NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Washington Founded 1836 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health SerTice I ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. A POPULAR DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND BIOGRAPHY, BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME; INCLUDING A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES IN AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY; ON THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF THE GERMAN CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON. EDITED BY FRANCIS LIEBER, ASSISTED BY E. WIGGLESWORTH AND T. G. BRADFORD. Vol. XL CAREY AND LEA. SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART-IN NEW YORK BY G. & C. & H. CARVILL-IN BOSTON BY CARTER & HENDEE. 1832. Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by Carey and Lea, In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. AC E54 | ing, when, in consequence of a revolution there, many disputes arose concerning property, and the want of a style of speak- ing suitable for courts of justice was much felt. Some ascribe the invention of rhetoric to Gorgias of Leontium, in Sicily, a pupil of Empedocles, as he was the first who made use of the artificial figures and forms of speech. Others have recognised Aristotle as the inventor of rhetoric, who, hi fact, first gave it a scien- tific form. We find two sects of rhetori- cians mentioned, the Apollodorians and Theodoriaus, so called from Apollodorus of Pergamus, who was the teacher of the emperor Augustus at Apollonia, and from Theodoras, to whose lessons the empe- ror Tiberius is said to have attended at Rhodes. The object of Grecian rhetoric was to represent every thing so as to give it the appearance of plausibility and truth. Before Aristotle, the sophists, the succes- sors of Zeno, the Eleatic, in dialectics, were teachers of eloquence: arrogaut, vain, avaricious, and selfish, they endeav- ored to win admiration by their dexterity in speaking on all questions, even without preparation, and to gain influence by the acts of persuasion, at a time when wealth, 14 RHETORICIANS AND GRAMMARIANS—RHEUMATISM. luxury, licentiousness, and the splendor of political eloquence, which (particularly in Athens, where it was favored by dem- ocratic institutions, and had arrived at its full maturity) invited to such a study (in the 84th Olympiad, or B. C. 440). As art naturally precedes science, the prac- tice of eloquence is of earlier origin than the rules of rhetoric. The rhetoricians drew their rules and examples from the master-works of the orators, whose name (ptiTopa) was afterwards applied to them. But this mode of proceeding was changed about the time of the Ptolemies, when two ingenious and learned critics, Aris- tophanes and Aristarchus, taught in Alex- andria. They selected ten Attic orators (whose live3 are given in a work ascribed to Plutarch) as models of imitation, whose works they analyzed, and from them de- rived their principles. But while the art of oratoiy was older than the science of rhetoric, the latter long survived the for- mer, continuing its instructions even to the time of Theodosius the Great. Eloquence flourished at Athens only 150 years, and perished, with eveiy thing noble and great, on the overthrow of liberty, under whose patronage it had flourished, and whom it in turn defended. It was car- ried to Asia Minor, Rhodes, where ^Es- chines introduced it at the time of his banishment, and other islands, but, in these wanderings, lost its original charms, and was corrupted by foreign manners. Thus arose the distinction of the Attic, Asiatic and Rhodian orators. A sparing use of ornament, combined with a judi- cious abstinence from striking contrasts, characterized the Attic style. The Asi- atic eloquence indulged in a greater ful- ness of expression, and a free use of rhe- torical ornaments. The Asiatic orators, particularly those of Lycia and Caria, were addicted to a sort of rhythmical close of their sentences. The Rhodian eloquence is said to have preserved a me- dium between these two. Eloquence was finally transplanted to Rome by Greek teachers, where it shone with a new splendor ; and Cicero appeared as the greatest public orator of his country*. But here, also, after arriving at the'nighest perfection, it began gradually to decline; tor, when freedom of speech was re- strained, public eloquence ceased to be esteemed. The old sophists certainly did an important service by the establishment of schools of oratory: at one time, they were the only public teachers of rhetoric, and they encouraged the youth to aim at the glory of eloquence, both by instruc- tion and practice, and by their own ex- ample, as declaimers (declamatores). The sophists were distinguished by a purple gown, which was a sort of official dress. At Athens, no one, and particularly no foreigner, was allowed to assume this dress without the consent of the fraternity of the sophists, and without having been admitted into the order: the Roman em- perors also prohibited those who were not regularly qualified from teaching declama- tion. Besides other secret usages in the Greek ceremony of admission, the candi- dates were led to a public bath. After the bath, the person received the mantle, by the authority of the president of the department of eloquence, to whom he paid a large fee for this permission. With the mantle, the initiated person received the dignity and name of a sophist. They, who in this manner had obtained the rank of a rhetorician, spent their time in teach- ing oratory, and engaged in various rhe- torical exercises with their scholars. The principal design of rhetorical instruction was to prepare the scholars for conducting legal processes, in which every thing was transacted orally. Those who, in the rhetorical schools, practised themselves in speaking upon supposed cases, and their pupils, were called scholastics; but this name was fiually brought into contempt. The rhetorical instruction of the sophists consisted chiefly in arts of deception, in the means of blinding one's adversary, and ensnaring him by sophistical subtle- ties and quibbles. They required a large fee, which was paid beforehand. In later times, the Grecian and Latin rheto- ricians were paid by the Roman empe- rors (first under Vespasian). The rheto- ricians also wrote speeches for others. Antiphon was the first who composed fb- rensie speeches for the use of others. With an oration of Lysias, Iphicrates veiy often gained the advantage over his ad- versary. Anytus, by a speech prepared for him by the sophist Polycrates, ob- tained the condemnation of Socrates, who disdained to use one written for him by Lysias. Dinarchus became rich by com- posing orations for others. The prices paid for them were high, and many writers obtained so much celebrity as to be con- stantly occupied in this way. At length this traffic fell into merited contempt, and many great men avoided leaving written speeches, from fear of being reproached as sophists. Rheumatism; a disease attended with sharp pains, which has so much resem- blance to the gout, that some physicians RHEUMATISM—RHINE. 15 have considered it as not an entirely dis- tinct disease; although theyare by no means to be confounded. (SceGout.) Rheumatism is distinguished into acute and chronic. The former is of short continuance, and either shifting to different parts of the body or confined to a particular part: in the latter case, it has a tendency to pass into the chronic, unless properly attended to: it is often attended with fever, or sometimes conies on in the train of a fever. This combination of rheumatism with fever is called rheumatic fever, which is consider- ed by physicians a distinct species. Chron- ic rheumatism is attended with pains in the head, shoulders, knees, and other large joints, which, at times, are confined to one particular part, and at others shift from one joint to another, without occasioning any fever; and in this manner the com- plaint continues often for a considerable time, and at length goes off. No danger is attendant on chronic rheumatism ; but a person having been once attacked with it, is ever afterwards more or less liable to returns of it. Neither is the acute rheuma- tism frequently accompanied with much danger. The acute is preceded by shiv- ering, heat, thirst, and frequent pulse ; after which the pain commences, and soon fixes on the joints. The chronic rheu- matism is distinguished by pain in the joints, without fever, and is divided into three species; lumbago, affecting the loins; sciatica, affecting the hip; and arthrodynia, or pains in the joints. The acute rheu- matism mostly terminates in one of these species. Rheumatism may arise at all times of the year, when there are frequent vicissitudes of the weather from heat to cold, but the spring and autumn are the seasons in which it is most prevalent; and it attacks persons of all ages; but very young people are less subject to it than adults. Obstructed perspiration,occasion- ed either by wearing wet clothes, lying in damp linen, or damp rooms, or hy being exposed to cool air when the uody has been much heated by exercise, is the cause which usually produces rheumatism. Those who are much afflicted with this complaint, are very apt to be sensible of the approach of wet weather, by finding wan- dering pains about them at that period. Rheumatism usually attacks only the exter- nal muscular parts, but has sometimes been known to affect the internal parts, especially the serous membranes, the pleura, the peritonaum, the dura mater. Rhigas, Constantine, the Tyrtseus of modern Greece, the first mover of the war for Grecian independence, was born about 1753, at Velestini, a small city of Thessaly, and was early distinguished for talent. As he was not rich enough to devote himself to literature, he engaged in commerce, went to Bucharest, and remained there until 1790. He made himself intimately acquainted with the literature of ancient Greece. Latin, French, Italian and Ger- man were familiar to him: he wrote Greek and French, and was a poet and a profi- cient in music. He formed the bold plan of freeing Greece from the Ottoman Porte by means of a great secret association, and succeeded even in bringing powerful Turks into his conspiracy ; among others, the celebrated Passwan Oglou. He then went to Vienna, where many rich mer- chants and some learned men of his nation resided. From this place he held a secret correspondence with the most important confederates in Greece, and in other parts of Europe. At the same time, he pubr fished a Greek journal, translated the Trav- els of the Younger Anacharsis, and wrote a treatise upon tactics. His patriotic songs, in his native language, were calcu- lated to inflame the imagination of the Greek youth, and to embitter them against the Mussulmans. He likewise prepared a map of all Greece, with the ancient and modern names of places, in twelve sheets, which was printed at the expense of his countrymen in Vienna. He perished at the age of forty-five, having been arrested in Trieste. The signatures of all the con- federates were contained in a document which he always carried about with him. This he destroyed in the night, and swal- lowed the names of his countrymen. With several other prisoners he was con- ducted to Vienna. Rhigas and three others of those arrested were sent back in chains to Belgrade, in May, 1798, and, ac- cording to some accounts, beheaded, and cast into the Danube. According to other accounts, Rhigas was sawed asunder be- tween two boards. Rhine (in German, Rhein ; in Dutch, Rhyn, or Ryn); in magnitude the fourth river of Europe, and one of the noblest rivers in the world. There arc rivers whose course is longer, and whose volume of water is greater, but none which unites almost every thing that can renderan earth- ly object magnificent and charming, in the same degree as the Rhine. As it flows down from the distant ridges of the Alps, through fertile regions into the open sea, so it comes down from remote antiquity, associated in every age with momentous events in the history of the neighboring nations. A river which presents so many 16 RHINE. historical recollections of Roman con- quests and defeats, of the chivalric ex- ploits of the feudal period, of the wars and negotiations of modern times, of the cor- onations of emperors whose bones repose by its side; on whose borders stand the two grandest monuments of the noble arch- itecture of the middle ages ; whose banks present every variety of wild and pictur- esque rocks, thick forests, fertile plains, vineyards sometimes gently sloping, some- times perched among lofty crags, where industry has won a domain among the fortresses of nature; whose banks are or- namented with populous cities, flourishing towns and villages, castles and ruins, with which a thousand legends are connected, beautiful and romantic roads, and salutary mineral springs; a river whose waters offer choice fish, as its banks offer the choicest wines; which, in its course of 900 miles, affords 630 miles of uninter- rupted navigation, from Basle to the sea, and enables the inhabitants of its banks to exchange the rich and various products of its shores; whose cities, famous for com- merce, science, and works of strength, which furnish protection to Germany, are also famous as the seats of Roman colo- nies, and of ecclesiastical councils, and are associated with many of the most impor- tant events recorded in history ;—such a river it is not surprising that the Germans regard with a kind of reverence, and fre- quently call in poetry father Rhine, or king Rhine. (See Byron's verses on the Rhine, in Childe Harold, canto iii, stanzas 55—61.) Since the French revolution, the Rhine has been frequently called in France the natural boundary between France and Germany : with equal reason the Elbe might be called so, and perhaps would have been called so, had the French empire continued, as it had extended al- ready to that river at one point.* The Rhine rises in the Swiss canton of the Gri- sons (q. v.), from three chief sources. The first comes from the mountain called Crispalt, north-east of the St. Gothard, and unites at Dissentis with the second, which comes from the Lucmanian mountain: both unite with the third, which comes from a glacier in the mountain of Adula, about twenty leagues distant from Reiche- nau, the point of confluence of all three. * Rivers are, generally speaking, poor means ef political separation, because they are, in fact, means of connexion rather than of separation. Mountains and languages furnish far more elTectu- al lines of demarcation. The only reason why rivers have often been taken as frontiers is, be- eause they are lines drawn by nature, which can be easily designated in treaties. The river here takes the name of Rhine, and is 230 feet wide. It passes through the Bodensee (lake of Constance, q. v.). From Reichenau to Basle it is navigable at intervals, sometimes only by rafts. Be- fore it falls into the lake of Constance, it forms the cataract of Schaffhausen, in the cantou of Zurich, where the river is closely compressed by rocks, and falls with great fury eighty feet. After having traversed or touched several can- tons of Switzerland, also Austria, Baden, France, Bavaria, Hessia, Nassau, Prussia and the Netherlands, it divides into sev- eral branches. Hardly has it entered Hol- land (at Emmerich), when it sends off to the left a considerable branch, the Waal, which joins the Meuse at Woudrichem. Somewhat lower down, a little above Arn- heim, on the right, a branch is formed which occupies the bed of a canal con- structed by Drusus; this is the Nevv-Ys- sel, which, after having joined the Old- Yssel, at Doesburg, takes the name of Yssel, or Over-Yssel, and empties into the Zuyder-Zee. Arrived at Wyk-by- Duurstede, twenty-seven miles east of Arn- heim, the Rhine divides into two branches; one of which, the chief continuation of the river, is called Lech, and joins the Meuse: it forms on ife right the Neder- Yssel, which also joins the Meuse; the other branch, formerly the most consider- able, but now small, is now called the Crooked Rhine (Kromme-Rhyn), and takes its course to Utrecht, where again it splits: the north-west branch is called Vecht, and empties into the Zuyder-Zee; the other, western branch, called Old Rhine (Oude-Rliyn) empties into the North sea, two leagues from Leyden. It formerly disappeared in the downs of Katwyk, formed in 860; but it has been conducted by a canal from Leyden to the sea. The most important rivers which flow into it are, the Aar, Kinzig, Murg, Neckar, Maine, Nahe, Lahn, Moselle, Erft, Ruhr, Lippe: the most important places on the banks are Constance, Schaffhausen, Basle, Spire, Manheim, Worms, Mentz, Bingen, Coblentz, Bonn, Cologne, Dussel- dorf, Wesel, Emmerich, Arnheim, Utrecht, Leyden. The whole basin of the Rhine is about 180 leagues long, and 100 leagues wide, where it is the widest, and com- prises about 10,000 square leagues. The canal of the Rhone and Rhine unites these two rivers by means of the Saone * the great canal of the North uniting the Rhine with the Meuse and the Nethe, and thus with the Scheldt. In the article Dan- ube, we have spoken of the projected RHINE—RHINOCEROS. 17 canal which was to unite the Danube and the Rhine, the Black sea and the North- ern ocean. The Rhine furnishes excel- lent salmon (called Lachse when they as- cend the river in spring, coming from the sea, and Salmen when they descend in autumn to the sea), sturgeons, lampreys, pikes, and excellent carps. From Stras- burg to Spire, the Rhine is about 1100 feet wide ; at some parts of the Rheingau, it is 1800; at Cologne, 1300. At Schenken- schanz, where it enters the Netherlands, it is 2150 feet wide. Its depth from Basle to Strasburg is between ten and twelve feet; at Mentz, twenty-four; at Dussel- dorf, fifty. When the snow melts in Switzerland, the Rhine rises from twelve to thirteen feet above its common level. The mean descent of the river is about sev- en feet a mile; its current runs about 288 feet in a minute, or about three and a third miles per hour. Vessels of from 300 to 450 tons go up the river to Cologne, those of 125 to 200 to Mentz, those of 100 to 125 to Strasburg. Steam-boats and " water diligences" render communication easy. The congress of Vienna, in 1815, declared the navigation of all the German rivers free; but this ordinance has not been car- ried into effect as regards the Danube (q. v.), and it was not till after fifteen years' negotiation between the various powers, and after 563 protocols had been drawn up on the subject that the naviga- tion of the Rhine was made free, in the year 1831. Three books contain every thing necessary for a journey along the Rhine: one, by Lange, comprehends the journey from Mentz to Dusseldorf, the inost romantic part south of Basle ; anoth- er, by Aloys Schreiber, comprehends the whole course of the Rhine, with excur- sions into neighboring parts ; the third is by Ch. A. Fischer—Newest Guide from Mayence to Cologne (Frankfort, 1827). There exist excellent representations of the scenery of the Rhine, semi-per- spective and semi-topographic, very in- genious productions, which afford the traveller the highest gratification.— See, also, the Panorama of the Rhine, from Mayence to Cologne, by Delkeskamp (Dresd. and Frankf., 1825, in 80 engrav- k.igs), also Primavesi's Course of the Rhine from its Sources to its Mouth, drawn from Nature (1818), and Historico- Statistical Panorama of the Rhine, from Bingen to Coblentz, by Dahl (Heidelberg, 1820). Aloys Schreiber's book contains a catalogue of all the works on the Rhine or relating to it Rhine ; one of the eight circles of Ba- 2* varia, commonly called Rheinbaiern, sep- arated from the rest of the kingdom, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is chiefly composed of the former French depart- ment Mont-Tonnere. The Mont-Ton- nere, 2100 feet high, is the summit of the Vosges (q. v.), which traverse the cir- cle. Inhabitants, 517,081 ; square miles, about 3000. Rhine, Departments of the Upper and Lower. (See Department.) Rhine, Confederation of. (See Con- federation of the Rhine.) RniNE,LowER (in German, Niederrhein), a Prussian province, with the title of a grand-duchy, formed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815, containing 1,127,297 in- habitants and 6100 square miles, embraces both banks of the Rhine, and is bounded by the Prussian provinces of Julien*- Cleves-Berg and Westphalia, by Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt, Fiance, the Nether- lands, and several smaller territories. The Hundsr'ick (q. v.) traverses the province of the Lower Rhine between the rivers Nahe and Moselle, and joins the Vosges. The Eiffel and the High Yeen are ridges of hills coming from the Ardennes. The province furnishes game, fish, grain, fruits, flax, hemp, wine, wood, silver, iron, cop- per, lead, calamine, marble, slate, sand and mill stones, basalt, tufa, porphyry, alum, sulphur, coals, and mineral waters. In some parts much manufacturing indus- try exists. Much cloth is made in and near Aix-la-Chapelle. The other manu- factures are linen, silks, leather, iron and steel wares. The inhabitants are mostly Catholics; in the southern part French is spoken in some places. The province is divided into three governments—Aix-la- Chapelle, Treves, and Coblentz. Aix-la- Chapelle (q. v.) is the chief place. The province comprehends the chief part of the ancient archbishopric of Treves, the abbeys of Prum, Cornely-Munster, Mal- medy, part of the old archbishopric of Cologne, of the duchy of Luxemburg and Juliers, &c. Rhinoceros. This is a large animal, belonging to the order of pachydermata, having each foot divided into three toes, aiid furnished with one or more horns on the snout. There are several species, the best known of which are the Indian, or one-horned, and the African, or two-horn- ed.—One-horned rhinoceros. This species is a native of India, particularly of that part beyond the Ganges. It is a clumsy and deformed looking animal: a single black horn, placed near the end of the nose, makes its specific character. The upper 18 RHINOCEROS—RHODE ISLAND. lip is very large, and overhangs the lower: it is furnished with strong muscles, and is employed by the animal somewhat as the elephant uses his trunk. The ears are large, erect and pointed. The skin is naked, rough, and extremely thick; about the neck it is gathered into large folds ; a fold also extends between the shoulders and fore legs, and another from the hinder part of the back to the thighs. The tail is slender, flatat the end, and furnished at the sides with veiy stiff*' black hairs. The legs are very short. This animal was well known to the ancients, and was in- troduced into the games of the circus by Pompey; in all probability it is the reem (unicorn) of the Bible. From the time of the fall of the Roman empire, howev- er, it was lost sight of so completely, that, prior to the sixteenth century, naturalists were of opinion, that it had never existed, or, if so, that it was extinct. When the Portuguese, however, doubled the cape of Good Hope, and opened the way to India, these animals again became known, and many were introduced into Europe. The first that appeared in England was in 1684. The rhinoceros lives in shady for- ests adjoining rivers, or in the swampy jungles with which its native country abounds. Though possessed of great strength, and more than a match for either the tiger or the elephant, it is quiet and inoffensive unless provoked. The fe- male produces one at a birth. The growth of the young is very gradual, as, at the age of two years, it scarcely attains half its height. The sight of the rhinoce- ros is by no means acute, but, on the con- trary, its senses of smelling and hearing are very vivid. Its chief food is canes and shrubs. It was for a long time sup- posed that the tongue was hard and ex- ceedingly rough ; but recent observations have shown that it does not present these peculiarities. The flesh somewhat re- sembles pork in taste, though of a coarser grain and stronger taste.—Two-horned rhinoceros. This species is a native of Africa, and resembles the preceding in many particulars, but differs in being pro- vided with an additional horn, of a smaller size, situated nearer the forehead ; the skin also is not thrown into the folds so remarkable in the Indian species ; at least, this is the account given by Sparr- man, whilst Bruce represents it as having them. The two-horned rhinoceros was better known to the ancients than the last- men.tioiied kind, and is represented on many of their coins, especially those of Domitian. The rhmoceros is greatly in- ferior to the elephaut in docility, and has never been made sociable to man. The skin is used for whips and walking-canes, and of the bonis drinking-cups were made, which were highly esteemed by the East Indians, as they imagined that if poison were put into them, the liquor would ferment till it ran out of the vessel. Martial informs us, that Roman ladies used these horns as cases to hold their essence bottles and oils. The skin of the rhinoceros is also used by the Javanese for shields. Rhinoplasty (from ptv, the nose, and nXaoriKv, the art of forming). The art of restoring the nose, when lost by disease or external injury, was early practised, in In- dia, by the Bramins, and is even now practised by the descendants of this caste, the Coomas, by means of a piece of skin cut from the forehead. In 1442, Branca, a Sicilian physician, operated by means of a piece of skin cut from the arm oi the in- dividual ; and, after him, this method was preserved in the family of the Bajani as a secret, until Caspar Tagliacozzi (born in 1546, died hi 1599) practised it hi Bologna, and made it public in 1597. He pursued the method of taking the skin from the arm. This method was last practised by Molinetti, in the beginning of the seven- teenth century. In 1816, Grille, a Ger- man physician, attempted the formation of the nose from the skin of the arm upon a young soldier who had lost his nose by a sabre cut. The method differed but lit- tle from that of Tagliacozzi.—See Griife's Rhinoplastic (Berlin, 1818, quarto). Rhode Island, one of the U. States, includes what was formerly known by the name of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations; it originally consisted of two plantations, or provinces. This state is bounded north and east by Massachusetts, south by the Atlantic ocean, and west by Connecticut; length 49 miles ; breadth 29; square miles 1350 ; population in 1810, 76,931; in 1820,83,059, includiug48 slaves; in 1830,97,212, hicluding 14 slaves; lat. 41° 22' to 42° 3' N.; Ion. 71° 6' to 71° 38' W. In the north-west part of the state, the country is hilly and rocky, but in oth- er parts it is mostly level. The soil is bet- ter adapted to grazing than tillage, except on the island of Rhode Island, which has an excellent soil, adapted to the growth of every thing that is suited to its climate. A considerable part of the state has a thin soil, and affords small crops of New Eng- land productions; but the country near Narraganset bay is generally very fertile. Great numbers of cattle and sheep are RHODE ISLAND—RHODES. 19 produced on the islands, and on the mar- gin of the bay; and butter and cheese, ci- der, many kinds of fruit, com, rye, barley, and oats, are produced in abundance. The rivers and bays afford a great variety of excellent fish. Iron in abundance, small quantities of copper, limestone, and a mine of anthracite, are the minerals and fossils that have hitherto been found. The rivers are the Pawtucket, Providence, and Pawtuxet. Narraganset bay extends from south to north through nearly the whole length of the state, and embosoms Rhode Island, Connecticut, Prudence, Patience, Hope, Dyer's, and Hog islands. Block island, in the Atlantic, south of the state, is the most southerly land belonging to it. The exports of Rhode Island consist prin- cipally of flax-seed, lumber, horses, cattle, beef, pork, fish, poultry, and cotton and linen goods. Its manufactures have great- ly increased within the last ten years, and add greatly to its wealth. The value of its exports of domestic produce, during the year ending September 30, 1829, was $337,468. Its tonnage in 1828 was 43,406. Since these periods, the commerce of the state has rapidly increased. The com- mercial and manufacturing interests of Rhode Island are principally centred in Providence. This has become one of the most important cities of New England, and contains now about one fifth of the population of the state. Newport is some- what less than half the size of Providence, and the other towns are not large. The general assembly of Rhode Island meets four times hi a year: at Newport on the first Wednesday of May, which is the commencement of the political year, and again at the same place in June; in Octo- ber, it meets alternately at Providence and South Kingston; and in January at East Greenwich, Bristol, or Providence. Brown university is situated at Providence. At the same place there is a seminary styled the Friends' boarding-school, and there are eight or ten academies in the state. (See Providence.) The state now pays $10,000 annually for the support of free schools; and this sum is divided among the several towns, according to their population. This, however, affords but imperfect means for the education of the poorer classes of so- ciety. In 1831, the Baptists in Rhode Island had sixteen churches, twelve min- isters, 2600 communicants; the Method- ists ten preachers, 1,100 members; the Congregationalists ten churches, ten min- isters, 1000 communicants; the Unitarians two societies, two muiisters; the Sabbata- rians about 1000 conmiunicants; the Six- Principle Baptists about eight churches and 800 communicants. There are many Friends, and some of other denominations. The settlement of Rhode Island was com- menced, at Providence, in 1636, by Un- celebrated Roger Williams, a minister, who was banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions. (For further information respecting the history, see Providence, and New England.) Rhode Island ; an island situated in Narraganset bay; lat. 41° 25' N.; Ion. 71° 207 W. The state of Rhode Island takes its name from this island. It is about fif- teen miles from north to south, and three and a half wide, and is divided into three townships, Newport, Portsmouth and Mid- dletown. It is a noted resort for invalids from southern climates. The island is very fertile, pleasant, and healthful; and many travellers call it the Eden of Amer- ica. It suffered greatly by the war of the revolution, but has been, in a con- siderable degree, restored to its former beauty and value. About 40,000 sheep are fed on the island, besides neat cattle and horses. There is a coal-mine on the north part of the island, but the coal is not, at present, much esteemed. Rhodes ('Polos, feomjtoiov, arose, or from i>o5os, noise of waters); an island in the Grecian archipelago, lying between Crete (Candia) and Cyprus, ten miles from the southern coast of Asia Minor; thirty-six miles in length, and fourteen in breadth ; 450 square miles. Rhodes was, in an- cient times, sacred to the sun, and was celebrated for its serene sky, its soft cli- mate, fertile soil, and fine fruits. The re- public of Rhodes was an important naval power, and planted colonies in Sicily, Ita- ly and Spain. The beauty and size of its works of art were admired in all Greece, and it was much visited by the Romans on account of them. The commercial laws of the Rhodianswere adopted, as the basis of marine law, on all the coasts of the Mediterranean, and some fragments of them still retain their authority. (See Commercial Law.) This rich and power- ful republic took an important part in sev- eral of the Roman wars, and was first made a Roman province in the reign of Vespasian. In 1309, after the loss of Pal- estine, the knights of St. John occupied the island, and were theuce called the knights of Rhodes. In 1480, they repelled an at- tack of the Turks, but, in 1522, were obliged to surrender the island to Soliman II. (See John, Knights of St.) The pop- ulation is differently estimated, by Savary at 36,500, of which about one third are 20 RHODES—RHUBARB. Greeks, with an archbishop. The island is governed by a pacha, who is under the capudan pacha or high-admiral and gover- nor of the islands of the Archipelago. The revenue of die sultan from the island is es- timated at 90,000 piasters. The productions are corn,wine, oil, cotton, fruits, wax, honey, &c. The capital, Rhodes (Ion. 28° 12' E.; lat. 36° 26* N.), has a population of 6000 Turks. The suburb Neachorio is inhabit- ed by 3000 Greeks, who are not permitted to reside within the city. The town is surrounded by three walls and a double ditch, and is considered by the Turks *.s impregnable. It has two fine harbors, separated only by a mole. The celebrat- ed colossus probably stood here. (See Colossus.) Rhodium ; a new metal, discovered among the grains of crude platina by doc- tor Wollaston. Its specific gravity is 11. It readily alloys with eveiy other metal, except mercury. One sixth of it does not perceptibly alter the appearance of gold, but only renders it more fusible. When >ure, it is brittle, and requires a much ligher temperature for its fusion than any other metal, unless it be iridium. It is in- soluble in all acids. Doctor Wollaston made silver pens, tipped with rhodium, which, from its great hardness, were not liable to be injured by use. Rhododendron Maximum, or Dwarf Rose Bay; one of the most ornamental shrubs of North America. It is generally about ten feet high, but sometimes reaches to twenty or twenty-five, with a trunk four or five inches in diameter. The leaves are large, oval, oblong, coriaceous, smooth and sliming; the flowers large, rose-colored, with yellow dots on the inside, and are dis- posed in an elegant terminal cluster. It is most abundant about the Alleghany mountains, where it sometimes forms im- penetrable thickets, presenting a magnifi- cent appearance when in flower. The wood is hard, compact, and fine-grained, but inferior, in these respects, to that of the mountain-laurel, and has not hitherto been applied to any useful purposes. Two other species of rhododendron inhabit the more southern parts of the Alleghanies. The species of rhododendron are shrubs, with alternate, entire, evergreen leaves, and ornamental flowers, usually disposed in terminal corymbs. About eighteen spe- cies are known, which inhabit the cold and temperate parts of the northern hem- isphere, and especially mountainous dis- tricts. One, the R. Lapponicum, grows as far north as civilized man has penetrated, and, in common with other arctic plants, is found, within the U. States, only on the summits of the White mountains of New Hampshire. An Oriental species, some- times seen in our green-houses, resembling the R. maximum, but with brilliant scarlet flowers, hardly yields in magnificence to any production of the vegetable creation. All the species are cultivated in gardens on account of the beauty of their flow- ers. Rhone (Rhodanus); a great river in the south of Europe, which rises in the cen- tral and highest part of Switzerland, at the foot of mount Furca, only five miles from the source of the Rhine. It flows in a western direction through a long and wide valley of the Swiss canton of the Valais, and, being swelled by a number of mountain streams, it passer, through the lake of Geneva. Flowing southward, and being joined by the Saone and other streams, such as the Isere, the Drome, the Ardeche, and the Durance, it discharges itself, after a course of nearly 500 miles, by three mouths, into the part of the Med- iterranean called the gulf of Lyons, where its branches form the island of Camargue. The principal cities on the Rhone are Ge- neva, Lyons, Vienne, Avignon, Beaucaire and Aries. It is the most rapid river of Europe. The navigation down the stream is easy, but the upward can be performed only by draught or steam. (See Canals.) It carries down large quantities of earth, which it deposits at its mouth. Below Lacluse, the river plunges, with great noise, into a cavity of the rocks, and dis- appears for the distance of sixty paces. Several miles below this place, at a point called Malpertuis, it again almost entirely disappears under the rocks. Rhongebirge ; a range of mountains in Germany, extending from Kaltennord- heim to beyond Bischofsheim, about 30 miles in length; it traverses the north- west of Bavaria, and part of Hesse Cas- sel, approaching the Thuringian forest on the north, and the Spessart towards the south. The highest summit is the Kreutzberg, 2800 feet high. Rhubarb (rheum); a genus of plants, mostly inhabiting the interior of Asia. It belongs to the family polygonca, togeth- er with the docks, which it somewhat resembles. It is one of the few oenera which have nine stamens, the enneandria of Linnaeus. The roots and leaves are remarkably large, and the flowers incon- spicuous, but disposed in veiy ample panicles. The seeds are provided, at the angles, with a membranous wing. The roots of all are mildly purgative, com- RHUBARB. 