ml- t ,> » 4 \ o » ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. A POPULAR DICTIONARY OP ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND BIOGRAPHY, BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME 3 INCLUDING A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES IN AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY; ON THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF THE GERMAN CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON. EDITED BY FRANCIS LIEBER, ASSISTED BY E. WIGGLESWORTH AND T. G. BRADFORD. Vol. VI. CAREY AND LEA. SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART—IN NEW YORK BY G. & C. & H. CARVILL—IN BOSTON BY CARTER, HENDEE & BABCOCK. 1831. EASTERN DISTRICT OP PENNSYLVANIA, to wit: Be it iiuihbiiid, that on the tenth day of August, in the fifty-fourth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1829, Carey, Lea & Carey, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " Encyclopedia Americana. A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and Biography, brought down to the present Time; including a copious CoUecUon of Original Articles in American Biography; on the Basis of the seventh Edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon. Edited by Francis Lieber, assisted by E. Wigglesworth." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled. " An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned:" and also to the act, entitled, " An Act supplementary to an act, entitled, ' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by socuring the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned;' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. vtreece, Ancient. The name of Gra- cia originated in Italy, and was prob- ably derived from Pelasgian colonies, who, coming from Epirus, and calling themselves Grecians, from Gracus, the son of their ancestor, Thessalus, occa- sioned the application of this name to all the people who spoke the same language with them. In earlier times, e. g., in the time of Homer, Greece had no general name among the natives. It afterwards received the name of Hellas, and still lat- er, after the country was conquered by the Romans, the name of Achaia, under which Macedonia and Epirus were not included. The Grecian tribes were so widely dispersed, that it is difficult to de- termine, with precision, the limits of Greece, properly so called. The name was sometimes applied only to that coun- try which was surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean sea, was separated from Macedonia by the Cambunian moun- tains, and contained about 42,000 square miles; sometimes it was taken in a wider sense, including Macedonia and Epirus, having mount Haemus and the JEgean and Ionian seas for its boundaries, and comprising the islands of these two seas. Greece consists partly of continental, and partly of insular regions. A chain of mountains, extending from the Ambra- cian gulf, in the west, to Thermopylae, on the east, separates Northern Greece from Southern. The climate is alternately se- vere or mild, as the mountains or valleys predominate, but it is agreeable and healthy. People are not unfrequently found here, whose age is over 100 years. The soil of the valleys and plains is favor- able to the growth of the finest tropical fruits, while the summits of the high mountains are covered with the plants of the polar regions. In Athens, the ther- mometer very seldom falls below the freezing point, or rises above 25° Reau- mur (88 Fahrenheit). In the islands, eve- ry evening, at a particular hour, a gentle sea breeze sets in, which tempers the heat of the day. But in the plains of Thessa- ly, which lie 1200 feet above the level of the sea, and more especially in the moun- tains of Arcadia, the winter is as severe as in England. The fruits of the soil are as abundant as they are various. Even where it is not adapted for the purposes of husbandry, it produces thyme, marjoram, and a number of aromatic herbs, which afford a rich pasturage. Greece produces eight kinds of corn and ten kinds of olives. It is, perhaps, the native country of the grape, particularly of the small sort, from which the currants of com- merce are made. The name of these is a corruption of Corinth, the chief planta- tion having formerly been on the isthmus of this name. There are 40 kinds of Gre- cian grapes known. The honey of this country is very famous. (See Hymettus.) Greece produces all the necessaries of life, and there is no country whose coast is so well supplied with bays and harbors for commerce. The main land is now divided into Northern Greece, Middle Greece, Greece Proper, or Hellas, in its narrower sense, and the Peloponnesus (Morea). I. Northern Greece includes, 1. Thessaly (q. v.) (now Janna); 2. Epi- rus (q. v.) (now Albania]; 3. Macedonia (now Macedonia, or Filiba-Vilajeti), ac- counted a part of Greece from the time of Philip and Alexander, and making a link in the chain between Greece and Thrace, of which, in earlier times, Mace- 4 GREECE, ANCIENT. donia made a part. II. Middle Greece, or Hellas (now Livadia), contains, 1. Acar- nania, inhabited by a rough and warlike people, with no remarkable rivers or mountains; 2. jEtolia (q. v.); 3. Doris, or Doris Tetrapolis (formerly Dryopolis); 4. Locris (q. v.), with the pass of Ther- mopylae ; 5. Phocis, watered by the Ce- phissus, and containing mount Parnassus, under which lay Delphi (q. v.); 6. Bceo- tia (q. v.); 7. Attica (q. v.); 8. Megaris, with the city of Megara, the smallest of all the Grecian states. HI. The penin- sula of the Peloponnesus, to which the isthmus of Corinth led through Megaris, contained, 1. the territory of Corinth (q. v.), with the city of the same name, called, in earlier times, Ephyra; 2. the small territory of Sicyon, with the ancient city of the same name; 3. Achaia, an- ciently called AZgialos, and, afterwards, Ionia, contained 12 cities on the coast which stretched along the Corinthian gulf to the river Melas; 4. Elis, divided into two parts by the river Alpheus, stretched from Achaia, south-west, to the sea-coast; it contained the celebrated cities of Cyllene and Olympia (q. v.); 5. Messenia, with the river Pamisus, ex- tending from the southern part of Elis along the sea to the extremity of the con- tinent, with the city of Messene, and the frontier towns of Ithome and Ira; 6. La- conia, Laconica, Lacedsemon, a moun- tainous country traversed by the Tayge- tus, and watered by the Eurotas, bounded on three sides by the Messenian, the La- conian and the Argolic gulfs; Sparta (q. v.) was the capital; 7. Argolis (q. v.); 8. Arcadia (q. v.). The islands which belong to Greece, lie, I. in the Ionian sea, on the west and south of the main land. 1. Corcyra(Corfu); 2. Cephalonia; 3. As- teris; 4. Ithaca (Teaki); 5. Zacynthus (Zante: St. Maura is the ancient peninsu- la of Leucadia, formerly connected with the main land of Acarnania); 6. Cythera (Cerigo); 7. the group of islands in the Argolic gulf; 8. the island of Pelops, near the territory of Trcezene, and, not far off, Sphaeria, Calauria (Poros); 9. JEgi- na; 10. Salamis (Coluri), and many sur- rounding islands; 11. Crete (Candia). II. In the jEgean sea, now called the Archipelago, on the south and east sides of the main land, he, 1. Carpathos (Scarpan- to); 2. Rhodes; 3. Cyprus; 4. the Cycla- ses, i. e., Delos, and the surrounding islands on the west; and, 5. the Sporades, i. e., those scattered over the eastern Ar- chipelago. To the Cyclades belong De- los (Sdilli), Rhensea, Miconos, Tenos (Tine), Andros, Gyaros, Ceos (Zia), Syros, Cythnus (Thermia), Seriphos, Siphnos, Cimolis (Argentiere), Melos (Milo), The- ra (Santorin), Ios, where Homer is said to have been buried, Naxos (in more ancient times, Dia), Paros (Paria), &c. To the Sporades belong Cos (Stanchio, Stingo), Parmacusa, Patmos (Palmo, Palmosa), Samos, Chios (Scio), with many smaller surrounding islands, Lesbos (Mitylene), the surrounding islands called Hecatonnysoi, i. e., the hundred islands, Tenedos (Bogds- cha, Adassi), Lemnos (Stalimene), Imbros (Lembro), Samothrace, Thasos, and, near- er the Grecian coast, Scyros and Eubcea (Negropont). Ancient Macedonia was, in its interior, rough, woody and barren, and produced wine, oil and fruit-trees only on the coast. The same is true of Epirus. But Thessaly was a fruitful and well watered country, and produced the finest horses. Boeotia was likewise fruit- ful, and abounded in fine herds of cattle. The soil of Locris was moderately good; that of Doris was more fruitful, and that of Phocis still more so, producing, in abundance, good wine, fine oil and mad- der. The rough mountains of iEtolia were neither suited to pasturage nor to agriculture. Acarnania, the sea-coast of Attica, and the mountainous parts of Megaris, were as little remarkable for fer- tility as Achaia. Argolis had a fruitful soil; and in Laconia, Messenia and Elis, both agriculture and pasturage flourished. Arcadia was a mountainous country, well adapted for the raising of flocks. The Grecian islands he under a fortunate sky, and are most of them very rich in wine and in wild and cultivated fruits.* * See Hellas, or a Geographical and Antiqua- rian Account of Ancient Greece and its Colonies, with a View of the Modern Discoveries made in that Country, by F. K. G. Kruse, professor (Leipsic, 1826), two volumes, with an Atlas. A Journal of a Tour through Greece and Albania (Berlin, 1826), contains very satisfactory accounts of Ancient Greece, particularly in a military point of view. Gell and Dodwell have written on the geography, topography and history of Greece in ancient and modern times, with the writings of the ancients in their hands. Dod- well's companion^, Pomardi, has given some ad- ditional information (Rome, 1820), Chandler, Stuart, Revett, have given accurate descriptions of the remains of the architecture and sculpture of the ancient Greeks. Spohn and Wheeler, I,e Chevalier, Choiseul-Gouffier, and Clark and Turner have furnished accurate accounts of parts of the country previously little known. See also Homer's Picture of Grecian Antiquities, or an Account of the most celebrated Places and most important Works of Art of Ancient Greece, (Zurich, 1824, et seq.). The journals of Hughes, Holland, Vaudoncourt, Leake, Douglas Castellan, and also Gait's Letters from the Le- GREECE, ANCIENT, HISTORY OF. 5 The History of Greece is divided into three principal periods—the periods of its rise, its power, and its fall. The first ex- tends from the origin of the people, about 1800 years B. C, to Lycurgus, 875 years B. C.; the second extends from that time to the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 B. C.; the third shows us the Greeks as a conquered people, constantly on the decline, until at length, about A. D. 300, the old Grecian states were swallowed up in the Byzantine empire. According to tra- dition, the Pelasgi, under Inachus, were the first people who wandered into Greece. They dwelt in caves in the earth, supporting tliemselves on wild fruits, and eating the flesh of their con- quered enemies, until Phoroneus, who is called king of Argos, began to introduce civilization among them. Pelasgus in Arcadia, and .^Egialeus in Achaia, en- deavored at the same time to civilize their savage subjects. The Cyclopean walls are their work. (See Cyclopean Works.) Small kingdoms arose; e. g., Sparta and Athens. Some barbarous tribes received names from the three brothers, Achaeus, Pelasgus and Pythius, who led colonies from Arcadia to Thessaly, and also from Thessalus and Graecus (the sons of Pelas- gus), and others. Deucalion's flood, 1514 B. C., and the emigration of a new peo- ple from Asia, the Hellenes, produced great change?. The Hellenes spread them- selves over Greece, and drove out the Pe- lasgi, or mingled with them. Their name became the general name of the Greeks. Greece now raised itself from its savage 9tate, and improved still more rapidly after the arrival of some Phoenician and Egyptian colonies. About 60 years after the flood of Deucalion, Cadmus, the Phoe- nician, settled in Thebes, and introduced a knowledge of the alphabet. Ceres, from Sicily, and Triptolemus, from Eleusis, taught the nation agriculture, and Bac- vant, contain good observations on the manners and customs of Modern Greece, and the islands of the Archipelago. The principal work, howev- er, is that of Pouqueville (formerly French con- sul-general near Ali Pacha) Voy. dans la Grece (Paris, 1820, six volumes). Iken's Hellenion, etc., contains information on the history of the cultivation of the modern Greeks. Gell, in his Narrative of a Journey in the Morea (London, 1823), maintains that the Greeks do not pos- sess such cultivation as to be worthy of freedom, The contrary opinion is maintained by Ed. Bla- quiere, in his Report on the present State of the Greek Confederation, &c. (London, 1823). P. O. Brcensted's Voyages dans la Grece accompagn^s de Recherches Archiologiques (Paris, 1826, with engravings), is a valuable work. (For a list of works on ihe Greek revolution, sec the close of that division of this artide, in which it is treated.) chus planted the vine. The Egyptian fugitive Danaus came to Argos, and Ce- crops to Attica. Now began the heroic age, to which Hercules, Jason, Pirithous and Theseus belong, and that of the old bards and sages, as Thamyris, Amphion, Orpheus, Linus, Musaeus, Chiron and many others. A warlike spirit filled the whole nation, so that every quarrel called all the heroes of Greece to arms, as, for instance, the war against Thebes, and the Trojan war, 1200 years B. C, winch lat- ter forms one of the principal epochs in the history of Greece. This war depriv- ed many kingdoms of their princes, and produced a general confusion, of which the Heraclidae took advantage, 80 years after the destruction of Troy, to possess themselves of the Peloponnesus. They drove out the Ionians and Achasans, who took refuge in Attica. But, not finding here sufficient room, Neleus (1044) led an Ionian colony to Asia Minor, where a colony of iEolians, from the Peloponne- sus, had already settled, and was followed, 80 years after, by a colony of Dorians. In other states republics were founded, viz., in Phocis, in Thebes, and in the Asiatic colonies, and at length also in Athens and many other places; so that, for the next 400 years, all the southern part of Greece was for the most part occupied by republics. Their prosperity and the fineness of the climate, in the mean time, made the Asiatic colonies the mother of the arts and of learning. They gave birth to the songs of Homer and Hesiod. There commerce, navigation and law flourished. Greece, however, still retain- ed its ancient simplicity of manners, and was unacquainted with luxury. . If the population of any state became too nu- merous, colonies were sent out; for exam- ple, in the 7th and 8th centuries, the pow- erful colonies of Rhegium, Syracuse, Sy- baris, Crotona, Tarentum, Gela, Locris and Messena were planted in Sicily and the southern part, of Italy. (See Magna Gracia.) The small independent states of Greece needed a common bond of union. This bond was found in the temple of Delphi, the Amphictyonic council, and the solemn games, among which the Olym- pic were the most distinguished, the in- stitution, or rather revival of which, 776 B. C, furnished the Greeks with a chron- ological era. (See Epoch.) From this time, Athens and Sparta began to surpass the other states of Greece in power and importance. At the time of the Persian war, Greece had already made important advances in civilization. Besides the art 6 GREECE, ANCIENT, HISTORY OF. of poetry, we find that philosophy began to be cultivated 600 B. C, aud even ear- lier in Ionia and Lower Italy than in Greece Proper. Statuary and painting were in a flourishing condition. The important colonies of Massilia (Marseilles), in Gaul, and Agrigentum, iu Sicily, were founded. Athens was continually ex- tending her commerce, and established important commercial posts in Thrace. In Asia Minor, the Grecian colonies were brought under the dominion of the Lyd- ian Croesus, and soon after under that of Cyrus. Greece itself was threatened with a similar fate by the Persian kings Darius and Xerxes. Then the heroic spirit of the free Greeks showed itself in irs greatest brilliancy. Athens and Spar- ta almost alone withstood the vast armies of the Persian, and the battles 'of Mara- thon, Thermopylae and Platsea, as well as the sea-fights at Artemisium, Salamis and Mycale, taught the Persians that the Greeks were not to be subdued by them. Athens now exceeded all the other states in splendor and in power. The suprema- cy which Sparta had hitherto maintained, devolved on this city, whose commander, Cimon, compelled the Persians to ac- knowledge the independence of Asia Minor. Athens was also the centre of the arts and sciences. The Peloponne- sian war now broke out, Sparta being no longer able to endure the overbearing pride of Athens. This war devastated Greece, and enslaved Athens, until Thras- ybulus again restored its freedom; and, for a short time, Sparta was compelled, in her turn, to bend before the Theban he- roes Epaminondas and Pelopidas. In spite of these disturbances, poets, philoso- phers, artists and statesmen, continued to arise, commerce flourished, and manners and customs were carried to the liighest degree of refinement But that unhappy period had now arrived, when the Greeks, ceasing to be free, ceased to advance in civilization. A kingdom, formed by con- quest, had grown up on the north of Greece, the ruler of which, Philip, united courage with cuuning. The dissensions which prevailed among the different states, afforded him an opportunity to exe- cute his ambitious plans, and the battle of Chaeroiiea, 338 B. C., gave Macedonia the command of all Greece. In vain did the subjugated states hope to become free after his death. The destruction of Thebes was sufficient to subject all Greece to the young Alexander. This prince, as generahssiino of the Greeks, gained the most splendid victories over the Persians. An attempt to liberate Greece, occasioned by a false report of his death, was frustrat- ed by Antipater. The Lamian war, af- ter the death of Alexander, was equally unsuccessful. Greece was now little bet- ter than a Macedonian province. Luxury had enervated the ancient courage and energy of the nation. At length, most of the states of Southern Greece, Sparta and iEtolia excepted, concluded the Achaean league, for the maintenance of their freedom against the Macedonians. A dispute having arisen between this league and Sparta, the latter applied to Macedonia for help, and was victorious. But this friendship was soon fatal, for it involved Greece in the contest between Philip and the Romans, who, at first, in- deed, restored freedom to the Grecian states, while they changed iEtolia, and soon after Macedonia, into Roman prov- inces ; but they afterwards began to ex- cite dissensions in the Achaean league, interfered in the quarrels of the Greeks, and finally compelled them to take up aims to maintain their freedom. So un- equal a contest could not long remain un- decided ; the capture of Corinth, 146 B. C, placed the Greeks in the power of the Romans. During the whole period which elapsed between the battle of Chaeronea and the destruction of Corinth by the Romans, the arts and sciences flourished among the Greeks; indeed, the golden age of the arts was in the time of Alexander. The Grecian colonies were yet in a more flourishing condition than the mother country ; especially Alexan- dria, in Egypt, became the seat of learn- ing. As they, also, in process of time, fell under the dominion of the Romans, they became, like their mother country, the instructers of their conquerors. In the time of Augustus, the Greeks lost even the shadow of their former freedom, and ceased to be an independent people, although their language, manners, cus- toms, learning, arts and taste spread over the whole Roman empire. The charac- ter of the nation was now sunk so low, that the Romans esteemed a Greek as the most worthless of creatures. Asiatic lux- ury had wholly corrupted them; their an- cient love of freedom and independence was extinguished; and a mean servility was substituted in its place. At the be- ginning of the fourth century, the nation scarcely showed a trace of the noble characteristics of their fathers. The bar- barians soon after began their ruinous in- cursions into Greece.—Besides the well known works on the history of Greece, GREECE, ANCIENT, HISTORY OF. 7 by Mitford, Gillies, Barthelemy (Anachar- sis), &c, we would mention Clinton's Fasti Hdlenid (Oxford, 1824), an impor- tant work on the political and literary chro- nology of Greece, from the 55th to the 124th Olympiad ; and Wachsmuth's Hd- lenische Alterthumskunde (1 vol., Halle, 1826); also Heeren's Politics of Ancient Greece (Uanslated, Boston, 1824).—The principal traits in the character of the an- cient Greeks, were simplicity and gran- deur. The Greek was his own instruct- or, and if he learned any thing from oth- ers, he did it with freedom and independ- ence. Nature was his great model, and in his native land, she displayed herself in all her charms. The uncivilized Greek was manly and proud, active and enterprising, violent both in his hate and in his love. He esteemed and exer- cised hospitality towards strangers and countrymen. These features of the Gre- cian character had an important influence on the religion, politics, manners and phi- losophy of the nation. The gods of Greece were not, like those of Asia, sur- rounded by a holy obscurity; they were human in their faults and virtues, but were placed far above mortals. They kept up an intercourse with men ; good and evil came from their hands; all phys- ical and moral endowments were their gift. The moral system of the earliest Greeks taught them to honor the gods by an exact observance of customs ; to hold the rights of hospitality sacred, and even to spare murderers, if they fled to the sanctuaries of the gods for refuge. Cun- ning and revenge were allowed to be practised against enemies. No law en- forced continence. The power of the father, of the husband or the brother, alone guarded the honor of the female sex, who therefore lived in continual de- pendence. The loss of virtue was se- verely punished, but the seducer brought his gifts and offerings to the gods, as if his conduct had been guiltless. The securi- ty of domestic life rested entirely on the master of the family. From these char- acteristic traits of the earliest Greeks, originated, in the sequel, the peculiarities of their religious notions, their love of freedom and action, their taste for the beautiful and the grand, and the simplici- ty of their manners. The religion of the Greeks was not so much mingled with superstition as that of the Romans; thus, for example, they were unacquainted with the practice of augury. The Greek was inclined to festivity, even in religion, and served the gods less in spirit than in out- ward ceremonies. His religion had little influence on his morals, his belief, and the government of his thoughts. All it required was a belief in the gods, and in a future existence; a freedom from gross crimes, and an observance of prescribed rites. The simplicity of their manners, and some obscure notions of a supreme God, who hated and punished evil, loved and rewarded good, served, at first, to maintain good morals and piety among them. These notions were afterwards exalted and systematized by poetry and philosophy, and the improvement spread from the cultivated classes through the great mass of the people. In the most enlightened period of Greece, clearer ideas of the unity of the deity, of his om- niscience, his omnipresence, his holiness, his goodness, his justice, and of the ne- cessity of worshipping him by virtue and purity of heart, prevailed. The moral system of some individuals among the Greeks was equally pure. The precepts of morality were delivered at first in sen- tentious maxims; for example, the sayings of the seven wise men. Afterwards, Soc- rates and his disciples arose, and promul- gated their pure doctrines. The love of freedom among the Greeks sprang from their good fortune, in having lived so long without oppression or fear of other na- tions, aud from their natural vivacity of spirit. It was this which made small ar- mies invincible, and which caused Lycur- gus, Solon and Timoleon to refuse crowns. Their freedom was the work of nature, and the consequence of their original pa- triarchal mode of life. The first kings were considered as fathers of families, to whom obedience was willingly paid, in return for protection and favors. Impor- tant affairs were decided by the assemblies of the people. Each man was master in his own house, and in early times no tax- es were paid. But as the kings strove continually to extend their powers, they were ultimately compelled to resign their dignities, and free states arose, with forms of government inclining more or less to aristocracy or democracy, or composed of a union of the two; the citizens were at- tached to a government which was ad- ministered under the direction of wise laws, and not of arbitrary power. It was this noble love for a free country, which prompted Leonidas to say to the king of Persia, that he would rather die than hold a despotic sway over Greece. It was this which inspired Solon, Themistocles, De- mosthenes and Phocion, when, in spite of the ingratitude of their countrymen, they 8 GREECE, ANCIENT, HISTORY OF—GREEK LANGUAGE. chose to serve the state and the laws, rath- er than their own interests. The cultiva- tion of their fruitful country, which, by the industry of the inhabitants, afforded nourishment to several millions, and the wealth of their colonies, prove the activity of the Greeks. Commerce, navigation and manufactures flourished on all sides; knowledge of every sort was accumulat- ed ; the spirit of invention was busily at work; the Greeks learned to estimate the pleasures of society, but they also learned to love luxury. From these sources of activity sprang also a love of great ac- tions and great enterprises, so many in- stances of which are furnished by Gre- cian history. Another striking trait of the (Jrecian character, was a love of the beau- tiful, both physical and intellectual. This sense of the beautiful, awakened and de- \ eloped by nature, created for itself an ideal of beauty, which served them, and has been transmitted to us, as a criterion for every work of art. A noble simplici- ty pervades every thing which comes from them. It is this which has made the Greeks the instrueters of all ages and nations. Greek Language and Writing. The language, which we call Greek, was not the primitive language of Greece, for Greece was originally inhabited by the Pelasgi. Their language was already ex- tinct in the time of Herodotus, who as- serts that it was different from the Helle- nic, and adds, that it is probable that the Hellenes have retained their original lan- guage (I. 57). But on the question whence it originated, there is a diversity of opinion ; for some derive it from the Persian, others from the Scythian—two opinions, which are not, perhaps, incom- patible with each other. Out of Greece, it was spoken in a great part of Asia Mi- nor, of the south of Italy and Sicily, and in other regions which were settled by Grecian colonies. From the great num- ber of Hellenic tribes of the same race, it was to be expected that there would be different dialects, the knowledge of which is the more necessary for becoming ac- quainted with the Greek language, since the writers of this nation have transmitted the peculiarities of the different dialects in the use of single letters, words, forms, terminations and expressions, and that not merely to characterize more particularly an individual represented as speaking, but even when they speak in their own person. It is customary to distinguish three leading dialects, according to the three leading branches of the Greeks, the /Eolic, the Doric, and the Ionic, to which was afterwards added the mixed Attic di- alect ; besides these, there are several secondary dialects. The four leading di- alects may be reduced to two, the Helle- nic-Doric and the Ionic-Attic. The for- mer was the oldest ; in fact, Doric was generally used to signify what was an- cient. The oldest Doric' style is display- ed in the ^Eolic dialect, from which the Latin language is derived. The Doric was hard and harsh; the Ionic was the softest. The Mohc was spoken on the north of the Isthmus (excepting in Mega- ra, Attica and Doris), in the iEolian colo- nies of Asia Minor, and on some of the northern islands of the iEgean sea. The Doric was spoken in the Peloponnesus, in the Doric Tetrapolis, in the Doric colo- nies of Asia Minor, of Lower Italy (Taren- tum), of Sicily (Syracuse, Agrigentum), and most purely by the Messenians; the Ionic in the Ionian colonies of Asia Mi- nor, and on the islands of the Archipela- go ; and the Attic in Attica. In each of these dialects, there are celebrated au- thors. To the Ionic dialect belong, in part, the works of the oldest poets, Ho- mer, Hesiod, Theognis, etc. ; it is found pure in some prose writers, especially Herodotus and Hippocrates ; the poems of Pindar, Theocritus, Bion and Mos- chus. Little Doric, prose remains, and that is mostly on mathematical or philo- sophical subjects. In iEolic, we have fragments of Alcaeus and Sappho. After Athens had obtained the supremacy of Greece, and rendered itself the centre of all literary cultivation, the masterpieces of iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aris- tophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Isocrates, Demosthenes, etc., made the Attic the common dialect of literature. Grammarians afterwards distinguished the genuine Attic, as it exists in those masters, from the Attic of common life, calling the latter the common Greek or Hel- lenic dialed, and even the. later Attic wri- ters, posterior to the golden age of the lit- erature, Hellenes or common Greeks. In this latter class are Aristotle, Theophras- tus, Apollodoms, Polybius, Plutarch and others, many of whom, however, wrote genuine Attic, as Lucian, ^Elian and Ar- rian. Except the dramatists, the poets by no means confined themselves to the Attic; the dramatists themselves assumed the Doric, to a certain degree, in their choruses, for the sake of giving them ad- dinonal solemnity, because these belonged to the oldest liturgy of the Greeks ; and the other poets retained the Homeric style It cannot be denied, that the Greeks were GREEK LANGUAGE—GREEK LITERATURE. 9 much better acquainted with their differ- ent dialects than some moderns, the Germans, for instance, are with theirs. This may, perhaps, have been, in a great degree, the effect of the universal popu- larity of Homer, the use of a religious ritual, and the great mutual intercourse of the nation. But, probably, the dialects were not, in the earliest times, so distinct from each other as they afterwards be- came ; and on this hypothesis we must explain the peculiarities of the style of Homer and Hesiod. "In Homer and Hesiod," says Mathia, " forms and ex- pressions occur, which grammarians pro- nounce iEolic, Doric, Attic, or the pe- culiarities of a local dialect. But they could hardly have been such at the time of these poets, who would have as little allowed themselves to employ such a mixture, as a German poet would permit liimself to mingle together Lower Saxon and High German provincialisms. The language of Homer seems rather to have been the language of the Ionians of that time. Of the forms common in Homer, all did not remain in the Ionic dialect, but some subsisted in the ^Eolic-Doric only, others merely in the Attic. The grammarians call that Attic, ^Eolic, Doric, etc., in Homer, which was so at their time." The period when these changes took place in the leading dialects cannot be determined. It follows from all this, that, to have a thorough knowledge of the Greek language, we must follow out, his- torically, the course of its formation, tak- ing no partial grammar as our foundation, but extending our view over all the varied forms of the dialects—a labor which this language, so rich in classic models of ev- ery kind, and therefore so perfect, so flex- ible, so expressive, so sweet in its sound, so harmonious in its movement, and so philosophical in its grammatical forms and whole structure, merits, and richly re- wards. At what time this language first began to be expressed in writing, has long been a subject of doubt. According to the general opinion, Cadmus, the Phoeni- cian, introduced the alphabet into Greece. His alphabet consisted of but 16 letters; four (e H * x) are said to have been in- vented by Palamedes, in the Trojan war, and four more (z H * ft) by Simonides of Ceos. That the eight letters mentioned, are more modern than the others, is cer- tain, partly from historical accounts, partly from the most ancient inscriptions. As the Ionians first adopted these letters, and the Athenians received them from them, the alphabet with 24 letters is called the Ionic. The figures of the oldest Phoenician and Greek letters differ very much from the modern Hebrew and Greek letters. There have not been want- ing persons, however, who assert that the art of writing was practised among the Pelasgi before the time of Cadmus. This opinion, not unknown to the ancients, but corroborated by no single author of au- thority, has not failed to meet with advo- cates in modern times. Others, on the contrary, have appeared, who place the origin of the art of writing in Greece much later. The first who attracted at- tention to this point, was Wood, in his Essay on the original Genius of Homer. It is, at all events, of great importance, for forming a proper judgment of Homer, and deciding respecting Ante-Homeric poetry and literature, to ascertain whether the art of writing was or was not known in the time of Homer. Wood's opinion is, that we may place the time when the use of the alphabet became common in Greece, and the beginning of prose wri- ting, in about the same period, 554 before Christ, and about as long after Homer. In Homer's time, all knowledge, religion and laws were preserved by memory alone, and for that reason were put in verse, till prose was introduced with the art of writing. The argument drawn from several ancient inscriptions on tem- ples, Wolf has deprived of all its force : in his Prolegomena to Homer, he has con- verted the question with more precision into two :—1. When did the Greeks be- come acquainted with the art of writing ? 2. When was it common among them? In solving the latter question, it must be ascertained when convenient materials for writing became common, and in what century the writing of books was intro- duced among the Greeks. Wolf proves not only that Homer committed to writ- ing nothing which he sung, the skins of animals not having been used for writing till after him, nor Egyptian papyrus till the time of Psammeticus, but that his verses were never committed to writing till the middle of the sixth century before Christ It remains to remark, that the Greeks originally wrote their lines from right to left, then boustrophedon (see Boustrophe- don), and finally from left to right. Greek literature. The origin of Greek literature, that is, of the intellectual cul- tivation of the Greeks by written works, is lost in an almost impenetrable obscurity.' Though there existed in Greece, in earlier times, no actual literature, there was by no means a want of what we may, not 10 GREEK LITERATURE. improperly, call lUerary cultivation, if we free ourselves from the prejudice, that the palladium of humanity consists solely in written alphabetical characters. The first period of Grecian cultivation, which extends to the invasion of the Peloponne- sus by the Heraclidae and Dorians, and the great changes produced by it, consequent- ly to 80 years after the Trojan war, and which we may designate by the name of the Ante-Homeric period, was indeed utter- ly destitute of literature; but it may be questioned whether it was also destitute of all that culture, which we are accus- tomed to call literary. The fables which are told of the intellectual achievements of this period, have a certain basis of truth. Among the promoters of literary cultivation, in this time, we must distin- guish three classes—1. Those of whom we have no writings, but who are men- tioned as inventors of arts, poets and sages: Amphion, Demodocus, Melampus, Olen, Phemius and Prometheus. 2. Those to whom are falsely attributed works no longer extant: Abaris, Aristeas, Chiron, Epimenides, Eumolpus, Corinnus, Linus and Palamedrs. 3. Those to whom writ- ings yet extant, which, however, were pro- ductions of later times, are attributed: Da- res, Dictys, Horapollo, Musseus, Orpheus, and the authors of the Sibylline oracles. This is not the place to inquire whether any and how much of these writings is genuine. It is enough, that the idea of such a forgery proves the existence of ear- lier productions. And how could the next period have been what it was, with- out previous preparation ? If we may thus infer what must have been, in order that the succeeding period should be what it was, we learn, also, from the various tradi- tions of the Ante-Homeric period, that there existed in it institutions which, through the means of religion, poetry, oracles and mysteries, had no small influ- ence on the civilization of the nation and the promotion of culture ; for the most part, indeed, in Oriental forms, and perhaps of Oriental origin; and that these institu- tions, generally of a priestly character, ob- tained principally in the northern parts of Greece, Thrace and Macedonia. We must here remark, that intellectual cultiva- tion did not prosper at once in Greece, nor display itself simultaneously among all the tribes; that the Greeks became Greeks only in the process of time, and some tribes made more rapid progress than others. About 80 years after the Trojan war, new conunotions and a new migra- tion began within the borders of Greece. A portion of the inhabitants emigrated from the mother country to the islands and to Asia Minor. This change was in the highest degree favorable to Grecian genius ; for the new settlements, abound- ing in harbors, and destined by nature for commerce and industry, afforded them not only a more tranquil life, but also a wider field for refinement, and gave rise to new modes of Ufe. The ancients ascribed to the colonies in Ionia and Asia Minor the character of luxury and voluptuousness. The blue sea, the pure sky, the balmy air, the beautiful prospects, the finest fruits and most delicious vegetables in abun- dance, all the requisites of luxury, here united to nourish a soft sensuality. Poet- ry and philosophy, painting and statuary, here attained their highest perfection ; but great and heroic deeds were oftener cele- brated than performed. Near the scene of the first grand national enterprise of the Greeks—theTrojan war—it was not strange that the interest it excited should be live- ly, and that it should take a powerful hold of the imagination. Poetry thus found a subject, in the treatment of which it necessarily assumed a character entirely distinct from that of the former period. Among all nations, heroic poetry has flour- ished with the spirit of heroism. The he- roes were here followed by the bards, and thus the epopee was formed. We there- fore call this second period the epic age of the Greeks. The minstrel (iodas) now appears separated from the priest, but highly honored, particularly because the memory of the heroes lived in his verse ; and poetry was the guardian of all the knowledge of preceding times, so long as traditions were not committed to writing. From its very nature, the epopee must be historical, in an enlarged sense. Under such circumstances, it is not strange that regular schools for poets were established • for the imagination of the first poet fired the imagination of others, and it was then perhaps, believed that poetry must be learned like other arts—a belief to which the schools for priests contributed not a httle, on which the schools for min- strels were probably modelled. But thev were minstrels in the strictest sense, for their traditions were sung, and the poet accompanied his verses on a stringed in strument On every important occasion minstrels were present, who were regard- ed as standing under the immediate influ- ence of the gods, especially of the muses who were acquainted with the present S pastandthefuture. TheminstreL3Se seer, thus stood at the head of mn™£ GREEK LITERATURE. 11 among the many minstrels which this age undoubtedly possessed, Homer alone has survived. We have from him two great epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, with several hymns and epigrams. One mock heroic poem, the Batrachomyomachy (the Battle of the Frogs and Mice), is ascrib- ed to him. From him an Ionian school of minstrels takes its name—the Homerida— who probably constituted, at first, at Chios, a distinct family of rhapsodists, and who preserved the old Homeric and epic style, the spirit and tone of the Homeric verse. Much that is attributed to Homer, may reasonably be assigned to them. The same may be the case with the epic Cy- clus, also ascribed to Homer: which brings us to the Cyclic poets, who began, how- ever, to deviate materially from the Ionian epos, the historical element predominating more and more over the poetical. By Cy- clus, we here understand the whole cir- cle of traditions and fables, and not mere- ly the events of the Trojan war. Cyclic poetry comprehended the whole compass of mythology; and we may, therefore, di- vide it into, 1. a cosmogonical, 2. a genea- logical, and 3. a heroic Cyclus; in the latter of which there are two separate periods; 1. of the heroes before, and 2. of those af- ter, the expedition of the Argonauts. To the first class belong the battles of the Ti- tans and giants; to the second, the theog- onies and herogonies. To the first period of the third class belong the Europia, sev- eral Heracleia and Dionysiacs, several Thebaids, Argonautics, Theseids, Dana- ids, Amazonica, etc. In the second peri- od, the poetry generally related to the Trojan war. To this belonged the Nostoi, which treated of the return of the heroes from Troy. The earliest of these Cyclic poets appeared about the time of the first Olympiad. A history of the gradual for- mation of their poetry cannot be given, because we have only very general ac- counts respecting them. But what we do know justifies us in concluding that be- tween these historic poets and the Ionian school of minstrelsy, something interven- ed, making, as it were, the transition. And we actually find this in the Basotian-Ascre- an school, which arose in European Greece probably about 890 B. C. It derived its name from Ascra in Bceotia, the residence of Hesiod, who stood at its head, and by whom poetry was probably conducted back again from Asia Minor (for he origi- nated from Cumae in JEofta) to Greece. His works, also, were at first preserved by rhapsodists. They were not arranged till a later period, when they were augmented by foreign additions; so that, m theirpres- ent form, their authenticity is as doubtful as that of the poems ascribed to Homer. (See Hesiod.) Of the sixteen works attrib- uted to him, there have come down to us the Theogony, the Shield of Hercules (the fragment of a larger poem), and Works, and Days, a didactic poem on agriculture, the choice of days, intermixed with moral and prudential maxims, &c. These works, especially those of Homer and Hesiod, which acquired a canonical importance, and constituted, in a certain degree, the foundation of youthful education, gave to the character of the Greeks that particular direction, by which it was afterwards dis- tinguished, and which was most strikingly displayed in their religion ; which, for want of the necessary dignity, and espe- cially of a caste of priests, was so indefi- nite, and therefore so fanciful. The mys- ticism of the first period was, therefore, for the most part, discarded; and in the later Grecian mythology (for that a new system of divinities had arisen cannot be doubted), nothing was seen but the perfec- tion of human nature. Sensuality thence became the characteristic of the Grecian religion, in which no other morality could subsist but that which teaches the enjoy- ment of the pleasures of life with pru- dence. Hitherto poetry had been the on- ly instructress of the Grecian world; and it remained so still, when it took another direction. This happened in the third pe- riod, the age of lyric poetry, of apologues and philosophy, with which history grad- ually acquired a greater certainty. About the beginning of the epoch of the Olympi- ads (776 B.C.), there ensued a true ebb and flood of constitutions among the small states of Greece. After numerous vicis- situdes of power, during which the con- tending parties persecuted each other for a long time with mutual hatred, repub- lics, with democratical constitutions, final- ly sprung up, which were in some meas- ure united into one whole by national meetings at the sacred games. The spirit prevalent in such a time greatly favored lyric poetry, which now became an art in Greece, and reached the summit of its per- fection at the time of the invasion of the Persians. Next to the gods, who were celebrated at their festivals with hymns, their country, with its heroes, was the lead- ing subject of this branch of poetry, on the character of which external circum- stances seem to have exercised no slight influence. The mental energies of the nation were roused by the circumstances of the country; and the numerous wars 12 GREEK LITERATURE. and conflicts, patriotism, the love of free- dom and the hatred of enemies and ty- rants, gave birth to the heroic ode. Life, however, was at the same time viewed more on its dark side. Thence there was an intermingling of more sensibility in the elegy, as well as, on the other side, a vig- orous reaction, in which the spirit of ridi- cule gave rise to the iambus (satire). In every thing there was a more powerful impulse towards meditation, investigation and labor for the attainment of a desired condition. The golden age, the gift of the gods, was felt to have departed. Whatev- er man discovered in future was to be the fruit of his own efforts. This feeling showed that the age of manhood had ar- rived. Philosophy had become necessary, and attained continually a greater devel- opement It first spoke in maxims and gnomes, in fables and in dogmatic pre- cepts. Lyric poetry next gave utterance to the feelings excited by the pleasures of earth. Of those who gained a reputation in this way, as well as by the improve- ment of music and the invention of vari- ous forms of lyric poetry, history presents us the names Archilochus of Paros, inventor of the iambus; Tyrtaeus of Miletus, au- thor of war songs; Callimachus of Ephe- sus, inventor of the elegiac measure; AIc- man, the Lydian; Arion of Methymna, who perfected the dithyrambus; Terpander of Antissa, inventorof the barbitos (akind of lyre); the tender Sappho of Mitylene ; her countryman Alcaeus; Erinna, the con- temporary of both ; Mimnermus of Colo- phon, the flute player; Stesichorus of Hi- mera; Ibycus of Rhegium ; Anacreon and Sunonides of Ceos ; llipponax of Ephe- sus ; Timocreon of Rhodes; Lasus of Hermione; Corinna of Tanagra, the friend and instructress of Pindar. As gnomic writers (see Gnomic), Theognis, Phocyli- des, Pythagoras, deserve to be named; as a fabulist, ^Esop. In the order of time, several belong to the following period, but are properly placed here, on account of their connexion. If we consider the phi- losophy of this age, we find it to have gen- erally had a practical character. T1>t phi- losophy of ufe must precede the philos- ophy of science. Philosophy must give lessons of wisdom, before it can furnish scientific systems. In this light must we consider the seven wise men of Greece, as they are called (Periander, instead of whom others place Epimenides of Crete or Myon, Pittacus, Thales, Solon, Bias, Chilo and Cle- obulus); six of whom acquired their names, not by diving into hidden lore,but by mature experience and the practical wisdom result- ing from it, by their prudence and reflec- tion, their skill in affairs of state, in busi- ness and the arts. Their sayings are prac- tical rules, originating in the commerce of life, and frequently only the expression of present feelings. But as knowledge is the foundation of science, further investiga- tions resulted in theoretical philosophy. Thales was the founder of the Ionic phi- losophy. Here we stand on the most im- portant point of the history of the literary developement of Greece, where poetry ceases to contain every thing worthy of knowledge, to be the only source of in- struction. Hitherto she had discharged the office of history, philosophy and re- ligion. Whatever was to be transmitted to posterity, whatever practical wisdom and knowledge was to be imparted, whatever religious feelings were to be inspired, re- course was had to her measured strains, which, from their rhythmical character, left a deeper and stronger impression on the memory. Henceforth it was to be otherwise. Civil life was to have an im- portant influence on language. The pub- he transactions, in which the citizen took a part, compelled him to make the lan- guage of common life more suitable for public delivery. This and alphabet- ical writing, that had now become com- mon in Greece, with the introduction of the Egyptian papyrus, prepared the way for the formation of prose. All this had an essential influence on the condition of science. From epic poetiy proceeded, by degrees, history. From the practical wis- dom conveyed in verse proceeded an in- vestigating philosophy. Our former sin- gleness of view is thus lost. We must now necessarily turn our attention to dif- ferent sides, and, in the rest of our sketch, follow out each branch separately. Every thing tended to excite the spirit of inquiry, and a scientific activity was every where awakened. We may therefore call the fourth period, that now ensued, the sden- tific period. It reaches to the end of Greek literature, but is divided into sev- eral epochs, according to the different spirit which predominated, and the supe- riority which a particular branch acquired at different times. The first epoch ex- tends from Solon to Alexander (594_336 B. C.) In philosophy, a physico-specula- tive spirit was manifested; for philosophy originated immediately from religion, and all religion rests on the conception of the Divinity, which was not then distinguished from nature. Now since the conception of religion contained nothing but poetical ideas of the origin of the princ p^phe GREEK LITERATURE. 13 nomena of nature, that is, of the divinities, the most ancient philosophy was, of neces- sity, natural philosophy, in which the hu- man mind sought to analyze more thor- oughly the phenomena previously observ- ed, to explain them more satisfactorily, and to comprehend them in one whole. From the want of sufficient experimental ac- quaintance with nature, it was to be ex- pected that the imagination would fre- quently interfere in the work of the un- derstanding and reason. From this cause, these philosophical inquiries are interwov- en with poetical images. This was the form of the Ionic philosophy, whose au- thor was Thales; the Italian, whose founder was Pythagoras, and the older and later Eleatic. To the Ionic school, which sought after a material origin to the world, belonged Pherecydes, Anaximan- der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, Anaxarchus and Archelaus of Miletus. The principal disciples of the Pythagorean philosophy, which refer- red the organization of the world to num- ber and measure, were Alcmaeon, Tima-- us of Locris, Ocellus Lucanus, Epichar- mus, Theages, Archytas, Philolaus and Eudoxus. To the older Eleatic school, which held the idea of a pure existence, belonged Xenophanes,Parmenides; to the later, Zeno, Melissus and Diagoras. With this is connected the atomic school of Lcu- cippus and Democritus, and the dualist, Empedocles. On the other hand, Hera- clitus stands alone in his theory of the eternal flow of things. Till near the 90th Olympiad, the philosophers and their scholars were dispersed through all the Greek cities. About this time, Athens be- came their principal place of residence, which contributed not a little to breathe another spirit into philosophy, the Sophists becoming the teachers. Gorgias of Leon- tiurn in Sicily, who joined the Eleatics, Protagoras of Abdera, Hippias of Elis, Prodicus of Cos, Trasimacus and Tisias are the most celebrated whose names have reached us. Their name designates them as men of science; and they were, in fact, the encyclopaedists of their times, who collected the ideas and sentiments of the former ages, and enriched them with their own. They were particularly distinguish- ed in rhetoric and politics, two sciences so highly important in democratic fonns of government; but, not contented with this, they also professed the natural sciences, mathematics, the theory of the fine arts, and philosophy. In the last, it does not seem to have been their object to arrive at truth, but only to make a plausible argu- von. vi. 2 ment; and for this end were formed so- phistics and eristics, or the art of reasoning, which was afterwards called dialectics; in which their object was to prove every thing they wished. For this they invent- ed those fallacies, still called, from them, sophistries, and sought to lead their oppo- nents asn-ay by various means. That this must needs be detrimental to true philos- ophy is evident So much the more for- tunate was it that, in this very age, Socra- tes appeared, who was not only a strenu- ous antagonist of these Sophists, but open- ed a new career to philosophy itself. It has been justly said of him, that he brought down philosophy from heaven to earth, for he gave it again a practical direction, differing, however, from the former, since the object was no longer merely to string together experiments, but philosophers be- gan to investigate the nature and relations of man, the object and best regulation of his life ; and reflection was turned princi- pally to psychology and morals, instead of physics and metaphysics. Socrates had many scholars, some of whom committed his ideas to writing in his manner—Cebes, iEschines, Xenophon; others, deviating more or less from his ideas and his man- ner, were founders of philosophical schools of their own. The four following schools proceeded from that of Socrates: 1. the Cyrenaic, whose founder was Aristippus of Cyrene (see Aristippus); 2. the Mega- ric, Elian and Eretrian, under Euclid, Phaedon and Menedemus; 3. the academ- ic, whose founder was Plato; and 4. the Cynic, whose founder was Antistlienes. Plato (q. v.) was unquestionably the most comprehensive and splendid genius. With the philosophical knowledge of the former Greek philosophers, he combined that of the Egyptian priests, and the eloquence of the Sophists. A fondness for the super- natural, a delicate moral sense, a fine, acute and profound understanding, reign in his productions, which are adorned with all the graces of expression, and are enliven- ed by a rich imagination. By his poetic talent, the philosophical dialogue of Socra- tes was presented under a truly dramatic form. While philosophy was maiding such important progress, history rapidly approached perfection. In the period of 550—500 B. C, traditions were first committed to writing in prose, and Cad- mus, Dionysius and Hecataeus of Miletus, Acusilaus the Argive, Hellanicus of Mity- lene and Pherecydes of Scyros are among the oldest historical writers. After them appeared Herodotus (q. v.), the Homer of history. His example kindled Thucydi- 14 GREEK LITERATURE. des to emulation, and his eight books of the history of the Peloponnesian war make him the first philosophical historian, and a model for all his successors. If his conciseness sometimes renders Thucydi- des obscure, in Xenophon, on the contra- ry, there prevails the greatest perspicuity; and he became the model of quiet, unos- tentatious historical writing. These three historians are the most distinguished of this period, in which we must, moreover, mention Ctesias, Philistus, Theopompus, Euphorus, who, however, abandoned the genuine style of historical narration for a rhetorical affectation. An entirely new species of poetry was created in this pe- riod. From the thanksgiving festivals, wliich the country people solemnized after the vintage, in honor of the giver of joys, with wild songs and comic dances, arose, especially in Attica, the drama. By de- grees, variety and a degree of art were given to the songs of the chorus, or dithy- rambics, at the sacrifice of the goat, which, in the process of time, became more seri- ous, while an intermediate speaker related popular fables, and the chorus varied the eternal praises of Bacchus by moral re- flections, as the narration prompted. Their reward, if they gave satisfaction, was a goat Sportive dances were introduced, mingled with waggish pranks, and every thing to excite laughter. These games of" the feast of die vintage were soon repeat- ed on other days. Solon's contemporary, Thespis, who smeared his actors, like vin- tagers, with lees of wine, exhibited at the cross ways or in the villages, on movable Btages, stories sometimes serious with sol- emn choruses, sometimes laughable with dances, in which satyrs and other ridicu- lous characters excited laughter. Their representations were called tragedies (rpaywSiat), that is, songs of the sacrifice of the goat, or rpvywStat, songs of the vintage ; comedies, festive dances and satirical ac- tions (drama satyricum). These sports were finally exhibited, with much more splendor, on the stages of the towns, and acquired a more and more distinct charac- ter, by their peculiar tone and morality. Instead of an intermediate speaker, who related his story extemporaneously, JEs- chylus first substituted actors, who repeat- ed their parts by rote ; and he was thus the actual creator of the dramatic art, which was soon carried to perfection; tragedy by jEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; comedy by Cratinus, Eupolis, Crates, but especial- ly by Aristophanes. Under the govern- ment of the thirty tyrants, the freedom, which comedy had possessed, of holding up living characters to ridicule, was re- stricted, and the middle comedy was thus gradually formed, in which the chorus was abolished, and, with delineations of gen- eral character, characteristic masks were also introduced. In this, Aristophanes and Alexis were distinguished. The mimes of Sophron of Syracuse, dramatic dialogues in rhythmical prose, formed a distinct species, in connexion with which stands the Sicilian comedy of Epichar- mus. In the order of time, several gnom- ic and lyric writers belong to this period. Several philosophers appeared as didactic poets—Xenophanes, Parrnenides, Emped- ocles; as epic poets, Pisander and Pany- asis were famous for their Heraclea, and Autimachus for his Thebaid. The epic soon became more and more historical, and lost its beautiful poetic aspect. With poetry, her severer sister, eloquence, also flourished in this period, which republi- can constitutions rendered necessary, and which the Greek character speedily ele- vated to the rank of a fine art. Antiphon, Gorgias, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Isae- us, Demosthenes, ^Eschines, were highly appreciated as masters of this art, for which schools were actually established. We still possess the admired masterpieces of several of these orators. How near rhetoric was then to triumphing over poe- try, is manifested in Euripides, and there is no question that it had a considera- ble influence on Plato and Thucydides. Mathematics was now cultivated, and ge- ography served to illustrate histoiy. As- tronomy is indebted to the Ionic school, arithmetic to the Italian, and geometry to the academic school for many discoveries. As mathematicians, Theodoras of Cyre- ne, Meton, Euctemon, Archytas of Taren- tum, Eudoxus of Cnidus, were celebrated. Geography was, particularly, enriched by voyages of discovery, which were occa- sioned by commerce; and, in this view Hanno's voyage on the western coast of Africa, the Periplus of Scylax, a descrip- tion of the coasts of the Mediterranean and the discoveries of Pythias of Massilia in the north-west of Europe, deserve men- tion. The study of nature was likewise pursued by the philosophers ; but the healing art, hitherto practised by the As clepiades in the temples, constituted a dis- tinct science, and Hippocrates became the creator of scientific medicine. The fol lowing period is usually called the Alexan'- dnne, and might be characterized as She SfftSfS* ? CrUkal *"** Athens did not, indeed, cease to sustain its ancient reputation; but Alexandria was, in reality, GREEK LITERATURE—GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 15 the leading city. From this cause, the spirit of Grecian literature necessarily took another turn; and it is evident, that the use of an immense library must necessari- ly have made erudition triumph over the former free action of mind, which, how- ever, could not be immediately suppress- ed. In philosophy, Plato's acute and learned disciple, Aristotle, appeared as the founder of the Peripatetic school, which gained distinction by enlarging the territo- ry of philosophy, and by its spirit of sys- tem. He separated logic and rhetoric, ethics and politics, physics and metaphys- ics (to which last science he gave its name), and applied philosophy to several branches of knowledge; thereby producing economics, pedagogics, poetics, physiog- nomies. He invented the philosophical syllogism, and gave philosophy the form which it preserved for centuries. His dis- ciple Theophrastus followed his steps, in the investigation of philosophy and natu- ral history. But the more dogmatic was the philosophy of Aristotle, the more cau- tion was requisite to the philosophical in- quirer, and the spirit of doubt was salutary. This was particularly exhibited in the sys- tem of scepticism which originated with Pyrrho of Elis. A similar spirit, at least, subsisted in the middle and new acade- mies, of which Arcesilaus and Carneades were the founders. The Socratic school put forth new branches in the Stoic school, founded by Zeno of Citiumin Cyprus, and the Epicurean, of which Epicurus of Gar- gettus in Attica was the founder. Mathe- matics and astronomy made great progress in the schools at Alexandria, Rhodes and Pergamus. And to whom are the names of Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes and Hipparchus unknown ? The expeditions and achievements of Alexander furnished abundant matter to history; but, on the whole, it gained in extent, not in value, since a taste for the wonderful had now become prevalent The more gratifying, therefore, is the appearance of Polybius of Megalopolis, about the end of this pe- riod, who is to be regarded as the author of true historical description, by which universal history acquired a philosophical spirit and a worthy object Geography, which Eratosthenes made a science, and Hipparchus united more closely with mathematics, was enriched in various ways. To the knowledge of countries and nations much was added by the ac- counts of Nearchus and Agatharchides, and trj chronology by the Parian chronicles. With respect to poetry, many remarkable changes occurred. In Athens, the middle comedy gave place, not without the inter- vention of political causes, to the new, which approaches to the modern drama, as it took the moral nature of man for the subject of its representations. Among the 32 poets of this class, Menander, Phi- lemon and Diphylus were eminent From the mime proceeded the idyl, in which branch of poetry, after the period of Stesi- chorus, Asclepiades, etc., Theocritus, Bi- on and Moschus were particularly cele- brated. The other kinds of poetry did not remain uncultivated; but all these la- bors, as well as the criticisms on poetry and the fine arts, point to Alexandria; and we shall therefore pass them over in this place. At the end of this period, Greece ceased to be independent, and Rome, the queen of empires, established her dominion over it. (See the continuation of this subject, under the articles Alexan- drian School, and Roman Literature.) Greece, Revolution of Modern. (For the history of Greece under the Eastern empire, see Byzantine Empire; and for the period from the downfall of this empire to the late revolution, see Turkey, and Venice.) For centuries, the name of Greece pos- sessed a melancholy celebrity in the polit- ical history of Europe. In the primitive seat of European civilization, amid the noblest ruins of the ancient world, one people has preserved its existence through the wild tempests of Asiatic conquerors, and has recently contended with the ene- mies of Christianity and civilization, like a shipwrecked mariner with the waves, for life and freedom, whilst Christian Europe beheld the death-struggle, for seven years, without coming to any resolution which posterity will consider as due from this age. From the year 1821, Europe saw the Greeks asserting a national existence ; but she considered this as the effort of despair, and, from day to day, expected to see the last sparks of Grecian life ex- tinguished. She therefore withheld, for years, the assistance that was prayed for. Europe did not see, in the oppressors of this people, a powerful state, resting on firm foundations, but rather expected every day the dissolution of this hollow mass of se- raglio slaves and janizaries. The jealous policy, both of the neighboring and distant powers, had thus far supported the falling state, and therefore a contest, strange a3 it was terrible, was prolonged before our eyes, between a state and a people, both of whom stood equally near destruction. The Sublime Porte appeared so little in a condition to conquer the Greeks, that ft 16 GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. called from Africa the boldest and most powerful of its satraps, that he might exter- minate the men of Greece, send their wives and children as slaves to the Nile, and spread Africans over the land of classic reminiscences. Even Frenchmen oilered their aid to subjugate the Morea. Had the powerful viceroy of Egypt succeeded in uniting under one government the iEgean sea, the Peloponnesus, Crete ami the land of the Nile, then this Egyptian dynasty, like the ancient Fatimites, would have been in a situation to rule the Medi- terranean sea, to close the Dardanelles, to give laws to the trade of the Levant, and to invade Italy. Then would Greece, that venerable ruin of classical antiquity, have been for ever annihilated. The Porte, called the key-stone of the European arch, would hardly have been the shadow of the last caliphs of Bagdad. Europe would have numlKTcd anew Sesostrisamong her mo- narchs. God be thanked that the result of the conflict has been more auspicious! The Turks and Greeks never became one nation ; the relation of conquerors and conquered never ceased. However abject a large part of the Greeks became by their continued oppression, they never forgot that they were a distinct nation; and their patriarch at Constantinople re- mained a visible point of union for their national feelings. (See Ranke's Fiirsten und Viilker, &c, Berlin, 1827.) The Greeks had been repeatedly called upon by Russia to shake off the Turkish yoke, as in 1769,1786 and 1806. The last revo- lution broke out in March, 1821. As early as 1809, a society had been formed at Palis for the liberation of Greece. In 1814, the Hetaireia (q. v.) was formed in Vienna, but the revolution began too early for their plans. Coray (q. vj with many others, as Mustoxydy, Gazy, Ducas, Cumas, Bambas, Gorgorios, Oiconomos, Capetanaki, exerted tliemselves to enlight- en their nation, and to prepare it, by a better education, for a struggle for liberty. Similar views had been entertained fifty years earlier, by several Greeks, in differ- ent parts of the country, among whom were Panagiotis, Mavrocordato and De metrius Canteinir. In Greece itself, sev- eral attempts were made to revive the study of the ancient language, and with it a taste for letters, civilization and liberty. This was particularly the case in the islands (see Hydriots), where intercourse with France, and even with the U. States, contributed to hasten the revival of a thirst for liberty. The works of Fenelon, Bec- caria, Montesquieu, and those of some German scholars; also Goldsmith's Greece and Franklin's Poor Richard, were trans- lated into modern Greek. At Athens, Salon- iki,Yanina, Smyrna, Cydonia(Aivali), Bu- charest, Jassy, Kuru-Tschcsme (a village on the European shore of the Bosphoius), in Seio, &c, schools were established. But the war has destroyed all these schools, with the exception of that on mount Athos. Rhigas (q. v.) animated the spirit of his countrymen by his songs. In addition to all this, the wretched state of Turkey, weak from without and within; every thing, in short, seemed favorable, when the precipitancy of one or a few individ- uals, was the origin of infinite mischief, because the cause of liberty was not yet ripe. February 1, 1821, prince Charles Calimachi was appointed, by the Porte, hospodar of Walachia, in the place of the deceased Alexander Suzzo. The fear ef new exactions (which take place, in thai country, with every new governor), pro- duced commotions among the people of Walachia; and this excitement seemed to the members of the Hetaireia in St. Petersburg, to afford a favorable moment for taking up arms against the Turks, in which they expected to be supported by the Russian cabinet Without knowing any thing of this plan, a Walachian, Theo- dore Wladimircsko, left Bucharest, Janu- ary 30, with 60 pandoors, and instigated the peasants to revolt, promising them the protection of Russia and the restoration of their old rights. The Arnaouts, who were sent against him, joined him, and he soon became master of Littlo Walachia, at the head of 5000 men. The Greeks in Moldavia likewise rose, under prince Al- exander Ypsilanti (q. v.), a major-general in the Russian service. This insurrection was connected with the Hetaireia. (q. v.) Perhaps the object was to hasten tin; threatened breach between Russia and Turkey. Besides, the Greeks always re- lied much on the (so called) Greek project of Catharine H. March 7, 1821 (Feb. 23 old style), a proclamation of Ypsilanti was placarded in Jassy, under the eyes of the hospodar Michael Suzzo, which declared that all the Greeks had, on that day, thrown' off the Turkish yoke; that he would nut himself at their head with his countrv- men ; that prince Suzzo wished the hap- piness of the Greeks; and that nothing was to be feared, as a great power wm going to march against Turkey. Several officers and members of the Hetaireia had accompanied Ypsilanti from Bessarabia and Jassy. Some Turks were murdered, but Ypsilanti did all in his power to pre- GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 17 vent excesses, and was generally success- ful. He wrote to the emperor of Russia, Alexander, who was then at Laybach (q. v.), asking his protection for the Greek cause, and the two principalities Walachia and Moldavia; but the revolutions in Spain andPiedmont had just then broken out, and that monarch considered the Greek insur- rection to be nothing but a political fever, caught from Spain and Italy, which could not be checked too soon (besides, Ypsilanti was actually in the service of Russia, and therefore had undertaken this step against the rules of military discipline). Alexan- der publicly disavowed the measure, Yp- silanti's name was struck from the army rolls, and he was declared to be no longer a subject of Russia. The Russian minis- ter, and the Austrian internuncio at Con- stantinople, also declared that their cabinets would not take advantage of the internal troubles of Turkey in any shape what- ever, but would remain strictly neutral. Yet the Porte continued suspicious, par- ticularly after the information of an Eng- lishman had led to a detection of some supposed traces of the Greek conspiracy at Constantinople. It therefore ordered the Russian vessels to be searched, con- U-ary to treaty. The commerce of Odessa suffered from this measure, which occa- sioned a serious correspondence between baron Stroganoff, the Russian ambassador, and the reis effendi. The most rigorous measures were taken against all Greeks: their schools were suppressed ; their arms seized; suspicion was a sentence of death ; the flight of some rendered all guilty ; it was prohibited under penalty of death ; in the divan, the total extinction of the Greek name was proposed; Turkish troops marched into the principalities; the hos- podar Suzzo was outlawed; the patri- archs of Constantinople and Jerusalem excommunicated all insurgents (March 21); and a hatti-sheriff of March 31, called upon all Mussulmans to arm against the rebels for the protection of the Islam; no Greek was, for some time, safe in the streets of Constantinople ; women and children were thrown into the sea; the noblest females openly violated and mur- dered or sold; the populace broke into the house of Fonton, the Russian coun- sellor of legation ; and prince Murusi was beheaded in the seraglio. After the arri- val of the new grand-vizier, Benderli Ali Pacha (appointed April 10), who conduct- ed a disorderly army from Asia to the Bosphorus, the wildest fanaticism raged in Constantinople. In Walachia and Moldavia, the bloody struggle (not the devastation of the country, however) was brought to a close through the treachery, discord and cowardice of the pandoors and Arnaouts, with the annihilation of the val- iant "sacred band" of the Hetaireia, in the battle of Dragashan (June 19, 1821), and with Jordaki's heroic death in the monas- tery of Seek. (See YpsUaidi.) In Greece Proper, no cruelty could quench the fire of liberty; the beys of the Morea invited all bishops and the noblest Greeks (proedroi) to Tripolizza, under pretence of consult- ing with them on the deliverance of the people from their cruel oppression. Sev- eral fell into the snare: when they arrived, they were thrown into prison. Germanos, archbishop of Patras, alone penetrated the intended treachery, and took measures with the others for frustrating the designs of their oppressors. The beys of the Morea then endeavored to disarm the sep- arate tribes; but it was too late; the Mai- notes, always free, descended from mount Taygetos, in obedience to Ypsilanti's proc- lamation, and the heart of all Greece beat for liberty. The revolution in the Morea began, March 23, 1821, at Calavrita, a small place in Achaia, where 80 Turks were made prisoners. On the same day, the Turkish garrison of Patras fell upon the Greek inhabitants; but they were soon re- lieved. In the ancient Laconia,Colocotroni and Peter Mavromichalis roused the peo- ple to arms. The archbishop Germanos collected the peasants of Achaia. In Patras and the other places, the Turks retreated into the fortresses. As early as April 6, a Messenian senate assembled in Calamata, and the bey of Maina, Peter Mavromi- chalis, as commander-in-chief, proclaim- ed that the Morea had shaken off the yoke of Turkey to save the Christian faith, and to restore the ancient character of their country. " From Europe, nothing is wanted but money, arms and counsel." From that time, the suffering Greeks found friends in Germany, France, Switzerland, England and the U. States, who sympa- thized with them, and did all in their power to assist them in their struggle. The cabinets of Europe, on the contrary, threw every impediment in the way of the Hellenists, until they were finally obliged, against their inclination, to inter- fere in their favor. Jussuf Selim, pacha of Lepanto, having received information of these events from the diplomatic agent of a European power, hastened to relieve the citadel of Patras, and the town was changed into a heap of ruins. The mas- sacre of the inhabitants, April 15, was the 18 GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. signal for a struggle of life and death. Almost the whole war was thenceforward a succession of atrocities. It was not a war prosecuted on any fixed plan, but merely a series of devastations and mur- ders. The law of nations could not exist between the Turks and Greeks, as they were then situated. The monk Grcgoras, soon after, occupied Corinth, at the head of a body of Greeks. The revolution spread over Attica, Bceotia, Phocis, JEto- lia and Acarnania. The ancient names were revived. At the same time, the islands declared themselves free. In the beginning of April, the wealthy merchants and ship-owners, the bold mariners of Hy- dra, Spezzia and Ipsara (see Hydriots), long before gained over to the cause of liberty by Bambas* and other patriots, erected an independent government in Hydra. They fitted out their vessels for war, and the blue and red flag of the Hetaireia soon waved on 180 vessels, mostly of 10 or 12 guns.f It must be remembered that the inhabitants of the islands, particularly those just mentioned, and the heroic pop- ulation of Suli, are very different from the people of the Morea and Livadia, if we wish to form a correct understanding of the Greek struggle. While the con- duct of the Moreots has but too often drawn on them the just reproach of their compatriot.*, the former have gamed a name in history, which will be honored as long as an invincible love of liberty and bold and inflexible courage in an un- equal struggle are prized. Even women, among the islanders, took arms for liberty, and, among them, Lascarina Bobolina, of Spezzia, was distinguished. The Hydri- ots cruised in the Turkish waters, and blockaded the ports. In some islands, the Turks were massacred in revenge for the murder of the Greeks at Patras, and, in retaliation, the Greeks were put to death at Smyrna, in Asia Minor, and in those islands which had not yet shaken off the Turkish yoke. The exasperation was raised to its highest pitch by the cru- elties committed against the Greeks in Constantinople, after the end of March. On mere suspicion, and often merely to get possession of their property, the di- * Neophytos Bambas, teacher of natural phi- losophy and mathematics in the school of Scio, published, in 1818, in Venice, a manual of moral philosophy, which is one of the most valuable productions of modern Greek literature. He has since been professor in the Ionian university, in Corfu, established by the influence of lord Guilford. t According to Pouqueville, the mercantile marino of the Greek islands consisted of 615 ves- sels, with 17,500 sailors and 5878 guns van caused the richest Greek merchants and bankers to be put to death. The rage of the Mussulmans was particularly directed against the Greek clergy. April 2-2, Gregory (q. v.) the patriarch of Constantinople, was murdered, with his bishops, in the metropolis. In Adriano- ple, May 3, the venerable patriarch Cy- rillus, who had retired to solitude, and Proesos, archbishop of Adrianople, and others, met the same fate. Several hun- dred Greek churches were torn down, without the divan paying any attention to the remonstrances of the Christian am- bassadors. The savage grand-vizier, in- deed, lost his place, May 1, and soon after his life; but Mahmud (q. v.), and his fu- vorite Halet Effendi, persisted in the plan of extenni nation. The courageous Stroganoff (q. v.) was yet less able to make his remonstrances heard, after the grand seignior, in order to save his favor- ite, who was hated by the janizaries, on account of his plan of reform in the mili- tary department, gave a seat, in the divan, to three members of those riotous troops. The commerce of Russia, on the Black sea, was totally ruined by the blockade of the Bosphorus, and the ultimatum of the ambassador was not answered. Baron Stroganoff, therefore, broke off all diplo- matic relations with the reis effendi, July 18, and, July 31, embarked for Odessa. He had declared to the divan, that if tho Porte did not change its system, Russia would feel herself obliged to give "the Greeks refuge, protection and assistance." The answer of the reis effendi to this declaration, given too late, was sent to Petersburg; but it was only after the most atrocious excesses committed by the jani- zaries and the troops from Asia (for in- stance, in Constantinople, June 27 and July 2), that the foreign ministers, particu- larly the British minister, lord Strangford, succeeded in inducing the grand seignior to recall the command for the arming of all Mussulmans, and to restore order. The Porte even promised an amnesty, on condition of the submission of the Greeks ■ but what guarantee was there for the ful- filment of it ? Individual executions still continued. Prince Calimachi, hospodar of W alachia, was sent, with his family to Asia Minor, where he suddenly died'on hearing of the. execution of his brother The old families of the Fanariots (ci v \ no longer existed in Constantinople and after all the cruelties they had suffered the Greeks could not trust the amnesty ?tf wnnnnZ Tlm* Umbered, too, the 300,000 Moreots, who had been mur' GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 19 dered by the orders of a former sultan, though their pardon had been stipulated with Catharine II. Their hopes were al- so strengthened by the war which broke out between Turkey and Persia, and they never gave up the confidence that the "MoscovUi" would at last arm for their protection, which Russia had taken upon herself in the three last treaties with the Porte. Meanwhile the Turkish general in Epirus, Khurshid Pacha, who was be- sieging the rebel AH (q. v.), in Yanina, had sent troops against the Suliots, into the Morea and to Thessaly. But the ^Etolians under Rhangos, and the Acar- nanians under the brothers Hyscus, obliged the Turks to shut themselves up in Arte, and made themselves masters of Salona. Ulysses put himself at the head of some Armatolics (q. v.), in Thes- saly, and the archimandrite, Anthymos Ga- zis, called the peasants to arms. In Euboea (Negropont), all the peasants took up arms, and obliged the Turks to shut themselves up in the fortified cities; but these move- ments were not decisive, because they took place without cooperation; and, in fact, nothing was effected, but the driving the" Turks from the country into the cit- ies. The pacha of Saloniki delivered the pacha who was besieged in Larissa. Omer Vrione, the lieutenant of Khurshid Pacha, entered Livadia; the inhabitants of Athens fled to the islands; the Acrop- olis was garrisoned by Turks. The Greeks afterwards retook Athens, and at- tempted to reduce the Acropolis by fam- ine ; but it was relieved by Omer Vrione, July 30, 1821, and the inhabitants of Athens again fled to Salamis. On the Achaian sea, Greek and other pirates frustrated the plans of the navarchs (ad- mirals) in Hydra, and the European pow- ers were obliged to protect their vessels by cruisers. In the general confusion, the islanders distinguished themselves by their valor in battle, and their greater order in the organization of government; and if much complaint has been made against their piracies, it must be remem- bered, that the convulsed state of things offered great temptations to piracy; that the government was too weak to re- press it; and that, privateering being law- ful against the Turks, it was not strange that a people, so much removed from the influence of European civilization, ex- ceeded the legitimate limits of private war- fare. The Greek sailors were bolder and much more expert than the Turkish, their vessels much swifter. In fact, we can hardly imagine a navy in a more wretched state of discipline than the Turkish. When, therefore, the first Turk- ish squadron left the Dardanelles, May 19, the Greeks constantly pursued it with their fire-ships, avoiding, at the same time, a general engagement; and, June 8, they attacked a vessel of the fine, which had got ashore at Tenedos, burned it, and compelled the rest of the squad- ron to put back to the Dardanelles. June 15, the Ipsariots landed on the coast of Asia Minor, and took possession of the ancient Cydonia, now the Greek city of Aivali; but, after they had retired, the Turks burned the city, and 35,000 inhabi- tants either perished or were driven from their homes. The ill success of their ex- pedition added fresh fuel to the rage of the Turks. The Greeks in the island of Candia, who had avoided all participation in the insurrection, were disarmed, and their archbishop and several clergymen executed. But the peasants in the moun- tains, and the inhabitants of the small island Sphakia, called the Suliots of Candia, refused to give up their arms, collected, and drove the Turks back again into the towns. From that time, the struggle continued, and the Turks, though supported by several thousand men from Egypt, were never again able to make them- selves masters of the highlands. They, however, maintained themselves in the cities. Madden, in his Travels hi Egypt, &c, gives some interesting details of the Egyptian expedition to Candia. On the island of Cyprus, where also there had been no appearances of an insurrection, the Greeks were disarmed in November, 1821, and almost all the inhabitants of Larnica, with the archbishop and other prelates, murdered. The peasants united for mutual protection; as a punishment for which 62 villages were burned in Au- gust, 1822. Since that time, the stillness of the grave has brooded over Cyprus. Similar atrocities were committed by the Turks at Scala Nuova, in Rhodes and at. Pergamos, after the Greeks had surprised the latter place. In Smyrna, also, new cruelties were committed; and the Euro- pean consuls did not succeed until No- vember, 1821, in inducing the pacha to put a stop to the enormities of the Turks. Since that time, the public se- curity has rarely been interrupted in that place.* But in the European prov- * Here, and in other places, the commanders of French, English, Austrian and American ves- sels, and the European consuls, among whom the French consul, David, deserves to be particularly mentioned, saved the lives of many unfortunate 20 GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. inces of Turkey, the cruelties against Christians continued, as the sultan had issued a hatti-sheriff (September 20, 1821), calling upon all Mussulmans to take arms against the Giaours. This order was not published in Constanti- nople, for which the populace, in that place, revenged themselves by setting fire to the city, whenever news of ill success exasperated them against the Greeks. The great Turkish fleet, under the cap- udan pacha, Kara Ali, strengthened by Egyptian, Tunisian and Algerine vessels, had, indeed, driven away the Greek flotil- las, supplied the Turkish garrisons in the Morea with troops, arms and provisions, burned the small village of Galaxidi, in the gulf of Lepanto, October 2, 1821, and taken some small Greek fishing craft in the harbor of this place. Yet the fleet had effected nothing decisive. Hardly had it returned to the Dardanelles, Octo- ber 22, 1821, when the Greek fleets re- newed their system of blockade, and be- came, as formerly, masters of the iEgcan sea and the guif of Salon iki. Mean- while, Demetrius Ypsilanti had arrived at Hydra, with prince Alexander Cantacu- zeno, with authority from his brother, Alexander Ypsilanti. In Hydra, the un- fortunate result of the struggle in Wala- chia was not yet known. Demetrius promised the aid of Russia, and announc- ed the restoration of the Greek empire. Yet it was with great difficulty that he succeeded in being appointed, on July 24, 1821, archistrategos (commander-in-chief) of the Peloponnesus, the Archipelago, and all the liberated provinces, and, as such, hi being placed at the head of the Greeks in the Morea, where the dis- sensions among the capitani, and the un- disciplined state of the soldiery, had a most injurious effect Soon after (Au- gust 3), the principal Turkish fortress, Monembasia (Napoli di Malvasia) surren- dered to prince Cantacuzeno, and Nava- 'riho to Demetrius Ypsilanti; but the ra- pacious Moreots did not observe the arti- cles of capitulation. Some details of what happened after the capitulation of Navarino are related in the editor's Jour- nal in Greece (in German, Leipsic, 1823). Demetrius, disgusted at this disorder, de- clared his intention to leave Greece, un- less he were invested with power to put a stop to this licentiousness, which he re- ceived at least nominally. At the same time, the senate of Calamata united with persons, who would otherwise have become the victims of Turkish or Greek fanaticism. that of Hydra, in order to assemble a con- gress of deputies from all Greece, at Ca- lamata. Whilst Mavrocordato and others were making these preparations, Deme- trius Ypsilanti was closely besieging Tri- polizza, the chief fortress of the Turks, situated in the plain of JMantinea, in the centre of Greece. The garrison was on the point of surrendering, when the appear- ance of the Turkish fleet, in the waters of the Peloponnesus, gave them new cour- age. But in order to induce the Turkish troops to make an obstinate resistance, from fear of the vengeance of the Chris- tians, the Turkish commanders, at Tripo- lizza, ordered 80 priests and noble Greeks, who had been brought there, in part, by the treacherous invitations of the beys, to be all murdered, excepting two. October 5, after 2000 Albanians had received permis- sion to depart, and the negotiations with the Turks were broken off, Tripolizza was taken by storm. The last post was sur- rendered, on terms of capitulation, by the gallant Kiaja Bey; but the Moreots could not be restrained, and 8000 Turks perished. Even the Albanians were at- tacked, and some of them plundered. In Tripolizza, the Moreots gained their first heavy cannon, and the place became the seat of the soi-disant Greek government, until it was transferred to Argos. Ulysses was equally successful in Thes- sally. He and some other guerilla lead- ers, or capitani, among whom was Pere- vos, on September 5 and 6, near Ther- mopylae, defeated a Turkish army, which had advanced from Macedonia. January 26,1822, the Acrocorinthus (q. v.) fell into the hands of the Greeks by capitulation. On the other hand, the pacha of Saloniki took the peninsula of Cassandra, Nov. 11 by storm, the Greeks having become en- feebled by dissensions. 3000 Greeks were put to the sword, women and children carried into slavery, and the flourish- ing peninsula made a desert. The monks and hermits on mount Athos( Monte San- to), alone saved themselves by a heavy ransom, and remained undisturbed, be- cause the Turks consider these rocky her- mitages sacred. At the same time, Khur- shid Pacha, November 13, assaulted Ali's fortress Zathariza, and the old tyrant of Epirus in vain expected succor from the Greeks in his last place of refuge, a castle in the lake near Yanina. The Greeks, to wards the end of November, having occu- pied Arte, without obtaining possession of the citadel, were obliged to leave the city m the middle of December, when Omer \none returned from Livadia, and dis- GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 21 perse themselves in the mountains. Dur- ing this irregular war, the government be- gan to acquire some form, as the separate senates established connexions with each other. They invested Demetiius Ypsilanti with the chief command in the Morea, Ulysses with the same office in Thessaly, and somewhat later also in Attica. Prince Mavrocordato received the chief command in the Albanian provinces. They final- ly sent prince Cantacuzeno to the empe- ror Alexander, to implore his assistance; but the prince could not obtain passports for St. Petersburg, because the system of the holy alliance was neutrality (as they called it), and discouragement of the Greek insurrection. Equally unsuccessful were the navarchs, in Hydra, in their attempts to secure the neutrality of the viceroy of Egypt by sea, as he now hoped for an op- portunity of uniting Crete with Egypt. First Attempt towards a Political Or- ganization of the Greeks, January 13 (Jan- uary 1), 1822, in Epidaurus, until the second National Assembly in Astro, March 14, 1823. With the greatest difficulty, Mav- rocordato and some prelates had suc- ceeded in giving somewhat of a federa- tive constitution and a central government to a country which Avas by no means yet entirely freed from the Turks, and was oc- cupied by parties often hostile to each other. The western part of Greece— Acarnania, iEtolia and Epirus, sent thirty deputies to Missolonghi, who, under the presidency of Alexander Mavrocordato, formed a government or gerousia, Nov. 4,1821, consisting often members; the eastern part of the main-land, comprising Attica, Bceotia, Eubcea, Phocis, Locris, Doris, Ozote, Thessaly and Macedonia, sent thirty-three deputies to Salona, who, under the presidency of Theodore Negris, formed, on the 16th of November, the areopagus of fourteen members. The Mo- rea, or the Peloponnesus, with the islands of Hydra, Ipsara, Spezzia, &c, sent sixty deputies to Argos, who assembled, Dec. i, under the presidency of prince Demetrius, and established the Peloponnesian gerou- sia of twenty members. These three gov- ernments were to prepare a permanent constitution, which was to receive, in fu- ture, such amendments as experience should suggest. For this purpose, 67 deputies from all the provinces of Greece formed the first national assembly in Epi- daurus, Jan. 10, 1822, under the presi- dency of Mavrocordato, which, Janu- ary 13, the Greek new year's day, pro- claimed a provisionary constitution. Its principles were the following: the annual election of all chief magistrates of the provinces, districts and communities; laws were to be made by the concurrent vote of the deliberative and executive councils ; the execution of laws was to rest with the executive council, which appointed the eight ministers; the inde- pendence of the judiciary was to be pro- vided for; this branch of government was to be exercised by the district, provincial and supreme courts. The congress then elected the thirty-three members of the legislative and the five members of the executive council. Mavrocordato was elected proe'dros, or president; Theod. Ne- gris, secretary of state of the executive council; Ypsilanti, who had expected this place, was appointed president of the legislative council, but never discharged the duties of his office. Finally, the con- gress of Epidaurus issued a manifesto, Jan. 27, 1822, in which they pronounced the union of the Greeks under an inde- pendent federative government The operation of this was not so beneficial as had been expected. A people so long en- slaved, and so deficient in civilization, could not at once establish a wise and firm government. The central govern- ment fixed its seat at Corinth, and, at a later period, again at Argos. The Porte was now obliged to divide its forces. One army was unsuccessfully employed in Ar- menia on the Euphrates, against the' Per- sians ; another was stationed on the Danube, to observe the Russian army in Bessarabia, But Ali's fall encouraged the Porte, and it was with difficulty that the Austrian and English ministers could convince the divan of the peaceable in- tentions of Alexander. But, in 1822, at the request of Russia, the sultan ordered the restoration of some Greek churches, and the election of a new patriarch in the usual way. The choice fell upon An- thymos, bishop of Chalcedon. He was treated with respect, for the purpose of inducing the Greeks to accept the amnes- ty. The Asiatic hordes, in May, 1822, evacuated the principahties of Walachia and Moldavia, after committing every kind of excess; in July, new hospodars were appointed—Ghika for Walachia, and Sturdza for Moldavia; both were Boyards, and Greeks were excluded from all offices in the principalities. The new hospodars were under the superintendence of Turkish seraskiers, and European Turks continued to occupy the principahties; they were, however, withdrawn from Jassy, which they burned and pillaged, August 10,1822, enraged at the orders of the divan. 