him to keep his command constantly on the alert. He took up 
a final position on the west bank of the Tippecanoe River where 
he was later attacked. The struggle was desperate and success 
for our troops much of the time doubtful. But the fact that 
the riflemen were fighting on the defensive and were superior 
marksmen finally gave Harrison the advantage. 
In these post Revolutionary years the army passed through 
swift periods of rise and fall. It was the thermometer of the 
nation's fear. At first, under the constitution, it was barely 
1 regiment, then 2 in 1789, 3 in 1791, a legion corresponding 
to 5 in 1792, 6 in 1796, 9 in 1798, 6 in 1800 and 3 again in 
1802. In 1808 it suddenly sprang to 11 regiments each hav- 
ing 8, 10 or 20 companies depending upon the law by which 
the particular organization was born. But the actual number 
of soldiers recruited, irrespective of laws, seemed to vary little. 
In 1805, the army consisted of 2,732 officers and men; in 1807, 
of less than 2,500; and 1809, 2,965; although the authorized 
strength during these years showed differences of nearly 400 
per cent. 
How could any organization under such whimsical change 
be otherwise than far below standard ? How could the velocity 
of such expansion and contraction do else than break the joints 
of our land defense ? There could be no unity or spirit in the 
1811 
Nov. 7 
1811 
17 The first graduate of the Military Academy. 114 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
army under such sudden measures of giving and taking 
away. 
Aside from a very few men who had graduated from the 
Military Academy and others who, like Winfield Scott, had 
entered the service with the highest motives, the officers took 
little interest in their profession. Politics rather than quali- 
fications commissioned them. Steuben's work had been rooted 
up and nothing had been planted in its place save West Point, 
which as yet could give few results. The old training had 
passed out when the army had been flung aside. Too often 
was the officer at this time an idler or martinet, and often both. 
When Congress and the people took so little interest in proper 
national defense, such decadence was to be expected. 
A good man, who might under better conditions have en- 
listed, sensed the instability of the army and shied at the un- 
known. Either in entering or leaving the service of his country 
he would be unpopular. His pay would be low and his life 
hard and dangerous. His treatment, too, was likely to be bad. 
He hesitated to give up his chances in civil life when he did 
not know how long the government might keep him. In spite 
of the small wages, he might have come into the army had 
there existed an established pride of corps and a distinction in 
being a defender of his nation. But when both these elements 
were taken away, the excellent recruit was hard to obtain. 
Congress had to offer to any man who would enlist or reen- 
list for five years a bonus of $16 bounty, to be paid at once, and 
3 months' pay and 160 acres of land upon honorable discharge. 
As an added inducement his heirs were to receive all this 
gratuity if the soldier died or was killed in line of duty. 
With ordinary attention to the happenings of the Revo- 
lution thirty years before and to the first man in peace as 
well as war, who had just died, Congress could have made an 
excellent, economical force. But it had forgotten the magic 
word "training." Because it had not listened to the voice of 
experience and wisdom, it could not in a twinkling find a sub- 
stitute for time. Nor could it organize efficiently or economi- 
cally after the panic was once started. 
To Washington, the country accorded mourning for thirty 
days, the annual observance of his birthday, a high monument, 
Dec. 24 
1811 THE ARMY FLUNG ASIDE 
115 
the name of the capital of the nation and the splendid title of 
"F ather of his Country/' but it consistently spurned the advice 
he held most dear: 
"To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means 
of preserving peace. A free people ought not only be armed 
but disciplined." CHAPTER V 
THE ARMY IN NAME 
(1812-1820) 
Tk TO period casts upon the United States a more justifiable 
1^ shadow than the one which includes the second war 
against Great Britain. Almost thirty years had passed 
since the first one, when nearly 400,000 frantically raised sol- 
diers had sought to drive little more than 40,000 of the enemy 
from our shores. At the end of this illuminating interval, the 
government found itself with larger resources and a firmer con- 
trol, but with nothing that might be mistaken for trained forces. 
Men of the type of Washington, Steuben, Greene and Morgan 
had passed out. There had meanwhile been no incentive to pro- 
duce soldiers technically schooled for battle and campaign. 
Bereft of ordinary means of keeping afloat, the country was 
about to plunge into war. 
The opening of 1812 saw the army almost as heterogene- 
ously organized, or disorganized, as when Steuben appeared at 
Valley Forge. Congress had established companies ranging 
from 64 to 100 men; and regiments, from 10 to 20 companies. 
Although the regular establishment had been raised to 11 regi- 
ments, less than one fifth of the added numbers had been re- 
cruited and no provisions had been made for a competent staff 
to handle the increase. Only 71 cadets had so far been gradu- 
ated from a Military Academy of irregular and infantile cur- 
riculum. Even if such men as Thayer, Swift and Totten were 
beginning to give good accounts of themselves, they were so 
young and few that they scarcely formed a nucleus. 
The several thousand regulars were chained to the frontier 
forts and the coast line. They could not be withdrawn for 
combined use without inviting massacres of the frontiersmen 
and the loss of possessions. The First, Fourth and Fifth regi- 
116 THE ARMY IN NAME 
117 
ments of infantry were scattered in small groups along the 
vast stretch of territory on the edges of the Great Lakes and 
on the borders of Ohio and Indiana; the Seventh was spread 
through Kentucky; the Sixth was found in the southwest; the 
Second in the vicinity of New Orleans; and the Third along 
the frontier of Georgia and Florida. The artillery in small 
detachments was dotted along the coast from Maine to Georgia 
and the regiment of dragoons was broken up and used as foot 
troops with the infantry. 
Off in their primitive inclosures, the little companies, pla- 
toons and sections formed their ranks for morning parade with 
white belts immaculate, breast plates polished and "silk" (or 
"plug") hats shined to a gloss. The musketeer in his blue 
coatee with bullet buttons and herring-bone buttonholes, the 
rifleman in the full-dress gray coat of a modern cadet, and the 
officer in his high black boots with gilt spurs marched solemnly 
and punctiliously before the commanding officer. If from the 
blockhouse there came the cry "Indians," the scene suddenly 
took on more action. Each man knew his part. The hunting 
shirt and nankeen overalls replaced the coatee and the tight' 
fitting breeches. The dress quickly changed, but the discipline 
remained. Through straining days and nights the meager gar- 
rison watched every loophole for the fatal fiebrand or the 
crawling redskin. After hours of sleeplessness, hunger and 
oftentimes fever, the defenders finally convinced the savage of 
the futility of his errand. Then came the burials, the ministra- 
tions to the sick and the repairs to the stockade. The few, who 
had become fewer, returned to the routine of toil and isolation. 
To help in the protection of these frontiers Congress au- 
thorized the enlistment of 6 companies of "Rangers" for twelve 
months. Then, because of threatening war with England, it 
added to the regular troops 10 regiments of infantry of 18 
companies each, 3 regiments of artillery of 20 companies each 
and a regiment of light dragoons of 12 companies. After the 
increase, the army theoretically consisted of 17 regiments of 
infantry, 4 of artillery, 2 of dragoons and 1 of rifles, together 
with a corps of engineers composed of 16 officers and 4 cadets.1 
Jan. 2 
1812 
Jan. 11 
1812 
i ' ' Sec. 3. That to each regiment raised under this act, whether of 
infantry, artillery or light dragoons, there shall be appointed 1 colonel, 118 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The new legislation amounted to paper energy. If sufficient 
recruits could not be had for the former army certainly the 
acquirement of fresh ones on the same conditions was ridicu- 
lous. In this strait, Congress, instead of raising the induce- 
ment for men who could be held long enough to be trained, 
resorted to calling out 30,000 volunteers. This move gave the 
same reaction as Glendower's "spirits from the vasty deep." 
However, from the mist of these legislative acts there did 
arise a Quartermaster's Department. Although imperfectly 
created, it was the first legal recognition of an actual supply 
staff. Military agents were supplanted by a quartermaster- 
general, with rank of brigadier, four deputy quartermasters 
and an elastic number of assistants, depending upon the require- 
ments of public service. The act itself looked very well, but 
it had so many "riders" pertaining to the ordnance and sub- 
sistence branches that confusion and delay resulted. Some one 
said it should truly have been entitled "An act for the speedy 
enrichment of contractors and the periodical starvation of the 
troops of the United States." But it was at least a step toward 
making an organized supply department. 
Finding out for certain that it could not raise the army 
it had voted, Congress now hedged on its original idea by re- 
ducing the period of enlistment for 50 per cent of the volun- 
teers to eighteen months. Finally it threw up its hands alto- 
gether and passed its responsibility to the States by asking the 
Governors to have 80,000 officers and men ready to march at 
a moment's notice. What came of this request will be seen 
later. 
The signal legislation of this period was the improvement 
that Congress, under the direction of President Madison, made 
in the Military Academy. The authorized number of cadets 
was raised to a maximum of 250. The Corps of Engineers 
was increased by 6 officers. A force of 94 enlisted men was 
Fei. 6 
1818 
March 88 
1818 
April 8 
1818 
April 10 
1818 
April 89 
1818 
2 lieutenant colonels, 2 majors, 2 adjutants, 1 quartermaster, 1 paymaster, 
1 surgeon, 2 surgeon's mates, 2 sergeant majors, 2 quartermaster sergeants, 
and 2 senior musicians." 
Other sections allowed 2 major generals and 5 brigadiers, and fixed the 
pay at the prevailing rate for all except the major general who was to 
receive $200 for pay, $20 for forage, and 15 rations per month. THE ARMY IN NAME 
119 
formed into a "company of bombardiers, sappers and miners," 
who afterwards gave actual demonstrations to the cadets. 
The instructional staff was augmented by a professor of 
natural and experimental philosophy with rank and pay of 
lieutenant colonel, a professor of mathematics, and a professor 
of the art of engineering, the last two with rank and pay of 
major.2 Cadets were placed under the established discipline 
of academy regulations, were to be organized by the superim 
tendent into companies, were to be encamped three months out 
of the year and were to be "trained and taught all the duties of 
a private, noncommissioned officer and officer." Although this 
uplift to the Academy was not to bear fruit in this war, it was 
to be a boon to the next one and to the interval between. 
The eve of war saw another development in the staff. The 
Ordnance Department made its appearance. Its head was to 
be styled commissary-general of ordnance, and to have the 
rank of colonel, an allowance of $500 a year and 4 rations 
a day for clerks. He was to have associated with him 1 assis- 
tant with rank of major, 4 with rank of captain and as many 
with rank of second lieutenant as the President saw fit to give. 
The first activity of the year was instituted in the west 
before war was declared. Colonel William Hull, a valiant 
officer during the Revolution and then governor of Michigan, 
was requested by the Secretary of War to take command of the 
western forces, to accept a commission as brigadier general and 
to lead the troops to Detroit. Well knowing the situation and 
the kind of untrained men upon whom he had to rely, he refused 
the appointment. But upon being importuned later, he ac- 
cepted. Late in May he arrived at Dayton, Ohio, and took 
charge of 1,200 militia who were hopelessly ill-supplied. With 
these he reached Urbana, where he was joined by the Fourth 
Infantry of regulars, numbering only 300 effectives. From 
there he started to cut his way through 200 miles of wilder- 
ness. With a large proportion of undisciplined, hungry men 
who had to be urged along often at the point of the bayonet by 
May 14 
1812 
June 10 
1812 
2 If these professors were selected from the Corps of Engineers instead 
of the line they were to retain their rank in that corps but to have the 
same pay and emoluments as those of the rank indicated for the professor- 
ships. 120 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the regulars, he attempted to work north and at the same time 
protect his rear. Naturally, the progress was slow when he had 
to cut roads, build bridges and garrison the blockhouses he con- 
structed. 
In the east General Dearborn, who was in command of the 
army, could not obtain even poor troops. When he called for 
some of the 80,000 the President had requisitioned, in con- 
formity with the recent law, he was met with a cold rebuff. 
The governors of Massachusetts and Connecticut would not, on 
the express order of the Secretary of War, send a single soldier. 
They stated that since their particular states were in no danger 
of invasion they could not comply, and then rested their case on 
constitutional nicety and legal minutiae. 
General Hull was in almost as awkward a position as Gen- 
eral Dearborn. The authorities in Washington, without any 
realization of his obstacles, were urging him by heavy packets 
of correspondence to hasten his advance to Detroit. Such gov- 
ernmental heckling was so usual it would not here be com- 
mented upon, were it not for a blunder of criminal omission. 
Of the declaration of war no mention was made in those letters 
carefully sent by messengers. That vital information was 
intrusted to the public mails and to such conveyance as chance 
in a rugged country provided. As a consequence the com- 
mander of our army in the field did not know of the existence 
of a state of war until July 2, several days after the Canadian 
government had been discreetly apprised of the fact by our 
Secretary of the Treasury. Such conscientious consideration 
of the enemy to the exclusion of our own troops did not raise 
the spirits of General Hull's force. 
Once the struggle had started Congress realized that 
although an army scattered in little detachments might resist 
savages successfully with conglomerate regimental organiza- 
tions, some sort of uniformity was necessary to make them 
operate as a team. Accordingly the strength was set at 10 
companies per regiment, more nearly conforming to Steuben's 
idea.8 Why such an obvious detail had been ignored in peace, 
admits of but one answer. 
June 
1812 
War de- 
clared 
June 18 
1812 
June 26 
1812 
s ' ' Sec. 1. That the infantry of the army of the United States shall 
consist of twenty-five regiments, and that a regiment shall consist of one THE ARMY IN NAME 
121 
A little later other legislation gave the President authority 
to appoint two more brigadier generals, to place federal officers 
over volunteers and to confer honorary brevet rank for over 
ten years' service in any one grade and for "meritorious con- 
duct." This attempt to better the officer personnel without 
spending money proved to be more harmful than helpful. The 
honor was empty and rank became confused. 
Hull finally arrived at Detroit. When a few hundred 
Michigan militia had joined him, he crossed into Canada in 
spite of the fact that 180 of the Ohio volunteers refused to 
accompany him. 
In the vicinity of Sandwich he spent about a month supply- 
ing himself off the country, trying to win over the inhabitants 
and seeking to get some howitzers and cannon which he lacked. 
Finally he decided to attack the British post at Malden. But 
on the eve of the venture, being apparently impressed with the 
caliber of his troops and the fall of Michimackinac,4 the key to 
the trade routes, he returned to Detroit with his whole force. 
After he had placed his troops behind fortifications of the 
strongest type, about 1,300 British and Indians threatened to 
attack him. Though well armed and equipped, Hull surren- 
dered without any show of resistance. Detroit fell and the 
northwest passed into the hands of the British. What the 
British commander thought of the militia at the capitulation is 
shown by the ease with which he allowed them to go home, 
whereas he took the regulars as prisoners to Montreal, where, 
after many hardships, they were finally exchanged. Much has 
July 6 
1812 
July 12 
1812 
Aug. 16 
1812 
colonel, one lieutenant colonel, one major, one adjutant, one paymaster, one 
quartermaster sergeant, two principal musicians, and ten companies. 
' ' See. 2. That each company shall consist of one captain, one first 
lieutenant, one second lieutenant, one ensign, four sergeants, six corporals, 
two musicians, and ninety privates. 
' ' Sec. 4. That each troop of cavalry, or light dragoons, shall consist 
of one captain, one first lieutenant, one second lieutenant, one cornet, four 
sergeants, six corporals, two musicians, one master of the sword, one sad- 
dler, one farrier, one blacksmith, and sixty-four privates; and the pay and 
emoluments of a master of the sword shall be the same as those of a riding- 
master, and the pay and emoluments of a blacksmith shall be the same as 
those of a farrier. 
(June 26, 1812.) 
Mackinaw, a regular army frontier post about 270 miles northwest of 
Detroit. The small garrison completely unaware of the existence of war 
had been on July 17 surprised and captured by a Canadian force familiar 
with the state of hostility. 122 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
been written of this disgraceful capitulation both in condemna- 
tion and defense, but whatever has been said on either side 
has never been at variance with one fact: the government 
trusted to senility in command and inexperience in rank and 
file-about all that it had allowed itself to have. 
The operations of other American commands during the 
remainder of the year were almost as futile. Along the Niagara 
frontier General Stephen Van Rensselaer had been attempting 
to collect a central army. About this time it numbered alto- 
gether 691 men-unpaid, unfed, un-everything as was the cus- 
tom. It, therefore, had to wait until later for any activity. At 
Ogdensburg General Jacob Brown of the New York militia had 
driven off from behind earthworks a superior force of British, 
but the numbers engaged were so small as to make the effect on 
the war very little. In the west, General Hopkins with 4,000 
Kentucky militia attempted to punish the hostile Indians along 
the Wabash and Illinois rivers. The state volunteers assembled 
at Fort Harrison with enthusiasm. But on the march the hard- 
ships on these undisciplined men brought insubordination and 
disobedience. In five days they had abandoned their General 
and dispersed to their homes. 
General Van Rensselaer having later collected at Lewiston 
about 2,500 New York militia and 450 regulars-mostly 
recruits-planned to take the heights of Queenstown across the 
river. His idea was to send over 600 of the best troops first. 
But boats seemed to be lacking at the last minute so that only 
about 225 made the crossing. This little force gallantly at- 
tacked and took the heights. There they withstood charge after 
charge throughout the day, vainly hoping for reenforcements. 
Overpowered at last by superior numbers, most of them were 
either killed or captured. During these terrible hours an over- 
whelming force of American militia on the New York side 
looked on calmly at the slaughter. Tomes says: 
"They were ordered, threatened and entreated. The militia, 
nevertheless, were not disposed to move. As one half of the 
boats had drifted away or been swamped in the confusion, the 
men pleaded the want of means to carry them over. It was 
then suggested that they should cross in detachments; and as 
Sept.l 
1812 
Oct. 10 
1812 
Oct. 11 
1812 
Oct. 13 
1812 THE ARMY IN NAME 
123 
the general became still more urgent in his entreaties, he so far 
prevailed, as to induce a militia company handsomely equipped 
to consent to go. Just as they were entering the boats, however, 
a firing was heard from the opposite side of the river; and these 
gallantly arrayed soldiers halted and firmly stood their ground, 
declaring they would not cross. Moreover, they took occasion 
to express their scruples about invading foreign territory and 
affirmed that they, as militia, had constitutional objections 
which no general could induce them to waive on that occasion." 
Corporal Stubbs in his diary seems to corroborate this ac- 
count from a different standpoint, the standpoint of the gallant 
fellows on the Canadian shore: 
" . . . But we were now in our turn unfortunate, for one 
half of our army was yet on the other side of the river, nor 
would the cowardly dogs come over to assist us when they saw 
the d-d red coats cutting us up like slain venson!-The 
enemy now doubled their numbers while every shot diminished 
ours, in truth they got the better of us, and again got possession 
of their batteries altho we let fly showers of ball and buck shot 
into their very teeth and eyes! AH! the poor yankee lads, this 
was a sorry moment for ye! they dropped my brave companions 
like wild pigeons, while their balls whistled like a northwest 
wind through a dry can brake!-our Commander ordered a 
retreat, but nature never formed any of our family you know 
for runners, so I wadled along as well as I could behind, but the 
redcoat villians overhaul'd me, and took me prisoner! but not 
until I had a fare shot at their head commander General Brock, 
who galloping his horse after my retreating comrads, bellowed 
out to 'um like a wounded buffalo to surrender, but I levelled 
my old fatheful bess, which never disappointed me in so fare 
a mark, and I heard no more of his croaking afterwards-of 
1,000 which crossed over but a few escaped biting the dust!- 
As for porr me, I expected they'd kill and scalp me, but after 
stareing at me as if I had been born with two heads, and 
enquiring of what nation I was, and from what part of the 
world I came, their Colonel ordered me liberated, who said to 
me, 'old daddy, your age and odd appearance induces me now 124 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
to set you at liberty, return home to your family and think no 
more of invading us!'-This I promised him I would do, but 
I didn't mean so for I was determined I wouldn't give up the 
chase so, but at 'um again." 
So Queenstown added another humiliation to our arms and 
revealed the shocking fact that untrained men would not even 
go to the rescue of their stricken comrades. An effort in the 
west did not turn out much better. General Harrison tried to 
lead a column into Canada. His call for recruits brought the 
quick response that is usual with men who know nothing of the 
hardships of campaign. About 10,000 militia of Kentucky, 
Tennessee, Virginia, and Pennsylvania started to plod through 
the cold swamps of the north. A slight fray with the Indians 
was the test of their endurance. Some deliberately returned to 
camp and others to their homes. The remainder stayed only at 
the earnest entreaties of their officers. At any rate the num- 
bers dwindled to such an extent that the work of the year for 
these troops stopped. 
General Dearborn, the commander in chief of the northern 
department, had 6,300 troops along the northern boundary. 
With 2,200 at Sackett's Harbor, under the immediate command 
of General Smythe,5 and 5,000 at Plattsburg he controlled an 
army over six times as strong in man power as all the Canadian 
forces. Had they been trained, combined and hurled as a single 
unit against the enemy, one campaign would have sufficed for 
the war. But General Dearborn was satisfied with fractions 
and small ones at that. He reserved for himself the force at 
Plattsburg. Although the 5,000 there were sufficient in them- 
selves to take Montreal, he was content with using only 1,500 
under Colonels Pike and Clarke for an expedition against a 
small British post on the river La Colle. Subdividing this 
command still further into two detachments he sent them out in 
the nighttime. One drove the small force of Indians and 
Canadians away without capturing them. The other, hearing 
the firing, mistook the assaulting troops for the enemy. The 
Oct.-Nov. 
1812 
Nov. SO 
181S 
5 General Van Rensselaer had resigned in chagrin after Queenstown. 
General Smythe was his successor. THE ARMY IN NAME 
125 
resulting picture discloses two American commanders firing 
into each other effectively while the enemy escaped. 
General Dearborn and his troops now being weary went into 
winter quarters at Plattsburg. 
General Smythe remained the one hope of the year. So 
far he had been content with issuing soul-stirring proclamations 
to the surrounding inhabitants. "Volunteers!" he had written, 
"I esteem your generous and patriotic motives. . . You will show 
the eternal infamy that awaits the man who, having come 
within sight of the enemy, basely shrinks in the moment of trial. 
Soldiers of every corps! it is in your power to retrieve the honor 
of your country." 
By means of such turgid outflow, he had induced at least 
4,500 men to come to him. After the repose of General Dear- 
born, he burst into fresh torrents of words, plainly admitting 
the defects of previous commanders and his own eminent fitness 
to gain the victory. 
Having collected at Black Rock seventy rowboats and num- 
bers of bateaux, he announced the exact date of invasion to be 
November 28. On the eve of the appointed day, he sent over 
the river under cover of the night a small advance guard which 
spiked the enemy's cannon and returned in safety. 
The next day 2,000 men under General P. B. Porter took to 
the boats early in the morning preparatory to rowing across the 
stream. General Smythe with the remaining number (over 
3,000) paraded in full view of the enemy's forts. To the hostile 
cannonade his batteries replied with a fire of shells and red-hot 
shot. All seemed to be ready for attack. But throughout the 
morning the troops waited for the order to proceed. In the 
afternoon General Smythe, without explanation, gave instruc- 
tions for the vanguard to disembark and for all to return to 
their quarters. 
So openly resentful were some of the men who had been 
wheedled into leaving their firesides, that the General promised 
to invade Canada at a later date. 
Accordingly three days afterwards the command was drawn 
up as before. Again the boats were entered and again the 
troops waited for the order to proceed. This time the General 
was conducting a council of war. He had forgotten up until 
Dec. 1 
1812 126 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
that time that an invasion was not to be undertaken without 
the approval of his principal officers. His real reason was that 
now that some of his troops had refused to enter the boats he 
was mistrustful of the stability of his men. At any rate, as 
afternoon approached, he again ordered the troops to disembark 
and to be informed that the invasion was given up for the 
season. 
Thompson says: 
"The scene of discontent which followed was without a 
parallel. Four thousand men without order or restraint indig- 
nantly discharged their muskets in every direction. The per- 
son of the commanding general was threatened. Upward of 
1,000 men of all classes of society had suddenly left their homes 
and families, and had made great sacrifices to obey the call of 
their country under General Smythe's invitation." 
Scorned and hunted, Smythe finally took refuge in his own 
home in Virginia. Having "come within sight of the enemy" 
and "basely shrunk" he became the victim of his own words. 
On the other hand, he possibly had a just fear that the militia 
would desert him at the last moment. 
The closing year saw the militia dispersed, the regulars in 
winter quarters and Congress again casting about to get sol- 
diers. Legislative efforts resulted in raising the pay on a scale 
ranging from $12 for a sergeant major to $8 for each "private, 
driver, bombardier, mattross, sapper and miner." But the act 
was a little late to do much good. 
At the opening of 1813 a detachment of General Harrison's 
force, commanded by General Winchester, made its way 
through a two-foot snow and high drifts on its way to the rapids 
of the Maumee. The men, having harnessed themselves to 
sledges in order to transport their own baggage, covered the 
required distance of forty miles in ten days. One soldier 
described his difficulties on this march as follows: 
"Our tents were struck, and in half an hour we were on the 
road. I will candidly confess that, on that day, I regretted 
being a soldier. We marched thirty miles under an incessant 
Dec. 12 
1812 
Jan. 
1813 THE ARMY IN NAME 
127 
rain (on the day before the snow had fallen so deep as to be up 
to a man's waist), and I am afraid you will doubt my veracity 
when I tell you that in eight miles of the best of the road, it 
took us over the knees and often to the middle. The Black 
Swamp would have been considered impassable by all but men 
determined to surmount every difficulty to accomplish the object 
of their march. The water was about six inches deep on the ice, 
which was very rotten, often breaking through to the depth of 
four or five feet. The same night we encamped on very wet 
ground, but the driest that could be found, the rain still con- 
tinuing. It was with difficulty we could raise fires; we had no 
tents; our clothes were wet; no axes; nothing to cook with, and 
very little to eat. A brigade of pack-horses being near us, we 
procured from them some flour; killed a hog; our bread was 
baked in the ashes, and our pork we broiled on the coals-a 
sweeter meal I never partook of. When we went to sleep, it was 
on two logs laid close to each other, to keep our bodies from the 
damp ground." 
While gathering supplies 6 from the surrounding country, 
General Winchester was informed that the Americans at 
Frenchtown thirty miles away were in need of succor. Aban- 
doning much of his work of provisioning the northwestern 
army, he sent Colonel Lewis with 550 men at once to the town. 
This force with reenforcements of 150 men attacked with such 
vigor that it drove the British and Indians away. Nor could 
the enemy retake the position after repeated assaults. 
But discipline and training tell more sometimes in sealing 
a victory than in gaining it. After the enemy had apparently 
left the field, the inflated officers and soldiers neglected all cau- 
tion. WThen General Winchester with another detachment of 
350 had joined them, they became so reckless that they straggled 
over the country at will and established no outpost. In this con- 
dition they were surprised in the early morning by about a 
thousand British and Indians, who had arrived within gunshot 
before they were discovered by the Americans. 
Jan. 18 
1813 
Jan. 20 
1813 
Jan. 22 
1813 
6 Had not General Harrison made himself a glorified supply officer in 
this campaign the soldiers would have had nothing to eat. 128 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Jan. 23 
1813 
Iii the action that followed, half the command was easily 
captured by the enemy because it had taken up a hasty and 
untenable position, and the next day the whole of General Win- 
Chester's previously successful force was surrendered.7 
Legislation during this inconsequential excursion was exert- 
ing itself just as effectually; $24 in addition to the existing 
bounty of $16, three months' pay and 160 acres of land wTere 
offered to a recruit, and $4 to the officer who procured him. To 
each regular regiment there was added 1 major and to each 
troop or company 1 third lieutenant and 1 extra sergeant. A 
member of the militia was allowed to enlist in the regular army; 
heretofore, by existing law, he had been prohibited from so 
doing. Twenty extra regiments were to be raised for one year 
and 6 major generals and 6 brigadier generals were added to 
the army. 
The appointees to the higher grade were Harrison, Wilkin- 
son, Hampton, Lewis, Davie and Ogden; to the lower, Izard, 
Pike, Winder, M'Arthur, Cass and Howard. 
The written strength of the regular army wTas now 44 regi- 
ments of infantry, 4 regiments of artillery, 2 regiments of 
dragoons, 1 regiment of rifles, 1 corps of engineers and the 
staff. It is doubtful if a sixth of this 58,000 men was ever 
recruited. 
A New System of Discipline for infantry being adopted, the 
drill of that time was returned to the French system. Com- 
panies and platoons were formed in '3 ranks at 2 feet distance. 
A regiment was organized into 1 or 2 battalions, depending on 
the number of companies. A platoon consisted of 32 men and 
a section of 8 men. In wheeling, the front rank moved on a 
circle, the middle rank on a "less circle to the front" and the 
rear rank on a "circle still less." The maneuvers were, in 
general, so complicated that they were difficult for the recruit 
to master. 
Smith's Artillery Tactics conformed more nearly to Steu- 
ben's principles. A company of 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 4 ser- 
geants, 4 corporals, 6 gunners, 6 bombardiers and 32 mattrosses 
paraded in 1 rank; a company of double that size, in 2 ranks. 
Jan. 20 
1813 
Jan. 29 
1813 
Feb. 24 
1818 
7 Killed, 397; wounded, 27; prisoners, 522. THE ARMY IN NAME 
129 
In wheeling, receiving and manning the piece at the park and 
in limbering and unlimbering the pieces, the movements were 
precisely worked out in detail. The batteries were taught to 
fire while advancing and retreating, to move with either the 
right or left in front and to "display" pieces either to the left 
or right. Chisel marks were placed on the "base ring" and 
"swelling of the muzzle" of the gun in order to get a proper 
line of sight and elevation for firing at a target. The system 
for so doing was elaborate. Because the guns were not uni- 
formly made, each piece had to have its own chisel marks, care- 
fully and mathematically worked out by the battery officers, or 
the shooting -with cannons would be ineffective. It is needless 
to say in this undisciplined fracas that the artillery did not 
figure greatly. 
One of the very few land successes of this war was an expe- 
dition led by General Pike8 against York (Toronto). With 
about 1,700 picked men he attacked a stronghold garrisoned by 
about 850 Canadians and Indians, mostly militia. Under a 
trained officer, the Americans advanced bravely and would have 
taken the fortress without much loss had not a magazine within 
the works of the enemy accidentally exploded. The havoc and 
death resulting on both sides wTere tremendous. General Pike 
and about 280 of his men wTere killed. But since the United 
States troops were the first to rally they charged the place and 
took it. With greater numbers and more training than the 
enemy, our forces gave a good account of themselves. 
Shortly after this victory the War Office printed the Mili- 
tary Laws and Rules and Regulations for the Armies of the 
United States. The initial appearance of such a work was the 
forerunner of the present Army Regulations. At that time it 
comprised information such as the rank of regiments and offi- 
cers, duties of the staff departments, rules governing promotion 
and other instructional matter. The following extract marks 
an advance in prescribing punishments: 
"And be it further enacted, That in lieu of whipping, as 
provided by several of the rules and articles of war, as now 
April 27 
1813 
May 1 
1813 
s Zebulon Pike, for whom the famous peak was named. 130 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
used and practiced, stoppage of pay, confinement, and depriva- 
tion of part of the rations, shall be substituted in such manner 
as is hereinafter provided." 
Just how much this substitution was observed will be seen later. 
The Army Register appeared also. It contained a complete 
list both of regular and volunteer officers and showed a con- 
glomerate mixture of elements making up the army: 1 regi- 
ment of artillery; 2 regiments of dragoons; 1st, 2d and 3d regi- 
ments of light artillery; 25 regiments of regular infantry; a 
rifle regiment; 14 regiments of one-year infantry; 5 regiments 
of volunteer infantry for the war; 12 companies of rangers; 
4 regiments, 1 battalion and 1 company of "United States vol- 
unteers" and 5 companies of "sea fencibles." It also showed 
the country to be divided for military administration into nine 
districts with a brigadier general in charge of each. 
The uniform regulations were issued in most specific form. 
Just how many inches a button should be placed from the bot- 
tom of a coat was carefully shown. Blue was prescribed for 
infantry and artillery. Any ornament such as red collars and 
cuffs or lace was forbidden. Leather caps were substituted for 
felt.9 Generals in dress uniform were to be distinguished by 
cocked hats and other officers by the long chapeaux similar to 
the one worn in recent years by the naval officer in full dress. 
Cotton pompons were substituted for feathers. The standing 
collar was to reach the tip of the ear, and the coats themselves 
were to be decorated with horizontal tape, buttons and blind 
buttonholes. 
The firelock was practically the same as the one used during 
the Revolution. Most of the powder was obtained from Ken- 
tucky where it was greatly needed and largely manufactured. 
Although another arsenal was established at Rome, New York, 
the making of arms and ammunition for the army was mainly 
carried on by private plants. 
In the west the British and Indians to the number of over 
2,000 were laying siege to Fort Meigs which had been built and 
was now defended by Harrison. When he heard that General 
May 1 
1813 
6 The tall ' ' tar-bucket ' ' seen at a cadet full-dress parade. THE ARMY IN NAME 
131 
Clay with about 1,200 Kentuckians was coming to his rescue 
he determined on an offensive. A part of the approaching 
reenforcements was directed to spike the enemy's guns and 
immediately join the main body under Harrison. But the 800 
untrained men, after having wrought the necessary harm to the 
hostile artillery, disobeyed orders by attacking the enemy. The 
consequence was that they were surrounded and over 80 per 
cent of them either killed or captured. General Harrison being 
left in the lurch, could do no more than carry on a passive de- 
fense. The hostile Indians having no liking for siege warfare 
soon caused the abandonment of the investment of Fort Meigs, 
much to the unexpected relief of the American troops. 
In the north General Dearborn, against little resistance, 
occupied Fort George and other smaller strongholds on the 
Niagara frontier. During these operations Generals Winder 
and Chandler were taken prisoners, and Colonel Boerstler, 
thinking on slight cause that he was surrounded, immediately 
surrendered himself with 542 men. 
However, General Brown did repulse a force from Canada 
at Sackett's Harbor. The defensive action of his troops may be 
judged by this officer's official report of the affair: 
"My orders were that the troops were to lie close and reserve 
their fire until the enemy had approached so near that every 
shot might hit its object. It is, however, impossible to execute 
such orders with raw troops, unaccustomed to subordination. 
My orders were, in this case, disobeyed; the whole line fired, 
and not without effect; but in the moment while I was con- 
templating this, to my utter astonishment, they rose from their 
cover and fled. Colonel Mills fell gallantly in brave, but vain 
endeavor to stop his men. I was, personally, more fortunate. 
Gathering together about one hundred militia, under the imme- 
diate command of Captain McNitt, we threw ourselves on the 
rear of the enemy's left flank, and, I trust, did some execution. 
It was at this last moment that the regulars under command of 
Lieutenant-Colonel Backus, Light Dragoons, first engaged the 
enemy, nor was it long before they defeated them. Hurrying 
to this point of action I found the battle still raging, but with 
obvious advantage to our side." 
May 5 
1813 
May 9 
1813 
May 27 
1813 
May 29 
1813 132 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
About a month after this General Dearborn on account of 
illness requested to be relieved. General Wilkinson was chosen 
to succeed him. Age and infirmity gave place to age and 
fatuity. The result hereafter treated should not be surprising. 
While the larger forces were being collected and demoral- 
ized, some smaller units of the regulars were giving good ac- 
counts of themselves. For example, in the west a young officer 
by the name of Groghan with 160 regulars was attacked at Fort 
Stephenson by over twice that number of British. By resolu- 
tion, foresight and uncommon bravery he and his men drove 
off the enemy. His only cannon was a six-pounder gun loaded 
with slugs and grapeshot, which he used very ingeniously. The 
effect on the surrounding community was a discreet withdrawal 
of hostile marauders. 
In contrast to this action was an affair in another part of 
the country. The Creek Indians in the south were brandishing 
their red war clubs. Fort Mims, about 40 miles northeast of 
Mobile, was garrisoned by about 240 Mississippi militia, who 
with about 300 women and children occupied the stockade. 
Although many well-founded reports of a coming Indian at- 
tack should have warned the inmates, the news made little im- 
pression on these untrained men. At 11:00 o'clock in the morn- 
ing 600 savages came within ten yards of the stronghold without 
discovery. Swarming through the open gate they succeeded in 
killing about 400 souls. As a result the whole southeast was in 
a state of fury and panic. 
While the south was in chaos over this unnecessary massacre 
General Harrison undertook an offensive in the north. Having 
managed to collect, feed, hold, and transport to the southern 
side of Lake Erie about 7,000 troops of whom about one fifth 
were regulars, he landed on the Canadian shore only to find the 
British General Proctor fleeing before his superior force. The 
Americans proceeded to take Malden and Sandwich without a 
skirmish. At the Thames River they caught up with the enemy, 
consisting of 800 British and about 1,500 Indians, who were 
defensively disposed between the banks and the marshes. A 
cavalry charge by the mounted Kentuckians and the killing of 
Tecumseh gave the greatly superior force of Americans the vic- 
tory. However, the fighting was hard and credit should be 
July 6 
1813 
Aug. 2 
1813 
Aug. 30 
1813 
Sept. 25 
1813 
Oct. 5 
1813 THE ARMY IN NAME 
133 
given the partially disciplined troops of Harrison, who stood 
their ground well. 
Since the massacre at Fort Mims in the south, General 
Andrew Jackson had been at work collecting militia at Hunts- 
ville. In spite of petty interference by the Secretary of War, 
Armstrong,10 Jackson had been successful in rounding up about 
2,500 men. With these he started his march through Tennes- 
see toward the Coosa River. 
While General Jackson, with his arm in a sling, was thus 
moving at the head of his troops in the south, General Hampton 
near Lake Champlain, with about 5,000 freshly recruited men, 
and General Wilkinson at the foot of Lake Ontario, with about 
8,000, planned a joint invasion of Canada. Added to jealousies 
and bickerings between these two officers was the unwelcome 
presence of a third party, Armstrong, who had left Washington 
to meddle at the front. The troops were all recruits, even to 
the Fourth Regular Infantry whose trained men had been taken 
to Canada after Hull's surrender. Affairs were generally in 
disorder. Colonel Swift, the first graduate of the Military 
Academy, and then chief engineer of this army, on his arrival 
at Sackett's Harbor 
"found everything in a most disgraceful and deplorable condi- 
tion; no plan of campaign studied or definitely fixed; the 
enemy's positions unknown, and the St. Lawrence unexplored; 
supplies deficient through neglect or incompetency of the War 
Department; expense of transportation enormous, that of a 
single field-piece costing over a thousand dollars; our troops 
mostly recruits, and sick from eating contract provisions." 
In this chaos General Hampton marched quickly and 
eagerly on Montreal before Wilkinson would be able to gain 
honors. It looked as though the great force under Hampton 
would be able to consume the paltry 800 Canadian regulars at 
that place. But the British Commander took a chance on the 
quality of the United States troops. He played the old, simple 
trick of Gideon's Band. Distributing his buglers well over 
separated positions where they independently sounded their 
Oct. n 
1813 
Oct. 31 
1813 
Oct. 26 
1813 
io Author of the Newburgh addresses and member of the Conway Cabal. 134 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
calls, he led the American commander to believe that a large 
force was assembled. Although the barest common sense should 
have convinced Hampton that the British had less than 5,000 
men, he immediately withdrew and went into full retreat, 
thankful that the enemy did not pursue. Thus the Americans 
gave up without firing a shot. 
Meanwhile, Jackson in the south had arrived in the vicinity 
of the Indians' rendezvous. Having learned that the Creeks 
had posted themselves at the Tallasahatchee, he sent General 
Coffee with 900 mounted troops to destroy them. The natives 
were decoyed much as the men of Ai in the Bible. Enticed 
from their wigwams by a few interpreters, who fled before the 
savages, the Creeks found themselves suddenly in the midst of 
an overwhelming force of Americans who promptly exter- 
minated them. 
A few days later while Jackson's force was building Fort 
Strother, he was notified that another body of hostile Creeks 
was besieging friendly ones at Talladega. Not waiting for a 
moment he set out with 2,000 men. When he found the river 
too deep to ford, he crossed it by setting a foot soldier on a 
horse behind a mounted one. He thus succeeded in the dark 
in getting all his floundering soldiers on the other side. 
While he was reconnoitering the enemy's position and was 
resting his wearied troops who had marched all night, he was 
suddenly informed that General Cocke had called away Gen- 
eral White's column which Jackson was commanding and which 
was to protect his rear. Such ignorant meddling left Jackson 
completely cut off in the wilderness. In this predicament he 
did the only sensible thing. He immediately, in the nighttime 
prepared for the attack. Again following out the tactics of 
Joshua against the men of Ai he would have annihilated the 
savages, had it not been for the fact that some militia of 
Roberts' brigade gave way and Colonel Bradley, a recent sol- 
dier, refused to move forward because he claimed he need not 
fight until attacked. Even at that, the Indians were driven 
away with loss. Jackson's training and determination ac- 
counted for the flight of the hostile tribe. 
General Wilkinson in the north finally started his movement 
toward Canada. At Chrystler's farm near Williamsburg his 
Nov. 3 
1813 
Nov. 7,8 
1813 
Nov. 9 
1813 
Nov. 11 
1813 THE ARMY IN NAME 
135 
advance guard of about 1,600 men met a force of 800 British 
regulars. After two hours' fight, in which the Americans came 
off second best, his superior force retired to their boats. A few 
days later, having heard of Hampton's refusal to join him, he 
gave up the idea of invasion and went into winter quarters. 
Although 8,000 men were at the disposal of the American com- 
mander to meet no more than 2,000 British, he recoiled and 
sought comfort in blaming Hampton. 
Whereas the northeast found neither real leaders nor sol- 
diers, the south found a leader but few trained soldiers. Yet 
demoralization in both cases was evident. The speed of the 
march and the hunger of the ill-supplied camp was too much 
for Jackson's untried troops. When they attempted to leave 
him, he barred the path of the militia with muskets of the 
volunteers; and likewise the volunteers, with the militia. He 
had to resort finally to persuasion and promises. When only 
190 men consented to remain, he placed himself at the head of 
the departing troops and said he would go with them. But he 
made them promise that if provisions were met on the way 
they would return. When they did come up with a drove of 
cattle, nothing but a threat to shoot them down kept them with 
the colors. They then made the plea that their enlistments 
were expiring and that they should be allowed to go home. 
Several threats to open fire on the mutineers finally quelled 
their intention. 
After the complete subsidence of any aggressiveness on the 
part of the northern troops who had quailed before an inferior 
enemy, the Canadians openly accepted the tacit invitation to 
pillage the shores of the United States. Our lack of training 
and discipline was to waste more lives and property. The 
winter coming on, the armies of Hampton and Wilkinson 
dwindled to several thousand men. General McClure wantonly 
abandoned Fort George which had been won at so much sacri- 
fice; and then for no legitimate reason burned Niagara, thereby 
making homeless several thousand innocent inhabitants during 
a cold winter. In or about the army there was little spirit or 
system. Small bands of British took Fort Niagara with 
scarcely any opposition, occupied Lewiston, Youngstown and 
Manchester and burned Black Rock and Buffalo. 
Nov. 12 
1813 
Dec. 10 
1813 
Dec. 19 
1813 
Dec. 30 
1813 136 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Thus the year passed out with very little save disgrace for 
the undisciplined and ill-managed American soldiery. 
General Cass wrote to the Secretary of War as follows: 
"I have passed this day the ruins of Buffalo; it exhibits a 
scene of distress and destruction such as I have never before 
witnessed. . . . From the most careful examination, I am 
satisfied that not more than 650 men, of regulars, militia and 
Indians landed at Black Rock. To oppose these, we had from 
2,500 to 3,000 militia. All, except a very few of them, behaved 
in the most cowardly manner. They fled without discharging a 
musket." 
In the south General Jackson was no better off for troops 
than the northern generals. Bereft of all the soldiers of the 
year before, he was reduced to 900 new raw militia. However, 
he did have some experienced officers. With their aid he was 
able to lead his troops against the Indians, whose detachments 
on two occasions he put to flight. 
By this time it was so difficult to get recruits that the $16 
and 3 months' pay for enlistment were raised to $124 cash, of 
which $100 was to be paid immediately upon the soldier's entry 
into the service. Men did not care to become a part of a dis- 
graceful mob. The term of enlistment for the 14 regiments of 
one-year men was raised to five years. By way of increase, 3 
regiments of riflemen, consisting of 10 companies (each com- 
pany having 1 captain, 1 first, 1 second and 1 third lieutenant, 
1 ensign, 5 sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 musicians and 90 pri- 
vates) were also authorized. 
General Wilkinson having prolonged the inactivity of his 
4,000 men longer than was seemly, determined now to prevent 
the British from entering Lake Champlain by the river Sorel. 
Accordingly his force marched to attack 200 of the enemy in a 
fortified mill called La Colle. Trees had been felled across the 
Americans' path. The mire was so heavy in the woods that the 
large guns broke down. The lighter artillery could scarcely be 
dragged. The men when they reached their destination had to 
stand in snow a foot deep and fire through a forest so dense that 
the enemy was screened from view. On the other hand, the 
Jan. 12 
1814 
J an. 21,22 
1814 
Jan. 27 
1814 
Feb. 10 
1814 
March 30 
1814 THE ARMY IN NAME 
137 
British with deadly aim wrought so much havoc that Wilkinson 
decided to withdraw, going back later to Plattsburg where he 
failed to renew hostilities; 4,000 Americans withdrew before 
200 of the enemy. Although Wilkinson received so much 
blame for this that he was forced to retire, it should be noted 
in his favor that he had found it necessary during the engage- 
ment to place a sergeant behind each platoon with orders to 
shoot down any man attempting to flee. 
Congress during these flights of soldiery was ever ready to 
vote splendid organizations. The first, second and third artil- 
lery regiments were reorganized into 12 battalions with 6 lieu- 
tenant colonels in command. Each company was to have 1 
captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant and 1 third lieu- 
tenant, 5 sergeants, 1 quartermaster's sergeant, 8 corporals, 4 
musicians and 100 privates. The 2 regiments of dragoons were 
combined into 1 consisting of 8 troops. Each troop was to have 
1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 cornet, 5 
sergeants, 8 corporals, 1 riding master, 1 master of the sword, 
2 trumpeters, 1 farrier, 1 blacksmith, 1 saddler and 96 privates. 
Officers were given allowances for "waiter" or servant hire. A 
major general was entitled to wages for four and the officer 
personnel of a company to three. No soldier from the line was 
permitted to act as a waiter. An attempt was also made to 
equalize promotions by an adjustment of the relative rank of 
officers. For the first time major generals in the selection of 
their aides were confined to captains or subalterns of the line, 
and brigadiers to subalterns. 
Theoretically, the army at this time consisted of 44 regi- 
ments of infantry, the corps of artillery, 1 regiment of light 
artillery, 1 regiment of dragoons, 4 regiments of rifles, the corps 
of engineers, the rangers and the sea fencibles. 
After an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the post of 
Mackinaw, when our forces acted as ignorantly as Braddock 
and were slaughtered by the enemy with as much ease as the 
"venson" of which Corporal Stubbs spoke, the operations of the 
north concentrated themselves on the force of General Brown. 
About 3,500 men had been collected at Buffalo in the early 
spring and summer under the direct supervision of Brown, 
Scott and Ripley. After two years of war the training and 
March 30 
1814 
April 1 
1814 138 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
discipline that had been discarded as lost arts after the Revolu- 
tion were brought from their hiding places. These young gen- 
erals personally and studiously taught and trained their men, 
giving those rudiments whose knowledge would have saved 
many lives in the preceding years of this war, and incidentally 
have gained the aim of the United States. 
When these troops were sufficiently able to handle them- 
selves they were taken by boat to Fort Erie which surrendered 
without resistance. They then pushed a detachment of the 
enemy over fifteen miles to the Chippewa and there engaged a 
force of 5,000. A bold attack, complete response to trained 
officers, the use of the bayonet, with which the Americans were 
now completely armed, drove the superior numbers of the 
Canadians from the field. 
Afterward General Scott in pushing across the Chippewa 
was practically hemmed in by overwhelming odds. His force 
not only attacked and held its own, but General Brown dis- 
played uncommon teamwork in marching to Scott's aid. When 
darkness stopped the battle of Lundy's Lane the British had 
sustained more losses than the Americans. The bravery and 
skill of this action can be determined from the following: 
"All that remained of the brigade after that terrible conflict 
did not exceed 220 men-the Ninth, Eleventh and Twenty- 
second regiments consolidated under Major Leavenworth, not 
altogether 100. Many of the cartridges with which the Ameri- 
cans fired, when attacked on the hill, were taken from the car- 
tridge boxes of the English lying dead around them. Men and 
officers, after five hours' constant fighting, were completely ex- 
hausted, and many almost fainting with thirst. There was no 
water nearer than the Chippewa." 
A small force of trained soldiers had met superior numbers 
on hostile soil and won victories. Although compelled on ac- 
count of its size to retire from the Canadian shore after the 
siege of Fort Erie,11 it nevertheless had saved depredations in 
the United States and given a distinct setback to the boldness 
July 4 
1814 
July 25 
1814 
ii The 1st Regular Infantry was present at this siege. THE ARMY IN NAME 
139 
of the enemy. A short continuance of such efficiency on the 
part of the army would have ended the struggle. 
But it was very hard to get Americans to train, as will be 
seen by the coming experiences of men dressed in soldier's 
uniform. The crowning disgrace of the war was yet to take 
place. 
In the Tenth Military District12 which had just been 
formed, little anxiety had been felt over 3,000 British troops 
who had been hovering about in the Chesapeake for over a year. 
A large force of trained and hostile British soldiers was within 
modern artillery range of the nation's capital. A dilatory 
circular was finally issued by our government calling upon the 
Governors for 93,500 men. A dribbling argument as to the 
number of troops to be employed occupied several weeks, the 
Secretary of War contending that not over 3,000 should be 
called out. General Winder saw no reason why 4,000 militia 
could not do the work. A state of restless recruiting resulted. 
During this time the British were marching uninterruptedly 
through the very heart of the country and heading directly for 
Washington. Just outside of that city at the little town of 
Bladensburg, 5,400 American militia, 400 regulars and 600 
sailors and marines were finally collected. Indeed, they were 
slung into camp just a few hours before they were called upon 
to do battle with the approaching enemy. Tomes has described 
the conditions of the camp as follows: 
"While their leaders were stupid with perplexity, the sol- 
diers were wild with disorder. A veteran officer declared that 
the camp resembled a race-field, and that it was as noisy as a 
fair. The militia and the sailors, overflowing with drink, were 
boisterous with mirth and quarrel; and the countersign was 
given so badly by the unsoldierly sentinels, that it could be 
heard at a distance of fifty yards." 
As the enemy was nearing this American assemblage, the 
President borrowed a pair of dueling pistols from the Secretary 
July 4 
1814 
Aug. 24 
1814 
12 It consisted of Maryland, District of Columbia and part of Virginia 
now separated from the former 5th District. 140 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of the Treasury, who felt he had better not go, and then accom- 
panied the Secretary of War and General Winder to the pro- 
posed battlefield. Aroused to the fact that the British were 
really coming, these men of state, since they could almost hear 
the rifles of the enemy, hurried from the Capitol. When the 
1,500 trained British soldiers were almost at Bladensburg, 
these three gentlemen fell to arguing and discussing the situa- 
tion as if it were something quite new. Three thousand Ameri- 
can militia and a few hundred sailors and marines were some- 
how posted on the heights above the river-badly. Orders were 
issued by one commander and countermanded by another. 
Troops moved here and there without plan or regularity. The 
British regulars came over the bridge steadily in the face of 
heavy losses. At this and the sight of harmless hostile rockets 
the American militia scampered like errant schoolboys, spread- 
ing the contagion of flight to General Winder's forces who were 
poorly posted in rear. The artillery could fire only to the front 
because the pieces had been scattered between the intervals of 
improperly selected positions. No one seemed to know what to 
do except disappear. General Winder,13 who had been a lawyer 
up until the war, reported the flight by saying, "To my utter 
astonishment and mortification-when I regained my position, 
I found the whole of these regiments were flying in the utmost 
precipitation and disorder." In speaking of the Eighth Mary- 
land he showed that "this corps which had heretofore acted so 
firmly, evinced the usual incapacity of raw troops to make 
orderly movements in the face of the enemy and their retreat in 
a very few moments became a flight of absolute and total dis- 
order." Of the whole of the troops he said that "such of them 
as could be halted, instead of making efforts to rally, gave them- 
selves up to the uncontrolled feelings which fatigue, exhaustion 
and privation produced, and pursued their way, either toward 
home, or in search of refreshments and quarters." In stating 
13 ' ' His appointment had been ' based not on the ground of distin- 
guished professional service or knowledge,' but simply on a presumption 
that, ' being a native of Maryland and a relative of the governor, Brigadier 
Winder would be useful in mitigating the opposition to the war, and in 
giving an increased efficiency to national measures within the limits of 
the State' " (Upton). THE ARMY IN NAME 
141 
his defense of this flight he maintained that "no advantage of 
position is proof against groundless panic, and a total want of 
discipline, skill and experience." But such opinions did not 
prevent General Winder himself from issuing orders for the 
retreat through Washington and Georgetown. This hodge- 
podge army actually fled through the capital of the nation and 
left it open to plunder and rapine. Over twice as many Ameri- 
cans as the enemy left their own homes open to loot, and did 
so without having made more than a pretense of defense. Pic- 
ture the newly dressed militiamen zealously slinking homeward 
or lolling about the streets of the city w'ith a wary eye for the 
enemy; wagons and carts burdened with snatched household 
effects; darkey and aristocrat jostling one another in precipitate 
escape; Mrs. Madison looking vainly through a spyglass for her 
husband, the President; and secretaries and generals fleeing in 
carriages this way and that. Behold Brussels during Waterloo! 
Why the enemy chose to be satisfied with burning the public 
buildings has never been explained. The "defenders" certainly 
gave a wider invitation. 
How unnecessary was the flight, is shown by the figures. 
All told there were only 66 casualties out of 5,000 American 
soldiers. Of this loss the large percentage was borne by sailors, 
marines and regulars. It is almost certain that no more than 
8 militiamen were killed. 
Small successes by detachments of trained troops could not 
compensate for the fall of Washington. Although the Second 
Infantry at Fort Bowyer in the south and a few hundred under 
General Macomb at Plattsburg were making gallant defenses 
against Indians and British, the effects were local. As far as 
the war was concerned, it was affected very little by such minor 
actions. 
It came to an end with inconsequent attempts at tardy 
reconstruction. Several proposals for general conscription were 
given to Congress and rejected. Two new arsenals were estab- 
lished at Watervliet, New York, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. 
The recruiting laws were revised to allow a recruit under 
twenty-one to have four days' grace before he was sent to his 
organization, to allow a master to receive part of the bounty 
money of an enlisting apprentice, to raise the land bounty from 
Sept. 
1814 
Oct. 
1814 
Dec. 10 
1814 142 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
160 to 320 acres and to permit a civilian to hire a substitute to 
go to the front in his place. But nothing was mentioned with 
reference to training. 
Such futile acts only accentuated the weak military situa- 
tion and were appropriate concomitants of the sad ending of an 
inglorious war. For humiliating as it is for the land forces to 
acknowledge, it is only true and fair to state that hostilities 
stopped solely on account of political conditions and a success- 
ful navy. 
After the peace had been signed, General Jackson at New 
Orleans, ignorant of the state of international affairs and 
momentarily expecting an advance by the British against the 
town, used his great energy and skill in building up the morale 
of the citizens and collecting more troops. He gave New 
Orleans a touch of discipline in stating that those who were not 
for the cause were against it. Accordingly many were com- 
pelled to join the ranks. He took over the entire district with 
dispatch and ruled it with an iron hand. 
When Pakenham, the brother-in-law of the Duke of Wel- 
lington, landed with about 8,000 British troops, he found him- 
self in low swampy ground affording no cover nor means of 
retreat. His position was as unfavorable as could be imagined 
for a military leader. 
On the other hand, Jackson, knowing that he could not trust 
his 5,000 militia in the open, bent all his energies to making 
more impregnable, a natural defensive position between the 
Mississippi and a cypress swamp. The merits of his selection 
were heightened by a deep canal, a sort of moat which ran along 
the front of the proposed parapet. He reenforced this natural 
barrier until it partook of the nature of a redoubt. Behind it, 
he placed his untrained riflemen so that certain fractions could 
load while the others were discharging their pieces. By such 
disposition he could keep up a continuous fire. He so pro- 
tected and pointed his cannon that they could sweep any attack- 
ing columns with cross fire. In addition, he had the gunboats 
in the river and the fort from the opposite bank prepared to 
rake the enemy. 
In spite of the Americans' formidable position and his own 
lack of scaling ladders, Pakenham in utter foolhardiness at- 
Dec. 24 
1814 
Dec. 1 
1814 
Jan. 8 
1815 
Jan. 8 
1815 THE ARMY IN NAME 
143 
tacked. Naturally his men suffered over 2,000 casualties in 
a few minutes. 
But Jackson could not trust his troops to pursue the fleeing 
British. He had an object lesson at this time across the river. 
A few hundred of the enemy were easily putting to flight an 
overwhelming number of Louisiana and Kentucky militiamen 
who had been forced into the open. He was thus prevented 
from clinching his victory because of the unreliability of 
his own troops. So he had to allow Pakenham to withdraw 
the remaining British forces. 
After peace was generally known to exist, the army began 
to fall off in numbers until it totaled 33,424 out of a possible 
62,773. Several attempts by Congress and the army were made 
to overcome by quality the lack in quantity. The Ordnance 
Department, for example, was placed on a firmer basis by mak- 
ing it consist of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 2 majors, 10 
captains, 10 first lieutenants, 10 second lieutenants and 10 third 
lieutenants. But the new urge came too late to be of value in 
a disgraceful and ignominious war that should have ended in a 
few months had George Washington been heeded and Steuben's 
training continued after the Revolution. 
A board of officers consisting of Generals Scott and Swift 
and Colonels Fenwick, Cumming and Drayton, who had been 
ordered "conformable to the House of Representatives" to pre- 
pare a set of Infantry Drill Regulations "after the pattern of 
the Rules and Regulations for the Field Service and Manoeu- 
vres of the French Infantry" now submitted the results of their 
labor. This was the first work of its kind actually prepared by 
a regularly constituted board of American officers. 
William Duane's Hand Boole for Infantry which had been 
approved by the Secretary of War in 1812, had been in use. 
It had since 1809 provided for 3 ranks in a company; had done 
away with the oblique step, the lock step and the deploy step. 
In firing, the front-rank man loaded and fired his own piece, 
the middle-rank man fired both his own and his rear-rank man's 
piece and the rear-rank man merely loaded the middle-rank 
man's gun. Thus the middle-rank man fired almost twice as 
fast as his front-rank man and loaded every other time the piece 
he fired. Volley firing was discouraged. 
Feb. 
1815 
Feb. 8 
1815 
Feb. 25 
1815 144 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
In presenting his volume to the public, Lieutenant Colonel 
William Duane showed the spirit of the times three years before 
the war of 1812: 
"There is no discipline; there is even no system; and there 
are gross misconceptions on the subject. There appears to have 
been a disposition to discourage the acquisition of military 
knowledge." 
His work consisted of seven parts, touching on almost every 
phase of contemporary military education. But it was compli- 
cated and the natural result of the state of the times he shows 
above. 
The newly adopted regulations edited by the Board of 
Officers simplified Duane's system principally on account of 
the sad experiences of an ill-conducted war. Battalions were di- 
vided into 8 companies each. The first and second companies 
were formed into one grand division, the third and fourth into 
another, and so on. There were 4 officers to a company: 1 
captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 third lieutenant and 1 ensign. For 
the first time the instruction was divided into three schools-the 
soldier, the company and the battalion. The commandant of 
each regiment was enjoined to assemble at his quarters all the 
officers of the command so as to explain to them what these 
three schools meant. Commands of "caution" were distin- 
guished from those of execution by different kinds of type. The 
length of the ordinary step was increased to 28 inches and the 
cadence to 90 per minute. The manual of arms continued the 
practice of Steuben in having the intervals between motions a 
second of time. The execution of the motions was practically 
the same as in the Revolution. However, emphasis was placed 
upon taking extra time with priming, putting the cartridges into 
the barrel and ramming home. Officers to-day can be glad that 
there is such a thing as fixed ammunition when they read the 
following problems confronting the drill master in 1815: 
"The instructor will remark, that the soldiers who, without 
apparent hurry, load with steadiness and coolness, are those 
who load best and quickest; because they turn the ramrod with- 
Feb. 25 
1815 THE ARMY IN NAME 
145 
out catching against, or interfering with those of the men beside 
and before them; because they enter it, without frequent at- 
tempts, at once into the muzzle, and in returning it into the 
pipe; because they ram home best; because they do not spill the 
powder in priming; and because, finally, they do not let fall 
cartridges in taking them out of the cartridge-box; all essential 
objects, on which the instructor must make the recruits bestow 
the utmost attention." 
A single method of firing on the part of a company was 
enunciated. The right file was to fire first, the next file on the 
left was to aim the instant the first had fired, and this process 
was to continue toward the left of the company. After each 
file had fired once, each man was to load and fire at will. The 
fusillade was stopped by a ruffle of the drum. 
With the noise of black powder and the long firelocks the 
recruit had difficulties that seem absurd to us as we withdraw 
the bolt and look in the chamber. His perplexities had to be 
definitely guarded against as follows: 
"When the firings shall have been executed, it shall be 
required of the soldier to be attentive in observing, when he 
half-cock, -whether smoke proceeds out of the touch-hole, which 
if it does, indicates certainly that the piece has gone off. If the 
smoke does not appear, the soldier, in lieu of reloading, will 
turn off to the rear, in order to prick the touch-hole, and prime 
a second time. If the soldier thinks he has fired, and proceeds 
to load again, he ought, at any rate, to discover his mistake, if 
any exists, in ramming home from the length of ramrod pro- 
jecting out of the muzzle; and he would richly merit punish- 
ment, were he to load a third time under all these circum- 
stances." 
The normal formation of a company consisted of 2 ranks. 
However, provision was made for "the occasional order of 3 
deep." 14 
14 The manual consisted of the following positions: Present arms, 
shoulder arms, advance arms, order arms, pile arms, take arms, support 
arms, carry arms, fix and unfix bayonets and secure arms. Priming and 
loading was done still by twelve commands. 146 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Target practice was suggested. Each battalion was en- 
couraged to provide several targets, 5 feet 10 inches in height 
and 22 inches in width. "They must be marked by 3 stripes 4 
inches broad, drawn horizontally across the target and of strik- 
ing color, one stripe across the top, another across the middle 
and a third across an equal distance from the top and middle." 
The soldiers were to be practiced at a distance between 60 and 
300 yards, "aiming at different heights according to the dis- 
tances." 
There were two main elements of instruction emphasized. 
The trigger was to be pulled forcibly with the forefinger with- 
out stirring the head or altering the direction of the firelock, 
and the balls fired off were to be carefully gathered in order to 
be used again. As a reward to the best marksmen in each com- 
pany, their names were to be "taken down." 
In the war just passed the army had played its part in 
burlesque and tragedy. It had been more pitiful than in the 
Revolution. Yet when the affair was over, the country did not 
absurdly disband its entire force, principally because there was 
the fresh memory of a sound spanking. Instead, a law was 
passed limiting the army to 10,000 men and a corps of en- 
gineers.15 The corps of artillery was organized according to the 
law of March 30, 1814, and the regiment of light artillery, to 
that of April 12, 1808. A regiment of infantry was newly 
made up of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, 
1 quartermaster, 1 paymaster, 1 surgeon, 2 surgeon's mates, 1 
sergeant major, 1 quartermaster sergeant, 2 principal musi- 
cians and 10 companies. Each company consisted of 1 captain, 
1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 4 sergeants, 4 corporals, 
2 musicians and 68 privates. There were 6 general officers 
all told, 2 major generals and 4 brigadiers. The pay went back 
to the low rates of the acts of March 16, 1802, and of April 12, 
1808, except for major generals who received the modern pay 
of the act of Jan. 11, 1812. Supernumerary officers and men 
had to be discharged by May 1, the "deranged" officers being 
accorded three months' pay. 
Some sinister effort must have been at work to deprive all 
March 3 
1815 
i5 The engineers were to remain as already organized. THE ARMY IN NAME 
147 
the old regiments of their traditions and spirit. For no plan 
could have more shrewdly damned any existing pride and 
affiliations than the following: 
The old 1st Infantry went into the new 3rd Infantry; the 
old 2nd went into the new 1st; the old 3rd, into the new 1st; 
the old 4th, into the new 5th; the old 5th, into the new 8th; 
the old 6th, into the new 2nd; the old 7th, into the new 1st; 
and the old 8th, into the new 7th. The new 1st was then 
made up of the old 2nd, 3rd, 7th and 44th; the new 2nd, of the 
old 6th, 16th, 22nd, 23rd, and 32nd; the new 3rd, of the old 
1st, 17th, 19th, and 28th; the new 4th, of the old 12th, 14th, 
18th, 20th, 36th, and 38th; the new 5th, of the old 4th, 9th, 
13th, 21st, 40th, and 46th; the new 6th, of the old 11th, 25th, 
27th, 29th, and 37th; the new 7th, of the old 8th, 24th, and 
39th; and the new 8th,16 of the 5th, 10th, 15th, 31st, 33rd, 34th, 
35th, 39th, 41st, 42nd, 43rd, 45th. 
Not only were the units of the army diabolically jumbled 
but its size had to shrink to about one-sixth its former self. 
Officers and men had to be ejected and the remainder read- 
justed with a natural wrecking of ambition and spirit. Neither 
was there any solace to the remnants in being sent in small 
scattered fractions to lonely frontier posts and seacost fortifi- 
cations. The First Infantry, for instance, being deprived of 
all the officers of the old First, Second and Seventh was sent 
to Pass Christian, Louisiana. The Second in the same way 
was stationed at Sackett's Harbor and Plattsburg, N. Y. The 
Third was scattered along the Great Lakes in small forts such 
as Detroit, Mackinac, Howard, Dearborn, Knox, Harrison, 
Wayne and Crawford. The Fourth was charged with the small 
posts on the frontier of Georgia and South Carolina. The 
Fifth and the Third had their headquarters at Detroit and 
helped in garrisoning the western forts above mentioned and 
Fort Armstrong, Atkinson, Brady, Gratiot, Howard, Winne- 
bago. The Sixth -went to Governors Island, N. Y. The Sev- 
enth went to Fort Gibson, Arkansas, and the stockades in that 
vicinity. 
May 
1815 
is Some of these remnants the Eighth was supposed to take over 
had never been organized. The list includes rifle regiments, making a 
theoretical 48 to account for. 148 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The artillery corps garrisoned the seacoast forts from Mobile 
to Boston and the regiment of light artillery was parceled out 
with the infantry, as was also the regiment of rifles. The 
corps of engineers was stationed at West Point, N. Y., its offi- 
cers being taken for duty in constructing forts and improve- 
ments at various places in the United States. 
So the year passed out with the various little groups plod- 
ding to their posts and building their lonely log cabins and 
stockades. 
The Register of the Army having made its first appearance 
before the end of the year showed the 2 major generals to be 
Jacob Brown and Andrew Jackson, and the 4 brigadier gen- 
erals to be Alexander Macomb, E. P. Gaines, Winfield Scott 
and E. W. Ripley. The ordnance, medical, apothecary, pay 
and purchasing departments were all tabulated in detail. Al- 
though the apothecary department had an apothecary general, 
the medical department seemed to have no head. There was, in 
addition to the office of "adjutant and inspector general," that 
of a plain "adjutant general." 
Discussions with reference to supplies of ordnance were 
prolific at this time. One concerning hand grenades is worth 
quoting in the light of recent events: 
"Ordnance Office, 
"Washington, January 23, 1816. 
"In former times the hand grenade was used as an arm 
for a portion of the infantry. It is entirely gone out of use 
for that purpose. Grenadiers are now armed with the musket, 
and in some services (as the French) with a sabre also. 
"They are picked companies of stout men, usually placed 
on the flanks of the battalions, and being generally chosen to 
form the storming party in the attack of fortified places, they 
retain the name of grenadiers from the former use of those 
troops, and the weapon with which they were then armed. The 
superiority of the musket had caused it to supersede the hand 
grenade as an arm for troops. The grenade may be put in 
numbers into the ditches and passages where the troops are 
collected. 
1815 THE ARMY IN NAME 
149 
"For this purpose proper provision is made in our service. 
The six-pounder shell is used as the hand grenade, and shells 
of any caliber as rampart grenades." 
This extract, though it gives a glimpse into the historic 
cycle of the hand grenade, shows more fully the discussions in 
these times over arms and ammunition. There seemed to be 
a feeling among the legislators that deficiency in military 
operations was due to lack of supplies. Few realized yet that 
training was the all-important step toward efficiency. Armories 
and seacoast material were voted almost in prodigality. And 
then the building craze seized our lawmakers. For a time it 
was difficult for artillery and ordnance experts to keep the 
authorities from building a lot of useless structures instead of 
manufacturing a sufficient quantity of needed materials. 
The uniform of the war was to a great measure retained, 
though some minor changes show a slight departure. A mix- 
ture of civilian and military dress was prohibited, except that 
all military persons, irrespective of the remainder of their 
dress, were to wear on their hats black cockades with gold eagles. 
Although collars were to rise to the tip of the ear they were 
to be only "as high in front as the chin will permit in turning 
the head." The generals, corps artillery officers and infantry 
officers wore chapeaux. The light artillery wore round, stiff, 
black caps, seven inches high, with a visor. A tassel fell from 
the top of the right side of this heavy headgear. The mounted 
men wore pantaloons, and the infantry breeches. The light 
artillery wore coatees whereas the other branches wore long 
coats with full skirts. The rifleman and cadet wore gray, the 
rifleman having a short coat and the cadet a coatee. The cadet 
wore the common round hat with the cockade and eagle, his 
trousers having black silk lace down the side and an Austrian 
knot in front. Officers wore sashes when on duty. The Jef- 
ferson or high-shoe was prescribed as in 1814. 
The Congress added to the "general staff" 1 inspector gen- 
eral, 1 paymaster-general, 3 topographical engineers, 1 quarter- 
master-general and 1 commissary general of purchases. Official 
recognition was thus for the first time given to a fairly com- 
petent staff. Although citizens and not soldiers were allowed 
Feb. 
1816 
April 24 
1816 150 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
to fill the new appointments, the establishment of the offices 
themselves was a distinct advance. 
As for material, an annual sum of $250,000 was appropri- 
ated for purchase or manufacture of arms and equipment for 
the militia. Out of 18 projected arsenals 5 were completed 
during the year: at Watertown, Mass.; Frankford, Pa.; Balti- 
more, Md.; Greenleaf's Point, D. C., and on the James River 
near Richmond, Va. 
The artillery armament comprised 24, 18, 12 and 6 pounder 
cannon, 8 inch and 24 pounder howitzers and 10 and 8 inch 
mortars. In the manufacture of so many calibers, the ord- 
nance department claimed there was much useless difficulty 
and expense. Accordingly there was a decided attempt to re- 
duce the number of different types of large guns. 
To show the immaturity of our government in handling 
military matters in these early times, the method of delivery 
of orders is a good example. It seems that it had been the 
custom since the early part of the second war with Great Brit- 
ain, for the President or Secretary of War simply to send an 
order to any junior army officer without giving responsible 
superiors any knowledge of the fact. No attempt was made 
to inform intermediate commanders of the contents of such 
instructions. In the meantime the commanders of depart- 
ments, who were charged with the responsibility for the work 
of a subordinate, found themselves suddenly deprived of his 
services. Indeed, in many cases the higher commanders were 
not aware that important labor had ceased because the respon- 
sible officer had gone elsewhere. It was due to just such a 
case that General Harrison had come into dispute with the 
Secretary in 1814 and had resigned his commission. Although 
General Andrew Jackson had had similar trouble at the same 
time, affairs did not grow serious for him until three years 
later. An officer under his command who had been making 
at his direction secret surveys for government purposes was 
suddenly spirited away by the War Department to New York 
City where the surveys were exposed. Jackson, not knowing 
of the officer's absence, was going on the assumption that his 
subordinate was proceeding with the important and delicate 
work, he, Jackson, had assigned; when one day he was sur- 
April 29 
1816 
Jan. 23 
1817 THE ARMY IN NAME 
151 
prised to read in the public print of the officer's presence in 
the north and of the exposure of the survey. Accordingly the 
general issued an order in the Division of the South that no 
officer would obey any order "emanating from the Department 
of War," unless it came through the proper channels. Soon 
afterward General Ripley, who was serving under Jackson, 
received instructions from the War Department which he re- 
fused to obey on the ground of General Jackson's order. Be- 
fore a decision could be reached, Mr. Calhoun became Secretary 
of War and in his usual far-sighted manner adroitly put a 
quietus on the unbusinesslike practice. 
In the wilderness of military chaos of these early years, 
the voice of a real prophet rose to do signal good for future 
army officers and scientific men. Since Steuben's arrival at 
Valley Forge no more valuable asset had been given to the 
military service than that which was added about the middle 
of this year. Captain Sylvanus Thayer became the fifth 
superintendent of the Military Academy. His advent marks 
a new era not only for the army but for education in general. 
He organized the corps of cadets into a battalion of 2 com- 
panies commanded by a cadet colonel. He created the office 
of commandant of cadets who was responsible for the tactical 
instruction and discipline. It was during his super intendency 
that the cadets were taken on practice marches to Boston, Phila- 
delphia and Princeton in order to widen their scope of train- 
ing. He introduced the section and section-room method, the 
weekly standing reports, the scale of daily marks, the de- 
pendence of class rank upon scholarship, the blackboard system 
and the Annual Register. A very few students were grouped 
under a single instructor, who marked their recitations accu- 
rately. By such a system a maximum amount of thoroughness 
and individual effort was required of the cadet. 
Captain Thayer had traveled in Europe and studied at its 
best schools. From abroad he imported among other things 
analytical mathematics. In short, he gave to America its first 
scientific school which stood alone for almost half a century 
in the Western Hemisphere. 
But even beyond these improvements, by his wisdom and 
human dignity he laid the foundation for the development in 
April 22 
1.817 
July 
1817 152 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the youth of that marvelous thing-character. He understood 
how quibbling, vacillation, or a false statement might be the 
ruin of a whole campaign. He saw that, whereas in other pro- 
fessions such weaknesses might lead to the loss of property or 
money, in the business of arms the lives of stalwart men and a 
nation's standing were at stake. Honor, therefore, was to be 
the first consideration of the soldier and the guardian of his 
every act. Character was to be built carefully. So the West 
Point cadet came to be tenacious above all else of the "honor 
of the corps" in general and of his own straightforwardness 
in particular. Later, the motto of the Academy-"Duty, 
Honor, Country"-grounded itself in lives of sacrifice. The 
stamp of Thayer and his doctrines is recognized in the names 
of such graduates as Lee, Grant, Sherman, Longstreet, Jeffer- 
son Davis, Sheridan, Stonewall Jackson, Meade, McClellan 17 
and a host of others. 
While this great foundation was beginning to be laid at 
the Military Academy, Mr. Calhoun became Secretary of War 
as the year closed. He found an army which actually num- 
bered 8,221 men and another arsenal established near Augusta, 
Ga. He also found the brewing strife with the Seminoles 
across the border in Florida. 
What General Jackson did in that southern conflict is so 
well known in the country's history that a word about the army 
here is sufficient. The Seminoles had fallen upon and mas- 
sacred 47 men and women moving on a peaceable errand. Other 
smaller depredations had been numerous. When finally Gen- 
eral Gaines with 600 men was besieged at Fort Scott by several 
thousand Indians, General Jackson, without first asking the 
Governors, quickly called out the Tennessee militia and 
marched on the enemy. With the Fourth and Seventh In- 
fantry, one battalion of artillery and several thousand militia 
and friendly Creeks he invaded Florida, defeated the hostile 
tribes, captured the Spanish strongholds and executed two Brit- 
ish subjects who had abetted the outrages of the Indians. In 
the first three months of this year General Jackson by cutting 
Dec. 1 
1817 
Jan., Feb., 
March 
1818 
17 Most of these were cadets during Thayer's superintendency or 
shortly thereafter. THE ARMY IN NAME 
153 
a little red tape put an end to the atrocities in the south with 
almost no bloodshed. 
Shortly after these activities, Congress made some rather 
constructive laws for the military establishment. It created 
the office of surgeon-general18 and a chaplain at the Military 
Academy who should be professor of geography, history and 
ethics. It improved the quartermaster, subsistence, inspector 
and adjutant general departments and provided a Judge Advo- 
cate for each territorial division. It gave to those officers 
holding "brevet" rank, the pay and emoluments of that higher 
grade, so long as they had a command commensurate with it. 
Legislation also limited the artillery corps company to 1 cap- 
tain, 2 first and 2 second lieutenants and the light artillery 
company to 1 captain, 1 first and 2 second lieutenants. 
One of the lieutenants in each case was to act as a "con- 
ductor of artillery or ordnance officer" and to receive $10 per 
month extra. 
Uniform standards of manufacture and collection of war 
materials seemed to be wanting. The expenses of the arsenal 
at Springfield, Mass., were $162,500 for manufacturing 12,500 
stands of arms-about $13 per stand. The figures reveal that 
about the same number were manufactured at a cost of a little 
over $15 apiece at Harper's Ferry. A contract with a private 
concern was made for 180 field-pieces and for 50 tons of shot 
and shell for the militia. Later 150 tons of heavy cannon and 
mortars and 50 tons of heavy shot and shell were added to 
the contract. The specifications called for little more than 
caliber and weight. At the end of the year Pittsburg Arsenal 
had about 12,000 stands of arms, New Orleans 20,000, New- 
port, Kentucky, 4,000 and Detroit, 3,000.19 
April 14 
1818 
April 16 
1818 
April 20 
1818 
Sept. 28 
1818 
Aug. 
1818 
Dec. 2 
1818 
18 Salary $2,500 per annum as others of "General Staff." 
19 Mostly muskets. The model "1817, Harper's Ferry" rifle had the 
following characteristics: 
"Total length about 51% inches. Length of barrel about 36 inches. 
Calibre of bore without grooves .52. The bore is heptagonal and the 
seven narrow grooves are at the apices. Of course they are quite necessary. 
The depth of the grooves is one-hundredth of an inch. The pitch is one 
turn in 50 inches. Weight of the rifle with its steel ramrod 10 pounds. 
It was not at first supplied with a bayonet, but later a ten-ounce socket 
bayonet was issued with it for certain special demands of service. The 
charge was 90 to 100 grains of fine grained powder and a half ounce spher- 
ical bullet loaded bare. Loading became difficult after fouling accumu- 
lated. The muzzle velocity was about 2,000 f.s" (Sawyer). 154 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The movement of the Sixth Infantry from Plattsburg, N. 
Y., to Saint Louis, Mo., illustrates the distances traversed by 
the army and the progress of the frontier westward. The regi- 
ment marched from Plattsburg through New York and Penn- 
sylvania, and arrived at Pittsburg where it encamped. It then 
embarked on small transport boats, moved down the Ohio and 
encamped at Belle Fontaine, Mo. Almost three months were 
required for the journey. 
Captain Long with his company made an exploration into 
the region of the Colorado. Making surveys and notes, he ex- 
plored much of the country others had missed, and discovered 
the mountain which still bears his name. He completed this 
work in 1820. 
During this year two arsenals were established (though 
apparently not completed) at Baton Rouge, La., and Detroit, 
Mich. Complaint came from the Ordnance Department, how- 
ever, that there was a deficiency of cannon, shot and shell, and 
that it would be provident to get these "not perishable" articles 
in peace when prices were low. The economy of this measure 
was urged especially since the government had no arsenals for 
big guns. 
The handling of the larger weapons was given great atten- 
tion. During the year there appeared a Treatise upon Artil- 
lery by H. Lallemand, who acknowledged on the title page that 
he was an "ex-general" of the French Imperial Guard and that 
the work had been translated by "M. de Russy under the eye 
of the author." However, the production, whether authorized 
or not, was comprehensive. Its four volumes 20 covered about 
March 19 
1819 
Early May 
1819 
June 8 
1819 
1819 
Dec. 6 
1819 
1819 
201 ' The first volume contains a general description of cannon, pro- 
jectiles, caisson, gun, and other carriages, with small arms; on the organ- 
ization, instruction, and position of the personnel (these articles form the 
basis of a system of artillery), a nomenclature necessary in the field, the 
EXERCISE of cannon in the field, at sieges, in fortified places, and in sea 
coast batteries; the school of field guns, in plain and mountain countries; 
maneuvres of horse and field artillery; the maneuvres of force (or the 
application of the mechanical powers to artillery), and the construction of 
batteries. 
*1 The second volume contains a sketch on the composition and division 
of armies; it treats of the quality and distribution of artillery in an 
army; its conduct in the field, its position and duty in action, as well as 
in the attack and defense of field works; the theory and tables for firing, 
the charges and ranges of cannon; construction of artillery bridges; charg- 
ing and packing caissons, and other carriages; composition of the equipage, THE ARMY IN NAME 
155 
all that any artilleryman should then know. The quick match 
pouch, the leather thumb piece which the gunner put over his 
fingers when he "shut close" the touch hole, the bricole to draw 
the pieces, the locking chains, the sponges and rammers, the 
copper ladles which served "to load the pieces in case of need," 
the priming horn containing powder to pour into the vent, the 
mortar ladle to clean the chambers of mortars and howitzers, 
the splints which wedged in the bomb in the mortar, the 
spatula, a shovel-like instrument, which drove in the splints, 
the stone mortar tapeon upon which the stone basket was laid 
before it was fired, were some of the various instruments used 
in discharging cannon. Fuses were placed in bombs before 
they were fired from howitzers and mortars. The mattrosses 
sponged, loaded, rammed, pricked, primed, fired and furnished 
ammunition. The gunners tended the vent and elevated or gave 
direction to the piece. An artificer or corporal attended the 
caisson and issued ammunition. Batteries were preferably 
horse drawn. Positions of the gun detail were established with 
great nicety. On the carriages were two trunnion plates, one 
for traveling and the other for action, so that the piece had to 
be carried a certain way on the march and a different way dur- 
ing combat. The changing of these positions was accomplished 
with great accuracy and ceremony. 
Aside from its employment in furthering military tech- 
nic, the army was used exntensively in the construction of public 
ammunition, and supplies for field, siege and garrison artillery; preparing 
all kinds of fixed ammunition and fire works; instructions for the chief 
inspectors, and for conductors of artillery and convoys; finally, practical 
rules founded on experience. 
' ' The third volume treats on field fortifications, comprising the trace, 
the dimensions, and the secondary means of defense; summary of per- 
manent fortification; on the execution and service of artillery in the attack 
and defense of places, and on their supplies of provisions; Castramenta- 
tion; military reconnoitrings; method of solving, by means of a cord and 
stakes, the most necessary geometrical problems, for field purposes. 
"In the fourth volume, I enter into details on the constructions of 
gun carriages, caissons, etc., etc. I treat upon the cordage, iron, and the 
wood used in the artillery; on the manner of keeping magazines, arsenals, 
depots of arms; on the fabrication and receipt of guns and small arms; 
on projectiles, iron, steel and lastly, on the fabrication of powder. These 
establishments are not always under the direction of artillery officers; but 
they should, notwithstanding, possess a sufficient knowledge to enable them, 
when necessary, if not to direct, at least to inspect them." (Extract from 
introduction of volume itself.) 156 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
works. The government partially realized its economic value in 
the expression of the following enactment: 
"That, whenever it shall be found expedient to employ the 
army at work on fortifications, in surveys, in cutting roads, and 
other constant labor, of not less than ten days, the noncom- 
missioned officers, musicians, and privates so employed shall 
be allowed fifteen cents, and an extra gill of whisky or spirits, 
each, per day, while so employed." 
But the country had reached that psychological stage after 
a war where it was recumbent and fat. Peace seemed to be 
assured, and the returns for army expenditure looked indis- 
tinct. 
Secretary Calhoun had been met with the usual cry from 
Congress for the reduction of the army or at least a reduction 
in costs. In reply he showed conclusively that the armed forces 
were doing more for the country than any civilian body, that 
the ordnance, engineer and artillery officers were filling as 
great a civilian need as military, that the frontier posts were 
being pushed along the Mississippi, Missouri and Red rivers 
in order to protect our trade and that a thinner line would be 
wasteful. In spite of his cool and absolute logic Congress 
demanded the army's reduction to 6,000. Accordingly Mr. 
Calhoun was forced to suggest palliative measures in order to 
keep the force from falling below that figure. In doing so 
he gave utterance to a truth which has been ignored ever since 
to the nation's sorrow: 
"Economy is certainly a very high political virtue, inti- 
mately connected with the power and the public virtue of the 
community. In military operations, w'hich, under the best 
management, are so expensive, it is of the utmost importance; 
but by no propriety of language can that arrangement be 
called economical which, in order that our military establish- 
ment in peace should be rather less expensive, would, regard- 
less of the purposes for which it ought to be maintained, ren- 
der it unfit to meet the dangers incident to a state of war." 
March 2 
1819 
Dec. 12 
1820 THE ARMY IN NAME 
157 
During the years after the second war with Great Britain 
the army tried to bring itself out of the ignorance and deca- 
dence into which it had been tossed after the Revolution. What 
trained forces remained to the country were used almost cease- 
lessly in defending and developing our wild frontier. But the 
only civilians who knew the army's work and understood the 
nation's need were a limited few like Calhoun. Politics did 
not know, need to heed nor care to consider the necessity 
for trained fighting men. The farce of 1812 had made little 
impression upon the general public. We had come out all 
right-that was enough. Just why or how we had "come out" 
was a matter of little concern. That with 527,654 so-called 
soldiers we had been unable to defeat not over 5,000 British 
Regulars, that for two years and a half so small a hostile force 
had brought devastation within our borders and had killed 
and wounded 5,614 Americans and that our nation had use- 
lessly spent for all this discard of training over $50,000,000, 
had not come to be realized by the voter. He was developing 
the inside of the country without much thought of its edges. 
But out there the army, having passed through its nameless 
period, was growing in quality while the government was look- 
ing with skeptical eyes at its size. It was too much to expect 
over 7,000,000 people to support 10,000 soldiers. CHAPTER VI 
THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
(1821-1844) 
IF the civilization of the bulk of our country were a commod- 
ity, it should belong to the army. The thin cordon of hardy 
soldiers that pushed the foes of peace persistently back 
across prairie and through jungle, made safe the trader, trap- 
per, and settler inside the circle. It was the troops that cut the 
trails, built the roads, dug the wells, surveyed the land, braved 
the savage, suffered in silence and opened the chest of southern 
and western riches. 
With the stigma of Revolutionary days and 1812 still fol- 
lowing the military man, it was easy for the civilian to brand 
the whole army as contemptible, especially when some coxcomb 
among the officers made a spectacle of himself. Cast adrift 
from the life of town and farm, the soldier just over the horizon 
was easily forgotten and seldom considered. That he was 
hewing the way for delicate feet to follow, pushing through 
showers of sleet and arrows and possessed of the same passions, 
hopes, and capacity for pain as the man behind the counter 
or plow, were thoughts remote from the minds of Boston and 
Baltimore. Either pacifying or suppressing the Indian, was 
no more, it is true, than the labor of his profession, no more 
than the job he had undertaken. But really he was risking his 
life that the nation might be happier and greater. 
Congress, echoing the appreciation of the people, reduced 
the army. One major general, 2 brigadiers, 44 ordnance offi- 
cers and '3 regiments of infantry, artillery and riflemen were 
cast out of the service without any provision for their welfare. 
The Ordnance Department was abolished after having been 
built up through years of technical study and research. To 
March 2 
1821 
158 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
159 
replace it an extra captain and 56 enlisted men were allowed 
the artillery for ordnance work.1 The office of Judge Advocate 
was also discontinued. 
Another general demoralization of regiments took place 
when by the effect of this law the Sixth Infantry was con- 
solidated with the rifle regiment and boiled down to the strength 
of one regiment after wholesale discharges. The Eighth 
Infantry was disbanded entirely. The Light Artillery Regi- 
ment, Ordnance Department and Corps of Artillery were 
shrunken into 4 regiments of artillery,2 known as the First, 
Second, Third and Fourth. 
Most of the artillery naturally occupied the coast line, the 
Third being stretched from Annapolis, Md., to Charleston, S. 
C. The Infantry was mainly on the frontier of the south and 
west. 
The Sixth Infantry, for example, having constructed Fort 
Atkinson at Council Bluffs, started the first settlement in Ne- 
braska and the first stronghold west of the Missouri River. The 
troops built a sawmill and gristmill and had 506 acres of land 
under cultivation. Though the walls of barracks and quarters 
were made of logs, the roofs were shingled and the floors 
planked. If the quarters for the men had eighty-eight rooms 
and those of the officers were more commodious than formerly, 
it was because the brains and energies of those soldiers con- 
verted stark forests into habitations. 
The reduction of the army stagnated promotion to an extra- 
ordinary degree. Although every officer of worth who could be 
retained was absorbed in the reorganization, many had to be 
discharged. Those who remained found themselves members 
of a minority whose vacancies were filled to the choking point. 
In the artillery, especially, during these days of regimental 
promotion, it was hard to rise when four lieutenants in a com- 
pany had to wait for a captain. Each soldier of this reduced 
army found more guns and more miles of front on the borders 
May 4 
1821 
June 1 
1821 
i The army, after the law went into effect, consisted of 7 regiments of 
infantry, 4 regiments of artillery, the engineer corps, as before established, 
1 major general, 2 brigadier generals, 1 adjutant, 2 inspectors general, 
1 quartermaster-general, 1 commissary general and 1 paymaster-general. 
2 Each regiment had a light battery, which, however, was so only in 
name. 160 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
to be cared for than formerly. On the one hand, personal 
advancement was blocked, and, on the other, more work was 
required. All these blights on human endeavor were hardly 
conducive to meeting with a good will the hazards of a soldier. 
Yet the remaining handful attacked the wilderness with a will. 
Neither was the precision of the little army tarnished by 
the blows it had received. The uniform order is an instance. 
For many pages it goes into great detail as to the quality and 
make of clothing, and as to how it should be worn. Blue was 
for the first time prescribed as the national color for cloth. 
The chapeaux de bras was worn without plume or feather by 
all officers except those of the company. The rank and file and 
company officers wore the stiff high hat or "tar-bucket" (much 
like the cadet full-dress hat now). Pompons of different 
colors adorned this head piece: artillery -wore yellow; light 
artillery, red and white; infantry, white; and rifle companies, 
green. Gold and silver tassels for company officers and worsted 
ones for enlisted men hung down on the right side of the cap. 
The shoulder strap as an insignia of rank of officers seems 
to have been discontinued, though the epaulets worn as before 
were retained. Instead of the straps, captains wore one-stripe 
chevrons of gold or silver lace on each arm above the elbow 
and subalterns one on each arm below the elbow. Sergeant 
majors and quartermaster sergeants wore a worsted chevron 
on each arm above the elbow, sergeant and senior musicians one 
on each arm below the elbow, and corporals one on the right 
arm above the elbow. Wings, or little rolls on the shoulder, 
were worn both by company officers and enlisted men. Panta- 
loons were buff, white or blue, blue and buff for wear off duty 
and white for parade. Gray woolen ones were allowed for 
winter wear of enlisted men of the artillery and infantry. The 
coat was about the same as before, the cadet continuing the 
gray coatee and the rifleman the green jacket. Red silk sashes 
for all officers on duty came into general use. 
The laced bootee or modern type shoe was provided for 
all enlisted men. A higher boot was required to be worn by 
company officers; one to reach to the calf of the leg, by engi- 
neers; and "high military boots," by mounted officers with 
troops. 
March 27 
1821 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
161 
In contrast to this ornate clothing, weapons of greater 
accuracy and range than heretofore carried were issued to the 
soldier. The government had on hand something less than 
10,000 rifles at the arsenals of Harper's Ferry and Springfield. 
The smooth-bore was beginning to disappear in the service. 
Three contractors in Middletown, Connecticut, and Mr. Der- 
inger in Philadelphia, manufactured for the army several thou- 
sand rifles in this decade each one costing about $14.50 or an 
equivalent of about $75 now. Although the breech-loader had 
been experimented with by the Ordnance Department, the in- 
vention of Mr. Hall of Yarmouth, Maine, had not succeeded 
further than an output of 200. The great defects were the 
powder leaks and the lack of interchangeability of parts. The 
small-bore "squirrel rifle," firing balls between 90 to 200 to 
the pound, were used greatly by militia in its customarily sud- 
den calls into the service. 
A private publication called the Artillerist appeared this 
year, apparently for the militia. It detailed extensively every- 
thing from the manual of the sword to six "divisions of move- 
ments" for the battery. Cuts, guards, St. Georges, mullinets, 
and parries for fencing were carefully set forth, as well as drill 
movements, such as how the "pieces being in battery" should 
"march in retreat or in advance toward the enemy." 
There now being no cavalry in the service, its maneuvers 
had to be kept alive solely by regulations for the volunteers. 
Lieutenant Colonel Pierce Darrow accordingly adapted such 
a work to Scott's regulations, calling it Cavalry Tactics. He 
confessed at the beginning that the organization of a cavalry 
regiment was so radically different in most of the states that 
it was quite impossible to give a standard type. He compro- 
mised, however, by laying down "the order of formation" for 
two regiments of different size. He conformed to the law of 
1820 in prescribing that regiments should be called battalions, 
and that companies should be posted in line according to the 
dates of the captains' commissions.8 
1821 
1822 
3 The following extract will show how he solved two difficulties: 
' ' A regiment of cavalry, in this, and many of the states, comprises but 
four companies, which are styled a squadron, of which I shall first give 
a detail of arrangement. The second method of formation embraces eight 162 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Early 
1822 
While the army was trying to better its efficiency, it was 
in reality low in spirit. The injustice upon the officers who 
had been "deranged," "razed" or transferred was so apparent 
that the matter was taken up by many citizens who forced an 
investigation by a Committee of Congress. The members came 
to this remarkable conclusion: "While the committee pay just 
respect to officers retained in the service, they wish not to de- 
tract from merits of the many valuable officers who have been 
left out of the army or reduced in rank." This magnificent 
tribute was the sole consequence of the fatiguing labor of the 
lawmakers. No material provision was made for those "valu- 
able" men suddenly cut off without a farthing. 
The army had to continue to perform its own tasks and 
those of the men taken away by the legislators. Its dispersion 
had to be so thin that as a defensive force it was ridiculous. 
The Second Infantry for instance, in trying to keep in advance 
of its part of the receding frontier, made long journeys which 
disclose what was taking place throughout the service. In 
January the regiment had been moved from Plattsburg to 
Sackett's Harbor, N. Y. A few months later five of its com- 
panies and headquarters sailed to Sault Sainte Marie where 
they built Fort Brady. Less than 800 men tried to cover 
almost 8,000 miles of front, open to Indian raids and lesser 
encroachments. 
The 4 puny regiments of artillery scattered their harbor 
forts through Eastport and Portland, Me.; Portsmouth, N. H.; 
Marblehead and Boston, Mass.; Newport, R. I.; New London, 
Conn.; New York City, West Point, Sackett's Harbor, Fort 
Niagara and Plattsburg, N. Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Baltimore, 
Annapolis and Fort Washington, Md.; Norfolk, Va.; Smith- 
ville, N. C.; Charleston, S. C.; Savannah, Ga.; Amelia Island, 
Fort Gadsden, Fla.; Fort Bowyer and Mobile Bay, Ala.; Fort 
June 
1822 
Jan. 29 
1822 
companies, and two squadrons, first and second; each squadron is divided 
into two grand divisions, and numbered from right to left, 1, 2, 3, 4; the 
whole are styled a battalion when in the field. 
"The habitual habit of formation is in two ranks, but it is frequently 
practiced, where the companies are small, to parade the squadron in one 
rank. This may be allowed on particular occasions, and when there are 
but four companies to parade together, as it will greatly facilitate the 
exercise and movements; but this should by no means prevent their acquir- 
ing a perfect knowledge of their duty in two ranks. ' ' THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
163 
Petite Coquille, La.; Fort Saint Philips, Council Bluffs, Saint 
Peters, Miss.; Mackinaw, and Fort Shelby, Mich. The arma- 
ments totaled 28 forty-two pounders, 226 thirty-two pounders, 
413 twenty-four pounders, 228 eighteen-pounders, 3 ten-inch 
seacoast mortars, 32 ten-inch siege mortars, 5 eighteen-inch 
mortars, 10 eight-inch howitzers and 46 twenty-four-pounder 
howitzers. Neither could the fortresses be well manned nor 
the guns be all cared for or operated under such limitations of 
man power. 
The provision for so many large weapons, with their requi- 
site balls and ammunition, illustrates the attitude of the country 
toward materials for war. Somehow, our citizens have always 
been ready to spend money for the making and storing of arms 
to the disregard of the construction of a soldier and the soldierly 
character. It has been difficult for them to see that it takes 
longer to make the operator and superintendent than the missile 
and gun. While satisfied with its meager army, Congress at 
this time provided $5,000 for a national armory on "the western 
waters" to be selected by a "skillful engineer" or ordnance offi- 
cer. Galena, Ill., seems to have been the choice because of the 
mines there and the fact that the War Department was still 
charged with the management of geological activities later given 
over to the Interior Department. 
As the little army tried to stretch itself over many different 
activities and along thousands of miles of wild territory, it 
had its share of combats with the savage, which "went along 
incessantly. These "small affairs" were scarcely noted by the 
newspaper and too often forgotten by the people. A few sol- 
diers were cut down here, an officer lost his life there and the 
story of their deeds sank almost at once into oblivion. Even 
as large an action as that of the Sixth Infantry, when Lieu- 
tenant Colonel Leavenworth drove back the Arikara Indians 
who had put General Ashley's party in jeopardy, has gone urn 
recounted in our general histories. 
While the few trained forces on our frontiers were repelling 
the Indian by superior knowledge and training, Colonel Thayer 
back at the Military Academy was raising the standard of 
military and educational work. In addition to the advance- 
ment which he had already brought, he used senior cadets of 
March 3 
1823 
June 
1823 164 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
excellent qualifications as assistant professors in order to give 
larger individual instruction. He succeeded in getting Con- 
gress to provide for these men, selected wholly on their merit, 
$10 a month as extra pay for the "honorable distinction." He 
then ordered extra buttons to be worn on their dress coats, so 
as to make the remainder of the Corps of Cadets see the stamp 
of authority placed upon the new position. By such methods, 
he was able partially to overcome the shortage of commissioned 
instructors in a microscopic army, to make scholastic compe- 
tition among cadets higher and to improve the thoroughness of 
West Point courses. 
It was the scientific instruction at the Military Academy 
that made possible an engineer corps which constructed many 
of our public works. In this year Congress appropriated 
$30,000 for surveys of roads and canals of national importance 
and allowed the use of the corps of engineers and two other 
"skillful engineers" to carry on the labor. Most of the high- 
ways and explorations of this period were made by army offi- 
cers-then the only home-grown scientific men of our country. 
Another event in scientific instruction was the establish- 
ment of the "artillery school of instruction" at Fortress Mon- 
roe, Virginia, for the purpose of familiarizing the artillerist 
with his duties. Although its curriculum and plant were quite 
unformed, the foundation was laid for the service school that 
was to have a beneficial influence later on the development of 
our larger weapons and mines. 
The scientific knowledge of army officers spurred others 
to try their skill in making improvements. A curious inven- 
tion came into use at this time in the militia. Simeon North 
of Middletown, Conn., who had been making rifles for the army, 
invented a few 4 and 5 shot repeaters. He put a small extra 
barrel in rear of the regular flintlock bore so as to have the 
ammunition slide into place in front of the chamber. The 
magazine did not revolve, was impractical and soon came into 
disuse. But the device illustrates the attempt at this time to 
produce a greater volume of fire and more rapid loading. 
The drill regulations or "Infantry Tactics," as they were 
then known, went into great detail in this period. The oblique 
step required the feet to be planted at 18, 25 and 44 inch dis- 
Sept. 10 
1823 
April 30 
1824 
1824 
1824-1825 
1825 1. Represents a soldier of the first and second ranks kneeling and aiming. 
2. Represents a soldier after presenting arms. 
3. Represents the position of ordered arms. 
4. Represents the soldier presenting his firelock, for inspection. 
5. Represents the soldier receiving his musket from the instructor, after 
inspection. 
6. Represents the soldier after the third motion of support arms. 
7. Shows the soldier, after the second motion of secure arms. 
8. Represents the soldier after executing the command, "port-ARMS." 
9. Represents the soldier after the second motion of charge-BAYONET. 
10. Shows the soldier in the position of trail arms. THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
165 
tances at various times in the execution of the movement. Eight 
plates showed how a company should march precisely through 
different parts and kinds of defiles. The utmost nicety wTas 
required of a "battalion of the first line passing through a 
battalion of the second line," a "column of attack forming 
square against cavalry," "the deployment of the column for 
attack," and a line of eight battalions oblique to the enemy in 
forming parallel to him by "echelons of brigades." The first 
company on the march, being detached as an advance guard, 
had its own supports and reserves. 
Along with the changes in drill went those of the uniform. 
A cloth "foraging cap or chakos" trimmed with lace was now 
permitted company officers and enlisted men "when on duty, 
absent from their companies." The new headpiece was light 
and in some respects like the modern cap. It was evident that 
the bell-crown "tar-bucket" was quite too much for those who 
were not allowed to wear the light chapeaux de bras. A frock 
coat with a skirt to come to the knee was required of all officers 
whenever full dress was not otherwise prescribed. The insignia 
of rank was worn upon the collar. 
Some changes of station again mark the progress of the 
frontier outward. Two of the companies of the Fourth Artil- 
lery were sent south from Fortress Monroe. The Third In- 
fantry went west from Fort Howard, where it helped build 
Camp Miller, afterwards known as Jefferson Barracks, Mis- 
souri. 
A "Cavalry Tactics" by a board, of which Major General 
Scott was president and several militia generals were mem- 
bers, appeared this year. It covered the training of young 
horses, care and equipment of mounts, nomenclature of pistol 
and sword, drill in 1 or 2 ranks, formations of a regiment 
of 4 squadrons in order of battle, schools of the trooper and 
squadron and elaborate maneuvers corresponding to those of 
infantry tactics. 
A similarly complete regulation appeared for artillery. 
Everything from the "hound-box" to "perch" was completely 
explained. The work gave exhaustive schools of the gunner, 
the piece and the battery, and included evolutions of batteries 
and a manual of the howitzer. A battery consisted of 6 pieces, 
1825 
April 
1826 
Sept. 
1826 
1826 
1826 166 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
which were numbered from right to left, each piece with its 
caisson being drawn by four horses. The battery was divided 
either into 3 sections or 2 half-batteries. Both the cavalry and 
artillery maneuvers were copied from Scott's infantry move- 
ments as, for example, the command, "Break from the right 
and march to the left." 
According to the Abridged Tactics for Infantry the soldier 
in the position of attention put his heels as near together "as 
the conformation of the man will permit." ITe executed "eyes 
right" as he does now. The company fell in and was sized in 
"two ranks, tallest men on the right," and was then divided 
into platoons and sections. Loading was done by 12 com- 
mands, and "P'sent," "Port" and "Pile" arms were a part 
of the manual. There was volley firing in addition to firing 
by file as before. 
While the little army was trying to improve itself, legisla- 
tion was moving like the hen that pecks at particles all day 
and occasionally lays an egg. Extra pay of $10 a month was 
given to the officer who actually was in command of a company. 
The purpose was to alleviate the distress of junior officers who 
had difficulty in living on their pay. But only the senior sub- 
alterns whose captains happened to be absent profited by the 
measure. Sometimes, naturally, good captains were detached 
in order to give the increased pay to straitened lieutenants. 
In any case, only a few could receive the small benefit of the 
law. Instead of giving a substantial increase to every soldier, 
Congress thus resorted to a petty compromise which caused 
discrimination, did not raise the general morale and was on 
the whole wasteful. 
Yet the army went on improving itself and boring into the 
wilderness. The frontier extending further west, Colonel 
Leavenworth with four companies of the Third Infantry se- 
lected the site of the fort in Kansas which still bears his name. 
There he established a cantonment. The Sixth, in the mean- 
time, joined forces with the remainder of the Third at Jeffer- 
son Barracks, where was started an informal Infantry School 
of Practice. To this primitive place of instruction, as to the 
Artillery School of Practice at Fortress Monroe, all the "brevet 
second lieutenants" were sent upon joining. 
1826 
March 2 
1827 
April, May 
1827 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
167 
While the army was thus trying to advance technically so 
as to make itself more efficient, it had many besetting trials 
with which to contend. 
Brevet rank, that great anomalous bugbear which was to 
have such a disturbing influence on the spirit of troops, was 
given a standing it had not heretofore had. The adjutant gen- 
eral issued an order which deemed officers holding brevet rank 
to be on duty and to have command according to their brevet 
commissions when they were actually commanding enough 
troops to warrant such higher grade. If a brevetted officer was 
really commanding double the number of men which ordi 
nary regimental rank entitled him to control, the brevet rani 
became actual. A captain who was also a brevet major, for 
example, exercised command as a major when he was on duty 
over a detachment composed of not less than 2 companies. 
Naturally such an incongruity led to discontent. Those who 
had had no opportunity to be brevetted or those who, although 
brevetted, did not command the required number of men were 
through chance denied the higher grade. Men of long service 
and experience were often, then, commanded by their actual 
juniors. 
Neither did disease help the morale of the army. The 
troops on duty in the south were so reduced by fever that Briga- 
dier General Jacob Brown had to transfer large numbers over 
considerable distances. The Fourth Artillery alone had lost 
(mostly from yellow fever) during the six years of its stay, 16 
officers and 220 enlisted men. Yet Congress inquired into the 
expense of changing the Fourth to the north coast, the Third 
to the New England coast and the First and Second to the 
south. It had not been borne in upon the minds of the law- 
makers that soldiers in the wilds were dying fast. When Gem 
eral Brown showed that it was unfair to exterminate regiments 
in unhealthful places while others were in a land of comparative 
conveniences, his dispositions were approved. 
Whereas the artillery had posts in civilization to which it 
could be moved, the infantry had to live constantly on the 
borders. It is hard to realize now the terrible scourges of 
plague and epidemic that riddled the commands of the frontier. 
Resistance was lessened by exposure. Flies, roaches, mosqui- 
June 16 
1827 168 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
toes and rats were so abundant that they were almost inefface- 
able. Scientific investigation had not yet shown the fatality 
lurking among these pests. The soldiers, in crowded buildings 
and unacquainted with the need of ventilation, disseminated 
small pox, yellow fever, malaria and typhoid without under- 
standing their sources. Danger from disease for the military 
man was many times as great as for the citizen who had his 
own room and dined at home. 
If an undeveloped, small medical department had its trou- 
bles, the task that fell upon the staff in general was just as 
great. The Ordnance Department had been taken away from 
the army by the false economy of costly reductions. Those who 
kept up a part of the ordnance duties now masqueraded as 
artillerymen. A lieutenant colonel and 4 captains of artillery, 
stationed in Washington, attempted to supervise the arms and 
equipment of the entire service. Such condition was typical 
of the big burden that fell upon the few who made up the army. 
The movement of troops over tremendous distances was but 
an evidence of the attempt to have soldiers in two places at 
once. The First Infantry which had occupied Baton Rouge 
and vicinity was sent to Fort Crawford, Fort Snelling and Fort 
Winnebago at the other end of the Mississippi. The head- 
quarters of the Fourth Artillery were changed to Philadelphia. 
Four companies of the Sixth Infantry started as an escort to 
a party of traders bound from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe. 
The journey there and return was to require two years of fight- 
ing, thirst and exhaustion. The endurance and determination 
of these men broke a path for Kearny and Doniphan later, 
and blazed this trail for the first time. 
While the small army was desperately trying to hold the 
borders, it was also bringing the drill regulations up to a more 
practical and efficient standard. Improvement in the quality 
of maneuver went on, even if the numbers of troops to execute 
the movements were few. The new U. S. Infantry Drill Regu- 
lations consisted of three main schools: the soldier, the com- 
pany, and the battalion. It was the most thorough and pro- 
gressive work of its kind since Steuben's manual and showed 
again the energy of Major General Winfield Scott. The book 
•contained a special section for light infantry and riflemen. 
1827 
1828 
1829 
May 
1829 
1829 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
169 
Loading while kneeling and lying down, forming single file, 
advancing by files, diminishing and increasing front, and firing 
in extended order, seem to point to the development of the 
service of security. The 2 rifle companies in each battalion 
were, therefore, posted on the right and left. Executing the 
manual "by the numbers" was provided for so that the recruit 
could be the more carefully instructed. Inspection arms was 
described much as it exists to-day except that the ramrod was 
sprung in the barrel before the piece was taken by the inspector. 
Since the bores of the muzzle loaders could not be readily 
looked through, such precaution was necessary in order to make 
certain that the piece was unloaded. Target practice made its 
first modern advance. An eight-inch bull's-eye with an exterior 
ring was placed in the middle of the upper half of the target 
and between the horizontal bands, evidently to simulate the 
vital part of a human being. A soldier was required to begin 
at 50 yards in order to gain confidence, and then gradually pro- 
ceed back to 140 yards which was considered point-blank range. 
Because the sight was fixed, he had to aim below the bull's-eye 
more and more as he advanced toward the target from 140 
yards. 
A System of Exercise and Instruction of Field Artillery 
showed that the proper service was with horses in action, and 
that the proper calibers for the field were 6-and-12-pounder 
guns and 24-pounder howitzers. This regulation includes the 
term field artillery, light and horse artillery. The book is 
complete and a counterpart of the Infantry Tactics. 
As the army labored on improvement, Congress seemed to 
be more interested in destruction than construction of the armed 
forces. It tried now to do away with the office of major gen- 
eral or general in chief of the army. When the matter came to 
an issue, views of the committee on military affairs and of the 
Secretary of War were called for. Both Mr. Harrison and Mr. 
Peter B. Porter showed how the army had to have a head who 
was a soldier, just as much as a ship needed a captain who 
was a sailor. If the office were taken away, the work would 
be improperly done by a civilian secretary on the advice of 
junior staff officers by whom he was surrounded. The result 
was that Congress retained the office without recognizing its 
Under Dept 
of War, 
March 2 
1829 
1829 170 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
authority in purely military affairs, so that administration by 
the Secretary for a long time clogged the machinery and gave 
a precedent for much mismanagement in the Civil War. 
Within the army military procedure was likewise shaken 
by the operation of the orders on brevet rank. Officers by this 
time had become so confused that in many cases they w'ere at 
a loss as to who was actually in command. The consequence 
was that an order from Washington separated command from 
brevet rank. Although an officer sat on a court in accordance 
with brevetted grade, he was forbidden to exercise command 
corresponding to such grade unless especially assigned by the 
War Department for that purpose. So confusion was some- 
what allayed but not overcome. 
These interruptions could not stem the steady progress of 
the army in pushing our boundaries outward. The movement 
of the Third Infantry is an illustration of the advancement of 
the frontier. Two companies left Jefferson Barracks for Black 
Creek, Choctaw Nation. Four more companies left for the 
southeast corner of what is now Oklahoma on the Red River. 
These places represented the outlying sections of our western 
boundary. Wild regions infested by savages were reclaimed 
by roads, forts and the surveys made by this daring handful 
of soldiers. 
Indian uprisings later becoming threatening along the 
Mississippi, the Sixth Infantry was concentrated at Jefferson 
Barracks, with the specific purpose of taking care of the Sac 
and Fox Indians commanded by Black Hawk. That part of 
the Fifth Infantry at Fort Winnebago was moved to Fort Arm- 
strong (Rock Island, Ill.). The Third was sent to Canton- 
ment Jesup, La. 
In the meantime, administrative changes caused a bettering 
of conditions at Washington. The topographical engineers were 
organized into a regular bureau of the War Department, and 
after eleven years' absence, an Ordnance Department again 
made its appearance. Congress established the latter as a 
branch separate from the artillery so that it could now function 
with some sort of benefit for the service and advancement along 
broader and more technical lines.4 
Aug. 13 
1829 
Nov. 26 
1829 
Dec. 14 
1830 
Sept. 
1831 
1831 
March 
1832 
4 It is interesting to note that in 1830 a change was attempted in the THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
171 
Then General Scott entered upon the first of the duties 
which were to make his and the army's name so famous for paci- 
fication. In South Carolina the Nullification Proclamation had 
angered the people of that state to such an extent that they were 
on the point of secession and possibly civil war. President 
Jackson sent General Scott to Charleston to look after the 
difficulties. The General's great tact, forbearance, and human- 
ity bridged over the gulf and kept the government out of war. 
In the west the activities of Black Hawk were such that it 
was known a large force would be necessary to subdue him. 
General Atkinson, with the Sixth Infantry and 900 Illinois 
volunteers concentrated at Dixon's Ferry. The government 
acting with exemplary promptness, made provisions for raising 
600 mounted rangers, the first intimation of cavalry since 
1821. It also prepared to send General Scott with troops from 
the east. To get to the scene of activities, a large part of the 
Fourth Artillery covered by rail, boat, and marches 1,800 miles 
in 18 days. Such dispatch at a time when transit was not 
modern is almost unparalleled. But the eastern troops were 
never destined to engage with Black Hawk for they lost more 
than 30 per cent of their number by Asiatic cholera en route. 
The Second Infantry at Detroit was similarly struck down by 
the disease. Though the concentration contemplated 1,300 
regular troops from the Lakes and the Atlantic, the whole force 
was blocked by the plague. At Bock Island, Ill., General Scott, 
foreseeing the dire effects of drunkenness in connection with 
the disease, forestalled intoxication by a characteristic order: 
"That every soldier or ranger who shall be found drunk or 
sensibly intoxicated, after the publication of this order, be 
compelled as soon as his strength will permit, to dig a grave 
at a suitable burying place, large enough for his own reception, 
as such graves cannot fail to be wanted for the drunken man 
himself or some drunken companion. This order is given as 
1832 
June 
1832 
June 15 
1832 
paper cartridge with which the soldier loaded. Instead of having to bite 
the end and discard the wad, the foot soldier could thrust the whole cart- 
ridge into the chamber. The paper envelope, having been made combustible 
by a preparation of niter was consumed at discharge. The improvement 
was of doubtful value, especially when the paper became wet, so that the 
cartridge did not come into general use. 172 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
well to serve as a punishment for drunkenness, as to spare good 
and temperate men the labor of digging graves for their worth- 
less companions." 
Although Scott did not get to the fight the above will inti- 
mate that he had a well-disciplined force in hand. 
General Atkinson in the meantime had, with parts of the 
First and Sixth Infantry, come up with Black Hawk at the 
junction of the Bad Axe and the Mississippi. After a bloody 
battle of three hours, Atkinson signally defeated the savages. 
In the meantime the Illinois volunteers had met the enemy 
at the Wisconsin River and driven him back. When they had 
joined General Atkinson the augmented force effectively put 
a quietus on Black Hawk. 
Yet the army did not always treat the savage with the rifle. 
Captain Bonneville of the army took an indefinite leave of 
absence in order to study the Indian in his native haunts. Dis- 
guised as a fur trader, he made his way with 110 men to the 
heart of the Rockies, where he lived among the Nez Perces 
and Flatheads for five years. His daring labor was the wedge 
for peace with many tribes of Indians for years afterward. 
Shortly after Scott's experiences in getting his troops west, 
"ardent spirits" disappeared from the ration. Liquor was 
forbidden to be introduced into any fort, camp or garrison by 
any soldier or sutler, and sugar and coffee were issued in place 
of whisky. So it came about that the army was the first insti- 
tution of our government to prescribe prohibition for its per- 
sonnel. 
Along with such restrictions came changes of uniform 
which were intended to create a greater appeal to self-respect. 
Officers wore double-breasted coats coming to the knee, the 
different branches had the same colored facings on their coats 
as were prescribed during the Revolution, cocked hats returned, 
and all officers and noncommissioned officers had epaulets on 
both shoulders. Rank was distinguished by the materials and 
sizes of the straps of the epaulet, on which was placed the 
regimental number. The eagle for the colonel came into vogue 
for the first time as did the rows of buttons for generals in 
groups of fours, threes and twos. 
Aug. 2 
1832 
July 21 
1832 
1832 
Nov. 2 
1832 
Ordered 
June 11 
1832 
Operative 
July 1 
1833 Sylvanus Thayer THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
173 
It then became apparent to Congress that if the Indian 
was to be pursued, cavalry was necessary. After eleven years 
of absence a regiment of dragoons made its appearance. One 
colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 10 companies, each with 
1 captain, 1 first lieutenant and 1 second lieutenant made up 
this new mounted contingent of 600 privates. 
At the same time, enlistments for the whole army were re- 
duced to three years and the pay of a private increased to $6? 
Although he received only $5 of this amount for the first two 
years, he was given the remaining $24 at the expiration of that 
time, provided his conduct had been good. A reenlisted soldier 
received the full $6. All premiums were henceforth prohibited 
to recruiting officers and no man who had been convicted of 
a criminal offense could be enlisted. 
How well this last provision was carried out seems to be 
disputable. Small pay, little recreation, hard duty and little 
opportunity for advancement were not appealing to well-bred 
young men. Since the Military Academy furnished all and 
more of the officer personnel, commissions from the ranks were 
rare. The down-and-outer, the foreigner, and the adventurer 
made up to too great a degree the rank and file. 
The consequence was that the personnel of a company had 
to be controlled with an iron hand. Ignorant men could be 
restrained from mutiny by fear alone. Beating, which had 
been prohibited many years before, was still prevalent in these 
isolated places. Desertion in one instance met the following 
fate: 
March 3 
1833 
"The court found him guilty as charged and sentenced him 
to be tied to a stack of arms and to receive ten lashes for five 
5 The allowance for clothing for three years consisted of: 
March SO 
1833 
1 cap complete 
2 coats complete, for 
artillery and infantry 
1 coat complete, for 
ordnance and dragoons 
6 pairs woolen overalls 
9 pairs cotton overalls 
2 woolen jackets, for 
artillery and infantry 
3 woolen jackets for 
ordnance and dragoons 
3 cotton jackets 
6 cotton shirts 
6 flannel shirts 
9 pairs boots 
9 pairs stockings 
2 blankets 
1 forage cap 
1 great coat 
1 leather stock 
3 pairs of drawers. 174 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
successive mornings with a cat o' nine tails on his bare back 
in the presence of the command, to have his head and eyebrows 
shaved, to forfeit all pay and traveling expenses and to be 
drumd out of service." 
The rawhide, however, was still used as in the days of the 
Revolution. One officer forgot himself so far as to be court- 
martialed and severly punished on the following charge: 
Charge 1 
"Conduct subversive of good order and Military Disci- 
pline." Specification: In this: That he, the said Lieutenant 
Colonel W of the 6th Regiment U. S. Infantry, while 
commanding the regiment in question, did punish with stripes 
and lashes, private Thomas Powell of Company 'D,' of the regi- 
ment aforesaid-the punishment so administered being of such 
extreme severity as to have disabled the said Thomas Powell 
from the performance of his duty, for the period of nine days. 
This at Jefferson Barracks, in the state of Missouri, on or about 
the 12th of December, 1828." 
For sleeping on post in hostile country a soldier was some- 
times ordered to be shot. Sometimes, also, the firing squad 
was given secret directions to aim high over the head of the 
blindfolded victim kneeling on his coffin before his grave. After 
the volley, the prostrate convict was pardoned before his fellow 
soldiers because of previous good conduct. 
Cruelty naturally sprang up in a wilderness where one's 
existence depended upon the obedience of men who could 
neither read, write nor understand the reasons for discipline. 
There were instances where officers privately flogged their men. 
Physical superiority throughout the country was playing a 
large part in the settlement of affairs, and so it was in the 
army. 
The guardhouse was a log fortress usually outside the walls 
of the stockade. The ordinary type had two compartments, 
one for the guard and the other for the prisoners. The open 
room held those charged with moderate offenses, but cells at THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
175 
one side restrained the deserter, the rioter, and the more heinous 
criminal. These latter compartments about 8 feet long, 3 feet 
wide and only 3 feet high made it impossible for the culprit 
to stand upright during his confinement. 
The constant danger to the isolated fort is shown by the 
diligence with which those approaching it were challenged. 
The countersign was normally used with great care. The per- 
son approaching was called upon to "stand" by the sentry, and 
then to "advance with the countersign, and give it." If the 
word was correct, the sentry said "Right, pass"; if not, he 
called a noncommissioned officer of the guard. 
The daily guard, fatigue, and routine of other duties were 
often interrupted by more exciting occurrences. The arrival 
of the "express rider" at an unusual hour of the night, the 
"orderly call," the parading of the garrison with knapsacks 
packed, the hustle and bustle of the "waiters," the discomfort 
of weighty accouterments and tight garments, the long, dreary, 
hungry march, the contact with the first painted warriors, the 
running fight, the unexpected whoop of a fresh band of sav- 
ages, the final drive after hours of sweaty, muddy, bloody 
struggle, the search for the dead and wounded, the return to 
the fort, the gloomy burials with final volleys over the graves 
of good companions, were incidents in the monotony of the sol- 
dier's life. And the apothecary in Philadelphia went on undis- 
turbed even by a headline of what the nth Infantry had done 
for the civilization of the nation's territory. The soldier had 
plenty of one thing-hazard. And this he accepted without 
complaint. 
While the small bodies of troops were pounding away on 
the frontier, the army as a whole was being bettered. The 
organization of the First Regiment of Dragoons was soon com- 
pleted. The service now had mounted troops to use against 
the Indian. The medical corps, too, was helped by legislation. 
The quality of its officers was raised, when all new appoint- 
ments of assistant surgeons had to be censored by an army 
medical board. 
Field artillery had its real birth during this year. The 
Ordnance Department tested out two different types of car- 
riages, the "stock-trail" and the Gribeauval. It especially 
June 
1834 
June 30 
1834 
1834 176 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
went into the merits of brass and iron weapons, with results 
favoring the former. As to sizes, 6- and 12-pounder guns 
and 12- and 24-pounder howitzers seemed to survive. 
An Abstract of a System of Exercise and Instruction of 
Field Artillery was written by J. L. Wilson for the South Caro- 
lina militia. Two gunners and 2 first, 2 second and 2 third 
mattrosses served the piece (16- or 24-pounder). Grape shot 
was loaded by means of bags holding lead bullets. Cartridges 
of powder were made into cases covered by flannel boiled in oil. 
Pieces were touched off by a torch, and the powder in the 
chamber ignited by the use of a quick match and a portfire. 
The former was a long homemade fuse like a round lamp wick 
and the latter was a small paper case of powder made more 
inflammable by the admixture of antimony. 
Less than 4,000 regular soldiers now guarded over 10,000 
miles of seacoast and frontier for 15,000,000 of people. Five 
hundred infantrymen and artillerymen in Florida constituted 
the nation's only safeguard in a country of 52,000 square 
miles, infested by thousands of Seminole and Creek Indians. 
It was natural that the savage began to feel his power to such 
a degree that his confidence and cruelty led him to murder parts 
of the Second and Third Artillery and Fourth Infantry march- 
ing peacefully from Fort Brook to Fort King; 107 regular 
officers and men were killed. At the same time 2 other officers 
were murdered near Fort King. This affair, commonly known 
as Dade's massacre, fired the country and especially the army. 
Almost immediately General Clinch with 6 companies of 
artillery and infantry regulars and about 400 volunteers met 
approximately 1,000 Indians at the Withlacoochee and drove 
them back. Of the trained soldiers 57 officers and men were 
killed. Why only 30 officers and men of the volunteers got 
into action has never been satisfactorily explained. Had the 
whole force been used it is likely the Florida war would have 
ended at once. All the few trained soldiers could do was to 
repulse the Indians who went further away into their hiding 
places and became more wary. 
It was during this war that the most trying duty that could 
fall to the lot of troops was performed by nearly all of the 
1834 
1834 
Dec. 28 
1835 
Dec. 31 
1835 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
177 
regular army constantly for four long years. Moving from 
swamp to swamp in search of an enemy that never appeared, 
dying by battalions with fever and exposure, never able to 
bring on a decisive engagement with the elusive natives, never 
daring to separate into small groups without being exterminated 
by savages who sprang from the soil, at night disturbed by 
decoys and alarms, always on the move fighting shadows, 
starved for supplies, burned or plundered by the Indian, hin- 
dered by thickets, marshes, tropical forests, morasses and 
jungles of unknown poisons and mysterious extent, balked by 
the enemy who was never to be trusted in council and resorted 
to any ulterior means to gain a scalp, the little army of less 
than 1,000 regulars tried to clean out a vast country occupied 
by over 3,000 Indians. In spite of the handicaps the soldier 
built 90 forts and stockades and 480 miles of road. This great 
wedge of development and safety the army accomplished at the 
price of misery, disease, and death. 
The First Artillery was the first one to reach Florida from 
the north in order to reenforce the command already there. 
General Scott, in charge of the Eastern Department, was also 
sent to the scene of the trouble by the War Department. And 
it was wise that the regular troops were appearing, for General 
Call had reported mutiny among his volunteer troops and 
Governor Eaton had shown that his had all gone home. Florida 
was left alone with its handful of trained soldiers, whose com- 
panies were now rendered so small by the lack of legislation 
that scarcely an average of 30 men could be mustered for duty. 
General Gaines, in the meantime, in command of the 
Western Department, having no information from the War 
Department, hastened with about 1,100 men for Tampa to 
avenge Dade's massacre. Pushing on to Fort Drane where 
Scott had a reservoir of supplies for the right wing of his troops, 
he was there besieged. When the siege was raised not only 
were Gaines' troops starving and subsisting on horse flesh, but 
the supplies for Scott's troops were all used up. Here we have 
the picture of two forces of United States troops acting utterly 
independently of each other and in opposition. Part of the 
reason for this mismanagement can be attributed to the absence 
of the telegraph and rapid transit. 
Jan. 
1836 
Jan. 9 
1836 
Feb. 3 
1836 
MarcA 6 
1836 178 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
General Gaines then calmly went back to his command, 
leaving General Clinch to resuscitate the starving soldiers. 
In addition to these troubles the Creek Indians now began 
to show signs of hostility in southern Alabama and Georgia. 
Although the Second Infantry did some notable work in escort- 
ing emigrating tribes, there were so few soldiers, in proportion 
to the number of savages and settlers to be protected, that the 
task seemed hopeless. 
General Scott was without an adequate force. Although the 
Sixth Infantry, some artillery and the volunteers were on their 
way, the situation in Florida was not then helped. Futile and 
tardy enactments by Congress gave authority for "10,000 men" 
and an additional regiment of dragoons, but such action was far 
from collecting, organizing, training and putting on the ground 
the numbers voted. Besides, the 10,000 were to be discharged 
at the end of "six or twelve months" and the extra regiment of 
dragoons was to be disbanded at the will of the President. 
Although the dragoons were to be accepted for three years, the 
volunteers were to go out either in a year or a half year as they 
chose. What raw troops would decide is not undecipherable 
after what had already transpired in our history. To add to 
this fruitlessness, the governors of Georgia and Alabama had 
ordered thousands of soldiers into the field who were useless 
because they had no arms. 
The Third and Fourth Artillery and Fourth and Sixth 
Infantry took part in a succession of small actions, such as 
Macinope, Fort Drane, Wahoo Swamp and Withlacoochee, 
wherever any Indians could be induced to appear. In the 
meantime the savage was carrying on raids of extermination on 
every white man, woman, and child who could be seized in 
Florida, southern Alabama and Georgia. A massacre would 
occur in one place while the troops were at another. Seldom 
was the meager force in that wide country able to catch up with 
a foe that was capable of rapid disappearance. History little 
records the deeds of heroism and discomfort of Scott's troops. 
One commander wrote: 
"There are here 11 companies of artillery; the whole pre- 
sents a fighting force of 110 men; and while we are entitled to 
55 officers, we have here only 6 for company duty." 
Spring 
1836 
May 23 
1836 
June to 
Nov. 
1836 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
179 
The country would not allow the officer or enlisted man to 
do the job right by making or having a sufficiently large trained 
force. So scarce were subalterns that President Jackson had 
to order them to the front from detached service. With com- 
panies that were squads, needing few officers, and having less, 
with useless pilgrimages that were able to cover but small frac- 
tions of the hostile territory and with the ever-present disease 
that was more deadly than the bullet, morale in the service was 
naturally low. 
Promotion was so slow that a lieutenant had little hope of 
ever becoming a captain. For sixty-nine graduates of the Mili- 
tory Academy there were no actual vacancies so that they had 
to be attached as brevet second lieutenants to their companies. 
These young men with exceptional education under the regime 
of Colonel Thayer, seeing futures less lucrative and hopeful 
than those of uneducated mill hands of their own town, resigned 
in shoals. One hundred and seventeen officers went out in 
18'36. During this decade, the service lost and the civilian 
gained the benefit of such men as Horace Bliss, celebrated en- 
gineer ; W. C. Young, President Panama Railroad and Hudson 
River Railroad; R. R. Parrott, inventor of the gun bearing his 
name; Alexander D. Bache, one of the most famous educators 
and scientists of his time; Albert Sidney Johnston; N. B. 
Buford; Leonidas Polk; Jefferson Davis; Joseph E. Johnston; 
George G. Meade; and Henry Du Pont, proprietor of the 
Du Pont Powder Mills.6 
Efforts within the service to produce good results were 
almost pathetic. Tactics and Regulations for the Militia gave 
to the volunteer a volume containing all that should be known 
by him of infantry, cavalry and artillery drill. One apparently 
novel thing emphasized was the deployment of the light in- 
fantry and rifle companies and battalions "as skirmishers," and 
their "rallying and assembling." 
The uniform showed marks of evolution toward later 
changes. Although the epaulets were retained for full dress of 
officers, shoulder straps of the type worn on the officers' blue 
dress coat before the World War came into vogue for generals 
1836 
1836 
6 All graduates of West Point. 180 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and colonels in "undress." Majors and company officers wore 
slashed flaps, buttons and loops on their sleeves. The major wore 
a slash 6^ inches long, 4 loops and 4 buttons; and the subal- 
terns, a slash 3^ inches long with 2 loops and 2 buttons. The 
cadet full-dress coat and overcoat were almost as they appear 
now, although a gray vest was included in the wardrobe. All 
staff officers wore aigullettes on the undress coat. Chevrons for 
noncommissioned officers in dress uniform were replaced by the 
same sort of slashings on the sleeve as for captains and lieu- 
tenants, except that the material was worsted cloth instead of 
gold lace. For undress, the chevrons for sergeants and corporals 
were approximately of the same design as now, save that they 
were pointed downward. It was prescribed that the hair should 
be "cut short or what is generally termed cropped; the whiskers 
not to extend below the lower tip of the ear, and in a line thence 
with the curve of the mouth." 
Promotion for company officers was within the regiment; 
for field officers, within the same branch of the service. Added 
to the inequalities of such procedure throughout the army, 
brevet rank continued to create much dispute and many unusual 
situations. 
During the year General Scott was recalled from the scene 
of hostilities in order that his conduct in not prosecuting the 
war more quickly might be inquired into. Between General 
Gaines, the raw troops, and Congress he had not had a chance. 
Supplies and transportation were wanting and his difficulties 
approached those of Schuyler or Washington at their worst. It 
had now grown to be a national habit to take the tools away 
from a commander and to inquire at the seat of government into 
his conduct when he failed. Of course, General Scott was 
fully acquitted, and the enemy was not harmed by his absence. 