21 bined with tonic and strengthening prop- erties ; that of the officinal rhubarb (R. palmatum) is considered the most effica- cious, but there is no great difference in this respect. The officinal or true rhubarb grows wild along the frontiers of China, near the great wall, upon a chain of mountains which stretches from the Chi- nese town Sini to lake Kokonor, near Thibet. It is easily distinguished by hav- ing the leaves divided into acute lobes; the roots are very large, yellow and branching; the stem is of moderate height, cylindrical, smooth and striated, provided at base with a great number of large petio- late leaves; these are divided into five or seven lanceolate, acute segments, each of which is again subdivided, and are green and rough above, a little whitish and pu- bescent beneath, and traversed with large yellowish nerves ; their leaf-stalks are very long, and grooved; the flowers are small, yellowish-white, and are disposed in numerous upright panicles; the seeds are blackish-brown and triangular. It is usual with theChinese, when the roots have been taken from the ground, cleaned and pared, to cut them in slices and lay them upon long tables, taking care to turn them three or four times a day, experience hav- ing taught that if exposed to a free cur- rent of air, they become light, and lose a portion of their strength. After the fourth ds.y, they arc perforated atsd strung upon cords, in such a way as not to touch each other, and are suspended to dry in the shade, either upon trees or in tents. In about two months, the roots have lost seven eighths of their weight, and are fit for market. Winter is the prqper season for taking up the roots. Formerly rhu- barb was brought from China, through Tartary, to Ormuz and Aleppo, thence to Alexandria, and even to Vienna. This was called Turkey rhubarb. Now it is brought by sea from Canton and Ormuz. All the rhubarb of commerce is obtained from the chain of mountains above men- tioned. It is only within a few years that the officinal rhubarb has been successfully cultivated on a large scale in Europe. It is most readily multiplied by planting pieces of the root containing eyes, thirty or more of which are afforded by a root four or five years old : half an inch of the root is suf- ficient to ensure the shooting of these eyes. They are planted a little before the opening of the spring, after leaving them exposed to the air for a day, in order that cicatrices may be formed : they should be placed in quincunx order, about six feet apart, as the leaves occupy a very great space; hut as, for the two first years, they do not fill this space, some other crop may be raised between them. It is an injudicious practice to cut away the leaves, and hinders the growth of the roots; but to cut or break the stems, about a foot from the ground, is very often advantage- ous. The plant may remain in the ground all winter, but during severe frosts should be covered with straw or dry leaves. A deep soil, and one where sand does not predominate, seems best adapted to its culture ; but it succeeds in every soil that is not arid or wateiy; neither does it fear shade or a northern exposure; in diy weather, watering is advantageous, but long rains are very injurious. The roots are taken from the ground only after the fourth or fifth year, but sooner in a dry and warm soil than in a moist and cool one; when taken up too soon, their substance is soft, and will lose eleven twelfths of its weight in drying; on the other hand, if left too long in the earth, the roots become hollow, or even rot in the centre. The time for removing them is in the autumn, after the leaves are per- fectly dry. The stocks live ten or twelve years in a good soil, and only half as long in one which is less adapted to them. The rhubarb of commerce is brownish- yellow externally, saffron-yellow within, and variegated with white and reddish streaks. The odor is disagreeable, and the taste bitter, astringent, slightly acrid, and nauseous. Its properties are, at the same time, tonic and purgative. It is administered in powder, in mixtures, or formed into pills, or the root may be chewed in substance. The value of the annual import of this article into Great Britain is said to exceed $1,000,000. The bark of rhubarb has been used for tinc- tures, and is found, in every respect, as efficacious as the best part of the roots, and the seeds possess nearly the same qualities. The leaves impart an agree- able acidity, somewhat similar to that of sorrel; and a marmalade is made from the fresh stalks, by stripping off the bark, and boiling the pulp with an equal quantity of sugar. The common garden rhubarb (R. rhaponlicum) has obtuse, smooth leaves, with hairy veins beneath. It was first brought into Europe about the year 1610, and is chiefly in request for the stalks of the leaves, which, when young, are used for pies and tarts. The root has occasionally been sold for the rhubarb of commerce, and for a long time was sup- posed to be identical with it. The rheum ribes is remarkable for having the seeds 22 RHUBARB—RHYME. enveloped in a succulent and reddish pulp. It grows on the mountains of Syria and Persia, and is, besides, cultivated on an extensive scale in those countries, on accountof the agreeably acid flavor of the leaves, leaf-stalks and young stems. These are sold constantly in the markets, and are eaten either in a crude state, with salt or vinegar, or are preserved in wine, or with sugar. Rhumb, in navigation; a vertical circle of any given place, or the intersection of such a circle with the horizon; in which last sense rhumb is the same as a point of the compass. Rliumb-line; a line prolonged from any point of the compass, on a nautical chart, except from the four cardinal points. Rhunken. (See Ruhnkenius.) Rhus. (See Sumac.) Rhyme, in poetry; the correspondence of sounds in the terminating words or syllables of verses. The vowel and the final articulations or consonants should be the same, or nearly the same, in sound. The initial consonants may be different. Languages which have not, like the Eng- lish, a great variety of shades between the Italian sounds of a, e, i, o, u, admit only pure rhymes; that is to say, the correspond- ing syllables must have exactly the same vowel sound. English verse is much less restrained; and we find in the best Eng- lish poets rhymes which strike a foreign ear as very impure. In some instances, such as sky and liberty, hand and command, gone and alone, the correspondence in the letters makes what might be called a rhyme to the eye, which supplies, in some measure, the want of correspondence in sound. In other instances, however, this is not the case, as in revenge and change, remote and thought; and the liberty of making rhymes of syllables corresponding in sound, though different in spelling, is greater in English than in most other languages; as water and mortar, warm and storm. If the rhyme is only in the last syllables, as in forgave and behave, it is called a male rhyme; if in the two last syllables, as bitter and glitter, it is called a female rhyme. Sometimes the three last syllables rhyme, as callosity and reciprocity, or the Italian diacine and duracine, or tavola and favola (the verso sdrucciolo). This last sort of rhymes is principally used in pieces of a comic or conversational character. Rhymes which extend to more than three syllables are almost con- fined to the Arabians and Persians, in their short odes (gazelles), in which the same rhyme, carried through the whole poem, extends sometimes to four and more syllables. Some languages incline more to the male rhyme, as the English, on accountof its superabundance of mono- syllables ; others, as the Spanish and Italian, more to the female : the German and French possess an almost equal store of both; hence in these two languages we find them generally interchanged reg- ularly ; yet there are numerous poems in these languages, written exclusively in male or female rhymes. Of the four con- tinental idioms just mentioned, the Ger- man, from its abundance of consonants, has the greatest variety of final syllables, and therefore the smallest collection of rhymes for any given termination. It has, however, to compensate for this defi- ciency, a regular prosody, arising from the possession of long and short syllables. The modern use of rhyme was not known to the ancients. We meet, indeed, with some rhymed verses in Ovid, in which the rhyme was evidently intentional; but the object was not to distinguish the verses, Lut to give impressiveness to the sense, as Shakspeare often introduces a rhymed couplet, for the same purpose, in blank verse. In the Latin poems of the fathers of the church of the fourth century, rhymes are more frequently used. The rhyme is harmony, music, and therefore is addressed directly to the feelings, and thus partakes essentially cf the character of" modern art, whilst the metrical forms of antiquity are in the spirit of that plastic age. (See Classic, Plastic, and Romantic.) The Goths introduced rhyme from the East into the northern languages. The most ancient relics of Scandinavian poetry are not in rhyme, but are distinguished by alliteration (q. v.). These circumstances gave rise to the opinion that rhyme origi- nated with the Arabians, who came into contact with the Europeans of the south as early as the eighth century. Schlegel, in his Observations sur la Litirature Pro- vengale, however, denies this. Joseph voii Hammer, on the other hand, is a de- cided believer in the influence of the Arabians on the provencal poetry in respect to the structure of rhymed coup- lets and the forms of rhyme fn the south- ern poetry ; which seems undeniable, though it is not necessary to derive rhyme itself from the Arabians. The oldest forms of rhymed verse are the couplet anil the continuation of one and the same rhyme through a whole piece. The Troubadours (q. v.) first attempted a varie- ty of artificial combinations of rhyme in the sonnet, canzone, &c, and the Span- RHYME—RICCOBONI. 23 iards and Italians, with their musical lan- guages and delicacy of ear, perfected the forms of involved rhyme. The Italians, however, at a later period, carried the arti- ficial intricacies of rhyme to great excess. Rhyme, well managed, is one of the most pleasing of all inventions for entertaining the mind, constantly raising expectation, and as often satisfying it. The ear antici- pates the sound, without knowing what the sound will express; and how various are the forms of grace and majesty of which it is susceptible! Yet it has misled many persons to think they were compos- ing poetry, whilst they were only rhyming; and were it not for rhyme, we might have been saved from a flood of insipid verse, which has so long overspread the field of literature. (See Sonnet.) Rhythm. (See Appendix, end of this volume.) Rial, Real ; a Spanish coin. (For the real de plata (silver rial), see Coins.) The real de vdlon (copper rial) is equal to 4T80-;\Tcts. Rialto. (See Venice.) Rib. The ribs are long curved bones, placed in an oblique direction at the sides of the chest. Their number is generally twelve on each side; but, in some subjects, it has been found to be thirteen, and ill oth- ers, though more rarely, only eleven. They are distinguished into true and false ribs. The seven upper ribs, which are articu- lated to the sternum, are called true ribs, and the five lower ones, which are not immediately attached to that bone, are called false ribs. The use of the ribs is to give form to the thorax, and to cover and defend the lungs; also to assist hi breath- ing ; for they are joined to the vertebrae by regular hinges, which allow of short mo- tions, and to the sternum by cartilages, which yield to the motion of the ribs, and return again when the muscles cease to act. (See Respiration.) Ribera, Giuseppe. (See Spagnoletto.) Ricardo, David, a celebrated writer on finance and statistics, was of a Jewish family, and was born in London in 1772. His father was a stock broker, and the son was intended for the same profession. His character for probity, industry and talent early procured him means of sup- port; and, becoming a member of the stock exchange, he accumulated immense prop- erty. In 1810, he appeared as a writer in the Morning Chronicle, on the subject of the depreciation of the national currency ; and he afterwards embodied his ideas in a distinct work, the reasonings of which were adopted in the Report of the Bullion Committee of the house of commons. He next published an Essay on Rent, in which he advocated the principles of Mal- thus concerning population. His most important production is his treatise on Political Economy and Taxation, which affords a luminous exposition of the origin and fluctuations of national wealth and expenditure. In 1819, Mr. Ricardo ob- tained a seat in parliament for the Irish borough of Portarlington, and as a senator attracted the respect and esteem of all parties. He died in September, 1823. Mr. Ricardo is said to have been a Unitarian, though he usually attended the service of the established church after renouncing Judaism. Ricei, Lorenzo, the last general of the Jesuits previously to their suppression by pope Clement XIII, was born at Florence in 1703, entered the order at the age of fifteen, and, after having been professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Sienna, he be- came spiritual director at the Roman col- lege, and secretary of his order. In 1758, he succeeded to the office of general on the death of Centurioni. Resisting the suppression of the Jesuits, he was sent to the castle of St. Angelo, where he died in 1775. (See Jesuits.)—See his life, by Caraccioli. Ricci, Scipio, bishop of Pistoia and Prato, nephew of the preceding, was born at Florence, in 1741. Being favored by the grand-duke of Tuscany, Leopold, he opened, at Pistoia, in 1786, a synod, with a view to the propagation of some new religious doctrines; by which he incur- red the displeasure of the pope, and was obliged to resign his see. In 1799, he was imprisoned for declaring in favor of the decrees of the constituent assembly, which had been formed under the influ- ence of the French. Being set at liberty, he signed, in 1805, a formula of adhesion to the bulls which he had objected to, and became reconciled to the holy see. He died in 1810. In 1824, appeared the Vie et Mimoires de Scipion Ricci, by M. de Potter (translated into English by T. Ros- coe,2 vols., 1829). Riccoboni, Lodovico, born at Modena in 1677, manifested an early passion for the theatre; and, having become the di- rector of a theatrical company at the age of twenty-two years, he endeavored to reform the Italian theatre, by substituting regular pieces for the miserable farces which then had possession of the stage hi Italy. (See Drama, and Italian Theatre.) Wearied with the opposition made to his efforts by the perverse taste of his coun- 24 R1CCOBONI—RICE. trymen, he went to Paris with his com- pany, and associated himself with Dom- inique and Romagnesi, with great success. In 1729, the duke of Parma appointed him inspector of the theatres in his do- minions ; but, in 1731, he returned to Par- is, where he devoted his last years to literature, and died in 1753. He was the author of numerous comedies, and translated several pieces from the French. We have also by him an Histoire du Thi- cltre Italien. His wife Helen (born 1686) distinguished herself on the stage, and by her poetical compositions, which procured her admission into several Italian acade- mies. Their son Francesco, born at Man- tua in 1707, died at Paris in 1772, was more successful as a dramatic writer than as an actor. Besides his comedies, which were very popular, he wrote a work entitled L'Art du Thidtre (Paris, 1750). His wife, born at Paris in 1714, is esteemed one of the best French novel- ists. She suffered much from the neglect of her husband, and died in poverty, in 1792. Her complete works have been several times published (best edition, Paris, 1818, 6 vols., 8vo.). Rice (oryza sativa). This important article of food is now cultivated in all the warmer parts of the globe. It was long known in the East before it was introduced into Egypt and Greece. Pliny, Dioscori- des and Theophrastus mention it as being brought from India; but it was little culti- vated in their time upon the borders of the Mediterranean. It was introduced into Carolina about the year 1697, and is now cultivated extensively in many parts of the sooth of Europe. In Britain, the chief supply of rice is from Carolina; and this is considered far superior to the India rice, which is small, meagre, and the grains frequently broken. Immense dis- tricts of country would have remained desolate and irreclaimable, if nature had not granted to a simple grass the property of growing exclusively in inundated and marshy grounds. It has altered the face of the globe and the destiny of nations; for there can be no doubt that it is to this grain that the Chinese and Hindoos owe their early civilization. An immense pop- ulation in those and the surrounding coun- tries is now dependent on the rice crops; and when these fail, thousands perish of hunger. The cuhn of the rice is from one to six feet high, annual, erect, simple, round, and jointed; the leaves are large, firm, and pointed, arising from very* long, cylindrical, and finely striated sheaths; the flowers are disposed in a large and beautiful panicle, somewhat resembling that of the oat. The seeds are white and oblong, but vary in size and form in the numerous varieties. It is important to be acquainted with these varieties, in order to choose which are best suited to certain soils or localities ; some are preferable on account of the size and excellence of the grains; others, from their great bearing, or the time of ripening; others, again, from their more or less delicacy with re- spect to cold, drought, &c. The Hindoos, Chinese, Malays, and the inhabitants of the neighboring islands have paid most attention to the cultivation of these varie- ties. One species only of rice is known. Rice can be profitably cultivated only in warm climates; and here it is said to yield six times as much as the same space of wheat lands. The Chinese obtain two crops a year from the same ground, and cultivate it hi this way from generation to generation on the same soil, and without any other manure than the mud deposited by the water of the river used in over- flowing it After the waters of the inun- dation have withdrawn, a few days are allowed for the rnud to become partially diy; then a small spot is enclosed by au embankment, lightly ploughed and har- rowed, and the grain, previously steeped in dung diluted with animal water, i* then sown very thickly on it. A thin sheet of water is immediately brought over it, either by a stream or the chain- pump. In the mean time, other spaces are preparing for being planted in a similar manner. When the plants are six or seven inches high, they are transplanted in furrows made by the plough, so as to stand about a foot apart every way: w*ater is then brought over them, and kept on till the crop begins to ripen, when it is with- held ; so that when the harvest arrives the field is quite dry. It is reaped with a sickle, threshed with a flail, or the tread- ing of cattle, and the husk is taken off by beating it in a stone mortar, or passing it between flat stones, as in a common meal mill. The first crop being cut in May, a second is immediately prepared for, by burning the stubble, and this second crop ripens in October or November. After removal, the stubble is ploughed in, which is the only vegetable manure such lands can be said to receive. In Japan, Ceylor, and Java, aquatic rice is cultivated nearly in the same manner. A rice plantation requires constant attention. The proprie- tor must make daily visits, in order to see that the various aqueducts, flood-gates and embankments of die different compart RICE—RICE-BUNTING. 25 ments are all in order, and that the water constantly remains at the same height. The maturity of the grain is ascertained by the yellowness of the straw, and it is harvested much in the same manner as other grains, with this difference, that in certain districts the tops only are cut. Rice, when stowed in the granary, is sub- ject to the depredations of a small curcu- ho; but it is found that this insect attacks it only when enveloped in the husks. Aquatic rice is cultivated by the Chinese, even in the midst of rivers and lakes, by means of rafts made of bamboo and cov- ered with earth. Mountain rice is culti- vated on the mountains of the eastern islands and of Cochin-China, much in the same way as our barley; but it is to be observed, that it is planted at the com- mencement of the rainy, and reaped at the beginning of the dry season, and also that these mountains receive from the atmos- phere a much greater proportion of mois- ture than lower districts. There is a kind of rice hardy enough to grow on the edge of the Himalaya snows, and which may probably, at some future time, prove a valuable acquisition to the European cultivator. Rice is even cultivated in the south of Germany, and, from long culture in a comparatively cold countiy, has ac- quired a remarkable degree of hardiness and adaptation to the climate—a circum- stance which has frequently been alluded to as an encouragement to the acclimating of exotics: it is found that rice seeds di- rect from India will not ripen in Ger- many at all, and even Italian or Spanish seeds are much less early and hardy than those ripened on the spot. A crop has been obtained in England, on the banks of the Thames. In some parts of the East, rice is freed from the husks by im- mersion in hot water, by which the grains are slightly swelled, and burst the enve- lopes. As an article of diet, rice has been extolled as superior to almost any other vegetable. Large quantities are annually imported into Europe, and it is highly es- teemed in puddings and numerous other culinary preparations. On account of" its being destitute of gluten, it cannot be made into bread, like wheat. Indeed, on account of its excellence and cheapness, it claims attention as a general article of sustenance for the poorer classes of soci- ety ; as it is well known that a quarter of a pound of rice, slowly boiled, will yield more than a pound of solid and nutritive food. However, it has been found that, in Europe, the poor constantly reject the use of rice when potatoes are to be had; and, vol. xi; 3 in truth, it does not seem to be so well adapted to European constitutions as that root. The inhabitants of the East obtain from rice a vinous liquor, more intoxicat- ing than the strongest wine; and an ar- dent spirit, called rak, or arrack, is also partly made from it. The latter is chiefly manufactured at Batavia, and at Goa, on the coast of Malabar, and is said to be distilled from a mixture of the infusion of rice and of the juice of the cocoa-nut tree. The general appellation of rice throughout the East Indies is paddy. Rice-Bunting, or Bob-o-Link (icterus agripennis, Bonap.; emberiza oryzivora, Wilson); specific characters, tail-feathers very acute; adult male in spring dress, black; the hind head, yellowish-white ; scapulars, rump and tail coverts, white, tinged with ash ; female young, and male in early autumn and winter dress, varied with brownish-black and brownish-yel- low, beneath dull yellow; the male with much more yellow. This bird migrates over the continent of America from Lab- rador to Mexico, and over the Great An- tilles, appearing in the southern exfremity of the U. States about the middle of March or beginning of April. About the first of May, the bob-o-links reach Mas- sachusetts. The rearing of their young takes place north of the fortieth degree of latitude. Their food is insects and worms, and the seeds of the grassy meadows. In the autumn, they sometimes attack the crops of oats and barley. The song of the male continues, with little interrup- tion, as long as the female is sitting, and is singular and pleasant; it consists of a jingling medley of short, variable notes, confused, rapid and continuous. The relish for song and merriment is confined to the male, and diminishes as the period of incubation advances. The male gen- erally loses his musical talent about the end of the first week in July, from which time, or somewhat earlier, his plumage begins to lose its gay colors, and to as- sume the humble hue of that of the fe- male. About the middle of August, they enter New York and Pennsylvania, in vast foraging parties, on their way to the south. There, along the shores of" the large riv- ers lined with floating fields of wild rice, they find abundant subsistence, grow fat, and their flesh becomes little inferior hi flavor to that of the European ortolan; on which account the reed or rice birds, as they are then called, are shot in great numbers. When the cool nights in Oc- tober commence, they move still farther 26 RICE-BUNTING—RICHARD I. south, till they reach the islands of Cuba and Jamaica. Rice Glue. (See Cements.) Richard I, king of England, surnamed Cceur de Lion, second son of Henry II, by Eleanor of Guienne, was bom in 1157. In 1173, he was induced by his mother to unite with his brothers, Henry and Geof- fry, and other confederates, in a rebellion against his father, which, however, that active prince soou quelled. This conduct he repeated on more than one occasion, until, in 1189, he openly joined the king of France, and, in the war which ensued, pursued the unhappy Henry from place to place, who, being at the same time de- serted by his youngest son, died, worn out with chagrin and affliction, at Chinon, cursing his undutiful and ungrateful chil- dren with his latest breath. (See Henry II.) On this event, Richard succeeded to the throne of England, and, visiting his fa- ther's corpse the day after his decease, expressed great remorse at his own con- duct. Having settled his affairs in France, he sailed to England, and was crowned at Westminster. He prudently gave his confidence to his father's ministers, and discountenanced all who had abetted his own rebellion. He had taken the cross previously to his accession, and now bent all his views to the gratification of his martial ardor in the fields of the East. He raised money by the sale of the crown property and offices, and by every other means he could devise, including the re- mission of a large sum of the vassalage imposed by his father upon Scotland. He then sought an interview with Philip of France, who had also taken the cross, in which mutual conditions respecting their joint operations were agreed upon. A great number of English barons and oth- ers took the cross on this occasion, to which enterprise a massacre of the Jews, in several of the principal towns of the kingdom, formed a prelude. At midsum- mer, 1190, Richard and Philip united 100,000 of their bravest subjects on the plains of Vezelai. Richard then proceed- ed to embark at Marseilles, and the two kings met at Messina, where they spent the winter. Here Richard was joined by Berengaria, daughter of Sanchez, king of Navarre, his intended wife; but, without ■staying to celebrate his nuptials, he put to sea with his fleet, which was soon after dispersed by a storm. The king got into Crete; but those of his ships which had his bride and his sister, the queen of Sici- ly, on board, were driven into Cyprus, where the king of that island imprisoned the crew, and refused to deliver up the princesses. In revenge for this insult, Richard landed his army, and obliged the king to surrender himself and his sove- reignty. In Cyprus, he consummated his nuptials, and then embarked for Palestine. At this period, the siege of Acre was car- rying on by the remnant of the army of the emperor Frederic, and other Christian adventurers, and defended by a Saracen garrison, supported by the celebrated Sal- adin. (q. v.) The arrival of the two kings infused new vigor into the besiegers, and the place surrendered in July, 1191. This advantage was, however, succeeded by mutual jealousies, more especially excited by a contest for the crown of Jerusalem, between Lusignan and Conrad of Mont- ferrat; the former being supported by Richard, and the latter by the king of France. At length, disgusted with a war- fare in which he only acted a secondary character, the latter returned to Europe, leaving 10,000 men with Richard. A general engagement took place, in which Richard, by the greatest bravery and mil- itary skill, gained a complete victory, which was followed by the possession of Joppa, Ascalon, and other places. Rich- ard advanced within sight of Jerusalem; but, the greater part of the auxiliaries re- fusing to concur in the siege, he retired to Ascalon, and, perceiving his difficulties increase, concluded a truce with Saladin, on condition that Acre, Joppa, and the other seaports of Palestine, should re- main in the hands of the Christians, who were also to enjoy full liberty of perform- ing pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Richard now prepared to return to England, but previously concurred in the election of Conrad (almost immediately after assas- sinated) to the nominal sway of Jerusa- lem, and bestowed his conquered king- dom of Cyprus upon Lusignan. He em- barked at Acre in October, 1192, and sailed for the Adriatic ; but was wrecked near Aquileia. Taking the disguise of a pilgrim, he pursued his way through Germany, until, being discovered near Vienna, he was arrested by the order of Leopold, duke of Austria, who, having received an affront from him in Palestine, seized this opportunity to gratify his ava- rice and revenge. The emperor, Henry VI, who had also a quarrel with Richard, for his alliance with Tancred, the usurper of the crown of Sicily, hearing of his captivity, demanded him from Leopold who gave him up, on the stipulation of a portion of his ransom. While Richarc' was imprisoned, his brother John (q. v.) RICHARD I—RICHARD II. 27 had taken up arms in England, in con- cert with the king of France. Richard bore his misfortunes with courage, and when the emperor charged him, before the diet of Worms, with various imagin- ary offences, he refuted these accusations with so much spirit, that the assembly loudly exclaimed against his detention. At length a treaty was concluded for his liberation, on the payment of a ransom of 150,000 marks, which being raised in England, Richard obtained his liberty. Richard embarked at the mouth of the Scheldt, and safely reached England in March, 1194, to the great joy of his sub- jects. After being re-crowned in Eng- land, he landed in France in May, 1194, where he was met by his brother John, who threw himself at his feet, and, under the mediation of his mother, entreated forgiveness. " I forgive him," said Rich- ard, " and I hope I shall as easily forget his injuries as he will my pardon." In the ensuing war with Philip, Richard gained some advantages ; but a truce soon suspended their hostilities. Leopold, hav- ing received an accidental hurt which proved mortal, expressed remorse for his treatment of Richard, and gave up all claim to the remainder of his ransom. The emperor also offered to remit the re- mainder of his debt, provided he would join him in an offensive alliance against France, which was readily agreed to. England, during this period of useless contention, partly through die rapacity of government, and partly through unpropi- tious seasons, productive of famine and pestilence, was in a state of great depres- sion. A lasting accommodation with France was in agitation, preparatory to another crusade, when the life and reign of Richard were suddenly brought to a close. A considerable treasure having been found hi the land of the viscount of Limoges, he sent part of it to Richard as his feudal sovereign. The latter, howev- er, demanded the whole; which being refused, he invested the castle of Chalus, where the treasure was concealed, and, having refused terms of surrender to the garrison, in the openly expressed deter- mination of hanging the whole of them, was wounded by a shot from the cross- bow of one Bertrand de Gourdon. The assault was, however, successfully made, and all the garrison hanged, with the ex- ception of Gourdon, who was reserved for a more cruel death. Richard, ap- prized that his wound was mortal, asked him what had induced him to attempt his life. The man replied, " You killed my father and my brother with your own hand, and designed to put me to an igno- minious death." The prospect of death had inspired Richard with sentiments of mod- eration and justice, and he ordered Gour- don to be set at liberty, and allowed a sum of money; but the savage Marcadee, who commanded the Brabancous, which the king had hired for the expedition, caused the unhappy man to be flayed alive. Richard died of his wound on the 6th of April, 1199, in the forty-second year of his age, and tenth of his reign, leaving no issue. The character of this king was strongly marked. He was the bravest among the brave, often frank and liberal, and not devoid of generosity. At the same time, he was haughty, violent, unjust, rapacious, and sanguinary; and, to use the expression of Gibbon, united the ferocity of a gladiator to the cruelty of a tyrant. His talents were considera- ble, both in the cabinet and in the field, and he was shrewd in observation, elo- quent, and very happy at sarcasm. He was also a poet; and some of his reputed compositions are preserved among those of the Troubadours. On the whole, a sort of romantic interest is attached to the character and exploits of this • rince, which, in the eye of reason, they little merit, as the career of Richard produced calamities poorly atoned for by the mili- tary reputation which alone attended it. Richard II, king of England, son of Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III, was born in 1366. He succeeded the latter in 1377, in his eleventh year, the chief authority of the state being in the hands of his three un- cles, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Edmund, earl of Cambridge, afterwards duke of York, and Thomas of Wood- stock, subsequently duke of Gloucester. The earlier years of the king's minority passed in wars with France and Scotland, the expense of which led to exactions that produced the insurrection headed by Wat Tyler. Its termination in the death of its chief leader in Smithfield, by the hand of the lord mayor of London, in the presence of the young king, afforded the latter an opportunity to exhibit a degree of address and presence of mind, which, in a youth of fifteen, was very remarka- ble. Whilst the rioters stood astonished at the fall of their leader, the young king calmly rode up to them, and, declaring that he would be their leader, drew them off, almost involuntarily, into the neigh- boring fields. In the mean time, an armed force was collected by the lord mayor and 28 RICHARD II. others, at the sight of which the rioters fell on their knees and demanded pardon, which was granted them on the condition of their immediate dispersion. Similar in- surrections took place in various parts of the kingdom, all of which were, however, put down, and Richard, now master of an army of 40,000 men, collected by a general summons to all the retainers of the crown, found himself strong enough to punish the ringleaders with great severity, and to revoke all the char- ters and manumissions which he had granted, as extorted and illegal. The promise of conduct and capacity which he displayed on this^emergency was but ill answered in the sequel; and he very early showed a predilection for weak and dissolute company, and the vicious indul- gences so common to youthful royalty. In his sixteenth year, he married Anne, daughter of the emperor Charles IV, and, soon after, was so injudicious as to take the great seal from Scroop, for refusing to sanction certain extravagant grants of lands to his courtiers. Wars with France and Scotland, and the ambitious intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, disquieted some succeeding years. The favorites of Richard were Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and chancellor, and Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, the latter of whom he created duke of Ireland, with entire sovereignty in that island for life. The duke of Lancaster, being then absent, prosecuting his claim to the crown of Castile, the king's younger uncle, the duke of Gloucester, a prince of popular manners, and unprincipled ambition, be- came the leader of a formidable opposi- tion, which procured an impeachment of the chancellor, and influenced the parlia- ment so far that it proceeded to strip the king of all authority, and obliged him to sign a commission appointing a council of regency for a year. Being now in his twenty-first year, this measure was very galling to Richard, who, in concert with the duke of Ireland, found means to as- semble a council of his friends at Not- tingham, where the judges unanimously declared against the legality of the ex- torted commission. Gloucester, at these proceedings, mustered an army in the vicinity of London, which being ineffect- ually opposed by a body of forces under the duke of Ireland, several of the king's friends were executed, and the judges who had given their opinion in his favor, were all found guilty of high treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for fife in Ireland. A reaction was soon produced by the tyranny of the ascendant party; so that, in 1389, Richard was encouraged to enter the council, and, in a resolute tone, to declare that he was of full age to take the government into his own hands; and, no opposition being ventured upon, he proceeded to turn out the duke of Gloucester and all his adherents. This act he rendered palatable to the nation by publishing a general amnesty, and remit- ting the grants of money made by the late parliament. Several years of internal tranquillity ensued, which was promoted by the return of the duke of Lancaster, who formed a counterbalance to the in- fluence of the duke of Gloucester; and Richard prudently kept on the best terms with him. By his fondness for low com- pany, by spending his time in conviviali- ty, and amusement with