TESTING UVENILE MENTALITY \TORBERT J.MELVILLE BF 431 M531s 1920 00540070R NLM 05DQ3T17 1 NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE SURGEON GENERAL'S OFFICE LIBRARY. 1NHEI Section No. 113, W. D.S.G.O. No. T^Lf-M: 3-7-1 NLM050039171 ' APR 12 1923 SURov.ON m&^j/ RETURN TO NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE BEFORE LAST DATE SHOWN &* l-bt:«» STANDARD METHOD OF TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY BY THE BINET-SIMON SCALE AND THE PORTEUS SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS A Uniform Procedure and Analysis BY NORBERT J. MELVILLE ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, MENTAL HYGIENE COMMITTEE, PUBLIC CHARITIES ASSOCIA- TION OF PENNSYLVANIA; FORMERLY RESEARCH ASSISTANT IN PSYCHOLOGY, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY) MEMBER OF THE NEW JERSEY STATE PEDIATRIC SOCIETY WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY WILLIAM HEALY, M.D. DIRECTOR OF JUVENILE PSYCHOPATHIC INSTITUTE, CHICAGO Second Enlarged Edition J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON Br 431 N\53\s &*-> !t',. . - V^: COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Eledrotyped and Printed by J. B. LippincoU Company The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. ~;C 23 iS20 ©CI.A604675 V INTRODUCTION This manual for examiners using the Binet-Simon scale of mental tests is particularly valuable through its emiphasis on a number of highly important points that are frequently not fully apprehended by users of mental tests. What long experience has taught clinical psychologists, who check up their diagnoses by outcomes discovered through later observations, does not readily filter through to class-room instruction in mental testing. It is only by teaching such sane, careful qualifications of method and interpretation as are set forth in this manual that it is possible to carry out the requisites of scientific training and the develop- ment of common-sense and scientific attitude in the matter of mental testing. The application of the Binet system is to be safely regarded, in surveying individual capabilities or in estimating group capaci- ties, only in the light of being what the author has aptly called it, namely, first aid work. For final diagnosis of the mentality of the individual, the Binet test score is simply one out of several main facts to be taken into consideration. Not even all mental abilities are represented in this system, to say nothing of their not being thoroughly tested at each age level, and many items of the physical background inevitably form part of the problem. For group evaluations, social norms (many of them not yet estab- lished) are to be ascertained and reckoned with. The author sees these points clearly and we welcome his endeavor to stimulate a broad-minded view of mental testing in his students and readers. His praise of the work of Binet and Simon, which we all sound, is sufficiently witnessed to by this publication of a new study of their scale for mental testing. I confess myself particularly interested in this two-fold attempt to in IV INTRODUCTION devise more exact methods of using this scale, while at the same time absolutely insisting on the setting of sharp limitations -to the interpretation of findings by this ccale. In both ways the aim of truly scientific method is complied with. The uniform procedure developed by the author he adequately states to be provisional, but it is based upon more attention to details, we are inclined to believe, than any other manual of directions that has so far appeared. It should be clearly under- stood that it is addressed particularly to those who make examina- tions of children in the work of cooperating with larger or more intensive educational and medicopsychological efforts. A prom- ising field is opening rapidly for this better study of human beings. To take advantage of the opportunities there is need of people of sound training and good judgment. Competent examiners using a standard and thoroughly objective method will be in increasing demand. The whole text of the manual, apart from the specific direc- tions, should be carefully read. The Summary of General Pro- cedure (p. 41), the General Directions (p. 29), the Preface and other portions of Part I, contain fundamental ideas to be con- stantly held in the background of the examiner's consciousness. I have responded with pleasure to the invitation to supply an introduction to this carefully evolved manual of procedure. William Healy. Chicago, January, 1917. PREFACE Hitherto no Binet manual has appeared which embodies a uniform method of dealing with such questions as the following: With what tests should the examiner begin? Which of two alternative questions should be first employed in a given case? Under what conditions may a test be repeated? By what pre- cise standards shall we decide whether responses in such tests as the definitions should be credited at age six or age nine ? For the past three years a series of experimental investigations of mentality testing has been conducted by the writer in connec- tion with organized mental surveys in a number of public schools in New York, Princeton and Philadelphia. The conducting of these surveys has involved the training and supervision of several hundred co-workers and the evaluation of the results of some thousand Binet tests. These investigations have demonstrated both the necessity and the practicability of standardizing each detail of procedure in testing juvenile mentality. This standardi- zation, however, should embody a uniform adjustment to the subject's ability as revealed by the tests themselves. Even in its partially standardized form Binet-Simon testing has now become recognized as an essential part of the examina- tion of juvenile delinquents and of all persons suspected of feeble- mindedness. It is essential in examining the criminal imbeciles in the courts and prisons, the defective aliens at the immigrant stations, and the large number of disciplinary and backward children in the schools and child-caring institutions. It has been found that by the intelligent use of the Binet-Simon scale with subjects of juvenile mentality, legal decisions are rendered more fair and executive action is rendered more efficient. Taking the level of general intelligence naturally precedes the testing of spe- v VI PREFACE cial capacities in the work of vocational analysis. Recently the school grading and promotion of normal children has been shown to be more effective when based upon mental age as measured by the Binet-Simon scale rather than upon the attainment of a cer- tain standing in school subjects. School officials are sometimes surprised that the results of the Binet tests are not identical with the results of their school tests. The Binet scale was expressly designed so that it should not be a direct test of school knowledge but of juvenile mental develop- ment. The scale determines how much an individual has profited from some typical forms of experience and training which the majority of children in civilized countries undergo not only in school but also in the home and on the playground. Binet and Simon discovered early in their investigations that mental development must be gauged from a number of different angles. Hence their scale includes some fifty tests of mental abil- ities that function in daily life. The final revision of the scale by Binet and Simon, followed in this manual, was the result of their experiments and case studies carried on for many years in the schools and asylums of Paris. Their results led them to subordinate one by one not only many time-honored traditions but also some of the recent innovations in the fields of psychology and medicine. The reports of their investigations show, however, that none of the traditional or novel methods of examination were relegated to a minor position until each had been sub^ jected to careful research. The chapter on clinical analysis, herein included, presents some of the conclusions reached by Binet and Simon as a result of their prolonged investigations and of their critical studies of various systems of psychopathology and of general psychology. The Binet-Simon Table of the Ana- tomical Limits of Subnormals reproduced in the Appendix is one of the most useful contributions to physical diagnosis. The writer intends that this manual may aid in the careful training and exact guidance of an ever-increasing corps of. com- PREFACE vn petent examiners who will be able to render first aid in juvenile mental crises by means of a brief scientific examination. Such an intention appears to have guided Binet throughout his re- searches ; and his many years of experimental work established a thorough basis for its accomplishment. This was Binet's great contribution to the promotion of child welfare and to progress in mental hygiene. Norbert J. Melville. Philadelphia, January, 1917. £.,,» ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer is deeply grateful to the Philadelphia school offi- cials for their hearty co-operation. Especial acknowledgments are due to Dr. Oliver P. Cornman, Associate Superintendent hav- ing charge of special classes; to Dr. Walter S. Cornell, Director of the Division of Medical Inspection; to Dr. Francis B. Brandt, Head of the School of Pedagogy and to my colleagues on the faculty; and to the many principals and teachers, for assistance in the administrative details of the mental survey; to the classes of 1915, '16, and '17 for their experimental and logical critique of each detail of procedure; to Messrs. Fromuth, Hess, and Rafferty of the School of Pedagogy and to Principal William C. Ash and Mr. J. M. Harvey of the Trades School for typographical assist- ance. The writer wishes to express his indebtedness to the many investigators who have published results and to the many clin- icians who entered into conference with him—particularly to Dr. Mabel R. Fernald and Dr. Mary K. Hayes for their valuable criticisms and suggestions based upon the results of the ques- tionnaire herein mentioned. The manuscript was kindly read by Dr. William Healy, Dr. John D. Melville, Dr. J. M. McCallie, Mr. Frederick W. Ellis, and members of the Vineland Staff. Through the kindness of Dr. H. H. Goddard the original pictures are reproduced from the plates used in Miss Kite's translation of the works of Binet and Simon. The chapter on clinical analysis is for the most part an abridgment from the Vineland translations. Norbert J. Melville. IX CONTENTS Introduction by William Healy, M.D........................ hi PART I General Procedure in Gathering and Analyzing the Data...... 1 Nature and Scope of the Standard Method...................... 3 Analysis of Results of Mentality Tests.......................... 8 Provisional Evaluations and Classifications...................... 9 The Problem of Statistical Analysis............................ 11 The Problem of Clinical Interpretation.......................... 13 General Plan of Orthogenic Case Study........................ 24 Selected References on the Binet-Simon Scale.................... 25 General Directions to Examiners.............................. 29 Instructions to School Examiners.............................. 32 Standard Record Form and Directions for Using................. 32 Uniform Procedure in Regard to Test Order..................... 38 General Rules Concerning Repetition.......................... 39 Test Materials and General Directions for Using.................. 40 Summary of General Procedure................................ 41 PART II Uniform Method of Applying the Binet-Simon Scale (Final Revision by Binet and Simon, 1911).................................. 43 APPENDIX Tests Above Year Fifteen.................................... 128 Scales for Marking Drawings.................................. 130 Orthogenic and Psycho-Educational Tables...................... 132 Table of Anatomical Limits for Subnormals (Boys).............. 134 Brief Mental Tests for Detecting the Feeble-Minded.............. 135 Instructions for Giving and Scoring the Porteus Test............. 138 Porteus Maze Tests and Practice Sheets..................... 141-156 Pre-clinic Record of Brief Mental Tests........................... 157 xi PART I GENERAL PROCEDURE IN GATHERING AND ANALYZING THE DATA STANDARD METHOD OF TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STANDARD METHOD The present manualx grew out of a series of lectures, demon- strations, and laboratory conferences in connection with conduct- ing an organized mental survey of the pupils in the Philadelphia special classes.2 Various methods of mental testing and of ortho- genic case study were tried out but no consistent detailed plan of procedure could be found. It appeared necessary to simplify for the sake of clearness most of the plans for collecting supplemen- tary data. Hitherto as regards the matter of test order, examiners have relied either upon personal opinion, upon " random testing" (S. R.),3 or upon some inflexible order of tests (Y. P.).4 How- ever, it has been recognized that " the child's efforts in the tests are sometimes markedly influenced by the order in which they are given" (S. R.). In like manner the choice among alternate formulae—e.g., in the picture test—has not been clearly decided though lack of insight in the choice of the formula " would ruin the test" (S. R.) ; or the examiner has been instructed that " if one form of expression or explanation is not intelligible to the child, care should be taken that a clear understanding is estab- lished by some variation of the form of statement " (Y. P.). Prac- tically all recent investigators of mentality testing show that they 1 For a detailed presentation of the experimental and logical basis of the standardization see a Report on the Standardization of Binet Test- ing (in preparation). 2 See the Psychological Clinic, 1916, vol. ix, pp. 258-265. 3 Stanford Revision by Terman and others, Boston, 1916. * Point-scale by Yerkes and others, Baltimore, 1915. 3 4 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY feel the need of standard rules in regard to allowing second chances, to deciding certain details of scoring, etc. Part I of this manual includes directions for using the Standard Record Form, which has been adopted as Form 43— Record of Binet Examination—Philadelphia Public Schools. The first side of the record form provides for a summary of the results of (1) the application of the Binet scale and (2) standard- ized measurements and judgments of physiological age, school ability, etc. The second side provides a convenient means of scoring each test. The grouping of the tests by years is identical with that of Binet and Simon, 1911.5 The arrangement of the tests is based upon two considerations. (1) Tests which the majority of investigations thus far re- ported 6 have shown to be most highly diagnostic in differ- entiating the mentally deficient from the normal, constitute the first or a series of tests; those next in diagnostic value consti- tute the b series, etc. Writers on the subject agree also that the tests here constituting the a series are in general the ones best suited for the early part of the examination. (2) Those tests which involve the use of similar materials or methods are ar- ranged in the same series so that they will be given in sequence 7— a procedure specified by Binet at certain points in the scale. The third and fourth sides of the record form provide space, usually sufficient, for recording all important oral responses and responses requiring writing and drawing. Provision is also made for re- cording each step in the calculations by which the final test scores are obtained. By the use of the Binet quotient as herein ex- plained, " the Binet-Simon ' age-grade ' method becomes trans- formed automatically into a ' point-scale method.' if one wants to use it that way. As such it is superior to any other point scale 5 Bull, de la soc. libre pour l'etude ps. de l'enfant. Paris, 1911, Nos. 10 and 11. 8 See Binet, Stern, etc., in Selected References, pp. 25-28. 7 This latter principle of arrangement was suggested by Dr J M McCallie. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 5 that has been proposed, because it includes a larger number of tests and its points have definite meaning" (S. R.). Principles for guidance in the administration of the tests and the evaluation of the data are included in Part I, together with a selected bibliography representing some of the numerous fields of activity where the Binet-Simon scale has proved valuable. The Uniform Method of applying the Binet-Simon scale, with notes suggesting supplementary trial variations, comprises Part II of this manual. The Uniform Method is not another re- vision or adaptation of the Binet-Simon tests. The standardiza- tion is based upon (1) the experiences growing out of an applica- tion in over a thousand cases of the recommendations 8 of the Buffalo Conference on Binet testing and (2) a comparative study of the methods used by other investigators. A series of confer- ences were held with the directors and clinical assistants in ten psychological clinics and laboratories. Finally every detail of the Uniform Method was reviewed in the light of the returns of a questionnaire on the details of Binet testing and scoring sent out by Dr. Mabel R. Fernald, of the Laboratory of Social Hygiene, Bedford Hills, N. Y. Previous contributions toward standardizing Binet testing, with the exception of the work of the late Dr. Edmund B. Huey, have been devoted chiefly to adapting the tests on the basis of results obtained with children of a given nationality. However, the employment of tests throughout a wide range of years and the careful interpretation of the test data, obviate the necessity of adaptations. Such varied adaptations prevent the establish- ment of racial and group norms based upon one standard method. This idea of radically altering the scale for subjects of different nationalities appears similar to the ideal of revising thermometer scales for various altitudes. The analogy would be more complete if one would imagine all these various thermometer scales called 8 Generally accepted in this country as the working basis for the development of a standard procedure from that time on, 1913. 6 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY Centigrade and each designed to register the boiling point at 100° in its own altitude. The confusion and incomparability resulting from such revisions appear to more than counterbalance any ap- parent advantages. With a view to promoting intercomparability of results, notes have been appended to the test directions indicating the variations found in the adaptations of the Binet-Simon scale in use in this country. Such adaptations are referred to in this manual by the following abbreviations: G. Revision by Goddard, Vineland Training School, 1911. K. Revision by Kuhlmann, Minnesota School for Feeble- minded, 1912. B. Revision by Bobertag, Institut fur angewandte Psychol- ogic, 1913. Y. P. Point Scale by Yerkes and assistants, Harvard Uni- versity, 1915. S. R. Stanford Revision by Terman and assistants, Stan- ford University, 1916. Owing to the many social and practical issues involved, the following considerations appear to the writer to be of importance in connection with the future of the work: (1) That we endeavor to define more accurately the qualifica- tions in the matter of training and experience for (a) Consulting Psychologists, who should know both how to administer accu- rately the several mentality scales that are in use and how to interpret the total age scores and the individual plusses, minuses, or points in the light of the racial and social averages obtained to date, together with all the other educational and social data which should accompany each test result; and (b) Field Exam- iners or Binet Assistants, advanced students in psychology who should probably have as a minimum 60 hours of laboratory work together with courses in child psychology and in the technique of applying the tests with the aid of a standard manual that does not necessitate improvization. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 7 (2) That we insist that a Binet age score, a Goddard age score, and the like be not accepted on their face value, recom- mending their interpretation in terms of mental growth periods in the light of group norms and of supplementary data. (3) That instead of attempting to make adaptations of the Binet scale, investigators strike out along new lines in the de- velopment of supplementary scales. Experiments in this direction are now being conducted by means of apparatus hitherto used in studying pre-verbal intelligence as found in idiots, animals and young infants. Those who have been doing most work with such apparatus, as for example Drs. Healy, Witmer and others, are using it in supplementing the Binet-Simon scale (1911) as valid for subjects " up to ten years or so of age." 9 This manual is intended for the training and use of advanced students of applied psychology who wish to co-operate in the work of grading and classifying children and others of juvenile men- tality on the basis of their mental development. All co-workers 10 in the educational, sociological or medical fields should have both general and specific preparation for the application of juvenile mentality scales. Such preparation should include attendance at a series of demonstrations, supplemented by practice testing under observation. Only those directions and explanations are given in the Method which have proved valuable in accompanying and supplementing the demonstrations and practice testing mentioned above. Field examiners and clinical assistants, who have been thus trained to observe a standard procedure, may take the Binet level of a subject and make tentative evaluations. Such evaluations are useful as a " first aid " in selecting and classifying those who 9 Healv W and Bronner, A., in Mentality Tests; A Symposium 10 In the Philadelphia School of Pedagogy 120 hours of general and experimental psychology, experimental child study, demonstrations and nractice testing have proved to be adequate preparation for such co- workers Their testing is then done under supervision, and the results are submitted to a consulting psychologist for interpretation. 