22 GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. Meanwliile, the year 1822 had produced important results in Greece, because both parties had followed, in some sort, a military plan of operations. After Ali's fall, Khurshid Pacha in Thessaly deter- mined to collect reinforcements from Ru- mclia, in order to conquer Livadia and Morea, whilst, in February and March, 1822, a Turkish fleet, under Hali Bey, was to reinforce the garrisons in the Morea, 60 that Jussuf Pacha, from Patras and Le- panto, could support Khurshid's attack up- on the isthmus and his invasion of the Mo- rea. But the attempt of the Turkish fleet to reduce the Morea by fresh troops, to- tally failed, and the opposition of the Suliots kept back the seraskier in Epirus. These events gave Colocotroni time to shut up the troops, which had been land- ed in Patras, and to send assistance to Acarnania. At the same time, new insur- rections broke out in several places, which again divided the power of the Turks. The misfortune of Scio saved the Greek main-land. The numerous Greek popu- lation of the flourishing and defenceless island of Scio (see Scio) had declined everv invitation to engage in the revolu- tion ; but, March 23,1822, a Greek fleet from Samos, under Logotheti, having ap- peared on the coasts, the peasants, .who labored under the greatest oppressions, took up arms. Great disorders occurred, and the Turks, after having taken 80 hos- tages from among the richest inhabitants of the city, retired into the citadel. At this moment, the great Turkish fleet made its appearance. In order to punish Scio, the capudan pacha abandoned his plan of operations against the Morea, and landed (April 11th) 15,000 of the most barbarous of the Asiatic troops, after the Sciots had rejected the offer of amnesty. The island- ers were beaten, and in a few days the paradise of Scio was changed into a scene of fire and blood. It was with great dif- ficulty, and at the risk of their own lives, that the European consuls (among whom the courageous French consul Digeon was distinguished), and the captains of some European vessels, were able to save a few hundred Greeks. Part of the peo- ple escaped to their vessels; others con- tinued the struggle of despair in the mountains. The European consuls, by means of a pastoral letter of the arch- bishop, and by the written assurance of the surviving hostages, that the Sciots might trust the offered amnesty, if they would deliver up their leaders and their arms, finally effected the submission of the peasants. Still, murders, burnings and pillaging did not cease. According to the Turkish lists, down to the 25th ot May, 41,000 Sciots, mostly women and children, were sold into slavery. A sim- ilar fate was prepared for Ipsara, 1 me and Samos. But the Ipsariots, having already made preparations to send their families to the Morea, hovered round the Turkish fleet with 70 small vessels, among which were several fire-ships, called hephastia, which were as ingeniously constructed as they were skilfully directed. Forty- three "ipsariots and Hydriots devoted themselves to death, rowed with their scampavias (a kind of gunboats) into the midst of the fleet of the enemy, which still lay in the road of Scio ; and in the night of June 18, 1822, captain George attached fire-ships to the ship of the cap- udan pacha and to another vessel of the line. The former blew up, with 2286 men; the latter was saved. The capu- dan pacha was mortally wounded, and carried on shore, where he died. The Turks were at first stupified; but their rage soon broke out, and the last, traces of cultivation, the mastic villages, so lucra- tive to the Porte, were destroyed. In Constantinople, Turks bought Sciots merely for the purpose of putting them to death at pleasure. The merchants of Scio, resident at Constantinople, and the hostages which were carried thither, were executed in secret or in public, without any kind of legal process. Thus the Morea and the Archipelago were taught what fate they were to expect. The Porte, however, began to perceive that it was destroying its own resources by the system of devastation. The pacha of Smyrna, therefore, received strict injunc- tions from the sultan to maintain order and to protect the Greeks. In Scio, the new governor, Jussuf Bey, gave back the lands to those Greeks who returned. In Cyprus, where the murder of the Chris- tians had been continued until the end of 1822, Salih Bey, a humane officer of the pacha of Egypt, finally protected the dis- trict under his command from utter devas- tation ; and, in 1823, the new governor Seid Mehemet, endeavored to restore or- der in the whole island. The insurgents also occupied the Turkish troops in Mace- donia. The enormities of the Asiatic troops, who traversed this province to join Khurshid's army, excited an insur rection among the mountaineers, who had previously remained quiet. Under the capitani Diamantis, Tassos and others. they occupied the passes of the Olvmnus and, March 24, 1822, captured the ^ GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 23 portent place of Cara-Veria, the ancient Beroea. But the pacha of Saloniki, Ab- bolubut, finally defeated them with his cavalry at Niausta; the peasants dispersed, and about 150 villages experienced the fate of Scio. 5000 Christian families per- ished, and the pacha boasted that he had murdered in one day 1500 women and children. Even the Porte disapproved these measures, and the pacha was con- demned to be strangled; but, surrounded by his body-guard, in the fortress of Sa- loniki, he escaped the execution of the sentence. (The Porte afterwards, how- ever, appointed him seraskier of Rumelia, and in November, 1823, he marched with 15,000 men from Larissa to Zeitun.) Whilst Scio was desolated, and Macedonia bled, the central government at Corinth, under Mavrocordato, president of the executive council, was engaged, in con- nexion with the provincial governments, in organizing the administration of the country, provisionally, by the law of April 30,1822 (the first year of independence), introducing order into the army, raising a loan, promising the soldiers land (by the law of May 7,1822, May 19, new style), and, as there existed no taxes except cus- toms, in laying a tax on the productions of the soil; but they met with resistance in almost all their attempts, particularly from the old capitani, who had been en- tirely independent during the government of the Turks. Each desired to command and to fight on his own account, and for his own profit Thus the avaricious and ambitious Colocotroni, the fierce Ulysses,* and the haughty Mavromichalis, and even Ypsilanti, yielded with reluctance to the new order of things. The deficiency of human language, which obliges us to use the same word for things which are very different, constantly creates misun- derstanding, and we must warn our read- ers not to connect with the words gov- ernment, ministers, law, &c, applied to Greece at this time, such ideas as they aunex to the words when used of Euro- pean or North American affairs. If a nation, which has been for centuries in a state of oppression and lawlessness, rises, it must undergo many changes before the elements of order are developed. Under the Turks, the Greeks had no connexion with each other; how could they be ex- pected to form at once a peaceful whole ? * Ulysses even ordered a brave officer, the col- onel llaverino I'alasca, and a capitano, Alexis Nuzzo, sent by government to induce the wild capitano to act in concert with a general plan of operations, to be put to death. The bravest soldiers among them were the capitani from Maina and Suli, but these had been, mostly, clephtes or rob- bers, totally independent, and wished to continue the war independently, for then- own interests, as they had previously done. Of this class is Colocotroni. Sub- mission to any sort of national organiza- tion was foreign to their habits. The inhabitants of the Morea were mostly wretched peasants, who had always lived in such a state of bondage, that they were only fit to engage an enemy under shelter, or when their numbers were greatly supe- rior, but could never be brought to fight in open combat on equal terms. They were, moreover, poor, and few among them could be induced to make any sac- rifices. At the same time, they thought liberty delivered them from all taxes; and, indeed, what had they to pay ? War, put- ting a stop to production, left the govern- ment without resources, and without the means of exercising authority. Add to this, that the Greeks were continually quarrelling among themselves. The ed- itor was present at a fight between the capitano Niketes and some Moreots, for the possession of some cattle. Under these circumstances, the words law and government must be understood in a very restricted sense. The editor's Journal, above referred to, relates particularly to the state of Greece at this period. All that enabled the Greeks to continue their struggle was the wretchedly undisciplined character of their Turkish enemies. Mavrocordato had a difficult part to per- form, because he had not obtained his dignity of proedros on the field of battle. Yet, by the influence of Negris, he receiv- ed the command of the expedition to Western Hellas (Epirus), with full civil and military power. The proedros, with 2000 Peloponnesians and the corps of Philhellenes* (about 300 men, under gen- eral Normann, formerly a general in the Wiirtemberg service), joined, on June 8, the Albanian bands of the brave Marco Botzaris, for the purpose of covering Mis- solonghi, the strong-hold of Western Hel- las, of relieving Suli, and capturing Arta. Here they had to contend with the pacha of Yanina, Omer Vrione, and the pacha of Arta, Ruchid, whilst the Turkish com- mander-in-chief(seraskier) Khurshid, who had made an unsuccessful attack on Ther- mopylae in May, had forced his way (June 17) through Tricala to Larissa. Suli, in * Those Europeans and Americans who had gone to Greece to serve in the insurrection. 24 GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. Albania, was relieved; but, after the bloody battle of Pete (July 1(5, 1822), where the, capitano Gozo n-eacherously fled, and the Philhellenists, who made the longest stand against the enemy, lost 150 men, with their artillery and hnsrgage, Botzaris and Nermann were obliged to throw themselves into the mountains. Mavrocordato in vain called the people to arms ; the other commanders refused to assist him; general Yarnakioti went over to die enemy, and the internal dissen- sions among the Albanians enfeebled the strength of the Greeks. The castle of Suli was surrendered to the Turks ou Sept. 20. Part of the Suliots (1800 men, with their wives and cliildren) took refuge un- der the protection of the British in Ceph- alonia ; the rest fled to the mountains. Mavrocordato, with 300 men, and Marco Botzaris, with 22 Suliots, finally threw themselves (Xovember 5) into Missolon- ghi. "Here," said the former, "let us fall with Greece." Omer Vrione now considered himself master of ^Etoha, and advanced, with Ruchid, at the head of 11,000 men, to Missolonghi. Jussuf Pa- cha sent troops from Patras and Lepanto against Corinth, and Khurshid, who, in Larissa, had received reinforcements from Rumelia and Bulgaria, determined to ad- vance from Thessaly, through Livadia (where the Greeks, June 19, 1822, had reduced the Acropolis by famine, after a siege of four months), against the isthmus; and then, after forming a union with Jus- suf and Omer Vrione, to crush the insur- gents in the Morea. His mam body, 25,000 strong, composed principally of cavalry, had already passed Thermopylae, which Ulysses had defended so valiantly in May and June, without opposition. On Ins inarch through Livadia, he laid every thing waste, proclaimed an amnesty, and occupied Corinth, which a priest of the name of Achilles, who afterwards killed himself, had basely surrendered on July 19 ; but when Khurshid attempted to penetrate the passes in person, he was three times repelled by Ulysses, near La- rissa, where he died, November 26, just before the arrival of the capidgi bachi, who brought his death warrant That body of cavalry, however, which had so rashly pushed fonvard without infantry, and was unable to obtain food or proven- der, perished in the defiles of the Morea. When it advanced against Argos (from which the central government had fled), formed a junction with 5000 men of Jus- suf s army, and sent reinforcements to Napoli di Romania, the danger united all the capitani. Nicholas Niketes, who was on the point of taking Napoli di Romania by capitulation, 3Iavromichalis and Ypsi- lanti retreated to the heights of Argos, laving waste the open country; Ypsilanti, in the ruins of the castle of Argos, held the enemy in check ; the Greek fleet pre- vented the relief of Nauplia, or Napoli di Romania, by the great Turkish fleet, and took an Austrian store-ship, bound to Na- poli di Romania ; Ulysses occupied the defiles of Geranion ; Colocotroni hasten- ed from Patras, which he was besieg- ing, to the scene of danger, called the people to die standard of the cross, as- sumed the chief command, and, in the latter part of June, occupied the defiles between Patras, Argos and Corinth, by which he cut off the connexion of the Turks iu Thessaly with Khurshid. The skirmishing began on all sides, and con- tinued day and night, from August 1 to August 8. On the latter day, the Turkish commander-in-chief, Dram Ali (or Tshar Hadgi Ali Pacha), whose troops had noth- ing but horse-flesh to eat, offered to evac- uate the Morea ; but Colocotroni refused the offer. The pacha then determined to break through to the isthmus of Corinth ; but Niketes fell upon the separate corps of the Turks, on the night of August 9, in the defile of Tretcs; so that hardly 2000, without artillery or baggage, reached the isthmus, where Ypsilanti en- tirely destroyed them.* Another corps, which fled towards Patras, was destroyed by Colocotroni; the remaining corps was routed by the Mainofs, August 26, near Na- poli. Thus more than 20,000 Turks disap- peared, in four weeks, from the Greek soil. Some thousands still held the isthmus and the Acrocorinthus, but were soon obliged to evacuate the isthmus, and were destroyed by Niketes, in the defiles, in an attempt to break through to Patras. 500 Turks re- mained in the Acrocorinthus until No- vember, 1823. The conquerors and the Moreots now perceived, that they must not seek safety behind the isthmus, but must push the war under Olympus. The Turkish fleet, which had lain at anchor for four weeks in the gulf of Lepanto, and had attacked Missolonghi without suc- cess, set sail, September 1, with the plague on board. After an unsuccessful attempt to break through the line of 57 Greek brigs, which blockaded Nauplia, it finally came to anchor at the entrance of the Dardanelles, off Tenedos. November 10 17 daring sailors, of the band of the * Hence Niketas received the surname of Turkophagos, the Turk-eater. GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 25 40 Ipsariots, dressed like Turks, conduct- ed two fireships under full sail, as if they were flying from the Greeks, whilst two Ipsariot vessels pursued tliein, firing on them with blank cartridges, into the midst of the Turkish fleet, and fastened one of them to the admiral's ship, the other to the ship of the capitana-bcy. Both we driven from Galata and Pera, so that within 14 days (January, 1828) 16,000 jiersons were obliged to emigrate to Asia in the most deplorable condition. In the mean time, the president of the Greeks, count Capo d'Istria, appointed the able Tricoupi his secretary of state, and estab- lished a high national council, called Pan- heUenion, at Napoli di Romania; Feb. 4, 1828, took measures for instituting a na- tional bank; and, Feb. 14, put the military department on a new footing. The im- provements, however, could go on but slowly. Without the assistance of France and Russia, each of which lent the young state 6,000,000 francs (as is represented in the Courier of Smyrna, or, as others VOL. vi. 4 state, paid a monthly subsidy of 500,000 francs), nothing could have been effected. The attempts at pacification were fruit- less, because the Porte rejected every pro- posal, and England appeared to disap- prove the battle of Navarino. Codring- ton was recalled, and Malcolm took his place. In tiiis state of uncertainty, Ibra- him was allowed to send a number of Greek captives as slaves to Egypt. In March, 1828, the war between Russia and Turkey broke out, and gave the Porte full occupation. In the mean time, the French cabinet, in concurrence with the English, to carry into execution the treaty of Lon- don, sent a body of troops to the Morea, whilst the British admiral Codrington concluded a treaty with the viceroy of Egypt, at Alexandria (August 6), the terms of which were that Ibrahim Pacha should evacuate the Morea with his troops, and set at liberty his Greek prisoners. Those Greeks who had been carried into slavery in Egypt, were to be freed or ran- somed. 1200 men, however, were to be allowed to remain to garrison the for- tresses in the Morea. To force Ibrahim to comply with these terms, die French general Maison arrived, on the 29di of the following August, with 154 transport- ships, in the Morea, in the bay of Coron, near Petalidi. After an amicable negoti- ation, Ibrahim left Navarino, and sailed (October 4) with about 21,000 men, whom he carried with the wreck of the fleet to Alexandria; but he left garrisons in the Messenian fortresses, amounting to 2500 men, consisting of Turks and Egyptians. Maison occupied the town of Navarino without opposition. He then attacked the Turkish fortresses in Messenia. The garrison made no resistance, and, on the other hand, the commanders would not capitulate. The French, therefore, almost without opposition, took possession of the citadels of Navarino (October 6), of Modon (on the 7th), and of Coron (on the 9th). The garrisons were allowed free egress. Pau-as, with 3000 men, capitulated (Octo- ber 5) also, without resistance; and the flags of the three powers, parties to the treaty of London, waved with the na- tional flag of Greece, on the walls of the cities. Only the garrison of the castle of die Morea, on the Little Dardanelles, north of Patras, and opposite Lepanto, rejected the capitulation of Patras. They mur- dered the pacha, and the French general Schneider was obliged to make a breach before the Turks surrendered at discretion (October 30). The Turks were all now carried to Smyrna by the French admiral 38 GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. Rigny. The commanders of Coron, Mo- don and Patras, Achmet Bey, Mustapha and Jacobi, fled to France, to escape the anger of the sultan. The gulf of Lepanto was declared neutral; yet the fort of Le- panto, in Rumelia, was not prevented from taking the customary tolls. Nothing hos- tile was undertaken against the Turks by the French out of the Morea, because the sultan would, in that case, have declared war against France. England and France carefully avoided such a result, that diey might be able to mediate between the Porte and Russia. To defend the Morea, however, from new invasions from the Turks, the three powers at London, by their ministers, Aberdeen, Polignac and Lieven, agreed to send a manifesto to the Porte (Nov. 16, 1828) to tins effect: that "they should place the Morea and the Cyclades under their protection till the time when a definitive arrangement should decide the fate of the provinces which the allies had taken possession of, and that they should consider the entrance of any military force into this country as an attack upon themselves. They required the Porte to come to an explanation with them concerning the final pacification of Greece." The French agent, Jaubert, carried this note to Constantinople. The Greeks, in the mean time, continued hos- tilities. The Greek admiral Cochrane came, after an absence of eight months (September 30), on board the new Greek steam-ship Hermes, at Poros; and Deme- trius Vpsilanti, having under him Coloco- troni, Tsavellas, Dentzel, Bathros and others, forced his way into Hellas Proper (Livadia), at the head of 5000 men, beat the Turks at Lomodco (November 3), took Salona (December 3), then Lepanto, Livadia and Vonizza. Reschid Pacha had been recalled to Constantinople. An insurrection had broken out again in Can- dia, which occasioned the massacre of many Greeks in Kanea (August 14). Haji Michalis, a Moreot, who perished after- wards in battle, excited this unfortunate contest Mustapha Pacha, who com- manded the P^gyptian troops at Candia, could with difficulty check the anger of the Turks against the Greek inhabitants. This massacre induced the English to close the port of Kanea. The Greeks took possession, however, of all the open country of Candia. The R ussian admiral Ricord, with one ship of the line and three frigates, at Tenedos, had blockaded the Dardanelles, from the 14th of November, 1628, in order to prevent supplies of pro- visions and military stores from reaching Constantinople. The Greeks now fitted out a great number of privateers. The sultan, on tins account, banished from Con- stantinople all the Greeks and Armenians not born in the city or not settled there, amounting to more than 25,000 persons. On the 29th, he announced in all the mosques, that the Mussulmans should remain all winter under arms and in the field, which had never till now been the case. At the same time, he called all the men, from 17 to 60 years of age, to arms. Meantime the French were preparing to return to Toulon. A third of the troops, in Janua- ry, 1829, left the Morea, where diseases and privations had destroyed many men. At this time, a'scientific expedition of 17 Frenchmen, in three sections, under die direction of the royal academy, was pre- pared, by the French minister of the in- terior, to visit the Morea. The French government ransomed several hundred Greek slaves in Egypt, and the king of France undertook the education of the or- phan children. Thus, after struggling for seven years, Greece was placed under the protection of the three chief European powers. Mahmoud, however, still de- clined to recall the edict of extermination, which he had pronounced when he com- manded Dram Ali, a few years before, to bring him the ashes of the Peloponnesus. Ibrahim had wantonly burned down the oliye groves as far as his Arabians spread, and the Greeks were sunk in the deepest misery and confusion. After unnum- bered difficulties, the greatest obstacles to a well ordered government were in part overcome by Capo d'Istria. For this ob- ject, he divided (April 25,1828) the Greek states into 13 departments, seven of which formed the Peloponnesus (280,000 inhab- itants, 8543 square miles); the eighth, the Northern Sporades (6200 inhabitants, 106 square miles); the ninth, the Eastern Spo- rades (58,800 inhabitants, 318 square miles); the tenth, the Western Sporades (40,000 inhabitants, 169 square miles); the elev- enth, twelfth and thirteenth, the North, Central and South Cyclades (91,500 in- habitants, 1176 square miles): the whole amount, therefore, was 476,500 inhabitants and 10,312 square rndes. The first diplo- matic agent to the Greek government, the British plenipotentiary, Dawkins, delivered his credentials to the president Nov. 19 1828, and the French colonel Fabvier returned from France to the Morea, to organize the Greek army. The French envoy, Jaubert, delivered the protocol of the conference of the three great powers to the Porte in January, 1829. The ver- GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 39 bal answer of the reis effendi was, that the Porte wished for peace, and would appoint negotiators on the arrival of the French and English plenipotentiaries; but diat Russia could not be admitted to join in the mediation, nor should this act be considered as a renunciation of the sultan's rights upon the Morea. This an- swer was the foundation for the confer- ence of the ministers of England, France and Russia (March 22, 1829), the protocol of which sets forth what course the pow- ers intend further to pursue respecting the Porte. It was agreed that ambassadors from Great Britain and France should immediately proceed to Constantinople, and open a negotiation for the pacifica- tion of Greece, in the name of the three powers. The first subject proposed for the consideration of the Porte was the bqundaiy of Greece. A line, beginning at the gulf of Volo, running thence to the head of the Othryx, following the course of that river to the summit east of Agra- pha, which forms a junction with the Pindus, descending the valley of Aspro- potamos by the south of Leontis, travers- ing the chain of the Macrinoros, and ter- minating at the gulf of Ambracia, was proposed as the northern boundary of Greece ; the islands adjacent to the Morea, Eubcea or Negropont, and the Cyclades, were likewise to form a part of the new state. It was also to be proposed, that the Greeks should pay an annual tribute of 1,500,000 piastres; the first year's tribute, however, to be not less than a fifth, nor more than a third, of this amount, and to be gradually increased for four years, till it should reach the maximum: a joint commission of Turks and Greeks was to determine the indemnification of the Turks for the loss of property in Greece; the allied powers to appoint a committee of appeal, in case the former committee could not agree: Greece should enjoy a qualified independence, under the sove- reignty of the Porte: the government to be under an hereditary Christian prince, not of the family of either of the allied sovereigns: at every succession of the hereditary prince, an additional year's tribute to be paid: mutual amnesty to be required, and all Greeks to be allowed a year to sell their property and leave the Turkish territories. The ambassadors were also to require a prolongation of the armistice already declared by the Turks, and a like cessation of arms from the pro- visional government of Greece, and the recall of the troops, which had gone be- yond the line drawn as above from Volo to Arte. The three powers were to guar- anty all diese points. Though Russia was to have no minister present at these negotiations, they were to be conducted in her name, as well as in thoseef France and England. It was near the middle of July, before sir Robert Gordon and count Guilleminot (the two ambassadors) arrived at Constantinople. Their reception de- viated from former usages, particularly in the omission of the humiliating ceremo- nies to which Christian ambassadors were formerly obliged to submit, which would have been somewhat out of season at this time, when Diebitsch had already de- scended the southern slope of the Balkan. The history of their negotiations is of no importance, because count Diebitsch sign- ed, with the Turkish plenipotentiaries, a treaty, by the 6th article of which the sultan formally acceded to the treaty of July 6, 1827. (See Russia, and Turkey.) The protocol of the conference of March, 1829, could be considered by the Greeks only as a calamity. The situation of the president, Capo d'Istria, had been extremely difficult, as the reader can easily imagine. He was without means, in a land torn by discord; yet his attention had been directed to eve- ry thing useful—the suppression of piracy; the formation of a regular army; the establishment of courts of justice; of schools of mutual instruction; of a sys- tem of coinage; of means for collecting the revenue, and providing for the subsist- ence of the wretched remnants of the population. In November, 1828, he pro- posed to the Panhellenion, to take imme- diate measures for calling together the fourth national assembly. The assembly met at Argos, and the president, in a long address (July 23,1829), gave an account of the state of the country and of his measures. He directed the attention of the assembly particularly to the organi- zation of the forces and the revenue.* He says hi the speech, " The decree re- * The following account of the Greek land and sea forces is contained in the Austrian Observer of March 21, 1830, a paper which, as the semi- official journal of the Austrian cabinet, was, of course, always hostile to the Greek insurrection, but which generally gave truer accounts of the ac- tual state of things in that unfortunate country, than were contained in those European papers which were favorable to the cause of humanity and lib- erty. Many of the commanding officers are for- eigners ; a great part of them French. General Church and Demetrius Ypsilanti, the command- ing officers in Eastern and Western Hellas, had then resigned. The Greek land forces amounted to 13,789 men. The navy had greatly declined, consisting only of one frigate of 64 guns, one cor- 40 GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. specting the organization of the regiments, die edict relating to the marine service, and the measures to establish a national bank and a general college, were the first steps towards the regulation of the ulte- rior. The Archipelago has been freed from pirates; our warriors are again unit- ed under their standards; one division, under the command of admiral Miaulis, has assured die free navigation of the Archipelago, and conveyed to our dis- tressed brethren hi Scio every consola- tion which it was in our power to offer. A second division, under vice-admiral Sactouri, was destined for the blockade, which the admirals of the allied powers compelled us to abandon." The address further refers to the plague brought by the army of Ibrahim Pacha, which ex- tended from the islands to the Peloponne- sus ; to the expulsion of this pacha ; the efforts of admiral Codrington, and the landing of the French; adding, " The Greeks of the continent, watching ear- nestly to see the borders of the Peloponne- sus passed, manifested their wishes in this regard. We ourselves hoped to see them accomplished, for we were far from ap- prehending the diplomatic act which de- cided it otherwise." It acknowledges, with warm gratitude, the succors of the French in men and money, and alludes, in general terms, to the conferences with the ambas- sadors of the allied powers at Poros. A statement of receipts and expenditures, from January, 1828, to April 30,1829, is also given. It is evident, from this ad- dress, that, since the protocol of the con- ference of March 22, 1829, the military operations of the Greeks, both by sea and land, had been arrested by the interposi- tion of the allies. In January, however, general Church had taken the town of Vonitza, and the citadel surrendered in March; as did the castle of Romelia, to Augustin Capo d'Istria, the brother of the president, March 26. On February 9, Mahmoud, pacha of Livadia, with 3500 men, attacked the Greeks, commanded by the chiliarch Vasso, hi their camp near Tolanti. The pacha was defeated. Li- vadia and Thebes, where Omer Pacha commanded, were evacuated soon after by the Ottoman troops. Lepanto surren- dered, April 22, and Missolonghi and Ana- tolico on May 29. After the former had surrendered, 3000 Greeks marched to re- inforce the corps then besieging Athens; vette of 26, three steamers (of which two carry 8, and one 4 guns), nine brigs of from 4 to 12 guns, five gunboats, and 28 smaller vessels and trans- ports. but the operations were soon after arrest- ed, in deference to the wishes of the allied powers. Immediately after the meeting of the assembly at Argos, general Church resigned his commission as com- mander-in-chief of the forces of Greece. Such was the state of things when the peace between Russia and the Porte was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14, 1829, and ratified by the Porte, Sept. 20. The con- ferences between the ministers of the three powers, at London, had now for then object to select a prince to wear the crown of Greece. It was offered to prince Leo- pold of Saxe-Coburg, who had been the husband of the late princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV, Feb. 3, 1830, and was accepted by him, as " sovereign prince of Greece," February 20. However, he resigned this honor in a declaration dated May 21, 1830. The two reasons which the prince alleges for his resignation are, the unwillingness of the Greeks to receive him, and their dissatisfaction at the settle- ment of the boundaries. He says that the answer of the president of Greece to the communication of his appointment, in his judgment, announces a forced submission to the allied powers, and even that forced submission is accompanied by reserva- tions of the highest importance. The president of Greece states, that the pro- visional government, according to the de- crees of the council of Argos, has no power to convey the assent of the Greek nation; and the government reserves to itself the power of submitting to the prince such observations as they cannot conceal from him, without betraying their trust towards Greece and the prince. In re- gard to the boundaries, his language is, that the uncompromising determination expressed by the Greek senate, to retain possession of the provhices which the allied powers wish to exclude from the limits of the new state, will oblige him either to compel his own subjects, by force of foreign arms, to submit to the cession of their estates and properties to their enemies, or to join with them in resisting or evading a part of that very treaty which places him on the throne of Greece. That one or the other alter- native will be forced upon him is certain, because the part of the country referred to (Acarnania and a part of JEtoila, which is now to be given up to the Turks) is, to- gether with the fortresses, in the peace- able possession of the Greeks. It is the country from which Greece can best sup- ply herself with timber for building ships. GREECE, REVOLUTION OF MODERN. 41 It is the country which has furnished the best soldiers during the war. The chief military leaders of the Greeks have been of Acarnanian or JEtolian families. Sub- sequently to the arrival in Greece of the protocol of the 22d March, 1829, and the publication of the assent of the Turks to the excluded frontier in the treaty of Adri- anople, all the families which had sur- vived the war returned, and commenced rebuilding then houses and towns, and cultivating their lands. These people will never submit again to the Turkish yoke without resistance, and the other Greeks will not, cannot abandon them to their fate.* The British journals loudly reproached the prince for his resignation, ascribing it to fright at the picture which the president, Capo d'Istria, drew of the state of the country, or to the hope of be- coming regent of the British empire, in case of the accession of the minor princess Victoria. It is hardly necessary, how- ever, to look for motives beyond the dis- taste which a man of good feelings would naturally feel to assuming the government of a nation contrary to their will, and becoming, as he must become in such case, a tyrant. Since the resignation of Leopold, several princes have been pro- posed as candidates for the throne of Greece, without its ever seeming to have occurred to the powers that a Greek might be raised to that honor, or that it would be worth while to pay any attention to the wishes of the nation. According to the latest accounts, it seems that prince Paul of Wurtembergf is the most prominent candidate. By the protocol of Feb. 3, 1830, the boundary of Greece was settled as follows: On the north, beginning at the mouth of the Aspropotamos (Achelous), it runs up the southern bank to Angelo Castro ; thence through the middle of the * The correspondence of prince Leopold with the ministers, and with president Capo d'Istria, is highly interesting, as showing the arbitrary spirit with which the powers of Europe have been dis- posed to act towards Greece. It is to be found in the American papers of the middle of July, 1830. t Prince Paul (Charles Frederic Augustus) is the brother of the king of Wtlrtemberg; born Jan. 19; 1785; married, 1805, to Charlotte (Catharine), princess of Saxe-Alte:iburg, born 1787. He has four children. His eldest daughter is married to the grand-prince Michael, brother to the emperor of Russia : his eldest son Frederic (Charles Au- gustus) was born Feb. 21, 1808. Prince Paul William of WUrtemberg (the traveller), who re- turned Nov. 29, 1830, to New Orleans, from a journey into the western regions of North Ameri- ca, is the son of Eugene Frederic Henry, the sec- ond brother of the reigning king of VVurtem- lakes Sacarovista and Vrachori to mount Artoleria; thence to mount Axiros, and along the valley of Culouri and the top of Q5te to the gulf of Zeitun. Acarnania and a great part of ^Etolia and Thessaly are thus excluded from the Greek state, and a Turkish barrier interposed between Greece and the Ionian Islands. Candia, Samos, Psarra, &c, are not included. The population of the state is estimated at about 635,000: 280,000 in. the Pelopon- nesus; 175,000 in the islands; 180,000 on the Greek main-land.—Anderson's Observations on the Peloponnesus and the Greek Islands, made in 1829 (Boston, 1830). For further information, we refer the reader to Greece in 1823 and 1824, by colonel Leicester Stanhope (Philadelphia, 1825); also, the Picture of Greece in 1825 (2 vols., New York, 1826) ; the History of Modern Greece, idth a View of the Geography, Antiquities and present Con- dition of that Country (Boston, 1827); the Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolu- tion, by Samuel G. Howe (New York, 1828); Travels in Greece, by J. P. Miller (Boston, 1828); Visit to Greece and Con- stantinople, in the Years 1827 and 1828, by H. A. V. Post (New York, 1830); Raf- fenel's (editor of the Spedatcur Oriental at Smyrna, continued afterwards by Tri- corni) Histoire des Evenemens de la Grice (Paris, 1822); Considerations sur la Guerre actuelle entre les Grecs et les Turks, par un Grec (Paris, 1821); colonel Voutier's (who fought, in 1821 and 1822, in Greece) Mimoires sur la Guerre actuelle des Grecs (Paris, 1822); Agratis' Pricis des Opira- tions de la Flotte Grecque, durant la Revo- lution de 1821 et 1822 (Paris, 1822), (chiefly after the log-book of the Hydriot Jacob Tumbasis, who commanded a fleet, and fell in an engagement, in 1822); several publications by eye-witnesses, interesting as historical memoirs, by Mtiller, Lieber, &c. Ed. Blaquiere wrote, on the spot, the Greek Revolution, Us Origin and Progress, together with some Remarks on the Religion, &c, in Greece (London, 1824), with plates. Maxime Raybaud, an officer in the corps of Philhellenes, pub- lished Mimoires sur la Gricepour servir et I'Histoire de la Guerre de Vlndependance, 1821 et 1822, with tppographical maps, (Paiis, 1825, 2 vols.). See, also, Pouque- ville's Histoire de la Rigeniration de la Grhce, &c, or the History from 1740 to 1824, with maps (Paris, 1824, 2d ed., 1826, 4 vols.); Villemain's Lascaris (Paris, 1826); La Grice en 1821 et 1822; Correspond- ence politique, publiie par un Grec (Paris, 1823). The Courier de Smyrne is often 42 MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. quoted as an authority in regard to Greek affairs. Of its trustworthiness we may judge from a letter addressed by count Capo d'Istria, March 12, 1830, to the French resident, baron de Rouen, hi which he mentions the publication of two decrees, attributed to the Greek government, which are mere forgeries, and requests that proper measures may be taken to compel the editor to avow their falsehood. Modern Greek Language (called Roma- ic) and Literature. The manly attitude, assumed by the Greeks since 1821, has attracted attention to then language, which, even in its degeneracy, recalls the beau- ties of the ancient tongue. Grateful for the culture bestowed on it, the Greek lan- guage seems to have preserved its purity longer than any other known to us; and even long after its purity was lost, the echo of this beautiful tongue served to keep alive something of the spirit of an- cient Greece. All the supports of this ma- jestic and refined dialect seemed to fail, when the Greeks were enslaved by the fall of Constantinople (A. D. 1453). All die cultivated classes, who still retained the pure Greek, the language of the By- zantine princes, either perished in the conflict, or took to flight, or courted the favor of then rude conquerors, by adopt- ing their dialect. In the lower classes, only, did the common Greek survive (the KoivTi^tjpuitir;;, unX;;, IhiuiriKr) StaXtKTOi) the Vul- gar dialect of the polished classes, the traces of which occur, indeed, hi earlier au- thors, but which first appears distinctly in the 6ixth century. This Greek patois de- parted still more from the purity of the written language, which took refuge at court, in the tribunals of justice, and die halls of instruction, when the Frank cru- saders augmented it by their own peculiar expressions, and the barbarians in the neighborhood engrafted theirs also upon it. Tins popular dialect first appears as a complete written language in the chroni- cles of Simon Sethos, in 1070—80. After the Ottomans had become masters of the country, all the institutions which had contributed to preserve a better idiom perished at once. The people, left to them- selves, oppressed by the most brutal despot- ism, would finally have abandoned their own dialect, which became constandy more corrupt, had not the Greeks pos- sessed a sort of rallying point hi their church. Their patriarch remaining to them at the conquest of their capital iPanagiotacchi, who was appointed, hi .500, interpreter of the sultan), they turn- ed to him as their head, and saw, in the synod of their church, his senate, and in the language of the works of the fathers of the church, and the Old and New Tes- taments, a standard which tended to give a uniform character to the different dia- lects. Neglected and exposed to the vi- cissitudes of fortune, destitute of a creed which could elevate their moral senti- ments, thwarted in all their pursuits, urg- ed by the state of things around them to indolent voluptuousness or vindictive mal- ice, the impoverished institutions for in- struction were of little efficiency. As the proper guardians of morality and educa- tion, the clergy and monks were them- selves ignorant and corrupt. The debase- ment of this fine dialect continued till the middle of the last century; for the few writers of that period disdained to use the language of the people, and resorted to the ancient Greek, then, unhappily, an ex- tinct dialect. The Greek spirit, not yet extinguished by all the adversities the na- tion had imdergone, finally revived with increased vigor ; for the mildest of cli- mates, ever maintaining and cherishing a serenity of feeling, the imperishable heri- tage of hallowed names and associations, and even the love of song, kept alive some sparks of patriotic sentiment. With Rhi- zos, we may divide this revival into three distinct periods. The first, from 1700 to 1750, gave the Fanariots influence and efficiency in the seraglio, especially after Mavrocordato (Alex.) became dragoman of the Porte, and his son first hospodar of Moldavia and Walachia. During the second period, from 1750 to 1800, the Greeks resorted for instruction to the uni- versities of the west, and returned thence to their native country. Naturally in- clined to commerce, they soon manifested a dexterity and shrewdness, which ena- bled many to amass considerable wealth. Kept together by external pressure, it be- came necessary for them to rely on their own countrymen. Necessity taught them the value of education, and their admis- sion to the administration of the govern- ment of Moldavia and Walachia raised then views to political life. They became desirous of making nearer approaches to the more civilized nations of" Europe, so as not to remain behind in die general progress. The Greeks began to pay more attention to their mother tongue, and this tendency was increased by intercourse with the more refined West, by means of more frequent visits from intelligent men of that quarter to the ruins of Grecian greatness. The patriarch (Samuel Eu- MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 43 gene Bulgaris Theotocos) of Corfu, and the unfortunate Rhigas, may be mention- ed as eminent at this period. But in the thud period, from 1800 to the present time, this increase of the means of educa- tion first exerted a powerful influence on the nation, which, favored by external cir- cumstances, now really began to be con- scious of the oppression under which they suffered. Schools were formed at Odes- sa, Venice, Vienna, Jassy, Bucharest, and in the Ionian Islands, most of which have since ceased to exist. Even in Constan- tinople, in the reign of Selim III, some Fanariots (q. v.), especially the noble prince Demetrius Merousi, who founded a national academy at Kuru Tschesme in 1805, rendered great services to the mod- ern Greek language and literature. Grat- itude to the mother was, with the rest of Europe, a motive for attention to the daughter ; and the language gained alike by the influence of the natives and of foreigners. The works printed at Jassy, Bucharest (where Spiridon Valetas, the ornament of the court in that place, trans- lated, under the name of Aristomenes, the celebrated treatise of Rousseau, Sur I'lni- galiti des Conditions), Venice and Leip- sic were, at first, mostly theological; but, with the increase of industry and com- merce, particularly among the Hydriots, and of the wealth of individuals, the cir- culation of books was also enlarged by the assistance of foreign and cordial friends of the nation. The language it- self, which in its degradation was not des- titute of melody and flexibility, gained en- ergy and vivacity from their efforts, al- though the attempts of some individuals to bring it nearer to the ancient classic dialect, did violence to its idiomatic char- acter. (See Coray.) The attempt to bring the existing idiom nearer the By- zantine Greek and the language of the patriarchs, made by the Athenian Codri- ca,—the warm adversary of Coray,—Jaco- bakis Rhizos, and many others, was more rational; and the periodical 'Ep/^s Xoyioj, es- tablished at Vienna by the influence of Coray, with the other similar works which it called into existence, was not without effect. But eveiy attempt will be vain to deprive the modern Greek language of its peculiar character, especially after a conflict which has excited so violently the feelings of the nation. The wealth of the modern Greek language, which former dictionaries show but very imper- fectly, because it can only be fully exhib- ited by the assistance of many glossaries —Vcndoti, Mod. Gr. Itel. and French (Vi- enna, 1790); WeigelMod. Gr. Germ, and Itel. (Leipsic, 1796); Cumas, Mod. Gr. Russ. and French (Moscow, 1811); Vlani, Mod. Gr. and Itel.( Venice, 1806); Schmidt's Mod. Gr. and Genu. Diet. (Leipsic, 1825), —would have been more fully displayed by the large dictionary, intended to fill six folio volumes, the superintendence of which was undertaken at Constantinople in 1821, by die patriarch Gregory (q. v.), but which was interrupted by the murder of the old man, April 22, 1821, with the destruction of so many institutions of learning fostered by him.* For acquir- ing a knowledge of die language itself, wliich differs from the ancient chiefly in die formation of the tenses and in the terminations of the nouns, the means have now increased. The grammar of Christopylus, published in Vienna in 1805, which considers the modern Greek as iEolic-Doric, Schmidt's Modern Greek Grammar (Leipsic, 1808), and another German and Greek grammar, by Bojads- chi (Vienna, 1821 and 1823), besides Jules David's very valuable Mithode pour itudier la Langue Grecque Moderne (Paris, 1821), and a 2uionri*oj -nagaWriXiaixoi n;j iWnviKtis Kat YpatKiKTis y\maarii (Paris, 1820), W. Miin- nich's Mod. Greek Grammar (Dresden, 1826),Von Ludemann's Manual of theMod. Greek Language (Leipsic, 1826), furnish important assistance. German philologists, such as Friedemann and Poppo, have, moreover, considered the relations of the modern Greek to the ancient. A work which is highly important for the lan- guage, as it exists, is the Remarks of II. Leake on the Languages spoken in Greece at the present Day, to be found in his Researches in Greece (1814). (See also the Diction. Franpais Grec Moderne pricidA d'un Discours sur la Grammaire et la Syntaxe de Vune et Vautre Langue par Grig. Zalicoglos; Paris, 1824.) The lite- rature of the modern Greeks, which had consisted chiefly of translations from the French, could not very much elevate the spirit of the people, as the matter pre- sented was, hi most cases, uncongenial to their character; but after the noble Co- ray, and others of similar sentiments, had devoted themselves to its improve- ment^ higher activity was perceptible. The school at Scio (unhappily destroyed by the massacre of April 11, 1822), which had existed since 1800; the academy at Yanina, whose director, Athanasius Psali- * The first and second volumes of this Ark of the Greek Language, appeared at Constantino- ple in 1819, etc. from the press of the patriarch in the Fanar. 44 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE—GREEK CHURCH. da, was regarded as the first modern Greek scholar; and the academy founded by the French on the Ionian Islands, were points of union for the Greek youth, not without influence on the Greek people. Under the protection of England, and lord Guilford's wise care, the Greek spirit was gradually developed. An Ion- ic Greek university was opened at Cor- fu, by the direction of Canning, May 19, 1824. It consists of four faculties, for theology, law, medicine and philosophy. Its chancellor was lord Guilford. The lectures are in the modern Greek language. The most distinguished professors are, Bambas of Scio, Asopios, and Piccolo (who delivers lectures on modem philoso- phy). In Paris, a distinct professorship of the modern Greek has existed for several years, and M. Clonaris delivers a course of very popular lectures on it Those delivered by Jacobakis Rliizos Nerulos, at Geneva, were printed in a French translation (Geneva, 1827). In Munich, a professorship was afterwards established. In Vienna, Petersburg, Trieste, wealthy Greeks afforded important aid to die lite- rature of their countrymen. In Odessa, a Greek tiieatre has existed for several years, where ancient Greek tragedies, translated into the modern language, de- light the spectators. Such experiments were followed by original productions of Jacobakis Rhizos (Aspasia and Polyxena), of Piculos, and by translations of modern dramatic works by Oiconomos, Coccina- kis, &c. The inspiring strains of Rhigas (q. v.) and Polyzois roused the military spirit of then countrymen. Christopylus, in the style of the Teian bard, pours out his cheerful strains ; nor must Kalbo and Salomo of Zante be forgotten ; the tone of the productions of Jannacateky Tia- nites, of Constantinople, is more melan- choly. Sakellario's muse is grave (Vien- na, 1817), and Perdicari's, satirical. As an improvisatore, Nicolopylus met with ap- plause at Paris. Andreas Mustoxidi (q. v.), historian of the island of Corfu, is an or- nament of modern Greek literature, equal- ly distinguished as an Italian author, by his Life of Anacreon. Among the mul- titude of translators engaged on political works, Iskenteri, who translated Voltaire's Zadig into modern Greek, is highly es- teemed. Bambas, Cumas (the translator of Krug's System of Philosophy), Alex- andridis, Anthimos Gazis, Ducas, Gubde- las, Codricas, Condos, Mich. Schinas, Spy- ridon Tricoupi, Solyzoides, were names distinguished before the beginning of the late desolating troubles. The Melissa (the Bee), a modern Greek journal, pub- lished by Spyridon Condos and Agatho- phron, in Paris, in 1821, was discontinued when the contributors engaged in the war of liberty. On the whole, about 3000 works in the modem Greek language have appeared within 50 years. Fauriel, a Frenchman, collected all the popular mod- em Greek songs (Paris, 1824—25, 2 vols.), and in them has given the public a com- mentary on the events of the day. Formore mhiute information, we refer to lken's Hellenion and Leucothea, and to the peri- odicals. Consult Jul. David's Compari- son of the Ancient and Modern Greek Languages (translated from the modern Greek by Struve, Berlin, 1827); Minoides Minas, TraUi surlaviritable Prononriation de la Langue Grecque (Paris, 1827). Co- ray's system is at present generally adopt- ed, to enrich and ennoble the modem Greek language from the treasures of the ancient Greek, avoiding the too difficult inflections, and removing the German- isms and Gallicisms introduced by trans- lations. Greek Church; that portion of Christians who conform, in their creed, usages and church government, to the views of Chris- tianity introduced into the former Greek empire, and perfected, since the 5th cen- tury, under the patriarchs of Constantino- ple, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. Christendom, which, with difficulty, had been brought to a state of concord in the 4th and 5th centuries, already contained the germ of a future schism, by reason both of its extent, as it embraced the whole east and west of the Roman em- pire, and of the diversity of language, modes of thinking and manners, among the nations professing it. The foundation of a new Rome in Constantinople; the political partition of the Roman empire into the Oriental, or Greek, and the Occi- dental, or Latin ; the elevation of the bish- op of Constantinople to the place of sec- ond patriarch of Christendom, inferior only to the patriarch of Rome, effected in the councils of Constantinople, A. D. 381, and of Chalcedon, A. D. 451; the jealousy of the latter patriarch towards the grow- ing power of the former,—were circum- stances, which, together with the ambigu- ity of the edict known under the name of the Henoticon, granted by the Greek emperor Zeno, A. D. 482, and obnoxious to the Latins on account of the appearance of a deviation from the decrees of the council of Chalcedon, produced a formal schism in the Christian church. Felix II, patriarch of Rome, pronounced sentence GREEK CHURCH. 45 of excommunication against the patri- archs of Constantinople and Alexandria, who had been the leading agents of the Henoticon, A. D. 484, and thus severed all ecclesiastical fellowship with the congre- gations of the East, attached to these patri- archs. The sentiments of the imperial court being changed, the Roman patriarch Hor- midas was able, indeed, to compel a re- union of the Greek church with the Latin, in 519; but this union, never seriously in- tended, and loosely compacted, was again dissolved by the obstinacy of both parties, and the Roman sentence of excommuni- cation against the Iconoclasts among the Greeks, A. D. 733, and against Photius, the patriarch of Constantinople, A. D. 862. The augmentation of the Greek church, by the addition of newly convert- ed nations, as the Bulgarians, excited anew, about this time, the jealousy of the Roman pontiff; and his bearing towards the Greeks was the more haughty since he had renounced his allegiance to the Greek emperor, and had a sure protection against him in the new Frankish-Roman empire. Photius, on the other hand, charged the Latins with arbitrary conduct in inserting an unscriptural addition into the creed respecting the origin of the Holy Ghost, and in altering many of the usages of the ancient orthodox church; for example, in forbidding their priests to many, repeating the chrism, and fusting on Saturday, as the Jewish sabbath. But he complained, with justice, in particular, of the assumptions of the pope, who pre- tended to be the sovereign of all Chris- tendom, and treated the Greek patriarchs as his inferiors. The deposition of this patriarch, twice effected by the pope, did not terminate the dispute between the Greeks and Latins ; and when the patri- arch of Constantinople, Michael Cerula- ritis, added to the charges of Photius, against the Latins, an accusation of here- sy, in 1054, on account of their use of unleavened bread at the communion, and of the blood of animals that had died by strangulation, as well as on account of the immorality of the Latin clergy in general, Pope Leo IX, having, in retaliation, ex- communicated him, in the most insulting manner, a total separation ensued of the Greek church from the Latin. From this time, pride, obstinacy and selfishness frustrated all the attempts which were made to reunite the severed churches, partly by the popes, in order to annex the East to their see, partly by the Greek em- perors (equally oppressed by the crusaders and Mohammedans), in order to secure the assistance of the princes of the West. Neither would yield to the other in re- spect to the contested points, on which we have touched above. While the Catholic religion acquired a more com- plete and peculiar character under Greg- ory VII, and through the scholastic phi- losophy, the Greek church retained its creed, as arranged by John of Damascus, in 730, and its ancient constitution. The conquest of Constantinople by the French crusaders and the Venetians, A. D. 1204, and the cruel oppressions which the Greeks had to endure from the Latins and the papal legates, only increased their exasperation; and although the Greek em- peror Michael II (Palaeologus, who had reconquered Constantinople in 1261) consented to recognise die supremacy of the pope, and by his envoys and some of the clergy, who were devoted to him, ab- jured the points of separation, at the as- sembly, at Lyons, A. D. 1274 ; and though a joint synod was held at Constantinople, in 1277, for the purpose of strengthening the union with the Latin church, the mass of the Greek church was nevertheless op- posed to this step; and pope Martin IV, having excommunicated the emperor Michael, in 1281, from political motives, the councils held at Constantinople, in 1283 and 1285, by the Greek bishop, re- stored their old doctrines and the separa- tion from the Latins. The last attempt was made by the Greek emperor John VII (Palaeologus, who was veiy hard pressed by the Turks), together with the patriarch Joseph, in the councils held, first at Fcrrara, in 1438, and the next year at, Florence, pope Eugene IV pre- siding ; but the union concluded there had the appearance of a submission of the Greeks to the Roman see, and was altogether rejected by the Greek clergy and nation, so that, in fact, the schism of the two churches continued. The efforts of the Greek emperors, on this point, who had always had most interest in these at- tempts at union, ceased with the over- throw of their empire and the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, A. D. 1453; and the exertions of the Roman Catholics to subject the Greek church, ef- fected nothing but the acknowledgment of the supremacy of the pope by some congregations in Italy (whither many Greeks had fled before the Turks), in Hungary, Galicia, Poland and Lithuania, which congregations are now known un- der the name of United Greeks. In the 7th century, the territory of the Greek church embraced, besides East Illyria, 46 GREEK CHURCH. Greece Proper, with the Morea and the Archipelago, Asia Minor, Syria, with Pal- estine, Arabia, Egypt, and numerous con- gregations in Mesopotamia and Persia; but die conquests of Mohammed and his successors have deprived it, since 630, of almost all its provinces in Asia and Africa; and even in Em-ope the number of its adhe- rents was considerably diminished by the Turks in the 15th century. On the other hand, it was increased by the accession of several Sclavonian nations, and espe- cially of the Russians, who were com- pelled by the great prince Wladimir, in the year 988, to adopt the creed of the Greek Christians. To this nation the Greek church is indebted for the symboli- cal book, which, with the canons of die first and second Nicene, of the first, sec- ond and third Constantinopolitan, of the Ephesian and Chalcedonian general councils, and of the Trullan council, holden at Constantinople in 692, is die sole authority of the Greek Christian in doctrinal matters. After the learned Cy- rillus Lascaris, patriarch of Constantino- ple, had atoned, with his life, for the ap- proach to Protestantism perceptible in his creed, A. D. 1629, an exposition of the doctrine of the Russians was drawn up, in the Greek language, by Pet Mogislaus, bishop of Kiev, 1642, under the title the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Church of Christ, signed and ratified, 1643, by all die patriarchs of the Greek church, to whom had been added, in 1589, the fifth patriarch of Moscow. It was printed in Holland, in Greek and Latin, 1662, widi a preface by the patriarch Nectarius of Jerusalem. In 1696, it was published by the last Russian patriarch, Adrianus of Moscow; and, in 1722, at the command of Peter the Great, by the holy synod; it having been pre- viously declared to be in all cases valid, as the ritual of the Greek church, by a council at Jerusalem, in 1672, and by the ecclesiastical rule of Peter the Great, drawn up, in 1721, by Theophanes Proco- wicz. Like the Catholic, this church recognises two sources of doctrine, the Bible and tradition, under which last it comprehends not only those doctrines which were orally delivered by the apos- des, but also those which have been ap- proved of by the fathers of the Greek church, especially John of Damascus, as well as by the seven above-named general councils. The other councils, whose au- thority is valid in the Roman Catholic church, this church does not recognise; nor does it allow the patriarchs or synods to introduce new doctrines. It treats its tenets as so entirely obligatory and neces- sary, that they caunot be denied without the loss of salvation. It is the only church which holds that tiie Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only, thus dif- fering from the Catholic and Protestant churches, which agree in deriving the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. Like the Catholic church, it has seven sa- craments—baptism, chrism, the eucharist preceded by confession, penance, ordina- tion, marriage and supreme unction; but it is peculiar, 1. in holding that full purifi- cation from original sin in baptism re- quires an immersion three times of the whole body in water, whether infants or adults are to be baptized, and in joining chrism (confirmation) with it as the com- pletion of baptism; 2. in adopting, as to the eucharist, the doctrine of transubstan- tiation, as well as the Catholic views of the host; but it orders the bread to be leav- ened, the wine to be mixed with water, and both elements are distributed to every one, even to children, before they have a true idea of what sin is, the communi- cant receiving the bread broken in a spoon filled with the consecrated wine;. 3. all tbo clergy, with the exception of the monks, and of the higher clergy chosen from among them, down to the bishops inclusive, are allowed to marry a virgin, but not a widow; nor are they allowed to marry a second time; and therefore the widowed clergy are not permitted to retain their livings, but go into a clois- ter, where they arc called hieromonachi. Rarely is a widowed clergyman allowed to preserve his diocese; and from the maxim, that marriage is not suitable for the higher clergy in general, and second marriage at least is improper for the low- er, there is no departure. The Greek church does not regard the marriage of the laity as indissoluble, and frequently grants divorces; but is as strict as the Catholic church with respect to the for- bidden degrees of relationship, especially of the ecclesiastical relationship of god- parents; nor does it allow the laity a fourth marriage. It differs from the Catholic church in anointing with the holy oil, not only the dying, but the sick, for the restoration of their health, the for- giveness of then sins, and the sanctifica- tion of then souls. It rejects the doc- trine of purgatory, has nothing to do with predestination, works of supererogation, indulgences and dispensations (to the liv- ing ; but a printed form for the forgive- ness of sin is sometimes given to the de- GREEK CHURCH. 47 ceased, at the request and for the com- fort of the survivors); and it recognises neither the pope nor any one else as the visible vicar of Christ on earth. It more- over allows no carved, sculptured or molten image of holy persons or subjects ; but the representations of Christ, of the virgin Mary and the saints, which are objects of religious veneration in churches and private houses, must be merely paint- ed, and, at most, inlaid with precious stones. In the Russian churches, how- ever, works of sculpture are found on the altars. In the invocation of the saints, and especially of the virgin, the Greeks are as zealous as the Catholics. They also hold relics, graves and crosses sacred; and crossing in the name of Jesus, they consider as having a wonderful and bless- ed influence. Among the means of pen- ance, fasts are particularly numerous with them, at which it is not lawful to eat any thing but fruits, vegetables, bread and fish. They fast Wednesday and Friday of every week; and, besides, observe four great annual fasts, viz., 40 days before Easter, from Whitsuntide to the days of St. Peter and Paul; the fast of the virgin Mary, from the 1st to the 15th of August; and the apostle Philip's fast, from the 15th to the 26th of November; besides the day of the beheading of John, and of the ele- vation of the cross. The services of the Greek church consist almost entirely in outward forms. Preaching and catechis- ing constitute the least part of it; and, in the 17th century, preaching was strictly forbidden in Russia, under the czar Alexis, in order to prevent the diffusion of new doctrines. In Turkey, preaching was confined almost exclusively to the higher clergy, because they alone possess- ed some degree of knowledge. Each con- gregation has its appointed choir of sing- ers, who sing psalms and hymns. The congregations themselves do not, like us, sing from books; and instrumental music is excluded altogether from the Greek worship. Besides the mass, which is re- garded as the chief thing, the liturgy con- sists of passages of Scripture, prayers and legends of the saints, and in the recitation of the creed, or of sentences which the officiating priest begins, and the people in a body continue and finish. The con- vents conform, for the most part, to the strict rule of St Basil. The Greek ab- bot is termed higumenos, the abbess higu- mene. The abbot of a Greek convent, which has several others under its inspec- tion, is termed archimandrite, and has a rank next below that of bishop. The lower clergy, in the Greek church consists of readers, singers, deacons, &c, and of priests, such as the popes and protopopes or arch priests, who are the first clergy in the cathedrals and metropolitan churches. The members of the lower clergy can rise no higher than protopopes; for the bishops are chosen from among the monks, and from the bishops, archbish- ops, metropolitans and patriarchs. In Russia, there are 31 dioceses. With which of them die arch-episcopal dignity shall be united, depends on the will of the emperor. The seats of the four metro- politans of the Russian empire are Petersburg, with the jurisdiction of Novgorod; Kiev, with that of Galicia; Kasan, with that of Svijaschk; and Tobolsk, with that of all Siberia. The patriarchal dignity of Moscow, which the patriarch Nikon (died in 1681) was said to have abused, Peter the Great abolished, by presenting himself before the bishops, assembled, after the death of Adria, 1702, to choose a new patriarch, with the words, " I am your patriarch;" and, in 1721, the whole church government of his empire was intrusted to a college of bishops and secular clergy, called the holy synod, first at Moscow, now at Pe- tersburg. Under this synod now stand, beside the metropolitans, 11 archbishops, 19 bishops, 12,500 parish churches, and 425 convents, 58 of which are connected with monastic schools for the education of the clergy, and, for the better effecting of this object, are aided by an annual pen- sion of 300,000 rubles from the state. The Greek church, under the Turkish domin- ion, remained, as far as was possible under such circumstances, faithful to the original constitution. The dignities of patriarch of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem still subsist The former, how- ever, possesses the ancient authority of the former archbishop of Constantinople; takes the lead as oecumenical patriarch, in the holy synod at Constantinople, com- posed of the four patriarchs, a number of metropolitans and bishops, and 12 principal secular Greeks ; exercises the highest ec- clesiastical jurisdiction over the Greeks in the whole Turkish empire, and is recog- nised as head of the Greek churcn, by the (not united) Greeks in Galicia, in the Bukowina, in Sclavonia and the Seven Islands. The other three patriarchs, since almost all the people in then dioceses are Mohammedans, have but a small sphere of action (the patriarch of Alexandria has but two churches at Cairo), and live, for the most part, on the aid afforded them 48 GREEK CHURCH—GREEN CLOTH. by the patriarch of Constantinople. This patriarch has a considerable income, but is obliged to pay nearly half of it as a tribute to the sultan. The Greeks, under the Turkish government, are allowed to build no new churches, have to pay dear- ly for the permission to repair the old ones, arc not allowed to have steeples or bells to then churches, nor even to wear the Turkish dress, generally perform re- ligious service by night, and are moreover obliged, not only to pay tolls, from which the Turks are free, but the males also pay to the sultan, after their 15th year, a heavy poll tax, under the name ofexemption from beheading. For a long time, the attach- ment of this church to old institutions has stood in the way of all attempts at im- provement Such attempts have given rise to a number of sects, which the Rus- sian government leaves unmolested. As early as the 14th centuiy, the party of the Strigolnicians seceded from hatred of the clergy, but, as they had no other peculiar- ity, soon perished. The same was done, with more success, by the Roskohiicians (i. e., the apostates), about 1666. (See Roskolnicians.) This sect, which, by de- grees, was divided into 20 different par- ties, by no means forms a regular eccle- siastical society, with symbols and usages of its own, but consists of single congre- gations, independent of each other, which are distinguished from the Greek church by preserving, unaltered, the ancient Scla- vonian liturgy, &c.; have a consecrated clergy; and, having retired from early persecution, have become numerous in the eastern provinces of the Russian em- pire. The different parties conform, more or less, to the peculiarities attributed to the Roskohiicians in general, such as de- claring the use of tobacco and of strong drinks sinful, fasting yet more strictly than the orthodox church, refusing to take oaths; and are, from a fanatical spirit similar to that of the former Anabaptists, inclined to rebellion against then rulers. Pugatschew, himself a Roskohiiciau, found most of liis adherents among them in his rebellion. At present, they have re- laxed much of their strictness on these points, as well as their fantastic notions with respect to marriage, dress, the priest- hood and martyrdom, and seem to be gradually merguig among the orthodox. The Philippoues (q. v.) were exiled Ros- kolnicians, who settled in Lithuania and East Prussia, under Philip Pustoswiaet Farther removed from the belief of the Greek church are the Duchoborzy, a sect setded on the steppes (q. v.), beyond the Don, which rejects the doctrine of the Trinity, and receives the Gospels only, has no churches nor priests, and regards oaths, as well as warfare, unlawful. Antitrin- itarians, of a similar kind, are the Rus- sian Jews, as they are called in the gov- ernment of Archangel and Katharinoslav, of whom it is only known that they wor- ship neither Christ nor die saints, reject baptism, and have no priests nor church- es. (Respecting the ancieut schismatic and heretical religious parties in Asia and Africa, diat have proceeded from the Greek church, see Copts, Abyssinia, Jaco- bites, J\estorians, Maronites, Armenians.) Greek Fire. (See Fire, Greek.) Green, a river of Kentucky, which rises in Lincoln county, and flows into the Ohio, 61 miles above the Wabash, 173 below Louisville. Its course for about 150 miles is westerly; it afterwards has a course N. by W. Its whole length is upwards of 200 miles, and it is navigable for boats, at some seasons, nearly 150. The tract through which it flows, called the Green river country, is remarkable for its fertility, beautiful scenery and stupendous caves, in wliich are found great quantities of ni- tre. Green Bank ; one of the banks near the island of Newfoundland, 129 nules long and 48 wide. Lon. 53° 3tf to 55° 50' W.; lat 45° 307 to 46° 5C N. Green Bat, or Puan Bay ; bay on W. side of lake Michigan, about 100 miles long, but in some places only 15 miles, in others from 20 to 30, broad. It lies nearlv from N. E. to S. W. At the entrance of it from the lake is a string of islands ex- tending N. to S., called the Grand Trav- erse. These are about 30 miles in length, and serve to facilitate the passage of ca- noes, as they shelter them from the winds, which sometimes come witii violence across the lake. Green Bay is termed by the inhabitants of its coasts, the Meno- miny bay. The country around is occu- pied chiefly by the Menominy Indians. Green Bay ; a post-town, military post, and seat of justice for Brown county, Mich- igan, at S. end of Green Bay, near the en- trance of Fox river; 180 S.W.Michilimack- uiac, 220 N. by W. Chicago, 366 E. Prairie du Chieu, by the Fox and Ouisconsin riv- ers, W. 972. Lon. 87° 58' W.; lat. 45° N. Here is a settlement, extending about four miles. Green Cloth ; a board or court of jus- tice, held in die counting-house of the king's household, composed of the lord steward and officers under him, who sit daily. To this court is committed the GREEN CLOTH—GREENE. 49 charge and oversight of the king's house- hold in matters of justice and government, with a power to correct all offenders, and to maintain die peace of the verge, or ju- risdiction of the court royal, which is ev- ery way about 200 yards from the last gate of the palace where his majesty re- sides. Without a warrant first obtained from tins court, none of the king's servants can ha arrested for debt Greene, Nathaniel, a major-general in the American army, was born, May 22, 1742, near the town of Warwick in Rhode Island. His father was an anchor smith, and, at the same time, a Quaker preacher, whose ignorance, combined with the fa- naticism of the times, made him pay little attention to the worldly learning of his children, though he was very careful of their moral and religious instruction. The fondness for knowledge, however, of young Greene was such, that he devoted all the time he could spare to its acquisi- tion, and employed all his trifling gains in procuring books. His propensity for the life of a soldier was early evinced by his predilection for works on military subjects. lie made considerable proficiency in the exact sciences; and, after he had attained his twentieth year, he added a tolerable stock of legal knowledge to his other ac- quisitions. In the year 1770, he was elect- ed a member of the state legislature, and, in 1774, enrolled himself as a private in a company called the Kentish Guards. Af- ter the battle of Lexington, the state of Rhode Island raised what was termed an army of observation, in order to assist the forces collected in Massachusetts, for the purpose of confining the British within the limits of Boston, and chose Greene its commander, with the title of major-gene- ral. His elevation from the ranks to the head of three regiments, may give some idea of the estimation in which his milita- ry talents were held. June (i, 1775, he assumed his command before the lines of Boston; and, not long afterwards, general Waslungton arrived, to take the command in chief of the American forces. Between these two distinguished men an intimacy soon commenced, which was never inter- rupted. Greene accepted a commission from congress of brigadier-general, al- though, under the state, he held that of major-general; preferring the former, as it promised a larger sphere of action, and the pleasure of serving under the imme- diate command of Washington. When the American army had followed the ene- my to New York, after the evacuation of Boston, diey encamped, partly in New VOL. VI. 5 York and partly on Long Island. The division posted upon the island was under the orders of Greene; but, at the time of its unfortunate affair with the enemy, he was suffering under severe sickness, and general Sullivan was in command. When he had sufficiently recovered his health, he joined the retreating army, having pre- viously been promoted to the rank of ma- jor-general, and was appointed to com- mand the troops in New Jersey destined to watch the movements of a staong de- tachment of the British, which had been left in Staten island. December 26,1776, when Washington surprised the English at Trenton, Greene commanded the left wing of the American forces, which was the first that reached the town, and, hav- ing seized the enemy's artillery, cut off their retreat to Princeton. Next summer, sir William Howe having embarked with a large force at New York, for the purpose of landing on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, and thence marching to Phd- adelphia, Washington hastened to oppose him; and, September 11, the battle of the Brandywine took place, in which the Americans were defeated. In this affair, Greene commanded the vanguard, togeth- er with Sullivan, and it became his duty to cover the retreat, in which he fully suc- ceeded. After general Howe had obtain- ed possession of Philadelphia, the British army, in consequence of this victory, en- camped at Germantown, where an attack was made upon it by Washington, October 4,1777, in which Greene commanded tht; left wing. The disastrous issue of this at- tempt is well known ; but it has been as- serted, that the left wing was the only part of the American army which had the good fortune to effect the service allotted it that day. The next service upon which gen- eral Greene was engaged, was that of en- deavoring to prevent lord Coruwallis from collecting supplies, for which he had been detached into the Jerseys, with 3000 men; but, before Greene could bring him to -an action, he had received reinforcements, which gave him so great a superiority, that the American general was recalled by the commander-in-chief. hi March of the following year, Greene, at the solicitation of Washington, accepted the appointment of quarter-master-general, on two condi- tions; diat he should retain his right of command in time of action, and that he should have the choice of two assistants. At the battle of Monmouth, in the ensuing month of June, he led the right wing of the second fine, and mainly contributed to the partial success of the Americans. Af- 50 GREENE. ter this, he continued engaged in discharg- ing the duties of his station until August, when he was sent to join Sullivan, who, with the forces under his command, aided by the French fleet under D'Estaing, was preparing to make an attempt upon New- port in Rhode Island, then in possession of die enemy. The command of the left wing of the troops was assigned to Greene. The enterprise, however, faded, in conse- quence of some misunderstanding be- tween Sullivan and D'Esteign; and the consequent retreat of the American army was covered by Greene, who repulsed an attack of the enemy with half then num- ber. When general Washington, alarm- ed for the safety of the garrisons on the North river, repaired to West Point, he left Greene in command of the army in New Jersey. The latter had not been long in diat command, before he was at- tacked, near Springfield, by a force much superior to his, under sir Henry Clinton ; but the enemy were repulsed, though they burned the village. This affair happened June 23. October 6, he was appointed to succeed the traitor Arnold in the com- mand at West Point. In this station, how- ever, he continued only until the l4th of the same month, when he was chosen by general Washington to take the place of general Gates, in the chief direction of the soudiem army. From this moment, when he was placed in a situation where he could exercise his genius without control, dates the most brilliant portion of Greene's career. The ability, prudence and firm- ness which he here displayed, have caused him to be ranked, in the scale of our revo- lutionary generals, second only to Wash- ington. December 2, 1780, Greene arriv- ed at the encampment of the American forces at Charlotte, and, on the 4th, assum- ed die command. After the battle of the Cowpens, gained by Morgan, January 17, 1781, he effected a junction with the vic- torious general having previously been en- gaged in recruiting his army, which had been greatly thinned by death and deser- tion ; but the numbers of Cornwallis were still so superior, that he was obliged to re- treat into Virginia, which he did with a degree of skill that has been the tiieme of the highest eulogy. He, soon afterwards, however, returned to North Carolina, with an accession of force, and, March 15, en- countered Cornwallis at Guilford court- house, where he was defeated ; but the loss of the enemy was greater than his, and no advantages accrued to them from the victory. On the contrary, Cornwallis, a few days afterwards, commenced a ret- rograde movement towards Wilmington, leaving many of his wounded behind him, and was followed for some time by Greene. Desisting, however, from the pursuit, the latter marched into South Carohna, and a battle took place, April 25, between him and lord Rawdon, near Camden, in which he was again unsuccessful, though again the enemy were prevented by him from improving their victory, and, not long after, were obliged to retire. May 22, having previously reduced a number of the forts and garrisons in South Carolina, he com- menced the siege of Ninety-Six, but in June the approach of lord Rawdon compelled him to raise it, and retreat to the extremity of the state. Expressing a determination " to recover South Carolina, or die in the attempt," he again advanced, when the British forces were divided, and lord Raw- don was pursued, in his turn, to his en- campment at Orangeburg, where he was offered battle by his adversary, which was refused. September 8, Greene ob- tained a victory over the British forces un- der colonel Stewart, at Eutaw Springs, which completely prostrated the power of the enemy in South Carolina. Greene was presented by congress with a British stand- ard and a gold medal, as a testimony of their sense of his services on this occasion. This was the last action in which Greene was engaged. During the rest of the war, however, he continued in his command, struggling with the greatest difficulties, hi consequence of the want of all kinds of supplies, and the mutinous disposition of some of his troops. When peace released him from his duties, he returned to Rhode Island; and his journey thither, almost at every step, was marked by some private or public testimonial of gratitude and re- gard. On his arrival at Princeton, where congress was then sitting, that body unan- imously resolved, that "two pieces of field ordnance, taken from the British army at the Cowpens, Augusta, or Eutaw," should be presented to him by the commander-in- chief. In October, 1785, Greene repaired, with his family, to Georgia, some valuable grants of lands near Savannah having been made to him by that state. He died June 19, 1786, in his 44th year, in conse- quence of an inflammation of the brain, contracted by exposure to the rays of an intense sun. General Greene possessed, in a great degree, not only the common quality of physical courage, but that forti- tude and unbending firmness of mind, which are given to few, and which ena- bled him to bear up against the most cruel reverses, and struggle perseveringly with, GREENE—GREENLAND. 51 and finally surmount, the most formidable difficulties. He was ever collected in the most trying situations, and prudence and judgment were distinguishing traits in his character. In his disposition, he was mild and benevolent; but when it was necessa- ry, he was resolutely severe. No officer of the revolutionary army possessed a higher place in the confidence and affec- tion of Washington, and, probably, none would have been so well calculated to suc- ceed him, if death had deprived his coun- try of his services during the revolutiona- ry struggle. Green Gage; a variety of the plum, the rrine claude of the French, usually consid- ered the most delicious of all. It is large, of a green or slightly yellowish color, and has a juicy, greenish pulp, of an exquisite flavor. Greenland (Groenland); an extensive country of North America, belonging to Denmark, the extent of which is un- known. Since lieutenant (now captain) Parry advanced from Baffin's bay into Lancaster sound (1819), it has been sup- posed to be an island. As far as it is now known, it extends from lat. 59° 38' to 78° N. Its southern point is cape Farewell. On the western coast lie Davis's straits and Baffin's bay. It is divided into two parts by a chain of mountains passing through the middle of the country from north to south. Greenland was settled 800 years ago, by two colonies from Nor- way and Denmark, of which the one oc- cupied the eastern, the other the west- ern coast. Then intercourse was carried on by sea, the mountains rendering any communication by land impossible. A Runic stone found in Greenland in 1824 (now in the museum of northern antiqui- ties at Copenhagen) proves the early dis- covery of Greenland from Scandinavia. The western colony, after numerous vi- cissitudes, still exists. The population in the southern part to the river Fridi (68°), amounted, in 1811—13, to 3583: northern Greenland contained only 3000 natives. From 67° to 69°, the country is uninhabit- ed. The fate of the eastern colony, which in 1406 consisted of 190 villages, and had a bishop, 12 parishes and two monasteries, is unknown. Up to that time, 16 bishops had been sent from Norway in regular succession ; the 17th was prevent- ed by the ice from reaching the land. Da- nish sailors, in the 16th and 17th centuries, attempted, without success, to land on the eastern coast. Attempts made in 1786 and 1829, by the command of the Da- nish government, failed. This lost East Greenland, Von Egger, in his Prize Essay (1794), maintains, is the country now call- ed Julianenshaab, on the western coast; but a manuscript now in the library at Dresden, maintains that the old settlement of Osterbygde was actually on the east- em coast of Greenland.* A traveller of the 14th century, Nicolas Zeno, describes Greenland as it existed in his time. In 1818, England sent an expedition to the Polar sea, because the ice at the north pole was said to have decreased, and a north-west passage was believed prac- ticable ; the ships returned, however, without accomplishing any thing. Cap- tain Scoresby found die eastern coast free from ice in 1822; he sailed along it from 75° to 69°, and examined it with care (see his Journal of a Voyage to the JYbrthern Whale-Fishery, &c, 1822). To this trav- eller we are indebted for the latest and most correct accounts of East Greenland, which refute Egger's opinions. He found fields producing luxuriant grass, but no inhabitants. He met, however, with some houses, containing household utensils and hunting apparatus, and a wooden coffin. The English captain Sabine describes the eastern coast of Greenland (see his Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth, &c), from 72° to 76° N. latitude. He also found it impossible, on account of the permanent mass of ice, to approach the eastern coast north of 74° ; his exam- inations proved that there was no current which carries the ice from those coasts ttrtrarris the south. The western coast was also cut off, in the middle of the 14th century, from its usual intercourse with Norway and Iceland, by a dreadful plague, called the black death. In the reign of queen Elizabeth, Frobisher and Davis again discovered this coast of Greenland. From that time, nothing was done to ex- plore this country, until the Danish gov- ernment, in 1721, assisted a clergyman, Hans Egede, with two ships, to effect a landing in 64° S7, and establish the first European settlement, Good Hope (God- haab), on the river Baal. Egede found the country inhabited by a race of people which had probably spread from the west over Davis's straits, and wliich resembled the Esquimaux of Labrador in then lan- guage and customs. In 1733, the Mora- vian Brothers were induced by count Zin- zendorf to attempt the establishment of * The Paris Archives du Christianisme says, that an expedition, which left Copenhagen in May, 1830, has found the long lost colony, pro- fessing the Christian religion, and speaking the Norwegian of the 10th century. 52 GREENLAND. settlements and missions on these inhos- pitable shores. There arc now on the western coast of Greenland twenty set- tlements, of which the most southerly, Lichtenau, is situated in 60° 34' N. lati- tude. Near it is the second settlement, Juliana's Hope (Julianen shaab): in the vicinity, the ruins of an old Icelandic and Norwegian church are still visible. Far- ther to the north he Frederic's Hope, Lichtenfels, Good Hope, New Herrnhut, Zuckerhut, Holsteinbiug, Egedesminde, Christian's Hope, Jacobshaven, Omenack and Uperuamick, in 72° 32'N. latitude, the most northern settlement, now occupied only by Greenlanders. The governor of South Greenland has his seat in Good Hope, and the governor of North Green- land is stationed at Guthaven, on the isl- and of Disco, in 70° N. latitude. There are five Protestant churches on the coast, in which the gospel is preached in the Danish and Grecnlandish dialects. The Moravian Brothers have three houses of public worship in Lichtenau, Lichtenfels and New Herrnhut. The natives, called by the oldest Icelandish and Norwegian authors, Skrellings, belong to the Esqui- maux family, which is spread over all the northern part of America, to the western coast They are remarkable for their di- minutive stature; then hair is dark, long, stringy, eyes black, heads disproportionate- I v large, legs thin, and complexion a brown- ish yellow, approaching to phve green. This, however, is partly owing ta thei* filthy manner of living, and partly to then food and occupations, as they are constant- ly covered with blubber and train oil. The women, being employed, from early youth, hi carrying heavy loads, are so broad shouldered, as to lose all femmine appearance. Then dress contributes to this effect ; they wear the skins of seals and reindeer. The short coats, the trow- sers and boots of both sexes, are all made of the same material. In extremely cold weather, they wear a shirt made of the skins of birds, particularly those of the sea-raven, the eider duck, &c. In winter, they live in houses of stone, with walls two feet in thickness, covered with brush- wood and turf, and with an entrance so small, that it can be passed only on the hands and feet. Windows are seldom met with in these huts; those which they have are made of the intestines of whales and seals. The height of the house never exceeds six feet; it is 12 feet wide, and of about the same length. It consists of one room only, with a raised platform on one side, covered with seal-skin, which serves the double purpose of a bed and a table. Lamps, supplied with train-oil, are kept constantly burning, as much for the sake of warmth as of fight The smell from so many oil lanqis, together with that of the fish, raw skins and greasy inhabitants, is hardly to be endured by unaccustomed nostrils ; and the filthy condition of the huts breeds immense quantities of ver- min. When the snow melts, which is generally the case in May, the roof of the house generally sinks in, and the Green- lander dieu spreads a tent, which is cover- ed with seal skin, and surrounded with a curtain of the intestines of whales ; the interior is arranged like the winter estab- lishment. Their utensils and tools are simple, but ingeniously contrived. They consist of bows and arrows, lances, jave- lins and harpoons. Their canoes arc made of laths, bound by whalebone, and covered with dressed seal-skin. They show a wonderful skill in managing diem, even in the most boisterous weather. They also use sledges, drawn by dogs, in which they sometimes go from 30 to 40 miles from the land on the frozen sea. The swiftness of these animals is such, that in 9 or 10 hours, they accomplish a distance of about 60 miles. The language of the Greenlanders is the same as tiiat spoken by the Esquimaux in Labrador, and on the shores of Hudson's bay. Tra- ces of it arc also said to be found on the north-west coast of America, as far as Nootka sound. The variety in the forms of die verbs, in combination with the pro- nouns, is a remarkable peculiarity of this language. The superstitious Greenland- ers pay great respect to their angekoks or sorcerers, who are at the same time dicir priests and physicians. They have but very rude notions of a Supreme Being. During the prevalence of the north-east winds, the cold is often so great, that the mercury sinks to 48° below the freezing point of Falir. The west winds coming from Davis's straits are always damp, ami accompanied by tiiaws. The basis of the mountains and rocks is a fine-grained granite, with gneiss, mica slate, horn- blende and whitestone. Many interesting and uncommon minerals are found—mag- netic iron ore, gadolinite, zircon, schorl, tourmaline, the finest garnets, sodaute, iolite, and hypersthene of a beautiful fight blue. Among the animals are the polar fox, the white hare, the reindeer, the white bear, the arctic fox, the walrus^ various kinds of seals, and the narvaf The Greenland whale (see Wlwde, and Whale-Fishery) is found in great numbers GREENLAND—GREENWICH. 53 and of an enormous size. Of the birds, the principal is the cinereous eagle ; the snowy owl, and others of the falcon tribe, inhabit the high rocks ; the water-fowl are numerous. A species of mosquito is exceedingly troublesome in the warm weather. The exports are whalebone, oil, skins and furs, eider down, the horns of the narval, &c. The imports are provis- ions, gunpowder, cotton and linen goods, iron and glass wares, &c. In the inlets and bays which intersect the coast of Greenland, immense masses of ice are ac- cumulated during a series of years, which, being loosened during the heat of sum- mer, lose their points of support from the shore,and plunge into the ocean with athun- dering noise. Being afterwards set adrift by the currents, they embarrass the naviga- tion of the Polar seas, and become the terror of the mariner. Those masses of ice are formed both of fresh and of salt water, and sometimes rise more than 500 feet above the surface of the water. The salt water ice occurs in immense fields, of many thousand fathoms in length and breadth, divided by fissures, but following close on each other. When the wind begins to blow, and the sea to rise in vast billows, the violent shocks of those masses of ice against each other, fill the mind with as- tonishment and terror. The coasts of Greenland are surrounded by many thou- sand islands of different sizes, on which the native inhabitants frequently fix their residence, on account of their good situa- tion for sea game. Green Mountains ; a range of moun- tains, commencing in Canada, and extend- ing south through Vermont, Massachu- setts and Connecticut. They divide the waters which flow into the Connecticut from those which flow into lake Cham- plain and the Hudson. Among the high- est summits in Vermont are Mansfield mountain, Camel's rump, and Killington peak. West rock, near New Haven, Conn., is the southern termination of the chain. The natural growth upon these mountains is hemlock, pine, spruce, and other evergreens, and they derive their name from their green appearance. There are many fine farms among these mountains, and much of the land upon them is excellent for grazing. Greenock ; the chief seaport of Scot- land, on the south bank of the river Clyde, which has in front an extensive and beautiful bay. The manufactories of the place are sugar-houses, rope-walks, soap and caudle works, tan works, potte- ries, bottle and crystal works, hat manu- 5* factories, extensive founderies and manu- factories of steam engines and chain ca- bles ; to these may be added ship-build- ing, which is carried on to a great extent The herring-fishery is the oldest branch of the industry of the place. The har- bors are veiy spacious, and are frequented by vessels from all quarters of the world. The dry docks are elegant and commo- dious; the one lately erected, near the custom-house, is considered the first in the kingdom. Population in 1828, over 25,000. Lon. 0° 18' 58"W.; lat 55° 57' 2"N. Greenstone. (See Hornblende.) Greenville College, pleasantly sit- uated, 3 miles from Greenville, Tennessee, was incorporated in 1794. The college hall is a neat building, about 60 feet long, and 25 wide, of 2 stories. The college has a library of about 3500 volumes, a small philosophical apparatus, and funded prop- erty to the amount of about $6000. Greenwich ; a market-town of Eng- land, in Kent, on the southern bank of the Thames, formerly the seat of a palace in which the kings of England occasion- ally resided. It was built by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and called Placentia. Henry VII enlarged it, and his son, Henry VIII, finished it. Queen Elizabeth and queen Maiy were born within its walls, and Edward VI died here. King Charles II took the greater part down, and com- menced a new palace on its site, a part of which forms one wing of the present hos- pital. This consists, at present, of four extensive piles of building or wings, en- tirely detached from each other, but so connected by the conformity of their dimensions, their figures, and the general arrangement of their decorations, as to form a complete whole. The principal front, which is nearly all of Portland stone, faces the Thames on the north. The two northern wings are separated by a square of 270 feet wide; the two southern are connected by two colonnades, 115 feet asunder, supported by 300 double col- umns and pilasters; while a spacious avenue through the hospital from the town, divides these squares from each other, and thus also divides the whole of the northern half of the building from the whole of the southern. In the middle of the great square is a statue of George II, sculptured by Rysbrach. Extending 865 feet along the front, the intervening bank of the Thames is formed into a ter- race, with a double flight of steps to the river in the middle. The pensioners to be received into the hospital must be aged and manned seamen of the navy, or 54 GREENWICH—GREGORY I. of the merchant service, if wounded in battle, and marines and foreigners who have served two years in the navy. The total expense of the establishment is £69,000 per aunum,which is appropriated to the support of about 3000 seamen on the premises, and 5400 out-pcusionei-s. Connected with this establishment is a naval asylum, designed for tlie support and education of the orphan children of seamen. On a rising ground in the park, 160 feet above low water mark, and com- manding a rich and varied prospect, stands the royal observatory, celebrated by the great names with which it is asso- ciated. The private buildings are hand- some, but the streets are in general irreg- ular. Population of the parish in 1821, 20,712 ; 5£ miles E. London bridge. The longitude in English geography is calculated from the meridian of Green- wich. Lat. 51° 29' N. Greffi er ; formerly, in the United Prov- inces, die first secretary of state ; in France, the clerk of a court of justice. (For the etymology of the word, see Count.) Gregoire, Henry, count, former bish- op of Blois, whose civil, literary and re- ligious career has been characterized by love of liberty, active philanthropy, in- flexible integrity and ardent piety. He was bom at Vetro in 1750 ; he was a member of the states-general in 1789, and was one of the five ecclesiastics pres- ent at the session of the Tennis Court. In the constituent assembly, he was dis tinguished for the boldness of his opinions on civil and religious liberty, and for the eloquence by which he supported them. At this early period, he began his efforts in favor of the Jews and blacks, which place him high among the friends of hu- manity. He was the first among the cler- gy to take the constitutional oath. In the convention, Gregoire advocated the abolition of royalty (September, 1792), but endeavored, at the same time, to save the king, by proposing that the punish- ment of death should be abolished. His absence on a mission with three members of the convention, prevented him from voting on the trial of the king; but he re- fused to sign the letter of his diree col- leagues to that body, demanding the sen- tence of death. In the reign of terror, when the bishop of Paris abdicated his dignity, and several of the clergy abjured the Christian religion in the presence of the convention, the bishop of Blois had the courage to resist the storm of invec- tives from the tribunes, and threats from the Mountain. " Are sacrifices demanded for the country?" he said;" I am accustom- ed to make them. Arc the revenues of my bishopric required ? I abandon them without regret. Is religion the subject of your d< liberations ? It is an affair beyond jour jurisdiction. I demand the freedom of religious worship." At a later period, we find him in the senate, forming one of the minority of five, opposing the acces- sion of the first consul to the throne, and alone in opposing die obsequious address of that body to the new sovereign. In 1814, he signed the act deposing the em- peror, and, in 1815, refused, as member of the institute, to sign the additional act. On the restoration of the Bourbons, he was excluded from the institute, and from his episcopal see ; and, on his election to the chamber of deputies in 1819, he was excluded from a seat by the royalist ma- jority. Since this unmerited indignity, this venerable philanthropist and scholar has devoted himself to his literary and be- nevolent labors. Died in 1831. Gregorian Calendar. (See Calendar.) Gregory, bishop of Neoca;sarea, iu which place he was bom, of pagan parents, was called, on account of the many mira- cles which he is said to have performed, Thaumalurgus (the worker of miracles). He was distinguished for his eloquence, and was a pupil of Origen. He died about 270. His works were published (in Greek and Lathi) by Vossius, witii scholia, Mayence, 1604, 4to. Gregory of Nazianzen, a celebrated teacher of the Greek church, bom about 328, at Arianzo, near Nazianzum, in Cap- padocia, was at first presbyter and after- wards bishop of Nazianzum. He was the intimate friend of Basil, and a violent enemy of the Arians. Among his pupils in eloquence, Jerome was the most dis- tinguished. He died about 390, and left many works, of which a complete edition (Greek and Latin) was published at Paris. 