jesters, and per- sons of mean station and light behavior, the king forfeited the respect of his sub- jects, while his weak attachment to his favorites placed all things at their dispo- sal, and made a mere cipher of himself. Encouraged by these follies, the duke of Gloucester once more began to exercise his sinister influence, and, the most crim- inal designs being imputed to him, Rich- ard caused him and his two chief sup- porters, the earls of Arundel and War- wick, to be arrested. The earl of Arun- del wa4* executed, and the earl of War- wick condemned to perpetual banishment. The duke of Gloucester had been sent over to Calais for safe custody, and was there suffocated. A quarrel between the duke of Hereford, son of John of Gaunt, and the duke of Norfolk, was the inci- dental cause of the revolution which ter- minated this unsettled reign. The king banished both the dukes—Norfolk for life, and Hereford for ten, afterwards re- duced to six years. It was, however, de- clared that each of them should be duly entitled to any inheritance which might fall to them during their absence ; but, on the death of John of Gaunt, in 1399, the unprincipled Richard seized his property as forfeited to the crown. The king hav- ing embarked for Ireland, to revenge the death of his cousin, the earl of March, who had been killed in a skirmish with the natives, Henry of Bolmgbroke, as the duke of Hereford" was now called, made use of this opportunity to land in York- shire, with a small body of forces, and, being joined by the earls of Northumber- land and Westmoreland, and other influ- ential leaders, proceeded southward, at the head of 60,000 men, nominally to recover his duchy of Lancaster. When Richard RICHARD II—RICHARD III. 29 upon this intelligence, landed at Milford haven, he found hhnself so much desert- ed, that he withdrew to North Wales, with a design to escape to France. He was, however, decoyed to a conference with Henry, seized by an armed force, and led by his successful rival to London. As they entered the capital, Henry was hailed with the loudest acclamations, and the unfortunate Richard treated with neglect and even contumely. His depo- sition was now resolved upon, to be pre- ceded by a forced resignation of the crown. Thirty-five articles of accusa- tion were accordingly drawn up against him, of which several were exaggerated, false and frivolous, but others contained real instances of tyranny and misgovern- ment; and king Richard was solemnly deposed Sept. 30, 1399. Henry then claimed the crown, which was awarded to him. (See Henry IV.) Richard was committed, for safe custody, to the castle of Pornfret. Of the manner of his death no certain account has been given ; but a popular notion prevailed, that his keeper and guards killed him with halberds. It is more probable that starvation or poison was had recourse to, for his body, when exposed, exhibited no marks of violence. He died in the thirty-fourth year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign. Richard III, king of England, born in 1450, was the youngest son of Richard duke of York. On the accession of his brother, Edward IV, he was created duke of Gloucester, and, during the early part of Edward's reign, served him with great courage and fidelity. He partook of the ferocity which was ever a dark feature in the character of the Plantagenets; and is said to have pei*sonally aided in the mur- der of Edward prince of Wales, after the battle of Tewksbury, and to have been the author, if not the perpetrator, of the murder of Henry VI (q. v.) in the Tower. This bloody disposition was, however, united in him with deep policy and dis- simulation, which rendered him still more dangerous. He married, in 1473, Anne, who had been betrothed to the murdered prince of Wales, joint heiress of the earl of Warwick, whose other daughter was united to the duke of Clarence. Quarrels arose between the brothers on the division of the inheritance of their wives; and Richard, who found his elder brother an obstacle to his views of aggrandizement, combined in tin* accusations against that weak and versatile prince, which brought him to destruction. On the death of Ed- ward, in 1483, the duke of Gloucester was 3* appointed protector of the kingdom; and he immediately caused his nephew, the young Edward V, to be declared king, and took an oath of fealty to him. The two ascendant factions, that of the queen's relatives, headed by her brother, earl Riv- ers, and that of the more ancient nobility, who were led by the duke of Bucking- ham and lord Hastings, courted the favor of the protector, who dissembled with each, while he was secretly pursuing the schemes of his own dark ambition. His first object was to get rid of those-who were connected with the young king by blood ; and, after spending a convivial evening with Rivers, Grey, and sir Thom- as Vaughan, he had them arrested the next morning, and conveyed to Pomfret, where they were soon after executed without trial. Alarmed at the arrest of her relatives, the queen dowager took ref- uge hi the sanctuary at Westminster, with her younger son, the duke of York, and her daughter. As it was necessary, for the protector's purposes, to get both his nephews into his hands, he persuaded two prelates to urge the queen to deliver the duke of York into his hands, upon the most solemn assurances of safety. Lord Hastings, although opposed to the queen's relatives, being the steady friend of* her children, was next arrested, while sitting in council, and led to immediate execu- tion. After tliis bold and bloody com- mencement, he proceeded in an attempt to establish the illegitimacy of Edward's children, on the pretence of a previous marriage with the lady Eleanor Talbot, daughter of the earl of Shrewsbury, and scrupled not to countenance an attack on the character of his own mother, who was affirmed to have given other fathers to Edward and Clarence, and to have been true to her husband only in the birth oi' Richard. All these pleas were dwelt upon in a sermon preached at St. Paul's cross. The duke of Buckingham after- wards, in a speech before the corporation and citizens of London, enlarged upon Un- title and virtues of the protector, and tlicn ventured to ask them whether they chose the duke of Gloucester for king. On tiieir silence, he repeated the question, and a few prepared voices exclaimed. " God save king Richard!" This was then accepted as the public voice, and Bucking- ham, with the lord mayor, repaired to the protector with a tender of the crown. He- at first affected alarm and suspicion, and then pretended loyalty to his nephew, and unwillingness to take such a burden upon himself, but finally acceded; and he was 30 RICHARD III—RICHARDSON. proclaimed king on the 27th of June, 1483, the mock election being secured by bodies of armed men, brought to the me- tropolis by himself and Buckingham. The deposed king and his brother were never more heard of, and, according to general belief, they were smothered in the Tower of London, by order of their uncle. (See Edward V.) The new reign commenced with rewards to those who had been in- strumental to the change, and with en- deavors to obtain popularity. Richard, with a splendid retinue, made a progress through several provincial towns, and was crowned a second time at York, on which occasion he created his only son prince of Wales. But hatred and abhorrence of Richard soon became the general senti- ment of the nation, and all men's eyes were turned towards Henry, earl of Rich- mond, maternally descended from the Somerset branch of the house of Lancas- ter. Buckingham, not thinking himself adequately rewarded, entered into a con- spiracy against him, with other malcon- tents in the south and west of England, but was suddenly deserted by his follow- ers, betrayed into the hands of authority, and executed without trial. About the same time, the earl of Richmond, who had embarked with a fleet from St. Malo, encountered a violent storm, and was obliged to return. The death of his son, the prince of Wales, was a severe stroke to Richard; and such was the odium at- tached to his character, that the death of liis wife, which followed soon after, was, without the least evidence, attributed to poison. He immediately determined to many his niece Elizabeth, the daughter of his brother Edward, and legitimate heiress of the crown, hi order to prevent her union with Richmond. In August, 1485, Richmond landed with a small ar- my at Milford haven. Richard, not know- ing in what quarter to expect him, was thrown into much perplexity, which was aggravated by his suspicion of the fidelity of his nobles, and especially the Stanleys, the chief of whom had become the sec- ond husband of Margaret, the earl of Richmond's mother. When informed of Uie advance of his rival, he, however, took the field with great expedition, and met him with an army of 15,000 men at Bosworth, in Leicestershire. Richmond had only 6000 men, but relied on the se- "cret assurances of aid from Stanley, who commanded a separate force of 7000. The battle was fought on the 23d of Au- gust, 1485; and, hi the midst of it, Stan- ley, by falling on the flank of the royal army, secured the victory to Richmond. (See Henry VII.) Richard, finding his situation desperate, rushed against his competitor, slew his standard-bearer, and was on the point of encountering Rich- mond himself, when he sunk under the number of his assailants. The body of Richard was found in the field stripped naked, in which condition it was carried across a horse to Leicester, and interred in the Grey Friars' churchyard. Thus fell this odious prince, in his thirty-fifth year, after possessing the crown, which he had acquired by so many crimes, for two years and two months. Richard pos- sessed courage, capacity, eloquence, and most of the talents which would have adorned a lawful throne. Many of his bad qualities have probably been exag- gerated, but undeniable facts prove his cruelty, dissimulation, treachery, and re- lentless ambition. Gibbon has answered the Historic Doubts of Walpole concern- ing the reign and character of Richard. Richard III has been represented as of small stature, deformed, and of a forbid- ding aspect; but there is some testimony to prove that his personal, like his mental, defects, have been magnified by the gen- eral detestation of his character. Richardson, Samuel, a distinguished English novelist, was born in 1689, in Derbyshire, and received only a common school education. He early discovered a talent for story-telling and letter-writing, and, at the age of thirteen,was the confidant of three young women in their love se- crets, and employed by them in their am- atory correspondence. At the usual age, he was bound apprentice to Mr. John Wilde, a printer of Stationer's hall, Lon- don, and, after the expiration of his ap- prenticeship, passed five or six years as a foreman in a printing-office, until at length he set up for hhnself. His habits of diligence, accuracy, and honorable dealing, acquired him an extensive busi- ness ; and, beginning to thrive in the world, he married the daughter of his former master. His Pamela, the first work which gave him distinction as a writer, was published in 1741. The first two volumes were completed in two months; and so great was its popularity, that it ran through five editions in one year, and was even recommended from the pulpit The novelty of his plan, with many passages of great beauty, and in- teresting traits of character, may account for much of this reception; but, even at that time, critics existed who entertained those opinions of its imperfections, and RICHARDSON—RICHELIEU. 31 doubts of its salutary tendency, which have since become almost general. He was led, by a spurious continuation, to add two volumes to his Pamela, which are inferior to the former; but, in 1748, the appearance of the first two vol- umes of his Clarissa fully established his literary reputation; and its pathos, its va- riety of character, and minute develope- ment of the movements of the human heart, will cause it ever to be regarded as a noble monument of its author's genius. The History of Sir Charles Grandison appeared in 1753. The interest taken in Uiis work was not equal to that produced by the former, although perhaps exhibit- ing more compass and invention; but the character of the hero is in some degree repulsive, and the prolixity of the author began to engender satiety. The charac- ter of Clementina is a masterly example of delicate delineation. This work was, as well as the preceding, translated into foreign languages, and received with great applause. In all the productions of Richardson, the style is inelegant, gossip- ping and verbose, and he seldom knows when to leave off. In 1754, he rose to be master of the Stationers' company; and, in 1760, purchased a moiety of the patent of law printer to the king. As he grew rich, he indulged himself with a countiy residence at Parson's-green, Mid- dlesex, where he lived, surrounded with a circle of affectionate admirers, particu- larly females, to whom it was his delight to read his work in the progress of com- position. In mixed company, he was rather silent and reserved. Nothing could exceed his piety, moral worth, and gen- eral benevolence. He died of an apo- plexy, in 1761, at the age of seventy-two, and was buried in the church of St. Bride, in Fleet street. His correspondence was published in 1804, in 6 vols., 8vo., with a life, by Mrs. Barbauld. Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, cardinal, duke de, one of the greatest statesmen of France, was born at Paris, in 1585, and at the age of twenty-two yearswas made bishop of Lucon. His countiy had already been restored from its long troubles to tranquillity, prosperity, and order, by Henry IV (q. v.) and his great minister Sully, (q. v.) In 1616, the queen-mother, Mary of Medici, hito whose favor Riche- lieu had insinuated hhnself, made him her grand almoner and one of the secre- taries of state. On the disgrace of the queen (see Mari) of Medici), lie continued attached to her cause, and effected a rec- onciliation between her and her son Louis XIII (1619), which, however, was soon interrupted by her intrigues against the constable Luynes, the favorite of the king. Richelieu, who was thus placed between the two contending parties, loved by nei- ther, but considered by both as a useful instrument, had a difficult part to act, and it required all his prudence to enable him to keep his position. In 1622, he obtained the cardinal's hat, through Uie influence of Mary, and, in 1624, entered the coun- cil of state, and was soon at the head of affairs. The premier now felt himself in a condition to drop the mask which he had hitherto worn, and Mary too late re- gretted the protection she had extended to him. The adherence of this princess to the political system of the house of Hapsburg was injurious to the interests of France. Almost all the French princes had kept up a constant opposition to that powerful family, and no sooner was Ri- chelieu seated in his high post, than he began systematically to extend the power of the crown by overthrowing the privi- leges of the great vassals, and to increase the influence of the French monarchy by undennining that of the Hapsburgs, both beyond the Pyrenees and in Gennany. Louis XIII, who was sensible of the en- ergy of his minister, favored his plans, while he always showed a dislike for the man, whom he would gladly have de- stroyed, had he been able to govern with- out him. The Reformed (Huguenots) in France had for a long time resisted the royal power ; and bloody insuirections, hi several preceding reigns, had arisen from their struggles with the spiritual and tem- poral authorities, in defence of their civil rights and freedom of conscience. The wisdom and mildness of Henry IV had assuaged the excitement of the contend- ing parties, but his reign was too short to extinguish the fires which still glowed beneath the embers. The struggle for religious freedom was too often, indeed, made a pretext, by the nobles, and even the princes of the blood royal, to cloak and further their own ambitious designs; and both religious parties, Catholics as well as Protestants, had thus alternately served as a check upon the despotic ex- ercise of the royal power. Richelieu, therefore, resolved to crush the weaker by the aid of the stronger party, and thus to deprive those, who should be disposed to resist his schemes, of their main prop. By the edict of Nantes, the Huguenots had been placed on nearly the same foot- ing with the other subjects of the king- dom : there were some provinces in which 32 RICHELIEU. they had the ascendency, and their armed force was sufficient to shake the throne, should they be excited to rise against it. Their rallying point was Rochelle; and Richelieu neglected no means to make himself master of that city. In the cele- brated siege of Rochelle, he commanded the army in person. The attack and defence of the place are considered as affording models of perseverance, valor, and military skill. Rochelle, supported by England, from which it continually received supplies, held out for a long time against all the efforts of the cardinal; and the hope of reducing it was already nearly abandoned, when Richelieu, by the erec- tion of an immense mole, cut off the com- munication by sea, and finally compelled it to surrender by famine (1629). The second step of Richelieu was the removal of the queen-mother from court. That princess endeavored to effect the fall of the minister: she had already gained over the king to her purpose, in a secret inter- view, when Richelieu entered the cabi- net: the queen overwhelmed him with reproaches. He continued calm, had re- course to prayers and tears, and finally requested the king's permission to leave the court. The preparations were already made for his departure; but the king, who was not less offended by the violence of the queen, than pleased by the respectful demeanor of the cardinal, asked the ad- vice of his favorite, St. Simon. The lat- ter represented to him the services of Richelieu, and the impossibility of dis- pensing with his aid. Louis, therefore, ordered him to Versailles, and assigned him apartments in the palace directly be- low his own. This day (November 10, 1630), on which the hopes of the queen and of the cardinal's enemies were disap- pointed, was called the " day of the dupes " (lajournie des dupes). As the queen con- tinued to declare herself irreconcilable with Richelieu, the cardinal prevailed up- on the king to banish her (1631) to Com- piegne, removed her friends from place, and threw some of them into the Bastile. This step, and the almost total annihila- tion of the privileges of the parliaments and the clergy, excited all classes against the despotic administration of the cardi- nal, and the discontents broke out in nu- merous risings and conspiracies, which, however, were not only suppressed by the prudence and vigor of his measures, but also contributed to the furtherance of his plan, and gradually rendered the royal power entirely absolute. In 1632, the royal arms, directed by Richelieu, sup- pressed the rebellion of the dukes of Or- leans and Montmorency, the adherents of the banished queen, and Montmorency per- ished on the scaffold, although the roy- al family itself interceded in his behalf. Equally unsuccessful were the attempts of the dukes of Lon*aine, Guise, Bouillon, &c ; even those whom the king privately favored were obliged to yield to the all- powerful minister, and paid with their lives for their rashness in venturing to oppose him, as in the instance of Cinq- mars, who, a short time before Richelieu's death, had entered into a conspiracy against him, which the king was, not without reason, believed to have favored. While the minister was thus extending the power of the crown at home, he did not neglect the aggrandizement of the monarchy abroad. The thirty years' war gave him an opportunity of effecting this object. The same man who persecuted, with the greatest severity, the Protestants in France, employed all the arts of nego- tiation, and even force of arms, to protect the same sect in Germany, for the pur- pose of humbling the house of Austria. The king of Sweden, the great bulwark of religious liberty in Germany, received aid of every kind from Richelieu, as long as he was not in danger of becoming formidable to France; but when the bril- liant victories of Gustavus Adolphus gave the cardinal reason to consider his power as more dangerous than that of Austria, he abandoned that prince in the midst of his successes. The war which he under- took against Spain, and which continued till 1659, put France in possession of Cat- alonia and Roussillon, and the separation of Portugal from Spain was effected by his assistance. He also endeavored to weakened the Austrian influence in Italy, and procured the transfer of the duchy of Mantua to the duke of Nevers. In gen- eral, however objectionable may have been his character as a man, the duke de Richelieu must be allowed to have de- served the character of a great statesman: he cannot be denied the glory of having raised the power of the sovereign in France to its highest pitch; but he was proud, arrogant, vindictive and unprinci- pled. The protection which he gave to let- ters and art (in the establishment of the French Academy, 1635, and of the Jardin des Plantes, for example) cannot reconcile us to his faults. (See Corneille.) Richelieu died December 4, 1612, after having in- dicated Mazarin as his successor. Louis XIII died a few months after him; but in the long reign of Louis XIV (q. v.), the RICHELIEU. 33 effects of Richelieu's policy became visi- ble. See Maximes d'Etat ou Testament politique du Cardinal de Richelieu (Paris, 1764), Leclcrc's Vie de Richelieu, and Jay's Histoire du Ministere de Richelieu (1K15). Richelieu, Louis Francois Armand du Plessis, duke de, marshal of France, member of the French academy, and of the academy of sciences, was born at Paris in 1696. His handsome person, his vivaci- ty, and his wit, early made him a favorite at court, and particularly with the duchess of Burgundy (1711). His childish follies were made a handle of by malice, and the jolie poupie, as he was called at court, was thrown into the Bastile. After his release, he was made aid of marshal Vil- lars, who was pleased with his liveliness, and his free and reckless manners. He was distinguished, even at the court of the regent, for his amours and affairs of honor, and was twice confined in the Bastile. In the twenty-fourth year of his age, the French academy chose him one of its members, although he had never written any thing beyond a billet doux, and was entirely ignorant of orthography. Fontenelle, Campistron, and Destouches, each, prepared for bun an inaugural dis- course, from each of which he selected such parts as he* liked; "to form-a whole. He distinguished himself at the siege of Philipsburg (1734), and in the battle of Fontenoy (1745), by his courage and pres- ence of mind. On the occasion of the marriage of the dauphin with the princess of Saxony, he was sent as ambassador to the court of Dresden, where he made the most extraordinary display of pomp. Nothing, however, could equal the mag- nificence of his entry into Vienna, as am- bassador to that court, when the horses of his retinue were shod with silver, in such a manner that the shoes should fall off, to be picked up by the populace. In 1756, he was created marshal, and com- manded at the siege of Mahon, which was occupied by the English. After the capture of that place (June 28, 1756), he received the command of the French ar- my in Germany. But the marshal had offended Mad. de Pompadour, by reject- ing her proposal of a match between his son and her daughter; and after the con- vention of Closter Seven (1757), he was recalled. He had enriched himself while in Germany, where he had also indulged his soldiers hi license and plunder, by his exactions. It should always be remem- bered to his credit, that he dissuaded Louis XV from persecuting the Protes- tants. His example contributed greatly to extend the prevalence of licentiousness in France, since he was the dictator of fashion. He continued to prosecute af- fairs of gallantry even in his old age, and was married, the third time, at the age of eighty-four years. The Mimoires du Mari- chal de Richelieu were written, under his direction, by Soulavie. He died August 3, 1788, ninety-three years old; and two days before his death, a lady having ob- served to him that his face still retained its beauty, he replied, " Madame, you take my face for your mirror." Marshal Rich- elieu had the courage, the fortune and the talents of a great general, the sagacity, prudence and penetration of a great states- man ; but, with these and many amiable qualities, he chose to be nothing but a common courtier. Richelieu, Armand Emanuel du Ples- sis, duke de, minister of state under Louis XVlII, grandson of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1766, and, after studying in the college of Plessis, travelled in Ita- ly, whence he returned, at the commence- ment of the revolution, in 1789. He soon after obtained permission from the king to go lo Vienna, where he was well received by the emperor Joseph II; but he soon quitted that capital with the young prince ••de^Ligne, and entered into the service of Catharine II, then at war with the Turks. He distinguished himself at the taking of Ismail by Suwarrow, and was rewarded with the rank of major-general. In 1794, he was with Louis XVIII in England, whence he returned to Russia; but, not being well treated by the empe- ror Paul, he quitted that country, and, after the peace of 1801, revisited France, where Bonaparte in vain attempted to at- tach him to his service. He went again to St. Petersburg, and, at the commence- ment of 1803, was nominated civil and military governor of Odessa, a Rus- sian colony on the Black sea, which flour- ished greatly under his superintendence. On the restoration of Louis XVIII, the duke de Richelieu took his seat in the chamber of peers, and resumed his func- tions as first gentleman of the bed-cham- ber. In March, 1815, he accompanied the king to G hent, and, returning with him to Paris, after the battle of Waterloo, he was appointed president of the council of ministers, and placed at the head of the foreign department. He presided at the installation of the four academies in April, 1818, and in September following he was made president of the French academy. In the same month, he ap- 34 RICHELIEU—RICHTER. peared at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. He subsequently resigned his office as minister of* state (see Decazes, and Louis XVIII); but on the assassination of the duke of Berry, in 1820, he again became president of the council. He fruitlessly opposed the establishment of the censor- ship of the press, and, finding he had lost his influence, he again retired from office (see Villile), and died soon after, in May, 1822. Richmond ; a city, port of entry, and metropolis of Virginia, in Henrico county, on the north side of James river, between fifty and sixty miles above City Point, and 150 miles above the mouth of the river. It is at the head of tide-water, just below the falls, and opposite to Manchester, with which it is connected by bridges; 25 miles north of Petersburg, 123 south by west of Washington; lat 37° 32' N.; Ion. 77° 21' W.; population, in 1820, 12,046; in 1830, 16,060, including 6345 slaves, and 1900 free blacks. The situation of Richmond is highly picturesque and healthful, and it is a flourishing commercial city. Most of the houses are of brick, and many of them are elegant. Its public buildings are very commodious, and in good style, and it has considerable manufactures. The falls ex- tend nearly six miles, in which the river descends eighty feet. A canal passes around these falls, and the river is naviga- ble for batteaux 220 miles above them. The city is thus connected with a very extensive back country that is highly pro- ductive of wheat, corn, hemp, tobacco and coal. Vessels drawing ten feet of water come to Rockets, just below the city, and Uiose drawing fifteen feet ascend to War- wick, five miles below Richmond. The inland, coasting and foreign trade of Rich- mond are extensive, and increasing; and the city possesses great advantages as a healthy and pleasant place of residence. It has good schools, and convenient houses of worship for many religious de- nominations. The Virginia armory is an extensive establishment, and capable of supplying the state with arms. The pen- itentiary is under good regulations. The new court-house is a very spacious and elegant building. The capital has a very commanding situation on Shockoe hill. In 1811, December 26, the theatre at Richmond took fire during an exhibition, and seventy-two persons lost their fives in the conflagration. An elegant episcopal church, of brick, called the Monumental church, has since been erected on the spot, with a monument in front, commemora- tive of the melancholy event. Ric umond ; a village of England, county of Surrey, on an eminence on the south bank of the Thames, of great celebrity for the beauty of its scenery, and for having been, during several centuries, the seat of a royal palace now demolished. George III frequently resided here, hi the early part of his reign ; and an observatory was erected here from designs by sir William Chambers. Part of the park is occupied by the royal gardens. The new, or great park, fonned by Charles I, is well stocked with deer; it is enclosed by a brick wall eight miles in compass. The rich scenery of Richmond and its vicinity have been the theme of general admiration, and have at- tracted a number of families of distinction, whose seats render the village and neigh- borhood remarkably gay and splendid. The village extends about a mile up the hill from the Thames, skirted and inter- mingled with agreeable gardens. The view from Richmond hill is particularly celebrated. Among the monuments in the church is one to Thomson, who resided here. Population, in 1821, 5994; nine miles south-west of London. Richter, Jean Paul Frederic, a Ger- man writer of the first rank in belles-let- tres, was born, March 21, 1763, at Wun- siedel, in the Fichtelgebirge, and died No- vember 14, 1825, at Baireuth. His father was, at the time of his birth, rector at Wunsiedel, at a later period pastor at Sehwarzbach on the Saale. In 1780, Richter entered the university of Leipsic, in order to study theology, but soon changed his plan, and devoted himself to belles-lettres. As early as 1798, he was known as a distinguished writer at Leip- sic. He went to Weimar, Berlin, Meining- en, &c, and settled at Baireuth, having been made counsellor of legation by the duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, and hav- ing received from the prince primate (Dal- berg) a pension, which the king of Bava- ria continued after Baireuth had fallen to him. He seldom left his home, and only to make short journeys to the Rhine, Ber- lin, Dresden, &c. He had married dur- ing his early stay at Berlin, and had two daughters. Secured by his pension from want; happy in his domestic relations; blessed with numerous friends, and an al- most childlike amiableness, which enjoyed to the last the pleasures of nature, as if they had been always new ; having mill- ions of admirers; unambitious of vain dis- tinctions, or objects beyond his reach; with a heart susceptible of the noblest emotions ; believing in man's goodness, and firmly relying on the immortality of RICHTER—RICKETS. 35 the soul—he may be said to have been one of the happiest men that ever trod this earth. His death corresponded with his life ; he calmly fell asleep. It would be difficult to give a distinct idea of Jean Paul's works (this was the name under which he wrote) in a brief sketch like ours. Jean Paul is a humorous writer, but his humor is of a peculiar sort. The want of a public life obliges the Germans to live much in reflection, the effect of which is visible in almost all their writings, and has left its traces in those of Jean Paul. His humor is deeply reflecting and philosophic, at the same time often truly comic. He frequently rises to the highest regions, where he can speak only in bold metaphors ; and, before we are aware, we hear his inspiring tones die away like those of a lark, when the bird has come again to the ground. If it can be said of any man's writings that they are poetry in a prose fonn, it is true of many passages in Jean Paul's works. His writings are generally in the fonn of novels, but they have little of the character of what we generally understand by novels. He seems to have liked particularly to analyze emotions, to dissect hidividual character in every station, even the humblest. He does not exhibit man under those general influences which operate on large masses of men, but deals almost exclusively with the individual considered as such. He very frequently recurs to the im- mortality of the soul. In his writings, as in his life, he appears amiable in the highest degree. His works are the fol- lowing :—Greenland Processes (Berlin, 1783); Selection from the Papers of the Devil (1788); the Invisible Lodge (1793); Hesperus (1795); Quintus Fixlein (1796 ; and 1800); Biographical Entertainments under the Skull of a Giantess (1796); Flower, Fruit and Thorn Pieces (1796); the Jubelsenior (1797); the Valley of Cam- pan, with a Satirical Appendix (1797); Palingenesies (1798); Letters, and Future Course of Life (1799) ; Titan (1800— 1805) ; Die Flegeljahre* (1803—1805) ; Katzenberger's Journey to the Water- ing Place (1809) ; the Field Preacher Schmelzle's Journey to Flotz (1809), &c. In 1804, he produced his first philosophi- cal work of importance, his Introduction (Vorschule) to ^Esthetics (2d ed. 1809), to which he added, in liis last years, a * Flegel is the German for clown, rude fellow ; and Flegeljahre (clown-years) signifies, in Ger- man, the period of transition from boyhood to manhood, when the character is unformed, and the manners embarrassed, awkward, and often rude. Naclischule, wiUi an Appendix, containing Reviews (Breslau, 1825). It is full of original and discriminating views, yet hardly a philosophically systematic work. In 1807, he published his Levana, a work on education, full of intelligent views. We must mention, also, his Fibel (Spelling- book) ; Peace Sermon (1809); Change of Throne between Mars and Phoebus in 1814 ; Political Sennons in Lent (1817); several essays, for instance, in his Museum (1814), and Herbstbluminen (1810—1820). In 1820 appeared his Comet, or Nic. Markgraf, a comic work. Shortly before his death, he began a new edition of his complete works. After his death, appeared his unfinished work Seli- na, or on Immortality. From memoran- dums left by him, a work was prepared, after his death, called Truths from Jean Paul's Life (3 vols., Breslau, 1826—28.) Ricinus Communis. The palma christi, or castor oil plant, in Barbary, its native climate, often becomes a pretty stout tree, twenty or twenty-five feet in height; but, as cultivated with us, is an annual, herba- ceous plant, not rising above six or eight; if, however, it be sheltered in a green- house, the stem persists, and becomes woody. The leaves are large, alternate, divided into six lobes, and peltate, or hav- ing the stalk inserted into the centre of the leaf. The flowers are disposed in long, branching spikes, the male occupying the inferior portion, which is contrary to the usual arrangement in monoecious plants. The fruit consists of three united, prickly capsules, each containing a large, smooth, shining, oblong, variegated seed. These seeds contain a virulent acrid and nause- ous principle, which seems to reside ex- clusively hi the germ. Hence it happens that, when eaten entire, two or three seeds will produce dangerous and even fatal ef- fects, while the oil that is obtained from them in large quantities is mild, insipid, emollient, and gently purgative. This oil is procured by a moderate pressure, for the germ fortunately retains its oil with more pertinacity than the remainder of the seed; or by plunging the seeds in warm water, when the mild oil rises to the sur- face. The use of castor oil as a purga- tive is familial* to every one, and has been known from remote antiquity. Li some countries, it is burnt hi lamps, or is even employed with lime to make a cement, which with age becomes as hard as stone. The castor oil plant is now cultivated, to some extent, in New Jersey, Virginia, &c, for commercial purposes. Rickets (rnackUis), or English Dis- 36 RICKETS—RIDOTTO. ease; a modification of the scrofula, which commonly appears after the age of nine months and before that of two years, attacking principally the bones. The dis- ease is known by a large head, prominent forehead, projecting breast bone, flattened ribs, big belly, and emaciated limbs, with great debility. The bones and spine of the back are variously distorted. Nature frequently restores the general health, and leaves the limbs distorted. In the treat- ment of rickets, besides attention to the regimen, those means are employed by which the system is invigorated. Tonic medicines, the cold bath, &c, are bene- ficial. The child should be kept clean and dry, regularly exercised, and allowed to enjoy pure air. The food should be nutritious, and easy of digestion. The rickets sometimes manifests itself in adults, and often proves fatal in a short time. Ricochet. (See Range.) Ridge Road, or Alluvial Wat; a remarkable ridge along the south shore of lake Ontario, in New York. It extends from Rochester on the Genesee, to Lew- iston on the river Niagara, eighty-seven miles. It is composed of common beach sand and gravel stones worn smooth, and these are intermixed with small shells. Its general width is from four to eight rods, and it is raised in the middle with a handsome crowning arch, from six to ten feet Its general surface preserves a very uniform level, being raised to meet the unevenness of the ground which it covers. At the rivers Genesee and Niagara, its elevation is about 120 or 130 feet; and this is its elevation above lake Ontario, from which it is diitant- from six to ten miles. There is a regular and gradual descent from the road to the lake. There seems to be no way of accounting for this ridge, without supposing that the surface of lake Ontario was 130 feet higher at some for- mer period than it is at present; and, if this be admitted, we are led to inquire whether Erie and Ontario did not consti- tute one lake. But it is replied, that there is a similar ridge on the south side of lake Erie, for 120 miles. The ridge road of New York is one of the best roads in the state. (See New York.) Riding. (See Horsemanship, and Ma- nege.) Riding at Anchor. (See Anchor.) Ridings (corrupted from trithing); the three jurisdictions into which the county of Yorkshire, in England, is divided, on account of its extent. They are called die North, East and West Ridings. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop of London in the reigns of Edward VI and his successor Mary, was bom about the commencement of the sixteenth century, and educated at Cambridge. He travelled ou the conti- nent, and, during a three years' absence from his native country, became acquaint- ed with several of the early reformers; whose doctrines he afterwards warmly espoused. Returning to Cambridge, he filled the office of" proctor to the university, and as such protested against the claims of the papal see to the supreme ecclesias- tical jurisdiction in the realm. He was also chosen public orator, and, through the patronage of archbishop Crannier (q. v.), became one of the king's chaplains; and, in the second year of Edward VI, he was elevated to the see of Rochester. Three years after, on the deprivation of Bonner, Ridley was made bishop of Lon- don, and distinguished himself by his tempered zeal in favor of the Protestant church, and especially by his liberality and kindness towards the family of his predecessor. On the death of Edward, a dread of the succession of a Roman Cath- olic sovereign induced him to listen to those who made an attempt to secure the Protestant ascendency, by placing the lady Jane Grey upon the throne. The defeat of this scheme, the active part he had taken in the establishment of the new dis- cipline, and the construction of the litur- gy, together with his intimate connexion with Cranmer, marked Ridley out as one of the most prominent victims of papal authority. The form of a trial was, in- deed, granted him: a deputation of popish bishops was appointed to hold a formal disputation on the controverted points with him at Oxford, and he was con- demned, as a recusant and obstinate here- tic, to the stake. This sentence he under- went with the greatest fortitude, in com- pany with his friend and fellow-sufferer Latimer (q. v.), Oct. 15,1555, in Oxford. His life has been written by the reverend doctor Ridley, prebendary of Salisbury. Ridotto ; a masquerade, attended with music and dancing, and other amuse- ments. A ridotto commonly takes place on fast-eve, in those places where the car- nival is celebrated.—Ridotto, in Venice, is also the name of a public place, where, during the carnival, games of hazard, par- ticularly faro, are played. Formerly, none but a Venetian noble could have a bank in the ridotto; and particular privileges were granted to him as banker. On each side stood a lady in a mask, to give him warning of any thing to his diaadvan- RIDOTTO—RIENZI 37 tage. No persons but nobles were per- mitted to play, unless in a mask. Ried, Treaty at, Oct. 8, 1813. (See Bavaria.) Riedesel, Fred erica Charlotte Louisa, baroness, the daughter of the Prussian minister of state Massow, was bora at Brandenburg in 1740. At the age of six- teen, she was married to lieutenant-colonel Riedesel, who commanded the Bruns- wick troops employed in the English ser- vice in America in 1777. Madame Riede- sel, who accompanied her husband, wrote an interesting account of her adventures, published by her son-in-law, the count de Reuss, under the title of Voyage to Amer- ica, or Letters of Madame von Riedesel (translated into English, New York, 1827). She returned to Europe in 1783; and hav- ing lost her husband (who had been made a general) in 1800, she fixed her residence at Berlin, where she died in 1808. Riego y Nunez, Rafael del, a Spanish patriot, born of a noble family, in the prov- ince of Asturias, in 1785. "After having been liberally educated, he entered the army, and served during the invasion of Spain by Bonaparte. He was taken pris- oner ; and, on his liberation, the constitu- tional general Abisbalgave him a staff ap- pointment ; and when that chief betrayed the cause of independence, Riego retired from the service in disgust, and for a time led a private life. In the beginning of 1820, at the head of a battalion, he pro- claimed the Spanish constitution, and, traversing a large extent of countiy, shut himself up in a fortress, with the small number of troops who had the patriotism and courage to follow his example. Be- ing threatened by a powerful army, and aware of the danger of delay, he sallied forth from the isle of Leon with a few hundred brave men, made his way through the forces that opposed his passage, visited several large towns, intimidated the au- thorities, fought obstinately, lost the greater part of his troops, and retired to the moun- tains with the determination to defend himself to the last extremity, rather than submit to the mercy of his enemies. But Uie spirit of freedom which he had excited was not extinguished ; the provinces ranged themselves under the banners of independence, and Riego received the homage of national gratitude. His popu- larity excited the jealousy of those iri pow- er, and he was calumniated as a promoter of anarchy and disorder : his army was dissolved, and he was proscribed. But he preserved the confidence of the people, and was appointed a deputy to the cortes vol. xi. 4 of 1822, of which assembly he became the president, and in this arduous station displayed prudence and firmness, with a conciliatory disposition that did him hon- or. When king Ferdinand refused to maintain the constitution which he had sworn to observe, Riego again appeared in arms to assert the liberty of his country; but it was destined to fall before foreign foes. He was taken prisoner after the surrender of Cadiz to the French, under the duke d'Angouleme, and, being con- veyed to Madrid, was executed as a traitor, Nov. 7, 1823. His widow, who sought refuge in England, died at Chelsea, June 19, 1824.—See the Memoirs of the Life of Riego, by the canon Riego (London, 1824), and Mathew's Narrative, &c. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrini de; a native of Rome, who, in the fourteenth century, became celebrated by his attempts to re- store the Roman republic. Although the son of one of the lowest order of tavern keepers, he received a literary education, and early distinguished himself by his tal- ents, parts, and elevated sentiments. The glory of ancient Rome excited his enthu- siasm, and he came to be regarded by the common people as an extraordinary per- son, destined to rescue them from the tyranny of the aristocracy, which, on the removal of the popes to Avignon, had become in the highest degree insolent and oppressive. He obtained the post of pub- lic scribe or notary, and in 1346 was join- ed in a deputation to pope Clement VI, at Avignon, to exhort him to bring liack the jiapal court to its original seat. He acted on this occasion with so much energy and eloquence, that the pope created him an apostolic notary, which office, on his re- turn, he executed with strict probity. He let no opportunity escape to excite the discontent of the people, by haranguing against the nobility and the defects of the public administration. Having prepared men's minds for a change, and engaged persons of all orders in his designs, in the month of April, 1347, during the absence of the governor of Rome, Stephen Colon- na, he summoned a secret assembly upon mount Aventine, before which he made an energetic speech, and induced them all to subscribe an oath for the establish- ment of a plan of government, which he entitled the good estate. He had even the address to gain over the pope's vicar, and, in a second assembly in the capital, pro- duced fifteen articles as the basis of Uie good estate, which were unanimously ap- proved ; and the people conferred upon him the title of tribune, with the power 38 RIENZI—RIGA. of life and death, and all the other attri- butes of sovereignty. The governor, Co- lonna, upon his return, threatened hiin with punishment, but was himself con- strained to quit the city ; and Rienzi ban- ished several of the noble families, after capitally punishing such as were convicted of oppression and injustice. In the first exercise of his authority, he conducted himself with a strict regard to justice and the public good ; and even the pope was induced to sanction his power. The reputation of the new tribune extended throughout Italy, and his friendship was even solicited by the king of Hungary and the emperor Louis. Petrarch was highly interested in his proceedings; and there are extant several eloquent letters, in which that poet exhorts him to persevere in his glorious undertakings. But the in- toxication of supreme power began to betray him into extravagances. He caus- ed himself to he created a knight, with a mixture of religious and military ceremo- nies, and cited the two rival emperors, Charles and Louis, to appear before him to justify their pretensions. He also dis- missed the pope's legate, and, reducing the nobles into complete humiliation, com- menced a reign of terror. But at length, finding that he had lost the affection and confidence of the people, he withdrew, in 1348, from Rome, and remained in Na- ples until 1350, when he took advantage of the jubilee to return secretly to Rome; but being discovered, he withdrew to Prague. Thence he came into the hands of pope Clement at Avignon, who con- fined him three years, and appointed a commission to try him ; his successor, In- nocent VI, released Rienzi, and sent him to Rome to oppose another popular dema- gogue, named Boroncelli. The Romans received him with great demonstrations of joy, and he recovered his former au- thority ; but after a turbulent administra- tion of a few months, the nobles excited another sedition against him, in which he was massacred in October, 1354. His last brief career had been marked with great cruelty, which excited the populace to treat his remains with indignity. Rien- zi, who possessed a union of fanaticism and artifice, was more energetic in speech and council than in action, and failed in cour- age and presence of mind in great emer- gencies. Ries, Ferdinand, a distinguished piano- forte player and composer, was born in Bonn, on the Rhine. Beethoven was his teacher, and under his direction he ap- ' peared before the public in Vienna, in 1804 and 1805. After several journeys, he settled in London, as teacher and com- poser. In 1817, he also became director of the philharmonic concert. In 1825, he retired to Bonn. His productions are very numerous. Riesengebirge (the Giants' mountains); part of the Sudetic chain, separating Sile- sia from Bohemia and Moravia, till it joins the Carpathians; but the term is properly applied to that part of this range which lies between the sources of the Neisse and the Bober. It contains the loftiest mountains of the north or central part of Germany. Some of the principal summits are Schneekoppe, 5270 feet high; Great Sturmhaube, 5030 feet high; and Lesser Sturmhaube, nearly as high. The valleys of the Riesengebirge present many pictur- esque scenes. (See Sudetic Mountains.) Rifacimento (Italian, a remaking, or reestablishment) is now often used in English. One of its most common ap- plications is to the process of recasting literary works, so as to adapt them to a changed state of circumstances; as when a work written in one age or country is modified to suit the circumstances of another. The German word Umarbeitung is still more expressive. Rifle ; a fire-arm which has the inside of its barrel cut with from three to nine or ten spiral grooves, so as to make it re- semble a female screw,varying from a com- mon screw only in this, that its grooves or rifles are less deflected and approach more to a right line; it being now usual for the grooves with which the best rifled barrels are cut, to take about one whole turn in a length of thirty inches. The number of these grooves differ according to the size of the barrel and the fancy of the workman; and their depth and width are not regu- lated by any invariable rule. The period of their invention cannot be precisely de- termined. In 1381, the city of Augsburg promised, in the war of the free imperial cities against the nobility in Franconia, Suabia and Bavaria, to send thirty rifles (busses, biichsen) to the army. In 1498, fire-arms with rifled ban-els were used at a public shooting-match in Leipsic. Riga; a fortified city in the Russian government of the same name (see Livo- nia), lying on the Duna, or Dwina, seven miles above its entrance into the gulf of Riga; lat 56° 57' N.; Ion. 24° 5> E. The suburbs, which were almost entirelv de- stroyed in 1812 (see Russian- German War), have since been rebuilt with broad, hand- some streets, and numerous public walks and squares. The city has also received RIGA—RIO DE JANEIRO. 39 many additions and ornaments of late. The population, which, in 1821, amounted to 41,500, was, in 1828, 55,547, principally Lutherans. In 1829, 1403 vessels entered the port of Riga ; the exports for the same year amounted to 47,888,000 roubles. The commerce is principally carried on by English merchants. There are numerous public institutions and buildings here, among the latter of which are the magnifi- cent town-house, an imperial palace, the old castle, &c. The inhabitants are chief- ly Germans, or of German origin. Next to Petersburg, Riga is the most important commercial place in the empire, and has large naval establishments. Corn, flax and hemp are the chief articles of export. Riga was founded in 1200, by bishop Albert, and, until the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury, belonged to the Teutonic knights. In 17l0, it was taken possession of by Russia. Rigadoon ; a lively kind of dance, per- formed in figure by a man and woman, and the tune c/ which is always written in triple time. The rigadoon was bor- rowed originally from Provence. The word is formed from Uie French word rigaudon, signifying the same thing. . Rigging ; a general name given to all the ropes employed to support the masts, and to extend or reduce the sails, or ar- range them to the disposition of the wind. —Standing riggingiis that which is used to sustain Uie masts, and remains in a fix- ed position ; as the shrouds, stays, and back-stays.—Running rigging is that which is fitted to arrange the sails by pass- ing through various blocks, in different places about the masts, yards, shrouds, &c, as the braces, sheets, halliards, clew- lines, &c, &e. Righi, or Rigi (Mons regius, or Regina montium); an isolated mountain in the can- ton of Schweitz, between the lakes of Zug, Lucerne and Lowertz, 6000 feet high. The view from Uie summit is remarkably fine, and attracts great numbers of travel- lers ; it embraces the whole of the north and east of Switzerland, far into Swabia, the Jura, the Alps to the Jungfraii, and fourteen lakes. Fussli (see Fuseli) and Meyer published the finest views hi the Sketches on the Righi (Zurich, 1807). Right and Left Bank of a River. That bank which is on the right of a per- son looking down the river is called the rigid bank; the other the left. Right, Petition of. (See Petition of Right.) Rights, Bill of. (See Bill of Rights.) Rights, Declaration of. (See Bill of Rights.) Rimini (Ariminum) ; a city in the States of the Church, on the Marecchia, near its enhance into the gulf of Venice; lat 44° 4' N.; ton. 12° 34' E. There is a harbor at the mouth of the Marecchia, which, however, is choked up by sand and stones, brought down by the river. The sea has receded more than two miles from the ancient light-house, which is now sunounded by gardens. The river is crossed by a handsome marble bridge, of five arches, built by Tiberius, at the point where the Flaminian and iEmilian ways met, and is the finest monument of antiquity of the kind Before one of the gates is an ancient triumphal arch, erect- ed in honor of Augustus. The cathedral erected on the ruins of the temple of Cas- tor and Pollux is, like several of the other churches, built of the marble taken from the ruins of the old port. The church of S. Francesco, built in the middle of the fifteenth century, is celebrated for its no- ble and splendid style of architecture. It was erected by Pandolfo Malatesta, whose family governed Rimini for a long period, in the middle ages, and adorned the city with many public buildings. In the Pi- azza del Commune is a handsome fountain, and a bronze statue of pope Paul V ; in Uie market-place is shown a pedestal, from which it is pretended that Caesar ha- rangued his troops before passing the Rubicon. Rimini contains some other fine remains of antiquity. March 25, 1831, it was occupied by Austrian troops, after having been some time defended by Italian patriots. Ring. (For the pope's ring, see Fish- erman's Ring; for the bishop's, see Inves- titure, also Kiss; for Saturn's ring, see Planet, and Saturn. See also Fairy Circle.) Rio bravo del Norte. (See Norte.) Rio de Janeiro,or S. Sebastiao (often called simply Rio); capital city of Brazil, on the western shore of the bay of the same name, which makes up from the At- lantic ocean ; lat. 22° 54' S.; Ion. 43° 15^ W.; population in 1820, estimated at 135,000, and by Walsh, in 1830, at 150,000. Before Uie an*ival of the Portuguese court, in 1808 (see John VI), the population was about 50,000, and occupied only that part of the city now called the old city. The streets of the new city are broad and straight, and the houses in both sections are mostly built in the same style, of granite, and three stories high. The pub- lic places are not remarkable for beauty, but most of them have fountains supplied with water by a very handsome aqueduct. 40 RIO DE JANEIRO—RIPPERDA. The imperial palace, formerly the resi- dence of the viceroys, is built in an ordi- nary style, and was enlarged, after the ar- rival of the court, by connecting it with Uie Carmelite monastery. The mint, the eustom-house, the arsenal, and the ex- change, are handsome buildings. The churches and convents (five) present noth- ing deserving of notice. The public gar- dens are prettily laid out, and enjoy a fine prospect. Music is a favorite amusement of Uie people, and is cultivated with suc- cess by all classes. The manufacturing industry is inconsiderable; but Rio is the great mart of Brazilian commerce ; Uie harbor is one of the finest and safest in Uie world. All the ports between Bahia on the north and Montevideo on the south send their merchandise to Rio for exporta- tion or consumption. The internal com- merce with the inland provinces is also extensive, particularly in mineral riches. Sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, hides, tal- low, furs, molasses, indigo, fustic, cocoa- nuts, diamonds, topaz, and other precious stones, are among the exports. (See-Bra- zil) The climate is warm and humid ; and, on account of the marshes which sunound the city, and the filth of the streets, the vultures being the only scaven- gers, the city is often an unhealthy resi- dence for strangers; but, by adopting the Brazilian mode of living, avoiding expo- sure in the sun, night dews, abstaining from spirituous liquors, and using vegeta- ble diet, the danger is averted. The pop- ulation consists of a singular mixture of colors and nations; about two thirds are negroes, mulattoes, &c.; and among the whites are seen French, Germans, Eng- lish, Italians, Dutch, and North Ameri- cans. The environs are charming, and vegetation never ceases. The place de- rives its name, sigififying river of January, from the mistake of the first discoverer of the bay, who conceived it to be the mouth of a large river. It was founded by the Portuguese in 1565, and in 1763 was made the capital of Brazil. It was the residence of the Portuguese court from 1808 to 1821, and, in 1822, became the capital of the independent empire of Brazil. (See Pedro I.) In 1831 (April 7), it was the theatre of a revolution, in which 6000 armed citizens were joined by the troops of the line in their opposition to the gov- ernment, and in consequence of which dom Pedro abdicated the tlirone in favor of his son, Pedro II.—See Walsh's No- tices of Brazil (London, 1830). Rio Grande. (See Plata, La.) Riots are disturbances of the public peace, attended with circumstances of tu- mult and commotion, as where an assem- bly destroys, or in any manner damages, seizes, or invades the property either of individuals or the public, or does any in- jury to the persons of individuals, or in- vades, seeks, or pursues them, with intent to confine them, or put them in fear, or violently constrains any one to act contra- ry to his interest, duty, or inclination. Where three or more persons assemble on their own authority to disturb the public peace, whether in a house or highway, with intent mutually to assist each other against any who shall oppose them in the execution of some enterprise of a private nature, and they afterwards actually exe- cute the same, in a violent and turbulent manner, to the terror of the people, whether the act be lawful or not, they in- cur the guilt of a riot. All who are actu- ally engaged in a riot are considered, hi law, as equally guilty of the offence ; but the circumstances of each are to be con- sidered in assigning his punishment. A riot will not be justified by an apparently useful and laudable object, as to put down a house of ill fame or a common gaming house, or to remove other great and con- fessed nuisances. The law of Massachu- setts of 1786 (ch. 38) enacts, that where any persons, to the number of twelve or more, armed with clubs or other weapons, or where any number of persons, consist- ing of thirty or more, shall be unlawfully, riotously or tumultuously assembled, any justice of" the peace, sheriff or deputy- sheriff of the county, or constable of the town, shall make open proclamation among the rioters, or as near to them as he can come, and charge all persons so as- sembled immediately to disperse them- selves, and peaceably to depart to then- homes, under penalty of the pains inflict- ed by said act. If any persons so unlaw- fully assembled do not disperse themselves within one hour after proclamation made, or attempted to be made, it is lawful for any officer to command sufficient aid to seize such offenders, and to require an armed force if the rioters appear armed. Should any of the latter be killed or wounded by reason of their resistance, the magistrate or officer will be held guiltless ; but if the magistrate or officer, or any of his assistants, should be killed in their endeavors to restore Uie peace and to arrest the offenders, it would be murder in all those who were guilty of the riot. Similar provisions exist hi other states of the Union, as well as in England. Ripperda, John William, baron of, RIPPERDA—RITTENHOUSE. 41 born in 1680, of a noble family in Gro- ningen, was educated under the Jesuits of Cologne, but, on many ing a Protestant la- dy, conformed to her religion. He rose to the rank of colonel in the Dutch ser- vice, and in 1715 was sent on a mission to Philip V of Spain, when he returned to the Catholic religion, and settled at Ma- drid ; and the king finally made him duke of Ripperda, and his prime minister; but, from his inefficiency, incurring the dis- pleasure of the king, he was dismissed, and confined in the castle of Segovia, whence he escaped and went to England, where he remained until 1730, when he crossed over to the Hague, and resumed the Protestant religion. But his restless and ambitious disposition would not allow him to remain tranquil, and hi 1731 he went to Morocco, where he was favorably received by Muley Abdalla, and declaring himself a convert to die Mohammedan re- ligion, and taking Uie name of Osman, he obtained the chief command of Uie Moor- ish army at the siege of Ceuta. On the defeat of the Moore, he fell under the dis- pleasure of the emperor, and for a time he lived in retirement. He then formed a new project for the consolidation of differ- ent religions, particularly Uie Jewish and Mohammedan; and it is said that he even made some converts. He finally retired to Tetuan ; but his projecting spirit ani- mated him to the last, and he advanced considerable sums to Theodore, baron Neuhof, to assist his attempts on the crown of Corsica. His death took place in 1737. See Moore's Life of the Duke of Ripperda (1806). Rip-raps. (See Dover, Straits of) Ripuaria, Lex. The Loi des Ripu- aires was a collection of laws like the Salic law for the Franks. The latter is supposed to have been the code of those Franks who lived between the Meuse and Loire, and the Ripuarian law that of those who lived between the Meuse and the Rhine. It was drawn up under king Theodoric, at Chalons-sur-Marne. Its spirit is barbarous, like that of Uie Salic law.—Ripuarii was a collective name given by the Romans to all the various tribes of Franks who inhabited the coun- try from the river Lahne to the Lippe, along the Rhine. Ritornello (Italian), in music; a pas- sage which is played whilst Uie princi- pal voice pauses; it often signifies the introduction to an air or any musical piece. This ritornello is often repeated after the singing voice has concluded; hence Uie name. In Italian operas, Uie 4* ritornelli are often unduly prolonged.—Ri- tornelli are also popular songs of three lines each, sung in the Italian mountains, which are also used by the improvvisatori. The metre and number of the syllables are not subject to rule. The first line, however, is generally the shortest. Rittenhouse, David, a distinguished American astronomer, was born near Ger- mantown, Pennsylvania, April 8, 1732. During his early years, he was employed on his father's fann ; yet, even there, his peculiar genius manifested itself. His younger brother used to say, that while David was employed in the fields, he re- peatedly observed the fences, and even the plough with which he had been work- ing, marked over with mathematical fig- ures. The construction of a wooden clock exhibited the first evidence of his mechanical talents. He was then but seventeen years of age, and had never re- ceived any instraction, either in mathe- matics or mechanics. The delicacy of his constitution, and the irresistible bent of his genius, soon after induced his pa- rents to allow of his giving up husbandry, and to procure for him the tools of a clock and mathematical instrument ma- ker. From the age of eighteen to twenty- five, he applied himself with the greatest assiduity, both to his trade and to his studies. Engaged throughout Uie day in the former, it was only the time com- monly assigned to rest, or, to use his own expression, his idle hours, that he could devote to the latter. Yet, with so little time at his command, with but two or three books, and without the least in- struction, he acquired so considerable a knowledge of the mathematical sciences, as to be able to read Uie Principia of Newton. It is even asserted, that he dis- covered the method of fluxions, and that he did not know, until some years after- wards, that Newton and Leibnitz had contested the honor of an invention of which he deemed himself the author. It was during this double employment of his time in labor and in study, that Mr. Rittenhouse planned and executed an in- strument, in which his mathematical knowledge, and his mechanical skill, were equally required. This instrument was the orrery. Machines, intended to give to the student of astronomy a general con- ception of Uie relative motions of the heavenly bodies, had been constructed before ; but Uie object of Mr. Rittenbo.'S'i was, to construct an instrument, by means of which he could exhibit, with accuracy, the positions of the planets and their sat- 42 R1TTENHOUSE—RIVERS. elfites at any given period of the world, past, present, or future. It was, in fact, to make a kind of perpetual astronomical almanac, in which the results, instead of being given in tables, were to be actually exhibited to the eye. In this attempt he succeeded. Two of these orreries were made by his own hands. One belongs to Uie university of Pennsylvania; the other to the college of Princeton. In 1769, Mr. Rittenhouse was named one of Uie com- mittee, appointed by the American philo- sophical society, to observe the transit of Venus over Uie sun's disk, which hapT pened June 3 of that year. A temporary observatory was directed to be built for the purpose, near his residence. In si- lence, and trembling anxiety, Mr. Ritten- house and his friends waited for the preT dieted moment of observation; it came, and brought with it all that had been wished for and expected by those who saw it In our philosopher, it excited, in the instant of one of the contacts of Uie planet with Uie sun, an emotion of delight so exquisite and powerful as to induce fainting. The reputation which Mr. Rit- tenhouse had now so justly acquired, as an astronomer, attracted the attention of the government, and he was employed in several geodesic operations of great pub- lic importance. In 1779, he was appoint- ed by the legislature of Pennsylvania, one of the commissioners for adjusting a ter- ritorial dispute between that state and Vir- ginia ; and the success of this commission is ascribed, in a great degree, to his skill and prudence. In 1786, he was employed in fixing Uie northern fine, which divides Pennsylvania from New York. In 1769, he was employed in settling the limits be- tween New York and New Jersey; and, in 1787, he was called upon to assist in fixing a boundaiy line between the states of Massachusetts 8110! New York. Mr. Rittenhouse was elected a member of the American academy of .arts and sciences, at Boston, in 1782, and of the royal society of London, in 1795. In 1791, he was cho- sen the successor of doctor Frankljn, in the presidency of the American philosophical society. All his philosophical communi- cations were made through the medium of the Transactipns of Uiis society, and the list of his papers, printed in the three first volumes, shows bis zeal for science and the fertility of his genius. In 1777, doctor Rittenhouse was appointed treasurer of Pennsylvania, in which office he contin- ued until 1789. In 1792, he was appointed, by the general government, director of the mint of the U. States. The mechanical skill of doctor Rittenhouse rendered him a highly useful officer. In 1795, he was obliged to resign in consequence of the state of his health. His constitution, nat- urally feeble, bad been rendered still more so by sedentary labor and midnight stud- ies, and on the twenty-sixth of June, 1796, he died. His last illness was short and painful, but his patience and benevo- lence did not forsake him. Upon being told that some of his friends had called at his door to inquire how he was, he asked why they were not invited into his cham- ber to see him. " Because," said his wife, "you are too weak to speak to them." " Yes," said he, " that is true, but still 1 could have pressed their hands." In pri- vate life, doctor Rittenhouse exhibited all those mild and amiable virtues by which it is adorned. As a husband, a father, and a friend, he was a model of excellence. Immediately after his decease, Uie Amer- ican philosophical society decreed him the honor of a public eulogium ; and this duty was executed in the ablest manner by doctor Rush. In 1813, a large volume of memoirs of his life was published by his relative, William Barton, esquire, of Lancaster, the materials for which were derived from the work just mentioned. Ritter, John William, a distinguished natural philosopher, was born in 1776, at Samitz, near Hainau, in Silesia, and died, in 1810, in Munich. He distinguished himself by the study of galvanism; but excessive labor, exhausting experiments, a bad wife, and consequent intemperance, brought him early to the grave. His works, which are of uncommon impor- tance, as far as galvanism is concerned, are, Contributions to the better under- standing of Galvanism (Jena, 1801,2 vols.); Proof that a continual Galvanism accom- panies the Process of Life (Weimar, 1798); Physico-Chemical Treatises (Leipsic, 1806, 3 vols.); Fragments of the Papers of a young Philosopher (Heidelberg, 1810, 2 vols.); all in German. He contributed many articles to Gilbert's Annals of Phys- ics, and Voigt's Magazine of Natural Sci- ence, Ritzebuttel; a bailiwick under the jurisdiction of Hamburg (q. v.), between the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, with 3900 inhabitants. Its chief place is Ritz- ebuttel, a borough, one mile south from Cuxhaven (q. v.); lat. N. 53° 52' 8"; Ion E. 8° 41' 10". It has 1500 inhabitants. Travellers wait here to embark at Cux- haven. Rivers are to be traced to springs, or to Uie gradual meltings of Uie ice and RIVERS. 43 snow which perpetually cover the sum- mits of all Uie most elevated ranges of mountains upon the globe. The union of various springs, or of these meltings, forms rivulets: these last follow the declivity of the ground, and commonly fall, at differ- ent stages, into one great channel, called a river, which, at last, discharges its waters into the sea, or some great inland lake. The declivities along which de- scend the various streams that flow into one particular river are called its basin—a tenn, therefore, which includes the whole extent of country from which the waters of the river are drawn. As mountainous regions abound in springs, we find that most rivers, more especially those of the first class, commence from a chain of mountains; each side of a chain also has its springs, and the rivers which originate on one side flow hi the opposite direc- tion to those which rise on the other. As it is the property of water to follow the most rapid descent that comes in its way, the courses of streams point out the va- rious declivities of the earth's surface, and the line from which large rivers flow in contrary directions (German Wasscr- scheide), generally marks the highest parts of Uie earth. ■< In European Russia, where the rivers are very extensive, there is, how- ever, a singular exception to this rule, the line which separates Uie sources of those rivers being very little above the' level of the Baltic, ©r of the Black sea. It has been observed, by some writers, that the extent of a river is in proportion to the height of the range of mountains from which it de- scends. This is, in a certain degree, true, because Uie greater the bulk of the moun- tains, the more numerous the springs and torrents which they furnish; but the rela- tion between the extent of a river and the surface of its basin is much closer and more invariable. Even this is not suffi- ciently comprehensive; for it is evident that the size of a river depends upon three circumstances—the surface of its basin; the abundance, or otherwise, of that surface in springs; and Uie degree of humidity possessed by Uie climate of the region from which it draws its supplies. As many springs, however, are formed by the rains, the second of these circum- stances will, in some measure, vary with the last. By an attention to these remarks, the causes of the great size of the South American rivers will be apparent The peculiar position of the Andes, with re- spect to the plant of that continent; Uie fact, Uiatby very far Uie largest proportion of its running waters are drained off in one general direction (towards the Atlantic); the multiplicity of streams that intersect the country ; and the humidity of the cli- mate—all contribute to that result. The Andes being placed so near the coast of the Pacific, the rivers "which flow from them into that ocean are small; while those which flow on the other side, hav- ing such an immense space to traverse, are swelled into a most majestic volume before they reach the Atlantic. The phys- ical circumstances of the old continent are unfavorable to the accumulation of such vast bodies of water as the rivers of South America. Europe is not of suffi- cient extent; Africa is oppressed by a scorching climate, and abounds in sandy deserts; in Asia, the atmosphere generally is not so moist, while the more central po- sition, for the most part, of the great moun- tainous range of that continent, and the existence of capacious inland lakes, which are the final receptacles of the streams that fall into them, are the causes why the waters are more equally drained off in different directions than in the New World. When water, by following a descent, hi»; once received an impulse, the pressure of the particles behind upon those before will be sufficient to keep the stream in motion, even when there is no longer a declivity in the ground. The only effect is, that in passing along a level, the couise of the stream becomes gradually slower— an effect which may be perceived, more or less, in all running waters mat originate in mountainous or hdly n*acts, and after- wards traverse the plains. The declivity of many great rivers is much less than might at first be supposed. The Maranon, or Amazons, has a descent of only ten and a half feet in 200 leagues of its course ; that is, one twenty-seventh part of an inch for every thousand feet of that dis- tance. The Loire, in France, between Pouilfy and Briare, falls one foot in 7500, but between'Briare and Orleans, only one foot in 13,596. Even the rapid Rhine has not a descent of more than four feet in a mile, between Schaffhausen and Stras- burg, and of two feet between Uie latter place and Schenckenschantz. When riv- ers' flow through a mountainous and rug- ged countiy, they fiequentiy fall over pre- cipices, and form cataracts (q. vA, in some cases, several hundred feet in depth. The most celebrated falls in the world are those of the Niagara, in North America. In the tropical regions, most of the rivers are subject to periodical overflowings of their banks, in consequence of Uie rains which annually fall in such abundance, in 44 RIVERS. those countries, during the wet season. The overflow of the Nile was considered by the ancients, who were ignorant of its cause, as one of the greatest mysteries of nature; because, in Egypt, where the overflow takes place, no rain ever falls. The apparent mystery is easily explained, by the circumstance of the rams descend- ing upon the mountains in the interior of Africa, where the Nile rises. The conse- quent accumulation of the waters among the high grounds, gradually swells the river along its whole extent, and, in about two months from the commencement of the rains, occasions those yearly inunda- tions, without which Egypt would be no better than a desert. The disappearance of some rivers, for a certain distance, un- der ground, is accounted for with equal facility. When a river is impeded in its course by a bank of solid rock, and finds beneath it a bed of a softer soil, the waters wear away the latter, and thus make for themselves a subterraneous passage. In this way are explained the sinking of the Rhone, between Seyssel and L'Ecluse, and the formation, in Virginia, of the mag- nificent rock bridge which overhangs the course of the Cedar creek. In Spain, the phenomenon exhibited by the Guadiana, which has its waters dispersed in sandy and marshy grounds, whence they after- wards emerge in greater abundance, is to be referred to the absorbing power of the soil. Rivers, in their junction with Uie sea, present several appearances worthy of notice. The opposition which takes place between Uie tide and their own cur- rents, occasions, in many instances, the collection at their mouths of banks of sand or mud, called bars, on account of Uie obstruction which they offer to nav- igation. Some streams rush with such force into the sea, that it is possible, for some distance, to distinguish their waters from those of the sea. The shock arising from the collision of the current of the majestic Amazons with the tide of the Atlantic is of the most tremendous de- scription. (See Mascaret.) Many of the largest rivers mingle with Uie sea by means of a single outlet, while others (for instance, the Nile, the Ganges, the Volga, the Rhine, and the Orinoco), before their termination, divide into several branches.