The army, in small detachments like lost souls in the desert, 
went about seeking the enemy. It might as well have hunted, 
like De Soto, for the fountain of youth. At the small councils 
the chiefs made peace and afterward broke faith. The actions 
though small caused marching and countermarching that keenly 
harassed and provoked the troops. 
The Third and Fourth Artillery and the Third, Fourth and 
Sixth Infantry regiments bore the brunt of this unusual hunt in 
July 7 
1836 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
181 
the dark against treachery and disease. The First Infantry 
and some of the newly organized Second Dragoons were on their 
way south. But trouble was brewing in Canada to such a degree 
that most of the remaining regulars were needed in the north. 
In the south General Jesup was unable to report more than 
30 Indians killed and 500 captured. Colonel Zachary Taylor, 
however, having taken a company of the Fourth Artillery, the 
First and Sixth Infantry, some Missouri volunteers, Morgan's 
spies, some pioneers and pontooneers, and some Delaware In- 
dians-a force of 870 altogether-set out through the fastnesses 
of Florida with orders to defeat the Indians wherever found. 
After much search a body of savages, large enough to be at- 
tacked, was found hidden in a hummock of thick saw grass five 
feet high. To approach the position the soldiers had to wade 
to their knees in mud and water. Although such a quagmire 
prevented the use of horses and made the advance of foot troops 
hazardous, Taylor attacked. When Colonel Gentry of the raw 
troops fell, most of the volunteers fled to their baggage and could 
not be persuaded to return. Colonel Zachary Taylor describes 
the remainder of the battle thus: 
"The enemy, however, were promptly checked and driven 
back by the Fourth and Sixth Infantry, which, in truth, might 
be said to be a moving battery. The weight of the enemy's fire 
was principally concentrated on five companies of the Sixth 
Infantry, which not only stood firm, but continued to advance 
until their gallant commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Thompson, 
and his adjutant, Lieutenant Centre, were killed, and every 
officer, with one exception as well as most of the non-commis- 
sioned officers, including the sergeant-major and four of the 
orderly sergeants, killed and wounded of those companies; 
when that portion of the regiment retired a short distance and 
were again formed, one of the companies having but four men 
left untouched. 
"Lieutenant-Colonel Foster with six companies, amounting 
in all to 160 men, gained the hummock in good order, where he 
was joined by Captain Noel, with the two remaining companies 
of the Sixth Infantry, and Captain Gillam, of Gentry's volun- 
teers, with a few additional men, and continued to drive the 
July 31 
1837 
Oct. 21 
1837 
Dec. 19 
1837 182 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
enemy for a considerable time, and by a change of front 
separated his line, and continued to drive him until he reached 
the great Lake Okeechobee, which was in rear of the enemy's 
position, and on which their encampment extended for more 
than a mile. 
"The action was a severe one, and continued from half past 
twelve until 3:00 P.M., a part of the time very close and 
severe. We suffered much, having 26 killed and 112 wounded, 
among whom are some of our most valuable officers. The hos- 
tiles probably suffered, all things considered, equally with our- 
selves, they having left ten dead on the ground, besides doubtless 
carrying off many more, as is customary with them when prac- 
ticable." 
Thus was fought the Battle of Okeechobee Swamp on 
Christmas Bay. 
After the battle one officer gave an account of the Florida 
country and situation not overly flattering to either: 
"We (Colonel Taylor's army) have just returned from the 
Everglades. These Everglades are, at the northwest, termed 
wet prairies. They are large wet prairies, or grassy lakes, and 
of which the Indians know but little, and where they cannot live 
a month without great suffering. 
"We saw but few Indians, and they fled rapidly at our 
approach. We took about sixty horses and ascertained that 
their cattle were exhausted. Colonel Taylor has taken about 
600 head. We found on our last excursion but few cattle tracks, 
and only two cows were taken. The Indians are suffering for 
food, in all their camps we find that they have subsisted on 
palmetto roots and the cabbage tree, which are never eaten by 
them except when hard run. 
"One hundred and thirty Indians and negroes have come in 
since the Battle of Okeechobee, and they say many more will 
come in soon, and that they are tired of the war, and destitute 
of provisions. 
"Florida is generally a poor, sandy country. The southern 
portion is nearly all prairie, wet and dry alternately. Not more 
than one-tenth, at the utmost, of Florida is fit for cultivation, 
Dec. 25 
1837 
Feb. 8 
1838 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
183 
and I would not give one good township of land in Illinois or 
Michigan for every foot of land in East Florida." 
That the army has been as much a peacemaker as a war 
wager, has not been a prevalent conception. Yet its recorded 
dealings with other nations and with the savages will prove that 
it has tried zealously to prevent conflicts. The year 1838 was 
particularly one of peacemaking by the army for the benefit 
of the country. General Scott had been sent north by the gov- 
ernment for the purpose of preventing a third war with Great 
Britain. Sympathizers with Canadian rebels or patriots had 
led the border states to take up the quarrel of the Canadian 
revolutionists. Some citizens of the United States, those elements 
untrained, undisciplined and unorganized, had actually taken 
part in hostile enterprises. The acuteness of the situation was 
all the more aggravated by the necessary absence of our trained 
troops in Florida, along the coast and on the western frontier. 
Scott was without organized power to hold our violators of 
neutrality in check. By a combination of skillful addresses 
and personal conferences he averted the catastrophe and pre- 
vented a useless waste of lives. His exertions with our citizens 
and the British agents in Canada were the entire reasons for 
the prevention of rupture. 
After our instability had been so obviously shown by this 
lucky outcome and by the slaughter and fruitlessness in Florida, 
the stingy size of our army at last became patent. Congress at 
length gave voice to an increase. It allowed to every artillery 
company 16 extra privates and to every infantry company 38. 
It added a company to each regiment of artillery and another 
regiment of infantry to the whole establishment. It propor- 
tionately increased the officers in the engineer corps, the topo- 
graphical engineers, medical and other staff departments. It 
gave to each person in the service, except general officers, an 
extra ration for every five years of service. It raised the en- 
listed pay to a scale ranging from $17 for a sergeant major 
down to $8 for a private. It prescribed that $2 a month was 
to be withheld until the expiration of enlistment. It replaced 
the bounty by three months' reenlisted pay. It gave to any 
enlisted man, serving continuously for ten years, 160 acres of 
Jan. 
1838 
July 5 
1838 184 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
land. It allowed the council of administration at any post to 
hire a chaplain at $40 a month and the Military Academy to 
have a professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. It 
authorized 1 regiment of infantry to be equipped as light in- 
fantry and 2 to be armed with rifles. 
Since Scott had made the peace with Great Britain possible 
it was necessary to see that no fresh causes for war arose. Part 
of the newly organized Eighth Infantry was accordingly used 
in small bodies on the lake boats to enforce the neutrality and 
to arrest any suspicious American sympathizers. 
While this small contingent of the army was keeping peace 
in the north, General Scott again was ordered on another deli- 
cate mission in which the slightest error of performance meant 
war and the loss of many lives. The Cherokees, who still 
inhabited parts of Georgia and North and South Carolina, their 
native home, had, under questionable inducements on the part 
of our civil agents, agreed to emigrate west. The real truth was 
that since gold had been discovered in this region, our people 
were covetous of that part of the Indian country. This tribe 
had always been friendly and had largely taken up the educa- 
tion and customs of the states. The whole Cherokee nation 
realized that it had virtually been robbed of its territory. In 
spite of this feeling, some had emigrated, but about 15,000 
refused to leave their mountain homes. 
General Scott was accordingly chosen to bear the brunt of 
the affair by having to direct the emigration. His masterful 
appeal to the Cherokees not to compel war, his instructions to 
his soldiers to be gentle and firm, his square dealing and his 
quick demonstration of force, by drawing a circle of troops 
about the Indians, brought the desired result. Parts of the 4 
regiments of artillery, the Fourth Infantry, a portion of the 
Second Dragoons and some Georgia militia were the troops 
designated for this work. Scott's arrangements were so com- 
plete and his promises so fully carried out that the Indians even 
submitted at his suggestion to vaccination. Nothing for the 
ordinary comfort of these people had been forgotten by him. 
One authority states that $2,500,000 was saved the government 
by this peaceful emigration. How much loss of life was pre- 
vented is inestimable. In addition to keeping us out of war, 
1838 to 
1840 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
185 
Scott and his troops retrieved the opprobrious reputation of the 
government, and washed clean the dirty smudges of our envious- 
ness. 
Further south in Florida matters had come to a standstill. 
Seeing the futility of protecting the inhabitants of that country 
or of rounding up the Indians with so few trained forces, Gen- 
eral Jesup asked to be relieved. Colonel Zachary Taylor took 
his place. What the new commander did will be seen later. 
Meanwhile it is scarcely fair to center the attention at this 
time upon the south and east. While the troops in Florida were 
fighting fever and hardship, the little stockades in the near west 
were protecting the settlers and having their brushes with the 
savage. Although none of these actions was large enough to 
record separately, they were none the less severe and difficult. 
The redskin was beaten off only to return later. Something had 
to be done in the way of permanency. Though surveys were 
constantly injected into the unknown middle west country by 
army engineers, aided by other troops, more extensive feelers 
had to lengthen themselves into the infested plains before the 
troops could progress gradually and intelligently outward. One 
of the big moves at this time, which did so much for our country 
later, was the expedition of a then unknown young man. John 
C. Fremont was commissioned a second lieutenant of topo- 
graphical engineers and sent with Mr. Nicholet, the distin- 
guished astronomer, west of the Mississippi and north of the 
Missouri. This was the beginning of the magnificent explora- 
tions (to be described later) that were to make the "Pathfinder" 
so famous. 
It may be interesting at this point to digress a moment in 
order to note certain advances in technique within the army. 
The Jenks breechloading rifle was tried out by the Ordnance 
Department. Although the weapon was thought unfit for in- 
fantry, a similar carbine was judged to be practicable for 
cavalry. The Board that pronounced upon the venture felt con- 
vinced that breechloading produced no advantage and was 
slower, especially because of the fouling of the piece. Since the 
muzzle-loader had to be rammed each time before firing, the 
bore would naturally, they thought, be kept cleaner than in a 
breechloader. 
May 15 
1838 
June 7 
1838 
1838 THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
186 
Sept., Nov. 
1838 
The Second and Sixth regiments of Infantry were finally 
entirely concentrated in Florida. What happened to a part 
of the Second might be cited as typical of conditions under 
which all the troops then marched. Captain Russell was taking 
the men of his company to Fort Dallas. With a part of them 
he was going by boat down the Miami River when the party 
was fired on by Indians from the shore. Immediately he 
ordered his men to row toward the savages and attack. Being 
the first to land, he had scarcely started the fight when he fell 
pierced by five bullets. His lieutenant continued the disad- 
vantageous action not without success and brought back in 
safety the body of the captain. But so overwhelming was the 
number of Indians that all the few soldiers could do was to 
make a break for safety. 
While such tragedies were taking place, General Scott was 
ordered on his fourth mission to save the peace of the United 
States. It seems that the state of Maine had got into altercation 
with the Canadian authorities over its boundaries. The gover- 
nor had gone so far as to call out 8,000 militia. When General 
Scott arrived his diplomatic handling of the situation closed the 
issue. Here again we have the trained soldier using all proper 
means to avoid war. All through these pages we will find that 
he who understands hardships and the business of arms not 
only does not want strife but does everything he can do to pre- 
vent it. But when the struggle becomes inevitable he acts as the 
skilled surgeon who cuts deep in order to gain a quick recovery. 
To be in better shape for the disturbances that were con- 
stantly threatening, the army chiefs sought to collect and drill 
the troops. A "Grand Camp of Instruction" was held at Tren- 
ton, New Jersey. All the regulars that could be scraped to- 
gether in that part of the country went through some maneuvers. 
Among other things one battery of each artillery regiment took 
over horses from the dragoons and was formed into a light 
battery. This concentration was doubtless another forerunner 
of the modern summer camp. 
The war in Florida being unusually prolonged, General 
Macomb, general in chief, visited the scene of activities. 
After consultation with the principal Indian chiefs with whom 
he made a treaty he announced to the army and the public that 
March 
1839 
March 
1839 
Summer 
1839 
May 18 
1839 THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
187 
the war with the Seminoles was over. This was the third time 
in three years that peace with these savages had been announced 
tc the fighting forces by some high authority. On the previous 
occasions the Indians had broken faith with the addition of 
many Christian graves to the soil of the south. General 
Macomb's prognosis proved to be no exception. 
For scarcely a month passed before events made force again 
necessary. Colonel Harney ■was on a march with 40 men 
toward the Caloosahatchee River. His men had camped with 
the same feeling of security that Dade had had three years 
before. The Indians met on the way seemed to be most friendly. 
But just before dawn one morning the camp was attacked and 
18 of Colonel Harney's men massacred, he and the others barely 
escaping. Hostilities naturally were renewed with all the dis- 
comforts, horrors, and fruitlessness of past years. 
Inside the army, the work of improvement went steadily on 
notwithstanding the ebb and flow of peace. The field artillery 
took another stride forward when Captain Robert Anderson 
translated the French Regulations so as to cover both the "horse 
and foot" artillery in one manual. It dealt with the passage of 
difficult ground in detail, and covered the maneuver of the bat- 
tery from the "passage of carriages" to the "countermarch." 
Every conceivable manner of going "into battery" was ex- 
plained with great thoroughness. These regulations contributed 
highly to the efficient part field artillery was going to play in 
the Mexican War. 
During the ensuing year the regular regiments were moved 
about the country in a wild endeavor to stamp out the terrors 
of the frontiers. The newly organized Eighth Infantry, having 
finished its duty in helping to keep the peace with Great 
Britain, was started from Sackett's Harbor for the Wisconsin 
territory. The Winnebago Indians had left their reservation 
and were committing outrages. Going overland and by boat, 
the regiment arrived at Camp McKeon whence it proceeded 
against this tribe. 
During this period the Seventh Infantry was taking part in 
actions near Fort King and Fort Drane, Florida. The Sixth 
was doing similar work. The Fifth was holding the Indians in 
check in the northwest. The Fourth was helping the Sixth and 
July 23 
1839 
1839 
1840 
May 2 
1840 
May 28 
1840 188 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Seventh in Florida. The Third was in the southwest, opening 
roads in the Sabine country in Texas, even to the extent of 
clearing the river of its undergrowth and jammed logs. The 
First and Second were scouring Florida. The field artillery 
was left to prevent further trouble in Maine. The Second and 
Third were in Florida and the Fourth on the lake frontier help- 
ing the Fifth Infantry. The First Dragoons were in the north 
and the Second in Florida.7 
Evidently the means provided for solving the Seminole 
situation were few. General Taylor having found the task 
beyond him, asked, as his predecessor had done, to be relieved. 
General Armistead took his place. The new commander di- 
vided the territory into seven military districts for the purpose 
of making the tasks of the troops specific. His forces were 
augmented by the arrival of the Eighth Infantry which had just 
rounded up the Winnebago Indians and had traversed the entire 
frontier to go south. The Third came from Texas a little later. 
While the army was contending with the Seminoles, the 
administration at the Military Academy was signally helped. 
Congress recognized the office of Commandant of Cadets which 
Colonel Thayer had provided previously. The commandant, 
under the superintendent, was made responsible for the mili- 
tary instruction of the corps. Becoming now the chief instruc- 
tor of infantry, cavalry and artillery tactics as well as of 
practical military engineering, he was able to unify the teaching 
of these subjects so vital to young army officers. 
In Florida, responsibility for suppressing the Seminoles 
again became too heavy. General Armistead at his own request 
was relieved from command and Colonel Worth took his place. 
Although the First Infantry left for Forts Snelling, Crawford 
and Anderson in the northwest and the remaining troops were 
weary of so much length without strength, the new incumbent 
hit upon a successful plan. Pursuing the original idea of Gen- 
eral Scott, he did not hunt the enemy directly but rather his 
dwellings and standing crops. General Sprague gives an inti- 
mate glimpse into these activities: 
May 1 
1840 
Oct. 
1840 
July 20 
1840 
May 31 
1841 
7 The disposition of these regiments is correct only in a general way, 
because few of them at this time could be serving as a unit in any one 
place. THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
189 
"Fever and dysentery were the prevailing diseases. Officers 
and soldiers were inevitably exposed to the vicissitudes of the 
climate. Day after day they were wet to the skin, then sub- 
jected to a burning sun, causing an atmosphere to arise from 
the heated sand almost unsupportable. 
"The bands of Indians, which for years had lived from 
season to season, in the enjoyment of abundance, celebrating 
their corn dances and festivals, harassing the white man as 
suited their convenience or inclination, were now driven in 
small parties to remote and unhealthy hiding places. The 
foundation of the contest was reached, which inspired all with 
the hope of future success." 
One of the curious incidents of this campaign is shown by 
Colonel R. H. Wilson, in his history of the Eighth Infantry: 
"At the end of September, 1841, A, C, E, and G were at 
Punta Rassa where, owing to the fact that at certain periods 
during great storms the land was subject to overflow from the 
waters of the Gulf, platforms were erected sufficiently high it 
was supposed for protection, on which were pitched the tents 
of officers and men. On the night of October 10th a terrific 
storm arose which soon grew to a tornado, and at dawn of the 
next day all that could be seen of the cheerful, busy camp of 
the day before were the uprights and roofs of the hospital. In 
the branches of two large, moss-mantled live-oaks which stood 
in the center of what was once Camp Caloosahatchee, were 
clustered, close as spines upon the prickly pear, all the men of 
the command-some 200-who, true to their teachings, had 
clung to their arms through all these trying hours, and not one 
had perished." 
Speaking of arms, it is well to note that heretofore no 
large arms had been made by government arsenals. Only car- 
riages and small arms had been manufactured by the army. 
However, at this time an advancement was made in having 
ordnance officers inspect the making of government cannon in 
private plants. The quality of the output was thus materially 
raised. The small arms then on hand included 672,542 mus- 
1841 190 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
kets, 25,154 rifles, 7,287 carbines and 22,047 pistols.8 The 
large guns in use consisted of the following kinds and sizes: 
8-inch Columbiad, 10-inch mortars and howitzers and 42, 32, 
24, 18 and 12-pounder guns-smooth bores. 
A real improvement in small arms took place when the 
model 1841 rifle made its appearance. It had a percussion lock 
and used a reduced powder-charge. Besides keeping the 
motions of loading a muzzle-loader to the minimum, it modified 
the kick. It proved to be the most accurate and dependable 
spherical bullet rifle ever made and marked the end of the pro- 
duction of flintlocks. Springfield and Harper's Ferry arsenals 
began to turn out several thousand of these every year and to 
remodel the flintlocks. 
The place of the dragoon was materially helped by the 
appearance of the first extensive Cavalry Tactics issued "by 
order of the War Department." The manual provided for a 
drill of 2 ranks, the rear rank taking two feet from head to 
croup. A regiment consisted of 5 squadrons and each squadron 
of 5 platoons, 2 platoons formed a division. A captain com- 
manded the squadron with a junior captain second in command. 
The lieutenants each commanded a platoon. The term "troop" 
had not yet come into use. 
While the army was improving its training and technic 
internally, it was also extending itself externally. The Big 
Cypress Expedition and the plundering campaigns of Colonel 
Worth were having their effect. That officer made an estimate 
that there remained only 300 Indians of both sexes abroad. 
The others in a starving condition, having lived on palmetto 
Winter 
1841 
Feb. 14 
1842 
18 The arsenals and depots holding these included: 
Allegheny arsenal. 
Apalachicola arsenal. 
Augusta arsenal. 
Baton Rouge arsenal. 
Champlain arsenal. 
Detroit arsenal. 
Fort Monroe arsenal. 
Frankford arsenal. 
Kennebec arsenal. 
Little Rock arsenal. 
Mount Vernon arsenal. 
North Carolina arsenal. 
Pikesville arsenal. 
Rome arsenal. 
Saint Louis arsenal. 
Washington arsenal. 
Watertown arsenal. 
Watervliet arsenal. 
Charleston depot. 
New York depot. 
Palatka depot. 
Rock Island depot. 
Tampa Bay depot. 
Harper's Ferry armory. 
Springfield armory. THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
191 
root and cabbage, had surrendered without bloodshed to the 
troops. The President after some hesitancy approved Worth's 
suggestion that the war terminate. However, some of the regu- 
lars stayed in the south to make sure of peace and succeeded in 
capturing the last of the savage chiefs, even after peace was 
declared. 
The First, Second, Fourth and Sixth Infantry regiments 
were sent north and northwest, the Second to Lakes Ontario and 
Erie, and the First, Fourth and Sixth to Jefferson Barracks, 
Missouri. 
The regular troops had lost throughout the war by death 
1,466 officers and men from a maximum strength of 4,191 9 
souls, or over 41 per cent. 
Had there been a sufficiency of trained troops at the begin- 
ning when the Indians were willing to try conclusions and 
were assembled, this great mortality could have been reduced 
nine-tenths. Instead, volunteers were called out time and again 
at a cost of several million dollars which netted the United 
States nothing. The untrained men as usual could not fight 
because they did not know how. At the outset our miserly 
attitude with regard to the soldier had robbed us of a speedy 
peace and the lives of a great number of good men. 
Peace was no sooner announced than the army was reduced 
from 12,539 to 8,613 for a population of 17,000,000. At the 
most, 1 man in every 2,000 persons kept alive the elements of 
discipline and training. The country thus laid itself open to 
more murder and bloodshed. 
However, the shrinkage was made by simply reducing the 
number of men in a company. No commissioned officers were 
cast out of the service. Although the staff was cut down, army 
organization was not greatly disturbed. A piece of economy 
was inaugurated in the replacement by ordnance officers of 
civilian superintendents at Springfield and Harper's Ferry 
arsenals. But a setback was given the cavalry when a regiment 
of dragoons was transformed into one of riflemen. 
Now that railroads had been extended and new roads had 
been built, especially in the east, communication between the 
May 10 
1842 
Aug. 14 
1842 
Aug. 23 
1842 
9 Those actually enlisted and commissioned. 192 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
July 11 
1842 
outlying army and the seat of government was quicker than 
before. Accordingly the eastern and western divisions of the 
army, commanded each by a general officer, were done away 
with and nine separate departments 10 created. By such dis- 
tribution each of these smaller commands could deal directly 
with the general in chief in Washington and avoid the delay of 
long and winding channels of correspondence. 
In the following year the cadet body of the Military Acad- 
emy was for the first time legally composed of young men from 
all parts of the United States. The students were required to 
be appointed according to congressional districts. Each repre- 
sentative was to have one appointment of a youth actually resid- 
ing within his district. Ten cadets were to be appointed at 
large. Although such a custom had been in practice, never 
before had it had legislative sanction. 
Shortly afterward a school for drill for the brigade was 
originated at Jefferson Barracks. Although the scope and kind 
of work -was limited, the attempt showed an effort in the service 
to train large units. The Third and Fourth Infantry regiments 
which were then stationed in Missouri, constituted the person- 
March 1 
1843 
i° " Department No. 1. West Florida, and the states of Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, Louisiana, Tennessee and Kentucky. Headquarters, from the 1st 
of November to the 30th of June, in each year, at New Orleans, and for 
the remainder of the year at the Bay of St. Louis, or Baton Rouge, as the 
commander may elect. 
"Department No. 2. The country west of the Mississippi, north of 
Louisiana and Texas, and south of 37th degree of north latitude. Head- 
quarters, Fort Smith. 
"Department No. 3. The state of Missouri (above the 37th degree of 
north latitude); the state of Illinois; the Iowa territory; that part of the 
Wisconsin Territory west of the 13th degree longitude west from Wash- 
ington; and the Indian country north and west of the lines indicated. 
Headquarters, Jefferson Barracks. 
"Department No. 4. The states of Indiana, Ohio and Michigan; the 
part of the Wisconsin Territory, not included in Department No. 3, and 
the Indian Country north. Headquarters, Detroit. 
"Department No. 5. The states of Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, 
New Jersey, Connecticut and Rhode Island. Headquarters, Troy, N. Y. 
"Department No. 6. The states of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
and Maine. Headquarters, Portland. 
"Department No. 7. The states of Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. 
Headquarters, Fort Monroe. 
"Department No. 8. The states of North Carolina, South Carolina and 
Georgia. Headquarters, Sullivan's Island, Harbor of Charleston. 
"Department No. 9. (Temporary) east and middle Florida. Head- 
quarters in the field.'' THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
193 
nel. These organizations by their application gained a reputa- 
tion for smartness and precision, raised their esprit and pre- 
pared themselves well for the Mexican War in which they were 
to take part. 
Already the rumblings of that war could be heard in Texas, 
where the struggle for independence was progressing. The 
infantry regiments of the brigade school were sent to Camp 
Wilkins, Camp Salubrity and Grand Encore, Louisiana. The 
Second Dragoons were ordered to Fort Jesup. This force con- 
stituted the first installment of Taylor's "Army of Occupation." 
On this account the act making the Second Dragoons into rifle- 
men was repealed. 
Some years before this Lieutenant John C. Fremont, it will 
be remembered, had started out with some troops in order to 
make explorations in the region of the Missouri River. Up to 
this time he had surveyed the Des Moines River, the Platte 
River, and a large part of the country between the Missouri 
River and the Rocky Mountains. He had also gone over the 
Rocky Mountains to the mouth of the Columbia River and had 
explored most of what is now Oregon and Northern California. 
He had traversed over ten thousand miles of freezing mountain 
and sickly basin. Now a lieutenant colonel, he found himself 
in California ready to take up the conquest of that country. 
The little army in its garrisons and camps, though inter- 
rupted by uprisings here and there, went on with its discipline 
and training day by day. The soldier at sunrise found himself 
in ranks. Hurrying into his room or tent he made his bed, 
swept his quarters and set his belongings in order so as to be 
ready for inspection twenty-five minutes after reveille. After 
he had eaten his breakfast, he cleaned his musket or his rifle, 
polished his breastplate, cartridge box and buttons, brushed his 
hat, pompon and clothing, and generally prepared himself for 
parade at nine o'clock. At that dress ceremony, he saw the 
national colors raised to the top of the flag pole, heard the "Star 
Spangled Banner" played, beheld his officers move to the front 
and doff their hats to the commanding officer and then he him- 
self, while yet in ranks, marched with his company in review. 
After the ceremony was over he changed his dress uniform for 
the more comfortable one of fatigue, if he was not detailed for 
1843 
Spring 
1844 
April 4 
1844 194 
THE UNITED STATES ARMYj 
guard that day. If on guard, he prepared himself more thor- 
oughly in dress uniform for inspection, paying particular heed 
to his rifle and the cleanliness of his person. At guard mount- 
ing which took place immediately after parade the soldier 
awaited the results of inspection to see whether he would be 
selected as the neatest and most immaculate man in ranks. If 
he were so selected he was appointed orderly at headquarters 
and was not required with the others to walk post and guard 
prisoners at work. If he was not on the guard detail for the 
day, he attended drill shortly after guard mount. Throughout 
the remainder of the day he helped in his fatigue uniform to 
make the post cleanly and to repair and construct those parts 
of the garrison that were ever in need of such labor. Since the 
small fort or stockade was far away from civilian help, the 
soldier shod the horses, fixed the chimneys, mowed the grass, 
picked up and carted away the debris, repaired the boots, sawed 
and planed the wood, fitted and nailed the lumber into buildings 
and performed all manner of chores for the garrison. Dinner 
was usually at one o'clock; the roll call of retreat, when the 
national colors were lowered, was at sunset; and tattoo, another 
roll call, was at nine o'clock. The soldier was in bed at nine- 
thirty when taps was sounded by the drum. 
Such was the routine of the army in the lonely and desert 
places of the nation. Too often these rounds of duty were inter- 
rupted by the call to arms or the order for a movement over 
weird distances. The long march, fraught with the same disci- 
pline and training as in the post, took the soldier to an unknown 
region where he was confronted afresh with rounding out his 
small comfort by the work of his hands, or where his hardships 
and dangers were excruciating torture. 
But these men seldom forgot their duty to the pioneer and 
those at home. Creeping boldly to the edges of the frontier, 
which they pushed further and further outward, these little 
bands of trained and disciplined Americans wove the capillaries 
of civilization as thickly as they could through the wilderness. 
They had come from the heart of the country, but in spite of 
the fact that the heart beat feebly at times for them, they 
pressed onward dutifully and loyally. They knew hardship 
and death. They were not itching for war. They wanted peace, THE ARMY BLAZES THE TRAIL 
195 
but they knew that they could attain it quickly, after the strife 
was inevitable, only by having sufficient strength and skill. 
Scott had saved the nation from great loss of life and serious 
embarrassment only by the narrowest of margins. By his 
indefatigable energy and uncommon tact he had persuaded 
mobs, convinced politicians and made diplomats see that the 
government was really at heart not anxious to take up arms. 
One minute he would calm rioters and the next judiciously 
placate foreign agents. An undisciplined and sometimes dis- 
loyal part of the civil population had placed the United States 
in a compromising position. His was a duty of honorable 
service to his flag. As an army officer his mission was to wrap 
his country with protection at any cost to himself. He had to 
be all things to all men, to the Canadian as well as the Cherokee, 
to the troublemaker as well as to the soldier. 
Though Scott was a man of high merit in such tasks, other 
army officers tried whenever they could to rid themselves of 
strife wherever the savage could be mollified. Macomb, 
Clinch, Taylor and many junior officers treated with the 
Seminole as long as there was a hope of keeping him in check 
without bloodshed. But the Florida Indian was faithless. He 
understood force alone. The great pity was that there were too 
few of the trained army to end the affair quickly and thereby 
save the lives of many of its members and of the thousands of 
settlers, men, women and children, who were cut down by the 
tomahawk and scalping knife, during the long years of hopeless 
tracking. 
Even with these handicaps, the fortresses and stockades 
arose as safe retreats for the pioneer settlers and the roads 
wound their rugged ways through sickly swamps and choking 
forest, in spite of the lurking bow and arrow. The soldier's 
jaw was set, his arm was flexed even as he toppled under a 
burning sun, with a hot fever or a fiery wound. Though his 
bones were laid in the dismal dust of nowhere, the work went 
on. When the automobile to-day tours safely from New York 
to Palm Beach, from Chicago to Kansas City, the anguish and 
courage of these determined Americans is commonly over- 
looked. But each mile is none the less a silent witness to their 
constructiveness. CHAPTER VII 
THE ARMY WINS AND WIDENS THE BOUNDARIES 
(1845-1859) 
THE army is about to have a taste of real victory, to win a 
war, to overcome the entire enemy in the field. It is soon 
to cross into a foreign territory, meet superior numbers, 
bear gross hardships and stick to its colors. It is going to go con- 
tinuously forward and not be turned spasmodically backward. 
It will press the foe through cactus, swamp and mountain passes 
into the very gates of the hostile capital and then take the city. 
It will return as a conqueror to safeguard the remaining wilder- 
ness of the nation. It will prove to the world that the American 
soldier, trained, disciplined, and well led is the acme of bravery 
and hardihood. 
In the year before the Mexican War, the army consisted of 
8 regiments of infantry, 2 of dragoons and 4 of artillery, 3 
general officers, the corps of engineers, the corps of topograph- 
ical engineers and the following departments: adjutant gen- 
eral; quartermaster, inspector general; commissary; medical; 
pay; purchasing; and ordnance. The whole represented a 
paper strength of 8,613 men and an actual strength by the end 
of the year of 5,300. The army's effective force was less than 
at any time since 1808, though the population since that time 
had doubled. 
These troops were occupying more than 100 posts. The 
artillery was largely on the Atlantic coast. The infantry and 
cavalry together occupied the broad line of the Great Lakes and 
the western frontier outlined by the Mississippi, Missouri, 
Arkansas, and Red rivers. The main posts in the west wrere 
Fort Snelling, near St. Paul, Jefferson Barracks, near St. 
Louis, Fort Leavenworth, in western Kansas, and Fort Jesup, 
in western Louisiana. 
1845 
196 THE ARMY WINS 
197 
Winfield Scott was the major general in chief and the two 
brigadiers were Gaines and Wool. Taylor was colonel of the 
Sixth Infantry, Twiggs of the First, and Kearny of the Sec- 
ond Dragoons. One of the colonels, Walbach, was 82 years of 
age, such senility being due to the lack of provision for proper 
retirement of officers. The officers of the lower units, however, 
were the great compensating factor of the coming war. Grant, 
Thomas, Reynolds, Hancock, Lee, McClellan, McDowell, 
Meade, Beauregard, Hooker, J. E. Johnston, Longstreet and 
"Stonewall" Jackson were in the service. And many who had 
resigned in the period surrounding 1836 were about to come 
back to the colors as volunteers, notably Jefferson Davis. 
The Military Academy furnished nearly the whole quota of 
these trained young men. Approximately 500 graduates were 
already with the colors. A similar number were in civil life, 
many of whom came into the service with the state troops in the 
course of the war. 
In contrast to the excellent results that were going to be 
obtained from having these skilled officers, were the debates in 
Congress which tended toward the abolition of West Point. A 
feeling that there was being raised up a sort of aristocracy by 
that institution led the unacquainted into the belief that it 
should be abolished. 
Three times this cavil had nearly plucked the hen that laid 
the golden eggs. Secretary of War Eustis, just before the con- 
flict of 1812, had tried to wreck West Point by open attack. At 
the close of the same war Colonel Swift had had to borrow 
$65,000 from a private individual in order to keep the school 
running, because Congress refused to appropriate the current 
expenses. And now the Academy lay in the throes of political 
hatred and ignorant juggling. Luckily the only setback that 
came of all this controversy was the reduction of pay of each 
cadet to $24 per month. Twice the Academy had been saved 
by the prospect of war and once by the intervention of a private 
individual. 
While the cradle of the army was being disturbed, the 
higher officers were looking after technical betterment. General 
Scott's regulations entitled, Instructions for Field Artillery, 
Horse and Foot, appeared. The Secretary of War in issuing it 
March 3 
1845 
March 6 
1845 198 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
enunciated a new rule. He bound not only the regulars but the 
militia also to the use of no other "exercises and maneuvers." 
This was a great step toward uniformity. The "school of the 
battery" prescribed completely movements by hand and by 
horse, and covered every possible contingency with which the 
battery might find itself confronted in action. For detachments 
of from 2 to 9 men in serving the piece, the duties were pre- 
cisely described and each man numbered. The firing1 was 
explained with great care. The pieces of the field artillery 
were the 6-pounder gun and the 24-pounder howitzer, both of 
bronze. 
For regular infantry the muskets and rifles were being 
rapidly provided with percussion locks for caps, so that two 
motions of the manual-opening and closing the pan-were 
eliminated. In the main, however, the army all through the 
coming war had to be provided with the old flintlock musket, 
i 22. " Firing. No. 4 stands in line with the knob of the caseable, cov- 
ering No. 2. At the command Load, he steps to his right, takes the port- 
fire stock out of its socket with his right hand, takes hold of the lighted 
end of the slow match from under the apron of the box, and, blowing it, 
lights the portfire; he then steps back to his place outside the wheel; 
holding the portfire stock firmly in the right hand, finger nails to the front, 
the portfire stock touching the wheel and the portfire inside of it. 
' ' When the piece is not provided with a slow match box, the linstock 
is used. In this case, as soon as the piece is unlimbered, No. 4 steps in 
and takes the linstock from its socket, steps back again, and plants it in 
his rear, facing to his right and stepping off with his right foot for that 
purpose. He then draws back his foot and faces to the front. He lights 
the portfire by facing and stepping off in the same way. 
"At the command Fire, he raises his hand slowly, clear of the wheel, 
turning the back of the hand to the front, brings the portfire rather in 
front of the vent and fires. As soon as the gun is fired he lowers the 
portfire slowly. When a lock is used he takes the lanyard in his right 
hand, moves to the rear so far as to keep the lanyard slack, but capable 
of being stretched without altering his position, which is to be clear of 
the wheel. Should the tube or cap fail to explode the charge, the gunner 
immediately commands, 'Don't advance, the tube or cap's failed'; upon 
which No. 2 steps inside the wheel close to the axletree; No. 3 advances 
outside the opposite wheel and gives his priming wire to No. 2, who 
pricks the cartridge; he then gives him a tube or cap which he fixes, and 
both resume their posts. No. 4 is answerable that the slow match is kept 
burning. 
"At the command Cease Firing, No. 4 shifts the portfire stock into 
his left hand, cuts off the lighted end of the portfire, and places the stock 
in its socket; if a linstock is used he puts that up also. When using a 
lock he coils the lanyard round the neck of the cascable, or unhooks it 
and carries it in his hand, as the mode of attaching it to the lock may 
require. ' ' THE ARMY WINS 
199 
because a lack of appropriation had prevented a sufficiency of 
rifles. Since 18'39, the superintendency of construction of mus- 
kets by regular officers, instead of civilians, had reduced the 
cost per weapon from $17.44 to $11.02 and saved the govern- 
ment over $70,000. By such thrift more rifles could be pur- 
chased, but there were yet not enough. Captain J. T. Cairns 
in a work called the Recruit, described the nomenclature of the 
"Fusil, Musket or Firelock" and gave elementary instructions 
for their use, including "Right shoulder shift-arms." The 
bayonet with a clasp, which permitted the separation of that 
weapon from the firearm, was largely distributed to regular 
troops. 
Political feeling over the coming conflict had caused the 
concentration at Fort Jesup, of the Third Infantry, 8 com- 
panies of the Fourth Infantry and 7 companies of the Second 
Dragoons, all under command of Brevet Brigadier General 
Taylor. This force, then thought to be large, was the actual 
beginning of the "Army of Occupation." 
Texas now being annexed, Taylor wTas ordered to some port 
where he could readily embark for the Texas frontier. Accord- 
ingly he proceeded with his troops to New Orleans. Under 
later orders he moved by boat to Aransas Bay, Texas. With 
poor craft he was finally able to land at St. Joseph's Island a 
force of about 1,200. These men he took by boat through the 
mouth of the Rio Grande and thence 25 miles further up the 
river to Corpus Christi. 
Due to the inactivity of the enemy he was left undisturbed. 
But he did not improve his time by gaining information of the 
country and possible hostile forces or by training his troops. 
He seemed to be pleased to wait for the Mexicans and trust to 
chance. 
He was, however, blest with a number of trained junior 
officers who took a pride in their companies. In spite of the 
neglect of the higher command, the young captains and lieu- 
tenants molded by Thayer's systems, gave care and lent pre- 
cision to the smaller units. Besides, Taylor, although he little 
realized the fact, could have well been thankful for his two 
daughters. Through them he luckily possessed two sons-in-law 
who afterwards built the career that steered him toward the 
1845 
June 
1845 
June 15 
1845 
July 
1845 200 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
White House. Bliss, his adjutant, as brilliant and educated an 
officer as the service held, headed off much mismanagement and 
wrote the reports that went back home. Jefferson Davis, the 
colonel of a Mississippi regiment in the greatest battles in which 
his father-in-law was engaged or rather disengaged, was the 
principal factor in turning the brave old gentleman's vacant 
leadership into victory. So Taylor, who chatted pleasantly 
with the soldier one minute and ignorantly sacrificed his life 
the next, was protected in the office and on the battlefield by 
domestic attachment. 
Finally 7 companies of the Seventh Infantry, the remainder 
of the Fort Jesup troops, 2 volunteer artillery companies from 
New Orleans and a small force of Texas Rangers joined him. 
Then throughout the fall and most of the winter, while 
Taylor sat inanimate, other troops were leaving bare the fron- 
tiers of the country to assemble at Corpus Christi. The Seventh 
and Eighth Infantry came from Florida; the Fifth from the 
northwest; the Fourth from Jefferson Barracks, Missouri; the 
Third from Fort Jesup; the Second Dragoons from Mississippi 
and Texas; and 10 companies of the First Artillery and 4 of 
the Third Artillery from Florida. Most of the artillery acted 
as infantry but apparently 2 companies were retained as field 
artillery. Some Texas Rangers and New Orleans field artillery 
brought his entire strength up to 3,900 men. 
Taylor's camp was far short of comfortable. The canvas 
was little more than mosquito bar. The "norther" would one 
minute pour frigid water through the sievelike tents and a 
torrid sun would steam the occupants the next. Wood was 
collected with the greatest difficulty so that camp fires, except 
for cooking, were impossible. The drinking water was brack- 
ish. There was little or no amusement. Sickness abounded 
and spirits were low. 
Nor was the monotony and discomfort relieved by maneu- 
vers or any expedient to keep the command busy. Taylor did 
not know much of the art of war, did not believe in teaching it, 
and did not understand even how to maneuver his regiments. 
Naturally all the evils that flow from idleness overtook his 
troops. 
The question of brevet rank and his settlement of the affair 
Aug. 31 
1845 THE ARMY WINS 
201 
did not better the unity of his little army. It seems that the list 
of colonels at this time was badly confused. Some officers held 
a brevet grade higher than their regular rank, while others held 
simply the latter. Twiggs on the list of colonels was senior to 
Worth. But Worth was also a brevet brigadier general. Each 
claimed that he was the senior and would command in Taylor's 
absence. Scott in Washington decided in favor of brevet rank 
in conformity to the law. As a consequence Worth was given 
command in preference to Twiggs, who had throughout the 
lower grades been senior to Worth, and who had never had the 
chance to win brevet honors on the battlefield. But Taylor, 
after the decision was made, called a review in which he gave 
Twiggs the seniority over Worth. When Taylor saw that he 
could not carry out this order without trouble, he countermanded 
the review. He thus showed himself not only unwilling to com- 
ply with orders, but also incapable of causing others to do so. 
It logically followed that this little force came to lack confidence 
in their chief. Had it not been for the effort of the junior 
officers to overcome such demoralization, all traces of discipline 
would have vanished. 
So Taylor sat and waited for the Mexicans without explor- 
ing his surroundings, finding out about the enemy's intentions 
or improving the small American command. 
When instructions from higher authority told him that he 
should encamp at some favorable point along the Rio Grande, 
he was unprepared for a march anywhere. But then and then 
only did he begin to find out something of the roads and towns 
that lay about him, a matter which delayed him three weeks. 
Then he delayed himself another two weeks before he was 
finally on the road to Matamoras. 
The march was an excursion welcomed by the troops. Those 
who were not too sick to go, had the relief of activity and a 
change of scene. The weather was fair. Except for the taran- 
tulas, rattlesnakes, and centipedes, the camps along the way 
were novelties of strange objects and animals. Dressed in his 
thick, blue-cloth uniform, and carrying a heavy knapsack, 
blanket, musket and cartridge box, the soldier underwent unex- 
pected physical torture under the burning sun. Thirst in the 
"alkali" dust raised by the tramp of the men, was suffocating 
Fei. 3 
1846 
Fei. 24 
1846 
March 8 
1846 202 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
March 28 
1846 
and difficult to quench with saline water. Ultimately the col- 
umn came out through the chaparral on to the Rio Grande, 
across which lay the towers of Matamoras. 
At this camp, as at Corpus Christi, was assembled the 
largest regular force collected since the Revolution. The num- 
bers were a little less than 3,000. Although Taylor issued 
peaceful letters to the Mexicans, he planted four 18-pounders 
in command of the city and began the erection of a bastioned 
redoubt, called Fort Brown.2 This fortress was poorly placed 
in a salient of the river so that it could be easily enfiladed by 
an enemy. E. Kirby Smith in his diary gives an account of 
these days: 
"This morning we found the enemy had been busy during 
the night erecting breastworks and planting cannon opposite 
to us. What will be the result of all this I can only conjecture. 
We certainly ought not with so small a force be left here to face 
the whole Mexican nation. General Ampudia with more than 
three thousand veterans will, it is said, in a few days reach 
Matamoras. 
"We have been as busy as a light infantry company on drill' 
ever since we arrived eleven days ago. Such a night as last 
night I have never known in all my soldiering. 
"The arms were put in forming order and the men sat or 
stood about in miserable groups, without any possibility of 
sleeping, and at reveille this morning our whole brigade was 
marched to the works, it being our detail on a large fortification, 
which we are constructing as rapidly as possible. . . . We are 
here neither in a state of peace nor war. Our pickets and patrols 
have exchanged some shots, and several deserters have been 
killed in attempting to cross the river." 
The first hostilities occurred with the crossing of the river 
by the Mexican General Torrejon with about 1,600 cavalry. 
General Taylor had ignored the advice of Marcy, the Secretary 
of War, to get some hard-riding Texans for use as scouts. In- 
deed he had been content with only that information which 
April 7 
1846 
Entries 
April 5-9 
1846 
2 Afterwards Brownsville. THE ARMY WINS 
203 
came into the limits of the camp. Accidentally hearing of the 
Mexican movement, he sent Captain Thornton with about 60 
dragoons to reconnoiter. Naturally under such a slipshod view 
of the enemy, the captain soon found himself hemmed in by the 
Mexican command. Though he tried to cut his way out, he soon 
saw the hopelessness of his task after several of his men were 
killed or wounded, and was compelled to surrender. This was 
the incident that caused the declaration of war. 
Even after this affair, Taylor took no aggressive action or 
precautions. He was not even aware of the Mexican main 
column which was coming over the river right under his very 
nose. When, through no effort of his own, he finally under- 
stood that the enemy was already between him and his base, he 
at once retreated to Point Isabel, leaving the Seventh Infantry 
and Bragg's battery at Fort Brown. 
After provisioning his troops, he returned toward Mata- 
moras with about 2,200 men, having obtained 200 at Point 
Isabel. Hampering himself by taking the wagon train with 
him against the advice of his officers, he moved out slowly. 
Oxen hitched to the ammunition wagons did not quicken the 
progress. 
Neither were the spirits of the men raised by such delay. 
The blue-coated soldier at night bivouacked in the dust without 
complaint but with an anxiety to meet the enemy. Lying down 
in his fatigue uniform with its colored trimmings he arose after 
a night of discomfort to face whatever might be in store further 
toward the Rio Grande. 
At Palo Alto the Americans came in sight of the Mexican 
Army. Between chaparral and marshes the two lines were 
drawn up opposite each other, the enemy being astride the road 
to Fort Brown. Taylor's artillery, better handled than the 
Mexican heavy pieces, was so effective that it cut great swaths 
in the enemy's lines while they were forming. An attempt to 
turn the Americans' right by a superior force of Mexican 
cavalry was met by a hollow square of the Fifth Infantry. 
Then the grass was set on fire by the powder wads from the 
shells, so that a dense smoke screen kept the two armies from 
seeing each other well. In this haze, the disciplined American 
leaders, though getting few directions from Taylor, promptly 
April 25 
1846 
May 1 
1846 
May 8 
1846 204 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and of their own accord, met the Mexican attempt to encircle 
the left. Ringgold's and Duncan's batteries seemed to move 
quickly and instinctively to the place where they were most 
needed. Though our troops were on the defensive, the fire of 
our artillery was deadly in spite of the smoke. But there was 
not enough remaining daylight for either side to have a decision. 
However, darkness came down with about seven times greater 
loss to the Mexicans than to the Americans. 
In the morning Taylor's little army, ready to renew the 
battle, was surprised to see the enemy's column disappearing 
through the chaparral toward Matamoras. But the Americans 
could not pursue and follow up their advantage with more than 
several hundred men, because most of the troops had to be used 
in fortifying the encumbering wagon train before it could be 
left behind. 
About 8 miles to the north of Matamoras, the Mexicans took 
up a position which made it difficult for American artillery to 
operate and be effective. Behind an old river channel which 
crossed the road at right angles, Arista, the Mexican general, 
placed his entire command. The bed, or Resaca de Guerrero,3 
was full of ponds and mud and in many places impassable. 
The Americans, all told about 1,700, came upon the Mexican 
artillery planted in the road and almost immediately thereafter 
there was collision. The dense growth of mesquite and cactus 
made it impossible for one company to see another. Men losing 
touch with their comrades had to spend their energies in hacking 
through nature in order to find the enemy. The mass gave place 
to the individual. A general was little more than a subaltern. 
An officer led the troops immediately around him. But disci- 
pline and training told as the Americans beat their way forward 
through the thick undergrowth and amid the hottest fire of 
shrapnel and bullets. Sinking in the mud, floundering through 
swamps, the American right, accidentally finding its way around 
the Mexican flank, pressed the enemy who fought desperately. 
The vigor of the assault, more than the plan of it, dismayed the 
enemy who gave way more and more until a panic seized the 
whole force. Many were captured, but Taylor's forces could 
May 9 
1846 
May 9 
1846 
3 The battle was called Resaca de la Palma. THE ARMY WINS 
205 
not pursue because they were scattered and exhausted. At that, 
only about 4,000 of the Mexicans succeeded in crossing the 
river, where many were drowmed in their flight. 
Taylor, instead of reorganizing his army and pressing his 
advantage, proceeded to Fort Brown, where the beleaguered 
garrison was relieved of its strain. 
While Taylor was thus inert along the Rio Grande, back in 
Washington Congress was declaring war and gorging the mili- 
tary establishment with much that could not give results for 
many months, and more that was wholly worthless. Now that 
the clash of arms was upon us, it was ready to organize a suffi- 
cient army. General Scott's previous sound advice to have a 
modest 24,000 men, to train them in camps at home and to put 
them in the field at Vera Cruz, had been ignored. Though 
such a method would have saved hundreds of lives and thou- 
sands of dollars, Scott's idea was regarded by the legislators as 
far fetched. Justin Smith says in The War With Mexico that 
"for an elect body our Congress fell below all reasonable ex- 
pectations." 
After the fashion of a foolish virgin it now permitted the 
President to call out 50,000 volunteers 4 "for twelve months" 
or "for the war." The militia were to serve only 6 months. 
The short enlistment again was to defeat efficiency and be 
expensive. 
The regular army, on the other hand, was to have its com- 
panies raised from 64 to 100 privates during hostilities. Since 
the period of enlistment was to be for 5 years, recruits for the 
regular army were hard to obtain in competition with the volun- 
teers and militia, whose short terms were attractive. But in 
this legislation Congress heeded Scott and authorized, though 
too late for adequate fulfillment, a very good, economical force. 
Had such a thing been done 2 years previously, thousands of 
three-months men who had been called out by Gaines and 
Taylor from Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Missouri and 
Texas, would not have had to undergo useless marching and 
May 13 
1846 
May 13 
1846 
* The volunteers had to furnish their own clothes, horses and horse 
equipment. For such ' ' use and risk ' ' the donor was to receive 40 cents 
a day, in addition to the pay of a regular soldier. 206 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the ravages of disease in reaching Taylor's rendezvous. There 
they remained too short a time to be little more than embarrass- 
ing. 
Congress also added to the permanent establishment, "a 
company of sappers, miners and pontoniers" of 100 men who 
were to be a part of, and stationed with, the corps of engineers 
at West Point. 
A ten-company regiment of mounted riflemen was created 
in order to establish military stations on the route to Oregon 
and to take the place of regular troops called to the front. 
Though the officers were mostly political appointees, the regi- 
ment was the beginning of the Third Cavalry. 
While these laws were being made, Taylor, instead of mak- 
ing short work of the demoralized enemy, contented himself 
with sending to Point Isabel for planks and mortars and in 
making a trip there himself. For eight days he was inactive, 
much to the disgust of his skilled subordinates. 
His enemy was finally so much encouraged by his silence 
that Arista requested a suspension of hostilities. Although 
Taylor disapproved such action, he gave permission for the 
Mexican army to retire, provided it gave up its property. 
Arista did not directly reply to this proposition but shortly 
afterward left the city at Taylor's approach. The latter 
marched in amid the friendly greetings of the natives, whom he 
treated with great consideration. But Arista, nevertheless, 
had made his escape with his soldiers and all the munitions he 
could carry. 
While Taylor was resting in his oasis in the desert, Mata- 
moras, an expedition was being fitted out farther to the north 
at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Colonel Kearny, the com- 
mander and colonel of the First Dragoons, was ordered to take 
possession peacefully or by force of northwestern Mexico. At 
the stockade of the Fort, which then consisted of a square of 
wooden buildings with blockhouses, was collected about 1,600 
men: the First Dragoons, the First Missouri Mounted Volun- 
teers (Colonel Doniphan), 1 company and 1 battery of artillery 
under command of Major Clark, 2 companies of volunteer 
infantry, the Leclede Rangers and 15 Delaware and Shawnee 
Indians. 
May 13 
1846 
May 19 
1846 
May 17 
1846 THE ARMY WINS 
207 
Kearny, without waiting to organize all his troops, sent 
them off by sections. The regular dragoons were the first to 
go. Then came Doniphan's regiment, and so on. Those in 
advance had to break their way through the roughest of country. 
After passing over unwooded areas where cooking was largely 
impossible, where the water was brackish, the way uphill, the 
mosquitoes and buffalo gnats scurrilous, the food scarce and 
scurvy prevalent, the whole command finally found itself on the 
Arkansas near Bent's Fort. So great were the sufferings that 
some died and many were driven into delirium. And again 
Valley Forge had a competitor in the way of soldierly grit. The 
march, however, seasoned the raw troops and Kearny's strict- 
ness brought discipline. 
While Taylor and Kearny with their meager thousands 
were trying to conquer Mexico, Congress was slowly realizing 
that its attention to the army had been superficial. At this late 
date, it created an additional major general and two more 
brigadiers for the war. It gave to a volunteer company an 
elastic strength of 64 to 100 privates and another second lieu- 
tenant. Seeing that it had asked of the recruit more than could 
reasonably be expected, it gave to every volunteer soldier $3.50 
per month as a clothing allowance, and 75 cents as subsistence 
and forage allowance for every twenty miles of journey to the 
place of rendezvous. 
Then realizing that the most vital matters had been over- 
looked, it allowed the President during the war to organize the 
forces into brigades and divisions and to appoint such general 
officers as he saw fit. It required a brigade to consist of 3 regi- 
ments; and a division, of at least 2 brigades. The irony of 
this last enactment is apparent when we know that such or- 
ganization had had to be made by the commanders in the field 
long before the intelligence of the nice little law reached them. 
As an instance of the hurry into which all departments of 
the army were plunged by the nearsightedness in times of peace, 
the Ordnance Department had to issue in the first year of the 
war: 
Eighteen- and 24-pounder siege cannon, 8-inch siege how- 
itzers, 8- and 10-inch siege mortars, coehorns, 6- and 12-pounder 
June 6 
1846 
July 29 
1846 
June 18 
1846 208 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
bronze field cannon, 12- and 24-pounder bronze field howitzers, 
12-pounder mountain howitzers, caissons, traveling forges, 
battery wagons, artillery harness, 20,000 rounds of siege artil- 
lery ammunition, 3,000 rounds of field artillery ammunition, 
60,000 rounds of 8- and 10-inch mortar shells, 1,000 cannon 
balls, 400,000 pounds of black powder, 1,300 war rockets, 
24,000 muskets, 3,000 rifles, 2,000 carbines, 1,000 pistols, 
2,000 sabers, 2,000 noncommissioned officers' and musicians' 
short swords, 12,000,000 cartridges, 400,000 flints and 1,000,- 
000 percussion caps. 
Horses, too, had to be supplied in greater numbers. Taylor 
found that the artillery, which had had little chance to practice, 
needed two more animals to draw each filled caisson. 
As for Taylor's army, it was living at Matamoras as best 
it could. Outside of the slight pursuit of Arista, which netted 
a few prisoners, and the search through the town for concealed 
munitions and supplies, there was no military activity save an 
expedition of a small force under Colonel Wilson, to Reynosa, 
60 miles away. Taylor spent most of his effort on keeping 
supplied from the base at Point Isabel. 
The volunteers who had been called by Gaines and Taylor 
were beginning to pour in, such influx creating a need for more 
supplies and spreading an infection of lawlessness. The new 
so-called troops were eager for excitement and resentful of 
restraint. Stretched in small camps from Point Isabel to 
Matamoras, they lacked control and supervision. Most of them 
were three-month men who would not stay for twelve months. 
They had marched through bad country under generally un- 
skilled officers, many of whom could not drill a squad. Some, 
indeed, had been absent from their companies on the march, 
weeks at a time. One brigadier general came in a light buggy 
in which he proposed to make the campaign. The officers, as a 
rule, had been elected as in previous wars so that most of them 
knew not what to do. Some generals like Pillow hindered more 
than they helped the progress of discipline. As a result there 
were too often brawls, riots and shooting frays. Five months at 
least of hard drill was necessary to prepare such troops for 
action. They would neither stay nor submit, and Taylor did THE ARMY WINS 
209 
not insist on their training. Meade said these volunteers were 
one costly mass of ignorance, confusion and insubordination. 
Trained regular officers in the lower grades found themselves 
outranked by former juniors who had been dismissed from the 
army for incapacity or misconduct. About 20,000 men were 
finally collected, a large proportion of whom had to be sent home 
almost immediately with great expense and no help to the 
government. 
Taylor in this situation decided to go west to Camargo. 
With the urge in the States for action, he had to do something. 
His untutored mind would not admit of skill or prevision. So 
he went up the river, not knowing the conditions of the town 
he was going to occupy, nor even having any idea of its 
strategic importance, because it had none. The troops suffered 
intensely with the heat and thirst. The discouraged volunteers, 
knowing nothing of care for their health, -were sick to the extent 
of a third of their number. The First Tennessee, for example, 
was reduced from 1,040 to 500 men fit for duty. In addition, 
frogs, ants, scorpions, tarantulas, centipedes and mosquitoes 
disturbed the soldier's comfort. 
When Camargo was occupied it was found to be a small 
town that had been inundated by the spring freshets. Since 
it had no supplies of its own, provisions had to come from 
Point Isabel. Now that the troops were over a hundred miles 
farther from the coast than they were at Matamoras, the only 
result of this movement was an added difficulty of transporta- 
tion. 
While Taylor thus sat in useless and trying Camargo, 
Kearny, near Bent's Fort, was reenforced by a regiment and 
battalion of Missouri volunteers. Having sent a message to 
Santa Fe showing the uselessness of resistance and the pro- 
tective quality of his mission, he left his camp for the long 
march to that place over what is now the route of the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe Kailroad. The way was through high 
ranges of mountains, over buttes and ridges and along the val- 
leys. The rations were so scarce that flour, water and salt pork 
were the main diet. Taking over by tact and force the village 
of Las Vegas, on the way, he crept on with his troops to San 
Miguel, There, when the mayor wavered, Kearny assured him 
July 31 
1846 
July 31 
1846 
Aug. 2 
1846 
Aug. 15 
1846 210 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Aug. 18 
1846 
that he had captured his town. Treating the people and crops 
with consideration, he pressed on twenty-eight miles toward 
Santa Fe, knowing that a large force of Mexicans was barring 
his path. On approaching his goal, after leaving the artillery 
on a commanding hill, he learned that the Mexican force had 
fled south. Among the little adobe huts without floors, Kearny 
raised the Stars and Stripes and pronounced Santa Fe under 
government of the United States. It was there that the Peublo 
Indians came in and submitted. Then Kearny issued a 
proclamation of assurance of a free government and began the 
erection of Fort Marcy to defend the town. So far a great 
country had been taken with no bloodshed. 
While Kearny was occupying Santa Fe, Taylor was making 
ready for an advance southwest toward Saltillo. Instead of 
employing a good secret service as Scott had advised, Taylor 
as usual went forward trusting to developments. Again his 
movement was intended to give an answer to the public cry for 
action rather than to be effective. 
Cerralvo, sixty miles away, was the first objective. Worth, 
with the Second Division of regulars, moved out first. Persifer 
F. Smith with the Second Brigade of mixed troops, Twiggs 
with the First Division of regulars and Butler with the "Field 
Division" of volunteers, followed. Finally headquarters left, 
and the whole army of about 15,000 was on the move. The 
march was over stony ground and through thorny bushes. Heat 
and thirst wrought such distress that starts in the march were 
made as early as three o'clock in the morning. At length the 
advance troops came into the beautiful town of Cerralvo. It 
had plenty of springs, the houses were of stone and supplies 
abundant. Finally all of Taylor's command except the Texas 
volunteers and those who had been sent further west, were con- 
centrated in the town. 
A squadron of the Second Dragoons accompanied by Cap- 
tain McCulloch's Texas Rangers set out in the van for Mon- 
terey. The rangers carrying heavy rifles, powderhorns, bowie 
knives and Colt's revolvers, and dressed in irregular uniforms, 
were in appearance not much unlike the Revolutionary volun- 
teers. The march now being through fertile fields and high 
Aug. 19 
1846 
Aug. 22 
1846 
Aug. 19 
1846 
Sept. 5 
1846 
Aug. 25 
1846 
Sept. 15 
1846 THE ARMY WINS 
211 
hills, the spirit of the command rose. About a thousand Mexi- 
can cavalry hovering in front lent zest to the progress. 
When the main body arrived at Marin, Taylor learned that 
at Monterey there would be possibly decided opposition. But 
the army of 3,080 regulars and 3,150 volunteers went eagerly 
forward. 
As they approached Monterey they were greeted by fire 
from the well-fortified stone city situated on rather high ground. 
To reduce this stronghold the Americans had only 4 field bat- 
teries, a 24-pound howitzer and one 10-inch mortar. Recon- 
noitering parties set out and discovered that the western end of 
the city was vulnerable in flank. Mansfield's prisoners con- 
firmed the assumption that night. 
The Americans having confidence after Palo Alto and 
Resaca de la Palma that they could overcome a superior force, 
were in no mood to be thwarted. Worth with about 2,000 men 
advanced to the right of the city in order to turn Independence 
Hill and occupy the Saltillo highway, which was the only ave- 
nue of retreat southward for the Mexicans. Advancing about 
seven miles through thick country and having his rangers 
stampeded by Mexican cavalry, he was stopped by darkness and 
a heavy storm. 
The next day he moved forward only to meet a charge of 
Mexican cavalry. With the aid of Duncan's battery the enemy 
was driven back on the town. Then the column spent the rest 
of the day in charging Federation Ridge and in taking three 
forts. At nightfall about 500 men, mostly regulars, were sent 
forward to Independence Hill, the main flank position. 
In the meantime at the eastern end of the city, Taylor had 
not been meeting with as good results. He had evidently looked 
upon the capture of this stronghold much as he viewed a brush 
with the Seminoles in Florida. He seemed to have little plan 
or method. He sent Garland forward with the following direc- 
tions : 
"Colonel lead the head of your column off to the left, keep- 
ing well out of reach of the enemy's shot, but if you think (or 
you find) you can take any of them little Forts down there with 
Sept. 17 
1846 
Sept. 19 
1846 
Sept. 21 
1846 212 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the bay'net you better do it-but consult with Major Mansfield, 
you'll find him down there." 
This queer bit of haziness was a sample of Taylor's mental grip 
of the situation. Though Garland's mission expressed in such 
an equivocal order was not overly intelligible, he advanced 
through fields and thickets and crooked streets in the face of a 
withering fire. The artillery could not do much execution and 
the units by such misdirection were separated. But before 
noon, at a crucial moment, w'hen the engagement at the eastern 
part of the city seemed to be lost, Colonel Jefferson Davis led a 
charge that took the principal outlying fortress. Even so, the 
First Ohio farther to the right had to retreat with heavy loss. 
On the western side of the town, Worth's troops under 
Colonel Childs, who had led his men to the foot of Independence 
Hill, had crouched at the base all night in the rain and cold. 
In the early morning they quietly crawled toward the summit. 
At dawn, with a rush and sharp fighting, they took the crest and 
sent the garrison fleeing. 
Taylor's troops far on the other side of the city saw the tide 
of Americans rise higher and higher and the Stars and Stripes 
finally wave over Independence Hill. But during this day 
Taylor did nothing beyond shifting a few details from the cap- 
tured redoubt. Neither did he cooperate with Worth or send 
him any word. Worth realized he must depend on himself. 
Expecting fire from the commanding positions around him, he 
disposed his troops (now numbering about 1,000) in the valley, 
so as to ward off counterattacks. Without cooperation he had 
taken three redoubts and a commanding fort and had cut the 
line of communications of the enemy. But he was left alone to 
work out his own salvation. 
The next morning Quitman who was occupying the captured 
works on the east side of the town started an attack from house 
to house on his own initiative. He heard Worth's cannon, which 
had been dragged to the top of Independence Hill, firing with 
effect. Little by little Quitman's scattered men closed in. 
Worth now feeling from the firing heard from Quitman's troops 
that a general engagement was taking place, started toward the 
town. Leaving a force to guard the Saltillo highway, he had 
Sept. 22 
1846 
Sept. 32 
1846 
Sept. S3 
1846 THE ARMY WINS 
213 
his men with pickaxes, crowbars and shells with fuses, work 
from house to house. At noon both sides, weary of the struggle, 
rested. Taylor, doing no more than the work of a corporal, 
walked about under severe fire. Night fell with the Mexicans 
cooped in the Plaza. 
When the morning came, the Ohio volunteers who had taken 
the place of Quitman's troops, prepared to renew hostilities 
when a bugle in front sounded a parley. Ampudia was propos- 
ing an armistice. After much haggling, it was agreed that all 
public property and the city be turned over to the Americans 
within a week. The individual arms and ammunition were to 
be retained by the enemy, who was to retire behind a line 
through Lenares and Rinconada Pass. So Taylor let the Mexi- 
cans, who had suffered little loss, go practically as they had 
come, apparently little concerned as to whether they might fight 
the Americans another day. He even went so far as to accede to 
an armistice. 
While Taylor was recuperating from his losses at Monterey, 
while his Texas troops were being discharged because they 
wanted to go home and while the Second Infantry was arriving 
to reenforce him, General Kearny, back in Santa Fe was start- 
ing his journey through an unknown wilderness westward. 
Cutting roads through country over which there was as yet 
no trail, his effective dragoons, still in shabby clothing and on 
short rations, pressed toward the Pacific. When well on their 
way the troops met Kit Carson who told how Fremont and 
Commodore Stockton had already made an attempt to seize 
California. Such news gave impetus to the weary, half-fed 
soldiers. Leaving Major Sumner with a portion of his com- 
mand to hold New Mexico and sending back Colonel Cooke to 
get the Mormon battalion at Santa Fe, Kearny pushed on with 
only two companies. 
In the meantime, General Wool at San Antonio was trying 
to get into shape volunteers raised in Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois and Mississippi whom he had brought to that point. 
From there some 1,400 men, including a small portion of the 
Second Dragoons, set out for the march south. It was a 
dispirited and unsoldierly force, but insubordination and law- 
lessness were harshly met by the strict discipline of General 
Sept. 24 
1846 
Sept. 25 
1846 
Oct. 6 
1846 
Sept. 25 
1846 214 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Wool. Due to him the volunteer was made to regard the rights 
of the Mexican civilian. At length this turbulent command 
came to the Rio Grande opposite the Presidio. 
While this column was breaking its way through cactus, and 
picking up what food it could, General Taylor at Monterey did 
not enjoy the success of a victor. Sickness, desertion, and the 
short enlistment had reduced his command to less than 12,000 
effectives. Bandits, hanging on his long line of communica- 
tions, caused many men to be detached. And the ill-advised 
armistice brought criticism upon him. 
Everything was at a standstill. The government at this late 
date of the war had come to no definite plan of campaign. The 
three independent commands of Kearny, Wool and Taylor were 
expending exertion and blood in merely driving the unhurt 
Mexican armies away from the border settlements. No decision 
could result from the unstrategic dents hammered at random in 
the edges of the enemy's great territory. While the troops were 
being wasted by disease and hardship, the authorities at Wash- 
ington were closing their ears to the Vera Cruz plan suggested 
by Scott, which was going to strike at the heart of things and 
end the war quickly. In contrast, the United States soldiers 
were scattered in ineffectiveness. 
Doniphan's command made a fourth separate force. Hav- 
ing reduced the Eutaws to submission and subdued the Nava- 
joes among the snows in the mountains, this officer was prepar- 
ing to concentrate his forces south of Santa Fe at Valverde. 
His 800 men, mounted and armed with rifles, hated restraint 
and were eager for any excitement. 
Taylor was now forced to notify the Mexicans that the 
armistice must terminate. With such a change in the situation, 
he was in the predicament of casting about for activity. Dis- 
regarding the advice of the Secretary of War and placing still 
further distance between his army and its base, he set out west 
for Saltillo, the capital of Coahuila. Marching over the high 
tablelands of temperate verdure, the troops came to their des- 
tination. The town was hilly, consisting mostly of adobe huts, 
and was not inviting from the standpoint of supplies or com- 
fort. Leaving Morth in command, Taylor went back to 
Monterey. 
Oct. 8 
1846 
Oct. 15 
1846 
Nov. 
1846 
Nov. 13 
1846 
Nov. 16 
1846 THE ARMY WINS 
215 
Meanwhile, General Wool, without instructions from Taylor, 
had continued south with his ragged and poorly fed volunteers. 
Having without opposition taken Monclava, about 60 miles 
north of Saltillo, Wool had had time during the armistice to 
drill and discipline his men. He then set out south for Parras, 
where he received orders from Worth to join the Saltillo forces. 
Within two hours Wool was on his way, so complete was his 
reconnaissance and his state of readiness. 
While Worth and Wool were trying to effect a junction in 
the west against the rumored attack by Santa Anna, Taylor at 
Monterey was splitting his command so as to send part east 
toward Tampico. Accordingly Twiggs with the First Division 
of regulars and Quitman with some Georgia, Mississippi and 
Tennessee volunteers set out for Victoria, 200 miles toward the 
east coast. 
Shortly afterward Patterson at Matamoras started, at the 
direction of the Secretary of War (who had not taken the pains 
to notify Taylor), directly south for the same place. Patter- 
son's treatment of some 1,500 Illinois and Tennessee volunteers 
under him showed his ignorance of the military profession. 
His men went hungry time and again when there was abundant 
food about them. Many of them through neglect died of ex- 
haustion. And they, generally, cordially hated him for his 
lordly severity. 
The end of the first year of the war found Quitman at Vic- 
toria, Wool at Agua Neuva (near Saltillo), Worth at Saltillo, 
Patterson en route to Victoria5 and Butler at Monterey. 
Doniphan was at El Brazito near El Paso with 500 men. 
Kearny had reached San Diego, California, and Cooke was 
marching to Kearny's assistance. The first year of the war 
closed with these scattered columns spending their vigor and 
blood in indecisiveness. 
What Cooke and Kearny had done can be seen from 
Cooke's order issued to his battalion after the march: 
"The lieutenant colonel commanding congratulates the bat- 
talion on their safe arrival on the shore of the Pacific Ocean, 
Nov. 21 
1846 
Nov. 24 
1846 
Dec. 17 
1846 
Dec. 13,14 
1846 
Dec. 24 
1846 
Jan. 31 
1847 
5 Taylor was personally nearing Victoria to join Quitman. 216 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and the conclusion of their march of over two thousand miles. 
History may be searched in vain for an equal march of infan- 
try. Half of it has been through a wilderness where nothing 
but savages and wild beasts are found or deserts where for want 
of water, there is no living creature. There, with almost hope- 
less labour, we have dug deep wells, which the future traveler 
will enjoy. Without a guide who had traversed them we have 
ventured into trackless tablelands where water was not found 
for several marches. With crowbar and pick and axe in hand 
we have worked our way over mountains which seemed to defy 
aught save the wild goat and hewed a passage through a chasm 
of living rock more narrow than our wagons. To bring these 
first wagons to the Pacific we have preserved the strength of 
our mules by herding them over large tracts, which you have 
laboriously guarded without loss. The garrison of four 
presidios of Sonora concentrated within the walls of Tucson 
gave us no pause. We drove them out with artillery, but our 
intercourse with the citizens was unmarked by a single act of 
injustice. Thus, marching, half naked and half fed, living 
upon wild animals, we have discovered and made a road of 
great value to our country." 
The remainder of the war with the exception of Buena 
Vista belongs to Scott. After trying to euchre both Scott and 
Taylor into false positions, the administration, not valuing the 
science of war and viewing Scott as a "visionary," finally, hav- 
ing nothing better to offer, had to adopt the Vera Cruz plan. 
Scott knew that there was only one way to gain a speedy peace. 
It was to strike at the heart and center of the hostile country 
with the largest force obtainable. 
Having arrived at Camargo, he found he could not get in 
touch with Taylor. He, therefore, requisitioned from Taylor's 
force about 4,000 regular infantry under Worth, 4,000 volun- 
teer infantry, 500 regular dragoons, 500 volunteer dragoons 
and 2 field batteries. 
Returning to Point Isabel, he personally planned with skill, 
foresight, and dispatch the details for launching his campaign. 
His masterful mind went thoroughly into the business of pro- 
viding everything from supplies to boats. Northers, rains and 
J an. 3 
1847 
Jan. 8 
1847 THE ARMY WINS 
217 
scarcity of sailors hindered him, but he overcame his obstacles 
with tireless energy. Even the fact that Taylor was apparently 
avoiding him did not swerve him from his single purpose. 
Taylor had indeed defiantly disobeyed the instructions of 
the President and Scott for a personal interview between the 
general in chief and himself. He had gone so far west toward 
Saltillo that touch with Scott was impossible. The answer may 
be found in the announcement by Taylor to Senator Crittenden 
that he was a candidate for the Presidency. 
While politics were pushing the pawns of war into hap- 
hazard gambits, legislation strove all too late to put in the field 
more good troops. It now increased the regular establishment 
by 1 regiment of dragoons and 9 regiments of infantry. One of 
the infantry regiments was to be composed of "voltigeurs and 
foot-riflemen and be provided with a rocket and mountain how- 
itzer battery." Enlistment was to be for the war only. An 
additional major, on account of the scarcity of field officers for 
campaign, was to be promoted in each regiment. Each honor- 
ably discharged man of all the forces was to receive a bonus of 
160 acres, if he had served for twelve months, and 40 acres, if 
he had served for less time. 
At length Scott set sail for Tampico with the First and 
Second Pennsylvania, a part of the Louisiana regiment, and the 
South Carolina, New York and Mississippi contingents. 
Twiggs with his regulars followed. For the next days and 
weeks the scarcity of transports delayed the remainder. 
While Scott was busy preparing to drive his fateful wedge 
into the vitals of Mexico, activity in the west near Saltillo drew 
Taylor's forces together for conflict. The main camp had been 
surprised and had retreated to Buena Vista beyond Saltillo. 
Twenty thousand Mexicans were approaching. Had they come 
on with a charge, nothing could have saved the American army. 
Wool had selected the position and had been left in command 
by Taylor, who had gone back to Saltillo to prepare that place 
for defense. As it was, the Mexicans drove back Marshall's 
troops from the top of the mountain. Night gave the first phase 
of the battle to the enemy. 
Next morning the Mexican army in force came through the 
pass. Marshall, who had reascended the mountain, was nearly 
Fei. 11 
1847 
Fei. 20 
1847 
Fei. S3 
1847 
Fei. S3 
1847 218 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
outflanked by Ampudia, when Washington's battery began to 
have a telling effect. In the center, Colonel Bowles of the Sec- 
ond Indiana and 4 companies of Arkansas mounted riflemen 
fled before the Mexican onslaught. The Kentucky and Arkan- 
sas dragoons on the mountain, being cut off, also withdrew in 
panic. Although Bragg, Sherman and O'Brien trained their 
guns on the Mexicans against great odds, the way to the Ameri- 
can's rear lay open. 
Taylor then appeared on the scene. Though his brave atti- 
tude gave confidence, he uttered few directions, which were 
poor. The initiative of his trained subordinates came into play 
in spite of the absence of orders. Davis with his Mississippians 
and Bowles with the remaining Indianians charged and re- 
pulsed Ampudia's cavalry. To Davis especially belongs the 
credit for stemming the tide. At the head of his Mississippians 
he fought with dash and daring. Although he had to be carried 
from the field severely wounded, he had been the main factor in 
turning defeat into possible victory.0 
Taylor, without knowing the size of a large force of Mexi- 
cans in front, ordered Hardin to charge it. Bissell, McKee and 
Thomas joined in the attack, but the forces were too overwhelm- 
ing. Hardin, McKee and Henry Clay perished while standing 
to the last. But Bragg and Sherman galloped from another 
part of the field with their tired batteries, and some of the In- 
diana and Mississippi regiments charged the enemy's flank and 
rear. Finally, the fire of the batteries became so hot for the 
Mexicans that they retreated. 
The queer battle was over, and so was the day. That night 
Taylor feared for the fate of his army. He had lost 673 
officers and men and about 1,600 had skulked in the rear or 
deserted. But during the darkness Santa Anna drew off south. 
What remained of the American army of the north was 
then spread out to guard the long line of communications from 
Agua Neuva to the coast. Thus ended the activities of Taylor's 
command. 
6 For his heroic work, Jefferson Davis was offered the office of a 
regular brigadier general instead of the ordinary brevet. He, however, 
declined the position in the regular army. THE ARMY WINS 
219 
In the east Scott, having collected all his troops by boat at 
Lobos Island, took strenuous measures to keep smallpox from 
spreading and to drill his command. Studying the situation, 
he came to the conclusion that the fortified town of Vera Cruz 
should be invested from the rear, instead of being frontally 
assaulted, with the resultant heavy loss to his men. 
At this late date in the second year of the war when his cam- 
paign was already launched, Congress was busy with enact- 
ments that could not benefit him for many months. It voted 2 
more major generals and 3 more brigadiers to the army. It 
authorized the organization of the forces into divisions and 
brigades as before. It gave to each artillery regiment 2 more 
companies and the authority to have 2 light batteries. It in- 
creased the pay and ordnance departments. Having made the 
mistake of the short enlistment, it attempted to rectify that 
error by offering $12 bounty to every soldier in Mexico who 
would reenlist for the war. It recognized distinguished services 
of the noncommissioned officer by the reward of a brevet of the 
"lowest grade of rank," and those of a private with a certificate 
of merit, which carried with it the extra pay of $2 per month. 
Before this seeming generosity of the lawmakers could be 
made known to Scott, he had landed 10,000 men without mishap 
at Sacrificios Island. Through the surf and over the dunes his 
troops went inland and formed Camp Washington in a semi- 
circular line around the rear of Vera Cruz. They built forti- 
fications and brought up artillery from the fleet for the bom- 
bardment. Most of the work had to be done at night and in 
silence. 
At last when the positions were satisfactory to Scott he 
summoned the town to surrender. When the refusal came, the 
guns from the fleet and on land opened fire. Within four days 
the occupants of the damaged city, hungry and terror stricken, 
capitulated. Scott's army having lost less than twenty killed, 
marched into Vera Cruz. He had saved his men, in spite of 
the urgent impatience of some of his juniors, who wanted to 
assault the place. 
But the glory of this victory was lost in the mind of Scott 
when he realized what was before him. At his back was an 
adverse administration, that had given him less than the troops 
Yeh. 28 
1847 
March 3 
1847 
March 9 
1847 
March 13 
1847 
March 22 
1847 
March 26 
1847 220 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
he had asked for. Yellow fever would soon be attacking the 
coast towns. Supplies and vehicles of every kind had to be 
collected soon for his march up through the 8,000-foot moun- 
tains over which there was one road to the city of Mexico. Only 
180 out of the 800 wagons had arrived, and the mules and 
horses were correspondingly short. 
Finally leaving the First Infantry to guard Vera Cruz he 
sent Twiggs' division (2,600 men) forward toward Jalapa. 
Patterson next day followed. Although Scott did not believe 
that a large force was in his front, he wisely acted as though it 
were and himself set out on the march, followed by Worth's 
division. 
At Cerro Gordo, Twiggs was held up by fire from a strong 
position across his path. When General Scott arrived he gave 
a very clear and comprehensive order for the attack, after gain- 
ing information through Captain Robert E. Lee and other 
officers whom he had sent out on reconnaissance. The action 
was to be a turning movement against the enemy's rear by 
Twiggs, supported by Shields' and Pillow's divisions. Even 
the pursuit was provided for in Scott's directions. The troops 
advanced through the thickest of tropical undergrowth. 
Twiggs' regulars took Independence Hill with difficulty and 
loss, and Shields and Riley went on to Cerro Gordo. The 
Mexican batteries in front fell under Pillow's and Tower's 
troops. With minor mishaps that were to be expected the 
heights were taken. Though Pillow's actions and some of 
Shields' volunteers were criticizable, the execution of the plan 
moved along with force and dispatch, and what Mexicans could 
get away fled in panic toward Jalapa. Worth's division pur- 
sued. Altogether, thousands of prisoners, 40 cannons, and 
4,000 stands of arms -were taken. 
Scott then moved the troops over the road to Jalapa which 
had been cleared by Worth. 
There dire problems confronted him. Indeed, in many ways 
his predicament resembled the trying hours of Washington dur- 
ing the darkest part of the Revolution. Money was scarce. The 
government had not sent any. Seven regiments and 2 com- 
panies of volunteers would go home because their enlistments 
were expiring and nothing in the midst of this campaign could 
April 8 
1847 
April 18 
1847 
April 20 
1847 THE ARMY WINS 
221 
stir their patriotism to remain. The government in its usual 
calm at home paid and provided for the soldier sparingly. The 
commander in the field was left to scrabble. Out of 1 contin- 
gent of 3,700 men only 1 company remained. Scott was 
assured the recruits were soon to come. But even if they did, 
they would be worthless until after five months' training. And 
then, after a long delay, they did not come. His force was 
reduced to 7,000 in the face of 20,000 Mexicans. Here he was, 
in a hostile country, poorly provisioned, and without strength. 
And to cap all, the President was scheming at home to super- 
sede him by Benton, who was ignorant of the art of war. 
But Scott moved his advance troops on towards Puebla in 
spite of his difficulties and by overcoming many of them. Not 
over 4,000 privates were able to move forward. Worth started 
the movement. Fortunately that city made only a show of 
opposition as it was approached by Worth and Quitman, who 
entered it. Scott, in the meantime, was organizing his rear and 
supplies before moving up. When he arrived in the town, he 
at once started the drilling, the engineer training and the 
preparation of maps for the interior. It was difficult work 
with the morale of the men naturally below par. They had 
been paid for only two months out of the eight. Since Scott had 
little cash and the Mexicans knew his condition, prices rose pro- 
hibitively. But by clever and clean methods, he restored finan- 
cial equilibrium and caused the city to offer him a place for the 
upbuilding of his forces. 
With six weeks of steady drill and good treatment of the 
inhabitants, on whom he was absolutely dependent for most of 
his supplies and for the chance to occupy Puebla, he slowly 
emerged by his own efforts with a force of fair quality but poor 
quantity. Cadwalader and McIntosh ultimately arrived with 
1,100 men and $250,000 in coin. The recruits also came. 
Major General Pillow,7 having done his usual delaying and 
demoralizing work, arrived with 2,000 men. Finally General 
Pierce brought 2,500 more. 
Scott now had about 10,900 effective men. Of the regular 
troops all the infantry regiments except the First (which had 
May 6 
1847 
May 20 
1847 
July 8 
1847 
Aug. 6 
1847 
7 A general by virtue of having been a law partner of the President. 222 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
to be at Vera Cruz), the main portions of the three dragoon 
regiments, the Second, Third, Fourth artillery, a light artillery 
battalion, and a howitzer and rocket battalion, were present. 
The new Ninth, Eleventh, Twelfth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth and 
the Voltigeur regiments of infantry together with the equiva- 
lent of about '3^ regiments of volunteers from New York, 
South Carolina and Pennsylvania swelled the numbers, and 300 
marines made the sum total. As can be plainly seen the large 
proportion was made up of fairly trained and disciplined 
troops. 
As soon as it wTas possible Scott, in spite of his handicaps, 
ordered the advance. Twiggs, Quitman, Worth, and Pillow, in 
the order named and one day's march apart, set out for the 
heart of Mexico. Passing higher up the mountains the little 
army now of about 10,700 men, trudged onward until it was 
about that many feet above sea level. It met many hindrances, 
among which were 13,000 trees felled as barricades, which it 
pushed aside. At length it came to the valley of Mexico City. 
Here Scott had to decide which of the four roads he would 
take toward his final objective. Pushing Captain Robert E. 
Lee, Beauregard and Worth's brigade ahead to reconnoiter, he 
found out the lay of the country and decided to approach the 
capital by the western gate. Then he ordered a force of en- 
gineers and Pillow's troops to build a road over the pedregal8 
toward Churubusco. Although he did not yet desire a general 
engagement, Pillow seemed to know better. That political gen- 
eral attacked a powerful force of Mexicans, who routed the 
Americans. Scott then coming on the scene, saw that San 
Geronimo was the key to the situation. He sent Shields with 
his brigade to support Smith, who had already gone in the 
direction of that place. The troops sat and shivered in a storm 
all night. In the morning they w'ere awakened early so as to 
go quietly toward their goal and take it with the bayonet. Lee, 
in the meantime, had by superhuman effort carried to Scott 
complete information as to the whereabouts of his troops. The 
commander was then able to assemble more men as a reserve, 
and the battle of Contreras was begun. In seventeen minutes 
Aug. 5 
1847 
Aug. 7 
1847 
Aug. 19 
1847 
Aug. 20 
1847 
8 Lava-bed. THE ARMY WINS 
223 
San Geronimo with all its strength was taken. The Mexicans' 
loss was about 1,700 against that of 100 Americans. 
Although the distance was now short to the city of Mexico, 
Scott knew he could not leave his baggage and Quitman's bri- 
gade exposed in rear. So he ordered Worth to clear San 
Antonio of the enemy. But when Stevens found that the 
Mexicans were already retreating, he determined to attack them 
in flight. In the pursuit, the troops came upon the masked and 
heavily fortified bridgehead of Churubusco. There they were 
held up for some time because of the unexpected strength of 
the position. But Scott's handling of a turning movement in 
the rear caused the defenders to give way after a hard struggle, 
and Churubusco fell. The enemy was pursued almost to the 
city gates. The loss to the Mexicans was about 10,000; to the 
Americans about 950. It was a stubborn battle, but the courage 
that comes with competent leaders and superior training had 
counted. 
Scott now did one of the most loyal and self-sacrificing 
things ever done by any man in high position. Although the 
way to the city now lay open, he forsook the personal glory of 
capturing the capital of the enemy's country because he felt 
wisely that such action would not so quickly "conquer a peace." 
The political conditions were such that a successful assault 
would mean only a postponement of a permanent settlement 
and the unnecessary sacrifice of many soldiers. 
That night he caused Worth to occupy Tacubaya; Twiggs, 
San Angel; Pillow, Mixcoac; and Quitman, San Augustin. 
During the next few days Scott was waited upon by the Mexi- 
cans who proposed a cessation of hostilities. Accordingly an 
armistice was agreed upon with the express purpose of negotiat- 
ing a peace. Two weeks were wasted in talk, while Santa Anna 
was violating the stipulations of the agreement. When his 
duplicity was discovered, hostilities had to be renewed. 
Worth in the early morning was sent against Molino del 
Rey, where the troops encountered a very hot fire from the 
forts. Stopped, tossed back, leaders shot down, the gallant men 
returned again, not to be denied. The King's Mill was the first 
to fall and then Casa Mata after much loss and sharp fighting. 
But the victory from a fruitful standpoint was barren. Though 
Aug. 21 
1847 
Aug. 24 
1847 
Sept. 7 
1847 
Sept. 8 
1847 224 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the Mexican losses were heavier than those of the United States 
troops, the captured arsenal contained nothing of value and did 
not further the entrance into the city. 
At a council in which the engineer officers, Lee and Beaure- 
gard, argued the various merits of positions and suggested the 
next move, Scott decided to attack the western gate-Chapulte- 
pec. 
An artillery duel between the large pieces in the enemy's 
fort and our intrenched batteries opened the fight. All day the 
cannonade continued, not without effect on both sides, but alto- 
gether the garrison of Chapultepec suffered more than our 
troops. 
Scott took the next day for attack. Pillow was to hit in 
front, Quitman and Worth on the two flanks and Smith in rear. 
Artillery again opened the fight. The infantry, advancing at 
eight o'clock, drove in the outlying troops. The fort, a very 
well-built stronghold, remained to be captured. On the lines 
went, but when they came to the ditch the scaling ladders did 
not arrive. The men lay down under galling fire and merely 
held their own, because nothing could be done in reply to the 
enemy's guns. But the waiting moments were terrible. At last the 
ladders came, and the soldiers, withheld from their prize for so 
long, climbed up the sides, were knocked down, scrambled up 
again and finally crowded over the walls. Some rough hand-to- 
hand work and Chapultepec was taken. 
Quitman met resistance from a small redoubt which he over- 
came. Worth was held up at one entrance to the city proper, 
but, by ingeniously mounting guns on roofs, he drove the Mexi- 
cans before him. The gates of Belew and San Cosme were 
similarly taken, and the Mexican capital lay limp before the 
army. 
The next day the victorious troops marched into the city, 
Santa Anna having fled. 
The war was not over, but the fighting had ended. Scott 
appointed Quitman as governor of the city and proceeded at 
once to reorganize his forces and his long line of supplies. 
He had conducted a brilliant campaign with little or no 
error. With minimum loss of life and time he had marched 
through the vital territory of a hostile population. Even so, he 
Sept. 11 
1847 
Sept. 13 
1847 
Sept. 13 
1847 
Sept. 14 
1847 THE ARMY WINS 
225 
had been hindered more by the administration at home than the 
enemy in front. 
The volunteers with scarcely any training had been of little 
help. Most historians have been very hard on them. R. M. 
Johnston says: 
"With officers not competent to maintain discipline, let 
alone handling their men in action, they made of the Stars and 
Stripes an emblem of pillage, destruction and outrage. They 
were 'dreaded like death in every village in Mexico.' They 
'fled in every action in which they have been engaged.' At 
Monterey, volunteer regiments bolted. At Buena Vista, it was 
only the Mexican turning movement that swept many of them 
back to their stations. General Pillow begged for a single com- 
pany of regulars at Cerro Gordo, to prevent a whole brigade 
from stampeding." 
Their lack of training is attested to by many statistics. For 
example their rate of sickness was three times as great as that 
of the old regiments. But they themselves were not to blame. 
Whether patriotism or adventure had been their main motive, 
they nevertheless underwent hardship voluntarily for their 
country. They had been jockeyed into a false position by an 
obtuse and wily control of military affairs. There were not 
enough trained men on hand, so that the volunteer had to be 
used, abused and sacrificed. 
Training was the thing that the government had ignored. 
By force of circumstances, rather than by foresight, the army 
in Mexico consisted largely of trained junior officers with regu- 
lars, and trained senior officers with volunteers. Few of the 
regulars in high command were scientifically skillful in gain- 
ing a victory with the least loss, because they were the outcome 
of stagnant handling in the previous thirty years. Scott stood 
preeminent and alone. He had pulled himself up by his own 
boot straps. His clear vision at home and his brilliant work 
in the field, rank him, in quality, second to no leader of our 
history. He realized fully conditions and situations and sacri- 
ficed his own personal ambition for the peace of the nation. 
Wherever tribute was due, he gave it without a tinge of meaner 226 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
feelings. Though not himself a graduate of the Military Acad- 
emy, he bore no resentment to the West Pointer. He unhesi- 
tatingly said at the close of the war: 
"I give it as my fixed opinion that but for our graduated 
cadets the war between the United States and Mexico might, and 
probably would have lasted some four or five years, with, in 
its first half, more defeats than victories falling to our share; 
whereas in less than two campaigns we conquered a great coun- 
try and a peace without the loss of a single battle or skirmish." 
In other fields of this war it must not be forgotten that 
Stockton,9 Kearny and Fremont took California, Wool marched 
with difficult troops south from San Antonio to Taylor and 
was now in command of that long line which held northern 
Mexico. Doniphan, too, had beaten with his 800 men 1,000 
Mexicans at Brazito, routed 1,200 at Sacramento, taken and 
held the capital of Chihuahua for two months, crushed a fierce 
band of Comanches at Paso, coupled up with General Wool and 
embarked for the United States in the summer of 1847, thus 
completing a victorious march of 3,500 miles in fifteen months. 
If training had shone during hostilities, it was to count 
more than ever in the occupation of a conquered country. Each 
of the main cities along Taylor's and Scott's routes had to be 
ruled justly by a military governor. The rowdy soldier had to 
be severely punished side by side with the Mexican robber. 
In Mexico City Scott's troops, due to necessary distribution 
and losses, numbered less than 6,000. For three months after 
the capture, not a single reenforcement provided for by the 
late laws of Congress had arrived. It was not until the end 
of the year that any reenforcements set foot in the capital. The 
numbers were finally swelled to 11,000 on paper and 8,000 fit 
for duty. It was then possible to have sufficient men to occupy 
the mining towns, and to repel attacks in the outlying districts, 
such as Jalapa. The efforts of Scott and Wool both tended 
toward the establishment of firm discipline and peaceful rela- 
tions with the Mexicans. 
Dec. 17 
1847 
9 Naval Officer. THE ARMY WINS 
227 
It was, however, an uphill task. Physically and mentally 
the soldiers were in a sorry state. When the government sent 
the volunteers into a foreign country to wage war, with the 
injunction that they furnish their own clothing, it had asked 
a very impossible favor. Poorly paid and much tattered, the 
state troops had a hard time to be decent in appearance. It 
was not until very late as usual that Congress passed a law to 
furnish clothing to volunteers in the same manner as to regulars. 
Altogether, this stay in a foreign country was naturally 
distasteful to the troops. The excitement of action had sim- 
mered down to the most trying routine. During virtual peace 
these men were undergoing the discomforts of campaign. What 
was the hitch, the technicality, that was keeping them from 
their homes in the states ? They had finished what they came 
out to do. They had done their part. What was the matter 
with the slow wheels of state? The treaty of Guadalupe 
Hidalgo had ended hostilities. Why was this occupation among 
a people, who spoke a different language and did not under- 
stand our ways, dragging on so long? Fighting, disease, driv- 
ing off bandits from supply trains, obeying and enforcing a 
stringent martial law, and constant drills and parades did not 
offer much recreation. 
It is not surprising that desertion, gambling, drunkenness, 
theft and worse crimes abounded. A host of bootleggers, black- 
legs and thimbleriggers offered ready inducements on all sides. 
Scott stated in one of his reports: 
"The same intolerable work at general head-quarters is to 
be perpetually renewed, or all the credit of this army for moral 
conduct, as well as gallantry and prowess in the field, will be 
utterly lost by new arrivals, and there is no hope of bringing 
up to the proper standard distant posts and detachments." 
The only activities of this time were confined to northern 
Mexico. Colonel Price, who was military governor of New 
Mexico, got wind of an uprising in Chihuahua. Marching with 
great speed from El Paso he arrived at Santa Cruz. Having 
blockaded the town, and having received reenforcements, he 
forthwith attacked the place. After fighting his way through 
Jan. 27 
1848 
Feh. 2 
1848 
March 1 
1848 
March 9 
1848 228 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
barricaded streets and executing some rather quick and rough 
work he was successful. This episode completely ended all 
armed controversy until peace was actually declared. 
However, there arose in the main army near Mexico City 
an internal strife that lowered morale distinctly. Scott placed 
in arrest, and preferred charges against, Pillow, Worth and 
Duncan, one of whom at least was a political spy of the Presi- 
dent. The Chief Executive had been averse to Scott's success, 
because Scott, being a Whig, ought not to become too popular. 
The actions of the three accused officers were insubordinate. 
But the President, believing their versions, ignoring his general 
in chief, and making up his mind at a great distance from the 
scene of ruction, peremptorily relieved Scott and restored the 
three officers to command with their highest brevet rank. After 
having been the prime factor of victory over Mexico, Scott 
was called home in disgrace. 
Robert E. Lee said that now that he had performed his task 
he was "turned out as an old horse to die." So Scott took his 
leave of an army who trusted in him and loved him as a whole, 
and Major General Butler, a Democrat, was left in command. 
Soon thereafter began the general preparation of the army 
for leaving Mexico. General Worth's Division was the last to 
quit the capital. In the main plaza the troops were drawn up, 
each country's colors were saluted and the United States flag 
gave place to that of the Mexican. Then began the long descent 
to Vera Cruz. It was a glad body of weary men who finally 
entered the lowlands of the coast, where they did not wait long 
in that fever district. Five companies of the First Artillery 
were the last to go just eighteen days after peace had been 
formally declared by the President of the United States. 
The newly created regiments had already left for the States. 
They were to be mustered out at the following places: the 
Third Dragoons at Jefferson Barracks, the Ninth Infantry at 
Fort Adams, the Tenth and Eleventh at Fort Hamilton, the 
Twelfth and Fourteenth at New Orleans, the Thirteenth at 
Mobile, the Fifteenth at Cincinnati, the Sixteenth at Newport 
Barracks and the Voltigeurs at Fort McHenry. 
The remaining regular army, after the reduction due to 
legislation, was scattered in reduced numbers over a wide field. 
March, 16 
1848 
April 22 
1848 
June 12 
1848 
July 22 
1848 
J uly 4 
1848 Winfield Scott THE ARMY WINS 
229 
The first and Second Artillery were rendezvoused at Governor's 
Island and the Third and Fourth at Fortress Monroe. The 
First, Second, Third and Fourth Infantry under Twiggs were 
concentrated at Pass Christian, Louisiana. The Fifth Infantry 
went to Arkansas and Indian territories, occuping and building 
Forts Gibson, Smith, Washita and Towson. The Mounted 
Rifles, Sixth, Seventh and Eighth Infantry went to Jefferson 
Barracks, Missouri, under command of General Kearny. Eight 
companies of artillery and 3 companies of the First, and 7 
of the Second Dragoons, were stationed on the United States 
side of the Rio Grande. 
Congress now acted wisely in allowing officers of the regular 
establishment to hold the rank they had attained in the war, 
by being carried as additional numbers in their grades and by 
being assigned to their old units. The major who had been 
added to each regiment was retained, as were many of the staff, 
together with the 2 companies in each of the artillery regiments. 
The number of privates in each organization was fixed at 50 
for the dragoons, 64 for the mounted rifles and 42 for artillery 
and infantry. The relatives of each enlisted man who died in 
the service were voted three months' pay. 
Long marches by some of the regular regiments were im- 
mediately entailed, because of the acquisition from the war of 
960,000 square miles of territory, including the present states 
of New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, Utah and Cali- 
fornia. Now that this vast country had been gained by the 
army's successes, it was to be made safe by the army's efforts. 
A long overland march by 2 companies each of the First and 
Second Dragoons was made along the Rio Grande, through El 
Paso, over the Gila and finally into California. The Mounted 
Rifles likewise, on account of the disturbances in Oregon, where 
some volunteers had murdered Indians in return for a massacre 
of missionaries, made its march over rugged country to that 
territory. A company of the Third Artillery set sail for Cali- 
fornia around Cape Horn. 
The year 1848 passed out with troops scattered over the old 
and new territory of the United States. The army had to strive 
for restoration under the handicap of demoralizing reduction. 
Many of the light batteries had to be dismounted and most of 
July 19 
1848 
Oct. 
1848 230 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the organizations were reduced. The actual strength of the army 
was little over 8,000. 
When gold was discovered in California,, soldiers deserted 
for the El Dorado by the wholesale. Captains in the west 
found themselves in some cases without a single soldier in their 
companies. The small army became still smaller every day. 
But the remainder and those that could be recruited, as they 
began to be stationed in the new western territory, helped as 
they could the "prairie schooner" and the "forty-niner" across 
wild tracts of unexplored country. 
The Mounted Rifles or Third Dragoons made a long march 
of 2,500 miles from Fort Leavenworth toward Oregon. But 
for Fort Laramie and Fort Kearny, there was not a house 
between Fort Leavenworth and the Columbia River. The col- 
umn plodded through trackless wastes, oftentimes without 
•wood, water or grass. 
The Fifth Infantry lost in one month 46 men by the scourge 
of cholera that was so prevalent with the emigrant trains. In 
addition to sickness and hardship, units were split and sent over 
long distances. For instance, 4 companies of the Fifth marched 
from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe and 6 companies from 
northern Texas to El Paso. From these places they then made 
successful expeditions against the Navajo and Apache Indians. 
Likewise the Fourth Artillery and 2 companies of the First 
were sent from Fortress Monroe to Fort Pickens and Pensa- 
cola, Florida, where they were kept busy constructing roads 
and keeping the Seminoles in leash. Other regiments were simi- 
larly distributed. 
Several internal changes at this time affected the army. The 
office of Judge-Advocate was created. Heretofore his duties 
had been performed by the detail of an officer of the line. The 
position now became the life work of an officer who could devote 
himself to legal study. A captain of the army could be se- 
lected and given the brevet rank and pay of a major of cavalry. 
As for drill and training, Cooper's Regulations for the Militia 
brought new developments in drill. Soldiers were formed into 
squads for recruit drill and mounted troops for the first time 
marched and wheeled by "fours." 
At this time the army went seriously to work in garrisoning 
Winter 
1848-49 
May 
1849 
May to 
Sept. 
1849 
March S 
1849 
1849 THE ARMY WINS 
231 
the new territory in order to make it habitable. Little by little 
nearly all of the troops were occupying tiny posts over the 
prairies so as to be ready to push back the Indian before the 
civilian occupant. The small parties of "forty-niners," singu- 
larly vulnerable to pillage and outrage, had given the savage 
confidence and lust for further attacks. To offset such incur- 
sions wherever they might appear, it was necessary to have 
many strongholds. The First Infantry, for instance, garrisoned 
in the southwest, Forts Merrill, McIntosh, Duncan and Ring- 
gold Barracks. Other regiments built and garrisoned more. 
In one engagement with the Indians the First alone lost 8 men 
killed and wounded. 
The pitiful attempt to have a small force everywhere at 
once caused long journeys of immense hardship and waste of 
time in movement. The Seventh Infantry, for example, was 
sent from Florida to Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, thence to 
the Little Arkansas River, back to Fort Leavenworth and then 
distributed over the Arkansas frontier, all in less than six 
months. 
Congress, seeing finally that it was difficult for the army to 
be in two places at once and that atrocities could not be checked 
with the number of troops on hand, gave voice to an excellent 
piece of legislation. It made the enlistment period five years 
and allowed the President to recruit each company up to 74 
men. Thus, without the addition of a single officer, the army 
could be increased in cases of necessity by 4,488 men. 
Congress had been made to have a change of heart in an- 
other direction. The war had proved the merits of the Military 
Academy. Several minor acts showed the confidence of the 
legislative body in that institution. The professors of engineer- 
ing, philosophy, mathematics, ethics and chemistry were given 
a flat rate of pay of $2,000 and the professors of drawing and 
French each $1,500. The Superintendent was to receive no less 
than the highest-paid professor. 
For the army in general, Congress for the first time recog- 
nized foreign service in its pay provisions. Those officers serv- 
ing in the far countries of Oregon and California were to 
receive $2 a day extra and the enlisted men were to have their 
pay doubled. 
Jan. 
1850 
April 12 
1850 
June 
1850 
Oct. 
1850 
June 17 
1850 
Sept. 16 
1850 
Sept. 28 
1850 232 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
While Congress was busy making these unusually con- 
structive military laws, the Yuma Indian was particularly 
zealous in molesting emigrants. The country in the vicinity 
of the Gila was wild and unexplored and the Yumas were 
exceptionally treacherous. After some difficulty the site of 
Fort Yuma was established, which gave opportunity for Gen- 
eral Smith, commanding the Pacific Division, to send a boat to 
the head of the Gulf of California. Lieutenant George H. 
Derby 10 of the topographical engineers was designated to make 
a reconnaissance of the country from the Gulf to the Fort, in 
order to establish a route from San Francisco. For 150 miles 
this officer penetrated this region and mapped the way to the 
fort. 
In a similar manner, Captain Litgreaves, with 50 men, went 
from Zuni westward until he reached the Colorado, whose course 
he followed to Fort Yuma. Encountering the hostile Mojaves 
and Yumas, he made overtures of friendship and kept on his 
way. Though the journey was rugged and full of hardship, 
especially from the intense heat, he learned much of the customs 
of these tribes in addition to making a survey. 
To offer havens for the traveler and settler and to have safe 
places in case of attack in force, many forts had to be erected. 
Major Heintzelman's troops built Fort Yuma. Other units of 
the army established Fort Kearny at Grand Island on the 
Platte River, Fort Laramie in Wyoming, Fort Bridger in Utah, 
and Fort Hall in Idaho, constituting the main chain of forts 
which protected the western routes of travel. Besides these gar- 
risons, approximately seventy smaller ones dotted the plains. 
To construct a fort the soldiers were halted at a likely spot and 
given tools and the open country. With incredible swiftness 
and ingenuity they built barracks, officers' quarters, storehouses, 
guardhouses, headquarters and even the stockade barrier with 
its blockhouses. So in addition to being required to face the 
savage, these pioneer soldiers had to build their own shelter or 
be without any. 
Away in these remote places, driving off Indians and con- 
structing strongholds, the troops never lost their punctilious- 
Winter 
1850-51 
1851 
1851 
io Nom de plume, John Phoenix, author of ' ' Phoenixiana'' and other 
sketches, the first American humorist. THE ARMY WINS 
233 
ness. The adherence to a prescribed uniform intimates this 
quality of self-respect and discipline. The difference in grades 
was indicated by the buttons on the coat. The major-general's 
buttons were placed in double rows and in groups of threes, the 
brigadiers' in twos, and the field officers' without grouping. 
The company officers had but a single row. The coat was 
lengthened for enlisted men to halfway between the hip and the 
knee. The shoulder strap was worn by officers whenever the 
epaulet was omitted. The shape of the strap and the insignia 
upon it were the same as persisted down to the beginning of the 
World War. The present-day chevrons were similarly adopted 
for the noncommissioned officer. The "cloak" overcoat with 
frogs of black silk came into vogue. 
The French bell tent was prescribed for use of enlisted men 
in the field. Just why mustaches were allowed to be worn only 
by cavalry regiments is not quite clear. 
As an outgrowth of economy, changes of station and equip- 
ment were quite demoralizing. All the light batteries, except 
Bragg's of the Third and Taylor's of the First, were dis- 
mounted. The Third Dragoons returned from the Mexican 
frontier to the States, all the horses and most of the men being 
transferred to the First Dragoons. The Fifth Infantry relieved 
the Seventh in Texas and built Fort Belknap on the Red Fork 
of the Brazos River. A detachment of the Third Dragoons in 
taking horses overland to California met the Rogue River 
Indians whom they repulsed at the cost of the loss of an officer 
and several men. Some of the regiments had traversed the 
entire country during the year. The Third Dragoons, after 
having gone from one ocean to the other, had to recruit at 
Jefferson Barracks and reorganize for the third time in five 
years, on account of casualties. 
Great attention was given at this time to heavy and moun- 
tain artillery as one of the reactions of the war. Drill regula- 
tions issued at War Department direction, covered the service 
of such pieces as the 8- and 1 O-inch and 24-pounder howitzers, 
8- and 1 O-inch siege mortars, the coehorn mortar, the 10- and 
13-inch seacoast mortars, the stone mortar, the 8-inch columbiad 
and guns of various calibers. Of the carriages there were the 
siege, barbette, casemate, flank casemate and columbiad. All 
March 
1851 
June 
1851 
June 18 
1851 
July 16 
1851 234 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
cannoneers were required to be instructed in the School of the 
Piece, Field Artillery, before undertaking heavy artillery. As 
to purpose and use, heavy artillery was classified into siege, 
garrison and seacoast. The mountain artillery consisted of a 
12-pounder howitzer which, with its carriage and ammunition, 
was packed upon three mules. 
At no time during this period did surveys and expeditions 
against marauding Indians cease. Company K of the Third 
Infantry overcame a band of Apaches with the loss of three 
men killed, and made a successful expedition against the tribes 
along the Gila River. Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Craig was 
shot and killed by two deserters while in command of a survey 
of the international boundary line of Mexico. Captain Marcy 
of the Fifth Infantry, with his company, and Captain G. B. 
McClellan, corps of engineers, explored the Red River from the 
mouth of Cache Creek to the river's source. They made peace 
with the Mojaves and found many valuable mineral specimens 
such as copper and gypsum. 
Some of the journeys of the troops were very costly. Eight 
companies of the Fourth Infantry left New York Harbor for a 
change of station on the Pacific Coast. The travel was by 
water, except across Panama. The railroad over the isthmus 
being at this time incomplete, the regiment had to march a 
great part of the way. Cholera and fever overtook them. Be- 
fore they reached San Francisco 107 had died of disease. 
In the east, confidence in the Military Academy was again 
expressed by the Congress. The pay of professors and assistant 
professors was raised as an evidence of the appreciation of 
instruction imparted at that institution. And the Secretary of 
War did not lower its standard by appointing as superintendent, 
Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee. 
In the west, Captain Wright of the Oregon volunteers 
almost overturned the work of such expeditions as Marcy's by 
inviting some of the marauding Rogue River Indians in Oregon 
to have a feast and make a treaty. When they had gathered 
under his supposed protection, he and his troops opened fire on 
the defenseless savages and killed all but ten of them. 
Such a proceeding naturally caused an uprising among these 
Indians who made war on the isolated settlers by burning the 
Feb. 6 
1852 
June 6 
1852 
May 
1852 
July 5 
1852 
Aug. 6 
1852 
Sept. 1 
1852 
1853 THE ARMY WINS 
235 
crops and murdering the innocent whites. The army in that 
vicinity finally succeeded in subduing the tribe. 
The troops in the service were distributed over a wide terri- 
tory. The Fourth Artillery was represented at Fort Independ- 
ence in Maine and on the Rio Grande; the Second Infantry was 
spread from Goose Lake, Oregon, to Yuma, Arizona; the 
Fourth Infantry was at Vancouver Barracks, Washington; and 
most of the First Artillery was in Florida. The remainder of 
the army was scattered widely between these extremes. 
While the meager army was trying to cover so much terri- 
tory, the Military Academy was thrown into confusion by the 
abrupt change of the course of study from five to four years. 
The Secretary of War, against the advice of the faculty of that 
institution, made this decision and caused the reconstruction of 
the curriculum after the term had begun. This action dis- 
turbed temporarily the Academy's efficiency. 
In the journeys of the army in this period, disasters in 
travel were more common than in later times when the railroad 
was better developed, hygiene more understood and the ocean 
steamer more trustworthy. The greater part of the Third 
Artillery embarked at New York to go to California by way of 
Cape Horn. Off Cape Hatteras the vessel became unmanage- 
able in a storm, her machinery was disabled, her sails were 
blown away, her deck was stripped and she sprang a leak. For 
days she was tossed about without any aid reaching her. 
Finally a Boston bark, Kilby, succeeded in getting off 108 
passengers, but the hawser that held the boats together parted 
in the operation. The vessels were so separated that the troop 
ship could not again be found. Finally it was sighted by the 
British ship, Three Bells. The survivors were taken to New 
York and Liverpool. From exposure and drowning over 200 
of the 600 aboard perished. 
The next year, some of the survivors of this regiment went 
overland to California straight across the continent, while the 
other part sailed successfully in the course it had undertaken 
before. 
Notable among the explorations of this year was one which 
Lieutenant Whipple, topographical engineer, conducted along 
the 35th parallel in search of a railroad route west. His ascent 
1853 
Oct. 11 
1853 
Dec. 39 
1853 
Dec. 31 
1853 
Spring 
1854 236 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of the Colorado River in connecting with Litgreaves' previous 
survey was one of peril and hardship. The result of his efforts 
proved to be highly beneficial to later transit. 
Patrolling the west was a constant duty of the army during 
these years. The Third Infantry made three expeditions 
against the Apaches in Arizona where it lost several officers and 
men. The Third Dragoons were similarly engaged in addition 
to being constantly on the move between Leavenworth and 
Laramie. The Second Infantry went from Carlisle Barracks 
overland and down the Ohio by boat to Leavenworth, where it 
was spread out along the Missouri. 
Realizing the value of the soldier and what he wTas doing for 
the country Congress raised the pay of the enlisted man by $4 
a month. In addition, it gave its first recognition to pay for 
length of service. The soldier's second enlistment gave him an 
increase of $2 a month over his regular pay and each successive 
enlistment for five years $1. 
The need of a rifle in the hazards of the western service, 
which not only developed the Indian fighter but made the 
hunter indispensable, caused more conversions of old weapons 
by the Ordnance Department than ever before. Besides making 
the Revolutionary musket capable of using a cap instead of the 
flint, the arsenals changed the barrel by brazing a lining in the 
tube so that the bore could be rifled. The department also 
standardized the caliber at .58. 
The model 1855 rifle based upon the above gun was made 
to use the "hollow base conical bullet" developed by Captain 
Minie. Besides, a lug was placed near the muzzle of the piece 
so as to hold the saber or the socket rapier bayonet. This rifle 
was about four feet two inches in length and weighed about ten 
pounds. 
Cooper s and Macomb's Tactics gave instructions as to the 
care of the rifle, in addition to giving evolutions for infantry, 
artillery and cavalry. The manual showed minutely how the 
soldier could make his own ammunition by melting down lead, 
molding the balls, smoothing the bullets off by rolling them in a 
barrel and wrapping the cartridges. In addition to having 
merely ball cartridges, the soldier could use buckshot or ball 
with buckshot. 
June, July 
1854 
Aug. 4 
1854 
1854 
1855 
1855 THE ARMY WINS 
237 
Hardee's Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics, although ap- 
parently not conflicting with Cooper's and Macomb's, showed 
at this date striking similarities to Steuben's and yet marked 
differences. In "the position of the soldier" the heels were "on 
the same line and as near each other as the conformation of the 
man" would permit and the eyes were fixed straight to the 
front, "striking the ground about the distance of fifteen paces." 
There were four kinds of cadence and step: common time, 
quick time, double quick time and the run. The first was 90 
steps to the minute and 28 inches in length; the second, 110 
steps to the minute and 28 inches in length; the third, 165 steps 
to the minute and 33 inches in length; and the last, a fast run. 
The manual of loading was accomplished in "nine times" and 
fifteen motions as follows: 
1. Load. One time and one motion. 
2. Handle Cartridge. One time and one motion. 
3. Tear Cartridge. One time and one motion. 
4. Charge Cartridge. One time and one motion. 
5. Draw rammer. One time and three motions. 
6. Ram cartridge. One time and one motion. 
7. Return rammer. One time and three motions. 
8. Prime.11 One time and two motions. 
9. Shoulder arms. One time and two motions. 
The actual firing was executed in three times and five 
motions. 
Ready. One time and three motions. 
Aim. One time and one motion. 
Fire One time and one motion. 
When the recruit became expert in this long exercise, he 
could be made to load in "four times" and fire as fast as three 
rounds in a minute. 
Realizing the work the army was doing technically and its 
impossible task of dealing with the Indians successfully in so 
vast a territory as the United States now occupied, Congress 
1855 
March 3 
1855 
11 If Maynard's primer was used, loading could be done in 1 ' eight 
times. ' ' 238 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
added 2 infantry and 2 cavalry regiments to the service, thus 
making 10 all told of the former and 5 of the latter. The 
officers of the newly created regiments were to be selected so 
that the field officers and one-half of the company officers of the 
old regiments would fill the new vacancies. The remainder 
were to come from civil life. The paper strength of the army 
now rose to 12,698 men, and the Ninth and Tenth Infantry 
and Fourth and Fifth Cavalry came into being. 
It is interesting to note among the changes of uniform that 
the cap which had been in vogue in one form or another for 
almost fifty years, now gave place to the hat of black felt, 
especially for the new regiments. The new headgear was looped 
up on the right side and fastened with an eagle. Black feathers 
ornamented the left side, three for field officers, two for com- 
pany officers and one for enlisted men. 
The far west continued to call portions of the army into 
play in quelling Indian uprisings. The Fourth Infantry in 
eastern Washington and Oregon had trouble in subduing many 
tribes under the leadership of the Chieftain Kamiarkin. In 
Oregon the regular troops were embarrassed by a massacre of 
Indians on the part of some volunteers who shot down nineteen 
unarmed savages in cold blood. The effect of such an affair 
was to cause the reactionary murder of many innocent settlers. 
Portions of the First Cavalry and Fourth Artillery had a hard 
encounter with the Brule Indians at the battle of the Blue 
Water. The Third Artillery had many engagements with the 
Klamath, Puget Sound, and Rogue River Indians, which 
actions entailed marches over long distances and the loss of 
many soldiers. 
In addition to the Indian troubles the newly created terri- 
tory of Kansas was torn with factions and outraged over the 
question of slavery. So acute and so partisan was the strife that 
the volunteers, who invariably took sides, could do little or 
nothing. Finally Governor Geary had to call for federal troops 
to restore some sort of order. Accordingly Colonel Cooke led 
the Fourth Artillery, acting as cavalry, from Leavenworth. 
This show of force caused the warring militias to disperse 
without bloodshed and Kansas was quickly brought to a state of 
quiescence, many lives being saved by the army's movement. 
Aug. 15 
1855 
Sept. 3 
1855 
1855-56 THE ARMY WINS 
239 
The newly organized Ninth Infantry arrived on the Pacific 
coast, having gone by way of Panama, and shortly afterward 
got into action in an expedition to Fort Walla Walla, Washing- 
ton. There it met the Indians near the Cascades, dispersed 
them, and made the ringleaders prisoners. Later it captured 
500 of the hostiles near the Wenache River. 
The work of the army this year consisted in reorganization, 
training and fighting. The First Artillery had successful 
actions in Florida and Texas. One company each from the 4 
artillery regiments was dismounted and together garrisoned 
Fortress Monroe to reestablish the Artillery School of Prac- 
tice. The Third Infantry, marching in one month over 500 
miles, was busy in the southwest with the Gila and Mogollan 
Apaches. The Second Cavalry was drilling at Fort Riley, 
Kansas. The Third Artillery finally routed the Rogue River 
Indians in Oregon, burned their village and decisively defeated 
them so that they sued for peace. The Sixth Infantry was at 
Jefferson Barracks, Mo., and Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. 
Most of the Fourth Artillery found itself at Fort Brooke, 
Florida, where the Seminoles again were beginning to give 
trouble. 
So much action in the field caused the uniform to be made 
more suitable to the needs of the soldier in the wilds. The long 
baggy trousers, the lower collar, the loose coat and comfortable 
hat gave more freedom of movement than was possible in 1812. 
The leather belt worn wuth the sash was more practicable in 
holding the sword. The shoulder strap was beginning to usurp 
the place of the epaulet. And simple knots and braid desig- 
nated rank on the overcoat. A general had five braids and a 
double knot, a colonel five braids and a single knot, a lieutenant 
colonel four braids and a single knot and so on dowm through 
the grades. 
Confidence in the army's efforts was again expressed when 
legislation raised the pay of cadets from $24 to $30 per month. 
Besides, civilian dependence on the army's explorations was 
asserting itself in many ways. Lieutenant J. C. Ives, for 
instance, at the direction of the War Department organized an 
expedition to find the navigability of the Colorado River and 
the practicability of routes for supplies. The work was carried 
Jan. 
1856 
March 
1856 
1856 
March 
1856 
March, 
April 
1856 
Dec. 
1856 
Jan., Feb 
1857 
March 3 
1857 
1857 240 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
on in the presence of hostile Indian tribes and covered several 
hundred miles. Its value was to manifest itself later in opening 
up roads and railroads. 
Indian troubles again took the army into many untenanted 
regions. The Fourth Artillery, after having serious trouble 
with the Seminoles, especially at Big Cypress, was sent west 
and distributed through Utah and Nebraska. The Third In- 
fantry was involved in the southwest with the Apaches in the 
Mogollan Mountains and along the Gila River. The Second 
Dragoons was so busy between Utah and Texas with its insuf- 
ficient force that it was kept on the move most of the time. The 
newly created Tenth Infantry after clashing with the Sioux in 
Minnesota moved to Fort Kearny, Nebraska. The Sixth In- 
fantry and First Cavalry went from Fort Leavenworth to Fort 
Kearny, meeting and defeating a large body of Cheyennes on 
the way. The first of the new cavalry regiments 12 had a severe 
engagement with the Cheyennes near the north fork of the 
Solomon River. In these engagements many of the men were 
wounded and killed with arrows; and with pistol, Allen's re- 
volver and rifle balls. Many small surveying and exploring 
parties, notably those accompanied by troops furnished by Gen- 
eral Clarke in command of the Department of the Pacific, kept 
up their valuable and trying labors through Arizona, Colorado, 
New Mexico and Nevada. 
It was in this year that the Sharp's breechloading rifle, 
using a cap, was invented. Although it did not come into use 
with the troops until several years later, it was the beginning of 
modern improvement in firearms, was to be the most efficient 
small weapon of the Civil War, and was to give rise to the name, 
"Sharpshooter." On the other hand, the Colt revolving rifle 
which was about the same time issued from that factory, was 
not destined to play so great a part. The soldiers did not like 
it because of the large powder escape at the breech and the 
tremendous kick when several charges exploded at once. But 
the production of the weapon shows the attempt at this early 
time to have a rifle that would shoot without the necessity for 
reloading at every shot. 
March IS 
1857 
1857 
12 Known now as the Fourth Cavalry. 'THE ARMY WINS 
241 
The largest expedition of this year was the one against the 
Mormons. This sect isolated near Salt Lake City refused to 
obey the laws of the United States. Accordingly the Fifth and 
Tenth Infantry and two batteries of artillery marched from 
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, to subdue them. The Second 
Dragoons was to follow. As soon as the Utah country was 
approached, bands of harassing Mormons burned and captured 
supply trains and drove off the cattle. All forage in front of 
the advancing force was destroyed. The men and animals grew 
hungry, and the cold became insufferable. When Colonel Albert 
Sydney Johnston took command and was reenforced by the 
Second Dragoons, he did all a leader could do, but he could not 
get supplies. His force was a ship at sea with no port for 
coaling and provisioning. Over the desolated region the prog- 
ress had to be very slow, sometimes only three miles a day. 
The hostile Mormons would sell nothing, nor was there a chance 
to find anything in this remote region in winter. Since the 
troops were in such straits Colonel Johnston ordered Captain 
Marcy to make his way overland with 40 enlisted men to Fort 
Massachusetts, New Mexico, the nearest place where supplies 
could be had. The march of this small detachment through 
deep snows, near hostile savages and in terrible storms was 
fraught with frightful hardships. Horses, mules, oxen and men 
died of cold and disease. Finally a remnant of tattered and 
emaciated soldiers who had largely subsisted on the carcasses of 
dead horses and mules, came to Fort Massachusetts with such 
odd appearance and such ailing bodies that they were with 
difficulty recognized by the troops at that place. Fifty-one days 
had been occupied in the march. In the meantime, the troops 
in Utah had been reenforced by parts of the Sixth and Second 
Infantry and Mounted Rifles, and had reached Fort Bridger 
which they found burned by the Mormons. The plight of 
Colonel Johnston's command was scarcely less severe than that 
which had confronted Marcy. In tents during zero weather and 
far removed from Philadelphia, the command in Utah had to 
do for itself. But it was a disciplined lot that went to work 
building and hauling wood, water and its few supplies by hand 
in the frigid climate. There was no civilization which the sol- 
dier could reach or from which he could gain help. And 
June 
1857 
Nov. 3 
1857 242 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
civilization paid small attention to these hardships which were 
endured almost without complaint. After Captain Marcy re- 
turned, the Mormon city was entered without bloodshed. 
During this movement of Johnston's troops, two minor laws 
made changes in the military establishment. The Texas border 
being still in an unsettled state, a new regiment of Texas 
mounted volunteers was allowed to be enlisted for 18 months. 
Because they were to furnish their own horses and horse equip- 
ments, all below the rank of major were allowed 40 cents a day 
extra pay. Legislation also gave the Superintendent of the 
Military Academy the local rank and pay of a colonel of en- 
gineers and the commandant of cadets that of lieutenant colonel. 
The course of instruction of the institution was changed, by 
order of the Secretary of War, back to five years. 
Not only with the Mormon expedition was the army occu- 
pied. Other regiments in isolated places were having their 
troubles. The Nava joes had 6 engagements with the Third 
Infantry. The Pacific Slope Indians were signally defeated in 
3 battles near Spokane River by the Third Artillery. When an 
outlaw band of Cortinas attacked and blockaded Brownsville, 
Texas, the Third Artillery with other troops drove them off. 
The Sixth Infantry made a march overland from Fort Leaven- 
worth, Kansas, to the Pacific coast. 
The wide dispersion of the regiments during this decade is 
evidenced by the posts which the Fourth Infantry had gar- 
risoned and in the main built. Forts Vancouver, Reading, 
Humboldt, Dalles, Steilacoom, Jones, Boise, Lane, Yamhill, 
Orford, Townshend, Hoskins, Walla Walla, Crook, Terwaw, 
Cascade, Simcoe, Gaston, Chehalis, Yuma and Mohave-ex- 
tending from British Columbia to Mexico, are forgotten names 
of the past. But they were in these times active and necessary 
havens for the settler. 
In occupying so wide a space activities sometimes had to 
go beyond national protection and become international. War 
was in sight wuth Great Britain for the fifth time in the army's 
history, when the Hudson Bay Company attempted to enforce 
its law on American citizens occupying Vancouver Island. 
Captain George E. Pickett was ordered with his company and 
one gun to occupy San Juan Island and resist the force brought 
June 10 
1858 
April 7 
1858 
June IS 
1858 
April 5 
1859 
Sept. 
1858 THE ARMY WINS 
243 
to bear upon that point. When it took months to get word of 
the trouble to Washington and months to get back instructions, 
General Harney had to act on his own initiative. Accordingly 
he had the small contingent under Captain Pickett take up a 
defensive position on San Juan. Several British ships with 
overpowering troops and armament tried to convince Pickett of 
his error, but the American officer with his one gun stood his 
ground and stated to the ships' commander plainly that he was 
prepared to resist all encroachments. For some time this 
audacious little force of regulars held the British at bay. 
Finally General Scott was enabled to settle the differences by 
engineering a joint occupation. 
So closed the scene of action just before the maelstrom of 
the Civil War. A trained army had wrested a peace in a short 
time, and prevented the loss of men and money entailed by a 
long war. It had made possible the acquisition of a third of 
the present United States. It had gone further. It had made 
the territories capable of occupancy. It had piloted the traveler 
in safety, built roads, protected the mails, opened river routes, 
kept the savages in leash and surveyed the routes of our present 
railroads east and west. It had held the trail through hunger, 
thirst, disease, wounds, disaster, and the untold suffering that 
cannot be explained to one who has never experienced such 
things, in such places, with such scant conveniences. The 
march left its wolf-cleaned skeletons, the fight left its gaping 
arrow wounds, the suffering left its shortened lives and civiliza- 
tion pressed in on all sides to gloat over a rich and beautiful 
country. 
July 27 
1859 CHAPTER VIII 
THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
(1860-1865) 
WAR, springing sternly from the hearts of the people, is 
about to rack the nation. The great uprising is first 
going to split the army and then swell it to puffiness. 
The Mexican struggle in an unknown country was quickly 
ended by a single chieftain, trained juniors and disciplined rank 
and file. The Civil War on our own soil will be dragged along 
by changing leaders, untrained juniors and undisciplined rank 
and file. The brilliant captains and lieutenants of Monterey 
and Cerro Gordo will be the generals of Fredericksburg and 
Shiloh. And they will look down helplessly over their hordes of 
irregulars for two years before the bullet all too sadly will have 
whipped those masses into shape. 
The long arguments over the rights of slave and free states 
had by the beginning of the year settled into fixed convictions. 
As the citizen was certain of his position, so the soldier in Fort 
Yuma, Arizona, knew how he stood. The slow mail from Maine 
or Louisiana determined his sentiments. Although he eagerly 
awaited the news of the bickerings that were certain to lead to 
strife, he went on just the same with the work in hand. 
Out of 198 companies in the service 183 were strewn over 
79 posts of the wild frontier. The other 15 manned the 
Atlantic coast, 23 arsenals, and the Canadian border. Seldom 
was so much as a battalion collected in any one place and often 
a small company was separated into detachments. Less than 
13,000 men attempted to hold in security 3,000,000 square 
miles of territory. 
In these ominous hours only one great hand was raised to 
Increase our resistance. Scott proposed the establishment of a 
sufficient force of regulars against possible trouble. But among 
1860 
244 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
245 
the politicians in Washington, his was a voice crying in the 
wilderness. With Buchanan and Floyd there was not a chance 
of conviction that widespread training and discipline would 
save lives. Besides their apparent sympathies with the South, 
they looked upon Scott as too old to lead troops and therefore 
too old to give advice. 
All this time the two sides to the issue were sedulously hurl- 
ing burning brands at each other when there was no fire depart- 
ment to quench the flames. A hose in Oregon, a nozzle in 
Florida, horses in Texas and an engine nowhere! The army 
was fighting Indians while the factions were wrangling. Fight- 
ing Indians! Hunting wolves while the mother country lay in 
convulsions! 
The First Infantry was in Texas, the Second along the 
Mississippi River as far west as For Kearny, the Third in 
New Mexico, the Fourth on the Pacific coast from Puget Sound 
to the Gulf of California, the Fifth in the Mormon country of 
Utah, the Sixth in Southern California, Nevada and Arizona, 
the Seventh in Utah, the Eighth in Texas, the Ninth in Oregon 
and the Tenth in Utah and New Mexico. The First Artillery 
was in the Gulf States, the Second along the Atlantic coast, the 
Third in the vicinity of Vancouver Barracks, Washington Ter- 
ritory, and the Fourth in Utah. The First and Second 
Dragoons were scattered over the west; the Third was mainly 
concentrated in New Mexico and the Fourth at Fort Riley, 
Kansas. 
Small disturbances were continually prevalent throughout 
most of the vast territory the army attempted to cover. For 
example, in New Mexico near Fort Defiance where the Navahos 
and Apaches were actively hostile, the soldier's life was far 
from peaceful. Nestled in the mountains at the foot of Canon 
Bonita, scarcely 200 men occupied the loneliest corner of the 
United States and the key to the Rio Grande. It was called a 
fort but it was not a fortress. The parade ground, quarters, 
barracks, prison, storehouses and adobe shacks lay out in the 
open, protected only by the alertness and man power of the few 
occupants. Early in the year 5 companies of the Third Infan- 
try had driven off a band of savages whom they had chased to 
Sixteen Mile Pond and beaten. And later a small company was 
Jan. 
1860 
Jan. 17 
1860 
Feb. 8 
1860 246 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
successful in putting to flight other harassing Indians. For 
over a month thereafter the little garrison had lived in com- 
parative comfort. But one night Lieutenant Whipple, who was 
officer of the day, had suspicions, from those intangible reckon- 
ings that come to men experienced in Indian treachery, that 
there was going to be an attack. Visiting each sentry he saw 
that the guard was properly instructed and vigilant. Sure 
enough, at one in the morning just after the moon had set, the 
war whoop sounded from the opposite hills and 3,000 Navahos 
and Apaches swooped down upon the 150, most of whom were 
asleep. But the guard was awake and watchful. Giving the 
alarm it placed itself where it would be the greatest hindrance. 
The delay was enough to allow the rudely awakened officers and 
soldiers to grab enough clothing to cover them, to assemble in 
orderly formation as if they were on parade and to sally forth. 
Forming a skirmish line they fired by file at any moving object 
they could see. Stumbling in the darkness they even charged 
some savages who were strongly posted in natural stone battle- 
ments. When dawn came, the Indians moved off with many 
of their numbers dead and wounded. The superior discipline 
and marksmanship of the trained soldier had told. One man 
killed and a few wounded was the tally of the little post of Fort 
Defiance. And affairs there went on peacefully for some time, 
but the size of the post was always an invitation to the painted 
warriors. 
Troops in other wild sections were playing their part with 
equal grit and endurance. When some prospectors were 
massacred in Nevada, parts of the Sixth Infantry and Third 
Artillery sought out the plundering tribes. At Truckee River, 
these troops routed the Indians after a severe fight. Some of 
the Tenth Infantry in New Mexico, of the Sixth at Mad River, 
California, and of the Third Artillery at Harney Lake and in 
the Klamath country of Washington Territory had sharp en- 
counters with the savages of those localities, while the Fourth 
Artillery, operating as cavalry, kept the roads and mail routes 
open and escorted emigrants over hundreds of miles of barren 
country in Utah. 