1609, 2 vols, folio. Gregory of Tours (his proper name was George Florentinus) was born in Au- vergne (539), made bishop of Tours in 573, showed great firmness in the dread- ful times of Chilperic and Frcdogondc (q. v.), and died Nov. 27, 593. Besides his eight books on die virtues and mira- cles of the saints, he left Historia Eccles. Francorum Libri X., which he brought down to the year 591, and which, not- withstanding its marvellous tales and its want of method, has much interest, as being the only historical work of the tune. Gregory I, pope; called also the Great. He was born at Rome, of a noble GREGORY I—GREGORY VII. 55 family, about 544; and, having received an education suitable to his rank, he became a member of the senate, and filled other employments in the state. Italy was then subject to the emperors of the East, and Justin II appointed him to the important post of prefect or governor of Rome ; which, after having held it for some time with great reputation, he resigned. The death of his father put him iu possession of great wealth, which he expended in the foundation of monasteries and charitable institutions. Disgusted with the world, he took the monastic vows himself) and became a member of one of his own es- tablishments. Pope Pelagius II sent him on an embassy to Constantinople, and made him papal secretary after his return to Rome. On the death of pope Pela- gius, in 590, he was chosen his successor. He displayed great zeal for the conversion of heretics, the advancement of mona- chism, and the rigid enforcement of ce- libacy among the clergy. His contest for ecclesiastical superiority with John, patri- arch of Constantinople, laid the founda- tion of the schism between the Greek and Latin churches, which has subsisted to the present day. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxoi;3 to Christianity was a project honorable to his zeal and abilities. (See Augustin, St.) He died hi March, 604. The works ascribed to this pope are very numerous, and have been frequently pub- lished. The most complete edition is that of the Benedictines of St. Maur (Paris, 1705, 4 vols, tblio), under the superin- tendence of father Denis de St. Martha, who, in 1697, published a life of St. Greg- ory the Great. His genuine writings con- sist of a treatise on the Pastoral Duty, Letters, Scripture Commentaries, &c. Gregory of Nyssa ; born at Nyssa, in Cappadoeia, younger brother of Basil the Great, celebrated as an ardent defender of the Nicene creed, and also for his elo- quence, lie died in his native city, of which he was bishop, some time after 394. Editions of his works were pub- lished at Paris in 1573 and 1605, and 1615 and 1638 (3 vols, folio). Gregory VII (Hildebrand). The year and the place of the birth of this great pope are uncertain. Some accounts say that he was born at Sienna, others at Soana, in Tuscany ; others still, at Rome. It is, however, certain, that he lived at Rome when a child, and went to France when a young man, where he became connected with the monastery at Cluny, and returned to Rome in 1045. His his- tory becomes more known after the time of his return to the monastery of Cluny, where Leo IX saw him on his journey through France. He returned with this pope to Rome, and from that time, al- though in the back ground, he played an important part ; and by the influence wliich great minds always exercise over ordinary men, he directed the measures of Leo and several following popes. On the death of Alexander II (1073), cardinal Hildebrand was raised to the papal chair. He now labored with the greatest energy to accomplish those plans for which he had prepared the way by the measures which the preceding popes had adopted through his influence. It was the object of his ambition not only to place the whole ecclesiastical power in the hands of the pope, but to make the church entirely independent of the temporal power. He wished to found a theocracy, in which the pope, the vicar of God, should be die sovereign ruler, in political as well as ec- clesiastical matters—a bold idea, which he probably conceived in consequence of the wretched state of all civil authority. He therefore prohibited the marriage of priests, and abolished lay investiture, the only remaining source of the authority of princes over the clergy of their domin- ions. In 1074, he issued his edicts against simony and the marriage of priests, and, in 1075, an edict forbidding the clergy, under penalty of forfeiting their offices, from receiving the investiture of any ec- clesiastical dignity from the hands of a layman, and, at the same time, forbidding the laity, under penalty of excommunica- tion, to attempt the exercise of the inves- titure of the clergy. The emperor Henry IV refused to obey this decree, and Greg- ory took advantage of the discontent ex- cited by the despotic character and youth- ful levity of the emperor, among tin: people and princes of Germany, to ad- vance his own purposes. In 1075, he deposed several German bishops, who had bought their offices of the emperor, and excommunicated five imperial coun- sellors, who were concerned in this transac- tion ; and when the emperor persisted in retaining the counsellors and supporting the bishops, the pope, in 1076, issued a new decree, summoning the emperor before a council at Rome, to defend him- self against the charges brought against him. Henry IV theu caused a sentence of deposition to be passed against the pope, by a council assembled at Worms. The pope, in return, excommunicated the emperor, and released all his subjects and vassals from then oath of allegiance. The 56 GREGORY VII—DAVID GREGORY. emperor soon found all Upper Germany in opposition to lum, at the very moment that the Saxons in Lower Germany re- newed the war against him; and when die princes assembled at Oppenheim came to die determination of proceeding to the election of anodier emperor, he yielded, almost unconditionally ; he was obliged to consent to ackuowledge the pope, whom they were to invite into the empire, as his judge, to abandon his ex- communicated counsellors, and to con- sider himself as suspended from die gov- ernment To prevent being deposed by the pope, Henry IV (q. v.) hastened to Italy, where he submitted, at Canossa (1077), to a humiliating penance, and re- ceived absolution. In the mean time, his friends again assembled around him, and he defeated his rival, Rodolph of Suabia. He then caused the pope to be deposed by the council of Brixen, and an anti- pope, Clement III, to be elected in 1080, after which he hastened to Rome, and placed die new pope on the throne. Greg- ory now passed three years as a prisoner in the castle of St. Angelo, but could never be induced to compromit the rights of the church. He was finally liberated by Rob- ert Guiscard, a celebrated Norman prince, whom he had made duke of Apulia; but die Romans compelled him to quit the city, because it had been plundered by the sol- diers of Robert Gregory tiien retired to Salerno, under the protection of the Nor- man prince, where he died, in 1085. By the celibacy (q. v.) of the clergy, Gregory aimed at increasing then sanctity, and making them entirely independent of fam- ily connexions. The same measure pre- vented the possessions of the church from becoming mere feudal dependencies on temporal princes, which would have been the natural course, if the clergy had be- come parents, and, of course, desirous of transmitting the estates which they enjoyed to their children. Matilda, countess of Tuscany, whom he induced to bequeath her almost regal possessions to the papal see, was his chief support Most Protes- tant writers have accused him of insatia- ble ambition; but the impartial historian, who considers the spirit of his whole fife, studies his letters, and observes that his severity towards himself was as great as towards others, will judge differently. Gregory must be considered as a great spiritual conqueror, who rendered the clergy independent of the temporal power, and secured their safety amid the scenes of violence with which Europe was filled; thereby rendering them capable of ad- vancing the progress of civilization, which was in great danger of being swallowed up in barbarism. The papal power, which he rendered independent of die im- perial, was, for ages, the great bulwark of order amid the turbulence of the semi- civilized people of Europe. In capacious- ness and boldness of mind, he may be compared to Napoleon. His system un- doubtedly became unsuitable, like all other systems, to die wants of a more ad- vanced age; and the good of mankind, in die progress of time, required that the temporal powers should become again in- dependent of the Roman see. Gregory, James, a mathematician and philosopher, the inventor of the reflecting telescope, was bom at Aberdeen in 1638, and received his education at the Maris- chal college. In 1663, he published Op- tica promota, seu abdita Radiorum reflexo- rum et refraclorum Mysteria, Geomctrice enucleata (4to), explaining the idea of die telescope which bears his name; and, in 1664, visited London for the purpose of perfecting the mechanical construction of the instrument. Disappointed by the dif- ficulty of getting a speculum ground and polished of a proper figure, he suspended his design, and set oft' on a tour to Italy. He staid some time at Padua, where he published, in 1667, a treatise on the Quad- rature of the Circle and Hyperbola (re- printed at Venice, in 1668, with additions). On his return to England, ho was chosen a fellow of the royal society, whose Transac- tions he enriched by some valuable papers. He was chosen professor of mathematics in the university of St. Andrew's, and, in 1674, was invited to fill the mathematical chair at Edinburgh, whither he removed ; but, in October, 1675, while pointing out to his pupils the satellites of Jupiter, he was struck with a total blindness, and died a few days after, in the 37th year of lus age. Gregory, David ; nephew of the pre- ceding, and the heir of his splendid tal- ents, and emulator of his fame. The sub- ject of this article was educated at Edin- burgh, where, in 1684, he was elected professor of mathematics; and the same year he published a mathematical treatise from his uncle's papers, with important additions of his own. His lectures first hitroduced into the schools the Newtonian philosophy. In 1691, he was chosen profes- sor of astronomy at Oxford, though he had the celebrated Halley for his competitor—a circumstance which laid the foundation of a friendly intimacy between these mathe- maticians. In 1695, he published, at Ox- ford, Caioptrica d Dioptrica Sphericee Ele- GREGORY. 57 menla (8vo.), in which he considers those branches of optics chiefly as respects the construction of telescopes, particularly those of his uncle and sir Isaac Newton. In 1697, he gave die first demonstration of the properties of the Catenarian Curve ; and in 1702 appeared his most celebrat- ed production, Astronomia Physica et Ge- ometrica Elementa (folio). The object of this work is to explain Newton's geome- try of centripetal forces, as far as his dis- coveries are founded on it ; and to exhib- it in a more familiar form the astronomical part of the Principia. In 1703, he pub- lished an edition of the books of Euclid, in Greek and Latin ; and he afterwards en- gaged with doctor Halley hi editing the Conies of Apollonius. Hedied Oct.] 0,1710. Gregory, patriarch of the Eastern Greek church, a victim of the fanatical policy of the Porte, was bom in 1739, and educated in Dimitzana, a town in Ar- cadia in the Morea. He studied ill several monasteries, finally on mount Athos (q. v.), lived as a hermit, was made archbishop at Smyrna, and, in 1795, patriarch of Con- stantinople. When the French occupied Egypt, in 1798, the Greeks were accused of treating secretly with them, and the rabble demanded the head of the patriarch, who, in fact, by his pastoral letters, dis- suaded the Greeks from taking up arms for the French. Sclim III himself declar- ed Gregory to be innocent, but banished him for security to mount Athos. He was soon after restored to his former dignity. But in 1806, when the progress of the Russian arms, and the appearance of an English fleet before Constantinople, re- newed the fury of the Mussulmans against the Greeks, and the life of the patriarch was threatened, although his exhortations had again prevented the Greeks from any hostile movements, Selim banished him a second time to mount Athos. After an interval, Gregory was a third time appoint- ed patriarch. The apostolic virtues of love, charity and humility, gained this prelate universal esteem; he lived very simply, was strict with regard to the mor- als of the Greek clergy, and spent his in- come for benevolent objects, bestowing charity on the poor, without regard to the religion which they professed, promoting schools, the art of printingin Constantino- ple, and the publication of useful books. In particular, he promoted the establish- ment of schools of mutual instruction in Scio, Patmos, at Smyrna, Athens, Sparta (Misitra), and in Candia. His sermons and pastoral letters manifest his piety, tol- erance, and knowledge of mankind. He translated the epistles of the apostle Paul into modern Greek with a commentary. He constantly exhorted his brethren to obedience and patient submission to the will of God. But, in 1821, when the Greek insurrection broke out hi the Morea, his native country, he became an object of suspicion to the Porte, and nothing but the hope of preventing the massacre of all the Greeks at Constantinople, which had al- ready been determined upon, could induce him to excommunicate (21st March, 1821) Ypsilanti, Suzzo and all the insurgents, as the divan demanded, with threats. At the same time, he issued a pastoral letter to the clergy, declaring submission to the Porte to be the duty of the faithful. After the execu- tion of the prince Morousi, the grand-vizier confided to Gregoiy the custody of the fam- ily of this prince. Without his knowl- edge, but perhaps by the assistance of a priest in the patriarchal palace, the family escaped on board a vessel, which, by the aid of the Russian ambassador, took them to Odessa. The old man did not doubt that this would decide his fate. He im- mediately went to the grand-vizier, the furious Benderli Ali Pacha, to inform him of the event. The vizier laid all the blame on bun; but he was neither imprisoned nor subjected to trial. The grand vizier had determined to intin^jdate the Greeks by an act of violence \nH; unprecedented in Turkish history. Tl&i^ had already been exposed, for several weeks, to the fanatical rabble of Constantinople, which prevented the greater part of them from attending church on the first day of the Easter festi- val (April 22). The patriarch read the high mass surrounded by his bishops, with the usual ceremonies; but, as he left the church, the janizaries surrounded him, and seized the bishops. A natural respect prevented them from laying hands on the venerable old man ; but their commander, having reminded them of the order of the grand- vizier, they seized the patriarch, in his robes of office, and hanged him before the principal gate of the church. Three bish- ops and eight priests of the patriarchate, shared the same fate; they were all hang- ed before the gates of the churches or the palace, in their canonical robes. The body was not cut down till the 24th, when it was given up to the lowest of the Jews, who dragged it through the streets, and threw it into the sea; but, being prevailed upon by a sum of money, they did not sink it, so that some Greek sailors recover- ed it during the night, and carried it to Odes- sa. Here, with the permission of the em- peror, the martyrdom of the patriarch was 58 GREGORY—GRENADIER. celebrated by the Russian archimandrite Theophilus, with a magnificent funeral. This act of barbarity towards an old man of eighty years, was followed by the de- struction of many churches, and the most savage treatment of the Greeks in Con- stantinople ; but instead of exciting fear, it had the opposite effect. The enthusiasm of the Greeks for their religion and free- dom was increased, the war was earned on with more animosity, and reconcilia- tion became more difficult, and, after some additional atrocities, impossible. (See Greece, Revolution of Modern.) Greifswalde ; a town in Hither Pome- rania, belonging, since the war of 1815, to Prussia. Lat. 54° 4' 35'' N.; lon. 13° 33' 23" E. Population in 1822, 8080. From 1648 to 1815, it belonged to Sweden, ex- cept that from 1715 to 1721 it was in the possession of Denmark. In 1455, Wrat- islaus IX, duke of Pomerania, founded the university here. It does not flourish like the other Prussian universities, and contains only 130 students; for the govern- ment does not sec fit to support it as they do the others, and, at the same time, does not wish to break up so ancient an estab- lishment. It is one of the few German uni- versities which have a right to assist in choosing the professors. The university of Greifswalde nominates new professors, and riie king appoints.'BBie town is well built Grenaoa. (Qe^faranada.) Grenaoa, New ; formerly a viceroyalty of South America, called the New King- dom of Grenada, now forming the greater part of the republic of Colombia; bounded N.by the Caribbean sea and Guatimala, E. by Venezuela and Guiana, S. by the Ama- zon and Peru, and W. by the Pacific ocean. Lat. 6° S. to 12° N.; 1200 miles in length, and 276 in mean breadth. This country, together with Venezuela, was for- merly called Terra Firma. It was former- ly divided into three audiences, Panama, Santa Fe and Quito, and subdivided into twenty-four provinces; but a new division has been made since New Grenada and Venezuela have been united, and form- ed into a republic. There are univer- sities at Santa Fe de Bogota, Quito, and Popayan. The principal rivers are the Magdalena, Cauca, Apure, Mete, Pu- tumayo and Caqueta. New Grenada abounds in the most sublime mountain scenery. The great chain of the Andes traverses this country from north to south, and within the audience of Quito are found the lofty summits of Chimborazo, Pinchinca, Cotopaxi, &c. The mountains of this country are extremely rich in gold and silver, and have also mines of platina, copper, lead and emeralds. The value of gold and silver produced annually is stated at £650,000 sterling. There are two mints, at Santa Fe and Popayan. (For further in- formation, see Colombia, and Venezuela.) Grenaue ; a hollow sphere of iron, differing from a bomb by the smallness of its diameter. The smallest grenades, or those thrown by the hand, are called hand grenades; they are from 2i to 3^ inches in diameter. The fusee is calculated to bum from 12 to 15 seconds, so that time is allowed for throwing them. The short distance to which they can be thrown, and the danger of accidents, have occasioned them to be disused. The small grenades are now only employed for what are call- ed, in French, perdreaux, several of them being fastened to a board, and thrown from mortars. The grenades in general use are thrown from howitzers, and are of very different sizes, from 2 to 20 pounds weight. They are chiefly calcu- lated to act against cavalry and distant columns, where they may do great harm. In the battle of Wagram, one grenade lulled and wounded 40 men. As the util- ity of large grenades at sea is acknowl- edged, but objections exist to the use of howitzers of large calibre, tho U. States introduced the use of oval grenades in 1815, which may be fired from 12 and 24 pounders. The English imitated this, and made the grenades with a spiral thread on the surface, that the opposition of the air might give them a rotatory motion, and thus more certainty of direction. Grenades are often thrown from cannons. During the siege of Gibraltar, they were thrown 3000 yards upon the Spanish works. Grenaoier ; originally a soldier destin- ed to throw the hand grenades. (See Grenade.) Soldiers of long service and acknowledged bravery were selected for this service, so that they soon formed a kind of ilite. They were the first in the assaults. When hand grenades went out of use, the name grenadier was pre- served, and the troops so called generally formed one battalion of a regiment, dis- tinguished by the height of the men and a particular dress, as, for instance, the high bear-skin cap. This- continues to be the case in most armies. In the Russian and Prussian armies, the grenadiers form whole regiments belonging to corps cTar- mie of the guards. With the French, the grenadier company is (and was under Na- poleon) the first of each battalion. The dragoons among them also had grenadier companies, which were afterwards united GRENADIER—GRESHAM. 59 under the name of grenadiers a cheval, a kind of cavalry between cuirassiers and dragoons, and belonging to the guards; and the dragoons again had compagnies cMUes. Grenoble ; an old city, situated in the former province of Dauphiny, now capi- tal of the department of* the Isire, 113 leagues S. E. from Paris; lat. N. 45° 11' 42" ; lon. E. 5° 43 57" ; with 22,149 in- habitants. It is the see of the suffragan bishop of Lyons, the seat of several tri- bunals, and the head-quarters of a military division. Grenoble is a fortified place. An old fortress called the Bastile, on a hill of the same name, commands the whole city. It contains several noble ed- ifices ; among others, the palace of the last constable of France, Lesdiguieres. Here is also a law school, a royal college, and a public library with 55,000 volumes and valuable manuscripts. Grenoble is the centre of a great manufacture of gloves, and contains tanneries and impor- tant distilleries. Commerce is facilitated by the Isere. A number of distinguished men have been natives of this place ; for in- stance, Bayard, Condillac, Mably, Vau- canson, &c. The bridge over the Drac is a single arch 120 feet high, and of 140 feet span. Grenoble is a very old place, and of Gallic origin. In the time of the Allobroges, it was called Calarn, which name it retained under the Romans, until Gratian enlarged it, and called it Gratia- nopolis. Remains of antiquity which have been discovered here, leave no doubt respecting its origin. It has been the see of a bishop since the 4th century. Gren- oble was die first city of importance, which opened her gates to Napoleon, on his return from Elba. The emperor, as his handful of troops were preparing for the attack on the garrison of Grenoble, advanced alone, and, uncovering his breast, said aloud to the soldiers, S'il est parmi vous, s'il en est un seul qui veuille tuer son finiral, son empereur U le pent, le void. le was answered by cries of Vive Vempe- reur, and joined by the soldiers. Gre.nwllf. (William Wyndham Gren- ville), lord, son of George Grenville, who was chancellor of the exchequer at the time of the passing of the stamp act (1764), was born in 1759, educated at Eton and Oxford, and early brought for- ward in public fife by his friend William Pitt. 1 le entered parliament in 1785, and was speaker of the house of commons when, in 1789, he was made secretary of the home department. In 1790, he was created a peer, by the title of baron Gren- ville, and the next year became secretary of foreign affairs, and continued in this post till 1801, when he retired with Mr. Pitt, on the king's refusal to make the concessions in favor of the Catholics, which had been promised by the ministry. On the death of Pitt, in 1804, lord Gren- ville became first lord of the treasury, at the head of the coalition ministry, and in- curred the public reproach by holding, at the same time, the place of auditor of the exchequer, that is, auditor of his own ac- counts. In 1809, the resignation of lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning having left lord Liverpool the only secretary of state, official letters were addressed to earl Grey and lord Grenville, proposing the forma- tion of a combined ministry. Earl Grey declined all union at once. Lord Grenville went to London, but, on the next day, also declined the proposed alliance. He has al- ways been consistent on one subject, that of concessions to the Catholics, of which he has ever been the constant advocate. Gresham, sir Thomas, a merchant of London, was born in 1519, and educated at Gonville hall, in Cambridge. His father was agent of the king's money affairs at Antwerp; and, his successor having brought them into a bad condition, young Gresham was sent over, in 1552, to retrieve them. He acquitted himself so well, that in two years he paid off a heavy loan, and raised the king's credit considerably. On the accession of Elizabeth, he was deprived of his office ; but it was soon restored to him, with that of queen's merchant, and he was also knighted. In 1566, he plan- ned and erected a burse or exchange, for the merchants of London, in imitation of that of Antwerp. In 1570, queen Eliza- beth, visiting the new building, solemnly proclaimed it the royal exchange; which name its successor, since the fire of Lon- don, still continues to bear. The troubles in the Low Countties interrupting the loans from Antwerp to the crown, sir Thomas induced the moneyed men in London to join in a small loan, which was the com- mencement of the great advances since made from the same body. He founded a college in London, notwithstanding the opposition of the university of Cambridge, and devised his house for habitations and lecture-rooms for seven professors, on the seven liberal sciences, who were to re- ceive a salary out of the revenues of the royal exchange. Gresham college has since been converted into the modern general excise-office ; but the places are still continued, with a double salary for the loss of the apartments, and the lectures 60 GRESHAM—GREVILLE. are now given in the royal exchange. He died suddenly in 1579, at the age of sixty. Gresset, Jean Baptiste Louis, an agreeable French poet, bom at Amiens, 1709, entered the order of the Jesuits in his 16th year, and left it 10 years after- wards, on account of the attention excit- ed by his poem Ver-Vert. In Paris he had the good fortune to increase this rep- utation; and, in 1748, he was elected a member of the academy. He lived at Amiens, where he filled an office in the financial department, and where he mar- ried a rich lady. After the death of Lou- is XV, he visited Paris, and was chosen to congratulate Louis XVI, in the name of the academy, on his accession to the dirone. The court and the city were both desirous of beholding the man who had been so successful in delineating them. But the expectation which had been formed from his earlier works, was far from being answered by his academi- cal discourse in reply to the inaugural ad- dress of Suard, and in which he painted the follies of the capital. His pictures were distorted and exaggerated. He died soon after, in 1777, without leaving any children. His agreeable manners, and his integrity of character, gained him distinguished friends. Louis XVI grant- ed him, in 1775, letters of nobility. His Vcr- Vert is distinguished for wit, vivacity and interest, and its value appears the more remarkable from the poverty of the subject Gresset has written much that is good, and some things merely passable. Gresson; the loftiest siunmit of the Vosges, 4002 feet high. Gretna Green, or Graitnf.y ; a village and parish in Scotland, in Dumfries, on Solway frith, eight miles north of Carlisle. It is the first stage in Scotland from Eng- land, and has for more than 70 years been famous as the place of celebration of the marriages of fugitive lovers from Eng- land. According to the Scottish law, it is only necessary for a couple to declare be- fore a justice of the peace, that they are unmarried, and wish to be married, in or- der to conclude a lawful marriage. It has been calculated that about 65 mar- riages take place here annually. A black- smith was a long time the justice of the peace. His usual fee was 15 guineas. Gretry, Andre Ernest Modeste, a French composer of music, bom at Liege, 1741, showed as early as his 4th year his sensibility to musical rhythm. At this age, being left one day alone, the noise of water boiling in an iron pot ex- tSted his attention ; he began to dance to die sound, which resembled that of a drum. He then wished to discover the origin of this bubbling in the vessel, and he overturned it into a hot coal fire. The explosion was so quick, that, rendered senseless by the steam and smoke, he fell to the ground much burnt This accident brought on a long illness, and weakened his eyes for life. In 1759, Gretry went to Rome to perfect himself in music. Hav- ing, while at Rome, exhibited some Ital- ian scenes and symphonies, he was en- gaged by the manager of the dieatre, AI- berti, to set to music two intermezzi. His first effort met with great success. The praise which he obtained from Piccini was the most flattering to him. Being well received and esteemed in the capital of Italy, Gretry pursued his studies there, until he became desirous of making him- self known at Paris. On his way to France, he stopped at Geneva, and set to music the opera Isabella and Gertrude, which was brought out at Paris. The success of diis production determined him to go to Paris, to find a theatre and performers worthy of him. Here he was obliged, for two years, to struggle against numerous difficulties, before he obtained from Marmontel the Huron, the text and music of which were both written in six weeks. The piece was performed in 1769, witii complete success. The LucUe, a comedy in one act, which appeared soon after, was received with still greater ap- plause. He now devoted himself exclu- sively to the theatre, and composed 40 op- eras, of which Le Tableau parlant, Zimire et Azor, L'Ami de la Maison, La fausse Magic, Le Jugement de Midas, L'Amant Jaloux, Les Erinemens imprimis, Colinette a la Cour, La Carevane, Raoul, Richard Caur-de-Lion, Anacrcon chez Policrate, are still played with applause. Gretry, like Pergolesi, took declamation as the guide of musical expression. He was in- ferior to Gluck in depth, and he could never arrive at the fuhiess of Mozart. In 1790, he published his Mimoires ou Essais sur la Musique. The first volume contains an account of the musical career of the author. He wrote La Virile" and Reflexions d'un Solitaire. He died in 1813, at Er- menonville, in Rousseau's hermitage. Greville, Fulk (lord Brooke); an ac- complished courtier and ingenious writer, and a great encourager of learning and learned men. He was born in 1544, at Beauchamp court, Warwickshire, the family seat, then in the possession of his father, sir Fulk Greville. He entered Trinity college, Cambridge, which he GREVILLE—GREY. 61 afterwards quitted for Oxford; and, hav- ing made the tour of Europe, presented himself at court, where he soon rose high in the favor of Elizabeth. James also distinguished him by his favor; but the jealousy of Cecil induced Greville to re- tire from public life, till the death of that statesman restored him to the court. He now rose rapidly, filling in succession the posts of under treasurer and chancellor of the exchequer, and, in 1620, obtained a barony. Under Charles I, he continued to enjoy the royal countenance till the 30th of September, 1628, when, convers- ing widi an old servant of the family, respecting certain dispositions in his will, the latter, considering his legacy dispro- portioned to his services, replied to him with great insolence, and, on receiving a reprimand, stabbed him in the back, and he expired immediately ; the assassin in- stantly committed suicide with the same weapon. Lord Brooke was the founder of a historical lecture at Cambridge, and enjoyed the friendship of sir Philip Sid- ney, Spenser, Jonson, Shakspeare, and most of the master spirits of the age. The bent of his own genius evidently led him to the study of poetry and history. An octavo volume of his miscellaneous writings was printed in 1670, and there is also extent a life of his friend Sidney, by his hand. The envy of Cecil, who denied him access to the necessary rec- ords, prevented his carrying into execu- tion an intention he had formed of writing a history of the wars of the Roses. Grey, lady Jane; a young and accom- plished female of royal descent, whose disastrous fate, as the victim of an unprin- cipled relative's ambitious projects, has created an extraordinary interest in her fa- vor. She was the daughter of Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset, afterwards duke of Suffolk, by the lady Frances, daughter of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and Mary, younger sister of Henry VIII, in whose reign lady Jane was born, accord- ing to the common account, in 1537. She displayed much precocity of talent; and to the usual accomplishments of females, she added an acquaintance with the learn- ed languages, as well as French and Italian. Roger Ascham has related, that, on making a visit to Bradgate hall, he found lady Jane, then a girl of fourteen, engaged in perusing Plato's Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul, in the orig- inal Greek, while the rest of the family were hunting in the park. She owed her early proficiency in literature, in some measure, to her learned tutor, Aylmer, af- VOL. vi. 6 terwards bishop of London ; and from him she imbibed an attachment to Prot- estantism. The Oriental as well as the classical languages are said to have been familiar to her, and she is represented as having been altogether a young person of uncommon genius and acquirements. But the latter are less singular than might be supposed by those who do not take in- to account the general taste for the culti- vation of Greek and Roman lore, which prevailed among both sexes for some time after the revival of literature in Europe. Lady Jane Grey was a woman of talents, but not a prodigy; and Mrs. Roper, the interesting daughter of sir Thomas More, with lady Burleigh and her learned sisters, may be adduced as rivals in erudition of the subject of this article. The literary accomplishments of this unfortunate lady, however, do less honor to her memory than the spirit with which she bore the annihi- lation of her prospects of sovereignty, and the disgrace and ruin of the dearest object of her affections. The tale of her eleva- tion and catastrophe has been often rela- ted, and has furnished a subject for dra- matic composition. The most material circumstances are her marriage with lord Guilford Dudley, fourth son of the duke of Northumberland, in May 1553; which, though it originated in the ambitious pro- jects of her father-in-law, was a union of affection. The duke's plan was, to reign in the name of his near relation, in whose favor he persuaded king Edward VI, on his death-bed, to settle the succession to the crown. On the decease of the king, lady Jane had the good sense to refuse the proffered diadem; but, unfortunately, she afterwards consented to accept it, being influenced by the importunities of her husband. Her pageant, reign had lasted but nine days, when Mary, the late king's elder sister, was acknowledged queen; and Jane exchanged a throne for a prison. She and her husband were arraigned, convicted of treason, and sentenced to death ; but then doom was suspended, and they might, perhaps, have been al- lowed to expiate their imprudence by a temporaiy confinement, but for the ill-ad- vised insurrection under sir Thomas Wy- at, in which the duke of Suffolk, lady Jane's father, was weak enough to partici- pate. The suppression of this rebellion was followed by the execution of lady Jane Grey and her husband. Mary sus- pended the execution of her cousin three days, to afford time for her conversion to the Catholic faith; but the queen's chari- table purpose was defeated by the con- 62 GREY—GREYHOUND. stancy of lady Jane, who defended her opinions against the arguments of the Romish divines sent to reason with her, and prepared herself with firmness for her approaching fate. She was beheaded on Tower-hill, February 12, 1554, her husband having previously suffered the same day. A book, entitled The precious Remains of Lady Jane Grey (4to.), was published directly after her execution ; and letters and other pieces ascribed to her may be found hi Fox's Martyrology. Grey, Charles, earl, a distinguished whig and parliamentary orator in Eng- land, was born in 1764, and was educated at Eton and Cambridge. On leaving the university, he travelled on the continent, and, soon after his return to England, was returned to parliament, by family interest, for the county of Northumberland, before he had reached his twentieth year, but, of course, did not take his seat till he be- came of age. He afterwards represented the borough of Appleby, till he succeed- ed to die peerage. He had not been long in the house, before he became conspicu- ous for his industry and his ability in de- bate. He was a warm Foxite, and be- came a member of the whig club, and of the society of Friends of the People. He was one of the most zealous opposers of I'itt's war against France, and declared in parliament that the discomfiture of the duke of Brunswick by the French army, was a triumph of every friend of liberty. On the death of Pitt, the whigs having come into power, Mr. Grey (then lord Howick) was made first lord of the ad- miralty, and, on the death of Fox, secreta- ry of state for foreign affairs. The dis- solution of this ministry soon followed, and lord Howick not long after was trans- ferred to the upper house by the death of his father, but for many years took little part in public affairs, and resided in retire- ment on his estates in Northumberland. On the resignation of lord Custlereagh an'1 Mr. Canning, which was soon follow- ed by that of the duke of Portland, the • of the ministers made overtures to Icrd Grenville and earl Grey, which were cclined. Lord Grey opposed the restric- ions on the regency of the prince of Wal s; and when those restrictions ex- fired, in 1812, the offer of a seat in the ministry was renewed, and again rejected. !n the trial of the unfortunate queen Car- (iine, lord Grey was one of the most ac- tive and zealous of the peers in her be- half; and to bis eloquence and zeal, the r suit of the trial is in a great measure ow'ng. He has always advocated reform and the emancipation of the Catholics. In domestic life, earl Grey appears in the most exemplary light. Madame de Steel used to speak in terms of the highest ad- miration of the family scene at Fallow- den house. On the 16th of Nov., 1830, the duke of Wellington announced his resignation of the office of first lord of the treasury, and earl Grey was immedi- ately appointed his successor. He is therefore, at present, prime minister of England. (See Great Britain.) Greyhound (canis grains, Linnaeus). This variety of the canine race is distin- guished by a greater length of muzzle than any other dog, a very low forehead, occasioned by the want of frontal sinuses, short lips, thin and long legs, small mus- cles, contracted belly, and semipendent ears. There are several sub-varieties de- scribed by naturalists, as the Irish grey- hound, the Scotch, the Russian, the Ital- ian and the Turkish, all which, though differing in size and intelligence, possess the general characteristics of the variety. The common greyhound is of a beautiful and delicate formation, and is universally known as the fleetest of this race of ani- mals. We have no information when the name greyhound was introduced, the former appellation of gazehound being very applicable to a dog which hunts by sight and not by smell. Its derivation is evidently from Grains, Grecian. The greyhound has been for many centuries in the highest estimation, and in ancient times was considered as a most valuable present. The ardor and velocity of the greyhound in pursuit of its game, have always been a matter of admiration to sportsmen, and of various opinions as to the difference of speed between a well bred greyhound and a race-horse. It has, by the best judges, been thought, that upon a flat, the horse would be superior to the dog; but that in a hilly country, the latter would have the advantage. The natural simplicity and peaceable demean- or of the greyhound has sometimes in- duced a doubt, whether the instinctive sa- gacity of this particular variety is equal to that of some others of the species; but, from numerous observations, it appears that it possesses this attribute in a high degree. Greyhound pups, during the first seven or eight months, are extremely un- couth, awkward and disproportioned, af- ter which period they begin to improve in form and sagacity. They reach their foil growth at two years. The distinguishing traits of superiority are supposed to con- sist in a fine, soft, flexible skin, witii thin GREYHOUND—GRIDLEY. 63 silky hah, a great length of nose, con- tracting gradually from the eye to the nos- tril, a full, clear and penetrating eye, small ears, erect head, long neck, broad breast, width across the shoulders, roundness in the ribs, back neither too long nor too short, a contracted belly and flank, a great depth from the hips to the hocks of the hind legs, a strong stem, round foot, with open uniform clefts, fore legs straight, and shorter than the hinder. According to the quaint description given in a work print- ed in 1496, by Wynken de Wode, a grey- hound should be Headed lyke a snake, Neckyed lyke a drake, Fottyed lyke a catte, Taylled lyke a ratte, Syded lyke a teme, And chyned lyke a beme. Greyhounds bred in countries where the ground is chiefly arable, were formerly supposed superior in speed and bottom to those produced in hilly situations ; that opinion, however, is completely super- seded, and the contrary proved to be the case. If fed with coarse food, greyhounds are peculiarly liable to cutaneous and oth- er affections. Greywacke, or Grau Wacke, is a name originally applied by Werner to a fragmented or recomposed rock, consist- ing of mechanically altered portions or fragments of quartz, indurated clay slate and flinty slate, cemented by a basis of clay slate,—the imbedded particles not exceeding a few inches in diameter, and sometimes becoming so minute as to be no longer visible, when the rock was de- nominated grau wacke slate. As this for- mation came to be examined more exten- sively in other countries, the term grey- wacke was extended so as to embrace nearly all fragmentary rocks, whose me- chanical structure comes within the above description, however diversified the ingre- dients may be in their nature or dimen- sions, or whatever may be the nature of the cement, whether siliceous or argilla- ceous, provided only they are anterior to the new red sandstone and coal forma- tion. The reason of this extension was, that the greywacke of Werner was found to pass by insensible degrees into rocks, which, notwithstanding they were obvi- ously produced by the same causes, and occupied the same relative situations with his rock, were, nevertheless, excluded from coalescing with it by the too limited character of his definition. So much di- versity, however, exists among the varie- ties of this rock, that it has been found convenient to distinguish them by sepa- rate names. Thus we have greywacke slate when the ingredients are very com- minuted, greywacke when they are of middling size, pudding-stone when they are rounded, conglomerate when they are from four or five inches in diameter to the size of a man's head and larger, gritstone when the concretions are hard and sili- ceous and the paste siliceous also, and old red sandstone when colored red by the peroxide of iron. The fragments which compose the rocks of this formation, are evidently the debris of the primary rocks that have been broken down by some powerful catastrophe, and mixed with more recent beds at the period when they were forming. They occupy a place next to the primitive rocks, often in an alternat- ing series with mountain limestone, and beneath that class of rocks denominated secondary, between the formation of which and the greywacke a considerable period must have elapsed, as the fragments of the latter invariably consist of lower rocks, and never of the upper strata. Greywacke but very rarely contains or- ganic remains; but the limestones and slates, with which it alternates, present them in considerable quantity, and such as belong to genera almost exclusively un- known at present, and which never occur in the upper strata. Though the gold of Hungary and Siberia is found in this rock, still it cannot be said to be prolific in met- als or other useful minerals. When fine grained, it forms a valuable building stone. It is the material of which the fortifica- tions at Quebec in Lower Canada are chiefly constructed. Greywacke is very extensively distributed in Europe. It forms the eastern declivity of the moun- tains of Brazil, and abounds throughout the chain of the Alleghanies. The variety termed conglomerate, occurs extensively in the vicinity of Boston and upon the island of Rhode Island ; at the latter locality, it occurs in connexion with the anthracite coal. The old red sandstone forms an extensive deposit in the valley of the Connecticut, from Deerfield, Mass., to Long Island sound, and again in New Jersey, bordering upon the Hudson river. The finer varieties of it are much em- ployed in building, under the name of freestone. A quarry of it exists at Chat- ham, directly upon the banks of the Con- necticut, which gives employment to nearly 200 men. Gridley, Jeremiah, a celebrated lawyer of Massachusetts before the revolution, was born about the year 1705, and receiv- 64 GRIDLEY—GRIFFIN. ed his degree at Harvard college in 1725. His first occupation in Boston was that of an assistant in the public grammar school, in which capacity he continued for several years, during which he studied theology, and occasionally preached. He afterwards devoted lumself to the law, hi which pro- fession he became eminent Soon after he was admitted to the bar, he instituted a weekly newspaper, called the Rehearsal. The first number was published Septem- ber 29, 1731. In this journal he wrote ar- ticles, literary and political, for a year, when the increase of his professional busi- ness obliged him to relinquish it. His writings exhibit ingenuity and originality- fervor and energy. Having been elected a member from Brookline of the general court of the province, he became a decid- ed opponent of the measures of the min- istry, and manifested a warm attachment to liberal principles. He was, neverthe- less, appointed attorney-general of the province of Massachusetts Bay, and, m that capacity, was obliged to perform the unpleasant duty of defending the obnox- ious writs of assistance. The celebrated James Otis, who had been a student in his office, was his opponent, and wholly confuted him. He died in Boston, Sep- tember 7,1767, aged about 62 years. Mr. Gridley was a man of a high, elevated and ardent spirit, always more anxious for fame than for wealth. Gries, John Dietrich, a German schol- ar, the translator of Tasso, Ariosto and Calderon, was born February 7, 1775, in Hamburg, where his father was a senator. Against his own wish, he was intended for a merchant, but, in his 17th year, obtained permission to follow his inclination for study. He studied at Jena in 1795, and was favorably noticed by the leading belles- lettres scholars of that time in Germany —A. W. Schlegel, Gothe, Wieland and Schiller—whose intimate friend he remain- ed. He first studied law ; but various cir- cumstances, among them an increasing deafness, determined him to devote him- self entirely to poetry. Several of his po- ems were published in periodicals; but he gained celebrity chiefly by his translation of Tasso, the first hi the German language in the metre of the original. Three edi- tions of this translation have been already published. The translation of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso appeared in 1804—1808. He also undertook to translate Bojardo's Orlando Innamorato; but the great length of diis poem induced him to abandon the attempt, after having published 12 cantos. Since 1815, he has published 6 volumes of the translation of Calderon. Gries lives at present in Jena. Griesbach, John James (died in 1812), first professor of theology at Jena, acquir- ed a permanent reputation by his critical edition of the New Testament, and by the education of several thousand youth. Born at Butzbach in Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1745, he removed, while a child, to Frank- fort on the Maine, where his father, a preacher and consistorial counsellor, died in 1777. He received his first instruction at the gymnasium of Frankfort, and re- moved to the university of Tubingen in 1762. In 1764, he went to Halle, and af- terwards spent a year at Leipsic. Eccle- siastical history was the subject of his studies, in which Ernesti, at Leipsic, aided liim with books and advice. He next un- dertook, at Halle, an extensive course of preliminary studies to the criticism of the New Testament and dogmatic history. Having resolved to devote himself alto- gether to the criticism of die text of the New Testament, he undertook, in 1769 and 1770, a literary journey through Ger- many, England, Holland aud France. The following winter he devoted, in his native city, to the elaboration of his mate- rials ; and, in 1771, appeared as a lecturer in Halle, with such applause, in conse- quence of his celebrated treatise on die criticisms of Origen on the Gospels, that, two years after, he was appointed professor. He now pursued, with indefatigable indus- try, his plan of an edition of the New Testament. Having received an appoint- ment to a regular professorship of theology at Jena, he published a synopsis of the Gospels. This was soon followed by die first edition of the whole Testament. Its peculiarity is, that it does not merely con- sider the accepted or rejected readings, but the different degrees of probability for or against them are determined and repre- sented by intelligible marks in the margin. It is to be lamented that he could not fin- ish, as he had intended, the complete edi- tion, which was begun in 1796, and ap- peared simultaneously at Halle and Lon- don. He was, however, incessantly em- ployed on it till his death, and lived to see the superb edition, published by Goschen, finished. Gabler has edited Griesbach's Opuscula Academica (Jena, 1824., 2 vols.). Griffin, or Gryphon (yoty); a fabulous monster of antiquity, commonly represent- ed with the body, the feet and claws of a lion, the head and wings of an eagle, the ears of a horse, and, instead of a mane, a comb of fishes' fins: the back was cover- ed with feathers. ./Elian savs that its GRIFFIN—GRIMALDI. 65 back was covered with black feathers, its breast with red, and its wings with white. Ctesias gives him blue and shining neck feathers, the beak of an eagle, and fiery eyes. Later writers add other particulars. Ac- cording to the book De Rerum Natura, it is larger than an eagle, has on its fore feet large claws, like those of an eagle, and others on its hind feet, like those of a lion; and it lays an agate in its nest. Drinking cups are made from its talons. The grif- fin is so strong, says Ctesias, that he con- quers all beasts, the lion and elephant on- ly excepted. India was assigned as the native country of the griffins, and it was believed that they built then nests on the mountains; that they could be easily caught and tamed when young, but never when full grown; that they found gold in the mountains, and built their nests of it; or, according to other accounts, that they fear- ed diose who sought for gold in the moun- tains, and defended their young against then attacks. Bottiger, in his Vasengemal- de, has given much information concern- ing the origin of this fabulous animal. He maintains that this and similar mon- sters are merely the creation of Indian tapestry-makers, who, from the most an- cient times, employed themselves on strange compositions of mythological beasts. The Greeks, who saw this kind of tapestry at the court of the king of Persia, thought that the animals depicted on it were really inhabitants of India, so rich in wonders, and they spread the re- port. So much is certain, that the notion of this bird came from Asia into Greece in the train of Bacchus. He was, there- fore, the symbol of Ulumination and wis- dom. Grillparzer, Francis, born in 1790, lives, at present, in Vienna, where he has an office at court. In 1816, he attracted the attention of the public. As Mullner was led by Werner's 24th of February to write his Schuld (Guilt), Grillparzer was probably excited by the Schuld to write his Ahnfrau (Ancestress)—a piece still more decidedly belonging to the fatalist school. It is full of horrors; but the poetical lan- guage, the highly lyric power displayed in bis descriptions, and the novelty of the school of the fatalists, kept this play a long time on the stage. The young poet pub- lished, in 1818, his Sappho, and, in 1822, the Golden Fleece, in both of which the lyric language is the chief merit. In a subsequent piece (Ottokar), he has wisely chosen a subject comparatively modern; it breathes a more dramatic spirit than his earlier productions. It appeared in 1824. 6* Grimaldi (family); one of the four families of the high nobility in Genoa. The lordship of Monaco (afterwards ele- vated to a principality) belonged, for more than 600 years (beginning with 980), to the Grimaldi. With the Fiescos, they al- ways played an important part in the his- tory of Genoa, especially in the disputes between the Gibelines and the Guelfs, to which latter party both families belonged. Large estates in the kingdom of Naples, in France and Italy, increased the influ- ence of the Grimaldi, from whom proceed- ed several eminent men:—1. Ranieri Gri- maldi was the first Genoese who conducted the naval forces of the republic beyond the straits of Gibraltar. In the service of Philip the Fair of France, Grimaldi sailed to Zealand in 1304, with 16 Geno- ese galleys and 20 French ships under his command. He there defeated and made prisoner the count Guy of Flanders, who commanded the enemy's fleet of 80 sail.— 2. Antonio Grimaldi, likewise, distinguish- ed himself in the naval service in the first half of the 14th century. The Cata- lonians had committed hostilities against Genoa, which city had been prevented by internal discord from punishing the of- fence. But when a more favorable mo- ment arrived, Antonio received the com- mand of the fleet, with the commission to devastate the coasts of Catalonia. This commission the Genoese performed but too faithfully. He also defeated an Arragonese fleet of 42 sail. Twenty-one years after, he suffered such a defeat from the combined Venetian and Catelonian fleets, under the command of Nicolas Pi- sani, that, of the whole Genoese fleet, only 17 vessels escaped. This defeat (29th of August, 1353) obliged the Genoese to sub- mit to John Visconti, lord of Mdan, who promised them protection against then enemies, the Venetians.—3. Giovanni Grimaldi is celebrated for the victory which he gained, May 23, 1431, over the Venetian admiral, Nic. Travisani, on the Po, although Carmagnola, the most dis- tinguished general of his time, was ready to support the Venetians, with a considera- ble army, on the banks of the river. By •an able manoeuvre, Grimaldi separated the Venetian fleet from the bank, where the army was stationed (three mUes below Cremona), and thus succeeded, not only in utterly defeating the enemy, but in taking 28 galleys and a great number of transports, with immense spoils.—4. Do- menico Grimaldi, cardinal, archbishop and vice-legate of Avignon, lived in the 16th century. Before he obtained these high 66 GRIMALDI. dignities, Pius V intrusted to hun the su- pervision of the galleys of the States of the Church, and Grimaldi, though already bishop, was present at the naval battle of Lepanto (1571), on which occasion he is said to have distinguished himself by his courage. The annals of the Roman church also relate of this warlike prelate, that he succeeded in totally extirpating the poison of heresy from his diocese. He died in 1592, and left behind a volume of letters relative to the events in which he had been engaged.—5. His nephew Geronimo Grimaldi, born at Genoa in 1597, was appointed, in his 28th year, vice- legate of Romagna, and afterwards bishop of Albano and governor of Rome. Ur- ban VIII sent him as nuncio to Germany and France ; and the services which he rendered the Roman court were reward- ed, in 1643, by a cardinal's hat. After the death of Urban, Grimaldi, from grati- tude, protected his family, and thus incur- red the displeasure of Innocent, who re- fused, during his whole life, to sign the bull, constituting Grimaldi archbishop of Aix. Not till Alexander VII succeeded Innocent, was he able to enter on his new office (1655). He endeavored to reform the manners of the clergy of his diocese, for which purpose he established an ec- clesiastical seminary; he likewise founded an hospital for the poor, and annually dis- tributed 100,000 livres of his vast proper- ty in alms. He contributed much to the election of Innocent XI, whose virtues he revered. Although he was subse- quently appointed dean of the holy col- lege in Rome, he could not resolve to abandon the congregation intrusted to him. He died at Aix, in 1685, 90 years of age.—6. Nicholas Grimaldi, born in 1(545, was invested with the Roman pur- ple by Clement XI, in 1706. He died in 1717, leaving immense wealth.—7. An- other Geronimo, bom in 1674, was honor- ed with a cardinal's hat He had previ- ously been the nuncio of the Roman court at Avignon, and afterwards at Brussels, in Poland and Germany. He was subse- quently appointed cardinal legate of Bo- logna. He died in 1733.—Besides these Grimaldis, we find others of this name, conspicuous in science and art.—1. Gia- como, a writer of the 16th century, whom Tiraboschi mentions with great praise. He was born at Bologna, embraced the clerical profession, and, as superintendent of the archives of the church of St Pe- ter in Rome, rendered an important ser- vice by arranging die whole of this valua- ble collection. He also attempted to explain the ancient inscriptions, discovered during the pontificate of Paul V, by illus- trative remarks. A list of his antiquarian and philological writings may be found in the 4th volume of Scriptor. Bolognesi. He died in 1623.—2. Giovanni Francesco, called Bolognese, from his having been bom in that city, lived in the 17th centu- ry, and was an eminent painter, architect and engraver. In the first mentioned art, he took the Carracci for his model; he also studied some time with Albano. Having been invited to Paris by cardinal Mazarin, he painted several frescos in the Louvre. As an architect, he was no less distin- guished ; and his engravings are highly esteemed. Innocent X employed him to execute the frescos in the Vatican and the Quirinal. Several of his best paintings are to be found in the church Sta. Maria del Monte in Rome ; the museum at Paris also contains some of his best produc- tions. He died in 1680, 74 years of age. Alexander, a son of bis, is likewise known as a painter.—3. Francesco Maria, a Jesuit, was bom in Bologna in 1613, and was disthiguished as a mathematician. He assisted Riccioli in his mathematical la- bors, and afterwards published a work on the spots on the moon. He also wrote Physico-mathesis de Lumine Coloribus et Iride, aliisque annexis (Bologna, 1665, 4to.). This learned Jesuit died in his native city, in 1663.—4. Francesco, who likewise lived in the 17th century, and was bom in the kingdom of Naples, joined the Jesuits, and is distinguished as a Latin poet. We have several bucolic and dramatic poems from him, which evince his talents. He died while profes- sor of rhetoric in the college of the Jesuits, in Rome, in 1738, about 60 years of age. —5. Peter Grimaldi, likewise a Jesuit, was born in Chita-Vecchia, lived in the 18th century, and was, for a long time, a mis- sionary in the East Indies. There is a story of him, that, on his return to Europe, he invented a machine, by means of which (1751) he passed through the air from Calais to Dover in an hour. It is mentioned by Pingeron, in his translation of the work of Milizia, and by Fontenai, in his Didionnaire des Artistes. Since they give no more explicit account of the affair, and as this previous experiment is not quoted in the treatises that appeared at the time of the invention of the air-bal- loon (1784), we must entertain some doubt of the truth of the aerial journey ascrib- ed to Peter Grimaldi.—6. Constaidine, bom at Naples, in 1667, died there in 1750, was a jurist, and was distinguished GRIMALDI—GRIMOD DE LA REYNIERE. 67 for his knowledge of history, medicine and theology. He is, however, princi- pally known for his controversy with Ben- edictis, a blind advocate of the philosophy of Aristotle, who was then publishing his Lettere apologetiche, in which he made a furious attack on Descartes and his fol- lowers. Grimaldi defended the Carte- sians, and, in a severe reply, reduced the father ad absurdum.—7. Francesco Antonio (who died inNaples in 1784) was the author of some good historical works on Naples, and the constitution of that country. Grimm, Frederic Melchior, baron of; counsellor of state of the Russian empire, grand cross of the order of Wladimir; a man of letters, whose great reputation has arisen from posthumous publications. He was born in 1723, at Ratisbon, of poor parents, who, however, bestowed on him a good education. His taste for literature manifested itself in his youth, when he wrote a tragedy. Having finished his studies, he went to Paris as governor to the children of the count of Schomberg. Soon after, he was appointed reader to the duke of Saxe-Gotha. At this period, he became acquainted with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who introduced him to Diderot, D'Alembert, D'Holbach, and other Parisian philosophers ; a piece of service which, according to Jean-Jacques (Confessions, 8), he repaid with ingratitude. The count de Friese made him his secretaiy, with appointments which rendered Iris circum- stances agreeable, and left hun at liberty to pursue his inclinations. His vanity induced him to give himself the airs of a man of gallantly ; and, as he attempted to repair the ravages of time by means of cosmetics, the Parisians bestowed on him the sobriquet of tyran le Blanc. The ar- rival of a company of Italian bouffons in Paris having divided all the musical con- noisseurs into two parties, Grimm declar- ed for the Italian music, and was at the head of the coin de la reine, a party so called because they used to sit in the pit, under the queen's box, whilst the friends of Rameau and the French music formed the coin du roi. Grimm wrote on this oc- casion a pamphlet, full of wit and taste, Le petit Prophlte de Bbmischbroda, and, when his adversaries attempted to answer it, completely confuted them by his Lettre sur la Musique Franpaise. These pam- phlets irritated so many persons against him, that they talked of exile, the Bastile, &c. ; but when the excitement had sub- sided, he obtained a general applause. On the death of the count de Friese, Grimm was nominated principal secretary to the duke of Orleans. The fame of the French literati, with whom he was connected, led to his being employed, in conjunction with Diderot, to transmit to the duke of Saxe-Gotha an account of the writings, friendships, disputes, &c, of the authors of that period. Copies of this curious correspondence were also sent to the em- press Catharine II, the queen of Sweden, Stanislaus, king of Poland, the duke of Deux-Ponts, the prince and. princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, &c. Frederic the Great gave him marks of great esteem. In 1776, he was appointed envoy from the duke of Saxe-Gotha to the French court, honored with the title of baron, and with several or- ders. On the revolution breaking out, he re- tired to the court of Gotha, where he found a safe asylum. In 1795, the empress of Russia made him her minister plenipotenti- ary to the states of Lower Saxony; and he was confirmed in that post by Paul I, and retained it till ill health obliged him to re- linquish it. He then returned to Gotha, and died there, Dec. 19, 1807. His grand work was published in different portions successively, under the following titles— Correspondance Littiraire, PhUosophique et Critique, adressie a un Souverain d'Alle- magne, depuis 1770,jusqu'en 1782, par le Baron de Grimm et par Diderot (Paris, 1812, 5 vols., 8vo.); Correspondance Litti- raire, &c. en 1775, 1776, 1782—1790, (troisiime et derniere Partie, 1813, 5 vols., 8vo.) ; and Correspondance Littiraire, &c. depuis 1753, jusqu'en 1760, (premiere Partie, 6 vols., 8vo.). A selection from this voluminous mass of literary gossip was published in 2 vols., 8vo., in French and English. Grimm, James Lewis Charles; born in Hanau, 1785; at present librarian of the elector of Hesse-Cassel. By his German Grammar (2d ed., Gottingen, 1822), he has rendered great service to German phi- lology. He was the first who explained historically the elements and develope- ment of the Teutonic dialects. This work is highly distinguished for acuteness of investigation and extensive learning, showing an intimate acquaintance with the European and Asiatic languages. With his brother William Charles, he has pub- lished several valuable collections of the productions of the early German litera- ture. A part of his Kinder und Haus- marchen—Nursery Tales (Berlin, 1812— 1814, 2 vols., 12mo.)—has been translated under the title German Popular Stories. A third brother, L. Emilius, is an engraver, and has produced some valuable pieces. Grimod ue la Reyniere, Alexandre 68 GRIMOD DE LA REYNIERE—THE GRISONS. Balthasar Laurent, the most witty epi- cure of modern France, member of the Arcadians in Rome, and of several learned societies, born at Paris, 1758, was the son of a farmer-general. A defect in the formation of his hands obliges him to use artificial fingers, with which he draws, writes and carves with great dexterity. Till 1780 he was an advocate; but a bitter satire, of which he was the audior, having caused him to be exiled, he subsequendy devoted himself entirely to literature, passing his time in literary clubs, in the foyer of the theatres, &c. This eccentric character, in the splendid circle of his pa- rents, used to make himself merry at the pride of rank of the noble world. He gave a celebrated banquet, to which no one was admitted who could not prove himself a bourgeois. Another time he invited to his house some persons of rank, and received them in a room hung with black, where a coffin was placed behind each of them. His epicurism equals that of Apicius or Vitelhus. He lived peaceably through the revolution. In the beginning of Napoleon's reign, he became known throughout Europe by his witty Almanach des Gourmands, which he dedicated to 'the cook of Cambaceres (from 1803 to 1812, 8 vols., 18mo.). For the parvenus, who do not know how to use their wealth, he wrote, in 1808, Le Manuel des Am- phUryons. His zeal in promoting the science of the palate, as Montaigne terms it, led him to form a jury of epicures (digustateurs), who held a monthly ses- sion in the Rocher de Cancale, at a select table, where judgment was passed with black and white balls, on a juicy salmi or a fine blanc-manger, with all the solem- nity of the Roman senate of yore, in the well known turbot session. Since 1814, Grimod has lived in the country, but widiout neglecting his literary pursuits. (See Cookery.) Griselda; the ever-patient wife of the marquis di Saluzzo,the subject of the tenth novella in the tenth giornata of Boccaccio's Decameron. The marquis's beau idiot of a wife was a woman of all-enduring patience. He chooses Griselda, the daugh- ter of one of his tenants, ill-treats her in a variety of ways, takes away her two sons, and makes her believe that they are killed. At last he turns her out of doors in her shift, and celebrates a marriage with a noble lady. But finding that Gri- selda endures every thing patiently, he takes her back, restores her two sons, and treats her as marchioness. No one can suppose that Griselda is held up as a model. One might as well have a wax image for a wife. This subject has been treated by poets of many other nations; for instance, by Chaucer. Grisdda is, there- fore, not unfrequently used to designate a woman whose patience is trial-proof. Grisette (French); originallya dressof coarse gray cloth, worn by the females of the lower classes; hence it is used for the females tliemselves, and is generally used to signify a belle of the lower classes. In the language of the theatre, grisette signi- fies an intriguing young girl, of the class of soubrettes. Grisons, the (Graubiindten) ; the Up- per Rhsetia of the ancients ; since 1788 a canton of the Swiss confederacy. It is the largest in the confederacy, contaipiDg 3000 square miles, with 75,000 inhabit- ants, and is bounded N. by Glarus, St. Gall and the Vorarlberg; E. by the Tyrol; S. by the Valteline, Milan and the canton Ticino ; W. by Uri. The Grison Alps rise 11,000 feet above the level of the sea; the line of perpetual snow is from 8200 to 8400 feet; they contain 241 glaciers and 56 waterfalls. The Inn and the Rhine have their sources here. The lowest point of the populous valley En- gadin, at Martinsbruck, is 3234 feet above the level of the sea; the highest village is situated at an elevation of 5600 feet. The varieties of climate are, therefore, very striking in the Grisons. The country is divided into five great valleys:—1. The valley of the posterior Rhine, which in- cludes the Rheinwald, and the valleys of the Schamser, the Via Mala and the Dom- lesch. The latter is formed by the poste- rior Rhine, is the mildest district in the Grisons, and contains 22 villages, in which the Romansh, a mixture of Latin, Ger- man and Italian, is spoken. The Scham- ser-Valley contains 9 villages, and is about 7 miles long. Between this and die Rheinwald is the terrible Via Mala, which is formed by the posterior Rhine. In this and in the Rheinwald, the winters last 9 mouths, on account of their elevated situation. Two formidable roads lead to Italy, one over the Splugen, the other over the St. Bernard. The former was passed, in 1800, by the French, under Macdonald. Lecourbe, with a considerable corps, ven- tured to enter the latter in 1797.—2. The second valley is that of the anterior Rhine, which extends from the western frontier and the St. Gothard to Coire and Lucien- steig. Here are the most interesting points—the old Benedictine abbey Disen- tis, whose literary treasures and buildings were destroyed, in 1799, by the French: THE GRISONS—GROIN. 69 also Ilantz (the town), the old Coire (q. v.), where Roman antiquities and coins are found.—3. The third valley is that of En- gadin, or the valley of the Upper Inn, which stretches from south-west to north- east, and contains, indeed, no important town, but incomparable views and pictur- esque scenery. It is one of the most romantic spots on earth.—4. The fourth valley is formed by the Albula, a river which rises in the Julian or Septimian mountains, and falls mto the Posterior Rhine at Thusis.—5. The fifth valley is that of the Prettigau, situated on the northern frontier, in the neighborhood of the Vorarlberg ; Mayenfield is the princi- pal town.—The people of the Grisons are divided into three leagues (in German,Biin- de; hence the German name of the canton, Graubundten); the League of God's house, the capital of which is Coire; the Gray League, with Ilantz; and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, of which Davos is considered as the chief place. In these three places 63 deputies of the leagues assemble annually in September, under three heads, deliberate on the affairs of the canton, and decide, finally, in legal cases. The canton sends 1600 men to the army of the confederacy, and contrib- utes 12,000 guilders. About two thirds of the inhabitants profess the Helvetic Prot- estant religion. But the ministers have so scanty an income, that they are obliged to maintain themselves by their industry. The only Latin school is in Coire. About 10,000 of the inhabitants speak an Italian dialect; these are in Engadin. About 28,000 speak the Swiss dialect of the Ger- man, and more than 36,000, chiefly near the sources of the Rhine, speak the Ro- mansh or Ladin. This language is a relic of the old Romana rustica. Commerce is much interrupted by the narrowness of the passes on the frontiers. The exports (chiefly to Milan) are cattle, cheese, coals and rare minerals ; for which grain, salt, linen and cloth are received in return. Grist Mill. (See MUl.) Grisvvold, Roger, a governor of Con- necticut, was bom at Lyme, in that state, May 21, 1762. His father had also been governor, and his mother was the daugh- ter of the first and the sister of the second governor Wolcott. He was graduated at Vale college in 1780, and, three years afterwards, admitted to the bar, where he soon acquired the highest distinction. In 1794, he was elected a member of con- gress, in which body his intimate knowl- edge of the public affairs and true interests of his country, joined to his great talents, general information and urbane demeanor, gave him great influence. President Ad- ams offered him, hi 1801, the secreteri- ship of war, which was, however, declin- ed. In 1807 he resigned his seat in the house of representatives. In this year he became a judge of the supreme court of Connecticut, and filled the office with much reputation. In 1808 he was one of the electors of president and vice-pres- ident In 1809 he was chosen lieuten- ant-governor, and in 1811 governor, of his native state. He died in October, 1812. Governor Grisvvold was uncommonly amiable and dignified, as well as able. He was, for several years, an eminent leader of the federal party. Gritti ; a noble Venetian family. An- drew, having been taken prisoner by the Turks, concluded a treaty between the Porte and Venice (1501). At a later peri- od, he commanded the Venetian armies in the war against the league of Cam- bray, was made prisoner by Gaston de Foix (q. v.), and persuaded Louis XII to secede from the league, and, in 1513, to conclude a treaty with the republic. From 1523 to 1538, he was doge.—Ludovico Gritti, son of Andrew, was born in Constantinople, during his father's captivity; served in the armies of the Turks, among whom he en- joyed a high reputation; commanded at the siege of Vienna; defended Buda, in 1531; became governor of Hungary, but drew upon himself the popular hatred by the murder of the bishop of Wardein. The Hungarians besieged him in Medwisch, which they took in 1534. They cut off his hands in the morning, his feet at noon, and his head in the evening. Grog ; a general name for any spiritu- ous liquor and water mixed together; but is more particularly applied to rum and water cold, without sugar. Groger, Frederic Charles, and Alden- rath, Henry; the former born 1766, in Holstein; the latter, 1774, in Lubeck; two inseparable friends and artists. Groger is a historical painter, and Aldenrath a min- iature painter. Both have distinguished themselves by lithographic productions. Groger had to struggle, in his youth, with the greatest obstacles, having been an ap- prentice to a tailor, a turner and a house painter, and was often punished for follow- ing his inclinations for drawing. They five in Hamburg. Groin, among builders, is the angular curve made by the intersection of two 6emi-cylinders or arches, and is either regular or irregular:—regular, as when the intersecting arches, whether semichcular 70 GROIN—GRONOVIUS. or semi-elliptical, are of the same diame- ters and heights; and irregular, when one of the arches is semicircular, and the other semi-elliptical. Grolman, Charles Louis William von, late minister of justice and the interior, and president of the council of ministers of the grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, was bom July 23, 1775, in Giessen. In 1798, he was appointed professor of law in the university of Giessen. In 1816, he was called to Darmstadt, to preside over a commission for drawing up a new code. He rose gradually to the post of minister, in which he managed all branches of the government, except the military. Grolman, during his long career as pro- fessor of law, has written many works, some of distinguished merit, as his Prin- ciples of the Science of Criminal Law (4th edit, 1826), in which he lays down the theory of prevention, as the German lawyers call it, and several others. He has also edited or written for several law pe- riodicals of high reputation. Groningen; a province of the kingdom of the Netherlands, between 52° 50^ and 53° 28' N. lat, and 6° IV and 7° 13' E. Ion., forming the north-eastern extremity of the kingdom, on the coast of the Ger- man ocean, containing 780 square miles; is protected against the encroachments of the sea by dikes. It is very level, and is in- tersected by innumerable canals, partly for the purpose of safety, and partly to drain the land, which is in some parts fertile, in others sandy, and in others marshy. In the south-east are the vast morasses of Bourtenge. There are many lakes, of which the Zuidlaader, the Schild and the Foxholster are the principal. The climate is damp. The 142,575 inhabitants are most- ly Calvinists, and raise great numbers of cattle. Groningen takes the sixteenth place in the kingdom, and sends four dep- uties to the states-general. The provin- cial states consist of 36 members. In 1810, it was made a department of the French empire, under the name of the Western Ems. The capital of this province is Gro- ningen. (See the following article.) Groningen ; a city in the Netherlands, capital of the province of Groningen, on the rivers Hunse and Fivel, 81 miles west of Bremen, 100 miles north-east of Am- sterdam ; lat. 53° 13' 13" N.; lon. 6° 34' 26" E.; 27,800 inhabitants; churches, 12. It is large, rich, strong, well peopled, and adorned with many excellent buildings, public and private; its figure is nearly round, encompassed with good ramparts, guarded by large ditches filled with water, besides many bastions and other fortifica- tions, which would render an attack upon it very difficult. Its port is very commo- dious ; ships enter with great ease by means of a canal, whose sides are lined with large stones for about nine mile6 from the sea. The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, and endowed with the revenues of several monasteries, has long been respectable. It consists of five facul- ties, and has a good library. Here are al- so academies for drawing, navigation and agriculture, an institution for the deaf and dumb, and societies of lawyers and physi- cians. In 1826, an epidemic, caused by the great drought, did great injury. Some authors think this city to be on the spot of the ancient fortress which Tacitus men- tions under the name of Corbulonis monu- mentum, but there is no historical proof of it Gronovius (properly Gronov); the name of several celebrated critics and philolo- gists. 1. John Frederic, one of the most learned students of antiquities, was born at Hamburg in 1611. He studied at Leip- sic and Jena, and went through a course of law at Altdorf, spent some time in Hol- land and England, was appointed profes- sor of history and eloquence at Deventer, and, after the death of Daniel Heinsius, succeeded him, as professor of belles-let- tres at Leyden (1658), where he died 1671. With extensive knowledge he combined indefatigable industry and amiable man- ners. His editions of Livy, Statius, Jus- tin, Tacitus, Gellius, Phsedrus, Seneca, Sallust, Pliny, Plautus, &c, and his Obser- vations, are valuable for their notes and im- proved readings. His Commentarius de Sesterdis displays a thorough acquaintance with the Roman language and antiquities; and his edition of Hugo Grotius's work, De Jure Belli et Pads, is justly valued, on account of the notes. 2. His son James, born at Deventer, in 1645, studied there and at Leyden. He spent some months at Oxford and Cambridge, and returned to Leyden, where he published, in 1676, an edition of Polybius, which met with such applause, that he received an offer of a pro- fessorship at Deventer. He refused it, however, from a desire to travel through France, Spain and Italy. The grand-duke of Tuscany conferred on him a professor- ship at Pisa, which he relinquished in 1679, and was appointed professor of belles-lettres at Leyden and geographer to the university. He died at Leyden in 1716. This learned and industrious critic edited Tacitus, Polybius, Herodotus, Pom- ponius Mela, Cicero, Ammianus Marcelli- nus, &c, and compiled the valuable The- GRONOVIUS—GROSBEAK. 71 saurus AntiquUatum Gracarum (Leyden, 1697, 13 vols, fol.) He also promoted the publication of the collections of Graevius. (See Gravius.) These two works should be united, and, to form a complete library of antiquities, the Novus Thesaur. Ant. Rom. by Sallengre (Hague, 1716, 3 vols. fob), the Utriusque Thes. nova Supple- menta, by Poleni (Venice, 1737, 5 vols. fol.), the Inscriptiones Antiqua totius Orbis Rom., by Gruter (Amsterdam, 1707,4 vols. fol.), and the Lexicon Ant. Rom., by Pitis- cus (Leuwarden, 1713, 2 vols, fol.), should be added. He had many weak points in his character, and his vanity led him to as- sail and calumniate men of the greatest merit, such as Henry Stephens, Spanheim, Vossius, Salmasius, Bochart and Graevius. 3. His son Abraham, bom at Leyden, 1694, showed himself a good philologist, by his editions of Justin, Pomponius Mela, Taci- tus and iElian. He died there in 1775, librarian to the university. Gros (French); thick, strong ; a word used in many compositions for silks, as gros de Naples, gros de Tours, gros de Ber- lin, &c, all strong fabrics. Gros, Anthony John, bom in Paris, 1771, a pupil of David, is the most cele- brated painter of battle-scenes of the age. Gros first made himself known by his skill in portrait painting; but he soon de- voted himself to the path of rich and no- ble composition, in which he seems to have taken Paul Veronese for his model. His first celebrated work was the picture of the Sick of the Plague at Jaffa, finish- ed in 1804. An officer is represented holding a handkerchief before his face, to avoid inhaling the infection, while the hero of the piece fearlessly approaches and touches one of the sick. All the fig- ures in this work are portraits. All that is terrible in such a subject is represented in the clearest light, but softened by skill of execution and happy conception. This painting excited general admiration. It was purchased by the government, and Gros was commissioned to execute the battle of Aboukir. This splendid paint- ing he completed in about 14 montiis. Ffis Battle of Eylau is painted with ex- quisite skill. There is much that is over- charged in it, however; and a delicate taste must be particularly offended with the profusion of mutilated soldiers. In 1814, Gros executed a picture, represent- ing the visit of Francis I and Charles V to the abbey of St. Denis, which excited . great admiration. It was designed for the sacristy of the church. The departure of the king, on the night of March 20, 1815, formed the subject of another work, which he executed in 1817. The pre- vailing confusion and want of nobility in the principal character are looked upon as unfortunate defects. A group of national guards, however, is very expressive. The fight on the back ground and the figure of an old servant are exquisite. In 1824, he completed his painting for the dome of the church of St. Genevieve, covering a space of 3250 feet, and therefore requir- ing the figures to be colossal. It repre- sents Genevieve protecting the French throne. Clovis, Charlemagne, St. Louis, and (instead of Napoleon, who furnished the plan) Louis XVIII, with the duchess of Angouleme, form the principal groups. When Charles X saw the picture, he sa- luted the artist as baron, and the minister granted him 50,000 francs, in addition to the price of the picture (100,000 francs). All the works of this artist are marked by bold design and powerful coloring. Gros is a member of the academy, and of the legion of honor, and professor in the school of painting and sculpture. Grosbeak (loxia, L.) These birds are in general shy and solitary, chiefly living in woods, at a distance from the habitations of man. Their vocal powers are not great, and hence they are little sought after as song birds. Their most conspicuous characteristics are the thick- ness and strength of dieir bills, which en- able them to break the stones of various kinds of fruits. There are many species of them, the best known of which is the L. coccothraustes. This species is an in- habitant of the temperate parts of Europe. Buffon says it is a shy and solitary bird, with no song. The female builds her nest in trees; it is composed of small, dry roots and grass, and lined with warmer materials. The eggs are roundish, of a bluish green, spotted with brown. The green grosbeak (L. chloris) is common in every part of Great Britain, and may be seen in every hedge, especially in winter. It does not migrate. The female builds in hedges or low bushes; she lays five or six eggs, of a pale greenish color, marked at the larger end with spots of a reddish brown. The pine grosbeak (L. enuchlea- tor) inhabits the cold regions of both con- tinents, whence it occasionally visits tem- perate climates in the winter. The female makes her nest on trees, at a small dis- tance from the ground, and lays four white eggs. There are several species peculiar to North America, as the cardinal bird (L. cardinalis), which is found from New England to South America, and is most 72 GROSBEAK—GROTESQUES. numerous west of the Alleghanies. This beautiful bird, which is often kept in cages, on account of its bright plumage, is crested, of a red color, brighter beneath, with the throat black, and bill red; the female is of a drab red color. The other species are, evening grosbeak (L. vesperti- na), rose-breasted grosbeak (L. ludovisia- na), blue grosbeak (L. carulea). Groschen; a silver coin, so called from the Latin grossus (thick); thick coins, in opposition to thin lead coins. The oldest groschen known were struck in Treves, in 1104. The first Bohemian groschen were coined in 1296, at Kutten- burg. In 1525, the groschen was divided into 12 pfennige. In 1504, the small groschen, now in use, were first struck at the city Gosslar. The Marieu-groschen are valued at eight pfennige, and 30 mod- ern groschen of Prussia are equal to a thaler. Grosch is also the name of a Russian copper coin, worth two copecks. Gross (Hal.), in opposition to net, is ap- plied to merchandise, including that in which it is packed. It refers particu- larly to weight. Thus we say," The bag of coffee weighs nine hundred weight gross," that is, including die weight of the bag. Gross-Beeren, Battle of, August 23, 1813. August 17, 1813, the armistice having expired, the war between the allies and Napoleon commenced anew, and the emperor of France deshed to hurl his bolts, at the same time, into the camps at Breslau, Prague and Berlin. They re- coiled upon himself on the Katzbach, at Cuhn and Gross-Beeren. Berlin was protected by the militia and the northern army, commanded by Bemadotte, then crown-prince of Sweden, and consisting of the third and fourth Prussian divisions, the Russian corps under Woronzow, Winzin- gerode and Czernitschef, and about 22,000 Swedes. The French army, reinforced by the forces of Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Darm- stadt and Saxony, was formed into four divisions, led by Oudinot (the general- in-chief), Victor, Regnier and Bertrand, and was, together with the cavalry, under Arrighi, from 80,000 to 90,000 strong. Its destination was the capture of Berlin, and it was supported by general Girard, with the garrison of Magdeburg; but the crown-prince performed, in detail, the same operations against this body as the allies against the main body of the enemy. His army formed a curve from Buchholtz, the extremity of the left wing, through Mittenwalde, Klein-Beeren, Hein- ersdorf, Blankenfeld, Ruhlsdorf, to Belitz and Treuenbriezen, the extreme right wing, from which the Russian line inclin- ed inwards towards Jiiterbock ; while the Prussians, in die centre, were advanced to Trebbin. The Prussian generals Hirsch- feld and Puttlitz observed Magdeburg be- yond Brandenburg. On both wings, the light troops were dispersed as far as Wit- tenberg, Guben and Baruth. On the 22d, the enemy entered the curve—Regnier in the centre, Bertrand on the right, and Oudinot on the left wing. They attacked the Prussians, at Trebbin, who gave way. On the 23d, Bertrand fell upon general Tauenzien at Blankenfeld, but was re- pulsed. Regnier forced his way to Gross- Beeren, the key-stone of the arch, about 10 miles from Berlin. Here he was un- expectedly attacked by die brave Biilow. At the same time, Borstell surrounded die right wing of the enemy. The Prussians fought, with great courage, in sight of their capital. A mounted Saxon bat- tery having been outflanked and taken, they advanced to a charge. The dis- charge of fire-arms being rendered im- possible by die rain, the soldiers fought with the butt-ends of their muskets and with bayonets. Gross-Beeren was taken by storm; die Saxon and the second French division were driven from the field, and the cavalry of the duke of Padua routed. Oudinot now brought up the three divisions of reserve, which were attacked by the Russians and Swedes as they deployed from the wood. Cardell, colonel of the Swedish forces, supported by an attack of cavalry, took the enemy's artillery. Oudinot now abandoned the struggle, and retreated to Wittenberg and Torgau, on the Elbe. He lost 30 camions and more than 2000 prisoners. The Prussians gained possession of Jiiterbock, and, on the 28th, of Luckau. A pyramid of cast iron has been erected on the spot by Frederic William HI. Grotefeno, George Frederic; bom 1775; director of the gymnasium in Hano- ver; a distinguished German philologist He published a revised edition of Wcnck's Latin Grammar (fourth edition, 1824, Frankfort), and an abridgment of it at the same place. It is one of the best German- Latin grammars. He has also written many learned philological treatises. His nephew Augustus, co-rector of the royal paedagogium at Ilfeld, is the author of a Complete Latin Grammar (two volumes, Hanover, 1830). Grotesques, in painting, are often confounded with arabesques. All orna- ments compounded in a fantastical man- ner, of men, beasts, flowers, plants, &c, GROTESQUES—GROTIUS. 73 are called sometimes arabesques, and sometimes grotesques; but there is a dis- tinction between them. Arabesques are flower-pieces, consisting of all kinds of leaves and flowers, real or imaginary. They are so called from the Arabians, who first used them, because they were not permitted to copy beasts and men. As they were also used by the Moors, they are sometimes called moresques. The Romans ornamented their saloons with paintings, in which flowers, genii, men and beasts, buildings, &c, are mingled to- gether according to the fancy of the artist. These ornaments are properly called gro- tesques, because they were found in the ruined buildings of the ancient Romans, and in subterranean chambers, which the Italians call grottoes. The origin of these fantastic compositions is traced, by Botti- ger, to the carpets of Persia and India, adorned with all the wonders of Oriental fable. In the baths of Titus and Livia, at Rome, in Adrian's villa at Tivoli, in the houses in Herculaneum and Pompeii, and many other places, such grotesques have been found; sometimes, indeed, showing an excess of ornament, but generally val- uable for their arrangement and execu- tion. Raphael was well aware of their beauty, and caused his pupils, particularly Giov. Nanni da Udine, to use them as patterns in painting the porticoes of the Vatican. He likewise used them, as the ancients did, for borders. The taste for grotesques has, in part, degenerated into the monstrous and unnatural; grotesque has therefore become a term of art to ex- press a distorted figure, a strange monster, the offspring of an unrestrained imagina- tion. Grotius, or De Groot, Hugo, a schol- ar and statesman of the most diversified talents, was bom at Delft, April lOtli, 1583. He was descended from a noble family, and received an excellent education. In his 15th year, he sustained, with general ap- plause, theses on philosophy, mathematics and law. The next year, he accompanied Barncveldt (q.v.), the Dutch ambassador, to France, where he gained the approbation of Henry IV, by his genius and demeanor, and was every where admired as a prodigy. After his return, he conducted his first lawsuit in his 17th year; and, in his 24th, was appointed advocate-general. In 1613, he became syndic, or pensioner, of Rotter- dam. The disputes of the Remonstrants and their opponents then disturbed the tranquillity of Holland. (See Arminians.) Barneveldt was the defender of the for- mer party. Grotius, who had declared VOL. vi. 7 himself on die side of Barneveldt, sup- ported him by his pen and influence. This involved him in the trial which ter- minated in die beheading of Barneveldt, in 1619, and the condemnation of Gro- tius to imprisonment for life in the fortress of Louvestein. He succeeded in escap- ing from this fortress by concealing him- self in a chest, in which his wife had sent him books. After wandering about for some time in the Catholic Netherlands, he escaped to France. Louis XIII gave him a pension of 3000 livres. The Dutch ambassadors endeavored in vain to preju- dice the king against him. Richelieu was unfavorably disposed towards him, and, in 1631, even his pension was withdrawn. Grotius then returned to his native country, relying on the favor of Frederic Henry, prince of Orange, who had written him a sympathizing letter. But, by die influ- ence of Iris enemies, he was condemned to perpetual banishment. Grotius next proceeded to Hamburg. During his resi- dence in that city, die kings of Denmark, of Poland and of Spain made attempts to persuade him to settle in their states; but the protection which the chancellor Ox- enstiern promised him, and the inclination of queen Christina for learning, induced him to accept the offers of this princess. In 1634, he went to Stockholm, where he was appointed counsellor of state and am- bassador to the French court. • This choice displeased cardinal Richelieu, who was irritated to see a man return, who had been denied protection and a resi- dence in France; but Oxenstiern would not allow any other minister to be nomi- nated, and Grotius appeared at Paris hi 1635. He discharged his duties, as am- bassador, for 10 years, and gained univer- sal respect. On his return to Sweden by the way of Holland, he met, in Amster- dam, with the most honorable reception. Most of his enemies were dead, and his countrymen repented of having banished the man who was the honor of his native land. He was received with equal favor by the queen in Sweden. He afterwards requested his dismission, and, having finally obtained it, was on his way to Hol- land, when a storm drove him to Pomc- rania. He fell sick at Rostock, where he died, August 28, 1645. With die talents of the most able statesman, Hugo Grotius united deep and extensive learning. He was a profound theologian, excellent in exegesis, his Commentary on the New Testament being still esteemed; a distin- guished belles-lettres scholar, an acute philosopher and jurist, and a historian in- 74 GROTIUS—GROUCHY. timate with the sources of history. His writings have had a decisive influence on the formation of a sound taste, and on the diffusion of an enlightened and liberal manner of thinking in affairs of science. As a philologian, he seizes the genius of his author with sagacity, illustrates brief- ly and pertinently, and amends the text with facility and success. His metrical translations from the Greek are executed with the spirit of a poet. Among the modem Latin poets, he holds one of the first places, and he also tried his powers in Dutch verse. But the philosophy of ju- risprudence has been especially promoted by his great work on natural and national law, De Jure Belli et Pads, which laid the foundation of a new science; besides which he wrote Annates Belgica usque ad Ann. 1609 ; Parallelon Rerumpublic.; De Veritate Rdigionis Christ., and Poemata (Leyden, 1617, 12mo.). Grotta del Cane (dog's cave); the most remarkable of the many grottoes around Naples, mentioned even by Pliny (lib. 2, c. 90), hollowed out of a sandy soil, to the depth of ten feet, and the breadth of four. A light vajior, resem- bling that of coal, is always seen rising alHiut six inches in height The walls do not exhibit any incrustation or de- posit of saline matter No smell is emit- ted, except that which is generally con- nected with a subterranean passage. A dosr is most commonly chosen to exhib- it the effects of this vapor. The animal, held in it, at first struggles considerably, but loses all motion in about two min- utes, and would immediately die, if it was not withdrawn into the open air. The effect is the same on all animals, and is owing to the presence of carbonic acid gas (see Carbon), which produces death merely by suffocation. A man, however, may enter the cave with impunity, as he may wade into the water, because the specific gravity of the gas prevents its rising above five or six niches from the floor. (See Damp.) Grotto ; a small artificial edifice made in a garden, in imitation of a natural grot- to. The outsides of these grottoes are usually adorned with rustic architecture, and their inside with shell-work, cor- al, &c. Grouchy, Emanuel, count of, was bom at Paris, in 1766, entered the military service at the age of 14, and, in 1785, was appointed an officer in the king's body-guard. On the breaking out of the revolution, he showed his attachment to liberal principles, left th« guards in conse- quence, and served in the campaign of 1792, as commander of a regiment of dra- goons. In the succeeding winter, he was placed at the head of the cavalry of the army of the Alps, and contributed essen- tially to the conquest of Savoy. He was then sent into Vendee, where he distin- guished himself on several occasions, but was obliged to leave the army in conse- quence of the decree of the convention excluding all nobles from .any military command. In 1794, he was again sent to Vendee, with the rank of general of divis- ion, disappointed the attempts of the em- igrants at Quiberon, and cooperated vig- orously with the measures of general Hoche. In 1797, he was appointed sec- ond in command of the army destined for the invasion of Ireland. A storm dispers- ed the fleet, and he arrived in the bay of Bantry, with a small part of the land forces and a few ships. He determined, nev- ertheless, to land his forces ; but the rear- admiral Bouvet refused to comply, and Grouchy was obliged to return to France without effecting any thing. In 1798, he was ordered to join the army of Italy, and received the command of the citadel of Tu- rin, and afterwards of all Piedmont, where he distinguished himself by his prudence, moderation and firmness. In the follow- ing year, his services contributed essen- tially to Moreau's victories in Germany, and the battle of Holienlinden was gained chiefly by his energy and courage. Dur- ing the trial of general Moreau, he mani- fested his sentiments in his favor hi such a manner as to incur the displeasure of Napoleon, who continued, indeed, to em- ploy him in the most dangerous and im- portant enterprises, but without rewarding his services. Iu the campaigns against Prussia, in 1806 and 1807, he commanded a cavalry corps, compelled the corps of prince liohenlohe to capitulate atPrenzlau, and that of Bliicher near Lubeck,and dis- tinguished himself at Fricdland. From 1808 to the time of the Austrian war, he was governor of Madrid, was then attached to the army of Italy, penetrated to Hungary. and distinguished himself at the battle of Wagram. In reward for his important services, he was created commander of the iron crown, colonel-general in the chasseurs, and grand-officer of the empire. During the campaign in Russia (1812), general Grouchy commanded one of the three cavalry corps of the grand army, took an important part in all the great op- erations, covered the retreat to Smolensk, and received the command of the sacred squadron, composed of generals and offi- GROUCHY—GROUP. 