* This circumstance will depend upon the nature of the soil of the country through which a river runs; but it also frequently * The triangular space formed by a river pouring itself into the sea by various mouths, is called a Delta, from its resemblance to the shape of the fourth letter (A) of the Greek alphabet. results from the velocity of the stream being so much diminished in its latter stage, that even a slight obstacle in the ground has power to change its course, and a number of channels are thus pro- duced. Another cause may be assigned for the division into branches of those rivers which, in tropical countries, peri- odically inundate the plains; the superflu- ous waters which, at those periods, spread over the country, find various outlets, which are afterwards rendered permanent by the deepening of the channels by each successive flood. In some of Uie sandy plains of the torrid zone, the rivers divide into branches, and, from the nature of the soil and the heat of the climate, they are absorbed and evaporated, and thus never reach the sea. (See the articles Amazons, Plata, Mississippi, Missouri, Lawrence, St., Danube, Rhine, Nile, Niger, Ganges, &c.) Rivers, Navigable, form one of the most important items of the productive ca- pacity of a countiy; and a view of the navigable rivers of all the different coun- tries, taken from good authorities, would be a most interesting document for the political economist, but would much ex- ceed the limits of the present work; so that we are obliged to confine ourselves to a brief sketch of the navigable rivers of North America. The canals have been treated of under the heads of Canal, and Inland Navigation. (For the rivers of other countries, see the respective articles.) The most natural way of treating the sub- ject would be according to the basins of Uie largest rivers. Mr. Darby, in his View of the United States (Philadelphia, 1828), gives an interesting account of these basins. North America empties its waters into the sea, through many rivers, the largest of which, on the eastern side, are the Mississippi and St Lawrence ; on the western, the Columbia or Oregon; and on the northern, Mackenzie's river. (For further information respecting the origin of these rivers, their connexion with oth- ers, and with lakes, see our article North America; for the Mississippi and its navi- gation, see Mississippi.) Its principal tributary stream is the Missouri, (q. v.) Owing to the secondary character of the country, the numerous branches of these rivers are generally navigable, and afford a passage from almost every part of the Western States and the vast regions at the base of the Rocky mountains (q. v.) to the gulf of Mexico and the ocean, at least during the season of high water, from the spring to the middle of summer. The current of Uie principal rivers is so rapid, RIVERS. 45 that although they are deep enough to admit vessels of considerable size, the navigation is chiefly earned on by means of steam-boats. The Arkansas river is the next branch to the Missouri in size. (See end of the article Arkansas.) The Canadian, a branch of the Arkansas, 1000 miles in length, is navigable 100 miles. The Red river is navigable 500 miles from its junction with the Mississippi. (See Red River.) The tributaries of the Mis- souri are usually blocked up at their mouths, after the floods in July, until the next spring, with mud brought down by the Missouri. The Platte (q. v.) is ford- able in almost every part, and navigable only for canoes made of skins. The Yel- lowstone (q. v.) is navigable through the greater part of its course. Other impor- tant branches of the Missouri are the Kansas (q. v.) and Osage (q. v.), navigable for boats 600 miles. The chief branches of the Mississippi above the Missouri are the Illinois (q. v.), River de Moines, Rock river, St. Peter's, and Wisconsin,, each of which may be considered as affording 400 to 500 miles of. navigation. The White river, 1300 miles long, joins the Mississippi 51 miles above the Arkansas, and is said to be navigable for boats 1200 miles. On the eastern side, the largest branch of the Mississippi-is the Ohio.(q.v.) Its branches are the Alleghany (q. v.), Mo- nongahela(q. v.), Muskingum, Scioto(q.v.),. Big Beaver, Hockhoching, (q. v.), Great Miami (q. v.), Wabash (q. v.). Great Ken- hawa (q. v.), Big Sandy, Kentucky (q. v:), Green river (q. v.), Cumberland (q. v.), and Tennesee. (q. v.) They are all navigable for several huudred miles. . Among the rivers emptying into Uie gulf of Mexico, are also the Appalachicola (q. v.), in Florida; Mo- bile (q. v.), formed by the junction of the Alabama (q. v.) and Tombigbee. (q. v.} The Cahawba falls into the Mobile. All are navigable for a considerable extent. Between Mobile bay and New Orleans, there is an interesting inland navigation through lake Ponchartrain (q. v.), the Ri- golets, lake Borgne (q. v.), Pass au Chre- tien, and Pass au Heron. This is formed by a chain of islands, and is not navigable for vessels drawing more than five feet. Pearl river joins the Rigolets. Its navi- gation is much impeded by shallows and timber. Sabine river, forming the eastern boundary of Texas, is navigable about 280 miles, but has only three feet water on the bar at its mouth. The Atchafa- laya, Teche and Courte, unite to form a river of great importance west of the Mis- sissippi. It flows into the bay of Atcha- falaya. The Atchafalaya is navigable for rafts. La Fourche, an outlet of the Mis- sissippi, admits vessels drawing four to five feet to within thirty miles of its efflux. (For the Rio del Norte, see Norte, Rio dd.) The Rio Huasaculco and Alvarado, both south-east of Vera Cruz, are calculated to facilitate the communication with Guati- mala. The St. Jago might form a com- munication to Port St. Bias or the Pacific. The river Atrato, which falls into the gulf of Darien, south-east of Panama, is united by a little canal, for boats in the rainy season, with Rio San Juan, a brook which empties into the Pacific. The Co- lorado, about 1000 miles long, empties into the gulf of California. (For lake Nicaragua, 120 miles long, 41 wide, see Nicaragua.) The Columbia or Oregon has three great tributaries, the Multnomah (q. v.), Lewis's river (q. v.), and Clarke's riv- er. Vessels of 300 tons may ascend to the mouth of the Multnomah, 125 miles, and sloops to the head of tide water, 60 miles farther. (For more information respect- ing this river, see the article on it: for Mackenzie's river, see the article.) Coppermine river is scarcely navigable by canoes near its opening into the Polar sea. Churchill river, which empties into Hudson's bay, but is connected by means of lakes with the river Athapescow, would form an invaluable communication, were the climate less rigorous. The Saska- shawin is formed by two considerable riv- ers that come from the foot of the western mountains, and falls into lake Winipeg. (q. v.) This lake receives the great riyer Assiniboins (q. v.), from the south side after the junction of that stream with Red river, and discharges itself into Hudson's bay by the Nelson and Severn rivers. (For the St. Lawrence, see Lawrence, St.) This river affords, even in winter, means of easy communication by sledges. The common route of fur traders, in their bark canoes, is from the St. Lawrence, through the Ottawa or Grand river, and thence by a short portage to lake Nipissing, and down the French river into lake Huron. From lake Huron they proceed, through the straits of St. Mary and lake Superior, to the Grand Portage, nine miles in length, which brings them to the great northern chain of lakes, beginning with the lake of the Woods, at the distance of 1100 miles from the place of their departure. Ottawa river flows into the St. Lawrence above Montreal. Its course is interrupted by rapids and falls; but fur traders overcome these difficulties with their canoes. St. John's flows through New Brunswick, 46 RIVERS—RIVOLI. and runs into the bay of Fundy. For boats it is navigable 200 miles ; for sloops of fifty tons, 80 miles. Its tributaries are the St. Francis (q. v.), Aroostook, Mada- wnska. As a navigable channel, it is superior to any north-east of the Hudson. The numerous rivers on the eastern de- clivity of" the Apalachian chain afford the advantages of a good inland navigation to most parts of the Atlantic states. In all those streams which flow through the alluvial region from the Mississippi to the Roanoke, the tide waters of the ocean terminate at some distance from the foot of the mountains, varying from 30 to 120 miles. From the Roanoke to the Hudson, they extend through the alluvial region to the base of the primitive hills; but in no rivers south of the Hudson do they pass beyond Uie alluvial region. As far as the tide flows, the streams are generally navi- gable for sloops. In passing from the hilly and primitive to the flat and alluvial region, the streams are almost uniformly precipitated over ledges of rocks, by rap- ids, which obstruct their navigation. In- deed, the line of alluvion marks the line of navigation from the sea, which passes through Milledgeville on the Altamaha, Augusta on the Savannah, Columbia and Camden on the Santee, Richmond on the James, Fredericksburg on the Rappahan- nock, Georgetown on the Potomac, and Trenton on the Delaware. (See the arti- cles on these rivers, and our article North America, division Geology of.) Above the rapids, navigation is performed entirely by boats propelled by oars or poles, or drawn up by ropes, or by means of the bushes growing on their banks. (For the Savan- nah river, see the article.) The rivers of South Carolina are navigable uearly through the alluvial region, and there are some good harbors at the*ir mouths. The coast of North Carolina is bordered with a range of low, sandy islands, enclosing a chain of sounds. Their entrances are generally obstructed by bars, which ves- sels of considerable size cannot pass. But the streams are navigable for sloops some distance into the interior. The Chesa- peake bay is, of itself, an inland sea of considerable size, and, with the nume- rous streams and inlets on its borders, forms an important channel to the ocean for a large extent of country, including the whole of Maryland and the eastern de- clivity of Virginia, and extending through the middle section of Pennsylvania, nearly to the small lakes of New York. (See Chesapeake, James River, Potomac, Susque- hannah. For the Delaware bay and river, see Delaware.) New Jersey has the Rari- tan (q. v.); and the Passaic (q. v.) and Hackinsack afford a short inland naviga- tion. The Hudson is the only river in the U. States where the tide passes through the alluvial, primitive and transition form- ations. It is navigable for ships to the city of Hudson, and sloops of considerable burden pass through all the formations, to the falls of the secondary country, above Troy, which is 165 miles from the ocean. (See Hudson.) In the rivers of the U. States east of the Hudson, the tide extends only a small distance, and the navigation is obstructed by the falls and rapids, which are common in primitive countries. The Connecticut is navigable for vessels of considerable size fifty miles, to Hartford. (See Connecticut.) The Merrimac (q. v.) of New Hampshire is much obstructed by rapids. The rivers of Maine are generally obstructed. The Penobscot (q. v.), the St. John's, already mentioned, and the western branch of the Kennebec (q. v.), afford a boat navigation nearly to their sources. The heads of these rivers ap- proach within no great distance of the waters of the St. Lawrence ; and the port- age from the head of the Kennebec to that of Chaudiere river is only five miles. The waters of the St. Lawrence or the great lakes havie two natural communica- tions with the branches of the Mississippi at particular seasons. The Fox river, which flows into the branch Of lake Michigan called Green Bay, rises near the Wisconsin branch of the Mississip- pi, and afterwards flows within a mile and a half of its channel, separated from it only by a short portage over a prairie. Rivoli ; a village in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, five leagues north- west of Verona, between lake Garda and the right bank of the Adige, near the imperial road leading from Trent to Ve- rona, with 535 inhabitants, famous for a bloody battle between Bonaparte and the Austrians, on Jan. 14 and 15,1797, which decided the fate of Italy. After the Aus- trian general Alvinzi had been forced back to Verona, Napoleon turned and followed general Provera, beat him on the 15th at La Favorite, and made 6000 pris- oners. On these two days, the French took above 20,000 prisoners and 46 cannons. Thus the fourth Austrian army in Italy was almost entirely destroyed. The fall of Mantua was a consequence. Massena (q. v.) distinguished himself greatly on this occasion, and Napoleon subsequently made him duke of Rivoli. Napoleon RIVOLI—ROADS. 47 gives a description of the battle in his Mimoires (t. iv, p. 331 et seq.) Rivoli, Duke of. (See Massinaf) Rix Dollar ; a silver coin in different countries on the continent, and of different values. (See Coins.) Rizzio, or Ricci, David; the son of a professor of music and dancing at Turin, where the subject of this article was born, in the earlier part of the sixteenth century. His musical abilities procured him notice at the court of Savoy, while his talents as a linguist caused him to be selected by the ambassador from the grand-duke to Mary queen of Scots, as a part of his suite. In 1564, he first made his appearance at Holy Rood house, where he soon became so great a favorite with the queen, that he was appointed her secretary for foreign languages. (See Mary Stuart.) The dis- tinction with which he was treated by his mistress, soon excited the envy of the no- bles, and the jealousy of Darrrley; the hatred of the former being increased as much by the religion as by the arrogant deportment of the new favorite, while the suspicions of the latter were excited by his address and accomplishments. A con- spiracy, with the king at its head, was formed for his destruction, and before he had enjoyed two years of court favor, the lord Ruthven, and others of his party, were introduced by Darnley into the queen's apartment, where they despatched Uie object of their revenge by fifty-six stabs, in the presence of his mistress, in 1566. Popular tradition assigns to Rizzio the amelioration of the Scottish style of music. His skill in the performance of the national melodies on his favorite instru- ment, the lute, tended not a little to their general improvement and popularity with Uie higher classes; but it is evident that the style of Scottish music was deter- mined long before the time of Mary ; and many of the aire which have been as- cribed to Rizzio are easily traced to more distant periods. Roads. Roads intended for the pas- sage of wheel carriages are made more level, and of harder materials, than the rest of the ground. In roads the travel on which does not authorize great expense, natural materials alone are employed, of which the best are hard gravel and very small stones. The surface of roads should be nearly flat, with gutters at the sides, to facilitate the running oft*of water. If the surface is made too convex, it throws the weight of Uie load unequally upon one wheel, and also that of the horses on one bide, whenever the carriage takes the side of the road. Hence drivers prefer to take the middle or top of the road, and, by pursuing the same track, occasion deep ruts. The prevention of ruts is best effected by flat and solid roads, and by the use of broad wheels. It would also be further effected if a greater variety could be introduced in the width of car- riages. Embankments at the sides, to keep the earth from sliding down, may be made by piling sods upon each other, like bricks, with the grassy surface at right angles with the surface of the bank. But stone walls are preferable for this purpose, when the material can be readily obtained. —Pavements. Pavements are stone cover- ings of the ground, chiefly employed in populous cities and the most frequented roads. Among us, they are madeof pebbles of a.roundish fonn, gathered from the sea- beach. They should consist of the hard- est kinds of stone, such as granite, sienite, &c. If flat stones are used, they require to be artificially roughened, to give secure foothold to horses. In Milan, and some other places, tracks for wheels are made of smooth stones, while the rest of the way is paved with small or rough stones. (See Pavements.) The advantage of a good pavement consists not only in its durability, but in the facility with which transportation on it is effected. Horses draw more easily on a pavement than on a common road, because no part of their power is lost in changing the form of the surface. The disadvantages of pavements consist in their noise, and in the wear which they occasion of the shoes of horses and tires of wheels. They should never be made of pebbles so iarge as to produce much jolting by the breadth of the interstices.*—McAdam Roads. The system of road-making which takes its name from Mr. McAdam combines the advantages of the pavement and gravel road. The McAdam roads are made en- tirely of hard stones, such as granite, flint, &c, broken up with hammers into small pieces, not exceeding an inch in diameter. These fragments are spread upon the ground to the depth of from six to ten inches. At first the roads thus made are heavy and laborious to pass, but in time the stones become consolidated, and form a mass of great hardness, smoothness arid * Mr. Telford has constructed, in England, a kind of paved road, in which the foundation con- sists of a pavement of rough stones and frag- ments, having their points upward. These are covered with very small stone fragments and gravel, for the depth of four inches, trie whole of which, when rammed down and consolidated, forms a hard, smooth and durable road. 48 ROADS—ROBESPIERRE. permanency. The stones become partly pulverized by the action of carriage wheels, and partly imbedded in the earth beneath them. The consolidation seems to be owing to Uie angular shape of the frag- ments, which prevents them from rolling in their beds, after the interstices between them are filled. Mr. McAdam advises that no other material should be added to the broken stones, apparently with a view to prevent the use of clay and chalk, which abound in England. It appears, however, that a little clean gravel spread upon the stones, causes them to consoli- date more quickly, and has the good effect of excluding the light street-dirt, which otherwise never fails to become in- corporated, in large quantities, among the stones. Roanoke, a river of North Carolina, is formed by Uie union of the Staunton and Dan, the former of which rises in Vir- ginia, and the latter in North Carolina. It flows into Albemarle sound, lat 35° 58' N., and is navigable for vessels of consid- erable burden 40 or 50 miles, for large boats, 70 miles, and for boats of five tons, 270 miles. Improvements have been made, by constructing canals around the falls, and opening a water communica- tion between Norfolk and the interior of North Carolina. The soil on the borders of Uie Roanoke is very productive. Roasting Jack. (See Jack.) Robbert ; a felonious and forcible taking away another man's goods or money from his person, presence or es- tate, by such acts as put him in fear, &c. The previous putting in fear is the crite- rion which distinguishes robbery from other larcenies; yet this does not imply any great degree of affright in the person robbed: it is sufficient that so much force or threatening, by word or gesture, is used, as might create an apprehension of danger, so as to lead a man to part with his property against his consent If a man be knocked down without previous warning, and stripped of his property while senseless, though, strictly speaking, he cannot be said to be put in fear, yet this is undoubtedly a robbery; or if a person with a sword drawn beg alms, and money is given him through apprehen- sion of violence, this is a robbery. If a thief, having once taken a purse, returns it, still it is a robbery. Highway robbery, or the forcible taking of property from travellers, in many countries, is a capital offence, and, in all civilized countries, is severely punished. Robert I. (See Bruce, Robert.) Robertson, William,the celebrated his- torian, was born at Borthwick, ScoUand, where his father was minister, in 1721. In 1733, his father removed to Edinburgh, as minister of the Grey Friars in that city. After the completion of his course in the theological class of Edinburgh, Robertson obtained a license to preach, in 1741, and, in 1743, was presented to the living of Gladsmuir, in East Lothian. He soon began to be distinguished by his eloquence and good taste as a preacher, and became known as a powerful speaker in the general assembly of the church of Scotland, in which he obtained an as- cendency by his eloquence and great tal- ents for public business, which, exerted on the side of authority, gave him, for a long time, the lead in the ecclesiastical politics of Scotland. His History of Scotland, during the Reigns of Queen Mary and King James VI, appeared in 1759 (2 vols., 4to.), and was received with general applause. In this praise no one more heartily concurred than Hume, between whom and doctor Robertson, notwithstanding religious and political differences, an intimate friendship was maintained through life. The distinction acquired by this work, which reached a fourteenth edition before his death, led to the author's nomination to be chaplain of Stirling castle in 1759, of the king's chap- lains in 1761, and principal of the univer- sity of Edinburgh in 1762. Two years after-, he was made historiographer royal of Scotland, with a salary of £200 per annum. As head of a flourishing seat of education, he was attentive to all his duties, and cooperated with the great- est liberality in all the improvements which have raised Edinburgh to its pres- ent celebrity. His History of the Reign of Charles V appeared in 1769 (3 vols., 4to.), and his History of America in 1777 (2 vols., 4to.). His latest work appeared in 1791, under the title of an Historical Dis- quisition concerning the Knowledge which the Ancients had of India, and the Progress of Trade with that Country prior to the Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope (4to.). Doctor Robertson died in 1793. As a historian, he is admired for skilful and luminous arrangement, distinctness of narrative, and highly graphical description. His style is pure, dignified, and perspicu- ous. (See the Account of his Life and Writings by Dugald Stewart.) Robespierre, Maximilian Isidore, was born at Arras, in Freneh Flanders, in 1759, and was Uie eldest son of an advo- cate of the superior council of Artois. ROBESPIERRE. 49 His father dying when he was young, he was indebted for his education to the bishop of Arras, who gave him an exhi- bition at the college of Louis le Grand, at Paris. He completed his youthful stud- ies in a manner creditable to his talents and application, and, at this period, is said to have derived an attachment to re- publicanism from the lessons of one of his tutors, M. Herivaux, who was an en- thusiastic admirer of the heroes of an- cient Greece and Rome. In 1775, when Louis XVI, after his accession to the crown, made his entry into Paris, Robes- pierre was deputed by his fellow students to present their homage to the new sove- reign. Having adopted Uie law as a pro- fession, he became an advocate of the council of Artois. Previously to the rev- olution, he was advantageously known, lioth on account of his professional abili- ties, and the liberal and enlightened spirit which he exhibited in his conduct and writings. In 1789, he was elected a deputy from the tiers itat of the prov- ince of Artois to Uie states-general. In that assembly, he advocated the liberty of the press, and other popular topics of dis- cussion ; but his eloquence did not attract much attention, and he attached himself, in the first instance, so closely to Mira- beau, that he acquired the epithet of Le Singe de Mirabeau. At this time, how- ever, he frequented the Jacobin assem- blies and clubs of the lower orders, over whom he gained an ascendency, of which he afterwards availed himself to make his way to despotic power. In January, 1791, he spoke repeatedly on criminal legisla- tion; and he subsequently displayed so much moderation in discussions relative to Uie emigrants and the priests, as led to suspicions Uiat he was actuated by some secret motives. In a speech on the 30Ui of May, he recommended the abolition of capital punishments. He is said to have been much alarmed at the flight of the king from Paris, and equally rejoiced at his forced retura from Varennes; and, from that period, he seems to have used all his influence in overturning the mon- archy. His projects now gradually lie- came developed; and, at the tumultuary meeting in Uie Champ de Mars, July 17, an altar, with the inscription, A celui qui a bien meriti de la Patrie, and below it tin. name of Robespierre, testified his high favor with the people. The closing of l he constituent assembly, Sept. 30, afford- ed him another triumph, when the mob 1-resented bun with a garland of oak eaves, and, taking the horses from his VOL. xi. 5 carriage, drew him through Uie streets, exclaiming, "Behold the friend of the people, the great defender of liberty!" It does not appear that he actively interfered in the riot of* Aug. 10, 1792, or in the massacres which took place in the prisons of Paris, in the beginning of September; but he was connected with Marat and Danton, of whose crimes, and those of < their associates, he had sufficient address j* to reap the fruits, and, like other tyrants, ' at length made his instruments his vic- tims. After the execution of the king, in promoting which the Brissotins, or Giron- dists (q. v.), cooperated with Robespierre and the Jacobins (q. v.), the former were sacrificed to the ascendency of Uie latter. The Hebertists (see Hibert), who had join- ed hi this work of destruction, were the next victims to the jealousy of the dicta- tor, who had no sooner sent them to the scaffold, with the assistance of Danton and his friends, than he adopted meas- ures for the ruin of that popular dema- gogue, whom he dreaded as his most dangerous rival. His next measure was to throw the imputation of atheism and irreligion on those whom he had destroy- ed, and to establish a species of religious worship. Barrere, by his direction, pro- mulgated his new system of worship, and, June 8, 1794, Robespiene in person cele- brated what he termed " the feast of the Supreme Being." His power seemed now to be completely established, and the reign of terror was at its height; but his cruel tyranny and mysterious denuncia- tions had alarmed many of those who had been most intimately connected with him, and a conspiracy was formed for his de- struction. (See Terrorism.) At this criti- cal juncture, far from acting with the de- cision which previously marked his con- duct, he waited for the attack of his ene- mies, and secluded himself from the pub- lic for more than a month, during which period he is said to have been employed in preparing an elaborate defence of liis conduct, to be delivered in the national convention, where he made his appear- ance for that purpose July 26 (8th Ther- * midor), 1794. He was indirectly attack- ed by Bourdon de l'Oisc; after which Vadier, Carnbon, Billaud-Varennes, and several other members, spoke against him. He now perceived the extent of* his dan- ger; and the ensuing night was passed in consultation with St. Just, and others of his most intimate partisans; but their de- liberations led to no decisive results. The next day, when they appeared in the convention, Tallien and Billaud openly 50 ROBESPIERRE—ROBIN. accused Robespierre of despotism. A tumult ensued, and, amidst cries of A bas le tyran ! he in vain endeavored to obtain a hearing. At length a decree of arrest was carried against him ; and his brother, and his friends St. Just, Couthon, and Le Ba«, were included in it. Robespierre was sent to the Luxembourg prison ; but, in the night, he was set free by the keep- er, and was conducted to the hall of the commune of Paris, where Henriot, com- mander of the national guard, Fleuriot, the mayor of Paris, and others of his crea- tures, had assembled forces for his de- fence. This w*as the critical moment; but neither Henriot, nor Robespiene him- self, had spirit sufficient to head the mob and lead it against the convention. While they deliberated, their opponents proceed- ed to action. Barras and others having been appointed commissioners to direct the armed foice of the metropolis, they, without difficulty, secured the persons of the fallen tyrant and his associates, who were all guillotined the next day, July 28, 1794. Robespierre endeavored in vain to escape a public execution, by shooting himself with a pistol at the moment of his seizure ; but he only fractured his lower jaw, and thus subjected himself to pro- tracted suffering, which excited no com- passion. Of the wretches who disgraced the revolution, Robespierre was the most notorious, but not the most infamous. He did not court the dregs of the people, like Marat; he amassed no money. He was politically insane, and was not, moreover, Uie author of all the enormities with which he has been charged. Among his colleagues of the committees, and espe- cially those who were sent into the depart- ments, many exercised cruelties which far exceeded their instructions. Those who contributed most to his overthrow, and were loudest in their accusations against him, had profited by his crimes, in which they were deeply involved; and, like the scape-goat of the Jews, he was charged with the sins of the whole nation, or rath- er of the Jacobin government. In the Memorial from St. Helena, Napoleon is stated to have said that Robespierre dis- played in his conduct more extensive and enlightened views than have been gener- ally ascribed to him ; and that he intend- ed to reestablish order, after he had over- turned the contending factions; but, not being powerful euough to arrest the prog- ress of the revolution, he suffered himself to be carried away by the torrent, as was the ease with all before Napoleon himself, who engaged in a similar attempt. As a proof of this, the emperor asserted that, when with the army at Nice, he had seen in the hands of the brother of Maximilian Robespierre letters, in which he expressed an intention to put an end to the reign of ten*or. On the whole, it is reasonable to conclude that something like princi- ple and genuine enthusiasm guided this hateful and unhappy man in the first in- stance ; but, wholly unable to govern the elements of wild disorder afloat around him, the characteristic cruelty of perplexed cowardice at length became his only in- strument, either of action or self-defence. However stimulated, his career exhib- its one of the most signal instances of cru- elty upon record. Among the published works of Robespiene are, Plaidoyer pour le Sieur Vissery, in favor of the right of setting up electrical conductors against lightning (1783, 8vo.); Discours couronne par la Soc. Roy. de Metz sur les Peines infamantes (1785, 8vo.); Eloge de Gresset, in which the author displays an attach- ment to monarchical government and re- ligious institutions; Eloge de Pris. Dupa- ty; and a political journal, called Le Di- fenseur de la Constitution. The Mimoires of Riouffe, and the Papiers trouvis chez Robespierre, &c, contain much curious information concerning him.* Robin, American, or Migratins Thrush (turdus migratorius, Lin.); spe- cific character, dark ash-color; beneath rufous ; head and tail black; the two ex- terior feathers of the latter white at the inner tip. The robin is found in summer throughout North America, from the des- olate regions of Hudson's bay, in the fifty-third degree, to the table-land of Mexico. These birds retire from higher latitudes only as their food begins to fail, and they make their appearance in Mas- sachusetts, feeding on winter berries, till driven to the south by inundating snows. At this season, they are numerous hi the Southern States. Even in the vicinity of Boston, flocks of robins are sometimes seen assembling round the open springs in the depth of winter. Towards the close of January, the robin, in South Carolhia, still tunes his song, and about the second week of March begins to ap- pear hi the Middle States. By the 10th of that month, they may also be heard in Massachusetts. Their nests are often seen on the horizontal branch of an apple- tree, or in a bush or tree in the woods, and so large as seldom to be wholly con- cealed. The eggs, about five, are of a * The sister of Robespierre still enjoys a pen- sion from the French government. ROBIN—ROBINSON CRUSOE. 