The only legislation for the army this year was an act which 
among other similar things increased the sugar and coffee 
April 30 
1860 
June 2 
1860 
June SI 
1860 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
247 
rations for enlisted men, and created a commission consisting 
of Senators Jefferson Davis, Solomon Foot, Representative 
John Cochrane, Major Robert Anderson and Captain A. A. 
Humphreys to inquire into "the organization, system of disci- 
pline and course of instruction at the United States Military 
Academy." Thirty-two million people were satisfied, so far as 
their power of resistance was concerned, to fritter their time 
over coffee and the curriculum of a school while a catastrophe of 
blood and flame was in sight, while their only real combatant 
strength was parceled out over so vast a region that months of 
the speediest journeys could not collect it. 
In technic there were a few minor developments. A rifle 
that was to have some influence on the coming conflict was this 
year invented by Christopher Spencer. This breechloading 
weapon was the first of the successful repeaters. It was after- 
wards thought to be the most finished and ready weapon of the 
Civil War. It was a seven-shot rifle, loading brass shells 
through a magazine in the butt. Although the loading was 
slow, the mechanism was a distinct advance in rapidity over the 
muzzle-loader. So few of them could be furnished in compari- 
son to the great number of flint and cap lock muzzle-loaders for 
the myriads of soldiers during the war, that their effect on 
operations was slight. 
Within the army, efforts to improve the tactics for both the 
regulars and militia were evidenced by the appearance of Rifle 
and Infantry Tactics and by a translation from the French by 
Major Robert Anderson, First Artillery, of exercises for artil- 
lery. The latter was called Evolution of Field Batteries of 
Artillery arranged for the use of the "army and militia of the 
United States." The work was sanctioned by the Secretary of 
War for the exclusive use of the troops mentioned. 
Such preparation sums up all our country made for the 
clash that was at least probable. When South Carolina seceded, 
there were few regular officers who had commanded as much as 
an assembled battalion. The militia were only so in name. 
Although an organization here and there might know how to 
shoulder arms, the state troops had no field-service training 
whatever. There was no accessible power in the country to 
prevent armed citizens in any quantity from doing about as 
1860 
Dec. 20 
1860 248 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
they pleased. John Brown's raid was an illustration. The 
people were waiting to see what was going to happen. Sanguine 
hopes were fathers to delusions of no war or a short one. The 
North, especially, lay curious, concerned and idle while the 
terror was approaching. 
Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and 
Texas quickly followed the example of South Carolina. These 
states sent representatives to a "Congress of Sovereign States," 
adopted a constitution, and elected a president who was a 
graduate of West Point and a former United States senator. 
The South was quick, keen and farseeing in its movements. It 
empowered its new president to take control of operations in its 
states and authorized him to accept for twelve months as many 
volunteers as he might require. Accordingly he called out 
100,000 volunteers as a start. 
The North could have inferred that the South was prepar- 
ing for war and meant business. Yet the central government 
sat supinely by waiting for the outbreak. In the east a few 
paltry companies which had had about 600 recruits added to 
them -were given the task of holding all the forts and arsenals, 
and the nation's capital. The President of the Union, the com- 
mander in chief of all the armed forces, with his Secretary of 
War, instead of making some attempt to establish a capable 
force for meeting the well-organized South, continued to try 
compromises when the time for such futility had plainly passed. 
Naturally, since the weakly guarded arsenals and forts in the 
southern states were mockeries of strength, the Confederacy 
seized them. Besides, General Twiggs, in command of the 
Department of Texas, had surrendered nearly one fourth of the 
entire army and all the public property intrusted to him. And 
yet the central government let the army fight Apaches and 
waited for Sumter. To Buchanan and Floyd, men with muskets 
were soldiers. 
A few days before the President of the Confederacy had 
called out his 100,000, the President of the Union was making 
his way in disguise to take his oath of office at the capital of the 
nation. So little strength had the North that it had to let its 
chief executive sneak into a threatened White House. There he 
had to begin to formulate plans against an enemy already well 
Jan 7 to 
Feb. 1 
1861 
Feb. 9 
1861 
Feb. 28 
1861 
March 6 
1861 
Feb. 
1861 
March 4 
1861 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
249 
organized and powerful in the speed and efficiency it had 
exhibited. 
Having no regular army in sight, he had to fall back on the 
old law of 1795 and to turn in desperation to the militia of the 
states. In the meantime, Fort Sumter was fired upon and 
seized, and '35,000 well-equipped and half-disciplined Con- 
federates were in the act of taking the southern forts and 
arsenals. At this juncture, Mr. Lincoln called out 75,000 
militia for three months, a force only threO-fourths as large and 
an enlistment only one-fourth as long as for the Confederate 
army already called into the field. He was thus powerless to 
suppress a single expression of rebellion. 
To his call for volunteers the governors of those southern 
states that had not already seceded sent curt replies of refusal. 
The northern states responded with alacrity and pandemonium. 
A medley of citizens hastened to adorn themselves as soldiers. 
With the truly patriotic man there were too often recruited the 
idler and the adventurer. The contingents-not organizations 
-were commanded ordinarily by men ignorant of the art of 
war and frequently without the character necessary for an 
officer. The soldier chose his commander as he did in the 
Revolution and all the evils of organization that overflowed 
Washington's cup poured out on Mr. Lincoln. In an advertise- 
ment for recruits one regiment's poster is significant of tho 
view of the untrained volunteer toward the coming three 
months' excursion: 
"As this regiment is to be constantly garrisoned in the forts 
around Washington, those anxious to enter the military service 
will find in it the inestimable advantage of exemption from the 
hardships and privations incidental to camp-life." 
Zouaves were paraded through the streets in showy uniforms. 
A Massachusetts regiment was mobbed while attempting to go 
through Baltimore; a Pennsylvania one had to turn back on 
the same occasion because it did not have arms. And this hasty, 
irregular, undisciplined lot, called an army, was to evaporate in 
three months, whereas the Confederates' force would still be in 
the service nine months longer. 
April IS 
1861 
April 19 
1861 250 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Furthermore, the small regular army itself felt disintegra- 
tion. During these months after Sumter, 269 officers out of a 
total of about 900 resigned their commissions to join the South 
and 26 were dismissed for the same reason. Sixty-five West 
Point cadets from the southern states resigned, were discharged 
or dismissed. But about half of the alumni whose homes were 
in the South stayed with the North. As to the rank and file 
those in the service remained with the North with the exception 
of about 26. 
There seemed to be no personal rancor between officers and 
cadets over the opposite stands they took on secession. Men 
freely shook hands wTith each other at parting and expressed 
feelings of mutual respect. Officers who had resigned left their 
old regiments on the plains and made long harassing journeys 
back home to join the Confederacy. It was not without 
reluctance and tears that they left their old associates and the 
ties of tradition, friendship, hardship and buffeting bound up 
with the old flag. Home, friends and the strong organization of 
the South, which the North in its weakness had permitted, all 
fixed in them a belief in which they were sincere. 
While the Union was losing the services of these trained 
officers, the handful that was left attempted to do its bit. Al- 
though General Wool, in command of the few trained troops in 
the East, had not been called upon or consulted by higher 
authority, he sent to Washington all the organizations he could 
release. Since he took the precaution to send them around 
Baltimore, they arrived at the capital without molestation. 
In the meantime Washington had been physically severed 
from the North. The Maryland secessionists had cut all wires 
and blocked the traffic. The President and Mr. Cameron could 
not get in touch with the forces that had been called out. Each 
of these gentlemen suddenly found himself in the throes of 
managing military affairs of which he was technically igno- 
rant. Mr. Cameron, for instance, rejected offers of regiments 
of cavalry, because he was doubtful of the value of that arm in 
our wooded country. Also, cavalry was very expensive. He 
was perfectly at home, however, in busying himself with deal- 
ing out sutlerships to Pennsylvania politicians. 
The neglect, throughout the previous decade, of military 
April 20 
1861 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
251 
affairs was reflected in the housing of the War Department. 
While other bureaus were occupying palatial stone buildings, 
the activities of this important function of our government were 
concentrated in a miserable tenement. There Mr. Cameron, 
after years of legal and political training, pathetically read 
regulations and treatises on the art of war in order to give to 
himself at least the appearance of a head of this gigantic mili- 
tary project. 
How different in the South! Mr. Davis, an educated sol- 
dier, a brave and trained leader, a hero of several battlefields, 
and a statesman who had served in the Senate and on the 
Cabinet, combined statecraft with military efficiency. He was 
the sole executive. The Confederate States had so organized as 
to allot to him the quick control of affairs and the man power 
he requested. Such organization and knowledge were to give 
to a comparatively small force a touch of unity that was to 
baffle the heterogeneous masses of the Union for four distracting 
years. 
For a great emergency, the constitution of the United States 
had made little or no provision. Mr. Lincoln now had to break 
the law and override the powers of Congress in order to build 
his foundation. By this time all hope of holding the arsenals 
and forts in the South was gone. That opportunity had inanely 
passed. Already the militia of the District of Columbia at the 
President's call had either refused to be sworn in or to serve 
outside the District. Sinking sand everywhere. Lincoln was 
beginning to understand that provision can never make up for 
prevision. Accordingly he was compelled, in violation of the 
Constitution, to increase the regular army by 22,714 men and 
to call out 42,834 additional volunteers for three years.1 The 
manner of organizing these men was turned over to the Secretary 
of the Treasury, the Secretary of War having too much to do. 
In turn, the Secretary of the Treasury was too much occupied 
to be disturbed by such items, so that he pushed the matter off 
on 3 regular army officers: Colonel Thomas, Major McDowell 
and Captain Franklin. 
These soldiers, acting on sound lines, recommended a three- 
May 3 
1861 
i He thus added 9 regiments of infantry, 1 regiment of artillery and 1 
regiment of cavalry to the regular army. 252 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
battalion organization for all regiments, a three-year enlistment 
and a call for 300,000 volunteers. Although the three-year 
enlistment was approved, and Congress later had to make a call 
for a greater number of volunteers, the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury disapproved the three-battalion organization for the volun- 
teers because the militia were not "familiar" with it. So the 
process of making a homogeneous army languished. As usual, 
the regulars could not be recruited in competition with the 
inducements offered volunteers. Altogether, the organization 
of the northern armies was no more developed than Washing- 
ton's force in 1776. 
No provision was made to utilize the experience of regular 
and other trained officers with the volunteers. The men of the 
local regiments still elected their officers. If a civilian, who had 
been a regular officer, happened to be known in a community 
he was sometimes selected. But more often he was ignored. 
Grant, who was in business, wrote to the War Department offer- 
ing his services, but was not even honored with a reply. No 
attempt was made to transfer regular officers to the new organ- 
izations. Indeed many of them in the service served in modest 
capacities during the entire war while grocers and bankers led 
regiments indifferently. The governors accepted whole regi- 
ments of about 850 men practically as they had been organized 
at home. The man who raised, equipped and supplied a regi- 
ment or brigade really owned it, and no mere governor or presi- 
dent could dictate to it as to who its officers should be or what 
rank should be given. If the South believed in states' rights, 
so did the North in the collection of its uniformed recruits. 
Generals commanding in the field had to apply to the proper 
governor before an officer of that state could be promoted. In 
this way the experienced officer was crowded out and some 
regulars who had accepted state commissions at high rank came 
to prefer, after they had come in contact with the politics, 
chicanery and disorderliness of the volunteers, to return to 
inferior rank with the regulars. What the North lost by such 
a procedure is shown by the record of those trained officers who 
did have a chance: 51 major generals, 91 brigadier generals 
and 106 colonels came from those officers of the old army who 
either by having been in civil life or by having accepted trans- THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
253 
fers during hostilities, had the opportunity of advancement. 
The other 308 the government to its chagrin submerged. It 
thus tossed at least two thousand years of training into the dis- 
card. 
On the other hand, the South acted in no such foolish way. 
It early made a provision to accept the services of officers of the 
United States army and to let them have their original relative 
rank. Note the difference in the figures. Of the 250 who 
espoused the Confederate cause, 182 rose to the rank of general 
officer, including such men as Lee, Jackson, Longstreet and the 
two Johnstons. In addition, the Confederacy made gradations 
of general officers to suit the units they commanded, as was later 
found best in the World War. On the southern side there was 
a general for an army, a lieutenant general for a corps, a major 
general for a division, and a brigadier general for a brigade, 
whereas on the northern side there were merely major generals 
and brigadiers for all four units. 
The few regulars on the northern side who could be brought 
from their stations were engulfed in the great vortex of irregu- 
lar volunteers. Washington was crowded with regiments. A 
regular battalion of infantry and a scattering few companies 
of artillery and squadrons of cavalry were scarcely traceable in 
the crowds of volunteers who were pouring into the city. The 
quartering of all these uniformed citizens was such a problem 
that public buildings had to be used as barracks. Even the 
Capitol itself was given over for that purpose. A German regi- 
ment occupied the floor of the House. Beds were in the corri- 
dors, a sergeant sat in the speaker's chair, murals were defaced, 
members' desks broken up and the congressional hall of the 
nation given over to pillage and abuse. Uncontrolled drunken- 
ness made the denizen of Washington more fearful of friend 
than enemy. The farmer colonel and apothecary major in 
many cases walked about the streets in showy uniforms, drew 
their pay and did not go near their regiments for weeks. It is 
possible they earned their salary better by their absence. 
Again, it was true that it costs a nation more to arm its fears 
than to awe its foes. Already the country had used in these 
few months money enough to have supported a sufficient and 
trained force for the ten years preceding. 254 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
May, June 
1861 
In other places, too, there were scenes of waste. The first 
levies were on their way to aid McClellan in West Virginia, 
Patterson in Maryland and McDowell in Washington. Around 
the cities of the North they had been assembled with the over- 
sanguine conception that the "secesh" would soon "give up." 
An excursion into the South and the whole thing would be over. 
The recruits, for they were mostly such, not knowing whether 
their regiments would be accepted spent their time sight-seeing, 
spending their money in saloons and generally adding to their 
demoralization. In their restlessness to be off and their igno- 
rance of what was going to happen to them, they after a time 
became surly, depressed and often unruly. Since the govern- 
ment had not made up its mind as to what was going to become 
of the three-month men, rumors would come into camp one day 
that they were to be discharged, another day that they were 
going to be accepted for three years, another that it was optional 
as to whether individuals would reenlist for three years. Or- 
ders would arrive only to be quickly countermanded. In this 
state of anxiety they became disobedient and even mutinous. 
Many captains, for the first time saddled with authority, pil- 
fered the rations of the companies. One soldier in writing 
home shows the reaction of such confusion on raw troops. 
"Such a feeling pervades the minds of the soldiers that 
discipline is played out. Company K refused to turn out to 
roll call the other morning, and day before yesterday, not a 
man of them appeared on dress parade. Company F would 
not come out on parade yesterday. 
"Night before last a row broke out in a beer saloon near the 
depot and some of the Pittsburg boys cleaned out the whole 
thing, broke in the doors and windows, smashed up the glass 
and furniture. A crowd collected and Colonel Grant was 
obliged to call out Companies B, G, and I, with their guns to 
disperse them. Company G charged down the road and across 
the railroad track through the thickest of them. They made 
quite a determined stand on the track, and some six or eight 
were wounded before they would leave." 
With such a state of discipline it is not remarkable that THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
255 
columns here and there undertook to win battles at will. Butler 
at Big Bethel, near Fortress Monroe, was repulsed; Lyon at 
Boonville, Missouri, dispersed the Confederates; Patterson 
after occupying Harper's Ferry was compelled to withdraw and 
send most of his troops for the protection of Washington; and 
McClellan prepared for his campaign in the mountains of West 
Virginia. The Union troops seemed to be dispersed with local 
purposes of their own, whereas the Confederates had been con- 
centrating in northern Virginia. 
In these movements many instances of lack of training 
demonstrated the unfitness of the forces to do anything decisive. 
Lack of reconnaissance caused 2 regiments under Butler to fire 
into each other with loss. When they did get into action, the 
first volley of the Confederates drove them into the woods from 
which it took their officers over two hours to induce them to 
return to the charge. Nearly all of Patterson's troops were 
three-month men who were clamoring to be gone. They were 
already largely without shoes and entirely without pay. Colo- 
nel Biddle testified afterward as to their conduct: 
"The General then went to the other regiments, but found 
that it was not feasible at all; from one-half to two-thirds 
refused to go. He finally got to an Irish regiment and made a 
very powerful appeal to them, knowing the Irish character very 
well. He carried them with a sort of shout, and they all said 
they would remain. They all lifted up their muskets. But he 
had hardly turned his back when they hallooed out "Shoes and 
Pants!" "Shoes and Pants!" 
McClellan in an eight-day campaign in West Virginia gave 
a touch of morale to the North, even if the results he obtained 
did not have much effect on the outcome of the war. With 5 
ill-disciplined brigades he operated among the Rich and Cheat 
mountains against an inferior force of Confederates under 
Pegram and Magruder. Although McClellan's flank attack 
under Rosecrans was delayed for a day by the weariness of his 
unseasoned troops, Pegram's men were demoralized from the 
threat and thrown into disorder in the retreat. Altogether the 
well-planned skirmishes gave to the side of superior numbers 
June 10 
1861 
June 18 
1861 
June 18 
1861 
June 23 
1861 
June 6-14 
1861 256 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the possession of West Virginia by the Union. Finally the 
northern forces were able to disperse the inferior force under 
Morris at Carricksford merely by their appearance on the scene. 
Up until this time nothing decisive had been attempted by 
either side because of the inexperience of the troops. At Wash- 
ington scattering musketry was often heard along the Potomac. 
But the 30,000 troops that had been assembled under McDowell 
were by no means ready to move. They had to have staffs for 
their larger units. The Quartermaster, Commissary and Ord- 
nance departments had neither means of supply nor subordinate 
officers who knew their duties. The few trained higher officers 
could not impart their knowledge to a multitude in a short time. 
Soldiers who had come out for a lark could scarcely be made to 
see the seriousness of obedience or the necessity of orderliness. 
They knew nothing of the march or how to take care of them- 
selves. They knew less about how to eat or look after their feet. 
Sickness reduced their numbers and efficiency. 
This was the kind of force on which General McDowell had 
to rely and which he had had no chance to maneuver. But the 
heads of the government reflecting the cry of the North, "On 
to Richmond," decided that he should move this haphazard col- 
lection of men somewhere. They felt it was better to have 
defeat than no action at all. Of the 300,000 scattered through- 
out the North there were approximately 50,000 in Washington, 
where breastworks had been constructed. Of the latter only 
about 30,000 were allotted for McDowell's use, and only 800 of 
these were trained troops.2 His testimony before the Senate 
Committee afterwards was plaintive in its logic: 
"I had no opportunity to test my machinery, to move it 
around and see whether it would work smoothly or not. Tn 
fact, such was the feeling, that when I had one body of eight 
regiments of troops reviewed together, the general censured me 
for it, as if I was trying to make some show. I did not think 
so. There was not a man there who had ever maneuvered troops 
in large bodies. There was not one in the Army. I did not 
2 A battalion of 8 companies of the Second, Third and Eighth Infantry, 
a battalion of marines, a small detachment of the First and Second 
Dragoons and 6 batteries of artillery. THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
257 
believe there was one in the whole country. At least I knew 
there was no one there who had ever handled 30,000 troops. I 
had seen them handled abroad in reviews and marches, but I 
had never handled that number, and no one here had." 
So McDowell became the scapegoat of a nation that had 
negligently drifted along. 
His plans, however, were laid with the same zeal and intelli- 
gence as if he expected victory. His force was to attack 
Beauregard before Johnston, who was supposed to be kept occu- 
pied in the Shenandoah Valley by Patterson, could join the 
main Confederate Army at Manassas. McDowell was given 
eight days in which to prepare for this offensive. Although he 
exerted himself to the utmost in the interim, there was practi- 
cally no transportation ready for him when the time came for 
the movement. Nevertheless, he had to go, knowing full well 
that Confederate videttes were in sight of Washington and that 
the prop upon which he leaned was weak and rickety. 
Leaving Washington, the troops carried three days' rations 
in their canvas knapsacks and everything else that a recruit 
could stow away. The heat and weariness of the march soon 
told on them. Throwing away blankets, blouses and even 
rations, which the camp followers soon picked up, they marked 
their journey with waste. Feet became blistered. Men left the 
ranks at will, got water and fruit as they chose, and meandered 
for miles along the way. Some did not reach camp until mid- 
night of the first day's short march. Units were confused, and 
amongst this mob of men, congressmen in carriages, women in 
barouches who wanted to see the battle, the curious on horses 
and sutlers with their wagons mixed themselves. By such 
process McDowell was enabled to march most of his troops the 
enormous distance of fifteen miles in two days. 
In this sort of excursion without method by the junior 
officers, it was not surprising that Tyler attacked at Blackburn's 
Ford prematurely and without orders. Naturally he was re- 
pulsed with loss and with a bad effect upon the troops in gen- 
eral. Nor was it strange that a whole regiment and a battery 
of artillery among the militia shamefully went home in the 
midst of these operations because their enlistment had expired; 
July 9 
1861 
July 16 
1861 258 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
that McDowell had to halt two days in order to reorganize his 
command and study the country in the absence of maps and 
reliable guides; and that this delay gave Johnston time to hurry 
to Beauregard because Patterson, being bereft of decent troops, 
could not keep Johnston employed. 
McDowell, with less than 28,000 men at this time was to 
attack a strongly fortified position held by at least equal num- 
bers. But his decision and orders were such that even then had 
they been properly executed he might have had some chance of 
success, for the Confederates instead of clinging to their forti- 
fications determined to take the offensive. 
When the main attack did take place, Tyler was slow in 
getting into position, and Hunter's brigade, which was a part 
of the command that was to take the Confederates in flank, 
rested for refreshments a bit too long by the waters of Bull Run. 
Yet during the morning the bare thousand of the left wing of 
the Confederates were pushed back across Bull Run to their 
strong position. Then the southern masked batteries began to 
do their deadly work. The unreliable troops on both sides were 
excited. They formed their lines slowly and badly under fire. 
The rear ranks and hindmost men of the staggered lines were 
almost as deadly to friend as enemy. The superior officers had 
a hard time to get their juniors and rank and file forward. So 
exposed were the higher commanders in trying to urge their 
troops to the front that a disproportionate number of leaders 
were killed or wounded. Late in the afternoon McDowell, in 
spite of his handicaps, had turned the flank of the Confederate 
position. Then Johnston came upon the scene. These fresh 
troops were just enough to turn the tide. A regiment of Con- 
federates, mistaken by the Federals for friends, delivered a 
murderous fire especially upon the artillery. Then the rout 
began. One regiment fled and then another. The new volun- 
teers were tired and hungry, but they succeeded in jamming the 
road in their hurry to get away. Newspaper men climbed down 
quickly from their vantage trees. Carriages, barouches, carts 
and horses clogged the highway. Soldiers in their excitement, 
firing in the air or at each other, stampeded across the fields 
toward Washington. McDowell's so-called army after having 
sustained a loss of only 5 per cent had disintegrated. Some did 
July 19 
1861 
July 21 
1861 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
259 
not stop until they reached New York City and most of them 
made their way that night back to Washington. The single 
battalion of regulars was conspicuous in its orderliness and 
energetic daring in protecting the fleeing masses from the 
enemy. Thus was achieved a battle, the loss of many lives, the 
waste and destruction of much property by unready forces who 
were incapable of a decisive stroke. Victory did as much harm 
to the South as defeat did for the North. Again the country, 
according to Light Horse Harry Lee, had murdered some of its 
citizens. 
At this juncture the first military bill of the war became a 
law. While disgruntled volunteers who had been present at the 
exercises of Bull Run groped about the city without direction, 
with hats, coats and even rifles gone, while these men without 
order or cohesion blamed their defeat upon their officers, the 
battlefield, upon anything but themselves and the false position 
in which their country had placed them, Mr. Lincoln signed the 
enactment which authorized him to accept 500,000 volunteers 
for not more than three years or less than six months. In 
requisitioning the regiments bodily from the states he was not 
to exceed the proportion of 1 cavalry and 1 artillery regiment to 
10 of infantry.3 A division was to consist of 3 or more brigades 
and each brigade of 4 or more regiments. To command these 
higher units the President was allowed to appoint not more than 
6 major generals and 18 brigadier generals, who could be 
selected from the line or staff of the regular army in which 
organization they were not to lose their grade. The governor 
had the exclusive right to appoint all the officers below general 
rank. Only in case of the failure of a governor to do so, had 
the President authority to furnish officers. To every enlisted 
man who furnished his own uniform and clothing $3.50 was al- 
lowed, and 40 cents a day to every member of a company who fur- 
nished his own horse and horse equipment. For each regiment 
July 22 
1861 
3 ' * Each regiment of infantry shall have 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 
1 major, 1 adjutant (a lieutenant), 1 quartermaster (a lieutenant), 1 
surgeon and 1 assistant surgeon, 1 sergeant major, 1 regimental quarter- 
master sergeant, 1 regimental commissary sergeant, 1 hospital steward, 2 
principal musicians, and 24 musicians for a band, and shall be composed 
of 10 companies, each company to consist of 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 
1 second lieutenant, 1 first sergeant, 4 sergeants, 8 corporals, 2 musicians, 
1 wagoner, and from 64 to 82 privates." 260 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
a chaplain, who had to be an ordained minister of a Christian 
denomination, was allowed to be appointed by its commander 
according to the vote of the field officers and company com- 
manders actually on duty. A general commanding a separate 
department or detached army had the power to convene a board 
of from 3 to 5 officers who were to examine into "the capacity, 
qualifications, propriety of conduct and efficiency" of any vol- 
unteer officers.4 The law particularly prescribed that vacancies 
among volunteer officers should be filled by vote. All members 
of companies were to elect the captain and lieutenants and all 
regimental officers were to select the remaining commissioned 
personnel of the regiment. Governors were required to com- 
mission such selections. The last part of the law allowed sol- 
diers to send their mail without prepayment, those at home 
having to pay postage therefor. It also prescribed that the 
Secretary of War should devise a system of "allotment tickets" 
whereby the soldier might have some of his pay drawn by his 
family. 
Three days after this piece of legislation, the President 
signed another bill which allowed him to call out 500,000 more. 
Although Congress may not have meant to do so, that body had 
now given Mr. Lincoln power to summon over 1,000,000 men.5 
The latter half million were to be enlisted for the duration of 
the war. In addition, the evident absurdity of the few general 
officers prescribed by the previous law must have caused the 
lawmakers to add the provision which gave power to appoint as 
many general officers as were required. 
Now that war in all its fury was upon the country, it acted 
is if such a catastrophe were quite unexpected, as if it had not 
been brewing for at least ten years. Now that blood was being 
spilled, Congress ran to generous extremes. Not satisfied with 
the unprecedented force it had already voted for, a third bill 
became a law within four days of the last one. The regular 
army was theoretically increased by 9 regiments of infantry, 
1 of cavalry and 1 of artillery. An infantry regiment was to 
contain 2 or 3 battalions, a cavalry regiment not more than 3 
July 25 
1861 
July 29 
1861 
4 Within eight months 310 officers had to be got rid of by such a board. 
5 Congress had already sanctioned his previous calls of April 15 and 
May 3. THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
261 
battalions of 2 squadrons6 each; and an artillery regiment not 
more than 12 batteries, each battery to be officered by a maxi- 
mum of 1 captain, 2 first lieutenants and 2 second lieutenants. 
In this reorganization of the regulars a wise provision was made 
for a major with his staff of 1 adjutant and 1 quartermaster for 
each battalion, and a major for each 4 batteries of artillery. 
There was as yet only 1 major for a volunteer regiment. An 
addition of 4 major generals and 6 brigadier generals was also 
made for the regulars. Thus the North had to remake its army 
in the face of the enemy. 
Enlistments during 1861 and 1862 were to be for three 
years and thereafter for five years. The recruitment of this 
additional regular force was to be intrusted to officers appointed 
from civil life. This same legislation allowed regular officers to 
be switched from volunteer to regular units or vice versa as the 
commanding general felt would be conducive to the greatest 
efficiency. 
Then Congress, aghast at the war structure it had raised, 
became panicked at such a possibility for peace times. Without 
any means of knowing what the future might hold, it now 
uttered a statute which provided for the reduction of the army 
at the end of the war to 25,000 men. 
On the same day another act made the militia subject to the 
same rules as the regular army and their retention possible by 
the President until sixty days after the next "regular session of 
Congress.'7 
Five days afterward, the President signed another bill "for 
the better organization of the military establishment." Now 
that an army had been built up on paper it was found that ad- 
ministration and supply were wanting. Accordingly an assist- 
ant secretary of war, 5 assistant inspector generals with rank 
and pay of majors of cavalry, 10 surgeons and 20 assistant 
surgeons, an adjutant general with rank of brigadier general 
and 19 assistants,7 8 "commissaries of subsistence," 6 topo- 
graphical engineers, 19 quartermasters, a chief of ordnance 
with the same rank and pay as the quartermaster-general with 
July 29 
1861 
Aug. 3 
1861 
6 Each squadron was to contain 2 companies. 
r Having respectively rank and pay of 1 colonel of cavalry, 2 lieutenant 
colonels, 4 majors and 12 captains. 262 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
8 assistants 8 were created. To the medical staff was added a 
corps of medical cadets, not to exceed 50, who were to have the 
same rank and pay as the cadets at West Point and who were 
required to have had a "liberal education," to have read medi- 
cine for at least two years and to have attended at least one 
course of lectures in a medical school. "Female nurses" were 
allowed to be employed by the surgeon-general at 40 cents a 
day. Any cadet recommended to be discharged from the Mili- 
tary Academy either for deficiency in conduct or studies was 
not allowed to be reappointed as a cadet or to be appointed to 
any place in the army before the class of which he was a mem- 
ber had graduated. The oath of the entering cadet was changed 
so that it might be binding in any question of states' rights.9 
To insure good conduct among soldiers, $2 of the monthly pay 
was to be retained until his enlistment expired. The ration 
was increased for the war, but thereafter was to be the same as 
before. For the first time retirement for officers of long and 
faithful service or from wounds or disability was made possible 
by means of a retiring board. The officer could be retired with 
his pay, or his rations, but not both; or in case his services were 
not satisfactory, "wholly retired" with one year's pay and 
allowances. 
Another law, two days later, appropriated $100,000 for 
fortifications, made it a crime of desertion for any officer who 
quitted his post after resignation and abolished flogging in the 
army. 
The next day two bills became a law. One increased the 
engineers and topographical engineers, each, by 2 lieutenant 
colonels and 4 majors, gave an extra company to the latter and 
put promotions of volunteer officers entirely in the hands of the 
governors. The other increased the pay of the private soldier 
from $11 to $13 a month. 
Such was the mass of legislation enacted in a month. 
Naturally it could be good only in spots and weak and ex- 
Aug. 5 
1861 
Aug. 6 
1861 
s One colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel and 6 second lieutenants. 
9 " I, A.B., do solemnly swear that I will support the Constitution of the 
United States, and bear true allegiance to the national government; that 
I will maintain and defend the sovereignty of the United States paramount 
to any and all allegiances, sovereignty, or fealty I may owe to any state, 
county, or country, whatsoever." THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
263 
travagant in the main. The fact that at first the Congress gave 
the President 500,000 men with only 24 generals to command 
them, and was compelled later on to give him no limit in this 
regard, demonstrates the utter ignorance at the capital of mili- 
tary needs. Of course the election of officers and their appoint- 
ment by the governors was subversive of discipline and 
detrimental to success. Hundreds of the original appointees 
drew their pay without rendering the country anything but 
harm. Then more money had to be spent in getting rid of 
these worthless officers. But nothing could repay humanity 
for the lives such so-called leaders had lost at Bull Run. Con- 
gress seeing its error made the matter worse by prohibiting 
election and by giving the appointment of officers entirely to 
the governor. Even so, the pernicious system of voting for 
officers, once inaugurated in the separate states, continued. 
The hurry of the legislators is again evidenced in the term of 
service for the rank and file. With the first 500,000 they made 
the mistakes of our previous wars in giving the option of a 
six-month enlistment or a three-year enlistment as the recruit 
chose. With the second 500,000 they tried to rectify their 
error by making the period for the war. It is easy to see that 
the recruit chose the six-month period, when three years was 
long and the duration of the wTar uncertain. It is easy to see 
also that when a man could enlist under the laxity of the volun- 
teers he wTould not undertake the severity of the regular service, 
so that the increase of the latter establishment languished for 
some time. Neither did the separate types of organization for 
volunteer and regular forces add to the facility with which an 
army should be handled. And then the awful fear of an ade- 
quately trained force after the war led the lawmakers, even at 
this frenzied time, into making it certain that there would be 
no more than 25,000, no matter what the conditions might be 
then. It took a war to increase the pay and rations for the 
volunteer over that which the regular had had to subsist upon 
under as bad if not worse conditions than civil war sufferings. 
It took a war to pay just dues to the aged officer of long and 
faithful service. But in all these enactments there was little or 
no attempt at unity of control or organization. The hetero- 
geneous character of an army composed of regulars, volunteers 264 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and militia with dissimilar units, uniform and equipment was 
greatly emphasized by these hasty and voluminous laws. 
The Confederate States had anticipated the North in its 
legislation by over two months. Although most of their laws 
had the same defects as those of the Federals, there were 
several decided improvements. Mr. Davis was not limited as 
to the number of volunteers he might accept and he was vested 
with the exclusive right to commission all officers above the 
grade of captain. So the Confederacy had not only a single 
chief for its war activities and a unity of organization, but an 
earlier start than the Union in training its forces. 
At this point the North came to sense the idea that it could 
not simply hurl animated uniforms at opposing forces with any 
hope of success. The national murder at Bull Run had caused 
it to be borne in upon the American mind that possibly there 
was something in this talk about discipline, training and the 
soldierly character, that military fitness could not be gained in 
an hour, and that a lumberman cannot become a captain over' 
night. 
It was at this time that McClellan was launched on his 
organization of the Army of the Potomac. Called to Wash- 
ington after Bull Run he was given command of mixed 
northern levies for the purpose of drilling, training and disci- 
plining them so that they might work as a single machine. 
The incoming regiments went into camp in the vicinity of 
Washington and slowly settled down to the tedious business of 
learning self-reliance and precision. 
The handicaps were colossal. Hordes of soldiers and offi- 
cers roamed about their tented cities with zeal and inefficiency. 
They knew little of maneuver, nothing of guard and outpost 
duty and worse than nothing of discipline and camp sanitation. 
Everything had to be taught from the ground up. The trained 
officer was overtaxed and the untrained over-worked. All the 
industrious ones burned the midnight candle and the others 
fired the flames of discord and demoralization. The soldier in 
loose blouses, baggy trousers, ill-fitting shoes or boots had a 
hard time to have a soldierly respect for himself and a harder 
time to be comfortable and efficient. 
His musket was old and too often useless. The Springfield 
July 27 
1861 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
265 
arsenal was the only service manufactory of small arms in the 
United States, and its output only 2,500 a month.10 The Con- 
federates had scooped from the arsenals of the South, thanks 
to Mr. Floyd, 235,000 muskets, so that they were well armed 
at the outset. But the Federals were so ill-provided that even 
flintlocks were issued. Few rides found their way into the 
hands of the volunteer. The markets of Europe were scoured 
by Federal agents for any kind of weapon. The result was that 
they purchased any kind at a high price, and the volunteer 
suffered accordingly. The calibers under such improvidence 
were as varied as in the Revolution. Few soldiers could use 
each other's ammunition. Old English Enfields, German and 
Belgian smoothbores and American arms of many makes and 
sizes were distributed to the commands. Some companies had 
only enough good weapons for the performance of guard 
duty. 
As for rifled cannon, none had been adopted until this time. 
Although Parrott and Rodman had produced the best and most 
acceptable types, smoothbore guns of iron and brass and of all 
calibers were to be found in abundance. Since the government 
had no foundries of its own, these larger weapons were hur- 
riedly constructed and poorly tested. The consequence was 
that many burst when they wTere first fired. One regular field 
battery had three different types of arms, two 13-pounders, two 
12-pounders and two 6-pounders. Throughout the service there 
were smoothbores varying from 6 to 48 pounders, old mortars, 
howitzers, and columbiads of brass, cast-iron and wrought-iron. 
There were Parrott rifled guns throwing 100- and 200-pound 
projectiles and Rodman guns up to 20 inches in diameter. 
In a subsequent battle 36 different kinds of balls were picked 
up from the ground. 
There were as many kinds of uniform as arms. The im- 
practical zouave type seemed to be the most usual. But gaudy 
epaulets and feathers soon gave way to the simple buttoned 
coat and blunted forage cap of blue. In the Confederate 
service, the uniform was much the same in style as for 
the Union, but the gray blouse was almost universally worn. 
io The cost of manufacturing a rifle was $13.93 and there was but a 
small proportion on hand. 266 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The soft gray felt hat and the folding collar were much in 
evidence. 
Although the Federal militia had in many cases its own 
state drill, Scott's drill regulations were reprinted in three 
parts for immediate use. Apparently there were no changes 
over the regulations issued in 1835. The company drilled in 
2 ranks and loaded "in twelve times." With the comparatively 
few weapons having percussion caps and with the breech- 
loaders, the motions for loading were reduced to nine and less. 
After the recruit had passed through the "school of the soldier" 
he was required to be instructed in "target firing." The 
records of the corporals and privates, who fired from '3 to 5 
rounds per day, wTere kept for the purpose of dividing the sol- 
diers into three classes: "The most excellent marksmen, the 
next in accuracy and the most indifferent." The largest part 
of the ammunition was required to be expended on the last 
class. 
A wrork entitled The United States Infantry Tactics for the 
Instruction of Infantry of the Line and Light Infantry, to- 
gether with Bayonet Exercises, elaborated on Scott's Regula- 
tions and gave to the infantry needed instruction in the knife 
and triangular bayonet. 
A manual on "Heavy Artillery," as intricate as it was 
elaborate, showed the juvenile state of our readiness. Guns 
of every type, irrespective of their peculiarities, were treated 
of because they had to be used. There were 8-inch howitzers 
on 24-pounder siege carriages; 1 O-inch siege mortars, coehorn 
mortars, 1 O-inch seacoast mortars, 13-inch seacoast mortars, 
stone mortars, 8-inch seacoast howitzers on barbette car- 
riages; 10-inch seacoast howitzers on barbette carriages; 
8-inch columbiads on casemate carriages; 24-pounder how- 
itzers on flank casemate carriages; 8-inch columbiads on 
columbiad carriages; and 10-inch columbiads on columbiad 
carriages. Nor were these all the types that were brought 
into play. All heavy weapons that could be scraped to- 
gether had to be called into service whether or not they were 
appropriate. No wonder the cannoneer was required to under- 
stand the service of the piece in field artillery before taking 
up the heavy. 
1861 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
267 
General McClellan's11 work on Regulations and Instruc- 
tions for the Field Service of the U. S. Cavalry in Time of 
Wdr dealt with the conduct of marches and the duties of com- 
manders of "the advanced guard, rear guard, flank guard and 
rear detachments." It treated at great length the subjects of 
outposts, patrols, videttes, pickets and main guards. Columns 
and wheelings of twos and fours in open order came into being 
with this work and added to the facility of movement of 
cavalry. The terms dragoon and mounted rifles now disap- 
peared. All such mounted troops were called cavalry. 
Drill regulations of the several states had individual treat- 
ments. The Manual for Light Infantry, by Colonel Ellsworth 
of the New York Zouaves, is an example. This book adapted 
the requirements of Hardee's Manual to the minie rifle. It 
was really an enlargement and modification of both Hardee's 
and Scott's regulations. Loading was done "in eight times," 
and practice in firing while kneeling and lying was prescribed. 
The sword manual was explained in minute detail. 
Hardee's Rifle and Infantry Tactics became the regulations 
for the Confederates. The author prescribed loading to be done 
"in nine times" and gave methods for the deployment of the 
battalion as skirmishers. With the Maynard primer, loading 
was done "in eight times" and for greater rapidity "in four 
times." Both Hardee's and Scott's regulations caused the 
company to change direction by marching in file and by wheel- 
ing. Turning on a fixed pivot by fours had not yet been 
inaugurated for infantry. 
So McClellan with mixtures of men, clothing, small arms, 
ammunition, cannon, sizes of regiments, equipage and regula- 
tions tried to weld the incoming irregulars into a unit. Staffs 
had to be trained and organized, and the whole conglomerate 
force to be disciplined and made capable of maneuvering in the 
face of the enemy. His task reminds one of Washington's 
situation at the opening of the Revolution. In magnitude it 
surpassed even the undertaking of the Father of his Country, 
for about 300,000 troops were now collected in the East. One 
regiment refused to obey McClellan's orders, but upon being 
ii McClellan was the originator of the McClellan saddle which is still 
in use. 268 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
surrounded by a force of regulars it succumbed and fell into 
line. On the whole, though, the army liked McClellan in spite 
of the severity he had to use as an organizer and disciplinarian. 
He had only 5,000 regulars present to help in the instruction of 
the raw volunteer. Besides many of their officers had been 
taken away to fill higher commands and perform staff duties in 
volunteer brigades and divisions elsewhere. A large number 
of the junior officers were as green as those in the volunteer 
regiments because the lieutenants could not be supplied by a 
Military Academy of less than 220 cadets. However, McClel- 
lan parceled out regular batteries to artillery regiments of vol- 
unteers and likewise distributed regular infantry and cavalry 
regiments among the volunteer brigades. But his trained con- 
tingent was too small to speed the instruction. Recruiting in 
regular regiments was so slow that by the end of the year this 
basic element numbered only 20,334. Further the newly 
created regiments such as the Sixth Cavalry and Fifth Artillery, 
because they were numerically larger and had one more bat- 
talion than the volunteers, were unlike the volunteer organiza- 
tions. Thus McClellan had a more or less disintegrated regular 
personnel whose members had to adjust themselves to new ar- 
rangements for themselves while they were trying to instruct 
a mass of unskilled levies. 
At any rate, both the main armies of the Federals and Con- 
federates had to stop and train, while the civilian population for 
a year languished with the burden of war and while not one 
decisive stroke could be struck. The army in Virginia, though 
better armed and organized than the Army of the Potomac, was 
suffering from the victory of Bull Run. The South now feeling 
that the North was in full flight, fell into such lassitude that 
recruits could be had with the greatest difficulty. So the armies 
watched each other by balloons and scouts for many months 
until they might be prepared for something effective. 
In the camps about Washington and Alexandria, the first 
hundred thousand were drilling, reviewing, parading, maneu- 
vering, doing guard and picket duty, having target practice and 
learning to adjust and wear their clothing and accouterments. 
Some slept on the ground and some had cots, but as a whole 
they were comfortable. As the winter came on, the soldiers THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
269 
built wooden frames around their tents, collected stoves and 
learned to take care of themselves in the open. Messes in each 
company were gradually formed so that all soon learned how to 
prepare their meager fare. But they were almost to a man 
restless to do something, unable to understand the meaning of 
all this training and delay. Of course there was much sickness. 
Dysentery and typhoid malaria resulted from the recruit's 
ignorance of the proper care of himself in the field. Measles 
and other contagious diseases ran their rounds. Yet in this 
apparently passive state the northern army was actually pre- 
paring to make successes possible for later generals. 
The remaining actions of the year occurred in the West, 
where the forces of Lyon and Sigel combated those of McCul- 
loch and Sterling Price. On both sides the character of troops 
and methods of guerrilla warfare prevented effective measures 
at this stage of the conflict. The fact that the commander of the 
Federals was Fremont, who was a better explorer than general, 
was a preventive of good teamwork. Besides, the three-month 
men left General Lyon in the moment when success might have 
been possible. A company of regular infantry, a part of the 
Fourth Cavalry and two pieces of artillery were all the ballast 
the northern commanders in Missouri could count upon. Poorly 
fed, trained, and paid, the remainder fought about as they 
pleased. 
The only action of any account was that of Wilson's Creek 
where General Lyon was killed after carrying out a plan that 
should have had better results, had his troops been inclined to 
discipline. After surprising the Confederates in their camp, 
General Sigel's men fell into laxity and disorder to such an 
extent that they were routed. The whole southern force then 
turned on General Lyon. The disaster which made little or no 
impression upon the war, was due entirely to raw troops as at 
Bull Run. Four hundred and eighty-eight lives were squan- 
dered in this hotly contested battle. 
The unfortunate selection of Fremont12 as a major general 
by Lincoln was nowhere more evident than in his neglect of 
Colonel Mulligan at Lexington, Missouri. In addition to the 
Aug. 10 
1861 
12 Fremont had never had the basic training of a soldier. 270 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
great blunders Fremont had already committed, he failed to call 
together his widely scattered troops for the protection of that 
city. In vain did Mulligan with his 2,700 men call for re- 
enforcements when he saw the city being encompassed by over 
20,000 Confederates under Price. For eight days the little 
Union force was besieged, the most lackadaisical interest or 
effort on the part of Fremont being displayed. Finally heat, 
hunger, thirst and a hot bombardment told the tale of hopeless- 
ness. Even though some of the raw men were armed solely with 
pistols, Mulligan fought on desperately until a portion of the 
"home guards" hoisted a white flag without orders and fled. 
The whole garrison fell into the hands of the Confederates. 
And another inconsequential action had taken place. 
In West Virginia Floyd was operating against the Union 
forces under Tyler. At Cross Lanes the Federals went into 
camp without taking any precautions by patrols or scouts, much 
as if they were in a peaceful country. The consequence was 
that Floyd fell upon them, killed a few, captured more and 
dispersed the remainder. Then Rosecrans met Floyd at Gauley 
Mountain. Late in the day the Union commander undertook 
to attack the position, but the troops did not respond well. The 
columns were mishandled and repulsed. Although Floyd 
retired next day, no particular advantage had been gained by 
either side. In the retreat during the darkness of the evening, 
Rosecrans' new troops by shooting at each other added 30 
casualties to the list. 
Lee, now, being numerically stronger than the Federals in 
West Virginia, took the offensive with his 9,000 men. His 
plans were well laid but too elaborate for his green command. 
He and Reynolds played a bold game with each other in the 
mountains near Elk Water as far as movement was concerned. 
But when it came to actual attacks Lee, on the one hand, was 
made timid by his knowledge of the poor quality of his troops. 
On the other hand, Reynolds after attacking Buffalo Hill found 
out from the weakness exhibited by his untrained men that it 
would have been better had timidity been a cautionary measure 
with him. The leading regiment of the Federals fled in such a 
decided manner at the first discharge of musketry that they dis- 
organized and panicked the regiments in rear. 
Sept. 12-20 
1861 
Aug. 26 
1861 
Sept. 10 
1861 
Sept. 11 
1861 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
271 
While these instructive and costly encounters were in 
process, McClellan was constructing defensive works, fortified 
lines and intrenched positions about Washington. With utmost 
attention to detail, he planned and built breastworks which the 
most unskilled recruits might hold. He organized 4 regiments 
into a brigade and 3 brigades into a division. The division 
thus consisted roughly of 10,000 infantry, a regiment of cav- 
alry, 3 batteries of volunteer artillery and 1 battery of regular 
artillery. Wagons, mules, ordnance and engineer trains, signal 
supplies, food, clothing,, tentage and a dozen other necessaries 
had to be assigned to the different units. The staff officers who 
were to control this outlay of men and material had to be 
selected in great quantity and be instructed in their duties. The 
officers as well as the privates had to be taught the rudiments of 
movement, fire, supply and administration. The signal corps had 
to be built up from nothing, because the soldiers of the Civil 
War were the first in this hemisphere to feel the military value 
of Morse's invention. 
McClellan constantly inspected his ever-growing command. 
He complimented, encouraged, rebuked and classified his men. 
He placed the new regiments where they would find comrades 
and learn more quickly. He slowly built a sure foundation of 
knowledge and morale. 
The Confederates at Manassas and Centreville under 
Beauregard were similarly training. Mr. Davis took an active 
part in organizing the industries of the South so as to get to the 
commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, men, arms, am- 
munition, horses, and provisions. Everything at the southern 
seat of government seemed to bend toward aiding the com- 
mander in the field. Although the strength of this army was 
inferior to that of the northern one, the Confederates were skill- 
ful in keeping their inadequacy a secret. 
When McClellan had about completed his fortifications in 
the vicinity of Washington, he was embarrassed by an occur- 
rence which did much to destroy the self-reliant spirit he had 
so successfully built up by his intelligence and personality. 
He had 7 divisions or the right bank and 4 on the left bank of 
the Potomac, a total force all told of about 152,000 men and 
228 field pieces. Trying to find out about the position of the 
End of 
Sept. 
1861 272 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Confederates, he ordered General Stone to watch them at Lees- 
burg and to make a demonstration in order to induce them to 
retreat. Making a cursory reconnaissance, Stone was led into 
the false assumption that there were no Confederates in the 
town. He therefore ordered Deven's brigade to cross the river 
and take the enemy's camp. Accordingly that commander with 
only 500 landed on the south side of the Potomac and marched 
on Leesburg. The Confederates, however, with about 3,000 
men under Evans, had warily concealed themselves in the town 
until the Federals should commit themselves. Then they sal- 
lied forth and drove Deven's back to Ball's Bluff on the river 
bank. There the Federals were reenforced by the regiment of 
Colonel Baker,13 a brave but inexperienced officer; 1,900 
Federals, huddled in a narrow space and unprovided with 
means of retreat, were caught in a trap. The untrained sol- 
diers became demoralized. The well-handled Confederates 
mowed down the cannoneers, until there were few to fire the 
pieces. A final charge by the Eighth Virginia threw the al- 
ready retreating Northerners into a wild panic to get across the 
river. Baker and many more officers were shot down and a 
number were drowned in attempting to swim the river; 223 
were actually killed. Out of the 1,900, only 800 recrossed. 
And another useless waste of life had thrown the Army of the 
Potomac into a state of bewilderment over its leaders. 
The affair caused McClellan to withdraw his divisions to the 
north side of the Potomac and to make an overestimate of the 
Confederate strength-again to protract the strife, the expense, 
and the mortality. 
McClellan by this time had been drawn in close conference 
with Mr. Lincoln, to the exclusion of Scott, who was still general 
in chief. Scott's sound advice was no more sought. Accordingly 
he resigned his office and went into retirement. In his letter he 
expressed the highest praises of McClellan, who became the 
general in chief. 
Right here should be drawn a distinction between the presi- 
dents of the tw'o sides. Lincoln was the greatest of statesmen 
Oct. SI 
1861 
Nov. 1 
1861 
i3 A former senator and orator. THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
273 
and men, but was a novice in the science of arms.14 Davis was 
a trained soldier both in theory and practice, and had no little 
experience in statecraft. This difference between the two 
heads, without aspersions on either one, may explain some of 
the early catastrophes that befell the North. 
The year passed out with training and organizing in the 
North and South and small encounters from Missouri to Mary- 
land. The only action of any importance was a meeting 
engagement near Drainesville. General McCall sent Ord's 
brigade to seize the supplies of that town. Stuart with his 
brigade in the meantime started from a point near Centreville 
to get some provisions between the lines. The two columns met 
unexpectedly. The Confederates becoming entangled in the 
woods fired upon each other; and Ord, by his masterly handling 
of his batteries, put them to flight with a loss to the southerners 
of 43 killed. 
By the beginning of the next year 200,000 Federals in win- 
ter quarters lay along the Potomac. Halleck had about 40,000 
in Missouri and Buell about the same number in Kentucky. 
Buell had replaced Sherman, because the latter had told an 
inspector from Washington that it would take 60,000 men to 
subdue Kentucky and 200,000 to subdue the West. At the seat 
of government Sherman was thought to be crazy. As it turned 
out, Buell was gradually given the reenforcements that Sher- 
man had asked for, because of necessity. 
When Mr. Stanton became Secretary of War, Mr. Lincoln 
decided that there should be a movement of the forces. Ac- 
cordingly there was issued the first of the series of pernicious 
"War Orders." This one fixed a "general movement of the 
land and naval forces" for February 22. Such a conception 
was full of color but absurd to any one of military experience. 
McClellan realized that battle movements are dependent upon 
tactical and strategical factors rather than sentimental dates. 
When he proposed transferring the Army of the Potomac by 
water so as to attack Richmond, the President vetoed the plan, 
Dec. 20 
1861 
Jan. 1 
1862 
J an. 13 
1862 
It is interesting to note that Abraham Lincoln was a captain of 
volunteers who turned out for the Black Hawk War in 1835 and that 
Lieutenant Jefferson Davis of the regular army administered to him his 
first oath of allegiance. 274 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Jan. 31 
1862 
and ordered an advance on Manassas Junction. It took a whole 
month of argument to get any accession to McClellan's idea. 
In the meantime the great opportunity had passed. According 
to the Constitution the President was commander in chief, but 
the Constitution could not in a twinkling make him a trained 
soldier. Had he been one, he would have upheld the military 
maxim that it is wise for the commander who is away from the 
battlefield and troops to give only a general mission to the 
leader charged with the execution of a plan and thereafter not 
to heckle him. 
But though McClellan was heckled, the fault was not 
Lincoln's. Both he and his Secretary of War were forced into 
a position they had not the technical knowledge to fill. Every 
previous Congress that had sat during peace was to blame. 
Those bodies had made no distinction between the duties of a 
political commander in chief and a trained general in chief. 
They had even refused to give the latter a standing. Nor had 
they provided training in the nation sufficient to overcome the 
wildest disorder. There was no chief of staff in the modern 
understanding of the term and the general in chief functioned 
with more fear of Washington than of Richmond. A lawyer 
was by law the chief of captains and a great and good statesman 
was by act of man suddenly metamorphosed into a general. 
The Constitution had made it the duty of the lawmakers to raise 
and support armies, nor did it even hint that those servants of 
the public weal were to begin to act only after war was long 
upon us. Those Congresses had failed in the interspaces of 
peace to give the country physical stamina and direction. The 
blood of the first two years of the Civil War lies upon them as 
much as if they had ordered the execution of brave men. 
Where the trained officers were far from the seat of the 
government and therefore less open to its interference, cam- 
paigns ran more quickly and smoothly. Grant under the orders 
of Halleck in the wTest advanced from Cairo on the center of the 
Confederate western line of operation. His movement was 
audacious and unhampered by his own higher command, so that 
he was enabled to capture Forts Henry and Donelson, the key 
to the Confederate center. As a consequence the Confederates 
had to withdraw from Missouri, Kentucky and a large part of 
Feb. 8,16 
1862 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
275 
Tennessee. This was really the first consequential action since 
Fort Sumter had been fired on a year before, and the first real 
victory for the Federals. 
On the other hand, back along the Potomac "Little Mac," 
as he was affectionately called by his soldiers, was having a 
hard time to get started on his peninsular campaign. Another 
war order stipulated that a force from the Army of the 
Potomac, sufficient to make Washington secure, should be left 
there and that the Potomac from Washington to the Chesa- 
peake should be freed from the enemy's batteries before McClel- 
lan's main force should be transferred to its new base. Without 
consulting McClellan, Lincoln also directed that his army 
should be organized into four corps and named the commanders. 
Before the batteries along the Potomac could be silenced, 
McClellan had to occupy Centreville and Manassas, which the 
Confederates had abandoned. Then Mr. Lincoln, listening to 
advice which shook his confidence in McClellan, relieved him 
as general in chief, but did not appoint a successor. Although 
McClellan was retained as commander of the Army of the 
Potomac and the Eastern Department, his prestige was de- 
stroyed at the beginning of an offensive. 
At the same time, Mr. Lincoln united the commands of 
Halleck, Hunter and Buell in the west as the Department of 
Mississippi, and designated the troops intervening between the 
Potomac and the Mississippi as the Mountain Department 
under General Fremont. All these army commanders were to 
report directly to the Secretary of War. It now turned out that 
a President and Secretary of War without military background, 
not only virtually, but actually, commanded three large armies. 
If the year 1861 is that of unpreparedness, the year 1862 
is that of mismanagement. 
Not so in the South. While the Union was organizing as a 
loose Confederacy, the Confederacy was organizing as a close 
Union. The southern government wisely abandoned states' 
rights for their army shortly after they had begun to fight for 
states' rights as a general policy. Doing away with war regi- 
ments, voluntary enlistments and the appointing power of gov- 
ernors for commissioned officers, they vested the control in Mr. 
Davis. They made it a duty for every able-bodied man between 
March 8 
1862 
March 10 
1862 
March 11 
1862 276 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
18 and 35 to serve his country. They were the first to enunciate 
in this country a proper draft law, a thing which afterwards 
proved to be the greatest single stroke of America in the World 
War. Virginia had anticipated the Confederacy in this action, 
so that 30,000 from that state were early infiltrated into their 
main southern army against McClellan. Such enactments gave 
Mr. Davis the chance to appoint skilled leaders to higher com- 
mand, to raise his force disproportionately over that of the 
North and to have a system of replacements whereby recruits 
would quickly gain the stamina of the older regiments. 
On the other hand, the North persisted in the volunteer 
system, in taking bodily regiments and brigades politically 
made and in having an old regiment diminished by disease, 
death and desertion beside a fresh regiment of double the num- 
ber. Under the state system the governors and local politicians 
were jealous of their localities to such an extent that men from 
one state, county or town could not be used in organizations 
from another. The consequence was that some regiments at the 
end of the war were as low as 100 men while others had many 
times that number. The incoming units required a relatively 
longer time to train, because of the absence of any mixture of 
veterans. And to cap all, the higher commanders might have a 
brigade of 1,000 or 2,400 men. The name of a unit meant 
nothing. 
While the South was forging ahead on concentration and 
unity, McClellan's command was being plucked and dispersed. 
Mr. Lincoln ordered Blenker's Division to the Mountain De- 
partment, thus detaching 10,000 men from the Army of the 
Potomac. Then, after promising to take no more, he ordered 
McDowell's Division at the solicitation of General Wadsworth 
to stay in front of Washington, and finally forbade McClellan 
to use General Wool's force of 10,000 at Fortress Monroe, an 
action which prevented the use of that post as a base. 
The Secretary of War then issued a general order which 
further scattered the forces under General McClellan's control. 
The portion of Virginia and Maryland, lying between the 
Mountain Department and the Blue Bidge, constituted the De- 
partment of the Shenandoah under General Banks; and that 
part of Virginia, between the Blue Bidge and the Fredericks- 
March 
1862 
March 31 
1862 
April 3 
1862 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
277 
burg and Richmond Railroad, constituted the Department of 
the Rappahannock under General McDowell. The territory of 
Virginia and Maryland was now separated into five inde- 
pendent departments, to the detriment of unity, control and 
strength of the main army that was already launched on an 
offensive against the enemy's principal force. 
The Army of the Potomac, now committed to a campaign, 
had been so hampered by the central government that it was 
necessary for its leader to spend more anxiety on convincing the 
powers at home than on engaging the enemy. In spite of all 
his discouragements McClellan transported in twenty days his 
entire force to the shores of the Peninsula; 58,000 out of a 
possible 109,000 were all he could collect and put in motion 
when he promptly advanced on Yorktown through the mud and 
swamps. Then came the well-known actions which pushed back 
the Confederates: the siege of Yorktown (April 5-May 4), 
Williamsburg (May 5), West Point (May 7), Hanover Court 
House (May 27), and Seven Pines (May 31, June 1). 
During this time other Federal troops to almost 300,000 
were scattered as follows: Department of the Rappahannock, 
41,000; Department of the Shenandoah, 6,000; Mountain De- 
partment, 15,000; Fortress Monroe, 10,000; General Thomas 
Sherman in South Carolina, 13,000; Army of the Ohio, 
95,000; Department of the Missouri, 80,000; and at the 
National Capitol, 30,000. Such a distribution was not only a 
deprivation of force sadly needed by McClellan, wrho was fight- 
ing the principal battles, but was an invitation for defeat in 
detail. 
Meanwhile in the west Albert Sidney Johnston was march- 
ing with his army, which had been increased by the draft, 
toward Grant at Pittsburg Landing in the hope of meeting him 
before Buell could join him. Surprising the Federals at 
Shiloh, Johnston threw them back from their own camps. But 
the struggle was so hot that at the end of the day neither side 
could advance. Johnston, the general so successful against the 
Mormons, was at this stage killed. Beauregard, who succeeded 
him, ordered the fight to cease. The delay was sufficient for 
Buell's troops to arrive and help drive the Confederates back 
the next day. Thus, while the troops in the West, far away 
March 17 
to April 6 
1862 
April 4 
1862 
April 6 
1862 
April 7 
1862 278 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
from Washington, were being concentrated for a decisive 
struggle, McClellan's forces were dispersed. 
Wounds and sickness by this time had shown Congress, 
among other things, that there had to be more organized care 
of the disabled. Legislation made sound provisions for a medi- 
cal department that was to have signal benefit during the war. 
A surgeon-general with rank of brigadier general was to be in 
charge of the department. Associated with him were an 
assistant surgeon-general and a medical inspector general who 
were each to have the rank, pay and emoluments of a colonel of 
cavalry. Also 10 surgeons, 10 assistant surgeons, 20 medical 
cadets and as many hospital stewards as deemed necessary by 
the surgeon-general were added to the service. 
Jackson shortly thereafter began his valley campaign along 
the Shenandoah. The forces of the Federals separated by over 
250 miles, and hampered by voluminous orders and suggestions 
from chiefs distant from the troops were an easy prey to Jack- 
son working on interior lines. He first defeated Schenck and 
Milroy at McDowell, West Virginia. Then he speedily 
marched toward Luray where he found that Ewell had been 
ordered away from his command by Lee. But as soon as he 
could make known to Lee that he needed Ewell, the order was 
immediately countermanded. Jackson was thus quickly en- 
abled to attack Banks at Winchester and drive him across the 
Potomac. Appearing before Harper's Ferry he brought fear 
and excitement to the powers at Washington. Moving between 
the forces of Shields and Fremont, who were not in communica- 
tion with each other, he retraced his steps and repulsed the 
superior forces of Fremont at Cross Keys. Then he turned on 
Shields and drove him from Port Republic back toward Swift 
Run Gap. Thus having rid the Shenandoah of peril to the 
South he was at liberty to join Lee at Richmond and swell the 
Confederate army opposed to McClellan. With a force never 
above 20,000, Jackson had paralyzed Banks and Fremont, had 
caused fright in the Union Capitol and had been enabled to 
reenforce Lee, while 200,000 misapplied Federal troops lay in 
a semicircle about him. During this time he had received but 
one order-one mission from Lee: that he should attack Banks 
and drive him across the Potomac. Ou the other hand, the 
April 16 
1862 
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May 25 
1862 
May 29 
1862 
June 7 
1862 
June 9 
1862 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
279 
orders, letters and telegrams, first counseling one thing and 
then another, from Mr. Stanton and Mr. Lincoln, pursued 
Banks so fast that he, like other commanders along this dis- 
jointed line, was in a maze of conjecture. 
One result of this campaign was to see the Federal Moun- 
tain and Shenandoah Departments united into the Army of 
Virginia under Pope. The other was the reenforcement of the 
Confederates under Lee not only by Jackson but by 37,000 
other troops from the Carolinas and Georgia. Lee, therefore, 
took the offensive in the Seven Days' Battles of Mechanicsville, 
Gaines Mills, Savage Station, White Oaks Swamp and Malvern 
Hill. Though he was severely repulsed at Malvern Hill and 
lost more than McClellan, he had released himself from the 
siege and was enabled to compel the Federals to retreat to the 
James River. Had McClellan not been deprived of troops for 
the main issue, there is no telling but that the war might have 
ended here, and several hundred thousand lives have been 
saved. 
As it was, the separated units of the Union were powerless 
to do otherwise than reorganize and try again. The forces 
were scattered under eight independent commanders over a 
distance of about 700 miles. While Lee was moving north on 
a straight line, Burnside was withdrawing his forces from 
South Carolina to Fortress Monroe, McClellan was preparing 
to retire from the Peninsula, Grant was reorganizing in West 
Tennessee, and Buell was rebuilding the Memphis and Charles- 
ton Railroad. Halleck was then ordered to Washington where 
he was made general in chief. No successor being named for 
his vacancy in the Department of the Tennessee, Grant, Sher- 
man and Rosecrans operated independently. 
While Lee was advancing northward as the aggressor 
against greatly superior numbers and the distributed Federals 
were trying to collect themselves under the fidgeting of Halleck, 
legislation buried itself in bounty laws and other matters. One 
hundred dollars bounty, one fourth of which was to be paid 
upon enlistment, was given to every recruit. The President 
was authorized to appoint as many as 40 major generals and 
200 brigadier generals. Three arsenals were to be built at 
Columbus, Ohio; Indianapolis, Indiana; and Rock Island, 
June 26 
1862 
July 11 
1862 
July 22 
1862 
July 11 
1862 280 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
July 17 
1862 
Illinois. Persons of African descent were allowed to be en- 
listed to any number the President saw fit. And officers, after 
they had been borne upon the rolls of the Army Register for 45 
years or after they became 62 years of age, might retire from 
active service. However, the President could give them such 
active duty as they could perform, in which case they were to 
receive full pay. 
Thus while the Confederacy was economically enforcing 
the draft, we find the Federal government spending $7,500,000 
for recruits. Although the Union felt it necessary to take over 
the telegraph lines, it balked on commandeering the manhood. 
Jackson, in the van of Lee's column, struck Banks at Cedar 
Mountain. After a good stand by the Federals, the Confed- 
erate force was compelled to retire across the Rapidan. Then 
Pope's army met Lee's at Bull Run, where the Federal troops 
were again beaten and again compelled to retire to Washington, 
The flight of the Union forces was almost as disgraceful and 
rapid as at the first Bull Run the year before. The road was 
filled with fleeing men. Straggling reached its climax; 7,000 
skulkers were arrested by the Sixth Corps in half an hour. 
There were with Pope's army no more than 500 cavalrymen fit 
for duty all told, and 1 corps was without its artillery. Al- 
though the Union force was superior in numbers, the acts of 
its various generals lacked that simplicity and cohesion which 
comes of experience in working together. Pope, Porter, 
Hooker, and McDowell, with forces suddenly brought from 
everywhere, had had no chance to work harmoniously as a 
team, whereas Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, Hill and Early had 
become an understanding unity of parts. 
Nothing now stood in the way of Lee, so that he crossed the 
Potomac and advanced to Frederick, Maryland. 
In tho West, Bragg's army had been recruited to 50,000 by 
the draft. Taking the offensive against the Federals who were 
losing their one-year draft men and whose commands were not 
in a high state of morale, he crossed the Tennessee River above 
Chattanooga, marched around Buell, captured 2,100 men at 
Mumfordsville and returned to Frankfort, Kentucky. There 
he was joined by Kirby Smith's corps, which had defeated 
Nelson at Richmond, Kentucky. By this move Bragg had 
Aug. 9 
1862 
Aug. 29,30 
1862 
Sept. 8 
1862 
Aug. 24 
1862 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
281 
gained many recruits in Kentucky and Tennessee and many 
supplies and prisoners. 
Such action was especially made possible because the Fed- 
eral army of the Mississippi, which had been collected with 
great pains, had been split. The reason for such division was 
the desire on the part of the "advisers" in Washington to take 
Chattanooga. An army of 100,000 men had been so broken up 
that neither of its parts could reenforce the other. By such 
faulty disposition the smaller southern force was not fearful 
of meeting either fraction. 
In the east, the fallacy and ineffectiveness found in thus 
scattering commands brought the army returned from the 
Peninsula and Pope's army together. They wTere both ordered 
to fall back on Washington. McClellan had to begin to reclaim 
his united Army of the Potomac from the setbacks of fatal 
dispersions. The teamwork that had been so skillfully wrought 
in a united army the year before had been set at naught by the 
absence of divisions and brigades in separate fields. McClel- 
lan's work had in great measure to be done over again. Cheers 
throughout the army greeted his appearance to the assembled 
command. Spirits rose and again the army of the Potomac 
freshened its hopes. 
But the President urged immediate action while General 
Halleck counseled caution. It was a pity Mr. Lincoln's good 
judgment had to be tarnished by his advisers. The bugbear of 
leaving many troops at the capital caught McClellan again 
between two fires. On the one hand, he was to divide his force 
and, on the other, attack. In this state he was to beat an enemy 
whose force and whereabouts v^ere undetermined. His de- 
moralized army had to be reorganized and rejuvenated on the 
eve of a vital contest. When the captured order, telling of 
Lee's advance, revealed 5 Confederate divisions on one side of 
the Potomac and 4 on the other, McClellan's opportunity v^as 
blocked by dismal orders from Washington, which made him 
keep one foot of his command near the capital. Then Har- 
per's Ferry ignominiously capitulated because of raw troops 
and their inglorious commander. Lee could now unite his 
forces. Nevertheless, McClellan, moving onward, defeated him 
at Antietam and caused him to retire south across the Potomac. 
Sept. 2 
1862 
Sept. 16 
1862 
Sept. 16,17 
1862 282 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
This victory McClellan accomplished in spite of the fact that 
many of his troops had been only two weeks in the service, that 
71,000 men fit for duty had to be chained to Washington and 
that he was at first able to attack Lee with only 2 divisions. 
With the slowness of some of his commanders, particularly 
Burnside, with the limited knowledge of Lee's strength, with 
the losses of nearly 20,000 men, with the poor discipline of 
junior officers and soldiers who were not yet over their de- 
moralization from the defeats of the two Bull Runs, he was 
scarcely in a position to follow up his victory. Whether it 
required a month to make certain that this command would not 
do as the previous ones had done-spend itself in barrenness, 
chagrin and death-is at least conjectural. 
While McClellan was then trying to reorganize his army 
which was in almost as sad need of discipline and supplies as at 
the beginning, the army in the west was again active. Buell15 
pushed the Confederates back at Perryville, Kentucky, after a 
bloody battle. Grant, who had been assigned the command of 
the Department of the Tennessee, began the Vicksburg cam- 
paign. Several weeks afterward the Army of the Tennessee 
gained the important victory of Corinth. 
McClellan, meanwhile, as soon as he could make a pontoon 
bridge at Berlin, and had put his army again in some sort of 
shape, started the crossing into Virginia. When he had his 
main corps safely across, he made plans for striking Culpepper 
Court House and defeating Longstreet before Jackson could 
come to the rescue. 
At this time McClellan was progressing as rapidly as any 
one could expect. But one night while Burnside and he were 
discussing the situation in McClellan's tent, a messenger from 
the President arrived bearing a brief order. When McClellan 
had read it he simply remarked to Burnside, "You command 
the army." Political influences had been at work. Here at 
the outset of a campaign which had received approval, the 
Army of the Potomac had to swap horses in midstream. Burn- 
side was as much shocked as McClellan, who was ordered to 
repair to Trenton, New Jersey, and await further orders. Thus 
Oct. 8 
1862 
Oct. SO 
1862 
Nov. 24 
1862 
Oct. 26 
1862 
Nov. 2 
1862 
Nov. 7 
1862 
is Buell had been relieved by Eosecrans and the name of the Army of 
the Ohio had been changed to that of the Cumberland (October 3, 4, 1862). THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
283 
McClellan passed out of the Civil War. It is a curious fact 
that Lee, who had suffered defeat at Antietam, was backed, 
aided and encouraged without heckling by Mr. Davis, whereas 
McClellan, who had won a victory, was practically discarded 
entirely by the administration. The resentment within the 
northern army was keen, and its spirits accordingly went down. 
Burnside, in getting hold of the new reins, found it no light 
task to move. Changing McClellan's plans of organization, 
learning the new situation and carrying on the dampening cor- 
respondence with Washington, delayed the Army of the 
Potomac several weeks. Thus a fine opportunity for ending the 
war was lost through interference by those who^vere far from 
the scene of activities. 
Finally, after reorganizing his army into 3 grand divisions 
of 2 corps each, and after waiting for some time for pontoons, 
the commander of the Army of the Potomac found himself in 
the vicinity of Falmouth across the Kappahannock from 
Fredericksburg. While Burnside was trying to stretch a 
bridge across the river, Lee was collecting all his forces on the 
other side and growing stronger each day. It was a long time 
before the pontoons were set in order. Finally, in the face of 
strong defenses thrown up by Lee's entire army, Burnside sent 
his army across and attacked. But, though the troops were 
brave to the utmost, and the slaughter was tremendous, the 
heights of Fredericksburg could not be carried. Under the 
pressure from the Federal capital, Burnside felt it necessary to 
keep up the offensive at any cost. Though the daring Hooker 
implored him not to make a fresh attack, Burnside was ob- 
durate. Only more slaughter, defeat and the retreat back 
across the river resulted. 
The night after this awful repulse was as bitter for the 
Army of the Potomac as any force has ever experienced. The 
frigid cold, the useless loss, the rightful resentment over their 
mishandling had sunk the soldiers into the utmost gloom. 
Desertions and absenteeism sprang up almost as in the Revolu- 
tion. Confidence in Burnside was lost. The men had not 
been paid for six months. Food and clothing in the midst of 
winter were lacking. Many at home soon sent packages con- 
taining civilian clothing to the men, and the winter sun of the 
Nov. 19 
1862 
Dec. 13 
1862 
Dec. 13,14 
1862 284 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
second year of the war went down on fruitless, haphazard en- 
deavors of the Union and on a disintegrating, dispirited army. 
Only the passive victory of Murfreesborough lent any 
alleviation to the situation. Rosecrans on being attacked at 
that town had repulsed the Confederates, who finally withdrew. 
Congress did not at once do much more for this situation 
than did the Continental Congress during the dark hours of the 
Revolution. The central government continued to be the play- 
thing of the war governors. An act allowing 2 assistant sur- 
geons to a cavalry regiment and regulating the size of a troop 
or company, was followed by an authorization for the Governor 
of Kentucky to raise a force of 20,000 for twelve months. A 
commissary general of subsistence was created. Another 
measure secured the pay, bounty and pensions for the men of 
the Department of Missouri. Then came an addition of 30 
major generals and 70 brigadier generals to the service in 
which it was wisely stipulated that they be taken from "those 
who have been conspicuous for gallant or meritorious conduct 
in line of duty." The topographical engineers were abolished 
as a separate corps and consolidated with the corps of engineers, 
and 19 officers were added to the ordnance. An officer below 
field rank had to pass, under a board of three seniors, an ex- 
amination of proficiency before he could be promoted. The 
bounty had been so extravagantly abused that a provision of law 
had to prescribe that a soldier on leaving the service in advance 
of his termination of enlistment must have a discharge cer- 
tificate for disability before he could receive the bonus. Then 
for the first time in our history a signal corps was recognized 
by law, although its parts had been necessarily organized be- 
fore. It had grown up under the exigencies of war in three 
phases of work: the aerial telegraph, the field telegraph and 
the permanent electric telegraph, the last of which the govern- 
ment had taken over in 1861. Now these three were con- 
solidated into a separate bureau. Then came the best and 
greatest military legislation of the war on the part of the Union. 
A draft law made every able-bodied citizen between 20 and 45 
years of age liable for military service at the call of the Presi- 
dent. But the good effect of this act was lessened by the pro- 
vision for substitution. A man could be permanently exempt 
Doc. 31 
1862 
Jan. 6 
1863 
Feb. 7 
1863 
Feb. 9 
1863 
Feb. 16 
1863 
March 3 
1863 
March 3 
1863 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
285 
from the draft by the payment of $300 or by furnishing a sub- 
stitute. The law also held a contradiction when it offered 
bounties to men who were so plainly told that it was their duty 
to serve the nation. 
At this late date of the war it was found that the tactics 
were not uniform or adequate. Accordingly, Casey's Infantry 
Tactics was ordered by the Secretary of War to be followed by 
regulars, volunteers and militia alike. Its three volumes 
brought a combination of the best of Scott's and Hardee's works 
up to date and made certain advances in accordance with the 
best usage in Europe. It was especially thought necessary in 
this work 
"to fix the formation to that in two ranks; to increase the 
rapidity of the gait; to increase the intervals between the 
battalions and brigades; to make, in the evolutions, the brigade 
the tactical unit; to hold the troops, when in maneuver in 
presence of the enemy, in closer order and well in hand; and, 
as a general rule, to insist upon deployment upon the heads of 
columns, as the safest and most rapid means of forming line of 
battle." 
The direct step, 28 inches in length, was made at the rate 
of 90 to a minute; the double quick step, 33 inches in length, 
was made at the rate of 165 to the minute. Loading was done 
in "eight or nine times" according to the primer used. In 
firing at will, loading was done in "four times." Loading 
while standing or lying down was prescribed. For a company 
to march by the flank, each man faced in the proper direction 
and formed fours in column by means of the rear rank stepping 
over and obliquing into the intervals between the front rank 
files. The method of deploying and marching skirmishers was 
delineated at length. Although there was no school for the 
regiment, there was an extensive one for the battalion. The 
evolutions of the brigade were covered in the third volume. 
Although the volunteer uniform had by this time come to 
consist generally of the short blue coat with lay-down collar, 
the blunted forage cap and lighter blue trousers, the regular 
had his long coat and campaign hat turned up on each side. 
1863 286 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Both wore waist belts for their cartridge boxes, but in addition 
the regular soldier had a strap over the left shoulder in much 
the same manner as the Sam Browne belt is now worn. 
In the army of the Potomac Burnside's position had become 
embarrassing. Some of his higher officers had let Mr. Lincoln 
know of the dissatisfaction in all ranks and of the danger of the 
new offensive on which Burnside was launched. But Mr. 
Lincoln, instead of relieving the army's commander or of 
silencing his critics, took a middle course-a compromise 
political course. He sent word to Burnside, as the general was 
setting his machinery in motion, that he should not renew the 
campaign without consulting the President. Burnside imme- 
diately tendered his resignation, which was not accepted. 
While these difficulties were besetting the Union, the 
absence of politics in the Richmond government had made Lee's 
army superior to anything in the United States for discipline 
and cohesion. 
Burnside, having made a new plan of campaign, asked the 
President to approve it or to accept his resignation. Authorized 
to carry out his plan, he set to work with avidity, but a heavy 
rainy season coming on blocked his efforts at crossing the Rap- 
pahannock. Then Burnside, unable to bear the criticism 
against him, asked the President to dismiss Hooker, Brooks, 
Cochrane and Newton and to take away the commands of Gen- 
erals Franklin, Smith, Sturgis, Ferrero and Colonel Taylor. 
The President then relieved him of the command of the Army 
of the Potomac and put Hooker in his place. 
The army sorely needed reorganization and morale; 2,922 
officers and 81,964 men were absent from it either with or with- 
out leave. The political connivings of the states to get men 
home to vote or to be taken care of in the state hospitals, had 
robbed the forces at the front of a great number. In addition, 
nearly 23,000 men, whose nine-month and two-year enlistments 
would expire in May, had to be used before that time or there 
would be merely a shadow of an army to oppose the Confederate 
solidarity. Hooker, therefore, doing away with the grand 
divisions created by Burnside, began to speed his preparations 
for the spring. 
In the West, at the same time, Grant was preparing in spite 
Middle of 
Jan., 1863 
Jan. 21,22 
1863 
Jan. 25 
1863 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
287 
of the high water in the Mississippi, to cross over toward Vicks- 
burg. Assembling and preparing his army he had begun to 
exhibit the skill of fighting things out on his own line. But it 
must be remembered he was far from Washington. 
Almost simultaneously the two northern armies struck. 
Hooker crossed two small rivers while Grant crossed one large 
one. Hooker having marched 45 miles in three days, estab- 
lished himself before Chancellorsville, while Grant with 20,000 
men cut loose from his base and placed himself in the enemy's 
country on the eastern bank of the Mississippi. 
Hooker, having sent away his cavalry on a raid and having 
his forces divided and his flank in the air was attacked by Lee 
at Chancellorsville. Though "Stonewall" Jackson was killed, 
this bloody battle was a victory for the South. Hooker had to 
retire northward. 
While the Union army was recovering from this setback, 
Grant, along the Mississippi, was forging ahead toward Vicks- 
burg. After having taken Port Gibson and Grand Gulf, he was 
joined by Sherman with 13,000 men. Driving back a Confeder- 
ate force from Raymond, Grant then caused Johnston to evacu- 
ate Jackson. Beating Pemberton at Champion's Hill and Black 
River Ridge, he began the offensive against Vicksburg. When 
two assaults proved that the town could not be taken by storm, 
he settled down to a regular siege. 
Meanwhile Lee, having made up his mind to invade Penn- 
sylvania, tried to maneuver Hooker out of position behind the 
Rappahannock. Masked by Stuart's cavalry, Lee started up the 
Shenandoah valley. When Hooker tried to place himself so as 
to defeat Lee's forces in detail, he was stopped by the Secretary 
of War and Halleck, who were disposed to keep Hooker from 
commanding in another battle. But strangely they let him still 
keep command of the forces. Thereafter Hooker almost kept 
pace with Lee by paralleling the southern leader on his eastern 
flank. Not long after Lee crossed the Potomac at Shepherds- 
town and Williamsport, Hooker crossed it toward Frederick. 
Lee then proceeded toward Cashtown, Pennsylvania, eight miles 
wTest of Gettysburg. 
Meantime Hooker sought permission to cross the Blue 
Ridge in Lee's rear. When his request was refused, he resigned 
April 30 
May 7 
1863 
May 11 
1863 
May 18 
1863 288 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
June 27 
1863 
his command. The resignation was accepted. Meade, who 
wanted Reynolds to have the command of the Army of the 
Potomac, was given that post. Again the councilors in Wash- 
ington changed leaders at the beginning of an offensive. 
Meade pushed on to meet Lee in Pennsylvania. Although 
the commanders of each side did not desire then to bring on a 
battle, Longstreet and Reynolds became so entangled at Gettys- 
burg that they induced a general engagement. The three days' 
fighting, so well known in American history, resulted after 
Pickett's charge in the defeat of the southern army. On the 
same day Vicksburg capitulated and Grant marched into tho 
city. These simultaneous blows sounded the death knell of the 
Confederacy. 
Most of the soldiers on both sides could now be said to be 
trained. There were fewer such on the Federal side, because 
not so many men had remained continuously with the colors. 
The following statement of conditions after Gettysburg would 
scarcely reveal an over amount of discipline: 
"Among twenty-four thousand loaded muskets picked up at 
random on the field of battle, one-fourth only were properly 
loaded; twelve thousand contained each a double charge, and 
the other fourth from three to ten charges; in some there were 
six balls to a single charge of powder; others contained six 
cartridges, one on the top of the other without having been 
opened; a few more, twenty-three complete charges regularly 
inserted; and finally, in the barrel of a single musket there 
were found confusedly jumbled together twenty-two balls, sixty- 
two buck-shot, with a proportionate quantity of powder." 
But the fury of this battle was unprecedented. Even if the men 
were frenzied it must be said that both attacker and defender 
generally kept their faces toward the enemy under fire. 
However, depletion in the ranks from many causes re- 
quired the utmost effort at recruiting in the North. The draft 
law, with its loopholes, was not proving successful. The call 
for 100,000 militia for three months, which Mr. Lincoln had 
made in the middle of June, produced 16,361 men. The draft 
brought only 35,782, of whom at least 26,000 were substitutes. 
July 1 
1863 
July 4 
1863 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
289 
The opposition to conscription took hold of the copperhead and 
the Unionist alike. All sorts of means of evasion were resorted 
to. In New York City, when the drafting was begun, the an- 
tagonism was unconcealed. Two days later a great riot broke 
out which threw the metropolis in terror. Negroes were hanged 
and at least a thousand casualties occurred. Finally, 10,000 
troops had to be used in putting a quietus on the outbreak. In 
other cities, such as Boston, lesser outrages were committed. 
Finally when the people saw that they had to submit, the 
hatred of conscription w'as not openly displayed. Among other 
ills, the bounty jumper sprang into being. Having enlisted and 
obtained his bonus, the recruit would desert, reenlist and obtain 
more money. Had the North used a draft act when patriotism 
was on the high tide at the beginning of the war, it is quite 
probable that some of these evils might have been avoided. But 
one good result of conscription was the spur it gave to volun- 
teering. 
Lee, who was not pursued by the main northern army, 
moved back to the Potomac. There he was followed by Meade. 
For the remainder of the year the two eastern antagonists 
maneuvered in Virginia but produced nothing decisive. 
Grant, the victor of Vicksburg, asked to carry on a cam- 
paign to Mobile, which would then possibly have accomplished 
what Sherman later had to do with so much pains. Halleck not 
only vetoed his plans, but took away from him most of his 
troops in order to relieve Rosecrans at Chattanooga. But 
before this reenforcement could be given, Rosecrans was de- 
feated by Bragg at Chickamauga and practically placed in a 
state of siege at Chattanooga. 
Grant, having been called from Mobile to take command of 
the newly created Military Division of the Mississippi, went 
north to Cairo. Thence he proceeded toward Chattanooga. 
In the meantime, Mr. Lincoln called for 300,000 volunteers 
for three years. Though he issued the call, he knew that the 
draft for these troops would have to be deferred until the En- 
rollment Act could be revised. Consequently the actual col- 
lection of these forces had to be put off until Congress could 
meet. Thus the North was more than two years behind the 
South in the efficiency of gaining reenforcements. 
July 11 
1863 
July 13 
1863 
Last half 
of Aug. and 
early Sept. 
1863 
Sept. 19,20 
1863 
Oct. io 
1863 
Oct. 16 
1863 
Oct. 17 
1863 290 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Oct. 33 
1863 
When Grant arrived at Chattanooga he began to concen- 
trate his armies; Sherman, Thomas and Hooker brought their 
troops to join him. At Lookout Mountain, Chattanooga and 
Missionary Ridge, Grant assaulted Bragg's fortified positions 
and drove the enemy out. Then Sheridan completed the suc- 
cess by pursuing and capturing many prisoners. Grant imme- 
diately started for Knoxville, where Burnside was being held 
in check. His coming forced Longstreet to raise the siege. All 
the main armies of both sides were now in winter quarters. 
When the Federal Congress met, instead of setting to work 
at once to modify the draft law so as to make it effective, an 
appropriation of $23,000,000 was made for the payment of 
bounties and advance pay. Still at this late date in the war, 
the Federal government was persisting in wasting its resources 
because of state influences rather than exerting its authority in 
the equable enforcement of military service. It was necessary 
to get reliable men as recruiting agents. Measures to prevent 
fraud by these enrolling officers and by bounty brokers, were 
looked upon by the states as "vexatious obstacles." By such 
an attitude the nothern states, mainly to avoid having their 
men drafted, resorted to the payment of bounties many times 
in excess of those paid by the Federal government. Millions 
were wasted in this way. Finally Congress amended the En- 
rollment Act by giving the President power to call for such 
number of men as the "public exigencies may require," to pro- 
portion his call on any locality to the number of males liable to 
military duty and to exempt only those who were physically and 
mentally unfit in addition to those who had served two years 
honorably in the war. A fine of $5,000 or five years' imprison- 
ment was imposed for resistance to the draft. 
The six-month and three-year men were now about to depart 
from the service. Mr. Lincoln had to make a call for 200,000 
in addition to his 300,000 in October, 1863. Of this 500,000, 
only a little over 300,000 responded. 
While the Union was slowly swinging into line on the draft, 
a marked advance was made in the control of the army. Grant 
was called to Washington, given a commission as lieutenant 
general and placed in supreme command of the armies of the 
United States. The political mismanagement of the forces was 
Nov. 24, 25 
1863 
Dec. 4 
1863 
Dec. 33 
1863 
Feb. 34 
1864 
Feb. 
1864 
March 13 
1864 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
291 
ended. A trained soldier took the control of military opera- 
tions. Three years of war had taught the Union that skilled 
military men should run armies just as much as educated doc- 
tors should manage hospitals. Three years of war had created 
on both sides veteran soldiers who were the equals of any army 
of any time. The sad feature, to those who know that armies 
can be well trained during peace, is that nothing can ever 
make up for the tens of thousands of lives cast away in 
diseased camps and on gory battlefields. From now on in 
this war, the veteran is going to make every engagement de- 
cisive, and the Civil War might be said to begin in 1863. 
Since the government of the Republic had forced the actual 
responsibility for the running of its armies on an untrained 
leader, it was a fortune for the North that the office was filled 
by so large a soul and so keen a mind as Lincoln's. In a com- 
paratively short time he had sensed his own incapacity, the 
futility of changing his commanders and the instability of the 
notions of his advisers, especially the "Aulic Council." For 
some time he had divined in that sharp, straight reason, so 
peculiarly his own, that he must fasten on a single man and 
leave him to his simple purpose. It is almost unbelievable that 
through the barbed wire of a dozen daily contradictory hints, 
advices, warnings, propositions and meddlesome propaganda 
propelled by politicians and mushroom soldiers alike, his vision 
cut surely forward over a well-surveyed line. He solved his 
problem long before he could find the man who would put the 
solution into action. His supreme honesty had declared that 
he himself was not the man to lead armies. His exceptional 
judgment had no waste motion. His head was steady and un- 
cluttered and his heart was true and clean. When he found 
Grant, he acted quickly in the rebound of a great conception. 
And by this move the North came out of the shadow. 
Grant immediately made plans to assemble all the scattered 
forces into two main armies. Sherman, who was given the 
command of the Military Division of the Mississippi, was to 
move from Chattanooga upon Johnston's army, while Meade 
with the Army of the Potomac was to advance on Lee and Rich- 
mond. Grant accompanied the eastern forces. In addition, he 
made Sheridan the cavalry leader and placed under him most 292 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of the assembled cavalry, which up to this time had been unable 
to cope with Stuart on account of its disjointed organization. 
Mr. Lincoln, meanwhile, called out 200,000 more men for 
three years and 85,000 militia for one hundred days. 
While Meade crossed the Rapidan, Sherman started from 
Chattanooga. Meade met Ewell at Wilderness Tavern in a 
hard-fought contest and finally forced Lee to fall back within 
his entrenchments. While the Army of the Potomac was 
maneuvering and fighting for position near Spottsylvania 
Court House, Sherman was driving Johnson back at Resaca 
south of Chattanooga. Then, the drawn battle of Spottsylvania 
caused Grant to transfer the eastern army to the North Anna 
River. 
There Meade's army fought furiously while Sherman's 
forces defeated Johnston again at New Hope Church. While 
Grant was maneuvering toward Hanover Court House to turn 
Lee's flank, Sherman was repulsed at Kenesaw Mountain. But 
the superior numbers and resources of the Union now collected 
en masse were slowly telling. Since both sides to the contest 
were veteran soldiers, it remained for the one "with the larger 
man power and resources to wear down the smaller one. 
While Johnston was retreating across the Chattahoochee 
before Sherman, Grant began the battle of Cold Harbor. Two 
days later the battle was renewed with fierce fighting but no 
progress. Then Grant, finding that his attempts to oust the 
Confederates from their fortified lines were not worth the losses 
he was sustaining, moved to Petersburg, where he attacked. 
His continued heavy assaults only drove the Confederates fur- 
ther into their fortified lines. After this contraction Grant sat 
down to a regular siege so as to coop up Lee and his army 
within Richmond and Petersburg. 
During these movements, legislation, though tardy, came 
forward with some very wise provisions. A regiment of volun- 
teer engineers for the Army of the Cumberland were author- 
ized to be enlisted for three years or during the war, and to be 
officered by appointees of the President. All colored men were 
allowed the same emoluments upon enlistment as others in the 
service. Enlistments for the regular army might be made for 
three years during the Rebellion. An amendment to the En- 
March 14 
April 23 
1864 
May 4 
1864 
May 7 
1864 
May 13-16 
1864 
May 21 
1864 
May 25,26 
1864 
May 27 
1864 
June 1 
1864 
June 3 
1864 
July 15 
1864 
July 17,18 
1864 
July 19 
1864 
May 20 
1864 
June 15 
1864 
July 4 
1864 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
293 
rollment Act allowed the President to call out any number of 
volunteers for one, two or three years with bounties of $100, 
$200, and $300 respectively. 
A call for 500,000 volunteers made by the President 
brought out '384,882 more men. 
While Grant had been drawing his lines closely about Lee, 
Early along the Shenandoah had attempted to draw Grant off 
by threatening Washington. Crossing the Potomac at Shep- 
herdstown, he moved against Washington. At Monocacy he 
defeated General Lew Wallace. But after having given the 
capital "a terrible fright" he retired toward Strasburg. 
Hood, having been replaced by Johnston in the vicinity of 
Atlanta, attacked Sherman several times but was finally re- 
pulsed, so that he had to withdraw inside his entrenchments. 
Early in Virginia attacked and defeated Crook at Kerns- 
town, crossed the Potomac again into Maryland, burned the 
town of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and levied contributions 
upon other towns. Then Sheridan was placed in command of 
the Middle Military Division. Near Harper's Ferry he began 
collecting and organizing his forces to the number of 43,000. 
Sherman, in the meantime, being unable to dislodge Hood 
from Atlanta by direct methods made a diversion towards 
Jonesboro about 26 miles south of the city. Hood then gave up 
the capital of Georgia, which was promptly occupied by Sher- 
man. 
Sheridan, after some maneuvering against Early, finally 
won a victory at Winchester. Then following the Confederates, 
who were inferior numerically, he inflicted a second defeat at 
Fisher's Hill. 
Hood, after having left Atlanta, commenced to threaten 
Sherman's line of communications by moving back up the route 
toward Chattanooga. Crossing the Chattahoochee, Hood ad- 
vanced toward Dallas and then to Resaca, where Sherman had 
had his first victory over Johnston. 
Sheridan in the meantime was putting a quietus on Early, 
who had started to rout the Federals at Cedar Creek. Sheri- 
dan, coming upon the scene from Winchester, turned the morale 
of the troops and gained such an overwhelming victory that 
Early could not afterwards take the offensive. The Shenan- 
July 18 
1864 
July 5, 6 
1864 
July 22 
1864 
July 20,22 
28,1864 
Aug. 7 
1864 
Aug. 10 
1864 
Sept. 2 
1864 
Sept. 19 
1864 
Oct. 1 
1864 
Oct. 19 
1864 294 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
doah Valley was now cleared of Confederates. They could not 
use it as a base nor as an avenue for raids against the Federals. 
Sheridan went into winter quarters at Kemstown and Early at 
Staunton. 
Sherman by the threat of Hood, who had destroyed some 
railway near Dalton, was compelled to detach Thomas to Nash- 
ville and Schofield to Knoxville, Tennessee, in order to protect 
his long line of supplies. Hood's march had been so swift that 
Sherman could not catch up with him. But when Hood 
marched across the mountains toward the Tennessee River, 
Sherman perceived his design. The Federal leader then caused 
Schofield to take 2 corps to Nashville so as to have the largest 
possible force collected under Thomas. 
Sherman then assembled 60,000 men in Atlanta. Feeling 
that Thomas could take care of Hood and knowing that he him- 
self must get a new base if he was to join Grant, he selected 
Savannah. Then began his famous march to the sea for 300 
miles. When he arrived before Savannah, he invested the city. 
In the meantime Hood, although he had received a check 
when he met Schofield, pushed on toward Nashville. There he 
invested the city. But Thomas, who had coolly awaited him, 
sallied forth from his intrenchments, attacked him and de- 
stroyed his army in the sleet and ice of a very cold battle. 
Finally Sherman was able to overcome the resistance of 
Savannah, which city he entered. 
Mr. Lincoln had meanwhile issued a call for 300,000 more 
men whose services were desired for from one to three years. 
Only a little over 200,000 responded, because the quotas of 
some localities were already full. However, the necessity for 
more troops seemed to have passed. In slightly more than a 
year the President had called out over a million and a half 
with the result of obtaining 1,249,709. 
The winter for the troops around Richmond was exceed- 
ingly severe. Although Grant's forces suffered, Lee's tattered 
and hungry regiments were in a state of torture because of the 
siege and the dwindling resources of the Southern States. 
Desertion among the Confederates was thus materially in- 
creased. 
Sherman, after completing his preparations at his new base 
Nov. 4 
1864 
Nov. 15 
1864 
Dec. 10 
1864 
Nov. 30 
1864 
Dec. 2 
1864 
Dec. 15 
1864 
Dec. 23 
1864 
Feb. 1 
1865 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
295 
in Savannah, started his march northward in order to effect 
his junction with Grant. Johnston, who had been restored to 
the command of the remnants of the Confederate army in the 
Carolinas, could not join Lee because he had not the means of 
transportation. Lie could only await Sherman, who proceeded 
to cross into North Carolina near Fayetteville. 
While these events were in progress, Congress indulged in 
very minor legislation for the army. The main four acts gave 
a chief of staff to the lieutenant general, allowed the payment 
of bounties to relatives of deceased soldiers, as in the previous 
extravagant wars, and caused the President to issue a proclama- 
tion that deserters returning within sixty days would be par- 
doned on condition that they would serve out with their or- 
ganizations their original enlistments. In case a deserter failed 
to take advantage of this provision he was debarred from citi- 
zenship. 
Many northern regiments, without means of replacements, 
were now so reduced that they were mere skeletons of their 
former selves. Instead of making a provision for the assign- 
ment of new recruits, the lawmakers still further lessened these 
organizations by taking away those officers who were in excess. 
Lee, by this time, felt that something desperate had to be 
done. He attacked Fort Stedman on the Union right only to 
have his assault fail. Then Sheridan, who had destroyed or 
captured most of Early's force at Waynesboro, made the Vir- 
ginia Central Railroad and the James River Canal useless. 
Meanwhile, Grant had to suspend his counterattack on Lee on 
account of rains. Lee took advantage of the delay by turning 
like a tiger upon Warren and Sheridan. But when Sheridan 
was promptly reenforced, he won the battle of Five Forks. 
Grant at the same time bombarded Lee's whole line and as- 
saulted the Richmond entrenchments with success. It was then 
that Lee withdrew from both Richmond and Petersburg. 
Grant, occupying both cities, started in pursuit. Guns, wagons, 
and prisoners were taken. Sheridan cut off EwTell and captured 
his command. But even in this hopeless retreat Lee held off 
Humphreys at Farmville. The Confederates having left Rich- 
mond with only one ration were now in a state of physical 
weakness. Supplies failed them. Hundreds of men dropped 
March 7 
1865 
March 3 
1865 
March 25 
1865 
March 29 
1865 
April 1 
1865 
April 2 
1865 
Night 
April 2, S 
1865 
April 7 
1865 296 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and died of exhaustion. Thousands let their muskets fall be- 
cause they could not carry them further. The anguish of these 
men can scarcely be appreciated to-day except by those who 
actually experienced those sufferings or similar ones in the 
World War. When Grant sent a flag of truce to Lee suggesting 
the "hopelessness of further resistance," the indomitable Con- 
federate leader who had "put out of action more than three" 
Federals for every man of his own army, replied by asking for 
terms. Then while Lee's troops continued their retreat 
unmolested except for rear guard actions, the two leaders con- 
tinued to communicate with one another. Finally, just as 
Sheridan was driving Lee's advance guard from Appomattox 
Station and Gordon's remnants were being detained by Ord 
and Griffin, Lee was sending his flag of truce asking for sus- 
pension of hostilities. That very day a conference between the 
two commanders at the McLean house put an end to the 
struggle in Virginia and Lee capitulated with the honors of 
war. 
It remained then only for Johnston to surrender to Sherman 
near Raleigh, for Cobb to surrender to Wilson near Macon and 
for Kirby Smith to surrender to Canby across the Mississippi 
and we can close our eyes upon the war of the Confederacy. 
The South had organized early. It had taken the utmost 
advantage of every trained soldier among its adherents. It had 
quickly concentrated in main armies. It had made the soldier 
feel at the outset that he was part of a big unit with many other 
soldiers to help him. It had placed recruits beside old soldiers 
and had given confidence to the men in ranks. Its government 
had clung to its leaders in the face of defeat and had not wor- 
ried them. It had built up morale at every turn. 
The North, on the other hand, had displayed the haste and 
overconfidence of ignorance. Its primary organization was 
demoralization. It did not seem to know enough to make use 
of all the skilled soldiers it had. It allowed the uniformed 
citizen to gain the idea in his first actions that he was alone and 
that every Confederate weapon was leveled at him. Its ad- 
ministration had pushed excellent leaders into untenable posi- 
tions and promptly relieved them when they failed. It had by 
its ignorance of military conduct and by fatal dispersions 
April 8 
1865 
April 9 
1865 
April 26 
April 20 
May 26 
1865 THE ARMY DIVIDES AND MULTIPLIES 
297 
robbed an army of brave souls of the power it deserved. The 
result was an inordinate loss of life and public treasure. 
The war was dragged out for four years, because training in 
sufficient force and direction had not been kept alive in the 
fifties. Dribblings of untrained levies came to the front as 
late as '64. Bounties as high as $400 per man depleted the 
treasury. The expiration of short enlistments in the midst of 
campaign left commanders in the field without an instrument 
or pushed them hurriedly into actions W'here life was wasted. 
Disease and desertion under these conditions wTere beyond rea' 
son. The recruit on arrival in the field ate, marched, slept, and 
accoutered himself improperly. His ignorance of hygiene 
made a loss by sickness of 4.7 per thousand in the first year of 
the war. Where 25 men would be wounded 100 more would 
be sick. Such loss could largely have been prevented by knowl- 
edge and practice during peace. Desertion, too, wTas easy, 
wThere discipline was lax and the confidence in leaders had been 
vitiated; 199,105 men deserted on the Union side alone. 
It is a curious thing that we Americans, who are noted for 
our foresight in business and economics, are almost stupid in 
applying prevention to possible national perils. CHAPTER IX 
THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
(1865-1880) 
AFTER the curtain falls on the Civil War our view is likely 
Z-A to be riveted on crowds of worn soldiers longingly hur- 
rying homeward, hastily flinging aside muskets, fervidly 
grasping pruning hooks and feverishly pursuing reconstruction. 
The tragedy of blood gives place to the social drama. The 
fighting man plows his fields at the very base of the volcano that 
has been spouting fire with so much fury. The soldier becomes 
the civilian, the country becomes complacent and the need for 
arms is no more. 
Such a retrospect would be beautiful, if true. It seems too 
bad to spoil the illusion by calling attention to conflicts that 
were snapping their jaws at the very stability of our nation. 
The Fenians were disrupting Canada and ready to spread their 
strife across the border. The Indians, more confident than ever 
because of the withdrawal of the army for the war, were banded 
together in large bodies and bringing murder and destruction 
to over half the area of the present United States. The 
southern states had to be put under military protection until 
they could resuscitate their control under the coming difficult 
elections. And Mexico was held by Napoleon, who had made 
the Archduke Maximilian emperor during the preoccupation of 
the United States in civil strife. Across the Rio Grande the 
new government, insecure against the attacks of its republican 
opponents, was inimical to the interests of the United States 
and ready to receive with open arms the irreconcilables of the 
Confederacy. 
The situation in Mexico was then thought to be so perilous, 
and the new empire so much in league with the Confederacy 
298 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
299 
that General Grant ordered General Sheridan, the new com- 
mander of the Department of the Mississippi, westward. Tho 
degree of alarm felt at this time is shown by the fact that 
Sheridan was not allowed to remain for the grand review in 
Washington, where naturally he wished to march with his 
troops and take his leave of them. 
Arriving in Texas, Sheridan caused one column of cavalry 
under Custer to go to Houston and another under Merritt to 
go to San Antonio. Not satisfied with this display of force, he 
had one division of the Thirteenth Corps occupy Galveston and 
another Brazos Santiago. Then he ordered the Fourth Corps 
to Victoria and San Antonio and most of the Twenty-fifth 
Corps to Brownsville. Such a large army gave pause to the 
Mexican Empire, principally because Sheridan's divisions were 
made up of tried veteran soldiers. There was nothing in 
quality or quantity across the Rio Grande that could stop these 
disciplined men, and Maximilian knew as much. Sheridan, 
giving aid to the Republican element both by his moral in- 
fluence and by furnishing arms, did not make the emperor's 
position more tenable. 
Though this threatening empire was set up at our very 
doors, it was not the greatest menace to our peace. By the end 
of 1862 all of the regulars had been recalled from the west in 
order to lend their weight to the absorbing struggle of the 
Union. The Indians, unchecked, had organized their smaller 
tribes into large forces and made the country west of the Missis- 
sippi a scene of massacre and rapine. The work of the army 
between 1848 and 1861 had been practically undone, so far as 
safety in the great west was concerned. Though the settlers 
banded together and protected themselves as best they could, 
the strong and subtle savage would conserve his strength and 
surprise too often small settlements. He grew so bold that he 
penetrated Minnesota by the end of 1862. By that time he had 
killed no less than 644 unoffending whites. General Sibley 
undertook to punish the tribes of the Great Sioux Nation that 
had been the author of these depredations. After taking 500 
of them prisoners, he was compelled to cease operations by the 
coming of winter. The following spring General Pope organ- 
ized two columns^ one under Sibley and the other under Sully. 
May 17 
1865 
May 23, 24 
1865 
Hay, June 
1865 300 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Sibley went west from St. Paul while Sully set out from the 
state of Missouri. The former was to drive the Indians back, 
while the latter should cut off their retreat. Sibley with his 
2,000 men drove the Indians before him, but they were a 
stubborn enemy. Twice they surprised him and were finally 
enabled to cross the Missouri River near Apple Creek with the 
loss of only a few warriors, their tents and provisions. Sully, 
in the meantime, had been delayed. Though the Indians had 
crossed the river, he still determined to attack them. By care- 
ful work he finally surprised them at White Stone Hill where 
he dispersed them. 
Although these and similar actions of the volunteers were 
momentarily successful, they were indecisive and the west was 
in no wise safe. It is true that 2 companies of Kansas volun- 
teers repulsed an attack of the Ute Indians at Fort Halleck in 
Idaho and that Kit Carson a year later (1864) dispersed with 
400 men the Navahos in New Mexico. But the Civil War was 
of so much import by comparison that the savage could only 
be slapped at now and then, while he, with growing confidence, 
reddened his tomahawk and glutted his lust in the quivering 
flesh of the white. 
After the Civil War was over, it was difficult to get the 
volunteers to act against the Indians. They felt they should go 
home, because the time and purpose for which they had been 
called out had passed. Already the mustering out of 1,034,064 
volunteers and militia had begun and the regular army was 
way below strength. General Connor struck a blow along the 
Powder River when his small force conducted four pitched 
battles against the Cheyennes, Sioux and Arapahoes and killed 
several hundred Indians. But the expedition became mutinous. 
Supplies did not arrive and about 300 of his volunteers de- 
serted him. 
Active campaigns against the western tribes could scarcely 
be conducted with success under such circumstances. The 
Indian had become powerful and confident. He believed the 
withdrawal of troops was an indication of the white man's 
cowardice and inferiority. It was small wonder that the Black- 
feet ran wild in Montana, especially through the Gallatin 
Valley, that the Cheyennes in force were operating along the 
Summer 
1863 
May 20 
1865 
Sept. 
1865 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
301 
Platte and the Arkansas, the Mescalores were leaving their 
reservation and going on the warpath, and the Apaches in New 
Mexico were showing signs of activity. The white men at their 
little settlements were ambushed, killed, mutilated and scalped, 
the women ravished and the children and supplies carried into 
the tepees of the savages. And so went on the outrages in the 
west while the government was swiftly dispersing its masses of 
trained volunteers and slowly organizing its few and scattered 
regulars. 
Equally distressing was the situation in the former Con- 
federate States. About 19,000 Union soldiers were distributed 
through 134 posts in the erstwhile Confederacy. They were 
sent there to support the "carpetbagger" and to uphold the 
stringent laws of a severe Congress. They had to give aid in 
enforcing, oftentimes, measures in which they did not believe 
or with which they had no sympathy. 
"The terrible oppression of the Southern people embodied 
in those acts of Congress," writes General Schofield, "has 
hardly been appreciated by even the most enlightened and con- 
servative people of the North. Only those who actually suf- 
fered the baneful effects of the unrestrained working of those 
laws can ever realize their full enormity." 
Although generals in command of the military districts of the 
South 1 did their best to carry out the laws with kindness, sym- 
pathy and justice, they could do little when they were forced 
to exclude from office all who had given "aid or comfort" to the 
secession movement; when those who whipped negroes had to 
be punished; when the black man had to be used as a witness 
in court and was allowed to vote; and when j'udges, j'uries or 
district attorneys had to be prodded and have their cases at 
times taken to military tribunals. Riots, too, had to be sup- 
pressed, but usually only a show of force caused the prevention 
of any great amount of bloodshed. 
In the North, many Fenians had emigrated after the War 
Nov. 3 
1865 
1 For actual dispersion of army at this time, see Appendix K. The 
military organization comprehended nineteen departments, embraced in five 
military divisions, 302 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
to Ireland in the hope of gaining freedom from England. The 
movement was similar in some respects to that made by the 
Irish after the World War. Many prominent individuals in 
America were sympathetic to the extent of giving large amounts 
of money and many arms to further the rebellion. Such acts 
were embarrassing to the United States government in its 
diplomatic relations with England. John O'Neill even pre- 
pared an expedition within our borders for the purpose of 
invading Canada. And the Federal government was powerless, 
with the dissolution of its war army and its meager regular 
units, to prevent the threatening activity of the American agi- 
tators. 
If we take into account the Alabama Claims against Eng- 
land, we find the United States, at the end of the Civil War, 
completely surrounded with hostility. 
The trained veterans of a long war were rapidly disappear- 
ing. By fall 800,963 had been mustered out. The regular 
army was far below strength, because its recruitment had been 
unable to compete with the large bounty and the short enlist- 
ment of the volunteers. Out of the 448 2 companies, authorized 
by law, only 295 stood organized at the cessation of hostilities. 
This weakness was slightly offset, however, by the fact that 
throughout the year some valuable veteran soldiers, who were 
discharged from the volunteers, joined the regular army. 
Even so, there was a great dearth of rank and file for the 
permanent forces. How could it be otherwise when the pay of 
a private for fighting Indians under awful hardship and in 
lonely places was the enormous sum of $14.87^ per month?3 
The difference between the pay of a private and corporal was 
$2, scarcely enough to pay the wash bill. When ambition and 
even decency were taken away by the government from the 
recruit, it is not to be marveled at that too great a proportion 
1865 
Oct. 1 
1865 
2 The existing organization of the regular army consisted of 6 regiments 
of cavalry, 12 companies each (large enough for cavalry); 5 regiments of 
artillery, 12 companies; 10 regiments of infantry (old), 10 companies; 
and 9 regiments of infantry (new), of 24 companies each-divided into 
battalions of 8 companies-giving 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel and 
3 majors to a regiment. The only difference in field officers between old and 
new regiments was that the new had one more major. 
3 Nominal pay was $16 per month, but $1 was deducted till end of 
enlistment and 12% cents for Soldiers' Home. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
303 
of the offscourings of the community went west to make up the 
companies' quotas. The untrustworthy material had to be 
transformed by the officers into capable and faithful soldiers, 
or life and property might easily slip away. 
The work of distributing over the precarious fronts, the 
regular army and volunteers, when the former were being re- 
organized and the latter dissolved, was not any simple matter. 
General Grant cut the Gordian knot by having the regulars 
spread out over the country as soon as their units could be 
sufficiently assembled. The Third Artillery was scattered 
among the coast forts of the northeast from Fort Sullivan, 
Eastport, Maine, to Fort Adams, Newport, Rhode Island; the 
First Artillery from Fort Trumbull, New London, Conn., to 
Sandy Hook, N. J.; the Fourth Artillery from Fort Delaware, 
Delaware, to the city of Washington; the Fifth Artillery from 
Fortress Monroe, Virginia, to Dry Tortugas, Florida; and the 
Second Artillery from Canada to Mexico on the Pacific coast. 
The Second Cavalry joined General Sherman in the Division 
of the Mississippi and the Sixth Cavalry General Sheridan on 
the Mexican border. The 12 companies of the Fifth Cavalry 
were equally split between the Middle Department, Depart- 
ment of Washington and the Division of the Tennessee. The 
Fourth Infantry was scattered among the northern forts of 
Brady, Wayne, Niagara, Ontario, Madison Barracks and 
Rouses Point as a protection against the Fenians. The Third, 
Tenth and Eighteenth Infantry joined General Sherman at St. 
Louis for distribution over the west. The Second Infantry 
went to Newport Barracks, Kentucky. The Seventeenth and 
part of the Fourteenth were at Hart's Island, held in readiness 
for emergencies. Other regular regiments were in process of 
reorganization near Washington, with Sheridan in Texas or 
scattered through the southern states. 
Altogether, our land forces in the latter part of this year 
were in a most jumbled state. The volunteers in the south and 
west were restless and unruly, now that the big fight was over. 
One northern regiment had been disarmed at San Antonio, 
Texas, for mutiny. Brevet major generals and brigadier gen- 
erals in the volunteers had to a great extent been discharged, 
and those regulars who had been attached to the state troops 
Oct. 18 
1865 
Fall 
1865 304 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
were back with their regiments and were serving in minor 
capacities as field and company officers, or sometimes in the 
mediocrity of a lieutenancy. Regiments and battalions of 
United States troops were more scattered than ever, because the 
army was too small to take care of all the nation's troubles, 
especially since the volunteers were going out so rapidly. By 
the end of the year about 900,000 of the war troops had been 
discharged. More work was thus saddled on the regular and 
less pay given him in return.4 
However, by the end of the year, the army had accom- 
plished much in spite of its handicaps. General Sheridan, 
though forbidden by the State Department to take an active 
part against Maximilian, had marched his troops, reviewed 
them and obtained large supplies and much ammunition. The 
emperor's party was so convinced that this excellent United 
States army was going to swoop down on Mexico that it with- 
drew its forces far to the interior from the northern boundaries. 
The republican side could then gain many adherents and have 
scope in which to work. 
Much had been done to conciliate the red man who had been 
mistreated by the Indian agents. In too many cases theft and 
broken promises on their part had made the work of the army 
difficult. There was a well-ordered attempt on the part of the 
officers in command in the west to understand the Indian's 
viewpoint, and to make peace with as many of them as would 
abide by law and order in return for good treatment and food. 
When, however, the civilian representatives of our government 
made profit by delivering poor food and carelessly overturned 
previous agreements, the Indian lost faith in all white men and 
looked suspiciously upon treaties. In spite of these conditions, 
Colonel Leavenworth and Brevet Brigadier General Sanborn 
made peace with many of the Apaches, Kiowas and Comanches 
south of the Arkansas. The agreement was characteristically 
signed by such gentlemen as Little Mountain, Lone Wolf, Heap 
of Bears, Bear-Runs-Over-a-Man and Raw Hide Blanket. 
Although the volunteers were going out as fast as it was 
possible to let them go with safety to the country, they held a 
1S65 
Latter part 
Aug., 1865 
4 The pay of a colonel was $211 per month; of a lieutenant colonel, 
$187; of a major, $163. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
305 
grievance against the government. They claimed that the 
United States had violated its contract with them in keeping 
them longer than their enlistment called for. Such attitude 
dispatched their departure into civil life. By the middle of the 
year, 1,001,670 had been discharged. 
Restlessness in the regular service was manifested by deser- 
tion of enlisted men, mainly because the proper type could not 
be obtained under the pay and subsistence offered. Officers, 
too, who suddenly found themselves acting as captains, after 
they had been general officers through four years of supreme 
test, could hardly be at the height of their zeal and energy. 
The sop of brevet rank, which amounted only to a matter of 
title and uniform, did not help much.5 
In spite of these handicaps the army went forward in bet- 
tering social and technical conditions. In the South situations 
of the gravest tension were overcome. In the West, peace with 
many Indian tribes was made, and on the Texas border the 
demonstrations by Sheridan were making the Mexican throne 
tremble. When O'Neill led some American forces into Canada 
in the furtherance of the Fenian movement, General Meade, in 
command of the Military District of the Atlantic, stationed 
soldiers of his forces so as to prevent further trouble. Al- 
though the wires were cut into Canada no further outbreaks 
were allowed. 
Within the army, the Freedman's Bureau, which operated 
to give succor to the destitute, W'as governed wisely by Briga- 
dier General O. O. Howard. In one year alone over 15,000 
freedmen and their children attended schools established by 
the Bureau. 
That the army was not asleep along technical lines is testi- 
fied to by the improvements adopted. One of the two au- 
thorized mounted batteries in each artillery regiment was 
armed with four Napoleon and four 3-inch rifled Rodman 
guns. Boards of officers were preparing to adopt a standard 
breechloading weapon for the service. Another arsenal was 
allowed by Congress at Rock Island, Illinois. A manual for 
June 30 
1866 
J une 1 
1866 
1866 
June 27 
1866 
5 Grant was made a full general by Congress and Sherman a lieutenant 
general. Besides, the latter was given $30,000 for a residence by the 
people of St. Louis. 306 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
military gymnastics appeared, which showed the soldier certain 
direct methods of keeping fit. 
Against the tides of discord that were rising around the 
nation, the army was striving to be a barrier. But again its 
attempts were pulverized by the splitting of its units through- 
out the vast territory of the United States.6 Since the opening 
of the year, Congress could not help but see that a larger regular 
force was necessary if peace was to be assured. But the mem- 
bers haggled from that time until summer. The Senate had 
seen fit to give a substantial strength to the army and had 
passed such a measure as early as March, but the House, as 
always, demurred. Finally, late in July, over a year after 
Appomattox, the law, which prescribed a certain amount of 
protection against the country's many enemies, went into effect. 
The legislation started off with a provision in the appro- 
priation act for detailing as Superintendent of the Military 
Academy an officer of any arm of the service. Heretofore that 
position had been confined to officers of the engineer corps. 
This change heralded the transition of West Point from a 
purely scientific school to one of general education and basic 
training for all branches of the service. 
Fifteen days later the President signed an act making the 
army consist of 10 regiments of cavalry, 5 of artillery and 45 
of infantry. The companies of cavalry and artillery numbered 
12 to a regiment and those of infantry, 10. The authorized 
strength of the line branches totaled 630 companies. Though 
the cavalry was increased by 4 regiments, the infantry was not 
actually brought up from 20 to 45 regiments as the face of the 
bill would infer. It must be remembered that there were in 
the service 10 infantry regiments of 10 companies each and 9 
of 24 companies each. Congress, instead of making the smaller 
units into larger ones, did exactly the reverse. It robbed the 
larger ones in order to make the whole 45 into smaller ones of 
10 companies each. In this way it added only 134 companies, 
a number only half as great as 25 regiments of 24 companies 
each would require. By such process the standard size of the 
regiment which had been found most efficient and economical in 
July 13 
1866 
July 28 
1866 
6 For general dispersion, see Appendix L. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
307 
the Civil War was decadently abandoned. When it is con- 
sidered, also, that 4 of the 45 regiments were to be composed of 
men who had been wounded in the service-the Veteran Re- 
serve Corps-the activity of these units was further diminished, 
since this new corps could be held only for garrison duty. Be- 
sides, 2 of the cavalry and 4 of infantry regiments were to be 
composed of colored men.7 
The company strength was made elastic. The President 
could have a minimum of 50 privates or a maximum of 100 for 
infantry and cavalry, and a maximum of 122 for artillery. As 
a start, the commander in chief made a standard of 64 privates 
for all companies except 10 batteries 8 of light artillery which 
were to have 122 each. Thus the paper strength of the army 
after the act amounted to 54,302 rank and file.9 
Lieutenants had to be selected from volunteers. Grades 
above lieutenancies had to be filled in equal numbers from the 
volunteers and the regular army and by men who had had at 
least two years' service during the war and who had in that 
service been "distinguished for capacity and good conduct in 
the field." Regular officers who had held volunteer commissions 
were not to be considered volunteers but regulars under the 
above selection. Commissions had to be distributed over the 
states and territories in proportion to the number of troops fur- 
nished by them. With all these strings to selection, it was diffi- 
cult to cull proper officers. 
Several miscellaneous items might be noted in this legisla- 
tion. A force of 1,000 Indian scouts could be enlisted in the 
west for aid in operations. The enlistment period for regular 
cavalry was for five years and for artillery and infantry, three. 
The general officers consisted of 1 general, 1 lieutenant general, 
7 The beginning of the Ninth and Tenth Cavalry and later the Twenty- 
fourth and Twenty-fifth Infantry. 
8 Two for each artillery regiment. 
9 ' ' Each regiment of infantry provided for by this act shall have 1 
colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, 1 regimental quarter- 
master, 1 sergeant major, 1 quartermaster sergeant, 1 commissary sergeant, 
1 hospital steward, 2 principal musicians, and 10 companies; and the 
adjutant, quartermaster and commissary shall hereafter be extra lieutenants 
selected from the first and second lieutenants of the regiment. Each 
company shall have 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant and 1 second lieutenant, 
1 first sergeant, 1 quartermaster sergeant, 4 sergeants, 8 corporals, 2 
artificers, 2 musicians, 1 wagoner." (Extract from Act.) 308 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
5 major generals and 10 brigadier generals. Staff departments 
had in addition an adjutant general, judge-advocate general, 
quartermaster-general, commissary general, surgeon-general, 
paymaster-general, chief of engineers,10 and chief of ordnance, 
all with pay and emoluments of a brigadier general. The in- 
spector-general's department and the signal corps were ap- 
parently left out of this calculation, because 4 colonels with 
rank and pay of colonels of cavalry headed the former bureau 
and 1 colonel the latter. 
All officers, before being commissioned, were required to 
pass an examination before a board of five officers from the arm 
of the service in which the applicant was to serve. 
Sutlers at military posts were abolished and the subsistence 
department was to furnish officers and enlisted men with "such 
articles" at cost as the inspector generals designated. 
Twenty officers from the army could be detailed to act as 
president, superintendent or professors at colleges and schools 
in order to further the knowledge of military science. Schools 
at posts for the basic education of enlisted men were also au- 
thorized. 
Any officer who had served in the Confederacy in any 
capacity was debarred from being commissioned in the regular 
army. Federal officers could be retired with their full rank 
held at the time they received their wounds or disability. 
Brevet rank entitled an officer to wear the insignia and bear the 
title of his highest brevet grade, but debarred him from the cor- 
responding "command, pay and emolument." 
Such was the act which was to provide for the common de- 
fense. Although it was framed in weighty words, its limiting 
10 ' ' Sec. 19. And be it further enacted, That the Corps of Engineers 
shall consist of one chief of engineers, with the rank, pay and emoluments 
of a brigadier-general; six colonels, twelve lieutenant colonels, twenty- 
four majors, thirty captains, and twenty-six first and ten second lieutenants, 
who shall have the pay and emoluments now provided by law for officers 
of the Engineer Corps. 
"Sec. 20. And be it further enacted, That the five companies of 
engineer soldiers and the sergeant major and quartermaster sergeant here- 
tofore prescribed by law shall constitute a battalion of engineers, to be 
officered by officers of a suitable rank detailed from the Corps of Engineers; 
and the officers of engineers, acting respectively as adjutant and quarter- 
master of this battalion, shall be entitled to the pay and emoluments of 
adjutants and quartermasters of cavalry." THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
309 
provisions restrained even the force authorized from stretching 
out in size great enough to awe the warring tribes and factions 
so as to prevent bloodshed. By this time most of the volunteers 
had left the service. Since about 1,015,000 had been mustered 
out, the regular force above prescribed was practically the sole 
defender of the nation. 
The boards for commissioning officers and the slow recruit- 
ment of proper enlisted personnel caused the actual strength 
of the regular army to be only 38,540. At the end of the year 
not more than 10,000 volunteers were left in the service, a great 
part of them being colored. 
When the staff, heavy artillery and the outgoing volunteers 
are deducted, it can be seen that not more than 25,000 soldiers 
fit for duty constituted the entire bulwark to be held in readi- 
ness for Mexico, to enforce law in the south, to ward off Fenian 
uprisings in the north, and to hold in check the great masses 
of Sioux, northern and southern Cheyennes, Assiniboines, 
Piegans, Arapahoes, Kiowas, Pawnees, Miamis, Comanches, 
Nez Perces, Flatheads, and many lesser tribes, which swarmed 
over the country from Canada to the Rio Grande and from the 
Mississippi to the Pacific. 
In addition, marauders in Missouri were repeatedly com- 
mitting outrages upon innocent persons, especially negroes. 
The communities in that region were in a state of terror. It 
was with great difficulty that troops at the direction of Gen- 
eral Sherman were able to drive these desperadoes out of the 
state. 
But the great west with its constant forays of hosts of red- 
men was the frightful problem for the reduced army. New 
strongholds had to be built and telegraph wires installed, with 
death lurking behind the trees, in the sagebrush or down in the 
canon. The Indians were legion and the American defenders 
corporals' guards. With hammer in one hand and gun in the 
other, the soldier alternately built and fought. 
Even the main forts such as Reno and Phil Kearny, in 
process of construction, held but a few hundred men. At the 
latter Colonel Carrington was attempting to complete the build- 
ings and stockade, which he had begun. The small outpost of 
civilization measured only 800 by 600 feet. The occupants had 
Aug. 1 
1866 
Sept. 30 
1866 
1866 310 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
several times been attacked by Indians when the wood parties 
would go into the forest, but almost miraculously had succeeded 
in beating off the savages. The soldier-builder was armed 
mostly with the old Springfield single loader and was quite at a 
disadvantage against the Indian who had been furnished by the 
Indian agents with modern repeaters. Once, in meeting a 
party of the red men, the soldiers were afraid to shoot, because 
their enemies were armed with revolvers and would slay them 
before they had time to fire again. 
While the few at the fort were busily completing the head- 
quarters building and a one-company barracks, 90 men, who 
had started for the pine woods for more lumber, were surprised 
by a large body of Indians. Under Brevet Lieutenant Colonel 
Fetterman, 84 officers and men started out in relief. The 
rescue party tried to cut off the retreat of what was afterwards 
learned to be about 2,000 warriors. At first the fort could 
plainly hear the firing and by noon the rattle of musketry was 
quite brisk. But soon it ominously decreased in volume. Cap- 
tain Ten Eyck with the remaining 76 men, all that could be 
collected, including teamsters and civilians, started out as a 
second relief about one o'clock. By the time he got to the ridge 
overlooking the battle ground the firing had altogether ceased 
and below him in the valley the only thing to be seen wTas a 
large band of whooping savages who shortly began to draw off. 
Not a man of the Fetterman party was left to tell the tale. To 
this day the manner of death of that gallant detachment re- 
mains a mystery. The bodies were found so shockingly muti- 
lated that many could scarcely be recognized, and the details of 
their appearance could not be printed. Some of the dead could 
not be located. The body of Lieutenant Grummund, whose 
wife was in delicate health at the fort, was after long search 
found next morning. Here lay a half-completed stockade, a 
handful of protectors and a stricken community in the wildest 
part of Nebraska. That the Indians did not return to scoop the 
survivors was no fault of our government. 
While such outrages were being committed, the populace at 
large was quite skeptical of making any systematic effort with 
sufficient troops for the police of the west. J. P. Dunn, a 
Dec. SI 
1866 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
311 
scholar intimately conversant with conditions then existing 
beyond the Mississippi, says: 
"It was the era of peace-in Washington. The Indians, in 
the annual reports, were doing nothing but defending them- 
selves from the encroachments of lawless whites. They were 
ready and willing to do anything, if they could only secure 
schools and churches. Mr. Bogy, the Commissioner of Indian 
Affairs, sat back and smiled sarcastically at reports of hostili- 
ties. The peace people were busy, working themselves into a 
white heat over the wrongs to the Cheyennes. The entire coun- 
try looked contemptuously on the strength of the red men. 
What! we, who had just put down the greatest rebellion the 
world ever knew, to be terrified by a few half-starved Indians ? 
Oh, no! The army was cut down to its lowest possible figure, 
and much of it was employed in the late insurrectionary states. 
Its arms were chiefly old-fashioned muzzle-loaders, notwith- 
standing the wonderful improvements that had been made in 
weapons during the war. The Indians were better armed." 
However, the loss at Phil Kearny made the public at least 
take notice. It was shocked-quite shocked. But its efforts 
were spent in investigations of the officers in command rather 
than in an attempt at adequate protection. 
But the army itself sent relief. The other troops of the 
Eighteenth Infantry, who marched to the beleaguered fort, had 
the first touch of winter campaigning. Advancing through 
blizzards, with the thermometer ranging from 10 to '30 degrees 
below zero, these men suffered from frostbite and were some- 
times frozen to death. The torture that these soldiers endured 
without any alleviation through the endless ice and snow was 
indescribable, but they trudged on. Awakened from their little 
dog tents when it was too dark to see, reveille was a farce and 
breakfast in a foot of snow not much better. Often it was not 
possible to see more than twenty feet ahead of the little column 
of twos. So strained were their nerves by the constant tension 
that in several cases a touch or a word would result in the same 
reaction as shell-shock during the World War. 
While the Indian was thus in full cry on the plains, and our 312 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
troops there were fitfully trying to check him, the situation in 
Mexico was reaching its climax. The Republic there, by the 
backing it had received from a large veteran army of Ameri- 
cans, was by now in the ascendency. Early in the year the 
French troops were withdrawn by Napoleon's order. The mon- 
archy was doomed, and European control of the country of the 
Montezumas was at an end. How had such a radical overthrow 
come about without a war involving the United States ? When 
Sheridan first appeared near the Rio Grande frontier, the 
republican forces were worn and weak. They could see no hope 
of ultimate power. Now after less than two years, they came 
into possession of the government. The reason is contained 
briefly in the great trained force Sheridan displayed in Texas. 
All Mexico knew its potential ability. So again history records 
the axiom that a mere show of actual strength often makes 
unnecessary the sacrifice of human life. 
After Napoleon's forces were gone, many of the regiments 
that served in this enterprise could be released for use else- 
where, especially the cavalry. The army could be organized for 
work primarily in the south and west. With Grant as full 
general, Sherman as lieutenant general, and Meade, Sheridan, 
Thomas, Sickles, Steele, Hancock, Hooker, Canby, Schofield, 
McDowell, Ord, Cooke, Pope, Howard and Terry as major and 
brigadier generals the troops were distributed in thirteen de- 
partments over the country.11 All the new regiments were at 
least skeletonized by recruitment or by transfer from other 
units. Yet the posts were small and the line was thin. 
The soldier's life held no great comfort. That sort of thing 
he rarely expected. Yet he did wish to live decently and be 
free from debt. It was difficult enough to have to exist in tents 
and shacks in isolated places, to wage an uphill fight against 
Indians and to suppress riots, but when the pay was inadequate, 
he felt himself to be unjustly treated by a government for 
which he was constantly ready to risk his life.12 
At the opening of the Civil War a captain, for instance, 
received the equivalent of $150 per month. When the volun- 
Jan. 
1867 
ii For organization of army at this time, see Appendix M. The 
organization of Military Departments and Divisions, 
12 See Appendix D for complete pay schedule. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
313 
teers came into the service, Congress, feeling that such amount 
was not enough for a nominal captain, raised the pay by the 
equivalent of $83 a month. But as soon as the volunteer went 
out, Congress immediately took away the $83 from the experi- 
enced captain. In the meantime prices had soared almost 100 
per cent since 1861. The captain was left with his same $150 
minus $5 for war tax. The reduction was relatively the same 
throughout all grades of the army. The consequence was that 
the regular could barely exist. He naturally asked himself why 
the volunteer needed so much more for his nourishment and 
comfort in the marches and battles of the Civil War than did 
the fighting man in the constant jeopardy and remoteness of 
the west. 
After much urging and great arguing, the Congress, which 
had increased its own salaries 100 per cent since the war, 
finally passed a pay bill which partially relieved the beggary of 
the man who bore the brunt of the nation's perils. All officers 
below the rank of major general received a flat increase of 33% 
per cent; "field and other mounted officers," the same emolu- 
ments as cavalry officers of like grade; and the enlisted man for 
three succeeding years, only, the same pay as the volunteer at 
the close of the Civil War. 