8 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY are in need of further examination and of special education. Such classification tends more toward social justice and educational efficiency than do the unpsychological groupings of everyday life. The presence of the mentally handicapped in many communities in numbers entirely disproportional to the number of available specialists makes it highly desirable that a system of preliminary examination and evaluation be employed. The study of individual cases has repeatedly shown the frequent need of such first aid tests not only for the subnormal but also for the normal and the supernormal. The typographical arrangement of this manual is the result of a trying-out of various ways of assembling the test materials with a view to increasing efficiency in testing. Heretofore this has been not infrequently impaired by the mislaying of materials in the form of loose cards or by the difficult handling and partial covering of the test materials, when crowded together in an ap- pendix. The pictures and drawings are so printed that they face the subject while the directions for using them face the examiner. Should a subject appear to be distracted by the reversed printing, the manual may be folded back so that only the plates appear to the subject and another copy used for the directions. So far this precaution has not seemed necessary with any of our sub- jects. The test manual may be placed so as to rest against a stand. The manual will then act as a shield behind which the scoring may be done unobtrusively. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS OF MENTALITY TESTS The fact that any measuring scale is in part a convention adopted for practical purposes should never be lost sight of in analyzing results. Owing to the ethical and legal questions in- volved, such terms as imbecile or dement should not be applied to a given individual except when the Binet findings are corrobo- rated by a thorough psycho-biological study of the case. Even TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 9 then such formal diagnoses are inferior to a description (1) of the general mental and physiological level in terms of the analogous growth period, such as early infancy, later childhood, etc., and (2) of the kinds and degrees of anomaly found. The Orthogenic and Psycho-educational Tables given in the Appendix are a guide in the work of provisional classification. The Table of Anatomical Limits there given and the method of collecting supplementary data, explained on pages 32-38, should be studied in connection with the discussion of the statistical and clinical analysis of results. As Binet and Simon insist, the attempt to analyze mentality tests under the rubrics of introspective psychology such as atten- tion, etc., is usually due to a desire to explain mental anomalies by the absence or weakness of some one of " the primordial faculties. (We have sometimes employed these expressions in our descriptions but we have not abused them.) The theory of the intellectual faculties and the theory of the scheme of thought belong to two different planes." PROVISIONAL EVALUATIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS As indicated in the Table of Orthogenic Classification in the Appendix, both the total Binet score and the Binet base value are significant as indicative of the mental growth period which the subject's mental level resembles. The total Binet score is fre- quently called the mental age or more correctly the Binet age value. The Binet base is the higher of two successive years wherein the subject passes all the tests. The significance of the Binet base for purposes of mental classification has been empha- sized in the studies of Frederick W. Ellis and in the preliminary study of potential feeble-mindedness by Doll, both cited below. However, the total score and the age difference, indicative of mental retardation or acceleration, have thus far been more gen- erally used in orthogenic case studies. 10 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY The rule adopted by Binet for computing the total score has been used by the majority of investigators as valid up to year nine. The rule is to add to the base year 0.2 credit for each test passed above the base year, irrespective of the extent of the 'scattering' of such make-up tests. For the tests above year nine we employ the following plan in determining credit: (1) The first to the fifth test passed above year nine each receives 0.2 year credit, irrespective of the extent of 'scattering'—that is, whether or not such credit accrues from tests within the ten year group or from tests which compensate for failures in the ten year group. (2) The sixth to the tenth test passed each receives 0.4 year credit. (3) The eleventh test, etc., passed above year nine, each receives 0.6 year credit. According to the Uniform Method the tests in years ten and above are employed with all high grade cases. The above plan of credit preserves the calibration of the upper end of the scale. At the same time the scores worked out by this plan appear to characterize the mental level of our sub- jects more nearly than the scores resulting from other methods of computation. Conservative estimates today place the upper limit of feeble- mindedness at least in a legal sense at Binet age ten; others place it at Binet age eleven.11 Hence failure in some of the twelve year tests and in all of the fifteen year tests is not necessarily an indi- cation of feeble-mindedness even in the case of adults. However, failure in certain of the tests may have diagnostic significance as explained hereafter. A Binet age score below eleven when accompanied by a sub- age (retardation) of more than three years is usually indicative of serious mental deficiency. Even when accompanied by a slight sub-age score, a Binet age score below eleven may be indicative of potential mental deficiency12 when the test record reveals 1110.2 years (Goddard) cf. Kohs—The Practicability of the Binet Scale and the Question of Borderline Case. 12 Cf. Doll, E. A., Prelim. Note on Diagnosis of Potential Feeble-mind- edness. (See Refer's.) TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 11 a Binet base that is six 13 or more years below the life age. Owing to the wide variations possible in the fields of success which go to form the total or final Binet score, it has been found desirable to base the more important provisional classifications upon a systematic analysis of the test records. Our system of group comparison is embodied in the Orthogenic Table given in the Appendix. It is presented as a tentative standard working plan. In accordance with the above system of classification, the sub- jects fall into orthogenic divisions which are designated by the analogous mental growth periods. For purposes of institutional or special school training, some such grading of subnormal sub- jects by mental growth periods rather than by amount of deficiency is generally recommended. However, for purposes of individual and group treatment of all exceptional cases by educational means, it is important to bear in mind (1) the amount of mental superior- ity or inferiority indicated by the scale, (2) the presence of curable or incurable special defects, and (3) the degree of literacy or illiteracy in relation to the age and to the environment of the subjects. These factors are brought into relation in the Table of Psycho-educational Groups. THE PROBLEM OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The refinements of statistical and clinical analysis are not essential in the work of provisional classification just discussed. However, in making diagnoses, prognoses and recommendations for orthogenic treatment, careful interpretation is essential. The employment of a standard scale, supplemented by correction tables, and the establishment of standards of interpretation are invaluable for progress in this field. Given a standard method of test pro- cedure and of treating the results, it then becomes possible to 13 Cf. Ellis, F. W., Report of Mental Examinations at Neurological Inst., N. Y. 5th and 6th Ann. Rept. of N. Y. Probation and Protective Assn., 1913, 1914. 12 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY compare results wherever obtained by that method and to con- struct correction tables for each racial and social group on the basis of such data. Binet pointed out, for example, that the age markings on his scale indicate standards of normality based on children in the schools of Paris, situated in the poorer districts, and that children of persons in comfortable circumstances have shown an average of one year in advance of the scale. The establish- ment of detailed correction tables is a task that must follow upon the working out of a uniform method of procedure. In constructing such correction tables, attention should first be given to the establishment of racial and social norms for the Binet base and for the total score. Any attempt to construct these composite scores from data gathered on the individual tests is doomed to failure because such procedure ignores the element of compensation that is involved in pooled correlations. Many statistical refinements have been proposed for the treat- ment of Binet values. Several investigators, following Stern, have advocated the use of the so-called mental quotient. This measure, to which we apply the term Binet quotient, is calculated by dividing the Binet age by the life age. This method of sub- stituting a percentage or point-scale score for the age difference score has the disadvantage that it requires more interpretation than the values from which it is derived. Among the most important statistical problems to be worked out is the determination of the co-efficient of correlation between Binet ages and measures of success in various fields of juvenile and adult activity. The question of correlation between Binet age and physiological age is of considerable interest. In attacking this problem there is need of some standard method of computing physiological age and of determining the frontiers of physiologi- cal abnormality, especially as regards the height-weight index, the vital index, and that of physical excess. Binet's Table of Limits for Subnormals (Boys), printed in the Appendix, is one of the most useful contributions at present available in this field. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 13 In conclusion, let us realize that as long as there are important human qualities like emotional attitude which have not yet been adequately measured, clinical interpretation must go hand in hand with statistical interpretation. Finally it should be remembered that as long as clinical interpretation is essential in diagnoses many of the finer problems of statistical treatment are to a cer- tain extent academic in character. There is one problem of sta- tistical evaluation, however, which appears to have immediate significance for applied psychology and sociology. This is the problem of determining as closely as possible what per cent, of the population of a given country may be expected to reach each of the Binet levels. Such data would afford valuable criteria for a uniform interpretation of standard scores. THE PROBLEM OF CLINICAL INTERPRETATION The preceding suggestions on the problem of statistical inter- pretation are based for the most part on the conclusions reached by Binet and Simon. The problems of clinical interpretation will be presented in the form of abridged quotations taken directly from the reports of these investigators published in L'Annce Psychologiquc from 1905 to 1911 inclusive:14 In previous publications, we (Binet and Simon) have shown that it is possible to divide the methods of measuring intelligence into three groups: (1) the anatomical method (measurement of the cranium, of the face, of corporeal development; observation and interpretation of stigmata of degeneracy, etc.) ; (2) the peda- gogical method (measurement of knowledge acquired at school, principally in spelling and arithmetic) ; (3) the psychological method (measurement of the uncultured intelligence). All these phases of the same study are rapidly being developed, thanks to the collaboration of a few persons whom we have succeeded in 14 The Vineland translations have been drawn from, except in the final paragraphs. 14 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY interesting in them, but we shall present elsewhere the anatomical study. To sum up, we can utilize three methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level among subnormals. 1. The psychological method which is almost always applica- ble and which is almost certain to reveal the signs of defect; the difficulty being in the execution of the tests which demand in the experimenter a great facility in experimental psychology. 2. The pedagogical method which is very frequently applica- ble, and which reveals probable signs of defect. 3. The medical method which is applicable only in a restricted number of cases, and which reveals possible signs of defect. Here we shall consider only the psychological measurement of intelligence. This measurement is taken by means of a series of tests, the gradation of which constitutes what we call a " Measur- ing Scale of Intelligence." This scale, strictly speaking, does not permit the " measure " of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured but on the contrary, a classifica- tion, a hierarchy among diverse intelligences; and for the neces- sities of practice this classification is equivalent to a measure. We shall, therefore, be able to know, after studying two individuals, if one rises above the other and to how many degrees, if one rises above the average level of other individuals considered as normal, or if he remains below. Understanding the normal progress of intellectual development among normals, we shall be able to determine how many years such an individual is advanced or re- tarded. In a word, we shall be able to determine to what degrees of the scale idiocy, imbecility, and moronity correspond. In the course of our explanation, we have insisted on the character of our method of measuring. Notwithstanding appear- ances it is not an automatic method comparable to a weighing machine in a railroad station on which one need but stand in order that the machine throw out the weight printed on a ticket. It is a method which requires some originality to operate, and TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 15 we warn the busy doctor who would apply it by means of hospital attendants that he will be disappointed. The results of our ex- amination have no value if deprived of all comment; they need to be interpreted. We are conscious that in insisting upon the necessity of this interpretation we seem to open the door to arbitrary opinions and to deprive our methods of all precision. This is so only in appearance. Our examination of intelligence will always be superior to the ordinary examinations of instruc- tion, because it has many advantages over these. It unfolds accord- ing to an invariable plan, it takes the exact age into account; it not only depends upon the replies but compares them with a norm which is at the same time a real average determined by experience. Distinction between intelligence and scholastic aptitude. Let us commence with the easiest distinctions. We have often said that in our study we have sought to find the natural intel- ligence of the child, and not his degree of culture, his amount of instruction. Furthermore, the intellectual faculty appears to us to be inde- pendent not only of instruction but of that which may be called the scholastic faculty, that is to say, the faculty of learning at school, the faculty of assimilating the instruction given in school with the methods used in school. It seems to us that the scho- lastic aptitude admits of other things than intelligence; to suc- ceed in his studies, one must have qualities which depend espe- cially on attention, will, and character: for example a certain docility, a regularity of habits, and especially continuity of effort. The lack of attention, of character, of will, do not appear or scarcely so, in our tests of intelligence. In fact, in our examina- tions we have not found an inattentive child except among those of three or four years. All make a good effort; they are near us and our presence alone is sufficient to prevent a weakening of attention. It is not under such conditions that one can measure the ordinary power of attention of a child; it is when he is left to himself. 16 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY Does our measuring scale fail to do justice to a child of un- common intelligence without culture, or with a scholastic culture much inferior to his intelligence? We do not think so. Such a child will show his superiority in the repetition of figures, in the repetil'on of sentences, paper cutting, the arrangement of weights, the interpretation of pictures, etc. And it is a specially interesting feature of these tests that they permit us, when neces- sary, to free a beautiful native intelligence from the trammels of the school. The maturity of intelligence is very distinct from the recti- tude of intelligence, and the proof is that there exist very plain examples, already cited by us, where the intelligence has maturity without rectitude. Thus a pupil of twelve years succeeds in uniting in one sentence the three words given him, but the sen- tence is meaningless; he has maturity, not rectitude. Another, a true adult, a man of twenty-four, a veritable block-head—to quote his companions—gives us the interpretation of a picture, but his interpretation is remarkably false. To interpret is to have maturity; to make gross errors is to lack rectitude. The same distinction is also observable when one compares the answers to the tests of intelligence given by the subnormal with those of normal pupils. Let us take for example, without choosing, 13 subnormals of nine to twelve years, whose intellectual retardation varies from one to four years. * * * The average of absurd mistakes for ^z subnormal would be 3, for the normal scarcely 0.5. A very sensible difference which shows us, be it said in passing, that what is lacking in the subnormal is not only the maturity of intelligence (which is doubtless also lacking, for they are constantly retarded) but also the rectitude of intelligence. We limit ourselves for the present to formulating these remarks; they are stepping-stones. Other traits of childish intelligence must also be studied so as to discover if in certain cases the lack of rectitude does not also result from lack of maturity. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 17 Retardation is a term relative to a number of circumstances which must be taken into account in order to judge each particu- lar case. A defective adult even of inferior degree, for example an imbecile of forty, who is in general of the mental level of five years * * * from one point of view is certainly much su- perior to the child of five years, and the reason is that he has profited by an experience very much longer. Let us then lay aside these practical notions which have no bearing here. There re- main six or seven fundamental tests uniquely expressive of the intelligence; these are the tests that may be considered as form- ing for the laboring class of Paris and its environs the border- line between moronity and the normal state. These tests are: first, arrangement of weights (Xa) ; second, answers to questions difficult of comprehension (Xc) ; third, the construction of a sentence containing three given words (Xd, Xlld) ; fourth, the definition of abstract terms (Xlla) ; fifth, the interpretation of pictures (XVa) ; sixth, the making of rimes (XVc). Our sub- jects in the hospital were able to pass some of these tests but not one could pass all, nor even three of them. Now this is not a special localized success, which is important for diagnosing a level of intelligence. All work has shown that intelligence is measured by a synthesis of results. We hope then that we are not dangerously precise in admitting that the six preceding tests will apprehend all feeble-minded adults; and that one who can pass the majority of them, or at least four, is normal. For us every subject from the laboring class of the region of Paris is normal if he has satisfied the condition of this examination of intelligence; however, the examination shows only that he has intelligence enough to live outside of an institution, and that in- telligence may coexist with accentuated instability, or with irre- sistible impulses, or even with other pathological symptoms grave enough to necessitate his segregation. In terminating this account, it will suffice to make a very brief allusion to the appreciation of penal responsibility; there also 9 18 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY our scale will render service. The problems of penal responsibility, such as are actually placed before the tribunals, are most complex and recently have caused discussions that are highly curious on account of the attention which has been paid to words rather than to things. We have scarcely the space here to make the multiple distinctions which would be necessary in making clear the real situation. It will suffice to remark that in certain cases experts have to give their opinion on the degree of intelligence of an accused person; and that according to their customary point of view, which consists in distinguishing health from illness, they are preoccupied in learning if the accused should or should not enter the group of feeble-minded. It is strange that so far, no other criterion than a subjective impression can guide them; they weigh each case with their good sense, which presupposes in the first place that this is a possession common to all men, and in the second place that everybody's good sense is equal to every other person's. We have taken the level of intelligence of a great number of dements and here is what we have noted. Although the method was organized for children and imbeciles only, the great majority of dements lend themselves admirably to it. One who relied solely upon the results of our measuring scale would not be able to grasp the mental differences which differ- entiate an imbecile ament from a general paralytic dement. Shall we conclude that these subjects have the same mentality? Evi- dently not. We must put our readers on their guard against this erroneous interpretation of the bearing of our measurements. The scale which we use is made up of a series of small, intellectual problems, and it is quite possible that two individuals may fail in the same problems without for that reason having similar men- talities ; the practical consequence is that the efficiency of their mentality is the same; but the mentalities may be different. Chil- dren, imbeciles and paralytics are alike in their inability to solve TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 19 the same problems; they are stopped by the same obstacles so that we can attribute to them the same mental level; but the identity of the results in no way implies the identity of mechanisms; the mentalities remain distinct. In the first place, that which distinguishes the ignorance of the imbecile from the functional inertia of the dement is that with the latter the failures and the errors have a remarkable degree of inconsistence, which indicates disturbances, accidents, while the negative results of the imbecile present on the contrary consider- able consistency, something which is not a disturbance but is the expression of the limit of his mind. In fact, we have seen certain dements fail before some difficulty and five minutes later triumph over it brilliantly. It is the same for their disturbances of articu- lation. Give them a word difficult to pronounce, they fail; then at a moment when one expects it least they pronounce it without difficulty. The second distinctive sign between the mentality of an imbecile and that of a general paralytic is furnished by the consideration of the intellectual level. It is in fact by relation to their level that one must judge of the importance of the phenomena of deficiency which they present. The errors committed by an imbecile are not surprising since his intelligence is so limited. On the contrary the errors of a paralytic are at variance with his level. The inertia of functioning which we observe in general para- lytics is especially recognized by the contrast which exists between their failures and their intellectual level in so far as one car accurately measure it; and, furthermore, their intellectual level appears to be higher than it really is because of the presence of residues, which consist in the verbal form of their replies rather than in the content. It remains for us now to go a little farther and having explained what a disturbance of functioning is, to con- trast it with a lack of development. A curious experiment that we have often tried with children of all ages, adults of every social condition, imbeciles and morons of every level, and general paralytics of every degree of disor- 20 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY ganization shows admirably in what this development consists. We refer to the comments upon pictures. We place before an imbecile and a general paralytic a picture representing two old people in want, stranded upon a bench; one of them is an old man with a white beard and eyes closed; the other, a woman, is leaning against him. An imbecile is satisfied with the response, " It is a man." A general paralytic, impressed no doubt by the head and beard of the man, makes this reflection, " One would say Victor Hugo." There is here the character of specialty (differentiation) which we consider one of the qualities of in- tellectual development. A second character is that of represent- ing what is essential in the reality. Here again the comments upon pictures furnish us with many examples. Many children looking at the pictures are struck by some insignificant detail; in the same way dull intelligences take only the immediate appear- ance of the reality and neglect what they do not see but what is nevertheless of infinitely greater importance. In opposing thus the quality of the states of consciousness with their evocability we make a distinction between the develop- ment of the intelligence and its functioning, and at the same time between the mentality of the imbecile and that of the paralytic dement; the mentality of the imbecile is composed of simple states of consciousness which are evoked with normal facility; the men- tality of the paralytic is composed of states which are more com- plex but which have become difficult of evocation. If senile dements are especially affected in the evocation of their memories, is it right to say that we should compare them to general paralytics, since we have admitted that with the latter the impotence of evocation gives the key to all or nearly all of their disturbances of functioning? We have drawn at some length the portrait of Mme. Solas, a paralytic who passed judgment upon herself and found herself very stupid. One could not have said of her that paralytic dementia always destroys the judgment. To avoid these contradictions one must take into account the TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 21 fundamental idea of level. Without doubt at a given level the general paralytic has infinitely less judgment than the senile de- ment. Mme. Langlais has an intelligence of scarcely four years; the paralytics of seven or eight years judge much less correctly than she and have consequently very much less common sense. Mental confusion" gives to many psychopaths the appearance of a lowering of intellectual level due to incoherence of expression. It is necessary to know how to distinguish mental confusion and dementia; this is especially necessary for prognosis, which all idea of dementia renders much more serious. This problem is of importance for there are many cases in which mental disorder takes on a confusional form. The chief interest lies in the differential diagnosis of manic-depressive in- sanity and dementia prsecox. In dementia prsecox there exists a real lowering of level, and mental confusion exists also in most varieties. On the other hand, in manic-depressive insanity there does not exist a real lowering of level, but this malady also pre- sents quite often a confusional element. Consequently the diag- nosis of dementia praecox in relation to manic-depressive insanity, when the latter involves confusional states, consists in discov- ering what is the quantity of intelligence preserved under the confusion. There exist among certain imbeciles and among the unstable, fantastic ideas, impulses, sudden paroxysms of rage, wild pranks. Possibly one might admit that these episodical phenomena are explained by a bursting forth of this automatic life, that is to say in the modern phrase, a lack of synthesis; let us put it better: a simultaneous lack of co-ordination and of hierarchy. One may understand from this that these impulses take on so much impor- tance because they have escaped the control of the higher facul- ties. So be it. But all defectives do not by any means present phenomena of this kind. Besides, it is not because they present them that thev are defectives. Outside of these accidental trou- 22 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY bles they have a peculiar mental state, characteristic of defec- tives, which is imbecility, idiocy, or moronity as the case may be; and what we insist upon is, that in order to explain this chronic mental state, one has no right to speak of lack of synthesis, as is habitually done; here the expression has no sense whatever, and those who employ it are parrots. Is it possible to cite known mental faculties which belong to normals and are not to be found among defectives? Formerly this was believed and certain authors believe it still, but this is because they have submitted their subjects to incomplete observa- tions. Let us make an enumeration. Is the defective radically incapable of attention? Evidently not. We have proved, even with idiots, that they give undeniable evidences of attention. Re- call the idiot Vouzin, who looks at us a little, specially when we call him loudly, and who for a moment even showed spontaneous attention, when he took the music box from our hands. Is it memory that is lacking? Not that either. We have noted many instances of prolonged memory among them. Denise, the poor girl, remembered for several days the object that we called " Papa." We may thus pass in review all our faculties, and determine that not one is entirely lacking in them. They always have them in some degree. The arsenal of their intellect is equipped with all the weapons. All this leads to the conclusion that the difference between the defective and the normal is not produced by the absence of a particular faculty, and alienists who in their defini- tions have seemed to insinuate the contrary, are deceived. To this conception of a structural psychology we oppose its counterpart, that which gives action as the end of thought and which seeks the very essence of thought in a system of actions. There are intimate consequences that will make themselves felt in the manner of positing the most serious psychological prob- lems, in particular the manner of understanding the attention, generalization, and also the relation of the conscious to the un- TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 23 conscious, and the reciprocal influence of the emotions and the thoughts, and finally the relation of delirium to emotivity. We note, as a logical example of the revolution which we predict, a new method for measuring the phenomena of consciousness; instead of measuring the intensity of these phenomena, which has been the vain and foolish ambition of the psycho-physicists, we shall measure the useful effects of the acts of adaptation, and the value of the difficulties conquered by them; there is here a measure which is not arithmetical, but which permits a lineal seriation, a hierarchy of the acts and of different individuals judged according to their powers. Questions of detail aside, if we seek to take into account the evolution of the whole, which we approve, we can assert that psychology, having become a science of action, takes on an alto- gether different attitude for pedagogy, for morals, and for scien- tific philosophy. We have endeavored to perfect the procedure in the direct examination of the mental functions. For that purpose we make use of the new method, that of taking the level. It has the ad- vantage as a clinical interrogatory of being constantly at our service instead of our being obliged to wait until the hazards of observation should put us in the presence of the signs of Kraeplin. The interpretation of the results furnished by this examina- tion is contained entirely in the two following laws: 1. The results obtained from the experimental standpoint are available for judging the intellectual faculties of a subject; the consideration of the residues will enable us to judge whether it is a question of demented person or a feeble-minded person: 2. The results obtained from the clinical standpoint are to be interpreted according to the intensity of the concomitant trou- bles: If one discovers a lowering of level, the question ought to be investigated whether or not there is sufficient excuse; if not, one will have to assume a real dementia. 24 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY Our method is eclectic. We do not refuse any way to make use of the signs furnished by different observers; we are con- vinced that all the signs ought to be of service; one should not neglect the stigmata of Magnan nor the signs of Kraeplin : circum- stances determine which method will be more suitable.15 In the detailed clinical study of mentality cases the detection of other mental and physical anomalies than those indicated by the use of scale is valuable. Most work of this kind is at present the task of descriptive rather than of experimental psychopathol- ogy. The aim of such work is the diagnosis and prognosis of the clinical varieties of amentia such as cretinism, etc., of allied neuropathic states such as epilepsy, etc. However, the modern authorities on descriptive psychopathology agree in emphasizing the value of mental tests—particularly of serial tests—in the work of diagnosis and prognosis. GENERAL PLAN OF ORTHOGENIC CASE STUDY PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: Present Mental Condition: Mental Growth Period Distribution of Abilities Capacities of Adjustment Mental History: Mental Heredity Home Environment Results of Educational Treatment PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS: Present Physical Condition: Physical Growth Period Stigmata; Special Defects Anthropometric Indices Physical History: Physical Heredity Disease History Results of Medical and Hygienic Treatment Based upon the analysis of the Binet record and of supple- mentary data. Based upon social and educa- tional investigation, study of records, etc. Based upon the analysis of anthropometric measurements and observations Based upon eugenic and ortho- genic investigation, study of records, etc. Conclusion of last article in L'Annee Psychologique, 1911. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 25 SELECTED REFERENCES ON THE BINET-SIMON SCALE I. FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS, DEMENTIA PRECOX, ETC. Binet, A. and Simon, Th.: The Intelligence of the Feeble-minded, in- cluding a Study of Their Language and a Comparison of Feeble-mindedness with Dementia. Selected Contributions to L'Annee Psych. Translated by E. S. Kite, Vineland, N. J., The Training School, 1916. Cornell, W. S.: Health and Medical Inspection of School Children. Phila., Davis, 1912. Goddard, H. H.: Feeble-mindedness: Its Causes and Consequences. The Macmillan Company, 1913. Holmes, A.: The Conservation of the Child. Phila., London: Lippin- coU, 1912, pp. 199-226. Huey, E. B.: Backward and Feeble-minded Children. Baltimore: Warwick & York, 1912, pp. 189-202. Katzenellenbogen, E. W.: A Critical Essay on Mental Tests in Their Relation to Epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1913, 4: 130-173. Knox, H. A.: The Moron and the Study of Alien Defectives. J. Amer. Med. Assn., 1913, 60: 105-106. Kuhlmann, F.: The Binet-Simon Tests of Intelligence in Grading Feeble-minded Children. Jour, of Psycho-Asthenics, 1916; 16, pp. 173-193. McDonald, J. B.: The Binet Tests in a Hospital for the Insane. Train- ing School, 1910, 7: 250-251. Tredgold, A. F.: Mental Deficiency (Amentia), Bailliere, Tindail and Cox. London (2nd Ed. 1914). Wallin, J. E. W.: Eight Months of Psycho-clinical Research at the New Jersey State Village for Epileptics, with some Results from the Binet-Simon Testing. Epilepsia, 1912, 3: 366-380. White, W. A. and Jelliffe, S. E.: The Modern Treatment of Nervous and Mental Diseases. New York: Lea & Febiger, 1913. Vol. I, pp. 155-174. II. DELINQUENCY Goddard, 11. H.: The Criminal Imbecile. The Macmillan Com- pany, 1915. Healy, William: The Individual Delinquent. Little, Brown and Co., 1915. Irwin, E. A.: Truancy: A Study of the Mental, Physical and Social Factors of the Problem of Non-Attendance at School. Pub. Ed. Assoc. of the City of New York, 1915. Spaulding, E. R.: The Results of Mental and Physical Examination of Four Hundred Women Offenders. Jour, of Crim. Law and Criminology, 1915, pp. 704-717. Sullivan, W. C.: La mesure du developpement intellectuel chez les jeunes delinquantes. L'Annee Psychol. 1912, 18: 341-361. III. SCHOOL GRADING AND RETARDATION Adler, Martha: Mental Tests used as a Basis for the Classification of School Children. J. of Educ. Psychol. 1914, 5: 22~28. Burnham, W. H.: Mental Hygiene in the School. Washington, U. S. Bur. of Ed. 1913, Bull. 48: 67-68. 26 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY Gesell, A.: Child Classifications and Child Hygiene. Washington, U. S. Bur. of Ed. 1913, Bull. 48: 64-67. Hicks, V. C.: The Value of the Binet Mental Age Tests for First Grade Entrants. Jour, of Ed. Psych. 1915, 6: 157-166. Hoke, K. J.: Placement of Children in the Elementary Grades Washington, Bureau of Education 1916, Bull. No. 3. Winch, W. H.: Binet's Mental Tests: What They Are, and What We Can Do with Them. Child-Study, 1913, 6: 113-117. IV. EUGENICS AND OTHER SOCIAL PROBLEMS Davenport, C. B.: Heredity in Relation to Eugenics. New York: Holt, 1911, pp. 65-72. Morse, J.: A Comparison of White and Colored Children Measured by the Binet Scale of Intelligence. 8. Ann. Meetg. Southn. Soc. of Philos. and Psychol. Baltimore, Md., 1913. Also Pop. Sci. Mon., 1914, 84: 75-79. Phillips, B. A.: The Binet-Simon Tests Applied to Colored Children. Psych. Clin., 1914, pp. 190-196. Pintner, R. and Patterson, D. G.: The Binet Scale and the Deaf Child. J. of Ed. Psy. 1915, 6: 201-210. Rowe, E. C.: Five Hundred Forty-seven White and Two Hundred Sixty-eight Indian Children Tested by the Binet-Simon Tests. Ped. Sem. 1914, Vol. 21: 454-469. Stern, W.: The Supernormal Child. J. of Ed. Psy. 1911, 2: 143-148, 181-190. Strong, A. C.: Three Hundred and Fifty White and Colored Children Measured by the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence: A Com- parative Study, 4th Intern. Congr. School Hyg., Buffalo, 1913 (rept. by Dr. J. Morse), also Ped. Sem. 1913, 20: 485-515. Terman, L. M.: The Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children. Ped Sem. 1915, 22 : 529-537. Weintrob, J. R.: The Influence of Environment on Mental Ability as Shown by the Binet Tests. J. of Ed. Psy. 1912, 3: 577-583. V. ADMINISTRATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE BINET-SIMON SCALE Binet, A. and Simon, Th.: The Development of Intelligence in Children. Translated by E. S. Kite, Vineland, N. J. The Training School, 1916. Binet, A. and Simon, Th.: A Method of Measuring the Development of Intelligence in Young Children. Translated by C. H. Town, Chicago Medical Book Company, 1915. Bobertag, O.: Uber Intelligenzpriifungen (nach der Methode von Binet und Simon). Zsch. fiir angew. Psych. (A) 1911, 5:105-203; (B) 1912 6: 495-537. Brigham, C. A.: An Experimental Critique of The Binet-Simon Scale J. of Ed. Psy., 1914, 5: 439-448. Bronner, A. F.: Attitude as it Affects the Performance of Tests Psych. Rev., 1916, 23: 303-331. Doll, E. A.: Prelim. Note on Diagnosis of Potential Feeble-minded- ness. Tr. Sch. Bull., 1916, 6: 54-61. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 27 Ellis, F. VY.: Report of Mental Examinations at Neurological Inst., N. Y. 5th and 6th Ann. Rpt. of N. Y. Probation and Protection Assn., 1913, 1914. Goddard, H. H.: The Reliability of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence. 4th. Intern. Congr. School Hyg., Buffalo, 1913. Informal Conference on the Binet-Simon Scale: Some Suggestions and Recommendations. J. of Educ. Psychol. 1914, 5: 95-100. Johnston, K. L.: M. Binet's Method for the Measurement of Intelli- gence. Some Results. J. of E. Ped. 1911, 1: 24-31, 148-151. Kohs, S. C.: The Practicability of the Binet Scale and the Question of the Borderline Case. Chicago, House of Correction, Research Dept. 1915, Bull. No. 3. Kuhlmann, F.: A Revision of the Binet-Simon System for Measuring the Intelligence of Children. Faribault, Minn.: J. Psycho-Asthen. No. 1 Monogr. Suppl. 1912, pp. 41. Kuhlmann, F.: Degree of Mental Deficiency in Children as Expressed by the Relation of Age to Mental Age. J. Psycho-Asthen., 1913, 17: 132-144. Melville, N. J.: An Organized Mental Survey in Philadelphia Special Classes. Psych. Clin. 1916, 9:258-265. Mentality Tests: A Symposium. J. of Ed. Psy. 1916, 7: 229-240, 278- 293, 348-360. Meumann, E.: Vorlesungen. Leipzig: Englemann 1913. Zehnte Vorle- sung, pp. 94-299. Porter, F. B.: Difficulties in the Interpretation of Mental Tests. Types and Examples. Psy. Clin. 1915, 9: 140-158, 167-180. Rogers, A. L. and Mclntyre, J. L.: The Measurement of Intelligence in Children by the Binet-Simon Scale. Brit. J. of Psyc, 1914, 7: 265-299. Stern, W.: The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence. Trans- lated by G. M. Whipple, Baltimore, 1913. Terman, L. M.: The Measurement of Intelligence: An Explanation of and Complete Guide for the Use of the Stanford Revision and Exten- sion of the Binet-Simon Scale. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1916. Thorndike, E. L.: The Significance of the Binet Mental Ages. Psy1. Clin. 1914, 8: 185-189. References on Supplementary Data Some of the works given below deal also with the Binet-Simon Scale. Ayres, L. P.: The Identification of the Misfit Child. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1916. Baldwin, B. T.: Physical Growth and School Progress. Washington: U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bull., 1914, No. 10. Binet, A. and Simon, Th.: Mentally Defective Children. Translated by W. B.Drummond. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1914. Crampton, C. Ward: Anatomical or Physiological Age versus Chrono- logical Age. Ped. Sem., 1908, 15: 230-237. Doll, E. A.: Anthropometry as an Aid to Mental Diagnosis. Vineland, N. J.: The Training School, 1916. Franz, S. I.: Handbook of Mental Examination Methods. New York: J. of Nerv. and Ment. Dis. Pub. Co. 1912, pp. 165. 28 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY Healy, W. and Fernald, G. M.: Tests for Practical Mental Classifica- tion. Princeton: Psychological Monographs, Whole No. 55, 1911, pp. viii+54. Holmes, A.: Classification of Clinical Cases. Psych. Clin., 1911, 5 : 36-53 King, I.: Psychology of Child Development, University of Chicago Press, 1907, pp. 265. Morgan, B. S.: The Backward Child. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1914. Norsworthy, N.: Psychology of Mentally Deficient Children. New York: Archives of Psychology, 1906, pp. 111. Sandiford, P.: The Mental and Physical Life of School Children. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1913, pp. 346. Schmidt, C.: Standardization of Tests for Defective Children. Prince- ton: Psych. Mono. Whole No. 83, 1915, pp. 181. Starch, D.: Educational Measurements. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916, p. 202, tables. Stern, W.: Differentielle Psychologic Leipzig: J. A. Barth, 1911, pp. 503. Whipple, G. M.: Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, Parts I and II. 2nd Ed. Baltimore: Warwick and York, 1915, pp. 712. Journals, Monographs, and Reports L'Annee psychologique, Paris. Bulletin of the Committee on Provision for the Feeble-Minded, Phila- delphia. Child Study Reports, Chicago, Board of Education. International Clinics, Philadelphia and London. Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Crimin- ology, Chicago. Journal of Educational Psychology, Baltimore (Educational Psychol- ogy Monographs). Journal of Heredity, Washington, D. C. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, N. Y. Journal of Psycho-Asthenics, Faribault, Minn. New York Probation and Protective Association, Annual Reports. Pedagogical Seminary, Worcester, Mass. Psychological Bulletin, Princeton, N. J. (Psychological Monographs). Psychological Clinic, Philadelphia. Training School Bulletin, Vineland, N. J. Ungraded, New York: Ungraded Teachers Assn. Bibliographies Kohs, S.: The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence: An Annotated Bibliography. Baltimore: Warwick and York, 1914. MacDonald, A.: Bibliography of Exceptional Children and Their Education. Washington: U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bull. 1912, No. 32. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 29 GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO EXAMINERS The examiner should attend in advance to all details that will reduce fatigue, discomfort, noise, or other disturbing factors. Use an isolated quiet room. Try to secure an assistant16 to record the answers verbatim. Except when a witness is necessary, allow no others to be present—if possible. If it is necessary to have a visitor or an official present, insist politely on absolute silence. Meet the subject pleasantly. Ask him his name but as ex- plained hereafter, do not ask his age until the end of the examina- tion. With a young subject, tell him that you are going to play some games; with an older subject, that you are going to ask him some questions. In all cases tell the subject that you want him to do his best and that he is to guess rather than to give no answer. Before beginning the tests try to get one or two responses on matters of common interest, e.g., base ball or a practical activity like sewing, carpentry, etc . Try to find out through officials or indirectly from the sub- ject whether he has been tested before; if so how long since; and what he knows about the test materials. If this is the sub- ject's second experience with Binet tests, write an exponent 2 after the Binet Age on all records ; then indicate on the back of the blank how long since he has been tested, what he appears to know about the tests, etc. Supplementary observations for which space is not provided on the record blank should be written on a memorandum sheet which should be fastened to the record blank. These records should be made by the assistant in such a way as not to attract the attention of the subject. The test record should never be visible to the subject. Except when the subject is looking for encouragement, pay no particular attention to him so that he forgets himself in what 10 With clinical cases the presence of an assistant is sometimes un- desirable. 30 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY he is doing. Never stare at him lest he feel that he is under observation. Sitting casually with the subject as if entertaining him, encourage him constantly throughout the examination. In a tactful way show an equal and lively satisfaction with all efforts except in the few instances noted in the directions where the examiner must be passive lest he mislead the subject and thus prevent him from doing better. If the subject fails to respond after slight urging, pass the matter by as easily as possible. Make him feel that you hope that he will succeed and that you are try- ing to discover his best—not tripping him up at his worst. " It is the business of the examiner to keep the subject in that state of mental exhilaration which enables him to do his best." Never criticise and do not make a lesson out of any test. For the time being, the pedagogical habit of mind must be laid aside. The object now is to judge the mental level of the subject, not to instruct him. His mind must not be guided or taught while he is doing the tests, just as one does not usually stop to instruct a friend while playing a game with him. Never attempt to " im- prove " or to discipline a subject during an examination, even if he openly refuses to respond. If a disciplinary situation should arise, this would, like the onset of any physical ailment, auto- matically terminate the examination. Beware of the various pitfalls that await the beginner. In the first place, he is almost certain to array himself on the side of the subject and to declare in some instances that the test is not a fair one. In the comprehension tests and the like the beginner is tempted to complain that the language of the test is beyond the vocabulary of the subject. The examiner must remember that ability to respond to standardized formulae and questions without supplementary demonstration or explanation, forms one of the most important elements in the complex mental processes being tested throughout the scale. Even if at first the subject mis- understands what he is to do, do not check him but watch for a possible clue in his reactions. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 31 If the procedure in any test has been interrupted or you realize that you have unintentionally varied from the Uniform Method, mark that test m in the margin. If at the close of the examination you wish to make supplementary variations, keep a careful record of each variation and of its results. Variations referred to in the supplementary notes may be indicated by appro- priate abbreviations placed in the margin; the results of such variations should be enclosed in parentheses on the record blank. Mental hygiene demands that no sitting should last more than three-quarters of an hour with subjects who test at the level of later childhood or higher; nor more than a half an hour for those who test at lower levels. The Uniform Method, when used by a trained examiner with an assistant, should not exceed these time limits, which were adhered to by Binet in his own testing. If necessary, finish the testing in a later sitting. The examiner should unobtrusively record his judgments -K —, ?+ or ?— (as illustrated in the Method) immediately after giving each test. These judgments should be reviewed later in conjunction with the Examination Notes. The answers on the Examination Notes should be compared with the examples of correct and incorrect responses contained in the Method.17 A study of these examples will show that correctness generally in- volves a comprehension of " the exact shade of meaning con- veyed " by the formulae (S. R.). The criterion is not, does the answer have perfect grammatical or logical form, but has the subject comprehended all that he is expected to grasp at the given level and has he responded correctly on the basis of such com- prehension (G.). This criterion minimizes the effect of formal education. Observe and record, as directed, the attitude of the subject towards the tests. Keep such notes as will aid in making a characterization of (1) general intelligence, (2) general behavior and disposition, and (3) general appearance. "Doubtful responses should be scored in the light of the responses to adjacent trials and tests. 32 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY INSTRUCTIONS TO SCHOOL EXAMINERS 1. Report at the principal's office each day to get permission to begin testing. Be careful not to interrupt the work of the principal or the class teacher. 2. Ask for instruction as to signals for (a) fire drill, (b) recess, and (c) dismissal. Make sure that you understand how to carry out such instructions and see that you do so. 3. Accompany each pupil from the class room to the ex- amining room and back again to the class room. Interrupt your testing to take the pupil back to his class so that he can get in line for recess and for dismissal unless special arrangements have been made. 4. Upon request show a given pupil's record blank to the principal or teacher. Under no circumstances offer a diagnosis of the case. A verified duplicate of each record should later be sent to the principal of the school. STANDARD RECORD FORM AND DIRECTIONS FOR USING The methods of gathering and assembling the data from the Binet-Simon tests and from supplementary sources are explained in the following directions for using the Standard Record Form. These directions are, for convenience, addressed to the examiners in the Philadelphia schools. The Standard Record Form is reproduced at page 38 of Part I.18 Efficiency in using it should be acquired during demon- strations and practice work. First Side (see Record), Summary of Binet Examination and of Supplementary Data The first and third lines of this side and as far as practicable, the lines for recording Supplementary Data should be filled in 18 Also a specimen copy of the form is supplied with this manual for convenience in studying these directions. SUMMARY OF BINET EXAMINATION AND OF SUPPLEMENTARY DATA PARENTS' FIRST NAMES OR GUARDIAN'S FULL NAME AGE YEARS TENTHS ROOM BINET AGE YEARS TENTHS SUB AGE YEARS TENTHS DATE OF BIRTH MONTH DAY YEAR SUPER AGE YEARS TENTHS + UNDERLINE HANDICAPS FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT HOME. POOR HEALTH. VISION. HEARING. MOUTH BREATHING. ILL-BALANCED________ CLASS REGULAR GRADE SPECIAL GROUP NAME OF PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT RECORD OF BINET EXAMINATION Affirm by underscoring; negate by cancelling; fill in as much as possible. General attitude? Responded willingly, indifferently, unwillingly; mentally active, inactive. Passed at Level of Remarks: Supplementary Data—from teacher's estimate, class and health records, etc. l. Regarded as foreigner; temporarily handicapped; physically defective; dull; incompetent; ill-balanced; delinquent; negligent. 2. Race? Parents' Nativity ? 3. Lived in country, city in Language usually spoken at home till years old; in Began regular schooling at age? 5? 6? 7? Foreign? 8? 9? Group ? Changed schools? 4. Language work equals grade? 5. Years in grade 1? 2? 3? 4? Open air? Orthopedic? 6. Age-grade retardation? yrs. 7. Attendance since beginning school—regular, irregular, interrupted. Cause? 8. Special defects, habits, etc.? 9. Disease history? 10. Age of walking? mos. Talking? mos. Stigmata? 11. What permanent teeth ? SUMMARY OF PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL ESTIMATES Standing 1. Health 2. Balance 3. Brightness 4. Class Work a. Earning Capacity b. Home Conditions c. Heredity________ G,F,orP Development 1. Physiological 2. Emotional 3. Intellectual 4. Educational +,A,or - Notes—Documents submitted, etc. Supplementary Measurements (Anthropometric, Pedagogical, etc.) Title Score Interpretation of score Healy-Fernald Form Board 12 3 Height Weight v Binet Quotient RECOMMENDATIONS: TEST RECORD Teat No. Initials of Examiner. BINET-SIMON TESTS Grouped According to Final Revision by Binet and Simon, 1911. Arranged for Convenience of Examiners in Philadelphia Public Schools III . a Pictures. Enumerates at least two parts in 1 out of 3 Binei pictures (Use E. N* Mark trials under "Methods of Marking.") [1] b Surname (Stepfather?) (Use E.N.) . c . Nose . Eyes . Mouth. Shows ea. (If 2d chance, give last; then in- sist.) [3] .42 Digitsf (Consult XVd first.) [1] . t Sentence Hit (Consult XVe first.) VII . • Higher Credit for Ilia. Mentions characteristics, actions, etc., in 2 out of 3 Binet pictures. (Use E. N.* Mark trials under "Methods of Marking.") [2] .6 3 Orders :|j Executes. (No help.) [3] .c . R. Hand. . L. Ear. Shows each. (No help; non-committal expression if i) [2] . d Stamps t Teach value of ea. kind if nee. Watch 10". (No error.) [1] .* Colors. Names all. (No error) [4] XII . • Charity=kindness/to unfortunates giving/alms=aid to poor Justice=ruIe/of law or of merit Kindness=tender/acts or feelings Defines or illus. meaning clearly. [2] . b 60 Words.t Watch 3'. (Use E.N.) Score here. . e Six Line-pairsf . 4 . 5 . 6 [2] . d Higher Credit for Xd. (Use O.R.': . e Dissected Sen. 1' ea. . 1 . 2 . 3 [2] IV . a Parallel Line-plates. Indicates the longer line. (No hesitation or error) .1.2.3 [3] (Non-committal expression) . fr Sex (Mere echo?) c . Penknife . Key (different kinds) . Penny, } knife, key, pennies I [3] d3 Digits-t (See XVd first.) [1] Each test counts 0.2 % yr. as make- up. VIII a . J Butterfly . J Wood . ( Paper ( Fly j Glass ( Cardboard Real point of difference. (Encourage. Use E.N.) [2 less 'repetitions.] b Drawings with Parts Missing | . Nose . Eyes . Mouth . Hands } 13 c 20 to 1. Counts in 20 sec. j 1 error dS Digitsf (See XVd first) [1| e . Dwk. . Mo. . Dm. { 4 } . Yr. [4'J XV . a Highest Credit for Ills- Interprets situation depicted in, or emotions suggested by 2 out of th; 3 Binet pictures. (Use E.N.) [2.1 . b Froblems . a Two Pairs of Weights. Indicates the heavier each time. [3 or more?] .1P&C.2H&S.3C&P (.4S&H.F&C etc.?) b Square (Final copy on O.R.) . c 3 Cards. Joins diagonals in any way. (Non-committal expression if i.) . d 4 Pennies. Counts each with finger. e Sentence Vf (Consult XVe first.) [1 ] IX . a Higher Credit for Via. Uses syno- nym, describes, or classifies in one or more words. (Insist.) [3] .1.2.3.4.5 (Use E.N.) b Returns change, 6c from quarter [1] c Comprehends. (Easy) . 1 . 2 . 3 [2] d Coins, recognized. Bills, known [12] e Months t Watch 15 sec. ■! 1 error. > Begins with any month. (No help.) VI . a . 1 Fork . 2 Table . 3 Chair . 4 Horse . 5 Mama. (No help.) Defines by use or action. (Insist. See IXa. Use E.N.) [3] b Diamond (Final copy on O. R.) . c Chooses Prettier. .1.2.3 [3] (Non-committal expression.) . (113 Pennies. (See Vd first.) . e Morning or afternoon? (Echo?) a 5 Weights. Arranges in order. [2] (Use Code) Watch 3' 6 Absurdities .1.2.3.4 S (E.N.) [3] c Comprehends .1 .2.3.4.5 [3] d 3 Words, 2 main clauses (See XI Id.) e Designst (Out of sight till "ReadyI" Watch 10". Use O.R ) [y2] METHODS OF MARKING TRIALS AND TESTS 1 Forest (hanged) c Rimes j missed, artist, etc. J- [3] (Use E.N.) Enumeration Description Interpretation f or Emotion \ 2 Neighbor (dying) [2] (Use E.N.) Ill VII XV 1 .2 . 3 [1] Ol=no answer to Trial L 1 .2.3 [2] i=incorrect or incomplete. 1 .2 . 3 [2] V=trial correct. +=gets V's indicated in [?] allowing J ? errors} If no [?], gets any 1 trial allowing } p J 0=see-f-for harder test in same series. = = fails later on 2d chance. d7 Digiu.t [1] Give Pd before any test digits. Pronounce J4 sec. apart without rhythm, each set once. e Sentence XV.t [1] Give Pe before any test sentence. Stresses about J4" apart and with expression, each once (So errors except' pronuncia-1 tion. I, tGii *SEE EXAMINATION NOTES (E.N.) OR ORIGINAL RECORDS (O.R.) all trials allowed ia test directions, but do not repeat the test, i.e., there ia no second chance. EXAMINATION NOTES Test No. Initials of Examiner. School Pupil's First Name Last Name 1 Yr. | Mo. Day 1 Age in Yrs. 360 Age in Yrs.Tenths Binet Age Yrs. Tenths Difference Yrs. Tenths Base Year X 0.2 =• . X 0.4 = . X 0.6 = . 1 Date of Exam. | 31 Date of Birth | | | | 2 32 1 1 1 3 33 Make-up = 4 34 Binet Pictures Digits 5 35 . Ilia [1] I 1 6 36 . Vila [2] < 2 7 37 . XVa [2] f 3 8 38 Hlb Surname | . XHa [2] 1 Charity 9 39 Definitions 1 Fork 10 40 . Via [3] . 2 Table 2 Justice 11 41 . 3 Chair 12 42 . IXa [3] 4 Horse 3 Kindness 13 43 5 Mama 14 44 2 Important affair 3 Forgive easier 4 Asked opinion 5 Action or words 23 24 53 54 Differences [Do not give 2V for same point repeated] 15 45 Villa 1 Butterfly & Fly 16 46 . 2 Wood & Glass 17 47 3 Paper & Cardboard 18 48 IXc [12] Coins Does not recognize Bills Has seen 19 49 Comprehensions . 1 Train . 2 Playmate 20 50 . IXc (Easy) [2] . 3 Broken 21 51 Xc (Hard) [3] . 1 Late to School 22 52 Xb Absurdities [3] 1 Bicycle rider 2 Three brothers 3 Bodv found 4 R. R. accident 5 Friday XVb Problems [2] . 1 Forest 2 Neighbor XVe [31 "Resist" 25 U 27 28 29 ("Receive") 30 ("Defender") Time Began Ended Witness Assistant 55 56 57 58 59 60 Binet Examiner ORIGINAL RECORDS Original Record X—Draws both designs from memory in pencil below after seeing them only once for 10" Vb Final copies or of square or diamond VIb with pen and ink here tS" Writes in pencil sentence using Xd XHd Signature if possible gST PHILADELPHIA—MONEY—RIVER TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 33 before the examination by some official in charge of the subject; e.g., 'his teacher. This blank is then to be known as the original. The other sides of the original are to be used by the examiner in the manner directed hereafter. Date of Birth : Indicate by C or W over date of birth whether this is based on birth certificate or on word of parent or guardian. An error of one year vitiates the measure of mental retardation or acceleration, i.e., the sub-age or super-age. The next three items should not be written in until the second and third sides of the record form have been verified—preferably under the direc- tion of a consulting psychologist. Age (Chronological or Life Age) : See space provided at top of third side, for steps in calculation. Binet Age: See directions for third side. Sub-Age: A minus age difference, i.e., when the Binet Age is less than the Life Age. Super-Age: A plus age difference, i.e., when the Binet Age is greater than the Life Age. Handicaps: For explanation of terms that are not self-evident, see key to Supplementary Data below. Room : Give room number. Regular Grade: Kg., IA, IB, or the like. Special Group: Og.A (Orthogenic Class, group A); Op. (Orthopedic Class) ; Oa. (Open Air) ; F. (English to Foreigners). Name of Public School: Write first the name of the building where the pupil attends class; then if this is an annex, write after it the name of the main building. District: Indicate the district where the main building is located. General Attitude, etc.: Underscore the appropriate terms im- mediately on the close of the examination. Mentally active, i.e., curious, self-critical, etc. :•{ 34 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY Remarks: Indicate any special attitudes, interruptions, or other disturbing factors which may have unduly influenced the results. Passed at level of.............. This line should be com- pleted in accordance with the Orthogenic Table; but like the three items named above, should not be written in until the second and third sides of the record forms have been verified. Directions for Recording Supplementary Data. In order that the Binet Age may be properly interpreted a number of supplementary facts should be at hand. The supple- mentary data here called for should, as far as possible, be ob- tained from (1) registration card, (2) medical record, (3) monthly report. An interview with the class teacher at some convenient time may facilitate the obtaining of such data as have not already been supplied. Whenever a number of descriptive words are given, each word that applies to the pupil should be underscored; and if any one or more words apply with particular force, these may be doubly underscored. Line 1—Underscore : Foreigner: Has not a fair command of English because of environment. Temporarily handicapped: Has no lasting physical or mental defect but has fallen behind because of temporary illness, removal, or lack of educational opportunity, e.g., living in the country. Physically defective: Has some chronic physical defect which reacts on school ability, e.g., anaemia. Dull: Has good judgment but is slow in his work. Incompetent: Is below the average in his judgment as well as in schooling. The actual degree of incompetency in children is best indicated by the Binet scale. Ill-balanced: Morally defective, unstable in character, or in other ways shows signs of genuine or border-line insanity. The TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 35 abnormal, i.e., the ill-balanced, subject should be distinguished from the subnormal, i.e., the mentally deficient. Delinquent: Is a disciplinary case, e.g., a truant, etc. Negligent: Is not a defective or disciplinary case, but indiffer- ent, inattentive, etc. Line 2: Insert after: Race—words indicating the original stock of parents, e.g., Scotch-Irish. The word American is not sufficiently definite for the purpose in view. Parents' nativity—country in which parents were born. Language usually spoken at home—that is the language usually spoken by the parents. Line 3: Should indicate whether or not the subject spent his early life in the country or in the city, whether in the United States or some foreign country, and up to what age, e.g., for a foreign-born pupil Line 3 might read, " lived in country, in Italy till ten years old," or, in the case of native-born child, " lived in city, in Philadelphia, since birth." Line 4: The estimate of the language work should be based either on the teacher's judgment or on pedagogical scales. If desirable, two estimates may be inserted here, one of the oral language, one of the written. Regular schooling—applies to regular attendance in any grade above the kindergarten. Line 5: The number of years spent in each grade, counting terms A and B together as one grade, should be obtained whenever possible from the registration card. Every change in school should be indicated by a double bar, e.g., grade 1 ? 