75 cers, which Napoleon had organized for the security of his person, in case of extremity. Offended by the refusal of the emperor to confide to him the com- mand of a division of infantry, Grouchy retired from the service. But on the loss of the battle of Leipsic, and the disastrous retreat of the French from Germany, he offered to resume his post Napoleon, while he permitted him to choose between the army in Piedmont and the cavalry, gave him to understand that he consider- ed that he would be most useful at the head of the cavalry, the command of which Grouchy, therefore, determined to accept 11 is brilliant services in the cam- paign of 1814 were rewarded with the baton of marshal. After the restoration, he received no appointment, and he there- fore joined Napoleon on his return from Elba. In 1615, he received the command of the reserve cavalry of the grand army (80 squadrons). On the 17th of June, he was detached in pursuit of the Prussians, and on the 18th, the day of the battle of Waterloo, was before Wavre. Napoleon accuses him of being the author of the defeat at Waterloo, by permitting two di- visions- of the Prussian army, under Blii- cher, to joui the English forces. After the abdication of the emperor, marshal Grouchy proclaimed Napoleon II. He was one of the 19' general officers, whose arrest was ordered by the ordonnance of July 24, 1815, in consequence of which he retired to the U. States, where he re- mained until he received permission to return to France. In his Observations on the Campaign of 1815, published at Philadelphia, Grouchy has defended him- self from die charges of the emperor. His sister, Grouchy, Sophie, wife of the famous Qondorcet, died 1822. She is the author of several valuable works. Her transla- tion of Smith's Thiorie des Sentiments moraux is admired. Mad. Condorcet allowed a touching solicitude for her brother, die marshal, when he was tried, in 1817, and defended by his son. Groundsel (senecio vulgaris); a weed, growing in waste places, introduced into the U. States from Europe, and flowering throughout the whole season. It belongs to the natural order composita; the stem is fistulous, about a foot high; the leaves amplexicaul and sinuate-pinnatifid; the flowers small, yellow, destitute of any ray, and disposed in a loose corymb. The plant is emollient, has a herbaceous and sightly acid taste, but is rejected by al- most every quadruped, except the hog and goat: small birds, however, are very fond of the seeds. Such was the mildness of the weather in the beginning of the winter of 1824-5, that this plant flowered on the 30th of December, in the streets of Bos- ton. Ground Tackle ; a general name given to all sorts of ropes and furniture which belong to the anchors, or which are em- ployed in securing a ship in a road or har- bor ; as cables, anchors, bow-lines, &c. Group (Italian groppo or gruppo); a term employed, in painting and sculpture, to signify an assemblage of several ob- jects, such as figures of men, beasts, fruits or the like, which have some relation to each other, arranged in such a manner as to present to the eye one connected whole. To group objects, is to arrange them according to then magnitude, direc- tion, apparent motion, &c, so as to form one whole. Rules for the disposition and employment of groups are derived from philosophical principles of art. These rules require a unity of interest, which is by no means inconsistent with variety of expression. Thus, in historical paint- ings, all the figures have reference to the principal one, to which the attention is chiefly directed. The groups must also be easily embraced by the eye, and agree- able. This depends upon a skilful ar- rangement of the figures and distribu- tion of die light. The cone, the pyramid, and a bunch of grapes, have been taken as models of a group. Titian regarded the bunch of grapes as a model, because, in its outlines and surfaces, it exhibits a unity connected with the most agreeable variety, and all the necessary differences of light and shade and reflections. In the pyramid we have the model of the relation between a small height and broad surface. Mengs advises to bring the larger masses into the centre, and the smaller to the circumfer- ence, which gives lightness and grace to the group; not to arrange the figures in succession, nor to bring out various promi- nent parts of the figure, for instance, heads, so as to form together straight, horizontal, perpendicular or oblique lines; to avoid geometrical figures, too great regularity and repetition, and to exhibit only the most beautiful portions. He also thinks it advantageous to unite the groups of figures in uneven numbers, and to ob- serve the same rules in collecting the groups into pictures. Of the even num- bers, he says, the most tolerable are those which are made up of two uneven num- bers; for example, 6, 10, 14; but those formed of two even numbers, such as 76 GROUP—GRUNER. 4, 8, 12, can never be introduced with grace. The reason is, that such a disposi- tion serves to avoid uniformity. If mo- notony of figures in a group is intolerable, a monotony of groups in a picture is as little to be endured; and one pyramidal group at the side of another gives to the whole a stiff and constrained appearance. Moreover, objects apparently separate may often serve to unite two groups, otherwise distinct, which the artist effects by a skil- ful intermingling of light and shade. Grouse (tetrao). This is a large genus of birds, whose distinguishing mark is a naked band, often of a red color, in place of an eyebrow. They are wild, shy, and almost untamable. They live in fami- lies, dwelling in forests, barren countries, far from mau and cultivation. They feed exclusively on berries, buds and leaves. They are polygamous, the male abandon- ing the female, and leaving to her the whole care of the progeny. The number of eggs varies from eight to fourteen. The largest species is the wood grouse (T. uro- gallus). This is superior in size to the turkey, and is peculiar to the old conti- nent. It lives in pine forests, feeding on the cones of the fir, which, at some seasons, give an unpleasant flavor to its flesh. The black grouse (T. tetrix), also peculiar to die old continent, is about the size of a common fowl, though it is much heavier. It chiefly lives in high and wooded situations, feeding on various kinds of berries. It does not pah, but, on the return of spring, the males assemble in great numbers, when a contest for su- periority ensues, and continues with great bitterness till the vanquished are put to flight Red grouse (T. Scoticus). This bird is also called moorfowl, and is found in great plenty in the Highlands of Scot- land. It pairs in the spriug ; the female lays eight or ten eggs. The young follow the hen the whole summer. As soon as they have attained their full size, they unite in flocks of forty or fifty, and are extremely shy and wild. White grouse (T. albus). This bird is ash-colored in summer, but its hue changes to a pure white in winter. It is found in most north- ern regions. Buffon, speaking of this bird, says that it avoids the solar heat, and prefers the biting frosts on the tops of mountains; for, as the snow melts on the sides of the mountains, it constandy as- cends. The flesh is dark colored. There are also several species peculiar to North America, the most remarkable of which is the pinnated grouse, or heath hen (T. cu- pido.) This curious bird inhabits open, desert plains in particular districts of the Union, avoiding immense intermediate re- gions. The male is furnished with wing- like appendages to his neck, covering two loose, orange, skinny bags, capable of be- ing inflated. Its favorite food is the par- tridge berry, though it is also fond of whortleberries and cranberries. It com- monly unites in covies, until the pairing season. Ruffed grouse, or partridge of the Eastern States, and pheasant of Penn- sylvania (T. umbellus), well known in al- most every quarter of the U. States. Its favorite places of resort are high moun- tains, covered with the balsam pine, hem- lock, &c.; it is seldom found in open plains. The manners of this bird are sol- itary, being usually found iu pairs or sin- gly.- It generally moves along with great stateliness, with the tail spread out like a fan. The male makes a peculiar noise, termed drumming. This is done by rap- idly striking with his stiffened wings; it is most common in the morning and evening. It pairs in April, and lays in May. The eggs are from nine to fifteen in number. It is in best order for the ta- ble in September and October. The oth- er American species are, die dusky grouse (T. obscurus), inhabiting near the Rocky mountains; Canadian grouse (T. Cana- densis), peculiar to the northern and north- western parts of the U. States, more com- mon in Canada: long-tailed grouse (T. phasiandlus) inhabits the western wilds of the U. States beyond the Mississippi. Grunberg ; a city in the Pmssian gov- ernment of Liegnitz, Silesia, with 10,000 inhabitants. It manufactures a great quantity of broadcloth, and is surrounded by vineyards, which produce large quan- tities of wine. The wine is much used to mix with inferior French wines, to be sold in the interior. It is so astringent, that it is commonly said, in Germany, " You can mend the holes of a stocking by putting some Grunberg wine into it." Gruner, Christian Godfrey; a cele- brated German physician, bom Nov. 8, 1744, at Sagan, in Silesia. He first stud- ied theology, at the desire of his father, after whose death he followed his own inclination for the medical science, in which he became one of the most prolific and practical writers. He wrote about 50 large works, and many essays, which show a thorough acquaintance with an- cient medical literature, as well as sound practical judgment. He was a long time professor in the university at Jena, where he died Dec. 4, 1815. He was member of a vast number of academies and learned GRUNER—GUADALOUPE. 77 societies in Germany and other coun- tries. Gruner, Charles Justus von, born Feb. 28, 1777, studied in Halle and Gottingen. In 1803, he received an office under the Prussian government When the French entered Posen, Gruner was making a col- lection for the widow of Pahn, the book- seller, who was shot by the French for having published a pamphlet against them. Gruner was therefore denounced to mar- shal Davoust as a suspicious person; upon which he went himself to Davoust with the list of subscribers, and the marshal subscribed a large sum. Afterwards, feel- ing unsafe, he fled to Tilsit. He was then appointed the president of the police in Ber- lin, at that time a very dangerous and deli- cate situation. In 1811, he was indirectly obliged, by the French, to give up his office. In 1812, he went to Bohemia (whether sent by government or not is not known), and, supported by Russia and England, estab- lished connexions throughout Germany for the overthrow of Napoleon's domina- tion. The plan was to begin with the burning of the French magazines, when their troops were far advanced in Russia; but the vigilance of the French rendered this plan abortive, and the Prussian gov- ernment was obliged to demand his arrest of the Austrian government He remain- ed in confinement a year, when the Rus- sian government delivered him from his prison. During the war against the French, he was appointed governor of the Rhenish provinces, where he was very active. The emperor of Russia conferred on him the order of St. Anne of the first class. After Napoleon's second fall, he was made Prussian director of the police for Paris and the environs, in which ca- pacity he counteracted, with great decis- ion and dexterity, the cunning of Fouche, who employed every means to retain the works of art which had been collected in Paris, After the peace, the king of Prus- sia made him a noble, and appointed him minister to the Swiss republics. He died Feb. 8,1820. Gruner has written several valuable works on subjects connected with politics and the police. Gry; a measure containing one tenth of a line. Gryphius, Andrew (properly, Greif), a dramatic poet, was bom 1616, at Glogau. He studied at Fraustadt and Dantzic, and acquired an extensive knowledge of law; ; tier which he became tutor in a family. He passed ten years in travelling through Holland, France and Italy, during which he formed friendships with many of the most eminent men of the age. On his return, he became syndic to the senate of Glogau. He died suddenly (1664), in an assembly of the estates. Gryphius did much for German literature. At a time when there were no German dramas but the carnival plays, he wrote tragedies and comedies, which displayed his acquaint- ance with the ancient and modern litera- ture, and contained many poetical passages, though they showed no acquaintance with theatrical effect. The Dutch poet Vondal seems to have been his model. Many of his other poems breathe a high lyric spirit, mixed with a tone of melancholy, occasioned by his misfortunes. Guadalaxara ; formerly an intendancy of Mexico, bounded N. by Sonora and Durango, E. by Zacatecas and Guanaxua- to, S. by Valladolid, and W. by the Pacific ocean ; it is 350 miles long and 300 broad : square leagues, 9612 ; population in 1803, 630,000. It contains 2 cities, 6 towns, and 322 villages. The principal mines are those of Bolanos, Arientos de Oburra, Hostiotipaquillo, Copala and Guichichila. It is crossed from E. to W. by the Rio de Santiago. All the eastern part is table land, and has a pleasant climate. The maritime regions are covered with forests, and abound in excellent timber for ship- building ; but the ah is very hot and un- healthy. This country now forms the state of Yalisco, in the Mexican confederacy. Guadalaxara ; a city in Mexico, capi- tal of the country of the same name, on the Santiago, 240 miles N. W. of Mexico ; lon. 103° 2' W.; lat. 21° 9' N.; population, 19,500—Spaniards, mulattoes and mesti- zoes. It is a bishop's see, and is situated in a delightful and fertile plain, is regular and handsome, containing eight squares, a magnificent cathedral, two colleges, many convents, and a manufactory of cigars. The houses are mostly of only one story, the streets unpaved, and the carriages are drawn by unshod mules. Guadaloupe ; an island of the West Indies, and one of the largest and most valuable of the. Caribbee islands. It is situated in lon. 62° W., and in lat. 16° 20' N., and is between 60 and 70 miles in length, and about 25 miles in its greatest breadth. It is divided into two jreuts by a channel, in breadth from 30 to 80 yards. This channel runs north and south, and communicates with the sea on both sides by a large bay at each end. The east part of the island is called Grande Terre, and is about 57 miles from Antigua point This part is about 120 miles in circumference. The west part, which is properly Guada- 78 GUADALOUPE—GUANAXUATO. loupe, ia divided by a ridge of mountains. This is 36 miles from north to south, and 23 where broadest, and about 120 in cir- cuit. In many parts the soil is rich. Its produce is the same with that of the other West India islands, namely, sugar, coffee, rum, ginger, cocoa, logwood, &c. The island is well stored with homed cattle, sheep, horses, &c. This island was first discovered by Christopher Columbus. It was taken jiossession of by the French in 1635, who drove the natives into the mountains. In 1759, it was taken by a British squadron, and was restored to France at the peace of 1763. It was again taken by the British in 1794; but was retaken by the French in 1795^ In 1810, it was again taken possession of by a British armament; and, in 1814, was restored to the French. Population, 120,000: whites, 12,500; slaves, 101,000; free negroes, 6500. Guadet, Marguerite Elie; one of the most distinguished leaders of the Giron- dists. (See Girondists.) Guaiacum ; a genus of plants, contain- ing four or five arborescent species, natives of the West Indies and die tropical parts of America. The yellowish-brown gum resin, bearing the same name, is obtained by wounding the bark of one or more of these trees. It has a bitter, aromatic taste, is sudorific, and is frequently employed in chronic rheumatism, sciatica, &c. The wood itself possesses similar medicinal properties. The leaves are opposite, pin- nate, and the peduncles axillary, bearing single blue flowers. The wood is exceed- ingly hard, so much so as frequently to break the tools employed in cutting it; of a pale yellow color near the exterior, and blackish brown at the heart ; specifically heavierthan water; and is well known un- der the name of lignumvita. It is used for a variety of purposes, as for the wheels and cogsof sugar mills, for pulleys, bowls, and a variety of ornamental articles of furniture, as it is susceptible of a very fine polish. The tree has now become very scarce in Jamaica and St Domingo, large quantities having been cut down for exportation. Gual, Pedro, a civilian by education, of the province of Carthagena, in Colom- bia, has been distinguished in that coun- try's war of independence in various im- portant stations. In 1814, he was the presiding officer of the chamber of repre- sentatives of his province. At that time, a project was agitated for creating a con- federation of the littoral provinces, to ex- tend from the mouth of the Orinoco to the boundaries of the commandancy of Panama, with Maracaybo, or some place in the valleys of Ciicuta, for its capital. Sr. Gual proposed the appellation of Co- lombia for the new republic, and thus led to the adoption of this name for the union afterwards formed of the whole of New Granada and Venezuela. In 1821, he was a member of the first general con- gress of Colombia, which produced the constitution of that year. Afterwards he became secretary of the department of foreign affairs; and, in 1826, he was ap- pointed to represent his government in the congress of Panama, and attended the various meetings of that body as one of its members. Owing to his having re- sided some time in Baltimore, he is per- sonally known and esteemed in the U. States. Guamanga ; a town in Pern, the see of a bishop, whose diocese extends, over sev- eral districts ; Ion. 77° 5& W.; lat. 12° 507 N.; population stated from 18 to26,000. This city was founded for the convenien- cy of the trade carried on between Lima and Cusco. There are three parochial churches, one for the Spaniards and two for Indians, besides the cathedral and sev- eral other churches and convents. In it is a university, which has a large reve- nue, for the study of philosophy, divinity and law. Guanahani. (See Cat Island.) Guanaxuato ; a state (formerly an in- tendancy) of Mexico, bounded N. by San Luis Potosi, E. by Mexico, S. by Mecho- acan, and N. W. by Guadalaxara and Za- catecas; population, 382,829; 52 leagues long and 31 broad; square leagues, 911. It is the most populous state in Mexico, and is famous for its rich mines. It con- tains 3 cities, 4 towns, 37 villages, and 33 parishes. The most elevated point of this mountainous country, according to Hum- boldt, is 9235 feet above the sea. Guanaxuato, or Santa Fe Guanax- uato ; city, Mexico, capital of the state of the same name; 140 miles north-west of Mexico ; lon. 100° 55' W. ; lat. 21° N.: population within the city, 41,000; and, in- cluding the mines surrounding the city, the buildings being contiguous, 70,600. It is situated in a narrow defile, hemmed in by mountains, the ground on which the city is built being 6836 feet above the sea. The streets are irregular, but the city is well built, and contains three convents, a college, two chapels and five hermitages. The mines of Guanaxuato are the most productive in the world. The mines of the in tendancy yielded, from 1796 to 1803, S40,000,000 in gold and silver; nearly GUANAXUATO—GUARDS. 79 $5,000,000 per annum, and nearly equal to one fourth of the whole quantity of the gold and silver produced in Mexico. Guanca Velica, or Huanca Velica; jurisdiction in the bishopric of Guaman- ga, in Pern. The town which gives name to this government was founded on ac- count of the famous rich quicksilver mine, and to the working of it the inhabitants owe their subsistence. Guanca Velica, town, Peru, in the di- ocese of Guamanga, and capital of a juris- diction of the same name; 30 miles north- west of Guamanga, 130 south-east of Li- ma ; lon. 74° 46' W.; lat. 12° 45' S.; pop- ulation 5,200. It is 12,308 feet above the level of the sea. The buildings are of stone, more or less porous. It stands in a breach of the Andes, has a changeable and cold climate, and is one of the richest towns in Peru. This town is famous for its mines of mercury, also for its gold and silver. Guards ; troops whose particular duty it is to defend the person of a civil or mil- itary ruler. In modem times, the term guard has been used to designate corps distinguished from the troops of the hue by superior character, or only by rank and dress. The interest of the governors be- ing often different from that of the govern- ed, and the rulers being also often liable to be called to account for the evils suffered by the people, sovereigns have had guards from the most ancient times. The As- syrian and Persian monarchs had body guards, from whom the generals of the troops were taken. Alexander formed a guard of nobles, and many such have ex- isted in modem times. These guards of Alexander were the sons of the noblest persons of the empire, and were divided into two classes. The inferior class guard- ed die exterior of the palace or tent, took care of the king's horses, &c. From among them were chosen the hetari, or friends, who dined with the monarch, and, in the field and at the chase, never left his side. Two of their number watched his bed-room. He promoted them to be gen- erals; and several of them, after his death, became monarchs of those countries which, during his life, they had ruled as his governors. Still more like modem guards were the argyraspides (the silver- shielded), commanded by Nicanor, son of Pannenio. The pratorians (q. v.) were the guards of the Roman emperors, and, hi later times, had the greatest influence on the election of die emperors, some- times the entire control of it. In their licen- tiousness and political importance tiiey re- sembled the janizaries, the guards of die sultan. In fact, in every real despotism, the tendency of the body guards is, to be- come the masters. (See Janizaries.) At a later period, the trabants and hatschiers (archers) guarded the persons of the Ro- man-German emperors; and shnilar troops were maintained at other courts. In the middle ages, distinguished persons, in tur- bulent cities, often had guards; at least, this was frequently the case in the larger cities of Italy, and, at one time, every cardinal had his own guard. The Corsicans were then employed for this service in Rome. But, until recent times, guards were merely destined to protect the person of the mon- arch, or some distinguished person. When the interest of the monarch is different from that of the nation, it is safer to choose foreigners for body-guards, as not having any interest in the disputes between the two parties; hence the Scotch archers of Louis XI, and the Swiss of the Bourbons. In France, their number seems first to have been augmented by the ostentatious Louis XIV, the idol of monarchists. As his plan of government was, to avail him- self of the commons against the nobles, and of a standing army against the commons, the number and importance of the guards were much increased. The maison du roi in his reign amounted to 8000 men, but still retained, more or less, the character of household troops,—diat is, it was their duty to guard the person and palaces of the kings. Most monarchs had similar troops, and many of the smaller ones were distinguished for the splendor of then guards. The petty princes of Germany had brilliant corps of Swiss, Heydukers, &c. Frederic the Great led his battalion of body-guards into the fire, like other troops. He had several battalions of in- fantry and several squadrons of cavalry as guards ; troops of distinguished courage and remarkable height. Height, at this time, was considered one of die chief ex- cellences of a soldier. The guards were, therefore, to excel all other troops in this quality; and they were indeed a rare col- lection of giants. The Russian guards were more numerous. In 1785, they amounted to 10,000 men. Napoleon's, however, were the finest guards, and among the finest troops that ever existed. He relates (in Las Cases's Mimorial, vol. 2, page 33, edit, of 1824), that his narrow escape from being taken prisoner, in a cas- tle on the Mincio, led to the establishment of troops whose destination was the per- sonal safety of the commander. He call- ed them guides: these were body-guards. 80 GUARDS—GUARDS, NATIONAL. When he became the head of the govern- ment, and all Europe was arrayed against the revolutionary principles of France, it was natural, more particularly after he had conceived the plan of reestablishing a he- reditary throne, that he should wish to have a corps, which might serve, in every respect, as a model to his whole army, and which, at the same time, would be particularly attached to him. He there- fore instituted his consular guards, and, af- terwards, the imperial guards, which form- ed a complete corps d'armie, with artilleiy and cavalry, and of which he made use, in battles, only in decisive moments. He could confidently rely on them. They were the ilUe of the army: none were ad- mitted who had been punished by a court- martial. In 1812, the imperial guards consisted of one division of old guards (three regiments of garde-grenadiers and two regiments of garde-chasseurs) and two divisions of young guards, consisting of six regiments of garde-tiraUleurs, six regiments of garde-voltigeurs, one regi- ment of garde-chasseurs, one regiment of garde-grenadiers, one of garde-fianqueurs, each containing two battalions of 800 men. The cavalry consisted of grena- diers, dragoons, chasseurs, chevaux legers, landers, Mamelukes and gendarmerie Wilite. The artilleiy had 120 pieces of cannon. After the disasters of 1812, the imperial guard was reorganized on the same basis. Every one knows how no- bly the old guards left the stage of history on the field of Waterloo. When Louis XVIII was put upon the throne of his brother, he abolished the imperial guards— a measure which, according to some writ- ers, he afterwards regretted—and, instead of them, the ancient household troops were again introduced, which had been, in part, abolished, even before the revolu- tion—the gardes-du-corps, the gardes-de- la-porte, the cent Suisses, the mousque- taires noirs and gris, &c, most of them commanded by emigrants, two of the bodies by Berthier and Marmont The cent Suisses looked ridiculously in their dress, which appeared ludicrous even be- fore the revolution. But, after the hun- dred days, real guards were established, and several battalions of Swiss. The fate of both, in July, 1830, is well known. (See France.) There are now no royal guards in France. In England, the house- hold troops or guards consist of the life- guards, the royal regiment of horse- guards, and three regiments of foot-guards. In Russia, the guards form a numerous corps, which, on the death of Alexander, and previously, showed that many among them had die spirit which, as we have said, the guards of despots always have, more or less; though, at present, Russia has nothnig to fear from them similar to die conduct of the Strelitz (q. v.), because even the Russian autocrat governs, in some degree, by means of laws. The Prussian guards form a whole corps d'ar- mie. In Austria, the guards, though more numerous than formerly, are still merely body-guards of the sovereign, and there- fore then number is comparatively small. Noble guards, in which only sons of no- blemen cpuld serve, have sometimes been formed, a private in which had the rank of ensign. They have generally proved useless in moments when their services were needed. Guards, National; an institution which has acquired historical importance in the politics of France, and, according to all appearance, will now become more im- portant than ever. It was desirable that the popular party, in the beginning of the revolution, should have forces on which they could rely, both for maintaining or- der and resisting the attempts of the court party, in case it should be necessary; as, for instance, the court had early marched 30,000 men, under the duke de Broglie, towards Paris. July 13, 1789, after great disorders had occurred in Paris, and the day before the Bastile was taken, a muni- cipal committee was formed in the hotel- de-ville, to provide for safety and order. They invited the lieutenant of the police to advise with them; and, within a few hours, a plan was prepared for arming the citizens. The armed force was to consist of 48,000 men, to be drawn from the va- rious electoral districts. They first adopt- ed green as their color, taking branches of trees as their badges ; but, as it was re- membered that this was the color of the livery of the count d'Artois (afterwards Charles X, brother of Louis XVI), who was highly unpopular on account of his arbitrary sentiments, it was abandoned; and it is commonly believed that the col- ors of the city of Paris (blue and red), were united with that of the king (white). But the origin of the tricolor is not quite certain. (See the article Tricolor.) The plan of arming a portion of the citizens was adopted with great readiness, because it was necessary to preserve order. This is the origin of the national guards, af- terwards so important On the 14th, the Bastile was taken; on the 15th, Bailly, president of the assembly, was made mayor of Paris, and the marquis de La- GUARDS, NATIONAL. 81 fayette commandant-general of the militia of Paris. June 12, 1790, the national as- sembly decreed that, to enjoy die lights of citizenship, it was necessary to be a mem- ber of the national guard. September 29, 1791, a decree was issued for the organiza- tion of the national guards. A standing municipal and departmental national guard was herewith established, to be raised by voluntary enlistment, in the pro- portion of 1 to every 20 citizens; they chose their own officers, and received pay, arms and uniform. The solemn declaration of the national assembly, De- cember 29, 1791, that the French nation renounces all wars of conquest, and will never employ its arms against the liberty of any nation, was connected with this measure. In May, 1792, the number of the battalions of the departmental nation- al guards was fixed at 216. But the meas- ures of Austria and Prussia, as wellrs the arming of the emigrants on the frontier, obliged the French government to assume a military attitude; and the national guards became a great support to the army, by dif- fusing a military spirit throughout the na- tion, and training many individuals, who afterwards joined the army. October 5, 1795 (13 Vendemiaire), Bonaparte, acting under Barras, led the troops of the con- vention against the national guards of the sections of Paris, who had declared against the system of terrorism. In con- sequence of the events of this day, the staff of the national guard of Paris was dissolved, October 8, and the command conferred upon the commander-in-chief of the army of the ulterior; and thus the genuine national guard, a militia, under the civil authorities, destined to maintain order, was abolished. Some months later, the directory introduced movable columns, in lieu of the stationary depart- mental guards. August 12, 1797, the two legislative councils gave the na- tional guards a new organization, of which Napoleon retained the essential fea- tures, but adapted to his military policy. Numerous legions were formed, which watched the coasts and fortresses on the frontiers, or served in the interior, whilst a numerous gendarmerie, entirely distinct from the national guards, formed a power- ful and active police, with a military or- ganization. In 1810, Napoleon formed a regiment of four battalions of the nation- al guards, which had distinguished them- selves on the occasions when the English had landed. This regiment was called the national guards of the guards. March 13, 1812, Napoleon issued the decree for the formation of the national guards in three bans, as they were called, of which the first comprised all men capable of bearing arms, from 20 to 26 years of age; the second, all able-bodied men from 26 to 40 years ; the third, or arriire ban, all men fit for service, from 40 to 60 years. Of the first ban, he called out 100 cohorts, of 1000 men each, for active service, who were not to fight beyond the frontiers; but, in 1813, they declared, at least a part of them, their willingness to serve beyond the frontiers. The correspondence between Napoleon and Joseph, his brother, just before the entrance of the allies into Paris, shows that the emperor still relied on the na- tional guards for the defence of the capital; but the want of arms, the defection of the highest civil and military officers, and, more than all, the aversion of the people to a continuance of the struggle, prevent- ed such a measure. After the restoration of the Bourbons, the government endeav- ored to make the national guards depend- ent upon itself. Monsieur (the brother of the king) was appointed commander-in- chief of all the national guards of France. The guards were not allowed to choose any of their officers (see France, in 1818); but, in 1818, the staff of the national guards was dissolved, and Mondeur re- signed the chief command. The national guards were again put under die prefect and the minister of the interior. April 29, 1827, the national guard of Paris, on an occasion when it was reviewed by the king, having ventured to demand the re- moval of the ministry (diat of Villele, see France), and the banishment of the Jesuits, was dissolved on the 30th. It was reviv- ed at Paris, during the memorable days of July, 1830. July 30, general Lafayette was appointed, by the provisionary gov- ernment, commander-in-chief of the na- tional guards, in which office he was con- firmed by king Louis Philip, receiving, at the same time, the marshal's staff. The new charter " intrusts the charter and the rights which it consecrates to the patriot- ism and courage of the national guard and all the citizens" (article 66); so that, it would seem, the national guards have be- come a fundamental institution of the kingdom, and cannot again be constitu- tionally abolished. Complaints have been made, that the command of this im- mense power is left in the hands of one man, and that the national guards are not, as formerly, a municipal force for the maintenance of order. An ordinance of October 9, 1830, reorganizes the national guards. They are divided into movable 82 GUARDS, NATIONAL—GUATIMALA. and stationaiy; the first, composed of men from 20 to 30 years of age, inclusive, and only to be called into service by a law, or, while the chambers are not in session, by an ordinance, which must become a law during the next session, is to be " an aux- iliary of the army for the defence of the territory,—the guard of the frontiers, to re- pel invasion, and maintain public order in the interior." Corporals, subalterns and sub-lieutenants arc to be elected by the members; the other officers are to be ap- pointed by the king. When this body is organized, the members are subject to mil- itary discipline; yet, when the national guards refuse to obey orders, or leave their corps without authority, they are to be punished only by imprisonment, not to ex- ceed five years. The Prussian Landwehr is something similar, but more military in its organization, without the privilege of choosing officers, and subjected to an ab- solute military discipline. (See Militia.) The citizen guards established in Belgium during the revolution of the year 1830, were an imitation of the French national guards. Guaium, Giovanni Battista, born at Ferrara, 1537, was descended from a no- ble family, distinguished for its influence on the reviviH of learning and of poetiy. After having studied in Ferrara, Pisa and Padua, and lectured, in his native city, on the ethics of Aristotle, he entered the ser- vice of the duke Alphonso II, who appre- ciated his talents, knighted him, and sent him as his ambassador to the Venetian republic, to Emanuel Filibert, duke of Savoy, to Gregory XIII, Maximilian II, and Henry of Valois, who was chosen king of Poland ; and, when die latter as- cended the throne of France under the name of Henry III, Guarini was sent to the Polish estates to propose the duke as a candidate for the throne of Poland. The failure of this embassy, which involved the sacrifice of a part of Guarini's own property, was taken advantage of, by his jealous rivals, to deprive him of the favor of his prince; and, after all his services, he was dismissed. He now passed his time in literary retirement, partly in Padua, and partly on his own estate, but was recalled, in 1585, to the office of secretary of state. He again attained a distinguished rank hi the court, but, two years after, retired a second time, because the duke, in a dis- pute between Guarini and his daughter- in-law, gave a decision which displeased him. He then continued some time in pri- vate life. In 1597, he entered the service of Ferdinand I, grand-duke of Tuscany, which he soon quitted. Suspecting that the duke had favored the marriage of his youngest son, which had been concluded privately, against Guarini's will, he left his court, and retired to that of the duke of Urbino. After some time, he returned to Ferrara, but resided alternately at Ven- ice, Padua and Rome, on account of the numerous lawsuits in which his litigious spirit involved him. In 1605, he went tis an ambassador of his native city to the court of Rome, to congratulate Paul V on his elevation. He died at Venice, in 1612. Guarini is one of the most elegant authors and poets of Italy, as is shown by his letters, his Segretario, a dialogue, his comedy L'Idropica, his Rime, and, above all, by his Pastor Fido. This pastoral drama, which was first represented at Tu- rin, on the marriage of Charles Emanuel, duke of Savoy,with Catharine of Ausuia, and afterwards frequently brought upon the stage, and translated into many lan- guages, has rendered him immortal. The slightest glance shows that this piece is by no means an imitation of the Aminta, to which it is superior in ingenuity, epi- grammatic turns and poetical ornament, —characteristics which have brought upon him undeserved reproach, as being ill adapted to the pastoral drama. Guarini's works appeared at Ferrara, hi 1737 (four volumes, 4to.). His Trattato delta politi- co Liberia (written about 1599) was first printed at Venice, in 1818, with his life by Ruggieri. Guastalla ; a duchy in Upper Italy, on the Po, in the Austrian dominions, and the duchy of Modena, containing 33 square miles, with 7200 inhabitants. Its chief place, of the same name, on the Crostolo and Po, contains 5500 inhabit- ants. Guastalla formerly belonged to the dukes of Mantua. The line becom- ing extinct in 1746, it was given to Pamia, and, in 1795, was comprised, with all the dominions of this house, in the Italian repubhe. In 1815, it was annexed to the duchy of Parma, and given to Maria Lou- isa, wife of Napoleon, as duchess of Parma. Guatimala (for an account of the country of this name, see Central Ameri- ca). Guatimala is also the largest of the five states of the republic of Central America, formed from the old captain- generalship of the same name. It lies hi the north-western part of the republic, bordering on Mexico, the gulf of Hondu- ras, and the Pacific ocean. It is divided into 14 partidos. Guatimala, La Nueva (the New); seat GUATIMALA—GUEBERS. 8a of the federal government of Central America, archiepiscopal see, situated on the river Vacas, near the Pacific ocean, with a good harbor; lat. 14° 407 N.; lon. 91° 2S7 W. In April, 1830, it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Previous to this, the inhabitants were about 40,000; the houses were handsome, but built low, on account of the frequency of earth- quakes ; the streets broad, and the nume- rous churches and public buildings dis- tinguished for then elegance. It was founded in 1775, in consequence of the destruction of the old city by an earth- quake. Guava (psidium); a genus of plants, allied to the myrtle, containing nearly 40 species, natives of the intertropical parts of America, with one or two exceptions. They are trees or shrubs, with opposite entire leaves, and axillary white flowers. The P. pysiferum attains the height of 18 or 20 feet, and is now cultivated in all the intertropical parts of the globe, for the sake of its fruit, which has a sweet, agree- able flavor, and is considered very whole- some. The young branches of this tree are quadrangular; the leaves, oval-acute, and the fruit shaped like a pear, and about as large as a pullet's egg, yellow without, with a fleshy pulp, and is eaten either in a crude state, or in the form of jellies. The wood, which is very hard, is much used for various mechanical purposes, as also for burning, and makes excellent charcoal. This tree has been cultivated, with complete success, hi the south of France. Guaxaca, or Oaxaca ; a state of Mexi- co, situated between Puebla and Guati- mala, about 240 miles in length and 120 in breadth. The soil is fertile, producing com, maize, cocoa, cochineal, sugar, hon- ey, and fruits of every kind. Here are mines of gold, silver and crystal. Mul- berry trees, for the cultivation of silk, have been introduced by the Spaniards. There are 150 Indian towns, besides 300 villages and upwards of 150,000 na- tives, who are tributary to the Spaniards. Population, 534,000. Guaxaca ; a town hi Mexico, capital of the state of the same name; 90 miles S. by \Y. of Vera Cruz, 195 miles S. S. E. of Mexico; lon. 98° 36' W.; lat. 17° 30' N. Population in 1792, 24,000. This town, also called Antequera, is the see of a bish- op. It is agreeably situated in a valley, on a river abounding with fish, which runs into the Alvarado. Guayaquil, a province of Colombia, in .New Granada,' lies along the Pacific ocean, on the Guayaquil river, and on the north side of the gulf of the same name. Population, about 90,000. Staples, cocoa, cotton, tobacco, salt, wax, rice and honey. Guayaquil; a city of Colombia, and capital of the province of the same name, on the west side of Guayaquil river. It possesses an excellent seaport. Ship-tim- ber abounds in the vicinity, from which many vessels have been built. It is 150 miles S. S. W. of Quito; lon. 79° 5& W.; lat. 2° 11' S. Guayaquil Bay, or Gulf, extends from cape St. Helena to Pontacle Picos, up- wards of 100 miles; and, extending in- land, in the form of a triangle, receives, at its head, Guayaquil river. The gulf is chequered by numerous islands, one of which, Puna, is of considerable size. Gubitz, Frederic William, one of the best wood-engravers in Germany, was bom in 1784. He is professor in the academy at Berlin, and teacher of the art of engraving on wood, which he has car- ried to great perfection. He is also a writer of some talent, and has edited a periodical (Der Gesellschafter) in Berlin, since 1817. Gudgeon (gobio, Cuv.). These fish are distinguished by having the dorsal and anal fins short, and without spines. At the angle on each side of the mouth, there is a small beard of a quarter of an inch in length. Neither jaw is furnished with teeth, but, at the entrance of the throat, there are two triangular bones, that per- form the office of grinders. These fish are taken in gentle streams, and are gener- ally of small size, measuring only about six inches. They are brought together by raking the bed of the river, which makes them crowd in shoals to the spot, expect- ing food from this disturbance. They are spoken of by Aristotle ; and old Wii- loughby says that they are preferred, by the English, to every other river fish. Guebers, or GuEBREs,or Gauers (i. e., infidels); the fire-worshippers in Persia; in India called Parsees. They call themselves Behendie, or followers of the true faith, and live chiefly in the deserts of Caramania, towards the Persian gulf, and in the province Yerd Keram. These people, who are but little known, are la- borious and temperate cultivators of the ground. The manners of the Gucbers are mild. They drink wine, eat all kinds of meat, marry but one wife, and live chaste- ly and temperately. Divorce and polyga- my are prohibited by then religion ; but if a wife remains barren during the first nine years of maniage, the husband may take 84 GUEBERS—GUELFS. a second wife. They worship one Su- preme Being, whom they call the Eternal Spirit, or Yerd. The sun, moon and plan- ets diey believe to be peopled with ration- al beings, acknowledge light as the primi- tive cause of the good, darkness as that of evil, and worship fire, as it is said, from which they have received their name. But they themselves say, that they do not worship fire, but only find in it an image of the incomprehensible God; on which account they offer up their prayers before a fire, and maintain one uninterruptedly burning on holy places, which their pro- phet Zoroaster (q. v.), they say, kindled 4000 years ago. Their holy book is called Zend-Avesta, (q. v.) One of the peculiar- ities of the Guebers is, that tiiey do not bury their dead, but expose the bodies upon the towers of then temples, to be devoured by birds. They observe which part the birds first e'at, from which they judge of the fate of the deceased. Guelfs, or Guelphs (from the Italian Gudfi and the German Welfen); the name of a celebrated family, which, in die 11th century, was transplanted from Italy to Germany, where it became the ruling race of several countries. The family still continues in the two fines of Brunswick, the royal in England, and the ducal in Germany. According to Eich- hom's Urgeschichte des Houses der Welfen, this house first appears distinctly in the 9th century, in the reign of Charlemagne. The memory of this ancient name has lately been revived by die foundation of the Hanoverian Guelf order. (See Han- over.) The term Guelf is also applied to a [wwerful party in the middle ages, which, in Germany, and, at a later period, in Italy, opposed the German emperors and their adherents, called die Gibelines. (See Frederic von Raumer's Geschichte der Hohenstaufen, Leipsic, 1823.) The family of the Guelfs, in different branches, pos- sessed considerable estates in Germany, m the 11th century. Azzo, of the famdy of Este in Italy, lord of Milan, Genoa and other cities of Lombardy (died in 1097), acquired some of these estates by his marriage with Cunigunde, the heiress of the Guelfs. His son, Guelf I (died 1101), became duke of Bavaria, and inherited the estates of die other Guelf lines. The son of Guelf I acquired, by marriage, the estates in Saxony which belonged to his wife's father, duke Magnus. The emper- or Lothaire gave (1137) the duchy of Sax- ony to his son-in-law, Henry the Gene- rous, grandson of Guelf I. This Henry, on the death of Lothaire, opposed Conrad III, of the house of Hohenstaufen, who had been elected emperor, was put under the ban of die empire, and most of his vast possessions confiscated. After his death, his son, the famous Henry the Lion, received, in 1139, only the duchy of Saxony, and his hereditary estates in this country, the Bavarian fiefs having been given to his uncle Wolf. In 1140, war having broken out between Wolf and Frederic, brother to the emperor Conrad, the words Welf and Waiblingen became the war-cries of the respective parties in the battle at Weinsberg. Waiblingen, in the present kingdom of Wiirtemberg, was an estate of the house of Hohenstaufen (q. v.), to which Courad belonged, and the Italians afterwards changed the word (as w is often changed into £•, q. v.) into GhibeUini. The contest, which, hi the be- ginning, was merely between the two families, spread, at length, more and more widely, and became an obstinate struggle between two political parties. This contest was not a mere family quarrel, like many of the disputes of the middle ages. It was a strife of opinions, involving impor- tant, interests, conducted, it is true, in many instances, with a senseless disregard both of justice and expediency, owing to the crude notions of the period respecting the rights and well-being of nations, but still having great objects in view. The wars of the Guelfs and Gibelines became the struggle between the spiritual and secular power, through which it was necessary tiiat western Europe should pass, to shake off the dominion of the popes, which was now on the point of crushing all national independence, after having completed its proper work of rais- ing Europe from a state of barbarism. (See Gregory VII.) The popes, who en- deavored to reduce the German emperors to acknowledge their supremacy, and the cities of Italy, struggling for independence and deliverance from the oppressive yoke of these same emperors, formed the party of the Guelfs. Those who favored the emperors were called Gibelines. Italy underwent great sufferings during this contest, as did Germany also, which sent army after army to be swallowed up in this lion's cave whence none returned, as a German emperor called it. There is little doubt that the inconsiderable prog- ress of Germany in public law and politi- cal well-being was, in a great measure, owing to this struggle, which consumed her strength and engrossed her attention. The contest continued, with bitterness, for almost 300 years. These parties appeared GUELFS—GUERILLAS. 85 in Italy under many different names, as the bianchi and neri (white and black), in Florence, &c. History shows no in- stance of a more untiring and cruel party spirit. Guf.rcino (properly Gianfrancesco Bar- bieri, surnamed Guercino da Cento from his squinting), a celebrated painter, was bom at Cento, near Bologna, in 1590. By his own genius he discovered the first principles of his art, and afterwards per- fected himself in the school of Lodovico Caracci. An academy which he opened in 1616, attracted a great number of schol- ars from all parts of Europe. The king of France offered him the situation of his first painter; but he preferred to accept an apartment in the palace of the duke of Modena. In his character he was mild, upright, courteous and benevolent, and ready to assist his fellow artists. He died in 1666, at Bologna, where he had settled after the death of Guido. His principal works arc to be found in the museums of Rome, Parma, Piacenza, Modena, Reggio and Paris. The manner which he first adopted was too strong, and resembled that of Caravaggio. His second and best pe- riod was compounded of the Roman, Ve- netian and Bolognese schools, blended, however, with somewhat of Caravaggio's bold opposition of light and shade. His last manner was a palpable imitation of Guido, and is inferior to the other in power and elegance. He acquired great wealth by his profession, which he be- stowed liberally in acts of charity, building chapels and founding hospitals. Few painters have labored with so much facili- ty and rapidity. Having been requested by some monks, on the eve of a festival, to paint God the Father, for the grand altar, he finished the picture in one night, by torch light. We have, also, an intro- duction to the art of drawing from his pen. Guercino, moreover, etched some prints in a style of excellence. Guericke, Otto von, burgomaster of Magdeburg, was one of the most distin- guished experimental philosophers of the 17th century. He was born at Magde- burg, Nov. 20,1602 ; studied law at Leip- sic, Hchnstadt and Jena; mathematics, and particularly geometry and mechanics, at Leyden ; travelled in France and Eng- land ; acted as chief engineer at Erfurt; became, in 1627, counsellor at Magdeburg; and, in 1646, burgomaster, and counsellor of the elector of Brandenburg, but resign- ed his offices five years before his death, and repaired to his sons, at Hamburg, where he died May 11,1686. In 1650, VOL. VI. 8 he invented the air-pump, about the time that a similar idea occurred to Robert Boyle in England. This discovery chang- ed the whole aspect of natural philosophy, and gave rise to a more intimate acquaint- ance with the nature and effects of air. In 1654, he made the first public experi- ments with his machine, at the diet at Ratisbon, before the emperor Ferdinand III, his son Ferdinand IV, king of Rome, several electors and other estates of the empire. The first air-pump, with which Guericke almost exhausted ihe air from two hemispheres, is preserved in the royal library at Berlin. Guericke also invented an air-balance, and the small glass figures, which were used before the invention of the barometer (q. v.), to show the variations of temperature. The press- ure of the atmosphere he exhibited by means of two large hollow hemispheres of copper and brass, an ell in diameter. These being fitted closely together, the air contained in the hollow sphere thus form- ed was exhausted by means of an air- pump. Guericke then harnessed horses to strong rings, attached to the hemispheres, and they attempted in vain to separate them. The number of the horses was in- creased to 30 without success. An addi- tional number at length made them part with a loud report. He was also an astronomer. His opinion, that the return of comets might be calculated, has been confirmed. His most important observa- tions, collected by himself, appeared at Amsterdam, in folio (in 1672), entitled Experimenta nova, ut vocant Magdeburgica, de vacuo Spatio, &c. (See Air-Pump.) Guerillas (Spanish diminutive ofguer- ra, war), in the war for Spanish inde- pendence, was the name of the light, irregular troops, who did much injury to the enemy, while tljeir disconnected char- acter and active movements secured them from suffering much in return. They consisted chiefly of peasants, who, in the ardor of patriotic zeal and religious fanati- cism, having put to death such French- men as fell into their hands on the first retreat of the French forces, fled to the mountains, on their return, to avoid their resentment, collected in numbers, chose leaders, and carried on a partisan warfare, without being paid or dressed in uniform. They appeared sometimes in small bands, sometimes to the number of 1000, hanging on the outskirts, picking off single soldiers, attacking small detachments, intercepting couriers; and it was with difficulty that the French could keep up any communi- cations. The general Juan Martin Diaz, 80 GUERILLAS—GUERNSEY. surnamed El Emperinadc (q. v.), first or- ganized them with some system, in the vicinity of Madrid, after Saragossa had been taken by the French (1808), and Spain, by the defeat of its armies, seemed lost beyond recovery. Romana, however, extended the plan much further. They contributed to sustain the confidence of the people in the final success of their arms, and to maintain a spirit of determined re- sistance. They fought even to the capital, which was occupied by the enemy. It was a no less important circumstance, that every advantage gained by the Spanish or English troops was proclaimed, by their means, in all quarters, with the rapidity of lightning, and often, of course, with great exaggerations. Sir Robert Wilson (q. v.) had likewise a great influence in the or- ganization and success of the guerillas. Guerin ; a pupil of Regnault; one of the most distinguished painters of the modem French school. His style is noble and graceful; his coloring transparent and harmonious. The first picture, by which he made himself known, was the Sacrifice before the Statue of ^Esculapius, taken from the Idyls of Gesner. The work has defects, which are easily accounted for by the youth and inexperience of the artist. It is in the gallery of Versailles. He next painted Geta murdered by his Brother Caracalla, and afterwards Coriolanus. His Marcus Sextus, in 1800, excited general admiration. It breathes the deepest feel- ing. The noble exile is represented as on his return, when he finds his wife dead. Guerin's next work, Hyppolitus and Phce- dra, in 1802, was honorably mentioned by the judges of the decennial prizes. This picture has many beauties, though there is something extravagant and theatrical about it. It was received with great ap- plause, but the modest artist was not sat- isfied with it, and desired to study the true spirit of the art in Italy. After his return, it was proposed to him to paint Napoleon pardoning the Revolters at Cai- ro, and he knew how to take advantage of the favorable points of the subject. The noble forms, the glowing colors, the splendid Oriental costume, the brilliant sky, the peculiarities of the country, the unity of action and variety of feeling, the contrast between the Europeans and Asi- atics,—all was made subservient to the genius of the artist On the left stands Napoleon, elevated above the rest, and in profile. The expression of prudent distrust and silent earnestness in the emperor, is a masterpiece of execution. The distribu- tion of light is admirable. A tree hang- ing over a group of Frenchmen, throws upon the Egyptians shade interspersed with streaks of light, so that the tawny in- habitants form a stronger contrast with the bnlliant and cloudless sky. For the exhibition of 1812, Guerin painted his splendid Andromache. I lis Cephalus and Aurora is full of elegance, and possesses an almost magic charm. In 1817, the artist exhibited two still finer paintings— a Dido listening to the Story of 'Eneas, and a Clytemnestra at the moment that iEgisthus is instigating her to assassinate her sleeping husband. It was a stroke of genius to select a sombre, red light for this scene. Guerin has painted but few portraits, but they all do honor to his skill. In 1817, the king proposed to him to paint die portrait of the hero of La Ven- dee, Henri de la Rochejacquelin, in the act of storming an entrenchment. It is a highly expressive picture. Guerin is a member of the academy of fine arts and of the legion of honor. He is amiable and unpretending. Guernsey, an island in the English Channel, near the coast of Normandy and Brittany, lies in Mount St. Michael's bay, a spacious gulf formed by cape La Hogue in Normandy and cape Frehille in Britta- ny ; in 49° 13' N. lat. ; 2° 407 W. lon. This beautiful island is 9 miles in length and about 30 in circumference. It is abundantly watered, though, from its lim- ited size, none of the streams are consid- erable. The soil throughout is rich and fertile, and yields very fine pasture. The cows are much esteemed, yielding abun- dance of excellent milk. A great number of them are yearly exported to England. Vegetables are also excellent, and in great variety. Timber, with the exception of the elm tree, is not lofty, but luxuriant Most kinds of fruit and flowers grow in profusion; and so genial is the climate, that myrtles and geraniums flourish in the open ground, and the more hardy species of the orange tree, the Seville, will fructify with very little shelter in winter. Thou- sands of that beautiful flower, the Guern- sey lily, are exported yearly to England and France. The fig tree attains great luxuriance, and sometimes reaches a re- markable size. The aloe tree frequently blossoms here. One of the most useful vegetables is a marine plant, called varec, which is used both for fuel and manure. Both the judicial and executive authori- ties are exercised by a body called the royal court, composed of 12 jurats, the procureur or attorney-general, and the comptroller or solicitor-general. But the GUERNSEY—GUERRERO. 87 task of raising money to defray public expenses, is committed to what is called the states of deliberation—a political body composed of the governor for the time being, the bailiff, 12 jurats and the pro- cure.ur, the 8 rectors of the 10 parishes, and the united voices of the constables of each parish, the total number of voters being 32. Application must, however, in certain cases, be made to the king, for per- mission to carry into effect the levies pro- posed by this body. Guernsey is divided into ten parishes, the churches appertain- ing to which were consecrated between the years 1111 and 1312. Dissenters, more particularly the Calvinists and Meth- odists, are very numerous, and have sev- eral chapels. The Roman Catholics are few. The society of Friends or Quakers are rather increasing in number. Popu- lation, 20,827. Steam vessels and sailing packets ply daily between Portsmouth, Plymouth, Southampton, and many other ports of England, to this island ; there is also a constant communication kept up between this and the opposite French coast. Guerrero, Vicente, president of the United Mexican States, is a Creole by birth, and is said also to be partly of In- dian extraction. He took arms against the royalists at the very commencement of the revolution in Mexico, and has never ceased to occupy a prominent position in the affairs of that country. In 1819, after Hidalgo, Morelos and Mina had succes- sively fallen victims to their zeal in the cause of independence, and the patriots, being unsuccessful eveiy where, were captured, cut up or dispersed, Guerrero continued in arms in the province of Val- ladolid, at the head of a formidable gue- rilla in the Tierra Cafiente. The publica- tion and general adoption of the terms of accommodation between the Mexicans and Spaniards, proposed by Iturbide, known as the plan of Iguala, and the new impulse thus imparted to the revolu- tion, gave employment and importance to Guerrero once more, until the usurpation of Iturbide placed him in opposition to all the steady republicans. When Santa Aiia raised the standard of revolt in 1823, and the success of the insurgents under him and Victoria gave the republicans a chance of overturning the mushroom emperor, Guerrero, with Bravo, fled from Mexico in secret, and placed himself at the head of a body of troops in die west The re- sult of all these movements was the de- thronement of Iturbide, the adoption of the constitution of 1824, and the election of Victoria as president, and Bravo as vice- president of the Mexican States. In the organization of political parties which en- sued, general Guerrero became the rally- ing point of the liberal or popular party, the Yorkinos, and was also repeatedly called in- to active service in his military capacity, by reason of the civil troubles which the anx- ious impartiality of president Victoria rath- er tended to augment than to moderate. In 1827, Guerrero was despatched to Vera Cruz, to put down the disorderly move- ment of colonel Rincon, and quelled the rebellion without a stmggle. In December, 1827, don Jose Montefio, a colonel in the anny, set afoot at Otumba an insurrection for the forcible reform of the government, in order to counteract the influence of the Yorkino party. In January following, general Bravo, the vice-president, who was the leader of the Escoceses, or the aristo- cratical party, left Mexico, in order to join the rebels, and stationed himself at Tulan- cingo, where he issued a manifesto de- claring himself in favor of the views of Montaiio. To suppress this insurrection, general Guenero was hastily despatched at the head of a large force, to which Bra- vo and his associates suirendered with little or no resistance. The Yorkinos were now triumphant. Bravo was banished from the republic ; and Guenero, as the most prominent individual of the success- ful party, was universally looked upon as the probable successor of Victoria in the presidency. But the Escoceses, and the Mexicans of Spanish birth, who all be- longed to that party, and who knew that then expulsion would be the immediate consequence of the government's being placed entirely in the hand of the Yorki- nos, rallied all their strength to turn the scale against Guenero. Nothing could exceed the disappointment of the friends of the latter, when the election of Septem- ber, 1828, took place, and it appeared that don Gomer Pedraza, the secretary of war, had the votes of ten states, while on- ly eight declared for Guerrero. It appears that many moderate men of the Yorkino party united with the whole body of the Escoceses to produce this result. Pedraza had been an active partisan of the Yor- kinos, and had been particularly active and instrumental in putting down the in- surrection of Otumba, and with it Bravo, the hope of the Escoces party. Neverthe- less, being deemed more moderate in his political principles than Guerrero, the Es- coceses threw their votes for him, as then last resource, to prevent the introduction of a radical and prescriptive administra- GUERRERO—GUESCLIN. tion, which they knew would come, if Guerrero should be elected. The Yorki- nos loudly exclaimed against the election of Pedraza, as having been effected by bribery and military violence. In a country of stable laws and well organized govern- ment, the defeated party would have awaited the result of a constitutional in- quiry into the legality of the election. But in Mexico they order things other- wise. The Yorkinos determined to resort to arms to prevent the elevation of Pedra- za to the presidency; and general Santa Aiia, who, since die fall of Iturbide, had been living in comparative retirement at Jalapa, seduced a small body of troops, marched to Perote, and gained possession of the castle, before the government were well aware that another civil war had brok- en out. Here he issued a manifesto, pro- posing that the people and army should annul the election of Pedraza; that Guer- rero should be declared president; and that the Spanish residents should be ex- pelled from Mexico. When information of these incidents reached the government, Santa Aiia was denounced as a rebel, and a force was sent against him, which he found himself unable to withstand, and retired into the mountains of Oaxaca. But meanwhile measures were secretly plan- ning in the capital for a more decisive movement in favor of Guerrero. It was dis- covered by the executive that don Lorenzo de Zavala, the governor of the state of Mexico, was in correspondence with San- ta Aiia. He was arcested, but found means to escape. Soon afterwards, a bat- talion of militia, aided by some troops of the line, took possession of the artilleiy barracks, called the acordada, situated on the outskirts of the city, and, behig joined by general Lobato, by Zavala, and by oth- er persons of distinction, announced their intention to annul the election of Pedraza, and to force the government to expel the Spaniards. But as the constitutional author- ities were resolved not to give up the point without a stniggle, a violent contest en- sued, in some of the principal streets of the city, during the three first days of De- cember, hi which many persons were kill- ed on both sides. At length Guerrero openly joined the insurgents, with a rein- forcement of his friends; on winch Pedra- za left the city, and, on the 4th, president Victoria agreed to a partial accommoda- tion. (See Mexico.) Victoria was obliged immediately to appoint a cabinet favorable to the insurgents, including Guerrero him- self as secretary of war. Finally, when the national congress assembled in January, some of the votes given for Pedraza were pronounced to have been illegally obtain- ed, and Guerrero was declared to be reg- ularly elected president, with Anastasio Bustamente as vice-president. The new magistrates were inducted into office in April, 1829, soon after which the expedi- tion of Barradas (see Mexico) gave em- ployment to the government, and a subject of engrossing interest to the people. The better to enable the president to meet the exigency, he was invested with extraor- dinary powers; but after the victory over the Spanish troops, and when the invad- ing expedition was destroyed, Guerrero evinced an unwillingness to relinquish uV dictatorship, which became the cause or pretext of another revolution. He had previously abolished slavery, September 15, 1829, the anniversary of Mexican inde- pendence, with a promise of indemnity to the proprietors when the resources of the government permitted it. Bustamente, the vice-president, took command of the army of reserve stationed at Vera Cruz, and commenced his march towards Mex- ico, for the purpose of reforming the gov- ernment by force. Guerrero left the city to meet him; but no sooner was he gone, than the troops in Mexico revolted, and declared for Bustamente; in consequence of which, Guerrero, and the other leaders of the acordada revolution, resigned their offices, and Bustamente assumed the reins of government He was not destined, how- ever, to continue in the tranquil exercise of power. Disturbances soon broke out afresh, and in September, 1830, Guerrero had collected a large force in Valladolid, and established a form of government in opposition to that of Bustamente, and the whole country was agitated by troops in arms, in different parts and under va- rious chiefs, for the purpose of either preventing or effecting the reinstatement of Guerrero. Guesclin, Bertrand du, constable of France, a man renowned for talent and corn-age, was born about the year 1314, at the castle of Motte-Broon, near Rennes. The poets derive the origin of his family from a king of the Moors. Like most of the nobles of his time, he could neither read nor write. From childhood, he long- ed but for war and for battle. He united his young companions into a regiment, made himself their general, and, dividing them into companies, taught them to form in order of battle. According to the de- scriptions which remain of him, he was of a vigorous frame, with broad shoulders and muscular arms. His eyes w ere small, GUESCLIN—GUEVARA. 89 lively, and foil of fire. His face had noth- ing pleasing in it. " I am very ugly," said he when a youth; " I can never please the ladies; but I shall at least know how to make myself terrible to the enemies of my king." He rose entirely through his own exertions. At the age of seventeen, he won the prize at a tournament at Rennes, where he had gone against the will and without the knowledge of his father. From this time he was always in arms. After the disastrous battle of Poitiers, in 1356, he came, while king John was yet a prisoner, to give assistance to his eldest son, Charles, who then held the regency. 3Ielun surrendered; those of his party obtained their freedom, and many other towns yielded to him. Charles V, who, in 1364, had succeeded his father, rewarded in a suitable manner the services of Gues- clin, who, in the same year, gained a victo- ry at Cocherel over the king of Navarre. These successes hastened the peace. He next supported Henry, who had assumed the title of king of Castile, against his brother, Peter the Cruel. He deprived this prince of his crown, and secured it to Henry, who rewarded him with a large sum of money, and raised him to the dig- nity of constable of Castile. Bertrand soon after returned to France, to defend his country against England. The Eng- lish, hitherto victorious, were now every where beaten. Advanced to the rank of constable of France, he attacked them in Maine and Anjou, and even made their leader prisoner. He brought Poitou and Saintonge under the dominion of France, so that the English retained only Bor- deaux, Calais, Cherbourg, Brest and Bay- onne. He died in the midst of his tri- umphs, before Chateau-neuf-de-Randon, July 13, 1380. His body was buried with royal honors, near the tomb which Charles V had designated for himself. France, since him, has had among her many generals but a single one who can be compared to him,—Turenne. Both were equally brave, modest and generous. Du Guesclm was twice married, but left no children, except a natural son, Michael du Guesclin. Gueux (beggars). This title was, in the time of Philip II, under the govern- ment of the blood-thirsty duke of Alba, given to the allied noblemen, and the other malcontents in the Netherlands. In 1654, Philip sent nine inquisitors there, to execute the decrees of die council of Trent, and occasioned thereby a great excitement among both Protestants and Catholics. The nobles bound themselves by a compact, known under the name of the compromise, not to appear before the nine inquisitors, and, in solemn procession, made known their resolution, in 1565, to Margaret, duchess of Parma, then at the head of government Then declaration was received with contempt. The prin- cess, during the audience, happening to show some embarrassment, the earl of Barlaimont, president of the councfl of finance, whispered to her that she ought not to manifest any fear of such a mob of beggars (tas de gueux). Some of the con- federates overheard this, and, on the even- ing of the same day, communicated it at a meeting of their members, who imme- diately drank to the health of the gueux, and agreed thereafter to be called by that name. Guevara, Louis Valez de las Duenas y, a dramatic poet, who, for his wit and hu- mor, deserves to be called the Spanish Scarron, was born at Ecija in Andalusia, in 1574. He applied himself to the study of the law, and lived as a lawyer in Ma- drid. By his inexliaustible fund of humor, he often excited the laughter of his numer- ous hearers, and of the judges, even in the most serious causes. It is related of him, that by this means he once saved a crim- inal from death, and obtained the ac- quaintance of the king (Philip IV). The monarch, who knew his talent for poetry, induced him to write comedies. (Philip IV himself sometimes wrote pieces, which were given to Guevara to revise, and afterwards often exhibited at court.) In this new career Guevara obtained no small success. His pieces deserve, for then excellent delineations of character, and then richness in strokes of genuine comic humor, the praise which Lope de Vega has given them. That, however, which especially established the poetical fame of Guevara, was his Diablo Cojuelo, o Memorial de la otra Vida, a romance written with equal elegance and wit ; in which the poet describes with great hu- mor and spirit, and lashes with inimitable satire, the manners of his countrymen and fife in Madrid. This Spanish ro- mance afforded the idea of Le Sage's fa- mous Diable Boiteux. It was literafiy translated into French (by the author of Lectures amusantes), and into Italian. Guevara died at Madrid in Januaiy, 1646, at the age of 72, to his last day enjoying t the favor of the monarch, and to his last day a warm, and often extravagant ad- mirer of the other sex. Many of his witty sayings have become familiar to the people in his country, and to tins day are often heard as proverbs in Spain. There are sev- 90 GUEVARA—GUIANA. eral other Spanish poets of the same name. Guglielmi, Peter, was bom in 1727, at Massa Carrara, where his father, Giacomo Guglielmi was chapel-master of the duke of Modena. He studied music with his father until his eighteenth year, and af- terwards went to Naples to the conserva- torio di Loretto, then under the direction of the celebrated Durante. Guglielmi showed little taste for music, but Durante kept him to the study of counterpoint and of composition. He left the institution in his twenty-eighth year, and immediately began to compose comic and heroic ope- ras for the Italian theatre. In each he was equally successful. He was invited to Vienna, to Madrid, and to London, and returned to Naples about the fiftieth year of his age. Here he made a most brilliant display of his talents. Two masters, Cimarosa and Paesiello had taken pos- session of the great theatre in Naples, and contended for the palm. He took a noble revenge upon the latter, of whom he had some cause to complain. To every work of his adversary he opposed another, and was always victorious. In 1793, Pius VI named him chapel-master of St. Peter's, which gave him an opportunity of dis- tinguishing himself in sacred music. He has left more than 200 pieces, remarkable for their simple and beautiful airs, for their clear and rich harmony, and for their spirit and originality. He died in 1804, in his 77th year. His son, Peter Charles, is likewise a distinguished composer. Guiana ; a country of South America. This name was formerly given to the country extending from the Orinoco on the north to the Amazon on the south ; but the part called Spanish Guiana now forms a province of Colombia, and Portu- guese Guiana now belongs to Brazil. The rest of the country belongs to the Eng- lish, Dutch and French. English Guiana contains three small colonies, viz. Esse- quibo, Demerara and Berbice. The prin- cipal town is Stabroek. Dutch Guiana, often called Surinam, is watered by the river Surinam. Parimaribo, the capital, is a pleasant town. French Guiana, called also Cayenne, is noted for pro- ducing the Cayenne pepper. Cayenne, the capital, is situated on an island. Gui- ana is of a mild climate for a tropical country. Along the sea-shore, and for a considerable way into the interior, the country is an extensive and uniform plain of unequalled fertility. In the interior, it rises into mountains, which frequently contain a great variety of mineral sub- stances. Rich and fertile valleys are in- terspersed throughout these mountainous tracts. These uncultivated parts are cov- ered with immense forests, which are in- tersected with deep marshes, and by ex- tensive savannas or plains covered with luxuriant herbage. The country is water- ed by the tributary streams of the Ori- noco and the Amazon. Guiana is over- spread with the most luxuriant vegetation, abounding in the finest woods, in fruits of eveiy description, and in an infinite variety of bodi rare and useful plants. Many of the trees grow to the height of 100 feet; they consist of every variety, of such as are valuable for their hardness and dura- bility, as well as of others, which arc richly veined, capable of taking the finest polish, and well adapted for all sorts of ornamental furniture ; while otiiers yield valuable dyes, or exude balsamic and medicinal oils. The fruit trees are in great variety, and the fruits they yield are of the most exquisite delicacy and flavor. WUd animals and beasts of prey are abundant. These are the jaguar, which is a powerful and ferocious animal; the cougar, or red tiger, resembling a grey- hound in shape, but larger in size ; the tiger cat; the crabbodago, not much larger than a common cat, and exceedingly ferocious ; the coatimondi, or Brazihan weasel ; the great ant-bear ; the porcu- pine ; the hedgehog ; the armadillo ; the sloth ; the opossum of different kinds ; the deer ; the hog ; the agouti; the liz- ard ; the chameleon. In the rivers are to be found the alligator ; die tapir, resem- bling the hippopotamus of the old conti- nent, but of much smaller size, not being larger than a small ass, but much more clumsy ; the manati, or sea-cow, about 16 feet in length ; the paca, or spotted cony ; and the pipa, a hideous and de- formed animal. Of the serpent tribe there are various species, from the large aboma snake, which grows to the length of 20 and 30 feet, to those of the smallest size. The woods of Guiana are filled with every variety of the feathered spe- cies, many of which, there is reason to believe, are but imperfectly known to nat- uralists. Those most commonly seen are the crested eagle, a very fierce bird, and very strong ; the vulture ; the owl; the black and white butcher-bird ; parrots of different kinds, and of the most brilliant plumage ; the toucan ; the pelican ; the tiger-bird ; herons of different kinds : the flamingo ; the humming-bird of various species ; the plover ; the woodpecker ; the mocking-bird. The vampire bat is also GUIANA—GUICCIARDINI. 91 found in Guiana, and grows to an enor- mous size, measuring about 32 \ inches between the tips of the two wings. It sucks the blood of men and cattle when they arc fast asleep. After it is full, it disgorges the blood, and begins to suck afresh, until it reduces the sufferer to a state of great weakness. The rivers of Guiana abound with fish, many of which are highly prized by the inhabitants; and, owing to the heat and moisture of the climate, insects and reptiles of all sorts are produced in such abundance, that the annoyance from this source is inconceiva- ble. These bisects are flies, ants, mos- quitoes, cockroaches, lizards, jack-span- iards, a large species of wasp, fire-flies, centipedes, &c. The native inhabitants of Guiana are continually receding from the districts which are occupied by the Europeans. They chiefly consist of the following tribes, viz., the Caribbees, the Worrows, the Accavvaws, the Arrowauks. From the earliest period, the Dutch colo- nies in Guiana have been exposed to dep- redations from fugitive Negroes, who, at different periods, have been driven, by the cruelty of their masters, to take refuge in the woods. At one time, the colony was threatened with destruction from these bands of deserter slaves. As the Euro- pean troops who were sent against this enemy generally fell a prey to the climate, a corps of manumitted Negroes was form- ed, by whom the slaves were pursued into the woods ; and the colony has been since freed from this source of annoyance. Guibert, Jacques- Antoine-IIippolite, count of, was born at Montauban in 1743, educated at Paris, and accompanied his father to Germany, during the seven years' war, at the age of 13. In the battle of Bellinghausen, in 1761, finding that the orders which he carried were render- ed unseasonable by a change of circum- stances, he had the boldness to alter them, and adapt them to the existing state of affairs. In the Corsican war in 1766, he obtained the cross of St. Louis, and soon after, with the rank of colonel, the chief command of the newly-levied Corsican legion. He employed his leisure hcurs in literary occupations, and his Essai gi- niral de Tactique, pricidi d'un Discours sur I'fitat de la Politique et de la Science mUi- taire en Europe (London, 1772), probably written during the German campaigns, attracted the more attention, as at that time a reform was going on in almost all the annies. He afterwards travelled for mili- tary purposes through Germany. His journal, Journal d'un Voyage enAllemagne, fait en 1773, Ouvrage posthume de GuUrert, publii par sa Veuve, et pricide d'une Notice historique sur la Vie de I'Auteur, par Tou- longeon, avec Figures (1803), was but a mere sketch for the author's use, but is interesting for its descriptions and anec- dotes of celebrated men, especially of Frederic II, whose great character Guibert passionately admired. His tragedies have not retained their place upon the stage. In 1779 appeared his Defense du Systeme de Guerre moderne. In 1786, he became a member of the French academy. In 1787, he wrote his famous eulogy on Frederic II, one of die most splendid monuments ever raised to the memory of this great king. Guibert's eulogies, among which are one upon Thomas,and another upon l'Espinasse, are among his most fin- ished works. Vigor, fancy, clearness, and a certain artlessness, engage the reader, and cause him to excuse many instances of negligence. Guibert was a field-marshal, and member of the council of war—an of- fice which gave him much trouble. He died in 1790, in the 47th year of his age. He was distinguished for ambition and for activity of spirit Guicciardim, Francis, a celebrated historian, was born March 6,1482, at Flor- ence, where his family was of distin- guished rank. He obtained so great a reputation as a jurist, that in his 23d year he was chosen professor of law, and, al- though he had not yet reached the lawful age, w7as 'appointed ambassador to the court of Ferdinand the Catholic, of Spain. When Florence (1512) had lost her liberty through the usurpation of the Medici, he entered the service of that family, which soon availed themselves of his talents. He was invited by Leo X to his court, and intrusted with the govern- ment of Modena and Reggio. This office he discharged also under Adrian VI, to the general satisfaction ; and afterwards, when Clement VII (de' JMedici) ascended the papal chair, Guicciardini was sent, as luogotenente of the pope, to Romagna, then torn by the factions of the Guelfs and Gibelines, and infested by robbers, where, by a severe and upright administration of justice, he soon succeeded in restoring tranquillity. He also contributed here in other ways to the public good, by construct- ing roads, by erecting public buildings, and by founding useful institutions. Having been appointed lieutenant-general of die pope, he defended Panna with great valor, when besieged by the French (at least he says so hi his own history ; Angeli, author of a history of Parma, accuses him, on the 92 GUICCIARDINI—GUIDO. contrary, of great cowardice). At a later period, after the death of Giovanni de' Medici, Guicciardini was invited by the Florentines to succeed him in the com- mand of the famous bande nere ; but the Slope still claimed his services for a tune. laving quelled an insurrection in Bologna, he returned, in spite of the instances of the holy father, to his native city, where, in 1534, he began Ids great work, on the Histo- ry of Italy, which has since been repeatedly published, and has obtained for him great reputation. It extends from 1490 to 1534. In his retirement he was not widiout in- fluence on state affairs, and his counsels often restrained tlje prodigality and die am- bition of Alessandro de' Medici, who es- teemed him very highly, as did likewise Charles V, whose interests he had promot- ed in his negotiations at Naples, and who, when his courtiers once complained that he preferred the Florentines to them, an- swered, " I can make a hundred Spanish grandees in a minute, but I cannot make one Guicciardini in a hundred years." When Alessandro de' Medici was mur- dered by one of his relations (Lorenzino, 1536), and the Florentines, tuider the di- rection of cardinal Cibo, wished to restore the republican constitution, Guicciardini opposed it with all his power, and main- tained that to preserve the state from be- coming the prey of foreigners or of factions, the monarchical form of government ought to be retained. His eloquence and the force of his arguments triumphed, and Cosmo de' Medici was proclaimed grand- duke of Florence. Guicciardini died in 1540, and, according to Iris own directions, was buried, without pomp, in the church Santa Felicita hi Florence. It is related of him,that his love for study was so great,that, like Leibnitz, he often passed two or three days widiout rest or food. One of his works, which was afterwards translated into French, his Advice on political Sub- jects, was pubhshed in 1525, at Antwerp. The Florentine J. B. Adriani (who died 1579), in his Istoria de' suoi Tempi (new edition, 1823), which may be regarded as a continuation of the work of Guicciar- dini, has given a good narrative of events between 1536 and 1574. This work was first published after the death of the au- thor in 1583. The reader of Guicciardini is sometimes offended by a want of meth- od. A more important defect, however, is, that his statements cannot always be depended on as derived from the best sources, so that he must be read with cau- tion. One of the best criticisms on Guic- ciardini is contained in Leopold Ranke's Zur Kritik neuererGeschicMschrriber (Leip- sic and Berlin, 1824). Guicciardini has often been called the Italian Polybius. Of the 20 books of his history, the 4 last are unfinished, and are to be considered only as rough drafts. He is much too prolix, and the satirist Boccalini, in his Ragguagli di Parnaso, makes a Spar- tan, who has been condemned to read Guicciardini for having used three words when he could have expressed lus mean- ing in two, faint away at the first sen- tence. Guicciardini also wrote poems. In the beginning of a poetical epistle, en- titled Supplicazione d Italia al Cristianis- simo Re Francesco Primo, he expresses the feefing so commonly exhibited by Italian writers, ever since the time of Dante, iu re- gard to the distracted state of their coun- try. The epistle begins thus :— Italia qfflitta, nuda e miseranda, Ch' or de' principi suoi stanca si lagna, A Te, Francesco, questa carta manda. Guides ; in some armies, persons par- ticularly acquainted with the ground, who serve in the staff, to give the necessary infomiation, and point out the best route for an army. As it is, however, impossi- ble always to have officers of this kind, some amiies have geographical engineers attached to the staff, whose particu- lar studies are geography and topogra- phy. Napoleon gave the name of guides to his first body of guards, formed after he had been on the point of being sur- prised and taken prisoner in a castle on the Mincio (see his own account, Las Cases" Mimorial, &c. vol. ii, p. 3, ed. of 1824.) Guido Aretino. (See Aretino.) Guido Reni; the most charming and graceful painter whom Italy ever produc- ed. His family name was Reni, but he is always called Guido. In fact, many of the old masters are best known by their Christian names. He was bom at Bo- logna, in 1575. His father, Samuel Reni, an excellent musician, at first intended that his son should devote himself to mu- sic, for which he showed some talent; but he soon discovered in the boy a greater ge- nius for painting, and had him instructed by the Dutch artist Dionysius Calvaert (q. v.), who was then in high repute at Bologna. In this celebrated school, Guido is said to have studied chiefly the works of Albert Durer. This becomes probable if we consider some of his earlier works, in which, particularly in the drapery, oc- casional resemblance may be traced to the style of Albert Durer. In the mean time, the school of the Caracci, at Bologna, on account of its novelty and superior GUIDO. 93 taste, began to eclipse the former, and Guido joined it in his 20th year. He soon gave his teachers occasion to admire his talents, and is even said to have excit- ed the jealousy of Annibal Caracci. Gui- do's desire to behold the treasures of art in Rome, induced him to visit that city, with two of his fellow students, Domeni- chino and Albani. There he saw some of the paintings of Caravaggio, who was greatly admired for his powerful and ex- pressive (though often coarse and low) manner, which Guido imitated. His rep- utation soon spread, and cardinal Bor- ghese employed him to paint a crucifixion of St. Peter for the church Delle Tre Fontane. The powerful manner of this picture, and several others of the same period, which Guido did not, however, long retain, increased his fame; and when, at the cardinal's request, he com- pleted the Aurora, so beautifully engraved by Morghen, the admiration was univer- sal. Paul V, at that time, employed him to embellish a chapel on Monte Cavallo, with scenes from the life of the virgin Maty. Guido accomplished this work to the satisfaction of the pope, and was next intrusted with the painting of another chapel in Santa-Maria-Maggiore. These works were followed by so many orders, that he was unable to execute them all. To this period his Fortuna, and the por- traits of Sixtus V and cardinal Spada, may be assigned. Guido's paintings are gen- erally considered as belonging to three different manners and periods. The first comprises those pictures which resemble the manner of the Caracci, and particu- larly that of Caravaggio. Deep shades, narrow and powerful lights, strong color- ing, in short, an effort tifter great effect, distinguish his works of this first period. The second manner is completely oppos- ed to the first, and was adopted by Guido himself as a contrast to the works of Ca- ravaggio, with whom he was in constant controversy. Its principal features are light coloring, little shade, an agreeable, though often superficial treatment of the subject. It is quite peculiar to Guido. His Aurora forms the transition from the first to die second style of his paintings. A third period commences at the time when Guido worked with too much baste to finish his pieces, and was more intent upon the profits of his labor than upon its fame. It may be distinguished by a greenish gray, and altogether unnatural coloring, and by a general carelessness and weakness. This last manner is par- ticularly remarkable, in the large standard, with the patron saint of Bologna, and more or less in a number of other paint- ings of that period. During the govern- ment of pope Urban VIII, Guido quarrel- led with his treasurer, cardinal Spinola, re- specting the price of a picture, and re- turned to Bologna. There he had already executed his St. Peter and Paul for the house Zampiere, and the Murder of the Innocents for the Dominican church, and was on the point of embellishing the chapel of the saint with his pictures, when he was called back to Rome, loaded with* honors, and received by the pope himself in the most gracious manner. But he soon experienced new difficulties, and ac- cepted an invitation to go to Naples. Be- lieving himself unsafe at this place, on account of the hatred of the Neapolitan artists against foreign painters, he returned once more to his native city, never to quit it again. At Bologna, he finished the chapel above mentioned, painted two beautiful pic- tures for the church Dei Mendicanti, an As- cension of Mary for Genoa, and a number of others for his native city and other places, particularly for Rome. While in Rome, Guido had established a school. In Bo- logna, the number of bis pupils amounted to 200. He now worked mostly in haste, accustomed himself to an unfinished, af- fected style, became negligent, had many things executed by his pupils, and sold them, after having retouched them, as his own works; and all this merely to satis- fy his unfortunate passion for gambling. He often sold his paintings at any price, and became involved in pecuniary embar- rassments, which were the cause of his death, in 1642. If we analyze Guido's productions, we find his drawing not al- ways correct, rarely powerful and grand, his attitudes without much selection, sometimes not even natural. Yet hi3 drawing has a grace peculiar to him, a loveliness consisting rather in the treat- ment of the whole, than in the execution of the parts. This grace and loveliness are often to be found only in his heads. His ideas are generally common, the dis- tribution of the whole rarely good; hence his larger works have not a pleasing effect, and are not so much valued as his smaller works, particularly his half-lengths, of which he painted a great number. The disposition of his drapery is generally easy and beautiful, but often not in har- mony with the whole piece, and with the nature of the substance which it is intend- ed to represent. An elevated, varied, dis- tinct expression is not to be looked tor in his works. For this reason, he rarely 94 GUIDO—GUILD. succeeded m adult male figures, in which power and firmness are to be represented. The best are from his early period. But Guido's element was the representing of youthful, and particularly finale figures. In them he manifested his fine instinct for the delicate, graceful, charming, ten- der and lovely. This is shown particular- ly in his eyes, turned towards heaven, hi his Madonnas and Magdalens. His col- oring is rarely true, often falls into yellow- ish, greenish and silver gray, yet is gener- ally agreeable, and proves die very great ease and power with which he managed his pencil, which, however, often degener- ates into mannerism. Guido not only work- ed in relievo,but also executed some statues, and a considerable number of etchings, with his own hand, which exhibit ease and delicacy, and are much esteemed. It might almost be said, that bis drawing, in these engravings, is more correct and noble than even in his paintings. Among the number of bis pupils, who remained more or less faithful to his style, are distin- guished, Guido Congiagi, Simone Contari- ni Pesarese, Francesco Ricchi, Andr. Stre- ni, Giovanni Sementi, G. Bat. Bolognini. Guienne. (See Aquitania,and Depart- ment.) Guignes, Joseph de, born at Pontoise, in 1721, is distinguished for his knowledge of the Oriental languages, which he stud- ied under the celebrated Stephen Four- mont He was appointed royal interpret- er in 1745, and, in 1753, was chosen a member of the academy of belles-lettres. He applied himself particularly to the study of the Chinese characters; and, comparing them with those of the ancient languages, he thought he had discovered that they were a kind of monograms, formed from three Phoenician letters, and therefore concluded that China must have been peopled by an Egyptian colony. The Journal des Savans, and the Memoirs of the Academy, he enriched, during the space of 35 years, with a great number of contributions, which display profound learning, great sagacity, and many new views. At the age of near 80, he was reduc- ed to poverty by the revolution; but, even in this situation, he retained his equanimi- ty, his disinterestedness and his indepen- dence, which would not allow him to re- ceive support from any one. He died at Paris, in 1800. Among his numerous works, the first place belongs to his His- toire Ginkrale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mogols et des autres Tartares Occidentaux (five volumes, 4to.). In this work, the materials for which he had drawn from valuable, and, in part, untouched stores of Eastern knowledge, to winch he had gain- ed access by a profound study of the lan- guages, much fight is thrown upon the history of the caliphates, of the crusades, and, generally, of the Eastern nations. As regards industry, he has given us no cause to complain; but we often feel the want of a careful style, of a nice taste and a just discrimination. The language fre- quently shows marks of neglect. A bet- ter taste would have given a more power- ful translation of the peculiar Oriental expressions. He needed a more philo- sophic mind to understand fully the poe- try of the East, to lay open the causes of events, to point out the most striking cir- cumstances, which he has often slightly passed over. De Guignes, like Ilerbelot, drew from a large number of manu- scripts, and, like him, often falls into rep- etitions and sometimes contradictions. His Mimoire dans lequel onprouve que les Chinois sont une Colonic Egyptienne is of great value. Translations of the Chou King (by father Gaubil), one of the sa- cred books of the Chinese, and of the Military Art among the Chinese (by Amy- ot), were revised and published by De Guignes, besides other pieces, and 28 pa- pers in the Memoirs of the Academy, and contributions to the Notices et Extraits de la Bibliothique royale. His son Christian, born hi 1759, was likewise skilled in the Chinese language and literature, and wrote several dissertations upon them. His Chinese dictionary, with the definitions in French and Latin, is a masterpiece of typography, and is generally esteemed. Guild ; a society, fraternity, or com- pany, associated for carrying on com- merce, or some particular trade. The merchant guilds of our ancestors answer to our modem corporations. The socie- ties of tradesmen, exclusively authorized to practise their art, and governed by the laws of their constitution, played a very important part in the middle ages. Few institutions show the progress of civili- zation in a stronger light than that of guilds, from the first mde mixture of all kinds of labor, its division, the estabfish- ment of corporations, the corruption of these by privileges, which are in some cases highly absurd, down to their total abolition, and the restoration of liberty to human industry. Though the division of labor is comparatively of recent date, yet the division of the people by occupations is one of the oldest and rudest political institutions of which history makes men- tion. These divisions by occupations or GUILD. 