How little the lawmakers were interested in having an 
economic and adequate second line is seen in their action on a 
possible militia law. After having been shown by plea and 
example that such a thing was necessary, they went to the 
radical extreme of striking the word "white" out of the old law 
of 1792, so as to include colored soldiers. That was all. The 
government persisted in using a fruitless provision that was 
seventy-five years old, although the states in many cases had 
established their own National Guards. 
It was during this year especially that the ex-Confederate 
leaders of the South did their best to establish peace, law and 
order in the southern states. The great generals came out 
openly with earnest requests for the people to abide by the law. 
So insistent were they in this matter that they were criticized 
and sometimes lampooned for their stand. One southern 
writer claimed that Beauregard, Longstreet and Hampton were 
little more than "burglars because they counseled submission to 
March 2 
1867 
1867 314 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
military acts." Of course, the aim of the northern leaders was 
the same as that of their former antagonists-and sometimes 
classmates. It was another instance where the trained soldier 
of both sides worked in his community toward cementing the 
bonds of peace, while those with lesser experience in war wished 
to prolong the strife. 
On the plains, too, the soldier was trying to make lasting 
settlements with the Indians. He encouraged friendly rela- 
tions and tried to overcome all controversies by a square word 
rather than a round bullet. His record will show that he pre- 
ferred reason to rifles. Nevertheless, he tried to keep himself 
prepared and ready for his foe, so as to show his superiority 
speedily when the crisis came, to give the marauder a whole- 
some respect for the American soldier, and to make the redskin 
think twice before he started on the warpath. When in the 
peace conferences, the Indian claimed dishonesty on the part 
of the Great Father in Washington, it was sometimes embar- 
rassing. An extract from a contemporary newspaper may 
allow one to read between the lines: 
"For the rest, General Hancock's campaign is now ended. 
His object was to make peace with tribes which would accept it, 
and to make war with the rest. In the hostile part of the 
expedition, little has been accomplished; but the pacific con- 
ferences with the Comanches, Arapahoes and Kiowas promise 
good results. The great 'talk' with the Kiowas at Fort 
Larned, Kansas, was the last, and in many respects the most 
important, of the Indian conferences. The great chief of the 
Kiowas, Satanta, made a fine defense of himself and his tribe 
in his oration, disclaimed the desire for war, and fastened upon 
the Indian agents the charge of embezzling the annuity goods. 
To the latter accusation, General Hancock essayed no reply, 
but referred it to Washington." 
In these conferences it was hard for the officer to justify to 
the Indian the wrongs he felt were taking place. At that point 
he had to keep silent. It was difficult, too, to get action in 
Washington, when he reported the misdeeds of other govern- 
ment agencies. Politics usually intervened. 
May 
1867 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
315 
While the generals were having their "peace talks," the 
Indian was carrying on just the same his war of extermination 
on the whites, whether soldier or settler. Communication be- 
tween the widely separated outposts of the army was usually 
dangerous and fatiguing. One officer at a lonely post wrote 
back east the following sketch: 
"We have finally succeeded in opening communication with 
Fort C. S. Smith, ninety miles above here on the Big Horn 
River. Up to three days ago we had heard nothing from them 
for two months, and were very anxious about them; but after 
repeated trials by mountaineers and miners near here to go 
through, we at length succeeded in sending two messengers, 
Sergeant Grant, of my company, and Sergeant Graham, of 
Company G. They started from here on foot, with snowshoes,4 
and took to the mountains, with only ordinary clothing and six 
days' rations of hard bread and lard. Each night they cached 
one day's rations, and left a memorandum of what had hap- 
pened to them. They finally, after much suffering and hunger, 
reached Fort Smith with our dispatches. They stayed two 
days, and were sent back with a half-breed named Boyer, each 
mounted, and with two pack mules. When they came to the 
Little Horn River, they saw where a buffalo had been killed, 
and moccasin tracks around it, and immediately left the road and 
made for the hills. When they had gone about five miles and 
crossed a hill they stopped, looked back and saw about fifteen 
Indians after them. Their horses were blown, and Sergeant 
Grant had to shoot his. The other two men, getting frightened, 
ran away from him and left him afoot. He ran toward a clump 
of pines, about five hundred yards distant, and while so doing, 
he fell into a hole in the snow, and found that he had been 
running on the edge of a precipice of a sheer two hundred feet 
fall, and had fallen on a little ledge of rocks, the entrance of 
which was through a hole that was covered with snow. He sat 
down under the cliff and waited. He had a Spencer carbine, 
breech-loading, and eighty rounds of ammunition, and he says 
he felt perfectly safe. He heard the Indians yelling about him, 
and soon they commenced to throw stones down the hole, which 
was about ninety feet deep, and just sheltered him. Then one 316 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Indian jumped down into the hole, armed with a Henry repeat- 
ing rifle. When he (the Indian) saw Sergeant Grant he 
dropped his gun and gave a yell, and starting back fell over the 
ledge, which was narrow. In a few minutes another Indian let 
himself down, and Grant shot him, and threw his body over the 
bank. This was about nine o'clock in the morning. The In- 
dians stayed near the hole until nearly dark, when a thick fog 
came up and they went away. He cautiously followed them, 
keeping in their trail for about three miles, till they again 
struck the river, when he tore up his overcoat and made wrap- 
pings of it for his feet to hide the shoe nails, and went up the 
river on the ice. He traveled four days and on the evening of 
the fourth day got into the post. 
"When Grant made his appearance, covered with ice, and 
with the Henry rifle he had captured, Graham thought it was 
his ghost. He is very sick in the hospital now, with pleurisy 
and exhaustion, resulting from his suffering and exposure." 
Space prevents recording the many acts of daring and times 
of suffering daily connected with the life of the little forts. 
Glimpses, here and there, into the thickest of the fights, the 
wayside heroism of individuals, the straining alertness of small 
detachments, and the general spirit of troops anxious to make 
peace, but ready to fight to the last ditch, can but sparingly 
reveal the never-ending self-sacrifice of the soldier. What he 
gave to his country, he tossed off without a whimper. 
Although it is natural to dwell on this phase, it must not be 
forgotten that the staffs back east were working toward the 
technical and practical advancement of military work. 
The Ordnance Department was adapting and standardizing 
weapons from knowledge gleaned in the Civil War. All sorts 
of breechloading repeating rifles were tried out with the hope of 
getting the best arm for the service. Rodman's, Remington's, 
Spencer's and Roper's patents underwent test. But the hitch 
came when money was asked for to equip the army. Large 
rifled cannon had nevertheless come to stay, as well as metal 
carriages. The Gatling gun, firing from 80 to 100 cartridges 
in a minute, gave the service a rapid-fire weapon. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
317 
it was in this year that Uptons Infantry Tactics for 
drill in double or single rank was adopted by the War Depart- 
ment. This system was the greatest single advance in exercises 
and maneuvers since the regulations of Steuben. Heretofore 
we had borrowed principally from the French when we wished 
to improve our systems. Brevet Major General Upton in- 
geniously devised, principally from his understanding of the 
Civil War, a set of regulations, peculiarly suitable to the 
American soldier. His results were obtained mainly from ex- 
perience with troops. At West Point he tried out his methods 
with cadets and was able, in an exhibition drill given there, to 
take a company with no previous knowledge of his new regula- 
tions, and in an hour and a half make it go through the entire 
school of the company without a break. 
The manual was far simpler of execution than in any pre- 
vious work of the kind. The marchings were made notably 
more facile and precise. The secret of the new move- 
ments depended upon the wheeling by fours, which was then 
for the first time enunciated in our country. This practical 
arrangement allowed the front rank to keep its place under any 
conditions and obviated the facings, inversions and cumbersome 
turnings previously thought necessary to cause a unit to change 
direction. Although we now call Upton's marching unit a 
squad, in reality it is nothing more than his set of fours. 
"Fours right about," "Right forward, fours right," and similar 
movements for the first time came into vogue. The fixed right 
and left was done away with, so that commanders had liberty 
of action on the march and for formation in battle. The 
skirmishers had supports which infiltrated into the line when 
needed. When two ranks were not necessary, a single rank 
could be formed so as to lessen the growing casualties due to 
the range and effectiveness of advanced weapons. The main 
features of Upton's tactics are still in use. 
While the army was thus striving to better its efficiency, it 
was still kept busy with the Indians over a wide region. The 
extent of operations was widened by the purchase of the new 
country of Alaska. A garrison of 250 men, consisting of a 
company of artillery and a company of infantry, under Gen- 
Aug. 1 
1867 
Dec. 
1867 318 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
eral Jefferson C. Davis,13 who had his headquarters at Sitka, 
attempted to police that new territory. One night a sentry on 
duty near the powder magazine saw a moving light in his 
vicinity. After challenging and receiving no answer, he fired 
and wounded an Indian. The chief of the tribe the next day 
asked General Davis for compensation for the injury. When 
the request was denied, the chief raised the British flag over 
the village. Davis then sent word that if the colors were not 
replaced by the United States emblem, he would open fire. The 
Stars and Stripes were raised the next day, but the Indians 
became surly and threatening for some time. 
With such a small force in the midst of so many hostilities, 
the army's situation was precarious. Accordingly the Second 
Artillery was stationed on the island of Kadiak and several 
companies of the Twenty-third Infantry established a post at 
Cook Inlet. The difficulties of transit in this remote country 
were unbounded. One vessel on the uncharted coast was broken 
up, and everything was lost but the lives of the troops. After 
one month of great hardship, the survivors were rescued. 
Nevertheless, in spite of handicaps General Davis succeeded in 
holding the natives in check. 
While all this was going on in the extreme north, the posi- 
tion of the army in the southern states was changed by Con- 
gress. The former commonwealths were restored to the position 
they occupied before the war. The various military depart- 
ments stationed there no more exercised enforcement or mili- 
tary control, unless called upon to do so by the civil govern- 
ment. The obnoxious duties of the soldier were somewhat 
lessened. But there were still to arise many occasions where 
the state governments called for force. Whenever such action 
was taken, destruction of life and property was prevented. 
Although the soldiers were dispersed over a vast country 
and had diverse tasks to perform, Indian troubles were the 
main consideration of the army, for it was never for a minute 
allowed to forget them. Hardly a week passed, during those 
seasons of the year when Indians could operate, that the War 
Department did not receive some report of raiding, outraging, 
June 
1868 
July 16 
1868 
June 25 
1868 
13 Not to be confused with Jefferson Davis, President of the Con- 
federacy. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
319 
or murdering the ranchmen and their families. When the 
soldier husband left the fort to punish the redman for his mis- 
deeds, the soldier wife fed and ministered to the homeless sur- 
vivors who had taken refuge in the army's stronghold built by 
the army's own hands. By succor and punishment the little 
companies pressed civilization into the remote nooks of our 
great land. 
But it was a little disappointing sometimes to see the fruits 
of gruelling labor destroyed. Often after the army had spent 
years in building up a fort out of the wilderness, the strong- 
hold had to be carted away or demolished. Back in Washing- 
ton it would be decided that the site of the stockade would make 
a good reservation for the Indians or that the government 
needed it for other uses. Thus was Fort Defiance, New Mex- 
ico, abandoned and moved seventy miles. Fort Reno was 
demolished. Fort Phil Kearny, which had been built, as we 
have seen, through almost daily bloodshed, was similarly dis- 
carded. 
During these three years succeeding the Civil War the 
Indian had in no w'ise been intimidated. The tiny forts, far 
from each other, could do little more than drive back the red 
warriors after the outrages had been committed. The Indian 
respected one thing only-force-and when that was not forth- 
coming he grew bolder and more cruel. The victory at Fort 
Kearny had whetted his appetite. His increasing strength 
allowed him to molest parts of the country the meager army 
could not reach. By now the whole savage west was infected 
with lust for the destruction of the whites. Conspicuously, the 
Cheyennes under Roman Nose, a physical giant, had in one 
month killed or captured 84 settlers in Kansas. In that 
sparsely settled country they practically swept that state bare 
and even attacked the builders of the Kansas Pacific Railroad. 
Major Forsyth, of Sheridan's Staff, collected some 50 scouts 
in order to trail this band and locate its whereabouts. Each 
man's equipment consisted of a horse, saddle, bridle, haversack, 
canteen, blanket, knife, tin cup, Spencer repeating rifle and a 
heavy Colt's revolver. Four mules bore the small extra sup- 
plies and ammunition. No tents were carried. 
For six days they scoured the country (they had only seven 
Aug. 15 
1868 320 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
days' rations), finally coming up with the Indians at the 
Arikaree River. While the little detachment was encamped 
there, it was awakened early one morning by the cry from the 
sentry, "Indians." Forsyth barely managed to keep most of 
the horses from being stampeded and to draw off his party to a 
little island in the partially dry river bed. Hundreds of sav- 
ages surrounded him on all sides, firing from both banks and 
hemming him in. His scouts dug in and the fallen horses 
formed a sort of breastwork. Roman Nose charged down the 
river bed with several hundred warriors. Half a dozen times 
he came on, only to be repulsed at each assault. Once a few 
braves gained the island, but could not retain it. When Roman 
Nose splendidly leading his last charge, was killed, the attacks 
became weaker. But the Indians, although they did not rally 
any more to the offensive, hovered about. Possibly 80 warriors 
had been killed, while Forsyth's 51 had suffered 2'3 casualties, 
nearly 50 per cent. Forsyth himself was wounded in three 
places and his second in command, Beecher,14 was dead. The 
little force, with such a hindrance of wounded, could not make 
a break for it. After harrowing trials a messenger finally 
made his way through to Fort Wallace. For nine days the 
unscathed, wounded and dead were huddled together for pro- 
tection, and subsisted on putrid horseflesh and a few plums. 
Then the wretched and delirious survivors were rescued by 
troops from the fort. Such were the acts and the fate of a 
small party of soldiers who sallied forth into the wilds. 
Aside from engagements of that character, battles and skir- 
mishes which could have been avoided, wTere by mismanagement 
often forced on the army. The Indians were at this time man- 
aged by the Peace Commission and the Indian Department. 
These two independent controls seldom jibed and rarely set- 
tled a difficulty without ruction. The army had to be called 
in as a last resort, usually after affairs were so snarled that a 
fight was the only recourse. It did not help the spirit of the 
military man to be left to catch all the kicks and cuffs after he 
had been ignored in council. Many times he had a reasonable 
notion that his advice, if heeded, might have prevented hostili- 
ties. 
Sept. 16 
1868 
14 Nephew of Henry Ward Beecher. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
321 
Some 300,000 Indians now roamed the plains. To over- 
come the main force of these, General Sheridan had all told 
1,200 cavalry and about 1,400 infantry. While the savages 
were moving in such quantity, he had too few troops to do the 
double duty of scouting and winning decisive victories. Ac- 
cordingly he determined to wait until winter, when the failure 
of grass and the blight of cold weather would collect the redmen 
in large enough bands to make it worth while assembling his 
troops for attack. At that time 107 people had been killed, 57 
wounded, 14 women outraged and murdered, one man, four 
women and 24 children taken into captivity, 1,627 horses, 
mules and cattle stolen, 24 ranches and settlements destroyed, 
111 stagecoaches attacked and 4 wagon trains annihilated. 
This enumeration does not include the soldiers who had fallen 
in many actions. In committing these atrocities, the Indians 
had lost only 11 killed and 1 wounded. Sheridan felt that 
something decisive, no matter how desperate, would have to be 
undertaken, if further depredations were to be hindered. 
From Camp Supply in what is now Oklahoma, he started 
his campaign. One column, the Seventh Cavalry under Custer, 
was to go south while the remainder was to go northward later. 
Custer set out at four o'clock in the morning amidst a blinding 
snowstorm which sunk the thermometer to its depths. To Wolf 
Creek, fifteen miles distant, he had to make his way entirely by 
compass. Camping there in the snow with the temperature 
7 degrees below zero, his little command fought the sleep that 
foretells death by freezing. Along the banks of this stream he 
continued his march until he came to the Canadian River. The 
water there was not frozen enough to bear the troops so that 
they had to break the ice and ford through the icy current. 
Not long afterward, one of Major Elliott's scouts reported the 
fresh trail of Indians. Custer left his wagons under guard 
and had his troopers take one day's rations of coffee and hard 
bread. Many of the soldiers and some of the officers were by 
now suffering with frostbite and snow blindness. That terrible 
Thanksgiving night the dinner consisted of hardtack and coffee. 
Here were men staving off death from cold in order to fight a 
hard battle with savages who showed no mercy. In the moon- 
light the troops continued their march by following the Indian 
Fall 
1868 
Nov. 23 
1868 
Thanksgiving 
Day, Nov. 36 
1868 322 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
trail. When within a mile of one of the outlying Indian fires, 
an Osage scout said he smelled smoke. Shortly afterward, by 
stealthy movement through the snowdrifts, the officers could 
make out a patch of black under the dim rays of the moon. It 
turned out later to be the camp of Black Kettle's band of 
Cheyennes formerly led by Roman Nose. 
Custer gave orders to his officers, who worked quietly with-1 
out their sabers, to lead their various squadrons into designated 
positions surrounding the village, which could be plainly seen 
to be on the banks of the Washita. When the troops had taken 
their assigned positions in utmost quiet, the pain and discom- 
fort grew more bitter than ever. Four hours until dawn had 
to be spent in the intense cold of the night without so much as 
a beating of the hands to ward off the cold. After the suspense 
and suffering of a lifetime, a bugle broke the stillness just as 
the dawn was beginning to show. It was the signal for the 
charge. Though almost numb the horsemen grasped their 
reins, mounted and were nearly upon the camp before their 
presence was suspicioned by the savages. In an hour, Black 
Kettle's band of 103 was no more. The squaws and children, 
though some of them had used rifles with success, were taken 
prisoners. 
But just as Custer was about to complete the destruction of 
the tepees, the valley below seemed to be alive with warriors. 
It was then realized that the principal bands of Kiowas, 
Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Comanches and Dog soldiers had had 
their camp of about 2,000 red skins close by. The situation for 
Custer was grave, almost as much so as in a more fateful battle 
later. His ammunition was running low, the men were suffer- 
ing extremely without their overcoats and the Indians were 
coming on with a rush. Dismounting his men and forming 
them in a semicircle about the camp he had taken, he awaited 
the onslaught. The issue of the battle swayed back and forth 
and it looked doubtful for the little handful of soldiers at this 
juncture. But Major Bell, the quartermaster, having heard 
the firing, drove a wagon of ammunition right through the 
midst of the savages and on into his own lines. The day was 
saved. Although the fighting continued during the remaining 
daylight, the Indians finally withdrew. 
Nov. 27 
1868 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
323 
An unknown number of Indians were killed in the fight 
subsequent to the taking of the village. Altogether, 53 squaws 
and children were captured, together with 875 ponies, 1,123 
buffalo robes and skins, much powder, lead, arrows, tobacco, 
rifles, pistols, beef and other supplies. The Black Kettle vil- 
lage was burned. But Major Elliott and Captain Hamilton15 
and 19 soldiers had been killed and many were wounded. 
Custer had struck a blow at the depredations of these tribes. 
With the loss of so much material and warriors their future 
activities were curtailed. But he and his' command were in a 
delicate position as to their own safety. With all possible dis- 
patch he made his way back to Camp Supply with such har- 
rowing sufferings to men and animals as few commands have 
ever experienced. 
The main tribute that Custer and his troops received for 
their work was a series of articles in the public press branding 
him as a slaughterer of the innocent. 
Another detachment under Major Evans, consisting of 7 
companies of the Third Cavalry, 1 company of the Thirty- 
seventh Infantry and a battery of mountain howitzers, left Fort 
Bascom, New Mexico, for the punishment of the Comanche and 
Kiowa Indians. The troops marched the distance of 185 miles 
down the Canadian River, where they constructed a redoubt 
for defense. Pushing out from there without tents, they spent 
their Christmas eve at a dry camp near the Washita Mountains. 
That was a satirical holiday never to be forgotten by those sol- 
diers. Hunger, cold and thirst conspired to rob their comfort. 
Indeed they were glad to exist through the night. At a canon 
in these mountains, a band of Comanches was finally met who 
tried to defend the pass. But when one of the howitzer shells 
burst in their midst, they scattered over the country in every 
direction. Sixty lodges, containing buffalo meat, corn, meal, 
flour, tobacco, coffee, sugar, salt, axes, hammers, hatchets, 
knives, powder, lead, bullet molds, saddles, lariats, bow and 
arrows and some very fine rifles were taken by the troops. As 
a result, many of the Cheyennes, Arapahoes and Comanches 
came in and surrendered unconditionally and without blood- 
Nov. 18 
1868 
Dec. 7 
1868 
Dec. 18 
1868 
15 Grandson of Alexander Hamilton. 324 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Jan. 13 
1869 
shed. Major Evans, when he returned to his depot, had cov- 
ered in the dead of winter 400 miles in 29 days. 
General Grant was now the President-elect. Though he 
showed conclusively in his reports that the existing forces were 
insufficient to cope even with the Indians, there was a general 
cry in the east for the reduction of the army. Grant knew that 
the best way to have peace in our territories was to have a force 
of sufficient size to establish it. Yet the public clamored for 
chopping expenses irrespective of results. There was a war 
party who strove for a quick peace by means of adequate pro- 
tection and a peace party who brought on indecisive engage- 
ments by the establishment of weakness. The so-called peace 
party won. The army, in its already weakened state, was 
sliced and large fragments cast away. 
The very day before Grant took the oath of office, a clause 
of the appropriation bill decreased the 45 regiments of infantry 
to 25. No new commissions, promotions or enlistments could 
be made until the contraction was complete. The enlistment 
for all troops was to be for five years. 
The incoming President was saddled with a law which he 
knew would cost the country the lives of valuable men. In his 
appointment of General Schofield as Secretary of War and 
General Cox as Secretary of the Interior, he did as much as 
he could to overcome the woes that had been forced on him. 
General Schofield was in a sad state of embarrassment over 
the army. If he waited to contract the infantry until casualties 
would take off the proper number of officers, the men enlisted in 
'66 and '67 for three years would all be gone. Many forts 
would have to be abandoned, to the great waste of life and 
property. He therefore, had to produce the shrinkage at once 
in order to reorganize for the immediate future. Accordingly, 
field officers who were to be retained were chosen in Washing- 
ton ; and the junior officers, in the departments. The senior in 
each grade was kept in the service in so far as such disposition 
was thought to be in the interest of efficiency. Many officers, 
who happened to be absent from their commands, were peremp- 
torily cut off from the service. Excellent men of heroic record 
in the war and on the plains, who had a few years before been 
practically promised a life vocation by the government, were 
March 3 
1869 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
325 
cast back into their communities with lost years and a sorry 
face before their friends. They had borne their share of suffer- 
ing and hardship for their country only to have the sieve of 
politics hold them as dross.16 The "Benzine Board" had the 
unwholesome task of sending out over 750 officers with one 
year's pay. The effect of this discard was to stagnate promo- 
tion for years and to make the retained soldier of gallant 
service feel unsafe in his position against the whims of party 
leaders. 
Under these recurrent blows that kept striking the army 
during these years, officers and men may at times have grum- 
bled, but they at no time became slack in their work. The 
newly organized units were sent in larger measure than before 
across the Mississippi. 
While the regiments were plodding toward waste places 
across the continent, let us note for a moment a massive project 
of civilization for whose success the military man was respon- 
sible. The Union Pacific Railroad was completed this year, 
connecting the two oceans and binding the country together. 
General Dodge, an army officer of Civil War fame, had been the 
Chief Engineer. General Sherman had aided the work in 
every way by personal help and by ordering troops for its pro- 
tection. At vulnerable points, soldiers had constantly driven 
off the Indians who were especially hostile to this inroad of the 
■white man. Their buffalo hunting ground was cut in two and 
their country was about to be overrun with the palefaces. As 
a consequence, the railroad builder had to work and fight. The 
gangs were mostly discharged veteran soldiers who were organ- 
ized into companies and battalions and who could drop their 
picks and grasp their rifles in a twinkling. General Dodge, 
who had served under Sherman, writes: 
"The organization for the construction of the Union Pacific 
Railway was upon a military basis, nearly every man upon it 
had been in the Civil War; the heads of most of the engineer- 
ing parties and all chiefs of the construction forces were officers 
in the Civil War; the chief of the track-laying force, General 
May 10 
1869 
is Repeated after the World War. 326 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Casement, had been a distinguished division commander in the 
Civil War, and at any moment I could call into the field a 
thousand men, well officered, ready to meet any crisis or any 
emergency." 
Sheridan and Crook also more than satisfied the heavy 
demands of the railroad chiefs. So great was the dependence 
on the army itself that Oakes Ames said, "What makes me 
hang on is the faith of you soldiers." It is fair to state that 
this great bridge of progress and unification could never have 
been built had it not been for the army and army training. 
The regimental band and 4 companies of the Twenty- 
first Infantry were present at the driving of the golden spike, 
a few miles west of Ogden, when east and west were made into 
one. It is said that the soldier musicians piped lustily at the 
exercise. 
Since the army was pared down to almost laughable size, 
the Indian tribes underwent no setback, as the troubles of the 
railroad alone will show. Hundreds of settlers were being 
killed, and not a day passed that some company "somewhere in 
the west" was not called upon for rescue or control work. 
Because the Piegans were especially active, a battalion of 4 
companies of the Second Cavalry under Major Baker was sent 
to Fort Ellis in Montana. Many crimes had been committed 
there by some of the tribes of the Blackfeet, Bloods and 
Piegans. Since most of the Blackfeet were in British terri- 
tory, the only Indians that could be reached by the army were 
the Bloods and Piegans. Major Baker left his post with his 
4 companies and proceeded to Fort Shaw where he picked up 
2 companies of mounted infantry. The weather was intensely 
cold and, to make matters worse, the marching from Fort Shaw 
had to be done at night on account of the necessary secrecy. 
For five days the troops camped in ravines in the snow, only 
to march again through the cold night. Near the Big Bend 
of the Marias, they came upon the camps of Bear Chief and 
Red Horn consisting of '37 lodges. The attack was a complete 
surprise, especially since smallpox had broken out among these 
tribes, so that even the few precautions taken by them in winter 
had been overlooked. In all, 173 Indians were killed, includ- 
Summer 
1869 
Jan. 6 
1870 
Jan. 19 
1870 
J an. 23 
1870 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
327 
ing Red Horn. Many squaws and children were captured and 
300 ponies were taken. Hastening on to Mountain Chief's 
camp the troops found only a deserted village, which they 
burned. Pressing forward into the country of the chiefs of the 
Bloods, Baker called upon the warriors to give up the stolen 
horses in their possession or receive the treatment of the 
Piegans. The horses were discreetly turned over and the little 
force made its way back to the forts. Whatever else may be 
said of this spirited expedition, it quieted the Piegans and the 
Bloods who forever thereafter ceased their pillaging of the un- 
protected whites. The very people in the east who made outcry 
against this mode of warfare, were the ones who were respon- 
sible in many cases for starving these Piegans later, because of 
insufficient appropriation and care. 
It was at this time that the Apaches, the most subtle savages 
we have ever dealt with, broke out from their reservations. 
From their fastnesses in New Mexico and Arizona, they would 
sally in small groups, never in large bodies, and pounce upon 
their prey much as did the mountain lions, their neighbors. To 
stalk these human animals was impossible for a white man. 
General George Crook was sent to command the Department 
of Arizona in the hope that he could solve the problem. Never 
did the War Department choose a more suitable commander. 
How closely he followed Steuben's plan of discipline is shown 
by Bourke's estimate of him: 
"This was the point in Crook's character which made the 
strongest impression upon every one coming in contact with 
him-his ability to learn all that his informant had to supply, 
without yielding in return the slightest suggestion of his own 
plans and purposes. He refused himself to no one, no matter 
how humble, but was possessed of a certain dignity which re- 
pressed any approach to undue familiarity. He was singularly 
averse to the least semblance of notoriety, and was as retiring 
as a girl. He never consulted with any one; made his own 
plans after the most studious deliberation, and kept them to 
himself with a taciturnity which at times must have been 
exasperating to his subordinates. Although taciturn, reticent, 
and secretive, moroseness formed no part of his nature, which 
1870 328 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
was genial and sunny. He took great delight in conversation, 
especially in that wherein he did not have to join if indisposed. 
"He was always interested in the career and progress of 
the young officers under him, and glad to listen to their plans 
and learn their aspirations. No man can say that in him the 
subaltern did not have the brightest of exemplars, since Crook 
was a man who never indulged in stimulant of any kind-not 
so much as tea or coffee-never used tobacco, was never heard 
to employ a profane or obscene word, and was ever and always 
an officer to do, and do without pomp and ceremony, all that 
was required of him, and much more. 
"No officer could claim that he was ever ordered to do a 
duty when the Department commander was present, which the 
latter would not in person lead. No officer of the same rank, at 
least in our service, issued so few orders. According to his 
creed, officers did not need to be deviled with orders and in- 
structions and memoranda; all that they required was to obtain 
an insight into what was desired of them, and there was no 
better way to inculcate this than by personal example." 
General Crook at once undertook to put a quietus on the 
lawless in his most characteristic way. Bourke again says: 
"A campaign against the Apaches in their eyrie fastnesses 
among the rugged Sierra Madres could but be a series of de- 
tached fights. In fact, for many years and until the various 
bands of the whole tribe were finally rounded up, that was all 
there was to it, but it involved nearly twenty years' heartbreak- 
ing work, exhausting privation, bitter disappointment and the 
loss of many a gallant soldier, and was eventually accomplished 
only when our own troops, by persistent endeavor and repeated 
scouts, had mastered the general trend of valley, stream, and 
canon, learned the location of the few water holes in the beds of 
the dry water courses, the rare springs in the hills, and the 
isolated passes through the unexplored mountain ranges, to- 
gether with the stern fact that a trail once discovered must 
never be abandoned, but doggedly hung to and searched out, 
hour by hour, day by day, or on very rare occasions cornered 
and obliged to fight to a surrender or annihilation. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
329 
"General George Crook, who way, without doubt, one of the 
very best and ablest Indian campaigners our Government has 
ever had, and at the same time one of the most absolutely just 
and true friends the Indian has ever known, when he was 
assigned to the command of the Department of Arizona adopted 
and put in practice a new course toward this people. First, he 
personally went over the country and obtained all possible 
knowledge of it and of the Apaches. Then, by guaranteeing 
their safety, he finally, after much trouble, succeeded in getting 
some of the leading Apache warriors to come in for a talk. His 
reputation as an honest and true man had reached even this 
people in the fastnesses of the Sierras, and finally, after much 
hesitation, a few of them came. He told them that their stay 
on the war path meant eventual extermination. That things 
were changing in their section of country and civilization was 
advancing, and would continue to do so, and set forth the ad- 
vantages of peace, offered them immunity for the past, and 
protection for the future if they would surrender and settle 
down to a peaceful life. Otherwise, he must and would fight 
them to extermination. Furthermore, if all the bands would 
not accept the offer of the United States Government and come 
in, he would gladly offer immunity to those who would accept it, 
and wished them, in case the bad Indians would not give up the 
war path, to assist him in their capture; that there were both 
good and bad white men and good and bad Indians, but the 
good white men forced the bad ones to obey the law, and he 
expected that the good Indians would assist him, just as the 
good white men assisted the officers of the law in keeping peace 
and maintaining order. Runners were sent out to the various 
bands, and in a few months all the well-disposed Indians came 
in and surrendered. After a suitable length of time he put his 
troops in motion against the defiant bands. 
"But when our troops moved against them it was with this 
tremendous difference: Each small command moved with eight 
or ten friendly Apaches, duly enrolled, clothed, equipped, and 
paid as United States scouts. 
"In pursuit of the Indians all the soldiers divested them- 
selves of every superfluous garment, and did not load therm 
selves down with even a single ounce of impedimenta that they 330 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
could possibly do without. In summer they were almost as 
naked as the savages themselves, and were sunburned to the 
color of mulattoes, while in place of boots and shoes they wore 
buckskin moccasins or rawhide sandals tied to their feet with 
thongs of the same material, which enabled them to follow their 
foes on the rocky trail at night silently, and with such sleuth- 
like movements that on several occasions, all undiscovered, they 
traced them to their very lair." 
General Crook, as Sheridan had done, decided upon a win- 
ter campaign, because he believed the Apache would have to 
come down from his high mountains on account of the cold. 
The Fifth and some of the Third and First Cavalry, and 
Twenty-first Infantry set out late in the fall. 
Against only those Indians who refused peace on any terms 
did Crook proceed. The progress of the troops, especially in 
the Tonto Basin, was tedious and difficult. Through deep 
canons and over alkaline deserts they marched and counter- 
marched as the Apache would double on his trail. In five 
years, one of these regiments had 97 engagements and another 
marched over 6,400 miles. 
A happy climax of General Crook's efforts was to be ex- 
pected. The Apache saw the fruitlessness of trying to escape 
the cunning scouts of his own tribe, backed up by the power of 
the trained, hardy soldiers. After five years most of these 
Indians came into the reservations and submitted. No fewer 
battles and actions under such wild conditions and against such 
a resolute enemy have ever been recorded. 
While the soldier in Arizona and over the west was thus 
straining himself to make the wilderness safe for democracy, the 
Congress pleasantly set another mark against the army by re- 
ducing the number of major generals to 3 and brigadiers to 6. 
The incongruity of such a measure is further shown by the 
fact that troops had still to be in the south as well as the west. 
The New Orleans riots shortly afterward broke out. The main 
one occurred near the customhouse. It seems that the two fac- 
tions of the state were bitterly divided over the election of 
Governor Warmouth. Some 4,000 whites and blacks collected 
near that public building and became so threatening that 
Fall 
1870 
Winter 
1870- 
1871 
July 1 
1871 
Aug. 9 
1871 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
331 
3 companies of infantry were sent by General Emory to the 
scene of the demonstration. With 2 Gatling guns this little 
group of 150 soldiers pushed through the infuriated mob and 
dispersed the throng without bloodshed. Such instances of 
trained troops acting as preventive medicine are so replete in our 
history that elaboration is unnecessary. 
By the beginning of the next year the shrunken army had 
been completely reorganized. But it had to stretch itself far in 
order to cover the entire United States and Alaska. The heavy 
artillery naturally had to cling to the Atlantic. Only 2 light 
companies of each artillery regiment could be used for service 
elsewhere. Rarely were as many as 2 companies of any branch 
assembled at any one post.17 General Sherman supervised the 
army from Washington. Lieutenant General Sheridan com- 
manded the Division of the Missouri. Under him were Major 
General Hancock, commanding the Department of Dakota, 
Brigadier General Pope, commanding the Department of the 
Missouri, Brigadier General Ord, commanding the Department 
of the Platte, and Brigadlier General Augur, commanding the 
Department of Texas. Major General Meade commanded the 
Division of the Atlantic. Under him were Brigadier General 
McDowell, commanding the Department of the East, and Briga- 
dier General Cooke, commanding the Department of the Lakes. 
Major General Schofield commanded the Division of the Pacific. 
Under him were Brigadier General Canby, commanding the 
Department of the Columbia and Lieutenant Colonel George 
Crook, commanding the Department of Arizona. 
It was in this year that the full-dress helmet with its plumes 
and the coat with its aiguillettes were made a part of the uni- 
form. The forage cap was of a little higher crown than the 
one in the Civil War. The campaign felt hat without trim- 
mings persisted. The fatigue uniform of blue was worn in the 
field except where commanding officers had to make such appro- 
priate changes as did General Crook. Brevet uniforms, while 
officers were on duty, had been prohibited. (July, 1870.) Only 
actual rank was permitted to be referred to in orders. However 
brevet insignia could be placed on the collar of the coat. 
1872 
Sept. 
1872 
1872 
17 Tremendous distribution of units, September 1872. See Appen- 
dix "G. " 332 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Nov. 
1872 
Target practice was emphasized to a greater extent than ever 
before. Estimating distant drill and the construction of butts 
and pits were required much as they are to-day. The sliding 
target had not yet come into use. Wingate's Manual of Rifle 
Practice covered a course of 90 rounds for each man. 
In upper California and lower Oregon a tribe of Indians 
called the Modocs broke into prominence mainly because of the 
unfair treatment by the government of these heretofore peace- 
able redmen. They had always been tractable and in one case 
had gone so far as to help voluntarily in saving a white settle- 
ment, the town of Yreka, from the flames. It seems that the 
government in Washington had made a treaty with these Modocs 
which it failed to put into force for four years. At the end of 
that time it refused to carry out all the provisions. Neverthe- 
less, the Modocs continued to dwell peaceably on their reserva- 
tion in upper California until the Klamaths of lower Oregon 
(their ancient enemies) began hectoring and bullying them, say- 
ing that they had stolen part of their reservation. The Modocs 
complained of their situation and asked to be moved to a small 
strip of land bordering on Lost River and unoccupied by any 
white settlers, so as to be undisturbed. 
General Canby, with his well-balanced and upright char- 
acter, saw the point of view of the Modocs and tried to persuade 
the Indian agents to grant the tribe at least the equivalent of 
their request. Canby had so well tried to understand the red- 
man that by many savages he was called the "Indian's Friend." 
But the agents could not agree to such compliance with Indian 
wishes. They insisted that the Modocs be conducted to the 
Klamath reservation. General Canby then tried to convince the 
authorities that they were doing the Modocs an injustice. But 
the agents, wdio did not have to fight, were impatient and desired 
to use force. Finally Canby was compelled to join the troops who 
were then in the lava beds, whither the Modocs had gone. The 
Modocs by this time were thoroughly and justly enraged at the 
duplicity of the government. On account of annoyances of be- 
ing moved hither and yon, they had many times lost their crops 
and other subsistence. But it was a hard matter for the troops 
to round them up as long as they retreated froin boulder to 
boulder and offered no target in the pedregal, where one place 
Feb. 16 
1873 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
333 
looked like another. After a time, but too late, the authorities 
in Washington decided to have a cessation of hostilities. Peace 
commissioners were appointed, but the Indians, knowing the 
caliber of the appointees, would not treat with them. Finally 
General Canby, Dr. Thomas, Mr. Meacham, and Mr. Dyer 
seemed to be agreeable to both parties at issue. An overture 
from Bogus Charley, the Modocs' representative, suggested a 
meeting of the commissioners with the chiefs, all unarmed, at 
a neutral spot. After some hesitation, in which the commis- 
sioners sensed treachery, they repaired dutifully to the place 
appointed. When they were all seated, the chiefs drew revolvers 
from under their clothing and killed every one of these excellent 
men. 
The mishandling of this whole matter by the Indian agents 
now plunged both sides into real war; 2 companies of the Fourth 
Artillery, 1 company of the Twelfth Infantry and 14 friendly 
Indians, while making a reconnaissance, were entrapped in the 
lava beds. The recruits who had just joined, ran disgracefully. 
All of the officers, noncommissioned officers and most of the old 
soldiers were either killed or wounded. 
General Jefferson C. Davis, who had taken General Canby's 
place now put bivouacs all over the lava beds and succeeded in 
running the Modocs into the open country. Captain Jack, the 
Indian's Chief, was finally captured. When met by his pursuers 
he was sitting on a log. All he said was, "My legs have given 
out," and then he remained silent. 
Captain Jack, Schonchin, Boston Charley and Black Jim, 
were finally hanged at Fort Klamath, Oregon. Thus the Modocs 
were forced on the warpath, hunted down and largely extermi- 
nated. General Canby, Dr. Thomas, Meacham and Dyer were 
sacrificed on the altar of mismanagement and high-handedness. 
It is small wonder that Dr. Thomas' son has since contended 
that the government murdered his father, because it did not 
heed General Canby's plainly sound advice in the first place. 
But the tragic irony of the whole affair was that after all this 
terrible loss had taken place, the general's counsel was found 
best to follow. The remaining Modocs were transported to a 
reservation away from the Klamaths, all they had asked in the 
beginning. 
March 10 
1873 
April 36 
1873 
Junes 
1873 
Oct. 3 
1873 334 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
In spite of its difficulties, the army showed a spirit of gen- 
eral progress. Lieutenant Ruffner, of the engineers, explored 
the Ute country, which was heretofore unknown, and made a 
complete map of the geological and topographical features of 
the whereabouts of the tribes located in that region. When, 
shortly afterward, some miners killed a few of the Ute warriors, 
that powerful and intelligent tribe rose to crush the whites. It 
was due largely to Ruffner's informative maps that the troops 
were able to punish the miners and bring the Utes to terms. 
About this time, too, the Springfield rifle, model '69, was 
adopted. It was a breechloader, but for single shots. Its 
caliber was reduced to 45 and its muzzle velocity was 1,350 feet 
per second. It was a dependable weapon, but the Henry and 
Remington repeaters were better, and officers and men provided 
themselves with the latter whenever they could afford to do so. 
Consequently the soldier had to buy for his own and the coun- 
try's defense, a weapon that the nation should have furnished 
him. 
In the next year the army's work became more and more 
unappreciated. The enlisted strength of the companies which 
had had to be expanded was cut down to make a total of 25,000. 
The number of general officers was reduced in proportion. 
Altogether about a modern brigade was left to take care of our 
entire country. The army with all its high-mindedness and 
exertions was unseen, unknown and unpopular. It was difficult 
for the service to get even the most mediocre recruits. Emi- 
grants and derelicts, many of whom could scarcely read and 
write, were put on lonely posts, to become the expert defenders 
and protectors of our country. 
Here and there little fusses with the Indians put some 
soldiers in their graves. Here and there were long marches 
and excruciating suffering. Here and there the little remnants 
worked with might and main to acquit themselves nobly. And 
the country seldom looked beyond the Mississippi to hear the 
ominous sounds of massacre and depredation that the troops 
were trying vainly to suppress. 
It is seldom one hears even now of the many minor en- 
gagements then prevalent throughout the west. Five companies 
of the Sixth Cavalry, for instance, drove off a superior force 
1873 
1873 
1874 
Aug. 30 
1874 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
335 
of Comanches and Kiowas near the Red River. Captain A. R. 
Chatfee was conspicuous in leading a charge that saved defeat. 
Then Lieutenant Baldwin, with 3 men, while hearing dispatches 
for reenforcements, held off 125 Indians for one whole day. 
His little party dug pits, kept up their fire and, although one 
man was seriously wounded, made their escape in the night. 
In addition to the prevalent actions in the west, the army 
was called upon to keep the peace in all manner of ways. Fear- 
ing trouble in the legislature in New Orleans, President Grant 
sent General Sheridan to the scene of the difficulties. Troops 
were stationed about the state house when the legislature assem- 
bled. The attitude of the community was grave and ominous. 
General Sheridan's account is graphic. 
"One Wiltz jumped on the platform, seized the speaker's 
chair and gavel, and declared himself speaker. On motions 
from the floor, and without ballots, he in the same way declared 
other gentlemen elected secretary and sergeant-at-arms, and 
having directed the latter to appoint assistants, a hundred or 
more men scattered about the hall, suddenly opened their coats, 
displaying badges on which was inscribed 'assistant sergeant-at- 
arms,' and the minority were in possession of the legislature. 
The excitement was intense; knives and pistols were drawn; 
several fisticuffs occurred; the shooting was so deafening that 
little could be heard. 
"In all this turmoil, in which bloodshed was imminent, the 
military posse behaved with great discretion. When Mr. Wiltz, 
the usurping speaker of the house, called for troops to prevent 
bloodshed, they were given them. When the Governor of the 
State called for a posse for the same purpose and to enforce the 
law, it was furnished also. Had this not been done it is my 
firm belief that scenes of bloodshed would have ensued." 
As little groups of soldiers were allaying troubles in the 
south, so were similar detachments attempting to quell the grow- 
ing Indian uprisings. So small was the army by this time that 
the little posts with their utmost energy could not stem the ris- 
ing tide of Indian consolidation. Since 1869 there had been 
no less than 203 actions with the redmen. The Sioux especially, 
Jan. 4 
1875 
End of year 
1875 336 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
having allied themselves with the Cheyennes, formed a strong 
nation of intrepid warriors. Something determined had to be 
done in order to rescue the central west from the grip of these 
savages, who had left their reservations. It was decided that 
3 columns under Generals Gibbon, Crook and Custer were to 
strike the tribes who were in the vicinity of the Big Horn near 
the sources of the Powder River. Crook was the first one to 
make a start. General J. J. Reynolds, in the van of the column, 
with 10 troops of the Second and Third Cavalry, surprised the 
village of Crazy Horse. The troops, under a severe fire, were 
eagerly destroying the lodges of this tribe when Reynolds for 
apparently no reason suddenly decided to retreat. So unex- 
pected was his retirement that several wounded troopers were 
left to the mercy of the Indians, who followed the cavalrymen 
and recovered a herd of 700 horses. The loss to Reynolds' com- 
mand was 4 men killed, 6 wounded and 66 badly frostbitten 
(the temperature being about 30 below zero). Crook, coming 
on the scene with the infantry, behaved toward Reynolds much 
as Washington did with Lee at Monmouth. 
After this defeat, it was necessary to reorganize the com- 
mand at Fort Fetterman, Wyoming. The new force consisted 
of 10 companies of the Third, and 5 of the Second Cavalry; and 
3 companies of the Ninth and 2 of the Fourth Infantry-in all 
about 1,200 men. Crook personally took command. The expe- 
dition started toward the villages of Crazy Horse and Sitting 
Bull somewhere on the Rosebud River. The country in that 
vicinity was little known and the whereabouts of these chiefs 
less so. When Crook neared the Tongue River he received a de- 
fiant note from Crazy Horse warning him that there would be 
trouble if he crossed the stream. One evening shortly after the 
command had passed over the river, the Indians opened fire on 
the tents of the camp. But the soldiers were not occupying 
their nomadic home at that moment. Crook immediately 
attacked the redskins, who fled. There was little loss on either 
side, and the action was indecisive. 
Crook now saw that he must get rid of his wagon train and 
move with dispatch if he was to overtake his prey. Not having 
sufficient horses he mounted the infantry on mules. The foot 
soldiers had a few riding lessons on their long-eared steeds and 
March 17 
1876 
May 28 
1876 
May 29 
1876 
June 9 
1876 
June 16 
1876 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
337 
the command moved off again. About 250 Crow and Shoshone 
scouts now accompanied the 1,150 mounted men. The soldier 
had but one blanket and no tent. 
Crook knew that his movements were known to the Sioux, 
so that surprise was impossible. The second day of the march, 
at eight o'clock in the morning, some 6,000 Indians charged 
down upon the little body of soldiers. The fighting was hot 
and furious, the cavalry in 3 columns charging at once. Charge 
and countercharge seemed only to cause the Indians to spring 
from the ground at each fresh assault. So fierce was the contest 
and so soon did Crook's command come to find that it was fight- 
ing for its life, that Mills, who had been sent on down the canon 
to destroy the villages, had to be recalled. Colonel Guy V. 
Henry, with half of his face shot off, kept to his saddle and led 
his men until he fell from weakness off his horse. 
There were too many Indians and too few troops. General 
Crook, although he drove off the savages, had to retire to his 
wagons back at Goose Creek, because he lacked ammunition and 
had many wounded. 
While Crook was preparing for another offensive at his 
camp, Terry's command, which now combined Gibbon's and 
Custer's troops, was on the move. The whole force, consisting 
of the Seventh Cavalry, 4 companies of the Second Cavalry, 6 
companies of the Seventh Infantry, 6 of the Twentieth Infantry, 
and a battery of 3 Gatling guns, encamped on the Yellowstone 
River. Not a soul of Terry's command had an inkling that 
there was abroad a force of such size as Crook had just met and 
had narrowly escaped. Even had they been aware of the 
strength against them, the knowledge could have made little dif- 
ference. This was all the force from the little United States 
Army that could be spared and it had to act. 
Custer with the Seventh Cavalry was ordered to advance 
down the Rosebud until he struck the headwaters of the Tongue 
River. Gibbon was to go directly to the mouth of the Big 
Horn so as to shut off the Indians from that direction and to 
reenforce Custer. The latter started down the Rosebud as 
ordered, but when he fell upon a fresh Indian trail he followed 
it instead of keeping to the course directed. Several days later 
(Sunday) Indian signs showed him to be near the camp of the 
June 17 
1876 
June 21 
1876 
June 22 
1876 
June 25 
1876 338 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
hostiles. He must have known from the Indian footprints, 
which crossed his trail, that his whereabouts were known to 
them. At any rate, he then ordered Benteen to move along 
the bluffs on the left and Reno to move straight up the valley on 
Benteen's right. When Reno discovered the Indian village, he 
reported the fact to Custer who ordered him to charge it. In 
the meantime Custer himself struck out along the bluffs on the 
right. Reno, who had no experience in Indian fighting, but 
had had a splendid record in the Civil War, delivered a faint- 
hearted charge and finally retired to the bluffs to the right of 
the river, where he was hemmed in on all sides by hordes of 
savages. Benteen, with his column, finding nothing in his path, 
received an order from Custer to come on as quickly as possible 
with the ammunition packs. Not knowing where Custer was, 
Benteen charged down the valley only to find Reno's command 
in desperate straits. Dividing his ammunition with Reno he 
helped in holding the mass of warriors there in check. For 
hours this little group was huddled together on the bluffs. The 
unscathed and wounded alike were parched with thirst. Much 
firing could be heard about two miles further on where Custer 
evidently was. Then the shots grew fainter and finally stopped. 
Reno's force was promptly attacked by a large force of warriors. 
Night fell with Reno's command, after making a hazardous 
counterattack, settling down to strengthen and defend its posi- 
tions under conditions of utter discomfort and apprehension. 
The next day the Indians renewed their attack, but a splendid 
charge by Benteen, followed by Reno, drove them back. By 
night the savages had packed up their tepees and left the valley. 
The next day Terry and Gibbon came upon the scene to the 
rescue. A detachment was sent to find Custer's command. On 
a ridge about two miles away 212 bodies were discovered. 
The clothing had been removed and most of the bodies were un- 
speakably mutilated and scalped. The Seventh Cavalry lost in 
this engagement 265 killed and 52 wounded. The Indians, too, 
had doubtless suffered but they had made good their escape. 
The disaster was complete with no good effect for the whites. 
Whatever else may be said, a small band of soldiers was made 
to operate on exterior lines, seek out a powerful and doughty 
enemy and try to overwhelm him. Besides, the Seventh Cavalry 
June 26 
1876 
June 27 
1876 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
339 
was armed with inferior carbines, whereas the Indians had 
splendid repeaters furnished by the government.18 Again, there 
seemed to be no money to buy the best arms for the soldiers but 
somehow there was plenty with which to furnish excellent 
weapons to the Indians. 
The Custer annihilation produced a tremendous sensation 
on the public mind. Every one implicated was blamed and 
many were investigated-except the government which by its 
reductions had caused the frightful carnage. The whole effec- 
tive army would scarcely have been enough to have rounded up 
the Indians of this region. On the other hand, a sufficient force 
of trained men could have saved the great spilling of blood and 
Custer's command. 
At any rate the army kept on at its task. Crook was re- 
enforced with Merritt's Fifth Cavalry, which gave him in all 
about 2,000 men. He immediately moved out with each man 
carrying no change of clothing-only a blanket, 4 days' rations, 
a poncho and 100 rounds of ammunition. After several marches 
in the stiffing heat, dust and finally rain, the suffering became 
keen. Finerty's diary says: 
"We had no tents, and had to sleep in puddles. The rain 
kept pouring down until the afternoon of the succeeding day, 
retarding our march and making every man of the command feel 
as if possessed of a devil. Officers and men slept in rain and 
dirt, drank coarse coffee and ate hardtack and raw bacon. 
"The rain and mud made the marching terrible, and some 
of Terry's young infantry (recruits)-they had met General 
Terry's command, and remained and marched with it for some 
days-lay down exhausted in the dirt. Many of them had to 
be placed on pack mules or carried on travois. . . . Every com- 
pany of the Second, Third and Fifth Cavalry had to abandon 
or shoot used-up horses. ... We made thirty miles over a most 
infernal country before halting. Chambers' 'astonishing in- 
fantry' made the full march-not a man fell out of ranks. The 
Roman legions or the army of Austerlitz never made better 
Aug. 4 
1876 
Aug. 11 
1876 
Aug. 13 
1876 
18 It is interesting to note that while all this slaughter was taking place 
on account of our insufficiency of troops, Congress was reducing the 
Medical Corps (June, 1876). 340 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
time than the splendid detachments of the Fourth, Fourteenth, 
and Ninth Infantry. . . . There was very little wood. We had 
to sleep at night in pools of water, thankful to get a chance to 
lie down. 
"The horses staggered in the columns by scores. Very fre- 
quently a played-out horse would fall as if shot. Dozens of 
dismounted cavalrymen toiled painfully along over steep, rugged 
hills in the rear of the column. . . . Our whole line of march 
was dotted with dead or abandoned horses. Some of the newly 
enlisted infantry grew desperate, their feet bleeding and their 
legs swollen from the continuous tramp. . . . Many of the 
young foot soldiers seemed injured for life. 
"Gibbon's men marched like Romans, Chambers' men 
rivaled O'Leary and Weston (but these were all veterans)." 
It came to the point where Crook realized that food and 
forage must be obtained at once or they would all die in the 
wilderness. Captain Anson Mills with 150 men, all that could 
still march, was to make his way to Deadwood City, Dakota, 
and get any kind of provisions he could find. The Indians had 
combed the country of game and the sun had killed the grass. 
The last hard tack had been eaten the day before. Wild onions 
and a little horse meat remained. 
Mills started out without hesitation and without rations, 
his men and horses being mere shadows of their former selves. 
The next day, he came upon the fresh tracks of Indians. Lying 
in a ravine and locating the warriors' lodges by means of scouts, 
he moved out at dawn the next morning. This gasping force 
in 3 well-ordered columns attacked and surprised the savages, 
killed and captured a few, and drove the remainder to the hills. 
The Indian camp, which was full of supplies, now had to be held 
against a counterattack of the redskins. Disposing his men care- 
fully, Mills sent word to Crook of his plight and of the pro- 
visions at hand. Crook immediately took the trail, arriving 
at eleven o'clock in the morning and finding that Mills still held 
sway. At the approach of these reenforcements the Indians, 
who were still firing from the bluffs, retired, but a small group 
that had taken refuge in a formidable cave refused to submit 
and kept up a heavy fire. Crook, realizing that there must be 
Aug. 15 
1876 
Sept. 7 
1876 
Sept. 8 
1876 
Sept. 9 
1876 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
341 
a prominent Indian concealed there, besieged the little party and 
finally succeeded in inducing those who were not killed or 
wounded to come forth. American Horse, the chief of this tribe, 
was borne out by two young braves. He had been terribly 
wounded in the abdomen, and held a piece of wood between his 
teeth in order not to show his torture. Throwing his rifle on 
the ground, he submitted. He died that night. 
In the meantime Crazy Horse, who had been a few miles 
away with 600 warriors, charged the troops. Crook's assembled 
command drove them off. The effect of this entire engagement 
was to capture American Horse and a few Indians and to save 
Crook's men from extinction. But nothing decisive against the 
savages was yet accomplished. 
Crook, realizing the hopelessness of this kind of work, re- 
paired to Fort Fetterman in order to organize a winter cam- 
paign. His force finally consisted of 2 companies of the Third, 
6 of the Fourth and 2 of the Fifth Cavalry; 6 companies of the 
Ninth, 2 of the Fourteenth and 3 of the Twenty-third Infantry; 
and 4 batteries of the Fourth Artillery. 
While Crook was thus preparing his column for an advance, 
General Miles with only 500 men of the Fifth Infantry was in 
the vicinity of the mouth of the Tongue River. In the way of 
comfort, clothing and supplies Miles' command was well pro- 
vided against the cold. It was indeed fortunate for the men 
that they were well equipped with fur caps and mittens, because 
the mercury actually froze several times during the winter. 
Colonel Otis, with 4 companies of the Twenty-third Infantry, 
having pushed back a large force of Miniconjous, San Arcos, 
Brules and Unkpapas under the instigation of the medicine 
man, Sitting Bull, joined Miles' force. Since Otis had cap- 
tured a wagon train of supplies, his reenforcement was 
especially acceptable. The whole command now numbered about 
350 and one gun. Miles then marched to meet Sitting Bull who 
at a parley asked that the Indians solely occupy the west and 
that the whites vacate. The old medicine man was so obdurate 
that Miles, finally despairing of a peaceful settlement, gave him 
fifteen minutes to prepare for battle. The attack was bloody 
and doubtful for some time. Though the odds were 4 to 1 
against them, the troops succeeded in driving the Indians forty 
Oct. 18 
1876 
Oct. 
1876 342 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
miles up the valley from their village, in destroying it and in 
capturing most of their supplies. The result was that the large 
body of savages could not subsist. Several hundred broke into 
small parties and scattered, but 2,600 of them surrendered under 
promise of good treatment. Miles, who could not take them 
along with him on account of his slender stock of provisions, told 
them to report at the Spotted Tail or Red Cloud Agencies, which 
most of them ultimately did. 
Meanwhile, Crook at Fetterman had managed to find out 
from a captured Cheyenne that the principal village of his tribe 
was located in a canon through which ran the headwaters of 
Crazy Woman's Fork of the Powder River. Immediately Crook 
sent out Colonel Mackenzie with 10 companies of the Second, 
Fourth and Fifth Cavalry, and 350 Pawnee, Crow, Shoshone 
and friendly Cheyennes-1,100 men altogether. They reached 
the canon which proved to be a gloomy, icebound gorge in the 
Big Horn Mountains, there about 3,000 feet high. Numerous 
icy creeks made the channel almost impossible to follow. The 
sufferings of the men as they plowed through this great fissure 
in the earth were, though different, just as intense as those 
Crook had borne earlier in the year. On the other hand it was 
a blessing for the troops that the Cheyennes believed their posi- 
tion to be impregnable. The Indians had put out little guard. 
Moving forward in the frigid, moonlit night, Mackenzie sur- 
rounded their position in the same noiseless way as Custer had 
done with another tribe several years before. At daybreak the 
camp was completely surprised. The Indians fled naked from 
their -wigwams or cut slits in their tepees from which they fired. 
Many of their number were killed, their horses taken and their 
Chief Dull Knife lost. Although their bodies were entirely 
nude, they swarmed back to the village in the freezing weather. 
Then McKinney's company charged a rocky height and drove 
them back, but when he was returning a terrific countercharge 
resulted in his death and the wounding of a half dozen troopers. 
There was some confusion over this occurrence. Hand to hand 
fighting took place in which the whole force surged back and 
forth. Then the Indian scouts on the flanks saved the day by 
charging to the assistance of the troops. However, the fighting 
had to continue until dark in order to hold the savages back while 
Oct. 24 
1876 
Nov. 24 
1876 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
343 
their village was being destroyed. Great quantities of supplies, 
all that the Cheyennes had, fell into Mackenzie's hands. The 
Cheyennes then began to draw off and to take up a strong po- 
sition six miles further up the canon from which Mackenzie 
could not dislodge them. Eventually he had to return to his 
camp.. 
The sufferings inflicted upon the Indians were frightful. 
They had no clothing or food in this awful weather. Many 
babies and children froze to death in one night. One infant was 
saved by the ghastly device of sticking him in the warm entrails 
of a freshly butchered horse. Making their way to Crazy Horse 
the Cheyennes asked him for succor, but that chief said he had 
nothing to give and dismissed them. So angered were they at 
this rebuff that they set out forthwith to the nearest reservations, 
gave themselves up and went out against Crazy Horse with our 
troops later. 
The main mission now was to capture or destroy Crazy 
Horse's band. Miles with 5 companies of the Fifth Infantry, 
2 of the Twenty-second and 2 Napoleon guns started for the 
camp of that chief in the valley of the Tongue River south of 
the Yellowstone. At first there were a few skirmishes with the 
advance parties of Indians, who kept moving toward the moun- 
tains. Finally there were captured a Cheyenne warrior and 
woman who informed the officers of the exact location of Crazy 
Horse's villages. Miles moved directly toward them. He found 
the redskins occupying a height which could be easily seen. The 
place was very difficult to attack. The troops would have to 
ascend steep cliffs from where the Indians could pour in a con- 
verging fire. Seeing that Crazy Horse was willing to accept 
battle, Miles had his men out of range eat breakfast in full view 
of the gesticulating savages. After the meal, the troops began 
a very odd pitched battle in which there was neither surprise nor 
ambush. Miles' men with great difficulty ascended the cliffs 
under a galling fire. The artillery, which had been carried con- 
cealed in the wagons, suddenly unlimbered and dropped shells 
upon the savages, who were greatly surprised at this proceeding. 
The attack all along the line was scarcely a charge. With their 
heavy ammunition and winter clothing, it was slow, toilsome 
work for the soldiers to scale the icy, snowbound cliffs. But 
Nov. 27 
1876 
Dec. 29 
1876 
Jan. 8 
1877 344 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Miles' men doggedly crawled to their goal. Then ensued some 
stubborn hand to hand fighting, some enfilading of the Indian 
position and Crazy Horse retreated. The last of the battle was 
fought in a blinding snow storm. In their fight the Indians left 
much baggage. So bereft were they of supplies and ammunition 
that the next spring Crazy Horse and his band came into the 
agency. 
Only one band under Lame Deer and Iron Star remained to 
be subdued. In the spring Miles pursued it, overtook it and 
captured its village. Lame Deer and Iron Star were killed, al- 
though Colonel Miles did his best to take them alive. It 
seems that after the engagement was over, an unfortunate acci- 
dent occurred. The Indians misinterpreted the meaning of the 
movements of one of the soldiers. They thought the position of 
his rifle indicated treachery. The chiefs took point-blank aim at 
Colonel Miles and would have killed him, had they not been shot 
down in the nick of time. 
Further west the Lower Nez Perces were driven to despera- 
tion by the unjust and inhuman actions of the Interior Depart- 
ment. This tribe for seventy years had been uninterruptedly 
the friends of the whites, had always stood out for peace and had 
to their credit a long list of benefits rendered to the settlers from 
the time of their befriending the Lewis and Clarke expedition. 
When low white characters killed some of their number, they 
did not retaliate; neither did our law punish the offenders. 
When the government decided to put them on a reservation, all 
these redmen asked for was a little strip of poor land in the 
Wallawa region. Of this they had already been defrauded: the 
agents, having promised it to them, had afterwards for no good 
reason reversed their decision. General Howard, the depart- 
ment commander, saw the point of view of these high-type 
•Indians, and recommended that they be not confined to any 
reservation until they committed overt acts. Our avarice, how- 
ever, decided differently. Howard with his troops was ordered 
to put them on the Lapwai reservation, whither they did not 
want to go. The movement would deprive them of their herds 
and other property. Already the insults the whites had heaped 
upon them were sufficient to cause any normal person to be en- 
raged. But when they felt they could not subsist under the 
May 
1877 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
345 
new order, they felt themselves to be at the end of amicable re- 
lations. 
Even then Young Joseph, their chief, did not want to resist. 
Captain Whipple had to tell him that a higher authority than 
any army officer had decided he must go. Then Joseph was in- 
duced by his warriors to take up arms. After attempting to 
ward off the blow for some little time the Lower Nez Perces, 
about 300 warriors, were forced on the warpath. Regretfully 
the army and these Indians went into conflict. 
Captain Perry, with 2 small companies of the Eirst Cavalry, 
90 men, all that could be spared for the duty, was sent to compel 
them to go on the reservation. He met the Indians at the head 
of White Bird Canon. They had been watching his movements 
by scouts and even with field glasses. Besides outnumbering 
him over 3 to 1, the Nez Perces were superb physical specimens, 
well-educated and well-disciplined. They could march in column 
of fours, form twos and line from a gallop, build fortifications 
and maneuver well in action. It is not surprising, then, that 
Young Joseph skillfully ambushed Perry's command, drove 
them back and killed 1 officer and 33 men. It was with the 
utmost dexterity and bravery that Perry succeeded at all in 
extricating the surviving soldiers. 
General Howard now had to collect more troops and hurry 
forward with them in person. He took 1 company of the Fourth 
Artillery, acting as infantry, 5 companies of the Twenty-first 
Infantry, 2 troops of the First Cavalry, 2 Gatling guns, and 
1 howitzer, 221 men in all. Joseph had by this time about 
400 braves. Howard came up with the Indians at the Clear- 
water. All day long Floward charged and the Indians counter- 
charged. Finally the soldiers' lines had to be extended to two 
miles and a half in width. At night each side strengthened its 
breastworks. The next day Howard was reenforced by a fresh 
company of the First Cavalry, which attempted to turn the left 
of the Nez Perces line. Then the Indians fled and made good 
their escape with their supplies. Although Howard took their 
village, Joseph's band got out of the valley and over the Lolo 
trail faster than the troops could follow. The route covered 
is probably the most difficult one in the west, so that the Indians 
naturally outmarched General Howard's force. 
June 17 
1877 
June 22 
1877 
July 11 
1877 
July 12 
1877 346 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
General Gibbon at Helena, Montana, had in the meantime 
been warned by telegraph of the flight of the Nez Perces. He 
set out to meet them with a mixed force of 17 officers, 132 
cavalrymen and 34 citizens, all he could collect. Learning of 
their whereabouts he waited until the night and at dawn attacked 
their village, completely surprising them. Though the Nez 
Perces were driven out, they returned and reoccupied their 
village and incidentally took Gibbon's howitzer. The soldiers, 
driven behind barricades and trenches, defended themselves as 
best they could. That night the redmen drew off, leaving Gib- 
bon's command crippled and unable to follow. Gibbon himself 
was severely wounded. His force was so small that he, a gen- 
eral officer, had felt himself obliged to use a rifle and help in the 
fire as a private soldier. He suffered a loss of 29 killed and 40 
wounded in the action. 
The Nez Perces now crossed the Great Divide and camped 
on the Camas Prairie. But the telegraph was clicking its news 
to other troops in the path of this tribe. Colonel Sturgis pro- 
ceeded from the Powder River country with 6 companies of 
the Seventh Cavalry and some Crow scouts, in all about 350 
men. He overtook Joseph's force across the Yellowstone, pur- 
sued him, and took over 400 ponies. Nevertheless the Indians, 
fighting a rear-guard action, made their escape along the Mussel 
Shell River to Cow Island on the Missouri. 
In the meantime, Colonel Miles left Fort Keogh with 4 com- 
panies of the Seventh Cavalry, 4 companies of the Second 
Cavalry, a company and a half of the Fifth Infantry, 1 com- 
pany of scouts, a breechloading Hotchkiss and a 12-pounder 
Napoleon gun. Meeting the Indians in their camp on Eagle 
Creek near the Bear Paw Mountains, Miles drove them to the 
ravines where he was unable to dislodge them. The fighting 
was severe and at close quarters. Joseph's position could be 
carried only with great loss and that chief could not escape be- 
cause he felt he could not leave his wounded. Although the 
army howitzer did some damage, the siege was kept up for 
four days with intense suffering on both sides. At the end of 
that time, after having fought his way for justice through three 
territories, after never having scalped, outraged or mutilated 
the whites, after having bested and outwitted the few soldiers 
Aug. 9 
1877 
Sept. 3 
1877 
Sept. 14 
1877 
Sept.33 
1877 
Sept. 30 
1877 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
347 
sent against him, Young Joseph came out to Colonel Miles under 
protection of a white flag. Pointing to the heavens, this warrior, 
superb in face and stature, said simply, "From where the sun 
now stands I fight no more against the white man!" 
Colonel Miles promised Joseph, according to the govern- 
ment's agreement, that he should be returned to the Lapwai reser- 
vation. But the government promptly stultified Miles by send- 
ing this tribe to an unhealthful region in the Indian territory 
where 50 per cent of their number died. Thus passed out the 
Lower Nez Perces and many a gallant soldier because General 
Howard's advice at the outset was not followed. Subsequently 
Colonel Miles, after efforts of years, had the remnants of the 
tribe transferred to the land of their nativity (1884). 
The Nez Perces' uprising was not the only outbreak of this 
year. The Bannocks, the Mexicans across the border, the 
Indians of Alaska and the communists of our own country were 
bringing trouble in various parts of the land. 
In Pittsburg and other cities, especially of Maryland and 
Pennsylvania, labor uprisings had so shaken the country that 
one city was burned and the National Guard of three states 
had to be called out. Even 30,000 militia could not quell the 
riot in Pittsburg. It took a small force of regulars to overawe 
the mob and restore tranquillity. 
While all this was happening and the army was striving to 
save the nation from its enemies and errors, a great outcry arose 
against it in the interest of economy. There seemed to be no un- 
easiness over the inhuman loss of life of the soldiers due to their 
small numbers. This history cannot record the innumerable, un- 
heralded affairs that kept sending soldiers into eternity, nor can 
it show in detail that hundreds of skirmishes and battles had 
never occurred if a sufficient army had existed. The Yellow- 
stone expeditions of 1871, 1872 and 1873, the Indian Territory 
troubles of 1874, the Nevada disturbances of 1875 and the Ute 
and Snake uprisings of 1878, could not have been born, had 
there been on the scene of action a force sufficient to awe the 
Indian, and see that the proper provisions were given him. 
Similarly, the building of the great railways could have moved 
along rapidly and without hindrance or bloodshed, had there 
been troops enough to make the crafty Indian think twice before 
July 
1877 348 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
lie struck. In a few places where the commands were com- 
paratively large, the assembled soldiers would be paraded before 
the Indians, when it was suspected that the redmen were about 
to break out from their reservations. This show of strength 
usually calmed the savage breast. 
An instance in point is the rising of the Bannocks at this 
time. They had lost their hunting lands, been forced on an 
inhospitable reservation, had to face continued encroachments 
of the whites and, to cap all, had to subsist on an appropriation 
that allowed them only two and one-half cents a day per capita. 
Naturally they grew arrogant and hostile. When a drunken 
Indian shot at and wounded two teamsters, he was arrested at 
the expense of the killing of an agency employee. Troops were 
called for as a result. The Bannocks later left their reservations 
mostly on account of insufficient food, and fled to the Camas 
Prairie where they killed several settlers. A vigorous campaign 
by General Howard resulted in the capture of 1,000 of them. 
At Clark's Fork a battle had to be fought in which 20 Bannock 
lodges were taken. 
While the army was making its uphill fights and was losing 
its men more by its slenderness than any other cause, back east 
the legislators were doing much to increase the mortality. 
The Fifty-fourth Congress, a most responsive body of poli- 
ticians, while soldiers and officers were sacrificing themselves 
on the altar of patriotism, failed to pass an appropriation bill 
for their pay. Officers had to borrow funds at interest in order 
to live through the year. For this period the army's services 
were gratuitous. 
All through the winter and spring advocates on the floor 
of the House, without promptings of their constituents, attacked 
both the services 19 in the bitterest of terms-"for the sake of 
economy." It was pleasing to stone an institution that could not 
retaliate. As long as the soldier, in his remoteness, had no 
domicile in order to vote-did not influence the district at home 
-he was harmless to the congressman. It looked at one time 
as if the army would be reduced to 10,000 men. Seeing the 
great range of territory over which the soldier had to be con- 
Aug. 
1877 
Sept. 5 
1877 
Fiscal Year 
1877-1878 
1878 
19 Army and Navy. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
349 
stantly on the alert and fighting, it seems hardly possible that 
intelligent men could have taken this view. 
However, the outcome was not as bad as might have been 
expected. After a year had passed, the appropriation bill came 
through with the pay. But legislation stopped all promotions 
above the grade of captain and reduced considerably the allow- 
ances of officers. Bor the heroism of the army, as outlined on 
these pages, Congress chastised, rebuked and derided but seldom 
rewarded. 
Indians to the number of 375,000 had to be held in check on 
their reservations. In addition, Sitting Bull across the border 
in Canada was collecting a combined force of the tribes already 
there and of those who had taken refuge from the United 
States. The whole mass might strike at any moment. The 
Mexican outlaws, too, in large bodies were making regular 
incursions across the border in the south. 
The army had grown so small that many of the troops of 
Alaska had to be withdrawn. Such action was an invitation for 
outbreaks in the far north. Many tribes in the United States 
were so ill-treated and starved by the Indian agents and the 
stinginess in Washington that they were ready to fight anybody. 
The Bannocks and Pi Utes left their reservation for this reason 
and went upon the warpath. Captain Evan Miles, with 75 
picked men and as many Crow scouts, while on his way to the 
Yellowstone, heard of this tribe's withdrawal. lie was soon 
reenforced by 7 companies of the Twenty-first Infantry, 2 foot 
batteries of the Eourth Artillery and 1 troop of the First 
Cavalry, all of which were on separate errands in that vicinity. 
With these troops he took up the pursuit at once. Making a 
record march of thirty-five miles in one day, he overtook the 
Indians near the Umatilla Agency, Oregon. Surprising them 
in the early morning, he took several hundred prisoners, killed 
11, wounded many and captured 250 horses, with a loss to 
himself of several soldiers among whom was Captain A. S. 
Bennet, Fifth Infantry. The Bannocks were thus pushed back 
toward their reservation. 
So uninviting, on account of pay and the arduous, thankless 
duty of the soldier, had the army become, that its effective 
strength was below 20,000. Desertion had played its part 
June 
1878 
July 13 
1878 350 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
naturally and heavily. The recruits were largely desperadoes or 
those who couldn't read or write. In short it was all a high- 
minded officer could do to keep himself and the wheel going. 
But he was high-minded or the development of the United 
States would have rocked and tottered. 
The number of general officers was reduced to a mere hand- 
ful. Sherman was general of the army; Sheridan, lieutenant 
general; Hancock, Schofield, and McDowell, major generals; 
and Pope, Howard, Terry, Ord, Augur, and Crook, brigadier 
generals.20 The few thousand mobile troops were spread over 
3 divisions, 8 departments and 11 districts in trying to 
compass the territory of the United States. 
While there was constant fighting for these inadequate num- 
bers, the service did not shirk its duty in improving itself. The 
effort to have a well-regulated method of target practice is an 
example. The Laidley system w'as adopted. The Ordnance 
Department tried to equip the anny with better targets. Each 
man was to have an allowance of 20 rounds of ammunition per 
month for this purpose and prizes and furloughs were to be 
given to the best shots. 
The Sioux again were on the warpath. General Miles, with 
9 companies of the Second Cavalry, 7 companies of the Fifth 
Infantry and some scouts, crossed the Missouri at Fort Peck 
and proceeded to the Milk River. There the troops encountered 
a number of Indians under the leadership of Sitting Bull. The 
force was too small to capture the tribes. After a severe engage- 
ment which was begun by a daring attack on the part of the 
few soldiers, the errant redmen fled across the 49th parallel 
and were safe. 
It was not long after this that the Utes grew restless and 
quite antagonistic toward the Indian agent at the White River 
Agency, Colorado. Major Thornburg, accordingly, was ordered 
to move from Fort Steele. lie collected 3 companies of the 
Fifth Cavalry and 1 of the Fourth Infantry, about 200 men 
altogether, and marched toward the scene of the trouble. When 
he had been about a week on his way, he was attacked by 
about 300 well-armed warriors. Thornburg and 10 of his men 
1879 
Aug. 7 
1879 
July 17 
1879 
Sept. 21 
1879 
20 See Appendix I for organization of army-1879. THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
351 
were killed. Captain Payne gathered the remainder and re- 
treated to the wagons where he prepared to make a stout defense. 
So outnumbered was this little band of regulars that all it 
could do, trapped as it stood, was to keep itself from being 
exterminated. A message finally found its way through to 
General Crook, who ordered Colonel Wesley Merritt, with 530 
men of the Fifth Cavalry, to hasten to the relief of Payne's 
command. When Merritt reached the beleaguered soldiers, he 
found that a company of the Ninth Cavalry had arrived the 
day before. Generals Sheridan and Crook, by rushing reenforce- 
ments to Merritt, swelled his command to the gigantic figure 
of 1,000 effectives. Merritt then pushed on to the agency. 
There he found the houses burned and the Indian agent and 
10 of his employees murdered. The Utes had again taken their 
vengeance. While Merritt's command was held in the vicinity 
of the White River Agency until further developments, Lieu- 
tenant Weir and William Hammer, chief of scouts, while hunt- 
ing deer, were attacked and killed by the Indians. Great alarm 
was now felt throughout Colorado. Colonel Merritt's force was 
raised to 1,500 men by robbing other parts of the country of 
its protection. In addition, Colonel Mackenzie, with 6 com- 
panies of the Fourth Cavalry was brought from Fort Clark, 
Texas. Colonel Hatch with 450 men of the Ninth Cavalry 
came from New Mexico. The Utes at last being awed by this 
army of troops, being pacified by the overtures of General 
Charles Adams of Colorado (who incidentally succeeded in 
having released 3 white women and 2 children held by the 
Utes) and being convinced by the persuasive words of their 
head chief, Ouray, fell into a state of quiescence. Up to this 
time, 11 citizens, 2 officers and 12 soldiers had been killed 
and 41 soldiers wounded by this outbreak. 
Most of the troops of this expedition were shortly thereafter 
returned to their posts. But 4 companies of the Fifth Cavalry 
and parts of the Fourth, Seventh, Ninth and Fourteenth In- 
fantry regiments remained near the ruined agency. They hutted 
and sheltered themselves as best they could through a severe 
winter and with great privation and suffering. In the summer 
of the next year they were relieved by 6 companies of the 
Sixth Infantry. 
Sept. 29 
1879 
Oct. 5 
1879 
Nov. 1 
1879 
July 7 
1880 352 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
As the army fought and bore the brunt on the one hand, so 
it prepared itself in its technic. A new Cavalry Drill Regula- 
tions was published at this time. It seemed to adapt the move- 
ments of the mounted service more thoroughly to the work on 
the plains. Provision was made very carefully for handling 
each contingency of march or action. Besides a dismounted 
drill in 2 ranks made the use of the Cavalry more extended. 
The captain's command was still called a company, the major's 
a battalion, and the lieutenant's a platoon. 
Thus the army in this period after the Civil War plodded 
along, too dispersed most of the time to collect in even respectable 
detachments. It marched through parching heat and arctic 
cold only to find precarious battle or distasteful execution of 
bureaucratic injustice at the end. Through blood and hardship 
it tried to square the government for its criminal blunders. 
Hungry, thirsty, exhausted and wounded the soldier too often 
fought in actions which he did not believe justified. But his 
loyalty made him answer the command of his nation and he 
went forward. 
And he carried on in the face of the deepest ingratitude 
of his people. His pay was cut, his comrades summarily dis- 
charged, his supplies and arms made inferior to those of his 
enemy and any hope of promotion blotted out. Surrounded 
by thousands of savages in a vast prairie, he could count at 
most a few hundred with him to help hold them in check. Why 
he went on, why he went through the agonies of hell for a 
nation that kicked him at every turn, is almost beyond human 
analysis. 
And yet the awful marches and these heroic fights were 
the soldier's main dependence. He got away from the most 
provincial garrison life into which any government ever forced 
an army. Living in flimsy shacks, without the commonest con- 
veniences found in the east, he froze in winter and stifled in 
summer. Tenderly reared women heroically went through these 
hardships with their husbands. Breakfast was often eaten when 
the water in the tumblers had a crust of ice upon them. Dinner 
at other times was served when swarms of insects would rob 
the appetite. Winter or summer, in or out of the fort, there 
was no escape from the rough life of the frontier. But through 
1880 THE ARMY'S DARK AGES 
353 
these grim days there was time to find compassion and succor 
for the suffering squaw or the white family driven in from 
their settlements. The post was the haven of all classes, and 
in this comfort many a soldier's wife found an outlet from the 
dread monotony. 
With stables in the morning early, with breakfast next, 
then parade, then drill and stables in the afternoon, the work 
of the day, except the endless fatigue, was over. There could 
be no more than rudimentary exercises for from 38 to 50 men. 
There could be no training. When lieutenants and captains 
expected to hold their same grade for 20 or 30 years and were 
not afterwards disappointed in this, and when these very officers 
had been generals over large commands in the Civil War, a 
great wave of ambition and spirit could hardly grip their 
energies. With few books, an occasional mail, no golf courses, 
no tennis courts, no activities to arouse the interest even of a 
spectator, the soldier was really closed to the recreation of the 
bottle and cards. The sutler's store was the only club and its 
rough boards and hot stove a place of rare comfort. But with 
all this desultory life, there was little trouble over gambling 
and a surprisingly small amount of drunkenness. In this age 
of fulsome entertainment, one cannot visualize the barrenness 
that then enclosed the soldier's life. 
When the commanding officer had too great a proportion 
of illiterates and desperadoes in his organization, when savagery, 
rudeness and the outbreaks of the lawless loomed on every hand, 
he had to have a hard discipline that looks severe in the New 
York Library. He had at times to resort to the ball and chain, 
to close confinement and the harshest restrictions of his officers 
and men. He had to have the most rigid formality at the 
mess table, to inculcate an unwavering respect for rank and to 
notice the smallest details of official and social customs. He 
had to be a czar or he could not have lived peaceably in his 
military oasis on a threatening desert. He had to watch the 
little things of his small province or soon they would be big 
things. The very life blood of his command depended upon 
his supervision of what appear to us now to be the pettiest of 
details. He had to be "hard boiled" or he, his handful of 
soldiers and the surrounding country could not have survived. 354 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The nation forced him into this position, as it forced the demise 
of Thornburg, Canby and even Custer's command and the death 
of many another soldier, when it made beggarly detachments 
fight an overwhelming quantity of wily savages on their own 
soil. The government as usual scrupled on money for an army, 
but it did not seem to be anxious about the loss of life that 
resulted from parsimony. And so the army was thrown into 
dark ages of hopelessness. Though he grumbled, the soldier 
did more than his duty, sustained by an unfaltering honor that 
faced death for an ideal. CHAPTER X 
THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
First Phase 
(1881-1898) 
Notwithstanding the cudgeiings of stress, neglect 
and hostility that beset the soldier, the army began to 
be restless for something better. The stir of honest 
ambition, that lies close to true American hearts, plainly started 
to transform itself into concrete movement. If the powers 
denied to the service a chance of handling the larger units in 
maneuver, then the military man would do the next best thing 
and move imaginary forces on paper and would read of the 
best technic and tactics from books. If the government pre- 
vented practice, at least the officer could voluntarily absorb more 
theory. He could thus have some advancement in the knowledge 
of the most intricate and extensive profession found in civ- 
ilization. 
. When the general of the army 1 laid the foundation of the 
School of Application for Infantry and Cavalry at Fort Leaven- 
worth, Kansas, he sowed the seed of advanced learning in the 
service. Although the course of instruction then prescribed for 
this institution was primitive and elementary, the very instal- 
lation was the beginning of general and special service schools 
that were to spring up later and make our officers the peers in 
the art and science of war of any in the world. Thus the 
army began to wake itself, unaided, from the dark ages of 
provincial life into which the nation had thrown it. 
1881 
May 7 
1881 
i General Sherman. 
355 356 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The nucleus of progressives who built up a first- and a 
second-year course at Leavenworth little knew that the efforts 
of this institution were to be one of the great factors in the 
successes of two modern wars. Neither did they realize that 
their onward-looking efforts would step by step cause an officer 
to have a continuous education throughout his career. At first 
officers were detailed from their regiments to be students and 
those who were in command of troops at the school were in 
general to be instructors. The first year 2 was taken up with 
the rudiments of a general education and the second with certain 
books on the science and art of war. Papers by both students 
and instructors were to be read at various times. 
The beginning of any renaissance is too dim, as we know, to 
throw a full light upon conditions at once. The army went 
along in this year without much to alleviate the load of its 
irksome and humdrum duties. In fact, Congress let it rest 
dormant for the next seventeen years without doing a single 
vital thing toward its strength or monetary needs. But within 
the service there was a decided ripple of constructive unrest 
which tended toward practical and theoretical efficiency in spite 
of the unsympathetic aloofness of the government. 
1881 
2First Class: 
Mahan's Outposts. 
Myer's Signaling. 
Mahan's (Wheeler's) Field Fortifications. 
Woolsey's International Law and Laws of War. 
Ive's Military Law. 
Operations of War (Hamley). 
The Lessons of War as Taught by the Great Masters (Colonel 
France J. Soady). 
Lectures by professors and essays prepared by students from general 
reading. 
Practical instruction in surveying and reconnoitering by itineraries and 
field notes, as prescribed for the use of the army. 
For the Second Class: 
Correct reading aloud, with care and precision, with proper accent 
and pauses, to be heard and understood. 
Writing, a plain hand easy to read, designed for the use of the party 
receiving, and not an exhibition of haste and negligence of the 
writer, especially the signature. 
Grammar (Bingham). 
Arithmetic (Hagar). 
Geometry (Chauvenet). 
T rigonometry (Chauvenet). 
General Sketch of History (Freeman). 
History of the United States (Seavey, Goodrich). Emory Upton THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
357 
A distinct evidence of this movement toward higher stand- 
ards was the work of Brevet Major General Emory Upton. 
He had been sent abroad to study the workings of the armies 
of Europe and Asia. His report upon his return had led him 
to make an exhaustive study of the organization and manage- 
ment of our armies in the past. The work was entitled The 
Military Policy of the United States. His research and com- 
ments clearly demonstrated that our country had really had 
no sound policy up to that time. Unfortunately he had finished 
only the review of the use and abuse of our military forces 
down to the middle of the Civil War, when he died. It was 
many years later, as we shall see, that the fruits of his tireless 
labors were brought to light by a fearless Secretary of War. 
It was also a long time afterward, when we had successfully 
miscarried, that the recommendations of his report upon his 
tour abroad met with favor from the politician. But every one 
of his precepts was followed to the letter and to the country's 
betterment, even if it did take a long time to move our legisla- 
tors to act toward that end. The 3-battalion organization for 
infantry and cavalry, the interchangeability of line and staff 
officers, the examination as a condition to promotion, the estab- 
lishment of a general staff and the extension of military educa- 
tion were embodied among his conclusions; and they were all 
afterwards put into effect, though most of them did not reach 
fulfillment until we had had another war with its needless 
death rate. 
Fighting Indians went on with frequency in the west during 
this year, but the actions though difficult and full of hazard, 
were small. One matter of importance occurred in concluding 
affairs in the Sioux country. Sitting Bull, with his followers, 
had kept to the British possessions well out of reach of our 
soldiers. But forays into the United States by some of his 
warriors had been so severely met by detachments of the army, 
that the savages had either been driven back with heavy loss or 
had come into the reservations. His force had grown feebler, 
too, by hunger and disease. His influence was gone and most 
of his people had abandoned him. Worn out and unable to exist 
longer in his cold habitat, he came into Fort Buford, Dakota, 
and gave himself up. With him were 45 warriors, 67 women 
March 15 
1881 
July 20 
1881 358 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and 73 children. This act marked the termination of the 
bitterest conflicts with the savages. 
But the Indian fights were not over by any means. The 
Indian agents in Arizona had so harshly mishandled the 
Apaches, whom Crook had left in a peaceable state after years 
of the utmost toil, honesty and care, that the President felt 
obliged to reassign that officer (who was now a brigadier gen- 
eral) to the command of that department. When Crook arrived, 
he found that his labor during the seventies was absolutely 
undone. These tribes had been so defrauded and abused, in 
the interim, that they were all upon the warpath. From semi- 
civilized quiescence they had lapsed into barbarous strife in 
a space of half a dozen years. The agents had ejected them 
from their reservations because silver had been found in the 
ground that they occupied. These members of the "Indian 
Ring" had flung them into prison to languish for months without 
charges against them, had starved them, had taken away their 
crops, had given them little hearing in a court of justice and 
in general had treated them like cattle. As one reads of the 
outrages perpetrated on these savages, one can hardly believe 
them to be the work of white men. 
General Crook again went into this difficult and tremendous 
country of huge mountains, deep canons, cactus, and sultry dust. 
He could have led his troops against these spurned savages 
with glory to himself and without criticism from any one. Be- 
ing a man of character and training he set for himself the 
task of winning back the Apaches' confidence by peaceful means. 
With a small escort he visited these tribes and heard their 
grievances at great personal risk. He investigated their com- 
plaints and in almost every case found that the Apaches had 
been heinously treated. The old chieftains and squaw's told 
him stories that would have wrung pity from a hardened crimi- 
nal. The way in which they met him-a real friend and 
champion after all these years-was pathetic in its childlike 
appeal. The faces of the old men brightened and the squaws 
wept when they again saw his face and heard him in council. 
The government wisely put the complete control of Indian 
affairs in that district in his hands. It was not long before 
he again restored order, confidence and peaceful conditions 
Summer 
1882 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
359 
among the redmen without resort to a single battle. Old Pedro's 
outburst shows clearly that the army officer more than any 
other individual served his country by clinging to peace until 
every proper means of persuasion was exhausted: 
"When you (General Crook) were here, whenever you said 
a thing we knew that it was true, and we kept it in our minds. 
When Colonel Green was here, our women and children were 
happy and our young people grew up contented. And I re- 
member Brown, Randall, and the other officers who treated us 
kindly and were our friends. I used to be happy; now, I am 
all the time thinking and crying, and I say, 'Where is old 
Colonel John Green, and Randall, and those other good officers, 
and what has become of them ? Where have they gone ? Why 
don't they come back?' And the young men all say the same 
thing." 
While Crook was using his power in this fruitful and 
pacific way, the "Indian Agent Ring" was sending out news- 
paper stories of murders and depredations committed by the 
Indians. Their purpose was to involve General Crook in a 
fight, so as to drive the Apaches away from land on which they 
wished to profiteer. The General investigated each case, found 
it to be a fiction and stopped the rumor. Thus he reached 
out with one hand and throttled sinister threatenings and with 
the other soothed the maltreated tribes of Arizona. He set the 
Indians to work and made them satisfied by his justice, kindness 
and lack of compromise. 
But there was one tribe, the Chiricahua Apache, that had 
taken refuge in the Sierra Madres over the border in 
Mexico. With these redmen General Crook was unable to treat. 
It seems that their flight took place after an incident which was 
a culmination of many previous wrongs. A police officer in 
attempting to arrest a young Indian on a minor charge fired 
into a group of Apaches into which the young buck had fled. 
The result was that the policeman killed a squaw instead of 
his quarry. The Indians immediately retaliated by killing the 
officer and playing football with his head. Fearing vengeance 
they escaped into Mexico. 360 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
March 
1883 
Later, a band of this tribe under Chato conducted raids 
from their strongholds in the mountains on settlers and citizens 
in the United States. It was necessary now for General Crook 
to take action. After having proceeded across the border and 
having conferred with the Mexican military leaders, who en- 
couraged him, he set out from Willcox with 7 skeleton com- 
panies of the Third and Sixth Cavalry, all that he could as- 
semble. Later on, Captain Crawford, Third Cavalry, joined 
him with 100 more Apache scouts, making the whole command 
about 50 officers and soldiers, and not quite 200 friendly Indians. 
Was not this a pretty force for a rich, sizable nation to give 
a general officer for the purpose of whipping hundreds of 
Indians in one of the most natural strongholds God ever made ? 
The command pressed on across the boundary line and came 
into the high broken country of the Sierra Madres. The 
scouts in advance came up with the Chiricahuas and succeeded 
in frightening them off and getting their camp. General Crook 
then let a young squaw and a boy, whom the scouts had cap- 
tured, make their way back to the camp of Geronimo, their 
leader. When that chieftain heard that General Crook was in 
command and that all the Apaches of Arizona had come back 
as friends of the white man, he immediately sent out runners 
to notify all the tribe to come in. He then came in himself. 
Over 200 of the Chiricahuas finally gave themselves up and 
Arizona was at peace again under a just administrator. In 
two years, General Crook had restored to tranquillity a territory 
that would have taken a decade to conquer. How much blood- 
shed might have been saved in the seventies, had men such as 
Canby, Howard, Miles and scores of others been given complete 
control, is inestimable. As it was, untrained civilians by their 
connivings for gain, became the agitators who fomented war. 
While these activities were going on with the Indian, the 
army showed more signs of interior improvement. General 
P. St. George Cooke gave to the service a new Cavalry Tactics 
as the result of his experience and investigations. The manual 
is both interesting and instructive. He developed from previous 
recommendations the double column of fours so as to form 
mounted units into more compact bodies. He called the com- 
pany organization a "troop," for the first time it had so been 
April 23 
1883 
April 28 
1883 
May 1 
1883 
May 15 
1883 
July 
1883 
1883 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
361 
termed in regulations. He assigned the troop officers to posi- 
tions which are similar to the ones they now occupy and sized 
the troopers from the tallest in the middle to the shortest on 
either flank. 
Through the efforts of the Ordnance Department, the rifle 
was improved as far as it could be with the money allotted by 
Congress. Though the Lee magazine rifle had been adopted 
(1882) it could not be issued in large quantities because there 
seemed to be no funds for that sort of product. So the Spring- 
field model was improved as a single loader. It was fitted 
with the Buffington rear sight, which for the first time equipped 
our rifle with a device that allowed for the drift of the bullet. 
It was a 45-caliber weapon and shot fairly accurately at 200 
and 300 yards. To it could be attached '3 types of bayonet, the 
triangular, the spade or trowel, and the cylindrical ramrod.3 It 
was as good a single-shot, black-powder weapon as then existed, 
and the best the army could produce with the funds at hand. 
The blue uniform with red facings for artillery, sky blue 
for the infantry and yellow for the cavalry was not much 
changed in cut over that of the Civil War. The fatigue cap 
was somewhat lower in crown. 
The noncommissioned officers wore above the elbow large 
chevrons of cloth for the fatigue blouse and of gold for the 
dress coat. On overcoats the chevron was worn below the elbow. 
The fatigue coat had a low falling collar. 
Improvements in seacoast fortification had been let run along 
by the reluctance of Congress to such a degree that all sorts 
of guns of obsolete type presented a picturesque but useless 
array on our shores. Finally by suggestions of certain progres- 
sives in the army and House and Senate, an act was passed 
which authorized a board of officers to draw up a scheme of 
modern fortifications for our seacoast defenses. As a result the 
Endicott Board really enunciated the scheme of protection of 
our shores which proved twenty years later to be most useful. 
The recommendations contemplated the establishment of 2,362 
guns and emplacements. Up to the war with Spain only 151 
of these had been installed. 
1884 
Aug. 14 
1884 
March 3 
1885 
3 This weapon was largely used in the war with Spain. 362 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
To return to Arizona, we find that for two years General 
Crook had succeeded in keeping the Apaches satisfied, peaceful 
and industrious. Such conditions were evidently too drab for 
the Indian agents who felt that they had been robbed of their 
control in that vicinity. On one occasion they refused to let 
the Indians have an irrigating ditch which had been staked out 
by certain army officers. At various times the agents tried to 
throw aspersions on Captain Crawford's character because he 
had taken the Indians' part. They also allowed the sale of 
liquor to the savages. As long as greed and avarice were at 
the bottom of the civilian agents' motives, there naturally fol- 
lowed argument with the military man. The result was that 
the Indian was led into uncertainty. While authorities of the 
Interior Department haggled and when one white man would 
give an order or permission only to have it countermanded by 
another, it was impossible for the savage to discriminate between 
the parties at issue or to understand the causes of his treatment, 
lie did not know what to expect. As a result Geronimo and 
Nachez with 124 Chiricahuas left their reservation for the 
Sierra Madres. General Crook pursued the same tactics that 
had been so successful before. With Apache scouts, led by 
officers of the army and backed by the troops, he hunted down 
the warriors in their little groups. It was a taxing and endless 
job that occupied the summer and fall, but Geronimo, finally 
seeing the hopelessness of further struggle, sent word to General 
Crook that he desired a conference. It was not long before 
the general met him at a picturesque spot called "Canon de los 
Embudos." For several days Geronimo argued his point and 
refused to accept the terms offered, but when "Chihuahua," a 
fine old chieftain, voluntarily surrendered, Geronimo followed 
suit. But Geronimo was not yet ensconced upon the reserva- 
tion. On the way in, he must have changed his mind for he 
gave the troops the slip. It was at this time that General 
Crook was superseded by General Miles. With detachments, 
mostly of the Fourth Cavalry, the new commander followed 
up Crook's plan. But it was several months before the wily 
chieftain could be taken. Captain Lawton and Surgeon Leonard 
Wood rendered conspicuous service in finally capturing him. 
Although there were minor outbreaks of Apaches afterward, 
May 17 
1885 
March 27 
1886 
April 
1886 
July 
1886 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
363 
this episode marked the virtual end of the conflicts with these 
tribes. 
While Crook and others were rounding out the salvation 
of the Apaches with little bloodshed, the army in other parts 
was called upon to do a different sort of national police. The 
Chinese laborers in the mines of Wyoming were having violent 
troubles with their employers. When part of the army was 
called out to suppress this uprising, it did its usual work of 
restoring order with little bloodshed. 
The schools in the army were by this time on a fair road 
to substantial advancement. It was little thought, when 
Lieutenant Arthur L. Wagner was sent to Leavenworth as 
instructor of military art, that he was going to be such a great 
factor in developing the curriculum of that school. For eleven 
years he was to influence its standards, he being there without 
intermission throughout that time. It was during this period that 
he wrote the Campaign of Koniggratz (1889), The Service of 
Security and Information (1893) and Organization and Tactics 
(1895). These works were particularly needed by the service. 
They suited the requirements of all branches and remained for 
years standard authorities on these important phases of military 
instruction. They were the result of wide research and able 
condensation and suited to the everyday use of troops. Ever 
since their issue the service at large has been influenced by 
them. It was through Wagner's efforts that the courses at 
Leavenworth were raised to a higher standard, especially in the 
field of military art. His fine personality and tireless energy 
made him truly the Sylvanus Thayer of the General Service 
schools. 
From the impetus of the Leavenworth courses came a desire 
for more specific professional learning in the various branches 
of the service. Not only was it apparent that officers should 
be cognizant of strategy and tactics in general, but that they 
should also be experts in the technic and tactics of the various 
arms to which they belonged. After much persuasion, a "school 
of instruction" of drill and practice for cavalry and light artil- 
lery was authorized by Congress. Although the institution was 
not established until five years later, the authorization was at 
Sept., Oct. 
1885 
Nov. 
1886 
Jan. 29 
1887 364 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
least certain for future possibilities. At length, such a school 
was placed at Fort Riley, Kansas (March 14, 1892). 
While the army was improving its mind in order to be 
more efficient to fight, it was woefully deficient in materials for 
war. The large guns in the service seemed to be ill-supplied 
because of the usual lack of funds. Existing weapons and 
ammunition were obsolete. The 8-inch shell for instance had 
a cast-iron point and was unsuitable for armor-piercing pur- 
poses. Black powder was still in use at this late date in modern 
discovery. Tests were conducted by the Ordnance Department 
at Fort Hamilton, New York, with a pneumatic, dynamite, 
torpedo gun. The results as reported by the chief of that branch 
were fair, and he consequently recommended experiments with 
explosive gelatine or dynamite so as to increase the range and 
power of projectiles. But he later complained that Congress 
in its last two sessions had made no appropriations, so that 
experiments and the purchase of guns and ammunition for this 
purpose had to stop. 
However, the next year the Congress did appropriate a sum 
for experimenting on the Pacific coast with 3 pneumatic, dyna- 
mite guns. But it so happened that the Watertown Arsenal had 
to suspend work on rifles of large caliber, because the plants of 
Watervliet and Watertown were too small to accommodate the 
manufacture of both cannon and small arms. Since the latter 
were in demand by the army, they had to take precedence to 
the exclusion of the larger weapons. 
If lack of legislative attention deprived the army of many 
of its necessary tools, at least it could improve itself in its 
training and organization to the limit of its internal powers. 
The urge of progress in the service was growing rapidly and 
was manifesting itself in several ways. Where the work of the 
soldier was most tangled, where marching to and fro was in- 
cessant, where operating and guarding stage lines, quieting 
Indians, holding off desperadoes, allaying labor troubles and 
safeguarding the settlers was all in the work of the week, there 
was still time found for training. When it is realized that 1 
company of the Second Infantry in a short campaign against 
the Bannocks marched over 1,300 miles, it is remarkable that 
the units of the service could thus find time for betterment 
March 21 
1888 
April 24 
1888 
June 14 
1888 
June 
1889 
Spring 
1889 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
365 
toward no personal or selfish ends. An instance of such a thing 
is found in the field maneuvers of the Twenty-first Infantry 
at Camp George Crook near Fort Robinson, Nebraska. Not 
only was the practice beneficial, but it was the first time the 
regiment had been assembled for twenty years. 
Further, the service was anxious to better its standards and 
organization. The next year Congress was prevailed upon to 
pass a law which required no outlay of money. Promotion 
below the grade of brigadier general was to be within each arm, 
corps or department of the army. Officers could now be trans- 
ferred inside their branches without loss of rank entailed by 
the previous narrow limits of regimental promotion. The entire 
service by this move became more flexible in the interest of 
efficiency. To the same end this legislation provided for a 
rigid examination for promotion of all officers below the grade 
of major. 
While this progress was being fostered in the service, some 
sorry Indian troubles again come into prominence. The great 
Sioux nation on its various reservations had become saturated 
with a new religion whose principal tenet was that an Indian 
Messiah was shortly to come, who would give the red race 
domination over the white. The belief provoked a fanaticism 
that entailed fasting, vapor baths and ghost dances, and drove 
many of these superstitious people to leave their reservations. 
A large force of savages had collected in the Bad Lands, 1,800 
alone having stampeded to that place when General Brooke 
came to Pine Ridge with 5 companies of infantry and 3 of 
cavalry. Sitting Bull had been killed and a riot had ensued 
when the Indian police had tried to arrest the old medicine man. 
Sitting Bull's followers then made their escape to Big Foot's 
village, 40 miles to the northwest. It became a matter of 
moment then to keep Big Foot from slipping away into the 
Bad Lands, from which place incursions could be carried on 
at will. General Brooke ordered Colonel Forsyth to intercept 
Big Foot's band and to disarm the Indians peaceably if possible. 
With 2 battalions of the Seventh Cavalry and some Hotchkiss 
guns, Forsyth surrounded the camp at Wounded Knee Creek 
and invited the warriors to a council, whereupon 106 of them 
came out and sat on the ground in front of their tepees. The 
Summer 
1889 
June 16 
1890 
Dec. 15 
1890 
Dec. 29 
1890 366 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Indians were then sent in groups of 20 to bring out their arms. 
The first group could discover only two weapons, whereupon 
Forsyth had to order soldiers to search the premises. They 
found fifty rifles. While this operation was going on, one of 
the seated Indians drew a rifle from under his blanket and 
fired upon the soldiers. In a second the whole camp was ablaze. 
The other warriors who had similarly concealed their weapons 
opened at once upon the troops. Though taken by surprise, the 
soldiers soon collected themselves. The battle raged from a 
little after eight in the morning until three in the afternoon. 
There were little tactics involved, but each soldier went about 
his business in an orderly way. When it was seen that there 
was no more danger, Colonel Forsyth ordered his men to desist, 
saying, "We did not come here to butcher them." It had been 
a bloody affair, 146 Indians having to be buried on the field and 
about half that number of officers and soldiers having been killed 
or wounded. Colonel Forsyth took the remainder of the redmen 
back to the reservation. Some troops of the Sixth, Seventh, 
Eighth and Ninth Cavalry and Second and Twenty-first In- 
fantry then surrounded other errant bands. The work was 
taxing in this very cold winter and it was not what one might 
call holiday pleasure. While the soldiers on all sides were 
closing in, the Indians saw the hopelessness of further resistance 
and surrendered. To show the Indian the power of the white 
man, this large command, which finally included several regi- 
ments of infantry, was reviewed by General Miles in the pres- 
ence of the redmen. The warriors 'were so highly impressed 
that no further outbursts of a grave nature have since occurred 
with these tribes. 
Right upon the heels of this action came several internal 
improvements in the service. Congress passed a law which 
compelled the retirement of officers upon reaching the age of 
64. By opening up an unlimited list for those who were over 
age, men who had outgrown their fitness for activities in the 
field could be properly cared for. More efficient work could 
thus be had by younger men at the head of troops. 
This year also marks the first issue by the War Department 
of three separate sets of drill regulations for "Infantry, Cavalry 
and Artillery." They represented the work of the best minds 
Dec. 29 
1890 
Jan. 14 
1891 
Feb. 
1891 
Oct. 3 
1891 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
367 
of the service in contradistinction to the output of private 
publications. The infantry drill included "setting-up exercises" 
and a "bayonet exercise" by the count. Loading was executed 
quickly and without motions. The soldier half cocked his piece, 
opened the chamber at the breech, took out the empty shell, 
inserted a loaded one, closed the chamber and was ready to 
fire. For drill, such complicated movements as "fours right, 
left front into line faced to the rear" still persisted and showed 
traces of intricacy. But as a whole the marchings were com- 
paratively simple. For the cavalry, the troop in single rank 
was divided into 2, 3, or 4 platoons, depending upon the number 
of fours. The squadron consisted of not more than 4 and 
not less than 2 troops. For the artillery, the battery consisted 
of 2 or 3 platoons and a platoon of 2 sections. A section was 
composed of a piece with its caisson. Each carriage was drawn 
by six horses. The battery officers consisted of 1 captain and 
4 lieutenants. The gun detachment for field batteries was com- 
posed of 5 privates and 2 corporals; for heavier and sea- 
coast batteries, the service of the piece required more than that 
number. 
It was in the latter part of this year that troubles along 
the Rio Grande sprang up, much as they did twenty-five years 
later. One Garza was a leader of a large band of outlaws 
who committed depredations, stole property and killed Ameri- 
cans. His retinue was composed of bandits on both sides of 
the boundary line, who were liable to appear at any point 
between Brownsville and the source of the river. The troops 
had to cover tremendous distances and be ready to fight at any 
moment. The Third Cavalry, under Colonel Anson Mills, was 
conspicuous later in helping to quell these disturbances, which 
lasted over two years. 
It was at this period that the Ordnance Department made 
its great advance in small arms when it adopted a foreign rifle, 
the Krag-Jorgensen, and started this weapon's manufacture at 
the Springfield armory. Money for its production was so 
limited that it was all the department could do to supply the 
regular army. But the powder was at last smokeless and the 
weapon had a magazine which held 5 cartridges. Each cartridge 
was loaded with 40 grains of powder and a bullet .308 of an 
1891 
1892 368 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
inch in diameter. The muzzle velocity was about 2,000 feet 
per second. This was the most marked advance in small arms 
since the application of the percussion cap, and of much greater 
value, as shall be seen in a war which is soon to come. 
The next year hard times struck the country like an ava- 
lanche. Labor uprisings began to take place. The panic spread 
through most of the United States. The militia either would 
or could not quell these gigantic outbreaks. Mobs of the worst 
classes burned and looted cars. The Governor of Illinois re- 
fused to call out the militia of his state for the suppression 
of lawlessness. President Cleveland acted at once for the pro- 
tection of national mails and the restoration of order. The 
federal troops were ordered to the scene of difficulty, wherever 
they were available, and in every instance brought quietude 
with little or no bloodshed. In this connection it should be 
noted that the soldiers were used between 1886 and 1895 in 
328 different civil troubles extending through 49 states and 
territories.4 
These hard times, driving men from a livelihood in civil 
life, caused a tremendous number to apply for enlistment in 
the service. It was possible to recruit the army up to strength 
and to select the best men from among the many who applied. 
The result was the recruitment of an army enlisted personnel 
of such a quality as has seldom, if ever, been known in our 
history. Although it is a travesty on any nation to produce 
an army from the ashes of a labor conflagration rather than 
by direct inducement, the effect of this slump in business was 
to give to the regulars for the war that was approaching, an 
efficiency that served the country well. What Congress failed 
to create, Providence provided. 
While the army was taking on a more efficient complexion, 
rumors of Indian troubles again put some of its forces on the 
move. It seems that the Bannocks had been once more aroused. 
The difficulty arose when certain lawless civilians killed two 
Indians and one child while the latter were on a hunting expedi- 
tion. The Governor of Wyoming and the Indian agent at 
Fort Hall, Idaho, asked for troops on account of the resulting 
1893 
1894 
4 For fuller details see Appendix B. THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
369 
threatening attitude of the Bannocks toward the settlers. A 
squadron of the Ninth Cavalry and a battalion of the Eighth 
Infantry under Major Adna Chaffee were sent by rail to Market 
Lake, Idaho, whence they marched to the scene of possible 
trouble, in order to prevent collision between the Indians and 
the settlers. General Coppinger accompanied the expedition. 
When this force arrived at Jackson's Hole, the excitement 
promptly subsided. The main body was shortly withdrawn, but 
2 troops of the Ninth Cavalry remained at Jackson's Hole and 
Teton Pass in order to keep order until a judicial settlement of 
the affair could be made. 
These were times of improvement not only in schools, but 
in small arms and in drill regulations, about the only features 
the army could perfect without money. The Krag was rebuilt 
so as to make it a steadier and more dependable weapon for 
expert shots at long ranges. The powder was more carefully 
manufactured so as to give it greater uniformity. A separate 
drill regulation for light artillery and a new one for the 
cavalry, expanded the former regulations to meet the require- 
ments of the batteries and troops at full strength. 
The service was affected by the discovery of gold in the 
Yukon valley of Alaska which caused a tremendous rush to 
that region. To the army fell the lot of policing and exploring 
this vast unbroken stretch of valuable territory. The Fourteenth 
Infantry, and parts of the Twenty-fifth, Fourth, Second, 
Eighteenth Infantry and of the Eighth and Ninth Cavalry, for 
the next two years, were constantly at work surveying routes 
and estimating the resources of this new country. Through 
snow and ice, over glaciers and rivers, by snowshoe and reindeer 
sledge, they gained minute information as to the mineral re- 
sources, topography, vegetation, timber, animals, birds and in 
fact everything of commercial value. This inestimable knowl- 
edge was achieved in addition to the labor of policing the 
country and making it safe. 
In the United States proper the gradual conquering of the 
Indian and the growth of railroads helped the army to begin 
to concentrate in regimental units, so that it could train in the 
art of war. Of such preparation it had been heretofore deprived, 
because it had had to be scattered about in so many different 
July 31 
1895 
1896 
Fall 
1896 
1897 370 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
posts. All through the latter part of the nineties decided effort 
was made to collect the small isolated units, so that practice 
marches and small problems could be undertaken. For instance, 
the Twelfth Infantry had been concentrated at Buffalo (July 
26, 1887) for the first time it had been brought together since 
1869. Several other regiments later were likewise gathered in 
from various places. So the Leavenworth and Riley graduates 
were slowly being accorded opportunity to test the results of 
their courses in tactical, strategic, and logistical studies, as 
well as in technical knowledge. The regular army, although 
still well spread out, was more highly developed and efficient 
than at any time in our previous history. 
However, there were less than_J15jM)0 effective regulars 5 
against a population of J73,000,000 people, the smallest pro- 
portional regular force existing at the beginning of any of our 
wars, except the Revolution. Qongress for nearly thirty years 
had almost totally confined itself^!Tr4g»erfffg or 'paring and 
ciittiugTifFlancWerce^ wh ilc the territory of the country was 
expanding. OTrt-of-the 2,3B2 guns for seacoast"defense recom- 
mended by the Endicott Board, whose plans had been adopted, 
barely 6 per cent were in position. There were no adequate 
staff departments and no general staff. Though the War with 
Spain had been foreseen for some time, nothing had been done 
toward changing our ludicrous, defensive weakness, let alone 
our offensive incapacity. Even the militia law was more than 
one hundred years old. The Spanish army on a peace footing 
numbered 128,183, and for all we knew was well trained. The 
Beginning 
of 1898 
Departments 
Officers 
Men 
Infantry, 25 regiments 
877 
13,125 
6,170 
4,025 
Cavalry, 10 regiments 
432 
Artillery, 5 regiments 
280 
General and staff officers 
362 
Ordnance department 
56 
605 
Engineer department 
109 
500 
Hospital corps 
706 
Miscellaneous 
575 
Total 
2,116 
25,706 
5 Authorized strength of the Army THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
371 
militias of the various states as a whole had little understanding 
and less practical knowledge of conduct in war, mainly because 
of their negative treatment by legislators. The situation of the 
United States would have been comic had it not turned out to 
be tragic. 
Even after the battleship Maine had been blown up in 
Havana Harbor and war was inevitable, Congress, instead of 
building an army on broad and efficient lines, rejected the 
excellent Hull Bill and contented itself with simply adding to 
the regular forces 2 regiments of artillery.6 This move brought 
the regulars up to a paper strength of 28,747, almost 100,000 
less than the Spanish forces. 
When war was finally declared, the War Department ma- 
chinery found itself clogged with thirty years' mold. The 
management of small detachments, which already knew pretty 
well how to take care of themselves, was as much as had been 
necessary. The shrinkage and setbacks of the army during the 
previous three decades were most apparent in the offices in 
Washington. There the reflection of an overconfident and mili- 
tarily careless people was clearly mirrored. Humdrum methods 
and a tiny personnel brought little of value to an active, fighting 
force. What would happen were the Farmer's Bank of Smith- 
ville suddenly compelled to take over the business of the Bank 
of Commerce in New York City? Just what happened in our 
war offices at the outbreak of the war-an attempt to transform 
provincial methods into international facilities. And Congress 
had just crushed a bill which offered to remedy these defects. 
As a consequence, there were no accurate maps of the scene of 
activities and no secret information of the new enemy's re- 
sources. The commissary, quartermaster and medical depart- 
ments had, all told, only 258 officers fit to carry on luties in the 
field. In addition, the ordnance department had no modem 
guns and ammunition available, except for the little regular 
army. 
The regulars were still scattered over our wide country. 
One regiment, the Fourteenth, had to be brought later clear 
from Alaska to the front. Notwithstanding the news-stand size 
Feb. 15 
1898 . 
March 8 
1898 
April 25 
1898 
6 The Sixth and Seventh. 372 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of the War Department, it was not inert. Even before the 
declaration of war, being exasperated by the "masterful inac- 
tivity" of Congress, it had issued orders for the concentration 
of the infantry of the regular army at Tampa, Mobile and 
New Orleans.7 
While the regular soldiers were thus on the move, Congress 
decided as usual after we were committed to the conflict to 
make its own reorganization of the forces. All able-bodied male 
citizens between 18 and 45 were to be liable to military duty. 
The volunteer system of 1861 repeated itself with most of its 
mistakes. The enlistment was to be for two years or for the 
war, a term over which the recruit might gamble. For these 
temporary troops, the governors were to appoint officers in such 
a way that for any state or territory they would be in pro- 
portion to its population. Generals and higher staff officers 
were to be selected in Washington. Following this enactment 
the President issued a call for 125,000 volunteers. The next 
day legislation more than doubled the size of the regular army 
April 15 
1898 
April 22 
1898 
April 23 
1898 
April 24 
1898 
i The general officers of the regular army, just before the war, were 
Major Generals Miles (commanding the army), Merritt, and Brooke; 
Brigadier Generals Otis, Coppinger, Shafter, Graham, Wade and Merriam; 
and the heads of the staff bureaus: Brigadier Generals Greely (chief 
signal officer), Breckinridge (inspector general), Flagler (chief of ord- 
nance), Sternberg (surgeon-general), Lieber (Judge-Advocate-General), 
Stanton (paymaster general), Wilson (chief of engineers), Ludington 
(quartermaster-general), Corbin (adjutant general), and Eagan (com- 
missary general). 
The following army corps were organized during the war: 
Corps 
Commander 
Where organized 
Strength, 
June 30 
First 
Major General Brooke 
Camp Thomas 
58,548 
Third 
Major General Wade 
Second 
Major General Graham 
Camp Alger 
23.511 
Fourth 
Major General Coppinger 
Mobile 
20,816 
Fifth 
Major General Shafter 
Tampa 
15,736 
Sixth 
Major General Wilson 
Seventh 
Major General Lee 
Tampa (moved to Jackson- 
ville) 
19,156 
Eighth 
Major General Merritt 
San Francisco and Manila 
22,989 
The Sixth Corps was never organized; General Wilson was assigned to 
command 
a division of the First Corps. 
Corps Organized during War THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
373 
(62,597 men) by allowing the smaller units to recruit to larger 
strength and by adding a third battalion to a regiment in time of 
war. Another second lieutenant was given to each artillery battery. 
The war pay of the soldier, now that the volunteer appeared, 
was increased 20 per cent. But Congress was wary. It was 
careful to provide that as soon as hostilities were over the army 
should return to its former impotent size. 
Such disjointed and impractical legislation could hardly give 
birth to anything other than hectic results. It was the same 
old story over again with the recruit, who preferred to go into 
the volunteers where he found comrades and an easier life. 
Neither could the regular army gain the numbers authorized 
by Congress before being launched into the scene of activities. 
Provision for adequate staff departments was still wanting, and 
volunteer office seekers overran Washington. 
The plan for concentration camps at the southern ports had 
to be abandoned before being carried out, because these places 
were unsuitable for troops. Two other concentration points 
were designated-Camp Alger at Falls Church, Virginia; and 
Camp Thomas at Chickamauga, Tennessee. From these places 
troops could then be sent to Tampa, Jacksonville and Fernan- 
dina, Florida. The Seventeenth (regular) Infantry was the 
first to move from Columbus Barracks, Ohio, toward Chicka- 
mauga. Indeed, the trained forces were naturally the only ones 
for some time to show signs of mobility, because they were the 
most ready. 
The volunteers who flocked to respond to the first call of 
the President were generally in a sad state of uselessness. 
Although a few were well equipped with uniforms and equip- 
ment and under excellent control by their officers, the greater 
part lacked so much discipline, equipment and organization that 
they proved to be as much of a menace to friend as foe. On 
the other hand, the comparatively good volunteer regiments were 
so in spite of the neglect they had suffered. 
Congress now began to reek with measures for a more ade- 
quate force. Our highest legislative body at this juncture in 
war reminds one of the calf that had to have its ears pulled 
off to get it to the cow and its tail pulled off to get it away. 
A volunteer brigade of engineers was allowed, as was also an 
April 18 
1898 
May 11 
1898 374 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
May 12 
1898 
additional force of 10,000 enlisted men who should be immune 
to tropical diseases. The Medical Corps was increased by 15 
assistant surgeons and as many contract surgeons as might be 
required. A volunteer signal corps for service during the war 
and 2 additional assistant adjutant generals were also provided. 
This medley of acts was largely useless as later events proved. 
The country was again to learn that it is difficult to make up 
for lack of intelligent forehandedness. 
Against General Miles' advice the President issued a second 
call for 75,000 men. The General thought that 50,000 highly 
trained soldiers would be better than a mass who could not be 
so easily disciplined and handled, and might simply be a burden 
to the country. We shall see the dire effects of ignoring Gen- 
eral Miles' suggestion. 
Then, Congress made provision for allowing regular officers 
to hold staff appointments in the volunteers without losing rank 
and grade in the army. This measure was good, as it had shown 
itself to be in the Civil War. 
While all this legislation was taking place our potentiality 
was in chaos. Volunteers of every variety were rushing to 
enlist, and then trying to struggle to the front. Dewey had 
won his battle of Manila and was waiting at Cavite for troops 
in order to take and occupy that city. Little expeditions with 
arms, ammunition and supplies had tried with more or less 
success to land at Cuban ports so as to give their cargoes to our 
allies in that country. Lieutenant Rowan had delivered his 
message to Garcia after a most racking and winding journey 
through tropical forests and over tortuous mountains. In a 
small fishing smack he had safely returned. But the army was 
not on the move. Supplies of all sorts were lacking, and Tampa 
had but a single-track railroad. For the troops that had assem- 
bled there, this was an irritating and protracted delay. One 
correspondent termed it the "rocking chair period." But the 
trained regulars were not idle. Drills and practice in making 
hasty intrenchments were the incessant work of troops under 
General Shafter. The movements and character of our soldiers, 
as they charged through the palmetto groves, rode their horses 
through the streams and worked with the precision of a fine 
machine, brought forth the highest comments from the foreign 
May 18 
1898 
May 25 
1898 
May 28 
1898 
May 1 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
375 
attaches. One war correspondent when admiring the physiques 
of these rugged, cheerful and canny men, remarked that it was 
only a pity there were not more of them. 
But the supervision of the corps with its small and impro- 
vised staff could not overcome the difficulties that foresight 
alone should have prevented. The populace as usual was crying 
"On to Havana" as it had previously done with Boston, Canada, 
Mexico and Richmond. There was the customary shortage of 
rifles, ammunition, supplies, clothing and even food. Beside 
the regulars, there was a great lot of excellent youth-un- 
trained. There were box cars on the sidings with provisions 
and clothing of many varieties, but the outside was unlabeled. 
An officer looking for beans would open a car to find patent- 
leather shoes. The volunteer soldiers were sometimes seen beg- 
ging for food in the streets, while supplies in the cars lay rot- 
ting. There were no storage facilities. The docking space at 
Port Tampa was so limited that there was room for only eight 
vessels out of the thirty troop ships collected. Once, in docking, 
two vessels collided with serious injury to one boat. 
But the administration in Washington grew so impatient to 
have the troops be off that urgent messages were sent to embark. 
General Miles was instructed to send 70,000 troops to Havana. 
When it was shown that there was not enough ammunition for 
such a command to fight one battle against 125,000 Spanish 
troops w'ell armed with Mausers and protected by the strongest 
kind of fortifications, there was pause. General Shafter was 
then ordered to proceed to Mariel on the north coast of Cuba 
and establish himself there, but the navy could not furnish the 
requisite number of convoys. Orders were then issued to take 
12,000 troops to Key West, but this plan had to be abandoned, 
because of the unsuitability of that place for soldiers, especially 
on account of the dearth of water. In the meantime the War 
Department was taxed to its utmost capacity, because the mili- 
tary forces were now bloated abnormally by the influx of thou- 
sands of volunteers.8 
May 8 
1898 
May 10 
1898 
8 During the war, camps were established for military purposes at 
Tampa, Fla.; Mobile, Ala.; Camp George H. Thomas, Ga.; Camp Alger, 
Va.; Camp Poland, Knoxville, Tenn.; Jacksonville, Fla.; Miami, Fla.; 
Fernandina, Fla.; Camp Wikoff, N. Y.; Camp Hamilton, near Lexington, 376 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Finally General Miles left Washington for Tampa. There 
he found the disorder that always follows national apathy. 
Troops had to be camped so far from each other on account of 
sanitary and water facilities that there could be little coopera- 
tion. It was impossible for receiving officers to supply the 
organizations quickly. The loading of transports was chaos. 
A battery would be placed on one vessel and its ammunition on 
another. Regiments were broken up and scattered among the 
troop ships. Medical stores were placed in the hold under all 
sorts of other freight. Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt, in trying 
to get aboard the transport assigned to his Rough Riders, found 
it already occupied by 2 other regiments. General Miles wired 
Washington: 
"This expedition has been delayed through no fault of any 
one connected with it. It contains the principal part of the 
army which for intelligence and efficiency is not exceeded by 
any body of troops on earth. It contains fourteen of the best- 
conditioned regiments of volunteers, the last of which arrived 
this morning. Yet these have never been under fire. Between 
thirty and forty per cent are undrilled, and in one regiment 
over three hundred men had never fired a gun." 
Then the President directed that the Fifth Corps sail at once 
with whatever force was ready. Nearly 16,000 men were 
crammed into the troop ships. The decks were so full that there 
was scarcely room to stir. Men who had brought blankets and 
overcoats lay down beside men in white and khaki trousers. 
There was every kind of hat from plain straw to sombrero. The 
June 5 
1898 
Ky.; Camp George G. Meade, Pa.; Camp Wheeler, Huntsville, Ala.; and 
Camp Shipp, Anniston, Ala. 
Officers 
Men 
Total 
Volunteer Army on May 30, 1898 
Volunteer Army on June 30 
Volunteer Army on July 31 
Volunteer Army on August 31 
6,224 
7,169 
8,633 
8,785 
118,580 
153,355 
203,461 
207,244 
124,804 
160,524 
212,094 
216,029 
Volunteer Army, May 30 to August 31, 1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
377 
heat and odors made men temporarily ill. But after their tor- 
ment they were off at last, and every one breathed satisfaction 
and hope. But joy was short-lived. Some of the navy convoy 
had sighted what were supposed to be Spanish war vessels, all 
of which were then thought to be bottled up in Santiago Harbor. 
The Fifth Corps at sea was turned back to Key West. There 
it waited in anxiety, disappointment and discomfort. Finally,., 
came the verification that Cervera's fleet was just where it was 
supposed to be-in Santiago Harbor. And the transports 9 
again set sail for the southeastern end of Cuba. 
The voyage was not one of unadulterated pleasure. Those 
who wTere putting to sea for the first time, never wanted to go 
again. When the roughness of an inter-island passage is com- 
bined with crowding, poor food, little water, pine cots, the 
neighing of horses and the noxious odors of congestion, the 
traveler desires land and land only. The boats moved at the 
rate of seven miles an hour, four miles an hour and often not at 
all. Though disheartened, this body of men, most of whom 
were fine specimens of manhood and well trained, were only 
waiting to get a foothold on land so as to have this whacking 
business over with in able style. 
While they were still on their voyage, Congress was in 
process of passing another military law. Though the act seems 
out of harmony with the happenings of the day, it was neverthe- 
less a good one. It authorized the summary court or trial of 
enlisted men by a single officer. More speedy and simple 
justice could thus be rendered and much red tape and overhead 
saved. There was not much that Congress could now do, but it 
was trying hard to show interest after the country had let mili- 
tary training fall into dry rot. 
By the time the troops reached Daiquiri, they were very 
ready to go ashore. But the civilian captains of the transports, 
who apparently were not amenable to orders, thought otherwise. 
They actually feared so much for the safety of their ships and 
themselves, that they refused even in this critical moment to go 
near the land. They stubbornly remained from two to twenty 
miles from shore. And they were thus immovable in the face of 
June 13,14 
1898 
June 18 
1898 
June 20 
1898 
9 For exact organizations and commanders, see Appendix N. 378 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the fact that the Navy had so pounded the Cuban coast that 
what Spanish troops were there had fled inland. It took a great 
part of a day to locate one of the troop ships. In this state of 
affairs every boat and launch of the navy had to be utilized in 
the transfer. Since there were no lighters and flats, the animals 
had to be dropped into the water and made to swim ashore. 
Some fifty of them became confused, swam out to sea and were 
drowned. The movement of officers and men from vessel to 
vessel was so dangerous in the rough sea, that Colonel Van 
Hom received a mortal injury. Two men drowned in getting 
to shore because of the absence of landing facilities. Five days 
were thus occupied in getting the Fifth Corps from the water 
to the sands. Finally some 6,000 under Lawton found them- 
selves at Daiquiri and the remainder at Siboney under Wheeler. 
No more than the supplies for daily consumption could be 
placed on shore until two weeks later. 
Shafter's plan was to have Lawton occupy a strong de- 
fensive position between Santiago and Siboney, and Bates secure 
some point between Siboney and Daiquiri. But General 
Wheeler, eager for the fray, sent General Young to attack the 
enemy in the vicinity of Las Guasimas, which lay in the direc- 
tion of San Juan. 
Young advanced in 2 columns with the First and Tenth 
Cavalry on the left and the Rough Riders on the right.10 He 
had only 2 guns and they were limited to 50 rounds of am- 
munition all told, although the Tenth had a Hotchkiss battery. 
The columns deployed in the thick jungle. To any one who has 
never seen a tropical forest, it is impossible to picture the 
density of these Cuban copses. Spanish bayonets that jag and 
arrest, matted vines that form layers of strong walls and under- 
growth that ties the feet to the ground, make progress nigh 
impossible without a machete or large knife. Hampering the 
progress still more, the Spaniards poured in a hot fire. The 
troopers, advancing cautiously through these indescribable 
thickets and wire fences, could not see their targets and there- 
fore could not reply to the fusillade. Colonel Wood's command 
June 25 
1898 
June 24 
1898 
i° All the cavalry acted as foot soldiers. There were few horses and 
it is doubtful if they could have been used in this campaign. The Rough 
Riders really became dogged walkers. THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
379 
(then immediately led by Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt) while 
deploying late, was caught in column. Several of its members 
fell, and Sergeant Hamilton Fish was killed. But the whole 
line broke its way onward until the men could see the enemy, 
when they opened fire. The regulars pressing in front and the 
Rough Riders on the flank, caused the Spaniards behind their 
strong intrenchments to leave in haste. The whole engagement 
had occupied but an hour and a half. Considering the fact that 
the Rough Riders had received their Krags only the day before 
and were not familiar with them, great credit is due them in this 
action. And of course, the regulars acted as troops of long 
training should. The men were all so exhausted by the intense 
heat and fatigue that they could not pursue. 
During the delay of six days, while General Shafter, suf- 
fering with gout, remained on the transports, and General 
Wheeler, the senior on shore, was straightening out his lines a 
little beyond Las Guasimas, from where El Caney lay to his 
right front and San Juan before him, another expedition was in 
progress on the Pacific. After having captured Guam where 
there was no resistance offered, General Anderson pushed on 
toward Manila. He had 2,491 men: the First California, the 
Second Oregon and 6 companies of the Fourteenth Infantry. 
Two months after Dewey had won his fight against the Spanish 
squadron at Manila, the first troops of the United States reached 
him. In the meantime, he had had to sit passively at Cavite, 
because he had no landing forces. Once he felt he would have 
to quit the island when he received rumors that a Spanish 
fleet was leaving Spain. 
On the very day that Anderson arrived at Manila, General 
Shafter, who by now had alighted upon the Cuban shores, 
decided to strike at once. In the meantime, General Duffield 
with the Thirty-third and part of the Thirty-fourth Michigan 
volunteers had landed from Camp Alger. But this reenforce- 
ment was more of an embarrassment than a help, principally 
because of the lack of supplies. Shafter had not been able to 
land his heavy guns and the diseases of the rainy season were 
imminent. He himself said: 
J line 20 
1898 
June 30 
1898 
June 27 
1898 
"These preparations were far from what I desired them to 380 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
be, but we were in a sickly climate; our supplies bad to be 
brought forward by a narrow wagon road which the rains might 
at any time render impassable; fear was entertained that a 
storm might drive the vessels containing our stores to sea, thus 
separating us from our base of supplies; and, lastly, it was 
reported that General Pando, with 8,000 reenforcements for the 
enemy, was en route from Manzanillo, and might be expected in 
a few days." 
Lawton's division, supported by Bates' brigade and Cap- 
ron's battery, were to assault El Caney at daybreak the next 
day. The other 2 divisions were to march directly toward 
Santiago by the road through San Juan, with Kent on the left 
and Wheeler on the right. The Thirty-fourth Michigan back 
at Siboney was to be the reserve. General Duffield from that 
point was to threaten the Spanish detachment on the left at 
Fort Aguadores. 
General Lawton marched all night, and, due to General 
Chaffee's fine personal reconnaissance, was in position by day- 
break. The attack upon El Caney was to be a slow affair. It 
does not portray the conditions to say that the country was 
thick, the enemy's blockhouses scattered and the Spaniard's 
resistance more fierce and heroic than at any other time during 
the war. Little by little in the maze, dimness and heat, the 
regiments closed in semicircular order upon the enemy. Since 
it was difficult to keep in touch, and the fire of the enemy was 
destructive, it took many hours to work slowly through the 
obstacles of man and nature. The Massachusetts regiment, the 
only volunteers with Lawton, had to be withdrawn because their 
old black-powder rifles were ineffective and simply threw up 
clouds of smoke which drew effective fire from the fortified 
enemy. It was three o'clock before the lines were in a position 
which averaged a distance of about a thousand yards from the 
enemy. Lawton's one little obsolete battery of artillery was in- 
effective. And so it turned out to be an infantry, bushwhacking 
fight. 