1 | |' y2 indicates that in grade 1 the pupil spent two terms in one school and one term in another school. If a pupil is in a special class, the number of years spent there should be indicated after the name of the special class; and in the case of an orthogenic pupil, the group 19 19 In the Philadelphia public schools, the mentally handicapped are in orthogenic classes and classified into three groups: A, incompetent or mentally deficient, B, backward or dull, C, temporarily handicapped or probable restoration case- 36 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY in which he was first placed should be written after the word group, then the length of time he remained in that group; if he was promoted or demoted to another group, the letter indicating the second group should be written in front of the next question mark, followed by the length of time spent in that group, etc., e.g., A ? y2; B ? \y2—indicates one term in Group A and three terms in group B. An attendance of less than three months in a given term should be ignored. Line 6: Age-grade retardation. Determine the average school grade of the subject's entire language work by the use of standardized scales, if possible, or otherwise by the judgment of school officials. Taking seven as the upper limit of age for the first grade, the difference between the subject's age and the upper limit of age for the grade indicated by the language work is the amount of age-grade retardation. Line 7: Consult school records and school officials. " Inter- rupted " refers to absence of a month at a time. Lines 8 and 9: Consult medical inspector's records. Line 10: Consult parent when possible. Stigmata—for an illuminating discussion of stigmata consult Montessori's " Peda- gogical Anthropology." Estimates made by Principal (P), Teacher (T), Medical Inspector (M), etc.,—indicate by letter over each column or beside each rating by whom said rating is made. In estimating " standing," compare the pupil with the average members of his grade. G—Good, i.e., above average; F—Fair or average; P—Poor, i.e., below average. Balance—See directions for Line 1. The other terms are self- explanatory. In estimating development compare the subject with average males or females of his chronological or life age, e.g., "Physiological -f " indicates more mature physically than the aver- age of his or her age; " Physiological — " indicates less mature physically than average of his or her age; " Physiological r\" indi- TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 37 cates near the median, i.e., neither clearly above nor below the average of his or her age in maturity as regards that trait. The developmental levels may also be studied in terms of growth periods (see section on Evaluation, p. 9). Such esti- mates may then be recorded after each trait, e.g., " Emotional L. I." indicates that the subject's emotional reactions resemble those of later infancy, that is, of a child of three or four. Degree of physiological maturity is sometimes called physio- logical age. For further explanation see King, " The High School Age." For discussion of other developmental levels, see writings of B. T. Baldwin, J. E. W. Wallin, and others. Supplementary Measurements: Optional. Recommendations—to be made by the official designated. Note: The detailed directions for using the second, third, and fourth sides of the record form during the examination are contained in the test directions in Part II. Second Side—Test Record As illustrated in Part II, the periods or record points indicate where the examiner should record his judgment of every trial and test given. Each abbreviation, etc., on this side is explained in the directions for the tests. Third Side—Examination Notes The required notes and other observations (see p. 31) may first be recorded on extra paper. Such paper should be headed " Mem- orandum Sheet " and filed inside the record blank. On the com- pleted record blank every space provided on the third side for the tests given should be filled in. These trials and tests should be finally scored here as well as on the second side. The rules for computing the Binet age, etc., have been given on pp. 9-10. " Difference," i.e., age difference, should be marked — or -f, see Sub-Age and Super-Age, p. 33. See also special note, "N. B." on p. 115. 38 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY Fourth Side—Original Records The designs, Xb, should be drawn immediately here. The other tests should be done first on extra paper, e.g., on back of " Memorandum Sheet." UNIFORM PROCEDURE IN REGARD TO TEST ORDER These rules embody the recommendations of the Informal Conference on the Binet-Simon Scale and provide a uniform objective procedure. The Standard Record Form and the Method are arranged to facilitate the application of these rules. For the principles upon which they were worked out, see page 4. first sequence of tests 1. Begin with the pictures, page 44, Pt. II, Uniform Method. Then give the a test of the year just above that indicated by the results of the picture test.20 (See pp. 50-57.) 2. Proceed with the a tests in succession as printed in the Method until the subject fails one of the a tests.20 Then give the b test of the preceding year. 3. Proceed with the b tests in succession as long as the sub- ject is successful. However, if he fails the first b test, proceed in reverse order until he passes one of the b tests.20 4. As. soon as you have in this way found the highest b test that the subject passes, proceed with the c test of the same year. Then apply rule 3 to the c, d and e series of tests. second sequence of tests 5. Determine the working base—i.e., the highest year con- taining no minus score.21 Starting at this working base, give in 20 If XVa is passed, give XVb and then apply rule 4, etc. If any test in III is failed, give the next test of that year, applying rule 4 as far as the results permit. 21 I.e.—The highest year containing one or more plusses, but in which and below which there is no minus. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 39 succession any a tests which have not yet been given or which have been failed through absence of response. Continue the a tests until two successive minuses have been recorded.20 Proceed likewise with the b tests, etc. third sequence of tests 6. Determine the working sub-base—i.e., the year just pre- ceding the highest year wherein no tests are scored minus. Start- ing at the working sub-base, proceed as in rule 5; continue, how- ever, until two successive years of complete success and two suc- cessive years of complete failure have been recorded.22 GENERAL RULES CONCERNING REPETITION Note: Special exceptions to these rules are given in certain test directions. 1. Unless otherwise specified, each question or direction should be reiterated once in an encouraging manner provided the subject does not begin to respond within about five seconds. 2. A question should be reiterated twice only provided (a) that there has been interruption or (b) that the subject requests it. 3. After a question has been reiterated, the examiner should wait about half a minute for the subject to begin before giving the next question. 4. A question should not be reiterated because of incorrect response unless it is manifest that the subject did not hear what was said. 5. A second chance is given later only when the test has been scored minus through absence of response (see above). On second chance, observe rules 1-4. 22 If ten or more tests are passed above year IX, give the " adult" tests. (See Appendix.) Record these results on Fourth Side. 40 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY TEST MATERIALS AND GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR USING The present manual23 contains the printed materials—pictures, drawings, etc.—required for giving the tests.24 In addition to these printed materials, the following articles are needed for the application of the scale: (1) Watch showing seconds, preferably a football timer, noiseless (to be kept out of view at all times), VTId, VIIIc, IXe, Xe, Xllb, Xlle, XVe. (2) Pen and ink, some unruled scratch paper (about 4" X 6"), Vb, VIb; pencil, Xb, Xd, Xlld. (3) Three one-cent stamps and 3 two-cent stamps (to be pasted in manual) Vlld. (4) Box (any small box, e.g., a spectacle-mailing box used as a receptacle for articles 5 to 10 inclusive. Test articles 5-10 should always be kept in such a receptacle so as to be ready for use). Two extra chairs (one to be placed near the door), Vllb. (5) Four pennies, Vd; 13 pennies, VId; if possible a desk blotter to cover the 13 pennies and other coins mentioned below, which may thus be laid out ready for use. (6) Two nickels, 2 dimes, a quarter, and the 13 pennies, IXb. (7) A half dollar, a dollar bill, and one of each of the coins used above, IXd. (8) Key (familiar kind), penny, penknife, IVc. (9) Two visiting cards, one cut diagonally, Vc. Adult C. (10) Set of weighted cubes.25 (These may be obtained from C. H. Stoelting Co., 125 N. Green St., Chicago, 111.) Va, Xa. 23 For suggestions as to the mechanics of handling the manual during the testing, see page 8. 24 J. B. Lippincott Company will furnish the Standard Record Forms for recording results. 25 Binet used uniform pill boxes (packed with cotton or the like and weighted to meet the requirements of the tests). We have found that druggists cannot be relied upon to prepare such boxes. If the examiner wishes to use such, he should (1) prepare them himself, (2) paste down the cover so that none of the contents are lost, (3) mark on the bottom of each box the code letter indicated in our test directions, see Va. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 41 SUMMARY OF GENERAL PROCEDURE 1. Do not attempt to apply a mentality scale until you have had specific training in its technique. 2. Do not begin to test a subject unless you have succeeded in getting him to appear at ease. Find some pleasant way of ter- minating a sitting if the subject appears not to be doing his best. Use every resource to secure his interest except severe reprimand or threat. 3. Do not let the subject wait between the tests or watch you recording. Keep him occupied all the time so that the examination does not become tedious. Do this even at the expense of more complete verbatim records. 4. Do not dismiss the subject even at the end of the time limit until you have looked over his record to be sure that it is complete for that sitting. As soon as he is dismissed, fill in such incomplete verbatim records as you can from memory, and the record of (1) General Attitude, and (2) Remarks. 5. Do not permit yourself to give the subject any clue as to the correct response or as to whether or not his response is satis- factory. Assume a kindly and encouraging manner throughout, thereby being perfectly non-committal. 6. Do not attempt to adapt or supplement the test instructions in any way. Remember that you are testing the ability to react to standardized formulae. Foreign subjects should be tested with a standard translation. Remember, however, to adapt your man- ner to the needs of each subject, so that he will be at ease. 7. Do not allow yourself to be prejudiced by any information as to the age, position, or character of the subject. Consider him an x to be solved by means of the tests first—and then later by all available supplementary data. 8. Do not compute the Binet age, Sub-age, etc., until you have compared each response on the Examination Xotes with the ex- amples of correct and incorrect responses contained in the method. 42 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 9. Do not conclude that the Binet age is an exact expression of the mental level of the subject. Remember that the Binet age, Sub-age and Super-age are conventions adopted for practical pur- poses and must be interpreted in the light of the whole test record, of biological data, etc. None but specialists in juvenile mental and physical disorders should attempt to make a diagnosis of mental retardation. 10. Do not confuse the aims and technique of mentality test- ing with those of clinical or laboratory psychology. Standardized mentality testing is an invaluable preliminary to the more inten- sive study of certain cases. With immature subjects, i.e., juve- nile minds, the brief experimental probing used in applying men- tality scales is often the only procedure that yields results of any value. Remember that the fundamental principle here is a standardization (1) of test conditions and (2) of judgments in scoring the responses. PART II UNIFORM METHOD OF APPLYING THE BINET-SIMON SCALE (Final Revision by Binet and Simon, 1911) WITH NOTES INDICATING MODIFICATIONS FOUND IN VARIOUS ADAPTATIONS PICTURE TEST Ilia Pictures. Vila Higher Credit for Ilia. XVa Highest Credit for Ilia. 1. The examiner and the subject should be seated facing near each other, for example, at the corner of a table. The assistant and any witnesses should be seated back of the subject and as far away as is practicable. The examiner shows Plate Illal (see opposite page) and says:— " What is this?" (Repeat once if there is no answer.) Do not direct attention to any particular object in the picture. Be sure that your whole manner is such as tq encourage free and complete response. Accept the first answers without praise or comment and proceed with Plate IIIa2. Only if there is no response, or a response that is incorrect or incomplete for any age, say:— " Tell me what you see there." (Repeat once if there is no answer.) If still there is no satisfactory response, proceed with Plate IIIa2. Note: Some investigators, e.g., Terman, following Kuhlmann, allow such preliminary aid as "Show me the . . (naming some object in the picture). METHOD OF MARKING CORRECT RESPONSES TO TRIAL Illal. ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT AGE STANDARDS On Test Record. On Examination Notes. Ilia ■ Enumeration V 1 • Ilia [1] V 1 Vila " Description V 1 XVa • Interpretation or HI Emotion Vila [2] V 1 XVa [2] V 1 Examples of Correct Responses. "A man, rope." (Any two or more parts enumer- ated.) "Pulling." (Mentions characteristics or actions, whether or not he enumerates also.) "A rag picker," or "Some people moving." (Gives any interpretation of the picture.) "A poor foreigner," or "Man in trouble." (Ex- presses any emotion suggested by picture.) 45 The examiner shows Plate IIIa2 (see opposite page) and says:— " What is this ? " (Repeat once if there is no answer.) Do not direct attention to any particular object in the picture. Be sure that your whole manner is such as to encourage free and complete response. Accept the first answers without praise or comment and proceed with Plate IIIa3. Only if there is no response, or a response that is incorrect or incomplete for any age, say:— " Tell me what you see there." (Repeat once if there is no answer.) If still there is no satisfactory response, proceed with Plate Ilia3. If you have no recorder, begin now, while the subject is looking at the second picture, to record in full what he said about the first picture. Do this unobtrusively. Stop writing the moment the subject is ready for the next picture. METHOD OF MARKING CORRECT RESPONSES TO IIIa2 On Test Record. On Examination Notes. Examples of Correct Responses. Ilia . Enumeration V 2 . Ilia [1] V 2 "Chair, lady" (etc.). VITa . Description V 2 . Vila [2] V 2 "Asleep in park" (etc.). "Praying" (etc.). V 2 . XVa 12] V 2 "Poor creatures," or "Night-time" (etc.). °* XVa . Interpretation or Emotion Observations of the subject's attitude in this and succeeding tests: Record slight fatigue * by "F" in margin of test blank, to be explained on a memorandum sheet, (see page 37) Record interest, though inability to respond, by "I" in margin of test blank, etc. *If the subject appears to be markedly fatigued, the examination should be immediately discontinued for the time bein" 47 3. Show Plate Illa3 (opposite) and proceed exactly as with the second picture, except that if any verbal response is given, say a word of praise and proceed with the next test as directed below. METHOD OF MARKING CORRECT RESPONSES TO TRIAL IIIa3 On Test Record. On Examination Notes. Examples of Correct Responses. Ilia • Enumeration V 3 • IHa [1] V 3 "Two tables" (etc.). Vila- Description V 3 • Vila [2] V 3 "Looking out a window" (or in a glass, etc.). "A prisoner," or "Wants to get out" (etc.). XVa • Interpretation or Emotion V 3 • XVa [2] V 3 "He's lonely" (etc.). Note: Several authorities, e.g., Titchener, consider that the first responses have the truest diagnostic value in field psychology. Further responses may be sought as supplementary variations to show the result of adaptation, but such results should be enclosed in parentheses and should not affect the Binet age. Yerkes Point Scale (Y. P.) employs the original Binet pictures given in this manual but insists on limiting the formula to "Please look at this picture and tell me about it." On the other hand the Stanford revision (S. R.) substitutes a set of pictures not used in any other arrangement. It also employs different forms of questioning at each level, and thus discards what Binet and others have considered the most valuable diag- nostic procedure in his series, namely, the presentation of the identical verbal situation to all subjects in connection with his pictures and the classification of the responses according to different age standards as exemplified above. Goddard (G) and Kuhlmann (K) use the Jingleman Jack pictures (colored) for their cases, mostly low-grade defectives, but endeavor to preserve Binet's diagnostic principle of uniform questioning. Bobertag (B) has his own set of pictures. The writer and his student-assistants tried out several sets of pictures, colored and uncolored series, but decided to return to the original Binet pictures, because they were found to be the only ones thus far standardized for the testing of both high and low grade cases. •<^***mtW0tffrXZr$ tppiJm 4 4-9 EXAMPLES OF SCORING THE PICTURE TEST AND OF APPLYING THE RULES FOR TEST ORDER 11 la — Enumeration O 1 i 2 i 3 [1] These markings show that with the first picture there was no positive verbal response, e.g., the subject merely pointed, refused to answer, Vila— Description • 1 • 2 • 3 [2] etc.; that with the second and third pictures there were incorrect or incomplete answers, e.g., "A picture," or "A man." XVa— Interpretation 1 or • 1 • 2 • 3 [2] Emotion In order that the test be scored plus at Ilia, at least one trial [1] must be marked i .