51 bluish-green, and without spots. To avoid the attacks of the cuckoo, the robin, says Mr. Nuttall (see his Ornithology, from which these remarks are taken), has been known to build his nest within a few yards of the blacksmith's anvil, and even in the stern timbers of an unfinished vessel, in which men were constantly at work, and to take the materials of his nest from the pine shavings on the car- penter's bench. They raise several broods in a season. They seem content in a cage, sing well, and readily learn lively parts of tunes, and have even been taught "Old Hundred." They also, in this situa- tion, imitate the notes of most of the birds about them. Robin Goodfellow. (See Browny.) Robin Hood. (See Hood, Robin.) Robinia. (See Locust.) Robinson, John, minister of the Eng- lish church in Holland, to which the first settlers of New England belor.ged, was born in Great Britain, in 1575, and edu- cated at Cambridge. He for some time held a benefice in the established church, but, hi 1602, became pastor of a dissent- ing congregation in the north of England, and, in consequence of persecution, went with them to Holland in 1608. After a short residence at Amsterdam, they re- moved to Leyden. His talents and repu- tation were such, that he held a public disputation with Episcopius in 1613. A part of his church emigrated to Plymouth in 1620, and it was his intention to follow them with the remainder; but his sudden death, March 1,1625, prevented. He was distinguished for learning, liberality and piety. Robinson, Robert, an eminent dissent- ing divine, was born in Norfolk, in 1735, and educated at a grammar-school in his native county; but, owing to the loss of his father, and the humble circumstances of his mother, he was apprenticed, at the age of fourteen, to a hair-dresser in Lon- don. Having attached himself to George Whitefield, he became a preacher among the Calvinistic Methodists, but subse- quently relinquished his connexion with the Methodists, and established an inde- pendent congregation at Norwich, over which he presided. He was afterwards chosen pastor to a small Anabaptist con- gregation at Cambridge, and retained this situation during the remainder of his life. In 1773, he removed to Chesterton, near Cambridge, where he engaged in trade as a farmer, coni-dealer and coal-mer- chant His learning and abilities procur- ed him much respect from the members of the university, and other persons be- longing to the established church ; and he received offers of promotion if he would become a conformist, which he declined. In 1774, he published a translation of the sermons of Saurin, with memoirs of Uie reformation in France, and the life of Saurin. In 1776, was published his Plea for the Divinity of Jesus Christ, &c. Among his other works are his Plan of Lectures on Non-conformity; the General Doctrine of Toleration; Slavery incon- sistent with Christianity; and Sixteen Discourses, which had been delivered extempore to illiterate audiences in the vicinity of Cambridge. These were very liberal on doctrinal points; and his ten- dency to Unitarian principles soon be- came known, although he still continued his ministerial labors at Cambridge. He died in 1790, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. Robinson, Frederic. (See Goderich, Lord.) Robinson Crusoe. This celebrated romance, written by the well-known De- foe (q. v.), was published in 1719, under the title of the Life and surprising Adven- tures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mari- ner, who lived eight and twenty Years all alone, &c, written by himself. The favorable reception this attempt met with induced the author to pursue the subjec:, and, a few months later, appeared the Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, being the second and last Part of his Life, &c. It was with difficulty that the au- thor could at first get any of the trade to undertake the publication of this work, which has since appeared under an al- most endless variety of forms, and in al- most all languages, and has been the de- light of childhood no less than the amuse- ment of those of mature years. " Was there ever any thing written by mere man," says doctor Johnson, " that was wished longer by its readers, excepting Don Quixote, Robinson Crusoe, and the Pilgrim's Progress?" "There is one book," says Rousseau, " which shall long form the whole library of Emile, and which shall preserve a high rank to Uie last: it is not Aristotle, nor Pliny, nor Buffon: it is Robinson Crusoe." Its fine sentiments, its pure morality, its practical good sense, and its religious character, united with its simplicity*, truth of descrip- tion, and natural and lively delineations of the passions, combine to give it the charm of fiction and the air and weight of reality. A third part, mtended as a vehicle for fuller moral and religious in- struction, appeared under the title Serious 52 ROBINSON CRUSOE—ROCHAMBEAU. Reflections during the Life and surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, by him- self (1722). The work was immediately translated into French, and, soon after, into other languages; and various imita- tions appeared, both in English and in other languages. The rifacimento of Campe, in German, is much used on the continent (translated into Spanish, French, Italian, Lathi, &c), and has been turned into English. The best English editions are those of Chalmers, with a life of Defoe (1790, 2 vols., 8vo.); the ac- ademic edition of Mawman (1815), with geographical and nautical notes ; and the edition of Cadell and Davies (1820, 2 vols.), with engravings by Heath. The story of Defoe's fraudulently using the papers of a Scotch mariner, by the name of Selkirk, in the composition of his book, is without foundation. He took the hint, doubtless, from Selkirk's adventures, as Shakspeare borrowed Hamlet, Macbeth, or Romeo and Juliet, from Scotch and Danish chronicles or Italian ballads. The real story of Selkirk is as follows: He was a Scottish sailor, who passed some years alone on the island of Juan Fernan- dez, and was a native of Largo, in Fife- shire. In 1703, he sailed as master in the Cinque Ports privateer, under captain Stradling. In consequence of some dif- ference wiUi his commander, he went ashore at Juan Fernandez, and remained in his solitude till he was taken away by captain Woods Rogers, in January, 1709. Some account of his residence was pub- lished by Steele in the Englishman (No. 26), and in Rogers's Voyage round the World (1712); but there is no reason to believe that he had any papers, or journal of any sort.—See Howell's Life and Ad- ventures of Alexander Sdkirk (Edinburgh, 1829); and Wilson's Life of Defoe (3 vols., 8vo., 1830). Rob-Roy (that is, Robert the Red); a celebrated Highland chief, whose true name was Robert Macgregor, but who assumed that of Campbell, on account of the outlawry of the clan Macgregor by the Scotch parliament, in 1662. He was born about 1660. His mother was a Campbell of Glenlyon, and his wife, Hel- en, a Campbell of Glenfalloch. Like other Highland gentlemen, Rob-Roy was a drover previous to the rebellion of 1715, in which he joined the adherents of the pretender. (See Stuart, James Edward.) On Uie suppression of the rebellion, the duke of Montrose, with whom Rob-Roy had previously had a quarrel, took the opportunity to deprive him of his estates; and the latter began to indemnify him- self by a war of reprisals uj-on the prop- erty of the duke. An English garrisoH was stationed at Inversnaid, near Aber- foyle, the clachan (residence) of Rob-Roy; but his activity and courage saved him from the hands of his enemies, from whom he continued for some time to levy black-mail. He died in 1743. (See Highlands.) His fortunes and those of his clan form the subjects of Rob-Roy and the Legend of Montrose. Rocambole (allium scorodoprasum); a species of onion, having bulbs resembling those of the garlic; but the cloves are smaller. It is cultivated for the same purposes, and is considered as having a more delicate flavor. Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, cointe de, marshal of France, bom at Vendome, in 1725, entered the army at the age of sixteen, and served in Germany under marshal Broglio. In 1746, he became aid-de-camp to Louis Philip, duke of Orleans; and afterwards, obtaining the command of the regiment of La Marche, distinguished himself at the battle of Lafeldt, where he was wounded; obtained fresh laurels at Creveldt, Minden, Corbach and Clostercamp; and, having been made lieutenant-general, was, in 1780, sent with an army of 6000 men to the assistance of the U. States of Ameri- ca. Having embarked in Rhode Island, he acted in concert with Washington, first against Clinton, in New York, and then against Cornwallis, rendering important services at the siege of Yorktown (q. v.), which were rewarded by a present of two cannons taken from lord Corn- wallis. After the revolution, Rocham- beau was raised to the rank of a marshal by Louis XVI, and he was appointed to the command of the army of the north. He was soon superseded by more active officers, and, being calumniated by Uie popular journalists, he addressed to the legislative assembly a vindication of his conduct. A decree of approbation was consequently passed in May, 1792, and he reined to his estate, near Vendome, with a determination to interfere no more with public affairs. He was subsequently ar- rested, and narrowly escaped suffering death under the tyranny of Robespierre. In 1803, he was presented to Bonaparte, who, in the year following, gave him a pension, and the cross of grand officer of the legion of honor. His death took place in 1807. His Mimoires were pub- lished in 1809 (8vo.). Robin's Voyage dans I'Amirique Septentrionalc (1782) con- ROCHAMBEAU—ROCHESTER. 53 tains some important details concerning Rochambeau's campaign in the United States. Rociiechouart. (See Montespan.) Rochefoucauld, Francois, duke de la, prince of Marsillac, a wit and nobleman of the reign of Louis XIV, was born in 1613. He distinguished himself as Uie most brilliant nobleman about the court, and by his share in the good graces of the celebrated duchess of Longueville, was involved in the civil war of the Fronde. He signalized his courage at the battle of St. Antoine in Paris, and received a shot which for some time deprived him of sight At a more advanced period, his house was the resort of the best company at Paris, including Boileau, Racine, and the mesdames Sevigne and La Fayette. He died in 1680, in his sixty-eighth year. This nobleman wrote Mimoires de la Rigence d'Anne d'Autriche (2 vols., 12mo., 1713), a spirited and faithful representation of that period; but he is chiefly famous for a work, entitled Rifiexions et Maximes, founded on the principle that self-love is the foundation of all our actions. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Francois Alexandre Frederic, duke de la, born in 1747, was a member of the constituent assembly in 1789, after the dissolution of which he took the military command at Rouen, in his capacity of lieutenant-gen- eral (1792). After the 10th of August, the duke de Liancourt, as he was then styled, left France,and resided for eighteen months in England. He then travelled through the U. States, whence he returned in 1798, and, after the 18th Brumaire, return- ed to France, where he devoted himself to the promotion of the useful arts and to benevolent offices. It was through his in- fluence that vaccination was introduced into France. After Uie restoration, he was created a peer, but, on account of the lib- erality of his sentiments, was, in 1823 and 1824, excluded from the council of state, and removed from the several boards of which he was a member; among others, of that for the encouragement of vaccina- tion. This venerable philanthropist and patriot, whose last years were persecuted by the intemperate zeal of political bigotry, died at Paris, in 1827, at the age of eighty- one years. His fife, by his son, was pub- lished the same year. His principal work is his Voyage dans les Etats-Unis (8 vols., 8vo.). Rochejaquelein, Henri de la, the hero of Vendue, bom atChatillon, in Poitou, in 1772. The peasants of the neighborhood having risen in the royal cause (1792), he 5* placed himself at their head, and led them against the republican troops, after a short harangue ;—Allans chercher I'ennemi; sije recule, tuez-moi; si j'avance, suivez-moi ; sije meurs, vengez-moi. After gaining six- teen victories in ten months, he fell, at the age of twenty-two years (March 4,1794), in a single combat with one of the repub- lican soldiers. Marie Louise, marchioness de la Rochejaquelein, wife of his elder brother, who fell in Vendee in 1815, has written Memoirs of the War in the Ven- dee. Rochelle, La; a commercial city of France, in the department of the Lower Charente, on the Atlantic ocean, 100 miles north-west of Bordeaux; lat. 46° 9' N.; Ion. 1° 9' W.; population, 17,500. It is well built, and strongly fortified (by Vau- ban), and contains many handsome squares and fountains. The harbor is safe and commodious, but is accessible for large vessels only at high water. The Place d'armes, or du chateau, is one of the finest in France. Glass, stone-ware and refined sugar are the principal articles manufac- tured, and it has a considerable com- merce. Rochelle is chiefly remarkable as the stronghold of the French Protestants (see Huguenots) in the times of the house of Valois, and of the first Bourbons. In 1627, it was besieged by Richelieu (q. v.), and was reduced by famine, after a heroic defence, in which 15,000 of the besieged perished. A great number of the inhab- itants fled to North America. Rochelle Salt. (See Tartaric Acid.) Rochester, John Wilmot, earl of, a witty and profligate nobleman of the court of Charles II, was born in 1648, and, on Uie death of his father, succeeded him in his titles and estates, the latter of which his extravagance soon dissipated. Having gone through the usual course of academ- ical study at Oxford, he made a tour through France and Italy, and then served in the fleet under lord Sandwich. On his return to England, he rushed into the full vortex of dissipation, and became the per- sonal friend and favorite of his sovereign, who is said to have encouraged aud shared many of his exploits. The levity of his disposition frequently brought him into disgrace, and he was more than once forbidden the royal presence: his com- panionable qualities, however, which made him necessary to the amusement of his master, prevented his occasional exile from being ever of long continuance. His constitution at length gave way uude.* such excesses; and, at the age of thirty, he was visited with all the debility of . •}. 54 ROCHESTER. age. He lingered for some time in this condition, and died, professing great peni- tence for his misspent life, July 26, 1680. His poetical works, some of which are of the most disgusting description, have been frequently printed. A few of his poems are of a better description, especially his poem on Nothing, and his lampoon upon sir Carr Scroope, which exhibit some vigor, with careless versification. His satire on Man is little more than a transla- tion from Boileau. (See his Life by bishop Burnet, and Johnson's Lives of the Poets.) Rochester, in the western part of New York; lat 43° 15' north ; Ion. 77° 51' west, on both sides of Genesee river; seven miles from lake Ontario; two from steam-boat navigation; 217 west of Albany; 75 east of Buffalo ;— shortest mail routes, and, by canal, 269 west of Albany; 94 east of Buffalo.— Corporate limits. Two square miles, in- cluding parts of the towns of Gates and Brighton. Population, with suburbs, in 1815, 331; in 1820, 1502; in 1825, 4274; in 1826, 7669; in 18*28, 10,818 ; in 1832, 12,000 souls, chiefly from New England. The public buildings are a court-house, gaol, two markets, ten churches, and one high-school edifice.—Public works. Canal aqueduct of stone, 804 feet long, on eleven arches, iron railed ; three mill- dams with side courses; three bridges over the river, and fourteen over the canal; three miles of stone sewers under the streets, of three by one and a half feet in the clear, in some of which, water flows from the canal, affording,, at suitable points, reservoirs for fire-engines; pebble stone pavements on several streets; about ten miles of brick and stone flagging upon side-walks; about sixty public streets and twenty public alleys, the prin- cipal ones lighted at public expense; and harbor-piers are constructing by the U. States.—The religious societies are twelve, and there are seventeen benevolent socie- ties.—The literary institutions are the Franklin institute, the Rochester Athe- naeum ; the Rochester institute for gene- ral education ; the Rochester institute for practical education; two high schools; two public charity infant schools ; two seminaries for young ladies ; several dis- trict schools, and many private schools and instructers in foreign languages and in gymnastics.—The moneyed incorpora- tions are—the bank of Rochester, capital $250,000 ; the bank of Monroe, capital $300,000; the Rochester savings bank.— The newspapers, one daily, and five week- ly.—The post-office receipts, annually, are exceeded in amount in the state of New York only by those of New York and Albany ; and the canal toll-office receipts, only by those of Albany.—The manufac- tories are sixteen flour mills (thirteea stone and three wood), containing sixty- eight runs of stone, capable of making 350,000 barrels per annum, though actual- ly having made, in 1831, only 252,000, shipped to New York and Montreal ; four woollen factories; two cotton; three marble; one pail and tub; one shoe-last; two tobacco ; one nail; three scythe, axe and edge-tool; six tin and sheet iron ; three soap and candle; three morocco; two plough ; two comb; one looking- glass; one window sash ; one barrel; two stone and earthen ware ; one starch ; onn glove factory and three clothieries ; one brass foundery ; seven machine shops ; three gunsmith; two iron turners; two braziers ; four chairmakers; six cabinet ; four hatters; six saddlers; fifteen coopers; seventeen blacksmiths; six goldsmiths; three coppersmiths' shops.—Canal com- merce. Six lines of canal craft, numbering 160 boats, of forty tons each, towed by 800 horses, built, equipped and owned principally at this place, make it the scat of the transportation business, boat-build- ing, and trades connected with it, giving employment to five extensive boat-building establishments, of between twenty and forty men each, besides joiners, smiths, &c. The superior white oak and pine lum- ber here, with its central location at the turning point of water conveyance between the west, New York and Montreal, confer these peculiar advantages.—Lake trade. At the port of Genesee, the outlet of the foreign trade, and the entrepot of Roches- ter, the aggregate tonnage, entering and clearing, both domestic and foreign, in 1831, amounted to 19,868 tons; value of exports in the same period, $234,792,37; of imports, $1655,63, as appears from the collector's returns. Several weekly pack- ets ply between it and the Canadian ports, and three steam-boats. There are more than one hundred vessels, of all descrip- tions, on the lake, and about fifteen steam- boats.—River. The river Genesee is nav- igable fifty miles, and, at high water, ninety miles above Rochester, bringing to it the produce of a fertile south and south-west countiy, of about 2000 square miles in extent It passes rapidly through the vil- lage, and is there walled on each side with hammer-dressed stone, a distance of about three fourths of a mile, to the height of from ten to twenty feet, according to the depth and inequalities of the base. From ROCHESTER—ROCROY. 55 the village towards the lake, in the course of two miles, the river descends over falls ef 10, 20, 96 and 104 feet, and, at low water, flows in the quantity of 20,000 cubic feet per minute, equal to the power of 12,800 horses, or 640 steam-engines of twenty horse power each. The natural advantages of Rochester, in the fertility of its interior and immense water power, with water communications in every direction, make it the commercial emporium of Western New York. Rock Salt. (See Salt.) Rocket (eruca sativa, or the brassica eruca of Linnaeus); a cruciferous plant, allied to the turnip and cabbage, growing wild in many parts of Europe. It has a strong, disagreeable odor, an acrid and pungent taste, but is, notwithstanding, much esteemed by some, and especially by the Italians, who use it in their salads. Its medicinal properties are antiscorbutic, and very stimulant. The stem is about a foot and a half high, rough, with soft hairs, and bearing long, pinnated leaves; the flowers are whitish or pale yellow, with violet veins, and are disposed in racemes. This plant is almost unknown in the U. States. The term rocket is also applied to the different species of hesperis—crucif- erous plants with purple flowers, often cultivated for ornament in gardens. Rocket, Sky. (See Pyrotcchny.) Rockets, Congreve. (See Congreve, Sir William.) Rockingham (Charles Watson Went- worth), marquis of, born in 1730, succeed- ed his father in his titles and estates in 1750, and, in 1765, became first lord of the treasury (prime minister). American affairs formed, at that time, a leading sub- ject of discussion ; and Rockingham took the middle way of repealing the stamp- act, and declar'vig the right of Great Brit- ain to tax the colonies. He was there- fore deserted by some of his supporters (among otiiers, by Chatham), and retired from the ministry in 1766. He afterwards acted in concert with Chatham, in oppo- sition to Uie North ministry, on the fall of which, in 1782, he was again placed at the head of the treasury, but died hi the same year, and was succeeded by lord Shelburne. (See Lansdowne.) Rocks. .(See Geology.) Rocky Mountains, in the western part of North America, extend from lat. about 70° north to Mexico,where the chain is con- tinued by the Cordilleras. Their distance from the Pacific ocean is about the same as that of Uie Alleghanies from the Atlan- tic ; but the extent, and breadUi, and height of the Rocky mountains are much greater than Uiose of the Alleghanies. They are of decidedly primitive forma- tion ; but they have not been so well ex- plored as to enable us to give any scien- tific statements in relation to them. In latitude 47°, they are so elevated as to be covered with ice and snow in July. Some of the peaks are supposed to be twelve or thirteen thousand feet high, and the range generally is considerably higher than any other in North America, except that of the Cordilleras. The numerous peaks are not named, and have not been measured. We know not with certainty that any of them are volcanic. The trappers, who are almost Uie only white people that visit them, frequently relate that they have heard explosions, which were supposed to be from volcanoes. Pumice stones, of a reddish color, and remarkably perfect, frequently descend the Missouri. These are said by some to be formed from burn- ing coal-mines; but it is more probable that they proceed from volcanoes. These mountains generally appear black, rugged, and precipitous, though their aspect is not uniform.- The great rivers that are dis- charged from their eastern and western declivities wind far among the mountains, the Arkansas on the east, and the Oregon, or Columbia, on the west, more Uian a hundred leagues, before they escape to the plains. In following the beds of such streams, travellers pass through the range without any considerable ascent or ob- struction. Following the Platte, which is one of the principal southern branches of the Missouri, the traveller finds a road even to lake Buenaventura, on the Pacific plains, that needs little labor to adapt it to the passage of horses and wagons. Such is the testimony of numerous traders, who cannot be supposed to be deceived, nor to intend deception. The southern part of this range is called the Masserne moun- tains. They give rise to the Rio Colora- do, which flows into Uie Pacific, Uie Rio del Norte of Mexico, Uie Yellowstone of the Missouri, and the Arkansas and Red, which flow into the Mississippi. A single peak of this range is seen, as a landmark, for an immense distance on the plains of Arkansas and Texas. This is called mount Pike, and has been various- ly estimated at from seven to ten thou- sand feet in height. Many accounts have been given of* Uie appearance of silver and other metals in the Rocky mountains, but we have not yet been favored with any important specimens. Rocroy ; a town of France, 15 miles 56 ROCROY—RODN E Y. north-west of Mezieres, 110 north-east of Paris, celebrated for the victory gained by the duke d'Enghien (afterwards the great Condi) over the Spaniards, who were be- sieging the city, May 19,1643. (See Con- di.) Rode, Pien*e, one of the greatest living violin players, was bom at Bordeaux, in 1774, and is a pupil of Viotti. In 1801, he was made a professor in the conserva- tory of Paris. In 1802, Napoleon ap- pointed him first violinist and master of his chapel; but he did not remain long in this office. In 1803, he made his second journey to Germany ; in 1804, the empe- ror Alexander gave him an appointment at St Petersburg; in 1809, he returned to France ; and, in 1812, lived for some time in Berlin. He now lives in France. Much to the regret of the lovers of mu- sic, his fortune prevents him from per- forming in public. Rodney, Caesar, a signer of the Decla- ration of Independence, was bom at Do- ver, Delaware, about the year 1730. His father came over to this countiy with Wil- liam Penn, and, after a short residence in Philadelphia, settled in Kent, a* county upon Uie Delaware. His eldest son, the subject of this sketch, inherited from him •i large landed estate, in consequence of Uie system of entail then in use. At the age of twenty-eight years, Caesar Rodney was appointed high-sheriff, and, on the expiration of his term of service, was created a justice of the peace, and a judge of the lower courts. In 1762, and per- hajis even earlier, he represented his county in the provincial legislature, by which, in 1765, he was sent, in conjunc- tion with Mr. M'Kean and Mr. Kollock, to the congress that met at New York for the purpose of consulting upon the meas- ures to be adopted in consequence of the stamp act, and other oppressive acts of the British government. In 1769, he was elected speaker of the house of represent- atives, and continued to occupy the chair for several years. About the same time, he was appointed chairman of the com- mittee of correspondence with the other colonies; and when, in 1774, the com- bined efforts of the various committees had brought about the measure of a gen- eral congress, he was chosen one of the delegates to it from his native province. He was re-elected in the following year, and also made a brigadier-general in the colony. At the time when the question of independence was brought before con- gress, Mr. Rodney was on a tour through the southern part of Delaware, for the pur- pose of quieting the discontent prevalent in that quarter of Uie country, and pre- paring the minds of the people for a change of their government. His two colleagues, Mr. M'Kean and Mr. Read, were divided upon the subject, the former being favorable, the latter opposed to a declaration of independence. Mr. M'Kean, being acquainted with Uie views of Mr. Rodney, despatched an express, at his private expense, to inform him of the del- icate posture of affaire, and urge him to hasten his return to Philadelphia. He did so immediately, and, by great exertion, anived just as the members were entering the house for the final discussion. He en- tered the hall with his spurs on his boots, and soon afterwards the great question was put. By his vote in the affinnative, he secured that union among the colonies in the matter which was all-important In the autumn of 1776, a convention was called in Delaware for Uie purpose of framing a new constitution, and appoint- ing delegates to the succeeding congress In this assembly, a majority was opposed to Mr. Rodney, who failed, in conse- quence, in obtaining a reelection. This circumstance was principally attributable to the royalists, who abounded especially in the lower counties. Mr. Rodney, how- ever, still continued a member of the council of safety, and of the council of inspection, the functions of both of which offices he assiduously discharged, being particularly active in collecting supplies for the troops of the state, then with Wash- ington in New Jersey. In 1777, he repair- ed in person to Uie camp near Princeton, where he remained for nearly two monUis, engaged in laborious services. In the autumn of the same year, he was again chosen a member of congress; but, before taking his seat, he was chosen president of his state. In this station he remained for four years, during which he had fre- quent communications from Washington relative to the distressed condition of the army, and exerted his utmost ability in affording aid. In 1782, he was compelled to retire by the delicate state of his health. He died in 1783.—Mr. Rodney was a man of pure integrity and patriotism; he was remarkable for good humor and vivacity, as well as for the disinterestedness and generosity of his character. Rodney, George Brydges, baron Rod- ney; a naval commander, bom in 1717. His father, a captain in the royal navy, edu- cated his son for the same profession. The latter first obtained a ship in 1742, and, in 1749, went to Newfoundland as governor. RODNEY—RODOLPH. 57 In 1759, having been promoted to the rank of admiral, he commanded the expedition destined for the bombardment of Havre, which he executed with success. In 1761, he sailed to the West Indies, where he distinguished himself in the reduction of Martinique, and, on his return, was re- warded with a baronetcy. A contested olection for Northampton (1768) impaired his finances, and he found it necessary to retire to the continent. The French gov- ernment made some overtures to him, which would have recruited his fortune. These he rejected ; and, the fact having transpired, he was placed in command of a squadron destined for the Mediterrane- an. In 1780, he fell in with admiral Lan- gara's fleet, off cape St. Vincent, and com- pletely defeated it. In 1781, he sailed for the West Indies; and, April 12, 1782, ob- tained a decisive victory over the French fleet, under De Grasse, capturing five and sinking one of his largest vessels. A bar- ony, and a pension of £2000, were be- stowed upon him for his services ; and on his decease, in 1792, a monument was voted to his memory, at the national ex- pense, in St. Paul's. Lord Rodney is de- scribed by some writers as the first who practised the system of breaking through the centre of" the enemy's line. (See Clerk.) Rodolph I, emperor of Germany, foun- der of the imperial house of Austria, was bom in 1218, being the eldest son of Al- bert IV, count of Hapsburg, and land- grave of Alsace. He was brought up in the court and camp of the emperor Fred- eric II; and, ou the death of his father, succeeded to tenitories of a very mod- erate extent, which, in the spirit of the times, he sought to augment by military enterprises. In 1245, he married a daugh- ter of the count of Ilomburg, by whom he acquired an accession of territory; and, some years after, served under Ottocar, king of Bohenua, against the pagan Prus- sians. Several years of active warfare ensued, in which he much distinguished himself by his pnidence, valor, and the spirit of justice •with which he protected the inhabitants of Uie towns from their baronial oppressors. In 1273, as he was encamped before the walls of Basle, he received the unexpected intelligence that he was elected king of the Romans, and emperor, in preference to Alphonso, king of Castile, and Ottocar, king of Bohemia. Rodolph, then in his fifty-fifth year, will- ingly accepted Uie proffered elevation, and, being crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, immediately strengthened himself by marrying two of his daughters to the count palatine of Bavaria and the duke of Saxony. He also took measures to ingratiate himself with pope Gregory X, who induced the king of Castile to withdraw his pretensions. The king of Bohemia, however, at that time one of the most powerful princes in Europe, per- sisted in his opposition, and a war ensued, in which he was defeated, and compelled to sue for peace, and agree to pay homage. Stung by this disgrace, the Bohemian king broke the treaty in 1277, and the follow- ing year Ottocar was again defeated and slain. By the treaty with his successor, which followed, Rodolph was to hold Moravia for five years, and retain the Austrian provinces which had been pre- viously yielded by Ottocar, and the secur- ing of which to his family was hencefor- ward his primary object. After some abortive attempts to restore the influence of the empire in Tuscany, he contented himself with drawing large sums from Lucca and other cities, for the confirma- tion and extension of their privileges. No foreign foe remaining, he assiduously em- ployed himself to restore peace and order to Gennany, and wisely put down the private fortresses, which served as a re- treat to banditti and to ferocious nobles. For these and other eminent services in the same spirit, he obtained the title of "a living law," and was regarded as a second founder of the German empire. He subsequently engaged in war with the counts of Savoy and of Burgundy, and delivered the young king of Bohemia from the captivity to which he had been sub- jected by the regent Otho, and married him to one of his daughters. The final object of the emperor was to secure the imperial succession to his son Albert; but the electors, jealous of the rapid rise of the family, could not be made to concur, and Rodolph felt the disappointment se- verely. He had, however, laid a perma- nent foundation for the prosperity of his race; and, after a reign of nineteen years, expired in July, 1291, in the seventy-third year of his age. There is scarcely an ex- cellency, either of body or mind, which Uie biographers of the house of Austria have not attributed to its founder; and he appears to have merited no small portion of their panegyric. Few princes have surpassed him in energy of character and in civil and military talents. He was per- sonally brave, almost to rashness, indefati- gable, simple and unaffected in his man- ners, affable, and magnanimous. In the beginning of his career, he seems to have 58 RODOLPH I—ROGERS. shared in the usual license of the period, in pursuit of aggrandizement; but, as an emperor, he has been considered, for the most part, as equitable and just as he was brave and intelligent. R-ederer, Pierre Louis, count, born at Metz, in 1754, was counsellor of the parlia- ment ofMetz before the revolution. In 1789, he was chosen deputy to the constituent assembly. A high reputation for talents preceded him, which was justified by the eloquence of his speeches on the most im- portant questions He was a constitution- al royalist, yet made such frequent conces- sions to the republican party that they reckoned him among their number. He was appointed a member of the commit- tee of finance, of which he became Uie usual reporter, or chairman. In the man- ner in which M. Roederer developed his system of finances, and the ability with which he defended his reports, his talent was especially displayed. When the schism arose in the Jacobin club, M. Roe- derer joined the Feuillants, but speedily re- i-urned to the fonner. After the close of the session of the constituent assembly, he was appointed procureur-syndic of the department of the Seine. On the morn- ing of the 10th of August, accompanied by Uie directory of the department, he repaired to the palace, and represented to the king and queen that the danger was far beyond any thing they had conceived, and that the royal family incurred the danger of being destroyed within the pal- ace, if the king did not repair to the na- tional assembly for protection. Soon after the events of that day, he was accused by the revolutionists, and seals were put upon his papers. He withdrew hhnself from danger, and did not reappear till after Uie 9th of Thermidor. In 1799, when Bona- parte returned from Egypt, M. Roederer succeeded in forming political ties between him and Sieyes; and he was also among those who most aided in preparing the revolution of the 18th of Brumaire. Call- ed to the senate at its first formation, he declined to take a seat there, but was made counsellor of state. There he occu- pied himself with the framing of a number of laws, which he presented to the legisla- tive assembly ; and he was principally charged with the establishment of the prefectures. He was the chief instrument of concluding the treaty which put an end to the misunderstandings between France and the U. States. In 1802, he presented to the legislative assembly the project of the order of the legion of honor, of which he was named commandaut In 1803, he took a seat in Uie senate, and was one of the members appointed to confer with Uie Swiss deputies assembled at Paris upon the means of giving a new constitution to their country. Shortly after, he was made count He took a large share in the whole organization of the kingdom of Naples under Joseph Bonaparte. (See Joseph Napoleon.) On the return of Uie Bour- bons, M. Roederer disappeared from the political world. He is the author of several historical works of much value. Riemer ; the name of the town-house in Frankfort on the Maine, in which the deliberations on the election of the Ger- man emperor were held. The newly crowned emperor here received homage. In one large room of the Romer are the pictures of all the emperors from Charle- magne to Francis II; and it is a curious fact, that the w alls had been so filled as to leave room but for one picture more, when the portrait of Francis II, with whom the German empire expired, was added to the series. The name of the house comes from the family Romer, which sold it, in 1405, to the city. Roger or Rogier van der Veyde, one of the most eminent painters of the Old Netherlandish school, was born at Brus- sels, and died in 1529. In the hall of his native city are four allegorical pictures by him. A celebrated Descent from the Cross, executed by him, was sent to Spain ; an- other is in Aix-la-Chapelle. Roger was also distinguished as a painter on glass. Roger de Hoveden. (See Hoveden, Roger de.) Rogers, Woods, an English circum- navigator, belonged to the royal navy in 1708, when he was invited by the mer- chants of Bristol to take the command of an expedition to the South sea. He set sail with two vessels, the Duke and the Duchess, taking out Dampier as a pilot. Passing to the south of Tena del Fuego, in January, 1709, they entered the Pacific ocean, and, February 1, anived at the isle of Juan Fernandez, where Uiey found Alexander Selkirk (see Robinson Crusoe), and, having visited the coast of California, crossed the Pacific, and returned to Eng- land in October, 1711. Captain Rogers was afterwards employed with a squadron to extirpate the pirates who infested the West Indies. He died in 1732. His Voyage round Uie World was published in 1712. Rogers, Samuel; a distinguished liv- ing poet. His father was a banker in London. Mr. Rogers is also a banker, and master of an ample fortune, which he has always been content to enjoy in pri- ROGERS—ROLAND. 