In the meantime, Sumner and Kent had formed their di- 
visions so as to pass through the dense country to one of the 
streams in their front, and thence through cultivated fields and 
July 1 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
381 
over high ridges to their goal of San Juan. It took the 2 
divisions more than six hours to advance through the woods to 
the first stream. The fighting thereafter reminds one of the 
individual methods of Resaca de la Palma. These troops suf- 
fered most of their losses while they were advancing through 
narrow and crowded trails and thick country and before they 
could reply to the fire of the Mauser bullets coming from an 
unknown direction. The soldiers generally displayed heroism, 
fortitude and dogged determination while all this was happen- 
ing. The great exception was that of a well-known volunteer 
regiment whose officers skulked in large measure and whose 
men, therefore, except small detachments who joined the regu- 
lars, did likewise. While regular officers and soldiers were 
being killed and wounded, these untrained men hid along the 
trail. The regular cavalry and Colonel Leonard Wood's regi- 
ment could not keep such an orderly advance as Kent's infantry, 
principally because of the thicker country over which they had 
to operate. But they all plodded along heroically except the 
one volunteer regiment. The following is an extract from the 
report of the inspector general who was on the scene during 
this defection.11 
"As stated, the Sixth and Sixteenth United States Infantry 
took the right-hand fork. General Kent indicated the left-hand 
route to Col. W. A. Downe's regiment, the Seventy-first New 
York Volunteers, an organization then having present for duty 
44 officers and 855 men, 3 battalions, commanded as follows: 
First, Major W ; Second, Major W ; Third, Major 
K . The First Battalion headed into the left-hand trail, 
but retreated or hunted cover in a panic occasioned by the 
explosion near by of a shrapnel and the loss of some of the 
Seventy-first's men. 
"General Kent and every officer of his staff ineffectively 
tried by mandate, persuasion, and action to force the battalion 
into and along the pathway, but the men were thoroughly and, 
11 This inspector, afterwards a brigadier general in the regular army, 
before his death gave to the author the only copy of this report known to 
be in existence. The Secretary of War had ordered all the copies burned 
immediately after their printing, but the inspector saved one for himself. 382 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
all things considered, naturally demoralized. Confusion en- 
sued, and the left-hand route to San Juan was congested by the 
First Battalion of the Seventy-first, some of the men of which 
prostrated themselves in the path. The majority of them crept 
into the bushes lining the route. The Third Battalion, Seventy- 
first New York Volunteers, Major K commanding Com- 
panies B, L, K, and E, was headed in by officers of General 
Kent's staff, encouraged by the division commander himself. 
"This battalion passed somewhat farther into and along the 
left trail than the preceding one of the same regiment had done, 
but the tendency of the regiment was so obvious that it was 
apparent the Seventy-first as an organization, could not be 
gotten into its proper position, viz., on the left of the Sixth 
and Sixteenth United States regiments of infantry. The in- 
decision of the occasion caused confusion, and the action of the 
Seventy-first New York Volunteers blocked the advance of the 
Third Brigade. 
"Major Sharpe ran to order the Third Brigade to pass the 
position of the Seventy-first, panic stricken, as stated. He was 
aided in this duty by every officer of the division staff, includ- 
ing General Kent; and, without hesitation, the Ninth United 
States (Lieutenant Colonel Ewers), the Thirteenth (Lieu- 
tenant Colonel Liscum), 73 officers and 1,345 men, swung into 
the left path over and past the Seventy-first New York, and 
kept steadily on, exposed to a vicious fire from an, as yet to 
them, unseen foe." 
Although this is a plain statement of facts, the Seventy-first 
New York should not be made to bear censure or ignominy. 
Suppose some of their officers did funk the fight. Suppose, too, 
that some of the men skulked in the bushes. What was the 
cause? A man ignorant of the habits of bugs and bees finds 
himself in an apiary. He is asked suddenly to open a hive and 
take out some honey. He hesitates, balks and finally refuses. 
He is keenly alive to the thousand darting stings that lurk 
within and swarm without. On the other hand, the keeper of 
the place walks boldly up to the hive and with a few deft move- 
ments takes out a toothsome comb. Could it be said that either 
of these men was more cowardly by nature than the other? THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
383 
Their only difference in this instance lies in knowledge and 
training. Transform the stings of the bees into deadly bullets 
and the hives into blockhouses full of hostile, thinking, human 
beings, and we have the situation of the Seventy-first New 
York, as opposed to the troops of long training and discipline. 
It is the old story of the use and abuse of amateurs in war. 
These New York men had patriotically volunteered, had 
left their homes, business and pleasure, and had undergone 
great hardship. They were the victims of those superficial 
politicians who loudly contend that you can develop a clerk into 
a soldier overnight without murdering him or holding him up 
to shame in battle. 
To go on with the story, the rest of the fight was mainly 
carried on by regular troops. Little clusters here and there 
climbed slowly the heights of San Juan. The men fired in 
groups, standing up in the long grass to take aim. Right along 
with the regulars went the Rough Riders. If they can be criti- 
cized at all, it is that their eagerness sometimes exceeded their 
technic, so that a colored regular regiment had to extricate them 
at one point. But they were picked men of no little experi- 
ence in war or actions kindred to war. There was some artil- 
lery firing, when most of the troops were near the summit, and 
finally the garrison of the main blockhouse went flying, pur- 
sued by a murderous fire from the Tenth and Colonel Wood's 
cavalry. The cavalry that had taken Kettle Hill was also 
closing in, and before dark San Juan was in possession of the 
United States forces. Lawton over at El Caney had had a 
severe task in taking that position. In spite of orders to with- 
draw, he pressed on and reached his goal. At the end of the 
day San Juan and El Caney were both held by the American 
soldiers. Trained regular troops had again demonstrated their 
ability to go forward in spite of superhuman difficulties and 
sometimes superannuated leadership. The casualties for the 
day amounted to 593 of whom 94 had been killed. 
For the next few days the time was spent in straightening 
out the lines before Santiago proper and in trying to adjust the 
difficulty of taking care of the sick and wounded. 
Though every possible precaution had been taken to guard 
against the fevers of the rainy season, in this time when the 384 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
men were abnormally fatigued, unacclimated and ignorant of 
the danger from mosquitoes, officers and soldiers in large per- 
centage were prostrate with dengue, malarial and yellow fever 
and with dysentery. Due to the nation's previous lassitude 
during peace, there were no replacements at hand. Those who 
might come would be unready. Shafter was fearful that he 
would lose his only efficient troops right here when he was so 
close to his final objective. Surgeons, ambulances and medical 
supplies of all sorts were wanting, and the casualties from dis- 
ease were beyond reason. This frightful condition calls to 
mind the splendid reduction of the Medical Department by the 
bright men of a previous Congress in the seventies. It is a 
fortunate thing that the Santiago forces were poorer in quality 
than our troops. For later, great boatloads of our stricken sol- 
diers had to be transported to Montauk Point, Long Island. So 
just as the army was about to obtain its objective it dwindled 
to a fraction of its former self with no recnforcements in sight. 
While the lines were being intrenched for investment of 
Santiago, Sampson destroyed the Spanish fleet which had tried 
to make its escape. This victory saved the troops from a 
perilous position and put the Spaniard on the defensive. Al- 
though some 5,000 Spanish reenforcements had been allowed to 
slip through into Santiago by the Cubans, the enemy's added 
strength was not vital now. Our troops occupied their time in 
lengthening the entrenchments about the city. Although 
4 field batteries and some field mortars were our only artillery, 
the lines were extended for the effective troops until they prac- 
tically encircled Santiago. 
During this time negotiations for a surrender were opened 
by Shafter. Tor al, the Spanish commander, made an offer of 
capitulation of the city with the reservation that his troops be 
allowed unmolested and without arms to go to Holguin. Al- 
though this audacious overture was acceptable to Shafter, it 
was not tolerated at Washington. Shafter then felt himself 
forced to try to take the city. Accordingly he warned the Span- 
ish authorities that he would open fire the next day. The bom- 
bardment was begun according to his threat, and lasted two days 
while being supported by our fleet. The loss of life was nat- 
urally small, but the destruction to buildings large. 
July 3 
1898 
July 3 
1898 
July 8 
1898 
July 10 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
385 
During the latter part of this fire display, General Miles 
arrived from Washington. He brought with him the Sixth 
Massachusetts and part of the Sixth Illinois under command of 
Brigadier General Henry. During the preceding two days the 
First Illinois, the First District of Columbia and the Eighth 
Ohio Infantry, with 6 batteries of artillery under command of 
Brigadier General Randolph, had been landed. 
Negotiations now took a more definite turn. Several con- 
ferences between the commanders ensued, but the Spaniards 
were sparring for time in order to get as good terms as possible. 
Finally it was settled that the surrender was to be unconditional 
and that the Spanish troops were to be conveyed at the expense 
of the United States back to Spain. The capitulation was then 
signed by all parties. 
Thus ended the main action in the war with Spain. It was 
well it turned out so, for doubtless we should have lost 5,000 
troops in taking the barricaded and barbed-wired city. 
The formal surrender, when the United States troops 
marched in and hoisted the American flag, took place two days 
later. 
The Santiago campaign was the most primitive in char- 
acter. The science the army had taken so much pains to learn 
might, under such condition, be thought to be wasted. But since 
teamwork, discipline, decision and control are stressed par- 
ticularly in theoretical tactics, maybe the work had not been in 
vain. 
It remains now to follow two campaigns occurring simul- 
taneously in a large island in the Pacific and a small one in the 
Atlantic. 
While the battles of San Juan and El Caney were in prog- 
ress in the Western Hemisphere, Anderson, it will be remem- 
bered, had landed at Cavite in the Eastern. The troops under 
him could do little more than to reconnoiter and prepare a new 
camp-Camp Dewey-for Greene's brigade which was ex- 
pected to arrive. When Brigadier General Greene made his 
appearance, he had with him a battalion each of the Eigh- 
teenth and Twenty-third Infantry, the First Colorado, the 
First Nebraska and the Tenth Pennsylvania Infantry, and 2 
batteries of Utah Volunteer Artillery-about '3,586 men all 
July 11 
1898 
July 15 
1898 
July 17 
1898 
July 1 
1898 
July 17 
1898 386 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
told. General Greene then placed his troops in Camp Dewey 
and General Anderson remained at Cavite. Major General 
Merritt, the commander, next arrived with his staff. Later 
Brigadier General MacArthur brought his brigade, consisting 
of the Thirteenth Minnesota, the First North Dakota, the First 
Idaho, the First Wyoming and 1 battalion each of the Eigh- 
teenth and Twenty-third Infantry. The Astor Battery, a gift 
of John Jacob Astor, completed MacArthur's force, making a 
total for his brigade of 4,847. General Merritt now had nearly 
11,000 men, with the prospect of nearly 5,000 more, who were 
on their way. 
The very day General Merritt arrived in Manila Bay, Gen- 
eral Miles with the Sixth Massachusetts, the Sixth Illinois 
Infantry, 275 recruits and 2 batteries each of the Third, 
Fourth and Fifth Artillery, arrived at Guanica on the southern 
coast of Porto Rico. He had left Cuba as promptly as he could. 
One by one the little towns and garrisons of the province of 
Santiago had surrendered when approached by army officers 
bearing the news of the fall of the city. General Miles then 
saw that there was nothing to interfere with his expedition to 
Porto Rico. Taking with him only this small force that had 
not been touched by disease, he sailed away, leaving eastern 
Cuba in possession of the ailing Shafter and his stricken troops. 
Arriving at Guanica, Miles took the town with no resistance. 
Next day General Garretson moved on Yauco four miles 
toward San Juan (de Porto Rico) "with 6 companies of the 
Sixth Massachusetts and 1 of the Sixth Illinois. When near 
the hacienda, Santa Desidera, the fire of a small Spanish force 
spread confusion to 3 of the Massachusetts companies, who, 
however, were soon rallied, and pressed forward, causing the 
Spaniards to retreat and leave the road open to Ponce. At that 
seacoast town the next day Major General Ernst arrived with 
the Second and Third Wisconsin and Sixteenth Pennsylvania 
Infantry. The garrison at Ponce at once fled, leaving these 
troops a free landing, which they made the next day. Miles 
now knowing that he had a firm foothold on the south of the 
island, waited for the troops which he knew to be on the way. 
In three days, Brigadier General Schwan arrived from Tampa 
with the Eleventh and Nineteenth Infantry, 1 troop of the Sec- 
July 25 
1898 
July 30 
1898 
July 25 
1898 
July 26 
1898 
July 27 
1898 
J uly 28 
1898 
July 31 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
387 
end Cavalry and 2 batteries of the Seventh Artillery. Major 
General Brooke and Brigadier General Hains brought from 
Newport News the Third Illinois, the Fourth Ohio, the Fourth 
Pennsylvania, 1 company of the Eighth Infantry, 1 troop of 
the Sixth Cavalry, the Philadelphia City Troop, 2 troops of 
New York cavalry and Rodney's battalion of artillery. Gen- 
eral Miles' plan was simple and well executed. Four columns 
were to march by different routes covering the entire island and 
to converge on San Juan, where the fleet was. When that 
stronghold would be taken the whole country would be in the 
hands of the United States. As he had saved the army from, 
annihilation by frustrating the politicians' proposed attack on 
Havana instead of Santiago, so now he went into the back door 
of Porto Rico, while the front door was heavily guarded. 
The columns must be taken up separately in order to under- 
stand what happened. General Schwan had the extreme west- 
ern end of the island to cover with a small force of regulars 
(1,447 men), of the Eleventh Infantry, 1 troop of the Fifth 
Cavalry, 1 battery of Gatling guns, and 2 batteries of the Sev- 
enth Artillery. At Hormigueros he came upon over a thousand 
of the enemy posted on strong heights. Schwan's troops had to 
deploy in the fields, break through sugar cane and wire fences 
and pass over creeks under fire. As they came steadily on and 
approached the hills, the garrison fled. Next day he entered 
Mayaguez, a city of 22,000, with loss of 1 man killed and 6 
wounded. Drenching rain and the fatigue of his men pre- 
vented pursuit of the enemy. The next day 6 companies of 
infantry, a platoon of cavalry and 2 guns pushed along with 
great difficulty into the mountains. Schwan followed with the 
remainder of his cavalry and directed his other forces to come 
after him as soon as possible. Toward Las Marias some 2,000 
Spaniards had collected. The American regulars, though out- 
numbered, went forward as fast as they could to attack the Span- 
iards on the crest of a high ridge. After Schwan's men had 
poured in a heavy fire the Spaniards retreated, leaving a highly 
disorganized rear guard in their wake. Most of this latter force 
was captured, as was the Spaniard's commander, Colonel Soto. 
Schwan was about to complete his victory and attack Lares, 
when word reached him that the peace protocol between Spain 
Aug. 10 
1898 
Aug. 11 
1898 
Aug. 12 
1898 388 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and the United States had been signed. This news ended the 
lighting for him. 
The next column toward the east was Henry's. After 
he left Ponce, the going in the rough, hilly country was 
slow. He had only oxcarts to haul his supplies. Aside from a 
battalion of the Nineteenth Infantry and a troop of the Second 
Cavalry, his command consisted of raw, unseasoned regiments 
of volunteers. The discipline of the Massachusetts regiment on 
the march and in camp had been bad in the vicinity of Ponce, 
and in the subsequent advance. Their actions before Yauco 
had been what you would expect of raw troops under political 
guidance. After several of the officers resigned on the threat of 
being placed before a board of inquiry, things in the regiment 
went better. But there -was a great deal of straggling on the 
march. Only nine miles "were covered the first day, and the 
troops did not all reach Adjuntas (12 miles north of Ponce) 
until two days later. When the news of the protocol came, 
Henry was at Utuado with his regulars and 2 battalions of his 
Massachusetts regiment, preparing to advance upon Arecibo. 
General Wilson's third column, farther to the east, consisted 
of Ernst's brigade of the Sixteenth Pennsylvania, the Second 
and Third Wisconsin and 2 regular batteries of artillery. They 
had just exchanged at Ponce their black-powder rifles for new 
Krags with which they were unfamiliar. They first marched 
east in order to take the central road direct to San Juan. Gen- 
eral Wilson's service of information -was so good that he knew 
that a strong force of Spaniards were preparing to meet him 
at Aibonita. On the way to that town a strong outpost of 
Spaniards was discovered at Coamo. The Pennsylvania regi- 
ment after bivouacking in the hills all night, marched twelve 
miles over a difficult passage through the mountains and out- 
flanked the Spaniards, who fled to Aibonita, leaving their dead 
commander. The Pennsylvanians marched into Coamo with 
201 prisoners. Pushing on, General Wilson sent his troop of 
New York Cavalry ahead, which established an outpost five 
miles in advance, where they came under the fire of the Spanish 
batteries. For two days General Wilson reconnoitered the 
strong Aibonita position and brought up the remainder of his 
forces. He decided on another flanking movement. Sending 
Aug. 8 
1898 
Aug. 8 
1898 
Aug. 10 
1898 
Aug. 9 
1898 
Aug. 10,11 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
389 
General Ernst over a mountain trail to the left, he hoped to 
take the place from the rear. In the meantime he had engaged 
the Spaniard's attention by the use of his battery. The black 
powder of the artillery brought only a hot fire from the Span- 
iards, so that the battery had to be withdrawn. It lost in 
killed 1 officer, 1 man, and in wounded 6 men. General Wilson 
then, understanding that at any minute he might be ordered to 
suspend hostilities, delayed Ernst's flanking movement and 
called upon the Spaniards to surrender. It was not long after 
he received the refusal of the Spaniards that orders came from 
General Miles to suspend hostilities. 
General Brooke's column on the extreme east had been de- 
layed by the poor facilities for debarking his supplies at 
Arroyo. Two of his transports had run aground. Finally the 
infantry was ready to move. General Hains, with the Fourth 
Ohio and Third Illinois, brushed aside small detachments and 
took possession of Guayama. There was some minor fighting 
by reconnoitering parties beyond that town, but Brooke had 
now to wait until his cavalry and artillery could come ashore. 
After several days, he issued orders for an attack in front and 
flank by his entire force. He was about to take the enemy by 
surprise when the news of the protocol reached him. 
Thus the island of Porto Bico was in the clutch of the four 
fingers of General Miles' expedition when the cessation of hos- 
tilities came. 
It is necessary to look into another hemisphere to see what 
the United States troops are doing there. Merritt was anxious 
to end the struggle at Manila by an immediate attack on that 
city. General Greene very tactfully arranged with Aguinaldo, 
leader of the insurgent forces, who was our virtual ally but 
seemed to be inimical to the United States, to clear the Calle Real, 
so that the American troops would have an open way for the 
attack on the Spanish trenches. The American lines were then 
stretched out and intrenched within striking distance of Malate. 
Just before midnight the Spaniards, attracted by the extensive 
dispositions, opened a very hot fire upon the Tenth Pennsyl- 
vania and the 4 guns of the Utah Artillery. A company of the 
Third Artillery and the California Infantry were hurried 
through a terrific tropical storm to reenforce the line. Al- 
Aug. 13 
1898 
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July 29 
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1898 390 
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though 10 men were killed and 43 wounded, the action was 
indecisive. Then Greene for many days extended his entrench- 
ments to secure his right flank. The line was constructed with 
great hardship, because the men could not expose themselves 
without drawing the fire of the enemy. They had to lie down 
during incessant rains, shelter being impossible. Constant 
effort had to be spent in keeping the loose soil from slipping. 
Shoes were so uncomfortable that many men went barefoot, 
especially when the trenches were filled by as much as two feet 
of water. Few men could receive khaki before they left the 
United States, so that they sweltered in old blue woolen shirts 
and trousers. Nightly firing by the enemy with both small 
arms and artillery did not add to the rest of the men. As most 
of the rank and file wTere under fire for the first time, it was 
almost impossible, in the darkness and wet, to enforce fire disci- 
pline and control with so many green troops. In four nights 
150,000 rounds of ammunition were uselessly expended. 
Although General Merritt was anxious to bring this waiting 
period to a conclusion, the navy felt it was not prepared to 
deliver a heavy supporting fire. Meanwhile, negotiations were 
in progress between General Merritt and the Spanish officials. 
When surrender was demanded, the latter declined, but there 
was a tacit understanding that when the attack did occur, the 
Spaniards would make only a show of force, in order to save 
their honor. 
The bombardment, begun by the navy, was followed by the 
army's artillery. For three quarters of an hour the shells flew 
while the Spaniards remained silent. When the magazine in 
the San Antonio fort exploded, General Greene sent the Colo- 
rado regiment forward. Then a few shots came from the 
enemy's lines. But our troops crossed the stream and entered 
the battered fortress unimpeded. After General MacArthur 
had fired his artillery at Blockhouse Fourteen, a squad of the 
Twenty-third Infantry scouted forward only to find the enemy's 
trenches empty. The forts, lines and blockhouses were then 
occupied by the entire force. Pushing forward into the streets 
of the suburbs, soldiers of the Minnesota regiment encountered 
unexpected resistance from a blockhouse there, where they were 
driven back in some disorder. MacArthur then brought up 
Aug. 13 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
391 
reenforcements, who had to march over a single road and 
through rice paddies and thick timber. Only a small propor- 
tion of his men could be put on the firing line. After a time 
the fire from the blockhouse diminished and the place was aban- 
doned. The way to Paco and Manila was now open to Mac- 
Arthur's men. Greene's brigade, less impeded than Mac- 
Arthur's, made its way through Malate and Ermita with a few 
exchanges of shots. The whole force now moved on, and in the 
early afternoon found itself before the inner walled city where 
a white flag was flying. Generous terms were given the Span- 
iards, who were allowed to go home with all the honors of war; 
and Manila flew the American flag. The Americans had lost 
20 killed and 105 wounded. 
While peace negotiations were on foot, the regular forces 
were in a state of perplexity as to the future. The nation had 
now three islands on its hands, whether or not it wanted them. 
The only institution to which it could turn for control, police 
and civilization of the new soil, was the army. Any number of 
homeless refugees, insurrectos and untamed barbarians had to 
be brought into a setting of law and order. After victory, the 
usual clean-up would have to be made by the permanent troops. 
The volunteers had a different outlook. Feeling that the 
war was now over they naturally clamored to be out of the 
service. Although a peace treaty had not yet been signed and 
their contracts with the government were not terminated, such 
political pressure was brought to bear that 100,000 of them 
were ordered to be discharged. In Porto Rico and Cuba, the 
regulars were left high and dry with a big, distasteful work 
of reconstruction on their hands. In Manila, where the volun- 
teers were greatly in preponderance, they could not be well let 
go while Aguinaldo was setting up an independent government. 
Some 40,000 insurrectos were hovering around Manila. Con- 
gress was doing nothing to replace the volunteers who were 
going out. 
Besides, the regular regiments were far below strength, 
because they had been unable to obtain their full quotas 
throughout the war. An average of 556 enlisted men per regi- 
ment in the regular forces fought at San Juan. Sickness had 
reduced some of these units later to as low as 300 men, whereas 
Aug. 18 
1898 
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1898 392 
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the authorized number amounted to 1,272. A paltry army was 
shrunken to a skeleton, in the face of conditions which required 
100,000 trained men for the police and careful administration 
of these great islands, in great part sadly demoralized under 
Spanish rule. 
Disease, too, was lessening the effectiveness of all the 
American forces. Though the volunteers were in a worse 
plight than the regulars, both had suffered extremely. The 
federal troops had been forced hurriedly into climatic condi- 
tions, with which no one was familiar. Although the regular 
officers took the greatest precautions, such new maladies as yel- 
low and dengue fever were a puzzle to them at a time when 
the scientific knowledge of the deadly doses in mosquito bites 
were unknown. Most of the casualties among the regular 
troops were thus unpreventable at that period. On the other 
hand, although the volunteers lost 289 killed or mortally 
wounded in the war, they lost 3,848 from disease. And this 
figure is mostly made up of deaths occurring in the United 
States, where sickness could have been prevented by discipline 
and training. At the outset of the war, General Miles desired 
the volunteers to be placed in small camps in their own states 
where they could be instructed in their duties and responsi- 
bilities, given practice with proper arms and ammunition, have 
the advantage of learning tactics through tactical exercises, be 
efficient in guard duty, and acquire the thousand and one habits 
that are so vital to the life of a soldier and the success of an 
army. The General felt that, while the soldier was absorbing 
with little danger that discipline which is so essential to the 
safety of others, the larger camps could be the more carefully 
selected, especially for hygienic reasons. Then the smaller 
units could be formed into larger ones with some assurance of 
order, discipline and sanitation. But his advice was not to be 
taken. The answer was that there were not enough trained 
officers in the country to carry on such a program and the 
regulars could not be spared from the front. So the volunteers 
were hustled off without knowing the strenuous duty of a sol- 
dier to himself or his fellows. One war correspondent stated 
that "it always took one regular to offset the volunteer's mis- 
takes, to help him cook his rations and to teach him to shelter 
April 26 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
393 
himself and to keep himself clean." With poor equipment he 
was huddled in camps of meager facilities and extent. Camp 
Thomas had a capacity of 20,000 troops, yet 76,742 were sent 
there. Camp Alger was worse. Men died from typhoid fever 
by flies and like them. The War Commission stated: 
"Large bodies of men who are not soldiers, under officers 
who have had little or no military training, cannot be brought 
together and held for many weeks in camp and remain healthy. 
If the water supply is not abundant or is not good; if the thor- 
oughly well-established rules of sanitation are not observed; if 
the discipline of the camp puts little restriction on drunkenness 
and immorality; if the soldier does not know how to live and 
his officers do not watch him and teach him; if his food is poorly 
cared for and badly cooked, and he is permitted to eat and 
drink anything and everything he can find, sickness will cer- 
tainly prevail. If, as at Camp Thomas, a regiment can go for 
ten days without digging sinks; if the sinks dug are not used 
or they quickly overflow and pollute the ground; if practically 
no protection is afforded against the liquor sellers and prosti- 
tutes of neighboring places; if commands are crowded together 
and tents seldom struck, or even never during the occupation 
of the camp; if no one is called to account for repeated viola- 
tion of sanitary orders, it cannot be but that typhoid fever once 
introduced will spread, rapidly, widely. 
"How much may be accomplished by intelligent and watch- 
ful supervision on the part of surgeons and regimental officers 
and the observance of the well-established rules of camp sanita- 
tion is shown by the record of the Eighth Massachusetts Volun- 
teer Infantry at Camp Thomas. This regiment was for many 
weeks very healthy, while much sickness was occurring in regi- 
ments nearby, though the conditions of camp site, of water, and 
of drill were practically the same. . . . 
"In conclusion it may be said that it is impossible to bring 
together a regiment of 1,300 men whose lives and habits have 
all been different and place them in camp, subject them to its 
discipline, diet and duties, without much complaint. They 
must become acclimated and accustomed to camp life before 
sickness can be prevented; and until the individual soldier ap- 394 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
predates the necessity of complying fully with the regulations 
and confines himself to the regular food-and this the soldier 
never does until experience teaches him the necessity-he will 
drink polluted water, eat noxious food that disturbs his diges- 
tive organs, and will not take care of himself, and no discipline 
or watching will prevent it. The imprudent acts of the soldiers 
are the first and greatest cause of sickness in camps." 
The soldier must be disciplined, it is true, but the physician 
must be specially trained also. Camp hygiene is a distinct 
branch of the medical profession. One cannot expect an eye, 
ear, nose and throat specialist to understand camp sanitation 
thoroughly. Such work is the special province of the medical 
corps. Many good volunteer doctors from the home towns made 
a fizzle of sanitation at Alger and Thomas, simply because they 
had not been trained in that line. Others who knew what to do, 
were not backed up by the newly made line officers. At the 
beginning of the war the medical corps of the army, like the 
quartermaster corps, had a size proportional to the army total 
of 25,000 men. Yet this body had to take care of 223,235 
volunteers at a moment's notice. Death and confusion logically 
resulted. 
As the war with Spain was reaching its close, an even 
greater and longer conflict was coming to an end. The last of 
the Indian uprisings was taking place. It seems that the Pil- 
lager Chippewas near Leech Lake, Minnesota, felt themselves 
unjustly dealt with, when some of their number were arrested. 
A detachment of 20 men of the Third Infantry was despatched 
from Port Snelling to the scene of discontent, at the request of 
the Secretary of the Interior. Lieutenant Humphreys, com- 
manding these few men, found the Indians to be so numerous 
and hostile, that he asked for reenforcements. Captain Wilkin- 
son moved out shortly afterward with 80 men of the Third 
Infantry. At Sugar Point two Indians were arrested on the 
way, and, although the warriors' attitude was threatening, there 
was no violence. Then an unfortunate accident occurred. A 
soldier inadvertently discharged his rifle. In a moment this 
latter detachment was fired upon from the underbrush. The 
troops could but defend themselves as well as possible. For 
Sept. SO 
1898 
Oct. 5 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
395 
two days they held out, at the end of which time they had 
beaten back the Chippewas. Captain Wilkinson and 6 men had 
been killed and 14 wounded, including some civil officers. 
After this affair, an additional force of 5 officers and 206 men 
from the Third Infantry arrived at the Leech Lake Agency. 
The Fourteenth Minnesota was also stationed along the Great 
Northern Railway. Soon afterward the Indians, for whom 
warrants had been issued, were taken peaceably and order was 
restored in this tribe. 
Thus ended the Indian wars. One newspaper man has esti- 
mated that it cost the government in these struggles over $1,000 
for every redman who lived within our border. That is a tre- 
mendous figure. But it is safe to say that, with a small fraction 
of the total sum, a decent-sized army could have been trained 
and equipped in the beginning; the Indians could have been 
awed and controlled with little bloodshed by such a force; and 
two years of such treatment would have advanced railroads and 
commerce by a quarter of a century. Such an able management 
would also have prevented in large measure the unnecessary 
deaths that continuously blot over half of the history of our 
country. 
Analogous to the dribbling loss that took place on the plains 
is the conduct of the war with Spain. To be sure, there was 
little that Congress could do after hostilities had overtaken us. 
Nothing could make up for our neglect in the previous thirty 
years. But when it rejected the Hull Bill, which called for a 
reorganization similar to the one before the World War, it 
threw its weight positively on the side of politics to the ex- 
clusion of efficiency and the saving of life and treasure. 
Notwithstanding the great drawbacks of legislative de- 
ficiency, the trained forces, principally the regular army, 
showed that they could loyally and quickly go forward in carry- 
ing out their missions. The schooling and practice they had 
evolved from the pittance accorded by legislation proved to be 
invaluable. The scientific knowledge the regular had obtained 
had been gleaned by his own efforts and in spite of exterior 
hindrances. Although, such labor could not bring into the 
officer's pockets an extra dollar or promote him to a higher 
grade, he forged ahead with only his interest in his profession 
Oct. so, Si 
1898 396 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
to stir him onward. The product of such unalloyed zeal told at 
San Juan and El Caney, the vital actions of the war. In 
addition to the fine character of the regular army, it must be 
remembered that regular officers to the number of 387 led 
volunteer units. It is acknowledged that the enemy was not as 
aggressive as might ordinarily have been expected. But the 
trained troops that beat their way over hot trails and through the 
jungle showered with a hail of Mauser bullets could not know 
that the Spaniard would retreat. At any rate, the battles were 
a great test of zeal and efficiency. 
When the treaty of peace was signed, in the making of 
which General Merritt played a large part in Paris, the war 
had lasted exactly 109 days. Even so, we had paid a price far 
in excess of necessity-and would have paid more, had it not 
been for the exertions of the regular in the dark days when he 
began his own renaissance. 
Dec. 10 
1898 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
Second Phase 
(1899-1916) 
IT is a fashion for the beginning of a renaissance to slip into 
history unnoticed. The second phase is filled with reac- 
tions that stand out more boldly. So it was not until after 
the Spanish-American War that the people found out that a 
highly efficient set of trained men had overcome hideous ob- 
stacles and had been the mainspring of success. The groups of 
onward-looking officers, in the eighties and nineties, who tugged 
and strained at the thongs of neglect and provincialism, with 
which circumstances had bound as high-minded a body of men 
as ever existed, were to witness soon some of the fruits of their 
sincere efforts. 
Before the augmented army now lay a problem of a very 
delicate, trying and constructive nature, that of skillfully ad- 
ministering Porto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii, Guam and the Philip- 
pines. From Porto Rico the troops had been sent home. 
Hawaii was too new an acquisition to be dealt with, except 
politically. Guam was insignificant relatively. Accordingly, 
military attention had to fasten itself for the present on Cuba 
and the Philippines. 
In Santiago, Cuba, then one of the filthiest cities on the 
Western Hemisphere, Colonel Leonard Wood had to deal with 
a situation that would have taxed the capacity of any admin- 
istration. Refugees and half-starving natives who knew noth- 
ing of hygienic conditions and who spoke a Latin language had 
to be fed and controlled. They had to be taught by rigid disci- 
pline and rigorous measures that they could not pollute their 
premises. The city was divided into 5 sections, each under 
a medical inspector. Aiding these supervisors were subin- 
1899 
397 398 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
specters, also medical men, who specifically looked after the 
sewers, streets, houses, dispensaries and street cleaners. In the 
early stages of this renovation some 500 cubic yards of refuse 
were burned daily. Within a month the death rate dropped 
from an average of 70 to 20 a day. Only by imposing military 
discipline could Colonel Wood have effected his colossal task. 
The situation in the Philippines was of a different char- 
acter. Because the President had enunciated a policy of 
"benevolent assimilation" in order to pull the peace treaty 
through the Senate, General Otis in command at Manila was 
compelled to issue an order to the Filipinos which implied 
very mild dealings. In a few days, the mistake of such a policy 
was evident. The half-civilized natives, as they invariably act 
under such treatment, ascribed our overtures to cowardice and 
weakness. Their previous hostile attitude emphasized itself at 
once by defiance, accumulation of arms and open attack. 
The army in the Philippines consisted of 20,870 men, 
5,372 of whom were regulars. All of the volunteers and 1,650 
of the regulars were entitled to their discharge. The volunteers 
were especially uneasy because similar organizations in the 
Western Hemisphere had been discharged. The ratification of 
the treaty of peace (April 11, 1899) was shortly to take place. 
Had these volunteers elected to go home they would have left 
General Otis with less than 4,000 men to operate in an un- 
known country infested with several hundred thousand native 
warriors. To the great credit of these volunteers they chose to 
remain and serve their country beyond the time required. This 
is the first case on record in the United States where volunteers 
acted so unanimously and patriotically. Even with this in- 
crement, there was left, after eliminating those who were acting 
as provost guard and civil administrators, only about 12,000 
effective troops in the Philippines. Before this tremendous 
task of colonization by so few men, Congress still sat supinely 
awaiting developments. 
But the development came inevitably in the shape of an 
attack on Manila by some 40,000 Tagalogs about 8:30 p.m. 
one evening. For three days the insurgents kept up a continu- 
ous fire, being very aggressive in the night time. But the 
Americans, though outnumbered, were able to throw back these 
Jan. 4 
1899 
Feb. 4 
1899 
Feb. 4, 5, 6 
1899 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
399 
assaults after much hard fighting. The United States troops 
lost some 250, whereas the insurgents lost about 3,000, in addi- 
tion to the prisoners and 2 Krupp guns taken. 
It took this outbreak to convince Congress that something 
must be done to provide some sort of competent force to pacify 
these islands. That body therefore passed an act "for increasing 
the efficiency" of the army of the United States. It was pro- 
vided that the regular army consist of 3 major generals, 6 
brigadier generals, 10 regiments of cavalry, 7 of artillery, 25 
of infantry and the staff departments. Second lieutenants were 
to be examined as to their proficiency before being taken into 
the service and all grades above were to be filled by seniority, 
except of course those of general officers. The Military Academy 
was enlarged by giving to each congressional district, each terri- 
tory and the District of Columbia the appointment of a cadet. 
Twenty were allowed to be appointed by the President at large. 
The President was authorized to keep the strength of the regular 
army at a maximum of 65,000. Retired officers were allowed 
to be placed on active duty other than in command of troops. 
Cooks were to have the same pay and allowance as sergeants 
of infantry. In addition to the regular force thus outlined, 
the President was authorized to raise 35,000 volunteers and to 
organize them into 27 regiments of infantry, at the war strength 
of the regular army, and 2 regiments of cavalry. Each regi- 
ment was allowed 1 surgeon with the rank of major and 2 
assistant surgeons with rank of captain and first lieutenant 
respectively. The discouraging part of this whole law was that 
the force so created was but temporary. Except the regular 
army as it existed after the war with Spain, all were to be 
discharged not later than July 1, 1901. The main good feature 
was that volunteer officers, instead of being appointed by the 
states were to have federal commissions from the President. 
The regular officers on duty with the volunteers, except the staff, 
were to be continued. Some minor features, such as enlisted 
men being allowed to make allotments of their pay for the 
support of their families and relatives, were good things. But 
in the main the law was a makeshift, as we shall see. 
The character of the volunteers obtained under this act has 
never been surpassed in our service. The field officers of the 
March 2 
1899 
March 2 
1899 400 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
regiments were selected from experienced officers in the regular 
army, and the company officers were taken principally from 
those who had served creditably in state organizations during 
the war with Spain. As a result, no less than 1,524 officers 
and 33,050 enlisted men were on their way to the Philippines 
six months after the law was signed by the President. 
For the troops then around Manila, the new climate under 
the equatorial sun was immensely trying. The rainy season 
just closing was giving place to an intense heat which prostrated 
many of the men. In many places the terrain was so dense 
and the advance so difficult that it took the most determined 
grit to go ahead. 
General MacArthur followed up the attack upon Manila 
with a sharp engagement which ended in the occupation of 
Caloocan, adjacent to the city. With the small force at General 
Otis' disposal this work was all that could be done. The purpose 
was to extend the lines and assure confidence in the city itself. 
Any wider operations were out of the question. There were 
hardly troops sufficient to garrison the towns taken, to occupy 
the country and protect the lines of communications. The army 
was now purely on the defensive, because it did not have enough 
troops to act otherwise. 
However, the Island of Panay was occupied by General 
Miller and a battalion of the Twenty-third Infantry went into 
Cebu. General Smith seized the island of Negros and the city 
of Bacalod. Then General Wheaton captured Pasig and occu- 
pied Taguig. 
At the latter place a counterattack upon Wheaton's forces 
embarrassed his troops for the moment, but finally he succeeded 
in driving the insurgents fifteen miles down the lake. Thus 
Wheaton was able to separate the Filipino forces of the north 
and south. General MacArthur then began an advance upon 
Malolos, the insurgent capital, which contained many stores for 
the insurrectos. Here the fighting was quite heavy, but 
MacArthur was finally enabled to occupy the place and accom- 
plish his mission. 
General Otis was now in a position, because of the beginning 
of the dry season and the reenforcements of regulars, who had 
come in since March 10th, to carry on his operations in larger 
Feb 
1899 
Feb. 10 
1899 
Feb. 11 
1899 
Feb. 26 
1899 
March 10 
1899 
March 17 
1899 
March 31 
1899 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
401 
measure. It must be remembered that during this time the only 
additional forces available were the regulars throughout the 
United States and other island possessions. In other words, 
the home country, as usual, had to be stripped of its land defense 
in order to cover a relatively small territory in the Pacific. 
However, Lawton with a force of 1,409 troops crossed Laguna 
de Bay and captured Santa Cruz. The advance by General 
MacArthur was at a standstill especially beyond Malolos, be- 
cause the insurgents now threatened his flanks and communica- 
tions and there were not enough troops to guard a further ex- 
tension. However, that doughty general as soon as possible re- 
sumed his advance, crossed the Angat River while 4,000 
Filipinos were in his front, captured Calumpit and occupied 
San Fernando. In the meantime, General Lawton, with some 
4,000 men, moved out through Norzagaray, Baliuag and San 
Miguel for the purpose of taking San Isidro, a very important 
insurgent stronghold. He captured the city, but was too late 
to take Aguinaldo, who had escaped north with his cabinet. By 
the combined operations of MacArthur and Lawton, in spite of 
the lack of reasonable forces, these men succeeded in gaining all 
the territory to the north of Manila. 
Heat and amoebic dysentery had wrought such fearful havoc 
with General MacArthur's troops under the strain of continuous 
marching and fighting that his force was a matter of great con- 
cern to him. He reported that 4 of his regiments had an en- 
listed strength of 3,101 men altogether. Of those, 1,003 were 
sick and wounded so that he had an effective force of but 2,698 
men, of whom, after all the details were made for special duty, 
2,307 could be used on the firing line. Many of the latter were 
so weak that they could scarcely march five miles. Subtractions, 
too, had to be made from the troops around Manila. The 
Spaniards having withdrawn from the Mindanao and the Sulu 
Archipelago, it was necessary to send a force to occupy that part 
of the island group. 
The situation was very critical for these few troops alone in 
the Far East. Washington was wiring to send the volunteer 
regiments home immediately. Although General Otis persuaded 
them to remain, by the end of May they had become very rest- 
less and desired to depart. The other troops were in large 
April 10 
1899 
April 24 
1899 
May 5 
1899 
April 22 
1899 
May 17 
1899 402 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
measure sick and the time it would take to police this land looked 
long. So weak were our forces that they could attempt to hold 
only the principal city of Cebu. In the meantime the natives 
in other parts were permitted to drift, grow in strength and 
pursue the destructiveness of insurrectos. Since the only gov- 
ernment that had existed had been sent away, there was no law 
and order in most of the islands. 
However, the Twenty-third Infantry proceeded to Cebu and 
General Smith with 2 battalions of the First California Regi- 
ment went to Bacolod on the island of Negros. Seven hundred 
and fifty-five officers and men of the Twenty-third Infantry 
occupied Jolo. In the vicinity of Manila General Lawton was 
able to concentrate about 4,000 troops under Wheaton and 
Ovenshine in order to disperse the enemy on his flanks. He 
attacked the Philippine entrenchments at Zapote River. In 
spite of stubborn resistance he carried these lines. He then re- 
ceived the surrender of Imus, of which place he took possession. 
The insurgents in the meantime attacked General MacArthur 
at San Fernando where they were repulsed, Generals Funston 
and Hale figuring prominently in driving them back. A 
similar attack was made later with the same results. The in- 
surgents now having divided their forces and having retreated 
to Dasmarinas and Malabon, General Wheaton pursued one of 
the columns and routed it. Then General Hale captured 
Colomba on the southeastern part of Laguna de Bay. 
The terrible consequences of piecemeal legislation now began 
to manifest themselves. General Otis had to stop his opera- 
tions in order to reorganize his forces. In the meantime the 
insurgents were adding to their numbers, and organizing their 
resources and strength for one of the most deadly guerrilla war- 
fares in the nation's annals. Of the regulars, 60 per cent of 
the enlisted men in the artillery and infantry regiments were 
being discharged. By the end of July, 8,000 volunteers had 
sailed for the United States. Of 32,200 men in Luzon and the 
Visayas, only 20,000 were present for duty. Minor actions con- 
tinued through this distressing dearth, notwithstanding the fact 
that there had been a rainfall of forty-six inches in a single 
month and many severe typhoons. In the meantime the new 
organizations, filled with recruits, were beginning to arrive. 
May 19 
1899 
June 10 
1899 
June 15 
1899 
June 16 
1899 
July 1 
1899 
July 36 
1899 
Aug. 31 
1899 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
403 
By the end of the summer the troops fit for duty outside of the 
city of Manila numbered about 13,500; 5,000 of these were re- 
quired to hold the lines of communication. This decrepit and 
unstable condition of the army can be charged up to the months 
of blank legislation after the war with Spain. During that 
time, the forces in the Philippines had to march and fight 
against odds which increased their casualties beyond national 
necessity. We hear in the commercial world those apt phrases 
of "spending money in order to make it" and often about the 
"early bird." But when it came to war we somehow reasoned 
differently. We seemed to have the tiny shopkeeper's idea of 
that sort of business. By that view we lost billions, and inci- 
dentally strewed over the fields our dead brothers, husbands, 
sons and fathers prodigally. 
Since the first fight of this year 19 officers and 342 enlisted 
men had been killed or mortally wounded: besides, 87 officers 
and 1,325 men had been wounded. The losses, therefore, for 
these few months' fighting totaled 107 officers and 1,667 enlisted 
men, or more than had been lost in the entire war with Spain. 
Pew people realize under what handicaps the army was placed 
in these far-away islands of the orient, while a prosperous people 
in the home country were immersed in ethics, politics and 
business. 
In Cavite and Morong, strong forces of insurrectos had 
attacked the Americans at various times and had been driven 
back. But in the plain of central Luzon, Aguinaldo still had his 
headquarters and had set up a dictatorship for his people. He 
was occupying Tarlac as his capital where he and his cabinet 
resided. 
Generals MacArthur and Wheeler, as the dry season was 
again approaching, went forward and took Porac. Several 
weeks later three separate columns started out to make a vital 
stroke against Aguinaldo's territory. General Lawton with the 
principal force of 3,500 men, began the movement by proceeding 
to Arayat, where he drove the insurgents away. Later he 
occupied Cabiao and San Isidro. Before long he had in his 
hands other towns such as Cabanatuan, Aliaga, and Talavera. 
Young's cavalry having swept the flank west of the line of ad- 
vance, Lawton's column then pushed on toward the north as far 
Feb. 
1899 
Sept. 28 
1899 
Oct. 12 
1899 
Oct. 18 
19,1899 
By Nov. 
1899 404 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Nov. 13 
1899 
as San Nicolas, which it occupied. Turning west it took Asingan 
and Rosales. The results of this movement brought about the 
establishment of a chain of outposts along the edges of the plain 
of central Luzon. The force also coupled up with General 
Wheaton, who had gone by water from Manila and had driven 
1,200 insurgents out of the entrenchments at San Jacinto with 
great loss. In the meantime General MacArthur, who had 
started out from Angeles, had advanced up the line of the rail- 
way and had captured Magalan, Bamban, Capas, and Con- 
cepcion. He then attacked and took Tarlac, Aguinaldo's 
capital, but he was just too late to capture the insurgent leader, 
who had fled with his forces. He then had to content himself 
with the occupation of Gerona and Panique. Reaching 
Dagupan, he coupled up with Wheaton, who had arrived there 
the day before. 
The outline of these actions stated in such brevity gives no 
indication of what these troops overcame and suffered. WTere 
we to look back upon the tortures of the troops in the Everglades 
of Florida, the Apache country of Arizona and Scott's column 
in southern Mexico and were we to combine all those hardships, 
we might have a picture of the intrepid work of these men. 
General MacArthur says in his report: 
"The division camped in extended order, occupied towns in 
extended order, lived, marched, fought, and slept in extended 
order, with a view to sudden attack or defense at any time dur- 
ing the day or night. That is to say, the entire command has in 
effect, aside from the period of actual marching and fighting, 
been on outpost duty, without reserve, respite or relief, for 
nearly ninety days. . . . The sun, field rations, physical exer- 
tion, and the abnormal excitement arising from almost constant 
exposure to fire action, have operated to bring about a general 
enervation from which the men do not seem to readily recover." 
The year of 1899, however, should not be closed without a 
word for the work of General Young, who with a small force of 
80 troopers of the Third Cavalry and some Macabebe scouts, 
hotly pursued Aguinaldo in the hope of capturing him. With 
only this small force he occupied San Fernando de Union after 
Nov. 5 
1899 
Nov. 12 
1899 
Nov. 17 
1899 
Nov. 20 
1899 
Nov. 20 
1899 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
405 
a short fight and then reached Namacpacan. He then received 
reenforcements and proceeded to scour the northern provinces. 
Going along the coast, he released American and Spanish 
prisoners at various places and sent Major March eastward in 
pursuit of the insurgent leader. At Tila Pass, high up in the 
mountains, March encountered Aguinaldo's rear guard under 
General Pilar. He attacked the Filipinos, captured Del Pilar 
and killed 51 others, his own loss being only 2 killed and 9 
wounded. In the meantime General Young took the enemy's 
trench in the Tangandan mountains. But Aguinaldo eluded his 
pursuers in fleeting and slippery fashion. However, the in- 
surgents by the actions of this year could set up no claim to a 
government in so much as the President of their Congress had 
been captured, their capitals had been taken and Aguinaldo had 
been driven into hiding. 
Meanwhile, General Schwan, with 1,744 troops and 63 
scouts, went out against the insurgents who were attacking our 
lines of communication in the south. Beyond Perez Dasmarinas 
he killed 100 of them and destroyed their organization. Then 
General Lawton was brought from the north for a similar 
southern expedition. He started for San Mateo and Montalban 
with 2 battalions of infantry, 9 troops of cavalry and 2 guns. 
His progress was impeded by the heavy rains which caused the 
Mariquina to rise as only tropical rivers can do. It was while 
superintending the crossing at San Mateo that he himself was 
killed. 
While some of the troops fell back with his body, Colonel 
Lockett drove the enemy into the mountains. But after he had 
drawn off, the insurgents again became aggressive and came 
back as far as San Mateo. The insurrecto general, Santa Ana, 
then attacked the American garrison at Subig. The offensive 
was repulsed and a second advance by Lockett with some 2,500 
troops caused a defeat at Montalban. Lockett routed the enemy, 
killed at least 80 and captured 24 together with much war ma- 
terial. His only loss was 1 drowned and 7 wounded. 
Thus terminated the destructive year 1899 in the Philip- 
pines. The force now consisted all told, counting the sick, of 
51,167 officers and men. Altogether 509 soldiers had been 
killed, 2,223 had been wounded and about 1,000 had died of 
Nov. 23 
1899 
Oct. 7 
1899 
Dec. 18 
1899 
Dec. 29 
1899 406 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
disease. This enumeration includes the death of 1 general 
officer. 
Though the Indian wars had ceased, another desperate con- 
flict had taken their place. The regulars and volunteers in in- 
sufficient numbers and only half armed with Krags had to 
beat down in torrid weather another sort of barbarian. The 
days of Arizona repeated themselves under an equatorial sun. 
But the multitudes of Filipinos were even more perfidious 
and more prone to conduct small actions than the redmen. The 
trials of these unacclimated soldiers expressed themselves in 
dysentery, cholera, sleeplessness and wounds. Although the 
blue uniform was so stifling that it was slowly giving way to 
khaki, for days the soldier was wet, hungry and worn out by the 
endless vigil he had constantly to keep. Probably in the 
Philippine War more than in any other in our history did the 
military man shorten his life, if he survived at all. 
Since it would take a volume to describe in detail these 
actions, the general operations can only be sketched. General 
Bates, succeeding General Lawton in command of the First 
Division of the Eighth Corps, set out to overcome the depreda- 
tions of guerrilla warfare into which the Filipino troubles 
had settled. His force was better off than before. Since October, 
1899, there had been received in the islands from the United 
States 25 fresh regiments. Wheaton delivered a series of attacks 
near Bacoor and Schwan moved along Laguna de Bay; and on- 
ward for 600 miles. These 2 columns had many small actions 
in which intrenched positions and garrisoned towns were cap- 
tured. The insurgent forces were either annihilated or dis- 
persed, so that they never again raised their hands in this part 
of the country. 
Meanwhile the Forty-third and Forty-seventh Volunteer In- 
fantry and a battery of the Third Artillery under General 
Kobbe were sent to the islands of Samar, Leyte and Catan- 
duanes. This officer overcame a decided resistance at Legaspi 
and captured the Chinese leader, Paua. 
Generals Bates and Bell with about 2,300 men, having sailed 
from Manila, occupied the provinces of North and South 
Camarines and western Albay. General Bell was then ap- 
pointed military governor of these districts and General Kobbe 
Jan. 4 
1900 
Feb. 8 
1900 
Jan. 18 
1900 
Jan. S3 
1900 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
407 
of Mindanao and the Jolo Archipelago. In General Bell's De- 
partment the insurgents who had been driven away from the 
north had taken refuge. His force defeated the insurrectos in 
a hot fight near the mouth of Bicol River, dispersing the 
'Filipinos and capturing many supplies. 
Another expedition of the Fortieth Volunteer Infantry, 
under General Bates, went to establish garrisons in Mindanao. 
Owing to General Bates' promptness and to the appearance of 
the gunboats, there was little resistance met at Surigao. The 
insurrecto chief, Garcia, surrendered with such cannon as he 
possessed. But a week later the insurgents returned from their 
mountain fastnesses and made a night attack on the American 
troops. There was much hand-to-hand fighting in the mix-up, 
but after a time the Filipinos were driven off, leaving 2 
Americans killed and 11 wounded. 
One of the most daring expeditions was that conducted by 
Major March and Colonel Hare, who left Candon and Bangued 
in order to scour the northern province. March missed 
Aguinaldo by a close margin at Sagad, while Hare surprised and 
killed the chieftain Tinis near Malibcong. 
General Arthur MacArthur succeeded General Otis in com- 
mand of the Philippine troops and as governor-general. Under 
him were General Bates in Southern Luzon, General Hughes in 
the Visayas and General Kobbe in Mindanao and Jolo. His 
total forces numbered 63,284. 
Congress, in the meantime, had done nothing for the crea- 
tion of a permanent force large enough to police and hold our 
island possessions and to be a safeguard at home. A procrasti- 
nating enactment continued in effect until June 30, 1901 the 
existing force of mixed regular and volunteers. Another caused 
the army to establish a military post at Des Moines, Iowa, and 
to proceed with the armament of our fortifications. Congress 
then revived the office of lieutenant general for the senior major 
general commanding the army. Two provisions which showed 
the belief in the school advancement of the army were the ap- 
propriation for a modern military hospital at the School at 
Leavenworth and the authorization for the establishment of an 
Army War College at Washington. The last law stated that the 
object of such a college was "the direction and coordination of 
April 4 
1900 
March 20 
1900 
March 27 
1900 
May 10,16 
1900 
May 19 
1900 
May 15 
1900 
June 30 
1900 
Feb. 24 
1900 
April 4 
1900 
May 25 
1900 
June 6 
1900 
May 26 
1900 408 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the instruction in the various service schools." Thus was allowed 
a master school for all branches of the service and for higher 
work in military strategy and information. The college was 
established and improved in the next two years. 
The war in the Philippines by the middle of the year had 
settled into guerrilla warfare and brigandage of the most subtle 
type. The inhabitants secreted their arms in their houses, in 
the jungle or buried them in the ground. They would give their 
word that they were friends and break faith. Giving the im- 
pression that they were going about the ordinary pursuits of a 
peaceful life, they would lead the soldiery to believe that they 
were loyal. But when an opportunity offered to attack a convoy 
or small parties on the march, they would suddenly rise, attack 
with vigor and quickly melt into the population, acting there- 
after as if they had always been "amigos." Under such con- 
ditions, there could be no large actions, but the creese, bolo and 
spear, together with rifles, played havoc with lonely sentinels 
and small bands of Americans. In spite of such occurrences 
the army built over 400 posts in the Islands and many miles of 
road. 
While this difficult task was before the soldier in trying to 
civilize the Filipino with a Krag, trouble in the Far East 
brought a part of the forces into China. General Chaffee was to 
command the expedition which, in conjunction with the allied 
troops of the European powers, was to make the foreigners safe 
against the "Boxers." In Manila, General MacArthur received 
orders to dispatch a regiment to the scene of difficulty. The 
Ninth Infantry under Colonel Liscum, though delayed by a 
typhoon, acted with such promptness that it landed at Taku, 
China, nineteen days after it received its first instructions. The 
speed that this regiment showed is again an illustration of the 
celerity that is habitual with trained and ready leaders and 
troops. The province to which they were going made it im- 
possible to receive supplies often, after they had landed. Since 
the small transport service for the Philippines could not be 
interrupted, and the port of Taku was closed in the winter 
season, it was necessary that the Ninth take with it all the 
rations, clothing and ammunition it might require for several 
months. Notwithstanding such handicap, this regiment found 
June 16 
1900 
July 6 
1900 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
409 
itself in China in record time. Five days later 2 battalions of 
the regiment arrived at Tientsin, about forty miles inland from 
Taku. With the British, French and Japanese this part of the 
Ninth helped in the attack of that strong, walled city. Having 
to go forward under very little cover, the Americans suffered 
extremely. For fifteen hours they were in the front line, ex- 
posed to a vicious fire. When the city was finally captured, 18 
had been killed and 22 wounded. This total includes Colonel 
Liscum himself, who was among the dead. 
A couple of weeks later the Fourteenth Infantry arrived, 
and finally General Chaffee. Shortly, thereafter, the movement 
against Peking, about seventy miles away, was begun. The 
American column, all told, consisted of the N inth and Fourteenth 
Infantry, 2 troops of the Sixth Cavalry and 1 battery of the 
Fifth Artillery. In the early part of the march, the Chinese 
held up the progress along the Pei-Iio River. The Allies 
attacking on front and flank carried the position and took Pei- 
Ts'ang. The next day the column had a severe four-hour en- 
gagement at Yang Ts'un. Although the allies were successful, 
the Americans lost 7 killed and 65 wounded. After these actions 
the troops were granted a day of rest, so worn were they by the 
continuous fighting and intense heat. When the march was re- 
sumed, minor skirmishes took place all along the way until 
within about twelve miles of Peking. At that point, it was de- 
cided among the various commanders that the day would be 
spent in reconnaissance, but the Russians becoming ambitious 
(although they had been slow on the march) attacked the Tung 
Pien gate of the outer city. Although they forced an 
entrance, they were thrown into confusion after they were once 
inside. The other allies coming to their aid the next day, were 
able to blow up the gate by evening. When General Chaffee 
found the Fourteenth Infantry and the American guns there, 
he was able to effect an entrance and then to sweep the Tartar 
wall clear of the Chinese, so that the march to the British 
Compound could be resumed. South of the gate 2 companies of 
the Fourteenth had already scaled the walls, and placed the first 
flag of any foreign nation there. They then drove the Chinese 
southward to the Sha Huo gate. The relief of the legations 
could now be effected. The American forces had lost 177 officers 
July 13 
1900 
July 26, 29 
1900 
Aug. 4 
1900 
Aug. 5 
1900 
Aug. 6 
1900 
Aug. 13 
1900 
Aug. 14 
1900 410 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
and men in the entire campaign. General Chaffee describes the 
conditions he found as follows: 
"Upon entering the legations the appearance of the people 
and their surroundings, buildings, walls, streets, alleys, en- 
trances, etc., showed every evidence of a confining siege. Bar- 
ricades were built everywhere and of every sort of material, 
native brick being largely used for their construction, topped 
with sand-bags made from every conceivable sort of cloth, from 
sheets and pillowcases to dress materials and brocaded curtains. 
Many of the legations were in ruins, and the English, Russian, 
and American, though standing and occupied, were filled with 
bullet holes from small arms, and often having larger apertures 
made by shell. 
"The children presented a pitiable sight, white and wan for 
lack of proper food, but the adults, as a rule, seemed cheerful 
and little worse for their trying experience, except from anxiety 
and constant care. They were living on short rations, a por- 
tion of which consisted of a very small piece of horse or mule 
meat daily. The Christian Chinese were being fed upon what- 
ever could be secured, and were often reduced to killing dogs 
for meat. 
"All the surroundings indicated that the people had been 
closely besieged, confined to a small area without any comforts, 
no conveniences and barely existing from day to day in hope 
of succor." 
When the Chinese opened fire from the Imperial City, Gen- 
ereal Chaffee replied with four guns from the Ch'i Hua 
gate of the Tartar Wall. Two of the outer gates of the For- 
bidden City were blown over by Riley's artillery, but Riley 
himself was killed. A vigorous pursuit drove the Chinese from 
the four gates in succession, but any further offensive was 
blocked by a decision on the part of the Allied Council that 
they would not enter the Imperial City. Upon the urgent re- 
quest of the various ministers, the decision next day was re- 
versed. General Chaffee then reoccupied the line he had gained 
the day before. But it was not until some days later the 
Allied troops entered the royal enclosure. 
Aug. 15 
1900 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
411 
While this trouncing of the Boxer was going along, some 
12,000 troops had been sent from America to reenforce the 
troops around Peking. They consisted of 7 regiments of 
infantry, 3 of cavalry and 2 of artillery. They had reached 
Nagasaki, Japan, where, because of the culmination of events 
just described, they were diverted to Manila to join the troops 
there. General Chaffee then began the withdrawal of the 
American troops from China to Manila, except 1 regiment of 
infantry, 1 squadron of cavalry, and 1 light battery as a guard 
for the American Legation. 
Late in the year General MacArthur, the Governor General 
of the Philippines, saw the profitlessness of treating the cap- 
tured insurgents with consideration. They always responded 
with cruelty and treachery. Leniency seemed merely to cause 
more blood to be spilled. It had heretofore been the custom 
to disarm the captives and liberate them. These semicivilized 
natives, attributing such actions to fear,, responded by further 
and greater depredations. General MacArthur, therefore, is- 
sued a proclamation, which he had distributed everywhere in 
the islands. It stipulated that 
"whenever action is necessary, the more drastic the application 
the better, provided only that unnecessary hardships and per- 
sonal indignities shall not be imposed upon persons arrested 
and that the laws of war are not violated in any respect touch- 
ing the treatment of prisoners." 
Such a major operation on the insurrecto cut deep and saved 
the lives of many an American and native, although it did not 
please some American ethicists 6,000 miles away. From then 
on, all prisoners were to be held in custody and all who sur- 
rendered themselves were to be disarmed and released. In 
one month some 50 prominent Filipinos, insurgent officers, 
agents, sympathizers and agitators were deported to the Island 
of Guam, with a consequent partial calm to the Philippines. 
It was not until it was plain to every one that troubles 
abroad, even outside our possessions, were still persisting and 
that the time for the volunteers to be mustered out of the 
service was fast approaching, that Congress shouldered the 
Aug. 28 
29,1900 
Oct. 3 
1900 
1900 
Dec. 20 
1900 
Jan. 
1901 412 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Fei. 2 
1901 
detestable burden of revamping our common defense. It passed 
a law which caused the army to consist of 30 regiments of in- 
fantry, 15 regiments of cavalry1 and 1 corps of artillery with 
the appropriate staff corps. The total strength was to be a 
maximum of 100,619 officers and men. The ranking general 
in command of the army was to be a lieutenant general. Of 
this hundred thousand, 12,000 were to be natives of Porto 
Rico and the Philippines who were not to serve outside those 
islands, and who were to have regular officers as their majors 
and captains. This move was the origin of the Philippine 
scouts and the Porto Rican regiment. In the artillery corps 
the strength of the units was fixed, but in the infantry it varied 
for a company from 65 to 146, and in the cavalry from 100 
to 164 as the President might prescribe. Each regiment was 
to consist of 3 battalions of 4 companies each, an organization 
General Upton had twenty years previously shown to be sound. 
The general officers were to consist of 1 lieutenant general, 6 
major generals and 15 brigadier generals. The most signal 
change was in the artillery corps: its various dissimilar units 
were to be combined under the control of a single "Chief," the 
ranking officer of the corps. Between the coast and the light 
artillery he could make such transfers as necessity demanded. 
The system of detail between the staff and line, another of Upton's 
recommendations, caused officers in the staff departments to 
have experience with troops and a consequent understanding 
of the needs of the fighting branches. An officer was to be on 
duty with the staff no longer than four years, when he had to 
be assigned again to troops. Not less than 20 per cent of the 
vacancies among officers made by the increase were to be filled 
before July first, and the same amount each succeeding year 
until the total would be attained. Men not over forty were 
eligible for the new appointments in the grades of first and 
second lieutenants only, providing they could pass the examina- 
tions before the examining boards. Enlisted men were eligible 
for second lieutenancies, if they had served one year and could 
pass the tests. The President was directed not only to main- 
i This was the real beginning of the 26th, 27th, 28th, 29th and 30th 
Infantry and the 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th Cavalry regiments-mostly 
organized in 1902. THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
413 
tain the army at its maximum strength until Congress should 
vote otherwise, but he was to be allowed to exceed the maximum 
allotted, when the army was recruiting men for service in the 
island possessions. Such a move allowed for casualties and 
discharges during the long journey. Two brigadier generals 
of volunteers were to be appointed in the regular army and 
retired as a reward for their services in the war with Spain, 
and 1 brigadier general from the retired list of the army, who 
had distinguished himself in command of a separate army, was 
to be appointed a major general retired. Looking to more 
extended training as a result of the awakening in the army, 
appropriation was made for four permanent camps of instruc- 
tion for the regular army and National Guard. Retired offi- 
cers could be detailed on duty with schools so as to be instructors 
in drill and tactics. 
This legislation, though a step forward, came so late as 
to be embarrassing to General MacArthur. The new force 
could not be organized and transported in time to relieve the 
volunteers who were to go out in a few months. At the begin- 
ning of the year he had had about 70,000 troops. During the 
six months afterward he had to send home some 30,000. By 
the end of the year he had only some 43,000 left him. He 
warned the War Department that after May 1 it would be safe 
to send away the volunteers, only if replaced by regulars. But 
there were no regulars to be had. On account of the great 
delay in legislation the Adjutant General was so distracted 
over the possible undoing of all the previous work in the Pa- 
cific that he had to ask Colonel Leonard Wood in Havana if the 
Tenth Infantry could not be spared from the small force there. 
The United States proper did not have a regular infantry regi- 
ment within its borders. 
Twenty-five regiments of United States Volunteers, trained 
and veteran troops, had to be mustered out according to the 
new law. They were all sprinkled well over the Philippine 
Islands. Their officers with detachments of these troops were 
governors of provinces, towns and districts, giving all sorts 
of civil and military administration in order to hold the great 
native population in check. Were they to be taken away, much 
of the country would be without restraint or the appearance 
Dec. 1 
1901 
Jan. 29 
1901 414 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of force which awed the insurrecto into respect and peace. 
Misery and bloodshed would have followed. 
The army was fortunate, however, in the turn of events at 
this critical time when the regulars would otherwise have been 
left high and dry. The crafty chieftain, Aguinaldo, had so 
screened himself with mystery as to his whereabouts, that a 
very few of his own troops knew exactly the location of his 
headquarters. But by this time, through MacArthur's policies, 
it was beginning to sink into the insurrecto mind that to turn 
"Americanista" was the better part of valor. Two of Agui- 
naldo's messengers, bearing important dispatches in cipher, 
gave themselves up as friends of the United States at General 
Funston's headquarters. After a sleepless night during which 
the messages were being decoded, a very desperate plan formed 
itself in Funston's mind. Believing the words of these former 
insurrectos with reference to the position of Aguinaldo's hiding 
place, he conceived the idea of taking certain friendly Maca- 
bebe scouts, who spoke well the language of the district in which 
Aguinaldo was supposed to be, of dressing them up as insur- 
rectos and of having them pose as a successful war party that 
had taken American prisoners. He and 4 other officers were 
to be the disarmed captives. After gaining General MacAr- 
thur's permission and holding the most minute rehearsals with 
84 Macabebes, he and his party went aboard a naval vessel 
and were landed at night on the east coast of Luzon. It was 
one of those bold masquerades where any little slip in the play 
acting by any one of the number meant annihilation to the 
party. For one hundred and ten miles, through the thickest 
of trails, with next to no food, at times miraculously escaping 
discovery, they finally came to their goal, Palanan, and found 
Aguinaldo there. A rush by the Macabebes and the insurrecto 
leader and two of his cabinet were pinioned. The whole party 
with the prisoners were then brought back by a naval vessel 
to Manila. 
This occurrence was the start of the collapse of the Filipino 
resistance. Aguinaldo called on his countrymen to desist. 
Other insurgent leaders were taken prisoners and the insurrec- 
tion was officially at an end, though many a soldier was killed 
thereafter. However, the army had made the Islands so safe 
March 14 
1901 
March 23 
1901 
July 4 
1901 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
415 
by its courageous feats, in spite of disease and treachery, that 
it was now possible to install a civil governor of the Philip- 
pines-William H. Taft. General MacArthur, who was called 
back to the states, was succeeded by General Chatfee as military 
governor. The army through this year had brought its total 
of posts built and stations located up to 502. The Secretary 
of War said: 
"I cannot speak too highly of the work of the army in the 
Philippines. The officers and men have been equal to the 
best requirements, not only of military service, but of civil 
administration with which they were charged in all its details 
from the date of our occupancy in August, 1898." 
Insurrection, however, continued in scattered places, espe- 
cially in the provinces of Batangas and Samar. The troops 
under General Bell and General Frederick D. Grant, after 
many arduous pursuits, were able to take the two ringleaders, 
Malvar and Lukban. But the main part of the activities was 
over, with a total loss to the army of '330 officers and 6,746 
enlisted men killed, dead or wounded. President Roosevelt 
was at any rate enabled to announce the end of the insurrection 
and to grant complete "pardon and amnesty" to the natives. 
The office of military governor was abolished with the thanks 
of the President. However, the Mohammedan Moros were 
still untamed in Sulu. Expeditions against them, notably 
those of Colonel Frank Baldwin and Captain John J. Pershing, 
were temporarily successful. 
In Cuba, the forces under Brigadier General Leonard Wood 
were withdrawn from the island after as great reconstruction 
work as had been known in history. Since Cuba had been 
granted autonomy and had elected a President, Vice-President, 
Senate and House of Representatives, the army's work was 
over. But it had given the people a splendid example of how 
to live in peace and health. While General Wood was using 
his military forces to establish order, sanitation and discipline 
and to supply the starving Cubans, Major W. C. Gorgas, of 
the Medical Department, was conducting a ruthless war on 
yellow fever, which for two hundred years had been the curse 
July 4 
1901 
April 16, 27 
1902 
July 4 
1902 
May 20 
1902 
Feb. 24 
1902 416 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
of the West Indies. Even in our own country it is estimated 
there had been at least 500,000 cases of that disease in a 
century (1793-1900). Major Gorgas, with the backing of 
General Wood, had the cases at once reported, the suspect iso- 
lated and the habitation of the sick man thoroughly fumigated. 
A war of extermination was waged on the mosquito. Buildings 
and houses were screened and the natives taught personal hy- 
giene. Such men as Major C. L. Furbush did their work with 
such despatch and consideration that Havana has since given 
many public expressions of its gratitude. 
In the same way the medical corps in the Philippines was 
confronted with the plague of Asiatic cholera. The devasta- 
tions of the disease had reached the appalling number of 
300,000 deaths. The skillful and determined measures taken 
by these hygienic experts practically eradicated this dread 
disease in two years, and soon brought it under control. Recog- 
nizing that water and food products are the only carriers of 
infection, most edibles and water were required to be boiled 
before eating. Quarantine was established on incoming ship- 
ping. The extermination of rats and other vermin was begun, 
and the Philippines wTere made livable. It must be remem- 
bered that the army was the pioneer in these matters. 
Since the war with Spain, all of the regular infantry regi- 
ments had been required in the Philippines, with the exception 
of a few scattered companies. A large proportion of the regu- 
lar cavalry, artillery and staff troops had been there most of 
the time.2 In addition, 25 regiments of the United States 
Volunteers and 19 organizations of state troops had been neces- 
sary to augment the regulars, whose soldiers had seldom been 
in the United States since the war. To show the magnificent 
proportions of the Philippine contest, there had been 2,811 
separate actions and battles in a little over three years. In 
most of these engagements the troops had been ambushed. 
Congress, seeing the results of trained and scientifically 
educated officers, was particularly liberal in its legislation cov- 
ering army educational interests. It made an appropriation for 
enlarging the buildings at West Point and gave a generous 
1902 
Feh. 4 
1899 to 
July 4 
1902 
June 28 
1902 
2 See Appendix C for organizations taking part in Philippine War. THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
417 
allowance for the continuance of the Army War College, situ- 
ated at Washington Barracks on the outskirts of the capital. 
Secretary Root realized that the military education of officers 
was especially important after the effects of the law of 1901. 
Out of 2,900 officers in the army, 1,818 had been appointed 
since the beginning of the war with Spain and only 276 of the 
latter were West Pointers. He realized that some systematic 
and technical education would have to be imparted to these 
men, who were possessed of practical experience with troops and 
in a peculiar type of warfare, but had had little chance to lay 
for themselves a military foundation. Accordingly, the "gar- 
rison school" made its appearance, and special service schools 
were to follow. Demonstrations and maneuvers were also to 
give practice to the soldier. This year joint maneuvers were 
held on the New England coast with regular artillery and 
militia against battle ships. Although this first trial was not 
all that could be expected, it was a beginning of those exercises 
in the field which were to give officers practice similar to that 
of action; and inculcate in troops the necessary knowledge of 
their duties and requirements. 
A new cavalry drill regulation, which is essentially in ef- 
fect to-day, appeared this year. The troop was formed in 
single rank, with divisions for platoons and squads. The tallest 
men were in the center and shortest on the flanks. The squad- 
ron, consisting of 4 troops, was drilled by the major. 
After one hundred and eleven years of silence on the point, 
the Congress considered again the militia. The "Dick Bill" 
made for the first time federal mention of the National Guard, 
which was the higher distinction among state troops known as 
"organized militia."' All other male citizens between the ages 
of eighteen and forty-five, were to be known as the Reservd 
Militia. The "organization, armament and discipline" of the 
organized militia were in five years to be the same as those 
features of the regular army. The organized militia was to 
be paid during its activities and was required to participate 
in practice marches, or go into a camp of instruction for five 
consecutive days and to assemble for drill and instruction or 
target practice at least twenty-four times during any year. 
The act provided for the detail of regular army officers at 
June 30 
1902 
Sept. 
1902 
1903 
Jan. 21 
1903 418 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
camps of instruction or for temporary duty with the militia. 
One bad feature of the law was that the service was entirely 
optional and that these able-bodied men were not subject to 
call. Neither were the governors of states bound to comply 
with the order of the President, when he requested the service 
of the National Guard. In fact the troops could disregard 
the call of the governor with impunity. The same old error 
was also committed-the militia could not be called out for 
more than nine months. No specific provisions were made for 
a volunteer reserve, which had been suggested. 
Following an act allowing the higher officers of the Philip- 
pine Constabulary to be appointed from the regular army, 
came the signal legislation which created a general staff, whose 
main duty should be to prepare plans for national defense and 
for the mobilization of the forces in war against any nation. 
It was to consist of 1 chief, 2 general officers, 4 colonels, 6 
lieutenant colonels, and 12 majors. Twenty captains were also 
to be selected from the captains and lieutenants in the army 
at large and to have the pay of a captain, mounted. The com- 
manding general of the army was to become the chief of staff 
by virtue of his being the ranking officer in the service. Be- 
cause the President was commander in chief under the consti- 
tution, the duties and title of this new office were more fitting 
for the work of actual administration. The chief of artillery, 
by a separate act, was made a brigadier general and was made 
an additional member of the General Staff. 
The corner stone of the War College building was laid in 
Washington this year, at which exercises Secretary Root paid 
tribute to General Upton's memory, the man who had foreseen 
the necessity of such a thing as a general staff and a school of 
this kind thirty years before. It was this brilliant secretary 
who also had General Upton's Military Policy of the United 
States brought from its obscurity and published in book form. 
The Moros in the Philippines still continued to give trouble 
to the army. Brave to the point of fanaticism and in many 
ways more cunning than the Indian, they became a continual 
menace for many years. Conspicuous among these actions was 
that of Captain John J. Pershing's detachment which destroyed 
a fort belonging to the Sultan of Baccalod. When, later, this 
Jan. 30 
1903 
Feb. 14 
1903 
March 3 
1903 
April 
1903 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
419 
same American force was fired upon by Taraca Moros during 
an exploring tour of the American troops, several of the Moro 
forts were stormed and captured. 
While these engagements in the Philippines were taking 
place, better lines were being followed in the War Department. 
Under the workings of the new general staff and at the sugges- 
tion of Secretary Root, a joint Army and Navy Board of 4 
officers from each of the services was created for the coordina- 
tion of plans in case of war. General S. M. B. Young became 
the first chief of staff, who at once relieved the War College of 
the burden of projects falling to its lot and left it free to 
follow its immediate duties in reference to school work. 
Along with better management went efforts at obtaining 
more skill. The first national rifle contest was held at Sea 
Girt, New Jersey, in the fall of this year. Six prizes were 
awarded, the first being won by the team from the New York 
National Guard. The Army Rifle Team was fifth and the 
Marines sixth. 
The American troops in the Philippines had been reduced 
to such an extent that toward the end of the year they num- 
bered only 843 officers and 14,667 men. This diminution left 
a tremendous task upon their hands. The Secretary of War, 
Root, was so gratified with their accomplishments that he said 
of the army: 
"I do not think that any government ever had a body of 
public servants presenting a better standard of personal char- 
acter, a higher average of competency, or a more completely 
controlling sense of public duty. A country is fortunate which 
has such officers to rely upon in time of need." 
Although the Congress did not now raise the personnel, it 
did do something for material advancement. Realizing that 
the new island possession ought to have permanent fortifica- 
tions, after five years of thought on the matter it made substan- 
tial appropriation for defense. On another line, too, it showed 
its appreciation of the veteran. Those officers below the grade 
of brigadier general who had been retired on account of wounds 
of after forty years' service, were to be advanced one grade, 
provided they had served in the Civil War. 
May 
1903 
July 20 
1903 
Aug. 15 
1903 
Sept. 8, 9 
1903 
Oct. 15 
1903 
April 21 
1904 
April 23 
1904 420 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Again the Moros in the Philippines continued to give 
trouble in Mindanao and Jolo. Datu Ali with some 3,000 fol- 
lowers defied all efforts to catch him for some time, his troops 
committing all sorts of depredations, especially at night. Pur- 
suits by the American troops were almost constant. This old 
chieftain once agreed to surrender, but soon afterwards broke 
out in armed resistance, and so terrorized the country that we 
shall hear of him again. 
In the states, combined maneuvers were carried on with 
enterprise and success. At American Lake, Washington, 1,687 
regulars with 2,324 militia from Washington, Oregon and 
Idaho were placed in the field under command of General 
Funston; at Atascadero, California, 2,247 regulars with 2,181 
National Guard of California were similarly placed under Gen- 
eral MacArthur; and at Manassas, Virginia, 5,062 regulars 
and 21,234 eastern National Guard were under General Corbin. 
These troops had the actual practice in exercises and joint 
operations of those numerous details that actually confront 
troops on the ground. The eastern troops were assembled in 
Virginia upon the scene of action of the second battle of Bull 
Run of the Civil War. For two days they worked upon the 
situations that confronted Lee and Pope in 1862. The result 
was an exceptional benefit to the troops. It is a pity that such 
training could not be conducted during the next year, but 
Congress would not appropriate the funds. 
As to materials for war, this year marked the completion of 
about half of the recommendations of the Endicott Board sub- 
mitted in 1885. It had been difficult to accomplish this small 
fraction of the contemplated task because of the shortage of 
enlisted men. They would not go into the service because 
of the small pay. Notwithstanding this condition, materials 
were purchased and many guns emplaced. 
It was in this year that the army was territorially divided 
into five grand divisions under major generals, each division 
being subdivided into departments under brigadier generals. 
The office of adjutant general ceased to exist and was replaced 
by that of a newly created military secretary, who was given 
the additional labor of the former record and pension office. 
Another evidence of the renaissance in the army was the 
March-Oct. 
1904 
July 
1904 
Aug. 
1904 
Sept 
1904 
1904 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
421 
establishment of the Army Staff College at Fort Leavenworth. 
Its object was to instruct especially selected officers in the 
duties of the General Staff of the army, to improve their quali- 
fications as instructors and to prepare them for duty in the 
Army War College. In addition to this direct purpose, they 
were charged with the investigation of such military inventions, 
discoveries and developments which would affect the various 
arms of the service. The student personnel was limited at first 
to from 9 to 15 officers of the artillery and engineers. Later, 
selection was made from the upper half of the class of the 
infantry and cavalry schools. 
The army during this year dwindled to nearly half its 
authorized size. At one time it numbered altogether 3,750 
officers and 56,064 enlisted men. Because the pay was practi- 
cally the same as it had been at the close of the Civil War, 
privates could not be had and officers had a hard time to live 
decently. Neither could the troops improve by practice in mili- 
tary work. Such maneuvers as had taken place in 1902, 190'3, 
1904, were out of the question, because of the lack of ap- 
propriation. Altogether it was a parsimonious time for the 
service. 
But as usual, improvements seemed to go along as far as it 
could within the army. A very comprehensive set of infantry 
drill regulations appeared. More reference was made to move- 
ments in battle; the location and position of troops with ref- 
erence to the ground was more carefully considered; and rapid 
fire was prescribed at a distance of two hundred yards from 
the enemy. The range for the rifle was classified as follows: 
Up to 300 yards short range. 
300 to 600 mid-range. 
600 to 1,000 long-range. 
1,000 to 2,000 extreme-range. 
The company was divided into 2 platoons. The command 
"fours right" became "gquads right," and the normal attack 
by battalion was given with great precision. Although it has 
been found out since that there is nothing more detrimental 
than a normal formation for attack, these drill regulations 
showed a decided tendency toward battle movement rather than 
June 27 
1904 
Oct. 15 
1904 
1904 422 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
pure drill. There was provision for instruction on varied 
ground against an imaginary enemy, when his position and 
force were merely assumed, against an outlined enemy when 
his position and force were indicated by only a few men, and 
against a represented enemy when the actual number of troops 
played the part of a hostile force. 
In addition to other setbacks, shortage manifested itself 
in the officer personnel of the army. Through the detail of 
officers to the militia and to the staff, 25 per cent of the line 
officers and 11 per cent of the staff officers were absent from 
their posts on other highly necessary service. The Secretary 
of War felt that there should be a corresponding increase of 
officers in the various branches in order to fill this gap. Presi- 
dent Roosevelt even made this suggestion the subject of a special 
message to Congress. But nothing was done. On the other 
hand, by the details of officers mentioned above, the regular 
had so well equipped the National Guard that Secretary Taft 
was able to report that, with few exceptions, the militia con- 
formed to the organization of the regular army. However, the 
secretary pointed out that much remained to be accomplished 
in the line of supply, discipline and training before there would 
be anything like a high average of efficiency. Both the army 
and the National Guard had done all it could without the help 
of Congress. 
Although he had failed with the legislators along other 
lines, President Roosevelt created a board to bring up to date 
the report of the Endicott Board. Headed by the secretary, 
Mr. Taft, this new commission contained the names of the best 
technical minds in the army and navy on fortification. These 
men were to have supervision of matters pertaining to our 
seacoast protection, to armament in general and to the dispo- 
sition of torpedoes and mines. 
A distinct loss to the service and the country occurred at 
this time in the death of Colonel Arthur L. Wagner, the fore- 
most American strategist and military writer of his time. As 
a critical student of military history and tactics and the out- 
standing pioneer of the renaissance, he had left the impress of 
his knowledge and personality on the schools at Leavenworth 
to such a degree that in the high standard of that institution 
Jan. 9 
1905 
Jan. 31 
1905 
July 17 
1905 Arthur Lockwood Wagner THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
423 
his labors are felt to-day. As soon as he came back from the 
Spanish-American War, in which he had served both in Cuba 
and the Philippines, he was made in succession Commandant 
of the Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, was appointed to the 
General Staff of the army and was given the directorship of 
the Army War College. He was chief umpire at the Manassas 
maneuvers in Virginia and was generally looked to as the 
final authority on military tactics and strategy. His person- 
ality was of such an engaging sort that he could readily place 
his fine technical and tactical knowledge in the hands of the 
student. One has said of him that his attitude was as courte- 
ous to the lowest ranking second lieutenant as to a general. 
What the service owes to him can scarcely be estimated. Much 
of the success of our troops in the World War was due to his 
incipient efforts in awakening the officer back in the nineties 
to the realization of the unique and endless study and 
practice required by his magnificent profession. The untimely 
tragedy of his death is all the more accentuated by the fact 
that at the very hour he was dying, his commission as a briga- 
dier general in the regular army was lying on the President's 
desk for signature. 
It is a singular coincidence that one of the effects of the 
thought induced by Wagner and others showed itself in a little 
over a month after his death. The Army Signal School was 
established at Fort Leavenworth for the purpose of preparing 
officers of that corps for the active duties of that branch of the 
service. The work was largely laboratory in character and was 
conducted from a standpoint of experiment and research. It 
was there that some of the great inventions of Colonel Squier 
were later perfected, inventions which have been of benefit to 
the entire electrical world. 
In the Philippines the depredations of Datu Ali had reached 
such a point that it was necessary to take drastic measures 
against all the outlaw bands. Although the utmost effort was 
made to have him surrender without resort to force, every 
attempt proved to be fruitless in dealing with this class of 
frenzied Mohammedans. Finally an expedition of 3 officers 
and 100 picked men from the Twenty-second Infantry and 1 
officer and 10 Filipino Scouts under Captain Frank R. Me- 
Aug. 25 
1905 424 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Coy went against them. Seventy-seven men of this party, with 
cooked rations for one day and without baggage and other 
accouterments, set out from Digos. After many hardships 
they arrived at the Malalag River where they surprised and 
killed Batu Ali in his hiding place. The result of this success 
was the seizure and surrender of the hostile Moros and 
complete pacification of the Cotabato district. The charac- 
ter of the work performed by these troops was no less credita- 
ble and daring than that of Funston in the capture of Aguinaldo. 
In the Philippines, the army had to be called into activity 
to quell disorders with which the constabulary and scouts were 
unable to cope. Notably, Colonel J. W. Duncan took a detach- 
ment of the Sixth Infantry against the stronghold of Bud-Dajo. 
The attack of the place was fraught with some of the most 
desperate fighting known in the army's many engagements in 
the islands. It looked for some time as if the place could 
not be carried. Finally Lieutenant Gordon Johnson, with a 
few men, made their way over the stockade and thus effected 
an entrance, so that the troops were able to disperse or kill 
the band of outlaw Moros. 
On the west coast of the United States, the San Francisco 
fire had shocked the country and had spread lawlessness 
throughout the city. No organized body of men could be found 
to cope with the situation except the troops of the army. Hos- 
pitals and fire departments were buried in flames. So prompt 
was the action of the military man that in less than three hours 
after the catastrophe (5:14 to 8 o'clock) General Funston had 
taken charge of the city, and a heavy force of the Twenty-sec- 
ond Infantry, Sixth Cavalry, a detachment of the artillery 
corps under Colonel Morris, and 2 companies of the First Bat- 
talion of Engineers, occupied the principal streets. Fort Mason 
and the Presidio army posts afforded succor for thousands of 
homeless as in previous days on the plains. One report states 
of the soldiers that: 
"They were confronted by appalling conditions, which in- 
creased at an alarming rate, from hour to hour, until they 
threatened to swamp the puny human energies arrayed against 
them; courage, persistency and endurance won the day, but 
Oct. 16 
1905 
Oct. 22 
1905 
March 
1906 
March 5-8 
1906 
April 18 
1906 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
425 
not until human nature was nearly exhausted. When Saturday 
morning came (there was no dawning in those days) it was 
apparent that the worst was over, as the fires had reached their 
limits, and all breathed more freely. But a new demand arose, 
or rather, one already existing had increased until it seemed 
almost impossible to meet its requirements-it was the question 
of how to feed and shelter hundreds of thousands of men, 
women and children whose homes had been destroyed, and 
occupation gone, many of them having lost all but what they 
were wearing. How this was done and what other assistance 
was rendered by the United States Army will be told by the 
extracts from the newspapers from April 18th to May 6th; and 
from other sources. 
"It is proper here to note the first act by the Army, imme- 
diately succeeding the disaster, the promptness of which can 
not be too highly commended. The Department Commander, 
General Dunston, sent a mounted messenger to Fort Mason and 
the Presidio, ordering all available forces to report promptly 
to the mayor to assist the police in guarding public property 
and preserving good order. To this act may be ascribed the 
perfect order and public safety at a time when lack of them 
would have resulted in anarchy and riot. 
"Immediately after the earthquake General Henry G. 
Sharpe, Commissary General, ordered Colonel Davis to ship 
400,000 rations from Portland, Oregon, to San Francisco; 
Major Geary was ordered to ship 300,000 rations from Seattle, 
Washington, and Captain Simonds was ordered to purchase 
200,000 rations at Los Angeles and vicinity. The commissary 
storehouses at the Presidio, Fort Mason and Fort Miley were 
thrown open and rations issued to the hungry people. Bread 
in large quantities was baked and large kettles of coffee were 
made and distributed to the people. The following morning 
relief supplies began to pour in from neighboring cities and the 
Subsistence Department at once began to receive the supplies 
and arrange them for distribution." 
The army was not satisfied with bringing San Francisco 
through from the first stages of its terrible shock, but performed 
all manner of services in putting the city on its feet again. 426 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
"So much general abuse and misappropriation of supplies 
existed openly on every band, while the police force was so 
entirely inadequate, that the army was asked to assume the 
duty of distributing the relief stores. The troops had per- 
formed almost constant duty for nearly two weeks, and were 
utterly worn out. General Greely called for more troops, and 
while the number he called for could not be spared, two addi- 
tional regiments, one of infantry and one of cavalry, were or- 
dered to San Francisco for duty. Also, there were ordered 
by the Secretary of War, by telegraph, to report to General 
Greely for duty in conducting relief work, forty-five specially 
selected officers of experience and of proved administrative 
ability, all to proceed to San Francisco and report without delay. 
The orders were sent out from Washington late on April 30th, 
and received late that night, or on May 1st and on May 2nd the 
first arrivals reached San Francisco and reported at Division 
Headquarters, about sundown. 
"Next morning the work of supplying over a quarter of a 
million people began in earnest. With scanty and broken-dowm 
transportation, telephone and telegraph lines down, with an 
insufficient force of troops to guard all points at which guards 
were needed the problem seemed staggering; yet it had to be 
solved, and that quickly." 
And the army fully accomplished the work. It fed the 
starving populace, gave havens of comfort, killed looters, opened 
stores, supervised hospitals, got the fire under control, and 
many an officer and soldier did not sleep while the constant 
need for them existed. 
In the West Indies the army was called into play on a 
very delicate mission. The Cuban government was beset with 
an insurrection of such alarming proportions that it requested 
assistance from the United States. At once the President 
dispatched 5 regiments of infantry, 2 of cavalry and several 
batteries of artillery. The ease with which they crept into 
the island and their dispatch of movement grandly attested 
to the existence of a general staff. After the arrival of so many 
well disciplined and well trained soldiers, the insurrection 
cooled and ceased. For over two years thereafter they kept THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
427 
order in Cuba by their very presence, and without resort to 
arms. 
Congress now realizing that it had committed an error in 
not providing for joint maneuvers in 1905, appropriated 
$700,000 for the purpose. But the irony of this measure was 
not wholly realized until later. An inventory showed that 
there was so much of the army in Cuba, the Philippines, 
Hawaii, and Alaska that the United States proper had a mere 
shadow of troops. Since there were too few soldiers for the 
execution of exercises, there were none that year. 
Congress also increased and reorganized the ordnance de- 
partment. That branch was to have 1 chief, with rank of 
brigadier general, 6 colonels, 9 lieutenant colonels, 19 majors, 
25 captains and 25 first lieutenants. The temporary transfer 
of officers from the line of the army after examination was 
continued, as was also the advanced grade over the line com- 
mission for those temporarily detailed to the department. A 
powder factory, the first in the history of the army, was also 
provided for in the shape of Picatinny Arsenal at Dover, 
New Jersey. The service now could manufacture its own ammuni- 
tion, and keep it uniform. The law also caused the erection of 
seacoast batteries on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, and allowed 
the building improvement at the Military Academy to proceed. 
Echoes from other days faintly sounded in the west. Some 
300 Ute Indians broke out from their Uintah reservation 
across Wyoming. The governor of the state had to call for 
United States troops, which were immediately furnished. The 
Utes were intercepted by the soldiers and led back to Fort 
Meade, South Dakota. It would appear from this episode that 
the previous statement in this history concerning the close of 
Indian Wars in 1898 was an error. But the flight of the Utes 
was more of an economic disturbance than a devastating out- 
break, as the outcome clearly shows. 
The encampments of this year w'ere fraught with more 
marching and training in the field than at any previous time. 
Formal ceremonies were kept to the minimum; and spectacular 
exhibitions, such as sham battles having no military value, were 
eliminated; 49,717 troops, regulars and militia in about equal 
proportions, were assembled in seven camps over the country. 
June 12 
1906 
June 25 
1906 
June 25 
1906 428 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
These maneuvers demonstrated the advantage of numbers 
in such practice. Accordingly, the Secretary of War, realizing 
that there was no longer necessity for the small posts of Indian 
times, recommended that the troops be combined into larger 
units so as to be organized on a tactical basis. Every officer 
then might gain actual experience in the work of administra- 
tion, supply and movement incident to war. As it stood, offi- 
cers had seldom had a chance to command more than a regi- 
ment and general officers were in the predicament of being 
forced to use the pen more than the stirrup. In some cases 
they were benefiting for the future welfare of the nation as 
much as engineers in jail. Besides, the Secretary's plan was 
a money-saving proposition. But politics which wanted the 
little post as a pie to its locality defeated the idea by ig- 
noring it. 
The report of the Coast Defense Board, or Taft Board, 
showed a rather depressing state of affairs on our shore line. 
It found, after its labors, that the coast defense we then had 
was able only to cause an enemy to land with mobile troops. 
It could keep off ships but not transports laden with soldiers. 
In other words, all the United States then possessed was a par- 
tial harbor defense. Chesapeake Bay was entirely open. The 
investigations proved that our lackadaisical legislative attempts 
in the past had but put us where we started-with a sole de- 
pendence upon the mobile army. 
However, a signal and excellent change in the organization 
of the artillery corps came from Congress the next year. Eor 
a long time army officers had tried to show the law makers 
that field artillery, or artillery with the mobile army, did not 
bear much more resemblance to coast artillery in organization 
and duties than did cavalry to infantry. This contention 
caused the coast and field artillery to be separated into two 
distinct branches and to be incorporated into the line of the 
army. The chief of artillery was to become chief of coast 
artillery after a year. The field artillery was to consist of 6 
regiments of 6 batteries each. The coast artillery was to con- 
sist of 700 officers and 19,147 men. As a consequence, the 
increase of officers in that branch was so great that promotion 
far exceeded that of any other arm for some time. Young 
Feb.l 
1906 
J an. 25 
1907 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
429 
lieutenants became captains of artillery, whereas old lieuten- 
ants of infantry and cavalry still remained lieutenants. 
A little over a month later the office of military secretary, 
after a short life of two years, was converted back again into 
that of adjutant general. The office of lieutenant general was 
abolished. 
It was at this time that representatives from the army be- 
gan that great contribution to commerce and progress, the 
Panama Canal. President Roosevelt realizing that civilians 
could not finish this gigantic undertaking, turned to the army. 
As Arthur Bullard says: 
"Mr. Roosevelt, while President, came to the conclusion 
that the canal could not be built by civilian engineers-men 
trained in private enterprise. There was no way to make them 
stick to the job. Successful construction men can always com- 
mand high salaries. And men like Wallace and Stevens, who 
are used to being their own masters, find the Government serv- 
ice, with its inevitable red tape, irksome. It is impossible to 
established a permanent working force if the Boss is likely to 
throw up the job any minute. Under such circumstances no 
man feels sure of his position. For the spoils system, so much 
decried in politics, is the ordinary practice in railroading and 
construction work. What was needed was not only engineer- 
ing genius, but executive stability. Mr. Roosevelt appointed 
a Commission of army officers, men who would stay on the 
job till they were ordered home." 
Accordingly, after Mr. Stevens had resigned Colonel 
George Goethals, corps of engineers, was appointed Chairman 
and Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal Commission. At the 
same time he was made Civil Governor of the Canal Zone. 
The other members designated were Colonel H. F. Hodges, 
Lieutenant Colonel D. D. Gaillard, Lieutenant Colonel Wil- 
liam L. Sibert, corps of engineers; Civil Engineer H. H. 
Rousseau, of the navy; Colonel W. C. Gorgas, medical corps; 
Maurice H. Thatcher and Joseph B. Bishop (secretary). 
What the project needed was a determined administrator 
March 2 
1907 
April 1 
1907 430 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
at the head and a staff of assistants who would loyally and 
punctually carry out their chief's wishes. Colonel Goethals 
was the soldier who let nothing interfere with his mission- 
to complete the canal. Colonel Gorgas, hand in hand with him, 
eliminated the yellow fever so that the dread of that disease 
did not continue to drive the laborers away. Colonel Goethals 
helped Gorgas in so doing, and the whole staff worked as a 
disciplined unit, irrespective of personal opinion. Colonel 
Goethals watched the calendar and his forces minutely. The 
loose ends were soon knotted. There was no graft. So much 
did army standards count, that President Roosevelt soon gave 
complete control of affairs to Goethals. And in the incredible 
space of six years, what the world had been trying to do for 
nearly half a century, was finished. 
The army's activities in general at this time were very 
much scattered.3 In the Philippines, the Pulo janes in Samar 
and Leyte were making it hard for the constabulary to control 
them. General Wood sent some detachments of infantry into 
the island. In a short time he was able to report the trouble 
at an end. The Army of Cuban Pacification too, under Gen- 
eral Barry, was performing its work quietly. It kept the Cu- 
bans in leash without friction. A regiment also in the west 
June 24 
1907 
3 Army Activities 
Geographical distribution 
Officers 
Enlisted 
men 
Total 
In the United States 
2,625 
31,637 
34,262 
In Alaska 
52 
970 
1,022 
In the Philippines 
688 
12,091 
12,779 
In Porto Rico 
3 
6 
9 
In Cuba 
276 
4,182 
4,458 
In Hawaii 
12 
196 
208 
Troops en route and officers at other foreign stations. 
94 
1,108 
1,202 
In the Philippine Scouts 
116 
4,346 
4,462] 
In the Porto Rico Regiment 
In the Hospital Corps, excluded by the Act of March 
24 
572 
596 
1, 1887 (24 Stat. L., 435), from being counted as 
part of the enlisted strength of the army 
3,400 
Making a grand total of 
3,890 
55,108 
62,398 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
431 
conducted the Ute Indians on their long journey from Fort 
Meade, South Dakota, to the Cheyenne River Reservation. 
But the members of the service were in a serious state of 
depletion, principally on account of the pay of the soldier. Men 
who could get from $1.75 to $2.50 a day as common laborers 
scarcely wished to be on a restraining post at $1'3 a month. 
Many a company during this time was reduced to as few as 
8 privates. Since the skill required of an enlisted man was 
now much greater than ever before, the inducement to enter 
the service was still less attractive. 
It was in this year that the War Department could not 
carry on maneuvers with the National Guard because the army 
was absent in many islands, in Alaska and at the Jamestown 
Exposition. However, some joint army and militia coast de- 
fense exercises took place along the Atlantic coast. 
For the officers of the army the commander in chief raised 
the standards of physical fitness. Field officers, those officers 
of an age tending to corpulency, had to undergo test rides and 
other exercises in order to determine whether they could stand 
the strain of battle. This requirement caused a general move- 
ment within the service toward having all officers gain physical 
stamina far above that of the average civilian. Requirements 
for daily exercise and medical examinations were to keep the 
personnel active. 
Congress opened the next year with the passage of an act. 
to put the medical corps on a firmer basis and to increase its 
personnel. The corps was to consist of a medical corps proper, 
a reserve corps, a hospital corps, a nurse corps and dental sur- 
geons. The medical corps proper was to consist of 1 surgeon- 
general with rank of brigadier general, 14 colonels, 24 lieuten- 
ant colonels, 105 majors and 300 captains and first lieutenants. 
All officers in the corps were to have mounted pay. Young 
graduates of medical schools throughout the country could be 
appointed as first lieutenants of the reserve corps and were 
liable to service at the call of the President. 
One of the greatest pieces of legislation for some years from 
the standpoint of morale and justice was the readjustment of 
pay both for officers and enlisted men. The new schedule, al- 
though not tending toward indulgence or extravagance, gave 
April 23 
1908 
May 11 
1908 432 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
a living salary to the officer and a means of obtaining the proper 
quality and quantity of enlisted men.4 
A third law put the Porto Rico Provisional Regiment on a 
basis more nearly resembling the regular army. The name was 
changed to the "Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry of the United 
States Army." Its enlisted personnel was accepted for three 
years and its junior officers were given a status more nearly that 
of the regular army. In the same law, besides the allotment of 
$300,000 for the construction of gun and mortar batteries for 
our coast defenses, the sections took up seriously the improvement 
of the militia provisions. All able-bodied citizens between eigh- 
teen and forty-five were theoretically liable for service in the 
militia but there was no penalty in time of peace for disobedi- 
ence to the terms of the act. The supply and organization was 
to be looked after on a more businesslike basis. The standard 
of the regular army was to be had within two years. The law 
May 27 
1908 
4 Lieutenant general $11,000 
Major general 8,000 
Brigadier general 6,000 
Colonel 4,000 
Lieutenant colonel 3,500 
Major 3,000 
Captain 2,400 
First lieutenant 2,000 
Second lieutenant 1,700 
Rank and Arm of Service-Battery, Troop, First 
Company enlistment 
Sergeant, first class-signal corps 1 
First sergeant-artillery, cavalry, infantry, engineers.... / * 
Sergeant-engineers, ordnance, signal corps 1 og 
Quartermaster sergeant-engineers f 
Cook-artillery, cavalry, infantry, engineers, signal corps. 
Sergeant-artillery, cavalry, infantry 
Quartermaster sergeant-artillery, cavalry, infantry ■ 30 
Stable sergeant-field artillery 
Horseshoer-cavalry, field artillery , 
Corporal-engineers, ordnance, signal corps 
Mechanic-coast artillery ■ 24 
Chief mechanic-field artillery , 
Corporal-artillery, cavalry, infantry 
Artificier-infantry t 21 
Mechanic-field artillery 
Farrier, saddler, wagoner-cavalry 
Private, first class-engineers, ordnance, signal corps 18 
Trumpeter-cavalry 1 
Musician-artillery, infantry, engineers ( 
Private-artillery, cavalry, infantry, signal corps f 
Private, second class-engineers, ordnance J THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
433 
read well, in that it appeared to cause the militia to serve 
wherever and whenever the President wished. But the gov- 
ernors could decline to send out a single man or to furnish 
the proper type of officers, whenever those executives so de- 
cided. 
Throughout the army there was particular zeal shown in 
the improvement of its parts, in many ways. The pay bill had 
increased the number of soldiers. There were now commands 
large enough to allow the officer and soldier practice in the 
field. Minor difficulties in the Philippines were suppressed 
and the Army of Cuban Pacification was quietly delivering 
peace. Eight camps of instruction and eleven artillery dis- 
tricts held joint exercises with the militia to the number of 
75,000 men. This year also marked the complete issue of the 
new United States magazine rifle, "model 1906," which for ac- 
curacy, speed and power far surpassed the Krag. The ammuni- 
tion, the magazine and bolt action combined to secure greater 
ease and speed in reloading. The effect of the establishment 
of the Picatinny Arsenal was apparent; that plant was turn- 
ing out about 500 pounds of uniform smokeless powder a 
day. 
It was this year that the Wright brothers made successful 
flights with a biplane. Several army officers helped in these 
progressive tests. One, indeed, lost his life so doing. Yet 
the War Department was prevented from purchasing a single 
plane because of the absence of funds allowed by Congress. 
Although this was a new invention, whose efficiency had not 
been fully shown, it was too bad that this apathy displayed 
itself just nine years before we tackled the World War. Simi- 
larly there were absent, searchlights, submarine mines and 
power plants for the coast defense. 
In the summer the "Division of Militia Affairs" was cre- 
ated as a part of the general staff. All the militia records were 
taken from the adjutant general's office and placed in the office 
of the new bureau, which was to have the superintendence of 
the organized and unorganized militia during peace so as to 
coordinate the efforts of the National Guard with the work of 
the regular army. Thus the state troops could be given more 
recognition. 
1908 
1908 
June13 
1908 434 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
May 14 
1908 
The tests for physical fitness were put in force throughout the 
service with vigor. All field officers of the mobile army were 
to demonstrate to a medical officer that they could ride thirty 
miles a day for three consecutive days. For these older officers 
this distance had to be covered in periods of six hours for the 
first two days and in seven and a half hours for the other. Field 
officers of the coast artillery had to walk fifty miles in three 
days and in a total of twenty hours, the march on any day to 
be in consecutive hours. When any of these officers could not 
make the test, they were to be retired either for length of 
service or by a retiring board. All the junior officers below 
field grade were to have a physical examination each year. 
The activities of the army during the next year were wide 
and varied. In the Philippines the Moros, giving trouble to 
the civil authorities, had to be suppressed in many minor ac- 
tions by the regulars. The Army of Cuban Pacification was 
brought home, it having completed its usefulness without resort 
to force. Many defects were brought to light by the army in 
joint maneuvers with the National Guard of Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and the District of Co- 
lumbia. Means of supply and mobilization were particularly 
lacking, principally because the appropriations for vehicles had 
been inadequate. 
Congress passed a law which appointed a court of inquiry 
into the case of 3 companies of the Twenty-fifth Infantry. It 
seems that on one night three years before (August 13-14, 
1906), certain colored soldiers of this regiment took their rifles 
from barracks and "shot up" the town of Brownsville, Texas, 
where the Twenty-fifth was then stationed. Investigation 
could not ascertain the culprits. Accordingly President Roose- 
velt summarily dismissed the 3 companies without honor. It 
subsequently developed that great provocation had been given 
these men by the Mexican element of Brownsville especially, 
and that there were many good old soldiers, not implicated in 
the riot, who had lost the value of all their service. Accord- 
ingly Congress at this time made provision for complete inves- 
tigation of each case so as to return the innocent men to the 
colors and to give them back their lost time. Many were rein- 
stated under this provision. 
1909 
Jan.-April 
1909 
March 3 
1909 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
435 
Effort within the army was made to have a modern type of 
equipment for infantry. A study by a board of 6 officers 
was begun at Rock Island Arsenal. The accouterments of the 
armies of the world were investigated. From the work of this 
board there was later evolved the modern infantry pack. 
There was yet much to be desired if the efficiency of the 
service were to count in time of war. Secretary Dickinson, 
having investigated conditions from records and interviews, 
showed how nearly 40 per cent of the officers of the army were 
on detached duty, away from troop training. Such work as 
duty with National Guard, at schools, and at the Military 
Academy, left too much to be done by those who remained. He 
pointed out a need for more officers. He showed that there 
ought to be an appropriation of at least a half million for 
aeroplanes. He showed how West Point could not fill the 
vacancies and that the economy of turning out more cadets 
with about the same overhead at that plant was apparent. His 
remarks on the organized militia show what the service was 
trying to do, but that it could not make a truly efficient show- 
ing without Congressional help: 
"Much remains to be done in the way of instruction. While 
the Constitution provides that discipline shall be the same as 
that of the Regular Army, it reserves to the States the author- 
ity of training the militia. It thus appears that while the 
War Department can fix standards it has no authority to take 
direct charge of the training and cause the organized militia 
thereby to attain such standards. The War Department may 
provide ways for training, make suggestions as to methods, 
and fix the standards that must be attained, but it cannot 
directly conduct the training. ... As to the mobile state 
forces, it is specially desired to have them conform to the 
course at the Army School of the Line at Fort Leavenworth, 
Kans." 
The efforts of the army tended toward practical as well as 
theoretical education. Field batteries of the Wisconsin, Minne- 
sota, Michigan, Iowa, and Indiana National Guard partici- 
pated in a school of instruction with a battalion of regular field 
April 28 
1909 436 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
artillery at Sparta, Wisconsin. Field schools for the instruc- 
tion of medical officers were held at Sparta, Antietam and the 
San Francisco Presidio. One hundred and thirty-eight com- 
panies of militia coast artillery had been organized this year. 
In rifle practice 43 militia teams attended the national match 
at Camp Perry, Ohio. Seventy-eight civilian rifle clubs and 
44 schoolboy rifle clubs had been built up. 
But when it comes to real discipline and training, such 
exercises are but rudimentary. Something had to be done by 
Congress or our whole military organization would be useless 
in time of war. Secretary Dickinson showed, for instance, 
that the field artillery with its 48 batteries was far below pro- 
portion even for the small army we had. He showed that the 
posts of the army should be so arranged as to operate tactically 
instead of administratively and so as to cooperate with the 
National Guard. He pointed out that the small post was but 
an accidental result of Indian troubles, that it prevented train- 
ing and should be abolished. He showed how much more money 
it took to run these many little plants than a comparatively few 
large ones. He conclusively proved that under his recommen- 
dations there would be vastly more economy, rapidity of mobili- 
zation and training of the militia. This logical suggestion was 
right on the line upon which the general staff had been work- 
ing, and upon which Secretary Taft had expressed himself 
several years before. But Congress took no action on this 
matter. 
It did realize, however, the need of more graduates of the 
Military Academy and the economy of increase. Accordingly, 
it passed a law which allowed the Corps of Cadets to be in- 
creased by one-fourth its existing size. The enlargement was 
made by allowing to the Congressman an appointment every 
three years, instead of every four. This change did not affect 
the four-year course. 
The activities of the army this year were various. A large 
proportion of regular troops was used in fighting the great 
forest fires in Montana, Idaho, Washington and Oregon. The 
soldiers performed excellent service, as would any well-disci- 
plined body of men. But after all, this was scarcely the appro- 
priate work for troops who needed technical and tactical prac- 
April 12 
1910 
Aug. Sept. 
1910 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE' 
437 
tice. As well use engineers to dig ditches. By the withdrawal 
of so much of the army for this labor the plans for a camp of 
instruction for both regulars and National Guard at American 
Lake had to be relinquished. Either there was no other disci- 
plined body of men for the job or the emergency was so great 
that the army was the only dependable resort. At any rate, the 
emergency could scarcely exist for two months, to the exclusion 
of more important activities. 
During the summer, military tournaments of no tactical 
value were held at seven cities scattered over the United States. 
Competitions in drill, wall scaling, packing and bridge building 
caused certain troops to gain skill in elementary exercises, but 
the character of these events was more spectacular and athletic 
than fundamental. 
The General Staff, meanwhile, had worked out a plan for 
combining the regulars and National Guard into 3 divisions 
composing a field army. Of course there was no money to try 
and test out this paper machine. But the scheme was meticu- 
lously drawn up and nicely tabulated. At least the army had 
marked everything out to the limit of its powers. 
Other things had been suggested by the General Staff. In 
consonance with them, Secretary Dickinson showed Congress 
that there should be an elimination of inefficient and unpro- 
gressive officers, that there should be more officers, that we 
needed aircraft, guns and ammunition and, above all, that there 
should be a comprehensive law for the methodical mobilization 
of a volunteer army in time of war. He showed how no use 
had been made of the discharged soldier, who had had three 
years' good schooling and was qualified to enter a reserve army, 
and that there existed only 1 regular officer or soldier for every 
10,000 inhabitants. He brought to light the fact that there 
was little reserve ammunition. The chief of staff, too, ex- 
plained that at the current rate of appropriation, it would 
take fifty years to get an adequate reserve supply of field artil- 
lery material. 
The Secretary summed up the whole matter when he said: 
"In order to avoid the waste inseparable from going to war 
without full preparation, we must be ready with a complete 438 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
system for passing from a peace to a war establishment. We 
should undertake without further delay the problem of simpli- 
fying and perfecting the administration and organization of 
the army to the end that the new army of regulars, organized 
militia, and volunteers may pass automatically from a peace to 
a war basis. We have vast military resources, and if we but 
organize them in time of peace it will not only have a tendency 
to prevent war, but should war come it will enable the nation 
to conduct its campaigns with a greater regard for economy 
and efficiency than has been hitherto possible. It is futile to 
attempt to place the military establishment of the country upon 
a proper basis, having due regard for economy and efficiency, 
by the passage of detached legislation." 
In the face of these sentiments, Congress voiced another 
"detached" law. It increased the corps of engineers by 5 
colonels, 6 lieutenant colonels, 19 majors, IT captains and 13 
first lieutenants. The enlargement was to take place by lineal 
promotion and by the addition of second lieutenants in five 
annual increments. When the West Point quota of graduates 
was exhausted the remaining vacancies were to be filled by 
civilians who could pass a thorough examination. 
In these times of prosperity, the army, in general, was 
looked upon with disfavor. So common had it become for a 
certain class of our population to discriminate against soldiers, 
that Congress had to pass a law in order to give them the 
ordinary rights of citizens. Signs had been posted outside of 
places of amusement "No soldiers admitted." Insults and 
abuses had been heaped upon the man in uniform in various 
ways. It came to such a pass, that our lawmakers thought it 
wise to allow a fine of $500 to be imposed on any proprietor, 
manager or employee of a public place who caused such class 
distinction. 
Congress by this time saw the need of detailing officers to 
act as instructors of the National Guard. It accordingly 
passed a law which permitted the President to detach an officer 
for that purpose in the proportion of one for each regiment or 
separate battalion of infantry, and an equivalent number for 
other branches. Such detail was to create a vacancy for pro- 
Feh 27 
1911 
March 1 
1911 
March 3 
1911 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
439 
motion and allow corresponding appointments of second lieu- 
tenants. 
At the same time, the injustice done to officers by regi- 
mental promotion before October 1, 1890, was overcome. Those 
who had suffered by stagnation in a particular regiment and 
had thus been topped by men of shorter length of service were 
to be advanced to the grade they would have attained, had 
promotion been always lineal in the particular branch of the 
service. The ones who had been fortunately favored by regi- 
mental promotions were not to be affected. 
By these acts Congress had added 12 engineer officers, 60 
dental surgeons and some 200 line officers to meet the demands 
of detached service. Although the vacancies were to be filled 
in annual increments, West Point was still unable to fill the 
quota of second lieutenants. Consequently many officers were 
taken in from civil life, after rigid examination. 
Similar care was taken with the recruitment of enlisted 
men, 72 per cent of the applicants being rejected. 
In the Philippines the Moros in the Sarangani peninsula of 
Mindanao became so lawless that an expedition under Major Hei- 
berg commanding some Philippine Scouts was sent against them. 
After arduous labor by his and other columns, peace was restored. 
At the same time detachments of the Regulars had their hands 
full in preserving order in the Lake Lanao district, Mindanao. 
One of the biggest demonstrations of the inefficacy of our 
efficient regular army was the attempt to assemble in Texas a 
division and some regiments of coast artillery. The border 
along the Rio Grande was again so filled with unrest that it 
was felt necessary to make a show of strength in Texas. AL 
ready 2 troops of cavalry had been dispatched to help the civil 
authorities preserve the neutrality. But affairs became so 
threatening that a larger force was necessary. Accordingly, 
orders were issued for the concentration of a "maneuver divi- 
sion" at San Antonio. It was to be composed of 3 brigades of 
infantry, 1 brigade of field artillery and 1 independent cavalry 
brigade, with the necessary auxiliary troops, all under the com- 
mand of Major General William H. Carter.5 At the same time 
March 3 
1911 
1911 
March 6 
1911 
5 Author of many technical works especially a standard textbook on 
"Hippology. " 440 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
36 companies of coast artillery, equally divided into 3 regi- 
ments, were ordered to Galveston under Brigadier General 
Albert L. Mills. The officers of the staff and the troops were 
assembled from everywhere and had never had a chance to 
work together before. The division was never up to full 
strength during its entire stay and it was several months before 
the railroads could get the last regiments to their destination. 
General Wood, Chief of Staff, said of the division's work: 
"The mobilization has emphasized the fact that our regi- 
ments in peace should be kept at greater strength, and it has 
also brought out very forcibly the necessity for a reserve with 
which to bring the regiments from their peace strength to full 
war strength. The experience in the mobilization in Texas has 
also emphasized the necessity for accumulating a sufficient qual- 
ity of reserve supplies and the establishment of proper depots; 
in short, the necessity for proper military organization and pre- 
paredness for war." 
The concentration took practically all of the various units 
of the United States Army within the continental limits and 
put them in a position to patrol the border from the mouth 
of the Rio Grande to San Diego, California. The maneuvers 
afforded the regulars an excellent object lesson of the workings 
of a regular division, something never demonstrated before in 
our history. It gave great practice to the staff and line in 
understanding our deficiencies with regard to supply and move- 
ment. Above all, it proved what the army had long known, that 
our land forces were deprived of making a showing against a 
stout enemy. 
Although the elements of movement and strength were de- 
nied the service, the fruition of the renaissance was still mani- 
festing itself. A School of Fire for Field Artillery was estab- 
lished at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Its purpose was to give a thor- 
ough, practical and theoretical course of instruction in the prin- 
ciples and methods of field-artillery target practice. The 
service was doing the best it could to gain experience in mili- 
tary technic. But a school of this kind at that time looked 
pathetic and grotesque when it is realized that there was not 
JuneS 
1911 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
441 
enough field-artillery ammunition in the United States to last 
through a normal modern battle. 
In other fields the army was also pushing ahead. The 
"Taylor system" of scientific management was put into effect 
at Watertown Arsenal. The bureaus and branches of the War 
Department were united with a resulting economy in overhead. 
Foreign service regiments were recruited up to full war 
strength before sending them abroad so as to save the expense 
of transporting separate recruits and to have a maximum num- 
ber of soldiers in our possessions. Mounted troops were sta.- 
tioned where climate favored year-round training. A new Infan- 
try Drill Regulations gave a more important place to combat than 
ever before prescribed in such a work. The mechanism of 
drill was subordinated to tactical principles which were laid 
down concretely, but with sufficient latitude for application. 
It was this year more than any other that marked the de- 
cided change between the old army and the new. The forward- 
looking spirit had saturated the big percentage of the service. 
The officer became a practical progressive in his profession, or 
he was cast aside. Bad habits and laxity were treated with 
such harshness that the army was signally purged of the lag- 
gards. As for efficiency, it began to take on a business aspect. 
The soldier became primarily a worker. He was not limited 
to an eight-hour day. He had not only to keep fit but also to 
demonstrate his capacity for leadership and the proper exe- 
cution of his tasks. In effect, a great milestone of the renais- 
sance had been set up on the way toward larger fruition. 
Actions were still going on in the Philippines, as is illus- 
trated by the fact that the Moro outlaws were yet on the war- 
path. Captain E. G. Peyton with 2 troops of cavalry and 2 
companies of Philippine scouts rounded up the worst of these 
outlaws in the island of Jolo and succeeded in reducing them. 
Twenty Moros were killed and 2 Americans wounded, 1 offi- 
cer and 1 enlisted man. 
So recurrent were the depredations of the Moros that a word 
might be here said about the peculiar nature of the activities 
of the soldier in grappling with these determined people.6 In 
1911 
1911 
Jan. 14 
1912 
6 These facts were obtained, at the solicitation of the author, from an 
eyewitness. 442 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
the first place, the Moro was a Mohammedan. The Moro chief, 
or Datu, sometimes Maharajali Saakat, made his own laws 
for his particular gratification. Agriculture and trade were 
thus discouraged because the Datu took away the produce at 
his own pleasure. The main ambition of the Moro was, there- 
fore, to get a rifle, which he could hide and keep. With every 
weapon he could purchase another wife or raise himself in rank 
and power. This power was mostly abused and a menace to 
our standards of civilization. Sleeping soldiers would be 
stabbed in the dead of night and their rifles seized. When Cap- 
tain (now General) Pershing was Governor of the Moro prov- 
ince, he came to the conclusion that the key to progress for the 
Moro was to deprive him of his firearms. Accordingly, all that 
could be called in were taken and paid for. But Moro agi- 
tators harangued the people, contending that the Americans 
were taxing them, denying them slaves, limiting them to one 
wife and charging them for the privilege of being married. 
Open resistance by hundreds of Moros followed. They took 
refuge in the Bud Dajo crater in defiance of the orders of the 
governor. It would have been but a day's operation to have 
potted them where they were, but Captain Pershing understood 
that many ignorant and misguided men were among the con- 
tenders. It was then that Major Peyton, Philippine scouts, 
was ordered to conquer this band, but spare their lives if 
possible. He surrounded the pit and prepared to starve out 
the Moros. Double sentinel posts, one soldier with a rifle and 
another with a shotgun, were placed about the camp. These 
men did not sleep because they knew death in the shape of 
a creeping Moro would await them if they winked. Barbed 
wire besides was strung up near the main body. Sallies by the 
Moros night after night kept the soldiers engaged, when these 
half-civilized natives tried to cut their way out. Crazed or 
running Juaramentado, in religious frenzy, a single Moro with 
creese or bolo would charge a whole battalion of troops. Finally, 
all the Moros in the crater decided to come in, except 47, who 
disappeared in the jungle. But these latter ones were similarly 
forced to surrender later. 
During the next year, a renegade Moro by the name of 
Dowd collected a band of outlaws in a very inaccessible place. 
Jan. 
1912 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
443 
Major Peyton, with 5 companies of scouts, 1 company of in- 
fantry and 2 troops of cavalry, went against them. Dowd had 
committed all sorts of crimes, so that after being induced to 
come to a conference and having been told that nothing would 
be done to him if he surrendered, except to put him before 
a court, he departed with a defiant refusal. It was then that 
Major Peyton did a very unique thing. Finding the ordinary 
trails to Dowd's position well covered with fire, he resolved to 
cut new trails. The continual chopping in unseen places 
warned the Moros that the troops were coming on, but they 
could not see their targets and they did seem to be able to 
change their plan. A severe action followed, when most of 
the Moros were either killed or captured. Dowd escaped but 
was later killed in an effort to capture him. 
Although all of the arms of the Moros were not yet taken, 
the troops for political reasons were withdrawn.7 It was re- 
ported that quiet reigned. It did, with much robbery, murder, 
arson and peonage. When later, new troops, unacquainted with 
Moro customs, attempted to round up the increased number 
of recreant Mohammedans, their losses were unnecessary in 
many cases. One company, having to learn afresh the dangers 
that attended work with these savages, camped on the edge of a 
large lake where the surf was rolling high. In the night the 
noise of the waters kept the sentries from hearing sounds of 
lurking Moros. As a consequence, several stole into camp, cut 
off the captain's head and severely wounded a lieutenant.8 
In the early part of the year the Maneuver Division and 
the First Separate Brigade were disbanded. But the border 
raids still continued. In fact, the withdrawal of the troops 
caused more depredations and seemed to be an open invitation 
to Orozco's rebel forces. The Ninth Cavalry was sent to 
Douglas, Arizona, and the Thirteenth to El Paso, Texas. These 
regiments were particularly successful in suppressing the at- 
tempt made in Texas by General Reyes to instigate an insur- 
rection against Madero. 
This command also enforced the embargo on arms and am- 
1912 
t The Presidential elections were in sight. 
s For number and designation of regular troops in Philippines from 
1899-1912, see Appendix E, 444 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
munition for the Mexicans. It patrolled so carefully that it 
prevented raids on American ranches in Texas and Arizona. 
Before the end of the year there had to be upon the Mexican 
border 6 regiments of cavalry, 1^ regiments of infantry, 1 
battalion of field artillery, 2 companies of coast artillery and 1 
company of the signal corps: a total of 6,754 officers and men. 
During the summer 67,280 men of the organized militia par- 
ticipated with the regular troops in five joint maneuvers. The 
tactical work developed in these was very superior to anything 
in the past. 
It was at this time that the floods along the Ohio and the 
Mississippi produced such tremendous trouble and loss that 
it was necessary to call out officers and troops of the regular 
service to alleviate the suffering. So quietly, methodically and 
efficiently did the supply and the care of the refugees take 
place that there was little notice of the actions of the army by 
the public. 
The mobile army in the United States was at this time scat- 
tered in some 49 posts throughout 24 different states. The 
average strength per garrison was less than 700' men. Effort 
was made by the General Staff to form these troops into a tacti- 
cal organization of 3 infantry divisions composed of 2 or 3 
brigades, with the proper attached troops. Of course this or- 
ganization could be made only on paper as long as Congress 
persisted in scattering the army so widely and withholding 
from it the vital training necessary for large bodies of troops. 
A scheme of complete organization worked out by the War 
College Division of the General Staff tried to rectify the utter 
absence of technical and tactical organization throughout the 
country. A sound and definite policy was formulated. It esti- 
mated that at the outbreak of war with a first class power the 
United States should be capable of assembling at once an effec- 
tive force of 460,000 mobile troops and 43,000 coast artillery. 
It gave this strength as a minimum for the first line neces- 
sary. In addition it conservatively felt that plans should be 
made to raise 300,000 men. But these projects could not be 
carried out without legislative help. 
It was during this year that a very drastic "Manchu Law" 
was passed by Congress. It provided that officers who had not 
March, Apr 
1912 
July 
1912 
Aug. 24 
1912 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
445 
served two years of the previous six with a troop, battery or 
company should immediately be returned to troops and serve 
there the required time. Only certain officers of the Judge- 
Advocate-General's Department, the Ordnance Department and 
those on duty in the Panama Canal Zone were exempted. The 
law was sweeping in its effect and caused temporary demoral- 
ization in the service schools and some staff departments. 
However, the idea was sound in that it showed a desire to have 
an officer familiar with his duties of command as well as those 
of staff wrork. 
At the same time, the quartermaster, subsistence and pay 
departments were combined and called a quartermaster corps 
under a chief with the rank of major general. Such consoli- 
dation made for better efficiency and economy. The control 
of these correlated branches now came under one man so that 
waste of material and motion could later be avoided. 
It is interesting to note that there was a fair attempt this 
year to notice the air work of the army. An appropriation of 
$100,000 for the purchase, maintenance, operation and repair 
of airships and other aerial machines did not go very far, but 
it showed a tendency to note the existence of this new branch of 
the military service, however slightly. 
One very important part of this law was the attempt by 
Congress to create a reserve for the regular army. When a 
man enlisted, he was to serve three years with the colors and 
four years with the reserves. The law as it stood was a good 
idea, but there was no provision in it for the payment of sol- 
diers while in the reserve, except in case of war. Also, a man 
understanding the type of service upon which he was to enter 
hesitated about signing up for so long a time as seven years. 
In other words, certain compromises in the measure resulted 
in defeating its purpose. As a concrete example of what actu- 
ally happened, the Secretary of War after two years was able 
to report that there existed the magnificent reserve in the 
United States of sixteen men. 
A board of general officers presided over by Secretary Stim- 
son met in Washington for the purpose of organizing as per- 
fectly as possible the land forces of the United States for war, 
so that when an emergency came there would not be any great 446 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
amount of turmoil or needless expense in passing from one 
stage to the other. Of course what the board could do was 
limited in view of the absence of legislation. However, the 
mobile army within the United States was given a tactical 
organization into divisions and brigades for the purpose of 
administering all military matters territorially. For this pur- 
pose, peace distribution was reorganized into six geographical 
departments: Eastern, Central, Western, Southern, Philippine 
and Hawaiian. 
The Mexican frontier continued to be patrolled by 6,700 
soldiers who tried to cover a territory of 1,600 miles in extent, 
from the Gulf of Mexico to thirty miles west of Nogales, Ari- 
zona. Huerta having succeeded Madero was opposed by Car- 
ranza, Villa and Zepata. Much firing took place on the terri- 
tory adjacent to the boundary line, which was coveted by all 
the Mexican parties. Many refugees and wounded Mexicans 
came over the border. Often shots flew northward across the 
Rio Grande. A slight mistake on the part of the troops and 
international relations would have become very complicated. 
At length, the trouble became so acute that orders were issued 
for the concentration at Texas City and Galveston of the 
Second Division under Major General Wm. H. Carter. The 
11,450 men making up these organizations were transported 
with great dispatch in comparison to the speed of the maneuver 
division of 1911. In a little over a week after the first orders 
were issued, all the troops had reached their destinations. 
At war strength this division should have been 22,565. As 
it was, had the division been involved in hostilities, it would 
have been necessary to recruit it by 50 per cent in the face of 
the enemy, with the consequent disaster that has similarly over- 
taken such unreadiness in the past. Of the force assembled 
in Texas, the British and German military attaches stated that 
they had never seen a finer body of troops collected, nor had 
they seen better discipline, less intoxication or such perfect 
sanitary arrangements in camps. Although the country was 
drained of its trained forces, those who were ready were in 
perfect condition. 
In the valleys of the Ohio and the Mississippi, floods of a 
graver nature than the year before rendered many people home- 
Feb. 6 
1913 
Feb. 31-24 
1913 
March 
1913 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
447 
less and caused much suffering. The army was again called 
upon to handle the situation. With energy, skill and dispatch 
supplies were distributed, refugees taken care of and the inter- 
ruptions to business curtailed. In a similar way troops took 
care of the devastated regions of Omaha, Nebraska and Lower 
Peachtree, Alabama. Later the soldiers efficiently fought for- 
est fires in California and in the Adirondacks. 
A camp of instruction for regular cavalry was held at Win- 
chester, Virginia. The Tenth, Eleventh and 2 squadrons of 
the Fifteenth Cavalry participated. Similarly camps of in- 
struction for field artillery were held at Tobyhanna, Pennsyl- 
vania, Fort Riley, Kansas, and Fort Sill, Oklahoma. It was 
in this year that the army began really to spread its education 
to civilians other than the National Guard. Undergraduate 
students of seventeen years of age or over, who were physi- 
cally qualified and recommended, were given the opportunity 
of taking a practical course of instruction. Two such camps 
were held at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and at the Presidio of 
Monterey, California, during six weeks of the summer. The 
object was to give training in maneuvers, tactics, care of troops, 
camp sanitation and rifle practice. The paramount idea was 
that of bringing to young men something which would render 
them more capable in sudden emergencies and make them, inci- 
dentally, more valuable citizens. There being no appropriation 
to cover all expenses, the students had to pay for their trans- 
portation as well as for their subsistence and clothing. Even 
with this voluntary drawback, at Gettysburg 159 young men 
from 63 universities and colleges, and at Monterey 85 from 27 
educational institutions, received the course. 
Another evidence of the renaissance was the establishment 
of the School of Musketry at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Its purpose 
was especially that of giving instruction in small-arms firing. 
The founding of this school was the small beginning of the 
great Infantry School now at Fort Benning, Georgia, with its 
elaborate curriculum. Courses were given to both officers and 
enlisted men of the regular army and National Guard. Along 
this same line an aviation school at Augusta, Georgia, was 
transferred to Texas City, in order to participate in the opera- 
tions of the Second Division. Although 15 aeroplanes consti- 
July, Sept. 
1913 
July 18 to 
Sept. 30 
1913 
June 9 
1913 448 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
tuted the entire equipment of the army aviation corps, two 
nonstop flights of 240 miles were made and sketches drawn by 
the reconnoitering officer. Of course we had no dirigible bal- 
loons of any sort. 
The appearance of new Tables of Organization and Field 
Service Regulations disclosed a tendency toward a more mod- 
ern use of troops in the field. Improvements in administra- 
tion and supply had been culled from the best of foreign 
methods. Officers and men were given more independence in 
the execution of their tasks. The idea of simply looking in 
the book to see what one had to do, wras overcome by an empha- 
sis upon principle rather than precept. 
The troops in the Moro country of the Philippines were 
again on the move. Some trouble was experienced in getting 
the Moros to subside, after being some time 'without restraint. 
An action at Bud Tandu was decisive. 
At last legislation conscientiously tried to put the volun- 
teers on a sound basis for any emergency. The land forces 
of the United States were to consist of the "regular army, the 
organized land militia while in the service of the United States 
and such volunteer forces as Congress may authorize." The 
term of enlistment for volunteers was to be the same as that 
for regulars. No officer above the grade of colonel was to be 
appointed in the volunteers. The President could appoint 
regular officers to volunteer commissions in the proportion of 
4 to each regiment of cavalry, field artillery or infantry, or to 
12 companies of coast artillery; and not more than 1 to each 
volunteer battalion of engineers, signal corps or field artillery. 
The regular commissions were not to be vacated by the appoint- 
ment of regulars to higher grades in the volunteers. By the 
removal of the regular officers for such purpose, temporary 
vacancies and promotion were created in the regular service. 