—i.e., must meet the standard for Ilia credit stated on the Test Record and illustrated above. Hence in this case the test is scored: — at Ilia, Vila, and XVa on Test Record and on Examination Notes. In this case give test Illb next. Since the failure above indicated is due to incorrect responses and not to absence of response, there can be no second chance. Ilia -f Enumeration O 1 i 2 v 3 [1] These markings show that there was no response to the first picture, that two or more parts were not enumerated in the second picture, Vila— Description • 1 • 2 • 3 [2] but that they were in the third. XVa— Interpretation ] or • 1 • 2 • 3 [2] Emotion Hence the test is scored: + at Ilia and — at Vila and XVa on Test Record and on Examination Notes. The sub- ject therefore passes Ilia as best credit. In such a case give test IVa next as indicated in rule 1. If he passes IVa, then give Va, but if he fails IVa go back to Illb as indicated in rule 2. See page j8. Ilia © Enumeration V 1 V2 V3 [1] These markings show that there was a response by enumeration to Vlla-f Description -1 V 2 V 3 [2] the first picture, and by description to the second and third pic- XVa— Interpretation j tures. V indicates "See higher marking for same trial." © indi- or [ • 1 • 2 • 3 [2] cates "See higher credit for same test." Emotion Hence the test is scored: © at Ilia, -+- at Vila, and — at XVa on Test Record and on Examination Notes. The subject therefore passes Vila as best credit. Hence give Villa next. If the subject passes Villa, give IXa. If he fails Villa, give VHb. Ilia © Enumeration VI V2 V3 [1] These markings indicate that an interpretation of the first picture or some emotion suggested by it was expressed, that description was Vila © Description VI V 2 V3 [2] given in the case of the second picture and that an interpretation or some emotion was expressed in the case of the third picture. XVa-f Interpretation j or V 1 • 2 V 3 [2] Emotion Hence the test is scored: © at Ilia, © at Vila and + at XVa on Test Record and on Examination Notes. As the subject passes XVa, give XVb. See page j8. IVa. Parallel Line-plates. Indicates the longer line. (No hesitation or error) • 1 --2 -3 [3] (Non-committal expression) 1. The examiner shows Plate IVal (opposite) and says: " You see these lines. Tell me which is the longer." (Repeat once, if necessary.) The subject is allowed as much time as he wishes to look at the lines but if there is hesitation in the process of indi- cating the longer line, even though the subject finally does indicate it, the trial is marked i. If trial 1 is marked V , proceed immediately with trial 2 (Plate IVa2), but if it is scored O or i, proceed immediately with test Illb. As indicated on the record blank, remain non-committal whether the response is correct or incorrect. 53 2. Show Plate IVa2 (opposite) and proceed as with the first plate. " You see these lines. Tell me which is the longer." (Repeat once, if necessary.) The subject is allowed as much time as he wishes to look at the lines but if there is hesitation in the process of indi- cating the longer line, even though the subject finally does indicate it, the trial is marked i. If trial 2 is marked V proceed immediately with trial 3 (Plate IVa3), but if it is scored O or i, proceed immediately with test Illb. As indicated on the record b|ank, remain non-committal whether the response is correct or incorrect. (A 55 3. Proceed exactly as before. " You see these lines. Tell me which is the longer." (Repeat once, if necessary.) The subject is allowed as much time as he wishes to look at the lines but if there is hesitation in the process of indi- cating the longer line, even though the subject finally does indicate it, the trial is marked i. If trial 3 is also marked V, the test is scored +, and we proceed immediately with test Va; but if marked q or i, proceed immediately with test Illb. If there has been an incorrect response on any trial, the test is scored minus, and no second chance is allowed. If, however, the test is failed through lack of response, a second chance should be given later. In order that the test be scored plus, the subject should get all three trials right on the first chance or all three right on the second chance. Note: Binet, in 1011, mentions only one trial, but the procedure required with the pair of weights (Va) is interpreted to cover this test also. Y. P. gives but two trials and requires that both be correct. S. R. adds "Put your finger on the longest one," or "Show me which line is the biggest," and with K. credits five out of six trials. m Such supplementary variations, if employed as a third chance, should, as usual, be scored (+) or ( —). 57 Va. Two Pairs of Weights. Indicates the heavier each time. [3 or more.] •1 P&C* -2H&S -3C&P (-4S&H -5 P & C), etc. 1. Place before the subject the two weights, P and C (weighing respectively 3 and 12 gm.) with a distance of two or three inches between them, block P (the lighter) at the subject's left. (Place the blocks with the letters down.) The examiner says: " You see these blocks. Tell me which is the heavier." v If, after weighing the blocks in any way he wishes, the subject indicates the heavier block (C), the trial is marked V and we proceed immediately with trial 2. However, if the subject indicates either of the blocks without actually weighing them both, the examiner, being careful not to show by gesture or in any other manner what is meant, says: " No, that is not the way. You must take the blocks in your hand and weigh them." If the subject appears not to understand what is meant, the test is now discontinued, but later a second chance is given in case the trial was marked O. 2. Place before the subject the two blocks H and S (weighing respectively 15 and 6 gm.), blockH (the heavier) at subject's left. (Keep the letters face down.) Proceed exactly as with trial 1. If trial 2 is marked i, the test is scored minus and there is no second chance. If trials 1 and 2 have been marked V, we proceed immediately with trial 3. 3. Proceed with the same blocks and the same method as in trial 1, except that the blocks are interchanged. (Block C, the heavier, at the subject's left.) In order that the test be scored plus, there must be three successful trials on the first chance or three successful trials on the second chance. If the subject indicates the wrong block on any trial, the test is scored minus. As indicated on the record blank (4 S & H; and 5 P&C, etc.), further trials may be given until the examiner is convinced that the correct responses are due to judgment and not to coincidence. * Note: The following code is used to indicate the blocks: P S Y C H (E) 3 6 9 12 15 (18) Binet allows that in case it is impossible to get a 3 gm. weight, the 6 and 15 gm. weights (S & H) may be used in place of the 3 and 12 gm. weights, and that the 18 and 9 gm. ones (E & Y) may be substituted for the second pair of weights. N. B. Be sure to keep the letters face down throughout. S. R. and K. allow illustrating by lifting with one hand, first one box, then the other, a few inches from the table. Binet and Y. P. absolutely prohibit such demonstration. Via. 1 Fork • 2 Table • 3 Chair • 4 Horse • 5 Mama (No help). Defines by use or action. (Insist. See IXa. Use E. N.) [3] Follow the directions given under IXa. If on three or more of the five questions the subject defines by use or action (see examples below), the test is scored plus at Via and minus at IXa. METHOD OF MARKING DEFINITIONS BY USE OR ACTION vi 1. Fork....."To eat." vi 2. Table....."Where we eat." vi 3. Chair....."You're sitting on it." . ."Pulls wagons." .. "Sends you errands." vi 4. Horse vi 5. Mama.. If in the case of three or more questions, the subject uses synonym, describes, or classifies (for examples see IXa), even if he mentions use as well, the test is scored + at IX. Mark each trial O, i, vi, or ix on Examination Notes. Note: Y. P. uses spoon, chair, horse, baby. S. R. omits mama, adds pencil, doll; credits four out of six, and then places the test at V, using a new set of words at VIII. Vila. Higher credit for Ilia. Mentions characteristics, actions, etc., in two out of three Binet pictures, even though he enu- merates as well. (See Ilia and XVa. Mark trials under Methods of Marking.) As indicated under the directions for the picture test (see Ilia), Vila is not a separate test from Ilia or XVa, but merely a statement of one of the standards by which the answers in the picture test are classified. Hence when we reach this point on the record blank, we simply observe the score already recorded here and proceed with the next test in accordance with the rules of test order. Villa. Butterfly Wood Paper Fly Glass Cardboard * Real point of difference. (Encourage. Use E. N.) 2 less repetitions. The examiner says (in an encouraging manner, repeating the formula once, if necessary): 1. " You have seen butterflies. You know what they are? And flies. You know them also. Are they alike? In what way are they not alike?" (If necessary, add "Tell me what you mean," or "Explain.") Record the subject's answer word for word on the Examination Notes. 2. " You know what wood is? And glass? Are they alike? In what way are they not alike?" (If necessary, repeat etc., as above.) 3 Similar questions are asked concerning paper and cardboard.* Any real, though trivial, point of difference is counted correct. However, if a given point of difference has been credited as distinguishing one pair of objects, the same point of difference cannot be credited again if repeated for another pair of objects. In this event say: " In what other way are they not alike?" In order that the test be scored plus, two parts of the test must be credited, remembering not to credit the same point of difference twice (i.e., 2, less repetitions). Correct: "Butterfly is prettier" (or "A fly is black," etc.). "You chop wood" (or "Glass cuts you," etc.). "Paper is used in writing" (or "Cardboard does not tear," etc.). Note: Y. P. substitutes apple and banana for the first pair. S. R. substitutes stone and egg for the third pair and then places the test at VII._______________________________________________________________ * Many examiners substitute the word cloth for cardboard. IXa. Higher credit for test Via. Uses synonym; describes or classifies in one or more words. (Insist.) ■ 1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (Use E. N.) The examiner says: 1. " What is a fork?" If in the case of this or any following question, the subject fails to respond even after the question has been reiterated, or merely repeats the word to be defined (i.e., "It is a fork"), or says "I don't know," etc., the examiner insists and says: " You know what a......is; tell me, what is a......?" This may be repeated but no other words may be used. ■ Wait for the subject's answer; accept it in a non-committal manner; and withhold comment even if the subject merely says, "It is a thing" (see Via). Whether or not there has been any response within a minute, give the second question: 2. " What is a table?" (Proceed exactly as with question one.) 3. " What is a chair?" 4. " What is a horse?" 5. " What is a mama?" If in the case of three or more questions, the subject uses a possible synonymous, descriptive, or generic expression of one or more words (see examples below), even if he mentions use as well, the test is scored -f- at IXa, and © at Via. If not credited at IXa, see Via. method of marking definitions By Synonymous, Descriptive, or Generic Expression. ix 1. Fork "pitchfork" "four points" "something"("something for eating") ix 2. Table "board" "wood" "a thing" ix 3. Chair "a seat" "four legs" "furniture" ix 4. Horse "meat" "four feet" "animal" ix 5. Mama "mother" "skin" "she is feminine gender" Note: Single words that may be synonymous, descriptive, or expletive, like mother, good, silver, wood, thing, some- thing, etc., are scored by some investigators at Via; while they score words that are distinctly classifications, like object, article, instrument, etc., at IXa. Owing to the wide differences in practice here, it seems best to follow strictly Binet in crediting at IX any attempt at definition that is not confined to use or action. It is of the utmost importance that the examiner record accurately every word the subject uses in answering and that later he compare all answers with the examples given above and under Via. Special markings vi or ix should be written to the left of the five words on the Examination Notes, unless O or i. S. R. uses balloon, tiger, football, soldier, automobile, battleship, potato, and store; and then places the test at VIII. ; Xa. 5 Weights. Arranges in order. [2] (Use code) Watch, 3'. . 1 • 2 • 3 1. The examiner, who should be facing the subject as usual, places the five cubes, marked respectively P, S, Y, C, H, * in a group (not a pile) before the subject. The weights should not be arranged in any particular order. The examiner says: " These blocks which you see here do not all weigh alike. Some are heavy and some are light. Place the heaviest one here (pointing to a spot near the subject's left) and at its side the one which is a little less heavy, then the one a little less heavy, then the one still a little less heavy, and finally the lightest of all. (Continue to point each time to a spot nearer the subject's right). If there is no response, repeat the above directions. As soon as the subject begins to work, the examiner and the assistant look at their watches unobtrusively. At the end of trial 1, the examiner grasps the blocks as arranged, turns them up in his hand so that he can read the letters on the bottom, and records on the record blank the five letters as they appear, beginning at the subject's left. If the trial is correct, the letters should spell PSYCH (orSYCHE).* 2. After the record has been made, the weights are mixed together as before and the examiner says, "Now, do it again." 3. The second arrangement is again recorded and trial 3 is given exactly as trial 2._____________________________ * See footnote to Va. In order that the test be scored plus, two trials must be correct within three minutes of actual work. If over 3 minutes, record time and score ? + if two trials are correct. N. B. Observe the subject's method of procedure and record absurd moves by ! on record blank. Note: S. R. places this test at IX. Xlla. Charity = Kindness/to unfortunates. Giving/alms, aid to the poor. Justice = Rule/of law or merit. Kindness = Tender/acts or feelings. Defines or illustrates meaning clearly. (Use E. N.) [2] The examiner says: 1. " What is charity?" (If necessary, insist "You know what charity is. Tell me what is charity.") If he says, "love" or "giving help," etc., say, "Tell me what you mean" or "Explain." The answer should contain two ideas in order to be marked V ; namely (1) that of unfortunates and (2) that of kind- ness shown them. Examples of correct responses: "Giving alms" contains the two ideas because the word alms means help given to unfortunates. In order that the trial be scored plus, the subject must show that he has in mind the two ideas, even though he uses different words. The response: "Kindness to somebody," would be marked i, because "somebody" is not equivalent to "poor" or "unfortunate." (In this case repeat, if necessary, "Tell me what you mean" or "Explain.") The subject may express his meaning by giving an example, e.g., "When you give poor people some money," but the examiner must not ask for an example. 2. " What is justice?" (If necessary, insist, etc.) If he says "a judge" say, "Tell me another meaning of justice." The definition of "justice" should contain the idea of being ruled or protected by law or being treated according to one's merits. "When you punish wicked people" is an acceptable definition. 3. " What is kindness? " If he says "charity," say, "Tell me another meaning of kindness." The definition of'' kindness'' should express the idea of tender acts or of fondness or affection (tender feelings). '' When you share something with your friends," and "When you are polite to others," are illustrations of kindness. Note: Repetition of the word to be defined does not of course count as one of the two ideas necessary to each definition, e.g., "Kindness to animals," does not count even as one of the required ideas. In order that the test be scored plus, two definitions must be correct. Note: Y. P. substitutes obedience ior justice. S. R. omits kindness and adds pity, revenge, snvy; crediting three out of five. XVa. Highest credit for Ilia. Interprets situation depicted in or emotions suggested by two out of the three Binet pictures. (Use E.N.) |2] See directions under Ilia. XVa is not a distinct test but is only the name given to the highest standard by which we measure the picture test. See further explanation of this under Vila. "B" TESTS See opposite page METHOD OF RECORDING CHANGE IN SUBJECT'S MENTAL ATTITUDE ** Both the examiner and the assistant should make the fullest possible notes of the subject's attitude. These notes should be made on the Memorandum Sheet and should be completed immediately at the close of the sitting. Remember to observe the subject's attitude throughout. Record change of attitude by writing in the margin an abbreviation for the new attitude observed. "F" "I" "L" "O" "U" "T" Record slight fatigue* by " interest, though inability to respond " lack of interest or of attention " over-anxiety or over-willingness " unwillingness or negativism! " timidity! in margin of test blank. * Signs of marked fatigue should terminate the examination sitting. t Continued unwillingness should terminate the examination sitting. ± Other attitudes, e.g., suspiciousness, complacency, etc., may be recorded in a similar manner. • Illb. Surname. (Stepfather?) (Use E. N.) ^ The examiner says: " What is your name? " If the subject gives only his first name or middle name or both, the last name is insisted upon. Thus: " Roger? "; " And then what? "; " Roger what? "; " What is your last name? "; " Your father's name is........ or " Is your name Roger Jones? " (using some other name than his own). Record on the Examination Notes what the subject gives as his last name. If it is different from the one under which he is entered, it is possibly his stepfather's name. The examiner should try to find out if the name given was ever in the family. If so, the test is scored +; no attention should be given to the first name except as indicated above. IVb. Sex (Mere echo?) Si The examiner says: " Are you a little boy or a little girl? " * If the answer appears to be mere thoughtless repetition of the word "boy" or "girl," i.e., a mere echo, or if for any other reason the test would be marked i, it is necessary to ask two distinct questions: " Are you a little girl? " and " Are you a little boy? " or " Well, what are you? " If still in doubt as to the correctness of the answer, reverse the order of the questions when giving a second chance later. However, take care not to confuse the subject. * In testing adults, " Are you a man or woman? " Vb. Square (Final copy on O. R.). (See Original Records, Vb. Final copies of square in ink here.) Show Plate Vb (opposite). Hand the subject pen and ink and Memorandum Sheet, then say: " You see this (pointing to the square), I want you to make one just like it. Make it right here (showing where it is to be drawn on the Memorandum Sheet). I know you can do it nicely. Now go ahead." When he has finished, say: " Now do it again here (pointing to the place on the record blank), making it exactly like this " (pointing to the printed square). If necessary, repeat this latter direction. If the copy of the square is evidently as good as those shown in the upper line of the scale plate, see page 130, score + and proceed with test VIb. If in doubt as to scoring the copy of either figure, require the subject to make two other copies on the blank, if possible, or on a sheet to be fastened to the blank. Note: Binet insists that the copy be done in ink. G., K., and other American adapters use pencil. If the ink copy is unsatisfactory or doubtful, have the subject copy the square in pencil on scratch paper and finally on the record blank, if space permits. Score such pencil copy ?+ or ? —. Y. P. uses pencil and calls for equality either of lines or of angles for one point credit. S. R. also uses pencil and then places the test at IV. N. B. While the subject is drawing the square and the diamond, the assistant should prepare for the three orders test (Vllb) by opening one of the doors of the room (or of a closet) a few inches and placing a chair near the door upon which he puts a box. Meanwhile the examiner should make sure that he has a key at hand and should refresh himself on the directions until he can give them exactly from memory. The examiner or assistant should be careful in making these arrangements that the attention of the subject is not distracted from his drawing. 