95 castes (q. v.), generally took their rise, how- ever, from a difference of national origin, as with the Egyptians, Indians, &c. The Ro- mans had various mechanical fraternities (collegia et corpora opificum) which might be compared to modern guilds, as they had the right to enact by-laws. In the later times of the republic, these societies not unfrequently appeared as political parties; and, on diis account, their influ- ence was restrained, and they were partly abolished after the establishment of the monarchy. In Italy, the cradle of the class of free citizens in the middle ages, and particularly in the Lombard cities, those connecting links between the an- cient and modern civilization, some re- mains of these Roman institutions, or rec- ollections of them, probably contributed to revive the guilds, which naturally pre- sented themselves as an excellent means of supporting the citizens against the no- bility, by uniting them into powerful bod- ies. With the increasing importance of the cities, which became the seats of industry, and with the establishment of their constitutions, begins also the exten- sion of guilds. The chief reason that mechanical industry was freely developed in the middle ages, at the same time with agricultural, which had been ex- clusively cultivated by the Greeks and Romans, was the independence which the mechanics acquired with the growth of municipal and civil liberty. Mechanical industry has always been essentially of a democratic character, and would never have flourished under the feudal system. It is not possible now to give the exact date of the origin of these societies in Upper Italy. Traces of them are found in die 10th century. Thus, in Milan, we find the mechanics united under the name credentia. It is certain that small societies of mechanics existed as early as the 12th century, which appear, in the following ccntuiy, to have been in the possession of important political privileges. We even meet with abuses in these bod- ies as early as this period; and, several cen- turies later, the guilds became the subject of bitter and just complaint, particularly those in Germany. When the advantages of these associations became known and felt, they rapidly increased; and, in the struggles of the citizens and the nobility, the principal resistance against the latter was made by the corporations. As soon as the citizens acquired an influence on the administration, the guilds became the basis of the municipal constitutions, and every one, who wished to participate in the municipal government, was obliged to become the member of a guild. Hence we find so often distinguished people be- longing to a class of mechanics, of whose occupation they probably did not know any thing. This mixture of social and political character, as well as the insignificance of the individual, considered merely as such, is a natural consequence of the rudeness of the period. Just principles are the work of time. It is only by slow degrees that the true is separated from the false, the essential from the unessential. Politi- cal, like religious and scientific principles, are at first always vague and incoherent. Men must have long experience of the concrete before they form just notions of the abstract. Thus it is a characteristic of the middle ages, that political rights were considered as arising from special privileges. All that men enjoyed was looked upon as a gift from the lord para- mount. In fact, the idea of the rights of man, as an individual, has been developed only in very recent times. Even the an- cient republics had no just conception of it. In Germany, the establishment of guilds was also intimately connected with that of the constitutions of the cities, (q. v.) The latter were different according as the ancient Roman, or the old German organ- ization of the community prevailed ; the relations among the mechanics were also very different The mechanical arts were at first chiefly practised by the vil- leins ; and, even in the time of Charle- magne, they appear to have been pursued on the estates of the feudal lords, by the bondsmen, as is still the case on the great possessions of Russian noblemen. Com- merce could not, however, be canied on by bondsmen (in Russia they are pennitted to trade). Although there early existed free mechanics, yet they were also under the protection and jurisdiction of the feudal lord, before the privileges of the cities were acknowledged, except in cities of Roman origin (for instance, Cologne). These privileges early secured to them, as a distinct class of vassals, a sort of or- ganization under the direction of the masters of each trade, as appears from the oldest law of the city of Strasburg, winch seems to belong to the 15th century; and out of this the guilds in Germany may have originated. (See Eichhorn's Deutsche Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte, vol. ii; and his Treatise on the Origin of the Constitu- tions of German CUies, in the Zeilschrijl fur Geschichtliche Rechtsirissenshchaft, vol. i, No. 2, and vol. ii, No. 2; and Hullmann's Geschichte des Ursprungs der Stddte in 96 GUILD—GUILFORD. Deutschland.) The full developement of the guilds in Germany falls in the last half of the 12th century, and the oldest examples are those of the cloth-shearers and retailers in Hamburg (1152), the dra- pers (1153) and shoemakers in Magde- burg (1157). But they possessed no politi- cal importance in Germany before the 13th century, when a struggle arose between them (the laboring classes) and the citizens belonging to ancient families, the civic aris- tocracy. The guilds were victorious, and became so powerful, that even persons of "free occupations" joined these associa- tions, as the allodial possessors of land sometimes placed themselves under feudal lords. The corporations of merchants and mechanics became more and more con- finned in their ^privileges ail(] monopolies, whilst the countiy people suffered by be- ing made, in many respects, the slaves of the guilds. Particular branches of indus- try were often subject to restrictions in favor of the guilds, which were sometimes of a most offensive nature. The guilds became insupportable aristocracies, some- times allowing only a certain number of master mechanics in the place, and sel- dom admitting any one into then associa- tions except favorites of the masters. The examinations for the admission of a jour- neyman to the rank of a master were used as means of extorting money, and were often combined with the most ab- surd humiliations. In some parts of Ger- many, there were from four to five differ- ent guilds of smiths, which did not allow each other the use of certain tools. The guilds are now abolished in a considera- ble portion of Germany; and yet many persons wish to restore die ancient order of things, as a support of aristocratical distinctions, and as tending to repress that free exercise of industry which is so fa- vorable to the growth of the democratic spirit. Attempts were made to check die insolence of the guilds by laws of the empire, as in 1731, but without success. In France, the guilds also originated with the increasing importance of cities, and became general in the reign of Louis IX; but they became subject to abuses, as in Germany, and were abolished at the time of the revolution. Their restoration was also desired by those who wished for the return of the Bourbons. In England, the societies of mechanics are important principally in a political respect, on ac- count of then connexion with the demo- cratic element of the constitution. These societies originated hi England, as on the continent, at the time of the developement of the importance of the cities. In the towns where they still exist, they have an important influence in the election of rep- resentatives, and in the municipal admin- istration. The rights of a " freeman," with which is associated the privilege of voting in the cities or boroughs, are often con- fined to the members of these societies, of which the membership is obtained by serving an apprenticeship, or by purchase. As the principal privilege of these socie- ties consists in this right of voting, per- sons not mechanics are frequently admit- ted members, to give them this privilege. These guilds, in England, have no right to prevent any man from exercising what trade he pleases. The only restriction on the exercise of trades is the statute of Elizabeth, requiring seven years' appren- ticeship. This the courts have held to extend to such trades only as were in being at the time of the passage of the statute; and they consider seven years' labor, either as master or apprentice, as an apprenticeship. Guilder. (See Coins.) Guildhall ; the city hall of London. It was first built in 1411, but almost entire- ly consumed in the great fire. In 1669, it was rebuilt The front was not erected until 1789. The most remarkable room of this edifice is the hall,153 feet long, 48 broad,and 55 high, capable of containing from 6000 to 7000 persons, and used for city feasts, the election of members of parliament and city officers, and for all public meetings of the lively and freemen. Monuments, erected at the expense of the city, to the memory of lord Nelson, William Pitt earl of Chatham, William Pitt his son, and Beckford, lord mayor in 1763 and 1770, whose celebrated reply to his maj- esty George III is engraved beneath, or- nament this hall. In another room, that of the common council, is a collection of pictures, some of great merit; among otiiers, Copley's Destruction of the Span- ish and French Flotilla before Gibraltar, and many portraits of distinguished per- sons. The dinner which was given here, in 1815, by die city of London, to the em- peror Alexander of Russia and other monarchs, cost £20,000. Guilford ; a post-town and seaport in New Haven county, Connecticut, on Long Island sound; 15 miles east New Haven, 36 miles south Hartford; lon. 72° 42^ W.; lat. 41° 17' N.; population, in 1820, 4131. (For the population in 1830, see U. States.) It comprises four parish- es, and contains seven houses of public worship. It has two harbors, and carries GUILFORD—GUILLOTIN. 97 on considerable trade, chiefly with New York. Shoemaking is a considerable business, and large quantities of oysters are obtained here. The borough was in- corporated in 1815, and is pleasantly situ- ated about two miles from the harbor. The Indian name of Guilford was Me- nunkatuck. Guilleminot, Aimand Charles, count, lieutenant-general, created peer of France October, 1823, was born in the Belgic provinces, in 1774, and received a careful education. During the insurrection of Brabant against Austria, in 1790, he fought in the ranks of the patriots. On then subjection by the power of the house of Hapsburg, he fled to France, where he received a place in the staff of general Dumouriez. Being imprisoned in Lille, after the defection of this general, he escaped by flight, and concealed him- self in the ranks of the French army. He was soon received into the staff of general Moreau, to whom he remained gratefully attached, even in his misfor- tunes. In the year 1805, Napoleon em- ployed him in the army in Gennany, and, in 1806, appointed hhn his aid-de-camp. In 1808, he served in Spain, as chief of the staff of marshal Bessieres, and after die victory at Medina del Rio-Secco, was made general of brigade, and an officer of die legion of honor. In 1809, he was em- ployed by Napoleon on a mission to the Persian court. He remained some time in the East, and several months at Con- stantinople, and received the Turkish or- der of the crescent and the Persian order of the sun. In the campaigns of 1812 and 1813, he distinguished himself in the battles of the Moskwa, of Ltitzen and Baut- zen. He rendered essential service by re- pelling the attack of the Swedes upon Dessau (September 28, 1813), and, in con- sequence, was promoted by Napoleon to the rank of general of division. After the restoration, Louis XVIII named him grand officer of the legion of honor, and gave him the cross of St. Louis; he also appointed him, at the return of Napoleon from Elba, chief of the general staff in die army which the duke of Beni was to command. He held the same rank in the army which, in June, 1815, was assem- bled under the walls of Paris; and he signed, in the name of marshal Davoust, the capitulation of that city. He was°af- terwards appointed director of the topo- graphical military bureau in the ministry of war; and, in 1816 and 1817, in con- junction with the commissioners of the Swiss confederacy, settled the boundary vol. vi. 9 line between France and Switzerland, as was stipulated by the treaty of 1815. In the war with Spain, in 1823, general Guil- leminot received the important post of major-general in the French army, at the express desire of the duke of Angou- leme, but against the will of the duke of Belluno, then minister of war, who desir- ed the place for himself. In this capacity, he directed the whole campaign, from April 7 to the liberation of king Ferdi- nand (October 1, 1823), who rewarded him with Iris order. Guilleminot then distributed the French army of occupa- tion in the fortresses, concluded a contract with the Spanish government for its sup- ply, &c, and returned, in the middle of December, to Paris, where an embassy to Constantinople was given him. General Guilleminot, by his proclamation, dated Andujar (August 8, 1823), which was in- tended to put a stop to the arbitrary treat- ment of the constitutionalists by the Span- ish royalists, had rendered himself obnox- ious to the absolutists. The duke of An- gouleme, however, reposed entire confi- dence in liim; for Guilleminot, as major- general, had executed, with great pru- dence, the plan of reducing Spain by moderation, of restraining the political fanaticism of the soldiers of the faith and of the people; and, by a liberal policy, inducing the Spanish leaders, Morillo and Ballesteros, and the commanders of the castles, to capitulate, and the members of the cortes to disagree; and had happily at- tained the object of the six months' cam- paign, the taking of Cadiz. In 1826, he was permitted to return from Constanti- nople to Paris, to defend himself before the house of peers, in the trial of Ouvrard, relative to the contracts for supplying di^ French army in Spain. Being acquittc*! of any blame in the affair, he returned to Constantinople in August of the same year. General Guilleminot is one of tht best hifonned of the French officers, and we may expect from him a history of the late wars. (For his conduct in the affair!" of Greece, see Greece.) Guillotin, Joseph Ignatius, a French physician, was bom at Saintes, in 1738. He was at first a Jesuit, and professor in the Irish college nt Bordeaux, but after- wards studied medicine, and lived in Par- is. He was one of the commissioner*; appointed to examine the pretended cures of Mesmer, which he contributed much to discredit. A pamphlet (in 1788) on some abuses in die administration, gained him great popularity, and caused his elec- tion into the national convention. Here 98 GUILLOTIN—GUINEA. he was principally occupied with nitro- ducing a better organization of the medi- cal department. A machine, which he proposed should be used for the purpose of capital punishment, was called, from him, the guillotine, (q. v.) He narrowly escaped suffering himself by this instm- ment He died in 1814, at Paris, where he was much esteemed as a physician. Guillotine. This instrument has been erroneously called an invention of Guillotin, a physician at Paris, during the French revolution, concerning whose character very false notions have also been entertained. (See the preceding arti- cle.) A similar instrument, called man- naia, was used in Italy for beheading criminals of noble birth. The maiden, formerly used hi Scotland, was also con- structed on the same principle. The con- vention having determined, on the propo- sition of Guillotin, to substitute decapita- tion for hanging, as being less ignomin- ious for the family of the person execut- ed, the guillotine was adopted, also on his proposition, as being the least painful mode of inflicting the punishment It was erected in the place de Grive, and the first criminal suffered by it April 25, 1792. Portable guillotines, made of iron, were afterwards constructed. They were car- ried from place to place, for die purpose of executing sick persons. This machine consists of two upright pillars, in the grooves of which a mass of iron, sharpen- ed at the lower extremity, is made to move by cords. Being raised to a certain height, it falls, and at once severs the head of the criminal (who is laid upon a hori- zontal scaffolding) from his body. It is much surer than tne sword or axe, which is sometimes used for decapitation, and of which we read, in many instances, that several blows have been necessary to put an end to the fife of die sufferer. In the reign of tenor, it was called notre tres Sainte- GuUlotine by the most violent po- litical fanatics. It is still the common in- strument of capital punishment in France. Guinea ; a name which modern Euro- peans have applied to a large extent of the western coast of Africa, of which the limits are not very definite. The Euro- pean geographers, however, seem now to have agreed in fixing, as the boundaries of Guinea, the Rio Mesurado and the west- em extremity of Benin, comprehending a space of about 13 degrees of longitude. This large territory is usually divided into four portions, called the Grain coast, the Ivory coast, the Gold coast, and die Slave coast. The Grain coast, called also the Malaghetta, or Pepper coast, extends from the Mesurado to the village of Growa, about ten miles beyond cape Palmas. The aromatic plant from which this coast de- rives its name, appeared, when Europeans first landed on this coast, a delicious luxu- ry. As soon, however, as they became familiar with the more delicate and exqui- site aromatics of the East, this coarser one fell into disrepute; and as this coast af- forded neither gold nor ivory, and was not favorable for procuring slaves, it has been comparatively little frequented. About ten miles to the east of cape Pahnas com- mences what by European navigators is termed the Ivory coast. This name is de- rived from the great quantity of ivory, or elephants' teeth, which is brought from the interior countries. Gold is also tolerably plentiful. Although the Ivory coast is thus tolerably supplied with materials of trade, it has never been very extensively fre- quented. The Ivory coast is populous and thickly set with villages, but does not contain any town of much consideration. It reaches to cape Apollonia. The Gold coast extends from cape Apollonia to the Rio Volta, which separates it from the Slave coast. Of all parts of Guinea, and, indeed, of the African coast, it is the one where European settlements and trade have been carried to the greatest extent. It has been frequented at different times by the Portuguese, the Danes, Swedes, Dutch and British. Britain has now a more extensive footing upon this coast than any other nation. She maintains a range of forts, the expense of which is defrayed by the African company, out of a grant of £23,000 per annum, made by government for that purpose ; but the trade is thrown open to all the subjects of the British nation. Although the Gold coast is situated almost immediately under the line, the thennometer has scarcely been known to rise above 93 degrees, and the common heat of midsummer is only from 85 to 90. The country, from the sea, appears like an immense forest, parts only of which are cleared for the pur- pose of cultivation. High lands are seen in various directions, crowned with lofty trees and thick underwood; the soil along the coast varies from a light, sandy and gravelly texture to a fine black mould and loamy clay. As we advance into the in&rior, it sensibly improves, and, at the distance of six or eight miles from the shore, becomes rich in the extreme, and fit for any species of cultivation. The, natives inhabiting the Gold coast present a considerable variety. The most prominent GUINEA—GUISCARD. 99 place is held by the Fantees. Of late years, another power, before almost unknown to Europeans, has occupied a conspicuous place.. This is Ashantee, the sovereign of which has waged repeated and successful wars against the Fantees. Cape Coast Castle is the capital of the British settlements on the Gold coast; and forts are also maintained at Acra, Dixcove, Succondee, Commendo and Anamaboe. That at Winnebah has been given up. The Slave coast extends from the Rio Volta to the bay and river of Lagos, which separate it from Benin. Of all the parts of native Africa yet explored by Europeans, this is the one where culti- vation and the arts have been canied to the greatest perfection. The country here was in a most flourishing and prosperous state, when it received a fatal blow, about the middle of last century, by the invasion of the king of Dahomey, who, having con- quered it, reduced the principal towns to ashes, and massacred a great proportion of the population. This coast has since continued to form part of the territory of Dahomey, and is governed by a viceroy, who resides at Griwhee ; but, under this ferocious and military tyranny, it has never recovered its ancient wealth and pros- perity. Guinea ; an English gold coin, worth 21 shillings sterling. Guineas were first coined, in the reign of Charles II (1662), of gold which the English procured from Guinea, and hence the name. Till 1718, they were of the value of 20 shillings ster- ling. (See Coin.) Guinea Cloth. Mariners give the name of Guinea to a much greater extent of the African coast than is recognised by geography ; and, hi commerce, several articles made for the African trade are called by this name. Guinea cloth is a kind of calico, calculated for the African market, where it is an important article of barter. There are also Guinea knives, &c. Guinea Pepper. (See Cayenne Pepper.) Guinea Pig (cavia cobaya). This well known htde animal is a native of South America, and is now domesticated both in Europe and this country. As writers make but little mention of its habits and manners in a wild state, most that is known respecting it has been derived from observations on the domesticated animal. It is a restless, grunting little quadruped, seldom remaining quiet more than a few minutes. It feeds on bread, grain, fruit or vegetables, giving a decided preference to parsley. It breeds when only 2 months old, and generally brings forth every 2 months, having from 4 to 12 young ones at a time; hence the produce of a single pair might be a thousand in the year. From their being so prolific, they would become innumerable, were not vast numbers of the young eaten by cats, killed by the males, or destroyed by other means. As they are very tender, multitudes perish from cold and moisture. In the space of 12 hours after birth, the young are able to run about In their habits, they are so extremely cleanly, that if the young, by any accident, are dirtied, the female takes such a dislike to them as never to suffer them to approach her. The principal employment of the male and female seems to consist in smoothing each other's hah, which being performed, they turn then attention to the young, whose hah they take particular care to keep unruffled, biting them if they prove refractory. Their sleep is short, but frequent; they eat rap- idly, like the rabbit, a little at a time, but often. They repose flat on their belly, and, like the dog, turn round several times before they lie down. Their manner of fighting is very singular, and appears ex- tremely ridiculous. One of them seizes the neck of his antagonist with its teeth, and attempts to tear the hah from it; in the mean time, the other turns his tail to the enemy, kicks up like a horse, and, by way of retaliation, scratches the sides of his opponent with his hind feet. Their skins are scarcely of any value, and their flesh, though edible, is not savory. Buffon observes of them, "By nature they are gentle and tame; they do no mischief, but they are equally incapable of good, for they never form any attachments : mild by constitution ; docile through weakness ; almost insensible to every ob- ject, they have the appearance of living machines, constructed for the purposes of propagation and of representing a species." Guiscard, Robert, duke of Apulia and Calabria, a son of the celebrated Tancred de Hauteville, was bom in 1015. Haute- ville had many sons, and his estate in Normandy was small. This induced his three eldest sons, William the Ironarms (Bras-de-fers), Dagobert and Humphrey to go to Italy and offer their services to the Italian princes, then engaged in con- tinual wars. Fortune, courage and cun- ning enabled William the Ironarms, who knew how to take advantage of the weakness of the Italian princes, to get possession of Apulia. Robert Guiscard, who, in the mean time, had grown up, burned with the desire of sharing the splendid fortune of his brother in Italy. A little band of adventurers was soon 100 GUISCARD. found, in those times, so prone to adven- turous enterprises, who were ready to follow him in the expectation of a rich booty. Robert, who was no ways in- ferior in courage to his brothers, soon distinguished himself in many battles; and the soldiers, moved by his exploits, unanimously proclaimed him, after the death of his brother Humphrey, count of Apulia—a dignity which he accepted without hesitation, although to the preju- dice of the rights of his brother's chil- dren. He then conquered Calabria, in the possession of which he was con- firmed by pope Nicholas II, although that pontiff had not long before excommu- nicated him for his outrages. Robert, grateful for this favor, bound himself to pay to the holy see an annual sum; nnd from this the feudal claims of the papal see on Naples, which exist to this day, are derived. In Apulia itself, Guis- card ruled with absolute power. This country had, till his reign, preserved a number of privileges, and some forms of a constitution; but scarcely was he at the head of the state, when he destroyed them; and hence naturally arose discon- tents and conspiracies among the nobil- ity, who, at that time, were alone in pos- session of any rights. Robert punished many of these with death, and reduced the others to submission. He now began to think of conquering Sicily, the inves- titure of which the pope had aheady promised him. He sent, therefore, his youngest brother, Roger, whose valor had aheady been displayed in many battles, at the head of 300 resolute warriors, to take possession of this island. Roger made himself master of the city of Mes- sina, with this small band, in 1060. In the following year, the two brothers united conquered the Saracens on the plains of Enna; but the misunderstand- ing which broke out between the victors, prevented them from deriving all the advantages which might have resulted from this victory. Guiscard had prom- ised Roger the half of Calabria, in case his expedition to Sicily should prove successful; but he was now unwilling to allow him more than two cities. The complaints of Roger irritated his brother, who determined to imprison him. But the soldiers of the former made them- selves masters of the person of Robert himself, and Roger was magnanimous enough not to take advantage of this -success. Guiscard, touched with this generosity, was reconciled to his brother, and fulfilled his promise. Roger now conquered nearly the whole of the island, and became the first count of Sici- ly. Guiscard, in the mean time, be- sieged all those cities in Lower Italy which, as yet, were in the hands of the Saracens. Some of these detained him a long time ; as, for instance, Salerno and Bari, before the latter of which places Guiscard was encamped for four years, and endured all the violence of the weather and the dangers of the war, in a miserable hut, composed of branches of trees and covered with straw, which he had caused to be built near the walls of the city. He at length succeeded in conquering all the provinces which now form the kingdom of Naples, and he would have extended his victorious course still farther, had he not been excommuni- cated by Gregory VII, on account of his attack on Benevento, and obliged to con- fine his ambition within these limits. The betrothment of his daughter Helen to Constantine Ducas, the son and heir of Michael VII, gave him afterwards an opportunity of interfering in the affairs of the Greek empire. He fitted out a considerable fleet, and sent his son Boe- mond to the conquest of Corfu, while he himself went to attack Durazzo. A tempest and a contagious disease had near- ly frustrated this expedition. Alexis Com- nenus, then emperor of Constantinople, approached with superior forces. The armies joined battle under the walls of Durazzo, where the victory at first in- clined to the side of the Greeks; but the courage of Guiscard gave the battle a different turn. He rallied the already flying bands of his soldiers, led them anew to the combat, and gained a com- plete victory over forces six times as numerous as his own. Durazzo was compelled to sunender. Robert pene- trated into Epirus, approached Thessa- lonica, and filled the capital with terror. In the midst of this victorious career, he was recalled by the information that Hen- ry IV (q. v.), emperor of Germany, had en- tered Italy. He gave the command to Boe- mond, and hastened home to assist Greg- ory VII, who was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, against the Germans. Henry IV was compelled to retreat; Gregory was released, and conducted to Salemo as a place of safety. Guiscard now hastened again to Epirus, where he repeatedly defeated the Greeks, and, by means of his fleet, made himself master of many of the islands of the Archipel- ago. He was upon the point of advanc- ing against Constantinople, when hie GUISCARD—GUISE. 101 death took place in the island of Ceph- alonia, July 17, 1085, in the 70th year of his age. His army retreated, and the Greek empire was saved. Guiscard's corpse was put on board a galley, which running aground at Venusa, the remains of the victorious prince were deposited in the church of the Holy Trinity. His sons Boemond and Roger, after much dispute, divided the conquests of then father, the former receiving Tarentum, and the latter Apulia. Robert Guiscard left behind him the glory of having protected learning, and of being highly estimable in all his private relations. His appearance was martial, his frame powerful, and his cour- age unbounded. The school of Salerno claims him as its founder. Guischard, Charles Gottlieb, an able writer on military tactics, was a native of Magdeburg. After studying at the uni- versities of Halle, Marburg and Leyden, he entered into the service of Holland, and, while thus employed, found leisure to prepare materials for his Mimoires mUitaires sur les Grecs et les Romains, which appeared in 1757 (in 2 vols., 4to.), and met with great approbation. The same year, he entered as a volunteer into the allied army, and acquired the esteem of prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, who recommended him to the king of Prus- sia. He was a favorite of Frederic the Great A dispute having once arisen be- tween them respecting the name of the commander of Caesar's tenth legion, in which Guischard proved to be right, Frederic gave him the name of this com- mander (Qjiim'us IcUius), by which he was afterwards frequently called. Be- sides the work already mentioned, he was the author of Mimoires Critiques et Historiques sur plusieurs Points d'Antiqui- ti mUitaire (4 vols., 8vo.), upon which work Gibbon bestows very high enco- miums. Guischard died in 1775. Guise ; the name of a celebrated noble family in France, a branch of the house of Lorraine. Claude de Guise, fifth son of Rene, duke of Loreaine, bom in 1496, estab- lished himself in France, and mareied An- toinette de Bourbon in 1513. His valor, his enterprising spirit, and his other noble qualities, obtained for him great consid- eration, and enabled him to become the founder of one of the first houses in France. In 1527, for the sake of doing him honor, his county of Guise was changed to a duchy, and made a peer- age. At his death, in 1550, he left six sons and five daughters, of whom the eldest married James V, king of Scot- land. The splendor of the house was principally supported by the eldest son, Guise (Francis, duke of Lonaine), bom in 1519, and called Le Balafri (the scar- red), from a wound which he received in 1545, at the siege of Boulogne, and which left a permanent scar on his face. He showed distinguished courage, in 1553, at Metz, which he defended with success against Charles V, although the emperor had sworn that he would rather perish than retreat without having effected his object. In the battle of Renti, Aug. 13, 1554, he displayed remarkable intrepidity. He also fought with success in Flanders and in Italy, and was named lieutenant- general of all the royal troops. The star of France began again to shine as soon as he was placed at the head of the army. In eight days, Calais was taken, with the territory belonging to it, in the middle of whiter. Thus the English lost the city without recoveiy, after having held it 210 years. He afterwards conquered Thionville from the Spaniards, and proved that the good or ill fortune of whole states often depends on a single man. Under Henry II, whose sister he had manied, and still more under Francis II, he was the virtual ruler of France. The conspiracy of Amboise, which the Prot- estants had entered into for lus destruc- tion, produced an entirely opposite effect. The parliament gave him the title of savior of his country. After the death of Francis II, his power began to decline. Then grew up the factions of Conde and Guise. On the side of the latter stood the constable of Montmorency and marshal de St Andre ; on the side of the former were the Protestants and Coligny. The duke of Guise, a zealous Catholic, and an enemy to the Protestants, determined to pursue them sword in hand. After having pass- ed the borders of Champagne, at Bassi, March 1, 1562, he found the Calvinists singing the psalms of Marot in a bam. His party insulted them; they came to blows, and nearly 60 of these unhappy people were killed, and 200 wounded. This unexpected event lighted the flame of civil war throughout the kingdom. The duke of Guise took Rouen and Bour- ges, and won the battle of Dreux, Dec. 19, 1562. On the evening after this victory, he remained, with entire confidence, in the same tent with his prisoner, the prince of Conde, shared his bed with him, and slept quietly by the side of his rival, whom he regarded as a relation and a friend. At that time, the duke of Guise was at the height of his fortune. He 102 GUISE—GUIZOT. was preparing for the siege of Orleans, the central point of the Protestant party, when he was killed by a pistol shot fired by Poltrot de Mercy, a Huguenot noble- man, Feb. 24,1563. Guise, Henry, duke of Lorraine, eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1550. He displayed his courage, for the first time, at the battle of Jarnac, in 1569. His prepossessing appearance made him a general favorite. He put himself at die head of an army, under the pretence of defending the Catholic faith, and advised the cruel massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). From motives of personal revenge, he took upon himself the assassination of Coligny, whom he called the murderer of his father. In 1576 was formed the League, first projected by his uncle, the cardinal of Lorraine. For tiiis purpose, it was proposed to the most zealous citi- zens of Paris to join in a league, which had for its avowed object the defence of religion, of the king, and of the freedom of the state, but in reality tended to the oppression both of the khig and the nation. The duke of Guise, who wished to raise himself upon the ruins of France, inflamed fhe seditions, obtained several victories over the Calvinists, and soon saw him- self hi a situation to prescribe laws to his prince. He obliged Hemy III to annul all the privileges of the Huguenots, and car- ried so far his imperious demands, that the king, at last, forbade him to come to Paris. Nevertheless, he appeared there in 1588, and obliged the king to leave the city and conclude a treaty with him. Flushed by this triumph, he became imprudent, and clearly showed that he aimed at the high- est power. In consequence of the treaty, the estates were assembled at Blois. The icing, informed of the ambitious plans of the duke, took counsel with his confi- dants, D'Aumont, Rambouillet, and Beau- vais-Nangis, and all three were of opin- ion that it was impossible to bring him to a regular trial, but 'that he must be privately despatched, and that this meas- ure would be justified by his open trea- son. The brave Crillon refused to take upon himself the execution of this plan. ft was therefore intrusted to Lognac, first chamberlain of the king, and captain of 45 Gascon noblemen, of the new royal guard. He selected nine of the most res- olute, and concealed them in the king's cabinet. The duke had, indeed, been warned, and his brother, the cardinal, advised him to go to Paris; but, upon the advice of the archbishop of Lyons, who represented to him that his friends would lose courage, if he left Blois at so favor- able a moment, he resolved to await the worst. On the following day, Dec. 23, 1588, he went to the king, and was some- what concerned at seeing the guards strengthened. As soon as he had entered the first hall, the doors were shut. He preserved, however, a calm exterior, and saluted the bystanders as usual. But when about to enter the cabinet, he was stabbed with several daggers, and, before he could draw his sword, he fell dead, exclaiming, " God have mercy on me." At the time of his death, he was 38 years old. On the following day, the cardinal was also assassinated; but, far from ex- tinguishing the fire of civil war, this double murder only increased the hatred of the Catholics against the king. The high-minded Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) said, upon hearing of the deed, " Had Guise fallen into my hands, I would have treated him very differently. Why," add- ed he, "did he not join with me? We would have conquered, together, all Italy." Guitar, or Guitarra ; a stringed instru- ment, the body of which is of an oval-like form, and the neck similar to that of a vi- olin. The strings, which are distended in parallel lines from the head to the lower end, passing over the sounding hole and bridge, are tuned to the C above Fiddle G, E its third, G its fifth, and their octaves. The intermediate intervals are produced by bringing the strings, by the pressure of the fingers of the left hand, into contact with the frets fixed on the key-board, while those of the right agitate the strings and mark the measure. The Spaniards, the reputed inventors of the guitar, derived the name they give it, guitarra, from cUha- ra, the Latin denomination for almost ev- ery instrument of the lute kind. The peo- ple of Spain are so fond of music, and of the guitar in particular, that there are few, even of the laboring class, who do not sol- ace themselves with its practice. It is with this instrument that the Spanish gen- tlemen at night serenade their mistresses; and there is scarcely an artificer in any of the cities, or principal towns, who, when his work is over, does not go to some of the public places and entertain liimsclf with his guitar. Guizot, Francis, formerly professor of modem history at the academy of Paris, was born at Nimes, in 1787. He was educated a Protestant, and studied phi- losophy and German literature at Geneva. He went to Paris, where he devoted him- self to literary studies, contributed to sever- al valuable journals, and wrote on phil- GUIZOT—GULL. 103 ological subjects (for instence, his cele- brated Nouveau Dictionnaire desSynonymes de la Langue Franpaise, 2d edit. 1822), be- sides biographical essays and works on ed- ucation and the state of the fine aits in France. In 1814, after the restoration, he first entered upon a political career, in which he quickly rose, under the patron- age of the abbe Montesquiou, and obtained a great influence, first as secretary-general in the department of the interior, and after- wards in the department of justice ; but the manner in which he executed the reforms projected by his patron prevented him from being popular. At the return of Napo- leon from Elba, he followed Louis XVIII to Ghent, and was appointed by the king mailredes requites, and, in 1817, counsellor of state. From this time, Guizot showed more moderate principles, and belonged to the party of the doctrinaires. The fall of the minister Decazes (q. v.), in 1820, caus- ed his dismission. The system which had formerly been followed by him, as a pro- tigi of Montesquiou, was now adopted against the liberals by their opponents. Guizot then employed himself as a lectur- er on history and an author. His best wri- tings (some of which have gone through several editions) are his Idies sur la Liberti delaPresse (1814); Du Gouvernement Ri- presentatif et de I'Etat aduel de la France (1816); Essai sur FHistoire et sur I'&tat a»- tuel de VInstruction en France (1816); Du Gouvernement de la France depuis la Re- stauration et du Ministire aduel (4th edit, 1821). His work Des Conspirations et de la Justice PolUique (2d edit, 1821) contains some important facts concerning espions and provocateurs (informers), which the po- lice uses as its instruments. His essay De la Peine de Mort en Matiire politique (1822) de- serves notice. In his Essais sur I'Histoire de France, connected with the improved edition of Mably's Observations sur VHis- toire de France (4 vols., Paris, 1823), he shows that the middling class of people forms the strength of a country, and its support in times of danger. He has also edited a Collection des Mimoires relatifs a la Rivolution d'Angleterre (Paris, 1823), which is very full of instruction for the present times. He is now publishing a Collection des Mimoires relatifs al'Histoire de France depuis la Fondation de la Monarchic jus- qu'au treiziime Siicle (with an introduction and notes, in 30 vols.), which is the first collection of these records of contempora- ry testimony, and is also important for the history of Germany and of the middle ages. Until the suppression of the cen- sorship, and the abolition of the Normal school, in 1822, Guizot was royal censor and professor in this institution for educa- tion. His lectures on modern history were heard with great applause; but the board of education would not allow them to be repeated in the academic year 1824. Five volumes of his lectures have been printed, under the title Cours d'Histoire Moderne. The more clearly Charles X and his min- isters manifested their disposition to rees- tablish an absolute government, the more decided was the opposition of Guizot to their measures; and he obtained the repu- tation of one of the ablest, most active and most effective writers of the liberal party. He was connected with the Revue Fran- poise. July 30,1830, he was elected, by the deputies then assembled, provisionary commissioner for public instruction. When the duke of Orleans was made lieutenant- general of the kingdom, Guizot received the port folio of the interior, as provision- ary minister; and, when the duke was pro- claimed king of the French, he was ap- pointed minister of public instruction, and retained his office until November 2, 1830, when he, with De Broglie, Mole and Louis, was succeeded by count Montalivet, Me- rilhou, Maison and Lafitte. Guizot's wife, Pauline, has written several, romances, and works on education, which have been well received. But she did herself no credit by a newspaper quanel with the abbe Salgues. She also wrote, for some time, the articles relating to the theatre, in the Publiciste, and has contributed to several other periodical publications. Guldberg, Frederic (with the noble prefix Hogh), professor and knight, son of Ove Hogh Guldberg, formerly minister of state (who died in 1808), was bom at Co- penhagen, March 26, 1771, and is one of the most original and excellent of the Da- nish poets. Among his songs, the Flower of Eternity (Evighedsblomsten) and the Dying Man (Den Doende) are remarkably beautiful. His miscellaneous poems were published, a second time, in 1815—16 (in 3 vols.), with several prose pieces of much beauty, under the title Samlede Smaating. His Digte over bibelske Emner (Poems upon Biblical Subjects, Copenhagen, 1823) are adapted for youth, whose hearts and im- aginations they are well calculated to at- tract. Guldberg has also translated Ter- ence and Plautus (in six vols.). Gulf Stream. (See CurreiU.) Gull (larus). These birds are well known every where, being found almost universally spread over the globe. They are distinguished from other sea fowl by their straight bill, bending downwards to- 104 GULL—GUM ARABIC. wards the point, and marked below the un- der mandible by a triangular prominence,by their light body, supported by large wings, by slender legs, palmated feet, and a small hind toe. They are timid and cowardly, except hi defence of their young. Gene- rally seen in large flocks, the old and young separate ; the larger species fre- quent the sea, the smaller, lakes or rivers. They walk with tolerable ease, and swim well, but are incapable of diving. They keep much on the wing, and their flight is rapid, strong, and long sustained, even in heavy gales. In sitting, they contract their neck, and rest on one foot. They are ex- tremely voracious, fighting with each other for prey. They are patient of hunger, but will feed on every kind of animal food, either dead or alive, putrid or fresh. Their principal food, however, is fish, of which they will follow the shoals; they catch them with great agility, darting down like an arrow. They breed only once a year, laying from two to four eggs. The spe- cies are exceedingly numerous, and re- semble each other greatly. The gulls are continually fighting with each other, and the strong plundering the weaker. No sooner does one rise from die water, with a fish in its bill, than it is immediately pur- sued by others, stronger than itself, and the first that reaches it tears away the spoil. Should, however, the latter not instantly swallow the booty it has acquired, it is, in turn, pursued by others; and, even if it has perfonned this process, it is oftentimes obliged to disgorge it, when it is seized by one of the pursuers, before it can reach the water. The facility which the gulls have of vomiting then food has been taken notice of, even in then captive state. Some of these birds have been tamed, but, even then, they have always discovered the same quarrelsome and voracious habits. When two are kept together, the weaker generally becomes the victim of the ill na- ture of the other. Almost all the gulls that appear on our coast are also inhabit- ants of Europe. This genus is not well understood by naturalists, and much con- fusion exists as to the species. Gum ; one of the proximate principles of vegetables, distinguished by the following properties:—It is an insipid, inodorous, un- crystallizable solid, more or less transpa- rent, the various colors which the differ- ent kinds jiossess being derived from mixture with coloring principles while exuding in a fluid state. It is insoluble in alcohol, and extremely soluble in wa- ter, in which properties it is the reverse of resin. It differs from mucilage only in being deprived of the water which rendered it fluid ; and, of course, when water is added, it again becomes muci- lage. This mucilage is apparently not susceptible of fermentation, and may be kept for a long time, as it is less dis- posed to spontaneous changes than almost any vegetable product Its chemical com- position so nearly approaches sugar, that it may be converted into it by means of nitric acid. Gum, as above defined, is identical in all vegetables, and the differ- ent lands vary only in the quantity and quality of the substances united with them. It exists naturally almost pure in gum Arabic and gum Senegal, and, more or less mixed, in die gum which exudes from the plum, cherry and other fruit-trees, as also in the mucilage of flaxseed, slippery elm, &c. Various reshis and gum-resins are commonly confounded under this ap- pellation. Gum Arabic is the product of the mi- mosa nilotica and some other species of the same genus, inhabiting the sandy parts of Arabia, Egypt, Senegal and Central Af- rica. It exudes spontaneously, in a fluid state, and remains attached to the branches after it has concreted and become solid. This exudation takes place continually, during the whole of the dry season, from October to June, but more copiously im- mediately after the rains. December and March are the two months in which this gum is collected by the Arabs, with whom it is an important aliment, those tribes that are continually wandering in the desert often making it their principal article of food during a great part of the year. Gum Arabic is obtained in rounded masses, transparent, or of a fight yellow color, capable of being easily reduced to a pow- der, insipid to the taste, or possessing a slight acidity, which, however, is only per- ceptible by those who use it habitually. It is easily soluble in water, and the solu- tion has the property of conveying pulver- ized solids through a filter, which would separate them were they suspended mere- ly in water : thus it is impossible, by this means, to separate powdered charcoal from gum water. In pharmacy, gum Ara- bic is employed to suspend in water sub- stances which, otherwise, could not be kept equally diffused, as balsams, fixed oils, resins, &c.; but its principal con- sumption is in manufactures, forming die basis of crayons and cakes of water-col- ors, as well as of writing-ink, and several liquid colors, serving to increase the con- sistency of these colors, and to prevent their spreading in calico printing, affording GUM ARABIC—GUNPOWDER. 105 a clear cement for joining light substances which may be prepared in a moment, giving a lustre to ribands, silks, &c, which, however, is destroyed by the appli- cation of water. It is, besides, used for a great variety of purposes. In medicine, it is frequently employed, especially in dysenteries, as a demulcent, and enters in- to the composition of a variety of emol- lient preparations. Gum Senegal does not differ in its sensible properties ; indeed, the chief part of the gum Arabic of com- merce is brought from Senegal, and con- stitutes the most important article of trade with that country. Gum Resins apparently combine the properties of gums and resins, being part- ly soluble in water, partly in alcohol; but they are evidently compound substances, formed of two or more vegetable princi- ples, which, indeed, are often in a state of mere mechanical mixture. Aloes, ammo- niac, assafoetida, galbanum, gamboge, oli- banum, scammony, and a great variety of concrete juices, are referred to this head. Gun ; a fire-ami, or weapon of offence, which forcibly discharges a ball, shot, or other offensive matter, through a cylin- drical barrel, by means of gunpowder.— Gun is a general name, under which are included divers, or even most species of fire-arms. They may be divided into great and small. Great guns, called, also, by the general name cannons, make what we also call ordnance, or artillery, under which come the several sorts 01 cannon. (See Cannon, ArtUlery, &c.) Great guns, of all sorts, cannons, carronades, &c, whether of iron or brass, are cast in sand, and afterwards bored. Small guns, mus- kets, fowling-pieces, &c, are forged from bars of malleable iron, hammered to a proper width, and then turned over a mandril, or cylindrical rod, so as to form a tube with a bore smaller than that of the intended piece. The edges overlap about half an inch, and are firmly welded to- gether. The tube is then hammered, in semicircular grooves, on an anvil hollow- ed for the purpose. It is afterwards bored with several instruments, of different sizes, in succession, till the hollow is sufficiently large and smooth. A strong plug is firm- ly screwed into the breech, so as to make it perfectly close. The projecting parts of the barrel, the sight, the loops which fasten it to the stock, &c, are soldered on. Gunnery signifies the science of using artillery against an enemy judiciously, and to the greatest effect. Besides an accurate acquaintance with the management of ord- nance of all kinds, the range and force of every kind, the charge and direction ne- cessary for different distances, their mate- rials, the manner of making and of pre- serving them, with the component parts, the kinds, the fabrication, the effect of gunpowder, and the method of preserving it, with the manner of preparing and man- aging every thing that appertains to am- munition, die artillerist must be able to in- struct his men in their exercises, both on horseback and on foot; he must be well acquainted with the management of the horses, that are used to transport the can- non and to mount the flying artillery; must know how to harness them to the cannon; how to move and manoeuvre with them on ground of every kind; how to repair, at the moment, any sudden damage; and must be thoroughly acquainted with tac- tics, especially with the peculiarities of the ground, and with the art of availing him- self of them most judiciously in the dis- position of his artillery. He must, finally, be able to attack or defend any position; he must have an accurate acquaintance with the science of fortification; but espe- cially he must be practically skilled in throwing up batteries and other field- works, so that he may be able, by dispos- ing his artillery before or within a strong place, to assist the engineer most effectual- ly in its attack or defence. Besides, the artillerist has often the regulation of the lights, and other signals, in time of war, of the fire-works in peace, &c. All this must be learned by experience, and by the study of auxiliary sciences. Mathemat- ics (particularly the doctrine of curves, to calculate the path of the balls), physics and chemistry are very necessary, in order to understand the effect of powder, and the manufacturing of ammunition, as well as that of all kinds of fire-works. A knowledge of mechanics is, also, very useful, for understanding the theory of caniages, for moving large loads, when necessary, and on many other occa- sions. Gunpowder is a mixture of saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal. If we may be- lieve the relations of the missionaries, and the reports of the Chinese historians, the Chinese were first acquainted with the ap- plication of gunpowder. Perhaps it pro- ceeded from them to the Arabs; for, in 1331, the Moors used it in their operations before Alicant, and certainly in 1342, at Algesiras; in 1250, the Arabs probably used a mixture similar to gunpowder be- fore Damietta, and perhaps also in a naval 106 GUNPOWDER. engagement in die year 1085. Among the Europeans, the traces of this inven- tion are still more ancient; for die Greek fire, which was first employed in 668, must have, at least, contained saltpetre mixed with pitch, naphtha, &c, since it was customary, by means of it, to hurl stones from metallic tubes. The first in- formation of the knowledge of the Euro- peans with regard to the chemical mix- ture of powder, is found in the 9th centu- ry, in a book composed by Marcus Grac- chus, preserved in the university of Ox- ford, which also accurately explains its composition. Roger Bacon (who died in 1294) was likewise acquainted with the power which saltpetre has, when set on fire, of producing a thundering report. The discoverer of the power of powder, when confined and set on fire, of propel- ling heavy bodies, was, according to com- mon report, Berthold Schwartz, a monk, who is said to have lived at Mayence, be- tween 1290 and 1320. He, in some of his experiments in alchemy, had put the mix- ture into a mortar, and, having accidental- ly dropped into it a spark of fire, to his as- tonishment, saw the pestle fly off into the ah. Other traditions attribute this inven- tion to Constantine Antlitz of Cologne (see De Boucher's Mimoire sur POrigine de la Poudre h Canon). However this may be, powder was scarcely applied to mili- tary uses before 1350, and the accounts of the use of cannons in the battles of Crecy (1346), Poictiers, and still earlier engage- ments, have arisen from die various signifi- cations of the word cannon. In 1356, powder is mentioned in die accounts of the treasury of Nuremburg ; in 1360, the house of assembly at Lubeck was burned by the imprudence of the powder manu- facturers ; and, in 1365, the margrave of Misnia had pieces of artillery. In the course of a few years afterwards, it was known over all Europe. Thus the first traces of this invention would appear to be found in Germany ; other nations, however, have put in their claims to this honor. The proportion of the ingredi- ents in the composition of gunpowder, is different in different countries: in the Prussian powder-mills, 75 parts of saltpe- tre, 11J parts of sulphur, and 13£ parts of charcoal are used; but in the French mills, 75 parts of saltpetre, 12£ of coal, and 12£ of sulphur. In the manufacture of this article, which is carried on in veiy different ways, much depends upon the goodness of the ingredients. The crude saltpetre is broken up, moistened and ex- posed to the action of a slow fire, contin- ually skimmed and violently agitated, till all the moisture evaporates, and the salt- petre remains in the form of a fine pow- der. The sulphur is pulverized after hav- ing been well purified. The charcoal is that derived from the alder or any other soft wood or bushes, as, for example, hemp stalks, which are burned with great care in a confined room, and reduced to a fine powder. These three ingredients are then moistened, brought under a stamping, or more commonly a rolling mill, where two metallic, or, which are better, marble cyl- inders, turn round a fixed vertical wooden pillar, and crush to pieces the mixture, which lies upon a round smooth surface of die same material. Other mills effect this bruising operation by several large iron runners, revolving upon a metallic plate, similar to a painter's grinding stone, or by a rapid revolution of the mixture in casks containing metallic balls. After the mixture, in some one of these ways, has been acted on in the mills for the space of six or eight hours, and when the ingre- dients are united, and form one homoge- neous mass, it is pressed, while yet wet, by means of cylindric rollers of wood, through a sieve of perforated parchment, by which the powder is formed into grains. In other mills, this process of forming it into grains takes place after the powder has been pressed between two boards into a solid cake, and then submit- ted twice to the operation of a grooved roller. The powder, after it has been grained, is spread upon boards in the dry- ing-houses, and exposed to the strong heat of an oven for two days. In order to prevent its taking fire, the oven is well lined with clay and copper. Of late years, this process of drying has been sometimes effected by means of steam. Finally, the powder is sorted by being passed through several sieves. In the first, or coarsest, remains what is entirely useless ; through the second passes the second-sized, or cannon powder ; and dirough die third and last the finest, or musket powder. The powder, thus pre- pared, is packed in oaken casks. In or- der to provide against accidents, the Eng- lish use copper casks or vessels, with the tops screwed on. Copper vessels are also used in the U. States. Good gunpow- der must be of a slate color, uniform, round and pure grain, and also have a uniform color on being broken up ; nor should it leave behind it, eidier on the hand or on paper, any black spots. When set on fire, it should bum at once, without crackling or leaving upon paper any ap- GUNPOWDER—GUNPOWDER PLOT. 107 pearances of its combustion. When ap- plied to the tongue, the taste should be extremely cooling. In order to prove its strength, let any person apply an accurate- ly fitting ball to a small mortar, and the distance to which the ball is thrown will prove the strength of the powder. The French government eprouvette is a mortar seven French niches in diameter, and three ounces of powder must throw a copper globe, of 60 pounds weight, 300 feet; otherwise the powder is not admis- sible. An eprouvette is sometimes used which is inaccurate ; the powder throws back the cover of a small mortar, and with it a wheel, which catches in a steel spring ; the strength is determined by the tooth, at which the wheel remains fixed. This method is defective, because the spring is weakened by use. Another method is, to suspend a small cannon as a pendulum, and to judge of the strength of the powder by the force of the recoil, which will describe a greater or less arc of a circle. In the preservation of pow- der, fire and water must both be carefully guarded against. Powder destined for military purposes, should be deposited in an airy building, removed at least 1000 Eaces from any habitation, provided with ghtning rods, and sunounded with walls, ditches and palisadoes ; there should be a guard constantly set, to prevent the intro- duction of fire, and to hinder all persons from entering, who have things about them that will produce fire. These buildings should contain openings for the free pas- sage of the air; the casks should stand upon~ a platform of wood, at a distance from the wall, and the powder itself should be sunned and dried every one or two years. If the powder is to be kept in damp places, as, for example, in the case- mates (arched passages under ground) of fortresses, the walls should be internally covered with lead, and a vessel filled with unslacked lime placed in the middle of the apartment, so that the moisture of the at- mosphere may be attracted by the lime. In the transportation of gunpowder, dust, which is liable to penetrate the cracks and joints of the casks, should be carefully guarded against, as the friction may pro- duce explosion. It is also necessary for jts good preservation, that the carriages and vessels in which it is transported should be water-tight. We may effectual- ly preserve it from moisture, by dipping the cask and the sackcloth covering into melted pitch. Vessels prepared in this way, and containing powder, may be im- mersed in the water for weeks, without having their contents in the least injured. The effects of this substance, when set on fire, are truly wonderful. When powder is heaped up in the open ah, and then in- flamed, it detonates without report or effect A small quantity of powder left free in a room, and fired, merely blows out the windows; but the same quantity, when confined in a bomb within the same chamber, and inflamed, tears in pieces and sets on fire the whole house. Count Rumford loaded a mortar with one-twen- tieth of an ounce of powder, and placed upon it a 24 pound cannon, weighing 8081 pounds; he then closed up every opening as completely as possible,and fired the charge, which burst the mortar with a tremendous explosion, and raised up this immense weight Whence such and sim- ilar effects arise, no chemist as yet has been able, satisfactorily, to explain; and the greater part of the explanations hith- erto made are nothing but descriptions of facts. The best explanation is, that the azote and oxygen gases of the saltpetre, and the carbonic acid gas from the char- coal, which had hitherto been in a solid state, are set free, and die expansive pow- er of all these gases requires much more room than they previously occupied. They now endeavor to overcome the ob- structions to their expansion, and this ten- dency is very much increased by the in- tense heat generated by the gases. The confined steam operates in die same way, although this is not the only cause of the phenomenon, as Rumford supposes. Gunpowder Plot ; a conspiracy form- ed in the second year of the reign of James I (1604), for die purpose of destroy- ing the lung and parliament at a blow. The Roman Catholics having been disap- pointed in their expectations of indul- gence from James, Catesby and Percy, two Catholic gentlemen of ancient family, with a few others of their persuasion, de- termined to run a mine below the hall in which parliament met, and, on the first day of the session, when the king and the royal family would be present, involve all the enemies of the Catholic refigion in one common ruin. A vault below the house of lords, which had been used to store coals, was hired, two hogsheads and 36 banels of powder lodged in it, the whole covered with fagots, and the doors thrown open so as to prevent suspicions. As the young prince Charles and the prin- cess Elizabeth would be absent, measures were taken to have them seized, and Elizabeth proclaimed queen. The secret of the conspiracy was communicated 108 GUNPOWDER PLOT—GUNTER'S LINE. to more than 20 persons, and had been faithfully kept for near a year and a half. Ten days, however, before the meeting of parliament, a Catholic peer received a note from an unknown hand, advising him not to attend at the parliament, as it would receive a temble blow. This he communicated to the secretary of state, lord Salisbury, who, although apprehend- ing nothing, thought proper to lay it be- fore the king. James saw the matter in a more serious light; and, on searching the vaults below the houses of parliament (Nov. 5, 1605), Guy Fawkes, an officer in the Spanish service, who had been em- ployed to fire the powder, was found at the door, with the matches hi bis pocket, and the gunpowder in the vault was dis- covered. Fawkes was put to die torture, and made a foil discovery of the conspir- ators, who, with their attendants, to the number of 80 persons, had assembled in Warwickshire, determined to defend them- selves to the last. Percy and Catesby were killed in the attack ; the others were made prisoners and executed. Lingard (History of England, vol. ix, chap. 1) gives a veiy full account of the conspiracy, which does not materially differ from the statement above given. It has been, howev- er, asserted by others, that it was all a plot of Salisbury's, to effect the ruin of the Cath- olics, and that the warning came from his hands. In support of this, they allege that most of the conspirators declared them- selves ignorant of the extent of the conspir- acy, the Jesuits, who were implicated in it, protested their innocence, and that the French ambassador, who made inquiries on the spot, entirely exculpates them. (See Lettres et Nigociations oTArdoine Le- fevre de la Boderie.) In the calendar of the church of England, the 5th of No- vember is duly noticed as a holyday at the public offices; and the Common Prayer Book contains " A Form of Prayer with Thanksgiving, to be used yearly upon the Fifth day of November, for the happy De- liverance of King James I," &c. It is cus- tomary for boys in England, as it was for- merly in New England, to make an effigy representing Guy Fawkes, which they carry about, singing certain verses* and * These verses are : " Remember, remember The fifth of November, Gunpowder treason and plot ! We know no reason Why gunpowder treason Should ever be forgot. Holla, boys! Huzza ! " A stick and a stake, For king William's sake; asking for materials to bum the figure. Scuffles between boys of different quar- ters of the town were common on this occasion, at least in Boston, Massachu- setts. Gunter, Edmund ; an excellent Eng- lish mathematician, who flourished in the reign of James I, and distinguished him- self by his inventions, which have never yet been superseded, though some of them have been subsequently much im- proved. Gunter's Chain; the chain in common use for measuring land according to the true or statute measure ; so called from the name of its inventor. The length of the chain is 66 feet, or 22 yards, or four poles of five yards and a half each; and it is divided into 100 links of 7.92 niches each. 100,000 square links make one acre. Gunter's Line ; a logarithmic line, usually graduated upon scales, sectors, &c. It is also called the line of lines and line of numbers, being only the log- arithms graduated upon a ruler, which therefore serves to solve problems instru- mentally, in the same manner as loga- rithms do it arithmetically. It is usually divided into a hundred parts, every tenth of which is numbered, beginning witii 1, and ending with 10; so that, if the first great division, marked 1, stand for one tenth of any integer, the next division, marked 2, will .stand for two tenths, 3, three tenths, and so on; and the intermediate division will, in like manner, represent one hun- dredth parts of an integer. If each of the great divisions represent ten integers, then will the lesser divisions stand for integers; and if the great divisions be supposed each 100, the subdivisions will be each 10.— Use of Gunter's Line:—1. To find the prod- uct of two numbers. From 1 extend the compass to the multiplier; and the same extent, applied the same way from the multiplicand, will reach to the product Thus, if the product of 4 and 8 be re- quired, extend the compasses from 1 to 4, and that extent, laid from 8 the same way, will reach to 32, their product.—2. To di- vide one number by another. The extent from the divisor to unity will reach from the dividend to the quotient; thus, to di- vide 36 by 4, extend the compasses from 4 to 1, and the same extent will reach from 36 to 9, the quotient sought.—3. To find a fourth proportional to three given numbers. Suppose the numbers 6, 8, 9: extend the compasses from 6 to 8; and this extent, A stick and a stump For Guy Fawkes' rump. Holla, boys ! Huzza!" GUNTER'S LINE—GUSTAVUS I. 109 laid from 9 the same way, will reach to 12, the fourth proportional required.— 4. To find a mean proportional between any two given numbers. Suppose 8 and 32 : extend the compasses from 8, in the left- hand part of the line, to 32 in the right; then, bisecting this distance, its half will reach from 8 forward, or from 32 back- ward, to 16, the mean proportional sought. —5. To extract the square root of a number. Suppose 25: bisect the distance between 1 on the scale and the point representing 25; then half of this distance, set off from 1, will give the point representing the root 5. In the same manner, the cube root, or that of any higher power, may be found by dividing the distance on the line, be- tween 1 and the given number, into as many equal parts as the index of the pow- er expresses; then one of those parts, set from 1, will find the point representing the root required. Gunter's Quadrant is a quadrant made of wood, brass, or some other sub- stance ; being a kind of stereographic pro- jection on the plane of the equmoctial, the eye being supposed in one of the poles; so that the tropic, ecliptic and horizon form the arches of circles; but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by means of sev- eral altitudes of the sun for some particu- lar latitude eveiy year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day, the sun's azimuth, &c, and other common problems of the sphere or globe ; as also to take the altitude of an object in degrees. Gunter's Scale, usually called, by seamen, the gunter, is a large plain scale, having various lines upon it, of great use in working the cases or questions in navi- gation. This scale is usually two feet long, and about an inch and a half broad, with various lines upon it, bodi natural and logarithmic, relating to trigonometry, navigation, &c. On the one side are the natural lines, and on the other the artificial or logarithmic ones. The fonner side is first divided hito inches and tenths, and numbered from 1 to 24 inches, miming the whole length, near one edge. One half of the length of this side consists of two plane diagonal scales, for taking off dimensions for three places of figures. On the other half of this side, are contained various lines relating to trigonometry, as performed by natural numbers, and mark- ed thus, vi7,., Rhumb, the rhumbs or points of the compass; Chord, the line of chords; Sine, the line of sines; Tang.,the tangents; & T, the semi-tangents: and at the other end of tiiis half, are, Leag., leagues or equal parts; Rhumb, another fine of rhumbs; vol. vi. 10 M. L., miles of longitude; Chor., another line of chords. Also, in the middle of this foot are L. and P., two other lines of equal parts: and all these'lines on this side of the scale serve for drawing or laying down the figures to the cases in trigonometry and navigation. On the other side of the scale are the following artificial or logarithmic lines, which serve for working or resolving those cases, viz., S. R., the sine rhumbs; T. R., the tangent rhumbs; Numb.dine of numbers; Sine, sines; V. S., the versed sines; Tang., the tangents; Meri., meridional parts; E. P., equal parts. Gunwale, or Gunnel, of a Ship, is that piece of timber which reaches, on either side of the ship, from the half-deck to the fore-castle, being the uppermost bend, which finishes the upper works of the hull in that part, and wherein they put the stanchions which support die waist- trees. This is called the gunwale, whether there be guns in the ship or not.—The lower part of any port, where any ord- nance is, is also termed the gunwale. Gurnard (trigla, Lin.). TpiyXa, which the Romans called mullus, does not be- long to this genus, though it was included in it by Artedi. These fish, which are marine, all afford excellent food. They have a scaly body, of a uniform shape, compressed laterally, and attenuated to- wards the tail. The head is broader than the body, and slopes towards the snout, where it is armed with spines ; die upper jaw is divided, and extends beyond the lower. The eyes are near the top of the head, large and prominent, particularly the upper margin of the orbits. The dor- sal fins are unequal, the first short, high and aculeate; the second long, sloping and radiate. The ventral and pectoral are uncommonly large, and from their base hang three loose and slender ap- pendages. Many of the species utter a peculiar noise when taken ; many of the species are provided with pectoral fins, sufficiently large to enable them to spring out of the water. One of the species has been denominated tie lyre fish, on account of its bifurcated ro.strum, which bears a fiiint resemblance to that instrument Gustavus I, king of Sweden, known imder the name of Gustavus Vasa, bom in 1490, was a son of duke Erich Vasa, of Grypsholm, and a descendant of the old royal family. He was one of those great men, whom Nature so seldom pro- duces, who appear to have been endowed by her with every quality becoming a sovereign. His handsome person and no- ble countenance prepossessed all in his 110 GUSTAVUS I—GUSTAVUS II. favor. His artless eloquence was ir- resistible; his conceptions were bold, but his indomitable spirit brought them to a happy issue. He was intrepid, and yet prudent, full of courtesy in a rude age, and as virtuous as die leader of a party can be. When the tyrant Christian II of Denmark sought to make himself master of the throne of Sweden, Gustavus re- solved to save his country from oppres- sion ; but the execution of his plans was interrupted, as Christian seized his per- son, and kept him prisoner in Copenha- gen as a hostage, with six other distin- guished Swedes. When, at hist, in 1519, he heard of the success of Christian, who had nearly completed the subjection of Sweden, he resolved, while yet in prison, that he would deliver his country. He fled in the dress of a peasant, and went more than 50 miles the first day, through an unknown country. In Flensborg, he met with some cattle drivers from Jutland. To conceal himself more securely, he took service with them, and arrived happily at Ltibeck. Here he was indeed recognised, but he was taken under the protection of the senate, who even promised to support him in his plans, which he no longer con- cealed. He then embarked, and landed at Calmar. The ganison, to whom he made himself known, refused to take the part of a fugitive. Proscribed by Christian, pur- sued by the soldiers of the tyrant, rejected both by friends and relations, he turned his steps towards Dalecarlia, to seek as- sistance from the inhabitants of this prov- ince. Having escaped with difficulty the dangers which sunounded him, he was well received by a priest, who aided him with his influence, money and counsel. After he had prepared the minds of the people, he took the opportunity of a festival, at which the peasants of the canton assembled, and appeared in the midst of them. His noble and confident ah, his misfortunes, and the general ha- tred against Christian, who had marked the very beginning of his reign by a cruel massacre at Stockholm,—all lent an irre- sistible power to his words. The people rushed to arms; the castle of the governor was stormed; and, imboldened by this success, the Dalecarlians flocked together under the banners of the conqueror. From this moment, Gustavus entered upon a career of victory. At the head of a self- raised army, he advanced rapidly, and •^completed the expulsion of the enemy. In 1521, the estates gave him the title of administrator. In 1523, they proclaimed him king. Upon receiving this honor, he appeared to yield widi regret to the wishes of the nation; but he de- ferred the ceremony of the coronation. that he might not be obliged to swear to uphold the Catholic religion and the rights of the clergy. He felt that the good of the kingdom required an amelio- ration of the affairs of the church ; and he felt, too, that this could only be effected by a total reform. His chancellor, Larz Anderson, advised him to avail himself of the Lutheran doctrines to attain his object. Gustavus was pleased with this bold plan, and executed it more by the superiority of his policy than of his power. While he secretly favored the progress of the Lu- theran religion, he divided the vacant ecclesiastical dignities among his favorites; and, under pretence of lightening the bur- dens of the people, he laid upon the clergy the charge of supporting his army. Soon after, he dared to do still more: in 1527, he requested and obtained from the estates the abolition of the privileges of the bish- ops. In the mean while, the doctrines of Luther were rapidly spreading. Gustavus anticipated all seditious movements, or suppressed them. He held the malecon- tents under resn-aint; he flattered the am- bitious ; he gained the weak; and, at last, openly embraced the faith which the greater part of his subjects aheady pro- fessed. In 1530, a national council adopted the confession of Augsburg for their creed. Gustavus, after having, as he said, thus conquered his kingdom a sec- ond time, had nothing more to do but to secure it to his children. The estates granted this request also, and, in 1542, abdicated their right of election, and estab- lished hereditary succession. Although Sweden was a veiy limited monarchy, Gustavus exercised an almost unlimited power; but this was allowed him, as he only used it for the benefit of his country, and he never violated the forms of the constitution. He perfected the legislation; formed the character of the nation; soft- ened manners ; encouraged industry and learning, and extended commerce. After a glorious reign of 37 years, he died in 1560, at the age of 70. (See Von Archen- holz's Geschichte Gustavs Wasa (History of Gustavus Vasa), published at Tubingen, 1801, 2 vols.) Gustavus II, Adolphus, the greatest monarch of Sweden, was a son of Charles IX (who ascended the Swedish throne upon the deposition of Sigismund), and a grandson of" Gustavus Vasa. He was bom at Stockholm, in 1594, and received a most careful education. At the age of GUSTAVUS II—GUSTAVUS HI. Ill 12,he entered the army, and, at Redirect- ed all affairs, appeared in the state coun- cil and at the head of the army, obeyed as a soldier, negotiated as a minister, and commanded as a king. In 1611, after the death of Charles IX, the estates gave the throne to the young prince, at the age of 18, and, without regard to the law, declar- ed him of age; for they saw that only the most energetic measures could save the kingdom from subjection, and that a re- ireucy would infallibly cause its ruin. The penetrating eye of Gustavus saw in ,\xel Oxenstiern, die youngest of the counsellors of state, the great statesman, whose advice he might follow in the most dangerous situations. He united him to himself by the bands of the most intimate friendship. Denmark, Poland and Rus- sia were at wrar with Sweden. Gustavus, unable to cope at once with three such powerful adversaries, engaged, at the peace of Knared, in 1613, to pay Denmark 1,000,000 dollars, but received back all that had been conquered from Sweden. After a successful campaign, in which, according to his own confession, his mili- tary talent was formed by James de la Gardie, Russia was entirely shut out from the Baltic by the peace of Stolbowa, in 1617. But Poland, aldiough no more successful against him, would only con- sent to a truce for six years, which he ac- cepted, partly because it was in itself ad- vantageous, partly because it afforded him opportunity to undertake something deci- sive against Austria, whose head, the em- peror Ferdinand H, was striving, by all means, to increase his power, and was likewise an irreconcilable enemy of the Protestants. The intention of the emper- or to make himself master of the Baltic, and to prepare an attack upon Sweden, did not admit of a doubt But a still more powerful inducement to oppose the progress of liis arms, Gustavus Adolphus found in the war between the Catholics and the Protestants, which endangered at once the freedom of Germany and the whole Protestant church. Gustavus, who was truly devoted to the Lutheran doc- trines, detennined to deliver both. After explaining to the estates of die kingdom, in a powerful speech, the resolution he had taken, he presented to them, with tears in his eyes, his daughter Christina, as his heiress, with the presentiment that he should never again see his country, and intrusted the regency to a chosen council, excluding his wife, whom, how- ever, he tenderly loved. He then invaded Germany in 1630, and landed, with 13,000 men, on the coasts of Pomerania. What difficulties opposed him on the part of those very princes for whose sake he had come; how his wisdom, generosity and perseverance triumphed over inconstancy, mistrust and weakness; what deeds of heroism he perfonned at the head of his army, and how he fell, an unconquered and unsullied general, at die battle of Liit- zen, November 6, 1632, may be seen in the article Thirty Years' War. The circumstances immediately attending his death have long been related in various and contradictory ways; but we now know, from the letter of an officer who was wounded at his side, that he was killed on the spot, by an Austrian ball. The king's buff coat was carried to Vien- na, where it is still kept; but Bemhard von Weimar carried the body to Weissen- fels to give it to the queen. There the heart was buried, and remained in the land for which it had bled. Gustavus III, king of Sweden, bom in 1746, was the eldest son of Adolphus Frederic, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who was chosen to succeed to the Swedish throne in 1743, and of Ulrica Louisa, sis- ter of Frederic II of Pmssia. Count Tessin, to whose care the prince was in- trusted from his fifth year, endeavored to form his mind and character with a con- stant view to Iris future destination, and was especially anxious to restrain the am- bition of the youth, and to inspire lihn with respect for die constitution of Swe- den. His successor, count Scheffer, pur- sued the same course; but the ambition of the young prince was not eradicated. His docility of disposition, affability of manners, and gentleness, concealed an ar- dent thirst for power and action. Manly exercises, science and the arts, the pleas- ures of society, and displays of splendor, united with taste, appeared to be his fa- vorite occupations. Sweden was then distracted by factions, especially those of the caps and hats, by which names the partisans of Russia and France were dis- tinguished. Both parties, however, were united in then efforts to weaken the royal power as much as possible. The father of Gustavus, a wise and benevolent prince, had found his situation quite per- plexing. Gustavus himself encountered, with great boldness and art, the difficul- ties which met him on his accession to the throne, after his father's death, Feb- ruary 12, 1771. He established the order of Vasa, to gain over some enterprising officers of the anny, and a party was formed, principaliv consisting of young 112 GUSTAVUS III. officers devoted to him. Emissaries were sent to gain over the troops station- ed in the other parts of the kingdom. Some influential individuals, among whom were the counts Hennanson and Scheffer, had also joined the royal party. A new plan was devised, and the parts so distributed, that the king's brothers were to begin the revolution in the country, while the king himself should commence operations in the capital. Agreeably to this plan, the commandant of Christian- stadt, captain Hellichius, one of the tmest and boldest adherents of the king, August 12, 1772, caused the city gates to be shut, and all the entrances to be guarded, and published a manifesto against the states general. Prince Charles then appeared before Christiaustadt, and commenced a pretended siege, wherein no one was in- jured. The king, in the mean time, play- ed his part so perfectly, as to dissipate the suspicions of the secret committee of the states. The committee ordered patrols of the citizens in the capital, which die Icing always attended, and, by his insinu- ating address, gained over to his cause the principal part of the soldiery and many of the officers. While he was thus pre- paring for the decisive moment, he ap- peared serene and composed; and, on the evening preceding the accomplish- ment of the project, he held a splendid court, which he enlivened by his affability and gayety. On the following day, Au- gust 19, 1772, after taking a ride, the king went to the council of the estates, at the castle, where, for the first time, he en- tered into a warm dispute with some of the counsellors. He then went to the ar- senal, on horseback, where he exercised the guard. In the mean time, the officers, upon whom he thought he could depend, assembled, in consequence of a secret or- der to that effect, and accompanied him to the castle, where, at that time, they were changing guard, so that those who were retiring, and those who were mount- ing guard, met. With the entrance of the king into the castle, die revolution began. The king then collected the officers about him, in the guard room, unfolded to them his plan, and demanded their sup- port. Most of them were young men, and were immediately gained over by the thought of delivering their country. Three older officers, who refused, had their swords taken from them by the king. The rest swore fidelity to his cause. The king's address to die soldiers was received with loud acclamations. He then set a guard over the entrances to the hall of the council, and commanded them to remain quiet, after which he relumed to the arsenal, amidst the acclamations of the people, and secured the adherence of the regiments of artillery. A public proc- lamation exhorted the inhabitants of Stockholm to remain tranquil, and to obey no orders but those of the king. Cannon were planted, guards distributed, and several persons arrested, by way of precaution. Thus was the decisive blow sfmck without bloodshed, and the king returned to the castle, where he received the congratulations of foreign ambassa- dors, whom he had invited to his table. On the following day, the magistrates of the city took the oath of allegiance in the great market-place, amid the acclamations of the people. But it was necessary for the estates also to approve of the revolu- tion, and to accept the new constitution, by which the royal power was enlarged, not so much at the expense of the estates as of the council. The next day, they were summoned to meet at the castle, where diey found themselves without any attendants. The court of the castle was guarded by soldiers, cannon were planted before the hall of assembly, and a can- noneer stationed at each piece with a lighted match. The king appeared with a numerous retinue of officers and unu- sual pomp, depicted, in a forcible manner, the situation of the kingdom and the ne- cessity of a reform, declared the modera- tion of his views, and caused the new constitution to be read, which was imme- diately approved and confirmed by sub- scription and oath. Almost all the public officers retained their stations; those per- sons who had been arrested were 6et at liberty, and the revolution was completed. The king now exerted himself to promote the prosperity of his country. In 1783, he went through Germany to Italy, to use the baths of Pisa, and returned to Swe- den the following year through France. During his absence, a famine had destroy- ed thousands of his subjects; the people murmured; the nobility rose against the king's despotic policy, and the estates of the kingdom, in 1786, rejected almost all his propositions, and compelled him to make great sacrifices. A war having broke out between Russia and the Porte, in 1787, Gustavus, in compliance with former treaties, determined to attack the empress of Russia, who had promoted the dissensions of Sweden. War was declared in 1788; but, when the king at- tempted to commence operations by an attack on Friedrichshani, he was deserted GUSTAVUS III—GUSTAVUS IV. 113 by die greatest part of his army, who re- fused to engage in an offensive war. The king retired to Haga, and thence to Dale- carlia, in search of recruits. He soon col- lected an army of determined defenders of their country, and delivered Gothen- burg, which was hard pressed by the Danes. Meanwhile, however, the insur- rection of the Finnish army, which had concluded an armistice with the Russians, still continued. The critical situation of the kingdom required the convocation of the estates. To overcome the opposition of the nobility; he constituted a secret committee, of which the nobility chose 12 members from their own number, and each of the estates, who were devoted to the king, six. The nobility, however, continued their opposition to the king, who, being encouraged by the other es- tates to avail himself of every measure he might think advisable, finally took a decisive step, arrested the chiefs of the opposition, and exacted the adoption of the new act of union and safety, April 3, 1789, which conferred on him more ex- tensive powers. The war was now pros- ecuted with great energy and with va- rious success. Bloody battles, especially by sea, were gained and lost; but although Gustavus valiantly opposed superior forces, yet the desperate state of his kingdom, and the proceedings of the congress at Reichenbach (q. v.), inclined him to peace, which was concluded on the plain of Werelne, August 14, 1790. Untaught by the warnings of adversity, he now de- termined to take part in the French revo- lution, and to restore Louis XVI to his throne. He wished to unite Sweden, Russia, Prussia and Austria, and to place himself at the head of the coalition. For this purpose, in the spring of 1791, he went to Spa and Aix-la-Chapelle, con- cluded a peace witii Catharine, and con- vened a meeting of the estates at Gefle, in January, 1792, which was dissolved, in four weeks, to the satisfaction of the king. Here his assassination was agreed upon. The counts Horn and Ribbing, the barons Bielke and Pechlin, colonel Liliehorn, and many others, had conspired- to murder him, and restore the old aristocracy. An- karstrcem (q. v.), who personally hated the king, begged that the execution might be intrusted to him. A masquerade at Stockholm, on the night of March 15, 17D2, was chosen for the perpetration of the crime. Just before the beginning of the ball, the king received a warning note, but he went, at about 11 o'clock, with count Essen, stepped into a box, and, as 10* all was quiet, into the hall. Here a crowd of maskers sunounded him, and, while one of them (count Horn) struck him upon the shoulder, with the words, " Good night, mask," the king was mortally wounded, by Ankarstrcem, with a shot in the back. With remarkable presence of mind, he immediately took all the neces- sary measures. He expired March 29, after having arranged the most important affairs with serenity (see Armfelt), and sign- ed an order for proclaiming his son king. Gustavus IV, Adolphus, the deposed king of Sweden, was born Nov. 1, 1778, and, on the death of his father, Gustavus III (March 29, 1792), was proclaimed king. He remained 4£ years under the guardianship of his uncle, Charles, duke of Sudermannland, then regent (after- wards king Charles XIII), and ascended the throne Nov. 1, 1796. In his 18th year, he was betrothed to a princess of Mecklenburg, when the empress Catha- rine invited him to St. Petersburg, with the design of marrying him to her grand- daughter Alexandra Paulowna. Every V thing was ready for the marriage, and the assembled court waited for the young king, when he refused to sign the mar- riage contract, because it embraced some articles which he would not concede to the empress ; among others, one securing to the young queen the free exercise of the Greek religion hi her palace, which was contrary to the fundamental laws of the Swedish kingdom. Nothing could change the determination of Gustavus ; he retir- ed, and shut himself up in his chamber, so that a stop was put to the whole ceremo- ny. Soon after (October, 1797), he mar- ried Frederica, princess of Baden, sister- in-law of the emperor Alexander and the king of Bavaria. As a striking example of his folly, it is related, that he was once on the point of commencing a bloody war with Russia, because he insisted on painting a boundary bridge, with the Swedish color on the Russian side. When the northern powers were nego- tiating the renewal of the armed neutrality, directed especially against England, he went to St. Petersburg,in 1801, to hasten the conclusion of the treaty; he was well re- ceived by Paul I, who bestowed on him the cross of St John of Jerusalem. In July, 1803, he visited the court of his father- in-law at Carlsruhe, in order to gain over the emperor and the princes of the em- pire to the project, which then seemed impracticable, of again placing the Bour- bons at the head of the French govern- ment. He was in Carlsruhe when (.March 114 GUSTAVUS IV. 15, 1804), the duke D'Enghien was seiz- ed in the territories of Baden. Gustavus immediately sent his aid-de-camp to Park, with a letter to Bonaparte, for the purpose of saving die duke, who, however, was shot before the letter was received. Gus- tavus sent a remonstrance to Ratisbon, on this subject, and was, excepting Alexander I, the only sovereign who openly expressed his indignation at this deed. His rup- ture with France, his alliance with Great Britain and Russia, and his coolness to- wards the king of Prussia, to whom he sent back the black eagle, because it had been bestowed on Napoleon, were the consequence of his hatred of the new emperor of France. It having been cal- culated that the number 666 was contain- ed in the name of Napoleon Bonaparte, Gustavus believed him to be the beast ("escribed in the Revelations, whose reign was to be short, and for whose destruction he was called ! His ambassador deliver- ed to the German diet of 1S06 a declara- tion of the king, that he would take no part in its transactions, so long as its acts were under the influence of usurpation ; he also rejected the offers of peace made by Napoleon a short time before the peace of Tilsit; and, July 3,1807, broke the truce with France, and even refused the mediation of Russia and Prussia, after the peace of Tilsit. He returned the Russian order of St. Andrew, as he bad formerly the Prussian order of the eagle, and, by his ad- herence to England, plunged his people in- to a disadvantageous war with Russia, and became anew the enemy of Prussia, and then of Denmark. Finland was lost, and a Danish army threatened the frontiers of Sweden. Deaf to all solicitations to con- clude a peace, he alienated the nobility and the army by his caprices, and exas- perated the nation by the weight of the taxes. Having finally provoked the en- mity of England, by seizing the English ships in the Swedish ports, when that power endeavored to bring him to reason, it appeared plain to every one, that he was ready to sacrifice the welfare of his people to his passions. A plot was se- cretly formed against him ; the western army, assured tiiat the Danes would not pass the frontiers, took up its line of march to Stockholm, where the principal conspirators were plotting iu the imme- diate presence of Gustavus. It was only 70 miles from the capital when Gustavus heard of its approach. He hastened from Haga, where he was residing with his family, to Stockholm, to defend his cap- ital against the rebels. But he altered his plan, and determined to go to Linkioping with the troops which were in Stock- holm. He was about to remove the bank from the capital, but first required it to ad- vance him £2,000,000, or the greatest sum which could be raised. The commissa- ries refused to comply ; Gustavus showed an intention to use force ; upon which it was resolved to anticipate him. Such was the situation of affairs on the evening of March 12, 1809. The king spent that night in preparing every thing for his de- parture, aud the moment anived when he was to take the money from the bank. Three doors of the palace were already secured, aud all the officers were assem- bled, as it was the usual day of parade. Field-marshal Klingspor and general Ad- lcrkreuz, however, once more attempt- ed the effect of conciliatory propositions, when Gustavus highly offended them by his insulting manner. Adlerkreuz then called the marshal Silbcrsparre and five ad- jutants, demanded of the king his sword, and declared him a prisoner in the name of the nation. Gustavus attempted to strike him with his sword,* but it was wrested from him. Upon his cry for help, some of his faithful followers forced the doors ; but they were overpowered by 30 of the conspirators, who rushed in upon them. During this struggle, Gustavus es- caped, but was seized upon the stairs and brought back to his chamber by one of his servants, where he broke out into an un- governable fit of rage. All the entrances of the castle were closely guarded. At noon, Charles, duke of Sudermannland, published a proclamation, declaring that he had taken the government into his own hands. The revolution was com- pleted in a few hours. Gustavus now submitted quietly. Perhaps his religious enthusiasm was the cause of his present state of mind. At one o'clock at night, he was earned to Drotningholm. 