59 vate life. His first appearance as an au- thor was in 1787, when he published an Ode to Superstition, with other Poems. After an interval of five years, this was succeeded by the Pleasures of Memory, which fixed his reputation as a poet. His Epistle to a Friend, with other Poems, appeared in 1798, and the Vision of Co- lumbus in 1814. Since then he has sent from the press Jacqueline, a Tale, which accompanied lord Byron's Lara (1814); Human Life, a Poem (1819); and Italy, a Poem (1822). The power of touching the finer feelings, and of describing visual and mental objects with truth and effect, a graceful style, a happy choice of expres- sion, and a melodious flow of verse, are the principal characteristics of the poetry of Mr. Rogers. Without being an imitator of Goldsmith, he belongs to the school of that poet. Byron says of him, " We are all wrong except Rogers, Crabbe and Campbell." (See Moore.) Rogier. (See RogerS Rohan, Louis Rene Edouard, prince de, cardinal-bishop of Strasburg, born in 1734, was at first known under the title of prince Louis. The dissipation in which Uie young ecclesiastic indulged, did not prevent him from attending to study, nor from forming ambitious projects. In 1772, he went as ambassador to the court of Vienna. He derives his notoriety, how- ever, chiefly from the affair of the neck- lace. (See Marie Antoinette, and Lamotte.) He was then grand almoner of France, and, being thrown into the Bastile, contin- ued hi prison more than a year, when he was acquitted and released by the parlia- ment of Paris (August, 1786y. He was afterwards a member of the constituent assembly, but, on account of his opposi- tion to the revolutionary principles, was obliged to retire to Germany, where he died in 1803. (See the Mimoires of Geor- gel, Campan, &c, and the Recueil des Pieces concernant VAffaire du Collier.) Roland, Jean Marie Baptiste de la Platiere, born in 1734, was, previous to the revolution, engaged in manufactures. Being sent to Paris by the city of Lyons, on official business before the national as- sembly (1791), he became coimected with Brissot and other popular leaders, through whose influence he was appointed minis- ter of the interior in 1792 : his principles, however, were so far from being agreea- ble to the king, that he was dismissed after a few months; but, after the 10th of August (see Louis XVI), he was recalled to the ministry, and continued to hold his place until the proscription of the Giron- dists (q. v.J compelled him to leave Paris. On receivmg, at Rouen, the news of the death of his wife, he killed himself with a sword-cane. Roland was the author of the Dictionary of Manufactures (3 vols., 4to.), forming part of Panckoucke's Ency- clopidie Mithodique, and of several other works. His wife, Manon Jeanne, was born at Paris, in 1754, and was the daughter of an engraver. She was remarkable for her beauty, and received an excellent ed- ucation. The study of Greek and Roman histoiy early inflamed her imagination, and gave her a tendency to republican senti- ments. After her marriage, in 1779, mad- ame Roland took part in the studies and tasks of her husband, and accompanied him to Switzerland and England. The revolution found in her a ready convert to its principles; and, on the appointment of her husband to the ministry, she par- ticipated in his official duties, writing and preparing many papers, and taking a share in the political councils of the leaders of the Girondist party. (See Girondists.) On the fall of her husband, she was anested. She conducted with great firmness during the trial, and at the time of her execution, " Oh Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name !" was her exclamation, when she arrived at the scaffold (November 8, 1793). Madame Roland had laid aside the modesty and softness of her sex, and had adopted deistical notions in religion. While in prison, she wrote Memoirs of her Life, which have since been published, with her other writings, relating to Uie events of the revolution. The most com- plete edition is that forming part of the memoirs relating to the French revolu- tion, under the title Mimoires de Madame Roland, avec une Notice sur sa Vie, with notes (1820). (See Memoirs.) Roland, or Orlando; a celebrated hero of the Romances of Chivalry, and one of the paladins (q. v.) of Charlemagne, of whom he is represented as the nephew. His character is that of a brave, unsuspi- cious, and loyal warrior, but somewhat simple in his disposition. According to the romances, he fell, on the retreat of Charle- magne from Spain, in the Roncesvalles (Roncevaux), a pass of the Pyrenees, with the flower of the Frankish chivalry. His adventures are contained in the fabulous Chronicle of Turpin (De Vita Caroli Mag- ni et Rolandi), and the old French ro- mances relating to Charlemagne and his paladins. (See Romance.) The celebrated romantic epics of Boiardo (Orlando Inna- morato)and Ariosto (Orlando Furioso) re- late to him and his exploits. 60 ROLAND'S COLUMNS—ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. Roland's or Ruland's Columns are stone statues of a man in armor, generally rudely formed, and found in twenty-eight Gennan cities. Accord ing to tradition, they were erected hi honor of Charle- magne's paladin (q. v.) Roland; but, if ever this hero existed (see Roland), the Germans, particularly the Saxons, in whose fomier territory they are found, would probably have been the last to erect statues to him. Besides, Uiey are evidenUy of a later age: probably they were Uie same with the WeichbUd, the symbol of incorporated towns, possessing jurisdiction over their own members; and thus the name has been considered a cor- ruption of Rugelandssaulen (Riigeland's columns), from Riige, which was equiva- lent, formerly, to court of justice. See Turk De StatuisRolandinis(Kostock, 1824). Roller (coracias); a genus of birds al- lied to the crows and jays, found in Eu- rope, Asia, Africa, and the hot climates of America. They are more wild and un- tractable than their congeneres, and do not appear to possess the imitative faculty of the jay or magpie, as all attempts to teach them to speak have been unsuccessful. The plumage of almost all the species is very beautiful, being in general an assem- blage of blue and green, mixed with white, and heightened by the contrast of more obscure and less vivid colore. The rollers are very shy, inhabiting the thickest and most unfrequented woods, though, like the crows, they are frequently seen in newly ploughed fields, searching for worms and larva?. They are not carniv- orous, except in cases of necessity, and their flesh is said to be palatable. Rollin, Charles, a historian, was bora at Paris in 1661. His father was a cutler, who intended him for the same business; but his talents obtained the notice of a learned Benedictine, who procured him a place in the college of Du Plessis, by which he was enabled to gratify his in- clination for learning. After going through a course of theology at the Sorbonne, he received the tonsure. In 1688, he obtained the chair of eloquence in the royal col- lege, of which he became rector in 1694 ; reformed the academical course in many particulars, and revived the study of the Greek language. In 1698, he was chosen coadjutor or head of the college of Beau- vais, which was also much benefited by his attention. In 1720, he was again chosen rector of the university of Paris; but was displaced in consequence of his connexion with the Jansenists. His pro- ductions are Traiti des Etudes (1726); Histoire Ancienne (13 vols., 1730 and 1738); and Roman History (5 vols.), to the war against the Cimbri (completed by Crevier, 16 vols., 12ino.). He died in 1741. Rollin's writings are distinguished for purity and elegance of style, but they are diffuse and prolix, and his historical works are deficient in critical sagacity. There is an edition of his works in 30 vols., 8vo. (Paris, 1827), with notes on the historical part by Guizot Romagna ; formerly a province of Uie States of the Church, bordering on the Adriatic, forty-five miles in length by Uiirtyin breadth. The delegations of Forli and Ravenna have been formed from it. Romaic (See Greece, division Mod- ern Greek Language and Literature.) Romana, marquis de la; general in the war of the Spaniards against Napoleon. Preparatory to his plans against the Bour- bons in Spain, Uie French emperor had drawn to Germany, in 1807, a body of from ten to twelve thousand Spanish troops, at the head of which was general Romana, who, taking advantage of his station on the island of Funen, entered into a secret correspondence, with the commander of the English fleet establish- ed there, obtained English transports, and, with all his forces, excepting a few divis- ions, who could not be brought up quick enough, embarked, between the seven- teenth and twentieth August, 1808, at Ny- borg and Svenborg, and arrived at Co- runna. From this time, Romana was incessantly employed in exciting the Spaniards. He was the first to suggest the idea of arming the peasantry and fonning the Guerillas, (q. v.) In this way, as well as by his personal services in the field, Romana had an important part in maintaining the independence of Spain. He died in 1811. Roman Catholic Church ; that soci- ety of Christians which acknowledges the bishop of Rome as its visible head, in con- tradistinction to the Greek church, winch likewise calls itself a catholic, that is, a universal church, but disowns the Roman pope. The Roman Catholic church ex- ercised a spiritual supremacy over all Eu- rope, with the exception of Russia and Turkey, until the time of the reformation. It has more followers than all the Protest- ant sects united; and its exertions have gradually brought nearly 2,000,000 of the adherents of the Greek ritual in Europe under the spiritual dominion of Uie pope. (See the article United Greeks.) I. The Foundation of the Catholic Faith. Christianity is a revelation, a positive his- ROM AN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 61 lorical religion. Both Protestants and Cath- olics believe in the reality of Christ's rev- elation ; and the first and fundamental difference between them is, that the former considers the Bible the only repository of this divine revelation, while the Catholic acknowledges, in addition to this, the au- thority of tradition, or (which amounts to the same thing) considers the Christian revelation as handed down by tradition, of which the Bible, according to his be- lief, makes a part, just as a code of laws constitutes a part only of the whole law of a land ; and its deficiencies are supplied by the traditional law preserved among the people, without which no code could exist The Catholic considers tradition as the very life of his church, and the whole of his religion as depending upon a conect understanding of it'; for which reason we give the following exposition, the produc- tion of a Catholic writer, without comment. —Mankind commenced with goodness, but error and evil soon sprang up. The Son of the eternal Father came, took away guilt, and established Christianity. The Son, the Holy Spirit, and the apos- tles of the Son, taught it, and the lielievcrs handed it down from gen- eration to generation. Various portions of that which the apostles taught and de- livered as what they had receiveil from their Lord, and seen of him, were com- mitted to writing ; and such writings be- came a part of the revelation. The rev- elation brought by the Son was not a written code, but Uie living Word. The Son did not write a single letter.' The apostles were not commanded to commit doctrines to paper, but to go into all the world and to preach the gospel. (Matt. x. 7.) There was a rule of faith which, for a long time before the New Testament was written, was the spiritual property of the church. In the course of centuries, the Epistles of the apostles were collected, and, several centuries after the origin of Christianity, these, together with the Gos- pels, which were also authenticated by tradition, were formed into the canon (q. v.), which constitutes the body or en- tire collection of those writings which have been transmitted to us as divine: thus none of the fathers thought of con- fining the sources of the religious knowl- edge of the church to them exclusively. Irenaeus says, "Every one who would know the truth is at liberty to examine the tradition of the apostles, which has been proclaimed through all tlie world; and we might also refer to the authority of all those bishops who have been appointed in the VOL. xi. 6 church by the apostles and their succes- sors, even to our times. If the apostlos had left behind no writings, should we not have been obliged to follow the tra- dition preserved by those to whose care the apostles intrusted the church ? Many barbarous nations which believe in Christ, and upon whose hearts the docnines of salvation have been impressed by the Holy Spirit without the aid of writing, do so, and carefully preserve the old tradition." Clement of Alexandria speaks of his teachers thus : " They preserved the true tradition of the doctrines of salvation, and, by the help of God, handed it down to us from Peter, James, John and Paul, the holy apostles (like children who transmit the inheritance of their father), in order to deposit the seeds of apostolical doctrine preserved by their predecessors."* Ba- silius : " Some of the dogmas and public instructions preserved hi the church, we have learned from the Sacred Scriptures ; others we have received as mysteries handed down to us by the tradition of the apostles. Both have equal validity in re- ligion, and no man will gainsay them, w ho is hi the least conversant with the order of thing's established in the church. I consider it as apostolical to adhere, also, to the unwritten traditions." Chrysostom says, " Thence it appears that Uie apos- tles did not teach every thing by epistles, but that they also taught without writing. But the unwritten instructions are as worthy of belief as the written. Let us, therefore, hold the tradition of the church as worthy of belief." Other fathers of the church have expressed themselves alike decisively; and even the Protestant Sem- ler says, " Nothing but ignorance of his- tory has confounded the Christian religion with the Bible, as if there were no Chris- tianity when there was yet no Bible; or as if, on that account, those Christians who, of four Gospels, knew only one, and of so many Epistles knew only a few, had been less truly pious. Previous to the fourth century, no such thing as a com- plete New Testament had been thought of; and yet there were always genuine disciples of Christ." That which was written is, therefore, according to Uie Catholic view, only a part of the tradition, and not the tradition itself. The knowl- edge of Uie Catholic church is of a his- torical character, not speculative. The Catholic believes that his tradition rests on the same grounds as the faith of the Protestant in the Bible, because it is tra- dition originally which assures the Prot- estant of the genuineness of the Bible. 62 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. The consistent Catholic,therefore, endeav- ors to ascertain accurately this tradition ; i. e. to guard the purity of his faith. The first means tor the attainment of this object was the authority of the Sacred Scrip- tures. They obtain authority as the em- bodying of tradition ; necessarily subject- ed, however, to the judgmeut and the ex- position of the church, on which, indeed, all tradition, and even Scripture, is, ac- cording to hhn, dependent. By this au- thority of the Bible, the falsification of traditions has been, in a great measure, prevented. In the controversies concern- ing tradition, and concerning the accounts and the meaning of the Bible, the belief of the church always decided. The actual belief of the church universal is, necessarily, the Catholic's last appeal; but what this is may be Uie subject of contro- versy. There is, in this case, no better remedy than to assemble the church, and let her express herself as is done in coun- cils. The Catholic doubts not that the same Holy Spirit which is promised to the church, even till the end of time, will assist the church, when assembled, in rightly expressing her faith. The council creates no articles of faith. The whole church is unable to do this. The coun- cil merely expresses what the church be- lieves, and declares that the church has preserved such a truth. The church, in the possession of a revelation handed down by tradition, must declare herself infallible. The established religious faith necessarily excludes a conviction of the possibility of the truth of the opposite opinion. If, therefore, the revelation, the traditiou, is in itself infallible (as the Prot- estant holds the Bible to be infallible), should the church, which expresses this tradition, be less infallible ? The church explains the Bible in accordance with tra- dition, of which it is a part and a copy. What the council expresses as a doctrine of faith is a canon. A canon is that which, according to the judgment of the church, is expressed in the Bible, and has always, and every where, and by all, been believed (semper et ubique et ab omnibus creditum). Whenever the church finds one of these requisitions wanting, it establishes no canon. In this way the Bible and tradition are intimately blended. If it is asked, Why does the church consider those historical truths which have been handed down by tradition, and attested by the church assembled, as real truths ? Uie answer of the Catholic is, Because her institution is of divine origin, and because a revelation has been delivered to her. Reason here objects, that the conclusion is obtained by arguing in a circle. The Catholic replies, that the objection is made because reason is desirous of hav- ing that proved which, resting on itself", is capable of no proof, and which, if it might have been proved and confirmed by evi- dence external to itself, would fall to pieces, because it would then be necessa- ry to place reason above revelation. How can the church be censured for laying claim to infallibility, for rejecting th« criticism of reason ? If Christianity is a revelation, faith can be grounded only upon the testimony of the church (which, by means of tradition, hands down reve- lation, the sacred books, imd regulations), and not upon the free investigation of reason, which protests against authority. That one council should, with respect to doctrine, contradict another, is an event which is, and must be, inconceivable to the Catholic. This is the fundamental view of Catholicism. There can, there- fore, be only one infallible church. II. The Doctrines of Catholicism.* The Catholic church is the community of saints, which has one faith, one charity, one hope. It believes in the doctrine of the Trinity, the redemption, &c. It be- lieves in free will, immortality, and the moral law. The church is to restore the kingdom of God. The first man was created immediately by God, free from sin, adorned with innocence and holiness, and possessed of a claim to eternal life. This first man sinned, and thereby lost his iunocence, holiness, and claim to eter- nal life. By his sins, all his posterity be- came sinners before God, and, therefore, in like manner, lost eternal life. In this state of moral con*uption, man was not to remain. Called to the kingdom of God, he must become holy and perfect, as God himself is holy and perfect. Revelation assists him in Uie attainment of this high destination; first, by informing him of what it is necessary for him to know (by enlightening mankind), and, secondly, by an extraordinary internal sanctification (by the consecration of mankind). But man actually attains to his high destina- tion by faith in these doctrines and this sanctification, and by a course of life un- interruptedly continued and regulated ac- cordingly. The Catholic believes in the immortality of the soul, and that it will hereafter be clothed with its body, which God will raise in perfection ; further, that the condition of man in a future state will * VVe continue to give the statement of th« Catholic writer. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 63 vary according as he has, done good or evil. The wicked are for ever deprived of the sight of God. How those images in the sacred books, which represent this state to the senses, are to be understood, is not decided by the church. The good "enjoy God for ever, and are blessed. The state of the good and the wicked commences immediately after death. A middle state is admitted for those souls which were not entirely estranged from the Eternal, which, therefore, in the other world, still have a hope of ultimately be- coming united with the Creator. (See Purgatory.) The happy spirits, in the church triumphant, have not ceased to be connected with their brethren in the church militant. A band of love unites both worlds. (See Saints.) Every one is rewarded according to those works which he has freely performed, although, at the same time, he has followed the influences of grace; but, as the Eternal foreknows the actions of men, so he foreknows, likewise, who will attain to happiness. (Controversy concerning predestination, decided by the council of Trent, session VI, canons 12,15,17.) A religious mind conceives the world to be entirely de- pendent upon God, and so revelation rep- resents it. According to this, the world was created by God. Whether the Mo- saic cosmogony is to be literally under- stood, the church has by no means de- cided. God preserves and governs the world. Hereafter, the world is to be de- stroyed. Man having been thus instruct- ed by the church respecting divine things, men and the world, it is necessary, in the second place, that he should be sanctified and consecrated by her. " The Christian standard demands not only an enlighten- ed man, but one who is adorned with ho- liness; a man who is repelled from God by no polluting stain, but is drawn to- wards him by a pure nature. It requires a man who comes into connexion with God, not merely by a purely moral inter- course, in a spiritual way, but who, sur- rounded by the light of God himself; sees and enjoys him, and is exalted above sin, suffering and death." The Founder of our religion, therefore, in the first place, made a universal atonement for mankind; secondly, ordained means for their purifi- cation and sanctification, according to their various necessities. The Savior, by his death, procured the pardon of sin for all men, justified them, and put it into their power to make themselves partakers of his elevation. Now the particular means for the purification and the sancti- fication of men are Uie seven sacraments. (q. v.) These sacraments are the essence of the Catholic mysteries. Without mys- teries, man is cold and insensible. The Catholic mysteries, however, differ from the Protestant in this, that the former have a more universal and more settled character, while the latter are suffered to take their tone from the feelings of indi- viduals. The centre of the Catholic mys- teries is the sacrament of the Lord's sup- per, whereby believers join in real com- munion with the Lord. For all condi- tions and wants, she has made provision, and in her bosom has prepared a suitable asylum for every one. A man would greatly err, however, if he should believe that the church favored mysteries, and attached herself to the arts, merely for the purpose of attracting adherents, and con- cealing internal defects. She needs it not. She offers words of life. Her sys- tem of belief is pure and consistent, and her morality is also pure. Indeed, the peculiar faith of the Catholic church has so often been disfigured by Protestants, that it is not strange that even the well- educated Protestant pities the honest Catholic, on account of the doctrines and ordinances falsely attributed to the Cath- olic church. III. The ecclesiastical Constitution of Catholicism, or the Catholic Church, [ft would be impossible even to mention all the objections which have been started against the organization of the Catholic church in the present work; but its his- torical importance makes it necessaiy to be known; and it is but fair to let the Catholics give their own statement on this subject. We therefore proceed with the Catholic article.] It was the design of Christ to establish a church, and cer- tainly one which should endure. The object of the church is, through Christ, to reconcile fallen humanity with God. The church, which is to accomplish this object, is a spiritual and visible society. As a spiritual society, it stands in relation to Christ. As such, it is the union, the community, of all her living members with God the Father, through one Christ, in one Spirit of love. The apostle Paul represents these ideas particularly under two forms—under the form of a body, and that of a building. 1. He represents it under the form of a body. (Eph. iv; 1 Cor. xii, 4—30, xiii, 1—13, xiv, 1—40.) Ac- cording to this, the church is a spiritual organization under one Head, Christ, in which no member is to remain isolated from the body, but each must necessarily 64 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. make common cause with the rest, to ac- complish the objects of the Spirit. 2. Ho represents it to us under the form of a house, a palace, a temple, a divine build- ing. (Eph. ii, 19—22; 1 Tim. iii, 15.) Further, the church is not merely a spir- itual, but a visible, society, since it exists upon earth as a society of visible com- batants, engaged in warfare; and also, according to the figures of the apostle, is compared to a body, a temple, a palace, a house of God ; and, finally, since Christ, though he operates invisibly by his Spirit, must also operate through visible organs, however named, whether apostles, teach- ers or pastors. The visible church of Christ, contemplated as the visible body of Christ, is necessarily a union, a combi- nation, a community, of all the members under one visible head, which has no other object than to effect and maintain a union with Christ, and, through Christ, with God the Father. This visible union ef all the members hi the visible church of Christ, can be effected only by the close connexion of individual churches with their immediate pastors, and of these with their superior pastors, who must also be connected with Uie centre of union, and thus maintain a connexion with Christ, the invisible Head, and, through Christ, with the Father. This intimate comiexion with the centre of union necessarily presupposes Uiat the visible head of all the church is in pos- session of the preeminence in authority and jurisdiction. This primacy, accord- ing to all the traditions of the apostles, rests in the person of the Roman bishop, as the successor of St. Peter, whom Christ made the rock of his church, that is, the immovable centre of his visible church. (Matt, xvi, 16.) The union of the church, by the connexion of individ- ual churches with their pastors, and of these with their superior pastors, and of these last with the supreme pastor and head of the church, presupposes a hierar- chy. This hierarchy is spiritual; spirit- ual in its origin, tendency, and mode of operation, though its actions must be vis- ible. It is not, however, to be believed, because the Catholic church is a hie- rarchy, that she has any other head than Christ. He who is Uie Foundation of the world, is also the sure and proper founda- tion of the Catholic faith. The connex- ion which Christians have with the visible centre of union has for its highest object a connexion with Christ, the invisible Centre of union. To the Catholic, Christ is all in all. (Col. iii, 2.) For him there is salvation only in Christ. From Christ he derives all his gifts.—We shall now give a more particular explanation of the points of difference between this and oth- er ecclesiastical systems. The church could not be one with the state. Religion was to be preached to all nations, and spread to the farthest boundaries of the world. States are subject to the vicissi- tudes of tune. They may be, and indeed have been, hostile to religion. It was on this account that Christ said, " My king- dom is not of this world." The church, therefore, cannot recognise princes as bishops, as the Lutheran church does. She can, in general, allow them no influ- ence in the management of church af- fairs ; and where states have arrogated to themselves such influence, a reaction has soon followed, which has often passed as far to the opposite extreme. The regula- tion of the church could, also, not be made dependent on the religious communities. It is impossible for learners to define what instructions they ought to receive. Faith, in the church, does not originate with the low and pass to the high, but it originates with the high and passes to the low; not through the investigations of the communities, but through the instruc- tion and the doctrines of salvation com- municated by the apostles and bishops. The apostle Paul says, in the First Epistle to the Corinthians, that he was commis- sioned as an apostle by God, and by no means that he was ordained by Christian communities, which he, in fact, was just establishing. The apostles only, not Christian communities, were commanded to go into the world, and to teach all peo- ple. The fomier only, not the latter, were promised assistance. The Sacred Scriptures were by no means sufficient to preserve the true doctrine unchanged. There was need of the living Word, of the ministry, and of .the assistance of the Spirit. " Know this first," says 2 Peter, i, 20, " that no prophecy of the Scripture is of any private interpretation." The apos- tles exercised the power of the church. They held their first council at Jerusalem. " It has pleased the Holy Spirit and us," said they, when they sent their decrees to Christian communities. This power, how- ever, was no prerogative of the ajiostlcs individually, but a power which they pos- sessed by virtue of their office, and which was to be extended to their successors, and that of necessity. This is proved, not only by the express assertion of Jesus, who says, in Matthew xvi, 18, that he will build his church upon a rock, and the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH—ROMANCE. 65 gates of hell shall not prevail against it; and, in another place, promises to remain with them, even to the end of the world, by means of his Comforter (evidently re- ferring to the power which preserves and governs the church); but it also naturally follows, from the plan of Christ, to estab- lish a church universal, which would necessarily require the extension of this power to the successors of the apostles. The apostles, therefore, actually establish- ed bishops hi every place; and, after then- death, these bishops conducted Uie church, which continued to remain one and the same, until, in modem tunes, it entered into the heads of the reformers, to attack its constitution : hence the Catholic church has been preserved from Uie fate of Protestant churches, which, for want of such a constitution, have been lost in isolated communities. The bishops and successors of the apostles now form an association like that of the apostles. "There is one bishopric," says Cyprian (De Unitate Ecclesia), "of which a part is held by each individual bishop, who is also a partaker of" the whole in common with his brethren" (Episcopatus unus est, cujus a singulis in solidum pars tenetur). Therefore, as the rays of the sun are many, but there is only one light; and as Uie branches of a tree are many, but make only one tree, fastened to the ground by a strong root; and as from one fountain many brooks may flow, and yet remain one at their source; so the church, which, by means of her prolific increase, extends herself in great numbers, far around, is also one. Every bishop is not merely a bishop of the world, but also of his own diocese. He is not an mcumenical or uni- versal bishop, as John the Faster, of Con- stantinople, maintained of himself—a title which even Gregory declined. The dio- cese of the bishop originally consisted of Uie Christian community of a city. From this place, the bishop spread Christianity, and organized new Christian communi- ties, to which he gave pastors, as his dele- gates, to discharge a part of his official duties. These pastors, and the presbyte- ry of the capital, formed the bishop's very influential council. They gave their opinions in the synod of the diocese; and the presbytery of the capital, afterwards called the cathedral chapter, was the rep- resentative of those pastors who did not assemble. The bishop only had episcopal power, properly so called. Pastors and presbyters were only an emanation from him. That bishops and priests, however, did not, as Uie Protestant systems of pres- 6* byterianism maintain, constitute only one order under different names, follows, not only from tradition, but, with uncommon clearness, from the genuine epistles of St Ignatius, who lived about 107, and was a pupil of the apostles. In these, the bish- op, as one ordained by God, is always distinguished from the assembly of priests. That, moreover, the order of priests was generally distinguished from the laity, by consecration, and by a divine mission, from the commencement of Uie church, follows from tradition, and also from the epistles of Paul to Timothy and Titus, and several other of his epistles. (Con- cerning the relation of the pope to bish- ops, and to the church in general, see Pope.) It will be sufficient to observe, here, that the church forms a kind of con- federacy, in order to maintain her union, through the bishop at Rome, as successor to the chief of the apostles—through him whom Cyprian has called the centrum unitatis of the church ; that Uie pope, by divine appointment, is the organ of the church ; and that, at the assemblies of the church, he presides as first among equals (primus inter pares). Archbishops, patri- archs, &c, are not essential parts of the hierarchy, but have only become incident- ally attached to it. Roman Cements. (See Cements.) Roman King. (See German Empire.) Roman Law. (See Civil Law.) Roman Literature. (See Rome.) Romance (so called from the Romance or Romanic language); a fictitious narra- tive in prose or verse, the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents. The name is derived from the circumstance of Uie romantic composi- tions of this kind having been written in the vulgar tongues, which were derived from the Roman, at a period when Latin was still the language of literature, law, &c. We have already given some gen- eral views of the origin and character of romantic fiction under the head of Novels. The modem European romance was at first metrical in its form, and foiuided on histor- ical, or what was thought to be historical, tradition. The transition from the rhymed chronicles, which we find in the early jie- riods of modern European history, to the metrical romance, was easy, and much of the material of the latter was derived, with suitable embellishments, from the former. The Anglo-Norman romance Le Brit (1515), written by Wace, was founded on the chronicle of Geoffrey of Mouinouth. The Roman de Rose, by the same author, is a fabulous history of the Norman dukes. 66 ROMANCE—ROMANIC LANGUAGES. In Uie end of the twelfth and beginning of Uie thirteenth centuries, great numbers of French metrical romances were writ- ten in England and Normandy, princi- pally on the subject of Arthur and his knights of the round table, or on classi- cal subjects, such as Uie Trojan war. The metrical romance was followed by the prose romance, which was founded on the same cycles of events and characters, but with great additions of adventures, machinery, &c. The prose romances were written chiefly during the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and were at first mere versions of the metrical romances. They assumed the tone of history, and pretended to the character of presenting historical facts. They may be divided into romances of chivalry, spirit- ual or religious romances, comic, political, pastoral, and heroic romances. The ro- mances of chivalry, considered in refer- ence to the personages of whom they treat, form four classes:—1. Those relating to Arthur and the knights of the round table, and their exploits against the Sax- ons: among these are Merlin, Sangreal, Lancelot du Lac, Artus, 6cc 2. Those connected with Charlemagne and his pal- adins, in which the enemy against whom the heroes contend are the Saracens: these are Guerin de Monglave, Huon de Bor- deaux, &c.; the latter are founded on the fabulous chronicle of Turpin, from which are bonowed the expedition of Charle- magne into Spain, the battle of Ronces- valles, &c.; the former are derived, in a great measure, from the chronicle of Geof- frey of Monmouth. 3. The Spanish and Portuguese romances contain chiefly the adventures of two imaginary families of heroes, Amadis and Palmerin: their op- ponents are the Turks, and Uie scene is often in Constantinople. (See Amadis.) 