67 VXD. Diamond (Final copy on Examination Notes). (See Original Records, VIb. Final copies of diamond in ink here). Show Plate VIb (opposite) and proceed exactly as with the square. Note: Same as for Vb except that S. R. here insists with Binet, on pen and ink; then requires two out of three in approximately correct position with the diagonals not reversed, and places the test at VII, suggesting that one correct pencil copy would be near VI standard. Vllb. Three orders. :|| Executes (No help). [3] As noted on the preceding page, the examiner should prepare for this test while the subject is busy with the copying test. Hence at least one of the copying tests should be given just before the three orders test, even though this be a slight exception to the rules of test order. The assistant should open one of the doors of the room or of a closet a few inches, place a chair near it, upon which he puts a box, make sure that there is another vacant chair near by. Meanwhile the examiner should make sure, that he has a key at hand and should refresh himself on the directions. The examiner begins the test by saying: " You see this key? Go put it on the chair there (pointing to the chair). Then close the door. After that you will see a box on a chair near the door. Take the box and bring it to me. First put the key on the chair, then close the door, then bring the box to me. Do you understand? Now go." The symbol on the blank, :|| is to remind the examiner not to forget the second half of the above directions, i.e., the repetition of the three orders to be executed. The test is scored plus, when all three orders are executed spontaneously in the order given, without any such help as "Well?", "You forgot something," etc. If it is necessary to vary the orders slightly, nothing that will intimidate the subject should be asked. It has been found that some children will not touch a hat or watch even if told to do so in the test. In case of interruption, etc., Binet suggests that a new set of orders must be planned and given. Again, while the subject is drawing, a window or drawer may be opened (by the assistant), a piece of paper placed on the floor near the window (or drawer), and the following directions given from memory: " You see this knife? Go put it on the table there (pointing to the table). Then close the window (or drawer). After that you will see a piece of paper on the floor. Bring the piece of paper to me. First put the knife on the table, then close the window (or drawer), then bring the paper to me. Do you understand? Now go." In this case score ? + or ? —. Note: G., B., and K. place this test at VI. S. R. places it at V. 0 69 VHIb. Drawings with parts missing. • Nose * Eyes • Mouth • Hands. 1 ^ 1. The examiner shows Plate Vlllbl (opposite), Face lacking nose, and says: " What is missing in this picture? " If the correct response is given, i.e., the nose is mentioned, or if there is no response after the question has been once repeated, proceed immediately with next plate. If other parts of the body are mentioned instead of the nose, continue to ask, " What else is missing? " until, if possible, the correct response is obtained. If after five of such questions the correct response has not been given, proceed with next plate. Be careful not to give any clue as to what is the correct response. o t) 4 \ 71 2. Show Plate VIIIb2 (opposite), Face lacking eye, and say: " What is missing in this picture? " Proceed exactly as with plate VIHbl. The correct response is "eye" or "eyes." > ( \\ 4 73 3. Show Plate VIIIb3 (opposite), Face lacking mouth, and say: " What is missing in this picture? " Proceed exactly as with Plate VII lb 1. I ^ w 75 4. Show Plate VIIIb4 (opposite), Body lacking arms, and say: " What is missing in this picture? " Correct responses—"arm" or "arms," "hand" or "hands," "finger" or "fingers." If three trials have been correct, the test is scored plus, and we proceed with the next test. If the test is scored minus through absence of response, we proceed immediately with the next test required by the rules of test order and later repeat this entire test as a second chance. If, however, two or more trials are marked i, immediately show those plates again, following the same procedure as before. Note: Y. P. uses "What is missing in this face?" S. R. places this material at VI, using (1) a long formula and (2) if O or i, point and say, '' See the......is gone''; then with the second drawing merely '' What is left out of this face?" 77 IXb. Returns change, 6c from quarter. [1] The blocks and the following change piles are laid out on the table in front of the subject: 13 pennies, 2 nickels, 2 dimes. The examiner says: " Would you like to play store? You will be the storekeeper. Here is the money for you to use in making change for your customers (pointing to the money). Here are the things for you to sell (pointing). They are blocks. I shall buy this block. I will pay you six cents for it. Would you like to play? I wish to spend six cents. (Hand the subject a quarter.) Now give me the change." (Hold out your hand to receive the change.) In order that the test be scored plus, the subject must hand the examiner 19c change. S. R. substitutes three problems in mental arithmetic for the above, 4c change from 10c, 12c from 15c, 4c from 25c; and credits 2 out of 3. Xb. Absurdities 1 -2 -3 -4 -5 (E.N.) [3] ^ « iYm^ing'toread you some sentences in which there is something foolish. Listen carefully and tell me every time what it is that is foolish." Read each sentence carefully and in an expressive tone. Immediately afterwards, in a playful tone (p. t.) say: " What is foolish in that? " „ The sentence and the above question may be repeated and also the formulae, "Tell me what you mean " or ' Explain, but that is all. Record the answers in full on the Examination Notes. The questions are as follows: 1. "An unlucky bicycle rider fell on his head and was killed instantly. He was taken to a hospital and they fear he will not get well. (p. t.) What is foolish in that? " Correct- "He's dead already" (etc.). Incorrect: "Hospital. (Explain.) Get a doctor. 2 " I have three brothers, Paul, Ernest, and myself, (p. t.) What is foolish in that ? " Correct- "Myself. (Explain.) You've two brothers" (etc.). Incorrect: "You should say your own name. rote- Female examiners may say: " I have three sisters, Jane, Mary, and myself." 3. " The body of an unlucky young girl was found yesterday, cut in eighteen pieces. It is thought that she killed herself."* Correct: "She could not do it herself" (etc.). Incorrect: "Foolish to think. (Explain.) They don't know." 4. " There was a railroad accident yesterday, but it was not a serious one. The number killed was only forty-eight." Correct: '' Forty-eight isn't serious in war times'' (etc.). Incorrect: '' The signals were wrong.'' 5. " Some one said,«If I ever grow desperate and kill myself, I shall not choose Friday, because Friday is an unlucky day and might bring me bad luck.' "* Correct: "What's the difference if he's dead?" (etc.). Incorrect: "He might get caught. (Explain.) He'd be arrested." In order that the test be scored plus, three of the trials must be correct. Note: Y. P. uses sentences 1 and 2; and substitutes three new ones. S. R. uses 1, 3, and 4; and substitutes two new sentences. *With young subjects the following sentences have been substituted: 3. "A man asked a boy where Mr. Smith lived. The boy said, ' The first house you come to is a barn and the next is a haystack. The next is Mr. Smith's.' " (G.) 5. "I received a letter from a friend in which he wrote, ' If you don't get this letter, just let me know and I'll write again.' " (G.) Xllb. 60 words, t Watch, 3' (Use E. N.) Score here, e.g., ///////////////// ///////////// //////////// 11111 J11 I III I] I III- The examiner should memorize the following directions, so that he may be able to give them in such a manner as to arouse the interest of the subject: " I want you to say all the words you can think of in three minutes. When I say ' Ready,' you will begin and you must say as many words as you can before I tell you to stop. Just say any words like table, beard, shirt, carriage, and so on. Some (young) people have said as many as two hundred words." If the subject stops, he should immediately be encouraged to continue by saying, "Go on please," as many times as necessary without embarrassing him. If the subject begins to give numbers or uses sentences, he must be stopped after the third word and told, "You must name separate words." Time should be allowed out for this. In order that the test be scored plus, 60 words must be given, exclusive of repetitions, within the three minutes. An effort should be made by the examiner and his assistant to record on the blank all the words said within the three minutes. The assistant should try, at least, to record first syllables of all words except repeated ones. These should be indicated simply by a dot, the next word being written on the same line as the dot. Meanwhile the examiner should try to remember as many as possible of the words, especially the first ten, and should make a stroke on the record blank after Score here for every word given, dotting the repeated ones and indicating the end of each half rninute by a space. Note: S. R. places this test at X; G. and K. at XI, the latter crediting fifty or less associations if unusually good ones. XVb. Problems -1 Forest (hanged). -2 Neighbor (dying) [2] (Use E. N.) o The examiner says: " Listen and see if you can understand what I read." 1. " A woman who was walking in the forest of Fontainebleau suddenly stopped, dreadfully frightened, and hurried to the nearest policeman and told him that she had just seen, hanging from the limb of a tree a ...... (after a pause) what? " (If necessary, "Tell me what you mean" or "Explain.") Correct: Answer must contain the idea of a person who has been hanged. (As with similar interpretation tests in the upper years, many clinical examiners credit any interpretation of the test statements, provided the subject can show them to be reasonable.) Incorrect: "A bird," "A bunch of grass," "A robber" (unless further questioning reveals the fact that the robber has been hanged). 2. " My neighbor has just received some strange visitors. He has received, one after the other, a doctor, a lawyer, and a priest (or minister). What is happening at my neighbor's?" (If necessary, "Tell me, etc." or "Explain.") oo Correct: Answer should contain the idea that some one is very ill or is dead, and the subject should be able to account for the fact that all three visitors came recently. Record each answer on the Examination Notes. In order that the test be scored plus, both trials must be correct. Note: S. R. adds a new problem and credits two out of three at XIV. G. and K. did not follow Binet's 1911 revision in transferring this test from XII to XV. "C" TESTS IIIc. •Nose -Eyes -Mouth Shows each (If on second chance, then give last and insist). [3] 1. Attract the attention of the subject and if necessary, repeat several times: " Show me your nose;" or " Point to your nose." Indicate on the blank before the word "nose," whether the trial is marked O, j, or V- 2. In any case attract the attention of the subject again if necessary: " Show me your eyes;" or " Put your finger on your eyes." Mark the blank as before. 3. In any case repeat the same procedure for the mouth. In order that the test be scored plus, the three parts of the face must be indicated. If there is no response to one or more questions, arrange to give the entire test at the end of the examination. If then there is no response, effort should be made to get an answer. Every resource (except that of teaching the child) should be used. Note: £.g.,S. R. suggests: Point to the subject'schin and say, "Is this your nose? No? Then where is your nose?" •^ The help of some other person of authority is often useful. IVc. •Penknife -Key (Different kinds) -Penny (Knife, keys, pennies.) [3] 1. The examiner shows a closed penknife and says: " What is this? " or "What is this called?" If the answer, "knife" or the like is given, the trial is marked V- If the trial is correct, show the next object immediately. Proceed in like manner with: 2. Key (Be sure that it is a kind with which the subject is familiar). 3. Penny (S. R. suggests that the penny should not be a new one). The form of the answer does not influence the marking, e.g., the subject may say, "keys" even if shown only one key. Likewise, he may say "money," "pennies" or "cents," when shown one penny. In order that the test be scored plus, all three trials must be correct. Note: S. R. places this test at III. Vc. 3 Cards. Joins diagonals in any way. (Non-committal expression if i.) An oblong visiting card, previously cut diagonally into two triangular pieces and a similar uncut card are placed on the table, as arranged in Fig. x. The diagonals form a right angle and face each other. Fig. x Subject V ^ Fig. y Correct IS Fig. z Allowed Examiner The examiner says: " Put these pieces together so as to form something like this " (pointing to uncut card). If the subject puts the diagonals together (not of course superimposed), even if the result is not a perfect oblong, the test is scored plus (see Figure z). If the subject does not take the trouble to move the cards or even to touch them, give the test later as a second chance. This should be near the end of the examination and some attempt should be insisted upon, even to the point of scolding a little. If the subject accidentally turns one of the cards or both of them, and seems unconscious of it, it is permissible to give the test again, if he does not succeed as in Figures y or z. Whenever the subject makes a combination, he is likely to turn to the examiner for approval or assurance. It is ESSENTIAL THAT THE EXAMINER REMAIN SILENT AND PERFECTLY NON-COMMITTAL UNTIL THE SUBJECT APPEARS SATISFIED WITH HIS OWN WORK. Note: Binet's 1911 directions for this test are ambiguous. The above plan appears in the Drummond arrangement and our results favor this plan. S. R. arranges the pieces so as to suggest a rhomboid, gives three trials of one minute each and credits two out of three. Vic. Chooses the prettier -1 -2 -3 [3] (Non-committal expression). 1. The examiner shows Plate VIcl (opposite) and says: " Which is the prettier of these two faces? " (Repeat once if necessary.) If V , mark the trial and immediately show next plate. If o or i, score the test -, and proceed to the next test indicated by the rules for test order. * ^r 85 2. Proceed exactly as in trial 1. " Which is the prettier of these two faces ? " (Repeat once if necessary.) If V, mark the trial and immediately show next plate. If O or i, score the test -, and proceed to the next test indicated by the rules for test order. oo 4W1 s k, ^y/ 87 3. Proceed as in trial 1. As soon as subject responds, turn to next test. If all three trials are correct, the test is scored plus. If the subject does not respond to one or more pictures, repeat the entire test later as a second chance. Note: Y. P. allows "Which do you like the better?" <> 4 Q4> 131 ORTHOGENIC TABLE OF PROVISIONAL MENTAL CLASSIFICATION Characteristic Mental Functions Typical Binet Scores Base Year* Binet Age* Earlv Infancy......... Acquiring motor control Imitative play, etc. Learning simple associations Name-getting, enumerating, etc. Acquiring simpler coordinations, sensory discriminations, etc. Image-getting, dramatizing, etc. Acquiring control of images and associations. Differenti-ating between images, describing, etc. Acquiring the simpler forms of causal thinking. Problem solving, controlled association, classification, etc. Acquiring power of generalization. Interpreting situations, inductive and deductive thinking, etc. Below III Below 3 Later Infancy......... III IV-VI VI-VIII IX-X X or above 3-4 Early Childhood....... Later Childhood....... i—> 10 Pre-adolescence........ Adolescence........... 5-7 8-10 11-13 14 or above * If the typical minimum base year corresponding to a given Binet age is not attained, the subject should be provisionally classified at the next lower growth period. PROVISIONAL PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL CLASSIFICATION Language Ability Above age.............. Foreign................. At age or above........ Retarded 1 year or more. At age or retarded........ Retarded 1 year or more.. Retarded 1 year or more.. Retarded................ Binet Age Difference -f-2 or higher....... + 1 to-1*........ Less than +1 or — 1. At age to — 2 (Average - 1) -1 or -2............... -1 or -2............... — 3 or lower............ Mentality Superior........... Superior or average. Average........... Ill-balanced ?......... Slow (Curable defects?). Dull (Incurable defects?).. . Inferior Scholastic Group Rapid Advancement. Special F (Foreign). Normal. Special E (Scholastically handicapped). Special D (Disciplinary). Special C (Physically handi- capped). Special B (Backward). Special A (Atypical). * The subject must be tested in his own language or allowance made for any language difficulties in the test. ANATOMICAL LIMITS FOR SUBNORMALS (BOYS)* Age Height Diameter Ant.-Post.' Cephalic Diameter Transverse Cephalic Sum of the Two Diameters 6 7 cm. 100.0 105.0 m m. 164 166 mm. 133.0 \ 135.0 ) mm. 300 8 9 110.0 115.0 169 171 136.0 ) 137.0 1 306 10 11 120.0 125.0 172 173 138.0 \ 139.0 ) 312 12 13 130.0 135.0 174 175 140.0 ) 141.0 t 318 14 140.0 178 142.0 1 322 15 142.5 179 143.5 j 16 17 145.0 147.5 180 181 145.0 f 146.0 (" 328 18 150.0 182 147.0 330 *A mental defective may have a fully developed body. The above mentioned data have significance when used in connection with psychological data. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 135 BRIEF MENTAL TESTS FOR DETECTING THE FEEBLE-MINDED An approximate mental measurement or mental grading of a child or subnormal adult can be made by one or more brief mental tests. More tests are needed to detect superiority. Such a mental grading is one of the most valuable aids in the practical grouping of exceptional types, especially the dull and the feeble-minded, providing the tests are properly given and prop- erly evaluated. Such brief tests can be given at the average rate of five minutes per individual. Only individuals who shdw inferiority, such as children who are behind their grade or low-grade adults need be given the tests. As a rule, not more than i/io up to 1/5 of a group will need such testing. Medical examiners can readily direct assistants in applying the tests. BRIEF MENTAL TESTS Test No. 1—The Porteus Maze Test.—The subject is given a pencil and a set of test blanks. The directions for using the blanks accompany each set. Each blank is standardized so as to test in turn the practical intelligence, foresight, etc., of a child of three, four, five, etc., up to fourteen years of age, inclu- sive. The subject shows success Or failure on each test blank. According as the individual's test age corresponds with his life age, or with the adult average we have one, and only one, scientific indication of normal intelligence, or of the various de- grees of subnormality (or supernormality). The results of each test should be recorded both on the test blank itself and on a record card, e.g., Melville's Pre-clinic Record Card. (See p. 157.) Evaluation of Test No. 1—Case A.—If the individual is failing to meet the demands of school or of life and also fails in this test to attain a score equal to 4/5 of his age, such an individual should be reported as mentally subnormal * by this * This is a practical classification to facilitate more further action and is not a diagnosis of feeble-mindedness. 136 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY test. If he is above fourteen years of age, consult table on p. 138. N. B.—If in the best judgment of the examiner the subject has some special disability that handicaps him in this test, one of the following methods of reporting should be pursued: (1) The classification to indicate subnormality should be followed by (?) and this explained under "Remarks," or (2) further tests, e.g., Test No. 2 should be applied. Case B.—If the subject is failing in school or life, but passes the Porteus Maze Test, he has given evidence of possessing a certain important phase of practical intelligence; nevertheless, he may be defective in the power of abstract thinking, which is necessary for success in regular school work. This should bo determined, at least in part, by applying Test No. 2. Test No. 2—The Abridged Binet Test.—The subject is given two mental problems standardized for the mentality of a child of eight (in Melville's Lippincott Manual these problems are given as tests VHI-b and VIII-c). The examiner then proceeds with the corresponding problems for higher or lower ages, according as the subject passes or fails. Care must be taken to give these problems exactly in the language printed in the standard manual of Binet testing. If any supplementary tests are to be given these should be recorded on the Pre- clinic Card. Evaluation of results of Tests Nos. 1 and 2. Case C.—If the subject (I) is failing in school or in life, (II) has failed in Test No. 1, and (III) fails in Test No. 2, he should be classified as " Mentally Subnormal." For the purpose of determining the degree of mental sub- normality indicated by the tests, find the average of tests No. 1 and No. 2; then consult the Table of Mental Test Ages (see p. 138). N. B. as indicated above—the separate test ages result- ing from Test Nos. 1 and 2 should also be borne in mind. This is important inasmuch as the Binet test age is more significant TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 137 as indicating a subject's fundamental capacity to profit by regu- lar school instruction, whereas the Porteus Maze test indicates rather the fundamental ability to meet practical situations whether in manual training, occupational therapy, or in the simple situations of daily life. Case D.—If the subject is failing in school or life but passes test No. 1, failing, however, Test No. 2, and if the average of test ages No. 1 and No. 2 is less than 4/5 of his life age (or with adults if the average is less than 12) the individual should be classified as " Mentally Subnormal." Case E.—If the subject is failing in school or life, but passes test No. 1 and No. 2 he should not be reported as mentally sub- normal. He has given sufficient evidence of normal intelli- gence. The exact causes of his retardation in school should, however, as far as possible, be reported. N. B.