When war was imminent or upon us, all organizations of the 
land forces were to be recruited and maintained at their maxi- 
mum strength. The measure showed the first inclination of 
Congress in our history to foresee the necessity for having an 
established status for the volunteer before the emergency oc- 
curred. 
Another act appropriated $250,000 for airships and other 
Feh. 25 
1914 
March 19 
1914 
March 1 
1914 
April 25 
1914 
April 27 
1914 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
449 
aerial craft. It also authorized the Secretary of War to pur- 
chase a tract of land either near Tullahoma, Tennessee, or at 
Anniston, Alabama, for the purpose of establishing a perma* 
nent maneuver camp for the troops of the United States army 
and the National Guard. 
The organization of aviation units was for the first time 
seriously given attention in legislation. An aviation section 
of the signal corps, to operate and supervise military aircraft, 
was to be composed of not more than 60 officers and 260 en- 
listed men. Officers were to be detailed to this work for four 
years and were to be classified either as junior military avi- 
ators or military aviators. The junior aviators were to have 
the rank, pay and allowances of a grade above that which they 
held in the line, provided they did not hold rank above that 
of first lieutenant. Only 15 military aviators were allowed. 
They were to have the rank, pay and allowance of a junior 
military aviator and also to receive an increase of 75 per cent 
of their pay. Both types of aviators could be given this higher 
rate of pay only when they were making regular and frequent 
flights. The hazard of the position of aviator was recognized 
when Congress allotted to the widow of an officer or enlisted man, 
killed as a result of an aviation accident, one year's full pay. 
The task of patrolling the Mexican border, a duty most 
arduous and thankless, was performed by 250 officers and 8,260 
enlisted men assigned from the Southern and Western Depart' 
ments. Due to an unpleasantness which had arisen when 
Admiral Mayo was insulted by the Huerta Government at Vera 
Cruz it was thought necessary to bring the army into play in 
Mexico itself. Brigadier General Funston was ordered to go 
to Vera Cruz. He at once set out by way of Galveston with 
4 regiments of infantry of the Fifth Brigade, Company E of 
the Second Battalion of Engineers and a field hospital. He 
was followed later by the Fourth Field Artillery from Texas 
City. General Funston reached Vera Cruz promptly and dis- 
embarked his troops. A little later he took command of the 
city. Under him were 225 officers, 3,8'32 enlisted men of the 
regular army and 113 officers and 3,333 men of the marines. 
He extended his line so as to include El Tejar, which controlled 
the water supply of the city. 
July 18 
1914 
April 23 
1914 
April 24 
1914 
April 28 
1914 
April 30 
1914 450 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Due to the change of government in Mexico there was little 
action that could be taken. However, the conduct and work of 
the troops were excellent in this trying situation. Officers and 
men had to deal very tactfully with the natives because they 
could neither go into Mexico nor go away from it. General 
Funston's predicament was all the more pitiable when it is 
considered that had he received an order to journey in the 
path that Winfield Scott had followed nearly seventy years 
before, he would have found that he could not budge. He 
had almost no transportation and a reduced peace strength 
which lowered his numbers to a pitiable figure. The Mexicans, 
too, were strong and armed with modern weapons. Thus a 
great nation of over 100,000,000 people for the third time in 
three years presented a spectacle to the world of being unable 
to assemble in their troubles even the semblance of a powerful 
force. 
So successful had been the encampments, especially with 
the students, in the previous summer that effort was made to 
have two sets of two each this year. As a consequence 348 
students were sent to Burlington, Vermont; 120 to Asheville, 
North Carolina; 114 to Ludington, Michigan; and 85 to Mon- 
terey, California. 
All through this year labor disturbances, especially in the 
coal regions, demanded the dispatch of regular troops to quell 
the disorder. Colorado, Montana and Arkansas were all vis- 
ited by the Federal forces with the usual lulling effect. Such 
police work deprived the regular army of giving the instruction 
necessary in joint encampments with the National Guard. The 
consequence was that during this year there was almost a dearth 
of such field work. Even the camps for medical officers and 
schools of instruction for field artillery had to be canceled, with 
the exception of a field artillery encampment at Tobyhanna, 
Pennsylvania. 
The legislation for the army during the second year of the 
World War was quite scattered. Several million dollars 
were spent on the armament of the Panama Canal. The 
enormous allotment of $15,000 for the purpose of having offi- 
cers sent abroad to observe and study the war in Europe, did 
not show an excessive interest in the illuminating situation of 
July 6 to 
Aug. 7 
1914 
June 26 to 
July 1 
1914 
March 3 
1915 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
451 
a new type of warfare overseas. On this account officers of the 
highest merit could not be sent to the scene of the World War in 
order to learn the endless details of that mechanism which would 
have been so invaluable to us later. At this late date, Congress 
began to look at aviation a trifle more earnestly. Its extreme 
activity manifested itself in the appointment of 3 army officers 
who were to report on the "advisability of the acquisition by 
the government of land for an aviation school and training 
ground." The Porto Rico regiment of infantry was incor- 
porated into the regular army, its officers being sprinkled about 
on the list with regular officers according to length of service. 
Modern discipline throughout the penitentiaries of the service 
had been put in vogue with success. Congress, therefore, 
changed the name of the military prisons at Fort Leavenworth, 
Kansas, to that of the United States Disciplinary Barracks. 
The thanks of Congress were extended to the members of the 
Isthmian Canal Commission. Colonel Goethals was raised to 
the grade of major general as was also Brigadier General Wil- 
liam C. Gorgas. Colonel Hodges and Lieutenant Colonel 
Sibert were made brigadier generals of the line. A survey of 
the legislation effected this year, although no part of it was bad 
in itself, gives the impression of futility. The country was 
looking upon the World War in Europe as a spectator. That 
the mightiest conflict in history had embroiled half the civi- 
lized world caused little suspicion that somehow the fray might 
strike us, or a belief that we might be free from it with a little 
more intelligent strength. 
Mr. Gardiner, Representative from Massachusetts, had off 
fered excellent bills for appropriations for the aviation corps, 
for the making of a sufficient quantity of small-arms ammuni- 
tion and for the production of field artillery material and am- 
munition. Although every one of these measures was decidedly 
necessary, even were we not going to be thrown into the World 
War two years later, the Congress overwhelmingly rejected 
them. 
The state of the army at this time was deplorable in size 
and excellent in quality. It is sufficient to say that all the 
foot-loose mobile units we had within the borders of the United 
States consisted of 1 regiment and 1 squadron of cavalry and 
March 4 
1915 
April 30 
1915 452 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
1 regiment of field artillery.9 There was not a single regiment 
of infantry in its quarters or permanent station. In other 
words, the army was doing war duty, especially on the Mexican 
border, with only the mounted force above shown free for emer- 
gency. Besides, 27 companies of coast artillery would soon 
have to be sent away in order to garrison forts in the Philip- 
pines, Hawaii and the Canal Zone. This is all the more strik- 
ing when it is known that the army consisted at this time of 31 
regiments of infantry, 15 regiments of cavalry, 6 regiments of 
field artillery, 170 companies of coast artillery, 8 companies 
of signal corps, '3 battalions and a detachment of engineers, 7 
field hospitals, 8 ambulance companies, 1 evacuation hospital 
and the Philippine scouts. 
Mr. Garrison, one of the ablest Secretaries of War this 
country has ever seen, and one who as much as any martyr 
sacrificed his personal interests for a principle, showed that, 
when the proper deductions of the naturally stationary troops 
were made, there remained but 24,602 men of the mobile forces 
in the entire regular army. This was a smaller actual strength 
than at any time since 1861, except in April, 1865, when we 
had so many trained veteran volunteers still in the service. 
Equal to the shortage in troops was that of the officers. Over 
28 per cent of them were absent from their commands for the 
valid reasons of detached service and casualties. Only 200 
line officers had been added to the service, when many times 
that number were needed. All manner of materials for war 
were absent. The United States had only 21 aeroplanes and 
no dirigibles, whereas France had 500 aeroplanes and 11 diri- 
gibles and Great Britain 250 aeroplanes and 8 dirigibles at this 
time. The United States possessed all told not 700 3-inch field 
pieces, whereas France had 4,800 even prior to the begin- 
ning of the war in Europe. In the entire country, the am- 
munition for field artillery totaled only 5,800 rounds, or 
about all that would suffice for a two days' battle: as for 
9 Four troops of cavalry at Fort Sheridan, Ill.; 4 troops and 1 signal 
company at Fort Leavenworth; 2 troops at Fort Robinson, Nebraska; 1 
regiment of field artillery at Fort Sill, Oklahoma; 4 troops of cavalry 
at Fort Meade, South Dakota; and 2 troops at Fort D. A. Russell, 
Wyoming. THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
453 
rifle ammunition, there was enough on hand for only four days' 
fighting. 
The organized militia of the entire United States amounted 
to only 127,410 men, including coast artillery and staff. Noth- 
ing of real value had been done to establish a "second line" on 
a firm basis, although efforts of the general staff had been inces- 
sant in its endeavor to gain a tactical organization of the com- 
bined regular army and militia. Outside of 1 New York and 
1 Pennsylvania division, other National Guard units were 
woefully deficient in personnel, materiel and training. 
The year ended with the carrying out of a very happy idea 
by General Wood, then in command of the Department of the 
East. He established a military instruction camp for business 
and professional men which was held at Plattsburg, New York. 
The way in which the attendants set aside their personal busi- 
ness and whole-heartedly entered into the spirit of rigorous 
discipline cannot be too highly complimented. The conduct 
and training of that month was something that was of the 
utmost value later in our participation in the war. Although 
the size of the assemblage made it only a drop in the bucket, it 
was the start of the training camp, which was to be a great 
factor later. 
The affairs in Mexico, marked by the killing of defenseless 
Americans, grew to be of such grievous nature that the country 
clamored for retribution. For months the matter became more 
serious. Finally Pancho Villa with about 1,500 bandits rode 
across the border and attacked the defenseless town of Columbus, 
New Mexico. He looted the place with the usual brutality to 
women and children, killing 11 civilians, 9 soldiers, wounding 
many others and burning a number of buildings. Having cut 
the telegraph wires, he embarrassed the Thirteenth Cavalry 
in its communication with the town. Nevertheless, some 
250 of the Tthirteenth pursued the raiders, killing 40 of 
them and wounding many more. The regiment's loss was 1 
killed. 
It was found immediately necessary to send a force into 
Mexico, since the Carranza government had shown itself in- 
capable of protecting Americans and American soil. 
Brigadier General John J. Pershing was appointed to 
Aug. 10- 
Sept. 6 
1915 
March 9 
1916 454 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
March 15 
1916 
command a punitive expedition for the purpose of rounding up 
Villa.10 With great dispatch he began his crossing of the 
border from Columbus, having under him the Sixth and Six- 
teenth Infantry, the Eleventh and Thirteenth Cavalry, 1 battery 
of the Sixth Artillery, the First Aero Squadron, and some 
engineer, signal, ambulance and hospital troops. At the same 
time Colonel George A. Dodd with the Seventh and Tenth 
Cavalry and 1 battery of the Sixth Artillery crossed the border 
further west. The march south was exceedingly difficult both 
because Carranza refused the use of the railroads to the troops 
and because the villages, in most cases, could not be used. The 
available motor truck and pack train supply was far from 
adequate, almost disgraceful. As the troops proceeded farther 
and farther from their base, their hardships increased. 
The expedition, too, had orders from Washington which em- 
barrassed it. It was to proceed against Villa without occupying 
towns and without coming into conflict with Carranza forces. 
It was a difficult proposition thus to march in the waste places 
and to keep out of the way of the Mexicans who were actively 
hostile to the Americans. 
Pershing had to be reenforced by more troops later. For 
instance, parts of the Twentieth and Twenty-fourth Infantry 
started from Columbus. Meanwhile some other regular regi- 
ments of the country were concentrated along the border, and an 
extra motor truck train was purchased. 
The American troops reached a point two hundred miles 
south of the border in spite of these handicaps. Colonel Dodd 
with about 400 men of his cavalry regiment surprised and 
attacked about 500 bandits under Villa at Guerrero. He 
scattered the force after a sharp fight and captured 2 machine 
guns and a large number of horses, saddles and arms. The Villa 
forces lost at least 30 killed, whereas the Americans had 4 men 
wounded, not seriously. This battle was the only one of the war 
which was directly concerned with Villa. The others were the 
results of the hostile attitude of the Carranza troops in apparent 
opposition to the first understanding between the two govern- 
ments. 
April 1 
1916 
March 28 
1916 
March 29 
1916 
io For complete statistics on this expedition see Appendix F. THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
455 
General Pershing's headquarters were transferred to Nami- 
quipa, about two hundred and twenty-five miles south of 
Columbus. Supplies were more and more difficult to get, but 
field bakeries and rolling kitchens began to count in relieving the 
hunger of the troops. 
Minor actions, on account of the opposition by Carranza, took 
place at several Mexican towns. Colonel Brown, with 271 
officers and men of the Tenth Cavalry, met Villistas at Agua 
Caliente. Captain Kendrick similarly with 96 officers and men 
of the Seventh Cavalry had a brush with some Villistas at Agua 
Zarca. Major Howze with 264 officers and men of the Eleventh 
Cavalry had a larger engagement at La Joya. All these actions 
were successful in driving back the enemy. 
In scouting ahead of the column, Major Frank Tompkins 
with 2 troops of the Thirteenth Cavalry came to the town of 
Parral. General Lozano of the Carranzistas accompanied Major 
Tompkins to his camp, but the Americans were followed by a 
jeering mob of Mexicans who threw stones at them and fired in 
their direction. Major Tompkins took up a defensive position 
north of the railroad, and in superhuman self-control refrained, 
under the orders of his government, to bring on a fight with 
the Carranzistas. However, he was finally flanked out by a 
superior force of Mexican troops, who did not seem to be con- 
trolled by their general. About 300 of them pursued the small 
force of American cavalry which had to withdraw under instruc- 
tions that exasperated these brave but obedient men. The 
scattering losses in this defensive retreat had been about 40 
Mexicans against 2 American soldiers killed and 6 wounded. It 
was not until fifteen miles of withdrawal had taken place that 
the pursuing Mexicans ceased their fire. There the 2 troops 
were reenforced by 1 squadron of the Tenth Cavalry and 4 
machine guns. 
This incident caused the general knowledge of what the 
army was aware of long since, that the whole Mexican nation 
was actively hostile to our troops. General Pershing was re- 
enforced by 2,300 troops, including the Seventeenth Infantry, 
the Fifth Cavalry and 1 battalion of the Fourth Field Ar- 
tillery. 
Small engagements scattered themselves about during the 
April 2 
1916 
April 1 
1916 
April 7 
1916 
April 10 
1916 
April 18 
1916 
April 18 
1916 456 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Avril 20 
1916 
remainder of the month. Colonel Brown with 45 men of the 
Seventh Cavalry drove back a small force of Villistas at Verde 
River. Colonel Dodd with 154 men of the Seventh Cavalry had 
a very successful battle with an equal number of Villistas at 
Tomachie. 
A conference between the representatives of the two nations, 
Obregon and Trevino for Mexico and Generals Scott and Fun- 
ston for the United States, was held at El Paso, Texas. While 
the deliberations, which seemed to reach a deadlock, were in prog- 
ress, a raid was made by a party of Villa bandits, numbering 
about 50, on Glenn Springs, Texas. Nine men of the Fourteenth 
Cavalry, who were on picket duty there, were surrounded. Tak- 
ing refuge in an adobe hut, they fought with great valor. But 
when the Mexicans set the roof afire, they had to flee: 3 were 
killed, 2 wounded and 2 badly burned. The Villistas also killed 
a boy in the village. Major Langhorne pursued the bandits, cap- 
turing 14 prisoners. 
At Ojos Azules in Mexico, Major Howze with a squadron of 
the Eleventh Cavalry routed with great success a force of the 
Villistas. These events caused the President to see that nego- 
tiations were futile, and that more strength would have to be 
applied to the wily work of the Carranzistas. Accordingly, he 
ordered the last of the regular mobile troops, who happened at 
that moment to be in the United States, to the border-the 
Third, Fourteenth, Twenty-first and Thirtieth Infantry, the 
Fifth Field Artillery and practically all of the remaining coast 
artillery. With the country so drained, he caused the governors 
of Arizona, New Mexico and Texas to send their National 
Guard to report to the regular army whose officers would fed- 
eralize the militia organizations. 
Minor actions continued through the month with Carran- 
zistas in Mexico, the feeling growing more intense. Small de- 
tachments of the Sixth and Seventeenth Infantry, respectively, 
had sharp engagements at San Miguel de Rubio and Alamillo 
Canon. 
It was while all this was happening that Congress, having a 
concrete example of the meagerness of our forces, passed a 
National Defense or Reorganization Act, which was one of the 
greatest advances over all previous military legislation. The 
April 22 
1916 
Early May 
1916 
May 5 
1916 
May 5 
1916 
May 9 
1916 
May 
1916 
May 14, 25 
1916 
June 3 
1916 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
457 
regular army was to consist of 65 regiments of infantry, 25 of 
cavalry and 21 of field artillery, an equivalent of 93 companies 
of coast artillery, 8 aero squadrons, 7 regiments of engineers, 
and the corresponding staff corps. This organization gave the 
country a peace force of 175,000 men as fighting units. The 
army of the United States was to include the regular army, the 
volunteer army, the officers' reserve corps, the enlisted reserve 
corps and the National Guard (while in the service of the 
United States). The mobile troops of the regular army were 
to be organized into divisions and brigades on a tactical basis. 
Four major-generals and 19 brigadiers were added to the line. 
The General Staff was to consist of the chief of staff, 2 general 
officers of the line, 10 colonels, 10 lieutenant colonels, 15 majors 
and 17 captains, to be detailed for four years at a time. The 
cavalry and infantry regiments had added to them a supply 
company, a headquarters company and a machine-gun company. 
A division had 3 brigades of 3 regiments each. The increase 
was to take place in five equal and annual installments. Pro- 
motion was equalized to a certain extent between branches by the 
addition of a small number of colonels to the infantry and 
cavalry. An officers' reserve corps was provided for by giving 
commissions to civilians proven to be qualified by examination. 
An enlisted reserve corps was to be built up by soldiers fur- 
loughed to the reserve, the enlistment for the regular soldier 
being three years with the colors and four years with the reserve. 
Men with character "excellent" could be transferred to the re- 
serve after one year. Vocational training of the soldier was 
provided for, and federalizing about 425,000 National Guard 
could be had under the law. The medical corps was to consist 
of medical corps proper, medical reserve corps, dental corps, 
veterinary corps and nurse corps. A special provision authorized 
the Secretary of War to maintain training camps which gave 
opportunity for much more unified handling of state troops. 
The President, when authorized by Congress to use the land 
forces, could draft the National Guard and the National Guard 
Reserve into the service of the United States. The Corps of 
Cadets by a previous act had been increased to a maximum of 
1,334 cadets, by giving each Congressman two appointments. 
May 4 
1916 458 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Altogether legislation allowed the army a maximum war 
strength of 287,846 men.11 
The training camp at Plattsburg was opened for business 
men in spite of the fact that there was scarcely any army in the 
country. 
June 5 
1916 
11 Old Law 
Organizations 
Officers 
Enlisted men 
Min. 
Max. 
31 regiments infantry 
1,531 
25,035 
56,315 
15 regiments cavalry 
750 
12,240 
18,540 
6 regiments field artillery 
246 
5,010 
7,116 
3 batallions engineers 
57 
1,234 
2,002 
Coast artillery corps (170 companies) 
Total combatants 
701 
3,285 
62,840 
19,321 
103,294 
Signal corps 
106 
1,472 
1,472 
Medical department 
504 
4,012 
4,012 
Quartermaster corps 
187 
6,403 
6,403 
1,472 
Other troops and staff departments 
765 
1,472 
Philippine scouts 
182 
5,733 
12,000 
Total 
5,029 
81,932 
128,653 
New Law 
Enlisted men 
Organizations 
Officers 
Min. 
Max. 
65 regiments infantry 
3,314 
1,300 
876 
85,865 
24,350 
17,752 
4,697 
458 
126,230 
36,250 
25 regiments cavalry 
21 regiments field artillery 
26,361 
7,077 
692 
7 regiments engineers 
231 
2 battalions mounted engineers 
32 
Band engineers 
30 
Coast artillery corps (263 companies) 
1,201 
6,954 
275 
30,009 
226,649 ] 
4,338 
14,100 
Total combatants 
163,161 
3,387 
10,500 
Signal corps 
Medical department 
1,750 
to 2,365 
Quartermaster corps 
369 
6.403 
6,403 
24,356 
12,000 
Other troops and staff departments 
1,797 
182 
19,154 
5,733 
Philippine scouts 
Total 
11,327 
to 11,942 
208,338 
287,846 THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
459 
On the Mexican border the number of American troops had 
materially increased, although the above law which could not 
be put in force for many months did not swell the total. The 
President had to resort to calling out more National Guard from 
the majority of the states in the Union. With great difficulty 
they were transported to camps along the border and in the 
United States, until by the end of the year some 75,000 were 
stretched along the Rio Grande. 
In the meantime some 100 Mexicans attacked the Four- 
teenth Infantry camp at Laredo and killed 4 soldiers, and the 
next day a detachment of the Twenty-sixth Infantry was fired 
on at West Brownsville. 
Within Mexico it was felt by General Pershing that a great 
force of Carranzistas were collecting at Laguna de Bay with 
malicious intent. Under Captains Charles D. Boyd and Lewis 
S. Morey 2 troops of the Tenth Cavalry were sent to scout 
toward the Mexicans and find out their strength. Having 
arrived within two miles of Carrizal, the troops halted and re- 
quested to pass through the town. The request was denied, but 
a conference between commanders took place outside the town. 
While this council was in progress a large force (about 400) of 
Mexican troops circled the camp, placing at advantageous points 
machine guns. When the Mexican commanders suddenly with- 
drew, the Carranza troops opened fire. The little force of 90 
cavalrymen were in a distressing predicament, but gallantly 
formed and attacked. Captain Boyd and Lieutenant Adair 
were killed, besides 38 others killed or wounded. Captain 
Morey was severely wounded. The Americans finally made 
their way back in various ways except 24 who were captured. 
The Mexicans lost 40 killed and 39 wounded including General 
Gomez. 
This marked the end of actual hostilities of a grave nature. 
The large force collected on the border alarmed Carranza to 
such a degree that he tamed his defiant attitude. Had such 
numbers been capable of action in the first place, doubtless the 
casualties of this expedition would have been foregone. A joint 
commission then tried to settle the difficulties, so that the troops 
were held in Mexico and in the United States, on both sides of 
the Rio Grande and in a very delicate and difficult situation. 
June 18 
1916 
June 15 
1916 
June 20 
1916 460 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
Jan. 
1917 
They could move neither backward nor forward. Finally they 
were begun to be withdrawn because of a diplomatic protocol 
between the nations. Villa was still uncaptured. 
General Pershing's task through this whole campaign was, 
to speak mildly, awkward. He had to advance with little trans- 
portation through the most trying part of a tensely hostile 
country. He was allowed to attack one party but not the other, 
while both were equally antagonistic. He was in the position of 
the man who had to walk into a hungry leopard's cage with 
orders to beat Mr. Leopard, but under no conditions resist Mrs. 
Leopard with her cubs. With such a mission, who could have 
done better ? 
The experiences of the army in this phase between the war 
with Spain and the World War had been cosmopolitan and 
diverse. It was all in the work of the year for an officer to be 
student, instructor, leader, governor, judge, jury, councilor, 
fighter, constructor, almsgiver, executive and peacemaker. It 
was in the work of the day for both officer and enlisted man to 
crawl through tormenting jungles or press forward over parch- 
ing trails while deadly pestilence or Mauser bullet doggedly 
pursued. It has been impossible to record the many annihila- 
tions of whole companies and detachments as they were am- 
bushed on the march as late as 1905. But more disheartening 
than any physical discomfort, disease or wounds, which the 
American soldier bears with fortitude and sportsmanship, was 
the criticism of his own people back home. After he had gone 
forward with only the good of his nation in his mind, it hurt him 
keenly to find the press construing his sincere struggles and 
daring achievements as acts of cruelty or selfishness. 
Through all this gruelling can be traced the soldier's stub- 
born desire for the improvement of the service. His ambition 
and pride must psychologically point that way. He enters his 
profession without hope of wealth or gain, much as does the 
clergyman. He feels that he is about to engage in a noble under- 
taking, whose discipline is the very essence of high-mindedness. 
He finds himself cut off from private business enterprises both by 
regulations and his movements hither and yon. lie does not 
change his job. lie cannot be promoted a single grade through 
his own efforts, unless it be in that far-away time when he be- THE ARMY'S RENAISSANCE 
461 
comes a colonel. The outlet then for his energies is to be known 
to his superiors and inferiors as an efficient officer. When he 
finds, after study and practice, deficiencies that rob the army of 
its best results, he strives to have them remedied. When he sees 
lives and money expended uselessly by his nation, he is obsessed 
with the desire to prevent another such disaster. It is his in- 
variable rule when confronted with any task, to think first of his 
duty to his nation. His superiors often change, but his em- 
ployer-his country-always stays. There are no strings, no 
side issues. His duty runs straight between his master and him- 
self. He feels his patriotism too deeply even to discuss the 
matter. He may not wave a flag, but he can grit his teeth. Organized Reserve-/z 
IT 15 WORTHY OF NOTE THAT FH/E- SIXTHS OF THE ARMY OF THE 
United States 15 composed of citizen soldiers. 
ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 
(Act of June 4, 1920.) 
National Guard-/3 
Regular army-}^ EPILOGUE 
(1917-1923) 
WHEN little Samuel without his linen ephod stood up in 
the cold night to inform the Lord that His small 
servant was listening, he was in much the same pre- 
dicament as the American army in the face of a summoning 
nation upon our entrance into the great war. Slight, inex- 
perienced, unprovided, and unsettled, the frail military child 
of a commercial people was up and doing in its triple task of 
organizer, instructor, and fighter. 
How it came to he in this restless state of adolescence after 
two years and eight months of illuminating struggle abroad, is 
worth a moment's rehearsal. A campaign of our own, which 
had been fruitless in gain, had been most productive in experi- 
ence. Some of the things we as a nation had failed to extract 
from the lessons in Europe, we learned directly by pecking at 
the northern edges of Mexico. Long before the fight at Carrizal, 
it was patent to every officer that there was a lack of cohesion of 
the parts of our machine. Large bodies of troops were slow and 
awkward in assembling, state troops through no fault of their 
own were variously and imperfectly trained, and our whole 
service of supply was antiquated and inadequate. There was 
for the mass of the people a complete demonstration of that 
which the military authorities had long known-our inability 
to cope with concentration over wide areas. 
The result was that one year and ten months after Austria 
declared war on Serbia, there came the first legislation to recon- 
struct our military establishment. The law, before referred to 
as the National Defense Act, allowed the regular army to be 
approximately doubled in five annual increments, and the 
strength of the National Guard throughout the entire country 
to be fixed at a little over 300,000. Thus there was to be pro- 
463 464 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
vided a force of about 600,000 regulars and militia, which was 
not to come to its full strength until July 1, 1920. In the 
meantime the state troops were to undergo more rigorous train- 
ing, and the regulars were to add to themselves a tenth of their 
original strength each midyear. 
Tn such an enlargement as this where one part had to grow 
by putting on layers, and another by changing its tissue, it was 
natural that the undisturbed element should become the chief 
means in the spread of knowledge and discipline. It was also 
logical that the officers of the National Guard, with the inter- 
ruptions of civil pursuits and the varied instruction received in 
Maine and Texas, could hardly be expected to fill the office of 
instructor. Those men who had given their lives entirely to 
military service were the rational selections for this vital part 
to be played. It was, then, to the regular army alone that the 
country could turn in an emergency for its military teachers. 
Accordingly, the blow that fell upon the nation when war 
came upon us caught its training force recovering from an un- 
settled condition due to the addition of its first fraction of 
increase. The old regular regiments had skeletonized the new 
ones, leaving their own units depleted and the fresh ones un- 
stable. The enlarged general staff was adjusting itself to its 
added duties. Officers transferred from one arm of the service 
to another were familiarizing themselves with a different 
specialty. And in all this displacement it was discovered that 
the newly made units of both line and staff corps could not be 
recruited to full strength under the voluntary enlistment. 
Our incompleteness, however, was not the only hampering 
influence in our path. The kinds of experiences our army had 
passed through were in themselves but negative approaches to 
the great province to be encompassed. Nearly all exercise and 
experiment in our previous military work had consisted of the 
"bushwhacking" and small unit type. Even the practice on a 
greater scale, which was largely theoretical, had dealt with open- 
warfare exercises of extensive movement. This generation in 
its active engagements in Cuba, the Philippines, and Mexico, 
had in no way encountered anything, either in size or character, 
like the procedure of the western front in Europe. 
There had come into the field an inscrutable something, like 
April 6 
1917 EPILOGUE 
465 
the charger of Richard Coeur de Lion, which was to dominate 
the whole tournament. There had to be quick transition to 
whisk back suddenly to the bastion fortress of medievalism-to 
crouch before the besieged chateau enlarged to a five-hundred- 
mile circumference; and to pull from their moldy hiding 
places the hand grenade, chevaux-de-frise, and trench weapons. 
The artillery too had come into a wholly new ratio and relation 
with the infantry; it had to spring to twenty times its strength 
and to learn novel uses of the large rifles, howitzers and mortars 
for this great, creeping siege. Thousands of tons of big guns 
of new caliber, design, and carriage, had to be made and under- 
stood. This European war of position had through almost three 
years of development built up new tactical methods of bulky pro- 
portions. All this change looked as though it were going to take 
from under the feet of our military youthfulness much of its 
ordinary support. There had to be comprehended, on the one 
hand, all these thousand devices and, on the other, a new style 
of movement and management of troops. In the meantime our 
military understanding of this new problem had been made 
inert or theoretical on this side of the Atlantic. 
In this tremulous state where both organization and train- 
ing were uncertain and undeveloped, the general staff of our 
army was to be the fairy prince of our preparation. It was to 
produce quickly a sizable and competent army. Jack's bean- 
stalk had to climb into a country of the giants overnight. But 
the military hierarchy in Washington backed by the War Col- 
lege, which had not been sleeping during, and before, the war 
in Europe, was ready with projects to meet the sudden demands. 
It suggested and gave impetus to the emergency war bill, the 
main provisions of which were: to raise the regular army im- 
mediately to its full total, as authorized for July 1, 1920, by 
the act of the year before; to federalize over 400,000 of the 
militia; and to create at least one force of 500,000 under a draft 
system. The whole army when completed was to contain a 
minimum of one million men. 
Throughout the biblical forty days and forty nights, the 
heads of the War Department waited for our lawmakers to come 
to a decision. It was a tense period for those acquainted with 
the truth of Forrest's maxim that military success lies in "get- 466 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
ting there fustest with the mostest men." The heads of the 
army were not content with straining at the legal leash. They 
projected plans which presupposed the legislation completed and 
daringly went so far as to inaugurate the expenditure of funds 
not yet authorized. When the President signed the bill known 
as the Selective Draft Act, orders were waiting to be shot out 
of Washington with the quick explosions of a Lewis gun. Even 
before his action the training camps, under extensive and novel 
regulations, had been set on foot. The various branches and 
depots of the service had begun to expand. The voluntary re- 
cruiting of the regular forces had been vigorously urged by 
every inducement. Sites for trench training and extended tar- 
get practice had been examined. Concentration camps for the 
draft were well under way. And in the midst of all this in- 
cipiency, advance troops were leaving for France, and the 
gigantic program was affecting every department of the govern- 
ment. 
The infinity of detail with which the military authorities 
were confronted can only be sketched. One small staff corps, 
for example, had to have the additions of gas and flame, mining, 
water supply, general construction, engineer supply, surveying 
and printing, road, forestry, quarry, light railway, and 
standard-gauge railway services. Other corps were but similar 
embryos. The infantry itself, the backbone of an army, had to 
have its pivotal unit-the company-completely revolutionized. 
It had to progress at once from 150 to 250 men, from 3 to 6 
officers, and from simple riflemen to grenadiers, bombers, rifle 
genadiers, automatic riflemen, and ordinary riflemen. The 
change in the smaller units affected also the large ones; bat- 
talions, regiments, brigades, divisions, and armies had to be 
reconstituted.1 
May 18 
1917 
1 The war strength of the respective units of the new army was as follows: 
Organizations 
Enlisted men 
Officers 
Company 
250 
6 
Battalion 
1,026 
27 
Regiment 
3,755 
100 
Brigade 
8,210 
225 
Division 
27,152 
975 EPILOGUE 
467 
Even the supply corps felt the expansion keenly. Forty 
thousand motor trucks were to be purchased with all possible 
speed. Thousands of such lesser articles as signal flags, wire 
cutters, and telephones, the same number of larger ones such as 
field pieces and aeroplanes; and hundreds of thousands of uni- 
forms and shoes had to be turned out immediately. These 
supplies were necessary not so much for the front as for train- 
ing in our own country. As one cannot learn to swim by peer- 
ing into the water, neither can one fly aircraft or shoot a 3-inch 
rifle by gazing at a drawing. The rifle had to be aimed and the 
airship piloted by novices who were in turn to be teachers of 
others. Everything at once seemed to be imminently requisite. 
Wherever the heads of the War Department looked, whether 
towards the demand for men or material, necessities turned, like 
Alnaschar's castles, into vast and hazy proportions. 
With this sudden swelling of quantity went inexperience in 
handling large numbers. Our entire military service lacked 
practice in magnitudes. To represent a division on a map by 
pins, and to have it crawl along between parallel black marks 
by pricking new holes, were the greatest adventures most of our 
general officers had been allowed to have in maneuvering large 
forces. What new worlds the military heads of bureaus, corps, 
and departments, had to enter hurriedly can be illustrated 
simply. Under the organization at the beginning of the war a 
brigade contained 172 commissioned officers; but a division of 
3 brigades did not consist of three times that number-516, as 
one would naturally suppose, but of 909. The difference-393 
officers-was the quota for the auxiliary or accessory troops. 
So for each higher unit, the corps, and then the army, the ratio 
of incidentals progressed geometrically. In fact, since a modern 
corps or army had never been assembled as such in the United 
States, it was highly speculative as to what adjuncts were really 
needed. And when it is remembered, too, that the smallest 
unit, the company, the fabric upon which the whole product 
hung, was to be enlarged and reorganized, it can be imagined 
how the dull mist of endless details grew thick over the heads 
of those at the helm. Concrete plans, carefully projected by 
consideration and computation and applied to actual cases, had 
to be laid. 468 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The chaos into which the general staff was thrown would 
have bewildered men with less training and loyalty. It neither 
balked at responsibility nor shifted the burden. It could have 
pointed out that we were in this hectic condition because the 
recommendations of such men as Mr. Taft, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. 
Gardiner, and Mr. Garrison went unheeded in the past decade. 
It would have been an easy matter to say to the people: "All 
this is your fault because you called us jingoists four years ago 
when wre cried, 'Prepare 1' It is exactly what happens w'hen a 
nation begins learning war after declaring it. We're all in a 
pretty fix. We will do our best, but you can't blame us if we're 
slow." Not at all-not a whimper! Face to face with an in- 
credible labor the general staff enthusiastically tried to pierce 
the universe of growing detail. 
The nicety of its judgment, which made for so much speed 
and efficiency later, can be accounted for by long training and 
discipline. When the soldier in his professional problems finds 
his estimate of a situation to be crumbling in the press of many 
details, he is taught to hark back to the phrase, "What is my 
mission ?" By long practice he centers his attention on the one 
thing which he has been ordered to accomplish. After having 
reviewed his main purpose, he carefully chooses from among all 
surrounding circumstances that which tends most towards the 
execution of what he has been told to do. He divests himself of 
all lesser items and cuts straight through to the end in view. To 
attempt everything, he know's, would be to lose all. On the 
astuteness of his judgment depend largely his efficiency and 
skill. Naturally, then, the general staff did not wait for the 
smoke to clear, but rather penetrated the blackness to find the 
determining issues at stake. 
It came forth triumphantly with two proposals to which it 
rigidly clung. One was some form of draft, and the other, the 
training camps for officers. In these two provisions it spied 
daylight for the nation. 
The draft was the first thing to be insisted upon, because it 
was the key to a more far-reaching problem later. The imme- 
diate proposition, as the general staff conceived it, was to gain 
some amount of certainty as to the immense army to be pre- 
pared. They had to have this assurance to work on. At every EPILOGUE 
469 
opportunity they put in their plea unanimously for a champion 
against Germany who would be on the spot when ordered-a 
force which could be quickly controlled. Besides, they esti- 
mated that the only way to make our aid to our Allies count, 
would be to have speed in training large numbers. What would 
be the good of a mass of recruits if there were inefficient or 
insufficient officers to train them ? By far the more important 
of the two proposals, then, was the move to choose and partially 
train leaders in the Reserve Officers' Training Camps. The 
draft was regarded rather as a crucial point to be settled on the 
way to the undiscovered country where officers were to be 
raised in three months from untilled soil. 
Our greatest improvement over England's haphazard ar- 
rangements wTas the enactment of compulsory and universal 
service. That we would profit from mistakes of previous 
bloody wars by attending to Washington's warnings and 
Upton's examples, and stamp out the fallacy of voluntary 
service that had wrecked efficiency in our previous wars, had 
been a hope too sanguine for military experts to entertain. And 
it was a feat of economic athletics over which the United States 
should justly feel proud. It is not an easy thing for a nation 
while fighting for the very essence of democracy to wrap itself 
about with a garment of autocracy. No greater compliment can 
be paid to the intelligence of our mixed population than that it 
was able to perceive the nice distinction between the harsh 
means and the noble end. It is possibly the first case on 
record in our true history where wre have signally advanced in 
military policy. 
So, one month and a half after war was declared Congress 
produced the best piece of legislation it had made for any con- 
flict. It provided in a few short pages all the specifications nec- 
essary for the entire wTar. There was no piecemeal characteristic 
about this law. Every organization in the regular army was 
immediately to be brought to full war strength, by gaining at 
once the increase previously required to be dragged out over 
five years. It also authorized the drafting into the military 
service of any number of National Guard reserves. This force 
was to be organized under proper officers at once. An additional 
force of 500,000 enlisted men was to be raised and drafted. 
May 18 
1917 470 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
The President was authorized to increase or decrease the size of 
the units of the regular army to suit the conditions to be met in 
Europe. All officers above the grade of colonel were to be ap- 
pointed by the President with the advice and consent of the 
Senate. Machine-gun units were to be created. This force of 
1,000,000 men in round numbers could be called out, organized 
and trained as soon as the President saw fit. He was further 
authorized to raise and maintain by voluntary enlistment not 
to exceed 4 infantry divisions. The enlisted men for the regular 
army, if possible, were to be gained by recruiting those who 
volunteered or by resorting to the selective draft. All other 
forces were to be raised and maintained by the selective draft 
exclusively. The whole contingent was to be placed uniformly 
under the regulations governing the regular army. The Presi- 
dent was authorized to raise and maintain in addition any 
special and technical troops he might deem necessary. It was 
particularly provided that no bounty should be paid to any one 
as an inducement to enlist in the regular service. No person 
was allowed to furnish a substitute. All male persons between 
the ages of twenty-one and thirty, except those who were espe- 
cially exempted by the law, were subject to registration and 
draft. The President was authorized to create all agencies of 
the national and state governments in order to carry out the 
draft. All officers and enlisted men of the forces raised were to 
be upon the same footing in regard to pay and allowances as in 
the regular army. All enlisted men of the army of the United 
States, meaning all the forces obtained under this law, were to 
have their pay raised.2 
The President was also authorized to make regulations con- 
cerning the prohibition of alcoholic liquors in or near military 
camps. He was also virtually required to prevent the setting 
up of houses of ill fame or brothels, within such distances as he 
might see fit, of any camp, station, fort, post, cantonment, train- 
ing or mobilization place. 
June 1 
1917 
2 ' ' All enlisted men of the army of the United States in active service 
whose base pay does not exceed $21 per month shall receive an increase 
of $15 per month; those whose base pay is $24, an increase of $12 per 
month; those whose base pay is $30, $36, or $40, an increase of $8 per 
month; and those whose base pay is $45 or more, an increase of $6 per 
month: PROVIDED, That the increases of pay herein authorized shall 
not enter into the computation of the continuous-service pay. ' ' EPILOGUE 
471 
In this war, Congress forged bravely to the front. By a 
single piece of legislation that did not need to be enlarged or 
modified, it gave the struggle a sound and methodical impulse. 
To be sure, it had a highly educated general staff ready to give 
it potent advice and a ready program-a body of men well 
versed in sound policy and in the proper management of 
war. But the great matter was that it heeded the experts, 
and never hedged on a uniform standard. Once it became very 
difficult to veto volunteering and at other times very embarrass- 
ing to quiet the impetuosity of the untrained. Yet our legis- 
lative bodies during the World War clung without favor to a 
rigid clear-cut line that marked success in the end. 
Our expansion could now be counted upon. Our officers who 
would otherwise have had to organize voluntary forces entailing 
uncertainties and endless fluctuations, or would have had to help 
rake the country for sparse recruits, could be spared for train- 
ing purposes. The War Department could turn over to trust- 
worthy citizens the business of registering and obtaining the 
necessary number of enlistments. It was free to give its imme- 
diate attention to the matter of the training of the trainers. Of 
course, if it could not have been certain of a fixed number of 
recruits present for duty on a specified date, the number of 
officers necessary to train them would have been indeterminable. 
But since that matter had been settled by the draft, the greatest 
energy and care could be poured into the channel of the imme- 
diate mission-the Reserve Officers' Training Camps. 
Three days before the President signed the bill, making the 
Selective Draft Act a law, 40,000 civilian candidates appeared 
in sixteen large cantonments throughout the country-willing 
and green. At each camp there reported a group of 2,500. To 
receive them were from 10 to 12 regular officers, scattered bar- 
racks, a few partially constructed shacks, and the open air. The 
scarcity of instructors can be accounted for by the fact that the 
regular army was attempting to have its more experienced 
officers take charge of its doubled personnel. In the average 
case, an instructor fell heir to 150 candidates who had to be 
immediately clothed, fed, and equipped. His sensations were 
much like those of the setting leghorn hen which found itself 
unexpectedly and responsibly in the presence of a whole crate of 
May 15 
1917 472 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
eggs. There were no lieutenants or noncommissioned officers in 
most cases to aid him, so that he was forced into picking up at 
random any candidates or reserve officers of previous military 
experience he could find. In many places, for lack of railroad 
facilities, the food was insufficient; and the clothing oftentimes 
consisted of any cotton khaki the quartermaster department 
could collect. 
The order and provision that could have existed, had our 
preparation been more leisurely and timely, had to be foregone. 
Again the general staff said to itself, "What is the thing to be 
insisted upon at any cost?" and the answer it found explains 
why many of the discomforts had to be endured: "Enough 
instruction to make the selection of officer material secure and 
effective." It was certain that 20,000 officers should at once be 
chosen in order to give any chance of success to the training of 
the drafted hosts. On this fulcrum swayed back and forth all 
the hope of our enterprise in Europe. Anything that stood in 
the way of the great object was to be bowled over summarily, 
no matter what individual hardship might arise. 
Personality for leadership and a commensurate intelligence 
were the two qualities to be sought in the candidate. Either 
without the other would be valueless. Through the dingy 
clothing, misleading exteriors, and various grades of familiarity 
with military customs, the instructor was to ferret out these 
elusive elements of qualification. And he must happen upon 
this essence of leadership during countless drills and lectures. 
At wedged intervals he had to mark every indication and phase 
of change in the actions of his men which bore on the qualifica- 
tions cited, and had to endeavor to know them at odd moments 
when they least suspected his criticism. It was a keen competb 
tion in which both nerve and mind were tried by extreme 
physical and moral measures. 
In the application of this experimental course of training 
and study, instructor and candidate were left few idle moments. 
The day began at 5 :'3O a.m. and ended at 10:00 p.m.; and the 
interim was filled copiously. Some men complained that it was 
difficult to find time for a bath, and others swore that their 
greatest luxury was to go to bed at night. The continuousness 
and novelty of the work, especially at first, put many in a whirl EPILOGUE 
473 
of bewilderment from which they did not recover. The in- 
structor himself was in a vast turmoil of giving and receiving. 
To him was entrusted the rapid motion of the schedule and the 
thoroughness of the impartation of knowledge. He became, dur- 
ing the lulls in lectures and explanations, an information bureau 
for his ravenous-minded company. And all the while he was 
conscious that his real duty was that of learning intimately and 
personally in ninety days the qualifications of 150 individuals. 
As a consequence, a contest sprang up between instructor and 
candidate over the possession of two opposite kinds of informa- 
tion, one very human, and the other highly technical. A glance 
at the mixed manhood that made up these camps will reveal the 
difficulties into which the success of this odd undertaking was 
plunged. A bank president took his place in the ranks beside a 
callow college graduate; an established lawyer alternated in the 
use of the same pick with a grocery clerk; the son of a Fifth 
Avenue home slept side by side with the burgess of Podunkville. 
One day during an extended order drill when candidate Abra- 
ham E stein was acting company commander and Patrick 
O' 11 was platoon leader, the instructor had difficulty in 
getting the various commanders to use the proper signals. 
Finally in exasperation he went up to O' 11 and berated him 
soundly. On leaving, he overheard O' 11 mumble to the 
platoon guide, exclaiming disgustedly, "Oh Hell, what chance 
has an Irishman in arm-signal communication with a Jew!" 
Nevertheless, the spirit of the camps was marvelous. There 
existed little sniveling and much American grit. Once when 
an instructor had called into the office a man of about forty to 
tell him that his chances for a commission were next to nothing, 
the fellow bit his lips a minute, set his jaw to keep back the 
tears, and finally observed in a subdued voice, "Well, I'm sorry 
-I guess what yon say-is true. But-Captain-there's no 
reason, is there-why I can't enlist as a private ?" Patriotism 
like that was cropping out when it was least expected, leading 
one to believe that through the American manhood ran a deep 
and irresistible current of self-denial and sacrifice. 
What would the result of all this problem be ? Would this 
impossible task for the instructor and the incomprehensible 
regime for the candidate produce anything worthy of the name 474 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
when the camp was over? So the War Department and train- 
ing camp officers queried and tried to meet the complications of 
each arising difficulty. For not only was it necessary to pick the 
raw material but also to sort it into piles for the different 
branches of the service. From each R. O. T. C. company were 
to come the officers of a regiment from major down, provisional 
second lieutenants for the regular army, additional reserve lieu- 
tenants, second lieutenants of the quartermaster corps, machine- 
gun specialists, aviation candidates, ordnance lieutenants, and 
those recommended for a second camp. Would this rush of 
training and selection be worth anything to the government 
after all ? 
The answer was largely to be found in the surpising results 
at the finish of the camp. In the first place those who had fallen 
by the wayside in the race attested voluntarily in the great 
majority of cases to the fairness of their elimination. They 
were certain that the best men had been retained. And the men 
themselves who were successful, as soon as they had been in- 
formed of the certainty of their commissions, became different 
personalities. The breaking of the tension of competition was 
the lessening of so many shackles about their natural disposi- 
tions. The staleness and effort accompanying this agonizing 
test had often made them creatures other than their former 
selves. When, therefore, assurance became doubly sure, they 
were quickened like so many Galateas into unexpected life. 
But the great result, which seemed to point directly to success, 
was the universal feeling among them that they knew nothing-- 
that they were yet ignorant of the great essentials in leading 
men into battle. This condition wTas bound to exist when it is 
considered that regular officers who have spent their lives in the 
study and practice of their profession have a sense of deficiency 
at the end. "Show me," declared the preacher, "the man who 
knows he's a sinner and I will show you a conversion." The 
very fact that these men, in the flushed pride of becoming 
officers, should realize that they were in the primer class in the 
great school of arms, gave to those who had been watching over 
them in trepidation a justified sense of security. 
Three other sets of training camps followed, which profited 
in large measure from the drawbacks of the first. Lines of EPILOGUE 
475 
qualification were drawn more tightly and many of the adminis- 
trative details were improved. 
For the immediate enforcement of the draft law, particu- 
larly, Major General E. H. Crowder was appointed provost 
marshal general. A registration day was at once fixed and some 
4,000 registration boards over the country with a personnel of 
registrars and assistants to the number of 125,000 were ap- 
pointed and organized. Registration day saw the enrollment of 
10,000,000 names. 
The manner of calling out these men was the next problem. 
A great lottery was established in Washington which fixed the 
order of call for the whole. When this feature had been deter- 
mined the boards were required to call in the names according 
to the lists and have the recruits examined physically in order 
to complete the first national quota of 687,000 men. In a very 
few months, the selective service system was ready to deliver 
to the national cantonments 180,000 men. In less than three 
months the nation had accepted and vigorously executed without 
any serious friction that miraculous thing - a compulsory 
service law. 
To accommodate the organization of divisions for overseas, 
camps had to be built at once to accommodate 41,000 men. The 
difficulties presented to the army in construction work were 
formidable. The enlargement that fell to the lot of the quarter- 
master corps alone was colossal. The country had no rendez- 
vous, such as well-prepared France had before the war, because 
of the denial of such a thing in the previous decade. The field 
of battle was beyond the seas. There was an insufficiency of 
training schools and almost a total lack of artillery and aero- 
planes. The Government had to adopt the French auto gun, 
machine gun, 37-millimeter gun, the rifle grenade (V. B.), the 
240-millimeter trench mortar and the Stokes mortar, which 
were mostly supplied from abroad. The sum total of the officers 
when the war was declared was 9,570. It was necessary to train 
between 30,000 and 40,000 more in successive series of training 
camps. Since nearly all of the regular officers had been de- 
prived of experience and of observation of the World War, the 
main instruction they could give the candidate was found in 
pre-wartime regulations. The best that could be done was to 
June 5 
1917 
July 20 
1917 
Sept. 1 
1917 476 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
instill in young officers the elements of discipline and loyalty. 
It was impossible to teach in these short months, under such con- 
ditions, young men from all walks of life any really technical 
knowledge. There were officers commissioned in the artillery 
who had never fired a gun, in the ordnance who had never seen 
an arsenal and in the infantry who had never been in command 
of men anywhere. This condition was the fault of no single 
person but rather the mass of the country during the preceding 
five years. 
Much has had to be said on the previous pages of this his- 
tory concerning what Congress has or has not done at various 
times. If those facts have amounted to criticism of that body 
they are not to be so construed. Our nation has a repre- 
sentative form of government in which the legislator becomes 
actually the echo of his constituents. If he normally does not 
act in that manner, he is renouncing that part of the public who 
elected him to be their spokesman and the spirit of democracy 
which should guide his actions. He votes for or against certain 
bills from his knowledge of the feelings of the majority in his 
district or state. It would be manifestly unjust, therefore, to 
rail at Congress for its seeming omissions. If the public wanted 
anything intensely enough, the lawmaker would have to vote for 
it. If legislative derelictions have been committed, each one of 
us as citizens of the republic is to blame, unless we have used 
our powers legitimately to the contrary. 
Scarcely had the Selective Draft Act become a law, when 
General Pershing in command of the American Expeditionary 
Forces sailed with 53 officers and 146 enlisted men from the 
United States. The next contingent to arrive in France was the 
division under Major General Sibert consisting of the Six- 
teenth, Eighteenth, Twenty-sixth and Twenty-eighth Infantry, 
together with the Fifth Marines. Most of these units had but a 
month before been guarding the Mexican border. They were 
practically all the trained regulars in the country that could be 
put at war strength and sent abroad. It was not until much 
later that other divisions began to arrive. 
At the beginning of the next year 1,325,000 men had been 
enrolled. Forty-two divisions had just been organized, 8 of 
which were regulars, 17 National Guard and 17 national army. 
Latter part 
of May, 
1917 
June 26 
1917 
Sept. 
1917 
Jan. 1 
1918 EPILOGUE 
477 
Out of these only 6 had been landed in France. Besides, only 
4 on French soil were fighting divisions which had completed 
their training abroad. They were the First and Second Divi- 
sions of regulars and the Twenty-sixth and Forty-second Divi- 
sions of National Guard. Since these units had exhausted the 
first quota of men called to the colors, General Crowder had to 
proceed along further lines of draft and recruitment. He forth- 
with set to work to draft the remainder of the Class 1 men, 
while the War Department was setting in motion plans for other 
training camps. 
Throughout the war, the transportation of troops was an 
intricate problem with little tonnage on hand and with a sea 
infested with submarines. Both the general staff and the ports 
of embarkation were taxed to the extreme. It was not until the 
middle of the summer of our second year, that facilities could 
get into full swing toward bearing troops across the Atlantic. 
Yet with all the handicaps, 130,000 went in May and 150,000 
in July, besides those already carried overseas. 
This history cannot record the progress of the war as it has 
done with previous conflicts of our nation. What went on in 
France can only be sketched in a few words. The various en- 
gagements on the front are at this time too fresh and vital to be 
set down critically, thoroughly or dispassionately. It will be 
many years before we will know the real truth and the unvar- 
nished details of that part of the struggle which affected us. 
The writer has seen in many unpublished documents and heard 
in private conversations with officers of all grades and classes 
testimony that reveals much information which cannot now be 
told. Historical accuracy and completeness will doubtless come 
when we can all get a better perspective. 
Suffice it to say that there should be the highest praise for 
the great mass of officers and soldiers engaged in this war, 
especially for those placed in responsible positions. It is the 
first war in our history where the President retained from first 
to last a single commander in the field. All agree that the 
accomplishments of General Pershing are properly lauded in 
foreign and domestic accounts. If, as has been said, he did no 
greater thing than to prevent the infiltration of our units into 
those of our Allies, by his tact and determination, he would 
1918 478 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
deserve all that the public has accorded him. But he did more- 
he developed a driving engine that spelled forward movement 
against the German. It must be remembered that there had to 
be established in France schools and training centers of com- 
paratively long duration before the troops were allowed to go 
into the front lines. All this preparatory work went hand in 
hand with the conduct of active operations, forming a doubly 
intricate task for the headquarters of the American Expedi- 
tionary Forces. 
The management and efficiency of our military service in the 
World War were so far ahead of anything of the kind we had 
ever accomplished, that our progress should indeed be an uplift 
to every citizen. The Selective Draft pursued the even tenor of 
its way against all precedent and theory. A single supreme 
leader in France was left unimpeded to develop a unified army. 
Training, in as much quantity as time would permit, was given 
to officer and soldier before he went into the fight. The army 
was accorded throughout a uniform standard of dress, pay, 
equipment and organization. The entire resources and spirit of 
the country backed the forces with a will. Against obstacles 
that seemed insurmountable, troops were taken to France in a 
minimum of time. At the close of the war almost 2,000,000 
men had been transported overseas. 
On the other hand, when a nation begins the real business 
of preparing for war after it has declared it, much waste and 
loss must result. Faults arising from the consequent haste are 
attributable to no single individual. In retrospect, the war held 
much that should shame us now. The training of officers and 
soldiers had to be scant in a number of instances. Future his- 
tories of this conflict will reveal that the inexperience and lack 
of knowledge incident to haste produced in themselves undue 
loss. Soldiers had to be placed on the line when many of them 
had not had time to know the use of the weapons they were 
handling. Further, the assignment of officers and men to the 
multifarious duties of a modern army could not be made with 
sufficient appropriateness in the time allotted. Laundrymen in 
the ordnance department, engineers in the quartermaster corps, 
mechanics in the infantry, electricians in the provost marshal 
general's department and lawyers in the signal corps felt them- EPILOGUE 
479 
selves to be square pegs in round holes. Promotion, too, had to 
be haphazard when there could exist no agencies for the proper 
classification of officers and men. There were no chiefs of 
branches nor coordinating offices that could thoroughly check 
up recommendations, because such an elaborate system had to 
give place in the rush to more important considerations. To the 
degree that a nation is late in its discipline and training, to that 
extent must the sufferings of the individual be increased. So 
must the country's extravagances. Having thrust aside suffi- 
cient aeroplane manufacture and manipulation before the war, 
Congress hurriedly voted the sum of $44,250,000 at the out- 
break of American hostilities. At that time we had altogether 
55 serviceable aeroplanes, of which 51 were obsolete and 4 
others nearly so. A joint army and navy board then made a 
program for obtaining 19,775 planes, at which Congress, be- 
lieving money to be the panacea for all ills, voted $640,000,000. 
Time was required in selecting models and in having the ma- 
chines built. In the spring of the next year it was announced 
that we were short of aircraft. Where had the money gone ? 
An investigation was ordered, which came to nothing after 
17,000 pages of testimony had been taken down. As a matter 
of fact the planes, irrespective of business methods, could not be 
had in so short a time. One year after the declaration of war, 
we had in our service abroad only 1 pursuit and 2 observation 
squadrons of French planes, flown by American pilots who had 
served in the French army before we came into the conflict. 
America with its own craft could not before the armistice have 
had in the air superiority over the enemy. The story of those 
vital guns, the 3-inch field pieces, is about the same in character 
as that of the aeroplanes. We could not get them in time, and 
therefore, were put to the humiliating necessity of making in- 
roads on the French supply of 75-millimeter weapons. Vast 
sums appropriated for materials had to be spent when values 
had risen to many times the height they had stood before 1917 
and when it was impossible to get delivery of the quantity to be 
purchased. As a result, a large proportion of the money voted 
was turned aside later into post-bellum activities. In the mean- 
time General Pershing lacked many weapons and machines for 
effective fighting. Although the quartermaster department exe- 
May 12, 
June 15 
1917 
July 
1917 
1918 
April 
1918 480 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
cuted a prodigious task in constructing great cantonments over 
the country in the few months allotted it, the buildings and sur- 
roundings were not all that could have been expected of them, 
had our contractors and builders had opportunity for such work 
a year before the war. Cold and dampness were felt most 
keenly. Clothing, too, as was the case with weapons and 
machines, could not be had in sufficient quantities. But in 
addition to all these drawbacks of hurry, a greater fact now 
stands out in bold relief. It took us over a year after we had 
entered the war to get into any real offensive against the enemy. 
And then, General Pershing could muster on the Western Front 
only 6 completely trained divisions in contrast to the 160 that 
our allies had placed there. During the first year of our partici- 
pation in the World War, we could bear no physical aid in the 
fighting. Even considering the difficulties of transportation 
overseas, it is conceded that we could have been a great factor 
in stemming the German tide sooner and could have saved 
thousands of lives and dollars lost during our delay for training 
purposes, had we as a nation been imbued with discipline and 
knowledge in the beginning. To cap all, the selective draft 
revealed that almost half of the young manhood of our country 
was either defective or unfit for fighting.3 Had a large per- 
centage of our youth had the opportunity for the development 
best accorded in military camps, and had such exercises been 
carried on even for limited periods before the war no one can 
doubt that this appalling figure would have been materially 
reduced. And in the meantime, the boy would have become 
more commercially efficient and a more self-reliant citizen. 
When the armistice came, naturally there was a great desire, 
on the part of those who wished to get back to their suffering 
pursuits in business life, to be home again. They knew that the 
profiteer had been growing fat in the United States while they 
had been growing lean in France or in camps. Boats plied to 
New York as full as their capacities would permit. Demobiliza- 
tion camps grew great and small. Thousands of men every day 
were discharged and sent to their homes, although some had to 
be retained in helping to free the large percentage. The main 
May 
1918 
1919 
3 Out of 2,750,000 young men examined 46.8 per cent could not pass 
the physical test for front-line soldiers. EPILOGUE 
481 
labor of this complex and trying task fell upon the regular 
army. 
That organization was in a low state of morale. Over half 
of its members, who had hoped to get across the seas during the 
war, had necessarily been held in this country for training and 
administrative purposes. Many, who had been in France, had 
had no chance to go to the front. And all those who stepped off 
the boat on American soil found themselves deprived of their 
war rank, while many in the United States still held an ad- 
vanced grade. There were cases where seniors of long service 
found themselves serving under juniors of comparatively short 
service. While those who were in for the war wanted to get out, 
those who were in for life were disappointed, embarrassed or 
apprehensive. 
Yet as a whole both classes pitched in with a will to bring 
these transitory conditions into a state of equilibrium. As 
vigorously as they went into the war, so vigorously they came 
out of it. A man might grumble but he did not shirk. In an 
incredibly short time every single emergency officer or soldier 
found himself back at home. Only the regular army and what 
temporary parts had to be retained abroad remained. 
The problems which confronted the chief of staff, General 
March, in this country, the tremendous executive labor and the 
burdens of demobilization which fell upon him are sometimes 
overlooked. The war, of course, in its character, as compared 
with previous wars, was unique. The immense size of modern 
armies entails more complicated systems of supply and broader 
bases of industrial support at home. A war of position demands 
great outlay of ammunition and elaborate engineering. The 
advance in invention had caused complicated weapons to spring 
up, whose use was little known at the beginning and whose attri- 
butes had to be learned by a multitude of new officers without 
any familiarity with that sort of thing before 1917. 
After the General Staff had put on a working basis a very 
unprecedented military strength, not only in this country but 
abroad, the armistice at once reversed the situation and made it 
necessary to begin to demobilize as rapidly as facilities and ex- 
pediency permitted. After nineteen months of concentration of 
all national activities to one end, that of the production, up- 482 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
building and maintenance of an effective war machine, it was 
necessary not only to tear down the structure in Siberia and 
France, but to see that the consequent efflux did not interrupt 
activities in the United States. The welfare of the army and 
the country demanded that definite provision should be made 
for the wise distribution of men returned to civilian life. Eco- 
nomic and industrial conditions were absolutely dependent on 
the manner in which over 2,000,000 soldiers were thrown back 
into employment or unemployment. Congestion of idle ex- 
soldiers in large cities had to be prevented. Positions had to be 
assured for discharged men. The disposal of surplus stocks of 
supply and material had to be judiciously watched. 
In spite of the very delicate problems surrounding the dis- 
charge of these men, the Chief of Staff in this country had, 
within two months after the armistice, demobilized 732,766 
men. In a period of three months and four days afterward, he 
had methodically discharged 1,246,374 from the service-over 
twice as many as had been returned home during the same 
period after the Civil War. Not quite six months after the 
armistice nearly 2,000,000 men had been mustered out with 
little or no disturbance to business. The strength of the Army 
of the United States4 on the day of the armistice totaled 
3,670,888 officers and men. By the middle of the next year 
2,723,515 officers and men had been returned to civil life. The 
gigantic labor involved in this massive undertaking required a 
discernment and management that can scarcely be estimated. 
For this work, General March displayed a mightier business 
machine than has ever before turned out a product in this 
country. 
While all this was going on, it was seen that, were the forces 
disbanded without the keenest provision, not only would the 
people suffer but the regular army would be left with very few 
men. In fact the training of the country would, as after the 
Revolution and other wars, be thrown into the discard. The 
cause of this unusual condition was found in the detail of so 
many officers and men from the regular service to divisions and 
other units that were eligible for demobilization. Such a 
Jan. 4 
1919 
June 28 
1919 
4 Nov. 5, 1918, the national army, National Guard and regular army 
were known under the single name of the Army of the United States. EPILOGUE 
483 
scheme had been found necessary in order to infiltrate an ex- 
perienced personnel into those units which had had compara- 
tively little training. Therefore the army had to transfer and 
recruit a large number of officers and men while it was de- 
mobilizing the emergency forces. 
By the middle of the next year it was found that for those 
remaining in the service the pay was quite inadequate, due to 
the war prices of ordinary commodities in this country, which 
had risen to many times their previous standards. Accordingly, 
a bill was passed increasing the enlisted pay in general 20 per 
cent. Colonels and lieutenant colonels were to receive $600 a 
year extra pay, majors $840, captains $720, first lieutenants 
$600 and second lieutenants $420. The measure stated that 
the relief was but temporary and that the pay would further be 
adjusted when living conditions had become more normal. 
By this time, it was seen that for a modern war the army 
must be reorganized on a new basis. New weapons, new 
branches, new methods had entered the field to stay. It was 
consequently decided to give the army a more modern standard. 
Accordingly there was enacted a National Defense Act 
which was the most comprehensive and suitable legislation ever 
made for the military service of the United States. The Army 
of the United States was to consist of the Regular Army, the 
National Guard -when called into the service, the Officers 
Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. The combatant 
arms of the regular army were designated as Infantry, Cavalry, 
Field Artillery, Coast Artillery Corps, the Air Service, the 
Corps of Engineers and the Signal Corps. The noncombatant 
arms were the General Staff Corps, the Adjutant Generals De- 
partment, Inspector Generals Department, Judge Advocate- 
Generals Department, Quartermaster Corps, Finance Depart- 
ment, Medical Department, Ordnance Department, Chemical 
Warfare Service, Officers of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, 
chaplains, cadets and professors of the Military Academy, 
Indian scouts, and detached and unassigned enlisted men. Ex- 
cept in time of war the total regular forces were not to exceed 
280,000 officers and men. They were to be organized into 
divisions and such other units as were necessary for the imme- 
diate mobilization for national defense. To this end brigades, 
1920 
'May 18 
1920 
June 4 
1920 484 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
divisions and army corps were authorized. For training and 
tactical control the country and its possessions were divided into 
corps areas with a major general in charge of each. The Na- 
tional Guard organizations within each area were to he a part of 
that district and were to be given consideration in continuing 
their traditions and in developing their morale. The officers of 
the combatant arms of the regular army were to number 
16,635 5 all told. The enlisted man's pay was placed on a more 
logical basis.6 
The strength of the arms of the service was made more 
elastic. The President could increase, by transfer of officers 
and enlisted men, any branch by 15 per cent of its strength. 
All departments and branches were to have chiefs with the 
rank of major general, except the chemical-warfare service 
which had a brigadier general and the chaplains who had a colo- 
nel. To fill the vacancies of this increase the new officers were 
to come from those who had served between April 6, 1917, and 
the passage of the act. One of the greatest pieces of advance- 
ment of the new act was the "single list." Officers were ar- 
ranged for promotion entirely according to length of commis- 
sioned service and were to be advanced in grade eventually on 
the basis of that arrangement. By such means the disparity of 
promotions between the different arms of the service, which was 
due entirely to legislative increase of a particular branch, was 
eliminated. To keep the standard of the officer personnel up to 
a high grade, the elimination of unfit men was inaugurated. A 
board of officers was to place each year the entire officer 
personnel of the service in two classes, "A" and "B." If an 
officer was found to be in class "B," he was a subject for elimina- 
tion. All evidence in his case was to be passed upon before a 
court of inquiry. If he was then found to be a proper subject 
for elimination, he was discharged outright, provided his low 
5 These consisted of 21 major generals, 46 brigadier generals, 599 
colonels, 674 lieutenant colonels, 2,245 majors, 4,490 captains, 4,266 first 
lieutenants and 2,294 second lieutenants. 
<5 The enlisted men were to be placed in seven grades with pay ranging 
from $74 for the first grade down to $30 for the seventh. They would 
receive 10 per cent increase for each five years of service until 40 per 
cent was reached. Those of the sixth and seventh grades in addition 
could be rated as specialists in six different classes. Their additional pay 
for the first class was $25, and for the sixth $3. EPILOGUE 
485 
classification was a result of his own misconduct. If otherwise, 
he was to receive retired pay at the rate of 21/2 per cent a year 
for each year of commissioned service, unless he had served less 
than ten years, in which case he was discharged with one year's 
pay. An applicant for the rank and file could enlist for one or 
three years as he chose. Reserve officers could be commissioned 
by the President for a term of five years. However, if during 
those years an emergency arose, it was understood that they 
were to remain until six months after its termination. The 
President could establish reserve officers training corps in edu- 
cational institutions in unlimited number. However, an insti- 
tution undertaking to maintain such a corps was to have a 
regular officer detailed as a professor of military science and 
tactics. The school was to carry at least a two years' elective 
or compulsory military course, which should be a requisite with 
other studies for a student's graduation. The senior graduates 
of these reserve officers training corps at colleges were to be 
eligible for a reserve officer's commission provided that they 
passed through the training camps afterward and accomplished 
such other work as the Secretary of War prescribed. Summer 
training camps were also provided for in unlimited quantity. 
For them the Secretary of War was to prescribe courses of 
about six weeks' duration. The National Guard officers could 
not be commissioned for federal use unless they had passed 
through the latter camps or had certain specific military experi- 
ence and training. 
This legislation was by all odds the greatest provision for 
prolonging peace and the efficient control of war ever enacted by 
the Congress. It took into account lessons of the recent struggle 
and suited itself to the genius of our people. The regular dur- 
ing the conflict had learned much from the civilian and the 
civilian had in turn gained something substantial from the sol- 
dier. Although there had here and there been petty misunder- 
standings, due mostly to the conditions of our necessary hurry, 
never before were National Guard, Reserves and Regulars in 
such a healthy state of reciprocation and unity. The Army of 
the United States was now by this act to congeal all these ele- 
ments into a cooperative whole. Other influences helped to 
make this union possible. The American Legion contained all 486 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
these heretofore separate classes and bound them together for 
broad patriotic usefulness. The professional soldier was no 
more isolated. He affiliated himself with civic clubs and tried 
as never before to fit himself into the life of the community. 
The law emphasized citizenship, and brought the National 
Guardsman, the Reservist, the college graduate and student into 
a camp of instruction under the guidance of regular officers 
and soldiers, newly indoctrinated with modern pedagogy, taught 
in service schools. The idea that a soldier was not a citizen 
or a citizen could not become an efficient soldier completely died 
out with the birth of this legislation. Better citizenship was to 
be gained by the professional soldier when he became more 
active in civilian problems and by the civilian when he grew to 
be a more scientific and disciplined soldier. Each regular had a 
proportion of five comrades in civil life, for whose progress in 
military work he was responsible. While the professional sob 
dier was giving of his spare time in order to acquaint himself 
with economic needs, the man engaged in commercial pursuits 
was sacrificing his private interests in order to be a staunch 
public benefactor. Each had a duty of grand unselfishness. 
Such a motive was bound to do away with provincial narrow- 
ness. 
The army now prepared to carry out the provisions of this 
act. The General Staff put forward immediate efforts to recruit 
the army to its full peace strength and to give to the civilians 
who desired it supplies and details of officers toward the execu- 
tion of the various activities of training outlined. The next 
year was intensively occupied in an attempt to keep alive the 
lessons of the war so as not to have the training value of our 
experiences lost to the country. At many colleges were estab- 
lished reserve officers training corps courses. With the National 
Guard were placed selected officers who could be of particular 
service. Summer camps were undertaken on a scale which 
would give to boys and men the greatest amount of discipline 
and technical advantage for the least money. It was uphill 
work for the reason that enthusiasm for military work after the 
armistice was changed into inertia and dislike, in a large num- 
ber of cases. The great incentive was gone. But many high- 
minded men and boys responded. EPILOGUE 
487 
The army, finding that some of its fellow citizens were not 
prone to come to it, went to the people. It endeavored more 
than ever in its history to understand the problems of the coun- 
tory and to fit training values for war into their proper sphere. 
Throughout this year the army was taken up with reorganiza- 
tion, elimination of the unfit, acquiring the best officers it could 
get from the emergency personnel and in trying to impart an 
understanding of the changed military technic that had sprung 
up during war. 
Within the regular army many things had to be adjusted. 
New services, such as air, chemical warfare and tank, had to 
be placed on a firm basis. Other arms had to be revolutionized. 
New weapons had to be more thoroughly understood and prop- 
erly assigned. The new army had to be welded into a unit 
which would not only take care of the United States proper and 
our island possessions but be a source of inspiration and knowl- 
edge in the home country. 
The service was never before confronted with so vast an 
amount of knowledge to acquire and transmit. The 3 general 
service and 31 special service schools7 throughout the army 
had either been reconstructed or built afresh since the war. 
The officer had before him years of work as a student and months 
and years of duty as an instructor, while he sandwiched in the 
training of troops of the Army of the United States. His was 
an all day's labor with the burning of the candle at night. For 
eight months he pursued learning at schools and for the other 
four learning pursued him at the training camps, so that in 
many cases he was deprived of rest or vacation. No one can 
visit an army post in this day and age and say that either 
officer or soldier is idle. 
An illustration of the endless acquisition of fact, principles 
and experience forced now upon the military man is revealed 
by the change that has come over a single arm of the service 
since the World War. Before that time the infantry had al- 
ways been recognized as the mainstay of any army. The rifle- 
man with both feet on the ground has ever been the final neces- 
sity for victory. By magnitude and quality he was the chief 
element of military strength. Without losing any of these ele- 
1921 
7 For complete list of schools, see Appendix H. 488 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
merits he suddenly in the recent conflict grew out of all re- 
semblance to his former self. Pandora's box had been opened. 
Hand grenades, rifle grenades, machine guns, automatic rifles, 
mortars and 1-pounders summoned the foot soldier with many 
mysterious voices. The infantry had become also a technical 
arm of the service. The machine gun of itself had grown as in- 
tricate in its use and workings as the 3-inch field piece. Al- 
though the infantryman was saddled with no less responsibility 
for a successful issue of the fight than before, he was forced 
besides to an intimate understanding of his weapons and their 
use before he could conscientiously accept his position as a 
leader, and apply tactics in a new way. 
In a similar way, all other branches of the service were af- 
fected. 
By the middle of the next year it was found necessary to 
establish the army on a modern pay basis. The living conditions 
in most of the cantonments were rude, to say the least. It was 
very difficult to keep up a high state of morale, when every 
phase of life indicated penury. Congress found that the least 
it could do was to give officers and men a living wage, since the 
previous temporary relief would soon expire. It therefore 
enacted a pay bill which gave in effect more pay to the upper 
grades and proportionally reduced that of the lower grades for 
both officers and enlisted men. The five-year fogy gave place to 
a more uniform increase for length of service, with little regard 
to rank. For officers, remuneration was composed of the base 
pay, the allowance for dependent relatives, the ration allowance 
and the rental allowances. In this way salaries more nearly 
conformed to the needs of the individual. In the enlisted pay 
there were no allowances, but the monthly wage for the upper 
grade was increased. Finding that sometimes hardships would 
be worked on the junior officers by having them receive less than 
they would have had fourteen years before, a saving clause was 
put in this enactment which stated that no officer then in the 
service would receive less than under the 1908 schedule. Alto- 
gether the act gave the officer a chance to meet ordinary ex- 
penses, which was all he could ask. 
The outlook for the soldier was now hopeful. He had plenty 
of constructive wTork before him and was a member of a well- 
June 10 
1922 EPILOGUE 
489 
constituted army. He could press forward in saving the nation 
from future woes, and, above all, help in making it stalwart 
enough to ward off wars. He could carry out Washington's 
great advice: "To be prepared for war is one of the most 
effectual means of preserving peace." He could follow the 
example of the French Republic, which, because it was nearly 
as well prepared as Germany, was able to stop the invasion of 
the Hun. 
But in the midst of all his efforts toward this end, there fell 
a sudden blight upon the furtherance of this practical and bene- 
ficial undertaking. The Congress, without hindrance by the 
mass of the people, suddenly, after decided objection by the Sec- 
retary of War and the Chief of Staff, reduced the army to 
175,000 officers and men, for a population of over 120,000,000 
persons. Over 600 line officers had to be cast out of the 
service and the enlisted force reduced by over 100,000. The 
medical, dental and veterinary officers had a similar proportion 
ejected. All promotions were to be stopped until January first, 
1923. Altogether over 1,000 officers were to be eliminated be- 
fore that time. Those discharged were to be given one years' 
pay, if they had less than ten years' service. If less than twenty 
years' service they were to be accorded an annuity at the rate 
of 21/2 per cent a year for each year of commissioned service. 
If more than twenty years' service, the rate was 3 per cent. In 
addition to the ejections, about 800 officers had to be demoted 
and recommissioned in their next lower grade. This legislation 
proved to be such a sweeping retrogression and so fraught with 
danger to the country that Congress later in the year made 
changes in the act. It gave back 50 colonels, 150 majors and 
300 captains and limited the decrease of lieutenants to 500. 
However, it provided that after January first, 192'3, there should 
be no more than 12,000' officers on the promotion list. 
The General Staff now had to undo much of the work it ac- 
complished in 1921. After having carefully and energetically 
built up the service by a judicious selection of officers and a 
campaign of recruitment, it was compelled to oust many of the 
very men it had brought into the regular army. In addition to 
the waste motion in overhead of building a structure in one year 
and of tearing it down in the next, the War Department could 
June 30 
1932 490 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
not carry out so well the broad and beneficial program outlined 
by the National Defense Act of 1920. Training camps had 
either to be curtailed or the remaining officers had to carry a 
load far too heavy for them, if efficient work was to be done. 
It was not the measure itself that made so much for de- 
moralization, as the meaning behind it. The soldier felt after 
the World War that the country had intelligently responded to 
the lessons of our history. He felt that the individual citizen 
was imbued with the idea of preventive medicine. He knew 
that in the one hundred and forty-eight years of our life, the 
country had been engaged in 110 conflicts and about 8,600 
battles, with a consequent casualty list, totaling approximately 
1,280,000 men. He realized that at least half of this loss could 
have been prevented had we always been stalwart. But, now by 
this reaction, did it mean that we were again going to bury 
knowledge, discipline and training? Were we going to lapse 
into the old lackadaisical ways of former peace times? Was 
the country going to repeat the neglectful decadence that had 
followed all our previous wars ? In this day of enlightenment, 
was our flag still to wave on a weak pole ? 
Though the soldier is apprehensive, he is still striving to 
carry technical and tactical knowledge to the comrade at home, 
who is also seeking unselfishly to invigorate his country. He 
is more earnestly trying to carry out the program of self-reliant 
citizenship. He wants national strength-canny, national 
strength. If there could be national strength without a single 
regular enlisted man, he desires it on that basis. If there could 
be national strength without a single regular officer, he wants 
it so. If there could be national strength without a regular 
army, he would be happy at the achievement. He wants na- 
tional strength above any personal whim or selfish desire. 
This, being a history, may not argue: it only records. But 
the facts recited from 1775 to 1923 seem to clarify at least one 
point. When we were strong, disciplined, trained and well- 
organized, we gained a quick peace. When we were not so 
constituted, we lost lives and money fruitlessly. It was not war 
of itself that brought so much horror to our people, as did our 
comfortable sleep in the intervals of quiet. 
19 S3 APPENDIX A 
CONTAINING NAMES OF INCUMBENTS OF ALL PRIN- 
CIPAL OFFICES IN THE ARMY SINCE ITS CREATION 
Commanders in Chief of the Army Since the Beginning 
Names 
Term of Office 
From 
To 
Washington, George 
June 17, 1775 
Dec 23, 1783 
Washington, George 
April 30^ 1789 
March 4 1797 
Adams, John 
March 4, 1797 
March 4, 1801 
Jefferson, Thomas 
March 4, 1801 
March 4, 1809 
Madison, James 
March 4, 1809 
March 4, 1817 
Monroe, James 
March 4, 1817 
March 4, 1825 
Adams, John Quincy 
March 4, 1825 
March 4 1829 
Jackson, Andrew 
March 4, 1829 
March 4, 1837 
Van Buren, Martin 
March 4' 1837 
March 4, 1841 
Harrison, William Henry 
March 4, 1841 
April 4 1841 
Tyler, John 
April 6, 1841 
March 4, 1845 
Polk, James Knox 
March 4, 1845 
March 4, 1849 
Taylor, Zacharv 
March 4, 1849 
July 9, 1850 
Fillmore, Millard 
July 9, 1850 
March 4, 1853 
Pierce, Franklin 
March 4' 1853 
March 4 1857 
Buchanan, James 
March 4' 1857 
March 4, 1861 
Lincoln Abraham 
March 4, 1861 
April 15, 1865 
Johnson, Andrew 
April 15,1865 
March 4, 1869 
Grant, Ulysses Simpson 
March 4, 1869 
March 4, 1877 
Hayes, Rutherford Birchard 
March 4' 1877 
March 4, 1881 
Garfield, James Abram 
March 4, 1881 
Sept. 19, 1881 
Arthur, Chester Allan 
Sept. 20' 1881 
March 4, 1885 
Cleveland, Grover 
March 4, 1885 
March 4' 1889 
Harrison, Benjamin 
March 4, 1889 
March 4, 1893 
Cleveland, Grover 
March 4, 1893 
March 4, 1897 
McKinley, William 
March 4, 1897 
Sept. 14, 1901 
Roosevelt, Theodore 
Sept. 14^ 1901 
March 4, 1909 
Taft, William 
March 4, 1909 
March 4, 1913 
Wilson, Woodrow 
March 4, 1913 
March 4, 1921 
Harding, Warren G 
March 4, 1921 
Aug. 2' 1923 
Coolidge, Calvin 
Aug. 3, 1923 
491 492 
APPENDIX A 
Names 
Term of Office 
From 
To 
Knox, Henry 
Sept. 12, 1789 
Jan. 2, 1795 
Dec. 31, 1794 
Dec. 10, 1795 
May 13, 1800 
Jan. 31, 1801 
March 7, 1809 
Pickering, Timothy 
McHenry, James 
Jan. 27 , 1796 
May 13, 1800 
March 5, 1801 
March 7, 1809 
Jan. 13, 1813 
Sept. 27, 1814 
Aug. 1, 1815 
Oct. 8, 1817 
Dexter, Samuel 
Dearborn, Henrv 
Eustis, William 
Jan. 13; 1813 
Sept. 27, 1814 
March 2, 1815 
Armstrong, John 
Monroe, James 
Crawford, William Harris 
Oct. 22; 1816 
March 7, 1825 
May 23, 1828 
March 9, 1829 
June 18, 1831 
Oct. 5, 1836 
March 5, 1841 
Sept. 13, 1841 
March 3, 1843 
Jan. 30, 1844 
March 4, 1845 
March 4, 1849 
July 23, 1850 
March 7, 1853 
March 6, 1857 
Dec. 29, 1860 
March 5, 1861 
Jan. 14, 1862 
May 28, 1869 
March 11, 1869 
Sept. 6, 1869 
March 2, 1876 
Calhoun, John Caldwell 
Barbour, James 
March 7, 1825 
Porter, Peter Buel 
May 26; 1828 
March 9, 1829 
Eaton John Henry 
Cass, Lewis 
Aug. 1, 1831 
March 7, 1837 
March 5, 1841 
Poinsett, Joel Roberts 
Bell, John 
Spencer, John Canfield 
Oct. 12, 1841 
March 8, 1843 
Porter, James Madison 
Wilkins, William 
Feb. 15, 1844 
Marcy, William Learned 
March 6, 1845 
March 8, 1849 
Aug. 15, 1850 
March 7, 1853 
March 6, 1857 
Jan. 18, 1861 
March 5, 1861 
Jan. 15, 1862 
Crawford, George Washington 
Conrad, Charles Magill 
Davis, Jefferson 
Floyd, John Buchanan 
Holt, Joseph 
Cameron, Simon 
Stanton, Edwin McMasters 
Schofield, John McAllister 
May 28; 1868 
March 11, 1869 
Oct. 25, 1869 
March 8, 1876 
Rawlins, John Aaron 
Belknap, William Worth 
Taft, Alphonso 
May 22', 1876 
March 3, 1877 
Dec. 10, 1879 
March 5, 1881 
March 5, 1885 
Cameron, James Donald 
May 22; 1876 
March 12, 1877 
Dec. 10, 1879 
March 5, 1881 
McCrary, George Washington 
Ramsey, Alexander 
Lincoln, Robert Todd 
Endicott, William Crowninshield 
March 5, 1885 
March 5, 1889 
Nov. 5, 1891 
March 5, 1893 
March 5, 1897 
Aug. 1, 1899 
Jan. 31,1904 
June 30, 1908 
March 11, 1909 
May 21, 1911 
March 4, 1913 
Feb. 10, 1916 
March 8, 1916 
March 4, 1921 
Proctor, Redfield 
March 5, 1889 
Dec. 17, 1891 
March 5, 1893 
March 5, 1897 
Aug. 1, 1899 
Feb. 1, 1904 
July 1, 1908 
March 12, 1909 
May 22, 1911 
March 5, 1913 
Feb. 11, 1916 
March 9, 1916 
Elkins, Stephen Benton 
Lamont, Daniel Scott 
Alger, Russell Alexander 
Root, Elihu 
Taft, William H 
Wright, Luke E 
Dickinson, Jacob M 
Stimson, Henry L 
Garrison, Lindlev M 
Scott, Hugh L., Secy, of War (ad interim}. 
Baker, Newton D 
Weeks, John W 
March 5, 1921 
Secretaries of War Since the Beginning INCUMBENTS OF PRINCIPAL OFFICES 
493 
Generals in Chief of the Army Since 1775 
Term of Office 
Names 
- 
From 
ro 
Washington, George, Gen 
June 
17, 1775 
Dec 
23 1783 
Knox, Henry, Maj. Gen 
Dec. 
23, 1783 
June 
20'1784 
Doughty, John, Capt. (Art.) 
June 
20, 1784 
Aug. 
12* 1784 
Harmar, Josiah, Lieut. Col. (Inf.) 
Aug. 
12, 1784 
March 
4 1791 
St Clair, Arthur, Maj. Gen 
March 
4, 1791 
March 
5 1792 
Wayne, Anthony, Maj. Gen 
April 
13, 1792 
Dec 
15' 1796 
Wilkinson, James, Brig. Gen 
Dec. 
15, 1796 
July 
13 1798 
Washington, George, Lieut. Gen 
July 
13, 1798 
Dec. 
14, 1799 
Hamilton, Alexander, Maj. Gen 
Dec. 
14, 1799 
June 
15, 1800 
Wilkinson, Jasper, Brig. Gen 
June 
15' 1800 
Jan 
27 1812 
Dearborn, Henry, Maj. Gen 
Jan. 
27, 1812 
June 
15, 1815 
Brown, Jacob, Maj. Gen 
June 
15^ 1815 
Feb. 
24, 1828 
Macomb, Alexander, Maj. Gen 
May 
29, 1828 
June 
25, 1841 
Scott, Winfield, Maj. Gen 
July 
5, 1841 
Nnv. 
1 18R1 
McClellan, G. B., Maj. Gen 
Nov. 
1, 1861 
March 11 1862 
Halleck, H W , Maj. Gen 
July 
23, 1862 
March 
9, 1864 
Grant, U. S., Gen 
March 
9, 1864 
March 
4, 1869 
Sherman, W'. T., Gen 
March 
8, 1869 
Nov. 
1, 1883 
Sheridan, P. H., Gen 
Nov. 
1, 1883 
Aug. 
5, 1888 
Schofield, J. Me A., Lieut. Gen 
Aug. 
14,1888 
Sept 
29, 1895 
Miles, N. A., Lieut. Gen 
Oct. 
5, 1895 
Aug. 
8, 1903 
Chiefs of Staff Since General Nelson A. Miles, Who was the Last 
General in Chief of the Army 
Names 
Term of Office 
From 
To 
Young, Samuel B. M., Lieut. Gen 
Aug. 15, 1903 
Jan. 9, 1904 
Jan. 15, 1906 
April 14, 1906 
April 22, 1910 
April 21, 1914 
Nov. 16, 1914 
Sept. 22, 1917 
May 19, 1918 
July 1, 1921 
Jan. 8, 1904 
Jan. 14, 1906 
April 13, 1906 
April 21, 1910 
April 20, 1914 
Nov. 15, 1914 
Sept. 21, 1917 
May 18, 1918 
June 30, 1921 
Chaffee, Adna R., Lieut. Gen 
Bates, John C , Maj. Gen 
Bell, J. Franklin, Maj. Gen 
Wood, Leonard, Maj. Gen 
Wotherspoon, William W., Maj. Gen. . . . 
Scott, Hugh L., Maj. Gen 
Bliss, Tasker H., Maj. Gen., Gen 
March, Peyton C., Maj. Gen., Gen 
Pershing, John J., Gen 494 
APPENDIX A 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
14 Aug., 1775 
2 March, 1778 
5 Aug. 1780 
4 March, 1791 
19 April 1792 
1 June 1796 
3 April, 1812 
21 March, 1813 
29 April, 1816 
29 April, 1816 
8 May, 1818 
20 June, 1860 
15 May, 1861 
13 Feb., 1882 
23 Feb., 1882 
1 July, 1883 
26 June, 1890 
19 Aug., 1896 
16 Feb., 1897 
3 Feb., 1898 
12 April, 1903 
1 July, 1907 
16 Sept., 1916 
22 July, 1918 
28 Aug., 1922 
7 Nov., 1777 
30 Sept., 1780 
25 July 1785 
19 April 1792 
1 May 1796 
1 June 1802 
2 March, 1813 
5 June 1816 
14 April, 1818 
14 April, 1818 
10 June 1860 
22 April, 1861 
6 Feb., 1882 
23 Feb., 1882 
1 July, 1883 
16 June, 1890 
27 July, 1896 
16 Feb., 1897 
3 Feb., 1898 
12 April, 1903 
1 July, 1907 
12 Sept., 1916 
21 July, 1918 
27 Aug., 1922 
Maj. Gen. Thos. Mifflin 
Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Greene 
Col. Timothy Pickering 
Samuel Hodgdon 
James O'Hara 
John Wilkins 
Brig. Gen. Morgan Lewis 
Brig. Gen. Robert Swartwout 
Col. James Mullany 
Col. George Gibson 
Brig. Gen. T. S. Jesup 
Brig. Gen. J. E. Johnston 
Brig. Gen. M. C. Meigs 
Brig. Gen. D. H. Rucker 
Brig. Gen. Rufus Ingalls 
Brig. Gen. S. B. Holabird 
Brig. Gen. R. N. Batchelder 
Brig. Gen. C. G. Sawtelle 
Brig. Gen. G. H. Weeks 
Brig. Gen. M. I. Ludington 
Brig. Gen. Charles F. Humphrey... 
Maj. Gen. James B. Aleshire 
Maj. Gen. Henry G. Sharpe 
Maj. Gen. Harry L. Rogers 
Maj. Gen. William H. Hart 
Qm. General 
Quartermaster 
Qm. General 
Qm. General., 
Northern Div. 
Qm. General, 
Southern Div. 
Qm. General 
The act of March 3, 1799, provided that there shall be a quartermaster general with 
the rank, etc., of a major general. None was appointed to that grade. 
Quartermaster Generals Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
17 June, 
1775 
5 June, 
1776 
Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates 
Adjutant General 
5 June, 
1776 
22 Jan., 
1777 
Col. Jos. Reed 
22 Jan., 
1777 
20 Feb., 
1777 
Brig. Gen. Arthur St. Clair 
Acting Adj. Gen. 
20 Feb., 
1777 
19 April, 
1777 
Brig. Gen. George Weedon 
19 April, 
1777 
18 June, 
1777 
Col. Morgan Connor 
Adjutant General 
18 June, 
1777 
5 Jan., 
1778 
Col. Timothy Pickering 
5 Jan., 
1778 
1 Jan., 
1781 
Col. Alexander Scammel 
• * 
8 Jan., 
1781 
3 Nov., 
1783 
Brig. Gen. Edward Hand 
• • 
5 Nov., 
1783 
28 Oct., 
1787 
Maj. William North 
Adj. and Insp. 
28 Oct., 
1787 
7 Nov., 
1790 
Lieut. Ebenezer Denny, Inf. Reg... 
Acting Adjutant 
7 Nov., 
1790 
4 Sept., 
1791 
Lieut. John Pratt, 1st Inf 
4 Sept., 
1791 
4 Nov., 
1791 
Lieut. Col. Winthrop Sargent, Mass. 
Militia 
<< 
4 Nov., 
1791 
10 March, 
1792 
Lieut. Ebenzeer Denny, 1st Inf... . 
* • 
10 March, 
1792 
23 Feb., 
1793 
Lieut. Henry DeButts, 4th Inf. . . . 
• • 
23 Feb., 
1793 
17 July, 
1793 
Maj. Michael Rudolph, Light Drag. 
• • 
18 July, 
1793 
13 May, 
1794 
Capt. Edward Butler, 4th Sublegion 
• • 
13 May, 
1794 
27 Feb., 
1796 
Maj. John Mills, 2d Sublegion 
• • 
27 Feb., 
1796 
1 Aug., 
1796 
Maj. Jonathan Haskell, 4th Sub- 
legion 
1 Aug., 
1796 
27 Feb., 
1797 
Capt. Edward Butler, 4th Sublegion 
* • 
27 Feb., 
1797 
19 July, 
1798 
Maj. T. H. Cushing, 1st Inf 
• • 
19 July, 
1798 
15 June, 
1800 
Brig. Gen. William North 
Adjutant General 
15 June, 
1800 
2 April, 
1807 
Lieut. Col. T. H. Cushing, 2d Inf... 
Adj. and Insp. 
2]April, 
1807 
28 April, 
1812 
Maj. A. Y. Nicholl, Artillerists.. . . 
• * 
28 April, 
1812 
6 July, 
1812 
Lieut. Col. Alexander Macomb, 
Engr 
Acting Adj. Gen. 
6 July, 
1812 
12 March, 
1813 
Brig. Gen. T. H. Cushing 
Adjutant General 
12 March, 
1813 
27 April, 
1813 
Brig. Gen. Z. M. Pike 
19 May, 
1814 
2 July, 
1814 
Brig. Gen. W. H. Winder 
Adjutant and In- 
spector General 
22 Nov., 
1814 
1 June, 
1821 
Brig. Gen. Daniel Parker 
13 Aug., 
1821 
22 March, 1822 
Col. James Gadsden 
Adjutant General 
Adjutant Generals Since First Incumbent INCUMBENTS OF PRINCIPAL OFFICES 
495 
Adjutant Generals Since First Incumbent-Continued 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
8 May, 1822 
7 March, 1825 
Capt. C. J. Nourse, 2d Art 
Acting Adj. Gen. 
7 March, 1825 
15 July, 1852 
Col. Roger Jones 
Adjutant General 
15 July, 1852 
7 March, 1861 
Col. Samuel Cooper 
7 March, 1861 
22 Feb., 1869 
Brig. Gen. Lorenzo Thomas 
22 Feb., 1869 
15 June, 1880 
Brig. Gen. E. D. Townsend 
15 June, 1880 
28 May, 1889 
Brig. Gen. R. C. Drum 
7 June, 1889 
24 June, 1892 
Brig. Gen. J. C. Kelton 
5 July, 1892 
5 Nov., 1893 
Brig. Gen. Robert Williams 
6 Nov., 1893 
11 Sept., 1897 
Brig. Gen. G. D. Ruggles 
11 Sept., 1897 
25 Feb., 1898 
Brig. Gen. Samuel Breck 
25 Feb., 1898 
14 April, 1906 
Maj. Gen. Henry C. Corbin 
23 April, 1904 
4 March, 1907 
Maj. Gen. Fred C. Ainsworth 
The Military Sec. 
5 March, 1907 
16 Feb., 1912 
Maj. Gen. Fred C. Ainsworth 
Adjutant General 
17 Feb., 1912 
11 June, 1912 
Brig. Gen. William P. Hall 
Brig. Gen. George Andrews 
27 Aug., 1914 
Maj. Gen. Henry P. McCain 
1 Sept., 1918 
31 Aug.', 1922 
Maj. Gen. Peter C. Harris 
1 Sept., 1922 
Maj. Gen. Robert C. Davis 
Inspector Generals Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
8 July, 1777 
11 Aug., 1777 
13 Dec., 1777 
5 May, 1778 
17 April, 1784 
10 March, 1792 
23 Feb., 1793 
18 July, 1793 
13 May, 1794 
27 Feb., 1796 
1 Aug., 1796 
27 Feb., 1797 
18 July, 1798 
15 June, 1800 
2 April, 1807 
6 July, 1812 
12 March, 1813 
9 May, 1814 
22 Nov., 1814 
29 April, 1816 
3 May, 1816 
1 Oct., 1820 
10 Nov., 1821 
21 Dec., 1825 
25 June, 1841 
9 Aug., 1861 
2 Jan., 1881 
11 March, 1885 
20 Sept., 1885 
20 Aug., 1885 
30 Jan., 1889 
11 April, 1903 
12 April, 1903 
1 Oct., 1906 
21 Feb., 1917 
7 Nov., 1921 
11 Oct., 1777 
15 Sept., 1777 
28 April, 1778 
15 April, 1784 
28 Oct., 1787 
23 Feb., 1793 
17 July, 1793 
13 May, 1794 
27 Feb., 1796 
1 Aug., 1796 
27 Feb., 1797 
18 July, 1798 
15 June, 1800 
2 April, 1807 
28 April, 1812 
3 March, 1813 
27 April, 1813 
2 July, 1814 
1 June, 1821 
25 June, 1841 
30 Sept., 1820 
13 Aug., 1821 
11 Dec., 1825 
8 Jan., 1849 
25 Sept., 1861 
2 Jan., 1881 
8 March, 1885 
20 Sept., 1885 
20 Aug., 1888 
26 Sept., 1889 
11 April, 1903 
12 April, 1903 
30 Sept., 1906 
20 Feb., 1917 
6 Nov., 1921 
Col. Mottin de la Balme 
Maj. Gen. P. C. J. B. T. du Coudray 
Maj. Gen. Thomas Conway 
Maj. Gen. F. W. A. Steuben (baron) 
Maj. William North 
Lieut. Henry DeButts, 4th Inf.... 
Maj. Michael Rudolph, Light Drag. 
Capt. Edward Butler, 4th Sublegion 
Maj. John Mills, 2d Sublegion 
Maj. Jonathan Haskell, 4th Sub- 
legion 
Capt. Edward Butler, 4th Inf 
Maj. T. H. Cushing, 1st Inf 
Maj. Gen. Alexander Hamilton.... 
Maj. T. H. Cushing, 1st Inf 
Maj. A. Y. Nicoll, Artillerists 
Brig. Gen. Alexander Smyth 
Brig. Gen. Z. M. Pike 
Brig. Gen. W. H. Winder 
Brig. Gen. Daniel Parker 
Col. J. E. Wool 
Col. A. P. Hayne 
Col. James Gadsden 
Col. S. B. Archer 
Col. George Croghan 
Col. Sylvester Churchill 
Brig. Gen. R. B. Marcy 
Brig. Gen. D. B. Sacket 
Brig. Gen. N. H. Davis 
Brig. Gen. Absalom Baird 
Brig. Gen. Roger Jones 
Brig. Gen. J. C. Breckinridge 
Brig. Gen. P. D. Vroom 
Brig. Gen. George H. Burton 
Brig. Gen. Ernest A. Garlington. .. 
Maj. Gen. John L. Chamberlain. . . 
Maj. Gen. Eli A. Helmick 
Inspector General 
of Cavalry 
Inspector General 
of Ordnance and 
Military Stores 
Inspector General 
Inspector 
Acting Adjutant 
and Inspector 
Inspector General 
Acting Adjutant 
Gen. and Insp. 
Inspector General 
Adjutant and 
Inspector Gen. 
Inspector General 496 
APPENDIX A 
Surgeon Generals Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Hank and name 
Title of office 
27 July, 
1775 
7 Nov., 
1775 
Benjamin Church 
Director General 
and Chief Phy- 
sician 
14 Sept., 
1775 
9 Jan., 
1777 
Samuel Stringer 
* • 
17 Oct., 
1775 
9 Jan., 
1777 
John Morgan 
• 4 
11 April, 
1777 
3 Jan., 
1781 
William Shippen 
Director General 
6 Feb., 
1778 
2 July, 
1780 
William Brown 
22 May, 
1780 
3 Nov., 
1783 
David Oliphant 
• • 
17 Jan., 
1781 
3 Nov., 
1783 
John Cochran 
4 • 
11 April, 
1777 
- Aug., 
1777 
Malachi Treat 
Physician Gen- 
eral, Northern 
Dept. 
11 April, 
1777 
9 March, 1778 
A. R. Cutter 
Physician Gen- 
eral, Eastern 
Dept. 
11 April, 
1777 
1 July, 
1777 
Walter Jones 
Physician Gen- 
eral, Middle 
Dept. 
1 July, 
11 April, 
1777 
1778 
Benjamin Rush 
1777 
31 July, 
1777 
Francis Forgue 
Surgeon-General, 
Northern Dept. 
11 April, 
1777 
6 Oct., 
1778 
Philip Turner 
Surgeon-General, 
Eastern Dept. 
11 April, 
1777 
1 July, 
1777 
Benjamin Rush 
Surgeon-General, 
Middle Dept. 
13 May, 
1777 
6 Feb., 
1778 
William Brown 
21 Feb., 
1778 
6 Oct., 
1780 
Charles McKnight 
• • 
11 April, 
1777 
1 Jan., 
1781 
John Bartlett 
Physician and 
Surge on-general, 
Northern Dept. 
11 April, 
1777i 
6 Oct., 
1780 
William Burnet 
Physician-general, 
and Surgeon- 
general, Eastern 
Dept. 
11 April, 
1777 
6 Oct., 
1780 
John Cochran 
Physician-general, 
and Surgeon- 
general, Middle 
Dept. 
6 Oct., 
1780 
17 Jan., 
1781 
John Cochran 
Chief Physician 
and Surgeon 
3 March, 
1781 
23 Dec., 
1783 
James Craik 
5 March, 
1781 
3 Nov., 
1783 
William Burnet 
• * 
15 July, 
1776 
1 Dec., 
1776 
William Shippen 
Chife Physician of 
the Flying Camp 
15 May, 
1781 
3 Nov., 
1783 
Peter Fayssoux 
Chief Physician, 
Southern Dept. 
22 March, 
1780 
- June, 
1782 
James Brown 
, 6 Oct., 
1780 
3 Nov., • 
1783 
Malachi Treat 
Chief Hosp. Phy- 
sician 
J 6 Oct., 
1780 
3 Jan., 
1782 
Charles McKnight 
• • 
'6 Oct., 
1780 
3 Nov., 
1783 
Thomas Bond 
Purveyor 
19 July, 
1778 
3 Nov., 
1783 
Andrew Craigie 
Apothecary 
Physician General 
19 July, 
1778 
15 June, 
1800 
James Craik 
11 June, 
1813 
15 June, 
1815 
James Tilton 
Physician and 
Surgeon-general 
11 June, 
1813 
1 June, 
1821 
Francis LeBaron 
Apothecary Gen- 
eral 
Surgeon-general 
18 April, 
1818 
17 Oct., 
1836 
Joseph Lowell 
30 Nov., 
1836 
15 May, 
1861 
Col. Thomas Lawson 
15 May, 
1861 
14 April, 
1862 
Col. C. A. Finley 
4 4 
25 April, 
1862 
18 Aug., 
1864 
Brig. Gen. W. A. Hammond 
22 Aug., 
3 July, 
1864 
30 June, 
10 Oct., 
1882 
Brig. Gen. J. K. Barnes 
1882 
1883 
Brig. Gen. C. H. Crane 
• 4 
23 Nov., 
1883 
6 Aug., 
1886 
Brig. Gen. Robert Murray 
18 Nov., 
1886 
16 Aug., 
1890 
Brig. Gen. John Moore 
16 Aug., 
1890 
4 Dec., 
1890 
Brig. Gen. J. H. Baxter 
23 Dec., 
1890 
29 May, 
1893 
Brig. Gen. Charles Sutherland 
30 May, 
1893 
8 June, 
1902 
Brig. Gen. G. M. Sternberg 
8 June, 
1902 
7 Sept., 
1902 
Brig. Gen. W. H. Forwood 
7 Sept., 
1902 
14 Jan., 
1909 
Brig. Gen. Robert M. O'Reilly. . . . 
14 Jan., 
1909 
27 Dec., 
1913 
Brig. Gen. George H. Torney 
16 Jan., 
4 Oct., 
1914 
1918 
3 Oct., 
1918 
Maj. Gen. William C. Gorgas 
Maj. Gen. Merritte W. Ireland.. . . INCUMBENTS OF PRINCIPAL OFFICES 
497 
Judge Advocate Generals Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
29 July, 
10 April, 
9 July, 
2 Oct., 
1775 
9 April, 
3 June, 
18 Sept., 
3 Nov., 
1798 
Lieut. Col. William Tudor 
Judge-Advocate 
1777 
1782 
Lieut. Col. John Lawrence 
1782 
1782 
Limit. Col. Jamps Innis 
1782 
1783 
First Lieut. Thomas Edwards, 
Mass. Inf 
9 th 
16 July, 
1794 
13 July, 
1796 
First Lieut. Campbell Smith, 
Sublpcrinn . 
4 th 
2 June, 
26 Sept., 
18 March, 
7 May, 
19 July, 
5 Oct., 
9 July, 
6 Aug., 
16 Sept., 
19 Dec., 
29 April, 
29 April, 
3 May, 
9 July, 
9 July, 
10 Sept., 
2 March, 
3 Sept., 
1797 
1812 
1 June, 
1802 
1814 
Capt. Campbell Smith, 4th Inf.... 
Thomas Gales 
1813 
15 June, 
1815 
E. A. Bancker 
1813 
15 June, 
1815 
J. S. Wills 
1813 
14 April, 
15 June, 
15 June, 
1818 
J. T. Dent 
1813 
1814 
1815 
1815 
Stephen Lush, Jr 
R. H. Winder 
1814 
9 May, 
15 June, 
1816 
Henry Wheaton 
1814 
1815 
L. M. Parker 
1814 
15 June, 
14 April, 
14 April, 
23 July, 
1 June, 
1815 
Samuel Wilcocks 
1816 
1818 
W. O. Winston 
1816 
1818 
Thomas Hanson 
1816 
1818 
R. H. Winder 
1816 
1821 
S. A. Storrow 
1816 
15 Jan., 
1817 
J. L. Leib 
1818 
1 June, 
1821 
S. D. Hays 
1849 
4 Sept., 
1 Dec., 
22 Jan., 
1862 
Bvt. Maj. J. E. Lee 
1862 
1875 
Brig. Gen. Joseph Holt 
Judge-Advo.-Gen. 
1875 
1881 
Brig. Gen. W. McK. Dunn 
18 Feb., 
1881 
22 Dec.', 
1894 
Brig. Gen. D. G. Swaim 
3 Jan., 
21 May, 
22 May, 
1895 
21 May, 
22 May, 
24 May, 
1901 
Brig. Gen. G. N. Lieber 
1901 
1901 
Brig. Gen. T. F. Barr 
1901 
1901 
Brig. Gen. J. W. Clous 
1901 
1911 
Brig. Gen. George B. Davis 
15 Feb., 
15 Feb., 
1911 
1923 
14 Feb., 
1923 
Maj. Gen. Enoch H. Crowder 
Maj. Gen. Walter A. Bethel 
Chiefs 
of Engineers Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
17 June, 
1775 
5 Aug., 
1776 
Col. Richard Gridley 
Chief Engineer 
5 Aug., 
1776 
1 Nov., 
1776 
Col. Rufus Putnam 
22 July, 
1777 
10 Oct., 
1783 
Maj. Gen. L. L. Duportail 
• • 
26 Feb., 
1795 
7 May, 
1798 
Lieut. Col. Stephen Rochefontaine. 
Commandant 
Corps of Artil- 
lerists and Engi- 
neers 
7 May, 
1798 
1 April, 
1802 
Lieut. Col. Henry Burbeck 
• * 
3 July, 
1802 
20 June, 
1803 
Lieut. Col. Jonathan Williams 
Chief Engineer 
19 April, 
1805 
31 July, 
1812 
Col. Jonathan Williams 
31 July, 
1812 
12 Nov., 
1818 
Col. J. G. Swift 
12 Nov., 
1818 
1 June, 
1821 
Col. W. K. Armistead 
1 June, 
1821 
24 May, 
1828 
Col. Alexander Macomb 
24 May, 
1828 
6 Dec., 
1838 
Col. Charles Gratiot 
7 Dec., 
1838 
3 March, 
1863 
Col. J. G. Totten 
1863 
22 April, 
8 Aug., 
1864 
Brig Gen J. G. Totten 
22 April, 
1864 
1866 
Brig. Gen. Richard Delafield 
8 Aug., 
1866 
30 June, 
1879 
Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys 
30 June, 
1879 
6 March, 
1884 
IBrig. Gen. H. G. Wright 
6 March, 1884 
27 Aug., 
1886 
Brig. Gen. John Newton 
11 Oct., 
1886 
30 June, 
1888 
Brig. Gen. J. C. Duane 
6 July, 
1888 
10 May, 
1895 
Brig. Gen. T. L. Casey 
10 May, 
1895 
1 Feb., 
1897 
Brig. Gen. W. P. Craighill 
1 Feb., 
1897 
30 April, 
1901 
Brig. Gen. J. M. Wilson 
4 4 
30 April, 
1901 
2 May, 
1901 
Brig. Gen. H. M. Robert 
4 4 
2 May, 
1901 
3 May, 
1901 
Brig. Gen. J. W. Barlow 
4 4 
3 May, 
1901 
22 Jan., 
1904 
Brig. Gen. Geo. L. Gillespie 
4 4 
23 Jan., 
1904 
25 May, 
1908 
Brig. Gen. Alexander Mackenzie... 
4 4 
2 July, 
1908 
11 June, 
1910 
Brig. Gen. William L. Marshall.... 
12 June, 
1910 
11 Aug., 
1913 
Brig. Gen. William H. Bixby 
12 Aug., 
12 Oct., 
1913 
11 Oct., 
6 March, 
1913 
Brig. Gen. William T. Rossell 
1913 
1916 
Brig. Gen. Dan C. Kingman 
7 March, 
9 Jan., 
1916 
1920 
31 Oct., 
1919 
Maj. Gen. William M. Black 
Maj. Gen. Lansing H. Beach 498 
APPENDIX A 
Chiefs of Ordnance Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
17 Aug., 1775 
1 Dec., 1775 
Ezekiel Cheever 
Commissary of 
Artillery Stores 
16 July, 1776 
1 Dec., 1776 
Col. Benjamin Flower 
Commissary of 
Artillery Stores 
for Flying Camp 
18 Jan., 1777 
1 Feb., 1777 
1 Feb., 1777 
5 Feb., 1777 
30 April, 1778 
Maj. Samuel French 
Maj. George Peale 
Maj. Jonathan Gostelow 
Maj. Joseph Watkins 
Commissary of 
Artillery Stores 
8 March, 1777 
30 Aug., 1780 
Maj. Charles Lukens 
17 Sept., 1782 
3 Nov., 1783 
Maj. Richard Frothingham 
11 Aug., 1777 
15 Sept., 1777 
Maj. Gen. P. C. J. B. T. du Coudray 
Inspector General 
of Ordnance and 
Military Forti- 
fications 
16 July, 1776 
28 April, 1781 
Col. Benjamin Flower 
Commissary Gen- 
eral of Military 
Stores 
12 July, 1781 
20 June, 1784 
Col. Samuel Hodgdon 
2 July, 1812 
8 Feb., 1815 
Col. Decius Wadsworth 
Commissary Gen- 
eral of Ordnance 
8 Feb., 1815 
1 June, 1821 
Col. Decius Wadsworth 
Chief of Ordnance 
30 May, 1832 
25 March, 1848 
Col. George Bomford 
25 March, 1848 
10 July, 1851 
Col. George Talcott 
10 July, 1851 
23 April, 1861 
Col. H. K. Craig 
23 April, 1861 
15 Sept., 1863 
Brig. Gen. J. W. Ripley 
15 Sept., 1863 
12 Sept., 1864 
Brig. Gen. G. D. Ramsay 
12 Sept., 1864 
20 May, 1874 
Brig. Gen. A. B. Dyer 
23 June, 1874 
22 Jan., 1891 
Brig. Gen. S. V. Benfet 
23 Jan., 1891 
29 March, 1899 
Brig. Gen. D. W. Flagler 
5 April, 1899 
22 Nov., 1901 
Brig. Gen. A. R. Buffington 
22 Nov., 1901 
16 July, 1918 
15 July, 1918 
Maj. Gen. William Crozier 
Maj. Gen. Clarence C. Williams. . . 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
27 June, 1860 
3 March, 1863 
3 Dec., 1864 
28 July, 1866 
15 Dec., 1880 
3 March, 1887 
10 Feb., 1906 
14 Feb., 1913 
6 Oct., 1917 
3 March, 1863 
21 July, 1864 
28 July, 1866 
24 Aug., 1880 
16 Jan., 1887 
9 Feb., 1906 
13 Feb., 1913 
13 Feb., 1917 
Maj. A. J. Myer 
Col. A. J. Myer 
Col. Benj. F. Fisher 
Brig. Gen. A. J. Myer 
Brig. Gen. W. B. Hazen 
Brig. Gen. A. W. Greely 
Brig. Gen. James Allen 
Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven 
Maj. Gen. George O. Squier 
Signal Officer 
Chief Signal 
Officer 
Chief Signal Officers Since First Incumbent 
Chiefs of Artillery Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
27 Feb., 1903 
22 Jan., 1904 
20 June, 1905 
1 Oct., 1906 
22 Jan., 1904 
19 June, 1905 
30 Sept., 1906 
30 June, 1908 
Brig. Gen. Wallace F. Randolph.. . 
Brig. Gen. John P. Story 
Chief of Artillery 
Brig. Gen. Samuel M. Mills 
Brig. Gen. Arthur Murray INCUMBENTS OF PRINCIPAL OFFICES 
499 
Chiefs of Coast Artillery Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
1 July, 1908 
14 March, 1911 
Brig. Gen. Arthur Murray 
Chief of Coast 
Artillery 
15 March, 1911 
24 May, 1918 
23 May, 1918 
Maj. Gen. Erasmus M. Weaver.... 
Maj. Gen. Frank W. Coe 
Chief of Field Artillery Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
1 July, 1920 
Maj. Gen. William J. Snow 
Chief of Field Ar- 
tillery 
Chief of Cavalry Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
1 July, 1920 
Maj. Gen. Willard A. Holbrook.... 
Chief of Cavalry 
Chief of Infantry Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
1 July, 1920 
Maj. Gen. Charles S. Farnsworth. . 
Chief of Infantry 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Title of office 
1 July, 
1920 
4 Oct., 1921 
Maj. Gen. Charles T. Menoher.... 
Chief of Air Ser- 
vice 
5 Oct., 
1921 
Maj. Gen. Mason M. Patrick 
Chiefs of Air Service Since First Incumbent 
Chief of Tank Corps Since First Incumbent 
From 
To 
Rank and name 
Remarks 
20 Dec., 1917 
Brig. Gen. Samuel D. Rockenbach. 
Now a colonel of 
infantry. Tank 
corps is now at- 
tached to the 
infantry. 500 
APPENDIX A 
Term of 
Service 
No. 
Name 
Army rank when appointed 
From 
To 
Remarks 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
Williams, Jonathan 
Williams, Jonathan 
Swift, Joseph G 
Partridge, Alden 
Thayer, Sylvanus 
DeRussy, Ren6 E 
Delafield, Richard 
Brewerton, Henry 
Lee, Robert E 
Barnard, John G 
Delafield, Richard 
Beauregard, Peter G. T 
Delafield, Richard 
Bowman, Alexander H 
Tower, Zealous B 
Cullum, George W 
Pitcher, Thomas G 
Ruger, Thomas H 
Schofield, John M 
Howard, Oliver O 
Merritt, Wesley 
Parke, John G 
Wilson, John M 
Ernst, Oswald H 
Mills, Albert L 
Scott, Hugh L 
Barry, Thomas H 
Townsley, Clarence P 
Biddle, John 
Tillman, Samuel E 
MacArthur, Douglas 
Sladen, Fred W 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
Lieut. Colonel, Corps of Engineers 
Colonel, Corps of Engineers 
Captain, Corps of Engineers 
Captain, Corps of Engineers 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
Captain, Corps of Engineers 
Captain, Corps of Enginers 
Captain, Corps of Engineers 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
Captain, Corps of Engineers 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
Lieut. Colonel, Corps of Engineers 
Colonel, 44th Infantry 
Colonel, 18th Infantry 
Major General, U. S. Army 
Brigadier General, U. S. Army 
Colonel, 5th Cavalry 
Colonel, Corps of Engineers 
Lieut. Colonel, Corps of Engineers 
Major, Corps of Engineers 
1st Lieutenant, 1st Cavalry 
Major, 14th Cavalry 
Major General, U. 8. Army 
Colonel, Coast Artillery Corps 
Colonel, Corps of Engineers 
Colonel, U. 8. Army 
Brigadier General, U. 8. Army 
Brigadier General, U. S. Army 
April 15, 1802 
1 April 19, 1805 
July 31, 1812 
Jan. 3, 1815 
July 28, 1817 
July 1, 1833 
Sept. 1, 1838 
Aug. 15, 1845 
Sept. 1, 1852 
March 31, 1855 
Sept. 8, 1856 
2 Jan. 23, 1861 
Jan. 28, 1861 
March 1, 1861 
July 8, 1864 
Sept. 8, 1864 
Aug. 28, 1866 
Sept. 1, 1871 
Sept. 1, 1876 
Jan. 21, 1881 
Sept. 1, 1882 
Aug. 28, 1887 
Aug. 26, 1889 
March 31, 1893 
Aug. 22, 1898 
Aug. 31, 1906 
Aug. 31, 1910 
Aug. 31, 1912 
July 1, 1916 
June 13, 1917 
June 12, 1919 
July 1, 1922 
1 June 20, 1803 
July 31, 1812 
March 24, 1814 
July 28, 1817 
July 1, 1833 
Sept. 1, 1838 
Aug. 15, 1845 
Sept. 1, 1852 
March 31, 1855 
Sept. 8, 1856 
2 Jan. 23, 1861 
Jan. 28, 1861 
March 1, 1861 
July 8, 1864 
Sept. 8, 1864 
Aug. 28, 1866 
Sept. 1, 1871 
Sept. 1, 1876 
Jan. 21, 1881 
Sept. 1, 1882 
July 1, 1887 
June 24, 1889 
March 31, 1893 
Aug. 21, 1898 
Aug. 31, 1906 
Aug. 31, 1910 
Aug. 31, 1912 
June 30, 1916 
May ] 31, 1917 
June 11, 1919 
June 30, 1922 
Resigned 
Resigned 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Relieved 
Note.-The selection of the Superintendents of the Military Academy was confined to the Corps of Engineers from the establishment of the Insti- 
tution, March 16, 1802, till the passage of the law of July 13, 1866, which opened it to the entire Army. By the Act of June 12, 1858, the local rank 
of Colonel was conferred upon the Superintendent. 
1 Major Williams resigned June 20, 1803, on a point of command, and pending its settlement until April 19, 1805, when he again returned to 
service as Chief Engineer, no permanent Superintendent of the Military Academy was appointed, the command devolving upon the senior officer of 
the Corps of Engineers present for duty. 
2 Bvt. Major P. G. T. Beauregard, Corps of Engineers, by order of John B. Floyd, Secretary of War, relieved Colonel Delafield, Jan. 23, 1861, 
from the superintendency of the Military Academy, but was himself displaced five days later, Jan. 28, 1861, by direction of the succeeding Secretary 
of War, Joseph Holt, the command again devolving upon Colonel Delafield. 
Superintendents of the United States Military Academy Since First Incumbent APPENDIX B 
SHOWING TREMENDOUS NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION 
OF LABOR STRIKES WHICH THE ARMY WAS 
CALLED UPON TO PUT DOWN BETWEEN 1886 AND 
1895 
Alabama 
1894-July 19. Adger. Miners' strike. Company G, 2nd Infantry; about 
40 men. 
California 
1893-Sept. 1. Redlands. Anti-Chinese troubles. Companies C, E, and 
G, 9th Infantry, 140 men; held in armories two days. 
1894-Railroad strike and riots. 
July 4. Sacramento. 1st, 3rd, and 8th Regiments Infantry; 4 com- 
panies, 2nd Infantry; 2 companies, 6th Infantry; 1 sec. of Light 
Battery A, Light Battery B, and 2nd Brigade Signal Corps; about 
1,450 men; withdrawn from July 23 to 30. 
July 4. Oakland. 2nd Regiment Artillery, 6 companies 5th Infantry, 
3 companies Naval Battalion, 1 company 2nd Infantry, 1st Troop 
Cavalry; about 900 men; withdrawn from July 18 to Aug. 8. 
July 4. Chico. 4 companies 8th Infantry and 1 company 2nd Infan- 
try, about 250 men; one day. 
July 4. San Jose. 2 companies, 5th Infantry; 1 company, Naval 
Battalion, about 150 men; withdrawn July 16. 
July 12. Sumner. 3 companies, 6th Infantry, about 150 men; 
withdrawn July 25 to 30. 
July 16. Dunsmuir. 2 companies, 6th Infantry, and 2 companies, 
2nd Infantry; withdrawn Aug. 2 to Aug. 7; about 225 men. 
July 17. Porta Costa. 1 company, 2nd Infantry, and 1 company, 
5th Infantry; about 100 men; withdrawn July 19 to 27. 
July 18. Truckee. 2 companies, 1st Infantry, and 2 companies, 
2nd Infantry; about 200 men; withdrawn July 25 to Aug. 7. 
July 19. Alameda. 1 company, 5th Infantry, about 50 men; with- 
drawn July 22. 
July 22. Woodland. 1 company, 2nd Infantry, about 50 men; 
withdrawn July 25. 
July 23. Red Bluff. 1 company, 8th Infantry, about 50 men; with- 
drawn July 29, 
Connecticut 
1891-June 15. Bridgeport. Threatened riot. 2 companies (B and E, 
4th Infantry), and Gatling gun. 130 men, held in readiness for two 
days. 
501 502 
APPENDIX B 
Illinois 
1894-May 25. La Salle. Coal miners' strike and riot. 6 companies, 3rd 
Infantry; 307 men, gradually withdrawn from May 29 to 31. 
May 25. Centralia. Coal miners' strike and riot. 4 companies, 4th 
Infantry; 202 men; withdrawn May 28. 
May 26. Pana. Coal miners' strike and riot. 4 companies, 5th 
Infantry; 192 men; withdrawn May 28. 
May 27. Minonk. Coal miners' strike and riot. 3 companies, 5th 
Infantry; 126 men; withdrawn May 29. 
June 5. Carterville. Coal miners' strike and riot. 3 companies, 4th 
Infantry; 160 men; withdrawn June 7. 
June 7. Peoria. Coal miners' strike and riot. 1 company, 5th 
Infantry; 51 men; withdrawn June 12. 
June 8. Edinburg. Coal miners' strike and riot. 1 company, 5th 
Infantry; 42 men; withdrawn June 9. 
June 9. Pana. Coal miners' strike. 1st Infantry; 683 men; with- 
drawn June 12. 
June 7. Pekin. Coal miners' strike and riot. 3 companies; one 
from each of 3rd, 5th, and 6th Regiments; 156 men; withdrawn 
June 13. 
June 18. Mt. Olive. Coal miners' strike and riot. 7th Infantry; 
371 men; withdrawn June 20. 
July 2. Decatur. Railroad strike and riot. 4 companies, 5th 
Infantry, and Troop B; 265 men; withdrawn from July 3 to 13. 
July 2. Danville. Railroad strike and riot. 5 companies, 5th 
Infantry, detail from Battery A, and Troop B; 210 men; withdrawn 
from July 5 to 16. 
July 3. Mounds. Railroad strike and riot. 6 companies, 4th 
Infantry; 336 men; withdrawn from July 6 to 19. 
July 5. Springfield. Railroad strike and riot. 3 companies, 5th 
Infantry and detachment of 1st Infantry; 217 men; withdrawn 
July 9. 
July 6. Chicago. Railroad strike and riot. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and 
7th Infantry, portions of 4th and 5th Infantry, Batteries A and D, 
Troops A and B, 1st Battalion of Naval Militia, in all 4,243 men; 
gradually withdrawn from July 18 to August 7. In addition to this 
force there were on duty about 2,500 regular troops, 4,000 regular and 
special police, with deputy marshals and deputy sheriffs to make 
a total of about 14,000 men. 
July 7. Spring Valley. Riot. 2 companies, 6th Infantry; 128 men; 
on duty until July 16. LABOR STRIKES PUT DOWN BY ARMY 
503 
Iowa 
1886-March 9. Des Moines. To prevent lynching. Company A, 3rd 
Infantry: 32 men; On duty at jail two nights. 
1888-Shenandoah. To capture a murderer. Company E, 3rd Infantry; 
about 40 men; on duty a few hours. 
1893-Dec. 21. Oskaloosa. To capture a gang of tramps. Company F, 
3rd Infantry; 40 men (estimated); on duty a few hours. 
1894-April 13. Council Bluffs. Industrial Army Companies B, C, G, K, 
L, and M, 3rd Infantry; 187 men; on duty six days. These same 
companies with the addition of Company E, 35 men, were afterward 
held in their armories three days and Companies H and L, 4th 
Infantry, 98 men, were held in readiness five days. 
May 30. Evans. Coal miners' strike. Companies A and H, 3rd 
Infantry; 85 men; on duty six days. 
May 30. Muchakinock. Coal miners' strike. Companies G and K, 
Infantry; 80 men; on duty seven days. 
June 6. Evans. Coal miners' strike. Company F, 3rd Infantry; 
35 men; on duty two days. 
July 4. Sioux City. Railroad strike. Companies A, C, D, F, G, H, 
I, L, and M, 4th Infantry and Company K, 1st Infantry, witn 
Gatling gun; 436 men; on duty six days. 
1895-March 15. Algona. Incendiary fires. Company F, 4th Infantry; 
about 40 men; on duty one night. 
April 11. Cincinnati. Miners' strike. One companv; 40 men. 
Kentucky 
(No accurate records in Adjutant General's office) 
1886-March. Pulaski County. War on convict miners. 50 men (esti- 
mated). 
1887-August. Morehead. To guard court. 75 men, 1st Infantry 
Pineville. To prevent lawlessness. 50 men; 1st Infantry. 
1888-Dec. 25. Hazard. To prevent lawlessness. 50 men (estimated). 
1889-September. Harlan County. To prevent lawlessness. 50 men 
(estimated). 
1890-March. Louisville. To protect property and preserve order after 
cyclone. 200 men (estimated). 1st Infantry. 
April 16. Black Mountain. To prevent lawlessness. 100 men 
(estimated). 
August. Hazard. To guard court house. 50 men (estimated). 
Maine 
1894-Jan. 25. Bath. Fire. Companies C and D, 2nd Infantiy; 68 men; 
five days. 
May 9. Norway. Fire. Company D, 1st Infantry; 51 men; one 
day. 
Pennsylvania 
1889-June 4. Johnstown. Flood. 14th Infantry, 489 men; on duty until 
June 29. 504 
APPENDIX B 
Classification of Cases, by States and Years 
State 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
Totals 
Alabama 
1 
6 
4 
4 
2 
8 
25 
Arizona 
0 
Arkansas 
1 
1 
2 
California 
1 
11 
12 
Colorado 
1 
2 
2 
3 
8 
Connecticut 
1 
1 
2 
Delaware 
0 
Dist. of Columbia. 
0 
Florida 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
3 
13 
Georgia 
2 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
9 
Idaho 
1 
1 
2 
Illinois 
3 
1 
2 
2 
16 
24 
Indiana 
1 
1 
2 
4 
Iowa 
1 
1 
1 
5 
2 
10 
Kansas 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
8 
Kentucky 
1 
2 
1 
1 
3 
1 
2 
11 
Louisiana 
1 
1 
1 
1 
4 
Maine 
2 
2 
Maryland 
1 
1 
1 
3 
Massachusetts. . . 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
7 
Michigan 
1 
2 
2 
5 
Minnesota 
4 
1 
1 
2 
8 
Mississippi 
2 
1 
3 
Missouri 
1 
1 
1 
3 
Montana 
2 
2 
Nebraska 
2 
1 
2 
5 LABOR STRIKES PUT DOWN BY ARMY 
505 
Classification of Cases, by States and Years-Continued 
State 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
Totals 
Nevada 
0 
New Hampshire.. 
0 
New Jersey 
1 
1 
2 
New Mexico 
1 
1 
New York 
3 
2 
4 
1 
1 
1 
12 
North Carolina... 
2 
1 
3 
1 
1 
4 
3 
15 
North Dakota.... 
1 
3 
4 
Ohio 
1 
3 
1 
2 
13 
1 
21 
Oklahoma 
1 
1 
Oregon 
1 
1 
Pennsylvania. . . . 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
6 
Rhode Island.... 
0 
South Carolina... 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
8 
South Dakota.... 
0 
Tennessee 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
8 
Texas 
2 
2 
2 
6 
1 
2 
1 
16 
Utah 
2 
2 
Vermont 
0 
Virginia 
1 
3 
3 
2 
7 
6 
3 
2 
6 
4 
37 
Washington 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
7 
West Virginia.. . . 
7 
1 
8 
Wisconsin 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
6 
Wyoming 
1 
1 
Totals 
14 
21 
20 
38 
24 
31 
23 
28 
105 
24 
328 APPENDIX C 
SHOWING LARGE NUMBER OF TROOPS ENGAGED IN 
PHILIPPINE HOSTILITIES BETWEEN FEBRUARY 
4, 1899 AND JULY 4, 1902 
Regulars 
Volunteers 
Eng., A, B. C, D, E, F, G, and H. 
1st Cav., Hq., A, B, C, D, I, K, L, 
and M. 
3rd Cav. Reg. 
4th Cav. Reg. 
5th Cav., Hq., A, B, C, D, I, K, L, 
and M. 
6th Cav. Reg. 
9th Cav. Reg. 
10th Cav., E, F, G, and H. 
11th Cav. Reg. 
15th Cav. Reg. 
1st, 8th, 10th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 
and 25th btrys. of Field Art. 
Astor Btry. 
25th, 27th, 29th, 30th, 31st, 32nd, 
33rd, 36th, 60th, 61st. 62nd. 63rd, 
64th, 65th, 68th, 69th, 70th, and 
71st cos. Coast Art. and Hq. 6th 
Artillery. 
1st Inf. Reg. 
2nd Inf. Reg. 
3rd Inf. Reg. 
4th Inf. Reg. 
5th Inf. Reg. 
6th Inf. Reg. 
7th Inf., C, D, H, and M. 
8th Inf., Hq., E, F, G, H, I, K, L 
and M. 
9th Inf. Reg. 
10th Inf. Reg. 
11th Inf. Reg. 
12th Inf. Reg. 
13th Inf. Reg. 
14th Inf. Reg. 
15th Inf. Reg. 
16th Inf. Reg. 
17th Inf. Reg. 
18th Inf Reg. 
19th Inf. Reg. 
20th Inf. Reg. 
1st Calif. Inf., A and D Calif. Art. 
1st Colo. Inf. 
1st Idaho Inf. 
51st Iowa Inf. 
20th Kan. Inf. 
13th Minn. Inf. 
1st Mont. Inf. 
1st Nebr. Inf. 
1st Troop Nev. Cav. 
1st N. Dak. Inf. 
2nd Ore. Inf. 
10th Penn. Inf. 
1st S. Dak. Inf. 
1st Tenn. Inf. and B Utah Art. 
1st Wash. Inf. 
1st Wyo. Inf. 
Wyo. Battery. 
Uth U. S. Vol. Cav. 
26th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
27th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
28th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
29th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
30th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
31st U. S. Vol. Inf. 
32nd U. S. Vol. Inf. 
33rd U. S. Vol. Inf. 
34th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
35th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
36th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
37th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
38th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
39th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
40th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
41st U. S. Vol. Inf. 
42nd U. S. Vol. Inf. 
43rd U. S. Vol. Inf. 
44th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
45th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
46th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
47th U. S. Vol. Inf. 
48th U. S. Vol. Inf 
506 TROOPS IN PHILIPPINE HOSTILITIES 
507 
Regulars 
21st Inf. Reg. 
22nd Inf. Reg. 
23rd Inf Reg. 
24th Inf., Hq., A, B, C, D, E, F, G, 
H, I, K, and M. 
25th Inf. Reg. 
26th Inf. Reg. 
27th Inf. Reg. 