11 is wife and children were obliged to remain in Haga. March 24, he was removed to Gripsholm, bis favorite place of residence. Here he published (March 29) an act of abdication, expecting the final sentence of the diet, which, on its first session (May 10), solemnly renounced their allegiance to him, and declared the heirs of his body for ever incapable of succeeding to the Swedish throne. Thereupon a formal act was prepared. The dethroned king occupied himself at Gripsholm, princi- pally in studying the Revelation of John. He wished to leave Sweden. The estates, on the proposition of the new king, Charles XIII, settled on him an annual pension for GUSTAVUS IV—GUTTENBERG. 115 himself and family. His private proper- ty, as well as that of his wife and son, was also left him. He did not occupy the place of residence assigned to him in the island of Wisings-Oe, but (Dec. 6, 1809) went from Gripsholm to Germany and Switzerland, where he lived under the title of count of Gottorp. He has since separated from his wife and children ; and his maniage was, on the 17th of February, 1812, at his own request, annulled. The same year, he also deshed to be admitted among the Moravian Brothers at Herrnhut. Since his separation from his wife, he has been accustomed to wear the mystical re- ligious badge of the order of St John. He afterwards made several tours without finy definite object, visited St. Petersburg, and, in 1811, London. In December, 1814, he was making preparations at Bale for a visit to Jerusalem. In 1815, he presented a declaration to the congress of Vienna, as- serting the claims of Iris son to the Swedish throne. He finally assumed the name of Gustavson, and visited Leipsic, in 1827, as a private individual. His son Gustavus, who was born in 1799, studied in Lau- sanne and Edinburgh, was present at Vi- enna and Verona at the time of the con- gress in 1822, and in 1825 entered the Austrian service, as lieutenant-colonel of the imperial Hulaus. He lives at Vienna, ami enjoys the title of royal highness. He has three sisters, carefully educated by their excellent mother (who died in 1826). The eldest was married, in 1819, to Leopold of Hochberg, margrave of Baden. Gusto ; an Italian word signifying taste. It often occurs in music ; as, con gusto, with taste. Gut, in the West India islands, partic- ularlyinthe island of St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's, is a term for the opening of a river or brook, such river or brook also being often so called. Guts-Muths, John Christian Frederic, bom in Quedliuburg, 1760, was the first German author who wrote extensively on the various exercises included hi the mod- em gymnastics. Guts-Mudis was, for a long time, a teacher in the institution of Salztnann, at Schnepfenthal. He wrote several works on gymnastics. His latest is the Tumbuch (Frankfort on the Maine, 1818), in which he adopted many exer- cises, as also the name of the book, from that of John (q.v.), as the latter had al- so adopted many things from him. He wrote, too, a Geography (2 vols., 1810— 1813), and edited a Bibliothek der pada- gogischen Literatur—Library of Works on Education (1800—1820, 55 vols.) Guts- Muths fives, at present near Schnepfen- thal. Gutta Serena. (See Cataract.) Guttenberg, more properly Guten- berg, John, or Henne Gansefleisch von Sorgenloch (Sulgeloch), usually called the inventor of printing, was born at Mentz, about 1400. The family of Gutenberg called itself noble. In 1424, Gutenberg was living in Strasburg, and, in 1436, entered into a contract with one Andrew Dryzehn (Dritzehn) and others, binding himself to teach them all his secret and wonderful arts, and to employ them for their common advantage. The death of Dryzehn, which happened soon after, frus- trated the undertaking of the company, who had probably intended to commence the art of printing; especially as George Dryzehn, a brother of the deceased, en- gaged in a lawsuit with Gutenberg, which turned out to the disadvantage of the lat- ter. When and where the first attempts were made at printing cannot be fully decided, as Gutenberg never attached either name or date to the works he printed. This, however, is certain, that, about 1438, Gutenberg made use of mov- able types of wood. In 1443, he returned from Strasburg, where he had hitherto lived, to Mentz, and, in 1450, formed a co- partnership with John Faust, or Fust, a rich goldsmith of this city (who must not be confounded with the famous magician Faust), who furnished money to establish a press, in which the Lathi Bible was first [dinted. But, after some years, tiiis connex- ion was dissolved. Faust had made large advances, which Gutenberg ought to have repaid ; and, as he either could not or would not do it, the subject was carried before the tribunals. The result was, that Faust retained the press, which he im- proved and continued to use in company with Peter Schoffer of Gemsheim. By the patronage of a counsellor of Mentz, Conrad Hummer, Gutenberg was again enabled to establish a press the following year, when he probably printed Hermanni de Saldis Speculum Sacerdotum (in quarto), without the date or the printer's name. Here, likewise, as some maintain, appeared four editions of the Donat (Latin gram- mar of Donatus), which others, however, ascribe to the office of Faust and Schoffer. In 1457, the Psalter was printed with a typographical elegance which sufficiently proves the rapid advances of the new art, and die diligence with which it was culti- vated. Gutenberg's printing-office re- mained in Mentz till 1465. About this time, he was ennobled by Adolphus of 116 GUTTENBERG—GL VS. Nassau, and died Feb. 24,1468. Little is known of his life and works, or of the early progress of the art of printing, and the introduction of movable types. Val- uable statements and suggestions on this subject are to be found in Fischer's Ver- such zur erklarung alter typographischen Mcrkioiirdigkriten (Hamburg, 1740); Ober- lin's BeUrage zur Geschichte Gutenberg (Strasburg, 1801); aud in the works of Denis, Lichtenberger, Panzer, and many other writers. Guttural (from the Latin guttur, the throat) signifies, in grammar, a sound pro- duced chiefly by the back parts of the cavity of the mouth. The palatals g and k are nearly related to them. The Greek X> the Gennan ch after a, and ch after i, and the Dutch g, are gutturals. The Arabian language is full of gutturals, and many of them are unknown in most other languages. (See the article H, for the re- lation betweeng and the guttural sound of the German ch or die Greek X-) The mod- ern Greek gives to x a very strong guttural sound, like tiiat of the German ch after e and after a. The Irish risa true guttural. The French nasal sound, as inlong, isatrue guttural; the English sound in long not so much, as it is less nasal. The Span- ish n has been called, by some, a nasal- gidtural. The roughness of the dialect of Switzerland is owing to its strong and numerous gutturals; for it not only pro- nounces all the gutturals of the German language very forcibly, but also gives to g, in many cases, the harsh guttural sound of ch after a. Guy ; a rope used to keep steady any weighty body from bearing or falling rigainst the ship's side while it is hoisting < r lowering, particularly when the ship is shaken by a tempestuous sea.—Guy is also the name of a tackle, used to confine a boom forward when a vessel is going large, and to prevent the sail from shifting by any accidental change of the wind or course, which would endanger the spring- ing of the boom, or perhaps the upsetting of the vessel.—Guy is likewise a large slack rope, extending from the head of the main-mast to the head of the fore-mast, and having two or three large blocks fas- tened to it It is used to sustain a tackle to load or unload a ship with, and is accordingly removed as soon as that ope- ration is finished. Guy, Thomas, the founder of Guy's hospital, was the son of a lighterman in Southwark, and bom in 1644. He was brought up a bookseller. He dealt largely in the importation of Bibles from Holland, and afterwards contracted with Oxford for those printed at that university; but his principal gains arose from the disreputable purchase of seamen's prize tickets, in queen Anne's war, and from his dealings in South sea stock, in 1720. By these speculations and practices, aided by the most penurious habits, he amassed a for- tune of nearly half a million sterling, of which he spent about £200,000 in the building and endowing bis hospital in Southwark. He also erected almshouses at Tamworth, and benefited Christ's hos- pital and various other charities, leaving £80,000 to be divided among those who could prove any degree of relationship to him. He died in December, 1724, in his 81st year, after having dedicated more to charitable purposes than any private man in English record. Guy de Chauliac (Guido de Cauliaco), a native of Chauliac, on the frontier of Auvergne, France, lived in the middle of the 14th century, and was the physician of three popes. He is to be considered as the reformer of surgeiy in his time. His Chirurgia magna contains most of the opinions of his predecessors. It was long considered as a classical text book; was finished at Avignon in 1363; and was printed at Bergamo (1498, folio). An older edition is mentioned (Venice, 1470, folio). It has been often reprinted, com- mented on, and translated into modern languages. Guy Fawkes. (See Gunpowder Plot.) Guy's Hospital, in the borough of London. (See Guy.) The hospital was established for 400 sick persons, besides 20 incurable lunatics. It contains 13 wards, and upwards of 400 beds. There are three physicians, three surgeons, and an apothecary. The average number of patients admitted annually is about 2250, besides whom there are 20,000 out-pa- tients. This hospital has a collection of anatomical preparations, and a theatre for the delivery of chemical, medical and anatomical lectures. On one evening in the week, medical subjects are debated. Guyon, Madame. (See Quietism.) Guys, Pierre Augustin; born at Mar- seilles, 1721; a merchant in Constantino- ple, and afterwards in Smyrna ; known for his travels and his accounts of them. He subsequently became a member of the in- stitute, and of the academy of Arcadians in Rome. His first work appeared in 1744, and contained an account of his journey from Constantinople to Sophia, the capital of Bulgaria, in a series of letters. In 1748, he published, hi the form of let- GUYS—GYMNASIUM. 117 ters, an account of his journey from Mar- seilles to Smyrna, and thence to Constan- tinople. He was mostly indebted, for his literary fame, to his Voyage lUtiraire de la Grece, a work in which lie compares and contrasts, with much acuteness and truth, the condition of ancient and modern Greece, and their political and civil con- stitution. Guys also made himself known as a poet, by his Seasons, on the occasion of his journey to Naples, which was re- reived with much applause. On the pub- lication of his Voyage de la Grece, Voltaire addressed some veiy flattering verses to him, and the Greeks confened on him the privileges of an Athenian citizen. Guys died at Zante, in 1799, at the age of 79, as he was collecting materials for the third edi- tiou of his travels in Greece.—His son, Pierre Alphonse, was appointed secretary of the French embassy to Constantinople, to Vienna, and to Lisbon ; afterwards con- sul in Sardinia; then at Tripoli in Africa; and, finally, at Tripoli in Syria, where he died in 1812. He published letters on the Turks, in which he treats of the rise and decay of then power. He was also the author of the comedy La Maison de Mo- liere, in four acts, altered from Goldoni, Gwinnett, Button, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, was bom in England, about the year 1732, and, in 1770, emigrated to Charleston, S. C, where he continued die business of a merchant, in which he had been previous- ly engaged. At the end of two years, however, he abandoned commerce; and, purchasing a plantation witii a number of negroes, on St. Catharine's island, in Geor- gia, devoted his attention to agriculture. Soon after the revolutionary struggle com- menced, he took an active part in the affairs of Georgia; and, Feb. 2, 1776, the general assembly of the province elected him a representative to the general con- gress held at Philadelphia, where he ap- peared May 20. He was reelected Octo- ber 9, and, in February, 1777, was ap- pointed a member of a convention for the purpose of framing a constitution for the state ; and the foundation of that after- wards adopted, is said to have been fur- nished by hun. He was soon chosen [•resident of the provincial council; but his conduct in this station was obnoxious to eeusure, as he employed his powers for the purpose of thwarting the operations of general Mcintosh, against whom he had a personal enmity, in consequence of the latter having succeeded in obtaining the post of brigadier-general of a conti- nental brigade, to be levied in Georgia, for which Gwinnett himself had been a can- didate. In May, 1777, Gwinnett was a candidate for die chair of governor of die state, but failed ; and, on the 27th of the same month, a duel took place between him and Mcintosh, on account of some insulting remarks of the latter. Both par- ties were wounded; but the injury received by Gwinnett terminated his life in the 45th year of his age. Gvvynn, Eleanor, better known by the name of Nell, the celebrated mistress of king Charles II, was at first an orange girl of the meanest description, in the play-house. In the first part of her life, she gahied her bread by singing from tav- ern to tavern, and gradually advanced to the rank of a popular actress at the tiiea- tre royal. She is represented as hand- some, but low of stature. She was mis- tress, successively, to Hart, Lacy and Buckhurst, before she became the favorite of the king. It is said that, hi her eleva- tion, she showed her gratitude to Drydeii, who had patronised her in her poverty; and, unlike the other mistt-esses, she was faithful to her royal lover. From her are sprung the dukes of St. Alban's. She died in 1687. Gyges ; a favorite of the Lydian king Candaules, who, to convince him of the beauty of his queen, showed her to him naked. The queen was so incensed at this shameful act, that she ordered Gyges either to murder the king, ascend his vacant throne, and become her husband, or to atone for his curiosity by deadi. Af- ter having labored in vain to shake the resolution of the queen, he chose the for- mer part of die alternative, murdered Candaules, and was established on die throne in consequence of the response of the Delphian oracle. This is the stoiy as related by Herodotus. There is a fable of a magic ring, which Gyges found in a cavern when a herdsman, and which had the power of rendering its possessor in- visible, w henever he turned the stone in- wards. By the aid of this ring, he en- joyed the embraces of the queen and assassinated the king. To have the ring of Gyges was afterwards used proverbially, sometimes of fickle, sometimes of wicked and artful, and sometimes of prosperous people, who obtain all they want Gymnasium ; the name given by the Spartans to the public building where the young men, naked (hence the name, from yvfivos, naked), exercised themselves in leap- ing,running, throwing the discus and spear, wrestling and pugilism, or in the pentathlon (quinquertium) so called. This Spartan 118 GYMNASIUM. institution was imitated hi most of the cities of Greece, and in Rome under the Caesars. Its objects, however, did not remain confined merely to corporeal exer- cises, but were extended also to the exer- cise of the mind; for here philosophers, rhetoricians, and teachers of other branches • of knowledge, delivered their lectures. In Athens, there were five gynuiasia, and among them the Academy, the Lycseum and the Cynosarge. In the first, Plato taught; in the second, Aristotle; and in the third, Antistheues. They were, at first, only open level places, sunound- ed by a wall, and partitioned off for the different games. Rows of plane- trees were planted for the purpose of shade, which were afterwards changed into colonnades with numerous divisions. The gymnasia, at last, were composed of a number of connected buildings, spacious enough to admit many thousands. Yitru- vius has given an exact description of the arrangement of them in his work on architecture (5,11). Some gymnasia con- tained more, and some fewer apartments; and all were furnished with a multitude of decorations. Here were found the statues and altars of Mercury and Hercu- les, to whom the gymnasia were dedicated; sometimes, also, the statue of Theseus, the inventor of the art of wiestling; statues of heroes and celebrated men ; paintings and bass-reliefs, representing subjects con- nected with religion and history. The Hermes figures (see Hermes) were among the most common ornaments of gymna- sia. Here was assembled every tiling that could improve the youth in the arts of peace and of war; every thing that could elevate and raise their minds; and, while these institutions flourished, the arts and sciences also flourished, and the state prospered. The governor of a gymna- sium was called the gymnasiarch. Some- times such a gymnasium was styledpalas- tra, which was, properly, only the part where the athlda, destined for the public exhibitions, exercised themselves. Ignara is of opinion, that a distinction was made between the gymnasium and palaestra, at the time when the philosophers and oth- ers commenced their lectures here; that the latter was designed to promote phys- ical, and the former mental education sim- ply. In the latter sense, the high schools in Germany, where young men are fit- ted for the universities, have been called gymnasia, in modem times. In Rome, during the republic, there were no buildings which could be compared with the Greek gymnasia. Under the Caesars, the public badis bore some resemblance to them ; and the gymnasia may be said to have expired with the thermae. (See Gymnastics.) Gymnasia, German. From the time of the revival of learning, when almost all knowledge was derived through the Latin and Greek,—and certainly no existing lit- erature could be compared to that con- tained in these two languages,—the study of them obtained such possession of the schools, that it has, ever since, influenced the studies of youth in Europe, and par- ticularly in Germany, to such a degree, that it is very difficult to restore the proper balance in schools of the higher kind. The gymnasia, the name of these schools in Gemnany (derived from the ancient term), taught Latin and Greek, and the branches connected with antiquity, almost to the exclusion of other sciences. But, in mod- em times, when the natural sciences have made such distinguished progress, and rich stores have accumulated in many modem literatures, and the importance of mathematics has been increased, the faults of this arrangement have become obvious, and some authorities, particularly in Prus- sia, have already established institutions, in which history, mathematics, natural philosophy and modern languages may be learned without Latin. In the gymnasia themselves, more time is allotted to these branches than formerly. The gymnasia of Prussia probably carry the scholar far- ther than any institutions of a similar kind elsewhere. No limits are fixed for the stay of the scholar in each class ; every year an examination for the next class takes place, to which every scholar is ad- mitted. Classes are generally divided into two sections, and a scholar cannot be pro- moted from the lower into the higher without an examination. The last exam- ination, to show whether the pupils are fit to enter the university, is very severe : for three days they have to write exercises, on questions proposed to them, in history, the Latin and Greek languages, mathematics, besides themes in German, and in at least one foreign modern language, alone, shut up in a room, without books; or, if several are together, they remain under the eye of a professor, so that they cannot talk to each other. The verbal exam- ination generally lasts one day, in presence of commissioners appointed by govern- ment The compositions of the scholars are sent to the minister of instruction and ecclesiastical affairs. According to the result of the examination, the scholars re- ceive testimonials, marked No. I, II, or III. GYMNASIUM—GYMNASTICS. 119 The first is difficult to gain, and indicates that the pupil has appeared peculiarly well. If private schools or (as is die case in sev- eral cities) orphan asylums wish to send scholars to the university, they must apply to government for commissioners to at- tend their examination. Persons who have fitted themselves for tho university, without attending a gymnasium, or any school, can be examined by a committee appointed by the government, which sits every half year. In order to obtain No. I, the pupil must write Latin and Greek without grammatical faults, and in a pretty good style; be able to translate and explain one of the most difficult classic authors (in some gymnasia, Pindar is even taken for this purpose); be well acquainted with the branches of the lower pure mathe- matics, viz. all below the integral and dif- ferential calculus, and prove this by the solution of problems ; have a knowledge of general history, and the most impor- tant periods; know, besides the Ger- man, one or more modern languages, so that he can write in them pretty conectly (themes are generally taken, by which the scholar shows his logical powers, and the soundness of his ideas). If he is to study theology, he is also examined in Hebrew. If he is deficient in either of these branches, he can only obtain No. If. If he is deficient in all, he re- ceives No. Ill, which indicates that he is not fit for the university. Gymnastics (from yvuvaamco;, pertain- ing to exercise), if we understand by this word all bodily exercises, may be most conveniently divided into—1. mili- tary exercises; 2. exercises systematical- ly adapted to develope the physical pow- ers, and preserve them in perfection, which constitutes the art of gymnastics, properly so called ; 3. exercises for the sick, a most important branch, which has been very little attended to. The ancients divided their gymnastics into gymnastica mUitaria,gymnastica medico (including un- der this head our second and third divis- ions), and gymnastica athletica, or, as Galen calls them, viliosa, which were practised by professional athletes at the gymnastic games, and were in bad repute with re- flecting men, even in those times, on account of their injurious effects on die health and morals. The class of gym- nastics which we have enumerated un- der the second head, have their origin in the exercises of war and the chase. The preparation of youth for those oc- cupations leads to the introduction of gynmastics; and the chase itself has been considered by many nations as a prep- aration for war; the Spartans and Amer- ican Indians are instances. The ancients do not inform us precisely of the origin of gymnastics, considered as a branch of education. We first find them in t systematic form among the Greeks. The first gymnasium is said to have been es- tablished in Sparta. In Athens, always disposed to mingle the element of the beautiful in whatever she undertook, gymnastics were refined from the mde military characters,which they bore among the Spartans, into an art; and the gym- nasia became temples of the graces. (See Gymnasium.) Vitruvius (lib. v) gives a description of a gymnasium. In each, there was a place called palastra, in which wrestling, boxing, running, leap- ing, throwing the discus, and other ex- ercises of this kind, were taught. Gym- nastics were afterwards divided into two principal branches—the palaestric, taking its name from the palastra, and the or- chestric. The former embraced the whole class of athletic exercises ; the lat- ter, dancing and the art of gesticulation. It is not known, with accuracy, what particular exercises were usually prac- tised in the gymnasia. The enthusiasm for athletic sports among the Greeks, their love of the beautiful, which was gratified in the gymnasia by the sight of the finest human forms in the prime of youth, and by the halls and colon- nades adorned with statues and pictures, and occupied by teachers of wisdom and philosophy, rendered these places the favorite resorts of the old and young. Gymnastics even formed an essential part of the celebration of all the great festivals. After a time, however, the character of the competitors at the Olympian, Isth- mian, Nemaean, and other great games of Greece, degenerated, as they became more and more a separate class, exercising, at least in many cases, in buildings exclu- sively devoted to them. Euripides calls them useless and injurious members of the state. It is not precisely known to what extent their exercises were prac- tised in the gymnasia. The Greeks, as well as the Romans, set a very high value upon the art of swimming. In Sparta, even the young women swam in die Eurotas; and a common phrase of Contempt, pyre vtiv fart ypajipaTa emaTadat (he can neither swim nor write), is well known. It is well worth while to read the observations of Mercurialis on this subject, in lib. iii, cap. 13, of his valuable Artis gymnastica apud Antiquos cdeberri- 120 GYMNASTICS. ma Libn sex (Venice, 1569). Running was also much esteemed, and the Olym- piads were, for a long time, named from the victors in the race. Riding on horse- back was deemed a liberal exercise. Dancing, by which we are not to un- derstand the modem dancing of the two sexes intermingled, but the art of grace- ful motion, including oratorical gesture, together with certain fonnal dances per- formed at festivals, was likewise indis- pensable to an accomplished man. (See Lucian, nem op^ijfffuf) Wrestling was also much valued. There are not many ma- terials remaining, to enable us to judge of the exercises practised by the Grecian women. In later and conupt times, they took part in the public games with men. With the decline of Greece, the gymnastic art naturally degenerated, and became gradually reduced to the exercises of pro- fessional athletae, which survived for a long time the rum of the land of their birth. The Olympic games continued to be celebrated several centuries after Christ Some late travellers have thought that they could find traces of the ancient games remaining even in our day. " You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet," says Byron. The Romans, under the empeiors, imitated the gymna- sia as they did every thing Grecian ; but dieir establishments were little better than places of vicious gratification. The ther- mae, or baths, in Italy, took the place of the gymnasia in Greece. Among the Ro- mans, gymnastics never became national, as they may be said to have been among the Greeks. There are some indications, indeed, of early gymnastic games,—we mean the consualia; but with tiiis stern, martial and practical nation, gymnastics took altogether a more military char- acter. They were considered merely as preparatory to the military service, or, when they constituted a part of the exhibi- tions at festivals, were practised only by a particular class, trained for brutal enter- tainments, at which large bets were laid among the spectators, as is the custom at the English races. (Martial, ix, 68 ; Sueto- nius, Tit. 8.) Vegetius gives us informa- tion concerning the exercises in which the young soldiers were trained, and they were of very useful character. When all the acquisitions of the human intellect were lost for a season, and some for ever, in the utter corruption of the latter ages of the Roman empire, and the erup- tion of wandering barbarians, the gym- nastic art perished. We may date its re- vival from the commencement of tourna- ments, the first of which were held in the 9th and 10th centuries in France, and may have had their origin in the military games of die Romans, aided by the mar- tial spirit of the descendants of the Ger- man conquerors of France. They re- ceived, however, their full perfection from die spirit of chivalry. The first tourna- ments were fought with blunt weapons, which were called armesgrarieuses. At a later period, sharp weapons were intro- duced, and many fatal encounters hap- pened before the eyes of the ladies. About the year 1066, Godefroy de Preuelly col- lected the rules and customs of tourna- ments into a code, which was afterwards generally adopted. At a later period, the character of these celebrations degene- rated so much, diat they were finally pro- hibited by the pope and the emperor, as the Roman ludi had been several times prohibited by the emperors. With the superiority which, in the course of time, infantry began to acquire over cavalry, as it always does with the advance of civil- ization and scientific tactics (see Machia- velli's T'eatise on the Art of War), and the invention of gunpowder, the institutions of chivalry declined. The heavy steel coats were done away, and the art of skil- ful fencing began to be introduced. The first treatises upon this subject appeared in the 16th century. The Italians were the first teachers, and three different schools, the Italian, French and German, were soon formed. We speak here of fencing with the small-sword; but the Germans also practised the art of fencing with a straight broad-sword, perhaps ow- ing to their neighborhood to the Slavo- nian nations, who all prefer the cut to the thrust The weapon of the Slavonians, however, is the crooked sabre. At the same time, vaulting began to be much practised. The Roman desultores (Livy, xxiii, 29, and Vegetius), indeed, lead us to suppose that die Romans knew some- thing of this art; and it was no doubt also practised by the knights of the middle ages; but the present art of vaulting is modern in its character, and earned to the great- est perfection in France. Fighting with a dagger, and even with a knife, was taught as useful in this turbulent age, and much skill was attained in Holland, in de- fence by the weapon last mentioned, per- haps owing to the fondness of the Dutch for public houses (estaminets), as this art may be called, by way of excellence, the fencing of the tavern. We even recollect having seen, in an appendix to old works on fenc- ing, the art of defending one's self against attacks, with a pewter beer-pot Wrest- GYMNASTICS. 121 ling, as an art, also was revived, and many treatises were written on it in the 16th and 17th centuries, from which we leam that it was often practised in connexion with boxing, forming the same compound as the ancient pancratium. The famous painter Albert Durer wrote Armorum tractandorum MedUatio (in 1412). It still exists in manuscript at Breslau. 31odern horsemanship had its origin in Italy. The first riding-school was established at Na- ples. In the reign of Henry VIII, it was introduced into England. Running, shooting, hurling, leaping, were not taught systematically; yet much importance was attached to proficiency in them, in many parts of Europe, on account of the nu- merous popular meetings, like those which still exist in Switzerland. Even at the present day, young women, with kilted coats, run races at a certain festival in Mecklenburg. Swimming, at this period, was not taught as an art Where there were convenient places for bathing, chil- dren naturally learned it Elsewhere lit- tle pains were taken to instruct them in this useful branch of gymnastics ; though in many parts of Europe there were races on and in the water. In the age of wigs, gymnastics declined, and effeminate pleas- ures took their place. Riding, fencing, vaulting and dancing alone remained, and even these were gradually neglected by the people, and confined to the nobility, on which account these exercises were some- times called the exercises of the nobles ; at least, this was the case on the European continent. In England, where noble families never formed so distinct a caste as in other countries of Europe, those branches of gymnastics which still sur- vived, were more generally practised. The Greeks had, besides the combats with the castns, a contest of boxing, term- ed spharomachia, because the combatants had balls in their hands. Boxing, taught with caution, is an invigorating exercise, and the skilful boxer is always furnished with natural arms. The art of cudgel-play- ing is a useful exercise, as practised in France, where it is different from that which is practised in England. In the last century, when men broke loose from the yoke of authority,and thinking and thought- less heads began to speculate deeply or friv- olously on the existing order of things, ed- ucation began to receive its share of at- tention, and the better sort of teachers saw that gymnastics must soon be introduced among the other branches of instruction. Salzmann, a German clergyman, was the first instructer of youth, at whose institu- vol. vi. 11 tion in Thuringia bodily exercises were taught, in the latter part of the last centu- ry. These were principally running, leap- ing, swimming, climbing, balancing. Guts- Muths wrote a very respectable treatise upon modern gymnastics, which, as the first, deserves much praise. He afterwards wrote a more enlarged work on the same subject. (See Guts-Muths.) The results of this system of exercise, aided by the healthy situation of Salzmann's school, are deserving of notice. In thirty-two years, 334 scholars, from various nations, were educated at this establishment; and not one scholar died there. Seven or eight families also were connected with the institution; and from these only three chil- dren died during the same period, and two of these were under a year old. In some few existing establishments, this example was imitated; but the age was still too effeminate, formal manners too prevalent, to allow gymnastics a proper place in edu- cation. The French revolution broke out, and Europe received a warlike character. Germany was conquered by the French, and the desire to repulse them became gen- eral, but no hope of immediate resistance existed. All eyes were naturally turned towards the youth ; and while there was a general desire of reviving in the nation a patriotic spirit, Jahn (q. v.) conceived the idea of establishing gymnasia for two rea- sons—to prepare the young for a future war against the French, and to bring to- gether in the gymnasia youths of all class- es, who might be inspired with a love for their common country. Doctor Jahn estab- lished his first Turnplatz, the German name for gymnasium, near Berlin, in 1811. But the disasters which the French annies ex- perienced in Russia, led the Germans to a war against France much sooner than die most sanguine had hoped. When the peace of Paris was concluded, the gym- nasia, which had been closed during the time of war, were reopened ; and, when the Germans found themselves dis- appointed in their expectations of liberal institutions, when the princes broke then solemn promises, the gymnasia were made use of to insphe the youths with an ardor for liberty. Many imprudent steps were taken by the Gentian people, and Jahn himself was not always wise in his con- duct. Much had crept into the gymnasia with which the public was dissatisfied, and when Sand (q. v.) assassinated Kot- zebue, and the government, which had already become suspicious of the gymna- sia, ordered them to be closed, no oppo- sition was made. We must not omit to 122 GYMNASTICS. mention here, that, some years before, the Prussian government had ordered an in- vestigation into the gymnasia by the gov- ernment's physicians, whose report was decidedly favorable. When die persecu- tions against liberals were renewed, in 1824, with greater violence, Mr. Volker, be- ing compelled to seek an asylum in Eng- land, established the first gymnasium in London. At the same time, captain Clias, a Swiss, established a gymnasium at Chel- sea, in the royal military asylum. He soon after published his work on gymnastics, the only merit of which is its brevity and clearness. Jahn and his pupil Eiselen had published, soon after the peace of Paris, a work on modem gymnastics, which is excellent in many respects, though it is sometimes too minute and pe- dantic. When the gymnasia were founded in London, calisthenics, or exercises for females, were first taught; but though we think that they should never be omitted, yet we consider those exercises which were taught as founded on enoneous principles. A system of healthy and graceful exercises for females may be es- tablished ; but those which are now gen- erally practised in English boarding- schools are wrong in principle. Gymnasia have since been reopened in some places of Germany, but they are now strictly confined to bodily exercises. In 1S25, doctor Beck, a German, and pupil of doctor Jahn, established the first gymna- sium in America, in Northampton, Massa- chusetts. Others have been subsequently established in different parts of the coun- try. Respecting the various exercises themselves, we must refer the reader to a Treatise on Gymnastics taken chiefly from the German of F. L. Jahn (1 vol., 8vo., Northampton, Massachusetts, 1828). The writer of this article has always ob- served, that the pupils of a gymnasium after a while lose their interest in the ex- ercises. This was observable even in Germany, where patriotic feelings were mingled with the exercises. The reason of this appears to be, that little or no differ- ence is made in the exercises of different ages, and it is natural that an exercise re- peated for years should become weari- some. Gymnastics therefore, when they are taught as a regular branch of educa- tion, ought to be divided into two courses. In the first course'we would include walk- in "• and pedestrian excursions; elementa- ry°exercises of various sorts; running, 1. quick, 2. long continued ; leaping in height, length and depth ; leaping with a pole, in length and height; vaulting; bal- ancing ; exercises on the single and par- allel bars; climbing ; dirowing; dragging; pushing ; lifting ; carrying; wrestling; jumping, 1. with the hoop, 2. with the rope ; exercises with die dumb-bells; various gymnastic games ; skating; dan- cing ; some military exercises; swimming, which we include in the first course, be- cause it can be easily taught to children. Some of these exercises, of course, are not suitable for very young children, and they should be distributed in a regular gradation, which caution and experience will teach. Gymnastics, properly so called, may be begun by ss, boy from six to eight years old. The second course consists of repetitions of some of the former exer- cises of vaulting, both on the wooden and the living horse, either standing or run- ning in a circle; boxing, driving, riding on horseback, and fencing with die broad- sword and the small-sword. Fencing with the small-sword appears to us the noblest of gymnastic exercises. No other is so well entitled to the name of an art; no other calls the powers into such active exercise ; no other requires such quick- ness of limb, of mind and of eye, together with so much self-possession ; no other developes so completely the whole frame. It is a noble art. Riding, indeed, deserves likewise die name of an art, in which a man may make continual improvement It cannot, however, be called so pure a gym- nastic exercise as fencing, and, in its na- ture, it is more mechanical. Many excel- lent horsemen are men of very inactive or limited minds ; but all good fencers whom we have known, were men of quick apprehension and lively intellect. This accounts for the circumstance that the artists of the middle ages valued fencing so highly. Almost all the great masters and distinguished poets of those times, were skilful swordsmen, and some of them wrote treatises on the use of then favorite weapon; for instance, Leonardo da Vinci.* Boxing, riding, and the various exercises on the living horse, should not be commenced much before the sixteenth year. For the views of the writer, respect- ing the manner in which gymnasia should be established and carried on, to afford the greatest advantage, we refer the reader to an article by him in No. V of the American Quarterly Review, where they are given * Of Tasso it was commonly said, after he bad manfully repelled three assailants__ Colla penna e colla spada, Nissuno vale quanto Tasso. His father was a distinguished fencer, as was Al- bert Darer. GYMNASTICS—GYPSIES. 123 at some length. As to calisthenics, or exercises for the female sex, they should be founded chiefly on balancing, which may exercise the frame in a great variety of ways, affording the means of graceful motion, and being sufficiently strengthen- ing for females. Those exercises which en- large the hand, and make the muscles of the arm rigid, are not suitable for them. The chest may be developed in many ways without exercising the amis too much ; an objection to which the exercises with the dumb-bells are liable. Gymnosophists, or Brachmans ; the name given by the Greeks to the Indian philosophers, because, according to tradi- tion, they went naked. They were di- vided into two sects—Brahmans (Brach- mans, Bramins), and Samans (Sarmans, Garmans). Of then philosophical sys- tems we know only that they made philos- ophy to consist in constant meditation and the severest ascetic habits, by which they sought to overcome sensuality, and to unite themselves with the Deity. They often burned themselves alive, to become pure the sooner, as Calanus did in the presence of Alexander, and Xarimarus at Athens, when Augustus was there. The little acquaintance of the ancients with the Indies gave rise to many wonderful stories respecting them. This name is some- times given to the sages of ^Ethiopia. GyNjECEUM (yvvatKciov, yvvaiKuiviris). The Greeks did not live on a footing,of friendly intimacy with their wives, like the mod- erns, but preserved a certain distance, handed down from the earliest ages, when women were regarded as the slaves aud the property of then husbands. Hence the former inhabited a different part of the house, termed gynaceum, or the females' apartment, the most remote interior room in the building, situated behind the court. Under the Roman emperors, there was a particular establishment of gynacea, being a kind of manufactories, chiefly imder the management of women, for the making of clothes and furniture for the emperor's household. In imitation of these, many modern manufactories, particularly those of silk, where a number of females are associated, are called gynacea. Gv.\jecocracy ; a form of government in which females are eligible to the su- preme command. Gypsies (from Egyptians, the name by which they were called in the English statutes); a wandering nation, whose Asiat- ic form, language and customs differ en- tirely from those of European nations. The German name Zigeuner has been considered, by some, of German origin, and derived from Zieh-Gauner (wander- ing rogues); yet this seems enoneous, for even when they first appeared in Hunga- ry, in die beginning of the 15th century, they were called Zigani and Zingani. The Italians, Walachians, and even the Turks, called them Zingari, Tschingani and Zigani. This name is not derived from the Sigynna, who, according to He- rodotus, inhabited the country extending from the Pontus to the Adriatic sea; but it appears most probable that it is original- ly Indian ; for at the mouth of the In- dus, there is still a similar people, the Tchingani, whom lieutenant Pottinger lately met with in Beluchistan, on the Per- sian frontiers, and describes as resembling the gypsies in their peculiar customs. The Dutch call the gypsies Heiden (hea- then). The Swedes and Danes call them Tartars; the French, Bohemians. The Spaniards call them Gitanos, which des- ignates their crafty character. They call themselves Pharaon or Sinte (which cor- responds to Sinde, the Hindoo name of the inhabitants of Hindostan). This peo- ple is spread over all Europe, and it is prob- able there are 700,000 scattered through the different European countries. The greater part, however, appear to lead their strolling fife in the south of Spain. In England, there are above 18,000. Sir Wal- ter Scott has given an excellent descrip- tion of diem in Guy Mannering. It is believed hi England, that they are of Indian origin, and that they belonged to the race of the Sindes, an Indian caste, which was dispersed, in 1400, by the ex- peditions of Timour. Then language is the same throughout Europe, with but little variation, and even now corresponds with the dialect of Hindostan. It has been proposed, in England, to establish schools for them, and to convert them by means of missionaries. In Germany and France, there are but few ; but they are numerous in Hungary, Transylvania and Moldavia, where their number amounts to about 200,000. They are still more nu- merous in Bessarabia, the Crimea, near Constantinople, and hi the whole of Tur- key. They are remarkable for the yellow brown, or rather olive color, of their skin; the jet black of their hair and eyes ; the extreme whiteness of their teeth, on ac- count of which many of the gypsy girls, particularly those of Spain, are consider- ed beauties ; and for the symmetry of their limbs, which distinguishes even the men, whose general appearance, how- ever, is repulsive and shy. The gypsies 124 GYPSIES have much elasticity and quickness; they are seldom of a tall or powerful frame ; then physiognomy denotes carelessness and levity. They rarely settle permanent- ly any where. Wherever the climate is mild enough, they are found in forests and deserts, hi companies. They sel- dom have tents, but seek shelter from the cold of winter in grottoes and caves, or they build huts sunk some feet in the earth, and covered with sods laid on poles. In Spain, and even in Hungary and Tran- sylvania, there are, however, some who follow a trade. They are inn-keepers, horse-doctors, and dealers in horses ; they are smiths, mend old pans and kettles, and make iron utensils, nails and the like. Some work in wood, making spoons, spindles, troughs, or they assist the farmer in the fields. Their talent for music has been remarked, but it is confined to in- strumental music, which they chiefly practise by the ear. They play on die violin, Jews-harp, the bugle, flute and hautboy. Their music for dancing is lively and expressive ; there are no better musicians for the Hungarian and Polish national dances. Their lively motions are remarkable in their own peculiar dances, and they have great talent for mimicry. The gypsies who formerly traversed Germany supported tliemselves by tricks, the women telling fortunes with cards; the men dancing on the rope, and performing similar feats. The gypsy women, in their younger years, particu- larly in Spain, are dancers. As soon as they grow older, they invariably practise fortune-telling and chiromancy. This is their chief occupation in all parts of Eu- rope. The children go perfectly naked until their tendi year. The men wear a shirt and trowsers ; the women, petti- coats and aprons, red or fight blue. In England, they have red cloaks with hoods, and, generally, a handkerchief tied over the head. They are fond of rings and ornaments. Those gypsies who live a settled life are very fond of dress. Their house utensils consist of a pan, dish, ket- tle and a silver mug; their domestic ani- mals are horses and pigs. In England, they have always donkeys in their cara- vans ; their food is disgusting. They are fond of onions and garlic, according to the Oriental custom. They eat all kinds of flesh, even that of animals which have died a natural death; on which account, a murrain is the most welcome event for them. Some 30 or 40 years ago, they were accused, in Hungary, of having slaughtered human beings and devoured them, and, in consequence of this charge, were treated with the greatest severity. Their guilt, however, has never been proved. Brandy is their favorite bever- age ; tobacco their greatest luxury ; both men and women chew and smoke it with avidity, and are ready to make great sac- rifices for the sake of satisfying this in- clination. They have no peculiar reli- gion. Amongst the Turks, they are Mo- hammedans ; and in Spain, at least, as well as in Transylvania, they follow the fonns of the Christian religion, without, however, caring for instruction, or having any interest in the spirit of religion. In Transylvania, they often have their chil- dren baptized repeatedly at different places, for the sake of the money which it is customary in that country for the god- father to give to the poor parents of his god-child. Marriages are formed in the rudest manner. The young gypsy mar- ries a girl, without caring if she is his sis- ter or a stranger, often when he is not more than 14 or 15 years old. In Hun- gary, another gypsy officiates as priest at the wedding. No gypsy will many any but one of his race. If he becomes tired of her, he will turn her off without cere- mony. There is no idea of education amongst this people. A blind, almost an- imal love for their children, prevents them from punishing them, so that they grow up in idleness, and are accustomed to steal and cheat. The depravity of this people is so great, that they have a real enjoyment in cruelty; so that they were formerly em- ployed, in preference, as executioners. At the same time, they are great cowards, and only steal where they can do so with safe- ty. They never break into houses at night The plague having occurred in a certain town of Spain, the gypsies flock- ed into the houses in hordes, and plunder- ed the unprotected inhabitants. In Tran- sylvania, they are very expert at washing gold. On account of their coward- ice, they have never, in Spain, been used for soldiers. In Hungary and Transylva- nia, they have been occasionally taken in- to the armies, but they have never distin- guished themselves by bravery. It has been repeatedly proposed to banish this people from Europe. In France and Spain, in Italy and Germany, laws were passed against them in the 16th century. But even persecutions were of little avail towards rooting them out. They always appeared again in the southern countries. As they are very numerous in the Austri- an states, and have a kind of constitution there amongst themselves, being in a GYPSIES—GYPSUM. 125 manner governed by chief gypsies or waywodes, the great Maria Theresa form- ed the plan of converting them into or- derly men and citizens. In 1768, she is- sued an ordinance, that, in future, gypsies should dwell in settled habitations, practise some trade, dress their children, and send them to school. Many of their disgusting customs were prohibited, and it was or- dered, that they should forthwith be call- ed Neubauern (new peasants), instead of their former name of gypdes. This or- dinance remaining ineffectual, recourse was had, in 1773, to severe measures; the children were taken from their parents, and brought up hi Christian principles. But as little was effected in this way as by the very mild measures adopted by the Russian government However, the ordi- nances of Joseph II (1782 et seq.), to for- ward the improvement of the gypsies, in Hungary, Transylvania and the Bannat, have not been without effect With re- gard to their language, most of the words are of Indian origin. They are found, in part, with little variation, in the Sanscrit, in the Malabar and Bengal languages, and many words have been adopted from the different nations amongst whom they re- side. Heber, bishop of Calcutta, relates, in his Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, &c. (London, 1828,2 vols.), that he met with a camp of gypsies on the banks of the Ganges, who spoke the Hindoo language as their moth- er tongue. Heber found the same people in Persia and Russia. Their grammar is ako Oriental, and corresponds with the Indian dialects. This similarity cannot be considered the work of chance, partic- ularly as their persons and customs show much of the Hindoo character. It has even been attempted to derive their ori- gin from a particular caste of the Hin- doos. But this cannot be the respectable caste of the mechanics and agriculturists. They are more probably a branch of the Parias, who are considered contemptible by all die other Hindoos, because they live in the greatest uncleanliness, and eat the flesh of beasts, which have died of sickness. It cannot, however, be easily explained, why this particular caste should have left their country and spread throughout Europe. The Tschinganes, a nation at the mouth of the Indus, ap- pear, at least, judging from their name, more likely to be connected with the gyp- sies. The gypsies also call themselves Sinde, a name which doubtless has some conespondence with Sind or Indus. Mr. Richardson, some time since, described 11 * an Indian nation whom he called Nuts or Pentschpiri and Basigers. (See a discus- sion on the similarity of the gypsy lan- guage with the Hindoo, in the Transac- tions of the LU. Society of Bombay, 1820.) Although they acknowledge the Moham- medan religion, they are much like the gypsies in customs and manners, in their propensity to thieving, fortune-telling and uncleanliness. In 1417, the first mention is made of the gypsies in Germany. They appear to have come from Moldavia into Germany and Italy. At that time, they aheady wandered about in hordes with a commander at their head. In 1418, the number which entered Italy alone, was estimated at 14,000 men.' There were many in Paris in 1429. They were first believed to be pilgrims, coming from the Holy Land ; they were, consequently, not only unmolested, but they received letters of protection; for instance, from Sigis- mund, in 1423. It is known, however,that in later times,they were very expert in coun- terfeiting similar documents. What may have been the cause of their leaving their country, is not known ; but very probably they were induced to fly from the cruel- ties exercised by Tamerlane, on bis march into India, in 1393, when this savage con- queror filled the country with blood and devastation.—See Grellmann's Histor. Versuch uber die Zigeuner (Historical Inquiry concerning the Gypsies), 2d edit. Gottingen, 1787; and Job. v. Mutter's Schweizergeschichte (History of Switzer- land), vol. 3. Sdmmtl. Werke, vol. 21, p. 369 et seq. Gypsum, sulphate of lime, or common plaster of Paris, is found in a great variety of forms. It is either in regular crystals, in which form it is sometimes called sele- nite, or in large crystalline plates and masses, which are perfectly transparent, and as pure as the finest plate-glass ; or it occurs in fascicular or radiated masses, which are also crystallized ; it is some- times found in snow-white, scaly flakes, like foam or snow; it is sometimes semi- transparent, like horn ; and, lastly, it is met with most commonly in large, fine or coarse-grained compact masses, fonning rocks, and constituting large and extensive strata. In this form, it exhibits a great variety of colors—white, red, brown, blue- ish white, &c. The variety of gypsum last described, constitutes all the hills and beds of this mineral, which are so fre- quent among secondary rocks, and hi what are called the salt and coal forma- tions. It occurs rarely, if ever, among the primitive rocks, and not often among 126 GYPSUM—II. diose of the transition class. It is almost always found associated with the rock salt, whereon salt-springs are found. It contains but few vegetable or animal remains ; those that occur, are chiefly bones of quadrupeds, amphibia, fresh-wa- ter shells, and vegetable remains. Caves are of frequent occurrence in gypsum. The purer semi-transparent specimens of gypsum are used for omamefatal works, as vases, ums, &c, and for statuary ; for which purposes its softness makes it very useful, and easy to work; but this also renders it difficult to polish. In this last form, it is the alabaster of the arts. It constitutes the material used in making the fine plastering for the internal finish- ing of costly edifices, and gives the walls a most beautiful whiteness. It is also used, after being burned, for the composi- tion of stucco-work of all sorts. But the great and important use of gypsum, or plaster, as it is' usually called, is for ma- nuring grass and grain lands; in which cases it is truly invaluable. Aud it is in- conceivable how great an additional quan- tity of grass will be obtained, by the sprinkling a peck of ground plaster upon the acre of land. It is certainly the cheapest and best manure for grass or grain. It is found in all the countries of Europe, and occurs in very extensive de- posits in New York, and in the Western States, in all which great quantities are dug and sold for the uses above de- scribed. Gyrfalcon, or Jerfalcon. (See Fal- con.) Gyromancy (from the Greek words yvpog, a circle, and navraa, prophecy) ; the art of prophesying by means of a circle, described by the soothsayer with various ceremonies, and around which he walks, saying magic words, and making mysteri- ous motions, the more effectually to de- ceive the uninitiated. H. H; the eighth letter and sixth consonant in the English alphabet. H was not al- ways considered a consonant. The other consonants are pronounced with a less opening of the mouth than the vowels, but h with a greater opening than even the vowel a. In Latin and ancient Greek, it was, dierefore, not considered as a conso- nant, but merely as a breathing. The latter language, as is well known, had no literal sign for it, but merely what is called the rough breathing ('); and in Latin proso- dy, it is not considered as a letter. In languages in which h is considered a con- sonant, it is classed with the gutturals. In connexion with other consonants, it some- times renders them softer; as,for instance, after p; in Italian, however, it serves to give to c and g, followed by e or i, the hard sound (that of g in give, and c in color); hence che is pronounced ke, and ghibdlino like gUtdine in English. It is a very delicate letter, and is frequently not sounded at all; as, in French, in all words beginning with h derived from Latin. It also takes the place of other letters, as of f(q. v.), in Spanish, or of c; as the people in the environs of Saint-Malo say Uef and hloche for clef and cloche. In die ar- ticle G, it is shown how intimately h is connected with the two guttural somids of the German ach and ich; and, as these are only stronger aspirations than h, g is intimately connected with h, as we find to be the case in die Sclavonie lan- guages. In the Bohemian, Wendish and Sclavonic languages, h, at the beginning of a word, particularly before I and r, is frequently pronounced like g or gh ; as, for instence, Hlubos is pronounced Glubosh; Huspodar, Gospodar. The name of the German town Glaucha comes from the Wendish Hluchowe; and in the Russian alphabet, g and h have only one charac- ter. In the ancient Frankish dialect, h often stood before I, r and i; and, at a later period, it was sometimes suppressed, sometimes changed into ch or k; as Hlo- thar, Hrudolf Hlodoicig, have become Lothaire and Clothaire, Rudolf, Ludwig. But we must not suppose that h was not pronounced, wherever it would be diffi- cult for us at present to sound it; because we find the aspirates h, v, w, before /, m, &c, in the dialects of the North Ameri- can Indians. An enoneous aspiration early crept into the Latin, of which Cice- ro complains (Orat.48), and on which Ca- H—HABEAS CORPUS. 127 tullus made an epigram (c. 83). The or- thography of pulcher, triumphus, cohors, &c.,was then substituted forpulcer,trium- pus, coors, which, as well as that of Grac- chus and Bacchus, although quite foreign from the Latin, was gradually adopted as the correct one. The Italians have almost entirely banished h as an independent letter ; they leave it out at the beginning of words, with few exceptions, because it is not pronounced; and instead of ph, they write/. In the English language, h is used, in connexion with t, to designate the lisping sound which the Spaniards denote by z, and the Greeks by 9. The French and German th are pronounced like sun pie t. The H of the Greeks was the long e, but was sometimes used as an aspirate, as in words in which it precedes t, as HEKATON. It was formed by the un- ion of the two breathings, the rough |-aud the smooth -|. On Roman coins, inscrip- tions, and hi manuscripts, II has a diversi- ty of meanings, as honestas, hie, hares, liomo, habet, hora, honos, Hadrianus, &c. On modern French coins, it means the mint of Rochelle. II, among the Greeks, as a numeral, signified 8; in the Latin of the middle ages, 200, and H with a dash over it, 200,000. In music, h is the seventh degree in the diatonic scale, and the twelfth in the chromatic ; in the solmization called b mi, being the seventh major of c, the pure fifth of e, and of g the third major. Haarlem, or Haerlem ; a city of the Netherlands, in North Holland, on the riv- er Spaaren, about three miles from the sea. It communicates with Amsterdam, Leyden and the lake of Haarlem, by seve- ral navigable canals. It was formerly a place of strength, but the ramparts are now converted into public promenades. A number of canals traverse the town in different directions, some of them bor- dered with trees. Among the public edi- fices are the stadthouse, an elegant build- ing, containing a valuable collection of pictures, a mansion or palace of the royal family, and several charitable institutions. The number of churches, great and small, is 15; the principal one is said to be the largest in Holland, and contahis a collec- tion of antiquities of the time of the cru- sades, and a remarkable organ. The oth- er objects of interest are, the town libra- ry, the anatomical theatre, and the botan- ical garden. The scientific institutions are, the academy of sciences, founded in 1752, and the horticultural society; to the for- mer belongs a valuable museum. Here are several manufactures on a small scale, viz., jewelry, cotton, linen and silk stuffs, thread and ribbons. Haarlem has long been celebrated for its bleaching grounds. It carries on an extensive traffic in flowers, particularly tulips. Population, 22,000; 11 miles west of Amsterdam; lon. 4° 38' 19" E.; lat. 52° 22' 56" N. Habakkuk; a Jewish prophet, who flourished about 600 B. C. His prophe- cy is in an elevated religious, lyrical style. Lamentations for the fearful de- vastations of the Chaldseans in Judaea, and the approaching downfall of the kingdom, consolations and cheering hopes for the fu- ture, the humiliation of the conquerors, and a new period of happiness for the Jews, form the contents of his writings. His sentiments and language are greatly admired. With all the boldness and fer- vor of his imagination, his language is pure, and his verse melodious. His ex- pressions are characteristic and lively. His denunciations are terrible; his derision bitter; his consolation cheering. Habak- kuk seems to signify struggler. He is one of the 12 minor prophets. Habeas Corpus. It is one of the first objects of all civil institutions, to secure to eveiy member the rights of personal lib- erty, or, in other words, the control and disposition of his own person, at his own will and pleasure, in such manner, how- ever, as not to violate the laws or infringe upon the rights of others. It may seem, upon the first consideration of the sub- ject, that this is not an object of the insti- tutions and laws of an arbitrary govern- ment, since the sovereign, and those rep- resenting him in an executive or military capacity, may seize and imprison any one, with or without cause, or upon grounds more or less important and excu- sable, according as the government is, in its principles and in its administration, more or less arbitrary. But a slight re- flection will show, that, even in the most arbitrary governments, the first object is, to secure one subject from the seizure of his person, or the violation of his rights, whether of person or property, by anoth- er ; for in a community of men, where every member should be left at liberty to seize upon and imprison any other, if he had the physical power to do so, there would be, substantially, and to practical purposes, no government at all. There might be an association of men acting un- der the orders of the prince, and in con- cert with each other, who should have more power than any other association in the community, and who might, accord- ingly, by the right of the strongest, seize 128 HABEAS CORPUS. persons and property at their own will and pleasure; but such an association would hardly deserve the name of civil polity or government, which signifies not merely physical power and superiority of force, which exists among brutes as well as men, but a body of laws more or less extensive, whereby the liberty and rights of the subjects are secured more or less effectually, according to the degree of im- provement and perfection in the constitu- tion and laws of the state. In every gov- ernment, therefore, whether arbitrary or free, or occupying any one of the various degrees in the scale of freedom, one of the first and most important objects, is the security of the persons from violence or detention, not authorized by law. There is, then, this essential difference, in this respect, between different governments;— in those which are arbitrary, the present will of the sovereign, and, accordingly, of those representing him in civil and mili- tary capacities, is the law; whereas, in others, the law is a fixed rule, which eve- ry citizen or subject may know and con- form to, if he chooses; the sovereign and the magistrates being bound by this law no less than the other members of the so- ciety. This fixed law settles, beforehand, all the cases in which any person may be detained or imprisoned ; and the term imprisonment, in this application, does not signify merely shutting up in a gaol, since the voluntary detention of a person in a private house or in the streets, says sir William Blackstone, is an imprison- ment. The cases, in which imprisonment is lawful, being thus ascertained by the law, the great provision of magna charta intervenes, namely, " That no freeman shall be seized or imprisoned, but by the judgment of his equals or the law of the land." The term equals or peers, here, has reference to an indictment or trial by jury, or other body, of which the office and functions are equivalent to those of jurors, as is the case in regard to the house of lords, in respect to certain parties and offences. This particular mode of accu- sation or trial might as well be omitted, and die rule would tiien stand, that no man should be imprisoned but by the law of die land. It is the law alone that can imprison, and not the sovereign, or any representative of the sovereign, whether the sovereignty resides in one individual, or a body, or more than one body of men. This principle constitutes the leading fea- ture of magna charta, and lies at the foundation of every free government In order to secure personal liberty, and, at the same time, to maintain government, which requires, in the case of crimes and some others, the restraint of the person, it is absolutely essential that the law should not only specify, explicitly, the cases in which the citizen may be seized or im- prisoned, but also provide that he shall not be areested, or restrained of his liberty, in any other case whatever ; aud such is the law in England and in all of the U. States. Nor is this principle confined to the person, it being no less the law that a man's goods, than that his person shall not be seized and detained, otherwise than by order of the law. Such being the rules that lie at the foundation of civil society, the veiy important question occurs, How these ndes are to be enforced ; how is the law, most effectually, to guaranty to eve- ry one of its subjects, the inviolability of his person and property ? The first and most obvious security is that derived di- rectly from the law of nature, and not sur- rendered among the other sacrifices made by the members of a community to each other, as a condition precedent to the forming of civil society. The law per- mits every man to defend his person and property, and to repel, by force, any un- lawful invasion of either. It will not jus- tify him in using extreme force, and com- mitting any outrageous, disproportionate or wanton injury, in resisting and repelling even an unlawful injury of his person or property ; but it will justify him in using a reasonable degree of force, proportioned to the injuriousness or atrocity of the vio- lence attempted by the assailing party. But the law of nature affords but a feeble protection, aud men unite in communi- ties, for the purpose of obtaining more ef- fectual defences against wrong, and repa- rations for injuries when committed; and the very first provision of the law is to in- flict punishment for any wrongs and vio- lence, whereby the public is disturbed, and also to make reparation to a party in- jured. If one man unlawfully seizes the property, or imprisons the person of an- other, he is, by the laws of every commu- nity, liable to make amends in damages. As far, therefore, as an injury is such that it can be repaired by a pecuniary compen- sation, and as far as the trespasser is able to make such reparation, the remedy is complete. But since trespassers are not always able to make reparation for inju- ries, and some injuries are such that pe- cuniary damages are not an adequate rep- aration, and, also, because the law in- tends to prevent wrongs, as well as to pro- vide for punishments and compensations HABEAS CORPUS—HACKBERRY. 129 where they have been committed, it pro- vides certain processes for immediate pre- vention, in case of a violent and unauthor- ized invasion of property or person. Of this character are the processes on com- plaint for forcible entry on real estate, the action of replevin in respect to goods and chattels, and the writ de homine replegian- do, or writ of habeas corpus, in respect to the person. The writ de homine replegi- ando is similar to that of replevin, and is, in fact, as its name imports, the replevying of a man. When a man's person has been carried out of die country, so that he cannot be found, then a process takes place somewhat similar to that adopted when goods are carried off, so as not to be repleviable. In the case of the goods, a process in withernam issues, by which other goods are taken. So in the case of the man; the person who thus convey- ed him away, is himself taken in a pro- cess in withernam, as a pledge for the res- toration of the person sought to be re- plevied. This process of replevying a man is very ancient in the English law ; forms of the writ being given by Fitzher- bert, and also found in the Register of Writs. But it was not until more than 400 years after the date of magna charta, that an adequate remedy was adopted, whereby the great privilege, provided for in that charter, was effectually secured. This security w:is effected by the habeas corpus act, passed in the thirty-first year of Charles II, c. 2, which has been adopt- ed, in substance, in all the U. States; and many of the state constitutions expressly guaranty to the citizens the right to this writ, as one of the fundamental principles of the government; and by the constitu- tion of the U. States, the privilege of this writ is secured, at all times, except in cases of rebellion or invasion, when the public safety may require its suspension. The right is liable to be suspended in England in the same cases, it being some- times necessary to clothe the executive with an extraordinary power, as the Ro- mans were in the habit of choosing a dic- tator in emergencies, when the public was in danger. This, as sir William Black- stone says, is the sacrifice of the security of personal liberty for a time, the more effectually to secure it in future. At all times, when the privilege is not suspend- ed by law, every citizen has a right to this writ It is, however, to no purpose that the party should be brought before a judge, on habeas corpus, to be immediately re- manded to prison. The laws, according- ly, except certain cases ; thus the laws of New York provide, that if a person is not a convict, or in execution by legal pro- cess, or committed for treason or felony, plainly expressed in the warrant, and has not neglected to apply to be released for two whole terms, he is entitled to tiiis writ. An application may be made to a judge, either in court or out of court, for this writ; and if it does not appear that the person is imprisoned under some of the circum- stances above-named, or, if it be in some other state than New York, if it does not appear to the judge, that his case comes under some of the exceptions provided by the law of the state (and the laws except only the plainest cases), then it is the ab- solute duty of the judge to grant the writ, directed to the gaoler, officer or person who detains the complainant, orderiug him to bring the prisoner before him. The laws of England provide, that, if the chancellor or any of die 12 judges refuses the writ when the party is entitled to it, he incurs a very heavy forfeiture to the complainant. It is universally, in the U. States, the imperative duty of the judge to order the complainant to be immedi- ately brought before him, unless his case plainly comes within one of the excep- tions pointed out by the law. The party being thus brought up, the judge deter- mines whether he is entitled to be dis- charged, absolutely, or to be discharged on giving a certain bad, or must be re- manded to prison. If the imprisonment is wholly unaudiorized, the complainant is discharged; if it be not unauthorized, but is yet for a cause in which the party is entitled to be discharged on giving bail, the judge orders accordingly. This is the writ which is justly denominated the gr-eat bulwark and second magna charta of British fiberty. And it is no less the bul- wark of American than of British liberty; for it not only protects the citizen from unlawful imprisonment, at the suggestion of the civil officers of the government, in behalf of the public, but also against groundless areests at the suit or instigation of individuals. There are other writs of habeas corpus, but the one we have de- scribed is always intended when the terms are used without explanation. Habitation. (See DomicU, Appendix to vol. iv, page 613; also Dwdling.) Hache d' Armes (French); the battle- axe, or mace, of the knights. Hacienoa (Spanish); a farm, singly sit- uated ; also public revenue. Hackberry, or Hoop Ash (celtis cras- dfolia), is a western tree, abundant in the basin of the Ohio and beyond the Missis- 130 HACKBERRY—1LEMA. sippi, and occurring sometimes on the eastern slope of the Alleghanies, especial- ly in the basins of the Susquehanna and Potomac. It grows to a great height, but the thickness of the trunk is not propor- tional. The leaves, which are not unlike those of the mulbeny, are larger than in the other species of nettle-tree, ovate and acuminate ; the small white flowers are succeeded by one-seeded berries, of a black color, and resembling peas in size and shape. The wood, on account of its apt- itude to decay, is little used, but is said to make very fine-charcoal. Hackert, Philip; a distinguished Ger- man landscape-painter, bom at Prentzlow, in the Ukermark, in 1737, died at Flor- ence, 1806. His four younger brothers were also distinguished in the arts, three of them in painting, and one (George) in engrav- ing. In 1768, Philip Hackert went to Italy. On his return from Naples (in 1770) to Rome, Catharine, empress of Russia, employed him to paint six pictures representing the two battles of Tschesme. These laid the foundation of his fame. In order to enable the artist to form a cor- rect notion of the explosion of a vessel, count Orloff caused a Russian frigate to be blown up in his presence. The singu- larity of this model, many months be- fore spoken of in all the European pa- pers, contributed not a little to increase the fame of the picture. In 1782, he was presented to Ferdinand, king of Na- ples, whose favor he soon gained. In 1786, lie received an appointment in Naples. When the revolutionary ware broke out, being considered by the royalists as a re- publican, and by the French as a royal- ist, he was obliged to retire to Florence, where he died in 1806. His forte lay in painting scenes. To originality of com- position his pictures have no claim. He was also skilful in restoring pictures, as appears by his letter to lord Hamilton, SulPuso ddla vcrnice nella pittura (1788). He communicated fragments to Gothe, on landscape painting, who published Ph. Hackert's Biographische Skizze, meist nach dessen eignen Aufsatzen. This work con- tahis anecdotes of king Ferdinand, such as his formal distribution of pieces of wild boar's flesh among his favorites, according to their rank, and other stories of the same sort, illustrating the imbecility of the Nea- politan court, depicted, likewise, in Col- lingwood's Letters. Hackmatack ; a term applied, in many parts of the United States, to the Araen- can larch. (See Larch.) Hackney ; a large and populous village and parish of England, in Middlesex, two miles from London, to which it is joined by several new rows and streets. It has a receptacle for lunatics. St. John's pal- ace, an ancient house in Well's street, now let out in tenements to poor families, is be- lieved to have been the residence of the prior of the order of St. John of Jerusa- lem. In this parish, south of Seabridgc, are the Temple mills, once belonging to the knights Templars. Population 22,494. Hackney ; a horse kept to let. This term in England is often shortened into hack.—Hackney coach; a coach kept to let. In the United States, such coaches are commonly called hacks. Hackney coaches began first to ply, under this name, in London, in 1625, when they were twenty in number. (See Coaches.) Haddock (gadus aglefinus). This fish appears in such shoals as to cover a tract of many miles, keeping near the shore. In stoniiy weather, they will not take the bait. The fishermen assert, that they then bury themselves in the mud, and thus shelter themselves till the agitation of the water has ceased. In proof of this, they allege that those which are taken immediately after a storm are cover- ed with mud upon the back. The com- mon size of the haddock is 12 inches. It has a brown back, a silvery belly, and a black lateral line. On each side, about the middle, is a large black spot, the" prints, as is superstitiously believed, of die finger and thumb of St. Peter, when he took the tribute money from its mouth; but, unfor- tunately, the haddock is not die only fish thus distinguished. It derives its specific name from eaglefin, which was anciently its common appellation. Hades. (See Pluto.) Hadjy ; the title of a Mohammedan who perfonns a pilgrimage to Mecca—a religious act, which every true believer is directed to perform, at least, once. Hadj is the name of the celebration which takes place on the arrival of the caravans of pilgrims at Mecca. (For an account of it, see the article Arafat.) A very interesting description of the hadj, and the number- less pilgrims, together with Mecca and the Caaba, is to be found in Burckhardt'a Travels (2 vols. 4to., London). Hadley, John, vice-president of the royal society of London, who (in 1731) is said to have invented the reflecting quadrant. The invention is also attributed to Thomas Godfrey, of Philadelphia. (See Godfrey.) Hadriatic (See Adriatic.) HjEma (from the Greek ofa, blood); a word which appears in a great number of HLEMA—HAGEDORN. 131 scientific compounds, particularly in bota- ny, mineralogy and medicine. Hematics (from aipa, Greek, the blood); the branch of physiology which treats of the blood. Hematite, Red, and Brown. (See Iron, Ores of.) H.xmus, in ancient geography; a chain of mountains running eastwardly from the ancient Orbelus to the Pontus Euxi- nus, and separating Moesia from Thrace. It terminated in a cape on the Black sea, called Hami Extrema, at present Emine- tagh. The modem name of the Haemus is Balkan, (q. v.) Fable derives this name from Haemus, king of Thrace, who, con- sidering himself equal to Jupiter, was changed, with his wife, who compared herself to Juno, into tiiis mountain. ILenke, Thaddeus, a Bohemian natu- ral philosopher and traveller, was invited by the Spanish government to accompany Malaspina on his voyage round the world, in 1789. He anived at Cadiz 24 hours after die expedition had set sail. He fol- lowed it in the next vessel that sailed to the river Plata, but was wrecked on the coast of Montevideo. Haenke swam safe ashore, with his Linnaeus and his papers in his cap; and, finding that the expedi- tion had already set sail, he determined to seek captain Malaspina in St Jago, by crossing the Andes. Without any knowl- edge of the language of the countiy, and without any assistance, this courageous predecessor of Humboldt surmounted all obstacles, and succeeded in joining Mala- spina. Haenke never returned to Europe ; he died in America, perhaps purposely de- tained. The royal Bohemian national museum possesses his collections of natu- ral history. It published at Prague, in 1825, Reliquia Hankeana, seu Dcscrip- tiones et Icones Plantarum qua in America Merid. et Borcali, in Insulis Philippinis et Marianis collegU Thaddeus Hanke (widi 12 engravings). Haff, an antiquated German word, signifying the sea, and also a large bay, winch appears in geographical names, as Curisdie-Haff. Havre, in French, as Havre de Grace, is derived from it; and havn, in the Danish, Kiazbenhavn (Copenhagen), port of merchants, is connected with it; as are also the Swedish ham or /iamn,signifyiug port, as in Friedrichsham (Frederic's port), the English fuiven, and the German hafen. Hafiz, or Hafez, Mohammed Schems- eddin, one of the most celebrated and most charming poets of Persia, was born at the beginning of the 14th century; studied theology and law, sciences which, in Mo- hammedan countries, are intimately con- nected with each other. The surname Hafiz was given him because he knew the Koran by heart. He prefened independ- ent poverty, as a dervise, to a life at court, whither he was often invited by sultan Ah- med, who earnestly pressed him to visit Bagdad. He became a sheik, or chief of a fraternity of dervises, and died, probably at Shiraz, in 1389, where a sepulchral monument was erected to him, which has been often described by travellers; but, in October, 1825, an earthquake at Shiraz destroyed, among many other buildings, the monument of Hafiz, to- gether with that of the celebrated Sadi. Some idea of his style and sentiments may be obtained dirough the medium of translations. Sir William Jones publish- ed ttanslations of two of his odes, which are extremely beautiful; besides which, may be noticed Nott's Select Odes of Ha- fiz, translated into English Verse, with the Original Text (1787, 4to.), and Hindley's Persian Lyrics, from the Divan-I-Hafiz, with Paraphrases in Verse and Prose (1800, 4to.) The songs of Hafiz were collected into a divan, after his death, which was published complete (Calcutta, 1791), and translated into German by the celebrated Orientalist von Hammer (2 vols., Stuttgard, 1812—1815). The poems of Hafiz are distinguished for sprightliness and Anac- reontic festivity. He is not unfrequeut- ly loud in praise of wine, love and pleas- ure. Some writers have sought a mystic meaning in these verses. Feridoun, Sururi, Sadi and others, have attempted to explain what they supposed to be the hidden sense. Hagar (i. e., the stranger); an Egyptian slave in Abraham's house. She was pre- sented, by her mistress Sarah, to Abraham, in order that Abraham might not die without descendants, Sarah herself being banen. Hagar bore Ishmael; but Sarah soon became jealous of her, and treat- ed her severely. Hagar fled, but after- wards returned, and, when Sarah liore Isaac, was sent away by Abraham, who, the Bible infonns us, had received a di- vine order to dismiss her. She suffered much distress in the desert, but was re- lieved by an angel, and married her son to an Egyptian woman. (Gen. i, 16, 21.) Saint Paul makes her the allegorical rep- resentation of the Israelites, who were de- prived of any participation in the gospel, as she with her son did not inherit any thing from Abraham. (Gal. iv. 21.) Hagedorn, Frederic von, a Gennan poet, native of I laraburg, was bom in 1708. lie received a good education, and dis- 132 HAGEDORN—HAGERSTOWN. played talents for poetry when young; but, becoming an orphan "at the age of 14, he found himself dependent on his own exertions for support He, however, con- tinued studying in the gymnasium at Hamburg, till 1726, when he removed to the university at Jena, as a law student. In 1729, he published a small collection of poems; and the same year he went to London, in the suite of the Danish ambas- sador, baron von Scelenthal, widi whom he resided till 1731. He obteined, in 1733, the appoinUnent of secretary to the Eng- lish factory at Hamburg, which placed him in easy circumstances. It was not till 1738 that he again appeared before the public as an author, when he printed the first book of his Fables, which were much admired. In 1740, he published the Man of Letters, and, in 1743, his celebrated poem On Happiness, which established his reputation as a moral writer. The second book of his Fables appeared in 1750; and he afterwards produced many lyric pieces in the style of Prior. He died of dropsy in 1754. Wieland, in the preface to his po- etical works, terms him the German Horace. llAGEN,Frederic Henry von der,professor in the university of Berlin, was bom Feb. 19, 1780, at Schmiedeberg, in the Uker- mark. In his 18th year, he went to Halle to study law, but Wolf's lectures won him over to the belles-lettres, in the study of which he was still more confirmed by the turn which German literature received from Schiller, Gothe, Novalis, Tieck. In 1807, Hagen published, in Berlin, a collec- tion of old popular songs. On his travels, he became acquainted with many of the most eminent literati, and particularly Eschenburg, who liberally permitted him to make use of his important collections. In 1808, he published, with Busching, German Poems of the Middle Ages (1 vol., 4to.); in 1809, Das Buch der Liebe, a col- lection of old German tales, in prose; 1809—1812, the Museum fur altdeutsche LUeratur und Kunst, in connexion with several other literati. In 1810, he was appointed professor of the German lan- guage and literature, at the new university of Berlin. In 1812, he published, with Busching, the Grundriss zur Geschichte der altdeutschen Dichtkunst, and lectured on the Nibdungenlied. In 1811, he was appoint- ed professor in Breslau. At a later period, he lectured on the old German and north- em mythology; but his most important work was a new edition of the Heldenbuch. (q. v.) In 1812, he published a collection of the songs of the Edda; and, afterwards, a body of old northern Sagas; and, in 1814 —1815, translations of the WUkina and Nifiunga Saga (originally taken from the Gentian), and of the Wolsunga Saga, lie then travelled in Italy and the south of Germany, partly in company with pro- fessor Ranmer, the historian. In 1820, he published lus 3d edition of the Nibdun- genlied. In 1823, he went to Paris, to make use of the manuscripts of the Mancssean collection of 140 old German poets. In 1824, he was again appointed professor at Berlin. He has published numerous other works illustrative of old German literature. IlAGER,Joseph;born about 1750,at Milan, of a Gennan family; a distinguished Orien- talist, professor of the Oriental languages in the university of Pavia. He first distin- guished himself in the literary world by the discovery of the fraud of a Sicilian monk, named Vella, who had attempted to im- pose on the court of Palermo by some forged documents relative to the history of Sicily. Hager left Palermo for Eng- land, where he hi vain endeavored to excite the attention of the public in favor of his researches concerning Chinese lite- rature. His pretensions as an Oriental scholar were questioned by doctor Anto- nio Montucci, an Italian resident in that country, who was engaged hi similar pur- suits. Hager published an Explanation of the elementary Characters of the Chi- nese, with an Analysis of their Symbols and Hieroglyphics (London, 1801, folio), and a Dissertation on the newly-discov- ered Babylonian Inscriptions (1801, 4to.). He then went to Paris, where he pro- duced the following works: the Monu- ment of Yu, the most ancient Inscription in China (1802, folio); a Description of the Chinese Medals in the imperial Cabinet of France (1805, 4to.); the Chinese Pan- dieon, or a Comparison of the religious Rites of the Greeks with those of the Chi- nese (1806, 4to.). From Paris Hager re- moved to Milan, where he published, in Italian, Illustrations of an Oriental Zodiac, preserved in the Cabinet of Medals at Paris, and which was discovered near the Site of ancient Babylon (1812, folio). In his Miniere, he intended to show that the Turks were formerly connected with the Chinese. His Observations on the Re- semblance between the Language of the Russians and that of the Romans (Milan, 1817J, is full of hypotheses. Julius Klap- roth has shown that Hager's works, though they have great merit, contain gross mis- takes. He died at Milan, June 27,1820. Hagerstown; a post-town of Mary- land, and capital of the county of Wash- HAGERSTOWN—HAHNEMANN. 133 ington, on Antietam creek, 69 miles N. W. of Washington, 71 W. by N. of Baltimore; population, in 1820,2690. (For the popu- lation in 1830, see UnUed States.) It is a pleasant and flourishing town, regularly laid out and well built, a great part of the houses being of brick or stone. It is situ- ated in a fertile and well cultivated tract of country, which is one of the best dis- tricts in the U. States for raising wheat The town contains a court-house, a jail, a town-house, a masonic hall, an academy, and five houses of public worship, for German Lutherans, German Calvinists, Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, and Methodists, one each. Haggai ; one of the minor prophets, who, immediately after the return of the Jews from exile, urged the rebuilding of the temple, as a condition of the divine blessing for the new state. (Ezra v. 12; vi. 4.) He therefore lived in the time of Darius Hystaspes, Ezra and Zacharias. Some critics have thought that the writ- ings now bearing his name are only sum- maries of his works, because, they say, they show a poverty of ideas and imagina- tion. The best modem edition of Haggai is in Rosenmiiller's Schol. in Vet. Test., p. 7, vol. iv, where the fonuer commenta- ries are also to be found. Hagiographa (ose democratic principles. At the same time, he conceived the idea," almost, as he believed, inspired by God," that " the lord was before die vassal, the prince before the subject." Certainly a divine idea! This gave origin to his work, " destined by God for the restoration of Europe," Restora- tion der Staatsioissenschaft, oder Theorie des naturlichen-geselligen Zustandes, der Chi- mdre des kunstlich-burgerlichen entgegen- gesezt (Restoration of Political Science, or Theory of the natural-social State, opposed to the Chimera of the artificial-civil State ; Winterthur, 1816—1820, 4 vols.). Like Salmasius and Mackenzie of old, he de- fends the divine right of rulers and of no- bles, aud endeavors to overthrow the the- ory of the social contract. His work has been, and still is considered, by the aristo- crats of Germany, almost as a code. Yet wc confess, if choose we must, we should much prefer sir Robert Filmer's theory of divine right to I laller's. Haller's system rests on die fiction that powerful and far- vol. vi. 13 sighted men appropriated certain tracts to themselves, when die earth was yet undi- vided ; and, when less powerful or sagacious persons came afterwards to dwell on the same land, they were obliged to subject themselves to the rules which the first oc- cupant prescribed. A divine idea, indeed! His disposition to run a tilt agaiust the principles which have sprung up out of the French revolution, led him to Cathol- icism, in which, as he thinks, the best se- curity against democratic principles is to be found. Yon Haller has been a profes- sor at Beme, a member of the sovereign- council, and has held some other impor- tant offices. As a member of the council, he was obliged to take an oath of belief in the doctrines of Protestantism. Since 1808, he says, he has been a Catiiolic in his heart. In 1818, a French abbe strength- ened him hi his belief; and, in 1819, prince Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Schwerin ren- dered him happy, by assuring him that he might be secretiy a Catholic, and receive dispensation from all the outward observ- ances of the Catholic system; nay, that many ostensible Protestants were in fact Catholics. The Catholic bishop of Fri- burg confirmed tiiis. In 1820, he publish- ed, under the character of a Protestant, his work on the Spanish constitution, in which he praises the inquisition and the torture. In the same year, the fourth vol- ume of his Restoration was published, in which he recommends Catholicism very strongly. October 17, 1820, the bishop received him at the country seat of a friend into the bosom of the Catholic church. Some rumor of this got abroad, and when his relations questioned him concerning it, he replied by asking diem whether they had ever seen him observe Catholic ordi- nances. After Mr. von Haller had taken the oath prescribed, by Pius IV, to con- verts, which binds them to use all their efforts for the propagation of Catholicism, he renewed (December, 1820) his official oath as a Protestant. This oath also binds hun to act faithfully towards the state, and to maintain the Protestant refi- gion. June 11, 1821, he was expelled from die council as guilty of perjury. There are, it is true, 15 Catholic members in this council; but they, of course, do not take the oath. Haller then went to France, where he first wrote for the Journal des Debats. Charles X allowed him to enjoy the privileges of a citizen. In 1825, the 6th volume of his Restoration appeared. When the revolution of 1830 broke out, Haller was an officer under Polignac, and was, of course, immediately dismissed. 146 HALLEY—HALLOWELL. Halley, Edmund, a distinguished math- ematician and astronomer, was bom in London, in 1656, and was sent first to St. Paul's school, and then to Queen's college, Oxford, of which he became a commoner in his 17tli year. Before he was 19, he published A direct and geometrical Meth- od of finding the Aphelia and Eccentricity of Planets, which supplied a defect in the Keplerian theory of planetary mo- tion. By some observations on a spot which appeared on the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the cer- tainty of the motion of the sun round its own axis. August 21st, the same year, he fixed the longitude of the cape of Good Hope, by his observation of the occulta- tion of Mars by the moon. Immediately after, he went to St. Helena, where he staid till 1678, making observations on the fixed stars of the southern hemisphere, which he formed into constellations. In 1679, he published Catalogus Stdlarum Australium, sive Supplementum Catalogi Tychonici,,&c, which procured him the appellation of the southern Tycho. He then went to Dantzic to settle a dispute between the English philosopher Hookc, aud the famous Hevelius, relative to the use of optical instruments in astronomical researches, deciding in favor of the latter. In 1680, he set off on a continental tour, and at Paris made acquaintance with Cas- sini. After visiting Italy, in llic'1 here- turned to England, and settled at Islington, where he fitted up au observatory for his astronomical researches. In 1683, he pub- lished his Theory of the Variation of the magnetical Compass, in which he endeav- ors to account for that phenomenon, by the supposition of the whole globe of the earth being one great magnet, having four circulating magnetical poles, or points of attraction. His theory, though unsatisfac- tory, is ingenious. The doctrines of Kepler relative to the motions of the plan- ets next engaged his attention ; and finding himself disappointed in his endeavors to obtain information on the subject from Hooke and sir Christopher Wren, he went to Cambridge, where Newton, then math- ematical professor, satisfied all his inqui- ries. In 1691, he was a candidate for the Savilian professorship of astronomy at Ox- ford, which was obtained by doctor David Gregory. According to Winston, he lost this office in consequence of his character as an infidel in religion. For the purpose of making further observations relative to the variation of the compass, he set sail on a voyage in 1699, and, having traversed both hemispheres, arrived in England in September, 1700. The spot at St. Helena, where he erected a tent for making astro- nomical observations, is distinguished by the appellation of HaUey's Mount. As die result of his researches, he published a general chart, showing at one view the variation of the compass in all those seas where the English navigators were ac- quainted. He was next employed to ob- serve the course of the tides in the Eng- lish channel, with the longitudes and lat- itudes of the principal headlands; in con- sequence of which, he published a large map of die channel. In 1703, he was engaged by the emperor of Germany to survey the coast of Dalmatia ; and, re- turning to England in November of that year, he vvas elected Savilian professor of geometry on the death of doctor Wallis; and he was also honored with the diploma of LL. D. He subsequently published a Latin translation from die Arabic of a treatise of Apollonius Pergaeus, a Greek geometer, to which he made additions, to supply the place of what was lost. He next assisted his colleague, doctor Grego- ry, in preparing for the press Apollonius On Conic Sections. In 1719, he received the appointment of astronomer royal at Greenwich, where he afterwards chiefly resided, devoting his time to completing the theory of the motion of the moon, which, notwithstanding his age, he pur- sued with enthusiastic ardor. In 1721, he began his observations, and, for the space of 18 years, he scarcely ever missed tak- ing a meridian view of the moon, when the weather was not unfavorable. In 1729, he was chosen a foreign member of the academy of sciences at Paris. He died Jan. 14,1742, at Greenwich; and he was interred at the church of Lee, in Kent. In 1752 appeared his Astronom- ical Tables, with Precepts, in English and Latin, for computing the places of the Sun, Moon, Planets and Comets (4to.); and he was the author of a vast multitude of papers in the Philosophical Transac- tions. Lalande styles him "the greatest astronomer of England." Hallowell ; a post-town in Kenne- bec county, Maine, on the Kennebec, near the mouth of the river; 54 miles N. N. E. of Portland, 168 N. N. E. of Boston ; lat 44° 14' N.: population in 1820, 2919; the population in 1830 was over 3900. Hallowell is a thriving town, and has a flourishing commerce. It is situat- ed in a tract of country which has a strong and fertile soil, particularly excel- lent for grazing. The exports consist of beef, pork, pot and pearl ashes, Indian HALLOWELL—HAMBURG. 