— (1) Whenever possible all cases reported as subnor- mal or otherwise exceptional should be referred to a clinic for more intensive study—physically, mentally, and socially. In this event all of the testing sheets and records should accom- pany the pupil to the clinic. Finally all records or copies of them should be sent to a central bureau. (2) When a mental clinic is not available, the actual test sheets and records (or preferably, duplicate copies of the lat- ter) should be sent immediately to a central bureau along with forms used. Pending complete clinical examination, individ- uals corresponding to Cases A, B, C, and D should be recom- mended for placement in special observation groups or classes, providing that the mental subnormality is " Moderate" or " Marked." Cases showing a slight mental subnormality or giving evidence of other physical, mental or environmental handicaps, such as anaemia, hysteria, language difficulties, etc., may profit by placement in such a special group or by being given some other type of special work. Note.—If a psychological assistant—a specially trained social worker, teacher, nurse, or student of psychology—is 138 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY available, it is highly desirable to have such an assistant give complete Binet and other tests—psychological and anthropo- metric—to the individuals who are apparently exceptional. If a trained social visitor is available, such a person should be en- listed to secure a family and personal history of the exceptional individuals. All these pre-clinic investigations are of great value in a mental clinic and special class or special group plan. The degrees of failure on mental tests which would lead to the classifications—Slight, Moderate, Marked or Extreme Sub- normality—are indicated in the following table: These Mental Test Ages1 Would Indicate Mental Subnormality of the Following Degrees : For Life Ages Slight' Moderate Marked Extreme 5 4/ 4 3 2 or less 6 5/2 5 3 2 or less 7 6 5 3y2 2 or less 8 7 6 4 2 9 8 7 4y2 2 10 sy2 7 5 2 11 9 8 W* 2 12 10 9 6 2 13 11 10 6y2 2 14 12 11 7 2 15 or above 12 11 7y2 2 INSTRUCTIONS FOR GIVING AND SCORING THE PORTEUS TEST 1. Read directions on Practice Sheets A and B carefully. 2. If subject appears to be belowr Mental Age 5, begin with Practice Sheet A. Follow directions exactly. If this test is 1 Whenever possible the Test Age should be found by averaging the test ages obtained by different types of tests, e.g., averaging Binet Age and Porteus Age will give a Mental Test Age that is usually very significant. 2 These scores do not indicate probable feeble-mindedness. TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY 139 passed, give Test-Age 3, following same directions. If this test is passed, give Test-Age 4, in same way. 3. If subject appears to be of Mental Age 5 or over, begin with Practice Sheet B. With each trial say, " We start here " (place pencil on S), "and come out there" (pointing to Exit with other hand). Examiner then draws the proper line on Directions side of Practice Sheet B while subject watches. The sheet is then turned over, place of starting and exit are pointed out as above, and subject told, " Now you do it." 4. If subject passes Practice Sheet B on first trial, give Test-Age 9. If subject fails on first trial with Practice Sheet B, give test again with new Practice Sheet B. If subject passes on this second trial, give Test-Age 5. If subject fails on both first and second trials with Practice Sheet B, give Practice Sheet A, using directions on that sheet. Then proceed as in Paragraph 2. 5. Write subject's name on each sheet used and on Pre- clinic Record Card. (See p. 157.) 6. Record results of each test on the sheet at the time. At end of examination enter scores of Porteus Maze Scale on Pre-clinic Record Card. In space on Pre-clinic Record marked " Supplementary Tests," record Porteus Test-Age at right of record of Porteus Maze Scale. 7. To calculate Porteus Test-Age. Find highest Test-Age which subject passes in the number of trials allowed on the blank, then subtract one-half year for each trial failed in a lower Test-Age. Except subtract one-quarter year for each trial failed in tests for ages 12 and 13. 8. Fasten together Pre-clinic Record Card and all test sheets used with each subject. 9. The actual administration of the test is greatly facili- tated if the examiner prepares in advance complete sets, each set containing two blanks for each year beginning with two practice sheets A—Directions side up and ending with two blanks for years 13 and 14—13 side up. Note that tests for 140 TESTING JUVENILE MENTALITY ages 13 and 14 are identical except in the number of trials al- lowed.1 In the above series practice sheet B should be arranged so as to follow Test-Age 5, though, as indicated above, we fre- quently actually begin with this practice sheet.- 10. Note that (a) the test blank is akcays presented so that wording on blanks is up-side-down to the subject, and (b) testing is continued until two successive years—usually four trials in succession are failed. The Porteus Maze Tests constitute probably the best standard- ized scale of performance tests available. The Melville pro- cedure practically eliminates the language factor from the instructions to the subject. This makes them a particularly valuable supplement to the Binet scale, as they appear to measure foresight, practical judgment, perseverance, etc., and to correlate with industrial ability more than do any or all of the Binet tests. 1 If this highest test sheet is passed on first or second trial, it is credited as a 14-year score. If passed on third or fourth trial, it is credited as a 13-year score. 2 These Porteus Practice and Test Sheets and Pre-clinic Records for scoring them and the Abridged Binet Tests can be obtained from the Training School, Vineland, N. J. Directions to Examiner Begin with this side. Get attenlion by saying "Look." Starting from the arrow, draw around between the lines; then present fresh maze on other side saying, "Now you do it." Always present each sheet so that the title and directions are upside down for the subject examined. Test is passed if not more than three errors of crossing lines are made. If more than three errors, begin all over again with new sheet. If passed, give Test 3, following these directions. In case of failure on any test, continue until two tests in succession are failed. 141 Name of Subject..........................................„.......,..,...............^n..**.*.*,..*™*...........-..-.................. RESULT OF TEST, PRACTICE SHEET A (Cross out Numerals and Symbols that do not apply) TRIAL: 1—2 NO. OF ERRORS: 1—2—3 RESULT: + OR — FORM E 162—PORTEUS TESTS, PRACTICE SHEET A—SCHOOL OISTBICT OF PHILADELPHIA 142 Name of Subject.................................................................................................................................... RESULT OF TEST—AGE 3 (Cross out Numerals and Symbols that do not apply) TRIAL: 1—2 NO. OF ERRORS: 1—2—3 RESULT: + OR See directions on Practice Sheet A FORM E 163—PORTEUS TESTS, ACES 3 AND 4—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA 143 t s Name of Subject......................_..............................................................._............................................... result of test—age 4 (Cross out Numerals and Symbols that do not apply) TRIAL: 1—2 NO. OF ERRORS: 1—2—3 RESULT: + OR — See directions on Practice Sheet A. If this and all previous tests are passed, giv* Practice Sheet B. 144 Directions to Examiner Begin on this side. Follow general directions given on PRACTICE Sheet A. Tesl is passed if the first exit is found on first or second trial. As soon as a subject intentionally crosses a line, finishes a wrong attempt, or starts to retrace, begin all over again with a new sheet. If subject still fails, give PRACTICE SHEET A unless already given. If subject passes, give next higher test. 14o Name of Subject..........................................................................-.........-,....... RESULT OF TEST, PRACTICE SHEET B (Cross out Numerals, and Symbols that do not apply) TRIAL: I—2—S RESULT: + OR - FORM E 164—PORTEUS TESTS, PRACTICE SHEET B—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA 146 II s Name of Subject...........m..™.....-.....«......................................................................-............................- RESULT OF TEST—AGE 5 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: I—2—S PLANS> YES—NO PLAN TIME..................SECONDS TOTAL TIME.......................SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE —HESITANT —PROFITS BY MISTAKES F0RM E 165__PORTEUS TESTS, ACES 6 AND 6—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA 147 t Name of Subject....................................................................................................__________ result of test—age 6 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: I—2—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME____—SECONDS TOTAL TIME...........____SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE — HESITANT - 14* Name of Subject.....................................................................-.,..,...................—.................-............ result of test—age 7 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: I—2—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME..................SECONDS TOTAL TIME........................SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE —HESITANT —PROFITS BY MISTAKES FORM E 166—PORTEUS TESTS, AGES 7 AND 8—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA 3 1 S Name of Subject......................„..„..„................,....„~____„„,......„„„.....................________ RESULT OF TEST—AGE 8 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: 1—2—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME......___SECONDS TOTAL TIME........................SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE —HESITANT —PROFITS BY MISTAKES 150 1 Name of Subject~~__™~^.,~=«»-—~......-.....-- result of test—age 9 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL- 1—2—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME ._.^. SECONDS TOTAL TIME-.-.*..........SECONDS ' RESULT: + OR - IMPULSIVE —HESITANT —PROFITS BY MISTAKES FORM E 16T—PORTEUS TESTS, ACES 9 AND 10—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA 151 f s Name of Subject.....„.............__........................................._......_..........._..............„.............................. RESULT OF TEST—AGE 10 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: I—2—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME.................SECONDS TOTA.L TIME...............__SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE —HESITANT—.PROFITS BY MISTAKES 152 Name of Subject.....„.—„..,............................................,..............................................-....................... RESULT OF TEST—AGE 11 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: I—2—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME..................SECONDS TOTAL TIME........................SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE — HESITANT — PROFITS BY MISTAKES ' tORM E 168—PORTEUS TESTS, AGES 11 AND 12—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA 15:5 Name of Subject........................................._......................................................_..................... RESULT OF TEST—AGE 12 (Cross out Numerals., Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: I— 2—3—4—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME..................SECONDS TOTAL TIME........................SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE —HESITANT- -PROFITS BY MISTAKES 154 s Name of Subject.............,......................-........................................................................................_.......... RESULT OF TEST—AGE 13 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: 1—2—3—4—S PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME..................SECONDS TOTAL TIME........................SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE — HESITANT — PROFITS BY MISTAKES Passed if exit is found in third or fourth trial. FORM E 169—PORTEUS TESTS. AGES 13 AND 14—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA 155 Name of Subject.. RESULT OF TEST—AGE 14 (Cross out Numerals, Symbols and Words that do not apply) TRIAL: 1—2 PLANS? YES—NO PLAN TIME..................SECONDS TOTAL TIME.......................SECONDS RESULT: + OR — IMPULSIVE—HESITANT —PROFITS BY MISTAKES Passed if exit is found on first or second trial. 156 LAST NAME FIRST NAME DATE OF BIRTH ENTERED FIRST GRADE DATE OF MENTAL TEST MONTH DAY YEAR MONTH DAY YEAR MONTH DAY YEAR PRESENT GRADE GRADE ARITH. LEVEL IN READ. 1 LANG. MANUAL WORK GENERAL INDICATE BY X WHITE 1 COL. SCHOOL ANNEX YEARS IN GRADE 1 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 DAYS ABSENT 1 IN GRADE 2 3 4 5 6 1 7 1 I s 9 DOMINANT CAUSE OF RETARDATION: DOMINANT CAUSE OF absence: SPECIAL PHYSICAL DEFECTS: SPECIAL MENTAL DEFECTS BINET ABRIDGED SCALE (See Melville's Manual) TEST AGE = YEAR ■I. IV v VI VII VIII IX X XI XV ADULT TEST* b b b b b b b b d b d b b TEST* c c c C C c c c e c e c C PORTEUS MAZE SCALE (See Melville's Manual) TEST AGE = YEAR m IV V VI VII VIII IX * -x, XII XIV XIII TRIAL* 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 3 1 3 TRIAL* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS recommendations: i-ORM E l6l— PRE-CLINIC RECORD—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA INDEX INDEX Abilities, distribution of, 24, i). Scattering of successes superior or supernormal, 8, 133 Abnormal, the mentally, 35, v. Ill- balanced, Insanity Abstract terms, defining, 63 differentiating, 128 thought, remembering, v. Repro- ducing ideas Absurd responses, scoring, 16, 113, v. Intelligence, rectitude of Absurdities, detecting, 78 Action, denning in terms of, 59 Adaptations of the scale, 6ff. Adolescence, mental level of^l32 Adult tests, 128/. ^Esthetic comparison, 84 Age, Binet or "mental," 7, 9ff., 33, 41, 115, 132 chronological or life, 11,33 physiological, 12, 37 Age-difference, 9ff., 37, 133 Age-grade retardation, 36 Alienists, v. Responsibility, penal Aliens, defective, v Alternative questions, v, 3, v. also separate test directions Amentia, v. Clinical varieties, Feeble- mindedness Analysis, clinical, 9, 13/ statistical, 11 vocational, vi Anatomical limits, vi, 9, 12, 134 'lAnnde Psychologique, 13/. Anthropometric measurements, vi, 9, 12, 27, 37, 134 Apperception, v. Combining, Com- pleting, Defining Aptitude, the scholastic, 15/. Association, v. Counting, Naming, Riming, Sixty words Attention, 15, 22 Attitudes, mental, 13, 30/., 47 Base year, 9ff., 132 Binet, A., and Simon, Th., 13/., 43/ scale, the, 4, 43/f. table of anatomical limits, 134 test, abridged, 136, 138, 157 Binet age (score), v. Age, Binet Bobertag, O., 6, 48/ Borderline of feeble-mindedness, 10/ Brief mental testing for detecting the feeble-minded, 135 Test No. 1—The Porteus Maze Test, 135, 157 Test No. 2—The abridged Binet Test, 136, 138, 157 Bronner, A., 7 Case study, general plan of, 24 record form for. 32 Change, giving, 78 Classification, provisional, 9/f., 132, 133 orthogenic, 132 psycho-educational, 133 Coefficient of intelligence, v. Quo- tient, Binet Coins, naming, 112 Colors, naming, 116 Combining cards, 83 words, 113, 120 Commissions, performing three, 68 Comparing lines, 52, 93 weights, 58, 62 Completing part-pictures, 70 problem, 81 Comprehending questions, 91, 92 Confusional states, 21, 23 159 » 160 INDEX Coordination, motor, v. Copying Copying diamond, 68 square, 66 Correction tables, construction of, 12 Correlation with other measures, 12 Counting backwards, 90 cost of stamps, 110 pennies, 109 Cranial measurements, 134 Cretinism, 24 Criminals, v, 17 Critical studies in psychopathology, vi, 21/ Cut paper, visualizing, 129 Data, analyzing the, 8/ recording, 32 Date, knowing, 117 Defects, special, 11, 19, 20, 24 Deficiency, mental, v. Feeble-minded- ness Defining tests, 59, 61, 63 Delinquents, v, 25, 35 Dementia, 21/ Description, examples of, 44, 46, 48 Designs, reproducing, 119, 144 Diagnosis, differential, 21 formal, 8, 9 Diamond, copying, 68 Differences, mentioning, 60, 128 Digits, reproducing, 108 Directions to examiners, 29/ to school examiners, 32 Disciplinary cases, 30, 35, 133 Dissected sentences, reconstructing, 120 Doll, E. A., 11 Doubtful responses, scoring, 31 Drawing, v. Copying, Reproducing, Visualizing Dull, the normal, 34, 133, v. Retarda- tion Ebbinghaus tests, v. Combining, Completing Education, v. Aptitude, Grading, Retardation Ellis, F. W., 11 Emotion, v. Esthetic, Attitudes Enumeration, examples of, 44, 46, 48 Environment, influence of, 12 Epilepsy, 24, 25 Esthetic comparison, 84 Eugenics, 26 Evaluation of results, 7, 9/, 132/ Examination, beginning th,29,41,44 duration of, 31 observers at an, 29 Examiners, qualifications of, 6, 7 training, iii, v, 7 Experience, influence of, 17 "Faculties," use of the term, 9 Fatigue, 46, 64, 107 Feeble-mindedness, 10/, 17, 18, 23, 25 Fernald, M. R., 5 Figures, v. Digits Frontiers of physical abnormality, v. Limits Functioning, disturbances of, 19/ Goddard, H. H., 6, 10, 48/ Grading defectives, 8, 11 normals, 8, 16 Head measurements, 134 Healy, Wm., 7 Height, measurements of, 134 Huey, E. B., 5 Idiocy, 14, v. Diagnosis, formal Imagination, v. Completing, Visual- izing Imbeciles, 19/ • INDEX 161 Incompetency, 34, v. Responsibility Individual-study, method of, 24, 32 Inertia of functioning, 19/ Infancy, mental level of, 132 Insanity, 21, 23, 21/ Instructions for giving and scoring the Porteus test, 138 Instructions to school examiners, 32 Intellectual levels, 14/, 132 Intelligence, 15/ level of, 14/, 132 maturity of, 16 quotient,~t>. Quotient, mental rectitude of, 16, 113 Interpretation of results, 7, 9/ of pictures, examples, 44, 46, 48 Introspective psychology, 9 Judgment, 21, v. Intelligence, recti- tude of Juvenile mentality, 42 Knowing date, 117 morning or afternoon, 115 parts of body, 82 right and left, 90 sex, 65 surname, 65 Kohs, S., 10 Kraeplin, the signs of, 24 Kuhlmann, F., 6, 48fl*. Language ability, 11, 35, 133 Limits, anatomical, vi, 9, 12, 134 psychological, 10/f. Linguistic invention, v. Combining words McCallie, J. M., 4 Massalon test, 113 Materials, test, 40, 45/. Measuring intelligence, meaning of, 14 Measurements, anthropometric, 9, 12lf. pedagogical, 12/, 35 psychological, 8ff., v. Quotient Medical examination, v. Psycho-bio- logical Melville, N. J., 3 Memorandum sheet, 29, 37 Memory, v. Knowing, Naming, Re- producing "Mental" age, v. Binet age (score) growth periods, 7, 9, 132 levels, 14/., 132 surveys, organized, v, 1 tests, serial, 24 Mentality, juvenile, 42 Money, used in the tests, 40 Months, naming the, 117 Morning arid afternoon, knowing, 115 Moron, v. Diagnosis, formal, Retar- dation, mental Name, knowing family, 65 Naming coins, 112 colors, 116 months, 117 objects, 82 self, 65 Normal, the mentally, v. Analysis, vocational, Dull, Grading Norms, 5, 12/. Notes to be made, 29, 31, 37, 41 Objects, naming, 82 Observers at examinations, 29 Order of giving tests, 38 Orientation tests, v. under Knowing Orthogenic case study, plan of, 24 classification, 132 Paralysis, general (paresis), 18/ Perception, v. Comparing, Picture Philadelphia special classes, 3, 35 162 INDEX Physiological age, 12, 37 Picture test, 20, 44/ missing parts, 70 Point-scale, 3, 4, 6, 48/ Porteus tests, practice sheets, 141-156 Porteus Maze test, 135 Pre-clinic Record, 157 Problem-solving, 18, 81 Psycho-biological examination, 8, 24 Psycho-educational grouping, 9,11,133 Psychological testing intelligence, 13/, 24 Psychology, Binet's dynamic, 9, 22/ Psychopathology, studies in, vi, 21/ Quotient, Binet, "mental" or "intelli- gence," 12 Racial norms, 5, 6, 12 Range of testing, 5, 38 Rate of pronouncing digits, 108 Record form, standard, directions for using, 32/ Recording judgments of responses, 31, 44/ Reiteration of questions, 39, 44/ Repetition of tests, 39, 50, 76 Reproducing designs, 119, 144 digits, 108 ideas, 129 sentences, 114 Residues, mental, 12/, 23 Responsibility, penal, 17/ Retardation, age-grade, 36 mental, 9, 17 Reversed triangle, visualizing, 128 Right and left, knowing, 90 Rimes, giving, 106 Scales for marking drawings, 130 Scattering of successes, 10/ Scholastic aptitude, 15 School examiners, directions for, 32 Scoring, method of, 9, 31, 44/ Second chances, v. Repetition of tests Sentence, using three words in, 113 reconstructing dissected, 120 reproducing, 114 Sex differences, v. Group norms, 5, 12/ Sixty words, giving, 80 Social norms, 5, 6, 12 Speech defects, 19 Square, copying, 66 Stamps, counting cost of, 110 Standardization of procedure, 5, 44/ Stanford revision, 3, 6, 48/ Stern, W., 4 Subnormal, the mentally, v. Feeble- mindedness, Incompetency Suggestibility test, 93 "Superior to use," defining by terms, 61 Terman, L. M., 6, v. Stanford re- vision Tests of intelligence, v. under sepa- rate titles of school knowledge, vi, 15, 35 uniform arrangement of, 4,44/ Three words, combining, 113 Triangle, visualizing reversed, 128 Typographical arrangement, 8 Unconscious (automatic) life, 21, 22 Use, defining in terms of, 59 Variability, v. Norms Visualizing cut paper, 129 reversed triangle, 128 Vocational analysis, vi Weights, comparing lifted, 58, 62 Witmer, L., 7 Words, combining, 113, 120 Yerkes, R. M., v. Point-scale d q- \L (j \J \ ( \y JAN f 1S2T BF 431 M531s 1920 NLI1 D5DD3T17 1 NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NLM050039171