28th Inf. Reg. 
29th Inf. Reg. 
30th Inf. Reg. 
Also detachments signal corps, ord. 
dept., and hosp. corps. 
Volunteers 
49th U. S. Vol. Inf. APPENDIX D 
SHOWING PAY SCALE IN 1867 
Grade 
Pay 
proper 
per 
month 
of thirty 
days 
Total pay 
and emol- 
uments per 
month of 
thirty 
days 
Total 
yearly 
pay 
No. of 
horses* 
allowed 
General (Grant) 
$400.00 
$1,246.00 
$15,078.00 
$50 
Lieutenant General (Sherman) 
270.00 
1,116.00 
13,518.00 
50 
Major General 
220.00 
481.00 
5,800.50 
5 
Brigadier General 
Adjutant General, Quartermaster General, 
Paymaster General, Commissary General of 
Subsistence, Surgeon-General, Judge-Advo- 
cate General, Chief of Engineers and Chief 
124.00 
326.50 
3,940.50 
4 
of Ordnance (Brigadier General) each 
Chief Signal Officer, Inspector General, and 
Superintendent of Military Academy (Colo- 
124.00 
326.50 
3,940.50 
4 
nefs of Cavalry), each 
Cavalry 
110.00 
227.00 
2,736.00 
2 
Colonel 
110.00 
227.00 
2,736.00 
2 
95.00 
203.00 
2,446.50 
2 
Major 
Regimental Adjutant, Commissary and Quarter- 
80.00 
179.00 
2,157.00 
2 
master (extra Lieutenants), each 
63.33 
130.83J 
1,577.50 
2 
Captain 
First Lieutenant, Second and Brevet Second 
70.00 
137.50 
1,657.50 
2 
Lieutenants, each 
53.33 
120.83J 
1,457 .50 
2 
Senior Veterinary Surgeon 
100.00 
100.00 
1,200.00 
Hospital Steward 
33.00 
396.00 
Sergeant Major 
26.00 
312.00 
First Sergeant 
24.00 
288.00 
Trumpeter (Chief) 
Quartermaster, Commissary and Saddler Ser- 
23.00 
276.00 
geants-each 
Sergeant and Company Quartermaster Sergeant 
22.00 
264.00 
-each 
20 00 
240.00 
Corporal 
Farrier and Blacksmith, Saddler and Wagoner- 
18.00 
216.00 
each 
18.00 
216.00 
Private and Trumpeter-each 
Artillery (Heavy) and Infantry 
16.00 
192.00 
Colonel 
95.00 
212.00 
2,556.00 
2 
Lieutenant Colonel 
80.00 
188.00 
2,266.50 
2 
Major 
Regimental Adjutant, Quartermaster and Com- 
missary (extra Lieutenants)-each, in addi- 
70.00 
169.00 
2,037.00 
2 
10.00 
10.00 
2 
Captain 
60.00 
127.50 
1,537.50 
First Lieutenant 
50.00 
117.50 
1,417.50 
Second and Brevet Lieutenants-each 
45.00 
112.50 
1,357.50 
Sergeant Major 
26.00 
312.00 
508 SHOWING PAY SCALE IN 1867 
509 
Grade 
Pay 
proper 
per 
month 
of thirty 
days 
Total pay 
and emol- 
uments per 
month of 
thirty 
days 
Total 
yearly 
pay 
No. of 
horses* 
allowed 
Cavalry-Continued 
Hospital Steward 
$35.00 
$396.00 
Quartermaster and Commissary Sergeants and 
Principal Musicians-each 
22.00 
264.00 
Birst Sergeant 
24.00 
288.00 
Company Quartermaster Sergeant and Ser- 
geants-each 
20.00 
240.00 
Corporal Artificer and AVagoner-~each 
18.00 
216.00 
Private and Musician-each 
16.00 
192.00 
Ppgimental and Post Chaplains 
100.00 
118.00 
1,419.00 
2 
Hospital Steward, 1st Class 
33.00 
396.00 
Hospital Steward, 2nd Class 
25.00 
300.00 
Hospital Steward, 3rd Class 
23.00 
276.00 
Ordnance Sergeants of Posts (of N. C. Staff 
unattached to regiments) 
25.00 
300.00 
Superintendent of National Cemetery (Ordnance 
Sergeant) 
25.00 
300.00 
Treader of Band 
75.00 
900.00 
Musicians of Birst Class of 24) 
34.00 
408.00 
Musicians of Second Class of 24) 
20.00 
240.00 
]\4u8ioians of Third Class (5 of 24) 
17.00 
204.00 
Hospital Matron 
10.00 
120.00 
* The monthly commutation allowed the General and Lieutenant General is given in 
place of the number of horses. APPENDIX E 
SHOWING ORGANIZATIONS OF REGULAR ARMY NECES- 
SARILY USED IN PHILIPPINES FROM 1899 TO 1912 
From the annual reports of the major general commanding the army; of 
the lieutenant general commanding the army; of the division and department 
commanders the following list of units serving in the Philippines between 1899 
and 1912 has been compiled (Regular troops only). 
Inf. 
Regs. 
Cav. 
Regs. 
F. A. 
Regs. 
F. A. 
Batrys. 
Sig. Corps 
Co. 
Engineer 
C. A. C. Co. 
1 
1 
1 
1 
A 
31 
2 
2 
2 
2 
B 
32 
3 
3 
3 
C 
33 
4 
4 
4 
4 
D 
35 
5 
5 
5 
5 
E 
E 
36 
6 
6 
6 
F 
F 
42 
7 
7 
G 
G 
50 
8 
8 
8 
H 
H 
51 
9 
9 
9 
I 
I 
9 (Band) 54 
10 
10 
K 
55 
11 
11 
L 
L 
11 57 
12 
12 
12 
M 
60 
13 
13 
13 
13 61 
14 
14 
14 
62 
15 
15 
15 
64 
510 ORGANIZATIONS USED IN PHILIPPINES 
511 
Inf. 
Regs. 
Cav. 
Regs. 
F. A. 
Regs. 
F. A. 
Batrys. 
Sig. Corps 
Co. 
Engineer 
C. A. C. Co. 
16 
65 
17 
17 
68 
18 
18 
18 70 
19 
71 
20 
86 
21 
90 
22 
95 
23 
23 
23 138 
24 
24 
146 
25 
25 
25 
26 
26 
27 
27 
27 
28 
28 
29 
29 
30 
30 APPENDIX F 
STATISTICS OF THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION UNDER 
BRIGADIER GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING, 1916 
"Headquarters Punitive Expedition, U. S. Army, 
Columbus, N. M., March 14, 1916 
General Orders 
No. 1 
1. The forces of this command are organized into a provisional division 
to be called 'Punitive Expedition, U. S. Army.' 
2. The following staff is announced: 
Chief of Staff Lt. Col. DeR. C. Cabell, 10th Cav. 
Asst, to Chief of S Capt. Wilson B. Burtt, 20th Inf. 
Adjutant Maj. John L. Hines, Adj. Gen. Dept. 
Intelligence Officer Maj. James A Ryan, 13th Cav. 
Inspector Col. Lucien G. Berry, 4th F. A. 
Judge-Advocate Capt. Allen J. Greer, 16th Inf. 
Quartermaster Maj. John F. Madden, Qr. Mr. Corps 
Surgeon Maj. Jere B. Clayton, Medical Corps 
Engineer Officer Maj. Lytle Brown, Corps of Engrs. 
Signal Officer Capt. Hanson B. Black, Sig. Corps 
Commander of the Base. .Maj. Wm. R. Sample, 20th Inf. 
Aides 1st Lt. James L. Collins, 11th Cav. 
2nd Lt. Martin C. Shallenberger, 16th Inf. 
3. The Provisional Division will consist of: 
(a) First Provisional Cavalry Brigade, Col. James Lockett, Command- 
ing- 
Troops 
11th Cavalry 13th Cavalry 
Battery C, 6th F. A. (attached) 
(b) Second Cavalry Brigade, Col. Geo. A. Dodd, Commanding. 
Troops 
7th Cavalry 10th Cavalry ' 
Battery B, 6th F. A. (attached) 
(c) First Provisional Infantry Brigade, Col. John H. Beacom, Com- 
manding. 
Troops 
6th Infantry 16th Infantry 
Cos. E and H, 2nd Bn. of Engrs. (attached) 
(d) Ambulance Co. No. 7. Field Hospital No. 7 
(e) Signal Corps Detachments, First Aero Squadron 
Detachment Sig. Corps 
(/) Wagon Companies, Numbers 1 and 2 " 
Without going into details of the movements of the various detachments 
of the command that had been steadily advancing southward it will be suffi- 
cient to show the organizations and their approximate stations as follows: 
512 STATISTICS OF THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION 
513 
Stations and Troops on Line of Communications, March 29, 1916 
Organizations 
Commanding 
officer 
Locations 
Remarks 
Division Headquarters 
Dublan 
Gen. Pershing 
at Namiquipa 
Hqrs. 1st Prov. Cav. Brig. 
Detachments: 
1st Sq. 13th Cav. 
2 Tps. 13th Cav. 
1st Prov. Sq. 11th Cav. 
Col. Lockett 
Maj. Lindsley 
Maj. Tompkins 
Maj. Howze 
Dublan 
San Jose de Babi- 
cora 1 
Namiquipa 
Namiquipa 
Hqrs. 2nd Prov. Cav. Brig. 
Detachments: 
7th Cav. 
Troop A, 7th Cav. 
Troop D, 7th Cav. 
2nd Sq., 10th Cav. 
1st Sq., 10th Cav. 
2 Troops, 10th Cav. 
Col. Dodd 
Col. Erwin 
Capt. Nissen 
Capt. Boice 
Col. Brown 
Maj. Evans 
Maj. Tompkins 
Guerrero 1 
Guerrero 
Portrillo Pass 1 
Santa Ana 
Quemada 1 
Rubio 1 
Namiquipa 
Hqrs. 2nd Prov. Inf. Brig. 
Detachments: 
Co. C, 16th Inf. with 
Wagon Cos. Nos. 1 
and 2 
Co. M, 16th Inf. 
Det. Cos. 16th Inf. 
Co. B, 16th Inf. 
3rd Bn., 6th Inf. 
Co. D and one-half M. 
G. Co., 6th Inf. 
1 Co. and one-half M. 
G. Co., 6th Inf. 
2 Cos., 6th Inf. 
Co. G, Engineers 
Co. H, Engineers 
Co. E, Engineers 
Pack Train 1st Bn., 4th 
F. A. 
1st Bn., 4th F. A. 
Col. Beacom 
Capt. Ball 
Capt. Creary 
Maj. Moore 
Capt. Smith 
Capt. Shaffer 
Capt. Johnson 
Lt. Monroe 
Capt. Roach 
Lt Fox 
Capt. Garvis 
Capt. Grant 
Capt. Merrill 
Dublan 
En route Dublan 
Corralitas 
Colomia Juarez 1 
Boca Grande 
El Valle 
Galeana 
Cruces 
Chocolate Pass 
Boca Grande 
Namiquipa 
Ascension 
San Jose de Babi- 
cora 1 
Dublan 
Less 2 com- 
panies 
With Major 
Lindsley 
Ambulance Co. No. 7 
Field Hospital No. 7 
Capt. Jones 
Maj. Clayton 
Dublan 
Dublan 
Signal Corps: 
Hqrs. 1st Aero Squad. 
Det. 1st Aero Squad. 
Hqrs. Sig. Det. 
Wagon wireless sets 
Capt. Black 
Capt. Foulois 
Capt. Black 
Dublan 
El Valle 
All stations 
Dublan and 
Namiquipa 
1 Not on line of communications. 514 
APPENDIX F 
Stations and Troops on Line of Communications, March 29, 1916- 
Continued 
Organizations 
Commanding 
officer 
Locations 
Remarks 
Wagon Co. No. 3 
Pack Train No. 10 
Pack Trains Nos. 2 and 7 
Pack Train No. 11 
Capt. Bryson 
Dublan 
Dublan 
Namiquipa 1 
Quemada 1 
Hqrs. 1st and 3rd Sqds., 
5th Cav. 
H<|rs. and 5 Cos. 24th 
3 Cos. 24th Inf. 
1st Bn., 20th Inf. 
2nd Sq., 5th Cav. 
Col. Wilder 
Col. Penrose 
Capt. Gilmore 
Maj. Sample 
Maj. Fleming 
Gibsons Ranch 
Dublan and way 
stations 
Columbus 
Columbus 
Columbus 
Stations of Troops, Punitive Expedition, June 30, 1916 
Organizations 
Commanding 
officer 
Location 
Remarks 
Headquarters Pun. Exped. 
Pershing 
Dublan 
Hqrs. 1st Prov. Cav. Brig. 
5th Cav. (less Tr. F) 
Tr. F, 5th Cav. 
11th Cav. 
13th Cav. (less Tr. I) 
Tr. I, 13th Cav. 
Wilder 
Wilder 
Ely 
Lockett 
Slocum 
El Valle 
El Valle 
Dublan 
Angostura 1 
Casuals at Dub- 
lan. 
On duty line of 
communica- 
tions 
Not with Exped. 
Hqrs. 2nd Prov. Cav. Brig. 
7th Cav. 
10th Cav. (less 3rd Sq.) 
Troops I, K, M 
Troop L 
Dodd 
Erwin 
Evans 
Luhn 
Hazzard 
El Valle 
Dublan 
Dublan 
Ojo Federico 
Vado de Fusiles 
Hqrs. 8th Inf. Brig. 
6th Inf. 
16th Inf. 
24th Inf. 
Beacom 
Smith 
Allaire 
Ballou 
El Valle 
El Valle 
El Valle 
Dublan 
Line of Commun. Troops 
17th Inf. (less 1st and 
2nd Bn.) 
1st Bn. (less Co. A) 
Co. A 
2nd Bn. 
Alexander 
Saffarran 
Wagner 
Hardaway 
San Joaquin 
Ojo Federico 
Vado de Fusiles 
Columbus 
Hqrs. Div. Artly. Troops 
1st Bn., 4th F. A., less 
Btrys. A and C 
Btrys. A and C 
Btrys. B and C, 6th F. A. 
Berry 
McMaster 
Apple 
Pulis 
Dublan 
El Valle 
Dublan 
El Valle 
1 Not on line of communications. STATISTICS OF THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION 
515 
Stations of Troops, Punitive Expedition, June 30, 1916-Continued 
Organizations 
Commanding 
officer 
Location 
Remarks 
Hqrs. 2nd B. Engrs. 
Co. E 
Co. G 
Co. H 
Brown 
Sherman 
Finch 
Graves 
Dublan 
Vado de Fusiles 
Ojo Federico 
El Valle 
Hqrs. Sig. Corps Troops 
1st Aero Squad. 
1st Aero Squad. Detach. 
Wireless sets 
Wireless sets 
Wireless sets 
Detach. Sig. Corps 
Chandler 
Foulois 
Columbus 
Columbus 
Dublan 
Columbus 
Dublan 
El Valle 
All stations 
Hqrs. Sanitary Troops 
Amb. Co. 3 
Amb. Co. 7 (less Mtr. 
ambulance) 
Motor Amb. Co. 7 
Field Hosp. 3 
Field Hosp. 7 
Bratton 
Coffin 
Bastion 
Jones 
Baker 
Hart 
Dublan 
Columbus 
El Valle 
Dublan 
El Valle 
En route El 
Valle to Co- 
lumbus 
Corps Civilian Guides and 
Scouts 
Apache Scouts 
Schallenberger 
Shannon 
Dublan 
El Valle 
Wagon Companies 
Nos. 1 and 2 
Nos. 3 and 4 
Bryson 
Logan 
Dublan 
El Valle 
Auto Transportation 
Truck Train No. 1 
Truck Train No. 2 
Truck Train No. 3 
Truck Train No. 4 
Truck Train No. 5 
Truck Train No. 6 
Truck Train No. 7 
Truck Train No. 8 
Truck Train No. 9 
Truck Train No. 10 
Truck Train No. 13 
Truck Train No. 14 
Truck Train No. 2, Spe- 
cial 
Taylor 
Bailey 
Cavanaugh 
Pope 
Hilgrade 
Furlough 
Jones 
Harper 
Lister 
Holliday 
Tobin 
Game 
Whitside 
Galeana 
Ojo Federico 
Dublan 
Columbus 
Dublan 
Columbus 
Dublan 
Columbus 
Columbus 
Columbus 
On road work 
On road work 
On road work 
Pack Trains: 
Nos. 2 and 11 
No. 3 
No. 6 
No. 7 
No. 10 
With 7th Cav. 
" 5 th Cav. 
" 11th " 
" 10th " 
" 13th " 516 
APPENDIX F 
Engagements of Troops of Punitive Expedition up to June 30, 1916 
Date 
Place 
U. S. Troops 
Charac- 
ter of 
enemy 
Number 
U. S. 
troops 
Number 
of 
enemy a 
Losses 
U. S. 
troops 
Losses 
of 
enjmy 
Of. 
E. M. 
Of. 
E. M. 
K. 
W. 
K. 
W. 
March 29 
Guerrero 
7th Cavalry, Dodd 
and Erwin 
Villistas 
25 
345 
3806 
5 
56 
35 
April 1 
Agua Caliente 
10th Cavalry, 
Brown 
Villistas 
14 
258 
170 
3 
c 
April 7 
Agua Zarca 
7th Cavalry, 
Kendrick 
Villistas 
2 
95 
30 
3 
2 
April 10 
La Joya 
11th Cavalry, 
Howze 
Villistas 
10 
255 
40 
1 
3 
7 
c 
April 12 
Parral 
13th'Cavalry, 
Tompkins 
Carran- 
zistas 
8 
120 
200 
2 
6 
40 
c 
April 20 
Green Road, 
Verde River 
7th Cavalry, 
Brown 
Villistas 
1 
45 
10 
3 
April 22 
Tomochic 
7th Cavalry, Dodd 
Villistas 
10 
145 
140 
2 
3 
32 
25 
May 5 
Ojos Azules 
11th Cavalry, 
Howze 
Villistas 
14 
319 
160 
61 
50 
May 14 
San Miguel de 
Rubio 
6th Infantry, 
Patton 
Villistas 
1 
14 
7 
3 
May 25 
Alamillo 
Canyon 
17th Infantry, Cpl. 
Marksbury 
Villistas 
11 
20 
1 
2 
2 
c 
June 9 
Santa Clara 
Canyon 
13th Cavalry, 
Rethorst 
Villistas 
1 
20 
25 
2 
c 
June 21 
Carri z al 
10th Cavalry, Boyd 
Carran- 
zistas 
3 
87 
400 
9 
12d 
42 
51 
a The strength of enemy and casualties obtained from official reports or from officers 
who participated. 
b The Villistas stationed at San Ysidro are included. 
c Number unknown. 
d Three missing. 
The command remained at the above-mentioned stations until the withdrawal of the 
Expedition, excepting that, on September 1, 1916, the 13th Cavalry, then at Angostura, 
and the Apache Indian Scouts at El Valle, were moved to Colonia Dublan for station. APPENDIX G 
TREMENDOUS DISTRIBUTION OF UNITS OF THE 
ARMY, SEPTEMBER, 1872 
Eng. Bat.: Hq., Co. A, B, C, D, at Willett's Pt., N. Y. H.; Co. E at West 
Point, N. Y. 
1st Cav.: Hq. Benicia Bks., Cal.; Co. A, Ft. Whipple, A. T.; Co. B. at Ft. 
Klamath, Ore.; Co. C at Camp McDermit, Nev.; Co. D in the field near 
Tucson, A. T.; Co. E, Ft. Lapwai, I. T.; F at Camp Warner, Ore.; 
Gat Camp Bidwell, Cal.; H at Camp Harney, Ore.; I at Camp Verde, 
A. T.; K at Camp Halleck, Nev.; L and M at Camp Apache, A. T. 
2nd Cav.: Hq. Omaha, Neb.; Co. A at Fort Frd. Steele, W. T.; B at 
Stambaugh, W. T.; C at Red Willow C'k, Neb.; D at Camp Douglas, 
U. T.; E at Ft. Laramie, W. T.; F, G, H at Ft. Ellis, M. T.; I, Ft. 
Sanders, W. T.; K at Ft. Laramie, W. T.; L at Ft. Ellis, M. T.; and 
M at Omaha, Neb. 
3rd Cav.: Hq. Ft. McPherson, Neb.; Co. A, Sidney Bks., Neb.; Co. B, 
F, I, K, M, Ft. McPherson, Neb.; Co. C, D, G, H, L, Ft. D. A. Russell, 
W. T.; Ft. Sanders, W. T. 
4th Cav.: Hq. A, B, C, E, L, Ft. Richardson, Tex.; D, G, I, K, Ft. Concho, 
Tex.; F, H, at Ft. Griffin, Tex.; M, Ft. Brown, Tex. 
5th Cav.: Hq. B, C, Camp McDowell, A. T.; A, Camp Verde, A. T.; D, 
Camp Bowie, A. T.; E, Cp. Date Ck., A. T.; F, Camp Crittenden, 
A. T.; G, H, Camp McDowell, A. T.; I, L, M, Camp Grant, A. T.; 
K, Camp Hualpai, A. T. 
6th Cav.: Hq. A, B, C, E, F, H, L, Ft. Hays, Kan.; D, Ft. Wallace, Kan.; 
G, Ft. Dodge, Kan.; I, Oxford, Miss.; K, Meridian, Miss.; M, Ft. 
Lyons, C. T. 
7th Cav.: Hq. F, Louisville, Ky.; A, Elizabethton, Ky.; B, Spartansburg, 
S. C.; C, Lincolnville, N. C.; D, Opelika, Ala.; E, M, Unionville, S. C.; 
G, Laurensville, S. C.; H, Nashville, Tenn.; I, Shelbyville, Ky.; K, 
Yorkville, S. C. 
8th Cav.: Hq. B, C, L, M, Ft. Union, N. M.; A, I, Ft. Bayard, N. M.; D, 
Ft. Stanton, N. M.; E, K, Ft. Wingate, N. M.; F, Ft. Garland, C. T.; 
G, Ft. Selden, N. M.; H, Ft. Tulerosa, N. M. 
9th Cav.: Hq. A, D, E, G, Ft. Clark, Tex.; B, Ringgold Bks., Tex.; C, 
Ft. Duncan, Tex.; F, M, Ft. McKavett, Tex.; H, Ft. Stockton, N. M.; 
I, Ft. Davis, Tex.; K, Ft. Bliss, Tex.; L, Ft. McIntosh, Tex. 
10th Cav.: Hq. B, Ft. Gibson, I. T.; A, E, G, H, I, K, L, M, Ft. Sill, I. T.; 
C, D, F, Camp Supply, I. T. 
1st Art.: Hq. C, D, H, K, Ft. Hamilton, N. Y. H.; A, Ft. Ontario, N. Y.; 
B, Ft. Wadsworth, N. Y. H.; E, I, Ft. Wood, N. Y. H.; F, Madison 
Bks., N. Y.; G, Ft. Monroe, Va.; L, Ft. Niagara, N. Y.; M, Plattsburg 
Bks., N. Y. 
2nd Art.: Hq. A, F, G, I, Presidio, San Fr., Cal.; B, L, Alcatraz Isl., Cal.; 
C, H, Sitka, Alaska; D, Point San Jose; E, Ft. Cape Disap'tm't; K, 
Ft. Monroe, Va.; M, Ft. Stevens, Ore. 
517 518 
APPENDIX G 
3rd Art.: Hq. C, I, Charleston, S. C.; A, Ft. Monroe, Va.; B, D, Key West, 
Fla.; E, H, Ft. Pulaski, Ga.; F, Ft. Jefferson, Fla.; G, L, M, Ft. 
Barrancas, Fla.; K, Savannah, Ga. 
4th Art.: Hq. B, E, F, Ft. McHenry, Md.; A, Charlotte, N. C.; C, Ruther- 
fordt'n, N. C.; D, H, Raleigh, N. C.; G, Ft. Johnston, N. C.; I, Ft. 
Monroe, Va.; K, L, Ft. Macon, N. C.; M, Ft. Foote, Md. 
5th Art.: Hq. A B, F, L, Ft. Adams, R. I.; C, Ft. Monroe, Va.; D, Ft. 
Warren, Mass.; E, Ft. Independence, Mass.; G, Plattsburg Bks., 
N. Yj H, I, Ft. Trumbull, Conn.: K, Ft.Sullivan, Me.; M, Ft. Preble, Me. 
1st Inf.: Hq. D, E, I. Ft. Wayne, Mich.; A, K, Ft. Brady, Mich.; B, Madison 
Bks., N. Y.: C. G, Ft. Porter, N. Y.; F, Ft. Mackinac, Mich.; H, 
Ft. Gratiot, Mien. 
2nd Inf.: Hq. G, K, Mobile, Ala.; A, B, Atlanta, Ga.; C, Huntsville, Ala.; 
D, Spartanburg, S. C.; E, I, Chattanooga, Tenn.; F, H, St. Augustine, 
Fla. 
3rd Inf.: Hq. C.E, Ft. Hays, Kan.; A, Ft. Dodge, Kan.; B, D, I, Ft. Supply, 
I. T.; F, G, Ft. Lyon, C. T.; II, Ft. Wallace, Kan.; K, Ft. Leaven- 
worth, Kan. । • 
4th Inf.: Hq. D, K, Frankfort, Ky.; A, Lexington, Ky.; B, Crab Orchard, 
Ky.; C, Lancaster, Ky.; E, Mt. Sterling, Ky.; F, Elizabethtown, Ky.; 
G, Paducah, Ky.; H, Louisville, Ky.; I, Lebanon, Ky. 
5th Inf.: Hq. A, G, H, I, K, Ft. Leavenworth, Kan.; B, C, Ft. Scott, Kan.; 
D, F, Ft. Larned, Kan.; E, Ft. Hays, Kan. 
6th Inf.: Hq. A, D, E, F, G, I, Ft. Buford, D. T.; B, C, Ft. McKeen, D. T.; 
H, K. Ft. Stevenson, D. T. 
7th Inf.: Hq. C, D, E, F, G, I, K, Ft. Shaw, M. T.; A, Ft. Ellis, M. T.; 
B, Ft. Benton. M. T.; H, Camp Baker, M. T. 
8th Inf.: Hq. Omaha, Neb.; A, B, C, F, H, K, Ft. Rice, D. T.; D, E, G, I, 
Beaver City, D. T. 
9th Inf.: Hq. D, F, I, Ft. D. A. Russell, W. T.; A, C, E, Omaha, Neb.; 
B, Red Willow Creek, Neb.; G, Sidney Bks., Neb.; H, Ft. Sanders, 
W. T.; K, Ft. Steele, W. T. 
10th Inf.: Hq. Ft. McKavett, Tex.; A, E, G, H, K, Ft. Brown, Tex.; B, F, 
I, Ringgold Bks., Tex.; C, San Antonio, Tex.; D, Austin, Tex. 
11th Inf.: Hq. A, F, G, Ft. Griffin, Tex.; B, E, H, Ft. Concho, Tex.; C, D, 
I, K, Ft. Richardson, Tex. 
12th Inf.: Hq. Camp Lowell, A. T.; A, Camp Wright, Cal.; B, Camp Inde- 
pendence, Cal.; C, Ft. Hall, I. T.; D, Ft. Yuma, Cal.; E, K, Camp 
Gaston, Cal.; F, Beale's Spgs., A. T.; G, I, Camp Mojave, A. T.; H, 
Camp McDermit, Nev. 
13th Inf.: Hq. Ft. Frd. Steele, W. T.; A, Camp Brown, W. T.; B, C, D, E, 
F, Camp Douglas, U. T.; G, Ft. Bridger, W. T.; H, Camp Douglass, 
W. T.; I, Cp. Douglass, A. T ; K, Cp. Stambaugh, W. T. 
14th Inf.: Hq. A, B, H, I, K, Ft. Laramie, W. T.; C, Ft. D. A. Russell, 
W. T.; D, E, F, G, Ft. Fetterman, W. T. 
15th Inf.: Hq. Santa Fe, N. M.; A, Ft. Wingate, N. M.; B, I, Ft. Stanton, 
N. M.; C, Ft. Union, N. M.; D, Ft. Garland, C. T.; E, F, Ft. Bayard, 
N. M.; G, Ft. Cummings, N. M.; H, Ft. Craig, N. M.; K, Ft, Tulerosa, 
N. M. 
16th Inf.: Hq. F, G, Nashville, Tenn.; A, E, Louisville, Ky.; B, H, I, 
Jackson, Miss.; C, Aberdeen, Miss.; D, Humboldt, Tenn.; K, St. 
Augustine, Fla. 
17th Inf.: Hq. A, B, C, D, F, H, Ft. Rice, D. T.; E, G, Grand River Agency, 
D. T.; I, K, Cneyenne Agency, D. T. 
18th Inf.: Hq. B, D, G, Columbia, S. C.; A, E, Atlanta, Ga.; C, Yorkville, 
S. C.; F, Sumter, S. C.; H, Chester, S. C.; I, Laurensville, S. C.; K, 
Newberry, N. C. 
19th Inf.: Hq. A, B, F, G, I, Baton Rouge, La.; C, D, H, part of E, Pas- 
cougola, Miss.; part of E, Holley Spgs., Miss.; K, Little Rock, Ark. DISTRIBUTION OF UNITS OF ARMY 
519 
20th Inf.: Hq. E, Ft. Snelling, Minn.; A, H, Ft. Totten, D. T.; B, Ft. Cross, 
D. T.; C, D, Camp Sykes, A. T.; F, Ft. Wadsworth, D. T.; G, Ft. 
Ripley, Minn.; I, K, Ft. Penbina, D. T. 
21st Inf.: Hq. Ft. Vancouver, W. T.; A, Harney, Ore.; B, Camp Apache, 
A. T.; C, Ft. Whipple, A. T.; D, Camp Bidwell, Cal.; E, Ft. Colville, 
W. T.; F, Ft. Klamath, Cal.; G, Ft. Lapwai, I. T.; H, Camp Date 
Creek, A. T.; I, Camp Hualpai, A. T.; K, Ft. Boise, I. T. 
22nd Inf.: Hq. A, E, F, I, Ft. Sully, D. T.; B, LoT Brule Agency, D. T.; 
C, D, G, H, K, Ft. Randall, D. T. 
23rd Inf.: Hq. K, Ft. Whipple, A. T.; A, Camp Verde, A. T.; B, Camp Date 
Creek, A. T.; C, Camp McDowell, A. T.; D, E, Camp Lowell, A. T.; 
F, Ft. Bowie, A. T.; G, Camp Hualpi, A. T.; H, Camp Grant, W. T.; 
I, Camp Apache, A. T. 
24th Inf.: Hq. C, E, H, I, Ft. McKavett, Tex.; A, G, Ft. Brown, Tex.; B, Ft. 
Clark, Tex.; D, Ft. McIntosh, Tex.; F, K, Ft. Duncan, Tex. 
25th Inf.: Hq. E, G, Ft. Davis, Tex.; A, San Antonio, Tex.; B, H, Ft. Bliss, 
Tex.; C, I, Ft. Gibson, Tex.; D, Ft. Quitman, Tex.; F, K, Ft. Stockton, 
Tex. APPENDIX H 
SCHOOLS IN THE ARMY IN 1920 
Designation Location 
The School of the Line Fort Leavenworth, Kan. 
The General Staff School Fort Leavenworth, Kan. 
The Army War College Washington Bks., D. C. 
General Service Schools 
Special Service Schools 
Designation 
Location 
Troops exempted from control of 
department and corps area 
commanders 
The Infantry School 
The Infantry Tank School 
The Cavalry School 
The Field Artillery Basic School 
The Field Artillery Technical 
School 
The Field Artillery Field Officers 
School 
The Coast Artillery School 
The Air Service Primary Flying 
School 
The Air Service Observation 
School 
The Air Service Communica- 
tions School 
The Air Service Field Officers 
School 
The Air Service Photography 
School 
The Air Service Airship School 
The Air Service Mechanics' 
School 
The Air Service Balloon Observ- 
ers' School 
The Engineer School 
The Signal School 
The Army Music School 
The Quartermaster Corps School 
The Quartermaster Corps Sub- 
sistence School 
The Quartermaster Corps Ani- 
mal Transport School 
The Quartermaster Corps Motor 
Transport School 
The Finance School 
The Army Medical School 
The Army Dental School 
The Army Veterinary School 
The Medical Field Service School 
The Ordnance School 
The Ordnance Specialist's School 
The Chemical Warfare School 
The Chaplains' School 
Ft. Benning, Ga. 
Camp Meade, Md. 
Ft. Riley, Kan. 
Camp Knox, Ky. 
Ft. Sill, Okla. 
Camp Bragg, N. C. 
Ft. Monroe, Va. 
Carlstrom Field, Fla. 
Post Field, Ft. Sill, Okla. 
Post Field, Ft. Sill, Okla. 
Langley Field, Hamp- 
ton, Va. 
Langley Field, Hamp- 
ton, Va. 
Langley Field, Hamp- 
ton, Va. 
Chanuke Field, Ran- 
toul, Ill. 
Ross Field, Cal. 
Camp Humphreys, Va. 
Camp Alfred Vail, N. J. 
Washington Barracks, 
D. C. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Chicago, Ill. 
Jeffersonville, Ind. 
Camp Holabird, Md. 
Fort Hunt, Va. 
Washington, D. C. 
Washington, D. C. 
Chicago, Ill. 
Carlisle Barracks, Pa. 
Watertown Arsenal, 
Mass. 
Raritan Arsenal, N. J. 
Edgewood Arsenal, Md. 
Camp Knox, Ky. 
All troops on duty at that station 
Hq. 1st Tank Group; 16th, 17th, 
18th Tank Bns.; 21st, 22nd 
(inactive) Maintenance Cos. 
Ord. Depot, 30th Ord. Main. 
Co.; Tank School Med. Det. 
All troops on duty at that station 
except aviation troops 
3rd F. A. (less 2nd Bn.) 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty at that station 
All air service troops on duty at 
that station 
All air service troops on duty at 
that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school, 
including the laboratory for 
manufacture of biologies 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty with the school 
All troops on duty at that station 
All troops on duty with the school 
This enumeration does not include the United States Military Academy at West Point, 
nor the schools for bakers and cooks, which exist in every camp except Fort Riley, Kan. 
520 APPENDIX I 
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY, 1879 
Military Division of the Missouri 
Lieut. Gen. P. H. Sheridan, Headquarters, Chicago, III. 
Col. Richard C. Drum, A.A.G. 
Department of Dakota 
Brig. Gen. Alfred H. Terry, Headquarters Ft. Snelling, Minn. 
Major George D. Ruggles, A.A.G. 
Middle District 
Col. S. B. Sturgis, 7th Cav., Headquarters Ft. A. Lincoln. 
1st Lieut. E. A. Garlington, 7th Cav., Regimental and Personnel Adjutant, 
Southern District 
Col. W. H. Wood, 11th Inf., Headquarters Cheyenne Agency, D. T. 
1st Lieut. G. G. Lott, 11th Inf., A.A.A.G 
District of Montana 
Col. John Gibbon, 7th Inf., Headquarters Ft. Shaw, M. T. 
1st Lieut. Levi F. Burnett, 7th Inf., A.A.A.G. 
District of the Yellowstone 
Col. N. A. Miles, 5th Inf., Headquarters Ft. Keogh, M. T. 
1st Lieut. G. W. Baird, A.A.A.G. 
Department of the Missouri 
Brig. Gen. John Pope, Headquarters Ft. Leavenworth, Kan. 
Maj. E. R. Platt, A.A.G. 
District of New Mexico 
Col. Edward Hatch, 9th Inf., Headquarters Santa Fe, N. M. 
1st Lieut. John S. Loud, 9th Cav., A.A.A.G. 
Department of the Platte 
Brig. Gen. George Crooke, Headquarters Omaha Bks., Neb. 
Lieut. Col. Robert Williams, A.A.G. 
Department of Texas 
Brig. Gen. E. O. C. Ord, Headquarters San Antonio, Tex. 
Maj. T. M. Vincent, A.A.G. 
District of the Rio Grande 
Col. G. Sykes, 20th Inf., Headquarters Ft. Brown, Tex. 
1st Lieut. J. B. Rodman, 20th Inf., A.A.A.G. 
521 522 
APPENDIX I 
District of the Nueces 
Col. R. S. MacKenzie, 4th Cav., Headquarters Ft. Clark, Tex. 
2nd Lieut. J. H. Dorst, 4th Cav., A.A.A.G. 
District of the Pecos 
Col. B. H. Grierson, 10th Cav., Headquarters Ft. Concho, Tex. 
1st Lieut. Robert G. Smither, A.A.A.G. 
District of North Texas 
Col. B. H. Clitz, 10th Inf., Commanding, Headquarters Ft. McKavett 
Military Division of the Atlantic 
Maj. Gen. W. S. Hancock, Headquarters Governors Island, N. Y. II. 
Col. James B. Fry, A.A.G. 
Department of the South 
Brig. Gen. C. C. Augur, Headquarters Newport Bks., Ky. 
Maj. Oliver D. Greene, A.A.G. 
Department of the East 
Maj. Gen. W. S. Hancock, Headquarters Governors Island, N. Y. H. 
Col. J. H. Fry, A.A.G. 
Military Division of the Pacific 
Department of California 
Maj. Gen. I. McDowell, Headquarters Presidio, Cal. 
Lieut. Col. John C. Kelton, A.A.G. 
Department of the Columbia 
Brevet Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, Headquarters Ft. Vancouver, Wyo. 
Maj. A. Clay Wood, A.A.G. 
District of the Clearwater 
Col. Frank Wheaton, 2nd Inf., Headquarters Lewiston, I. T. 
Department of Arizona 
Brevet Maj. Gen. O. B. Willcox, Headquarters Prescott, Bks. 
Maj. J. P. Martin, A.A.G. 
Military Department of West Point 
Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield, Headquarters West Point, N. Y. 
Capt. Wm. N. Wherry, A.D.C. Act. A.A.G. 
Maj. Gen. J. M. Schofield, Superintendent, U.S.M.A. 
Capt. Robert H. Hall, Adjutant, U.S.M.A. APPENDIX K 
ACTUAL DISPERSION OF ARMY, FALL OF 1865 
1. The Department of the East, Major General Joseph Hooker to 
command; to embrace the New England States, New York and New 
Jersey. Headquarters at New York City. 
2. The Middle Department, Major General W. S. Hancock to command; 
to embrace the states of West Virginia, Maryland (excepting the counties 
of Montgomery, that part of Anne Arundel lying south of the Annapolis 
and Elk Ridge Railway, and excluding the city of Annapolis, Prince 
Georges, Calvert, Charles and St. Mary's), the county of Loudoun and the 
Shenandoah Valley as far south and including Rockingham County, in 
Virginia, the states of Delaware and Pennsylvania. Headquarters at 
Baltimore. 
3. The Department of Washington, Major General C. C. Augur to 
command; to embrace the District of Columbia, the counties of Montgomery, 
that part of Anne Arundel lying south of the Annapolis and Elk Ridge 
Railroad, and including the city of Annapolis, Prince Georges, Calvert, 
Charles and St. Mary's, in Maryland and Alexandria and Fairfax Counties, 
in Virginia. Headquarters at Washington. 
4. The Department of the Ohio, Major General E. O. C. Ord to com- 
mand; to embrace the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and 
Michigan. Headquarters at Detroit. 
5. The Department of the Tennessee, Major General George Stoneman 
to command; to embrace the state of Tennessee. Headquarters at Knox- 
ville. 
6. The Department of Kentucky, Major General John M. Palmer to 
command; to embrace the state of Kentucky, and Jeffersonville and New 
Albany, in Indiana. Headquarters at Louisville. 
7. The Department of the Missouri, Major General John Pope to 
command; to embrace the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri and Kansas 
and the territories of Colorado, Utah, Nebraska, Dakota, New Mexico and 
Montana. Headquarters at St. Louis. 
8. The Department of Virginia, Major General Alfred H. Terry to 
command; to embrace the state of Virginia, excepting Alexandria, Fairfax 
and Loudoun counties, and the Shenandoah Valley as far south and in- 
cluding Rockingham County. Headquarters at Richmond. 
9. The Department of North Carolina, Major General J. M. Schofield 
to command; to embrace the state of North Carolina. Headquarters at 
Raleigh. 
10. The Department of South Carolina, Major General Daniel Sickles 
to command; to embrace the state of South Carolina. Headquarters at 
Charleston. 
11. The Department of Georgia, Major General James B. Steedman 
to command; to embrace the state of Georgia. Headquarters at Augusta. 
12. The Department of Florida, Major General John G. Foster to 
command; to embrace the state of Florida. Headquarters at Tallahassee. 
523 524 
APPENDIX K 
13. The Department of Mississippi, Major General Thomas J. Wood 
to command; to embrace the state of Mississippi. Headquarters at Vicks- 
burg. 
14. The Department of Alabama, Major-General C. R. Wood to com- 
mand; to embrace the state of Alabama. Headquarters at Mobile. 
15. The Department of Louisiana, Major General E. R. S. Canby to 
command; to embrace the state of Louisiana. Headquarters at New 
Orleans. 
16. The Department of Texas, Major General H. G. Wright to com- 
mand; to embrace the state of Texas. Headquarters at Galveston. 
17. The Department of Arkansas, Major General J. J. Reynolds to 
command; to embrace the state of Arkansas and the Indian Territory. 
Headquarters at Little Rock. 
18. The Department of the Columbia, Brigadier General F. Steele to 
command; to embrace the state of Oregon and territories of Washington 
and Idaho. Headquarters at Fort Vancouver. 
19. The Department of California, Major General Irvin McDowell 
to command; to embrace the states of California and Nevada and ter- 
ritories of New Mexico and Arizona. Headquarters at San Francisco. 
1. The Military Division of the Atlantic, Major General George G. 
Meade to command; to embrace the Department of the East, Middle 
Department, Department of Virginia, Department of North Carolina and 
the Department of South Carolina. Headquarters at Philadelphia. 
2. The Military Division of the Mississippi, Major General W. T. 
Sherman to command; to embrace the Department of the Ohio, Depart- 
ment of the Missouri and Department of Arkansas. Headquarters at 
St. Louis. 
3. The Military Division of the Gulf, Major General P. H. Sheridan 
to command; to embrace the Department of Louisiana, Department of 
Texas, and Department of Florida. Headquarters at New Orleans. 
4. The Military Division of the Tennessee, Major General G. H. 
Thomas to command; to embrace the Department of Tennessee, Depart- 
ment of Kentucky, Department of Georgia, Department of Mississippi 
and Department of Alabama. Headquarters at Nashville. 
5. The Military Division of the Pacific, Major General Halleck to 
command; to embrace the Department of the Columbia and Department 
of California. Headquarters at San Francisco. APPENDIX L 
GREAT DISPERSION, IN FALL OF 1866 
Cavalry 
First Regiment: March 31-Companies B, F, H, I and M, Presidio, 
San Francisco, Calif.; L, Camp Union, Calif.; G and K, en route to 
Ariz.; A, C, D, and E, Camp near Drum Barracks, Calif. 
Second Regiment: February 28-Headquarters, Fort Riley, Kan. 
Third Regiment: May 31-Headquarters and 12 companies, Camp 
near Fort Smith, Ark.; under orders to N. M. 
Fourth Regiment: May 31-Headquarters and 12 companies, San 
Antonio, Tex. 
Fifth Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and companies G, K, and 
C, Washington, D. C.; F, New Market, W. Va.; A and I, Raleigh, N. C.; 
L and H, Columbia, S. C.; B, D, E and M, Memphis, Tenn. 
Sixth Regiment: May 31-Headquarters and 6 companies, Austin, 
Tex.; 1 company at Wetherford, Tex.; 1 company at Waco, Tex.; 2 
companies at Sherman, Tex.; 1 company at Halletsville, Tex.; 1 company 
at Jacksboro, Tex. 
Artillery 
First Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and companies D and M, 
Fort Hamilton, New York Harbor; C, Fort Lafayette, New York Harbor; 
B and E, Fort Wadsworth, New York Harbor; H and G, Fort Schuyler, 
New York Harbor; L, Fort Porter, Buffalo; A and F, Fort Trumbull, 
Conn.; K and I, light batteries, Brownsville, Tex. Company K is now 
the Department of Louisiana. 
Second Regiment: March 31-Headquarters and Companies F and 
H, Fort Point, Calif.; light batteries A and M, Presidio, San Francisco, 
Calif.; Company D, Angel Island, Calif.; B, E, and G, Alcatraz Island, 
Calif.; K, San Diego, Calif.; I, San Juan Island, Wash. Terr., February 
28; L, Cape Disappointment, Wash. Terr.; C, Fort Stephens, Ore. 
Third Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and Companies G and 
K, Fort Warren, Boston Harbor; A and F, Fort Independence, Boston 
Harbor; M and I, Fort Preble, Me.; L, Fort Sullivan, Me.; B, D and H, 
Fort Adams, R. I.; Light battery E, Raleigh, N. C.; C Department of 
Missouri, no station given. 
Fourth Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and Company I, Fort 
McHenry, Md.; K and L, Fort Delaware, Del.; M, Erie, Pa.; A, Fort 
Washington, Md.; E, Fort Foot, Md.; C, Fort Whipple, Va.; 3 companies 
at Washington, D. C.; G, Fort Wayne, Mich.; 1 company Department of 
Missouri, no station given. 
Fifth Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and companies A, B, C, and 
H, Fort Monroe, Va.; F, Light Battery, Richmond, Va.; G, Light Battery, 
Little Rock, Ark.; D, E, I, K, L, and M, Department of Florida, no 
station given. 
525 526 
APPENDIX L 
Infantry 
First Regiment: May 31-Headquarters and 10 companies, New 
Orleans, La. 
Second Regiment: May 31-Headquarters and 8 companies, Louisville, 
Ky.; B, Jeffersonville, Ind.; D, Camp Nelson, Ky. 
Third Regiment: February 28-Headquarters and 10 companies, De- 
partment of Missouri, no stations given. 
Fourth Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and companies D, H, and 
K, Fort Wayne, Mich.; A, Fort Porter, Buffalo; F, Fort Niagara, N. Y.; 
C and I, Plattsburg, N. Y.; G, Madison Barracks, N. Y.; E, Fort 
Ontario, N. Y. 
Fifth Regiment: February 28-Headquarters and 7 companies in 
N. M. No station given; F, in Ariz., Fort Whipple, March 31. 
Sixth Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and companies C, D, and 
F, Charleston, 8. C.; E, Hilton Hedge, S. C.; G, Darlington, S. C.; H 
and K, Columbia, S. C.; A, Georgetown S. C.; B, Aiken, S. C.; I, Law- 
tonville, S. C. 
Seventh Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and 8 companies, Depart- 
ment of Florida. 
Eighth Regiment: June 30-Headquarters and Company C, Winchester, 
Va.; G, Unionville, S. C.; E, Chester, S. C.; I, Anderson, S. C.; A, B, 
D, F, H and K, Salisbury, N. C. 
Ninth Regiment: March 31-Headquarters and Company B, San Jose 
Point, Calif.; A and C, Presidio, San Francisco, Calif.; D, Drum Barracks, 
Calif.; E, Fort Humboldt, Calif.; K, Camp lagua, Calif.; G, Camp 
Lincoln, Calif.; F, Fort Churchill, Calif.; I, Fort Ruby, Nev.; H, Fort 
McGarry, Nev. 
Tenth Regiment: February 28-Headquarters and 10 companies, De- 
partment of Mobile. 
Eleventh Regiment: April 30-Headquarters and First and Second 
Battalions, Richmond, Va.; Co. H, Third Battalion, Richmond, Va.; E 
and G, Third Battalion, Fredericksburg, Va.; A and F, Third Battalion, 
Lynchburg, Va.; C, Third Battalion, Danville, Va.; B, Third Battalion, 
Charlottesville, Va.; D, Third Battalion, Bristol, Va. 
Twelfth Regiment: April 30-Headquarters, First Battalion Com- 
panies A, B, C, D, and G, Fort Monroe, Va.; First Battalion, E, F, and 
H, Norfolk, Va.; Second Battalion, C and G, Richmond, Va.; Second 
Battalion A, B, E and H, Petersburg, Va.; Second Battalion D and F, City 
Point; Third Battalion, 8 companies, Washington, D. C., June 3. 
Thirteenth Regiment: February 28-Headquarters and 23 companies, 
Department of Mobile, no stations given. 
Fourteenth Regiment: March 31-Headquarters, Fort Vancouver, 
Wash. Terr.; First Battalion, Company A, Fort Yuma, Calif.; D, Fort 
Mojav, Ariz. Terr.; C and G, Fort Whipple, Ariz. Terr.; B, D, and F, 
Fort McDowell, Ariz. Terr.; H, Fort Date Creek, Ariz. Terr.; Second 
Battalion E, Fort Vancouver, Wash. Terr.; A, Fort Dalles, Ore.; G, Fort 
Steilacoom, Wash. Terr.; B, Cape Disappointment, Wash. Terr.; H, Camp 
Curry, Ore.; Third Batallion C, Fort Mason, Ariz.; B and F, Fort Grant, 
Ariz.; A, D, E, and H, en route to Ariz.; G, not organized. 
Fifteenth Regiment: May 31-Headquarters, Mobile, Ala.; First 
Battalion, 7 companies, Mobile, Ala.; D, Montgomery, Ala.; Second Bat- 
talion, 8 companies, Vicksburg, Miss.; Third Battalion, 5 companies, 
Mobile, Ala.; B, Huntsville, Ala.; E, Selma, Ala.; G, Bridgeport, Ala. 
Sixteenth Regiment: June 30-Headquarters, Nashville, Tenn.; First 
Battalion, Department of Georgia, Atlanta, February 28; Second and 
Third Battalions, Department of Tennessee, no station of companies given. GREAT DISPERSION 
527 
Seventeenth Regiment: June 10-Headquarters, San Antonio, Tex.; 
First, Second and Third Battalions; no station of companies given. 
Eighteenth Regiment: February 28-Headquarters and 22 companies; 
Department of Missouri, no stations of companies given. 
Nineteenth Regiment: May 31-Headquarters and 1 company, Little 
Rock, Ark.; First Battalion, 7 companies, Fort Gibson, N. C.; Second 
Battalion, 6 companies, Camden, Ark.; Third Battalion, 5 companies, 
Little Rock, Ark.; B, Pine Bluff, Ark.; E, Jacksonport, Ark.; F, Fort 
Smith, Ark.; 3 unassigned companies, Newport Barracks, Ky. APPENDIX M 
ORGANIZATION OF ARMY, 1867 
The Department of the East, Major General George G. Meade to 
command; to embrace the New England States, New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania and Fort Delaware. Headquarters at Philadelphia. 
The Department of the Lakes, Brigadier and Brevet Major General 
Joseph Hooker to command; to embrace the states of Ohio, Michigan, 
Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin. Headquarters at Detroit. 
The Department of Washington, Brigadier and Brevet Major General 
E. R. S. Canby to command; to embrace the District of Columbia, 
Alexandria and Fairfax Counties, Virginia, and the states of Maryland 
and Delaware, except Fort Delaware. Headquarters at Washington. 
The Department of the Potomac, Brigadier and Brevet Major General 
John M. Schofield to command; to embrace the states of Virginia, except 
Alexandria and Fairfax Counties, and West Virginia. Headquarters at 
Richmond. 
The Department of the South, Major General Daniel E. Sickles to 
command; to embrace the states of North and South Carolina. Head- 
quarters at Charleston. 
The Department of Tennessee, Major General George H. Thomas to 
command; to embrace the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama 
and Mississippi. Headquarters at Louisville. 
The Department of the Gulf, Major General Philip H. Sheridan to 
command; to embrace the states of Florida, Louisiana and Texas. Head- 
quarters at New Orleans. 
The Department of Arkansas, Brigadier and Brevet Major General 
E. O. C. Ord to command; to embrace the state of Arkansas and Indian 
Territory west. Headquarters at Little Rock. 
The Department of the Missouri, Major General Winfield S. Hancock 
to command; to embrace the states of Missouri and Kansas and the 
territories of Colorado and New Mexico. Headquarters at Fort Leaven- 
worth. 
The Department of the Platte, Brigadier and Brevet Major General 
Philip St. George Cooke to command; to embrace the state of Iowa, the 
Territories of Nebraska and Utah, so much of Dakota as lies west of the 
104th meridian, and so much of Montana as lies contiguous to the new 
road from Fort Laramie to Virginia City, Montana. Headquarters at 
Omaha. 
The Department of Dakota, Brigadier and Brevet Major General 
A. H. Terry to command; to embrace the state of Minnesota and all the 
Territories of Dakota and Montana not embraced in the Department of 
the Platte. Headquarters at Fort Snelling. 
The Department of California, Brigadier and Brevet Major General 
Irvin McDowell to command; to embrace the states of California and 
Nevada, and the Territory of Arizona. Headquarters at San Francisco. 
The Department of the Columbia, Major General Frederick Steele 
to command; to embrace the state of Oregon and the Territories of 
Washington and Idaho. Headquarters at Portland. 
528 APPENDIX N 
ORGANIZATIONS AND COMMANDERS OF CUBAN 
EXPEDITION, 1898 
First Division (Brigadier General Kent) 
First Brigade (Brigadier General Hawkins): Sixth Infantry (Lieu- 
tenant Colonel Egbert), Sixteenth Infantry (Colonel Theaker),and Seventy- 
first New York Volunteers (Colonel Downs). 
Second Brigade (Colonel Pearson): Second Infantry (Lieutenant 
Colonel Wherry), Tenth Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Kellogg), and 
Twenty-first Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel McKibbin). 
Third Brigade (Colonel Wikoff): Ninth Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel 
Ewers), Thirteenth Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Worth), and Twenty- 
fourth Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Liscum). 
Second Division (Brigadier General Lawton) 
First Brigade (Colonel Van Horn): Eighth Infantry (Major Conrad), 
Twenty-second Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Patterson), and Second 
Massachusetts Volunteers (Colonel Clark). 
Second Brigade (Colonel Miles) : First Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel 
Bisbee), Fourth Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Bainbridge), and Twenty- 
fifth Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Daggett). 
Third Brigade (Brigadier General Chaffee): Seventh Infantry (Colonel 
Benham), Twelfth Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Comba), and Seventeenth 
Infantry (Lieutenant Colonel Haskell). 
Cavalry Division (Major General Wheeler) 
First Brigade (Brigadier General Sumner): Third Cavalry (Major 
Wessels), Sixth Cavalry (Lieutenant Colonel Carroll), and Ninth Cavalry 
(Lieutenant Colonel Hamilton). 
Second Brigade (Brigadier General Young) : First Cavalry (Lieutenant 
Colonel Viele), Tenth Cavalry (Major Norvell), and First Volunteer 
Cavalry, popularly designated as the Rough Riders (Colonel Leonard Wood). 
The cavalry division sailed without horses, because there was no room 
for them on the transports, and because it was reported, quite correctly, 
that mounted troops would be of little use in the rough country around 
Santiago. The animals were left at Tampa, and only 2 squadrons (about 
500 men) of each regiment went to Cuba. Armed with their cavalry 
carbines, the 3,000 men of the division fought as infantry throughout the 
campaign. 
There were 4 light batteries: Batteries E (Captain Capron) and K 
(Captain Best) of the First Artillery, and A (Captain Grimes) and F 
(Captain Parkhurst) of the Second Artillery. Each consisted of 4 3-inch 
guns, and all were under the command of Major Dillenback, of the Second 
Artillery. There were also Batteries G (Captain Ennis) and H (Captain 
529 530 
APPENDIX N 
Summins) of the Fourth Artillery, each equipped with 2 5-inch siege rifles 
and 4 3.6-inch mortars; and 2 machine-gun detachments, one of 4 Gatlings, 
commanded by Lieutenant Parker, of the Thirteenth Infantry, and one of 
an equal number of 1-pound Hotchkiss guns, manned by men of the Tenth 
Cavalry, under Lieutenant Hughes. Besides these, the Rough Riders had 
2 rapid-fire Colts, presented by members of the regiment, and a dynamite 
gun. 
An engineer battalion, under Captain Burr, accompanied the expedition, 
as did also a signal corps and balloon detachment commanded by Major 
Greene. An entire division of infantry-Brigadier General Snyder's- 
consisting of volunteer regiments, was left at Tampa for lack of ships to 
carry it and time to embark it. To make up for this, a detachment was 
shipped from Mobile, which included the Third Infantry (Colonel Page), 
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Autobiography of Lieutenant General Scott. 
Sheldon & Co., New York, 1864. 
Recollections of General Nelson A. Miles. 
Nelson A. Miles. 
The Werner Co., New York, Chicago, 1896. 
Autobiography of Black Hawk. 
Published by J. B. Patterson, Oquawoka, Ill., 1882. 
Autobiography of an English Soldier. 
George Ballentine. 
Stronger & Townsend, New York, 1853. 
Diaries 
My Diary North and South. 
Sir William Howard Russell. 
Bradbury & Sons, London, 1863. 
A Soldier's Diary. 
David Lane. 
Jackson (?), Mich., 1905. 
The Diary of a Young Officer Serving with the Armies of the United States 
during the War of the Rebellion. 
Josiah Marshall Favill. 
R. R. Donnelley & Sons, Chicago, 1909. 
Diary of Gideon Welles, Vols. I, II, III, 1861-1869. 
Gideon Welles. 
Houghton Mifflin & Co., Boston, New York, 1909. 
Diary of a Young Army Officer. 
F. M. Favill. 
R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co., Chicago, 1909. 
Sketches of the Revolutionary War. 
Old Manuscript of Diaries, etc. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
545 
Letters 
Calendar of the Correspondence of George Washington, Commander-in-Chief 
of the Continental Army. 
U. S. Library of Congress. 
Letters of Richard Henry Lee, 1779-1794, Vols. I, II. 
James Curtis Ballogh. 
The Macmillan Co., New York, 1914. 
Army Letters, 1861-1865. 
0. W. Norton. 
Privately Printed. 
0. L. Deming, Chicago, 1903. 
Descriptive Accounts of Persons, Places, and Incidents 
Doctor Quintard, Chaplain C. S. A. 
Charles Todd Quintard. 
The University Press, Sewanee, Tenn., 1905. 
Reminiscences of the Santiago Campaign. 
John Bigelow. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1899. 
Defense of General Hull. 
Prepared from his manuscripts by his daughter. 
Wells & Lilly, Boston, 1814. 
History of Philip Kearny. 
H. Watts de Peyster. 
Old Print. 
Ups and Downs of an Army Officer, 1866-1869, in Second and Tenth 
Cavalry. 
G. A. Armes. 
Washington, D. C., 1900. 
Under the Old Flag, Vols. I, II. 
James Harrison Wilson. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, London, 1912. 
A French Volunteer in the War of Independence. 
Robert D. Douglas. 
Charles Carrington, Paris, 1898. 546 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Recollections of the Early Days of the National Guard. 
By an ex-orderly sergeant. 
J. M. Bradstreet & Son, New York, 1868. 
Military Miscellanies. 
James B. Fry. 
Brentano's, New York, 1889. 
History of West Point. 
Boynton. 
Old Print, 1871. 
History of the War Department. 
L. D. Ingersoll. 
Francis B. Mohun, Washington, D. C., 1879. 
An Account of the Organization of the Army of the United States. 
Fayette Robinson. 
E. H. Butler & Co., Philadelphia, 1848. 
History of the 20th United States Infantry, 1861-1902. 
A. P. Burnham. 
Published by Regimental Print. 
History of the Army Service Schools, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. 
Henry Shindler. 
Staff College Press, Fort Leavenworth, Kas., 1908. 
Building of the Pacific Railway. 
Edwin L. Sabin. 
J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, London, 1919. 
The Winning of the West, Vols. I, II, III, IV. 
Theodore Roosevelt. 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1900. 
The Centennial of the U. S. Military Academy, 1802-1902, Vols. I, II. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1902. 
The Private Soldier Under Washington. 
Charles Knowles Bolton. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1902. 
Personal Recollections of the American Revolution. 
Mrs. Lydia Minturn Post. 
Rudd & Carleton, New York, 1859. . 
Recollections of a Virginian in the Mexican, Indian, and Civil Wars. 
Debney Herndon Maury. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1894. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
547 
Military History Society of Massachusetts. 
Printed by the Society. 
J. R. Osgood & Co., Boston, 1881. 
Personal Records and Correspondence 
Military Reminiscences of the Civil War. 
Jacob Dolson Cox. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1900. 
Report of Major Philip Reade, I. G. U. S. V. in re War with Spain. 
(Author has only copies known to be extant.) 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1899. 
Memoirs 
Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington. 
G. W. Parke Custis. 
W. H. Moore, Washington, D. C., 1859. 
Memoirs of a Volunteer in the War with Mexico. 
John R. Kenly. 
J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1873. 
Personal Memoirs of P. H. Sheridan, Vols. I, II. 
Charles L. Webster & Co., New York, 1888. 
Memoirs of Robert E. Lee. 
Armistead Lindsay Long. 
J. M. Stoddart & Co., New York, Philadelphia, 1887. 
Military Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant, Vols. I, II, III. 
Adam Badeau. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1868-1881. 
Military Memoirs of a Confederate. 
Edward Porter Alexander. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1907. 
Personal Reminiscences of the War of 1861-1865. 
William Henry Morgan. 
J. P. Bell Co., Lynchburg, Ga., 1911. 
Memoirs of the American Revolution, Vol I. 
Moultrie. 
Publisher unknown. 548 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Memories of Two Wars. Cuban and Philippine Experiences. 
Frederick Funston, Brigadier General U. S. Army. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1914. 
Memoirs of General W. T. Sherman. 
By Himself. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1875. 
Reports 
American Archives, Fourth and Fifth Series, 9 Vols. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1837. 
Report on the Organization and Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. 
George Brinton McClellan. 
Sheldon & Co., New York, 1864. 
Reports American Historical Association, 1901-1914. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Report of Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 38th Congress. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1865. 
Report of the Commission appointed by President to investigate conduct of 
War Department in the War with Spain. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1900. 
Adjutant Generals' Reports, 1880-1923. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 
Reports Secretary of War, 1866-1923. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Reports of Chief of Staff, 1919-1920-1922. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Miscellaneous Reports, 1776-1923. 
Special Report of the Secretary of War to the President on Conference on 
Training for Citizenship and National Defense. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1923. 
Report of General J. J. Pershing, Cabled to Secretary of War, Nov. 20, 
1918. 
War Department, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 
Jan. 16, 1919. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
549 
Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of 
Rebellion. 
U. S. Navy Dept., Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Report of the Engineer and Artillery Operations of the Army of the Potomac. 
John Gross Barnard. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1863. 
Ordnance Reports, 1812-1922, Many volumes. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Reports: 
General Sumner, July 6, 1898. 
General Hawkins. 
General Shafter. 
General Lawton. 
General Bates. 
General Kent. 
Lieutenant J. H. Parker. 
Company Commanders, 71st New York. 
Sixteenth Infantry. 
Sixth Infantry. 
On Battle San Juan, Cuba, 1898. 
Reports of Explorations in the Territory of Alaska, War Department. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1899. 
War Department Reports, Many volumes. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Record of the Organizations Engaged in the Campaign, Siege and Defense 
of Vicksburg. 
U. S. Commission. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1901. 
Statistical Reports and Records 
Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army, Vols. I, II. 
Francis B. Heitman. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1903. 
Biographical Register of Officers and Graduates of United States Military 
Academy, at West Point, N. Y., Vols. I, II. 
Bvt. Major General Geo. W. Cullum. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1868-1879. 550 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Journals 
A French Volunteer of the War of Independence. 
Douglas. 
Paris, 1898. 
Personal Recollections of the Revolution, a Private Journal. 
Sidney Barclay. 
Rudd & Racleton, New York, 1849. 
Journal of Captain Pauseh, Burgoyne Campaign. 
Translated by William L. Stone. 
Joel Munsell's Sons, Albany, 1886. 
Journal of a Private: A Twelve Months Volunteer, 1846-1847. 
George C. Burber. 
J. A. & U. P. James, Cincinnati, 1850. 
Journal of William Feltman, 1781-1782. 
Old Print. 
U. S. M. A. Library, West Point, N. Y. 
Documents 
Wayne's Orderly Book. 
Original Manuscript. 
Library, U. S. M. A., West Point, N. Y. 
Mexican War Documents. 
Wendell & Van Benthuysen, Washington, 1848. 
Military Laws of the United Stales, 1776-1863. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
General Orders A.G.O., 1826-1842. 
Published by Authority Secretary of War. 
Extracts from General Orders, 1820. 
Publisher unknown. 
Compilation of Official Documents, Organization of the Army of the United 
Stales, 1789-1876. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Revolutionary Orders of General Washington. 
Whiting. 
Old Print. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
551 
General Orders of General Washington, 1782-1783. 
Old Print. 
General Orders, The Volunteer Force. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Army Regulations, 1807. 
Printed by Government. 
General Washington's Newburgh Orders, 1782. 
Old Manuscript. 
U. S. M. A. Library, West Point, N. Y. 
Washington's Valley Forge Orders, 1778. 
Old Manuscript. 
The Uniform of the Army of the United States. 
Compiled by direction of the Secretary of War, 1774-1889. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Political Works 
Principles and Acts of the Revolution in America. 
Hezekiah Niles. 
A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, Chicago, New Orleans, 1876. 
Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. 
Jefferson Davis. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1881. 
The Relations of the United States and Spain. 
French Ensor Chadwick. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1911. 
Military Unpreparedness of the United States. 
Frederic Louis Hindekoper. 
The Macmillan Co., New York, 1915. 
America's Duty as shown by our Military History. 
Leonard Wood. 
Reilly & Lee Co., Chicago, 1921. 
The Outbreak of Rebellion. 
John George Nicolay. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1881. 552 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
The End of an Era. 
John Sergeant Wise. 
Houghton Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1899. 
The Frontier in American History. 
Frederick Jackson Turner. 
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1920. 
Panama, the Canal, The Country and the People. 
Arthur Bullard. 
The Macmillan Co., New York, 1914. 
Our Military History. Its Facts and Fallacies. 
Major General Leonard Wood. 
Reilly & Britton Co., Chicago, 1916. 
Technical Works 
Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, 
Von Steuben's Regulations. 
Original Edition. 
Published by Act of Congress, Philadelphia, March 29, 1779. 
Administration of the American Revolutionary Army. 
Louis Clinton Hatch. 
Longmans, Green Co., New York, London, 1904. 
Elements of Military Art and Science. 
Henry Wager Halleck. 
D. Apple ton & Co., New York, London, 1863. 
The Principles of Strategy as Illustrated by the Civil War. 
William Keith Naylor. 
Army Service Schools Press, Fort Leavenworth, Kas., 1917. 
Army and Navy of America. 
John S. Gable, Philadelphia, 1845. 
The Colored Regulars, United States Army. 
Theophilus G. Steward. 
A. M. E. Book Concern, Philadelphia, 1904. 
General and Special Orders, U. S. Army, 1817-1923. 
The Science of War. 
George Francis Robert Henderson. 
Longmans, Green & Co., London, New York. 1905, SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
553 
The Principles of Strategy. 
John Bigelow. 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York; T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1891. 
The Gulf and Inland Waters. 
Alfred Thayer Mahan. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1898. 
Telegraphing in Battle. 
John Emmett O'Brien. 
The Raeder Press, Scranton, Pa., Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 1910. 
Three Rivers, the James, the Potomac and the Hudson. 
Joseph Pearson Farley. 
The Neale Publishing Co., New York, Washington, 1910. 
Other Military Laws in separate Volumes since 1865. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Instructions for Field Artillery, 1861. 
Board of Officers. 
J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1861. 
Infantry Tactics, 1861. 
Winfield Scott. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1861. 
Infantry Tactics, or Rules for the Exercises and Maneuvers of the United 
States Infantry, 1861, Vols. I, II, III. 
Major General Scott. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1861. 
Regulations and Instructions for the Field Service of the United States 
Cavalry in Time of War, 1861. 
George B. McClellan. 
J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1861. 
United States Infantry Tactics, 1861. 
"Graduate of the United States Military Academy and Retired 
Officers of the late Mexican War.? 
J. W. Fortune, New York, 1861. 
Hardee's Infantry Tactics, Vols. I, II. 
Major W. J. Hardee, 1856. 
T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1891. 554 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Manual of Arms for Light Infantry, 1861. 
Colonel E. E. Ellsworth. 
P. T. Sherlock, 112 Dearborn St., Chicago, 1861. 
Evolutions of Field Batteries of Artillery, 1860. 
Major Robert Anderson. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1860. 
Military Laws and Rules and Regulations for the Armies of the United 
States, 1813. 
Adjutant and Inspector General's Office, Washington, May 1, 1813. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. 
Drill Regulations for Light Artillery, 1896. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Cavalry Tactics, 1822. 
Pierce Darrow. 
Oliver D. Cooke, Hartford, 1822. 
Artillery Tactics, 1826. 
Original Edition. 
Published in Boston. 
Treatise on the Military Art, 1798. 
E. Hoyt. 
Benjamin Smead, Brattleboro, Vt.; Russell & Ripley, Greenfield, 
Mass., 1798. 
The Artillerist, 1821. 
Oliver D. Cooke, Hartford, Conn.; 1821. 
A System of Exercises and Instruction of Field Artillery for Light or Horse 
Artillery, 1829. 
Department of War, Act of Congress of 2nd of March, 1829. 
Hilliard, Gray, Little & Wilkins, Boston. 
Instruction for Field Artillery, 1839. 
Captain Robert Anderson. 
R. P. Desilver, Philadelphia, 1839. 
Abridged Tactics, Book for the Militia, 1826. 
New York, 1826. 
Abstract of a System of Exercise and Instruction of Field Artillery, 1834. 
John L. Wilson, Captain U. S. Army. 
A. E. Miller, Charleston, S. C.; 1834. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
555 
A System of Exercise and Instruction of Field Artillery, 1833. 
Department of War. 
Hilliard, Gray & Co., Boston, 1833. 
Infantry Drill, for the Infantry of the United States, 1829. 
F. Lucas, Jr., Baltimore, Md. 
Military Tactics, 1838. 
General Ransom. 
Concord, Mass., 1838. 
Cavalry Tactics, 1841. 
J. & G. S. Gideon, Printers, Washington, 1841. 
Scott's Infantry Tactics, 1861, Vols. I, II. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1861. 
A Hand Book for Infantry. 
William Duane, 1814. 
Printed in Philadelphia. 
A Complete Treatise upon Artillery, 1819. 
H. Lallemand. 
G. S. Van Winkle, New York, 1829. 
Instructions to be Observed for the Formations and Movements of the 
Cavalry. 
William Richardson Davis, Esquire. 
Abraham Lodge, Halifax, 1799. 
The Administration of the American Revolutionary Army. 
Louis Clinton Hatch, Ph.D. 
Longmans, Green & Co., New York, London & Bombay, 1904. 
Instructions for Heavy Artillery. 
Board of Officers. 
Gideon & Co., Printers, Washington, 1851. 
Instructions for Mountain Artillery. 
Board of Officers. 
Gideon & Co., Printers, Washington, 1851. 
Infantry Tactics. 
Winfield Scott. 
Published in Boston, 1847. 
Regulations for the Militia. 
Cooper. 
Published by Frank Desilver, 1837. 556 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Cavalry Exercise Containing Instructions for the American Cavalry, 1801. 
E. A. Jenks. 
Printed, Portland, 1801. 
Maneuvers of Horse Artillery. 
General Kosciusko. 
Published by direction of the U. S. Military Philosophical Society, 
1808. 
Infantry Tactics for the Instruction of the Soldier, a Company Line of 
Skirmishers, Battalion, Brigade or Corps d'Armtes. 
Brigadier General Silas Casey, U. S. Army. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1862. 
Smith's Artillery, 1812. 
Amasa Smith. 
Published by Isaiah Thomas, Jr., Boston, 1812. 
Cavalry, Light Infantry and Rifle Tactics, 1834. 
Published Authority of War Department. Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. 
Tactics and Regulations for the Militia, 1836. Original Edition. 
Publisher Unknown. 
The United States Army. 
Francis V. Greene. 
Scribner's Magazine, Sept., Oct., Nov., 1901. 
Rifle and Infantry Tactics, 1863, Vols. I, II. 
Lieutenant General W. J. Hardee, C. S. A. 
S. H. Goetzel, Mobile, 1863. 
A New System of Infantry Tactics, 1869. 
Major-General Emory Upton. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1869. 
School of the Guides. 
Colonel Eugene le Gal. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1862. 
Instruction for Heavy Artillery, 1863. 
Board of Officers. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1863. 
Infantry Tactics, Double and Single Rank, 1875. 
Emory Upton. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1874. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
557 
Drill Regulations for Field Artillery United States Army, 1915. 
War Department, Chief of Staff. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
United States Army Cavalry Tactics, 1880. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1886. 
Drill Regulations for Cavalry, United States Army, 1863. 
Original Volume. 
Publisher unknown. 
The Company Drill of Infantry of the Line, 1862. 
J. Monroe. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1862. 
Cavalry Tactics, 1883. 
P. St. George Cooke. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1883. 
Injantry Drill Regulations United States Army, 1904. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1904. 
Infantry Drill Regulations United States Army, 1891. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1891. 
Artillery Drill Regulations United States Army, 1891. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1891. 
Instructions in Rifle and Carbine Firing for the United States Army, 1886. 
Stanhope E. Blunt. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1886. 
Field Artillery Tactics, 1863. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1863. 
Field Artillery Tactics, 1864. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1864. 
Drill Regulations for Light Artillery, United States Army, 1896. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
The Trooper's Manual, 1862. 
J. Lucius Davis. 
A. Morris, Richmond, Va., 1862. 
Cavalry Drill Regulations, United States Army, 1891. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1891. 
Infantry Drill Regulations, 1911. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1911. 558 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
The Army of the United States, 1789-1896. 
Edited by Brevet Brigadier-General Theo. F. Rodenbough and 
Major William L. Haskin. 
Private Print, 1896. 
Drill Regulations for Cavalry, 1902. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Heavy Artillery, 1861. 
War Department. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
Military Laws and Rules and Regulations for the Armies of the United States. 
Adjutant and Inspector General's Office, Washington, D. C., May 1, 
1813. 
Artillery Tactics, 1826. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. 
Abridged Tactics-School of the Soldier, 1833. 
Publisher unknown. 
Instruction for Field Artillery, Horse and Foot, 1845. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. 
Infantry Drill, 1828. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. 
United States Infantry Drill Regulations, 1829. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. 
Tactics and Regulations for the Militia, 1836. 
Original Edition, Boston, 1836. 
Cavalry Tactics, 1841. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. 
System of Infantry Discipline for the United States Army, Plates with 
Explanation, 1814. 
Publisher unknown. 
Evolution of Field Batteries of Artillery, 1860. 
Major Robert Anderson. 
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1860. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
559 
U. S. Infantry Drill Regulations, 1829. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. Published by authority. 
Infantry Drill, 1828. 
Original Edition. 
Publisher unknown. Published by authority of Secretary of War. 
Cooper's-Macomb's Tactics, 1855. 
Cooper, Macomb. 
Publisher unknown. Published by authority. 
Instructions for Heavy Artillery, 1845. 
Board of Officers. Old Print. 
The Recruit, 1845. 
Captain John T. Cairns. 
Old Print. 
Cavalry Exercises Containing Instructions for the American Cavalry. 
Printed for A. E. Jenks. Sold at his bookstore, Portland, 1801. 
Instructions for Mountain Artillery. 
Board of Officers. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1851. 
Armies of To-day. 
By various authors. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1893. 
The American Military Library or Compendium of Modern Tactics. 
William Duane. 
Published by the Author, 1809. 
The New International Encyclopedia. 
Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1914-1916. 
Sanitation in Panama. 
William Crawford Gorgas. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, London, 1918. 
Percussion Locks, Bayonets with Clasps; To the Manual of Arms. 
Major-General Winfield Scott. 
Old Print, 1844. 
Government of the Canal Zone. 
Major General George W. Goethals. 
Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1915. 560 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
The American Rifle. 
Townsend Whelen. 
The Century Co., New York, 1918. 
Our Rifles, Vols. I, II, III. 
Charles Winthrop Sawyer. 
C. W. Sawyer, Boston, 1910. 
A Complete Treatise Upon Artillery. 
H. Lallemand. 
Translated by De Russy. 
C. S. Van Winkle, New York, 1819. 
Military Policy of the United States. 
Bvt. Major General Emory Upton, U. S. Army. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, 1903. 
State Papers 
American State Papers, 1831-1861. 
Published by authority of Congress. 
Gales & Seaton, Washington. 
Statistical Record of the Armies of the U. S. 
Frederick Phisterer. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1883. 
The New International Year Book, 1916. 
Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1917. 
Narratives 
Men and Things I saw in Civil War Days. 
James Fowler Rustling. 
Eaton & Maine, New York; Curts & Jennings, Cincinnati, 1899. 
The Volunteer Soldier of America. 
John Alexander Logan. 
R. S. Peale & Co., Chicago, New York, 1887. 
Narrative of Major-General Woofs Campaign in Mexico. 
Francis Baylies. 
Little & Co., Albany, 1851. 
Spirit of Old West Point, 1858-1862. 
Morris Schaff. 
Houghton Mifflin & Co., New York, 1907. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
561 
West Point. 
Robert C. Richardson. 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1917. 
Army Life on the Pacific. 
Lawrence Kip. 
Redfield, New York, 1859. 
Soldier and Pioneer. 
E. L. Anderson. 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1879. 
The Story of a Trooper. 
F. Colburn Adams. 
Dick & Fitzgerald, New York, 1865. 
Thrilling Days of Army Life. 
George A. Forsyth. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1900. 
Three Months in the Southern States. 
Sir A. J. L. Fremantle. 
S. H. Goetzel, Mobile, 1864. 
From Chattanooga to Petersburg. 
William Farrar Smith. 
Houghton Mifflin & Co., New York, 1893. 
In Cuba with Shafter. 
John D. Miley. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1899. 
The Romance of Conquest. 
William Elliot Griffis. 
W. A. Wilde & Co., Boston, Chicago, 1899. 
Forty Years in the Army. 
W. B. Hazen. 
Scenes and Adventures in the Army. 
P. St. George Cooke, 1859. 
Army Sacrifices. 
J. B. Fry, 1879. 
From Everglade to Canyon with the Second Dragoons. 
T. F. Rodenbough, 1875. 562 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
A Narrative of the Campaign in the Valley of the Shenandoah. 
Robert Patterson. 
J. Campbell, Philadelphia, 1865. 
Camp Fires of the Confederacy. 
Benjamin La Bree. 
Courier-Journal Job Printing Co., Louisville, Ky., 1898. 
The Flying Gray-haired Yank. 
Michael Egan. 
Hubbard Brothers, Philadelphia, 1888. 
The Lost Dispatch. 
Personal Narratives. 
Galesburg Printing & Publishing Co., Galesburg, Ill., 1889. 
Reminiscences of the Santiago Campaign. 
John Bigelow, Jr. 
Harper & Bros., New York, London. 1899. 
Bullet and Shell. 
George Forrester Williams. 
Fords, Howard & Hulbert, New York, 1883. 
Reminiscences of a Mosby Guerrilla. 
John W. Munson. 
Moffat, Yard & Co., New York, 1906. 
A Private Chapter of the War. 
George W. Bailey. 
G. I. Jones & Co., St. Louis, 1880. 
Johnny Reb and Billy Yank. 
Alexander Hunter. 
The Neale Publishing Co., New York, Washington, 1905. 
From Chattanooga to Petersburg under Generals Grant and Butler. 
William Farrar Smith. 
Houghton Mifflin & Co., Boston, New York, 1893. 
Reminiscences of a Private. 
Frank M. Mixson. 
The State Company, Columbia, S. C., 1910. 
War Songs and Poems of the Southern Confederacy. 
Henry Marvin Wharton. 
The John C. Winston Co., Philadelphia, Chicago, 1904. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
563 
Recollections of a Private. 
Warren Lee Goss. 
T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York, 1890. 
The Iron Brigade; A Story of the Army of the Potomac. 
Charles King. 
G. W. Dillingham Co., New York, 1902. 
Hood's Texas Brigade. 
Joseph Benjamin Polley. 
The Neale Publishing Co., New York, Washington, 1910. 
From Yorktown to Santiago with the Sixth U. S. Cavalry. 
William Harding Carter. 
The Friedenwald Co., Baltimore, 1900. 
The General's Double. 
Charles King. 
J. B. Lippincott Co.. Philadelphia, 1898. 
The Long Arm of Lee. 
Jennings Cropper Wise. 
J. P. Bell Co., Lynchburg, Va., 1915. 
Pennsylvania at Chickamauga and Chattanooga. 
Pennsylvania Commission 
W. A. Ray, State Printer, Harrisburg, Pa. 
Three Years in the Sixth Corps. 
George T. Stevens. 
S. R. Gray, Albany, N. Y., 1866. 
The Story of a Cannoneer under Stonewall Jackson. 
Edward A. Moore. 
J. P. Bell Co., Lynchburg, Va., 1910. 
Serving the Republic. 
Nelson A. Miles. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1911. 
Series of Tales and Sketches. 
By an American Soldier. 
James Munroe & Co., Boston, 1845. 
Indians and Indian Wars 
History of Philip Kearny. 
H. Watts de Peyster 564 
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, Vols. I, II. 
Frederick Webb Hodge. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1907. 
Memoirs and Travels among the Northern and Southern Indians. 
Thomas L. M'Kenney. 
Paine & Burgess, New York, 1846. 
My Friend the Indian. 
James McLaughlin. 
Houghton Mifflin & Co., New York, 1910. 
Thirty-three Years among Our Wild Indians. 
Richard Irving Dodge. 
A. D. Worthington, Hartford, Conn., 1885. 
The Story of the Indian. 
George Bird Grinnell. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1923. 
Indian Wars of the West. 
Timothy Flint. 
E. H. Flint, Cincinnati, 1833. 
Indian Wars of the United States. 
. William V. Moore. 
Jas. B. Smith & Co., Philadelphia, 1858. 
Massacres of the Mountains. 
J. P. Dunn. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1886. 
On the Border with Crook. 
John G. Bourke. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1891. 
An Apache Campaign. 
John G. Bourke. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1886. 
Narratives of Indian Warfare in the West. 
Samuel L. Metcalf. 
William G. Hunt, Lexington, Ky., 1821. 
The Fighting Cheyennes. 
George Bird Grinnell. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1915. 
Indian Bibliography. 
Field. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
565 
The Plains of the Great TFesf. 
R. I. Dodge. 
Nez Perce Joseph. 
0. 0. Howard. 
Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co., Boston, 1881. 
The Indian Wars of the United States. 
E. S. Ellis. 
Absaraka, Land of Massacre. 
H. B. Carrington. 
Discovery of the Yosemite and the Indian War of 1851. 
H. C. Bunnell. 
Chicago, Ill., 1880. 
My Life on the Plains. 
G. A. Custer, 1874. 
Campaigns with Crook and Stories of Army Life. 
Captain Charles King. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1905. 
Thirty Years of Army Life on the Border. 
General R. B. Marcy. 
Harper & Bros., New York, 1866. 
Indian Fights and Fighters, 1876-1900. 
Cyrus Townsend Brady, LL.D. 
Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1916. 
The Life of Sitting Bull and the History of the Indian War, 1890-1891. 
W. Fletcher Johnson. 
Edge wood Publishing Company, Philadelphia, 1891. 
Our Wild Indians. 
R. I. Dodge. 
A. D. Worthington & Co., Hartford, Conn., 1882; A. G. Nettleton, 
Chicago, 1882. 
Periodicals 
Volumes of the Military Service Institution from 1880-1917. 
Published at Governor's Island, New York Harbor. 
All Volumes of Army and Navy Journal, 1865-1923. 
Published at Park Row, 20 Vesey St., and 354 4th Ave., New York 
City. INDEX 
Abridged Tactics for Infantry, 166. 
Abstract of a System of Exercise 
and Instruction of Field Artil- 
lery, 176. 
Academy, Military, 109, 111, 113, 
114, 116, 118, 119, 133, 151, 
152, 153, 163, 164, 173, 179, 
184, 188, 192, 197, 225, 231, 
234, 235, 242, 247, 248, 250, 
262, 268, 306, 317, 399, 416, 
417, 427, 435, 436, 438, 439, 
457, 483, 500. 
Accouterments, 7, 25, 56, 87, 98, 100, 
117, 150, 168, 175, 205, 233, 
264, 267, 268, 319. 
Adair, Lieutenant, 459. 
Adams, Chas., General, 351. 
Adams, Fort, 228, 303. 
Adams, John, 2, 28, 53, 85, 94. 
Adirondacks, 447. 
Adjuntas, Porto Rico, 388. 
Adjutant, 33, 104, 117, 121, 146, 
181, 200, 259, 260, 307, 308. 
Adjutant General 72, 104, 148, 167, 
196, 261, 308, 372, 374, 413, 
420, 433, 483. See .Appendix 
A, p. 494. 
Adjutant General's Dept., 152. 
Advance Guards, 84. 
A.E.F., 476, 478. 
Aeroplanes, 433, 435, 437, 447, 452, 
467, 475, 479. 
Aero Squadrons, 457. 
Agents, Indian, 108, 184, 304, 314, 
333, 349, 350, 351, 358, 359, 
362, 368. 
Agents, Military, 108, 118. 
Agua Caliente, Mexico, 455. 
Aguadores, Fort, Cuba, 380. 
Agua Nueva, 215, 218. 
Agua Zarca, Mexico, 455. 
Aguinaldo, 389, 391, 401, 403, 404, 
405, 407, 414, 424. 
Ai, 134. 
Aibonita, Porto Rico, 388. 
Aide de camp, 52, 54, 67, 137. 
Aiguillettes, 180. 
Aircraft, 437, 445, 447, 448, 449, 
452. 
Airplane, 433, 435, 437, 445, 447, 
452, 467, 475, 479. 
Air Service, 445, 448, 483. 
Air Service, Chief of, See Appendix 
A, p. 499. 
Alabama, 132, 178, 205, 248. 
Alabama Claims, 302. 
Alamilla Canon, Mexico, 456. 
Alaska, 317, 331, 347, 349, 369, 371, 
427, 431. 
Alaskan Indians, 347. 
Alexandria, Virginia 268. 
Alger, Camp, Virginia, 373, 375, 
379, 393, 394. 
Aliaga, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Allegheny, 65. 
Allegheny Arsenal, 190. 
Allen, Ethan, 38. 
Allen's Revolver, 240. 
Alliance, French, 62. 
Allies, 469. 
Allotments, Pay, 260, 399. 
Alnaschar's Castles, 467. 
Alterations, uniform, 105. 
Ambulance Companies, 452, 454. 
Amelia Island, Florida, 162. 
American Expeditionary Force, 476, 
478. 
American Horse, Chief, 341. 
American Lake, Washington, 420, 
437. 
American Legation, 411. 
American Legion, 485. 
Ames, Oakes, 326. 
Ammunition, 6, 8, 9, 19, 23, 33, 81, 
98, 125, 130, 144, 149, 153, 154, 
163, 176, 203, 208, 213, 234, 
236, 265, 266, 267, 271, 304, 
319, 322 337, 338, 339, 343, 
350, 375,' 376, 390, 392, 427, 
433, 437, 441, 451, 452, 453. 
Ampudia, General, 202, 213, 217, 
218. 
Anderson, Fort, 188. 
Anderson, Robert, General 187, 247, 
379, 385, 386. 
Andre, 72. 
Angat River, Philippine Islands, 
401. 
567 568 
INDEX 
Angeles, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Anglaise River, 101. 
Annapolis, Maryland, 76, 89, 159, 
162. 
Anniston, Alabama, 376, 449. 
Annual Register, U.S.M.A., 151. 
Anthem, National, 193, 194. 
Antietam, 281, 283, 436. 
Antimony, 176. 
Apache Indians, 230, 234, 236, 239, 
240, 245, 246, 248, 301, 304, 328, 
329, 330, 358, 359, 360, 362, 
363, 404. 
Apalachicola, Florida, 190. 
Apothecary, 175. 
Apothecary Dept., 148. 
Apothecary-General, 105, 148. 
Apple Creek, 300. 
Appomattox Station, Virginia, 296, 
306. 
Apprentice, 141. 
Appropriations, 104, 164, 197, 199, 
262, 290, 306, 348, 349, 364, 
419, 420, 427, 432, 435, 437, 
445, 447, 448, 450, 451, 479. 
Aransas Bay, Texas, 199. 
Arapaho Indians, 300, 309, 314, 322, 
323. 
Arayat, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Archduke Maxmilian, 298, 299. 
Arecibo, Porto Rico, 388. 
Arikara Indians, 163. 
Arikaree River, 320. 
Arista, General, 204, 206, 208. 
Arizona, 229, 235, 236, 240, 244, 
245, 328, 330, 358, 359, 360, 
362, 404, 405, 444, 456. 
Arizona, Dept, of, 328, 330, 331. 
Arkansas, 147, 218, 229, 231, 450. 
Arkansas River, 196, 207, 301, 304. 
Arkansas River, Little, 231. 
Armistead, General, 188. 
Armistice, 213, 214, 215, 223, 480, 
482. 
Armorers, 10. 
Armories, 104, 148, 163, 190, 367. 
Arms, Manual of, 55, 144. 
Arms, Small, 33, 56, 87, 104, 130, 
150, 153, 189, 202, 213, 220, 
267, 271, 364, 390, 392, 451. 
arrows, 96, 195, 240. 
bavonet, 7 9, 30, 37, 68, 70, 98, 
101, 119, 137, 153, 199, 236, 
266. 
bolos, 408, 442. 
bowie knives, 210. 
Brown Bess, 9. 
carbine, 185, 190, 208, 315, 338. 
Arms, creeses, 408, 442. 
cutlass, 7. 
espontoon, 99. 
firelock, 8, 19, 61, 76, 98, 130, 
145, 146, 199. 
flintlock, 8, 93, 99, 164, 190, 198, 
247, 265. 
fusil, 199. 
musket, 10, 98, 189, 198, 199, 201, 
208, 236, 264, 265, 288, 296, 299. 
musketoon, 10. 
pistols, 99, 104, 107, 139, 165, 
190, 208, 210, 240, 270, 319. 
rifle, 8, 19, 99, 107, 108, 164, 185, 
190, 198, 199, 208, 210, 214, 
236, 240, 247, 259, 265, 316, 
319, 322, 325, 334, 339, 341, 
346, 361, 366, 367, 375, 380, 
388, 394, 408, 419, 421, 433. 
sabers, 101, 148, 208, 236, 322. 
shotgun, 442. 
spears, 408. 
sword, 7, 99, 101, 104, 107, 161, 
165, 208, 267. 
tomahawk, 7, 65, 94, 96, 195, 
300. 
Armstrong, Fort, 147, 170. 
Armstrong, John, 86, 133. 
Army and Navy Board, 419. 
Army of Cuban Pacification, 430, 
433, 434. 
Army of Northern Virginia, 271. 
Army of Occupation, 193, 199. 
Army of the Center, 122. 
Army of the Cumberland, 282, 292. 
Army of the Mississippi, 281. 
Army of the Potomac, 264, 268, 273, 
275, 276, 277, 281, 282, 283, 
286, 288, 291, 292, 
Army of Virginia, 279. 
Army Register, 130, 148, 280. 
Army Regulations, 129. 
Army Rifle Team, 419. 
Army School of the Line, 435. 
Army Signal School, 423. 
Army Staff College, 421, 423. 
Army War College, 407, 417, 418, 
419, 421, 423, 465. 
Arnold, Benedict, 6, 15, 16, 39, 40, 
42, 46, 47, 49, 61 63, 64, 71, 
72, 75, 76. 
Arrows, 96, 195, 240. 
Arroyo, Porto Rico, 389. 
Arsenal, 108, 130, 141, 150, 152, 
153, 154, 189, 190, 224, 236, 
244, 248, 249, 251, 265, 279, 
305, 364, 367, 427, 433, 435, 
441. INDEX 
569 
Articles of War, 31, 129. 
Artificer, 73, 104, 155, 307. 
Artillerist, The, 161. 
Artillerists, 103 104, 105, 107, 108, 
164. 
Artillery, 11, 18, 22, 33, 34, 35, 36, 
73, 77, 81, 83, 88, 91 92, 93, 
95, 96, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105, 
106, 107, 108, 112, 117, 121, 
128, 130, 131, 132, 136, 137, 
139, 140, 146, 147, 148, 149, 
150, 152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 
160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 
169, 170, 175, 176, 178, 179, 
183, 186, 187, 188, 196, 197, 
198, 200, 202 203, 204, 206, 
207, 210, 211, 212, 215, 216, 
219, 224, 229, 232, 234, 236, 
247, 251, 253, 256, 257, 258, 
259, 260, 265 266, 268, 269, 
271, 280, 295, 302, 303 305, 
306, 307, 317, 331, 343, 345, 
346, 349, 361, 363 365, 367, 
371, 378, 380, 383, 384, 385, 
386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 399, 
402, 410, 411, 412, 416, 417, 
421, 424, 426, 428, 436, 439, 
452, 464, 479, 483. (See numeri- 
cal designation.) 
Artillery, Chief of, 412, 418. (See 
Appendix A, p. 498.) 
Artillery, Coast, 113. 
Artillery Drill Regulations, 366, 369. 
Artillerymen, 12, 18, 81, 88, 104, 
149, 155, 156, 168. 
Artillery School of Instruction, 164, 
166. 
Artillery School of Practice, 164, 
166, 239. 
Artillery Tactics, 128. 
Artillery, Treatise on, 154. 
Art, Military, Treatise on, 103 
Ashe, General, 66. 
Asheville, North Carolina, 450. 
Ashley, General, 163. 
Asiatic Cholera, 171, 230, 234, 406, 
416. 
Asingan, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Assiniboine Indians, 309. 
Assistant Secretary of War, 261. 
Astor Battery, 386. 
Astor, John Jacob, 386. 
Astronomer, 185. 
Atascadero, California, 420. 
Atchison, Topeko and Santa Fe 
Railroad, 209. 
Atkinson, Fort, 147, 159. 
Atkinson, General, 171, 172, 
Atlanta, Georgia, 293, 294. 
Atlantic, Division of the, 331. 
Attention, 56, 166, 237. 
Augur, General, 331, 350. 
Augusta Co., Virginia, 34. 
Augusta, Georgia, 66, 152, 190, 447. 
Aulic Council, 291. 
Austerlitz, 339. 
Austria, 463. 
Auto-gun, 475. 
Automatic Rifle, 466, 475. 
Aviation Corps, 448, 451. 
Aviation Schools, 447, 451. 
Aviation Section, Signal Corps, 449. 
Aviators, 449. 
Bacolod, Philippine Islands, 400, 
402. 
Bacolod, Sultan of, 418. 
Bache, Alex. D., 179. 
Backus, Lieutenant Colonel, 131. 
Bacoor, Philippine Islands, 406. 
Bad Axe River, 172. 
Bad Lands, 365. 
Bakeries, field, 455. 
Baker, Major, 326, 328. 
Bakers, 53, 272. 
Balcarras, 47. 
Baldwin, Frank, Colonel, 415. 
Baldwin, Lieutenant, 335. 
Baliuag, Philippine Islands, 401. 
Balloons, 268, 448. 
Ball's Bluff, 272. 
Baltimore Arsenal, 150. 
Baltimore, Maryland, 35, 150, 158, 
162, 249, 250. 
Bamban, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Bandits, 214, 227, 367, 456. 
Bangued, Philippine Islands, 407. 
Banks, General, 276, 278, 279, 280. 
Banners, 24. 
Bannock Indians, 347, 348, 349, 364, 
368, 369. 
Barbed-wire, 291, 442. 
Barbette, 233, 266. 
Bark, Kilby, 235. 
Barouche, 257, 258. 
Barracks, 109, 159. 
Barren Hill, 62. 
Barron, George, 109. 
Barron, W. A., 109. 
Barry, General, 430. 
Bascom, Fort, New Mexico, 323. 
Base-ring, 129. 
Batangas, Philippine Islands, 415. 
Bateaux, 125. 
Bates, General, 380, 406, 407. 570 
INDEX 
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 154, 190, 
192 
Batteries, 113, 129, 155, 161, 165, 
181, 186, 187, 198, 203, 206, 
211, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 
224, 229, 233, 247, 261, 265, 
268, 273, 305, 307, 349, 367, 
376, 378, 380, 384, 386, 388, 
389, 426, 427, 432, 435, 436. 
Battles, 416. 
Bunker Hill, 1, 4, 6, 9, 12. 
Boston Siege, 3. 
Ticonderoga, 15, 18, 45. 
Quebec, 15. 
Crown Point, 18, 
Boston, 22. 
Flatbush, 29. 
Pell's Point, 33. 
White Plains, 33. 
Fort Washington, 33. 
Trenton, 36. 
Princeton, 37. 
Chad's Ford, 42. 
Warwick Tavern, 43. 
Germantown, 44. 
Freeman's Farm, 46. 
Mount Independence, 47. 
Fort Montgomery, 47. 
Saratoga, 47. 
Barren Hill, 62. 
Monmouth, 63. 
Newport, 64. 
Stony Point, 68. 
Paulus Hook, 68. 
Savannah, 68. 
Camden, 70. 
King's Mountain, 72. 
Hannah's Cowpens, 74. 
Guilford C. H., 74. 
Hobkirk's Hill, 75. 
Eutaw Springs, 76. 
New London, 77. 
Fort Recovery, 100. 
Fallen Timber, 101 
Tippecanoe River, 113. 
Detroit, 121. 
Ogdensburg, 122. 
Queenstown, 122. 
La Colle, 124, 136. 
Frenchtown, 127. 
Toronto, 129. 
Fort Meigs, 131. 
Fort George, 131. 
Sackett's Harbor, 131. 
Fort Stephenson, 132. 
Fort Mims, 132. 
Thames River, 132. 
Tallasahatchee, 134. 
Battles, Talledega, 134. 
Chrystler's Farm, 134. 
Fort Niagara, 135. 
Black Rock, 135, 136. 
Buffalo, 135, 136. 
Mackinaw, 121, 137. 
Chippewa, 138. 
Lundy's Lane, 138. 
Bladensburg, 139, 140. 
Fort Bowyer, 141. 
Plattsburg, 141. 
New Orleans, 142. 
Bad Axe River, 172. 
Wisconsin River, 172. 
Dade's Massacre, 176. 
Withlacoochee, 176, 178. 
Mocinope, 178. 
Ft. Drane, 178. 
Wahoo Swamp, 178. 
Okeechobee Swamp, 181, 182. 
Miami River, 186. 
Coosalahachee River, 187. 
Palto Alto, 203. 
Resaca de la Palma, 204. 
Monterey, 210, 211, 212, 225. 
Buena Vista, 216, 217, 225. 
Cerro Gordo, 220, 225. 
Vera Cruz, 219. 
Contreras, 222. 
Churubusco, 223. 
Molino del Rey, 223. 
Chapultepec, 224. 
El Brazito, 215, 226. 
Sacramento, 226. 
Paso, 226. 
Santa Cruz, 227. 
Blue Water, 238. 
Cascades, 239. 
Wenache River, 239. 
Big Cypress, Florida, 240. 
Solomon River, 240. 
Spokane, 242. 
Sixteen Mile Pond, 245. 
Fort Defiance, 246. 
Truckee River, 246. 
Big Bethel, 255. 
Boonville, Missouri, 255. 
Carricksford, 256. 
Harper's Ferry, 255. 
Blackburn's Ford, 257. 
Manassas (1st), 258. 
Bull Run (1st), 258, 259, 262, 
264, 268, 269. 
Wilson's Creek, 269. 
Lexington, Missouri, 270. 
Cross Lanes, W. Va., 270. 
Gauley Mountain, 270. 
Buffalo Hill, 270. INDEX 
571 
Battles, Leesburg, 272. 
Drainesville, 273. 
Fort Henry, 274. 
Fort Donelson, 274. 
Yorktown, 277. 
Williamsburg, 277. 
West Point, 277. 
Hanover Courthouse, 277. 
Seven Pines, 277. 
Shiloh, 277. 
McDowell, West Virginia, 278. 
Winchester, 278, 293. 
Cross Keys, 278. 
Port Republic, 278. 
Seven Days' Battles, 279. 
Mechanicsville, 279. 
Gaines Mills, 279. 
Savage Station, 279. 
White Oaks Swamp, 279. 
Malvern Hill, 279. 
Cedar Mountain, 280. 
Bull Run (2nd), 280. 
Manassas (2nd), 280. 
Mumfordsville, 280. 
Richmond, Kentucky, 280. 
Harper's Ferry, 281. 
Antietam, 281. 
Perryville, Kentucky, 282. 
Corinth, 282. 
Vicksburg, 282, 287, 288. 
Culpepper Court House, 282. 
Fredericksburg, 283. 
Murfreesborough, 284. 
Chancellorsville, 287. 
Port Gibson, Mississippi, 287. 
Grand Gulf, Mississippi, 287. 
Raymond, Mississippi, 287. 
Black River Ridge, 287. 
Champion's Hill, 287. 
Gettysburg, 287, 288. 
Chickamauga, 289. 
Lookout Mountain, 290. 
Chattanooga, 290. 
Missionary Ridge, 290. 
■Wilderness Tavern, 292. 
Spottsylvania Court House, 292. 
Resaca, Georgia, 292. 
New Hope Church, 292. 
Hanover Court House, 292. 
Kennesaw Mountain, 292. 
Cold Harbor, 292. 
Petersburg, 292. 
Monocacy, 293. 
Atlanta, 293. 
Kernstown, Virginia, 293. 
Fisher's Hill, 293. 
Cedar Creek, Virginia, 293. 
Nashville, Tennessee, 294. 
Battles, Fort Stedman, 295. 
Waynesboro, 295. 
Five Forks, 295. 
Richmond, 295. 
Farmville, 295. 
White Stone Hill, 300. 
Powder River, 300. 
Tongue River, 336. 
Clearwater, 345. 
Eagle Creek, 346. 
Clark's Fork, 348. 
Milk River, 350. 
Wounded Knee Creek, 365, 366. 
Las Guasimas, 378, 379. 
El Caney, 379, 380, 383. 
San Juan, Cuba, 379, 380, 383. 
Santiago de Cuba, 384. 
Guanico, Cuba, 386. 
San Juan de Porto Rico, 386. 
Santa Desidera, Porto Rico, 386. 
Hormigueros, Porto Rico, 387. 
Mayaguez, Porto Rico, 387. 
Las Marias, Porto Rico, 387. 
Yauco, Porto Rico, 388. 
Coamo, Porto Rico, 388. 
Aibonita, Porto Rico, 388, 389. 
Guayama, Porto Rico, 389. 
Malate, Philippine Islands, 389. 
Leech Lake, Minnesota, 394. 
Sugar Point, 394. 
Caloocan, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Bacolod, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Pasig, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Taguig, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Malolos, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Santa Cruz, Philippine Islands, 
401. 
Calumpit, Philippine Islands, 401. 
San Fernando, Pamp., Philippine 
Islands, 401, 402. 
San Isidro, Philippine Islands, 
401. 
Cebu, Philippine Islands, 402. 
Zapote River, Philippine Islands, 
402. 
Imus, Cavite, Philippine Islands, 
402. 
Colomba, Philippine Islands, 402. 
Cavite, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Morong, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Porac, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Arayat, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Cabanatuan, Philippine Islands, 
403. 
Aliaga, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Talavera, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Asingan, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Rosales, Philippine Islands, 404. 572 
INDEX 
Battles, San Jacinto, Philippine Is- 
lands, 404. 
Magalan, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Bamban, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Capas, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Concepcion, Philippine Islands, 
404. 
Tarlac, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Gerona, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Panique, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Dagupan, Philippine Islands, 404. 
San Fernando (Union), Philip- 
pine Islands 405. 
Tila Pass, Philippine Islands, 405. 
Perez Dasmarinas, Philippine 
Islands, 405. 
San Mateo, Philippine Islands, 
405. 
Subig, Philippine Islands, 405. 
Montalban, Philippine Islands, 
405. 
Bacoor, Philippine Islands, 406. 
Legaspi, Philippine Islands, 406. 
Bicol River, 407. 
Surigao, 407. 
Malibcong, 407. 
Tientsin, China, 409. 
Peking, 409, 410. 
Pei-Ts'ang, 409. 
Yang Ts'un, 409. 
Malalag River, 424. 
Bud-Da jo, Philippine Islands, 424, 
442. 
Bud Tandu, Philippine Islands, 
448. 
Columbus, New Mexico, 453. 
Guerrero, Mexico, 454. 
Agua Caliente, Mexico, 455. 
Agua Zarca, Mexico, 455. 
La Joya, Mexico, 455. 
Parral, Mexico, 455. 
Verde River, Mexico, 456. 
Tomachie, Mexico, 456. 
Ojos Azules, Mexico, 456. 
San Miguel de Rubio, Mexico, 
456. 
Alamillo Canon, Mexico, 456. 
Laredo, Texas, 459. 
West Brownsville, Texas, 459. 
Carrizal, Mexico, 459. 
Bayonet, 7, 9, 30, 37, 68, 70, 98, 101, 
119, 137, 153, 199, 212, 222, 236, 
266, 361, 367. 
Bay St. Louis, Louisiana, 192. 
Bear Chief, Chief, 326. 
Beard, 110. 
Bear Paw Mountains, 346. 
Bear-Runs-Over-A-Man, Chief, 304. 
Beauregard, General, 197, 222, 224, 
257, 258, 271, 277, 313. 
Beecher, Captain, 320. 
Beecher, Henry Ward, 320. 
Belcher, 28. 
Belew Gate, 224. 
Belgian, 265. 
Belknap, Fort, 233. 
Belle Fontaine, Missouri, 154. 
Bell, General, 406, 415. 
Bell, Major, 322. 
Bell tent, 233. 
Belts, 7, 117, 239. 
Bemis Heights, 46. 
Bennett, A. S., Captain, 349. 
Benning, Fort, Georgia, 447. 
Bennington, Vermont, 45. 
Benteen, 338. 
Benton, General, 221. 
Bent's Fort, 207, 209. 
Benzine Board, 325. 
Berlin, 282. 
Bethel, Big, 255. 
Bicol River, Philippine Islands, 407. 
Biddle, Colonel, 255. 
Big Bend of the Marias, 326. 
Big Bethel, 255. 
Big Cypress Expedition, 190. 
Big Cypress, Florida, 240. 
Big Foot, Chief, 365. 
Big Horn Mountains, 342. 
Big Horn River, 315, 336, 337. 
Biplane, 433. 
Bishop, Joseph B., 429. 
Bissell, 218. 
Bivouac, 203, 333. 
Blackburn's Ford, 257. 
Black Creek, 170. 
Blackfeet Indians, 300, 326. 
Black Hawk, 170, 171, 172, 173. 
Black Jim, 333. 
Black Kettle, 322, 323. 
Blacklegs, 227. 
Black River Bridge, 287. 
Black Rock, 125, 135, 136. 
Blacksmiths, 53, 121, 137. 
Black Swamp, 127. 
Bladensburg, 139, 140. 
Bland, Colonel, 11. 
Blank Cartridges, 81. 
Blenker's Division, 276. 
Bliss, Horace, 179, 200. 
Blockhouse Fourteen, 390. 
Block-Houses, 93. 119, 206, 232, 380, 
383, 390, 391. 
Blood Indians. 
Blue Ridge, 276, 287. 
Blue Water, 238. INDEX 
573 
Board of Officers, 143, 144, 260, 262, 
308, 325, 361, 412, 419. 
Board of Treasury, 76. 
Board of War, 72. 
Board of War and Ordnance, 27. 
Boats, 30, 35 40, 76, 84, 93,122,125, 
126, 134, 138, 142, 154, 171, 
184, 187, 199, 216, 235, 236, 
318, 377. 
Body Guards, 55. 
Boerstler, Colonel, 131. 
Bogus Charley, 333. 
Bogy, Commissioner, 311. 
Boise, Fort, 242. 
Bolo, 408, 442. 
Bolt, 145. 
Bombardiers, 12, 119, 126, 128. 
Bombers, 466. 
Bombs, 155. 
Bonita Canon, 245. 
Bonneville, Captain, 172. 
Bonus, 66, 68, 72, 97, 103, 104, 105, 
114, 128, 136, 141, 173, 183, 
217, 219, 279, 284, 289, 290, 
293, 297, 385. 
Boonville, Missouri, 255. 
Bootleggers, 227. 
Boots, 101, 160, 173. 
Bordentown, 35. 
Border, Mexican, 440, 443, 446, 449, 
452, 459, 476. 
Boston, 1, 3, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 
25, 85, 147, 157, 158, 162, 235, 
289, 375. 
Boston Charlie, 333. 
Boston Neck, 1. 
Boundaries, 186, 234. 
Bounty, 66, 68, 72, 97, 103, 104, 
105, 114, 128, 136, 141, 173, 
183, 217, 219, 279, 284, 285, 
289, 290, 293, 295, 297, 302. 
Bounty-jumping, 289. 
Bourke, 328, 329. 
Bowie Knives, 210. 
Bowles, Colonel, 217, 218. 
Bowyer, Fort, 141, 162. 
Boxers, 408, 411. 
Boyd, Chas. D., Captain, 459. 
Boyer, 315. 
Braddock, General, 2, 137. 
Bradley, Colonel, 134. 
Brady, Fort, 147, 162, 303. 
Bragg, General, 203, 218, 233, 280, 
289, 290. 
Brandywine, 42, 48. 
Bravery, 16, 64, 82, 131, 196, 207, 
218, 281. 
Brazito, El, 215, 226. 
Brazos River, 233. 
Brazos Santiago, Texas, 299. 
Breast-plate, 117, 193. 
Breastworks, 271. 
Breckenridge, General, 372. 
Breeches, 149. 
Brevet rank, 121, 153, 166, 167, 169, 
179, 180, 200, 218, 219, 228, 
230, 303, 308, 331, 
Bribery, 4, 71. 
Bricole, 155. 
Bridger, Fort, 232, 241. 
Brigade, 207, 219, 259, 271, 276, 285, 
445, 457. 
British, 16, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 33, 34, 
42, 46, 50, 62, 64, 66, 68, 79, 
92, 96, 130, 132, 134, 136, 139, 
142, 409. 
British Columbia, 242. 
British Compound, 409. 
British Manual, 11. 
Brock, General, 123. 
Brodhead, 65. 
Bronx, 26, 76. 
Brooke, Fort, Florida, 239. 
Brooke, General, 365, 372, 387, 389. 
Brook, Fort, 176. 
Brooklyn Heights, 25, 29. 
Brooks, General, 286. 
Brown Bess, 9. 
Brown, Colonel, 359, 455, 456. 
Brown, Fort, Texas, 202, 203, 205. 
Brown, Jacob, 122, 131, 137, 138, 
148, 167. 
Brown, John, 248. 
Brownsville, Texas, 202, 242, 299, 
367, 434, 459. 
Brule Indians, 238, 341. 
Brunswick, 37, 40. 
Brussells, 141. 
Buchanan, President, 245, 248. 
Bud-Dajo, Philippine Islands, 424, 
442. 
Bud Tandu, Philippine Islands, 448. 
Buell, General, 273, 275, 277, 279, 
280, 282. 
Buena Vista, 216, 225. 
Buffalo, 315. 
Buffalo Hill, 270. 
Buffalo, New York, 135, 136, 137, 
370. 
Buffington sight, 361. 
Buford, Fort, Dakota, 357. 
Buford, N. B., 179. 
Bugle, 213, 322. 
Bullard, Arthur, 429. 
Bullets, 6, 7, 153, 190, 204, 236, 
244, 361, 367, 395. 574 
INDEX 
Bull Run, 258, 259, 263, 264, 268, 
269, 280, 282, 420. 
Bulls-eye, 169. 
Bunker Hill, 1, 4, 6, 9, 12. 
Bureau of Insular Affairs, 483. 
Burgoyne, 45, 46, 47, 48. 
Burlington, Vermont, 450. 
Burnside, General, 279, 282, 283, 
286 290 
Butler, General, 210, 215, 228, 255. 
Buttons, 106, 117, 130, 164, 172, 180, 
233. 
Butt's Hill, 64. 
Cabal, Conway, 133. 
Cabanatuan, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Cabiao, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Cabinet, 251. 
Cache Creek, 234. 
Cadence, 104, 144, 237, 285. 
Cadet, 105, 106, 108, 109, 112, 116, 
117, 118, 119, 149, 151, 160, 
163, 164, 180, 192, 225, 239, 
250, 262, 268, 278, 399 435, 
436, 457, 483. 
Cadets, Medical, 262, 278. 
Cadwalader, 221. 
Cairns, J. T., Captain, 199. 
Cairo, Illinois, 274, 289. 
Caissons, 154, 166, 208. 
Calhoun, Alex., 151, 152, 155, 157. 
Caliber, 7, 10, 99, 107, 112, 113, 
132, 149, 150, 153, 163, 169, 
175, 190, 198, 202, 207, 233, 
236, 265, 334, 361, 364, 465. 
California, 193, 213, 215, 226, 229, 
230, 231, 233, 235, 245, 332, 
379, 389, 402, 420, 440, 447. 
California, Gulf of, 232, 245. 
Calle Real, 289. 
Call, General, 177. 
Caloocan, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Calumpit, Philippine Islands, 401. 
Camargo, 209, 216. 
Camarines, Philippine Islands, 406. 
Camas Prairie, 346, 348. 
Cambridge, 2. 
Camden, South Carolina, 70, 72. 
Cameron, Secretary of War 250, 
251. 
Campaign of Koniggratz, 363 
Camp Alger, Virginia, 373. 375, 379, 
393, 394. 
Campbell, 72. 
Camp Dewey Philippine Islands, 
385, 386. 
Camp Geo. G. Meade, Pennsylvania, 
376. 
Camp Geo. Crook, 365. 
Camp Geo. H. Thomas, Georgia, 375, 
393, 394. 
Camp Hamilton, Kentucky, 375. 
Camp life, 3, 50, 52, 58. 
Camp McKeon, 187. 
Camp Miller, 165. 
Camp of Instruction, Grand, 186. 
Camp Perry, Ohio, 436. 
Camp Poland, Tennessee, 375. 
Camps, 84, 99, 186, 200, 201, 202, 
205, 208, 392, 413, 417, 433, 
447, 449. 
Camp Salubrity, Louisiana, 193. 
Camp Shipp, Alabama, 376. 
Camps, Training, 99, 186, 205, 413, 
417, 433, 447, 449, 450, 453, 
466, 467, 469, 471, 474, 490. 
Camp Supply, Oklahoma, 321, 323. 
Camp Wheeler, Alabama, 376. 
Camp Wikoff, New York, 375. 
Camp Wilkins, Louisiana, 193. 
Canada, 45, 120, 121, 123, 124, 131, 
133, 180, 183, 196, 298, 302, 
303, 305, 309, 349, 375. 
Canadian River, 321, 323. 
Canadians, 42, 46. 
Canals, 142, 164. 
Canal Zone, 429, 445, 452. 
Canby, General, 296, 312, 331, 332, 
333, 354, 360. 
Candon, Philippine Islands, 407. 
Cannon, 11, 22, 24, 33, 34, 36, 62, 
93, 104, 112, 113, 121, 125, 129, 
132, 142, 150, 153, 154, 163, 
175, 189, 202, 207, 212, 220, 
224, 265, 267, 305, 316, 364, 
399, 407. 
Canon Bonita, 245. 
Canon de los Embudos, 362. 
Canteen, 7, 319. 
Cantonment, 166, 170. 
Capas, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Cape Hatteras, 235. 
Cape Horn, 229, 235. 
Capitol, 253. 
Capron's battery, 380. 
Caps, 130, 149, 165, 173, 238, 265, 
285, 331, 361. 
Captain Jack, Chief, 333. 
Carbine, 185, 190, 208, 315, 339. 
Carleton, Sir Guy, 88. 
Carlisle, Barracks, Pennsylvania, 
236. 
Carolinas, 75, 279. 
Carpenters, 53. 
Carpetbagger, 301. INDEX 
575 
Carranza, 446, 453, 454, 455, 456, 
459. 
Carriages, gun, 175, 233, 234, 266, 
465. 
Carricksford, 256. 
Carrington, Colonel, 309. 
Carrizal, Mexico, 459, 463. 
Carson, Kit, 213, 300. 
Carter, Wm. H., General, 439, 446. 
Cartouche box, 7, 43. 
Cartridge box or pouch, 7, 22, 76, 
93, 98, 145, 201, 286. 
Cartridges, 7, 33, 98, 138, 145, 171, 
176, 198, 208, 236, 237, 288, 
367. 
Cartridges, blank, 81. 
Casa Mata, 223. 
Cascade, Fort 242. 
Cascades (Columbia), 239. 
Casemate, 233, 266. 
Casement, General, 326. 
Casey's Infantry Tactics, 285. 
Cashtown, Pennsylvania, 287. 
Cass, General, 128, 136. 
Casualties, 37, 45, 70, 72, 74, 94, 98, 
101, 128, 129, 131, 138, 141, 
157, 176, 181, 182, 187, 191, 
204, 218, 219, 223, 224, 231, 
232, 235, 238, 269, 270, 273, 
282, 283, 289, 300, 320, 322, 
327, 337, 338, 345, 346, 349, 
366, 378, 379, 383, 387, 389, 
390, 392, 395, 399, 403, 405, 
406, 407, 409, 410, 413, 415, 
441, 452, 453, 455, 459. 
Catanduanes, Philippine Islands, 
406. 
Catawba River, 69. 
Caution, Command of, 144. 
Cavalry, 35, 83, 98, 99, 103, 105, 
106, 107, 117, 121, 128, 130, 
132, 137, 161, 165, 166, 171, 
173, 175, 178, 179, 181, 184, 
185, 186, 188, 190, 191, 192, 
193, 196, 200, 202, 203, 206, 
210, 211, 213, 216, 218, 222, 
223, 228, 229, 230, 233, 236, 
238, 240, 245, 246, 250, 251, 
253, 259, 260, 261, 267, 268, 
269, 271, 278, 280, 284, 287, 
291, 292, 298, 302, 303, 306, 
307, 308, 312, 313, 321, 322, 
330, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 
343, 344, 345, 346, 351, 360, 
361, 362, 363, 366, 368, 378, 
381, 383, 387, 399, 404, 405, 
411, 412, 416, 417, 421, 426, 
428, 439, 441, 443, 444, 447, 
448, 451, 452, 454, 457, 483. 
(See numerical designation.) 
Cavalry, Chief of. See Appendix 
A, p. 499. 
Cavalry Drill Regulations, 351, 366, 
369, 417. 
Cavalry School, 363. 
Cavalry Tactics, 161, 165, 190. 
Cavalry Tactics, Cooke's, 360. 
Cavite, Philippine Islands, 374, 379, 
385, 386, 403. 
Cebu, Philippine Islands, 400, 402. 
Cedar Creek, Virginia, 293. 
Cedar Mountain, 280. 
Center, Army of, 122. 
Centerville, 271, 273, 275. 
Central Army, 122. 
Centre, Lieutenant, 181. 
Cerralvo, 210. 
Cerro Gordo, 220, 225, 244. 
Certificate of Merit, 219. 
Cervera, 277. 
Chad's Ford, 42. 
Chaffee, A. R., General, 335, 369, 
380, 408, 409, 410, 411, 415. 
Chako, 165. 
Chamber, 145, 164, 171, 176. 
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, 293. 
Chambers, Colonel, 339, 340. 
Champion's Hill, 287. 
Champlain Arsenal, 190. 
Champlain, Lake, 133, 136. 
Chancellorsville, 287. 
Chandler, General, 131. 
Chapeaux, 130, 149, 160, 165. 
Chapel, 84, 86. 
Chaplain, 97, 153, 184, 260, 483, 
484. 
Chapultepec, 224. 
Charleston, South Carolina, 66, 69, 
70, 72, 79, 159, 162, 171, 190, 
192. 
Charlestown Neck, 1. 
Charlotte, North Carolina, 70, 72. 
Chase, Mr., 28. 
Chatham, 73. 
Chato, Chief, 360. 
Chattahoochee River, 292, 293. 
Chattanooga, Tennessee, 280, 281, 
289, 290, 291, 292, 293. 
Cheat Mountains, 255. 
Chehalis, Fort, 242. 
Chemical Warfare Service, 483, 484. 
Cherokee Indians, 184, 195. 
Chesapeake, 40, 42, 75, 139, 275, 
428. 
Chester, 43. 
Chester, Captain, 13. 576 
INDEX 
China, 408, 411. 
Chinese, 363, 406, 409, 410. 
Chippewa Indians, 394, 395. 
Chippewa River, 137. 
Chiricahua Apaches, 359, 360, 362. 
Choctow Indians, 170. 
Cholera, Asiatic, 171, 230, 234, 417. 
Chrystler's Farm, 134. 
Churubusco, 222, 223. 
Cincinnati, 97, 100, 228. 
City of Mexico, 220, 222, 223, 224, 
228 
Civil War, 169, 240, 243, 244, 290, 
298, 300, 302, 307, 313, 316, 
317, 319 325, 326, 331, 338, 
352, 357, 374, 419, 420, 421. 
Clarke, Geo. Rogers, 64, 65, 69, 89. 
Clarke, Wm., General, 110, 124, 240, 
344. 
Clark, Fort, Texas, 351. 
Clark, Major, 206. 
Clark's Fork, 348. 
Class "A" (Officers), 484. 
Class "B" (Officers), 484. 
Clay, General, 131. 
Clay, Henry, 218. 
Cleanliness, 58, 60. 
Clearwater, 345. 
Cleveland, Grover, 368. 
Clinch, General, 176, 178, 195. 
Clinton, Henry, 69, 70, 73, 76, 77. 
Clinton, James, 45, 47, 63, 65, 67. 
Cloak, 233. 
Clothier-general, 76. 
Clothing, 51, 52, 63, 65, 68, 73, 75, 
76 80, 84, 95, 105, 149, 173, 
175, 205, 207, 213, 227, 246, 
255, 259, 264, 267, 268, 271, 
283, 329, 339, 341, 343, 375, 
447, 480. 
Clothing allowance, 207. 
Coahuila, 214. 
Coamo, Porto Rico, 388. 
Coast Artillery, 113, 428, 434, 436, 
439, 440, 444, 448, 452, 453, 
456, 457, 483. 
Coast Artillery, Chief of, 428. See 
Appendix A, p. 499. 
Coast defense, 112, 148, 361, 370, 
419, 422, 427, 428, 433. 
Coast Defense Board, 428. 
Cobb, General, 296. 
Cochrane, General, 286. 
Cochran, John, 247. 
Cockades, 20, 106, 112, 149. 
Cocke, General, 134. 
Coehorns, 207, 233. 
Coffee, General, 134, 
Chevaux-de-frise, 465. 
Chevron, 82, 160, 180, 233, 361. 
Chew House, 44. 
Cheyenne Indians, 240, 300, 311, 319, 
322, 323, 336, 342, 343. 
Cheyenne River Reservation, 431. 
Chicago, Illinois, 195. 
Chickamauga, 289, 373. 
Chief American Horse, 341. 
Chief Bear Chief, 326. 
Chief Big Foot, 375. 
Chief Black Kettle, 322. 
Chief Captain Jack, 333. 
Chief Chato, 360. 
Chief Chihuahua, 362. 
Chief Crazy Horse, 336, 341, 343, 
344. 
Chief Dull Knife, 342. 
Chief Geronimo, 360, 362. 
Chief Kamiarkin, 238. 
Chief Mountain Chief, 328. 
Chief Nachez, 362. 
Chief of Air Service. See Appendix 
A, p. 499. 
Chief of Artillery, 412, 418. See 
Appendix A, p. 498. 
Chief of Cavalry, See Appendix A, 
p. 499. 
Chief of Coast Artillery, 428. See 
Appendix A, p. 499. 
Chief of Engineers, 308, 372. See 
Appendix A, p. 497. 
Chief of Field Artillery. See Ap- 
pendix A, p. 499. 
Chief of Infantry. See Appendix 
A, p. 499. 
Chief of Ordnance, 261, 308, 364, 
372, 427. See Appendix A, p. 
498. 
Chief of Staff, 274, 295, 418, 437, 
440, 457, 481, 489. See Appen- 
dix A, p. 493. 
Chief of Tank Corps. See Appen- 
dix A, p. 499. 
Chief Red Horn, 326, 327. 
Chief Roman Nose, 319, 320, 322. 
Chief Signal Officer, 372. See Ap- 
pendix A, p. 498. 
Chiefs, Indian, 238 304, 319, 320, 
322, 326, 328, 333, 336, 341, 
342, 344, 345, 346, 347, 349, 
350, 357, 358, 360, 362, 365. 
Chief Sitting Bull, 336, 341, 349, 
350, 357, 365. 
Chi Hua gate, 410. 
Chihuahua, 226, 227. 
Chihuahua, Chief, 362. 
Childs, Colonel, 212. INDEX 
577 
Cold Harbor, 292. 
Colleges, 308, 413, 485. 
Colle, La, 124, 136. 
Colomba, Philippine Islands, 402. 
Colorado, 229, 240, 350, 351, 385, 
390, 450. 
Colorado River, 154, 232, 236, 239. 
Colors, 20, 24, 135, 210, 288, 318, 
393, 477. 
Colt, 210, 240, 319. 
Columbiad, 190, 233, 265, 266. 
Columbia, Dept, of, 331. 
Columbia, District of, 139, 150, 251, 
399, 434. 
Columbia River, 193, 230, 239. 
Columbus Barracks, Ohio, 373. 
Columbus, New Mexico, 453, 454, 
455. 
Columbus, Ohio, 279. 
Comanche Indians, 111, 226, 304, 
309, 314, 322, 323, 334. 
Commandant of Cadets, U.S.M.A., 
151, 188, 242. 
Commander-in-Chief. See Appendix 
A, p. 491. 
Command of Caution, 144. 
Command of Execution, 144. 
Commands, 11, 144, 145. 
Commissary, 52, 53, 54. 
Commissary Dept., 196, 256, 371. 
Commissary-general, 63, 119, 149, 
159, 308, 372, 425. 
Commissary-general of Ordnance, 
119. 
Commissary-general of subsistence, 
284. 
Commissary of subsistence, 261, 284. 
Commissary-sergeant, 259, 307. 
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 
311. 
Commission, Peace, 320, 332. 
Commission, War, 393. 
Committee of Safety, 19, 26. 
Communications, 212, 218, 221, 224, 
293, 400, 403, 405. 
Compass, 321. 
Compensation, 229, 295, 449. 
Concentration Camps, 373, 466. 
Concepcion, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Conduct, good, 262. 
Conductor of Artillery, 153. 
Confederate Army, 248, 249, 250, 
253, 255, 257, 258, 265, 267, 
268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 
274, 277, 279, 282, 284, 286, 
292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 308. 
Confederate States, 248, 250, 251, 
253, 264 280, 288, 298, 301. 
Congress, 5, 11, 16, 17, 19, 26, 27, 
31, 33, 35, 43, 46, 48, 68, 86, 
87, 114, 143, 152, 156, 158, 166, 
180, 188, 197, 205, 207, 218, 
226, 227, 229, 231, 232, 236, 
237, 248, 251, 260, 261, 262, 
263, 274, 278, 284, 289, 290, 
295, 301, 305, 306, 313, 318, 
330, 348, 349, 356, 363, 364, 
365, 366, 369, 370, 371, 372, 
373, 374, 377, 384, 391, 395, 
398, 405, 407, 411, 416, 417, 
419, 420, 422, 427, 428, 431, 
433, 434, 436, 438, 439, 444, 
445, 448, 451, 456, 457, 469, 
471, 489. 
Congressional Investigations, 162, 
180, 434. 
Congress of Sovereign States, 248. 
Connecticut, 3, 4, 13, 25, 27, 28, 40, 
87, 120, 303, 434. 
Connor, General, 300. 
Conscription, 141, 276, 280, 284, 288, 
289, 466. 
Constabulary, Philippine, 418, 424. 
Constitution, 95, 251, 262, 274, 435. 
Contreras, 222. 
Conway, 44, 49. 
Conway Cabal, 133. 
Cooke, P. St. G., General, 213, 215, 
238, 312, 331, 360. 
Cooking, 3, 52, 54, 200, 207, 392, 
455. 
Cook Inlet, Alaska, 318. 
Cooks, 399. 
Cook's Cavalry Tactics, 360. 
Cooper, 230, 236, 237. 
Coosahatchee, 67, 187, 189. 
Coosa River, 133. 
Copper, 234. 
Copperhead, 289. 
Coppinger, General, 369, 372. 
Corbin, General, 372, 420. 
Corinth, Mississipi, 282. 
Cornet, 98, 106, 121, 137. 
Cornwallis, 34, 37, 42, 69, 70, 72, 
74, 75, 76, 77, 79. 
Corps, 275. 
Corps of Cadets, 109 151, 164, 188, 
192, 262, 436, 457. 
Corps of Engineers. See Engineers. 
Corpus Christi, Texas, 199, 200, 202. 
Cortina Indians, 242. 
Cotabato River, Philippine Islands, 
424. 
Council Bluffs, Mississippi, 159, 162. 
Council of War, 77, 125. 
Countermarch, 187. 578 
INDEX 
Countersign, 139, 175. 
Courts-martial, 16, 42, 45, 49, 84, 
103, 169, 173, 174, 377. 
Cowardice, 12, 15, 16, 49, 54, 125, 
127. 
Cow Island, 346. 
Cox, Secretary, 324. 
Craig, Lieutenant Colonel, 234. 
Crawford, Captain, 360, 362. 
Crawford, Fort, 147, 168, 188. 
Crazy Horse, Chief, 336, 341, 343, 
344. 
Crazy Woman's Fork, 342. 
Creek Indians 132, 134, 152, 176, 
178. 
Creese, 408, 442. 
Crime, 175, 227, 234. 
Criminals, 175, 227, 234. 
Crisis, 39. 
Crittenden, Senator, 217. 
Crook, Camp Geo., 365. 
Crook, Fort, 242. 
Crook, Geo., General, 293, 326, 328, 
329, 330, 331, 336, 337, 340, 
341, 342, 350, 351, 358, 359, 
360, 362, 363. 
Cross, 20. 
Cross Belt, 7. 
Cross Keys, 278. 
Cross Lanes, West Virginia, 270. 
Croup, 190. 
Crowder, E. H., General, 475, 477. 
Crow Indians, 337, 342, 346, 349. 
Crown Point, 18. 
Cruelty, 174. 
Cuba, 374, 375, 377, 378, 379, 386, 
391, 397, 415, 423, 426, 427, 
464. 
Cuban Pacification, 426, 430, 433, 
434. 
Cubans, 384. 
Culpepper Court House, 282. 
Cumberland, Army of the, 282, 292. 
Cumming, Colonel, 143. 
Curriculum, 109, 116, 164, 235, 247, 
356, 363. 
Custer, General, 299, 321, 322, 336, 
337, 338, 339, 342, 354. 
Cypress Expedition, Big, 190. 
Dade's Massacre, 176, 177, 187. 
Dagupan, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Daiquiri, Cuba, 377, 378. 
Dakota, 340. 
Dakota, Department of, 331. 
Dallas, Fort, 186. 
Dallas, Georgia, 293. 
Dalles, Fort, 242. 
Dalton, Georgia, 294. 
Danbury, Connecticut, 40. 
Daring, 64. 
Darrow, Pierce, Lieutenant Colonel, 
161. 
Das Marinas, Philippine Islands, 
402. 
Datu, 420, 423, 424, 442. 
Datu Ali, 420, 423, 424. 
Dauphin, 81. 