147 com, wheat, rye, oats, butter, hay, lumber, fish, &c. Loaded vessels of 150 tons may come up the river as far as the wharves. Halo is an extensive luminous ring, in- cluding a circular area, in the centre of which the sun or moon appears ; whose light, passing through an intervening cloud, gives rise to the phenomenon. Those about the moon are most common. When the sun or moon is seen through a thin cloud, a portion of the cloud round the sun or moon appears lighter than the rest, and this luminous disc is called a corona. Coronas are of various sizes, but they seldom exceed 10° in diameter ; they are generally faintly colored at their edges. Frequently, when a halo encircles the moon, a corona sunounds it. Parhelia, or mock suns, vary considerably in general appearance : sometimes the sun is encir- cled by a large halo, in the circumference of which the mock suns usually appear, which have often small halos round them. Hamadryads, in mythology ; eight daughters of Hainadryas, by her brother. They received their names from trees, and are the same as the Dryads, (q. v.) They were conceived to inhabit each a particular tree, with which they were bom, and with which they perished. Whoever spared a tree to then entreaties, they rewarded, while the destroyer of groves was sometimes severely punished. (See Erisicthon.) IIamah ; a place in Syria, famous as Abulfeda's birthplace. It has, according to Burckhardt, from 60 to 100,000 inhab- itants, who live chiefly by manufacturing silk and cotton. Ha man ; a name meaning full of grace. (See Esther.) Hamann, John George, who called him- self the Northern Magian, was born at Konigsberg, in 1730, travelled about in different parts of his native country, was private tutor in several places, received an office in the customs at Konigsberg, in 1777, aud died at Miinster, in 1788. Be- tween 1759 and 1784, he published seve- ral humorous works, whose value the public did not then appreciate ; but since Herder, Jacobi, Gothe and Jean Paul Richter have spoken of them with appro- bation, tbey have been republished (Leip- sic, 1821—1825). Hamburg, the most considerable of the free cities of Germany, is situated about 80 miles from the mouth of the Elbe, upon the northern bank of the river, which is navigable for large vessels as far as this port. The circuit of the city is about 22,000 feet In the northern part is a lake, formed by the small river Alster, which runs through the city into the Elbe, and turns several mills. An arm of the Elbe enters the city from the east, and is there divided into a number of canals, which take various directions, till they unite, and join the Alster in the southern part of the city, where they form a deep harbor for ships, which communicates with the main branch of the river. Here is a large space enclosed by strong piles, where ships may lie in safety ; it is called Rum- melhaven. Canals intersect the lower part of the city in all directions, and almost all the stores are built upon their banks. In this part of the city, and also in that which lies on the east of the Alster, the streets are, for the most part, narrow and crooked. Many of those in the western or New Town, are broader and straighter. The city'contains 19 churches, of which 16 are Lutheran, one Catholic, and two Calvinistic, with some synagogues for 8000 Jews. In the suburb of St. George, there are 1200 houses and a Lutheran church. The church of St Michael, with its tower, 456 feet in height, built by Son- nin (q. v.), and intended for astronomical observations and for experiments in nat- ural philosophy, vvas finished in 1786. This building, and some of the private houses, are remarkable for their archi- tecture. The exteriors of the exchange and the council-house are also handsome- ly ornamented. Among the most re- markable buildings are the bank, the ad- miralty buildings, the orphan asylum, the new general hospital, the theatres, the ex- change, the city and commercial libraries, Rolling's museum, &c. The gymnasium and the Johanneum are excellent institu- tions for education. The building for the school of navigation, opened in 1826, is provided with an observatory, and a bo- tanic garden is also annexed to it. In in- stitutions for the relief of the destitute, for the sick, and for the education of poor children, Hamburg is inferior to no city in Germany. Most of these are under the direction of private individuals, and they are principally supported by voluntary contributions. The constitution of Ham- burg is aristocratic. The government consists of four burgomasters and 24 counsellors, and fills its own vacancies by an artful combination of chance and of choice. Three of the burgomasters and 11 of the counsellors are lawyers; the rest are merchants. To the senate are attach- ed four syndics and four secretaries. Cal- 148 HAMBURG. vinists are excluded from the government of Hamburg, as Lutherans are from that of Bremen. The ordinary public busi- ness, both internal and external, is trans- acted by the senate alone; matters of more importance are regulated in con- nexion with the citizens possessed of a certain property. These are divided into five parishes, each of which sends 36 members to the assembly or college of the 180. From these are chosen the mem- bers of the council of 60, and again from these 15 elders. Each of these colleges has peculiar privileges. The senate and the elders alone receive salaries. Justice is administered by several courts. The court of appeal of the free cities of the Germanic confederacy, is the supreme tribunal. The public revenues were for- merly considerable, without the taxes be- ing oppressive ; but the heavy debts in- cuned by the city, of late years, have greatly iucreased the taxes. The citizens are provided with arms, and accustomed to military exercises, so as to form a body of infantry, cavalry and artillery, in regu- lar uniform, amounting to about 10,000 men. The removal of the old fortifica- tions was commenced, in 1804, and the great French works have also been since demolished. The wall has been turned into a park. The territory of Hamburg (116 square miles) is bounded by that of Holstein on the north and west; the city of Altona, in the territory of Holstein, is not two miles distant from the gates of Hamburg. Towards the cast, the Ham- burg territory borders on Lauenburg, and on the south it is separated by the Elbe from the tereitories of Hanover. Some of the islands in the Elbe belong also, ei- ther wholly or in part, to Hamburg, to- gether with the village of Moorburg on the left bank. Besides this, it has juris- diction over the bailiwic of Ritzebiittel, which contains the important town of Cuxliaven (q. v.), at the mouth of the Elbe. Hamburg, in common with Lii- beck, also has jurisdiction over the baili- wic of Bergedorf, with the small town of die same name, over the Vierlands, and a few places in Lauenburg. The popu- lation belonging to the city of Hamburg is about 122,000, and that of the lands over which it has separate or concunent jurisdiction, about 28,000. The city owes its foundation to the emperor Charle- magne, who, in the beguining of the ninth century, built a citadel aud a church on the heights between the Elbe and the eastern bank of the Alster, as a bulwark ajrainst the neighboring pagans. The adaptation of the place for commerce and fishing, attracted many settlers. Although its barbarous neighbors frequently destroy- ed this settlement, it was as often reestab- lished, and the city was enlarged by new buildings. It became important as a com- mercial city in the 12th century, and in the 13di it was one of the founders of the Hanseatic league, (q. v.) Even after the decline of the confederacy, it maintained its freedom and flourishing commerce. The Hanseatic league with Liibeck and Bremen subsisted till 1810, and has been renewed since 1813 and 1814. Until 1500, the city was confined to the strip of land between the Elbe and the eastern bank of the Alster. The western bank vvas gradually built upon, principally by exiles from the Netherlands. Thus arose the ~New Town, which was so important, even in the early part of the 30 years' war, that it was enclosed within the forti- fications, and thus gave to the city its present extent. In 1618, Hamburg was formally acknowledged a free city of the empire, although die archbishops of Bre- men continued to maintain possession of the cathedral, which fell to Sweden at the peace of Westphalia, and was afterwards ceded, with the duchy of Bremen, to Han- over. The 30 years' war, amidst the dev- astations of which Hamburg was spared, increased the number of its inhabitants, as late wars in Europe have also done, during which many persons emigrated there from the Rhine, from the Nether- lands, and from France. Its commerce increased in the same proportion, and compensated, in a great degree, for the loss in its manufactures, occasioned by the awakened spirit of industry, and by the, non-importation acts of foreign powers. Its sugar-refineries, manufactories of whale-oil, ship-yards, and establishments for printing cotton, are still important. The commerce of Hamburg was increas- ed, particularly, by its direct intercourse with the U. States of America, and by the war in the Netherlands and on the Rhine, by which it obtained a considerable share of the commerce of those countries. Thus, at the beginning of the present cen- tury, Hamburg was one of the richest aud most prosperous of the free cities. Its reverses began, in 1803, with the en- trance of the French into Hanover. They took possession of Ritzebiittel, and closed the Elbe to the English, who, in turn, closely blockaded the mouth of the river. Hamburg was now obliged to carry on its maritime commerce through Tonningen and Husum; and whatever was exported HAMBURG—HAMILTON. 149 through Hanover and the Elbe, had to be accompanied with certificates that it did not come from British hands, for which certificates the French authorities asked a high price. The city was obliged to advance 2,125,000 marcs banco to the states of Hanover. After the battle of Liibeck, Mortier entered Hamburg (19th Nov. 1806), and, although the French troops evacuated it again after the peace of Tilsit, and it yet retained, for a few years, the shadow of its former indepen- dence, it was still, during this period, op- pressed in a thousand ways by French commanders. Then came the decrees of Napoleon, which gave, as far as was pos- sible, a final blow to the commerce and industry of Hamburg. At last, Hamburg, with the whole north-western part of Germany, was formally incorporated in the French empire (13th Dec, 1810), and became, the capital of the newly created department of the Mouths of the Elbe. But at the beginning of the year 1813, the approach of Tettenborn obliged the French to fly (13th March). This encour- aged Hamburg to reestablish its free con- stitution, which had been overthrown, and to prepare to take a part in the great strug- gle. More than 2000 men enlisted for military service ; and they were to form a Hanseatic legion with the bands already raised by Lftbeck, and those expected from Bremen. In addition to this, a guard of citizens was formed, at first of volun- teers, and afterwards by a formal decree of the council and citizens. About 7000 men were enlisted for this purpose. In April, a part of the Hanseatic troops was able to take the field, and their cavahy distinguished itself at Ottersberg on the 22d. But the French, being reinforced, drove back the troops of the allies. They made themselves masters of the left bank of the Lower Elbe, and, May 12, took Wilhelmsburg (the castle of Harburg had voluntarily sunendered to them), and on the night of the 20th, they began to bom- bard the town. The hope of deliverance, awakened on the 21st, by the entrance of two Swedish battalions, vanished on the 25th, when the Swedes retreated. Mis- understandings arose between the milita- ry commanders and the senate, which Bought for the mediation of the Danes. On the 29th, Tettenborn evacuated the city ; and Von Hess, the commander of the guard of citizens, dismissed them. Before a capitulation had been signed, the Danes entered the city as allies of the French, and, on the evening of the 31st, Eckmuhl and Vandamme appeared with 13* a large number of French troops. Partly to secure possession of the city, and part- ly to punish its resistance, the severest measures were taken. A contribution of 48,000,000 francs was levied upon the cit- izens, and a part of it was exacted imme- diately. At the end of the year, 40,000 persons, of every age and sex, had been driven from the city, and exposed to all the rigors of winter. At the same time, the dwellings of about 8000 persons,in the near- est environs of the city, were consumed by fire with such rapidity, that these poor people could only escape with their lives. As the troops which approached Ham- burg, first under Wallmoden, and after- wards under Bennigsen, were too weak to undertake a siege, the city could not ob- tain deliverance from its oppressors, until after the end of the war in France. In the latter part of May (1814), the French troops first left the city, carrying with them the fruits of their exactions. A rent of 500,000 francs was the trifling compen- sation which France made to Hamburg, for its disastrous ravages within and with- out the city. The Russians, under Ben- nigsen, entered in the place of the French, and remained till the end of the year. Then first was the quiet of Hamburg re- stored. Hamburg Marc Courant and Banco. (See Coin.) Hamburg Bank. (See Bank.) Hamilcar. (See Hannibal.) Hamilton, Anthony, count ; a poet, courtier and man of letters in the 17th century. He vvas descended from a younger branch of the family of the dukes of Hamilton, in Scotland, but vvas born in Ireland about 1646. His parents were Catholics and royalists, in consequence of which they removed to France, after the death of Charles I, and young Hamilton became domiciliated in that country. He, however, made frequent visits to England, in the reign of Charles II. His sister was married to count Grammont It is said that the count, after having paid his ad- dresses to the lady, and been accepted, changed his mind, and set off for the con- tinent Her brother followed him, and, overtaking him at Dover, asked him if he had not forgotten something to be done,pre- viously to his leaving England. " O, yes," replied Grammout," I forgot to marry your sister;" and he immediately returned aud fulfilled his engagement "When James II vvas obliged to contend for his crown in Ireland, he gave count Hamilton a reg- iment of infantry, and made him gover- nor of Limerick; but, on the ruin of the 150 HAMILTON. royal cause, he accompanied James to France, where he passed the rest of Iris life. ^ His wit and talents secured him ad- mission into the first circles, where he was generally esteemed for his agreeable manners and amiable disposition. He died at St Germain, in 1720. Count Hamilton is clriefly known as an author by his Me- moirs of Count Grammont, a lively and ppirited production, exhibiting a free, and, in the general oudine, a faithful delinea- tion of the voluptuous court of Charles II. The count's other works are Poems and Fairy Tales, which, as well as the Memoirs, are in French, aud display ele- gance of style and fertility of invention. Hamilton, Elizabeth, a lady of con- siderable literary attainments, was bom at Belfast, in Ireland, 25th July, 1758- Hav- ing become an orphan at an early age, she was brought up under the care of her un- mar, Ztifphen, Zwoll in Guelderland. These towns were divided into four prov- inces, each having a chief town. To the first belonged the Wendish or Vandalic towns; chief city, Lubeck: to die second, the towns of Cleves, the Mark and West- phalia, and the four towns in Guelderland, which were not subject to the government of Burgundy; chief city, Cologne : to the third belonged the Saxon and Branden- burg towns; chief city, Brunswick: and to the fourth, the Prussian and Livonian towns; chief city, Dantzic. At another period, the whole was divided into three provinces. At the same time, four great factories or depots were established in foreign countries: at London, in 1250; at Bruges, in 1252; at Novgorod, in 1272; and at Bergen, in 1278. Charters from kings and princes gave firmness to the whole; and, in 1364, an act of confede- racy was drawn up at Cologne. In the 14th century, the league every where attained a high political importance, and gave rise to the developement of that commercial policy which has since be- come intimately connected with all politi- cal relations, but of which the sovereigns of that time had little idea. The object of the league was now more fully declared : to protect themselves and their commerce from pillage; to guard and extend the foreign commerce of the allied cities, and, as far as practicable, to monopolize it; to manage the administration of justice within the limits of the confederacy; to prevent injustice by public assemblies, diets, and courts of arbitration; and to maintain the rights and immunities re- ceived from princes, and, if possible, to increase and extend diem. Among the internal regulations were, the obligations incuned, on being received into the con- federacy, to furnish soldiers and vessels, or, in certain cases, money as a substitute, and to pay the duties and amercements. The league exercised a judicial power, and inflicted the greater and lesser ban. Any place which incurred these punish- ments was said to be verhansed. Foreign factories were subjected to an almost mo- nastic discipline, which even required the celibacy of factors, masters and members of the guilds. The laws prescribed to the agents of the English fur companies, in North America, and the North-west and Hudson's bay companies, resemble, in many particulars, those of the Hanseatic factories. By a uniform adherence to their HANSA—HAPSBURG. 165 great object, and by the maintenance of good order, the Hanseatic cities obtained a great importance, although the confed- eracy was never formally acknowledged by die empire; and kings and princes were, in reality, more dependent on the league than it was on them. The Hanse towns in England were exempted from duties on exports, and hi Denmark, Swe- den and Russia, from those on imports— privileges which were enjoyed by no sub- jects of those countries. The extensive carrying trade of the Hanseatic confed- eracy was a great source of wealth; and, at length, there was no mart in Europe which was not gradually drawn within the circle of its influence; and, by the greatness of its wealth and the might of its arms, it became the mistress of crowns, and lands and seas. It conquered Eric and Hakon, kings of Norway, and Walde- mar III of Denmark. It deposed a king of Sweden, and gave his crown to Albert, duke of Mecklenburg. In 1428, it equip- ped a fleet of 248 ships,with 12,000 soldiers, against Copenhagen. Niederhoff, a bur- gomaster of Dantzic, ventured to declare war against Christian, king of Denmark. England, Denmark and Flanders con- cluded treaties with the league, for the extension of theh commerce. It under- took to provide for the security of com- merce on the Baltic and North seas. In the country under its immediate influence, it constructed canals, and introduced a uniform system of weights and measures. But the prosperity of the Hanse towns was naturally dependent on the continu- ance of the circumstances which gave rise to it; and when those circumstances changed, the league was destined to fall. When, therefore, the routes by land and sea were no longer insecure ; when princes learned the advantages of trade to their own states, and turned their attention to the formation of a naval force of theh own, and the encouragement of naviga- tion ; when the inland members of the confederation perceived that the great seaport towns had a separate interest of theh own, and used them prhicipally to promote their own ends; when the mari- time towns ceased to be the masters of the Baltic, and the German princes deter- mined to subject those of the interior to their immediate control, in order to secure the greatest possible advantages from their commerce, to which they were encour- aged especially by the emperor Charles V, who thought to improve the commerce of his possessions in the Netherlands, and was, consequently, disaffected to the alli- ance; and when the discovery of America produced a total revolution in trade,—then the dissolution of the Hanseatic league was evidently approaching. The last diet was held at Lubeck, in 1630, and the confederation was dissolved. But Ham- burg, Lubeck and Bremen united anew (and, in certain cases, Dantzic was admit- ted among them), though not under the name of Hanseatic towns. In 1826, Great Britain concluded treaties with the Han- seatic towns, regulating the trade on prin- ciples of reciprocity, the same as with Sweden, Denmark, &c. (See Bremen, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Free Cities.) The name of Hanse towns no longer exists in the vocabulary of politics. Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck and Frankfort are styled, in the German confederation, the four free cities. Hans Folz. (See Folz.) Hans Sachs. (See Sachs.) Hanwat, Jonas, a merchant and travel- ler, distinguished for his active benevo- lence, was bom at Portsmouth in 1712. At an early age, he was apprenticed to a merchant at Lisbon, and, in 1743, became a partner in an English house at Peters- burg. The concerns of the partnership rendering a journey to Persia desirable, it was gladly undertaken by Mr. Hanway, who went to Astrabad with a cargo of English goods. In 1753, he published a work entitled An Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea, &c, with the particular History of the great Usurper Nadir Kouli (4 vols. 4to.). In the same year, he engaged in the con- troversy concerning the naturalization of the Jews, and published a Review of the proposed Naturalization, by a Merchant; a third edition of which appeared the same year. From this time, Mr. Hanway con- tinued publishing, on a variety of topics, all relating to points of public good, or schemes of charity and utility. His fel- low citizens entertained such a sense of his merits, that a deputation of the princi- pal merchants of London waited upon lord Bute, to request tiiat some public mark of favor might be conferred upon a man who had done so much service to the community, at the expense of his pri- vate fortune. He was, in consequence, made a commissioner of the navy, which post he held for twenty years, and, on res- ignation, was allowed to retain the salary for life. He died in 1786, and a monu- ment was erected to him by subscrip- tion. Hapsburg (properly Habsburg); a small place in the Swiss canton of Aargau, on 166 HAPSBITRO—HARDENBERG. the right bank of the Aar. The castle was buUt, hi the 11th century, by bishop Werner, on a steep, rocky situation; whence the name, which was originally Habichtsburg (Hawks-Castle). The pro- prietors of Hapsburg became, at a later period, counts of Hapsburg, and grad- ually acquired a more extensive terri- tory. In 1273, Rodolph, count of Haps- burg, was chosen emperor of Germany. He is the founder of the reigning house of Austria, which is of the fine of Haps- burg-Lonaine. From Rodolph to Charles VI, the Austrian monarchs were of the Hapsburg male line. Maria Theresa, who succeeded Charles VI, married Francis Stephen of Loreaine, who, in 1745, was chosen emperor of Germany. Theh son, the first of the Hapsburg-Lorraine line, Joseph II, died 1790. His successor, Leo- pold II, died 1792. His successor, Francis (as emperor of Germany, II; as emperor of Austria, I), is the present sovereign. The castle of Hapsburg is still to be seen on the Wiilpelsberg. Hardenberg, Frederic von ; known as an author under the name of Novalis, bom May 2, 1772, died March 25, 1801. His parents paid great attention to his education. In Jena, Von Hardenberg studied philosophy, and at Leipsic and Wittenberg, the law. From thence he went to Tennstadt, where it was intended he should be practically instructed in ju- risprudence. In December, 1797, he went to Freyberg, where Julia von Char- pentier won his affections. In 1799, he formed a friendship with L. Tieck and the two Schlegels. He had made himself well acquainted with law, natural philos- ophy, mathematics and philosophy, but was most eminent for his poetical talents. In the works of Novalis, mere is a singu- lar mixture of imagination, sensibility, re- ligion and mysticism. He was the gen- tlest and most amiable of enthusiasts. Some of his hymns are very beautiful. His novel Hrinrich von Ofterdingen was left unfinished. His Hymns to Night have the greatest merit His works have been published at Berlin (1814 and 1816, 3d edit). Hardenberg, Charles Augustus (baron, afterwards prince of); Prussian chancellor of state. He was born at Hanover, May 31,1750, and, after having completed his smdies in Leipsic and Gottingen, entered into the civil service of his country in 1770. He passed several years in travel- ling through Germany, France, Holland, and particularly England. In 1778, he was made privy counsellor; but a misun- derstanding with one of die English princes induced him to resign his place in 1782, and to enter the service of Bruns- wick. The duke sent him to Berlin, in 1786, with the will of Frederic II, which had been deposited with him. Here he gave so much satisfaction, that the duke sent him repeatedly to the same place. In 1790, he was made minister of the last margrave of Anspach and Baireuth, on the recommendation of Prussia. When the margravate was incorporated with Prussia, Hardenberg remained in his of- fice, and was made Pmssian minister of state, and, soon after, cabinet minister. April 5, 1795, he signed the peace be- tween the French republic and Prussia, on the part of the latter. At the begin- ning of this century, Berlin became the centre of many negotiations between the northern powers. The minister Haug- witz favored France, but the influence of Hardenberg decided the Prussian cabinet to take part with England. Count Haug- witz therefore gave in his resignation, and Hardenberg succeeded him, in August, 1804. The disasters which Pmssia soon after suffered, in the conflict with Napo- leon, are well known. In consequence of die treaty of December 15, 1805, which Haugwitz concluded at Vienna, between Prussia and France, Hardenberg again gave up his place to that minister; but, on the breaking out of the war of 1806, he once more resumed the port-folio. After the peace of Tilsit, he asked for his dismission; but, in 1810, the king of Pms- sia appointed him chancellor of state (prime minister), and endeavored to form a union with France ; but the disasters of the French army in Russia changed his policy. Hardenberg signed the peace of Paris, and was created prince. He went to London with the sovereigns, and was one of the most prominent actors at the congress of Vienna. He was subsequent- ly the active agent in all matters in which Pmssia took part; he was made president of the council of state; was present, in 1818, at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle; in 1819, at Carlsbad ; in 1820, at Vienna, at Troppau and Verona. While on a journey in the north of Italy, he fell sick at Pavia, and died at Genoa, November 27, 1822. As to his political principles in the latter part of his life, he was an active minister of the holy alliance; but, still, he understood that the time of feudalism was past, and his abolition of feudal ser- vices and privileges in Pmssia will always be remembered in his favor. He patron- ized the sciences munificently, and the HARDENBERG—HARE. 167 foundation of the university of Bonn is honorable to him. He loved power, but, at the same time, his administration had many good features. In the years 1807— 1810, prince Hardenberg wrote Memoirs on his Time, from 1801 to the Peace of Tilsit, and, before bis death, gave the manuscript to Scholl, a counsellor of state. The king, however, sealed it with his arms, and ordered it not to be opened un- til 1850. Hardenberg was twice manied. His son by the first marriage is a count, and in the Danish service. Hardicanute, king of England and Denmark, was the son of Canute, by Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy. He succeeded his father on the Danish throne in 1038, and, at the same time, laid claim to that of England, which had devolved to his elder and half-brother, Harold. A compromise was effected, by which the southern part of the kingdom was, for a while, held in his name by his mother Emma; and, on the death of his brother, he succeeded to the whole. His government was violent and tyrannical; he revived the odious tax of Danegelt, and punished, with great severity, the in- sunections which it occasioned. The deatii of this despicable prince, in conse- quence of intemperance at the nuptials of a Danish nobleman, brought Iris reign to an early termination, to die great joy of his subjects, in 1041. Hardness, in physiology ; the resist- ance opposed by a body to impression, or to the separation of its particles. This property depends on the force of cohe- sion, or on that which chemists call affin- ity, joined to the areangement of the par- ticles, to their figure, and other circum- stances. A body, says M. Hauy, is con- sidered more hard in proportion as it pre- sents greater resistance to the friction of another hard body, such as a steel file; or as it is more capable of wearing or work- ing into such other body, to which it may be applied by friction. Lapidaries judge of the hardness of fine stones, &c, from the difficulty with which they are worn down, or polished. Hardouin, John ; a learned French Jesuit, no less celebrated for his intimate acquaintance with the classical authors of antiquity, than remarkable for the singu- larity of Ms opinions respecting the au- thenticity of their writings. He was born in 1646, at Quimper in Bretegne, and died at Paris, 1729. The work by which he is principally known, is his Chronologia ex Nummis antiquis restUutaProlusio de Num- mis Herodiadum, in which he supports the extraordinary hypothesis, that almost cH the writings under the names of die Greek and Roman poets and historians, are the spurious productions of the 13th century. His exceptions to this denunciation are, the works of Cicero and Pliny, as well as of some of those attributed to Horace and Virgil. He contends, at the same time, that the two latter are allegorical writers, who, under the names of Lalage and iEne- as, have represented the Christian relig- ion and the life of its founder. This treatise was condemned and proscribed, the author was called upon for a public recantation of his enors, which in fact he made; but he afterwards repeated his of- fence in other publications. Among his 102 works are, Nummi aidiqui Populorum et Urbium Ulustrati (1684); Pliny's Natu- ral History, in usum Delphini (5 vols., 4to., 1685); and another in 12 folio volumes of The Councils (1705). On this latter work he expended a great deal of time and labor, but it was suppressed by the parlia- ment. He considered all the councils, previous to that of Trent, as imaginary. A selection from father Hardouin's works, comprising most of those which had fallen under the censure of the Romish church, appeared, in 1700, at Amsterdam. The following epitaph, which has been eno- neously ascribed to Atterbury, and to president de Boze, was written by Jacob Vemet, of Geneva: Hie jacet hominum paradoxotatos, Orbis litterati portentum, Venerandae antiquitatis cultor et depredator, Docte febricitans, Somnia et inaudita commenta vigilans edidit, Scepticuin pie egit, Credulitate puer, Audacia. juvenis, Deliriis senex. Hare (lepus). The generic characters of diis well known animal are, four cutting teeth in the upper jaw, and two in the lower; two of the upper teeth, however, are placed behind the others, and are of a much smaller size; the whole dental for- mula is, incisors f-, canines §, molars § f- = 28; die two fore feet with five, and the hinder with four, toes. These animals are found in almost every part of the world, living entirely on vegetable food, and all remarkably timid. They run by a kind of leaping pace, and, in walking, use theh hind feet as far as the heel. Their tails are either very short or almost wanting. The female goes with young about a mondi, generally producing three to six at a litter, and this about four times a year. The eyes of the young are open at birth. The dam suckles them about 168 HARE—HAREM. 20 days, after which they leave her, and procure their own food. The European hare (L. timidus) is found throughout Europe, and some parts of Asia. The color of this species is of a tawny red on the back and sides, and white on the belly. The ears, which are very long, are tipped with black; the eyes are very large and prominent. The length of this animal is about two feet, and, when full grown, it weighs six to eight pounds. It is a watchful, timid creature, always lean, and, from the form of its legs, runs swifter up hill than on level ground. Hares feed on vegetables, and are very fond of the bark of young trees; their favorite food, how- ever, is parsley. Their flesh vvas forbid- den to be eaten among the Jews and the ancient Britons, whilst the Romans, on the contrary, held it in great esteem. " Inter quadrupedes gloria prima lepus,"—Martial; and Horace, who is good authority as an epicure, says, Every man of taste must prefer the fore shoulder—" Fecundi leporis sapiens sectabUur armos." The flesh is now much prized for its peculiar flavor, though it is very black, dry, and devoid of fat. The voice of the hare is never heard but when it is seized or wounded. At such times, it utters a sharp, loud cry, not very unlike that of a child. It has a remarkable instinct in escaping from its enemies; and many instances of the sur- prising sagacity of these animals are on record, though it appears that all of them do not possess equal experience and cun- ning. A perpetual war is carried on against them by cats, wolves, and birds of prey; and even man makes use of every artifice to entrap these defenceless and timid creatures. They are easily tamed, but never attain such a degree of attach- ment as renders diem domestic, always availing themselves of the first opportunity to escape. Among the devices of hares to elude theh pursuers, the following have been observed : Getting up into a hollow tree, or upon ruined walls; throwing themselves into a river, and floating down some distance; or swimming out into a lake, keeping only their nose above the surface; returning on theh own scent, &c. The American hare (L. Americanus), so well known under the name of rabbit, is found in most parts of North America. The summer hah is dark brown on the upper part of the head, lighter on the sides, and of an ash color below ; the ears are wide, edged with white, tipped with brown, and dark colored on their back; tail, dark above, white beneath, having die inferior surface turned up; the fore legs are shorter and the hinder longer in proportion than those of the European. In the Middle and Southern States, the change in the color of the hah is by no means as remarkable as it is farther north, where it becomes vvlrite, or nearly so. This species is from 14 to 18 inches long. The American hare generally keeps with- in its form during die day, feeding early in die morning or at night. The flesh is dark colored, but is much esteemed as an article of food. It is in its prime late hi the autumn and in the winter. It is not hunted in this country as in Europe, but is generally roused by a dog, and shot or caught by means of snares or a common box trap: this latter is the most usual mode. In its gait, it is very similar to the European, leaping radier than running. Like that animal, it breeds several times during the year. There are several other species of the hare inhabiting North America, of which the most remarkable is the polar hare (L. glacialis). This occurs in vast numbers towards the ex- treme northern part of the continent It is larger than the common hare. The fur is exceedingly thick and woolly, of the purest white in the cold months, with the exception of a tuft of long black hair at the tip of the ears. In summer, the hair becomes of a grayish brown. (See Rabbit.) Harelip is a single or double fissure of the upper lip, by which it is divided into two or three parts, and is thus made to resemble the lip of the hare. Children are not unfrequently born with this de- formity. The fissure is sometimes con- fined to the lip, but more commonly extends to the gums and palate, which it divides into two parts. It produces great difficulty in speech, and besides keeping the mouth open, and thus suffering the saliva to escape, it is a dreadful deformity in appearance. It is very common, but, for- tunately, is easily curable, so that it seldom goes long unremedied, unless from choice or timidity. The operations for removing this most unfortunate deformity, in its worst forms, are among die merits which have given celebrity to the name of Des- sault Harem (Arabic, sacred, the sanctuary) is used, by Mussulmans, to signify die women's apartments, which are forbidden to every man except the husband. It answers, in some measure, to the gyna- ceum of the Greeks. The term seraglio, often used by Europeans for harem, is a conuption of the word serai, i. e., palace. The ladies are served by female slaves, and guarded by black eunuchs; the head HAREM—HARLEQUIN. 169 of the latter is called kizlar-aga. There are two kizlar-agas, one of the old, the other of the new palace, each of which has its harem. The one is occupied by the women of former sultans, and those who have incurred die displeasure of the reigning prince; the other, by such as still enjoy his favor. Doctor Clarke, who visited the summer palace during the absence of the occupants, has given a particular description of it hi his Travels (vol. iii, pp. 20—37). The women of the imperial harem are all slaves, generally Circassians or Georgians; for no free born Turkish woman can be introduced into it as an odah-lic, or concubine. Their num- ber depends solely on the pleasure of the sultan, but is very considerable. His mother, female relations and grandees, vie with each other in presenting him the handsomest slaves. Out of this great number he chooses seven wives, although but four are allowed by the prophet. These are called cadins, and have splendid appointments. The one who first pre- sents him widi a male heir is styled the sultana, by way of eminence. She must then retire into the eski serai (old palace); but if her sou ascends the throne, she returns to the new palace, and has the tide of sultana valide. She is die only woman who is allowed to appear without a veil; none of die others, even when sick, are permitted to lay aside the veil, in die presence of any one except the sultan. When visited by the physician, their bed is covered with a thick counterpane, and the pulse felt through gauze. The life of the ladies of the imperial harem is spent in bathing, dressing, walking in the gar- dens, witnessing the voluptuous dances performed by their slaves, &c. The women of other Turks enjoy tho society of their friends at the baths or each oth- er's houses, appear in public accompanied by slaves and eunuchs, and enjoy a de- gree of liberty which increases as they descend in rank. But those of the sultan have none of these privileges. When transferred to the summer residences on the Bosphorus, they are removed at break of day, pass from the garden to tin; boats between two screens, while the eunuchs, for a considerable distance round, warn every one off, on pain of death. Each boat has a cabin covered with cloth, and the eunuchs keep die boatmen or bos- tandjis at a distance. It is, of course, only the richer Moslems who can maintain harems ; the poorer classes have generally but one wife. Ha riot, or IIeriot, in law; a due vol. vi. 15 belonging to a lord at the deatii of his tenant, consisting of the best beast, either horse, ox, or cow, which he had at the lime of his deadi; and, in some manors, the best goods, piece of plate, &c, are called hariots. Harleian Library. (See Harley.) Harlem. (See Haarlem.) Harlequin (arlecchino, Italian). It is not in our power to detennine the etymol- ogy of the name of this dramatic person- age. Menage derives it from a comedian, who was so called because he frequented the house of M. de Harlay, in the reign of Henry III of France. Batteux derives it from the satirical drama of the Greeks. Riccobini conjectures (History of the Italian Theatre) that the dress of the harlequins is no other than the centunculus of the old Roman mimi, who had their heads shaved, and were called planipedes (barefooted). To the reasons adduced by Riccobini, we may add die ridiculous sword of the ancient mimi, which, with die harlequin, has been converted into a stick. Harlequins and buffoons arc also called zanni, by the best Tuscan writers, probably from the Latin sannio, of winch Cicero (De Oratore, ii, 61) gives a descrip- tion applying so strongly to the harlequin, that it places his derivation from the pla- nipedes almost beyond a doubt The character of the ancient harlequin was a mixture of extravagant buffoonery with great corporeal agifity, so that his body seemed almost constantly in the air. He vvas impudent, droll, satirical and low, and often indecent in his expressions. But, in the middle of the 16th century, his character was essentially changed. The modern harlequin laid aside the peculiari- ties of Iris predecessor. He became a simple, ignorant servant, who tries very hard to be witty, even at die expense of being malicious. He is a parasite, cow- ardly, yet faithful and active, but easily induced, by fear or interest, to commit all sorts of tricks and knaveries. He is a chameleon, who assumes all colore, and can be made, in the hands of a skilful actor, the principal character on the stage. He must excel in extempore sallies. The modern harlequin plays many droll tricks, which have been handed down, from gen- eration to generation, for centuries. This account applies more particularly to the Italian harlequin. Italy, in fact, particu- larly in the commedia deU'arte, is his natu- ral scene of action. He can only be prop- erly appreciated when seen in tiiat de- partment of the drama, and distinct from all other similar personages. Whether he 170 HARLEQUIN—HARMONIA. is to be tolerated or not, is a question of importance. He has found an able advo- cate in Moser (Harlequin, or Defence of the Grotesque-Comic). (See Mask.) The gallant, obsequious French harlequin is an entirely national mask. In the Vaude- ville theatre, he is silent, with a black half mask, and reminds one, throughout the representation, of the grace and agility of the cat (See Carting Iu England, he became a lover and a magician; and, in exchange for the gift of language, of which he was there deprived, he was invested with the wonder-working wand, from the possession of which Mr. Douce pronoun- ces him to be the "illegitimate successor of the old Vice" (On Shakspeare, i, 458). (See Punchinello.) A standing grotesque character, on the German stage, was called Hanswurst (Jack-Pudding), and answered to the Dutch Pickled-Herring, die French Jean-Potage, the Italian (more properly Neapolitan) Maccaroni, and the English Jack-Pudding. This family was a race of gourmands, clowns, coarse and rude in their wit Harley, Robert; earl of Oxford, and earl Mortimer, a distinguished minister of state, in the reign of queen Anne. He was born in London, in 1661, and was die son of sir Edward Harley, a Herefordshire gentleman, who had been an active parti- san of the parliament during the civil war. The subject of this article, though of a Presbyterian family, adopted tory princi- ples in politics, and joined the high church party. In die reign of William III, he acted with the whigs; but, after the acces- sion of Anne, he, as well as his more cel- ebrated colleague, St John, afterwards lord Bolingbroke, deserted the party with which they had acted, and became lead- ers of the tories. Harley was chosen speaker of the house of commons in 1702, and afterwards vvas secretary of state. He resigned his post in 1708. The cabals of their political opponents having effected the removal of the duke of Marl- borough and his friends from office, Har- ley was nominated a commissioner of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, in 1710. In 1711, Harley was raised to the peerage, and constituted lord high treasurer. After the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, the tory statesmen, having no longer any apprehensions of danger from abroad, began to quanel among them- selves; and the two chiefs, Oxford and Bolingbroke, especially, became personal and political foes, actuated by different views and sentiments. The former re- signed the treasurership just before the death of die queen in 1714. Whatever projects may have been formed by others of the party, there seems to be no ground for believing tiiat lord Oxford had en- gaged in any measures to intereupt the Protestant succession. Early in the reign of George I, he vvas, however, impeached of high treason by the house of commons, and was committed to the Tower. He remained in confinement till June, 1717, when, at his own petition, he was brought before the house of peers, and, after a public trial, acquitted of the crimes laid to his charge. The rest of his life was spent in adding to his literary stores, in the col- lection of which he expended a consider- able portion of the wealth which his pub- lic employments had enabled him to accu- mulate. He died May 21, 1724. His patronage was extended to Swift, Pope, and other literary men. Lord Oxford published a Letter to Swift for conecting and improving the English Tongue; an Essay on public Credit; an Essay upon Loans; and a Vindication of the Rights of the Commons of England. He was succeeded in his titles by his son Edward, who augmented the collection of printed books and manuscripts formed by his father. On the death of the second carl of Oxford, in 1741, die library of printed books was sold to Osborne, a bookseller, who published a catalogue of them, com- piled by William Oldysand Samuel John- son (4 vols., 8vo., 1743). The MSS. are preserved in the British museum, where they form the Bibliotheca Harleiana. Harmattan ; a wind which blows pe- riodically from die interior parts of Africa, towards the Atlantic ocean. It prevails in December, January and February, and is generally accompanied with a fog or haze, that conceals the sun for whole days together. Extreme dryness is the charac- teristic of this wind ; no dew falls during its continuance, which is sometimes for a fortnight or more. The whole vegetable creation is withered, and the grass be- comes, at once, like hay. The human body is also affected by it, so that the skin peels off; but it checks infection, and cures cutaneous diseases. Harmodius. (See Hippias, and Aris- togiton.) Harmonia, or Hermione; a daughter of Mars and Venus, the fruit of an amour, in which they were surprised by Vulcan. Her name was at first used to indicate music in general. She emigrated with her husband, the PhoBiiician Cadmus, into Greece, where she is said to have intro- duced music. HARMONICA—HARMONY. 171 Harmonica, or Armonica, is a name which doctor Franklin has given to a mu- sical instrumeut constructed with drinking glasses. It is well known that a drinking glass yields a sweet tone, by passing a wet finger round its brim. Mr. Pockrich, of Ireland, was the first who thought of play- ing tunes fonned of these tones. He col- lected a number of glasses of different sizes, fixed them near each other on a ta- ble, and tuned them by putting into them water, more or less, as each note required. Mr. Delaval made an instrument in imita- tion, and from this instrument doctor Franklin took the hint of constructing his armonica. The glasses for this musical instrument are blown as nearly as possible in the form of hemispheres, having each an open neck or socket in the middle. The thickness of the glass near the brim is about one tenth of an inch, increasing towards die neck, which, in the largest glasses, is about an inch deep, and an inch and a half wide within ; but these dimen- sions lessen as the size of the glasses dimin- ishes : the neck of the smallest should not be shorter than half an inch. The diameter of the largest glass is nine inches, and that of the smallest three niches. Between these there are 23 different sizes, differing from each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. The largest glass in the instrument is G, a little below the reach of a coimnon voice, and die highest G, including three com- plete octaves; and they are distinguished by painting the apparent parts of the glasses within side, every semitone white, and the other notes of the octave with the seven prismatic colors; so that glasses of the same color (the white excepted) are always octaves to each other. When the glasses are tuned, they are to be fixed on a round spindle of hard iron, an inch in diameter at the thickest end, and tapering to a quarter of an inch at the smallest For this purpose, the neck of each glass is fitted with a cork, projecting a little with- out the neck. These corks are perforated with holes of different diameters, according to the dimension of the spindle in that part of it where they are to be fixed. The glasses are all placed within one another ; the largest on the biggest end of the spin- dle, with the neck outwards; the next in size is put into the other, leaving about an inch of its brim above the brim of the first; and the others are put on in the same order. From these exposed parts of each glass the tone is drawn, by laying a finger upon one of them as the spindle and glasses turn round. The spindle, thus prepared, is fixed horizontally in the middle of a box, and made to mm on brass gudgeons at each end by means of a foot-wheel. This instru- ment is played upon by sitting before it, as before the keys of a harpsichord, turning the spindle with the foot, and wetting die glasses, now and then, with a sponge and clean water. The fingers should be first soaked in water, and mbbed occasionally with fine chalk, to make them catch the glass, and bring out the tone more readily. Different parts may be played together by using both hands ; and the tones are best drawn out when the glasses turn from the ends of the fingers, not when they turn to them. The advantages of this instrument, says doctor Franklin, are, that its tones are incomparably sweet, beyond those of any other, and that they may be swelled or softened at pleasure, by stronger or weaker {iressures of the finger, and continued to any ength; and when it is once tuned, it never wants tuning again. From the effect which it is supposed to have upon the nervous sys- tem, it has been suggested that the fingers should not be allowed to come in imme- diate contact with the glasses, but that the tones should be produced by means of a key, as upon the harpsichord. Such a key has been invented in Berlin or Dres- den, and an instrument constructed on this plan. It is called the harpsichord- harmonica. But these experiments have not produced any thing of much value; and it is impossible that the delicacy, the swell and the continuation of the tone should be canied to such perfection as in the first mentioned method. The har- monica, however much it excels all other instruments in the delicacy and duration of its tones, yet is confined to those of a soft and melancholy character, and to slow, solemn movements, and can hardly be combined to advantage widi other instru- ments. In accompanying the human voice, it throws it in die shade; and in con- certs, the accompanying instruments lose in effect, because so far inferior to it in tone. It is therefore best enjoyed by itself, and may produce a charming effect, in cer- tain romantic situations. Besides the proper hannonica, there is a pegged or nailed hannonica, the pegs of which are of steel, and, being placed hi a semicircle, are played with a strung bow. This has no resem- blance to the proper harmonica, except some similarity hi tone. Harmony ; 1. a town in the western part of Pennsylvania, where Rapp first settled with his Hannonists from Wiir- temberg, in 1803. He afterwards removed to Indiana, but has since returned again to Pennsylvania, with his 700 followers, 172 HARMONY—HARMOTOME. where he founded the village of Economy. The Hannonists are frugal and industrious, and hold their property in common. (See Rapp.)—2. A village in Indiana, on the Wabash, about 25 miles from its mouth, founded by Rapp. Mr. Owen's society afterwards attempted to cany the new social system into execution here, but it is now broken up. (See Owen.) Harmony (from the Greek); the agree- ment or consonance of two or more united sounds. Harmony is either natural or artificial. Natural harmony, properly so called, consists of the harmonic triad, or common chord. Artificial harmony is a mixture of concords and discords, bear- ing relation to the harmonic triad of the fundamental note. The word harmony being originally a proper name, it is not easy to determine the exact sense in which it was used by die Greeks ; but from the treatises they have left us on the subject, we have great reason to conclude that they limited its signification to that agree- able succession of sounds which we call air, or melody. The modems, however, do not dignify a mere succession of single sounds with the appellation of harmony: for the formation of harmony, they require a union of melodies, a succession of com- bined sounds, composed of consonant in- tervals, and moving according to the stated laws of modulation. Harmony, or Evangelical Harmony, is the title of various books, composed to show the uniformity and agreement of the accounts given by the four evangelists, by reducing the events recorded in the differ- ent evangelists to the order of time in which they happened. Harmony, Figured. Figured harmony is that in which, for the purpose of melo- dy, one or more of the parts of a compo- sition move, during the continuance of a chord, through certain notes which do not form any of the constituent parts of that chord. These intermediate notes not be- ing reckoned in the harmony, considerable judgment and skill are necessary so to dispose them that, while the ear is gratified with their succession, it may not be offend- ed at their dissonance with respect to the harmonic notes. Harmony of the Spheres ; a hypothe- sis of Pythagoras and iris school, according to which the motions of the heavenly bodies produced a music imperceptible by the ears of mortals. He supposed these motions to conform to certain fixed laws, which could be expressed in num- bers, corresponding to the numbers which give the harmony of sounds. The im- mortal Kepler, in his Harmonices Mundi, endeavors to apply the Pythagorean idea-; on numbers and musical intervals to as- tronomy, and in this work, as also in his Prodromus, sets forth eternal laws respect- ing the distances of the planets, which were not fully appreciated, until Newton, along time after, showed their importance and connexion. It is in the Harmonices Mundi, proemium to the 5th book, De Mo- tibus Planetarum, that Kepler, in his enthu- siasm, pronounces these bold words con- cerning his discovery: "Eighteen months ago, I saw the first ray of light; three months since, I saw the day; a few days ago, I saw the sun himself, of most ad- mirable beauty. Nothing can restrain me ; I yield to the sacred frenzy. I dare in- genuously to confess, that I have stolen the golden vessels of the Egyptians (alluding to the ideas of Ptolemy on die same sub- ject), and will build of them a tabernacle to my God. If you pardon me, I rejoice ; if you reproach me, I can endure it; the die is thrown. I write a book to be read ; whether by the present or future ages, it matters not. It can wait for a reader a century, if God himself waited six thousand years for an observer of his works."* To understand this enthusiasm fully, we must recollect the enoneous ideas with which the world had teemed from the time of Ptolemy. Harmony, Preestablished. (SeeLeib- nitz.) Harmotome, or Cross-stone ; the name, of a substance curious in mineralo- gy, on account of the cruciform figure of its crystals, and the peculiarity of its com- position. It sometimes occurs in right rectangular prisms terminated by four rhombic planes, corresponding to the solid angles of the prisms; but more frequently in twin-crystals formed by the intersection of two flattened prisms at right angles to each other, and in such a manner that a common axis and acumination is formed. The crystals yield to cleavage parallel to the planes and both diagonals of a right rectangular prism, which is their primary form. Its prevailing color is white; it is translucent or semi-transparent, with a somewhat pearly lustre, aud hard enough to scratch glass. Specific gravity 2.392. It consists of silex 49.00, alumine 16.00, * Si ignoscitis, gaudebo ; si succensetis, fe- ram ; jacio en aleam, librumque scribo, seu pre- sentibus sen posteris legendum, nihil interest; expectet Me suum lectorem per annos centum ; si Deus ipse per annorum sena millia contemplato- rem prasstolatus est. Joannis Kcpleri Har- monices Mundi, Libri v. Lincii, Austria;, HARMOTOME—HAROLD II. 173 barytes 18.00, and water 15.00. It chiefly occurs in metalliferous veins, as at Andre- asberg, in the Hartz, and at Strontian in Scotland. It has also been found in amygdaloid at Oberstein. Harms, Klaus, archdeacon of Kiel, celebrated as a preacher and author, born May 25, 1778, at Fahrstedt, a village in Holstein, was the son of a miller. Till his twelfth year, he studied in the village school, after which he learned the rudi- mdits of the Latin and Greek languages, from the preacher of the village. He was then obliged to attend to the mill and to the fann. From his seventeenth year, when his father died, he assumed the du- ties of the head of the family. In his nineteenth year, his mother having sold the mill, he entered the school at Meldorf, in Ditmarsh, studied, 1799, at Kiel, and became a tutor. In 1806, he was chosen by the society at Lunden, in North Dit- marsh, deacon, and, in 1816, was elected archdeacon at Kiel. As a pulpit orator, lie is eminent; his words flow with ease and facility, often rushing, powerful and energetic, as a tonent, and his style is simple, original and perspicuous. All classes of hearers, the learned as well as the rustic, listen with edification to his preaching. He has published Summer and Winter Sermons, and The 95 Theses of Doctor Martin Luther, with 95 other Positions accompanying them, by Kl. Harms (Kiel, 1817), in which he exposes many defects of the Protestant church. He is also the author of many odier works. Harness. (See Mail.) Harold I, Harfagar (fair-haired); lung of Norway, son of Hafdan the Black; one of the greatest monarchs of that country. At die time of his father's death (863), he was in the Dofreficld mountains, and had already evinced great talent and personal prowess in several hattles. Love made him a conqueror. He had offered his hand to Gida, the daughter of a neighboring king; but the proud beauty replied to Harold's ambas- sadors, that she would only consent to be- come his wife when he had subjected all Norway. Harold swore he would not cut his hair till he had accomplished Gida's desire, and, in ten years, succeeded in obtaining sole possession of Norway. In the mean time, his hair had grown iong and beautiful, from which circum- stance he derived his surname. While he reduced the lesser kings, he left them, with lhc title jarl, the administration of their territories, and the third part of their iu- 15* come; but many of them emigrated and founded Norwegian colonies. Hrolf, or Rollo, emigrated to Neustria (France). Others, with theh followers, established themselves in Iceland, the Shetland Isles, Faroe and the Orcades, all which were then uninhabited. When Harold found that the emigrants often extended their incursions into his dominions, he embark- ed, with a naval force, to subdue them. After a bloody war, he conquered Scot- land, the Orcades, &c, and returned home. He fixed his residence at Dron- theim, and died there in 930, after having raised his country to a prosperous state, by wise laws and the encouragement of commerce. Harold I, sumamed Harefoot, king of England, succeeded his father, Canute, in 1035, notwithstanding a previous agree- ment, that the sovereignty of England should descend to the issue of Canute by his second wife, the Nprman princess En. ma. His countrymen, the Danes, main- tained him upon the throne against the ef- forts of earl Godwin, in favor of Hardica- nute; but, Harold gaining over that leader by the promise of marrying his daughter, a compromise was effected, and they united to effect the murder of priuceAlfred, son to Elheldred II. After a reign of four years, in which nothing memorable occurred, Harold died, in 1039. Harold II, king of England, was the second son of Godwin, earl of Kent He succeeded his father in his government and great offices, and, upon the death of Edward the Confessor, in 1066, stepped without opposition into the vacant throne, without attending to die more legal claim of Edgar Athefing, or the asserted bequest of Edward in favor of the duke of Nonnandy. The latter immediately called upon him to resign the crown, and, upon his refusal, prepared for invasion. He also instigated Harold's brother, Tosti, who had retired in disgust to Flanders, to infest the northern coasts of England, in conjunction with the king of Norway. The united fleet of these chiefs sailed up the Humber, and landed a numerous body of men, who defeated the opposing forces of the earls of Northumberland aud Mercia, but were totally routed by Harold, whose brother, Tosti, fell in the battle. He had scarcely time to breathe after this victory, before he heard of the landing of the duke of Nor- mandy at Pevensey, in Sussex. Hasten- ing thither, with all die troops he could muster, a general engagement ensued at Hastings, Oct. 14,1066, in which this spir- ited prince, after exerting every effort of 174 HAROLD II—HARP. valor and military skill, was slain widi an arrow; and the crown of England was the immediate fruit of William's victory. Haroun, or Aaron al Rashid, a cel- ebrated caliph of the Saracens, vvas the sec- ond son of the caliph Mahadi. He succeed- ed Iris elder brother, Hadi, in the caliphate A. D. 786, and was the most potent prince of his race, ruling over tenitories extend- ing from Egypt to Korasan. He ob- tained the name of Al Rashid, or the Just, but his claim to the title must be regarded with considerable allowance for Eastern notions of despotic justice. One of his noblest qualities was his love of learning and science. He caused many Greek and Latin authors to be translated and dis- persed throughout his emphe, and made his subjects acquainted with the Iliad and the Odyssey. He eight times invaded the Greek empire, and, on the refusal of the emperor Nicephorus, in 802, to pay tribute, addressed to him a singu- larly anogant epistle, and followed it up by an irruption into Greece, wlrich terminated in the defeat of Nicephorus, who vvas obliged to pay an augmented tribute, and agree not to rebuild Her- aclea and the other pillaged and dilapi- dated frontier towns. During these transactions, the ruin of the family of the Barmecides exemplified the des- potic rigor of Haroun's character. Yaliia, the head of it, had superintended his edu- cation ; and of his four sons, the eldest was a successful general; the second, the caliph's prime vizier, Giaffer; and the third and fourth hi dignified stations. The generosity, munificence and affability of the Barmecides, rendered them the delight of all ranks of people; and Giaffer was so much in his master's graces, that the caliph, in order to enjoy his company in the presence of his sister Abassa, to whom he was equally attached, formed a maniage between the princess and vizier, but with the capricious restriction of their forbearing the privileges of such an union. Passion broke through this unjust prohibi- tion, and the caliph, in his revenge, pub- licly executed Giaffer, and confiscated the property of the whole family. Haroun attained the summit of worldly power and prosperity, and the French historians mention a splendid embassy which he sent to Charlemagne, which, among other presents, brought a magnificent tent, a water-clock, an elephant, and the keys of the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem, implying a pemussion for European pilgrims to visit it Haroun vvas seized with a mortal distemper, while on the point of march- ing to put down a rebellion in the prov- inces beyond the Oxus; and, retiring to Tous, in Korasan, expired in the 47th year of his age, and 23d of his reign. The popular fame of tlris caliph is evinc ed by die Arabian Nights'Entertainments, hi which Haroun,his wife Zobeidc, his vi- zier Giaffer, and his chief eunuch .Mesrour, are frequent and conspicuous characters. Harp ; a stringed instrument, consist- ing of a triangular frame, and the chords of which are distended in parallel direc- tions from the upper part to one of its sides. Its scale extends tlnough the com- mon compass, and the strings are tuned by semitonic intervals. It stands erect, and, when used, is placed at the feet of the performer, who produces its tones by the action of the thumb and fingers of both hands on the strings. The ancients had a triangular instrument, called trigo- num, corresponding somewhat to our harp. Some authors say that it came originally from the Syrians, from whom the Greeks borrowed it. The ancient sambuca is believed by some to coree- spond to the harp. Some writers say that the harp came to us from the nations of the north of Europe, in whose languages they trace its etymology. Papias and Du Cange assert that the harp derives its name from the Arpi, a people of Italy, who invented it; but Galileo maintains that die Italians received it from the Irish. Whatever may have been its origin, its invention is very ancient. It vvas known to the Egyptians, as appears from the travels of Bmce and Denon. The four harps, of which the latter traveller has given drawings, are almost the same in shape as ours. The two first have 21 strings, the tiiird 18, and the fourth only 4. The designs are from the paintings found in the tombs of the kings, in the mountain west of Thebes. The Hebrews, the Greeks and the Romans appear to have made particular use of this instru- ment The ivoiy harp, with seven strings, belonged to the Greeks, who, however, neglected it. The Romans pre- served the use of it a long time in sacri- fices. The harp was much played in France in the time of chivalry. The Anglo-Saxons excelled in playing on the harp, which they generally accompanied with the violin and the condemns. The; ancient Irish, Scotch and Welsh also made much use of this instrument, and the harp figures conspicuously in the arms of Ireland. The Anglo-Normans also were skilful performers on this instru- ment Stnitt in his England, Ancient HARP—HARPER. 175 and Modem, has given drawings of the harps used by the people of the North about the 9th century. They are triangu- lar, like ours, but have only 10 or 12 strings. In the 13di century, the harp had only 17 strings, as appears from a manuscript of the time, cited and analys- ed by Lebeuf (Mem. dc VAcademie des In- script, torn, xx, page 377). No instrument has received greater improvement from modem artists than this. In its present state, while it forms one of the most ele- gant objects to the eye, it produces some of the most agreeable effects to the ear, of any instrument in practice. Harp, ^Eolian. (See JEolian Harp.) Harpagus ; a Mede, minister of king ABtyages, who ordered him to put Cyrus to death. As he did not obey this com- mand, Astyages invited him to a banquet, at which the body of his own son was served up before him ; at least, so Herodo- tus tells us. (See Cyrus, and Astyages.) Harpe, Jean Francois de la. (See La- harpe, J. Fr. de.) Harpe, Frederic Caesar la. (See La- \arpe, Fr. Casar.) Harper, Robert Goodloe, vvas born near Fredericksburg, Virginia, of poor, out respectable parents, who, while he vvas very young, emigrated to Granville, in North Carolina. He displayed, in his boyhood, vivacity of spirit and versa- tility of talent, and, before the age of 15, possessed the mdiments of a liberal education, a various fund of profitable ideas, and an c\]>citness in the use of tools, which would have made him a successful mechanic. The ardor and gallantry of his character prompted him, at that age, to join a troop of horse, com- posed of the young men of die neighbor- hood, to which he acted as quarter-master, and with them he participated in Greene's campaign; but his thirst for learning and intellectual culture soon induced him to withdraw from the military career, and seek some situation in which he could complete his studies. He procured ad- mission into Princeton college, where he taught one or two of the inferior classes, while he gained uistruction and distinc- tion in the upper. About the age of 19 or 20, he accompanied a fellow student to Philadelphia, on a visit, and here fonn- ed the resolution to embark, at once, for England, and make the tour of Europe on foot. He intended to begin with giv- ing lessons in London, and to work simul- taneously at the trade of a joiner, for which he was qualified by his early prac- tice. This romantic project was frustrat- ed by ice in the Delaware, that prevented the departure of any vessel during many weeks, in the course of which the youth- ful adventurer nearly exhausted his purse, and had leisure to reflect upon the diffi- culties of the enterprise. As soon as the river became navigable, he resolved to sail for Charleston, and try his fortune there, his new scheme being to study the law. He areived, after a short passage, at that city, and found himself on the wharf, a stranger to every one, with but a dollar or two in his pockets. As he stood ru- minating on his condition, he was accost- ed by a man of respectable appearance, who asked him whether he had not taught a class at Princeton college, in which there was a youth of a certain name; and, being answered affirmatively, he pro- ceeded to say that (he youth was his son, who had rendered hiin familiar with the name of his tutor by the affectionate testi- mony often repeated hi his letters. He professed a strong desire to serve his new acquaintance, mentioned that he kept a tavern, and offered him any assistance which he might require. The welcome kindness was accepted: the generous friend hitroduced him to a lawyer, under whom he prepared himself for the same profession; and, in less than a twelve- month, he undertook causes on his own account. The hope of speedier success in his profession induced him to retire from Charleston to an ulterior district; and in this residence he first acquired some political consideration by a series of essays, in a newspaper, on a proposed change of the constitution of the state; aud he was soon elected into the legisla- ture. The reputation which he gained, as a speaker and man of busint ss, soon plac- ed hun in congress. It is unnecessary to follow him, in his legislative course of eight or nine years, from the commence- ment of the French revolution to the year 1802, when the democratic party had succeeded to the national government. In the importance of events and discussions. the excitement of parties, the talents of leaders, the difficulties of action, the period just mentioned may be termed die most remarkable in our independent annals. Such men as Marshal, Madison, Gilts, Nicholas, Tracy, Ames, Grisvvold, Bayard, Gallatin, exerted their various powers to the utmost, in congress; and among them Mr. Harper was constantly seen the equal adversary or coadjutor of the ablest. He sided with the federalists, and zealously supported the policy and measures of Washington, of whom he was the per- 176 HARPER sonal friend, as he was also of Hamilton, and others of the principal federal states- men. Many years afterwards, he collected into an octavo volume a portion of his circulars and addresses to his constituents, and a few of his speeches, as they were printed while he was a representative. These attest the vigor of his faculties, the depth of his views, and the extent of his knowledge. No member of the national councils vvas better acquainted with the foreign relations of his country, and the affairs of Europe, or could discuss them in a more instructive, argumentative and fluent strain. His pamphlet, published in 1797, and entitled Observations on the Dispute between the United States and France, acquired great celebrity at home, passed rapidly through several editions in England, and was esteemed, over Europe, one of the ablest productions of the crisis. The speeches which he delivered in his capacity of manager of the impeachment against Blount, on the question whether a senator of the U. States be liable to impeach- ment, and his argument on the constitu- tional powers of the president and senate relative to the appointment of foreign ministers, are specimens of his capacity in the examination of constitutional points. Soon after the downfall of the federal par- ty, he retired from congress, and, having married the daughter of the distinguished patriot Charles Canoll of Carollton, resum- ed the practice of the law in Baltimore, where he soon became eminent in his profession. Judge Chase, when impeach- ed by the house of representatives, en- gaged Mr. Harper for his defence, and committed to him the duty of preparing his full answer to the articles of impeach- ment The victorious answer, a master- piece in all respects, was thought to be the work of the judge himself, and excited a lively admiration of the supposed author's powers; but he furnished to- wards it only a few manuscript pages of loose heads, leading topics, most of which were either omitted, or essentially modi- fied. It was mainly supplied and wholly composed by his friend and counsellor, who, in concurrence with two distin- guished colleagues, Luther Martin and Joseph Hopkinson, defended him before die senate. Mr. Harper attended almost every session of the supreme court, from the time of its removal to Washington to that of his death, and was always listened to with respect by the court His style of speaking was animated, neat, suffi- ciently fluent, and uncommonly perspicu- ous. Juries especially felt the combined influence of his clear, natural tones, sim- ple, easy gesture, lucid aiTangement and impressive exposition of facts, and his facility in applying general principles, and deducing motives or consequences at the exact point of time. Mr. Harper did not suffer his taste for literature to languish. He was a diligent reader of belles-lettres, of history, geography, travels and statistics. He was versed in the sciences of morals and government, and was particularly well acquainted with political economy, and well knew how to use, in his public addresses, the stores with which his excel- lent memory readily supplied him. The federal party happening to acquire the as- cendant in Maryland, Mr. Harper was im- mediately elected, by the legislature, a senator in congress; but dris position the demands of his profession obliged him soon to relinquish. The same councils bestowed upon him the rank of major- general in the militia. About the years 1819—20, he set out for Europe with a part of his family, and visited, in succes- sion, England, France and Italy. He was absent from home nearly two years. Fa- vorable circumstances, and his own repu- tation and merit, procured for him access to many of the most renowned person- ages and brilliant circles, both of Great Britain and the continent. During the few years between his return and deatii, he employed himself chiefly in plans of a public character, such as the promotion of iutemal improvement and the coloniza-- tion of the blacks. He delighted in topo- graphical and geographical studies; and the particular notice which he had l>e- stowed upon African geography served, besides his philanthropic zeal, to draw him into the scheme of African colonization. In private fife, general Harper had signal virtues and attractions. His relatives and friends knew well the wannth and tender- ness of his heart, and the generosity of his disposition. He administered aid, praise and sympadiy wherever they were due. He lived with elegant hospitality, and enjoyed the company of the young and gay. In conversation, he excelled, perhaps, even more than he did in public speaking. He made a liberal estimate of the motives and qualities of his political antagonists. He never avoided social in- tercourse with any as such, but mixed with them in the kindest temper. For the leaders and principles of the federal party he retained a profound esteem. Immediately after the inauguration of Mr. Jefferson, he vindicated their meas- ures, and predicted the final adoption of HARPER—HARPOON. 177 their whole policy, in an elaborate histori- cal survey, addressed to his constituents. His sworn narrative and explanations of the conduct of those who voted for colo- nel Bun, in congress, in 1801, and his printed Letters, in refutation of Mr. Mon- roe's charges, evince further the deep con- cern wlrich he took in the reputation of the federalists and the cause of tmth. General Harper was above the middle size, well shaped, muscular and robust; of erect, firm gait; of regular features and expressive countenance, and of active habits. His constitution vvas strong and equal to fatigue, bodily or mental, until the last two years, after he had undergone a severe attack of die bilious fever. This enfeebled and extenuated his frame, and entailed upon him, or was followed by, a dangerous affection, called angina pectoris, which kills suddenly, and when the pa- tient may appear, and suppose himself to be, in good health. Against this formida- ble enemy, he employed a strict diet and regimen, and much exercise in the open air, and at length believed it to be sub- dued. Being engaged in a very important cause, in the second week in January, 1825, in one of the Baltimore courts, he finished his argument in the morning of the 14th. The next morning, he break- fasted in good appetite and spirits, and, on rising from the table, stood near the fire, with a newspaper in his hand. In a few minutes, he was perceived to be falling, by his son, who caught him in his arms, but, ere medical aid could be procured, he was dead. He was 60 years of age. Harper's Ferry ; a post-village hi Jef- ferson county, Virginia, at the junction of the Shenandoah with the Potomac ; it is eight miles E. N. E. of Charleston, and (55 W. N. W. of Washington. The cele- brated passage of the Potomac, at this place, is an object truly grand and magnifi- cent. The eye takes in, at a glance, on the north side of the Potomac and Shen- andoah, at their junction, an impetuous tonent, foaming and dashing over numer- ous rocks, which have tumbled from pre- cipices that overhang them; the pictur- esque tops and sides of the mountains, the gentle and winding current of the river below the ridge, presenting, altogether, a landscape capable of awakening the most delightful and sublime emotions. "This scene," says Mr. Jefferson, "is worth a v oyage across the Atiantic." There is at this place, belonging to the U. States, a very extensive establishment for the manufacture of arms. It was founded in 17!»8, and now employs about 260 work- men. There are eight large brick build- ings, six on the Potomac, and two on the Shenandoah, two miles distant, occupied hy the works; also two large brick build- ings, occupied as an arsenal. The village contains about 1000 inhabitants. Harpies (rAp™ur«r was a wilderness, inhabited by In- dians. Harrison, Benjamin, a signer of the declaration of independence, was of a highly respectable family in Virginia. The date of his birth is not precisely known. He vvas a student in the college of William and Mary, when his father and two sisters were simultaneously killed by a stroke of lighming. He went early into public life (in which his ancestors had long been distinguished), commencing his political career, in 1764, as a member of the legislature of Iris native province. The eminence which he acquheil in that ca- pacity, combined with the influence natu- rally accruing from fortune and distin- guished family connexions, rendered it an object for the royal government to enlist him in their favor; and he was according- ly offered a seat in the executive council of Virginia,—a station analogous to that of a privy-counsellor in England. This was a tempting bait to an ambitious young man ; but as, even at that time, the meas- ures of the British ministry indicated an oppressive spirit, he refused the proffered dignity, and always exerted his influence for the benefit of the people. When the time came for active resistance to the ar- bitrary acts of the government, ho vvas not found backward. In the first general congress of 1774, he was a delegate, and consecrated his name, by affixing it to that declaration which can never l>e forgotten as long as liberty is worshipped. It is re- lated concerning lrim, that, whilst signing the instrument, he happened to stand near Mr. Gerry, of Massachusetts, who was of a slender and spare form, while he was very corpulent; and, turning to him, after laying down the pen, he said, in a face- tious way, " When the time of hanging comes, I shall have the advantage over you. It will be over with me in a minute, but you will be kicking in the air half an hour after I am gone." Mr. Harrison was particularly useful as chairman of the board of war. After his resignation of his seat, in 1777, he was elected to the house of burgesses of Virginia, of which he was immediately chosen speaker. This situa- tion he occupied uutil the year 1782, when he was made chief magistrate of the state, and was twice reelected. In 1785, he retired into private life, but, in 1788, became a member of the convention .of Virginia that ratified the present consti- tution of the United States. Of the first committee appointed by this body, that of privileges and elections, he was chosen chairman ; but his age and infirmities pre- vented him from taking an active part in the debates. He, however, advocated the adoption of the constitution, with certain amendments. He died, of the gout, in 1791. Harrison, John; a skilful mechanic, celebrated as the inventor of the time- HARRISON— HART. 181 keeper for ascertaining the longitude at sea, and also of the gridiron-pendulum. He was bom at Foulby, near Pontefract, in Yorkshire, in 1693," and was the son of a carpenter or builder, who brought him up to the same occupation. Before he had attained the age of 21, he found out, without instruction, how to clean clocks and watches, and made two clocks, chiefly of wood-work. In 1735, he exe- cuted his first machine for determining the longitude at sea, the merit of which he proved in a voyage to Lisbon. In 1739,. he completed a second, and, in 1749, a third machine, which erred only three or four seconds in a week. He then turned his attention to the improvement of pocket watches, in whiph he succeeded so well, that he was induced to make a fourth machine, or time-keeper, in that form, which he finished in 1759. This chronometer, hi two voyages, having been found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament of the 12th of queen Anne, Harrison ap- plied for the proposed reward of £20,000, which he received. This ingenious artist employed the latter part of his life in con- structing a fifth improved time-keeper, on the same principle. This, after a ten weeks' trial, was found to have ened only four and a half seconds. He died in 1776. He was the author of a tract, entitled a Description concerning such Mechanism as will afford a nice or tt'ue Mensuration of Time (1775, 8vo.). Harrowby, Dudley Ryder, earl of, was bom in 1762, and educated at St. John's, Cambridge. He was elected member of parliament for Tiverton, and became con- nected with Mr. Pitt and his party. In 1801, he was made treasurer of die navy, in the Addington administration, and, on Mr. Pitt's restoration to the head of the ministry, in 1804, received the seals of the foreign department. In 1812, he was made president of the council—a place which he held till the appointment of the duke of Wellington to the premiership, when he retired from public life. He was always an advocate of Catholic con- cessions, and an active patron of the Brit- ish and Foreign Bible Society. He was created viscount Sandon and earl of Har- rowby in 1809. Harrow-on-the-Hill ; a village of England, in Middlesex, situated on the highest hill in the county, and command- ing one of the finest prospects of the metropolis on the east. It is famous for its free school, founded in the reign of Elizabeth, by John Lyon, and still con- vol. vi. 16 sidered one of the first in the kingdom. Population of the parish, 3017 ; 10 miles N. W. London. Doctor Pan, sir William Jones, Sheridan, Byron, earl Spenser, sir Robert Peel, &c, were educated there. Harsdorfer, George Philip, a distin- guished scholar and poet of the 17th cen- tury, lived from 1607 till 1658. He was descended from a patrician family in Nu- remberg, travelled through Holland, Eng- land, France and Italy, and acquired so much knowledge of languages, that he was called the learned. He was also a member of die high council at Nurem- berg. His German and Latin works, his- torical and literary, fill 47 volumes. Yet he was neither a profound scholar nor a poetical genius. His best songs are to be found in his Frauenzimmergesprachen (Nu- remberg, 1642, 8 vols.). With Iris friend and poetical companion, John Klai (Cla- jus), who was bom at Meissen, 1616, and died (1656) at Kitzingen in Franconia, where he was a preacher, he instituted at Nuremberg, in 1644, the Order of Flowers, or Society of Shepherds of the Pegnitz, which is yet in existence. The purity of the Gennan language was the object of this society, which numbered princes and distinguished scholars among its members. Klai's poems are partly in the collection published by die Shepherds of the Pegnitz, and have been partly published by tliem- selves. Hart, John, a signer of the declaration of independence, was born in New Jersey, and was the son of a fanner, who left him a considerable estate, and whose occupa- tion he followed. He was distinguished for sound sense and integrity, and was frequently chosen to the colonial legisla- ture, in which he always evinced at- tachment to liberal principles. In 1774, " honest John Hart" as he was called, was one of the first deputed from New Jersey to die general congress at Philadelphia. His moderation and cool judgment enabled him to render valuable services; and these, combined with his zeal and inflexible rec- titude and finnness, caused him to be frequently reelected. He gave Iris vote for, and signed the declaration of inde- pendence with peculiar ardor. Near the end of the year 1776, New Jersey became the theatre of war; and, in the destruc- tion of property which was made by the enemy, that of Mr. Hart, as of a rebel especially obnoxious, suffered to a great extent. Active exertions were also made to take him prisoner, and he was hunted about for some time, without intennission, after being obliged to fly from his house, 182 HART—HARTFORD. when his wife was afflicted by a dis- tressing malady, which ultimately caused her death. He was often in great want of food, and, on one occasion, was forced to conceal himself, during the night, in a dog-kennel. After the evacuation of New Jersey by the English, he returned to his farm, and began to repair the injuries it had received; but bis constitution was so much shattered by the hardships he had encountered in his efforts to elude the pursuits of his foes, that it gradually failed him; and, in the year 1780, he breatiied Iris last, universally esteemed and respected. Hartford ; a city in Hartford county, and the semi-capital of Connecticut, on the west bank of Connecticut river, 50 miles above its mouth, 34 from New Haven, and 100 W. S. W. of Boston; lon. 72° 50- W.; lat 41° 46' N.: popula- tion in 1820, including the township, 9617; in 1830, 9789, of which the city had 7074. It has a pleasant and advanta- geous situation at the head of sloop navi- gation, and is surrounded by a fertile and beautiful country. It contains a hand- some state-house of stone and brick, three banks, including a branch of the U. States bank, an arsenal, an academy, a museum, a college, an asylum for the deaf and dumb, and eight houses of pub- lic worship, six of them within the city, viz., three for Congregationalism, one for Episcopalians, one for Baptists, and one for Universalists. The city is generally well built, particularly the main street. A bridge with six arches, 974 feet long, is erected over the Connecticut, connecting the city with East Hartford. Hartford has a flourishing commerce. It has an extensive inland trade, and a variety of manufactures, as leather, shoes, coaches, cotton and woollen goods, saddlery, brass work, &c. The general assembly has one session annually, and meets alternately at Hartford and New Haven. Hartford was first settled by the English in 1635. Washington college, an institution under the direction of the Episcopalians, was established here in 1826. It is veiy pleas- antly situated, and has a president, eight professors, about 80 students, and a li- brary of 5000 volumes. The American Asylum for the education and instruction of the deaf and dumb, at Hartford, owes its origin to the success which attended the efforts of the reverend Thomas H. Gallaudet, to give instruction to the deaf and dumb daughter of a gentleman of that city. The attention of people being ex- cited, it was computed that there were more than a hundred deaf mutes in Con- necticut ; and Mr. Gallaudet was induced to undertake the establishment of an insti- tution at Hartford for their relief, having previously stipulated for means of person- ally examining the European institutions for the relief of persons thus afflicted. Mr. Gallaudet embarked for Europe hi May, 1815. He returned in August, 1816, accompanied by Mr. Laurent Clerc, a distinguished pupil of the abbe Sicard. The course of instruction commenced, with seven pupils, in April, 1817, and, in 1829, there were 143 pupils in the institu- tion, under the care of Mr. Gallaudet and nine assistant instructors. 54 of die pupils were supported wholly by the legislature of Massachusetts; 15, in whole or in part, by that of New Hampshire; 13 by that of Maine; 21 by that of Vermont; and 13 by that of Connecticut. The institution, from its establishment to 1830, had imparted its benefits to 318 persons. The funds of the asylum have been derived from private donations, and from a grant of land in Alabama, made by the congress of the U. States, in 1819. These have furnished the institution with a large and commodi- ous brick building, in which the pupils reside and receive instruction; a dwelling- house for the principal, and convenient out-houses, including two brick work- shops, in which the male pupils work four or five hours daily, in order to acquire a mechanical trade; and have enabled the directors to form a permanent fund of considerable amount. The grounds (be- tween seven and eight acres in extent) are on a very delightful and commanding eminence, half a mile west of the city. When the asylum commenced, the charge to each pupil was $200 a year for board, lodging and washing, fuel, candles, station- ery, and other incidental expenses of the school-room; besides a continual super- intendence of their health, conduct, man- ners and morals, and tuition. In con- sequence of the sales of a portion of the lands in Alabama, the charge is now reduced to $115 a year—a sum, however, which falls considerably short of the actual expense incurred for each pupiL By this mode of distributing the annual income derived from the funds of the institution, every state in the Union, and every parent of a deaf and dumb child, may receive an equal share of the pubfic bounty. To employ theh fonds in educating pupils gratuitously, would soon entirely exhaust them. One great object, that the asylum has aimed to accomplish, is, the mfrusion of a uniform system of instruction throughout the Union, and to HARTFORD—HARTLEY. 183 satisfy candid and intelligent minds, that experience in teaching the deaf and dumb, as in all otiier pursuits, mechanical or in- tellectual, is of primary importance. Its efforts, in this respect, have met with great success. It has furnished the Pennsyl- vania institution, at Philadelphia, with its present principal and two assistant teach- ers ; it afforded instruction to the princi- pals of the two institutions in Kentucky and Ohio; and the principal of the one at Canajoharie, in the state of New York, himself deaf and dumb, was one of its earliest pupils. In addition to these insti- tutions, all of which have derived their system of uistruction from the American asylum, there is but one other in the U. States,—that in the city of New York. Among the 318 pupils, who have been members of the asylum, only 75 have been supported by their parents or friends, most of whom were in quite moderate circumstances. Out of die same number, consisting of 178 males and 140 females, 134 were born deaf; 154 lost their hearing in infancy and childhood; and of 30 no certain information could be procured. Among the causes of this calamity, were the following: fevers, more particularly the spotted fever; canker rash; measles; inflammation of die brain; dropsy in the head; small pox; hooping cough ; palsy ; in one instance, discharge of cannon; and sudden falls. In only two cases has either of the parents of the pupils been deaf and dumb; and, in each of these, it was the father; while, among several in- stances of marriage that have come to the knowledge of those connected with the asylum, where either one or both of the parties were deaf and dumb, their chil- dren were in possession of all their facul- ties. The physiology of die deaf and dumb is a subject of the most curious kind, and, if thoroughly investigated, might shed much additional light upon that of our species in general. It would serve very much to promote this object, if the clergy and die physicians, in theh respec- tive towns, would institute inquiries on this subject. The result of such inquiries could be communicated to some of the public ecclesiastical or medical associa- tions, and thence transmitted, free of ex- pense, to the officers of the asylum. If a single association would commence inqui- ries of this kind, on some well digested, regular plan, it would soon lie more gen- erally, and, it is to be hoped, at length universally, adopted. Among these in- quiries, the following are the most impor- tant : die sex, age, place of nativity and residence of the individual; whether the deafness is owing to some original defect, or was produced by disease or accident, and, if so, in what way, and at what time; whether there are other cases of deafness in die same famdy, or among any of the an- cestors or collateral branches of kindred,and how and when produced ; if a part of the children hear and speak, and a part are deaf and dumb, what is the order of their ages; whether the deafness is total or partial, and, if partial, what kind of sounds can be heard, and to what extent; whether any medical means have been employed to remove it, and the result; whether the individual can utter any articulate sounds, and to what extent; whether any instruc- tion has been given, and with what success; whether the individual has been taught any mechanical art or trade, or is engaged in any regular occupation; if married, to whom, to a deaf and dumb person, or to one who can hear and speak, and, if there are children, whether they are in posses- sion of dieir faculties ; what are the cir- cumstances of the individual, or of the parents or friends, and, more particularly, whether they are able to furnish the means of education at some institution for the deaf and dumb. With regard to the course of instruction pursued in the American asy- lum, we will only add to what has been already said in the article Dumb and Deaf that the period, for which pupils are sent to the asylum, does not usually exceed four years; and, in this time, it is expected that they will receive sufficient instruction for all the useful purposes of life, and also that amount of religious knowledge, with which, as immortal beings, it is of essen- tial importance that they should be made acquainted. A moment's reflection will show the difficulty of the task imposed on the instructer. Other children have to pass through a much longer course of instruction, counting from the time when they first begin to leam theh letters, be- fore they acquire what is termed a com- mon education. In the four years, how- ever, besides being taught the prominent facts and leading truths of the Bible, the pupils generally acquire the ability to read books in an easy and familiar style, and to express their thoughts intelligibly in writ- ing; and they make some progress in arithmetic, geography, the outlines of history, orthography, and the practical part of grammar. The male pupUs also acquire some mechanical art. Hartford Convention. (SeeU.States.) Hartley, David, an English physician, principally celebrated as a writer on meta- 184 HARTLEY—HARTZ. physics and morals, was born in 1705. At the age of 15, he was sent to Jesus college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. He engaged in the study of medicine, and practised as a physician in Nottinghamshire, and, subsequently, in London. When Mrs. Stephens, a female empiric, professed to have found out a specific for the stone, doctor Hartley con- tributed towards her obtaining the grant of £5000 from parliament for her discovery. He spent the latter part of his life at Bath, and died there, Aug. 28,1757. His fame as a philosopher and a man of letters depends on his work entitled Observations on Man (1749, 2 vols., 8vo.). This treatise exhibits the outlines of connected systems of physi- ology, mental philosophy, and theology. His physiology is founded on the hypoth- esis of nervous vibrations. The doctrine of association, which he adopted and il- lustrated, explains many phenomena of intellectual philosophy; and tlris part of Hartley's work was published by doctor Priestley, in a detached form, under the title of the Theory of the Human Mind (dm). Hartley, David; distinguished as a politician and an ingenious projector. He was for some time member of parliament, and uniformly displayed liberal views. His steady opposition to the war with the American colonies, led to his being ap- pointed one of the plenipotentiaries to treat widi doctor Franklin, at Paris; and some of his letters on that occasion were published in the conespondence of that statesman, in 1817, and are contained in the Diplomatic Conespondence of the American Revolution (Boston, 1831). In the house of commons, Hartley vvas one of the first promoters of the abolition of the slave-trade. This benevolent philoso- pher died at Bath, Dec. 19, 1813, aged 84. Hartshorn; the homs of the common male deer, to which many very extraor- dinary medicinal virtues were attributed; but the experience of late years gives no countenance to them. The horns are of nearly the same nature as bones, and the preparations from them by heat are simi- lar to those from solid animal substances in general; so that the articles denominat- ed spirit of hartshorn and salt of hartshorn, though formerly obtained only from the homs of different species of deer, are now chiefly prepared from bones. The fonner of these, which is a volatile alkali of a very penetrating nature, is an effica- cious remedy in nervous complaints and fainting-fits ; and salt of hartshorn has been successfully prescribed in fevers. The scrapings or raspings of the bonis, under the name of hartshorn shavings, are variously employed in medicine. Boiled in water, the horns of deer give out an emollient jelly, which is said to be remarkably nutritive. Burned hartshorn is employed in medicine. The horns of the stag are used, by cutlers and other me- chanics, for the handles of knives and cut- ting insU'unieiits of different kinds. Hartz ; the most northerly mountain chain of Germany, from which an exten- sive plain, interrupted only by some in- considerable hills, stretches to the North sea and the Baltic. The Hartz, though sunounded by a low range of hills, forms a separate mountainous chain, 70 miles in length and 20 to 28 miles iu breadth. The Hartz, properly speaking, commences in the east, in Mansfeld, passes through Anlialt- Bernburg, the comities of Stolberg, Ho- henstein and Wenrigerode, a part of Hal- berstadt and Blankenburg, Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel and Grubenliagen, and ter- minates on the west, at the town of Seesen, comprising an extent of 1350 square miles, and embracing 40 towns and numerous villages, with 56,000 inhabitants, belonging principally to Hanover. The Hartz is di- vided into the Upper and Lower, in a dou- ble sense. In the wider sense, the Brock- en, the loftiest summit of the chain, forms the line of separation. The Upper Hartz lies west of the Brocken, and is the most elevated, extensive, and rich in mine- rals ; the Lower Hartz lies on the east of the Brocken, and is superior in the beauty of its scenery. The same summit is also the dividing point of the rivers; those on the east empty into the Elbe ; those on the west, into the Weser. There are several ranges of mounteins in Germany, that are much higher than the Hartz; as, for in- stence, the German Alps, the Riesenge- birge and the Schwartzwald (Black Forest). The Brocken, the highest summit of the Hartz, is 3489, or, according to some ac- counts, 3435 feet high; next to this are the Bruchberg (2755 feet), the Wormberg (2667 feet), and the Ackermannshohe (2605 feet). That part of the Hartz which includes the Brocken, with the neighbor- ing high summits, consists entirely of gran- ite ; then come the hills of the second rank, formed of greywacke, in which the ores are chiefly found ; at theh foot lie the Floetz hills, known under the name of the Vorhartz. The climate, particularly of the Upper Hartz, is cold. The frost contin- ues till the end of May, and appears early in September, accompanied by snow; and even in June, night frosts are not uncom- HARTZ—HARVEY. 