Davie, General, 128. 
Davis, Colonel, 425. 
Davis, Jefferson, 152, 179, 197, 200, 
212, 218, 247, 251, 264, 271, 
275, 276, 283, 318. 
Davis, Jefferson C., General 318, 
333. 
Day ton, Ohio, 119. 
Dead River, 15. 
Deadwood City, Dakota, 340. 
Deane, Silas, 41. 
Dearborn, Fort, 147. 
Dearborn, General, 120 124, 125, 
131, 232. 
Death penalty, 103, 152, 174. 
Declaration of Independence, 27, 28. 
Declaration of Peace, 87, 142, 187, 
190, 228, 388. 
Declaration of War, 120, 203, 205, 
372. 
Decorations, 23, 74. 
Defiance, Fort, 101, 245, 246, 319. 
De Grasse, 76, 79. 
De Kalb, 70. 
Delaware, 27. 
Delaware, Fort, 303. 
Delaware Indians, 181, 206. 
Delaware River, 34, 35, 75. 
Del Pilar, M. H., General, 405. 
Demobilization, 481, 482. 
Democrat, 228. 
Demonstration, 55, 56, 119, 417. 
Dengue Fever, 384, 392. 
Dental Corps, 457. 
Dental Surgeons, 431, 439. 
Dentists, 431, 439. 
Department, Indian, 320. 
Department, Interior, 163. 
Department, Mountain, 275, 276, 
277, 279. 
Department of Arizona, 328, 330, 
331. 
Department of Dakota, 331. 
Department of Mississippi, 275, 299. 
Department of Texas, 331. 
Department of the Columbia, 331. 
Department of the East. 331. INDEX 
579 
Department of the Lakes, 331. 
Department of the Missouri, 277, 
284, 331. 
Department of the Pacific, 240. 
Department of the Platte, 331. 
Department of the Rappahannock, 
277. 
Department of the Shenandoah, 276, 
277, 279. 
Department of the Tennessee, 279, 
282. 
Department of Washington, 303. 
Departments, Military, 192, 196, 
240, 301, 303, 312, 318, 331, 445. 
See Appendices K and M. 
Department, War, 27, 133, 150, 151, 
163, 169, 177, 190, 233, 239, 
251, 318, 328, 366, 372, 375, 
419, 431, 433, 435, 441, 465, 
467, 471, 474, 475, 477, 489. 
Deploy step, 143. 
Depot, 190. 
Deputy Quartermaster, 118. 
Deranged officers, 146, 147, 162. 
Derby, Geo. H., 232. 
Deringer, Dr., 161. 
de Russy, M., 154. 
Desertion, 5, 13, 15, 23, 30, 32, 34, 
45 48, 53, 68, 70, 97, 122, 123, 
173, 175, 202, 214, 218, 227, 
230, 234, 262, 283, 294, 295, 
297, 305, 349. 
Des Moines, Iowa, 407. 
Des Moines River, 193. 
De Soto, 180. 
D'Estaing, 68. 
Detached Service, 53, 61, 179, 452. 
Detroit, 120, 121, 147, 153, 154, 171, 
190, 192. 
Devens, 272. 
Dewey, Camp, 385, 386. 
Dewey, George, Admiral, 374, 379. 
Diary, 123. 
Dick Bill, 417. 
Dickinson, Secretary of War, 435, 
436, 437, 468. ' 
Digos, Philippine Islands, 424. 
Dirigibles, 452. 
Disability, 262, 284. 
Disbandment, 90. 
Discharge Certificate, 284. 
Discharges, 87, 90, 107, 178, 300, 
302, 304, 305, 324, 391, 398, 
399, 402, 413. 
Disciplinary Barracks, IT. S., 451. 
Discipline, 5, 13, 15, 16, 21, 26, 31, 
44, 54, 60, 62, 63, 70, 73, 78, 
82, 99, 100, 101, 104, 114, 117, 
119, 122, 127, 135, 137, 140, 
142, 144, 191, 193, 201, 204, 
207, 208, 213, 215, 222, 225, 
226, 232, 241, 245, 246, 254, 
257, 264, 267, 269, 286, 288, 
297, 353 373, 383, 385, 393, 
394, 397, 398, 416, 417, 422, 
435, 436, 446, 451, 460, 464. 
Discipline, New System of, 128. 
Discipline, Norfolk, 11. 
Disease, 15, 45, 53, 167, 168, 171, 
179, 181, 189, 200, 206, 207, 
214, 219, 220, 225, 227, 230, 
234, 243, 269, 276, 278, 291, 
297, 326, 357, 374, 384, 386, 
392, 393, 394, 406, 416, 417, 
430. 
Disobedience of Orders, 131, 217. 
Distribution of troops, 101, 117, 147, 
159, 162, 165, 196, 229, 235, 
239, 244, 245, 279, 302, 306, 
331, 350, 444, 517, 523, 525. 
District of Columbia, 139, 150, 251, 
385, 399, 434. 
Districts, Military, 130, 139, 188. 
Division, 190, 207, 218, 220, 259, 
271, 301, 420, 437, 439, 444, 
445, 453, 457, 470, 476. 
Division, Grand, 144, 162, 190, 283, 
286, 420. 
Division of Military Affairs, 433. 
Division of the Atlantic, 331. 
Division of the Missouri, 331. 
Division of the Pacific, 331. 
Division of the South, 151. 
Division of the Tennessee, 303. 
Dixon's Ferry, 171. 
Dobb's Ferry, 76. 
Dodd, Geo., A., Colonel, 454, 456. 
Dodge, General, 325. 
Dog Indians, 322. 
Donelson, Fort, 274. 
Doniphan, Colonel, 168, 206, 207, 
214, 215, 226. 
Dorchester Heights, 21. 
Double pay, 231. 
Douglas, Arizona, 443. 
Dover, N. J., 427. 
Dowd, 442, 443. 
Downe, W. A., Colonel, 381. 
Draft law, 276, 280, 284, 288, 289, 
290, 466, 467, 475. 
Dragoons, 3, 73, 98, 100, 101, 103, 
104, 105, 107, 112, 117, 121, 
128, 130, 131, 137, 173, 175, 
178, 181, 184, 186, 188, 190, 
191, 192, 193, 196, 199, 200, 
203, 206, 207, 210, 213, 216, 580 
INDEX 
217, 218, 222, 228, 229, 230, 
233, 236, 240, 245, 256, 267. 
Drainsville, 273. 
Drane, Fort, 177, 178, 187. 
Drayton, 143. 
Drift, 361. 
Drill, 10, 11, 26, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 
81, 82, 83, 93, 100, 101, 103, 
107, 112, 128, 129, 143, 144, 
161, 164, 168, 186, 190, 192, 
196, 208, 215, 218, 221, 227, 
230, 264, 266, 268, 285, 317, 
374, 437. 
Drill Master, 144. 
Drill Regulations, 143, 154, 164, 
165, 168, 169, 176, 179, 187, 
190, 197, 230, 233, 236, 237, 
247, 266, 267, 285, 317, 351, 
360, 366, 369, 417, 421, 441. 
Driver, 126. 
Drum, 145. 
Drunkenness, 76, 96, 139, 171, 227, 
253, 353, 393, 446. 
Dry Tortugas, Florida, 303. 
Duane, Wm., 28, 143, 144. 
Du Cordray, 41. 
Duffield, General, 379, 380. 
Duke of Wellington, 142. 
Dull Knife, Chief, 342. 
Duncan, Captain, 204, 211, 228. 
Duncan, Fort, 231. 
Duncan, J. W., Colonel, 424. 
Dunlop, 35. 
Dunn, J. P., 310. 
Du Pont, Henry, 179. 
Du Portail, 42. 
Duties, routine, 193, 198, 312, 353. 
Dyer, Commissioner, 333. 
Dynamite gun, 364. 
Dysentery, 189, 269, 384, 406. 
Eagan, General, 372. 
Eagle, 172, 238. 
Eagle Creek, 346. 
Early, General, 280, 293, 294, 295. 
Earthquake, San Francisco, 425. 
East, Department of, 331. 
Eastern Department, 177, 275, 331. 
Easton, Pennsylvania, 65. 
Eastport, Maine, 162, 303. 
Easy Plan, Timothy Pickering's, 11. 
Eaton, Governor, 117. 
Echelons, 165. 
Efficiency Reports, 18. 
Eighteenth Infantry, 147, 303, 311, 
369, 385, 386, '476. 
Eighth Cavalry, 366, 369. 
Eighth Infantry, 147, 159, 184, 187, 
188, 189, 200, 228, 245, 256, 
369, 387. 
Eighth Maryland, 140. 
Eighth Massachusetts, 393. 
Eighth Ohio, 385. 
Eighth Virginia, 272. 
Eighty-eight Battalion Act, 31. 
El Brazito, 215, 225. 
El Caney, Cuba, 379, 380, 383, 385, 
396. 
El Dorado, 230. 
Election of Officers, 4, 208, 249, 252, 
260, 262. 
Eleventh Cavalry, 412, 447, 454, 455, 
456. 
Eleventh Infantry, 138, 147, 222, 
228, 286, 287. 
Elizabethtown, 65. 
Elk, Head of, 76. 
Elk Water, 270. 
Elliott, Major, 321, 323. 
Ellis, Fort, 326. 
Ellsworth, Colonel, 267. 
Elmira, New York, 65. 
El Paso, 215, 227, 229, 230, 443, 
456. 
El Tejar, Mexico, 449. 
Embargo, 443. 
Embudos, Canon de los, 362. 
Emory, General, 331. 
Endicott Board, 361, 370, 420, 422. 
Enfield Rifle, 265. 
Engineering, Military, 188. 
Engineers, 35, 103, 104, 105, 107, 
108, 113, 117, 118, 128, 133, 
146, 147, 149, 156, 163, 164, 
179, 183, 185, 196, 206, 221, 
224, 232, 234, 242, 262, 271, 
284, 292, 306, 308, 325, 334, 
373, 421, 424, 429, 437, 438, 
439 448, 449, 452, 454, 457, 
483' 
Engineers, Chief of, 308. 
Engineers, Corps of. See Engineers. 
Engineers, Topographical, 149, 170, 
183, 185, 196, 232, 235, 261,' 
262, 284. 
England, 302. 
Enlisted Men, 4, 41, 91, 93, 95, 96, 
103, 104, 105, 183, 439. 
Enlisted Reserve Corps, 457, 483. 
Enlistment, 14, 17, 18, 19, 27, 92, 
104, 110, 112, 117, 118, 128, 
135, 136, 139, 141, 173, 178, 
205, 208, 214, 217, 219, 220, 
231, 242, 249, 251, 252, 257, 
259, 261, 262, 263, 279, 286, INDEX 
581 
289, 290, 292, 293, 295, 297, 
300, 302, 305, 324, 368, 372, 
413, 417, 439, 445, 457, 470. 
Enlistment blanks, 7. 
Enrollment Act, 284, 288, 289, 290, 
293 
Ensign, 59, 96, 103, 105, 106, 121, 
144. 
Entertainment, 81, 84, 94. 
Entrenchments, 271, 292, 294, 374, 
402, 404. 
Epaulets, 83, 88, 105, 160, 172, 179, 
233, 239, 265. 
Equipment, 7, 25, 56, 58, 87, 98, 
100, 117, 150, 168, 175, 205, 
233, 264, 267, 268, 319, 373, 
393, 435, 448, 466, 467. 
Erie, Fort, 138. 
Erie, Lake, 132, 191. , 
Ermita, Philippine Islands, 391. 
Ernst, General, 386, 388, 389. 
Espontoon, 99. 
Eustis, Secretary of War, 197. 
Eutaw Indians, 214. 
Eutaw Springs, 76. 
Evacuation Hospital, 452. 
Evans, General, 272. 
Evans, Major, 323, 324. 
Everglades, 182, 204. 
Evolution of Field Batteries of Ar- 
tillery, 247. 
Ewell, General, 278, 292, 295. 
Ewers, Lieutenant Colonel, 382. 
Ewing, 35, 36. 
Examining Board, 308, 412. 
Exchange of prisoners, 35, 121. 
Execution, Command of, 144. 
Expedition, Big Cypress, 190. 
Expedition, O'Neill's, 302, 305. 
Expeditions, Yellowstone, 347. 
Exploration, 110, 111, 154, 164, 185, 
193, 232, 234, 235, 239, 240, 
334. 
Express Rider, 175. 
Extended order, 168. 
Facings (Drill), 317. 
Facings (uniform), 82, 88, 106, 112, 
172, 361. 
Fairfield, Connecticut, 40. 
Fallen Timber, 101. 
Falls Church, Virginia, 373. 
Falmouth, 283. 
Farrier, 121, 137. 
Fatigue, 175, 193, 203, 331, 361, 
387.. 
Fayetteville, North Carolina, ,295. 
Feathers, 83, 88, 130, 160, 238, 265. 
Federation Ridge, 211. 
Fellows, 31. 
Feltman, Lieutenant, 77. 
Fenians, 298, 301, 303, 305, 309. 
Fencibles, Sea, 130, 137. 
Fenwick, Colonel, 143. 
Ferguson, 72. 
Fernandina, Florida, 373, 375. 
Ferrero, General, 286. 
Fetterman, Colonel, 310. 
Fetterman, Fort, Wyoming, 3 36, 
341, 342. 
Fever, 166, 167, 168, 177, 185, 189, 
220, 228, 234, 383. 
Field Artillery, 169, 175, 187, 188, 
197, 198, 200, 222, 266, 303, 
428, 436, 437, 439, 440, 441, 
444, 447, 448, 450, 451, 452, 
457. See numerical designa- 
tions. 
Field Artillery, Chief of. See Ap- 
pendix A, p. 499. 
Field Artillery, Instruction for, 197. 
Field Artillery, School of Fire, 440. 
Field Artillery, School of the Piece, 
234. 
Field Bakeries, 455. 
Field Division, 210, 215. 
Field-glasses, 345. 
Field Hospitals, 449, 452. 
Field piece, 153, 271. 
Field Service Regulations, 448. 
Fifteenth Cavalry, 412, 447. 
Fifteenth Infantry, 147, 222, 228. 
Fifth Cavalry, 238, 303, 339, 341, 
342, 350, 351, 387, 455. 
Fifth Field Artillery, 268, 303, 386, 
409, 456. 
Fifth Infantry, 116, 147, 170, 187, 
188, 200, 203, 229, 230, 233, 
234, 241 245, 341, 343, 346, 
350. 
Fifth Marines, 476. 
File, 145, 169. 
Filipinos, 398, 400, 401, 405, 406, 
407, 408, 411, 414. 
Filipino Scouts, 423. 
Finance Department, 483. 
Finance, Superintendent of, 76. 
Finerty, 339. 
Firelock, 8, 19, 61, 76, 98, 130, 145, 
146, 199. 
Fire, San Francisco, 424. 
Firing, 11, 143, 145, 169, 198, 237, 
267. 
First Aero Squadron, 454. 
First Battalion Engineers, 424. 
First California, 379, 402. 582 
INDEX 
First Cavalry, 238, 240, 330, 345, 
349, 378. 
First Colorado, 385. 
First District of Columbia, 385. 
First Division, 210, 406, 477. 
First Dragoons, 175, 188, 206, 222, 
229, 233, 245, 256, 267. 
First Field Artillery, 137, 159, 167, 
177, 184, 200, 228, 229, 230, 
233, 235, 239, 245, 247, 303. 
First Idaho, 386. 
First Illinois, 385. 
First Infantry, 116, 138, 147, 168, 
172, 181, 188, 190, 197, 220, 
221, 229, 231, 245. 
First Nebraska, 385. 
First North Dakota, 386. 
First Ohio, 212. 
First Pennsylvania, 217. 
First Tennessee, 209. 
First Wyoming, 386. 
Fisher's Hill, Virginia, 293. 
Fish, Hamilton, Sergeant, 379. 
Five Forks, 295. 
Flagler, General, 372. 
Flags, 20, 24, 41, 195, 210, 228, 
250, 270, 296, 318, 347, 385, 
391, 409, 461, 467. 
Flank Guards, 84. 
Flatbush, 29. 
Flathead Indians, 172, 309. 
Fleet. 219, 377, 379, 384, 387. 
Flintlock, 8, 93, 99, 164, 190, 198, 
236, 247, 265. 
Flints 8, 10, 98, 208, 236. 
Flogging, 129, 173, 262. 
Florida, 117, 152, 176, 177, 178, 181, 
182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 
195, 200, 211, 230, 235, 239, 
245, 248, 303, 404. 
Flour, 51, 127, 209. 
Floyd, General, 270. 
Floyd, Secretray of War, 245, 248, 
265. 
Flying Camp, 27. 
Food, 13, 15, 51, 62, 65, 69, 75, 80, 
84, 122, 127, 133, 191, 207, 209, 
213, 215, 241, 269, 271, 283, 
320, 339, 340, 343, 375, 377, 
394, 410, 416. 
Foot, Solomon, 246. 
Forage, 95, 105, 106, 108, 112, 207, 
241. 
Forage cap, 165, 265, 285, 331. 
Foreigners, 41, 42. 55, 64, 173. 
Foreign Service, 231, 441. 
Formations, 56, 143, 145, 161, 246, 
285, 317. 
Forsyth, Colonel, 319, 320, 365, 366. 
Fort, 93, 94, 112, 113, 116, 117, 125, 
142, 147, 163, 175, 177, 194, 
195, 202, 211, 212, 223, 224, 
232, 245, 248, 249, 251, 262, 
309, 310, 311, 319, 320, 324, 
328, 352, 390, 419. 
Fort Adams, 228, 303. 
Fort Aguadores, Cuba, 380. 
Fort Anderson, 188. 
Fort Armstrong, 147, 170. 
Fort Atkinson, 147, 159. 
Fort Bascom, New Mexico, 323. 
Fort Belknap, 233. 
Fort Benning, Georgia, 447. 
Fort, Bent's, 207, 209. 
Fort Boise, 242. 
Fort Bowyer, 141, 162. 
Fort Brady, 147, 162, 303. 
Fort Bridger, 232, 241. 
Fort Brook, 176. 
Fort Brooke, Florida, 239. 
Fort Brown 202, 203, 205. 
Fort Buford, Dakota, 357. 
Fort Cascade, 242. 
Fort Chehalis, 242. 
Fort Clark, Texas, 351. 
Fort Crawford, 147, 168, 188. 
Fort Crook, 242. 
Fort Dallas, 186. 
Fort Dalles, 242. 
Fort Dearborn, 147. 
Fort Defiance, 101, 245, 246, 319. 
Fort Delaware, Delaware, 303. 
Fort Donelson, 274. 
Fort Drane, 177, 178, 187. 
Fort Duncan, 231. 
Fort Ellis, Montana, 326. 
Fort Erie, 138. 
Fort Fetterman, Wyoming, 336, 341, 
342. 
Fort Gadsden, Florida, 162. 
Fort Gaston, 242. 
Fort George, 131, 135. 
Fort Gibson, 147, 229. 
Fort Gratiot, 147. 
Fort Halleck, Idaho, 300. 
Fort Hall, Idaho, 232, 368. 
Fort Hamilton, 97, 228, 364. 
Fort Harrison, 122, 147. 
Fort Henry, 274. 
Fort Hoskins, 242. 
Fort Howard, 147, 165. 
Fort Humboldt, 242. 
Fort Independence, Maine, 235. 
Fort Jefferson, 97. 
Fort Jesup, 193, 196, 199, 200. 
Fort Jones, 242. INDEX 
583 
Fort Kearny, 230, 232, 240, 245, 
309, 311, 319. 
Fort Keogh, 346. 
Fort King, 176, 187. 
Fort Klamath, Oregon, 333. 
Fort Knox, 147. 
Fort Lane, 242. 
Fort Laramie, 230, 232, 236. 
Fort Larned, Kansas, 314. 
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 166, 168, 
196, 206, 230, 231, 236, 238, 
239, 240, 241, 242, 355, 356, 
363, 370, 407, 421, 422, 423, 
435, 451, 452. 
Fort Lee, New York, 33, 48. 
Fort Marcy, 210. 
Fort Mason, California, 424, 425. 
Fort Massachusetts New Mexico, 
241. 
Fort McHenry, 228. 
Fort McIntosh, 231. 
Fort Meade, South Dakota, 427, 431, 
452. 
Fort Meigs, 130, 131. 
Fort Merrill, 231. 
Fort Miley, California, 425. 
Fort Mims, 132, 133. 
Fort Mohave, 242. 
Fortress Monroe, Virginia, 164, 165, 
190, 192, 229, 230, 239, 255, 
276, 279, 303, 
Fort Moultrie, 69. 
Fort Necessity, 2. 
Fort Niagara, New York, 135, 162, 
303. 
Fort Ontario, 303. 
Fort Orford, 242. 
Fort Peck, 350. 
Fort Petite Coquille, Louisiana, 163. 
Fort Pickens, Florida, 230. 
Fort Pitt, 90, 93. 
Fort Reading, 242. 
Fort Recovery, 100. 
Fort Reno, 309, 319. 
Fort Riley, Kansas, 239, 245, 364, 
370, 447. 
Fort Robinson, Nebraska, 365, 452. 
Fort D. A. Russell, Wyoming, 452. 
Fort Saint Phillips, Mississippi, 163. 
Fort San Antonio, Philippine 
Islands, 390. 
Fort Scott, Florida, 152. 
Fort Shaw, 326. 
Fort Shelby, Michigan, 163. 
Fort Sheridan, Illinois, 452. 
Fort Sill, Oklahoma, 440, 447, 452. 
Fort Simcoe, 242. 
Fort Smith, 192, 229. 
Fort C. S. Smith, 315. 
Fort Snelling, 168, 188, 196, 394. 
Fort Stedman, 295. 
Fort Steele, 350. 
Fort Steilacoom, 242. 
Fort Stephenson, 132. 
Fort Strother, 134. 
Fort Sullivan, 303. 
Fort Sumpter, 248, 249, 250, 275. 
Fort Terwaw, 242. 
Fort Townsend, 242. 
Fort Towson, 229. 
Fort Trumbull, 303. 
Fort Vancouver, 242. 
Fort Wallace, 320. 
Fort Walla Walla, 239, 242. 
Fort Washington, Maryland, 162. 
Fort Washington, New York, 33, 
48. 
Fort Washita, 229. 
Fort Wayne, 147, 303. 
Fort Willcox, 360. 
Fort Winnebago, 147, 168, 170. 
Fort Yamhill, 242. 
Fort Yuma, 232, 242, 244. 
Fortieth Infantry, 147. 
Fortieth Volunteers, 407. 
Forty-fifth Infantry, 147. 
Forty-first Infantry, 147. 
Forty-fourth Infantry, 147. 
Forty-niners, 230, 231. 
Forty-second Division, 477. 
Forty-second Infantry, 147. 
Forty-seventh Volunteers, 406. 
Forty-third Infantry, 147. 
Forty-third Volunteers, 406. 
Foster, Lieutenant Colonel, 181. 
Fours, 230, 317, 367, 421. 
Fourteenth Cavalry, 412. 
Fourteenth Infantry, 147, 222, 228, 
303, 340, 341, 351, 369, 371, 
379, 409, 456, 457. 
Fourteenth Minnesota, 395. 
Fourth Cavalry, 238, 240, 369, 341, 
342, 351, 362. 
Fourth Corps, 299. 
Fourth Dragoons, 245. 
Fourth Field Artillery, 158, 165, 
167, 168, 171, 178, 180, 181, 
184, 188, 222, 229, 230, 235, 
238, 239, 240, 245, 246, 303, 
333, 341, 345, 349, 386, 449, 
455. 
Fourth Infantry, 116, 119, 133, 147, 
152, 176, 178, 180, 184, 187, 
190, 192, 199, 200, 229, 234, 
235, 238, 242, 245, 303, 336, 
340, 350, 351, 369. 584 
INDEX 
Fourth Ohio, 387, 389. 
Fourth Pennsylvania, 387. 
Fox Indians, 170. 
France, 104, 107, 466, 475, 476. 
Frankfort Arsenal, 150, 190. 
Frankfort, Kentucky, 280. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 41. 
Franklin, Captain, 251. 
Franklin, General, 286. 
Fraunces' Tavern, 88. 
Frederick, Maryland, 280, 287. 
Fredericksburg, 244, 283. 
Fredericksburg and Richmond R. R., 
276. 
Frederick the Great, 54. 
Freedman's Bureau, 305. 
Freeman's Farm, 46. 
Free States, 244. 
Fremont, John C., 185, 193, 213, 
226, 269, 270, 275, 278. 
French, 54, 64, 68, 76, 77, 79, 84, 
92, 409. 
French Alliance, 62. 
French and Indian Wars, 1, 6. 
French Imperial Guard, 154. 
French Regulations, 187. 
Frenchtown, 127. 
Fries, John, 107. 
Funston, Frederick, General, 402, 
414, 420, 424, 425, 449, 450, 
456. 
Furbush, C. L., Major, 416. 
Furloughs, 52, 53, 87, 88. 
Fuse, 176, 213. 
Fusil, 199. 
Gadsden, Fort, Florida, 162. 
Gaillard, D. D., Colonel, 429. 
Gaines, E. P., General, 148, 152, 177, 
178, 180, 197, 205, 208. 
Gaines Mills, 279. 
Gaiters, 88, 93. 
Galena, Illinois, 163. 
Gallatin Valley, 300. 
Galveston, Texas, 299, 440, 446, 
449. 
Gambling, 227, 353. 
Garcia, (Cuban), 374. 
Garcia (Filipino), 407. 
Gardiner, Representative, 451, 468. 
Garland, Colonel, 211, 212. 
Garretson, General, 386. 
Garrison Artillery, 234. 
Garrison School, 417. 
Garrison, Secretary of War, 452, 
468. 
Garza, 367. 
Gaston, Fort, 242. 
Gates, Horatio, 1, 34, 35, 36, 39, 
46, 47, 48, 49, 70. 
Gatling Gun, 316, 331, 337, 345, 
387. 
Gauley Mountain, 270. 
Geary, Governor, 238. 
General Staff, 103, 107, 149, 153, 
357, 418, 419, 421, 423, 426, 
433, 436, 437, 444 457, 465, 
468, 477, 481, 483,' 486, 489. 
Gentry, Colonel, 181. 
George, Fort, 131, 135. 
George III, 6. 
Georgetown, 141. 
Georgia, 66, 68, 79, 102, 117, 147, 
178, 184, 215, 248, 279. 
German, 43, 54, 253, 265. 
Germantown, 43, 44, 48. 
Germany, 469. 
General Service Schools, 355, 363. 
Generals-in-chief. See Appendix A, 
p. 493. 
General Staff Corps, 483. 
Gerona, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Geronimo, Chief, 360. 
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, 287, 288, 
447. 
Gibbon, General, 336, 337, 340, 346. 
Gibson, Fort, 147. 
Gideon's Band, 133. 
Gila Apaches, 239, 240. 
Gila River, 229, 232, 234, 240. 
Gillam, Captain, 181. 
Glendower, 118. 
Glenn Springs, Texas, 456. 
Glover, General, 33, 68. 
Glover's Brigade, 33. 
Goethals, Geo., General, 429, 430, 
451. 
Gold, 184, 230, 369. 
Golden spike, 326. 
Gomez, General, 459. 
Good Hope, 38. 
Goose Creek, 337. 
Goose Lake, Oregon, 235. 
Gordian Knot, 303. 
Gordon, J. B., General, 296. 
Gorgas, W. C., General, 415, 416, 
429, 430, 451. 
Governor-general, Philippine Islands, 
411, 415. 
Governor's Island, New York, 147, 
229. 
Graham, General, 372. 
Graham, Sergeant, 315, 316. 
Grand Camp of Instruction, 186. 
Grand division, 144, 162, 283, 386, 
420. INDEX 
585 
Grand Encore, Louisiana, 193. 
Grand Gulf, Mississippi, 287. 
Grand Island, 233. 
Grant, Frederick D., General, 415. 
Grant, Sergeant, 315, 316. 
Grant, U. 8., General, 152, 197, 252, 
254, 274, 277, 279, 282, 286, 
287, 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 
295, 296, 299, 303, 305, 312, 
324, 325. 
Grapeshot, 132, 176. 
Gratiot, Fort, 147. 
Great Divide, 346. 
Great Northern Railway, 395. 
Greely, General, 372, 426. 
Greene, Christopher, 64. 
Greene, General, 385, 386, 389, 390, 
391. 
Greene, Nathanael, 28, 33, 39, 41, 
43, 44, 49, 63, 64, 65, 70, 72, 
75, 76, 79, 90, 100, 116. 
Green (historian), 89. 
Green, John, Colonel, 359. 
Greenleaf's Point Arsenal, 150. 
Greensboro, North Carolina, 74. 
Greenville, Ohio, 97, 100. 
Grenades, 99, 148, 465, 475, 488. 
Grenadier, 99, 148, 466. 
Gridley, Richard, Colonel, 12. 
Griffin, General, 296. 
Groghan, 132. 
Grummond, Lieutenant, 310. 
Guadalupe, Treaty of, 227. 
Guam, 379, 397, 411. 
Guanica, Porto Rico, 386. 
Guard, 55, 84, 161, 174, 175, 194, 
246, 264, 265, 267, 268, 296. 
Guardhouse, 93, 174, 232. 
Guard mounting, 93, 194. 
Guasimas, Las, Cuba, 378. 
Guayama, Porto Rico, 389. 
Guerrilla, 269, 406, 408. 
Guerrero, Mexico, 454. 
Guilford Court House, 74. 
Gun carriages, 175. 
Gun makers, 8. 
Gun pointers, 12. 
Gymnastics, Military, Manual for, 
306. 
Gypsum, 234. 
Hackensack, 33. 
Hains, General, 387, 389. 
Hair, 83, 88, 101, 110, 174, 180. 
Hale, General, 402. 
Halifax, 23. 
Halleck, Fort, 300. 
Halleck, General, 273, 274, 275, 279, 
281, 287, 289. 
Hall, Fort, Idaho, 232, 268. 
Hall (inventor), 161. 
Hamilton, Alexander, 91, 323. 
Hamilton, Camp, 375. 
Hamilton, Captain, 323. 
Hamilton, Fort, 97, 228, 364. 
Hammer, Wm., 351. 
Hampton, General, 128, 133, 135, 
313 
Hancock, John, 1, 2, 85. 
Hancock, General, 197, 312, 314, 
350. 
Handbook for Infantry, 143. 
Hand Grenades, 465. 
Hannah's Cowpens, 74. 
Hanover Court House, 277, 292. 
Harbors, 104. 
Hard-boiled, 353. 
Hardee's Rifle and Light Infantry 
Tactics, 237, 267, 285. 
Hardin, Colonel, 98, 218. 
Hare, Colonel, 407. 
Harlem Heights, 32. 
Harmer, General, 92, 95, 96, 97. 
Harney, General, 187, 243. 
Harney, Lake, 246. 
Harper's Ferry, 107, 153, 161, 190, 
191, 248, 255, 278, 281, 293. 
Harrison, Fort, 122, 147. 
Harrison Wm. Henry, 66, 113, 123, 
126, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 
150, 169. 
Hartford, 72. 
Hart's Island, 303. 
Harvard, 2. 
Hatch, Colonel, 351. 
Hats, 83, 88, 93, 112, 117, 130, 149, 
160, 172, 238, 239, 265, 285, 
331, 376. 
Hatteras, Cape, 235. 
Havana, Cuba, 371, 375, 387, 413, 
416. 
Haversack, 319. 
Haverstraw, 40. 
Hawaii, 397, 427, 452. 
Headquarters Company, 457. 
Health, 15, 19, 45, 60, 133, 167, 
168, 171, 177, 179, 185, 189, 
200, 201, 206, 207, 209, 214, 
219, 220, 225, 230, 234, 256, 
269, 278, 297, 392, 393, 416, 
417. 
Heap-of-Bears, Chief, 304. 
Heath, General, 28. 
Heavy Artillery, 234, 266, 309, 331, 
361. 586 
INDEX 
Heiberg, Major, 439. 
Heintzelman, Major, 232. 
Helena, Montana, 346. 
Helmet, 101, 331. 
Hemstead, Colonel, 76. 
Henry, Fort, 271. 
Henry, Guy V., General, 337, 385, 
388. 
Henry Repeating Rifle, 316, 334. 
Hessians, 35, 36. 
Hidalgo, 227. 
High Hills, 75. 
Hillsboro, 70. 
Hippology, Carter's, 439. 
Hobby, David, Captain, 18. 
Hobkirk's Hill, 75. 
Hodges, H. F., General, 429, 451. 
Holguin, Cuba, 384. 
Holiday, 62, 81. 
Hood, General, 293, 294. 
Hooker, General, 197, 280, 283, 286, 
287, 290, 312. 
Hopkins, General, 122. 
Hormigueros, Porto Rico, 387. 
Horn, Cape, 229, 235. 
Horn, powder, 7, 99. 
Horn, Van, Colonel, 378. 
Horse, light, 35, 99, 105. 
Horses, 40, 99, 134, 165, 169, 177, 
181, 182, 186, 197, 198, 205, 
208, 220, 228, 233, 241, 242, 
259, 271, 319, 320, 321, 328, 
336, 339, 340, 343, 349, 377. 
Hoskins, Fort 242. 
Hospital Corps, 431. 
Hospitals, 15, 19, 84, 189, 286, 407, 
424, 426, 449, 452, 454. 
Hospital Steward, 259, 278, 307. 
Hotchkiss gun, 346, 365, 378. 
Hot shot, 125. 
Hound-box, 165. 
House of Representatives, 143, 306, 
348, 361. 
Houston, Texas, 298. 
Howard, Fort, 147, 165. 
Howard, General, 128. 
Howard, O. O., General, 305, 312, 
344, 345, 347, 348, 350, 360. 
Howe, General, 73, 88. 
Howe, Sir Wm., 21, 24, 28, 29, 30, 
31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 42, 44, 48, 
63. 
Howitzers, 121, 150, 155, 163, 165, 
169, 175, 190, 207, 211, 217, 
233, 265, 266, 323, 345, 346, 
464. 
Howze, Major, 455. 
Hoyt, 103,'104. 
Hudson Bay Co., 242. 
Hudson River, 24, 33, 40, 47, 79. 
Huerta, 446, 449. 
Hughes, General, 407. 
Hull Bill, 371, 395. 
Hull, Wm., 119, 120, 121, 133. 
Humboldt, Fort, 242. 
Humorist, 232. 
Humphreys, A. A., General, 247, 
295. 
Humphreys, Lieutenant, 394. 
Hunger, 15, 34, 50, 75, 79, 80, 119, 
127, 135, 177, 190, 207, 215, 
219, 241, 270, 294, 295, 323, 
340, 352, 357, 397, 425, 455. 
Hunter, 38. 
Hunter, General, 258, 275. 
Huntsville, 133. 
Huntsville, Alabama, 376. 
Hutchins, Ames, Captain, 18. 
Idaho, 232, 300, 368, 386, 420, 426. 
Illinois, 64, 122, 171, 172, 183, 213, 
215, 368, 385, 387, 389. 
Illiteracy, 5. 
Imus, Cavite, Philippine Islands, 
402. 
Increase in Army, 104, 105, 112, 113, 
116, 117, 128, 139, 178, 183, 
205, 207, 217, 218, 222, 231, 
237, 242, 248, 249, 251, 259, 
260, 262, 284, 290, 292, 294, 
306, 372, 374, 399, 407, 411, 
438, 439, 483, 489. 
Independence Hill (Monterey), 211, 
212. 
Indiana,' 64, 117, 213, 217, 218, 435. 
Indian Affairs, Commissioner of, 
311. 
Indian Agent Ring, 358, 359. 
Indian Agents, 108, 184, 304, 314, 
333, 349, 350, 351, 358, 359, 
362, 368. 
Indianapolis, Indiana, 279. 
Indian Department, 320. 
Indians, 46, 64, 65, 92, 94, 96, 97, 
98, 100, 101, 110, 113, 117, 122, 
130, 132, 170, 172, 176, 181, 
189, 190, 191, 224, 232, 238, 
239, 242, 245, 246, 298, 299, 
300, 302, 304, 305, 307, 309, 
310, 311, 314, 315, 317, 318, 
319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 325, 
326, 329, 330, 332, 334, 335, 
336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 
342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 
348, 349, 350, 357, 358, 359, 
360, 362, 364, 365, 366, 368, INDEX 
587 
369, 394, 395, 406, 418 428, 
436. 
A 1 q qItq ti 5^47 
Apache,' 230," 234, 236, 239, 240, 
245, 246, 248, 301, 304, 328, 
329, 330, 358, 359, 360, 362, 
363, 404. 
Arapahoes, 300, 309, 314, 322, 323. 
Ankara, 163. 
Assiniboines, 309. 
Bannocks, 347, 348, 349, 364, 368, 
369. 
Blackfeet, 300, 326. 
Bloods, 326, 328. 
Brule, 238, 341. 
Cherokee, 184, 195. 
Cheyennes, 240, 300, 309, 311, 319, 
322, 323, 336, 342, 343. 
Chiricahua, 359, 360, 362. 
Choctaw, 170. 
Comanche, 111, 226, 304, 309, 314, 
322, 323, 335. 
Cortinas, 242. 
Creek, 132, 134, 152, 176, 178. 
Crow, 336, 342, 346, 349. 
Delaware, 181, 206. 
Dogs, 322. 
Eutaws, 214. 
Flathead, 172, 309. 
Kiowa, 304, 314, 322, 323, 335. 
Klamath, 238, 332, 333. 
Mescalores, 301. 
Miamis, 97, 309. 
Miniconjous, 341. 
Modocs, 332, 333. 
Mojave, 232, 234. 
Navajo, 214, 230, 242, 245, 246, 
300. 
Nez Perces, 172, 309, 344, 345, 
346, 347. 
Osage, 111, 322. 
Pawnees, 309, 342. 
Piegans, 309, 326, 328. 
Pillager Chippewas, 394, 395. 
Pi Utes, 349. 
Pueblo, 210. 
Puget Sound, 238. 
Rogue River, 233, 234, 238, 239. 
Sac and Fox, 170. 
San Arcos, 341. 
Seminole, 152, 176, 187, 188, 195, 
211, 230, 239, 240. 
Shawnee, 206. 
Shoshone, 337, 342. 
Sioux, 240, 299, 300, 309, 335, 
336, 350, 357, 365. 
Snake, 347. 
Stockbridge, 3. 
Indians, Tetons, 111. 
Unkpapas, 341. 
Ute, 300, 334, 347, 350, 351, 427, 
431. 
Winnebago, 187, 188. 
Yanctons, 111. 
Yuma, 232. 
Indian Scouts, 383. 
Indian Territory, 229, 347. 
Indian War of 1898, 427. 
Infantry, 73, 83, 84, 88, 92, 95, 96, 
97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105, 
106, 107, 108, 112, 117, 128, 
130, 137, 141, 143, 146, 147, 
158, 160, 167, 168, 179, 183, 
184, 188, 196, 215, 216, 217, 
221, 224, 236, 238, 251, 253, 
259, 260, 266, 267, 268, 269, 
271, 302, 306, 307 317, 321, 
324, 326, 330, 345, 361, 380, 
381, 387, 389, 399, 402, 405, 
406, 411, 412, 416, 421, 426, 
428, 430, 439, 441, 443, 444, 
448, 449, 452, 457, 464, 466, 
483. (See numerical designa- 
tion.) 
Infantry, Abridged Tactics for, 166. 
Infantry, Chief of, 499. 
Infantry Drill Regulations, 143, 168, 
366, 421, 441. 
Infantry, Handbook for, 143. 
Infantry, Light Manual for, 267. 
Infantry School, 447. 
Infantry School of Tactics, 166. 
Infantry Tactics, 164, 169. 
Infantry Tactics, Casey's, 285. 
Infantry Tactics, Rifle and, 247. 
Infantry Tactics, Upton's, 317. 
Insignia, 20, 83, 165, 172, 233, 239, 
308. 
Inspection, 55, 58, 82, 168, 194, 271, 
273. 
Inspection arms, 168. 
Inspector-general, 62, 71, 104, 148, 
159, 261, 278, 308, 372, 483. 
Inspector-general's Department, 152, 
196, 308. 
Inspectors, 95, 397. 
Inspectors, Medical, 397. 
Instruction, Grand Camp of, 186. 
Instructions for Field Artillery, 
Horse and Foot, 197. 
Instructors, 55, 109, 119, 144, 151, 
164, 188, 308, 356, 413, 438, 
464, 471, 472, 473. 
Insubordination, 209, 213, 228, 267. 
Insular Affairs, Bureau of, 483. 
Interior Department, 163, 344, 362. 588 
INDEX 
Interior, Secretary of, 324, 394. 
Intrenchments, 271, 292, 294, 374, 
402, 404. 
Investigation, Congressional, 162, 
180, 434. 
Iowa, 435. 
Ireland, 302. 
Irish, 255, 302. 
Iron Star, Chief, 344. 
Isthmian Canal Commission, 451. 
Itch, 152. 
Ives, J. C., Lieutenant, 239. 
Izard, General, 128. 
Jackson, Andrew, 133, 134, 136, 142, 
148, 150, 151, 152, 171, 179. 
Jackson, Mississippi, 287. 
Jackson's Hole, Wyoming, 369. 
Jackson, Stonewall, 152, 197, 253, 
278, 279, 280, 282, 287. 
Jacksonville, Florida, 373, 375. 
Jalapa, 220, 226. 
Jamaica Road, 29. 
James, Captain, 67. 
James River, 150, 279, 295. 
Jamestown Exposition, 431. 
Japan, 411. 
Japanese, 409. 
Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, 165, 
166, 170, 174, 191, 192, 196, 
200, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239. 
Jefferson, Fort, 97. 
Jefferson shoe, 149. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 109. 
Jenks, E. A., 107. 
Jenks Rifle, 185. 
Jersey, 38. 
Jersey City, 68. 
Jesup, Cantonment, 170. 
Jesup, Fort, 170, 193, 196, 199, 200. 
Jesup, General, 181, 185. 
Johnson, Gordon, Colonel, 424. 
Johnson, R. M., 225. 
Johnston, Albert S., General, 179, 
241, 242, 253, 257, 258, 277. 
Johnston, Joseph E., General, 179, 
197, 253, 257, 258, 287, 291, 
292, 293, 295, 296. 
Jolo, Philippine Islands, 402, 406, 
407, 420, 441. 
Jonesboro, Georgia, 293. 
Jones, Fort, 242. 
Joshua, 134. 
Juaramentado, 442. 
Judge Advocate, 103, 153, 158, 230. 
Judge-advocate-general, 308, 372, 
483. See Appendix A, p. 497. 
Judge - advocate ■ general's Depart- 
ment, 445. 
Kadiak Island, 318. 
Kamiarkin, Chief, 238. 
Kansas, 166, 196, 238, 239, 300, 319. 
Kansas City, 195. 
Kansas Pacific R. R., 319. 
Kaskaskia, 64. 
Kearny, Philip, 168, 197, 206, 207, 
209, 210, 213, 214, 215, 226, 
229, 309, 311. 
Kearny, Fort, 230, 232, 240, 245, 
309, 311, 319. 
Kendrick, Captain, 455. 
Kennebec Arsenal, 190. 
Kennesaw Mountain, 292. 
Kent, General, 380, 381, 382. 
Kentucky, 64, 100, 117, 122, 124, 
130, 131, 132, 143, 153, 218, 
273, 274, 281, 284. 
Keogh, Fort, 346. 
Kernstown, Virginia, 293, 294. 
Kettle Hill, 383. 
Key West, Florida, 375, 377. 
Khaki, 390, 406, 472. 
Kilby, 235. 
Kindness, 59, 60. 
King, Fort, 176, 187. 
Kingsbridge, 25. 
King's Mill, 223. 
King's Mountain, 72. 
Kingston, 37. 
Kiowa Indians, 304 314, 322, 323, 
325. 
Kitchens, rolling, 455. 
Klamath, Fort, Oregon, 333. 
Klamath Indians, 238, 246, 332, 333. 
Knapsack, 98, 175, 202, 257. 
Knowlton's Rangers, 32. 
Knox, Fort, 147. 
Knox, Henry, 18, 36, 41, 39, 90, 
92, 95, 99. 
Knoxville, Tennessee, 290, 294, 375. 
Knyphausen, 42, 43, 69, 70. 
Kobbe, General, 406, 407. 
Koniggratz, Campaign of, 363. 
Kosciusko, 42, 46, 72, 112. 
Krag-Jorgensen Rifle, 367, 369, 379, 
388, 406, 408, 433. 
Krupp guns, 399. 
Laclede Rangers, 206. 
La Colle, 124, 136. 
Ladders, scaling, 142, 224. 
Lafayette, 42, 54, 62, 64, 75, 79. 
Laguna de Bay, Mexico, 459. INDEX 
589 
Laguna de Bay, Philippine Islands, 
401, 402, 406. 
Laidley, T. T. S., 350. 
La Joya, Mexico, 455. 
Lake Champlain, 133, 136. 
Lake Erie, 132, 191. 
Lake Lanao, Philippine Islands, 439. 
Lake Okeechobee, 182. 
Lake Ontario, 133, 191. 
Lakes, Department of the, 331. 
Lallemand, H., 154. 
Lame Deer, 344. 
Lanao, Philippine Islands, 439. 
Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 88. 
Land, 114, 128, 141, 159, 183, 217. 
Lane, Fort, 242. 
Langhorne, Major, 456. 
Lapwai Eeservation, 344, 347. 
Laramie, Fort, 230, 232, 236. 
Laredo, Texas, 459. 
Lares, Porto Eico, 387. 
Larned, Fort, Kansas, 314. 
Las Guasimas, Cuba, 378. 
Las Marias, Porto Eico, 387. 
Las Vegas, 209. 
Laurens, John, 67. 
Law, Martial, 109. 
Law, Military, 129, 356. 
Laws. {See Congress.) 
Lawton, General, 362, 378, 380, 383, 
401, 403, 405, 406. 
Leavenworth, Colonel, 138, 163, 166, 
304. 
Leavenworth, Fort, 166, 168, 196, 
206, 230, 231, 236, 238, 239, 
241, 242, 255, 256, 363, 370, 
407, 421, 422, 423, 435, 451, 
452. 
Leave of absence, 53, 172. 
Ledyard, Colonel, 77. 
Lee, Charles, 1, 6, 13, 25, 34, 38, 49, 
63, 336. 
Leech Lake, Minnesota, 394. 
Lee, Fort, 33, 48. 
Lee, Light Horse Harry, 68, 75, 78, 
259. 
Lee Magazine Eifle, 361. 
Lee, Eobert E., General, 152, 197, 
220, 222, 224, 228, 234, 253, 
270, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 
283, 286, 287, 288, 289, 291, 
292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 420. 
Leesburg, Virginia, 272. 
Legaspi, Philippine Islands, 406. 
Legations, 410, 411. 
Legion, 99, 100, 103, 105. 
Legionary Corps, 73, 93, 99, 103. 
Legislation. {See Congress.) 
Leopard, 460. 
Lewis gun, 466. 
Lewis, Meriwether, 110 127, 128, 
344. 
Lewiston, New York, 122, 135. 
Lexington, Kentucky, 375. 
Lexington, Massachusetts, 40. 
Lexington, Missouri, 270. 
Leyte, Philippine Islands, 406, 430. 
Lieber, General, 372. 
Light Horse, 35, 99, 105. 
Light Horse Harry Lee, 68, 75, 78, 
259. 
Limbers, 112, 129. 
Linares, 213. 
Lincoln, Abraham, 248, 249, 250, 
251, 259, 26C, 269, 272, 273, 
274, 275, 276, 279, 281, 286, 
288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294. 
Lincoln, General, 39, 47, 66, 68, 69, 
79, 94. 
Liquor, 19. 
Liscum, Colonel, 382, 408, 409. 
Litgreaves, Captain, 232, 236. 
Little Arkansas Eiver, 231. 
Little Horn Eiver, 315. 
Little Mountain, 304. 
Little Eock, Arkansas, 190. 
Liverpool, 235. 
Loading, 9, 11, 56, 82, 142, 143, 164, 
166, 169, 190, 198, 237, 247, 
266, 267, 285, 288, 366. 
Lobos Island, 219. 
Lockett, Colonel, 405. 
Lock step, 143. 
Lolo Trail, 245. 
Lone Wolf, 304. 
Long Barrack, 109. 
Long, Captain, 154. 
Longevity pay, 236. 
Long Island, 25, 29, 30, 32, 33, 42, 
48. 
Longstreet, General, 152, 197, 253, 
280, 282, 288, 290, 313. 
Lookout Mountain, 290. 
Los Angeles, California, 425. 
Lost Eiver, 332. 
Louisiana, 110, 143, 147, 154, 190, 
205, 217, 244, 248. 
Love, 59. 
Lower Peachtree, Alabama, 447. 
Loyalty, 59. 
Lozano, General, 455. 
Ludington, General, 372. 
Ludington, Michigan, 450. 
Lukban, Philippine Islands, 415. 
Lundy's Lane, 138. 
Luray, 278. 590 
INDEX 
Luzon, Philippine Islands, 402, 403, 
404, 407, 414. 
Lynching, 289. 
Lyon, General, 255, 269. 
MacArthur, General, 386, 390, 391, 
400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 407, 
408, 411, 413, 414, 415, 420. 
M 'Arthur, General, 128. 
McCall 273. 
McClellan, Geo. B., General, 152, 
197, 234, 254, 255, 264, 267, 
268, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 
276, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282, 
283 
McClellan saddle, 267. 
McClure, General, 135. 
McCoy, Frank R., Colonel, 423. 
McCullough, General, 210, 269. 
McDowell, 72. 
McDowell, General, 197, 251, 254, 
256, 257, 258, 276, 277, 280, 
312, 331, 350. 
McDowell, West Virginia, 278. 
McHenry, Fort, 228. 
McIntosh, 221. 
McIntosh, Fort, 231. 
McKee, 218. 
McKeon, Camp, 187. 
McKinney, 342. 
McLean House, 296. 
M 'Murtry, John, 10. 
McNitt, Captain, 131. 
Macabebes, 404, 414. 
Machete, 378. 
Machine Gun Company, 457, 470. 
Machine guns, 454, 455, 475, 488. 
Macinope, 78. 
Mackenzie, Colonel, 342, 343, 351. 
Mackinac, 147. 
Mackinaw, 121, 127, 163. 
Macomb, Alex., General, 141, 148, 
186, 187, 195, 237. 
Macon, Georgia, 296. 
Madero, 443, 446. 
Madison Barracks, 303. 
Madison, James, 118, 141. 
Madison, Mrs., 141. 
Mad River, 246. 
Magalan, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Magazines, 91, 93, 129, 164, 247, 
318, 361, 367, 390, 433. 
Magruder 255. 
Maharajali Saakat, 442. 
Mail, 260, 368. 
Maine, 15, 117, 162, 186, 235, 244, 
303, 464. 
Maine, U.S.S., 371. 
Malabon, Philippine Islands, 402. 
Malalag River, Philippine Islands, 
424. 
Malaria, 168, 269, 383. 
Malate, Philippine Islands, 389, 391. 
Malden, 121, 132. 
Malibcong, Philippine Islands, 407. 
Malolos, Philippine Islands, 400, 
401. 
Malvar, 415. 
Malvern Hill, 279. 
Manassas, Virginia, 257, 274, 275, 
280, 420, 423. 
Manchester, 135. 
Manchu law, 411, 444. 
Maneuver, 81, 82, 83, 112, 128, 165, 
166, 168, 186, 187, 197, 200, 
256, 264, 267, 268, 285, 289, 
317, 345, 417, 420, 421, 427, 
428, 431, 439, 440, 444, 447, 
449. 
Maneuver division, 439, 443, 446. 
Maneuvers of Horse Artillery, 112. 
Manhattan, 25, 30, 33. 
Manila, Philippine Islands, 374, 379, 
386, 389, 391, 398, 400, 401, 
402, 403, 404, 406, 408, 411, 
414. 
Mansfield, Jared, 109. 
Mansfield, Major, 211, 212. 
Manual for Light Infantry, 267. 
Manual of Arms, 55, 144, 168, 198. 
Manuals, drill, 11, 56, 103, 107, 112, 
143, 161, 165, 168, 169, 176, 
179, 187, 190, 197, 230, 233, 
236, 237, 247, 266, 267, 285, 
305, 317, 351, 360, 366, 369, 
417, 421, 441. 
Manufacturing, 10, 19, 130, 150, 
153, 161. 
Manzanillo, Cuba, 380. 
Mapping, 110, 221, 232, 234, 235. 
Marblehead, Massachusetts, 162. 
Marches, 24, 34, 40, 42, 62, 64, 65, 
75, 110, 119, 126, 133, 135, 151, 
154, 168, 170, 171, 187, 188, 
201, 205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 
212, 216, 220, 222, 225, 227, 
229, 230, 234, 235, 236, 238, 
239, 241, 257, 267, 287, 311, 
313, 323, 324, 326, 330, 345, 
349, 364, 387, 417, 427, 454. 
March, Major, 405, 407. 
March, P. C., General, 481, 482. 
Marcy, Captain, 234, 241, 242. 
Marcy, Fort, 210. 
Marcy, Secretary of War, 202. 
Marias, 326. INDEX 
591 
Mariel, Cuba, 375. 
Marin, 211. 
Marines, 139, 141, 232, 256, 419, 
449, 476. 
Marion, General, 69, 75. 
Mariquina River, Philippine Islands, 
405. 
Market Lake, Idaho, 369. 
Marksmanship, 9, 33, 81, 113, 136, 
137, 146, 169, 246, 266, 332, 
350, 417, 419, 421, 436, 447. 
Marshal, Elihu, Lieutenant, 18. 
Marshall, 217. 
Maryland, 4, 27, 28, 34, 76, 139, 
140, 250, 254, 273, 276, 277, 
293, 347. 
Mason, Fort, California, 424, 425. 
Massachusetts, 2, 4, 10, 12, 13, 14, 
15, 18, 24, 25, 27, 28, 45, 85, 
94, 120, 249, 380, 385, 386, 388, 
393, 434, 451. 
Massachusetts, Fort, New Mexico, 
241. 
Massacres, 65, 132, 152, 176, 177, 
187, 195, 234, 238, 299, 301, 
310, 321, 338, 351. 
Master, 141. 
Master, drill, 144. 
Master of Sword, 121, 137. 
Matamoras, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 
208, 209, 215. 
Matrosses, 12, 126, 128, 155, 176. 
Matthews, 49. 
Maumee, 96, 97, 100, 101, 126. 
Mauser Rifle, 375, 381, 396, 460. 
Mawhood, 37. 
Maxmilian, 298, 299, 304. 
Mayaguez, Porto Rico, 387. 
Maynard's primer, 237, 267. 
Mayo, Admiral, 449. 
Meacham, Cimmissioner, 333. 
Meade, Fort, 427, 431, 452. 
Meade, General, 152, 179, 197, 209, 
288, 289, 291, 292, 305, 312, 
331. 
Meade, Geo., Camp, Pennsylvania, 
376. 
Measles, 269. 
Meat, 51. 
Mechanicsville, 279. 
Medal, 23, 74. 
Medical Board, 175. 
Medical cadets, 262, 278. 
Medical Corps, 175, 339, 374, 394, 
416, 429, 431, 457. 
Medical Department, 15, 19, 45, 105, 
148 168, 175, 183, 262, 278, 
371, 384, 415, 483. 
Medical Reserve Corps, 457. 
Meigs, Fort, 130, 131. 
Memphis and Charleston R. R., 279. 
Mercenary troops, 14. 
Mercer, 37. 
Merit, certificate of, 219. 
Merriam, General, 372. 
Merrill, Fort, 231. 
Merritt, General, 299, 339, 351, 372, 
386, 389, 390, 396. 
Mescalores Indians, 301. 
Message to Garcia, 374. 
Messiah, Indian, 365. 
Messing, 3, 13, 54, 84, 122, 269. 
Mexican Border, 440, 443, 446, 449, 
452, 459, 476. 
Mexican Empire, 299. 
Mexicans, 199, 202, 203, 204, 205, 
206, 210, 211, 212, 214, 217, 
218, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 
347, 349, 360, 434, 444, 450, 
454, 455, 456, 459. 
Mexican War, 187, 193, 205. 
Mexico, 298, 299, 303, 304, 309, 312, 
359, 360, 375, 404, 449, 450, 
453, 456, 459, 463, 464. 
Mexico, City of, 220, 222, 223, 224, 
228. 
Mexico, Gulf of, 446. 
Mexico, War with, 205. 
Miami, Florida, 375. 
Miami Indians, 97, 309. 
Miami River, 186. 
Michigan, 64, 119, 183, 379, 435. 
Michimackinac, 121. 
Middlebrook, 65. 
Middle Department, 303. 
Middle Military Division, 293. 
Middle-rank, 143. 
Middletown, Connecticut, 161, 164. 
Mifflin, General, 25, 30, 51, 63. 
Mileage, 207. 
Miles Evans, Captain, 349. 
Miles, N. A., General, 341, 342, 343, 
344, 346, 347, 350, 360, 362, 
366, 372, 374, 375, 376, 385, 
386, 387, 389, 392. 
Miley, Fort, California, 425. 
Military Academy, 109, 111, 113, 
114, 116, 118, 119, 133, 151, 
152, 153, 163, 164, 173, 179, 
184, 188, 192, 198, 225, 231, 
234, 235, 242, 247, 248, 250, 
262, 268, 306, 317, 399, 416, 
417, 427, 435, 436, 438, 439, 
457, 483, 500. 
Military Agents, 108, 118. 
Military art, 363. 592 
INDEX 
Military Art, Treatise on, 103. 
Military Departments, 301, 312, 318. 
See Appendix K. 
Military District of the Atlantic, 
305. 
Military districts, 130, 139, 188, 
301, 312. 
Military Division of the Mississippi, 
289, 291, 303. 
Military law, 356. 
Military Laws and Rules and Regu- 
lations, 129. 
Military Policy, 357, 418. 
Military Secretary, 420, 429. 
Militia, 30, 40, 43, 44, 69, 70, 72, 
74, 76, 77, 100, 110, 113, 118, 
119, 121, 126, 128, 131, 133, 
134, 135, 136, 139, 142, 150, 
153, 161, 164, 165, 179, 205, 
230, 238, 247, 248, 252, 257, 
261, 264, 266, 288, 292, 313, 
347, 368, 370, 371, 417, 418, 
420, 422, 427, 432, 433, 435, 
436, 438, 444, 448, 452, 464, 
465. 
Connecticut, 3, 4, 13, 28, 120. 
Delaware, 27. 
Georgia, 184. 
Kentucky, 122, 124, 143. 
Louisiana, 143. 
Maine, 186, 188. 
Maryland, 4, 27, 34. 
Massachusetts, 2, 4, 12, 13, 14, 25, 
27, 28, 45, 120. 
Michigan, 121. 
Mississippi, 132. 
New England, 1, 9, 21, 33, 63. 
New Hampshire, 28. 
New Jersey, 5, 25, 27, 28, 34. 
New York,* 27, 33, 122. 
Northwest Territory, 96. 
Pennsylvania, 27, 28, 124. 
Rhode Island, 3, 4. 
South Carolina, 176. 
Tennessee, 124, 152. 
Virginia, 2, 14, 28, 55, 75, 124. 
Militia Affairs, Division of, 433. 
Militia law, Universal, 98. 
Militia, Regulations for, 230. 
Militia, Tactics and Regulations for, 
179. 
Milk River, 250. 
Miller, Camp, 165. 
Miller, General, 400. 
Mills, Albert L., General, 440. 
Mills, Anson, Colonel, 337, 340, 367. 
Mills, Colonel, 131. 
Milroy, 278. 
Mims, Fort, 132, 133. 
Mindinao, Philippine Islands, 401, 
406, 407, 420, 439. 
Miners, 83, 104, 119, 126, 206. 
Mines, 164, 422, 433. 
Miniconjou Indians, 241. 
Minie, Captain, 236, 267. 
Minnesota, 240, 299, 386, 390, 394, 
395, 435. 
Minute Men, 18. 
Missionary Ridge, 290. 
Mississippi, 132, 200, 205, 213, 215, 
217, 218, 248, 275. 
Mississippi, Army of, 281. 
Mississippi, Department of, 275, 
299. 
Mississippi, Military Division of, 
289, 291, 303. 
Mississippi River, 110, 142, 156, 168, 
170, 172, 185, 196, 245, 287, 
296, 299, 309, 325, 334, 444, 
446. 
Missouri, 181, 192, 205, 206, 209, 
231, 255, 269, 273, 274, 300, 
309. 
Missouri, Department of the, 277, 
284, 331. 
Missouri River, 110, 156, 159, 185, 
193, 196, 236, 300, 346, 350. 
AflYPAQP 00 Q 
Mobile, Alabama, 132, 148, 228, 289, 
375. 
Mobile Bay, Alabama, 162. 
Mobilization, 437, 440, 465, 469. 
Modoc Indians, 332, 333. 
Mogollan, Apaches, 332, 333. 
Mohammedan, 415, 423, 442, 443. 
Mohave, Fort, 242. 
Mohawk Valley, 46, 65. 
Mojave Indians, 232, 234. 
Molino del Rey, 223. 
Monclava, 215. 
Monmouth, 63, 65, 336. 
Monocacy, 293. 
Monroe, Fortress, 164, 165, 190, 192, 
229, 230, 239, 255, 276, 277, 
279, 303. 
Montalban, Philippine Islands, 405. 
Montana, 300, 346, 436, 450. 
Montauk Point, Long Island, 384. 
Monterey, California, 450. 
Monterey, Mexico, 210, 211, 212, 
213, 214, 215, 225, 244. 
Monterey, Presidio of, 447, 450. 
Montezuma, 312. 
Montgomery, 16. 
Montreal, 121, 124, 133. 
Monument, 114. INDEX 
593 
Morale, 46, 53, 61, 76, 111, 179, 
211, 221, 227, 228, 283, 286, 
293, 296, 372, 431, 481. 
Morey, Lewis S., Captain, 459. 
Morgan, 72, 74, 116. 
Morgan's spies, 181. 
Mormons, 213, 241, 242, 245, 
277. 
Morong, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Moros, 415, 418, 419, 420, 424, 434, 
439, 441, 442, 443, 448. 
Morris, 256. 
Morris, Colonel, 424. 
Morris, Robt., 76. 
Morristown, 37, 38, 39, 40, 69, 70, 
73. 
Morse, Samuel, 271. 
Mortars, 150, 153, 155, 163, 190, 
206, 208, 211, 233, 265, 384, 
432, 464, 475, 488. 
Motor trucks, 454, 467. 
Moultrie, Colonel, 66, 67. 
Moultrie, Fort, 69. 
Mountain Artillery, 217, 233, 234. 
Mountain Chief, 328. 
Mountain Department, 275, 276, 277, 
279. 
Mountain Howitzer, 217. 
Mount Independence, 47. 
Mount Vernon, 107, 190. 
Mules, 216, 220, 234, 241, 271, 315, 
319, 321, 336. 
Mulligan, Colonel, 269, 270. 
Mullinets, 161. 
Murfreesborough, 284. 
Murray Hill, 32. 
Murray House, 32. 
Music, 24. 
Musicians, 104, 105, 117, 121, 137, 
146, 155, 160, 259, 307, 326. 
Musket, 10, 55, 98, 127, 135, 148, 
153, 189, 198, 199, 201, 208, 
236, 255, 264, 265, 288, 296, 
299. 
Musketeer, 117. 
Musketoon, 10. 
Musketry, School of, 447. 
Mussel Shell River, 346. 
Mustaches, 233. 
Mustering out, 300, 302, 309. 
Mutiny, 5, 72, 73, 85, 88, 135, 177, 
254, 300, 303. 
Nachez, Chief, 362. 
Nagasaki, Japan, 411. 
Namacpacan, Philippine Islands, 
405. 
Namiquipa, Mexico, 455. 
Napoleon, 298, 312. 
Napoleon gun, 305, 343, 346. 
Nashville, Tennessee, 294. 
Nassau, 37. 
National Anthem, 193, 194. 
National Army, 476, 482. 
National Defense, 91, 95, 100 114, 
418, 437, 456, 470, 483. ' 
National Defense Act of 1916, 456, 
458. 
National Defense Act of 1920, 463, 
483, 490. 
National Guard, 313, 347, 413 417, 
428, 419, 420, 422, 431,' 433, 
434, 435, 436, 437, 439, 447, 
449, 450, 453, 456, 457' 459, 
463, 464, 476, 477 482, 483, 
484. 
National Guard Reserve, 457, 469. 
National Rifle Matches, 419, 436. 
Navajo Indians, 214, 230, 242, 245, 
246, 300. 
Navy, 141, 226, 348, 375, 378, 390, 
417, 419, 422, 429. 
Nebraska, 159, 240, 310, 385. 
Negroes, 3, 45, 64, 182, 280, 289, 
292, 301, 307, 309, 313, 330, 
383, 434. 
Negros, Philippine Islands, 400, 
402. 
Nelson, General, 280. 
Nevada, 229, 240, 245, 246, 347. 
Newark, 34. 
Newburgh, 82, 84. 
Newburgh Addresses, 86, 133. 
Newcastle, 33. 
New England, 1, 9, 12, 21, 24, 33, 
45, 76, 84, 167. 
New Hampshire, 15, 28. 
New Hope Church, 292. 
New Jersey, 5, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 
39, 44, 63, 65, 68, 69, 73, 79, 88, 
186, 303, 419, 434. 
New London, 24, 76, 77, 162, 303. 
New Mexico, 213, 245, 246, 300, 
301, 319, 323, 328, 351, 456. 
New Orleans, 117, 142, 153, 192, 
199, 200, 228, 330, 335, 372. 
Newport, 64, 153, 162, 303. 
Newport Barracks, 228. 
Newport News, 387. 
Newspapers, 258. 
New System of Discipline, 128. 
Newton, General, 286. 
New York, 27, 28, 33, 65, 122, 141, 
147, 154, 217, 222, 267, 381, 
387, 388, 419, 434, 453. 594 
INDEX 
New York City, 18, 24, 25, 48, 63, 
69, 70, 76, 79, 88, 144, 162, 
195, 234, 235, 259, 289. 
New York Depot, 190. 
Nez Perces Indians, 172, 309, 344, 
345, 346, 347. 
Niagara, 122, 131, 135. 
Niagara, Fort, 135, 162, 303. 
Nicholet, 185. 
Nineteenth Infantry, 147, 386, 388. 
Ninety-six, South Carolina, 75. 
Ninth Cavalry, 307, 351, 366, 369, 
443. 
Ninth Infantry, 138, 147, 222, 228, 
238, 239, 245, 336, 340, 341, 
351, 382, 408, 409. 
Nixon, General, 68. 
Noel, Captain, 181. 
Nogales, Arizona, 446. 
Non-commissioned Officers, 58, 83, 
84, 87, 92, 96, 104, 105, 106, 
117, 121, 137, 146, 155, 160, 
172, 175, 180, 181, 183, 191, 
208, 219, 233, 259, 307, 333, 
361, 472. 
Nook's Hill, 22. 
Norfolk Discipline, 11. 
Norfolk, Virginia, 162. 
North, 248, 250, 252, 254, 256, 259, 
261, 264, 268, 273, 276, 288, 
289, 291, 296, 301. 
North Anna River, 292. 
North Carolina, 184, 190, 295. 
North Dakota, 386. 
Northern Virginia, Army of, 271. 
North, Simeon, 164. 
Northwest Territory, 96. 
Norzagaray, Philippine Islands, 401. 
Nullification Proclamation, 171. 
Nurse corps, 431, 457. 
Nurses, 262, 431, 457. 
Oahu, Hawaii, 427. 
Oath of Allegiance, 95. 
Oblique Step, 57, 143, 164. 
Obregon, 456. 
O'Brien, Colonel, 218. 
Occupation, Army of, 193, 199. 
Officers: 
Ability, 156, 164, 199, 208, 225, 
249, 268, 315, 431. 
Appointment of, 18, 28, 32, 35, 
41, 260, 263, 264, 279, 292, 307, 
372, 413, 417, 438, 439, 457, 
469. 
Attitude, 55, 199, 305, 423. 
Board of, 143, 144, 260, 262, 284, 
308, 309, 329, 361, 412. 
Brevet rank, 121, 152, 166, 167, 
169, 179, 180, 200, 218, 219, 
228, 230, 303, 305, 308, 331. 
British, 6, 9, 28, 29, 30, 37. 
Canadian, 42. 
Character of, 12, 14, 26, 29, 33, 
44, 53, 61, 122, 199, 209, 228, 
249, 253, 254, 307. 
Classes ''A" and "B," 484. 
Command, 4, 104, 117, 121, 128, 
137, 146, 153, 169, 190, 253, 
259, 260, 262, 302, 308, 367, 
373, 399, 411, 418, 420, 427, 
448, 457. 
Conduct, 71, 121, 228. 
Details to National Guard, 438, 
464. 
Detail to aviation, 449. 
Discharge of, 73, 85, 90, 103, 146, 
147, 162, 209, 250, 303, 324. 
Election of, 4, 208, 249, 252, 260, 
263. 
Elimination of, 437, 441, 489. 
Examination of, 308, 309, 357, 
399, 412, 427, 438, 438, 457. 
Insignia, 83, 105, 165, 172, 233, 
238, 239, 308, 331. 
Instruction of, 58. 
Leadership, 60, 61, 63, 441. 
Non-commissioned. See Non-com- 
missioned Officers. 
Pay. See Pay. 
Physical tests, 431, 434. 
Promotion, 137, 159, 179, 180, 
217, 252, 253, 262, 284, 324, 
325, 349, 357, 365, 399, 412, 
429, 438, 439, 479, 484. 
Quarters, 94, 159. 
Relative rank, 137. 
Reserve corps, 457, 469, 470, 483, 
484. 
Resignation, 179, 250, 262, 288. 
Responsibility, 60. 
Retirement, 73, 197, 262, 280, 366, 
399, 413, 419. 
Rosters of, 130, 370. 
Shortage of, 422. 
Titles, 4, 80, 92, 96, 97, 98, 117, 
121, 137, 144, 146, 149, 153, 
253, 259, 260, 261, 262, 305, 
367, 399, 418, 457. 
Training camps, 469, 471, 474. 
Uniform, 20, 41, 52, 88, 101, 105, 
110, 117, 130, 149, 160, 165, 
172, 179, 233, 238, 239, 305, 
331. 
Officer's Reserve Corps, 451, 469, 
470, 483, 484. INDEX 
595 
Officer's Training Camps, 467, 471, 
474. 
Office, War, 129. 
Ogden, General, 128. 
Ogdensburg, 122. 
Ogden, Utah, 326. 
Ohio, 64, 101, 117, 119, 121, 212, 
213, 277, 385, 387, 389, 444. 
Ohio, Army of, 277. 
Ohio River, 154, 236, 444, 446. 
Ojos Azules, Mexico, 456. 
Okeechobee, Lake, 182. 
Okeechobee Swamp, 182. 
Oklahoma, 170, 321. 
Old Northwest, 65. 
Old Pedro, 359. 
O'Leary, Colonel, 340. 
Omaha, Nebraska, 447. 
O'Neill, John, 302, 305. 
One pounder, 475, 488. 
Ontario, Fort, 303. 
Ontario, Lake, 133, 191. 
Orange Farm, 71. 
Ord, General, 273, 296, 312, 331, 
350. 
Ordnance, 81, 118, 148, 149, 153, 
271. 
Ordnance, Board of, 27. 
Ordnance, Chief of, 261, 308, 364, 
372, 427. See Appendix A, p. 
498. 
Ordnance, Commissary-general of, 
119. 
Ordnance Department, 119, 143, 148, 
150, 154, 158, 159, 161, 168, 
170, 175, 185, 196, 207, 219, 
236, 256, 316, 350, 361, 364, 
367, 371, 427, 445, 483. 
Ordnance Officer, 153, 156, 158, 163, 
189 191 
Oregon, '193, 206, 229, 231, 234, 235, 
238, 239, 245, 332, 349, 379, 
420, 436. 
Orford, Fort, 242. 
Organization and Tactics, 363. 
Organization, Military, 4, 54, 56, 73, 
83, 92, 95, 99, 103, 104, 107, 
112, 113, 116, 118, 120, 121, 
128, 130, 136, 137, 143, 144, 
146, 247, 149, 153, 165, 173, 
183, 190, 207, 229, 238, 259, 
261, 271, 307, 350, 357, 363, 
367, 399, 412, 417, 445, 456, 
457, 463, 464, 466, 521, 528, 
529. 
Organization, Tables of, 448. 
Orozco, 443. 
Osage Indians, 111, 322. 
Oswego, 46. 
Otis, Colonel, 341. 
Otis, General, 372, 398, 400, 401, 
402, 407. 
Ouray, 351. 
Outlaws, 349, 367, 423, 424, 441. 
Outposts, 267, 356, 404. 
Ovenshine, General, 402. 
Oxen, 203. 
Pacific, 213, 215, 216, 232, 309. 
Pacific Division, 232. 
Pacific, Division of, 331. 
Pack Trains, 454. 
Paco, Philippine Islands, 391. 
Paine, Thomas, 2, 37. 
Pakenham, 142, 143. 
Palanan, Philippine Islands, 414. 
Palatka Depot, 190. 
Palm Beach, Florida, 195. 
Palo Alto, 203, 211. 
Panama, 234, 239. 
Panama Canal, 429, 445, 450. 
Panama Canal Commission, 429, 451. 
Panay Island, Philippine Islands, 
400. 
Pando, General, 380. 
Panic, 141. 
Panique, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Pantaloons, 149, 160. 
Parades, 81, 93, 117, 125, 175, 193, 
194, 227, 245, 246, 254, 268. 
Parapet, 108, 142. 
Paris, Treaty of, 396. 
Parley, 213. 
Parral, Mexico, 455. 
Parras, 215. 
Parries, 161. 
Parrott gun, 265. 
Parrott, R. R., 179. 
Parsons, 31. 
Pasig, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Paso, 226. 
Pass Christian, Louisiana, 147, 229. 
Pathfinder, 185. 
Patrols, 29, 202, 267, 270. 
Patterson, 215, 220, 254, 255, 257, 
258. 
Paua, 206. 
Paulus Hook, 68. 
Pawnee Indians, 309, 342. 
Pay, 13, 28, 31, 35, 36, 51, 56 (foot- 
note), 66, 68, 69, 72, 73, 76, 80, 
84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 92, 95, 96, 97, 
98, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 112, 
114, 117, 119, 122, 126, 128, 
136, 141, 146, 153, 164, 166, 
173, 183, 197, 207, 220, 221, 596 
INDEX 
229, 230, 231, 234, 236, 242, 
255, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 
278, 279, 283, 284, 290, 302, 
304, 305, 308, 312, 313, 325, 
348, 352, 373, 399, 421, 430, 
431, 445, 470, 483, 484, 488, 
508. 
Pay Department, 148, 196, 219, 445. 
Paymaster, 95, 103, 104, 117, 121. 
Paymaster General, 103, 149, 159, 
308, 372. 
Payne, Captain, 351. 
Peace Commission, 320, 332. 
Peace, Declaration of, 87, 142, 187, 
190, 228, 388. 
Peacemaker, 183. 
Peck Fort, 350. 
Pedregal, 222, 332. 
Pedro, Old, 359. 
Peedee, 69. 
Pegram, John, General, 255. 
Pei-Ho River, 409. 
Pei-Ts'ang, 409. 
Peking, 409, 410, 411. 
Pell's Point, 33. 
Pemberton, General, 287. 
Penitentiaries, 451. 
Pennsylvania, 27, 28, 34, 65, 72, 88, 
107, 124, 141, 154, 217, 222, 
249, 287, 288, 293, 347, 385, 
386, 387, 388, 389, 453. 
Pensacola, Florida, 230. 
Pensions, 111, 114, 229, 284, 420. 
Perch, 165. 
Percussion caps, 208, 236, 266, 368. 
Percussion locks, 190, 198. 
Perez Dasmarinas, Philip- 
pine Islands, 405. 
Perkiomen, 43. 
Perry, Camp, Ohio, 436. 
Perry, Captain, 345. 
Perryville, Kentucky, 282. 
Pershing, John J., General, 415, 418 
442, 453, 454, 455, 459, 460' 
475, 477, 479, 480, 512. 
Petersburg, Virginia, 292, 295. 
Petite Coquille, Fort, Louisiana, 
163. 
Petition, 85. 
Peyton, E. G., Colonel, 441, 442, 
443. 
Philadelphia, 1, 10, 19, 40, 41, 43, 
44, 48, 50, 53, 62, 63, 76, 88, 
151, 161, 162, 168, 175, 241, 387. 
Philadelphia City Troop, 387. 
Philippine Constabulary, 418, 424. 
Philippine Islands, 397, 398, 400, 
402, 403, 405, 406, 407, 408, 
411, 412, 413, 414, 416, 418, 
419, 420, 423, 424, 427, 430. 
433, 434, 439, 441, 448, 452, 
464, 506, 510.' 
Philippine Scouts, 423, 424, 439, 
441, 452. 
Phoenixiana, 232. 
Phoenix, John, 232. 
Physician General, 105. 
Picatinny Arsenal New Jersey, 427, 
433. 
Pickens, Colonel, 66, 69. 
Pickens, Fort, Florida, 230. 
Pickering, Timothy, 11, 72, 109. 
Pickets, 202, 267, 268. 
Pickett, General, 288. 
Pickett, Geo. E., Captain, 242, 243. 
Pickett's charge, 288. 
Piegan Indians, 309, 326, 328. 
Pierce, General, 221. 
Pikesville Arsenal, 190. 
Pike, Zebulon, M., 110, 111, 124, 
128, 129. 
Pilar, del, M. H., General, 405. 
Pile arms, 145, 166. 
Pillager Chippewa Indians, 394, 395. 
Pillory, 17. 
Pillow General, 208, 220, 221, 222, 
224, 225, 228. 
Pine Ridge, 365. 
Pine tree flag, 20. 
Pioneers, 181, 195. 
Pioneer's March, The, 24. 
Piquet, 67. 
Pistols, 99, 104, 107, 139, 165, 190, 
208, 210, 240, 271, 323. 
Pitt, Fort, 90, 93. 
Pittsburgh, 64, 65, 100, 141, 153, 
154, 254, 347. 
Pittsburg Landing, 277. 
Pi Ute Indians, 349. 
Pivot, 267. 
Plan for Conducting the Rejoicing 
on Thursday, 81. 
Plate, Breast, 117. 
Platoon, 56, 117. 
Platte, Department of, 331. 
Platte River, 193, 232, 301. 
Plattsburg, New York, 124, 125, 
137, 141, 147, 154, 162, 453, 
458. 
Plaza, 213, 228. 
Plumes, 83, 88, 101, 106, 130, 160, 
331. 
Pneumatic gun, 364. 
Point Isabel, 203, 206, 208, 209, 
216. 
Poland, Camp, Tennessee, 375. INDEX 
597 
Politicians, 6, 197, 217, 228, 250, 
276, 282, 291, 348, 383, 387. 
Polk, Leonidas, 179. 
Pomeroy, 28. 
Pompons, 130, 160. 
Pompton, 73. 
Ponce, Porto Rico, 386, 388. 
Pontoniers, 181, 206. 
Pontooneers, 181, 206. 
Pontoons, 282, 283. 
Pope, General, 279, 280, 281, 299, 
312, 331, 350, 420. 
Porac, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Port arms, 145, 166. 
Porter, General, 280. 
Porter, P. B., 125, 169. 
Port fire, 176, 198. 
Port Gibson, 287. 
Portland, Maine, 162, 192. 
Portland, Oregon, 425. 
Porto Rican Provincial Regiment, 
432, 451. 
Porto Rico, 386, 387, 389, 391, 397, 
412, 432. 
Port Republic, 278. 
Port Royal Island, 66. 
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 162. 
Position of Soldier, 56, 166, 237. 
Posts, 101, 103, 196, 227, 231, 244, 
253, 408, 415, 436, 444. 
Potomac, Army of the, 264, 268, 
272, 275, 276, 277, 281, 282, 
283, 286, 288, 291, 292. 
Potomac River, 256, 271, 272, 273, 
275, 278, 280, 281, 287, 289, 
293. 
Pouch, cartridge, 7, 22, 98. 
Pouch, shot, 99. 
Powder, 6, 10, 19 21, 30, 33, 99, 
130, 145, 153, 154, 176, 203, 
208, 240, 288, 318, 323, 361, 
364, 367, 369, 380, 388, 389, 
427, 433. 
Powder factory, 427. 
Powderhorn, 7, 99, 210. 
Powder River, 300, 336, 342, 346. 
Practice, Target, 81, 146. 
Prairie schooner, 230. 
Preparedness, 115, 437, 468, 489. 
President, 248, 259, 272. 
Presidio of Monterey, California, 
447, 450. 
Presidio of San Francisco, 424, 425. 
Presidio, The, 214. 
Presque Isle, 101. 
Price, Colonel, 227. 
Price, Sterling, 269, 270. 
Pride, 60. 
Priming, 82, 144, 145, 198, 237, 267. 
Princeton, 36, 38, 48, 73, 88, 151. 
Prisoners, 37, 38, 68, 69, 72, 74, 121, 
128, 131, 174, 204, 211, 220, 
239, 280, 290, 295, 299, 322, 
349, 388, 399, 405, 411, 414, 
456. 
Prisons, 38, 39, 245, 451. 
Proclamation, 50. 
Proclamations, 125, 171, 295, 411. 
Proctor, General, 132. 
Professor, U.S.M.A., 119 153, 164, 
183, 231, 234, 483. 
Profiteering, 66, 80, 304. 
Prohibition, 171, 172, 470. 
Promotion, 137, 159, 179, 180, 217, 
284, 323, 349, 365, 399, 412, 
429, 438, 439, 479, 484. 
Provisions, 13 15, 51, 62, 69, 135, 
203, 209, 300, 340. 
Prussianism, 54, 61. 
Puebla, 221. 
Pueblo Indians, 210. 
Puget Sound, 238, 245. 
Pulaski, 42. 
Pulojanes, 430. 
Punishments, 16 31, 43, 73, 88, 103, 
129, 152, 173, 174, 226, 262, 290, 
353. 
Punitive Expedition, 512. 
Punta Rassa, Florida, 189. 
Purchasing Department, 148, 196. 
Purveyor, 105. 
Putnam, Israel, 6, 29, 32. 
Quackery, 45 
Quaker Road, 37 
Quakers, 44 
Qualification Cards, 18 
Quarantine, 416 
Quartermaster, 53, 54, 95, 97 (foot- 
note), 104, 117, 148, 196, 259, 
260, 261, 307, 308, 322. 
Quartermaster Corps, 394, 445, 483. 
Quartermaster, Deputy, 118. 
Quartermaster General, 25, 30, 51, 
63, 72, 103, 118, 149, 159, 196, 
261, 308, 372. See Appendix A, 
p. 494. 
Quartermaster's Department, 118, 
153, 196, 256, 371, 445. 
Quartermaster Sergeant, 105, 117, 
121, 137/ 146, 160, 259, 307, 
308. 
Quarters, 3, 50, 52, 65, 79, 84, 93, 
125, 126, 135, 140, 159, 193, 
200, 232, 245; 269, 273, 290. 
Quebec, 15, 16, 64. 598 
INDEX 
Queenstown, 122. 
Quick-match, 155, 176. 
Quitman, 212, 213, 215, 221, 222, 
223, 224. 
Railroads, 179, 191, 209, 234, 235, 
243, 254, 276, 277, 295, 319, 
325, 326, 347, 374, 395, 454, 
455, 466, 472. 
Raleigh, North Carolina, 296. 
Ball, 35, 36. 
Rammer, 11, 144, 155, 237. 
Rampart, 108, 149. 
Ramrod 8, 144, 153, 169, 237, 361. 
Randall, Colonel, 359. 
Randolph, General, 385. 
Range, Rifle, 421. 
Rangers, 32, 117, 130, 137, 171, 200, 
206, 210, 211. 
Rangers, Knowlton's, 32. 
Rangers, Laclede, 209. 
Rangers, Texas, 200. 
Ranks, 143, 190. 
Rapidan River, 280, 292. 
Rapier, 236. 
Rappahannock, Dept, of, 277. 
Rappahannock Forge, Virginia, 10. 
Rappahannock River, 283, 286, 287. 
Rations, 13, 15, 51, 80, 84, 95, 97, 
103, 105, 106, 108, 112, 119, 
130, 183, 213, 257, 262, 263, 
295, 321, 339, 340, 392, 404, 
424, 425. 
Rawdon, 70, 72, 75. 
Raw Hide Blanket, Chief, 304. 
Raymond, Mississippi, 287. 
Reading, Fort, 242. 
Rebellion, Fries, 107. 
Rebellion, Shay's, 94. 
Reconnaissance, 84, 134, 211, 215, 
220, 232, 255, 333. 
Reconstruction, 298. 
Recovery, Fort, 100. 
Recreation, 94. 
Recruits, 4, 14, 17, 18, 21, 26, 27, 
28, 32, 35, 40, 46, 65, 91, 98, 
103, 104, 110, 113, 116, 125, 
126, 128, 136, 139, 141, 178, 
183, 205, 221, 230, 231, 232, 
248, 249, 252, 254, 259, 260, 
268, 280, 281, 288, 289, 290, 
294, 295, 296, 302, 333, 334, 
339, 349, 368, 413, 439, 469. 
Recruit, The, 199. 
Red Cloud Agency, 342. 
Red Fork of Brazos, 233. 
Red Horn, Chief, 326, 327. 
Redoubt, 142, 202, 212, 224, 323. 
Red River, 156, 170, 196, 234, 335. 
Reduction of Army, 73, 88, 107, 
108, 111, 113, 143, 146, 147, 
156, 158, 168, 191, 228, 229, 
261, 263, 324, 330, 334. 
Register Annual, IJ. S. M. A., 151. 
Register, Army, 130, 148, 280. 
Registration (draft), 475. 
Regulations, Army, 129. 
Regulations, drill, 11, 56, 103, 107, 
112, 143, 154, 164, 165, 168, 
169, 176, 179, 187, 190, 197, 
230, 233, 236, 237, 247, 266, 
267, 285, 317, 351, 360, 366, 
369, 417, 421, 441. 
Regulations, Field Service, 448. 
Regulations for the Militia, 230. 
Regulations, French, 187. 
Remington Rifle, 316, 334. 
Reno, 338. 
Reno, Fort, 309, 319. 
Rensselaer, Van, Stephen, 122. 
Reorganization, 73, 147, 159, 239, 
286, 324, 456. 
Reorganization Act, 456, 458. 
Repeating rifles, 164, 247, 310 316, 
319, 334, 339. 
Representatives, House of, 143. 
Resaca de la Guerrero, 204. 
Resaca de la Palma, 204, 211, 381. 
Resaca, Georgia, 292, 293. 
Reserve Corps, 307, 417, 431, 445, 
457. 
Reserve Militia, 417. 
Reserve Officers Training Camps, 
469, 471, 474. 
Reserve Officers Training Corps, 
485. 
Resignations, 179, 250, 262, 288. 
Responsibility, 60. 
Retirement, 73, 197, 262, 280, 366, 
419. 1 ' 
Retiring Board, 262. 
Retreat, 5, 8, 194. 
Reveille, 58, 193, 202, 311. 
Reviews, 80, 82, 201, 268, 298, 366. 
Revolution, 183. 
Revolvers, 210, 240, 310, 319, 333. 
Reyes, General, 443. 
Reynolds, J. J., General, 179, 270, 
288, 336. 
Reynosa, 208. 
Rhinebeck, 30. 
Rhode Island, 3, 4, 303. 
Ribbons, 20. 
Richard Coeur de Lion, 465. 
Richmond, Kentucky, 280. INDEX 
599 
Richmond, Virginia, 150, 256, 273, 
274, 278, 286, 291, 292, 294, 
295, 375. 
Rich Mountains, 255. 
Riding Master, 121, 137. 
Rifle and Infantry Tactics, 247. 
Riflemen 99, 100, 112, 113, 117, 
128, 130, 136, 142, 149, 158, 
168, 191, 193, 206, 217, 218. 
Rifle Range, 421. 
Rifles, 8, 19, 99, 107, 108, 128, 130, 
137, 147, 153, 159, 160, 161, 
164, 172, 184, 185, 190, 198, 
208, 210, 214, 229, 230, 236, 
240, 247, 259, 261, 265, 266, 
267, 316 322, 323, 325, 334, 
339, 341, 346, 361, 366, 367, 
375, 380, 388, 394, 408, 419, 
421, 433, 442, 447. 
Rifle Teams, 419. 
Riley, 220, 410. 
Riley, Fort, 239, 245, 364, 370, 447. 
Rinconada Pass, 213. 
Ringgold Barracks, 231. 
Ringgold, Captain, 204. 
Rio Grande, 199, 201, 202, 203, 205, 
214, 229, 235, 245, 298, 299, 
309, 312, 367, 439, 440, 446, 
459. 
Riot, 107, 175, 195, 208, 238, 249, 
289, 301, 312, 330, 335, 347, 
368, 425, 500. 
Ripley, E. W., General, 137, 148, 
151. 
Roads, 164, 177, 216, 222, 243, 246, 
380. 
Roberts, General, 134. 
Robinson, Fort, Nebraska, 365, 452. 
Rochambeau, 79, 84. 
Rockets, 208, 217. 
Rocking Chair period, 374. 
Rock Island Arsenal, 279, 305, 435. 
Rock Island, Illinois, 170, 171, 190, 
279, 305. 
Rocky Mountains, 172, 193. 
Rodman Gun, 265, 305. 
Rodman Rifle, 316. 
Rodney's Artillery, 387. 
Rogue River Indians, 233, 234, 238, 
239. 
Rolling Kitchens, 455. 
Rolls, 160. 
Roman Nose, Chief, 319, 320, 322. 
Rome, New York, 130, 190. 
Roosevelt, 64. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 376, 379, 415, 
422, 429, 430, 434. 
Root, Secretary, 418, 419. 
Roper's Rifle, 316. 
Rosales, Philippine Islands, 404. 
Rosebud River, 336, 337. 
Rosecrans, General, 255, 270, 279, 
282, 284, 289. 
Roslin Castle, 24. 
R. O. T. C., 485. 
Rough Riders, 376, 378, 383. 
Rouses Point, 303. 
Rousseau, H. H., 429. 
Routine, 193, 194. 
Rowan, Lieutenant, 374. 
Ruffle, 145. 
Ruffner Lieutenant, 334. 
Rules and Regulations for the Field 
Service and Maneuvers of the 
French Army, 143. 
Rum, 45, 51, 76. 
Rush, Dr. Benj., 34. 
Russell, Captain, 186. 
Russell, D. A., Fort, Wyoming, 452. 
Russians, 409, 410. 
Russy de, 154. 
Sabine River, 188. 
Sabre, 101, 148, 208, 236, 322. 
Sac Indians, 170. 
Sackett's Harbor, 124, 131, 133, 
147, 162, 187. 
Sacramento, Mexico, 226. 
Sacrificios Island, 219. 
Saddler, 121, 137. 
Saddles, 267, 319, 323. 
Sailors, 139, 141, 317. 
Saint Andrews, Cross of, 20. 
Saint Clair 39, 45, 49, 79, 96, 97, 
98, 100. 
Saint George, Cross of, 20. 
Saint Joseph's Island, Texas, 199. 
Saint Lawrence, 16, 133. 
Saint Leger, 46. 
Saint Louis, Bay of, 192. 
Saint Louis, Missouri, 110, 154 190, 
196, 303, 305. 
Saint Paul, Minnesota, 196, 305. 
Saint Peters, Mississippi, 163. 
Saint Philips, Fort, Mississippi, 163. 
Saltillo, 210, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217. 
Salt Lake City, 241. 
Salubrity, Camp, Louisiana, 193. 
Saluda River, 69. 
Salutes, 6, 16, 26, 62, 81. 
Samar Philippine Islands, 406, 415, 
430. 
Sam Browne Belt, 286. 
Sampson, Admiral, 384. 
Samuel, 463. 
San Angelo, Mexico, 223. 600 
INDEX 
San Antonio, Fort, Philippine Is- 
lands, 390. 
San Antonio, Mexico, 223. 
San Antonio, Texas, 213 226, 299, 
303, 439. 
San Arco Indians, 341. 
San Augustin, Mexico, 223. 
Sanborn, General, 304. 
San Cosme Gate, 224. 
San Diego California, 440. 
Sands, Comfort, 80. 
Sandwich, 121, 132. 
Sandy Hook, 76, 303. 
San Fernando (Pamp.) Philippine 
Islands, 401, 402. 
San Fernando (Union), Philippine 
Islands, 404. 
San Francisco, California, 232, 234, 
424, 425, 426. 
San Francisco, Presidio of, 424, 425. 
San Geronimo, Mexico, 222, 223. 
San Isidro, Philippine Islands, 401, 
403. 
Sanitation, 15, 19, 52 58, 168, 264, 
392, 393, 394, 397, 398, 416, 
446, 447. 
San Jacinto, Philippine Islands, 404. 
San Juan, Cuba, 378, 379 380, 381, 
382, 383, 385, 396. 
San Juan Island, 242, 243. 
San Juan, Philippine Islands, 391. 
San Juan, Porto Rico, 386, 388. 
San Mateo, Philippine Islands, 405. 
San Miguel de Rubio, Mexico, 456. 
San Miguel, New Mexico, 209. 
San Miguel, Philippine Islands, 401. 
San Nicolas, Philippine Islands, 440. 
Santa Ana, General, 405. 
Santa Anna, 215, 218, 223, 224. 
Santa Cruz, 227. 
Santa Cruz, Philippine Islands, 401. 
Santa Desidera, Porto Rico, 386. 
Santa Fe, New Mexico, 111, 168, 
209, 210, 213, 419, 422, 427, 
428, 433. 
Santee, 75. 
Santiago, Cuba, 377, 378, 380, 383, 
384, 385, 386, 387, 397. 
Sappers, 83, 104, 119, 126, 206. 
Sapping, 25. 
Sarangani, Philippine Islands, 439. 
Saratoga, 47, 48, 70, 74. 
Sashes, 149, 160, 239. 
Satanta, 314. 
Sault Sainte Marie, 162. 
Savage Station, 279. 
Savannah, Georgia, 66, 68, 79, 162, 
294, 295. 
Sawyer, 153. 
Scaling Ladders, 142, 224. 
Schenk, 278. 
Schofield, General 294, 301 312, 
324, 331, 350.' 
Schonchin, 333. 
School, Garrison, 417. 
School of Application for Infantry 
and Cavalry, 355. 
School of Fire for Field Artillery, 
440. 
School of Instruction, Artillery, 164, 
166. 
School of Musketry, 447. 
School of Practice, Artillery, 164 
166, 239. 
School of Tactics, Infantry, 166. 
School of the Line, 435. 
Schools, 109. 
Schools, Civilian, 308, 413, 484. 
Schuyler, Philip, 6, 15 39, 45, 46, 
49, 180. 
Schuylkill, 43, 50, 62. 
Schwan, General, 386, 387, 405. 
Scorpion, 38. 
Scott, Fort Florida, 152. 
Scott, Winfield, 114, 137, 138, 143, 
148, 161, 165, 166, 168, 171, 
177 178, 180, 183, 184, 185, 
186, 188, 195, 197, 201, 205, 
210, 214, 216, 219, 220, 221, 
222, 223 224, 226, 227, 228, 
243, 244, 245, 266, 267, 272, 
285, 404, 450. 
Scott, W. S., General, 456. 
Scouts, 42 268, 270, 307, 319, 320, 
321, 322, 329, 342, 345, 346, 
349, 350, 351, 360, 404, 405, 
414, 423, 424, 443, 483. 
Screen, Smoke, 203. 
Scurvy, 53, 207. 
Seacoast, Artillery, 234. 
Seacoast Defenses, 112, 148, 361, 
370, 419, 422, 427, 428, 433. 
Sea Fencibles, 130, 137. 
Sea Girt, New Jersey, 419. 
Searchlights, 433. 
Seattle, Washington, 425, 
Secession, 171, 247, 248, 249, 250. 
Second Brigade, 210. 
Second Cavalry, 239, 303, 326, 336, 
337, 339, 341, 346, 350, 386, 
387, 388. 
Second Division, 210, 446, 447. 
Second Dragoons, 181, 184, 188, 
191 193, 197, 199, 200, 210, 
213* 222, 229, 240, 241, 245, 
256, 267. INDEX 
601 
Second Field Artillery, 137, 159, 
167, 176, 184, 188, 229, 239, 
245, 303, 318. 
Second Indiana, 217. 
Second Infantry, 117, 141, 147, 162, 
171, 178, 186, 188, 190, 213, 
222, 229, 235, 236, 241, 245, 
256, 303, 364, 366, 369. 
Second Oregon, 379. 
Second Pennsylvania, 217. 
Second Wisconsin, 386. 
Secretary, Military, 420, 429. 
Secretary of Interior, 324, 394. 
Secretary of Treasury, 120, 139, 251, 
252. 
Secretary of War, 92, 119, 133, 136, 
139, 140, 143, 150, 151, 152, 
155, 169, 170, 197, 202, 214, 
215, 234, 235 242, 247, 248, 
250, 251, 260,' 273, 275, 276, 
279, 285, 287, 324, 357, 381, 
415, 418, 419, 422, 426, 428, 
435, 436, 437, 445, 449, 452, 
457, 485, 489. See Appendix A, 
p. 492. 
Section, 55. 
Secure Arms, 145. 
Security, Service of, 363. 
Selective Draft Act, 466, 470, 471, 
475, 476, 478. 
Seminole Indians, 152, 176, 187, 188, 
195, 211, 230, 239, 240. 
Senate 306, 361, 398. 
Sentinel, 94, 139, 175, 408, 442. 
Sentry, 94, 175, 245, 318, 408. 
Serbia, 463. 
Sergeant, Major, 105, 117, 126, 146, 
160, 181, 183, 259, 308. 
Service, Foreign, 231. 
Service of Security, 363. 
Service of Security and Informa- 
tion, 363. 
Service Schools, 164, 166, 192, 239, 
355, 363, 364, 370, 407, 417, 421, 
422, 423, 435, 440, 445, 447, 
451, 478, 487, 520. 
Service Stripe, 82. 
Setting-up Exercises, 367. 
Seven Days' Battles, 279. 
Seventh Cavalry, 321, 337, 338, 346, 
365, 366, 455, 456. 
Seventh Field Artillery, 371, 387. 
Seventh Infantry, 117, 147, 152, 187, 
188, 200, 203, 229, 231, 233, 245, 
251, 256. 
Seven Pines, 277. 
Seventeenth Infantry, 147, 303, 373, 
455. 
Seventy-first, New York, 381, 382. 
Sevier, 72. 
Shafter, General, 372, 374, 375, 378, 
379, 384, 385, 386. 
Sha Huo Gate, 409. 
Shapley, Captain, 77. 
Sharpe, H. G., General, 425. 
Sharpe, Major, 382. 
Sharpshooter, 240. 
Sharp's Rifle, 240. 
Shaw, Fort, 326. 
Shawnee Indians, 206. 
Shay, Daniel, 94. 
Shay's Rebellion, 94. 
Shelby, 72. 
Shelby, Fort, Mississippi, 163. 
Sheldon, 67. 
Shells, 213, 364, 410. 
Shell-shock, 311. 
Shelters, 15, 50, 52, 64, 65, 69, 84, 
126, 200, 232, 269. 
Shenandoah, Department of, 276, 
277 279. 
Shenandoah Valley, 257, 278, 287, 
293, 294. 
Sheperdstown, 287, 293. 
Sheridan, Fort, Illinois, 452. 
Sheridan Philip, 152, 290, 291, 293, 
294,' 295, 296, 299, 303, 304, 
305, 312, 319, 321, 326, 330, 
331, 335, 350, 351. 
Sherman, Thomas, General, 177. 
Sherman, W. T., 152, 218, 273, 279, 
287, 289, 290, 291 292, 293, 
294, 295, 296, 303' 305, 309, 
312, 325, 331, 350, 355. 
Shields General, 220, 222, 298. 
Shiloh, *244, 277. 
Shipp, Camp, 376. 
Ships, 76, 235, 243, 275, 276, 417, 
428. 
Shooting, 9, 33, 81, 113, 146. 169. 
Shoshone Indians, 337, 342. 
Shotguns, 442. 
Shot, Hot, 125. 
Shoulder Strap, 106, 160, 179, 233, 
239. 
Shrapnel, 204. 
Shrieve, Colonel, 73. 
Shrubrick, Captain, 67. 
Siberia, 482. 
Sibert, Wm. L., General, 429, 451, 
476. 
Sibley, General, 299, 300. 
Siboney, Cuba, 378, 380. 
Sickles, General, 312. 
Sickness, 15, 23, 45, 53, 133, 167, 
168, 171, 177, 179, 185, 189, 602 
INDEX 
200, 201, 206, 207, 209, 214, 
219, 220, 225, 227, 230, 234, 
256, 269, 278, 297, 377, 380, 
391, 393, 401, 404, 406, 415, 
416. 
Siege Artillery, 233, 234, 266. 
Sierra Madres, 329, 330, 349, 360, 
362. 
Sigel, General, 269. 
Sight, Buffington's, 361. 
Signal Corps, 271, 284, 308, 374, 
444, 448, 449, 452, 483. 
Signal Officer, Chief, 372. See 
Appendix A, p. 498. 
Signal School 425. 
Signal Unit, 271, 452, 454. 
Sill, Fort, Oklahoma, 440, 447, 452. 
Silliman, 40. 
Simcoe, Fort, 242. 
Simonds, Captain, 425. 
Sioux Indians 240, 299, 309, 335, 
337, 350, 357, 365. 
Sitka, Alaska, 318. 
Sitting Bull, 336, 341, 349, 350, 357, 
365. 
Sixteen Mile Pond, 245. 
Sixteenth Infantry, 147, 228, 381, 
382, 454, 476. 
Sixteenth, Pennsylvania, 386, 388. 
Sixth Cavalry, 268, 303, 333, 360, 
366, 387, 409, 424, 454. 
Sixth Corps, 280. 
Sixth Field Artillery, 371, 454. 
Sixth Illinois, 385, 386. 
Sixth Infantry, 117, 147, 154, 159, 
163, 166 168, 170, 171, 172, 
174, 178' 180, 181, 186, 187, 
190, 197, 229, 239, 240, 241, 
242 245, 256, 351, 381, 382, 
424' 454, 456. 
Sixth Massachusetts, 385, 386. 
Skippack Creek, 44, 48. 
Skirmishes, 179, 246, 267, 285, 317. 
Skirmish Line, 179, 246. 
Skulking, 381, 382. 
Slashes, 180. 
Slavery, 238, 244. 
Sledges, 126. 
Small Arms. See Arms, Small. 
Smallpox, 15, 45, 168, 218, 326. 
Smith, Fort, 192. 
Smith, C. S., Fort, 315. 
Smith, General, 400, 402. 
Smith, General (Union), 286. 
Smith, J. L., 176. 
Smith, Justin, 205. 
Smith, E. Kirby, General, 202, 280, 
296. 
Smith, Persifer F., 210, 222, 224, 
232. 
Smithville, North Carolina, 162. 
Smoke Screen, 203. 
Smythe, General, 124 125, 126. 
Snelling, Fort, 168, 188, 196, 394. 
Soldiers' Home, 302. 
Solomon River, 240. 
Somerset Court House, 37. 
Sonora, 216. 
Sorel River, 136. 
Soto, Colonel 387. 
South, 245, 248, 250, 252, 253, 254, 
259, 268, 271, 273, 275, 276, 
278, 289, 296, 301, 305. 
South Carolina, 147, 171, 184, 217, 
222, 247, 248, 277, 279. 
South Dakota, 427. 
South, Division of, 151. 
Southwest Territory, 101. 
Spain, 110, 111. 
Spain, War with, 361, 370, 385, 394, 
395, 397, 399, 400, 403, 413, 
416 417, 423, 460. 
Spanish, 92, 111, 151, 371, 375, 376, 
378, 379, 380, 384, 385, 386, 
389, 390, 392. 
Spanish American War, 361, 394, 
395, 397, 399, 400, 403, 413, 
416, 417, 423, 460. 
Sparta, Wisconsin, 435. 
Spatula, 155. 
Spears, 408. 
Spencer, Christopher, 247. 
Spencer, General, 28. 
Spencer Rifle, 247, 315, 319. 
Splints, 155. 
Spokane River, 242. 
Spotted Tail Agency, 342. 
Spottsylvania Court House, 292. 
Sprague, General, 188. 
Springfield Armory, 367. 
Springfield Arsenal, Massachusetts, 
153, 161, 190, 191, 264, 367. 
Springfield, Ohio, 70, 94. 
Springfield Rifle 310, 334, 361, 433. 
Spy, 72, 111, 181, 228. 
Squad, 55, 317, 390, 421. 
Squadron, 161, 165, 190, 417, 454. 
Squier, Colonel, 423. 
Squirrel Rifle, 161. 
Staff, Chief of, 418, 437, 440, 457, 
481, 489. See Appendix A, p. 
493. 
Staff College, 421, 423. 
Staff Corps. See Staff, general. 
Staff, General 103, 107, 149, 153, 
357, 419, 421, 423, 426, 433, INDEX 
603 
436, 437, 444, 457, 464, 465, 
468, 477, 481, 483, 486, 489. 
Stagecoach, 321. 
Stanton, Secretary of War, 273, 274, 
279. 
Stark, 49. 
Stars and Stripes, 210, 212, 225. 
Star Spangled Banner, 193. 
State Department, 304. 
Staten Island, 28, 40. 
States Bights, 275. 
Staunton, Virginia, 294. 
Stedman, Fort, 295. 
Steele, Fort, 350. 
Steele, General, 312. 
Steilacoom, Fort, 242. 
Step, Deploy, 143. 
Stephens, 39, 44. 
Stephenson, Fort, 132. 
Step, Length of, 144, 237, 285. 
Step, Lock, 143. 
Step, Oblique, 143, 164. 
Sterling, 29, 35, 39. 
Sternburg, General, 372. 
Steuben, Von, 42, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 
58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 70, 72, 75, 
78, 82, 83, 85, 103, 112, 114, 
116, 128, 143, 144, 151, 168, 
237, 317, 328. 
Stevens, Colonel, 223. 
Stevens (Engineer), 429. 
Steward, Hospital, 259, 278, 307. 
Stimson, Secretary of War, 445. 
Stockade, 93, 117, 132, 147, 177, 
185, 194, 195, 206, 232, 309, 
310, 319, 424. 
Stockbridge Indians, 3. 
Stockton, Commodore, 213, 226. 
Stock-trail, 175. 
Stokes Mortar, 475. 
Stone, General, 272. 
Stoney Brook, 37. 
Stony Point, New York, 68. 
Straps, Shoulder, 106, 160, 179, 233, 
239. 
Strasburg, 293. 
Strategy, 423. 
Straw, 50. 
Strength, Confederate, 248, 249. 
Strength of Army, 4, 15, 17, 21, 24, 
27, 29, 31, 35, 40, 41, 45, 53, 
63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 
76, 80, 88, 92, 93, 95, 100, 101, 
107, 108, 111, 113, 116, 120, 
122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 132, 
133, 135, 137, 141, 152, 157, 
171, 176, 177, 178, 181, 196, 
199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 209, 
210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 
217, 220, 221, 226, 229, 238, 
244, 256, 267, 270, 271, 273, 
276, 277, 280, 282, 286, 287, 
288, 290, 293, 294, 300, 302, 
305, 307, 309, 321, 322, 349, 
370, 371, 379, 385, 386, 387, 
393, 394, 398, 399, 400, 401, 
402, 405, 407, 411, 413, 419, 
421, 427, 428, 444, 446, 449, 
452, 453, 457, 458, 476, 489. 
British, 29, 35, 40, 44, 48, 53, 64, 
75, 130, 134, 142. 
French, 76. 
Strikes, 500. 
Stripe, Service, 82. 
Stromboli, 38. 
Strother, Fort, 134. 
Stuart, J. E. B., 273, 287, 292. 
Stubbs, Corporal, 123, 137. 
Sturgis, General, 286, 346. 
Subig, Philippine Islands, 405. 
Sublegion, 99, 100, 101, 103. 
Submarine Mines, 433. 
Subsistence, 13, 15, 51, 80, 84, 95, 
97, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 112, 
118, 122, 153, 207, 305, 447. 
Subsistence, Commissary of, 261. 
Subsistence Department, 153, 308, 
425, 445. 
Substitute, 141, 284. 
Substitution, 141, 284, 288. 
Sugar Point, 394. 
Sullivan, Fort, 303. 
Sullivan, General, 28, 29, 35, 41, 42, 
43, 49, 64, 65. 
Sullivan's Island, South Carolina, 
192. 
Sully, General, 299, 300. 
Sultan of Baccalod, 418. 
Sulu, Philippine Islands, 401, 415. 
Sumner, General, 380. 
Sumner, Major, 213. 
Sumter, Fort, 248, 249, 250, 275. 
Sumter, General, 69, 75. 
Superintendent Military Academy, 
109, 151, 188, 231, 234, 242, 
306. See Appendix A, p. 500. 
Superintendent of Finance, 76. 
Supplies, 6, 15, 21, 23, 33, 34, 40, 
49, 50, 61, 79, 93, 118, 121, 
127, 149, 177, 180, 208, 209, 
210, 216, 220, 221, 224, 239, 
241, 256, 271, 281, 294, 295, 
301, 304, 319, 323, 340, 341, 
342, 343, 352, 375, 378, 380, 
389, 407, 426, 455. 
Supply Camp, 321, 323. 604 
INDEX 
Supply Company, 457. 
Support Arms, 145. 
Surgeon-general, 152, 278, 308, 372, 
431. See Appendix A, p. 496. 
Surgeons, 95, 96, 104, 105, 117, 146, 
175, 186, 259, 261, 278, 284, 
362, 384, 393, 399, 431, 439. 
Surgeon's Mate, 96, 104, 117, 146. 
Surigao, Philippine Islands, 407. 
Surrender, 77, 128, 131, 203, 248, 
270, 323, 342, 357, 385, 389, 
390, 402, 420, 423, 424, 442. 
Surveys, 110, 111, 150, 154, 156, 
164, 185, 232, 234, 235, 240, 
369, 451. 
Susquehanna, 65. 
Sutler, 172, 250, 259, 308, 353. 
Swamp, Black, 127. 
Swift, Joseph G., 113, 116, 133, 143, 
197. 
Swift Run Gap, 278. 
Sword, 7, 8, 99, 101, 104, 107, 108, 
161, 165, 208, 267. 
Sword, Master of, 121, 137. 
System of Discipline, New, 128. 
System of Exercise and Instruction 
of Field Artillery, A, 169. 
Tallies of Organization, 448. 
Tactical Unit, 285. 
Tactics, 188, 220, 224, 247, 266, 285, 
317, 355, 360, 363, 366, 385, 
392, 422, 423, 447, 464, 488. 
Tactics and Regulations for the 
Militia, 179. 
Tactics, Artillery, 128. 
Tactics, Cavalry, 161, 165, 190. 
Tactics, Cavalry, (Cook's), 360. 
Tactics, Cooper's and Macomb's, 
236. 
Tactics for Infantry, Abridged, 166. 
Tactics, Hardee's Rifle and Light 
Infantry, 237. 
Tactics, Infantry, 164, 169. 
Tactics, Infantry, Casey's, 285. 
Tactics, Infantry School of, 166. 
Tactics, Infantry, Upton's, 317. 
Tacubaya, 223. 
Taft Board, 428. 
Taft, Wm. H., 415, 422, 436, 468. 
Tagologs, 398. 
Taguig, Philippine Islands, 400. 
Taku, China, 408, 409. 
Talavera, Philippine Islands, 403. 
Talladega, 134. 
Tallasahatchee, 134. 
Tampa Bay Depot, 190. 
Tampa, Florida, 177, 190, 372, 373, 
374, 375, 376, 386. 
Tampico, 215, 217. 
Tangandan Mountains, 405. 
Tank Corps, Chief of. See Appen- 
dix A, p. 499. 
Tapeon, 155. 
Tappan, N. Y., 70. 
Taps, 194. 
Taraca Moros, 419. 
Tar-bucket, 130, 160, 165. 
Target Practice, 81, 146, 169, 266, 
268, 332, 350, 417, 440, 447, 466. 
Targets, 146, 169, 332, 350, 378. 
Tarlac, Philippine Islands, 403, 404. 
Tarleton, 72, 74. 
Tartar Wall, 409, 410. 
Tassels, 147, 160. 
Tattoo, 58, 194. 
Tavern, Fraunces, 88. 
Tax, War, 107. 
Taylor, Colonel, 286. 
Taylor System, 441. 
Taylor, Zachary, 181, 182, 185, 188, 
193, 195, 197, 199, 200, 202, 
203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 
210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 
218, 226. 
Teachers, 109, 119, 151. 
Tecumseh, 113, 132. 
Telegraph, 271, 280, 284, 309, 346, 
426, 453. 
Telephone, 426, 427. 
Temple, 86. 
Ten Eyck, 310. 
Tennessee, 124, 133, 152, 209, 213, 
215, 275, 279, 281. 
Tennessee, Department of the, 279, 
282. 
Tennessee, Division of the, 303. 
Tennessee River, 380, 394. 
Tenth Cavalry, 307, 378, 383, 447, 
454 455 459. 
Tenth Infantry, 147, 228, 238, 240, 
241, 245, 246, 303, 413. 
Tenth Military District, 139. 
Tenth Pennsylvania, 385, 389. 
Tents, 126, 293, 200, 233, 271, 300, 
311, 312, 319, 323, 337, 393. 
Tepees, 322, 338, 342, 365. 
Terry, General, 312, 337, 339, 350. 
Terwaw, Fort, 242. 
Teton Indians, 111. 
Teton Pass, 369. 
Texas, 188, 193, 199, 202, 205, 210, 
213, 230, 233, 239, 240, 242, 
245, 248, 298, 303, 305, 312, 
439, 440, 443, 444, 456, 464. INDEX 
605 
Texas City, 446, 447, 449. 
Texas, Department of, 331. 
Texas Rangers, 200, 210. 
Thacher, James, 51. 
Thames River, 132. 
Thatcher, Maurice H., 429. 
Thayer, Sylvanus, 116, 151, 163, 
179, 188, 199, 363. 
Thimbleriggers, 227. 
Third Cavalry, 206, 323, 330, 336, 
339, 341, 360, 367, 404. 
Third Dragoons, 228, 230, 233, 236, 
245 267. 
Third Field Artillery, 137, 159, 167, 
176, 178, 180, 184, 188, 200, 
229, 233, 235, 238, 239, 242, 
245, 246, 303, 386, 389, 406. 
Third Illinois, 387, 389. 
Third Infantry, 117, 147, 165, 166, 
170, 180, 188, 192, 199, 200, 
222, 229, 234, 236, 239, 240, 
242, 245, 256, 303, 394, 395, 
456. 
Third Wisconsin, 388. 
Thirteenth Cavalry, 413. 443, 453, 
454, 455. 
Thirteenth Corps, 299. 
Thirteenth Infantry, 147, 228, 382. 
Thirteenth Minnesota, 386. 
Thirtieth Infantry, 147, 412, 456. 
Thirty-first Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-second Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-third Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-fourth Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-fifth Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-sixth Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-seventh Infantry, 147, 323. 
Thirty-eighth Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-ninth Infantry, 147. 
Thirty-seven M.M. Gun, 475. 
Thirty-third Michigan, 379. 
Thirty-fourth Michigan, 379, 380. 
Thomas, Camp, Georgia, 373, 375, 
393, 394. 
Thomas, Dr., 333. 
Thomas, General, 22, 28, 218, 251, 
290, 294, 312. 
Thompkins, Frank, Major, 455. 
Thompson (Historian), 126. 
Thompson, Lieutenant Colonel, 181. 
Thornburg, Major, 350, 354. 
Thornton, Captain, 203. 
Three Bells, 235. 
Ticonderoga, 15, 18, 45. 
Tientsin, China, 409. 
Tila Pass, 405. 
Timber, Fallen, 101. 
Tinis, 407. 
Tippecanoe River, 113. 
Toasts, 81. 
Tobyhanna, Pennsylvania, 447, 450. 
Tomachie, Mexico, 456. 
Tomahawk, 7, 65, 94, 96, 195, 300. 
Tomes, 139. 
Tongue River, 336, 337, 341, 343. 
Tonto Basin, 330. 
Topographical Engineers, 149, 170, 
183, 185, 196, 232, 261, 284. 
Toral, General, 384. 
Tories, 69. 
Toronto, 129. 
Torpedoes, 422. 
Torpedo Gun, 364. 
Torre jon, General, 202. 
Tory-baiting, 26. 
Totten, 116. 
Touch-hole, 155. 
Tower, Colonel, 220. 
Townshend, Fort, 242. 
Training, 54, 56, 58, 61, 62, 63, 78, 
81, 82, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, 
114, 127, 129, 134, 135, 137, 
146, 151, 157, 163, 165, 186, 
190, 191, 192, 193, 196, 204, 
221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 239, 
245, 253, 256, 264, 267, 268, 
271, 273, 288, 297, 313, 326, 
379, 383, 393, 413, 420, 422, 
427, 435, 436, 453, 463, 465, 
472, 484. 
Training Camps, 99, 186, 205, 313, 
417, 433, 447, 449, 450, 453, 
466, 467, 469, 471, 474, 490. 
Training, Vocational, 457. 
Train, pack, 454. 
Trains, 204, 227, 241, 271, 321, 336, 
341, 454. 
Trajectory, 9. 
Transportation, 50, 93, 126, 133, 
154, 171, 180, 203, 204, 209, 
220, 295, 375, 426, 450, 454, 
460, 477. 
Transports, 154, 318, 375, 376, 377, 
378, 379, 380, 389, 428. 
Travois, 339. 
Treason, 42, 70. 
Treasury, Board of, 76. 
Treasury, Secretary of, 120, 140, 
251, 252. 
Treaties, 227, 234, 391, 396, 398. 
Treatise on Military Art, 103. 
Treaty of Guadalupe, 227. 
Treaty of Paris, 396, 398. 
Trenches, 271, 346, 389, 390. 
Trenton, New Jersey, 35, 36, 37, 38, 
39, 41, 48, 186, 282. 606 
INDEX 
Trevino, 456. 
Troop, 190, 360, 367, 417. 
Trout Creek, 50. 
Troy, New York, 192. 
Truce, 296. 
Truckee River, 246. 
Trucks, 454, 467. 
Trueman, Lieutenant Colonel, 98. 
Trumbull, 49, 52. 
Trumbull, Fort, 303. 
Trumpeters, 137. 
Trunnions, 91, 155. 
Tryon, 40. 
Tucson, 216. 
Tullahoma, Tennessee, 449. 
Tullifiny, 67. 
Tung Pien Gate, 409. 
Twelfth Cavalry, 414. 
Twelfth Infantry, 149, 222, 228, 
333, 370. 
Twentieth Infantry, 147, 337, 454. 
Twenty-first Infantry, 147, 326, 330, 
345, 349, 364, 366, 456. 
Twenty-second Infantry, 138, 147, 
343, 423, 424. 
Twenty-third Infantry, 147, 318, 
341, 385, 386, 390, 400, 402. 
Twenty-fourth Infantry, 147, 307, 
454. 
Twenty-fifth Infantry, 147, 307, 369, 
434. 
Twenty-sixth Infantry, 147, 412, 
459, 576. 
Twenty-seventh Infantry, 147, 412. 
Twenty-eighth Infantry, 147, 412, 
476. 
Twenty-ninth Infantry, 147, 412. 
Twenty-fifth Corps, 299. 
Twenty-sixth Division, 477. 
Twiggs, General, 197, 201, 210, 215, 
217, 220, 222, 223, 229, 248. 
Tyler, 257, 258, 270. 
Typhoid, 168, 269, 393. 
Typhoons, 402. 
Uintah Reservation, 427. 
Umatilla Agency, 349. 
Uniform: 
Revolutionary, 3, 20, 25, 26, 31, 
34, 45, 52, 68, 73, 82, 88. 
Post-Revolutionary, 95, 101, 105, 
110. 
War of 1812, 112, 117, 130. 
1816. 149. 
1821. 160. 
1825. 165. 
1833. 172. 
1836. 179. 
Mexican War, 201, 210. 
1855. 238. 
1857. 239. 
Civil War, 248, 265, 285. 
1872. 331. 
1884. 361. 
1899. 406. 
Union, 250, 251, 255, 256, 264, 265, 
270, 275, 279, 280, 284, 286, 
287, 290, 292, 295, 297, 299, 
301, 459. 
Union Pacific R.R., 325. 
U. S. Disciplinary Barracks, 451. 
U. S. Marine Corps, 139, 141, 222, 
256, 419, 449, 476. 
Universal Militia Law, 98. 
Unkpapa Indians, 341. 
Unpopularity, 79, 85, 90, 114, 158, 
438. 
Upton, Emory, General, 317, 357, 
412, 418, 469. 
Upton's Infantry Tactics, 317. 
Upton's Military Policy, 357, 418. 
Urbana, Ohio, 119. 
Utah, 229, 232, 240, 241, 245, 246, 
385 389 
Ute Indians, 300, 334, 347, 350, 351, 
427, 431. 
Utuado, Porto Rico, 388. 
Vaccination, 45. 
Valet, 53. 
Valley Campaign, 278. 
Valley Creek, 50. 
Valley Forge, 38, 48, 49, 50, 54, 58, 
64, 69, 116, 151, 207. 
Valverde, 214. 
Vancouver Barracks, Washington, 
235, 245. 
Vancouver, Fort, 242. 
Vancouver Island, 242. 
Van Horn, Colonel, 378. 
Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 122. 
Vera Cruz, 205, 214, 216, 218, 219, 
220, 222, 228, 449. 
Verde River, 456. 
Vermont, 18, 45. 
Vernon, Mount, 107, 190. 
Verplank's Point, 84. 
Veteran Reserve Corps, 307. 
Veterinary Corps, 457. 
Vicksburg, 282, 287, 288, 289. 
Victoria, Mexico, 215. 
Victoria, Texas, 299. 
Vidette, 257, 267. 
Villa, Pancho, 446, 453, 454, 455, 
456, 460. 
Vincennes, 64, 93. INDEX 
607 
Virginia, 10, 14, 28, 34, 55, 75, 78, 
124, 126, 139, 150, 255, 268, 
276, 277, 282, 289, 293, 296, 
420. 
Virginia, Army of, 279. 
Virginia, Central R.R. of, 295. 
Virginia, Northern Army of, 271. 
Visajas, Philippine Islands, 402, 
407. 
Vocational Training, 457. 
Volleys, 74, 143, 166, 174, 175. 
Voltigeurs, 217, 222, 228. 
Volunteers, 69, 105, 118, 121, 122, 
125, 130, 135, 161, 171, 172, 
176, 177, 178, 181, 191, 200, 
205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 
211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 220, 
222, 225, 227, 229, 234, 238, 
242, 248, 251, 252, 253, 258, 
259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 
268, 276, 285, 289, 293, 300, 
301, 303, 307, 309, 313, 372, 
373, 374, 376, 380, 381, 382, 
385, 386, 387, 388, 391, 392, 
394, 398, 399, 401, 402, 406, 
407, 413, 416, 438, 448, 452, 
457, 470. 
Wabash, 98, 113, 122. 
Wade, General, 372. 
Wadsworth, General, 276. 
Wadsworth, Jeremiah, 63, 65. 
Wagner, 259, 307. 
Wagner, Arthur L., 363, 422. 
Wagons, 203, 204, 208, 216, 220, 
257, 271, 295, 321, 322, 336, 
337, 341, 343, 351, 380. 
Wahoo Swamps, 178. 
Waiters, 137, 175. 
Walback, 197. 
Wallace (Engineer), 429. 
Wallace, Fort, 320. 
Wallace, Lew, General, 293. 
Wallawa, 344. 
Walla Walla, Fort, 239, 242. 
War, Articles of, 31, 129. 
War, Board of, 72. 
War College, 407, 417, 418, 419, 
421, 423, 444, 465. 
War, College Division, G. S., 444. 
War Commission, 393. 
War, Council of, 77, 125. 
Ward, Artemas, 1, 2, 6. 
War, Declaration of, 120, 203, 205, 
372. 
War Department, 27, 133, 150, 151, 
163, 169, 177, 190, 233, 239, 
251, 318, 328, 366, 372, 375, 
419, 431, 433, 435, 441, 465, 
467, 471, 474, 475, 477, 489. 
Warmouth, Governor, 330. 
War Office, 129. 
War Orders, 273. 
Warren, General, 295. 
War, Secretary of, 92, 120, 133, 136, 
139, 140, 143, 150, 151, 152, 
156, 169, 170, 197, 202, 214, 
215, 234, 235, 242, 243, 248, 
250, 251, 260, 273, 274, 275, 
276, 279, 285, 287, 317, 324, 
357, 381, 415, 418, 419, 422, 
426, 428, 435, 436, 437, 445, 
449, 452, 457, 485, 489. 
War Tax, 107, 313. 
Warwick Tavern, 43. 
War with Mexico, 205. 
Washington Arsenal, 190. 
Washington Barracks, Maryland, 
162, 417. 
Washington Camp, 205. 
Washington, Captain J. M. (bat- 
tery), 218. 
Washington, D. C., 139, 141, 168, 
205, 214, 243, 249, 250, 253, 
255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 264, 
268, 271, 274, 275, 276, 277, 
278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 
286, 288, 332, 333, 349, 371, 
372, 373, 375, 376, 384, 385, 
401, 407, 417, 418, 426, 445, 
454, 465, 466. 
Washington Elm, 3. 
Washington, Fort, Maryland, 162, 
417. 
Washington, Fort, New York, 33, 
48. 
Washington, George. 
Ability, 37, 39, 89, 107. 
Assumes Command, 3. 
At Valley Forge, 50. 
At Yorktown, 76. 
Capture of Boston, 23. 
Commendation, 81, 82, 89, 336. 
Condemnation, 81. 
Death, 107, 114. 
Discouragements, 15, 26, 39, 72, 
180, 320. 
Elected Commander-in-Chief, 1, 2. 
Farewell to Officers, 88. 
In Boston, 1775, 1. 
Indian Troubes, 100. 
Leadership, 35, 36, 86, 89, 107. 
Patriotism, 36, 86, 89. 
Plots Against, 6, 34, 38, 49. 
President, 95, 96. 
Tactics, 16, 37, 50, 67. 608 
INDEX 
Washington, George. 
Views on Preparedness, 115, 143. 
Washington (State), 235, 238, 239, 
246, 420, 436. 
Washita Mountains, 323. 
Washita River, 322. 
Water, 64, 65, 69, 200, 202, 207, 209, 
215, 230, 241, 257, 377, 393, 
394, 416, 449. 
Waterloo, 141. 
Watertown Arsenal, 150, 190, 364, 
441. 
Watervliet Arsenal, 141, 190, 364. 
Wayne, Anthony, 44, 49, 67, 73, 75, 
79, 100. 
Wayne, Fort, 147, 303. 
Waynesboro, 295. 
Wellington, Duke of, 142. 
Wells, H. G., 89. 
Wenache River, 239. 
West Brownsville, Texas, 451. 
Western Department, 177. 
Western Front, 480. 
Westfield, Massachusetts, 10. 
West Indies, 79, 416, 426. 
Weston, Colonel, 340. 
West Point, 65, 69, 71, 72, 73, 81, 
90, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 
116, 118, 119, 133, 147, 151, 
152, 153, 162, 163, 164, 173, 
179, 184, 188, 192, 197, 206, 
225, 231, 234, 235, 242, 247, 
248, 250, 262, 306, 399, 416, 
417, 427, 435, 436, 438, 439, 
457, 483, 500. 
West Point, Virginia, 277. 
West Virginia, 254, 255, 256, 270. 
Wheaton, General, 400, 402, 404, 
406. 
Wheeler, Camp, 376. 
Wheeler, General, 378, 379, 380, 403. 
Whig, 21, 29, 69, 72, 228. 
Whipping, 129, 173, 262. 
Whipple, Captain, 235, 245, 345. 
Whiskers, 110, 180. 
Whiskey, 172. 
Whitby, 38. 
White Bird Canon, 345. 
White Flag, 270, 347, 391. 
White, General, 134. 
Whitehall Ferry, 89. 
White, John, 30. 
Whitemarsh, 48. 
White Oaks Swamp, 279. 
White Plains, 32, 33, 48, 65. 
White River Agencv, 350, 351. 
White Stone Hill, 300. 
Whitney, Lieutenant, 12. 
Wier, Lieutenant, 351. 
Wigs, 83, 101. 
Wigwams, 342. 
Wikoff, Camp, 375. 
Wilderness Tavern, 292. 
Wilkins, Camp, Louisiana, 193. 
Wilkinson, Captain, 394, 395. 
Wilkinson, General, 110, 111, 128, 
132, 134, 135, 136, 137. 
Willcox, Fort, 360. 
Williamsburg, 75, 134, 277. 
Williams, Jonathan, 109. 
Williamsport, 287. 
Wilson, General, 296, 372, 388, 389. 
Wilson, R. H., Colonel, 189, 208. 
Wilson's Creek, 269. 
Wiltz, 335. 
Winchester, General, 126, 127. 
Winchester, Virginia, 278, 293, 447. 
Winder, General, 128, 131, 139, 140, 
141. 
Wingate's Manual of Rifle Practice, 
332. 
Wings, 160. 
Winnebago, Fort, 147, 168, 170. 
Winnebago Indians, 187, 188. 
Winning of the West, 64. 
Wisconsin, 187, 386, 388, 435. 
Wisconsin River, 172. 
Withlacoochee River, 176, 178. 
Wolf Creek, Oklahoma, 321. 
Wood, Leonard, 362, 378, 381, 383, 
397, 398, 413, 415, 416, 430, 
440, 453. 
Wool, General, 197, 213, 214, 215, 
217, 226, 250, 276. 
Wooster, 28, 40. 
World War, 60, 179, 233, 253, 276, 
296, 302, 311, 325, 395, 423, 433, 
450, 451, 460, 471, 478, 480, 
490. 
Worth, General, 188, 190, 191, 201, 
211, 212, 214, 216, 220, 221. 
222, 223, 224, 228. 
Wounded Knee Creek, 365. 
Wounds, 278. 
Wright Brothers, 433. 
Wright, Captain, 234. 
Wyoming, 232, 363, 368, 386, 427. 
Xenophon, 22. 
Yamhill, Fort, 242. 
Yancton Indians, 111. 
Yang Ts'un, 409. 
Yarmouth, Maine, 161. 
Yauco, Porto Rico, 386, 388. INDEX 
609 
Yellow Fever, 167, 168, 220, 384, 
392, 415, 416, 430. 
Yellowstone Expeditions, 347. 
Yellowstone Eiver, 337, 343, 346, 
349. 
York, 43, 129. 
Yorktown, 75, 76, 77, 79, 277. 
Young Joseph, Chief, 345, 346, 
347. 
Youngs, Joseph, Lieutenant, 18. 
Young, S. M. B., General, 378, 403, 
404, 405, 419. 
Youngstown, New York, 135. 
Young, W. C., 179. 
Yreka, 332. 
Yukon, 369. 
Yuma, Arizona, 235. 
Yuma, Fort, 232, 242, 244. 
Yuma Indians, 232. 
Zapote Eiver, Philippine Islands, 
402. 
Zepata, 446. 
Zone, Canal, 429, 445, 452. 
Zouaves, 249, 265, 267. 
Zuni, 232.