18o mon. The warm weather lasts only about six weeks, and the snow upon the highest peaks seldom disappears before June; fires are kept up, even in mid-summer. The Hartz is wooded throughout, even to the top of the Brocken (the Hanoverian part alone contains 286,363 acres of forest). On the Brocken itself stand firs dwindled into dwarf trees. Upon the less lofty hills, several sorts of deciduous trees are found intenningled with the evergreens, and the Flaetz hills are covered with the finest oaks, beech and birch. The Irills also abound in wild berries, in truffles and mushrooms, in medicinal plants, Ice- land moss, and fine pastures ; and in sum- mer, immense herds of neat cattle, sheep, goats and horses graze here. In the Up- per Hartz, little grain is raised, except oats ; in the Lower Hartz, the productions are more various. The woods furnish a great quantity of game, such as stags, roe-bucks, foxes, wild boars, wild cats, &c. But the wealth of the Hartz consists in its forests and valuable mines. The latter furnish some gold (on account of its rarity, ducats were formerly coined, widi the in- scription Ex auro Hercynia) ; in the Ram- mels-berge, great quantities of sdver, iron, lead, copper, zinc, arsenic, manganese, vitriol, granite, porphyry, slate, marble, alabaster, &c. The gross produce of the Hanoverian mines is but little over the ex- penses ; but they support the greatest part of the inhabitants of the Hartz. The towns of the Upper Hartz are entirely open. In addition to the establishments for carrying on the mines, the objects of curiosity in the Hartz are the Brocken, with its prospect; the horse-track (Ross- trappe), the wildest and most beautiful part of the Hartz, near the village of Thale ; the different caves, as those of Baumann, Biel, Schwartzfeld, the romantic Selken- thal, with the Maiden's Leap, and the Bath of Alexis; the wild Ockerthal, &c. A wide plain on the summit of the Brocken, is the place of the annual ren- dezvous of all die witches and spirits of Germany, of which Gothe has made such a noble use in his Faust. It is on the Brocken, also, that the wild huntsman of the Hartz is supposed to dwell. The spectre of the Brocken is an image of the spectator, of a magnified and distorted shape, reflected from an opposite cloud under particular circumstances. (Sec the Tascheiwuch fur Reisende in den Hartz, by Gottschalk (2d edit., Magdeburg, 1817). Haruspex. (See Arusmces.) Harvard College. (See Cambridge.) Harvey, William, an English physi- 16* cian, celebrated as the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was born at Folk- stone, in Kent, April 2,1578, and, in 1593, removed to Caius college, Cambridge. At the age of 19, he went abroad for improve- ment, and, after visiting France and Ger- many, he staid some time at the univer- sity at Padua, where Fabricius ab Acqua- . pendente, and other eminent men, were professors of the medical sciences. He took the degree of M. D. in 1602, and, returning to England, obtained a similar distinction at Cambridge. Having settled in London, in 1604 he was admitted a li- centiate of the college of physicians, and, three years after, a fellow. In 1615, he was appointed to read lectures at the col- lege, on anatomy and surgery; and, in the course of this undertaking, he developed the discovery which has immortalized his name. It was not till 1620, that he gave publicity to bis new doctrine of the circu- lation of blood, by his treatise entitled ExercUatio anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus. In a prefixed address to the college of physicians, he observes, that he had frequently, hi his anatomical lectures, declared his opinion concerning the motion of the heart and the chculation of the blood, and had, for more than nine years, confirmed and illus- trated it by reasons and arguments ground- ed on ocular demonstration. It speedily excited the attention of anatomists in eve- ry European school of medicine ; and the theory of Harvey having been triumphant- ly defended against all objections, attempts were made to invalidate his claim to the discovery; but it is now admitted, that whatever hints may be found in the writ- ings of his predecessors, Harvey first clear- ly demonstrated die system of sanguine- ous circulation, and thus produced one of the greatest revolutions in medical sci- ence. Harvey was appointed physician extraordinary to James I, and, in 1632, physician in ordinary to king Charles, by whom he vvas much esteemed. Adhering to the court party, on the occunence of hostilities, lie attended his majesty on his removal from London. He was with him at the battle of Edgehill, and afterwards at Oxford, where, in 1642, he was incor- porated M. D. In 1651, he published his Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium (4to.). This curious work would have been still more interesting, had not the plunder of the audior's museum, while he vvas in the king's service, deprived him of the fruits of some of his anatomical research- es, especially those relative to the genera- tion of insects. He presented to the col- 186 HARVEY—HASENCLEVER. lege of physicians Iris paternal estate of £56 a year, for the institution of an annu- al festival and other purposes. In his old age, he was subject to distressing attacks of the gout, which imbittered his exist- ence so much, that he is said to have shortened his life with a dose of opium. He died June 3,1658. A splendid edition of his works was published in one volume, 4to., with an account of his life, by doctor Lawrence. Harwich ; a seaport of England, on a peninsular point of land ou the Essex coast It is the port from which the packets sail regularly, in time of peace, for Holland and Germany; the seat of a navy-yard, and also a considerable bathing place. Two light-houses have lately been erected on the Harwich side, to facifitate the entrance by night. The harbor is of great extent, and forms, united to the bay, a roadstead for the largest ships of war, and for an immense number of vessels at a time, upwards of 300 sail having an- chored here with ease. Harwich sends two members to parliament Population, 4010; 71 miles N. E. London; lon. 1° 17'E.; lat. 51° 57' N. Hasdrubal; the name of several distin- guished Carthaginians; among others, of the brother of Hannibal, (q. v.) Hase, Charles Benedict, professor of the Oriental languages at Paris, and, since; 1824, member of the academy of inscrip- tions, bom May 11, 1780, at Suiza, near Naumburg, studied at Weimar, under B6ttiger. The eloquence and learning of that distinguished scholar attracted him to philological studies, to which he applied himself during his residence in Jena and Helmstadt. In 1801, he went to Paris, where 31illin and Villoison intro- duced the young German Hellenist into their literary circle. By Villoison, Hase was introduced to the acquaintance of Choiseul Gouffier, who, on the death of Villoison (1805), intrusted to him the pub- lication of John Laur. Lydus's treatise De Magistratibus Romanorum. For this publicanon Hase only wrote the introduc- tion, the translation being by Fus-. At t!ie same time, he began a catalogue of die classical manuscripts, which the suc- cesses of the French arms at that time brought from all quarters to Paris; but sub- H"(}!ient circumstances prevented its ap- pearance. These researches carried him into the Byzantine literature, as appears by his Notices du TraUi de Dracon de Slratonicie sur la Mitrique des Anciens ; also, De VHistoire de Leon-le-Diacre; and the Entretisns de VEmpereur Manuel Pa- liologue avec un Professcur Mahometan, in the eighth volume of die Notices d Ex- traits de la Bibl. I. R. By his intercourse with Greeks in Paris, he acquired so thor- ough a knowledge of the modern Greek, that, in 1S16, he was appointed profeswor of that language hi the school for the liv- ing Oriental languages. This study led him, imperceptibly, to the times where iti first traces are discernible—times not very remote from the classical. The style of the church fathers, and the Byzantine wri- ters, gave him a further hisight into the nature of an idiom which had been neg- lected by most scholars, while, at the same time, the idiom itself furnished him illus- trations of the Byzantine writers. The continuation of the Corpus Hist. Byz. was the chief object of his researches. Through the patronage of the Russian imperial chancellor, count Romanzoff, Hase was enabled to publish his Leo Diaconus, and some authors of the same period, forming a continuation of the Paris edition of the Byzantines (Paris, 1819). The explana- tory and critical commentary, accompany- ing the text, is very valuable. He has since prepared for the press a similar volume, containing Psellus, and some chronographers, in the preparation of which be examined, with great care, the French and Italian libraries. Besides these, he has collected all the fragments which have any relation to the religious opinions of the Romans. In two journeys to Italy, under the patronage of the French government, in 1820 and 1821, he became acquainted with the treasures of Italian li- braries. His Laur. Lydus de Ostentis, qua supersunt, appeared at Paris in 1823, with an introduction, commentary and a Latin version. He is at present editing an edition of Stephens's Thesaurus Lin. Grac. Hasenclever, Peter, a distinguished merchant, was bom at Remscheid, in the duchy of Berg, in 1716. In 1748, he es- tablished himself at Lisbon, and afterwards at Cadiz, whence he returned to Germa- ny, and had a great influence in promot- ing the manufacture of linen in Silesia. Frederic the Great used to ask his ad- vice in important commercial affairs. In 1761, he returned to Cadiz, and, though a Protestant, was the intimate friend of Ve- lasquez, the grand inquisitor. He after- wards established a company in London, for exporting hemp, potash and iron to North America, which was connected, in 17(55, with a house at New York, where he built a great many vessels. The spec- ulations of his partner having caused the bankruptcy of the firm, he went to Eu- HASENCLEVER—HASSEL. 187 rope, but soon after returned to America. He then settled in Landshut in Silesia, where he carried on an important linen trade. He died there in 1793. Haser, Charlotte Henrietta, a celebrated singer, bom at Leipsic, in 1789, daughter of the director of music in the university of Leipsic. In 1804, she was engaged at »the Italian opera at Dresden. In 1807, she went through Prague and Vienna to Italy. Her fine voice, her execution, and her persevering efforts to combine the advantages of the Italian and German methods, gave her a brilliant success. In private life, she was distinguished for the correctness of her morals, and her uncom- mon modesty. The most celebrated the- atres in Italy contended for her. She was repeatedly called to Rome, where she ob- tained great applause. She was the first female singer in Italy who appeared in male characters, and ventured to cope with the celebrated artists Crescentini, Veluti, &c. In Naples, she was engaged at the theatre of San Carlo for a year, and was commonly known by the name of La Dimna Tedesca. She afterwards mar- ried Vera, a respectable advocate in Rome, and now displays her splendid talents only among a select circle of friends. Hasse, John Adolphus, chapel-master of Augustus, king of Poland and elector of Saxony, one of the most eminent mu- sical composers of die 18th century, was l>om at Bergedorf, near Hamburg (1609). His extraordinary talents were soon ob- served by Konig, afterwards poet laureate to the king of Poland, who recommended him as tenor singer for the Hamburg ope- ra, where the celebrated Kaiser was then composer. His masterpieces served as models for Hasse, who, in the course of four years, became distinguished as a mu- sician and singer. He brought out his first opera, Antigonus, which was received with great applause, in 1723. To perfect himself in counterpoint, he determin- ed to study in one of the celebrated Ital- ian schools. In 1724, he went to Italy, and studied at Naples imder Porpora. Scarlatti was so pleased with his talents and modesty, that he voluntarily offered him his instmction, and called him his son. An opera which he set to music for the theatre royal, was the foundation of his reputation, and procured him from the Italians the title of U caro Sassone. All the theatres of Italy contended for the honor of having him as leader of the orchestra. He went to Venice, in 1727, where bis future wife, Faustina Bordoni, was at that time in the bloom of her beauty, and the object of universal admi- ration. Having once heard Hasse play upon the harpsichord, she immediately fell in love with him. He was here ap- pointed chapel-master in the conservatorio degli incurabili. His reputation now pro- cured him the situation of chapel-master at Dresden, with a yearly salary of $9000 for himself and wife; but as he was press- ed to remain in Italy, he divided his time, until 1740,between the two countries. After repeated invitations, he went to England, in 1733, where he was received with great distinction, and his opera Artaxerxes met with the highest applause. He soon, however, returned to Dresden. He went, in 1763, to Vienna, where he composed his last opera, Ruggiero, and finally re- moved to Venice (1770), in which city he died, in 1783. Hasse is deservedly cele- brated as the most natural, elegant and ju- dicious composer of his time. He always regarded the voice as the chief object of attention, and, without being ignorant of harmony, he made the instrumental ac- companiment as simple as possible. A pupil of Leo, Vinci, Pergolese and Porpo- ra, he was contented with being simple and natural. His compositions are so nu- merous, that he himself said, there were many which he should not recognise. He set all the operas of Metastasio, except Themistocles, and most of them twice or oftener. His sacred compositions (masses, Te Deums, &c), are still favorites at Dres- den, where the greatest collection of them is to be found. His wife, Faustina Bor- doni, born at Venice (1700), was one of the most celebrated and beautiful singers of the 18th century. She made her dibut on the stage of her native city, in her 16th year; and, wherever she was heard, she was called the modern Siren. Medals were struck in honor of her at Florence. The effect of her musical talents was increased by her beauty. In 1726, she received an appointment of 15,000 florins at Vienna. In Dresden, where she was married to Hasse, she sang for the first time in 1731, and was ever after the faithful companion of her husband. Hassel, John George Henry, a distin- guished German geogiapher and statistical writer, was bom in 1770, at Wolfenbuttel, in Brunswick, and died Jan. 18, 1829, at Weimar. He was, from 1809 to 1813, di- rector of the statistical bureau, &c, in Cassel, then the capital of the kingdom of Westphalia. After 1816, he lived a private life at Weimar. He wrote many works of much reputation; among others, 188 HASSEL—HASTINGS. General Geographico-Statistical Lexicon l'2 vok, Weimar, 1817 and 1818); Statis- tical Sketch of all the European States, and die most important of the other Parts of the World (3 numbers, Weimar, 1823 and 1824) ; Genealogical-Statistical-His- torical Almanac (annually, from 1824 to 1829, Weimar)—a work which contahis very extensive statistical infonnation. It will be continued by doctor Dede, who edited the number for 1830. Hassel was coeditor of the Complete Manual of the latest Geography (Weimar, 1819 to 1829), aud, in connexion with W. Muller, edited the second chief division of the Encyclo- paedia of Ersch and Gruber, from H to O, and contributed largely to Pierer's En- cyclopaedic Dictionary (Altenburg, 1824 to 1828), from A to K. Hasselquist, Frederic, a Swedish naturalist, was one of the most eminent among the disciples of Linnaeus. He vvas born in the province of Ostrogothia, in 1722. The deatii of his father, who was vicar of a parish, leaving him without the means of support, he exerted his faculties, and obtained friends, by whose assistance he was supplied with the means of in- struction. In 1741, he went to the uni- versity of Upsal, where his talents and in- dustry drew the attention of Linnaeus. In 1747, he pubhshed a dissertation De Viri- bus Plantarum. Soon after, he formed the scheme of making researches, on the spot, into the natural history of Palestine ; and the university having furnished him with pecuniary resources, he embarked for Smyrna in August, 1749, and arrived there about die end of November. After exploring the environs of that city, he went to Egypt, whence, hi March, 1751, he took the route to Palestine, by Damiet- ta and Jaffa. He staid some time at Je- rusalem, and afterwards visited other parts of the country. Returning to Smyrna, he brought with him a most noble collection of plants, minerals, fishes, reptUes, insects, and other natural curiosities. He died there, Feb. 9,1752. The Swedish queen, Louisa Ulrica, purchased the whole of Hasselquist's acquisitions, which were de- posited in the casde of Drottningholm. Linnaeus, from the papers and specimens of natural history collected by his pupil, prepared for the press the Iter Palastinum, or Travels in Palestine, with Remarks on its Natural History (Stockholm, 1757, 8vo.), which has been translated into English and other European languages. Hastings ; an ancient borough and market-town of England, on the eastern extremity of Sussex, famous for being the Jilace near which William the Conqueror anded in England, and for the battle of Hastings, fought in the neighborhood. It is now in great repute for sea-bathing. It is one of the Cinque Ports. Its situ- ation is beautiful; and the environs also abound with picturesque scenery tuid de- lightful walks and rides. A walk, called the marine parade, has been fonned on the west of the town. The public buildings are, two very ancient churches; the town hall, built in 1823, with the market-place under it; the custom-house, and two ex- cellent free schools. The remains of an ancient casde are still to be seen. Two miles from the town is the stone on which William is said to have dmed when he landed here ; it is called the conqueror's stone. Hastings^ sends two members to parliament. Population, 8000 ; 36 miles S. E. Tunbridge. Hastings, Warren, was bom in 1732 or 1733, at the village of Churclrill, in Oxford- shire, where his father vvas clergyman of die parish. He vvas educated at Westminster school, and, in 1750, went out to Bengal as a writer in the East India company's service. After having filled some of the principal offices under the British govern- ment, and made himself acquainted with Oriental literature and public affairs, he returned to England in 1765, with a mod- erate fortune. In 1768, he received the appointment of second in council at Ma- dras ; and, in 1771, he was removed to Bengal, to the presidency of which he was raised the following year. In 1773, he was appointed governor-general of India. He held this situation for 13 years, during which he had to encounter many serious difficulties, increased and strengthened the power of the company at the expense of the native princes, and, undoubtedly, was guilty of much oppression and injus- tice to attain this end. He raised the rev- enue of the company from 3,000,000 to £5,000,000 sterling. On the removal of lord North from office, in 1782, his oppo- nents exerted themselves to displace those on whom he had conferred appointments. Upon the motion of Dundas, HastingH was recalled in 1785, and immediately loaded widi accusations. The most prom- inent orators of the opposition, Fox, Burke, Sheridan and others, were arrayed against him. He was accused of having governed, in the East Indies, arbitrarily and tyrannically; of having extorted im- mense sums of money; of having accom- plished the ruin of many princes; in short, of having exercised oppression of every description. Feb. 17,1786, Bmke laid the HASTINGS—HATTON. 189 charges against him before the lower house, which were carried, in May, 1787, into the upper; and the trial commenced Feb. 13, 1788. The solemnity of the pro- ceedings in a case of this nature, and the consequent slowness with which they were carried on, together with numerous inter- mptions, retarded die final decision. Ma- ny of the points of accusation required an accurate examination of the state of affairs in die East Indies, and witnesses had to be summoned thence to London. The speeches of the accusers often occupied several days ; and, April 15,1794, the up- per house held its one hundred and twen- tieth session, for the purpose of coming to a final decision. The public opinion, which had, in the beginning, preponderat- ed in favor of the accusers, now declared itself unanimously for the defendant; and the return of lord Cornwallis from India was decisive in his favor. April 13,1795, Hastings was acquitted, and sentenced to [«ty only the costs of prosecution (£71,080 sterling); the crown itself had, besides this, incurred an expense of £100,000 sterling. The East India company indemnified him by a pension of £4000 for 28 years, paid him £42,000 of the amount in advance, and made him a loan of £50,000. The salary or pension was afterwards settled on hun for life. He was made a member of the privy council; but he interested himself little in pubfic affairs; and died Aug. 22,1818. He published some pieces relating to India, and speeches and pa- pers in defence of his conduct. Hastings, Francis, marquis of Hast- ings, earl of Rawdon, &c, was the son of John, baron Rawdon and earl of Moira, of the kingdom of Ireland, and was bom Dec. 7, 1754. He was educated at Ox- ford ; and, after a short tour on the conti- nent, he entered the army in 1771, as an ensign in the 15th regiment of foot. Hav- ing obtained a lieutenancy, he embarked for America, in 1773, and was present at the battle of Bunker's hill. After hav- ing served in other engagements, he was nominated, in 1778, adjutant-general of the British army in America, with die rank of lieutenant-colonel. He next com- manded a distinct corps in South Caroli- na, where he successfully opposed general Gates; and, at the battle of Camden, on the 16th of August, 1780, lord Rawdon commanded one wing of the army under lord Cornwallis. He subsequendy defeat- ed general Greene; but the sunender of lord Cornwallis's army put a period to his exertions. A severe and dangerous ill- ness, however, obliged him to quit die ar- my before the conclusion of hostilities. He embarked for England, and the vessel which carried him was captured and taken to Brest; but he was immediately releas- ed, and, returning home, was made aid-de- camp to the king, and created an English peer, by the title of baron Rawdon. He distinguished himself both in the English and Irish parliaments, particularly in the former, in the debates relative to the bill for the relief of persons imprisoned for small debts. In June, 1793, he succeeded his father as earl of Moira, and the same year he was advanced to the rank of a major-general. In the summer of 1794, he was sent, with a reinforcement of 10,000 men, to join the duke of York, opposed to die French in Holland. In 1797, an attempt was made to place him at the head of the min- istry ; but the scheme did not succeed. When die whigs, with whom he had act- ed, came into power, in 1806, he was ap- pointed maBter-general of the ordnance, which post he resigned on the fall of his party. He was engaged, subsequently, in political negotiations, which proved abor- tive; and, in 1812, as he could not act with the administration then in power, he obtained the appointment of governor- general of British India. In 1816, he was created viscount Loudoun, earl of Raw- don, and marquis of Hastings; and he twice received the thanks of the East In- dia company, and of the houses of par- liament, for his able services in the Indies. He returned to England in 1822, when he was succeeded by lord Amherst In March, 1824, he was nominated governor of Malta, where he resided till near the time of his death, which occuned Nov. 28, 1825, on board his majesty's ship Re- venge, in Baia bay, near Naples. The la- ter years of the life of this nobleman were clouded by the consequences of his pro- fuse liberality and generous hospitality, particularly to the French emigrant no- blesse. Hatching, natural and artificial. (See Incubation.) Hatteras, Cape. (See Cape.) Hatti-sheriff ; an order which comes immediately from the grand signior, who subscribes it usually with these words:— " Let my order be executed according to its form and import" These words are usually edged with gold, or otherwise or- namented. An order given in this way is irrevocable. Hatton, sir Christopher, an eminent statesman and lawyer in the reign of queen Elizabeth, was entered a gentleman commoner of St. Mary Hall, Oxford, but 190 HATTON—HAUGWITZ. removed, without taking a degree, to the Inner Temple, not to study law, but to en- large his knowledge of the world. He came, on one occasion, to court at a masque, when queen Elizabeth was so much struck with his graceful person and dancing, that an introduction to her favor was the immediate result He was made one of the queen's pensioners, gendeman of the privy-chamber, captain of the guard, vice-chamberlain, privy-counsellor, and, in 1587, lord chancellor. His inex- perience created much prejudice against him, but his sound natural capacity sup- plied his deficiency of information, and his decisions were seldom found defec- tive in judgment or equity. He died in 1591. Hatzfeld, Francis Louis, prince of, was bom at Vienna, 1756, and was, in 1806, governor of Berlin, when the French entered it The French having discover- ed that prince Hatzfeld continued to give the Prussian government infonnation, &c, Napoleon ordered a court-martial to try him as a spy. The wife of the prince, being informed of the danger, hastened to Napoleon, and threw herself at his feet, assuring him that her husband was inca- pable of doing any thing dishonorable. Napoleon showed her the letter, which she acknowledged to be written by the Erince, and fainted. When she came to erself, Napoleon told her that she had the only document against her husband in her hand, and asked her why she did not burn it She did so, and Napoleon par- doned the prince. The Memorial of Las Cases contains the touching letter which Napoleon wrote on this occasion to the empress. Hatzfeld was afterwards em- ployed on diplomatic missions. He was Prussian minister at the Hague and Vien- na, and died, in 1827, at the latter place. Haubold, Christian Gottlieb, doctor, ordinary professor of German law at Leip- sic, and one of the most celebrated jurists of the time, was born at Dresden, Novem- ber 4,1766, and died, in consequence of over exertion, March 14, 1824. He began the study of law in 1781. In 1784, he de- fended a thesis, De Differentiis inter Testa- mentum nullum et inoffidosum. In 1786, he delivered his first lecture on the histo- ry of Roman law. In 1788, he was made doctor of law; 1789, appointed pro- fessor extraordinary of legal antiquities; and, finally, in 1821, second ordinary pro- fessor in the university of Leipsic. Pro- found knowledge of classical antiquity and of the languages, prepared him for the 6tudy of the Roman law, which he pursu- ed in all its departments, and to which he directed all the powers of his mind, al- diough no province of jurisprudence was strange to him. He secured a permanent reputation, especially by rris celebrated treatise Institutionum Juris Rom. priv. historico-dogmaticorum denuo recognUarum EpUome,etc. (1821); his Lineamenta (pub- lished from his manuscripts, after his death, by Otto, Leipsic, 1825); his Doctrina Pan- dectarum Lineamenta cum Loris Classixis. etc. (1820); his InstUutiones Juris Romani LUeraria (1809); his new edition of die Ro- gerius Beneventanus (1821), and of the Le- gal Antiquities of Heincccius (1822); his Manuale BasUicorum (1819, 4to.J, and his Manual of Saxon Law (1820). In his nu- merous dissertations,he proves himself pro- foundly versed in the science of jurispru- dence, for which he prepared himself by his laborious researches, his iron industry, his scrupulous accuracy, and the collec- tion, at a great sacrifice, of a valuable li- brary. Haubold's Opuscula Academica was published by professor Wenck (Leip- sic, 1825). In a continual intercourse with Hugo and Savigny, and other emi- nent jurists of our time, he has contributed much to the improved manner of study- ing the science of law from its sources. As an academical instructer, his celebrity was so great, that his lecture room was hardly capable of containing the crowds of young men from every part of Germa- ny, and even from foreign countries, who came to receive the benefit of his instruc- tion. His library, consisting of nearly 10,000 volumes on Greek and Roman law, was purchased by the emperor Alexander for the university of Abo. Haugwitz, Christian Henry Charles, count of; first minister of state and of the cabinet to the king of Pmssia, bom, in 1758, upon his father's estates in Silesia. After studying at Gottingen, he married, and went to Italy, where he remained sev- eral years. On his return, the Silesian estates elected him director-general of the province. Meanwhde, Leopold II, with whom he had become acquainted in Tus- cany, had ascended the throne of Germa- ny. Leopold wished to cany certain plans into execution, in conjunction with Pms- sia, but his propositions met with an unfa- vorable reception at Berlin, where Hertz- berg (q. v.) was then at the head of affairs. The emperor attributed this ill success to the Prussian ambassador, and requested Frederic William II to send count Haug- witz to his court. The king complied with this request the more readily, as the numerous enemies of Hertzberg endeavor- HAUGWITZ—HAUY. 191 cd to place Haugwitz in the most favora- ble light. He pleaded his inexperience in diplomatic affairs, as an excuse for not ac- cepting the mission; but, seeing diat, if he persisted in hisrefusal,he should only offend two powerful princes, he finally accept- ed the post, but declined receiving any pay. When Hertzberg retired from pubfic af- fairs, Frederic William, who reposed great confidence in Haugwitz, gave him the port-folio of foreign affairs and the presi- dency of the cabinet. In this situation, Haugwitz, in spite of much difficulty, suc- ceeded in making Prussia the centre of all political movements. Frederic Wil- liam rewarded the services of his minister with the order of the black eagle, and the grant of estates in South Prussia. When Frederic William III ascended the throne, Haugwitz retained his situation. At this time, the tendency of Haugwitz's policy was to bring France and Pmssia into a closer connexion, which procured some important acquisitions to Prussia. But, when the French troops occupied Hano- ver, in 1803, this step appeared dangerous to the neutrality of northern Gennany, which Prussia had sought to maintain, and the views of the king were changed. Un- der the pretence of sickness, Haugwitz now retired to his estates. Hardenberg, who succeeded him, adopted a different system, so that Prussia remained neutral. In 1805, Haugwitz left his retreat, to ne- gotiate with Najpoleon at Vienna, and con- cluded, after the battle of Austerlitz, the convention by which Hanover was ceded to Pmssia, and the neutrality of northern Germany was acknowledged. Haugwitz now recovered his former favor, and re- ceived anew the port-folio of foreign af- fairs. But the occupation of Hanover in- volved Prussia with England, while, at the same tune, her relations with France be- came more embareassing than ever. Haugwitz went to Paris to reconcile die contending interests, but returned without accomplishing his object He was a wit- ness of the batde of Jena, after which he again retired to his estates in Silesia, and avoided the hostile forces by tailing refuge in Vienna. In October, 1811, he was ap- pointed curator of the university of Breslau. Haussez, baron le Mercier d', French minister of marine in 1830, was born at Neufchatel (Normandy), in 1778. In 1799, he was accused of entering into the contra- revolutionary intrigues, and, in 1804, was implicated in the. conspiracy of George Cadoudal. (q. v.) In 1814, he vvas appoint- ed baron of the empire, but, in May of the game year, he was among the first to join the Bourbons. After the restoration, l;o was a member of the chamber of deputies, where he sat for several years in the coti droU, without, however, exhibiting any vio- lence in his observations or conduct, which were rather characterized by moderation and prudence. In Aug. 1829, he accepted the port-folio of the marine under Polignac, which admiral de Rigny had declined. On the breaking out of the revolution of July, 1830, he escaped to England. (For sub- sequent events, see France, and Polignac.) Hautboy ; a portable wind instrument of the reed kind, consisting of a tube grad- ually widening from the top towards the lower end, and furnished with keys and chcular holes for modulating its sounds. The general compass of this instrument extends from the C cliff note to D in alt, but solo performers frequently carry it two or three notes higher. Its scale contains all the semitones, excepting the sharp of its lowest note. The tone of the hautboy, in skilful hands, is grateful and soothing, and particularly adapted to the expression of soft and plaintive passages. Hautelisse, and Basselisse ; French words applied to tepestry. Hautelisse car- pets are those which are worked with a perpendicular warp, and Basselisse carpets with a horizontal warp. The latter are preferred in modem times, because they are easier to be made, and yet possess equal beauty. In the Netherlands, Brus- sels and Doomik furnish the best works of this kind; in France, the manufactory of Gobelins. Hauy, Rene Just, abbe, a distinguished mineralogist, the son of a poor weaver, born 1743, at St Just, in the department of the Oise, was at first chorister, then studied theology, and, during 21 years, oc- cupied die place of a professor, at first in die college of Navarea, and afterwards in that of the cardinal LeMoine. He studied botany as a recreation, but his taste for mineralogy was awakened by the lectures of Daubenton. An accident led him to the formation of his system of crystalogra- phy. As he vvas examining the collection of minerals belonging to M. France de Croisset, he dropped a beautiful specimen of calcareous spar crystallized in prisms, which was broken by the fall. Haiiy ob- served, with astonishment, that the frag- ments had die smooth, regular form of the rhomboid crystals of Iceland spar. " I have found it all!" he exclaimed; for at this moment he conceived the fundamental idea of his new system. He took the frag- ments home, and discovered the geometri- cal law of crystallization. He then studied 192 HAUY. geometry, and invented a metnoa of meas- uring and describing the fomis of crystals. He now, for the first time, ventured to communicate his grand discovery to his instructor Daubenton, who, with Laplace, could with difficulty persuade the modest Haiiy to communicate his discovery to the academy, which, in 1783, received him as adjunct in the class of botany. He now devoted himself wholly to his studies; so that he remained a stranger to the revolu- tion, with all its honors, until, having refus- ed to take the oath of obedience to the constitution required of the priests, he was deprived of his place, and vvas arrested, in the midst of his calculations, as a recusant priest He calmly continued Iris studies in prison. In the mean time, one of his pupils, Geoffroi de St. Hilaire, now member of the academy, exerted himself in favor of Haiiy; and the remark of a tradesman, an officer of police in the quarter where Haiiy lived, that " it was better to spare a recusant priest than put to death a quiet man of letters," saved his life. Geoffroi hastened to him with an order for his release. It was very late, and Haiiy, occupied only with his researches, wished to remain in prison until the next day. Haiiy continued his studies, and even ventured to write in favor of Lavoi- sier, who was then in prison, and of Bor- da and Delambre, who had been removed from their places. After the deatii of Daubenton, the academy wished to name the modest Haiiy his successor; but he rec- ommended Dolomieu, who was imprison- ed in Sicily, in violation of the laws of na- tions ; the latter, however, having died soon after his liberation, Haiiy received his place from the first consul. The convention had already appointed him keeper of the min- eralogical collections of the icole des mines, and die directory had created him profes- sor in the Normal school, and secretary of the commissioners appointed to regulate weights and measures, the result of whose labors was the new decimal system; he was also made a member of the na- tional institute. Bonaparte appointed him professor of mineralogy in the museum of natural history, and afterwards professor in the academy of Paris. By his influence, the study of mineralogy received a new impulse; the collections were increased fourfold, and excellently arranged. He was a most obliging and instructive super- intendent of this collection. In 1803, at the command of Napoleon, he wrote his TraUi de Physique, in six months. Be- ing directed to ask some favor, he asked for a place for the husband of his niece. Napoleon granted his request, besides con- ferring on the modest savant a pension of 6000 francs. The esteem which the empe- ror had for this distinguished man was die more honorable both to him and to Haiiy, as the latter had never stooped to flattery, and had even opposed Bonaparte's eleva- tion to the imperial dignity, by signing nay, when die question was proposed for the ratification of the nation. When the em- peror, after his return from Elba, visited the museum, he said to Haiiy, MI read your Physics again in Elba, with the great- est interest;" he then decorated Haiiy with the badges of the legion of honor. Haiiy vvas in the habit of amusing himself by conversing with the pupils of the Normal school, who often visited at his house, and whom he always received and entertained with kindness. He was gentle, indulgent and benevolent Nothing could ruffle his quiet temper but objections to his sys- tem. Notwithstanding his feebleness, he attained the age of nearly 80 years, and died June 3, 1822. Besides his valuable treatises in different periodicals, and his articles on natural history in the Encyelopi- die Mithodique, his Essai sur la Theorie, d la Structure des Cristaux (1784), his Traiti de Miniralogie (1801, 4 vols.), his TraUi ilimentaire de Phydque, which has aheady been mentioned (1803, 2 vols A his Traiti des Caradires physiques des Pierres pred- euses (1817), his TmUi de CristaUographie (1822, 2 vols., with engravings), his TraUi. de Miniralogie. (2d edit, 1822, 4 vols., with an atlas), are the most distinguished. The charge of editing the manuscripts which he left, devolved on his pupil Lafosse. The duke of Buckingham bought his pre- cious collection of minerals, for which Haiiy had refused an offer of 600,000 francs. Cuvier delivered a eulogy on him before the academy in 1823, and Brogniart, who had been his assistant, be- came his successor, in the museum of nat- ural history. Hauy, Valentin, a younger brother of the preceding, bom 1746, founded the institution for the blind at Paris. Previous to this, he was an instructer in the art of calligraphy at Paris. When, iu 1783, the blind pianist Mile. Paradis, of Vienna, gave a concert at Paris, the manner in which she was able to read any thing, written or printed, by means of pins placed on it, and the manner in which she had become acquainted with geography, by the aid of maps in relief, constructed by Weissenburg, a blind man of Manheim, excited Haiiy's attention. He took a poor blind boy, by the name of Lesueur, who displayed an active mind, into his HAUY—HAVANA, 193 house, instructed him for some time, and then presented him to the philanthropic society. This society supplied him with the funds necessary to establish an institu- tion, according to his plan, for. 12 blind boys. Soon after, this new institution for the blind was united with that for the deaf and dumb, by the recommendation of the duke de la Rochefoucault, and re- moved to a building which had been a convent of the Celestines. It soon ap- peared, that the two kinds of unfortunates disagreed entirely, that their dislike for each other increased every day; and at length (1794) it became absolutely neces- sary to divide the institution. But after this separation, the establishment for the blind did not flourish so well as that for the deaf and dumb. Haiiy himself was partly to blame for this. With an excel- lent heart, he was not sufficiently attentive to the proper management of the affairs of the establishment; and,instead of answering the design of the institution, which was to supply, as far as possible, the lost sense of the blind, he made it merely a comfortable residence for them. It was therefore abandoned, under the consular govern- ment, and the pupils were placed in the hospital of die Quinze-Vingts, with which establishment they remained connected for 14 years, until, at length, in February, 1815, Guillie, the present direqtor of the asylum for the blind, received* orders to establish an institution in another place, and to organize it in an improved manner. Haiiy had involved himself in many diffi- culties by his hasty union with an unedu- cated woman, and was not successful in his attempt, after the abolition of the public institution, to establish a boarding-school for the blind (the Musie des Aveugles). Notwithstanding die pension of 2000 francs, which he continued to receive from the government, his circumstances became more and more embarrassed; he there- fore accepted an invitation to superintend, at St. Petersburg, under the patronage of the empress-mother, an institution for the instmction of the blind, in which his scholar Foumier was to be his assistant. But this undertaking did not succeed, and he returned to Paris in 1806, where he lived, with his brother the mineralogist, until his death, in April, 1822. In the revolution, of which he was a warm ad- mirer, he took no share; but, during the directorial government, he was, together with La Reveillere-Lepaux, one of the heads of the (so called) theophUanthropists. His Essai sur VEducation des Aveugles (Paris, 1786,4to.) was printed with letters hi vol. vi. 17 relief, so that the blind could trace the lines with theh fingers, and thus feel the letters and words. Hauyne ; a mineral so named byBrunn Neergaard, in honor of the celebrated ab- be Haiiy. It was first discovered by the abbe Gismondi, who named it latialUe, from Latium, the ancient name of the country where it occurs. Nose, who ob- served it in the trap-rocks of Andernach, considered it as allied to sapphire, and described under the name of saphinn; but more recent examinations of its prop- erties prove it to be identical with the species called lazulUe (q, v.) by Haiiy. Havana, or Havannah (Spanish, La Habana, that is, the harbor); " the ever faithful city of St. Christopher of the Ha- vana," capital of the island of Cuba, and of the province and government of the same name ; situated on the northern coast of the island, at the mouth of the river Lagiza, with the sea in its front. Lat N. 23° & 24" ; lon. W. 82° 23'. Population, exclusive of the ganison and strangers, is 94,023—46,621 whites, 9225 mulattoes (of whom 1010 are slaves), and 38,177 ne- groes (of whom 22,830 are slaves). The total population is calculated at 112,023. The Havannah is the residence of a cap- tain-general, and the see of a bishop. It is the most important commercial port in Spanish America, and is considered as the key of the West Indies. The harbor is not only the best in the island, but is es- teemed by many as the best in the world, on account of its strength, and because it is capable of containing commodiously 1000 ships, without either cable or anchor, there being generally six fathoms of water in the bay. The entrance into the harbor is by a narrow channel, about 1000 feet wide at its entrance, so difficult of access that only one vessel can enter at a time. It is strongly fortified with platfonns, works, and artillery, for half a nrile, which is the length of the passage ; and the mouth of this channel is secured by two strong castles, one on each side. The place is also protected by other strong for- tifications. The city stands on a plain on the west side of the harbor The streets are in general narrow, crooked, unpaved and dirty. The want of common sewers, and of cleanliness, and die vicinity of marshes, contribute to the insalubrity of the Havannah, which is much exposed to the ravages of the yellow fever, particu- larly in die months of August and Sep- tember. The city contains 11 churches, which are magnificently ornamented, es- pecially the cathedral, with gold and silver 194 HAVANA—HAVERHILL. lamps, images, &c.; 2 hospitals, a lazaret- to, 7 monasteries and 4 nunneries, a uni- versity, colleges, botanical garden, nautical school, and 78 schools for both sexes ; a dock-yard, and many other public build- ings ; a theatre, a place for bull-fights, and 2 agreeable promenades; also a lunatic asy- lum, and a large charity school. An aque- duct supplies the shipping with water, and turns the sawmills in the dock-yard. The houses are almost all of only one story, and of a Gothic structure. The principal ones are built of stone, and covered with terraces, having large apartments, yet lit- tle ornamented. The great square is one of the chief ornaments of the city. The population of Havannah was much in- creased by Napoleon's invasion of Spain, and by the revolutions in Spanish Ameri- ca. The morals of the place are loose. Gaming, cock-fighting, &c, are carried on to a great extent. The customs are Span- ish ; foreigners who go there intermarry very little widi the natives, as they sel- dom intend to make Havannah their permanent residence. The lower clergy are ignorant, and the ceremonies of re- ligion are sunounded with a puerile show, which intelligent Catholics do not ac- knowledge as a constituent part of their religion. Manufactures are still in theh infancy ; some coarse cloths only are made. The commerce is very extensive. It has rapidly increased of late, and the rich productions of the island, as well as die favorable situation and excellent har- bor of the city, have made Havannah one of the most important commercial places in the world. (For a particular account of its commerce, see the article Cuba.)— The city was founded in 1511, by Diego Velasquez. It was taken in 1536, by a French pirate ; afterwards by the English, French, and buccaneers ; it was again taken by the English in 1762, but was re- stored to Spain at the peace of 1763.— The Havannah has the honor of contain- ing the bones of Columbus, die illustrious discoverer of America. In consequence of an order contained in the will of Co- lumbus, his body was removed from the Carthusian convent of Seville, and depos- ited, along with the chains with which he had been loaded at Cuba, on the right of the Irigh altar of the cathedral of St. Do- mingo. When that island vvas ceded to the French, his descendants directed that the brass coffin, hi which the whole vvas contained, should be removed to this city, which was done on the 19th of January, 1796. His bones are now preserved in a silver um on the left of the alter of the cathedral. The department of Havannah contains die city and 42 places, widi a pop- ulation of 247,828, of whom 109,535 are slaves. (See the official work Cuadro Estadistico de la Siempre Fid Isla de Cu- ba, correspondiente al Aho de 1827 (Havana, 1829); also A. Abbot's Letters on Cuba, (Boston, 1829), and Alexander von Hum- boldt's EssaipolUique sur le Royaume dela Nouvdle Espagne (Paris, 1808—1809,4to.) Havercamp, one of the most cele- brated philologists of the 18th century, bom at Utrecht in 1683, made such rapid advances in his studies, that he was num- bered among the learned at the tune of his leaving school. Not long afterwards, he was invited to accept the professorship of the Greek language at Leyden, to which was also annexed the professorship of history and eloquence. He pubhshed a number of valuable treatises, and died in 1742. From travelling in Italy, he de- rived a taste for the study of medals and coins, the fruits of which he exhibited in the Tliesaurus MoreUianus, in the treatise on the coins of Alexander the Great, in his universal history according to coins, and in several catalogues of collections of corns. We pass over some otiier writings of his, to mention his editions of the Apol- ogeticus of Tertullian (1718), of Lucretius (1725, 2 vols., 4to.), of the history of Jose- phus(172q,2vols.,fol.),ofEutropius(1729), of Orosius*(1738, 4to.), of Sallust (1742, 2 vols.,4to.),and of Censorinus (1743 or 1767), which are still highly esteemed for the cor- rectness of their text and the treatises con- nected with them. No less esteemed is his Sylloge Scriptorum, qui de Lingua Graca vera d recta Pronundatione Commentaria rdiquerunt (Leyden, 1736—40, 2 vols.). Haverhill ; a post-town, and the half shhe town for Grafton county, New Hampshire, on Connecticut river, 70 miles from Concord, and 27 from Dartmouth college, in lat 44° 3' N. It is divided into two parishes, the north and the south, in each of which is a meeting-house. The principal village is in the south-west part of die township, on the river, and is called Haverhill Corner. Its situation is very beautiful, and it has a court-house, an academy, a jail, a bank and a printing- office. Another pleasant village is forming in the north-west part of the town. The population of Haverhill in 1820 was 1600. (For the population in 1830, see U. States.) Haverhill ; a post-town in Essex county, Massachusetts, on the north side of Menimack river, 18 miles from its mouth, 15 from Newburyport, 19 from Salem, and 30 north of Boston. It is con- HAVERHILL—HAWK. 195 nected with Bradford by a bridge with three arches of 180 feet each, supported by three stone piers 40 feet square. The tide rises here four or five feet, but the water is not salt. The river is navigable to this place for vessels of 100 tons bur- then, but only flat boats ascend farther. The principal village of Haverhill is situat- ed on the side of a hill sloping towards the river. It is a very pleasant and flourishing town, and has considerable trade. Here is a bank, an academy, a printing-office which issues a weekly newspaper, and four houses for public worship. Population inl830,3912. Havre de GrAce, Le, or Le Havre ; an important seaport of France, in the de- partment of the Lower-Seine ; 45 miles west of Rouen, 112 north-west of Paris ; lon. 0° 1& 46" E.; lat 49° 29* 14" N.; population 21,049. It is situated in a flat, marshy soil, intersected with creeks and ditches, on the British channel, at the mouth of the Seine. It is strongly forti- fied, being sunounded by lofty walls and ditches, and defended by a citadel. It is the only eligible harbor along the whole coast from Cherbourg, and is capable of containing 600 or 700 vessels,and has a long pier, and sufficient depth of water to float ships of war of 60 guns. The town has pe- culiar advantages from its situation at the mouth of the Seine, and its being the sea- port of Paiis, and is one of the most important mercantile ports of France. Steamboats start regularly for Paris, Hon- fleur, Rouen and England, and regular lines of packets run between this port and Cadiz, Hamburg, Portugal, Mexico, Brazil and the United States. It consists of long and nanow streets; the fronts of the houses are lofty, but have a heavy and mean ap- pearance, being sometimes of stone, but oftener of wood. It contains two churches, three convents, an hospital, town-house, an arsenal, magazines, and store-houses neces- sary for the construction and arming of ships. Louis XII laid here the foundation of a town in 1509, where only a few fish- ing huts had previously existed. Francis I erected some fortifications, and it was some time called Franciscopolis ; but a chapel, dedicated to Our Lady of Grace, gave it the name of Le Havre de Grace; it is now only called Le Havre. It has always been largely engaged in the New- foundland fishery. Havre and Liverpool are the principal points of communica- tion between the old world and the new. Several packets run monthly from New York to Havre, which, with the packets from the same place to Liverpool, are the finest in the world. Havre de Grace ; a post-town and port of entiy in Harford county, Mary- land, on the west side of the Susquehan- nah river, at its confluence with Chesa- peake bay ; 36 miles north-east of Balti- more, and 73 from Washington; lat. 39° 33' N.; lon. 76° 12' W. It contains about 50 houses, and is a place of some trade. It was burnt by the English, May 3,1813. Hawaii. (See Oivhyhee.) Hawk (falco). In the article Eagle (q. v.), part of this numerous and perplexing genus has already been spoken of. It now remains to speak of such of the remainder as are known under the common name of hawk,or falcon. These birds derive additional in- terest from the great use made of them in the amusement of hawking, which seems to have been almost universal, at certain stages in the progress of nations. Nothing is more arbitrary, or involved in greater uncertainty, than the classification of hawks. A man's life seems scarcely suffi- cient to acquire a perfect knowledge of all the species and endless varieties which some naturalists have given of this bird. This is owing to the change in the color of their plumage during the first three years of their life. We shall, therefore, give a list of all our native species, derived from Bonaparte's Synopsis, also including the anangement of such of the falcon tribe as have been noticed under Eagle:— Genus FALCO is subdivided into the fol- lowing subgenera:—AquUa, HaliaHus, Pandion, Falco, Astur, Ictinici, Elanus, Buteo, Circus. I. BUI elongated, straight at base. Aquila. F. fulvus, L. Ring-tailed ea- gle. Common to both continents. Haliaetus. F. leucocephalus, L. Bald eagle. Common to both continents. Pandion. F. haliadus, L. Fish-hawk. Inhabits almost eveiy part of the globe. II. BUI curved from the base. 1. BUI with a sharp tooth each side. (a) Wings reaching to the tip of the taU, ford reticulated. Falco. F. peregrinus, Gm. Great-foot- ed hawk. Both continents. (b) Wings not reaching to tip of the taU, tarsi scutellated. F. sparverius, L. American sparrow- hawk. Peculiar to N. America. F. columbarius, L. Pigeon-hawk. 2. BUI irith an obtuse lobe each side. (a) Tarsi rather short and robust. 196 HAWK—HAWKINS. Astur. F. palumbarius, L. Ash-colored hawk. Common to both continents. F. Pennsylvanicus, WUs. Broad-winged hawk. Peculiar to N. America ; very rare. (b) Tard long, slender, smooth. F.vcloXjWUs. Slate-colored hawk. Sharp- shinned H. Peculiar to N. America. F. cooperii, Bon. Cooper's hawk. Pecu- liar to N. America. Ictinia. F. plumbeus, Gm. Mississippi kite. Peculiar to N. and S. America. Elanus. F. dispar., Temm. White-tailed hawk. N. and S. America. F. furcatus, L. Swallow-tailed hawk. N. and S. America. (a) Tarsi feathered to the toes. Buteo. F. lagopus. Rough-legged fal- con. Common to both continents. F. Sandi-Johannis, Gm. Black hawk. Peculiar to N. America. (/?) Tarsi partly feathered. F. borealis, Gm. Red-tailed hawk, and American buzzard. Peculiar to N. America. Circus. F. hyemalis, Gm. Winter fal- con. Red-shouldered hawk. Peculiar to N. America. F. cyaneus, L. Marsh-hawk. Inhabits both continents. Hawke, Edward, lord ; a celebrated na- val commander of the last century. His father, a member of the Engfish bar, in compliance with the strong predilection which his son evinced, at an early age, for a sea-faring life, procured him a midship- man's birth aboard a king's ship. After going through the usual gradations, he was appointed, in 1734, to the command of the Wolf, and served with great credit. Being promoted to the command of a squadron, in 1747, he fell in with the French fleet, which he totally defeated, taking six large ships of the line. For this service, he was presented with the va- cant red riband, and promoted to be vice- admiral of the blue. In 1759, being then vice-admiral of the white, he was sent in pursuit of the Brest fleet, which he came up with off BelleisJe, and gave the enemy a second defeat, not inferior to the first. These successes were rewarded with a pension of £2000, voted him by parlia- ment ; and, in 1765, he reached at length the head of his profession, being appoint- ed vice-admiral of Great Britain, and first lord of the admiralty In 1776, he was advanced to a seat in the house of lords, but survived this accession of dignity little more than four years, dying at Shepper- ton, in die county of Middlesex, in the au- tumn of 1781. Hawkesworth, John, LL. D.; the son of a watchmaker, of Bromley, in Kent where he was bom in 1715. His father apprenticed him, at an early age, to his own trade. His dislike to the business, however, soon proved insuperable, and he became clerk to a writing stationer. Some essays in the Gentleman's Magazine in- troduced him to the acquaintance of Cave, the proprietor of that work, who, on the secession of Johnson, placed him in his situation, as compiler of the debates in both houses of parliament In 1752, there appeared, from his pen, the first of a series of essays, which he continued through that and the two following years, with the assistance of his friend Joseph Warton, and other occasional contributors. These were collected and published (in 4 vols., 12mo.), under the title of the Adventurer. He then undertook a commission from government to arrange and digest the dis- covery voyages of Byron, Wallis, Carteret and Cook, in the Pacific. This task he completed, not altogether to the satisfac- tion of the public, in 1773, when the work appeared in three volumes, 4to. He died at Bromley, November 16, 1773. Hawkins, sir John ; a renowned Eng- lish sea commander of the 16th century. He was a native of Plymouth, and was the son of captain William Hawkins, a naval officer. He made several voyages in his youth, and thus acquired much ma- ritime experience. In 1562, he projected an expedition, the object of which was to procure Negroes on the coast of Africa, and convey them for sale to the West In- dies. In this plan he was successful; and he is branded, on the page of history, as the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a merchandise of the human species. He made two subse- quent voyages for the purpose, one of which proved very profitable; and he was rewarded for the supposed benefit confer- red on his country, by the addition of a crest to his coat of arms, consisting of "a demi-Moor, proper, bound with a cord." The third expedition was unfortunate ; for, having endeavored to cany on a contra- band trade with the Spaniards, his small fleet was attacked by an overpowering force, and only one of his ships and a bark escaped being taken or destroyed; and, af- ter undergoing great hardships, he reach- ed home in January, 1568. He after- wards filled the office of treasurer of the navy; and he appears to have been much HAWKINS—HAWLEY. 197 consulted on maritime affairs. In 1588, he was appointed vice-admiral of die squadron sent out against die Spanish armada, and he received the honor of knighthood for his conduct on that occa- sion. His last service was in 1595, when he was sent, with sir Francis Drake, against the West Indian settlements of the Span- iards. The two commanders differed in opinion; and their consequent want of success occasioned so much chagrin to sir John Hawkhis, that it is supposed . to have hastened his death, which took place at sea, November 21, 1595, in his 75th year. Hawkins, sir John; a lawyer and mis- cellaneous writer of the last century. He was bom in London, in 1719. He prac- tised as a solicitor, with reputation, for some years, writing also for the periodical press. In 1749, he was chosen a mem- ber of a club established by doctor John- son, with whom he formed an acquaint- ance which lasted during their joint lives. He contributed some notes for Johnson and Steevens' edition of Shak- speare, and for some years he was engag- ed in preparing for the press a General History of the Science and Practice of Music, which he published in 1776 (in 5 vols. 4to.). Sir John Hawkins, having ac- cepted the office of executor to doctor Johnson, was employed by the booksellers to draw up a memoir of that celebrated writer, to accompany . a posthumous edi- tion of his works. Neither as editor or biographer does he appear to advantage. Some pieces, not written by Johnson, are printed among his works; and the Life, which forms a bulky octavo, seems to have served the writer as a receptacle for the contents of his common-place book. His death took place May 21, 1789. Hawkwood, sir John; a military adven- turer of the 14th century, who, by his valor and conduct as a commander, raised him- self from an humble origin to rank and reputation. Having entered, in the capaci- ty of a private soldier, the English army, then preparing for the invasion of France, with Edward III and the Black Prince at its head, his courage and military abilities soon procured him the honor of knight- hood. In 1360, on the conclusion of the peace of Bretigny, sir John joined himself with some other soldiers of fortune, whose revenues were unequal to the support of their rank in times of tranquillity. These associates, under the name of Les tard Ve- nus, continued, notwithstanding the cessa- tion of national hostilities, to harass and plunder their old enemies, the French, and even extended theh depredations to Italy. After leading a marauding life of this de- scription for nearly four years, he once more took regular military service, under the republic of Pisa, and displayed his ac- customed bravery. Having carried arms under this banner for three-and-twenty years, he, in 1387, exchanged the Pisan service for that of the Florentines. He died at Florence, March 6, 1393, at a great age, and was honored Avith a pub- lic funeral in the church of Santa Repa- rata. Hawley, Joseph, a distinguished Amer- ican patriot, was born, in 1724, at North- ampton, Massachusetts, where he became a lawyer, after graduating at Yale college, in 1742. He soon acquired great emi- nence in his profession, and an extensive practice. He was distinguished for his knowledge of political history and the principles of free government—a circum- stance that rendered him one of the ablest advocates of American liberty, in the de- fence of which he took an early and stren- uous part. His influence in the quarter of the country in which he lived became very great, and was owing as much to his high-minded, inflexible integrity, as to his talents. The sentiments of enmity aud dread which the friends of the British ad- ministration entertained, in consequence, towards him, caused them to seek eveiy method of injuring him; and, by their ex- ertions, he was at length excluded from the bar; to which, however, he was soon restored. The imputations which they cast upon his conduct hriteted him to such a degree, that he pledged himself never to accept of any promotion, office, or emolu- ment, under any government—a pledge which he amply redeemed. He was sev- eral times chosen a counsellor, but refused to accept the office, prefening a seat in the legislature, to which he was first elected in 1764. In that body he continued to ex- ert himself, with the greatest zeal and ef- fect, against the arbitrary measures of the government, and was one of the first to entertain the idea that they should be re- sisted by arms. As the crisis approached, some persons represented to him the dan- ger of entering into a contest apparently so unequal. His answer was, " We must put to sea; Providence will bring us into port." Although major Hawley retired from the legislature in 1776, he did not abate his efforts to advance his country's cause, but, by his powerful addresses, con- tributed to keep up the spirits of his fel- low citizens during the times of the great- est difficulties and gloom. He died March 198 HAWLEY—HAYDN. 10, 1788, aged 64 years, having been greatly afflicted, during the latter portion of his fife, with hypochondriacal disor- ders. Hawthorn, or White Thorn (crata- gus oxyacantha); a small, spiny European tree, rising sometimes to the height of 20 to 25 feet, much admired for the beauty of its foliage, and forming excellent hedg- es. The leaves are smooth, shining, more or less deeply lobed, and of a very beauti- ful green color; the flowers are white, sometimes with a reddish tinge, disposed in corymbs, and possess an agreeable per- fume ; the fruit, when mature, is of a bright red color. The species of cratagus are about 30 in number, all shmbs or small trees, spiny, with alternate simple or lobed leaves, and bearing fruit resembling, in miniature, that of the apple, to which plant they are closely allied, being distinguished chiefly by theh osseous seeds, and are ar- ranged with it under the same natural fami- ly rosacea. One half of the species are na- tives of the U. States, many of them orna- mental, and equally adapted to the forma- tion of hedges with the European. Haydn, Joseph; bom 1732, in the vil- lage of Rohrau, on the borders of Hunga- ry and Austria. His father, a poor wheel- wright, played on the harp on Sundays, his mother accompanying with her voice. When the boy was five years old, he used, during his parents' performance, to make motions with a board and a stick, as if he was playing the violin. A schoolmaster, whom accident led to this concert, observ- ing that Joseph kept good time, asked per- mission to take him to his school. Here he learned to read and write, and received instruction in singing and in playing on the violin and other instruments. After he had been here two years, he became, at the age of eight years, a chorister in St. Stephen's. At the age of ten years, he composed pieces for six or eight voices. " I then thought," he afterwards remarked, laughingly, " that the blacker the paper, the finer the music." With his fine so- prano, he lost his place, in his 16th year. His situation was now very discouraging, and he had a foretaste of the difficulties which await an artist without fortune or patrons. He gave instructions in music, played in the orchestra, and occupied himself with composing. " With my wonn-eaten harpsichord," said he, " I did not envy the lot of kings." At that time, the six first sonatas of Emanuel Bach fell into his hands. " I did not leave the harp- sichord," said he, " until they were played through, from beginning to end; and any one, who knows me, must perceive that I owe much to Emanuel Bach; that I have carefully studied his style ; and he himself once paid me a compliment about it." The youth at length had the good fortune to become acquainted widi a Mile, de Martinez, the friend of Metestasio. lb; instructed her in singing and playing on the harpsichord, for which he received his board and lodging. The first opera- poet of the age and the best composer of symphonies thus lived in the same house, though in very different circumstances. The poet, honored with the favor of the court, lived in die midst of pleasures, while the poor musician was obliged to pass the days in bed, for want of fuel. When Mile, de Martinez left Vienna, Haydn was again plunged in the greatest distress. He retired into the suburb of Leopoldstadt, where a hair-dresser took him into his house. This residence had a fatal influence over the rest of his life. He married the daughter of his host, who poisoned his happiest days. Haydn was 18 years old when he composed his first quartetto, which met with general success, and encouraged him to new efforts. At the age of 19, he composed the Devil on Two Sticks, an opera which was forbid- den, on account of its satirical character, after its thhd representation. Haydn now became so celebrated, that prince Ester- hazy placed him at the head of his pri- vate chapel. For this prince he compos- ed some beautiful symphonies,—a depart- ment in which he excelled all other compo- sers,—and the greatest part of his fine quar- tetts. Here he also composed the sympho- ny known by the name of Haydn's Depar- ture, in which one instrument stops after another, and each musician, as soon as he has finished, puts out his light, rolls up his note-book, and retires. When, after a pe- riod of about 20 years, the prince Esterha- zy reduced his court, and Haydn receiv- ed his discharge, he went to London, to which he had often been invited. In 1794, he made a second journey thither. He found a most splendid reception, and the university of Oxford confened upon him the degree of doctor of music. In England, Haydn first became generally known ; he had not enjoyed an extensive reputation in his native country. On hia return from England, he purchased a small house and garden in one of the sub- urbs of Vienna. Here he composed the Creation and the Seasons. The fonner work, which is full of the fire of youth, was finished in his 65th year. The S< a- sons, his last work, was completed in 11 HAYDN—HAYNE. 199 months. Among his numerous works are also a Te Deum, a Stabat, many con- certs, marches, masses, &c. Haydn made a new epoch in instrumental music. In- exhaustible in invention and execution, always new and original, always surpris- ing and satisfying the hearer, he ruled the taste of the age. His symphonies have all these characteristics. From him the quar- Jetts first obtained a spirit and an artful in- volution, which enraptured connoisseurs. Some years before his death, which hap- pened May 31,1809, the Dilettanti society in Vienna concluded their winter concerts with a splendid performance of the Crea- tion, to which Haydn was invited. His reception made a great impression on him, weakened as he was by age, but his own work affected him still more deeply; and, at the passage " It was light," overpower- ed by the hannony which he had himself created, the tears ran down his cheeks, and, with upraised arms, he cried, " Not from me, but thence does all this come!" He sunk under the weight of his feelings, and was obliged to be carried out Haydon, B., a distinguished historical painter, bom at Plymouth, England, 1786, was the son of a bookseller. Even while a boy, he was extravagantly fond of paint- ing. The father earnestly begged his master to try every means to wean him from his love of the art; but his efforts had little effect, and the example of the young artist inspired many of the other school-boys with a desire of painting. The discourses of sir Joshua Reynolds, which fell into his hands, determined him to make painting his profession. His father finally yielded, and allowed him to go to London, where he began his studies in the royal academy, in 1804. Here he drew two years with unwearied industry, and, at the same time, dissected in an ana- tomical school. Fuseli (q. v.) became his {latron, and Wilkie his friend. In 1808, le began his Dentatus; but, having been admitted to see the Elgin marbles, he rub- bed out Iris whole work, and began it again on new principles, derived from those works, from which he sometimes drew for 12 and 15 hours at a time. The Dentatus was exhibited at the royal insti- tution, in 1809, where it received the great prize. Being ill treated by the academy, he detcnnhied to have no connexion with it; the prize was also withheld from him, and he was therefore left entirely without resources, after he had been four months employed on his Solomon. He sold his books and clothes, and completed the pic- ture in two years ; but his application had impaired his health aud injured his eyes. In 1814, he visited Paris, in company with Wilkie. His Christ entering Jerusalem was exhibited in 1820, with the greatest success. The Resunection of Lazarus (1823) was also much admired. They were sold, the former for £350, the latter for £220. Hayley, William, an English poet of die last century, was born at Chichester, in 1745, and studied at Trinity college, Cambridge. After quitting the university, he settled at Eartham, in Sussex, where he possessed landed property, devoting his time principally to literature. His Poetical Epistle to an eminent Painter (G. Rom- ney), 1778, was followed by two other small poems. In 1780 appeared his Es- say on History, in Three (poetical) Epis- tles to Edward Gibbon (4to.), and, in 1781, his Triumphs of Temper. He next pub- lished an Essay on Epic Poetry (1782), Essay on Painting, Triumphs of Musi'c, and Essay on Sculpture. The most popu- lar work which Hayley produced, next to the Triumphs of Temper, was a prose Es- say on Old Maids (3 vols., 12mo.), illustrat- ed by a series of fictitious narratives, chief- ly satirical. In 1803, he published the life and correspondence of the poet Cowper (2 vols., 4to.), to which he added a supple- ment in 1806. He died November 12, 1820. Haymarket Theatre ; one of the prin- cipal theatres of London, so called from the Haymarket, where it is situated. It was opened in 1821, almost on the site of the original building, which was erected in 1702. The theatre is licensed to exhibit regular dramas during summer. Hayne, Isaac, a patriot of the revolution, was descended from a highly respectable family in South Carolina; and when the struggle between the colonies and the mother country commenced, he was living on his plantation, in the enjoyment of an independent fortune. In 1780, he held the rank of captain in a corps of militia artillery, at the same time that he was serving as a senator in the state legislature. Having been disgusted by the promotion of a junior officer over his head, he resign- ed his commission, and returned to the ranks of the company which he had com- manded, as a private, in which capacity he served during the siege of Charleston by the royal troops. After the capitulation of that city, by which the persons and prop- erty of die Americans were guarantied, though it precluded them from again bear- ing amis, Mr. Hayne returned to his farm. Here, in the beginning of 1781, when bis 200 HAYNE—HAYSTACK MOUNTAIN. wife and several of his children were dan- gerously sick of the small-pox, he was re- quired, by the commander of the British forces in his neighborhood, to take up arms as a British subject, or repair to Charleston as a prisoner. He refused to do either, protesting his inviolability under the capit- ulation of Charleston. At length, how- ever, he was induced to go to Charleston by the assurance that he would be permit- ted to return to his family on engaging to " demean himself as a British subject, so long as that country should be covered by a British anny." He obtained a written agreement to that effect, and, after repairing to Charleston, showed it to brigadier-gen- eral Patterson, and solicited permission to return home. This was refused, and he vvas told that he must either swear allegi- ance to the British government, or be sub- jected to close confinement Thus de- ceived, he at length consented to subscribe a declaration of his allegiance to the king of Great Britain; but he expressly object- ed to the clause which required him " with his arms to support the royal government," affirming that he never would bear arms against his country. He was assured that this would not be required, and then hast- ened back to his family only in time to hear the expiring sigh of his wife, and to be- hold the corpse of one of his children. Although he might have considered him- self justified in not complying with his promises to the British government, in consequence of the artifice by which he had been inveigled into the garrison of Charleston, and the compulsion by which he had been forced to take protection, in the language of the day, yet such was his scmpulous sense of honor, that he deter- mined to observe them with fidelity. He continued, therefore, to reside privately upon his estate, until he was summoned, after the successes of Greene had changed the face of affairs, to repah immediately to the British standard. This was a vio- lation of the agreement, in which it was stipulated that he should not be called upon to bear arms against his country; and finding himself consequently released from all obligation of observing it on his part, he hastened to the American camp. After serving some time, however, he was made a prisoner, and brought to Charleston, where he remained in confinement until lord Rawdon, the commander of the royal forces in South Carolina, came to the town. He was then taken before a court of inquiry, and condemned to be hang- ed, "for having been found under arms, and employed in raising a regiment to op- pose the British government, though he had become a subject and accepted die protection of that government" This un- just and merciless sentence was accord- ingly put iuto execution on the 4th of Au- gust, 1781. Colonel Hayne met his fate with the greatest fortitude and composure. This act has since been the subject of a controversy, in which lord Rawdon, then earl of Moira, and since marquis of Hast- ings (see Hastings), endeavored to justify his conduct. His pamphlet was examined in the first number of the Southern Re- view, and ably refuted. Haystack Mountain, Great, or La- fayette Mountain, is one of the highest mountains in New Hampshire, situated in the north-east part of the township of Franconia, nearly equi-distant from mount Washington in the north-east, and Moose- hillock in the south-west It has gene- rally been known by the name of the Great Haystack mountain; but, hi 1824, an attempt was made to change its name to that of Lafayette mountain. The Fran- conia notch is a deep ravine in the moun- tains, through which the road from Fran- conia to Plymouth passes. About the year 1825, a foot path was cleared out from this road to the top of the mountain. The point where the path commences in the notch, is six miles from the Franconia iron works, and the length of it, from the road to the summit, is three miles; and throughout this distance it is almost uni- formly steep. The ascent is more difficult and fatiguing than that of mount Wash- ington, on account of the greater and more uniform steepness, and the more rugged state of the path. A person, while de- scending, is more strongly impressed with the almost unvaried steepness, than while ascending. The ascent, for the distance of about two miles, is through a thick for- est of hemlock, hackmetack, spmce, and other evergreen trees. Higher up, the mountain is encompassed with a zone, about half a mile in width, covered with small stunted trees, chiefly hemlock and spruce. Above the upper edge of this zone, which is about half a mile from the top, trees and shrubs disappear. The summit is composed chiefly of bare rocks, partly in large masses, and partly broken into small pieces; and it has less grass and other kinds of vegetation upon it than are found on the higher part of mount Washington. About three quarters of a mile from the top, there is a small pond of cold water. The view from the sum- mit is exceedingly picturesque and mag- nificent. Although it is not so extensive HAYSTACK MOUNTAIN—HAYTI. 201 as that from the top of mount Washing- ton, yet, owing to die situation of the Great Haystack, nearer the centre of this mountainous region, it is not inferior to it, either in beauty or grandeur. A person who has never ascended this or any of die neighboring summits, will not easily imagine what a world of mountains is here presented to view, or how well entitled this part of New Hampshhe is to be styled, as it has sometimes been, the Siritzerland of America. The view to the north-east, east, south and south-east, is one grand panora- ma of mountain scenery, presenting more than fifty summits, which, when viewed from this elevation, do not appear to differ greatly in height. Some of these mountains are covered with verdure to the top, while the summits of others are composed of naked rocks; and down the sides of many of them may be seen slides, or avalanches, of earth, rocks and trees, more or less ex- tensive, which serve to diversify the scene. The whole appearance of cultivation in this entire compass, is confined to a few firms, seen in a direction west of south, on the road to Plymouth, extending along the Pemigewasset branch of the river Merri- mack. To the west is seen the territory which is watered by the Connecticut and the Lower Amonoosuck. This country, though hilly, yet, when viewed from this elevation, appears almost level, and with its few small villages, scattered houses, and cultivated farms, presents a pleasing contrast to the wild and dreary prospect in all other directions. At the place in the road through the notch where the path up the mountain commences, is exhibited to the view of the traveller, on the summit of the mountain opposite to the Great Haystack, a remarkable curiosity, called die profile, or old man of the mountain, which is a singular lusus natura. It is situated on the brow of the peak, which rises almost perpendicularly from the sur- face of a small lake, directly in front, to the height of about 800 feet. The front of this precipice is formed of solid rock; but as viewed from the point where the profile is seen, the whole of it appears to be covered with trees and vegetation, ex- cept about space enough for a side view of the old man's bust. All the principal features of the human face, as seen in a profile, are exhibited with surprising ex- actness. The little lake at the bottom of the precipice, is one of the sources of the Pemigewasset river; and about half a mile to the north of this, there is another some- what larger lake, which is about a mile in length, and surrounded by picturesque scenery. These lakes are both situated in Franconia notch, and very near the road. The northern one is 900 feet above the site of the iron works in Franconia, and the highest point of the road is 1029 feet above the same level. Hayti, or Haiti (the mountainous); the Indian name of one of the Antilles, to which Columbus gave the name of Es- panola (Hispaniola, Little Spain), but which was commonly called St. Domingo by the French and English, from its capi- tal. It lies south-east of Cuba (from which it is separated by the Windward passage, 18 leagues in width), and east of Jamaica, and between latitude 17° 43' and 19° 58/ N., and longitude 68° 251 and 74° 3& W. Its greatest length, from east to west, is about 390 miles, its breadth from 60 to 150 miles, its superficial area 30,000 square miles. On the west, it forms two remarkable promontories, be- tween which is the gulf of Gonaives. The northern point is cape Isabella, the eastern, cape Engagno. Old cape Fran- cois forms the north-east extremity of the island. On the northern coast lies the island of Tortugas, separated from the main land by the nanow channel of the same name. The face of the country is, in general, mountainous, and intersect- ed with deep valleys. The Cibao moun- tains run across the island from east to west. The highest summits are about 6000 feet above the level of the sea. Monte-Christi, in the north-east, is the other principal chain. In the south-east part, particularly, there are extensive plains of savannas, occupied by large herds of swine, horses and horned cattle. That of Los Llanos, which lies east of the city of St. Domingo, is 80 miles long, by 25 to 30 broad. The Vega Reale is of nearly the same extent, and more fertile. Hayti is well watered by numerous rivers; die soil is fertile, producing every variety of vegetable for beauty and use. The cli- mate, on account of the inequalities of the surface and diversity of situation, is va- rious. In the plains, the great heat, joined to the natural humidity, is often fatal to Europeans, but produces a rich vegeta- tion. On the coasts, the regular sea and land breezes are refreshing. On the mountains, the cold is often uncomforta- ble. As in all tropical climates, the year is divided into the dry and the rainy sea- sons. In May and June, the rain falls in tonents, but hurricanes are less frequent than in the other Antilles. Sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, cocoa; are produced in great abundance. Indigo was formerly much 202 HAYTI. cultivated, but is now little attended to. The plantain, vanilla, potato, manioc, &c, are spontaneous productions of this rich soil. The mountains are covered with valuable timber, oak, mahogany, satin- wood, ironwood, &c. Before the arrival of the Europeans, there were but four species of quadrupeds in the island. Of these the agouti only survives. The prin- cipal towns are Cape Haytien (q. v.j, the capital, the Mole, Port-Republicain (Port- au-Prince) and St. Domingo. The island is divided into five departments, which are subdivided into 33 arrondissements. The population, in 1824, was 953,335, al- most all blacks and mulattoes, the greater part of which is in the French division of the island. In 1789, the population was 665,000. The regular troops, in 1824, were 40,000; the militia, 113,000. The language of the government, and of the greatest part of the population, is French. The Spanish is also spoken in the eastern portion of the island. Much has been done for public instmction. There is hardly a considerable village without a school, and a college has been established at Cape Haytien, where a liberal course of instmction is pursued. The manners of the lower classes are much improved since they have gained their freedom, and they have an air of comfort, health and happiness. The Catholic is the religion of the state, but all sects are tolerated. The commerce of Hayti has been affected, of course, by the vicissitudes of its gov- ernment In 1789, the island was in a most flourishing condition, but its com- merce and industry were intereupted by the bloody wars and revolutions which succeeded, and have only of late begun to revive. The exports were, in 1791, 1804, Coffee, 68,151,180 lbs. 31,000,000 lbs. Sugar, 163,405,220 47,600,000 1822, 1824, Coffee, 35,117,834 lbs. 37,700,000 lbs. Sugar, 652,541 725,000 Estimated value, in 1822, 9,030,397 dol- lars; in 1825, about 8,000,000. The rev- enue, in 1825, was about 4,400,000 dollars, which fell short of the expenditures. The government of Hayti is republican. The chief magistrate is the president, who is elected for life by the senate. He exer- cises the executive power, commands the forces of the republic, and nominates all officers. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives. The latter are chosen for five years, and consist of one representative from each commune and two from each capital city. The senate is composed of 24 members, chosen for nine years by the representa- tives, from a list presented by die presi- dent A code, based on the French, has been adopted, and trial by jury introduced. (See Present State of Hayti, by J. Frank- lin, 1828; Notes on Hayti, by Charles Mackenzie, late English Consul-General to that Island, London, 1830.) The island of Hispaniola is memorable for having been the seat of the first European settlement in America, and the scene of the first in- dependent empire founded by African slaves. It was discovered by Colunibus, on the 6th of December, 1492, on his re- turn from Cuba. It had borne the name of Hayti among the natives. Columbus called it Espahola, or Little Spain, and it has since acquired the name of St. Do- mingo, from the chief town. The impres- sion made on Columbus, by the beauty of the country, detennined him to form a settlement here; and he accordingly left 38 Spaniards at the bay of St. Nicholas. These were the first colonists of America. On his return, in November, 1493, he founded a second town on the northern coast, which he called Isabdla, the first settlement having been nearly destroyed by the natives. The licentiousness and avarice of the new settlers again provoked the Indians to attempt revenge ; but these miserable beings were overpowered by European skill, and great numbers perish- ed by famhie and the sword. In 1496, Columbus returned to Spain, leaving his brother Bartholomew lieutenant-governor, who soon afterwards removed the colony to the south side of the island, where he founded the city of St. Domingo. The colonists were distributed in different dis- tricts, and a certain number of natives were appointed to cultivate each allot- ment This unhappy race dwindled away fast, under disease and a species of labor to which they were unaccustomed. (See Irving's Columbus.) Their numbers were so much reduced about the year 1513, that Ovando, to supply laborers, de- coyed 40,000 of the inhabitants of the Bahamas into St. Domingo; and, not- withstanding this accession, it is said, that towards the middle of that century, scarcely 150 Indians remained alive. The colonists, in the mean time, degenerated from the spirit and enterprise of theh an- cestors. Their mines were deserted, and their agriculture neglected; and, although Ovaudo had introduced the sugar-cane from the Canary islands, yet, such was the indolence of the inhabitants, that they HAYTI. 203 could not be persuaded to cultivate it In this state of things, the island remained for upwards of a centuiy. About the middle of the 17th century, die French and English buccaneers (q. v.) began to attract notice. The French obtained a footing on the west end of the island about the same time that the Engfish got possession of Jamaica. The former ap- plied themselves to agriculture, and, in a few years, attracted the attention of die French government Several slaves hav- ing been taken from the English, in the war of 1688, the inhabitants renewed the culture of the sugar-caue. From the year 1722, when the French colony was freed from the yoke of exclusive trading companies, it rapidly rose in prosperity, whde the Spanish settlements had de- clined in population. It was not until 1765, when Charles II opened a free trade to all the Windward islands, that Hispani- ola began to exhibit symptoms of pros- perity. In 1691, Spain had ceded to France, by the treaty of Ryswick, the western half of the island. In 1776, a new line of demarcation was drawn, and a liberal commerce was opened between the two sections. From 1776 to 1789, the French colony was at the height of its pros- perity. Its productions were immense and valuable, and its commerce in the most flourishing state. In 1791, an iusunection of the negroes broke out in the French colony. In two months, upwards of 2000 whites perished, and large distticts of fer- tile plantations were devastated. In 1792, the national assembly proclaimed the po- litical equality of the free negroes and the whites, and, in the succeeding year, ap- pointed three commissioners, who, on their arrival, proclaimed the emancipation of the slaves. June 21, 1793, Macaya, a negro chief, entered Cape Francois, at the head of 3000 slaves, and began an indis- criminate slaughter. The British govern- ment, hoping to take advantage of the confusion, sent a body of troops from Ja- maica, who captured Leogane and Port- au-Prince. The yellow fever, however, breaking out, reduced their numbers rap- idly ; and the blacks, headed by Rigaud, a mulatto, and the celebrated Toussaint Louverture, who had been appointed, by the F'rench government, commander-in- chief, retook the principal places. The English, after an enormous loss of men, finally evacuated the island, hi 1798. Previously to this, Spain had ceded to France the eastern part of the island. July 1, 1801, the independence of Hayti was proclaimed. Under the administra- tion of Bonaparte, then first consul, a force of 20,000 men, under general Le Clerc, was despatched in December, 1801. During a truce, Toussaint was surprised and carried to France, and there died in April, 1803. Hostilities were now resum- ed with greater animosity on each side. The command of the black troops de- volved upon Dessalines, one of the chiefs, who prosecuted die war with vigor and success. The yellow fever aided the cause of the negroes, and swept off great numbers of the French. General Le Clerc died shortly afterwards. Under his successor, Rochambeau, the French, now reduced to a handful, were driven into the Cape, where, November 30, 1803, they were forced to capitulate to an English squadron; and thus the greater part of die island was abandoned, and opposition ceased to the independence of the ner groes. January 1, 1804, the general and chiefs of the army entered into a solemn compact, in the name of the people of Hayti, renouncing all dependence on France. At the same time, they appointed Dessalines governor for life, with veiy ex- tensive powers. On his return, in Sep- tember, from an unsuccessful expedition against the city of St Domingo, which was still occupied by some Spaniards and French, he assumed the purple, and the tide of Jacques I, emperor of Hayti. His reign was short, and, though some saga- cious measures were adopted for the gov- ernment and improvement of the people, yet his tyranny rendered him universally detested. He was slain by a military con- spiracy in October, 1806. Christophe, his second in command, immediately assum- ed die administration of affairs, under the title of chief of the government. Petion, however, another chief, appeared as a candidate for the sovereign power, and the stmggle between him and Christophe was long and fierce. A severe batde was fought January 1, 1807, in which Petion was defeated. Christophe's progress to supreme power was similar to that of Des- salines. In 1807, he was appointed chief magistrate for life, with the power of naming his successor, and, in 1811, he changed the tide to that of king, calling himself Henry I. The office vvas made hereditary in his family. From 1810 to 1820, the part of Hayti formerly belonging to the French, was under distinct and ri- val governments. In the north was the kingdom of Christophe, and in the south a republic existed, at the head of which was Petion, who possessed bodi sagacity and virtue. In 1816, he was appointed 204 HAYTI—HAZL1TT. president for life, and retained the office until May, 1818, when he died, universally lamented by his fellow citizens. Chris- tophe (q. v.) was an avaricious and cruel despot, and perished in a military revolu- tion, in October, 1820. In consequence of this event, the whole colony has been united under Boyer, the successor of Pe- tion in the office of president, who is said to possess many of the virtues of his pred- ecessor. That part of the island which was originally settled by the Spaniards remained in theh hands until December, 1821, when it followed the example of the inhabitants of the north-westeni part, and voluntarily placed itself under the government of president Boyer, who thus peaceably became master of the whole island. In 1825, Boyer negotiated an absurd anangement with France, by which Charles X, by royal ordinance, dated April 17, 1825, acknowledged the independence of the inhabitants of the French part of the island, in consideration of which Boyer stipulated to pay to France 150,000,000 of francs, as an in- demnity for the ex-colonists, in five an- nual instalments. (See Boyer.) Hazel (corylus); a genus of plants of the family amentace