4. The classical romances represent the mythological or historical heroes of an- tiquity in the guise of romantic fiction; Uius we have the Livre de Jason, Vie de Hercule, Alexandre, &c, in which those heroes are completely metamorphosed in- to modem knights. The romances of chivalry are of Anglo-Norman origin, and, though naturalized in the Spanish penin- sula, did not obtain that popularity and, influence in Germany, Southern France (see Provencal Poets) and Italy, which they enjoyed? in England, Northern France and the peninsula. Italy adopted, indeed, at a later period, the tales of Charlemagne and his peers, which form the subjects of the romantic epics of Boiardo (Orlando binamorato), Pulci (Morgante Maggiore), and Ariosto (Orlando Furioso); and thus the fictitious narratives originally com- posed in metre, and then re-written in prose, were decorated anew with the hon- ors of verse. (See Italian Literature, di- vision Poetry.) The spiritual romance dif- fered from the chivalrous in recording the deaths of martyrs and the miracles of saints, but, in point of style and composi- tion, was not essentially different from it. Among the works of this class are the Golden Legend, the Conies Dcvots of the French, and one of the most remark- able works of fiction, the Pilgrim's Prog- ress. (SeeBunyan.) The comic romance was the production of a later age, when the spirit of chivalry had become extinct and new forms of society succeeded. Rabelais, Cervantes (whose Don Quixote was the death-blow of the romances of chivalry), Mendoza (q. v.), author of La- zarillo "de Tormes, the first romance in the style called gusto picaresco, Scarron (Ro- man Comique), were the principal writers of this kind of romantic composition. The political romance also forms a class by it- self, to which the Cyropedia of Xenophon (q. v.) may be considered to belong; Bar- clay's Argenis, Telemachus (see Fenelon), and Sethos, are the principal works of this class. In the time of Cervantes, the pas- toral romance, founded upon the Diana of Montemayor (q. v.), was prevailing to such an extent as to attract his satire. In imi- tation of it, D'Urf'e wrote his well-known Astrie, which gave rise to the heroic ro- mance of the seventeenth century. Gom- berville, Calprenede and madame Scuderi composed these insipid and interminable folios, in which the heroines are all mod- els of beauty and perfection, and the he- roes five through their long-winded pages for love alone. (See, on the subject of ro- mance in general, Dunlop's History of Romantic Fiction; Ellis's Specimens of Early English Fiction; Panizzi's Essay on the Romantic Narrative Poetry of the Ital- ians, prefixed to his edition of Boiardo and Arisosto (London, 1830). See also the article Romantic, and the works there referred to.) Romania, Roielia, or Rum-Ili. This name (signifying the country of the Ro- mans) is applied by the Turks to the greater part of the Turkish empire in Eu- rope, and by European writers to that part lying south of the Balkan, comprising the ancient Macedonia, Thrace and (pre- vious to the Greek revolution) Greece. (See Turkey in Europe.) Romanic Languages, or Romance. In Uie countries belonging to the Western ROMANIC LANGUAGES—ROMANZOFF. 67 Roman empire, where Latin had been in- troduced, new dialects were formed at the time of the decline and fall of the empire, from the mixture of Latin with the lan- guages of the barbarians, by whom the countries had been overrun. These were called Romanic idioms, or Romance. In all of them Latin was the basis and chief ingredient, and from them have sprung the languages now prevalent in the South of Europe—the Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and the Rhaetian,or Romanic in the narrower sense. Raynouard be- lieves in an original Romanic language, which served as a common stock to the above dialects; but A. YV. von Schlegel denies this, and has investigated the mat- ter in his Elimens de la Grammaire de la Langue Romane avant I'An 1000 (Paris, 1816). A further corruption of the Italian gave rise to the lingua Fi'anca. (q. v.) Romano, Giulio. (See Giulio Ro- mano.) Romantic, in aesthetics, is used as contradistinguished to antique, or classic. (See these two articles.) Christianity turned men's thoughts from the external world, and the present condition of man, which had engrossed the attention of antiquity, to his spiritual nature and future destiny ; and all the works of imagination soon tes- tified of the change. An unbounded world of imaginary beings, good and bad, beautiful and deformed, human, ari.mal, angelic and demoniac, was created. The ed'ect was increased by the mixture of the northern element with that of the south ; for the northern myUiology (q. v.) was full of supernatural, shadowy beings. A fur- ther consequence of Christianity was the giving of increased importance to the in- dividual. The love and hatred, success and sufferings, of individual men assumed a more prominent place than had been allowed them in antiquity ; the sense of personal dignity was heightened, and the longing for something better than the present world can afford, became more intense. These circumstances furnished the chief elements of romantic poetry— the poetry of the middle ages. The Greek lived in what is and was, the Christian in what is to come. So much is the spirit of romantic poetiy connected with Chris- tianity, that Jean Paul says, in his Vor- schule zurJEsthetik: " The origin and char- acter of the whole modern poetry is so easily to be derived from Christianity, that the romantic might be called with equal propriety the Christian poetry." And so much is romantic poetry impressed with the longing for something beyond the existing world, that Viennet, in his Epitre aux Muses sur les Romantiques (Par- is, 1824), says:— C'est la mMancolie et la mysticitf. Vest I'affectation de la naivete ; W C'est un monde ideal qu'on voit dans les nuages : Tout, jusqu'ausentiment, n'yparte qu'enitnages. C'est unje ne sais quoi donton est transport? ; Et moins on le comprend, plus on est enchante. Romantic poetry first grew up in the south of Europe, as its name would natu- rally lead us to suppose (see Romanic Languages), and was imbued with the spirit of chivalry, which also had its ori- gin there. Hence the reason why love holds so prominent a place in romantic poetry. The reader will find some re- marks applicable to this subject in the ar- ticle Chivalry, where we have attempted to trace the causes of this singular insti- tution. The age of chivalry has passed ; the chivalrous spirit has taken a different direction (Humboldt, Parry, Caillie, are our knight-errants); but the causes which pro- duced the romantic poetry are by no means all extinct; and the poetry of our time has much more resemblance to that of the middle ages than to the Greek. The same circumstances which gave its character to the poetry of the middle ages, had a con-esponding influence on the fine arts in general, and music, painting and architecture were imbued with a peculiar spirit. The magnificent Gothic c&thedrals which still remain, bear witness to the as- pirations which Christianity awakened, and the solemnity which it inspired. The term romantic, therefore, is frequently applied to modem art in general, as con- tradistinguished to the antique classic or plastic, (q. v.)—See the article Middle Ages, also the excellent work of Bouter- wek, History of Arts, Sciences, &c.; Jean Paul's Vorschule ; an Essay on the Roman- tic Narrative Poetry of the Italians, in Panezzi's edition of Bojardo and Arios- to, vol. i. (London, 1830), and Storia ed Analisi degli antichi Romanzi di Caval- leria e dei Poemi Romanzeschi d'ltalia con Dissertazioni suit' Origine, sugP Instituti, sidle Ceremonie de' Cavalieri, suite Corti d'Amore, &c, by Giulio Ferrario (Milan, 4 vols., 1828); the last of the four volumes is a Bibliografia dei Romanzi, &c. d'ltalia. See, also, our articles on the Portuguese, Spanish, and French Literatures. Romanzoff, Peter Alexandrowitsch, count, a Russian general and field-marshal, born about 1730, was descended from an illustrious family, and, having entered into the army when very young, his cour- age and abilities soon procured him pro- 68 ROMANZOFF—ROME, HISTORY OF. motion. He commanded at the taking of Colberg in 1761; and in the following year the death of Peter III prevented the invasion of Holsteiu, which he was about to undertake at the head of 40,000 men. Catharine II made peace with the Danes, and, in 1769, employed Romanzoff against the Turks. He succeeded prince A. Ga- litzin, as commander-in-chief, in 1770, and obtained many advantages over the ene- my iu that and the following years, previ- ously to the treaty into which he forced Uie grand vizier to enter, iu his camp at Kainardgi, in July, 1774. He soon after set out for his government of" the Ukraine. Romanzoff served against the Turks in the war which began in 1787. He died in December, 1796. Romanzoff, Nich. (See Rumjanzoff.) Romberg, Bernard and Andrew ; two distinguished German musicians, sons of two brothers, who were likewise known in their time. The former is the first vio- loncello player now living, and was born in 1770: the latter, chiefly known as a per- former on the violin and a composer, was born in 1767, both in the territory of Mini- ster. Both appeared as early as their seventh year iu concerts. After many journeys and various appointments, they met in Paris, 1800, where they compos- ed jointly for the theatre Feydeau the op- era Don Mendoza. In 1801, Bernard was appointed professor of the violoncello in the Paris conservatory. In 1805, he received an appointment in the royal chapel at Berlin, which he subsequently resigned. He now lives in Berlin.—An- drew settled in Hamburg, and has pro- duced many beautiful compositions, and in his instrumental pieces resembles Haydn. He died at Gotha, in 1821. Rome (Roma), the dental city, as it is often called, with which almost every thing great and memorable that has hap- pened in Europe for 2500 years has been connected, and which, first with the sword, and afterwards with the more powerful arms of religious faith, ruled a large portion of the European world for centuries, and saw people of all climes bend before its majesty, is now only the shadow of its former greatness. Ancient Rome was situated nearly on the site of the modem city, in Latium, on several hills (whence the poetical appellation of the seven-hilled city), on both sides of Uie river Tiber, not far from the 31editerranean sea; but the principal part of the City lay upon the eastern side of the river. Here was situated the Pincian mount, and on the river lay the Campus Martius, the Cap- itoline hill, the Roman forum, and mount Aventine. The Quirinal, Palatine, and Coelian hills, formed a second range east- ward of the preceding, extending from north to south; the Viminal and Esqui- line a third. On the other side of the Ti- ber lay the Vatican mount and Janiculum. This region was inhabited before the foundation of Rome. The city of Pal- lantium, built by some Greek colonists on the Capitoline mount, was perhaps still in existence when Romulus and Remus led a colony thither from Alba Longa; so that this city was only extended, and Rome Proper was not entirely new. The new city probably derived its name, not from its founder (who was, perhaps, called Romulus from it), but from the river, which, as Servius informs us, was an- ciently called Rumon. The derivation from the Greek faun (strength) is an ab- surdity, and of late origin. Two dif- ferent epochs are assigned for the foun- dation of Rome. According to Cato, it was built 752, according to Varro, 754, years before Christ. The latter date is generally adopted. The founding of the city commenced with ceremonies borrow- ed from the Etrurians. Romulus traced a square fun*ow round the Palatine hill with a plough drawn by two white cattle, and caused a wall of earth to be thrown up in the direction of the furrow. The interior was filled with huts.—The histo- ry of Rome is divided into three periods, in the first of which Rome was a king- dom, in the second a republic, and in the third au empire.—I. From the foundation of the city to the year 245, Rome was a monarchy. Romulus was chosen the first king of the new city. He adopted the Etrurian emblems of royalty—twelve lie- tors (q. v.); but his power, and that of his successors, was so circumscribed, that Rome was, even then, in reality, a free state. A sort of municipal constitution was formed, probably after the model of that of the mother city. The principal points of this constitution are the creation and constitution of the senate; the origin and permanent establishment of the patri- cians, or hereditary nobility ; the division of the people into classes, and the differ- ent kinds of popular assemblies (comitia) founded thereupon ; the religious institu- tions ; and, finally, the domestic relations of clientship, marriage, and particularly of the power of a father. Romulus, the leader of the colony (from A. U. 1 to 37), increased the number of the citizens by the establishment of an asylum, and by the incorporation of a part of the Sabines. ROME, HISTORY OF. Numa Pompilius (39—82) founded the Roman state-religion ; Tullus Hostilius (82—114) conquered Alba, and laid the foundation for the supremacy of Rome over Latium ; Ancus Martins (114—138) built Ostium ; Tarquinius Priscus (138— 176) carried on a war with the Etonian confederacy ; Servius Tullius (176—220), the ablest of the kings, placed Rome at the head of the Latin confederacy, and divid- ed the nation, according to property, into six classes, upon which the comitia cen- turiata and the census were founded ; the seventh and last king, Tarquin Uie Proud (220—245), aspired to absolute power, and was expelled on account of his tyranny. The constitution was then remodelled (509 B. C). (See Romulus, Numa, and Tarquinius.) Even at this period, we can perceive in the Romans a manly, free, bold and ambitious people. Agriculture and war were their chief occupations. In private life, simplicity of manners and pleasures pre vailed.—II. Rome as a repub- lic, from 245 to 727 A. U.—First period. The royal power, with the same indefi- niteness as it had been exercised by the kings, was committed to two consuls, chosen annually. At the commencement of the new government, Rome had to sus- tain a contest with the Etrurians and Lat- ins for its freedom. The oppressions of the patricians, who anogated the whole power to themselves, exasperated the ple- beians, and produced, in the year 261, the establishment of tribunes of the people (tribuni plebis), who were to protect their rights and liberties against the encroach- ments of the nobility. A protracted con- test arose between the patricians and the guardians of the plebeians, the principal points of which were as follows:—(a.) The tribunes, in their accusation of Coriolanus, claimed the right of bringing individual patricians before the tribunal of the peo- ple, and thus gave rise to the comitia tri- buta, so fatal to the nobility ; (b.) they de- manded that the lands taken from the neighboring states should be distributed among the poorer people, and thus gave rise to the contests relative to the agrari- an laws (leges agraria); (c.) the tribune Publius Volero extended the prerogatives of the comitia tributa, and gave them the choice of the tribunes ; (d.) the tribune Caius Terentius Area endeavored to cir- cumscribe Uie consular power by the for- mation of a code of laws. (See Twelve Tables, and Appius Claudius.) Although Uie new laws defined the legal relations of all citizens, yet Uie government of the state remained in Uie hands of the aris- tocracy, which was kept totally distinct from the plebeians by the prohibition of intermaniage. This prohibition gave rise to new contests, which ended in its aboli- tion. The plebeians likewise obtained, eighty years after, a participation in the honors of the consulship. During these disputes, the office of censor was estab- lished. Meanwhile, Rome was constantly engaged in petty wars and quarrels with the neighboring states. That the popula- tion might not diminish, freedmen, and even prisoners of war, were admitted in- to the number of citizens. Rome became altogether a military state ; pay was intro- duced into Uie Roman armies, which ren- dered it necessary to impose higher taxes. The city was, at this time, reduced to the brink of destruction by the Senonian Gauls, who captured and reduced it to ashes (A. U. 365). Camillus (q. v.), how- ever, the savior of Rome, restored it from its ruins. The first plebeian consul was elected in the year 388, and the plebeians soon participated in all offices—in the dic- tatorship, in 398; in the censorship, in 403 ; in the pretorship, in 417 ; and in the priesthood, in 454 (300 B. C). A com- plete political equality of patricians and plebeians existed at the end of this period ; internal contests ceased, and, in the same proportion, Uie power of the state abroad increased, and the splendid period of con- quests began. During this period, the manners of the Romans were character- ized by the ancient simplicity and rude- ness: science and the fine arts were as yet unknown to them; but useful arts, commerce (a treaty of commerce was con- cluded with the Carthaginians in 409), navigation, and mechanic arts, were culti- vated. Agriculture was still the chief source of national wealth. — The first years of the second period were yet mark- ed by contests between the plebeians and patricians. Rome was also visited by the plague, which gave rise to the introduc- tion of theatrical shows from Etruria. The Romans now gained several victories over the Gauls, hi which Titus Manlius Torquatus (see Manlius) rendered him- self conspicuous. Two laws settled the rate of interest in favor of debtors. From an alliance which had been concluded a few years before with the Samnites (q. v.), a formidable war between the two nations broke out in 411, which lasted till 464, opened the way for the subjugation of all Italy, and laid Uie foundation of Uie future greatness of Rome. This war was the heroic age of the Romans ; it taught them tactics; it settled their relations with theii 70 ROME, HISTORY CF. neighbors, the Latins and Etrurians, the former being completely reduced, and the latter repeatedly humbled; and brought the Romans sometimes into friendly and sometimes into hostile contact with the distant Lucanians, Apulians and Umbri- ans. In this period, the principles of their policy towards conquered nations were al- so developed. After the subjugation of the Samuites, the Romans attempted to secure their authority hi Lower Italy, in consequence of which the Tarentines called to their aid (A. U. 473) Pyirhus (q. v.), king of Epirus, who, notwithstand- ing his knowledge of the Macedonian art of war, was finally worsted, and obliged (479) to evacuate Italy. Tarentum fell into the hands of the Romans in 482, and soon after all Lower Italy. The fame of Rome extended even to Egypt, the king of which, in 481, sent an embassy to seek for the friendship of Uie Romans. Au- thority was maintained among the con- quered people chiefly by the establish- ment of colonies of Roman citizens, who served as garrisons in those cities in which they were placed. Each colo- ny had its own constitution, similar to that of Rome. This colonial sys- tem gradually embraced all Italy. For .-onveiiience of communication, great military roads were laid out in different directions. Some of the Italian cities and people enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizens (municipia) ; others had the rights of colonies (jus coloniarum) ; the others were either allies (socii) or subjects (dedititii). The latter were governed by prefects sent from Rome. Rome had already a navy, and the office of duumviri novates was instituted for the general management of naval affairs. The judi- ciary was improved by the appointment of the pretors (q. v.), and the police by that of curule adiles and the triumviri capi- tals. Learning and the arts now began to appear. Fabius Pictor introduced the art of painting into Rome; Lucius Papir- ius Cursor brought (461) the first dial ; and Spurius Carvilius caused a statue of Jupiter to be east. With the worship of .•Esculapius the science of medicine came to Rome; the works of Appius, and the temple of Concord by Camillus, prove the progress of architecture. But by the side of noble specimens of morality, temper- ance, integrity and patriotism, individ- ual examples of luxury, effeminacy and degeneracy already began to appear.— In the third period, Rome made the first advances to the dominion of the world. She maintained, in three ware, a desperate struggle with Carthage, and destroyed her rival. (See Carthage, Han- nibal, Fabius, Scipio, Masinissa, &c.) The first war with Carthage was made for the possession of Sicily and the do- minion of the sea; it lasted twenty-three years (from 489 to 511 of the building of the city), and ended with the expulsion of Uie Carthaginiaus from Sicily. Rome, made arrogant by success, then deprived them of the island of Sardinia, in the time of peace (517). She next humbled the piratical Illyrians, on the Adriatic sea, and thus appeared as the friend of Greece. Corcyra, Apollonia, and other Greek cit- ies, put themselves under the protection of Rome ; the Achaeans, yEtolians and Athenians emulated each other in expres- sions of gratitude. While Carthage en- deavored to indemnify herself in Spain for her former losses, and was compelled by the Romans to promise not to pass the Iberus (Ebro), a bloody war broke out with the Cisalpine Gauls, which continued for six years, and resulted in the founda- tion of the Roman dominion in the north of Italy (about 222 B. C). Then began the second Punic war. Hannibal com- menced the attack, and made Italy the theatre of the war. It continued from 536 to 553. After many bloody battles, Carthage was subdued ; but Rome, not- withstanding her great loss of men and the devastation of Italy, came out of the war more powerful than she had entered it, with an acquisition of foreign tenitory and the dominion of the sea. Without any change of the form of the constitution, the senate had now acquired an almost absolute power. The ambition of univer- sal dominion already inspired the nation. At the end of the second Punic war, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and a part of Spain, and Cisalpine Gaul, were Roman provinces ; Carthage was entirely depend- ent upon Rome. On the other hand, the kingdom of Macedonia in the East, with the Grecian republics, composed a politi- cal system, veiy complicated in itself, but first brought into connexion with Rome after the Ulyrian war, and the connexion of Philip II with Hannibal. Of the three powers of the first rank,—Syria, Macedo- nia and Egypt,—the two first were allied against the latter, which was on friendly terms with Rome. The powers of the second rank—the ^Etolian league, the kings of Pergamus, the republic of Rhodes, and other smaller states, such as Athens- were already allies of Rome, and had been leagued with her against Philip (543); the Achaean confederacy, on the ROME, HISTORY OF. 71 contrary, was attached to the Macedonian interest. Hardly was the peace made with Carthage, when the war broke out with Philip of Macedonia. In the begin- ning of this war, the Romans were unfor- tunate, till Titus Quinctius Flaminius, by his policy and military talents, laid the foundation for the power of Rome in the East. By the decisive battle of Cyno- cephale (557), Philip lost his naval supe- riority and his influence over Greece, whose dependence upon Rome was se- cured by Quinctius granting her freedom. Roman deputies, such as retained Car- thage and Numidia in subjection, exer- cised a supervision in Greece and Mace- donia, and interfered in the domestic poli- cy of these states. To the Greeks, par- ticularly to the proud /Etolians, this was the more intolerable, as the Roman army remained in their country three years. The peace with Philip contained the seeds of a greater war with Antiochus, from whom Rome demanded the Grecian cities which Philip had possessed in Asia, and which Antiochus had now occupied. The difficulties began in 558, when Anti- ochus took possession of the Thracian Chersonese : they were increased by Han- nibal's flight to the court of that prince (559), and soon broke out into a formal war, in the conduct of which Antiochus and Hannibal did not agree, the former being unwilling to adopt decisive meas- ures. Antiochus, defeated by sea and land, found himself, after the battle of* Magnesia (564), forced to conclude a peace, which obliged him to retire behind the Taurus, and made him altogether de- pendent upon Rome. At the same time, bloody wars were carried on in Spain and Upper Italy. In 569, the troubles with Philip broke out anew, because he had made some small conquests; but the negotiations which were entered into with his son Demetrius, and the death of Philip (which took place in 575), delayed the war till 582. The war with Perseus of Macedon (q. v.), the son of Philip, ter- minated in the total subjection of the kingdom by the victory of Paulus JEm'd- ius, at Pydna. The conquest of Kgypt, by Antiochus Epiphanes, was prevented by the decision of Popilius, the Roman ambassador. After the conquest of Mace- donia, Rome openly pursued her plan of universal dominion, and spared no means for attaining it. The division of Egypt was accomplished, and the protection of Syria assumed, which countiy was thence- forth rendered defenceless. After unpar- alleled oppressions, Carthage was now to be destroyed. This was accomplished in the third Punic war, which lasted from 604 to 608, when the proud Carthage was conquered (146 B. C). At the same time, a new war was carried on jn Macedonia, against Andriscus, who had placed him- self at the head of the disaffected, but who, in 606, submitted to Metellus. Then commenced the Achaean war, the object of which was the dissolution of the Achae- an league. Mummius terminated this war in 608 (146 B. C), by the destruction of Corinth ; Greece and Macedonia were reduced to Roman provinces. Thus had Rome, within the space of 118 years, made herself mistress of the world. The Roman tactics had now become so perfect, that no phalanx could withstand the legions. Rut the Romans were, as yet. unskilled in naval warfare, and the younger Africanus was the first who car- ried the art of conducting a siege to some perfection. Out of Italy, Rome occupied, under the name of provinces, Hither and Thither Spain (neither of which was en- tirely reduced), Africa (the territory of Car- thage), Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Liguria, Cisalpine Gaul, Macedonia and Achaia. Not only individual opulence, but the public revenue, was greatly increased. The finances of Rome were conducted with the strictest regularity. With the wealth, the cultivation and refinement of the Romans also increased. Their first poets appeared, and the first regular dramas were now exhibited in Rome. Learning flourished after the wars in Greece and Asia. Lucilius wrote satires, and Fabius Pictor and Cato composed the annals of Roman history. The language was developed. The calculation of solar and lunar eclipses, and the construction of water-clocks and of more accurate sun- dials, became known to the Romans. In the fine arts the Romans were, as yet, bar- barians. After the second Punic war, the ancient purity and simplicity of manners gradually declined. At funerals, the cruel combats of gladiators were exhib- ited ; immense sums were spent in public shows; and licentiousness began to pre- vail. Even in this period, laws were enacted against luxury, and the shame- less bacchanalia were prohibited in 5C8. —Fourth period. The wars in Spain, particularly against the Celtiberians and Lusitanians, were prosecuted with vigor. In the peasant Viriathus, the Romans found a formidable enemy. The rapacity of the proconsul Licinius Lucullus (603), and of the pretor Sulpicius Galba (604), caused the war to break out with renewed 72 ROME, HISTORY OF. fury, under the conduct of Viriathus. Af- ter his assassination (614), Lusitania was reduced; but, on the other hand, the Nu- mantines compelled the consul Mauritius to a disadvantageous treaty. (See Nu- mantia.) Scipio terminated this war iii 621; but Northern Spain still remained unsubdued. In the same year, the Ro- mans received from Attalus the kingdom of Pergamus, in Asia, by bequest, and maintained their claims to it against Aris- tonicus. With this acquisition, .foreign wars ceased for a time; but Rome was agitated with internal commotions, which finally broke out into bloody civil wars. The unlimited power of the senate had created a hateful family aristocracy, which the tribunes of the people resisted, and which produced contests between the aristocratic and democratic parties more fatal than the former disputes between the patricians and plebeians. The contest began with Tiberius Gracchus (q. v.), who, for the relief of the lower orders of the people, demanded a juster distribution of the public lands. He was killed in an insurrection of the people ; but the agra- * rian law remained in full force, and the disturbances still continued. Although the return of Scipio ^Emilianus gave new strength to the aristocracy, yet the general insurrection of slaves in Sicily (620—623) was favorable to the democratic party. The tribunes of the people obtained a voice and a scat in the senate : they also endeavored to make their reelection legal. The disturbances were quieted for a time by removing the chiefs of the popular party, under honorable pretences. During these events, the foundation of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul was laid by Mar- cus Fulvius Flaccus, in 626, and as early as 632 the southern part was made a Roman province. In 631, Caius Grac- chus was chosen tribune of the people ; he renewed the agrarian laws with se- verer provisions, and gave rise to more dangerous excitements than his brother Ti- berius. He endeavored to make the eques- trian order a counterpoise to the power of the senate, and attempted to strengthen his party by the admission of the whole population of Italy to the rights of Roman citizens; but the senate succeeded in de- priving him of" the favor of the people, and in effecting his ruin. In 633, lie was killed in a riot, and the aristocracy took advantage of their victoiy to abolish the agrarian laws. On the other hand, diffi- culties arose with the Italian allies, who demanded the privileges of citizenship, and the breaking out of the war was pre- vented merely by accident These fac- tions had an injurious effect upon morals, which neither the strictness of the censor- ship, nor the sumptuary laws, nor the laws against celibacy (which were already become necessary), could control. Ra- pacity was the prevailing vice of the great, and licentiousness that of the multi- tude. The enormous wealth of the public treasury produced public luxury, which was soon followed by private luxury, that found ample means for its gratification in the extortions of the governors, and in the presents of foreign princes. The influ- ence of bribery was particularly apparent in the war against Jugurtha (636—648), which was even protracted by it. The end of this bloody war opened to a ple- beian, Caius Marius, the way to the high- est dignities of the state, by which the aristocracy received a severe blow. Ho succeeded in overturning the constitution, while the war with the Cimbri, during a new servile war in Sicily, rendered him indispensable to the state. He was consul four years successively. At length, in 654, the storm burst over him, and, after a long struggle, he retired to Asia. (See Marius.) From 656 to 663, quiet pre- vailed, and the provinces enjoyed a sfyort rest. The power of the equestrian order became a new source of abuses. It held the senate in dependence, and could easily oppose all reforms in the provinces, since it had not only the control of the judiciary, but farmed the revenues of the state. The contest which arose between the knights and the senate concerning the judicial power, was ruinous to the state. The knights were deprived of a part of their judicial power by Lucius Drusus, the tribune; but the manner in which this was effected kindled the dangerous social war. He proposed to admit the allies to the rights of citizenship, but his proposition excited so much dissatisfaction that he was murdered. The people of Italy, from the Liris to the Adriatic, now took up arms with the design of throwing off the Roman yoke. The danger was great. The fasces were committed to Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, and under these consuls were formed the greatest generals of the time—Cn. Pom- peius, C. Marius, Caepio,C. Perpenna, Va- lerius Messala, Cornelius Sylla, T. Didius, P. Lentulus, P. Licinius, and M. Marcel- lus. But there were also men of distin- guished talents on the other side; and, after the war had been carried on from 653 to 656, with various success and the greatest fury, it was terminated only by conceding ROME, HISTORY OF. 73 the claims of the allies; and Rome thus •eased to be regarded as the exclusive kead of the state. The devastations of Mithridates (q. v.), and the disputes be- tween Sylla and Marius, made this con- cession necessary. The quarrel between these two distinguished Romans com- menced at the beginning of the first Pon- tic war. (See Marius, and Sylla.) The senate having given the chief command to Sylla, Marius united himself (656) with the tribune Sulpicius, for the purpose of displacing hi in from this office. But Syl- la, at the head of his army, drove Marius from Rome, restored the dignity of the senate, and hastened to his province, after he had, in order to gain the people, raised his adversary, Cinna, to the consulship.. The consequence was, that, during this war (656—659), a new anarchy prevailed in Rome, which became still more tenible after the death of Marius. In 671, the banished Sylla returned to Rome: a ter- rible civil war was the result, which was ended, in 673, by Sylla's elevation to the dictatorship. Sylla endeavored to over- throw the democratic party. The at- tempt of ^Emilius Lepidus to oppose him was without success. The war which broke out in Spain, under Sertoli us, a leader of the democratic party, was more serious, and was concluded, in 682, by his assassination. At the same time, the fright- ful war of the gladiators and slaves broke out in Italy, and a new* and more dangerous war began with Mithridates in Asia. The pirates were so powerful at this time, that they rendered the seas unsafe with their fleets, and threatened Rome with a fam- ine. Pompey (q. v.) saved the state, how- ever, by conquering first the pirates, and afterwards Mithridates. Asia Minor, Syr- ia and Crete were made Roman prov- inces ; Armenia, Cappadocia, the Bospho- rus and Judea became wholly dependent upon Rome, and the Thracian power was broken. No foreign enemy could any longer be dangerous to Rome; but new commotions were constantly agitating her. Some attempts to overturn the constitu- tion of Sylla were indeed frustrated; but, even in 679, Opimius carried a law provid- ing that the tribunes should not be ex- cluded from higher offices, and that the judicial tribunals should be restored to the knights; and Pompey and Crassus, during their consulship in 684, nearly annihilated it by completely restoring the tribunitial power. By this victory of the democratic party, a kind of oligarchy was established, and powerful individuals obtained the di- rection of affaire. The conspiracy of Cat- vol. xi. 7 iline (see Catiline) had for its object the overthrow of the existing powers, and the elevation of a party from the dregs of the people. Cicero defeated it, and restored internal tranquillity. Nevertheless, the state continued to decline; luxury, intro- duced by the immense wealth of Asia, had destroyed all the remains of ancient virtue. Selfishness and ambition were the ruling passions of"the great. Pompey, who had now returned from Asia, found in the severe Cato a superior, and attached him- self to the popular party, in order to pros- ecute his designs with their assistance. Caesar's return from Lusitania (694) gave affairs a different turn. He formed with Pompey and Crassus the first triumvirate (q. v.), as it was called, and succeeded (695) to the consulship, which prepared the way for his assumption of the dicta- torship. He obtained the province of Gaul for five years, and thus gained an opportunity of making conquests and forming an army. The chiefs of the sen- ate, Cicero and Cato, were banished by the tribune Clodius before his departure ; but the triumvirate caused Cicero to be recalled by the tribune Milo, without be- ing able to destroy the power of Clodius. Caesar accomplished, during his adminis- tration in Gaul, the subjugation of that countiy (696—704). The contest which arose during his absence between himself, Pompey, and Crassus, was settled in 698 by the treaty of Lucca, by which Caesar obtained his province for five years more, and Pompey and Crassus the consulate for the succeeding year, after which Uie former was to have Spain and Africa, and the latter Syria, as their respective prov- inces. In spite of Cato's opposition, this plan was effected ; but when Crassus fell, on his expedition against the Parthians, and Pompey, instead of departing to his province, remained at the head of the re- public as sole consu I, with almost dictatorial power, a civil war was unavoidable. (See Casar, and Pompey.) Instead of obeying the decree of the senate, Caesar passed the Rubicon, and compelled Pompey to fly from Rome. The civil war broke out, and was ended in 706 at Pharsalia. Cae- sar now became dictator, with the most extensive power. His first object was the entire reduction of the party of Pompey, and the restoration of order to Italy. He was assassinated in 710; but his adversa- ries could not preserve the republic. In 711, a new triumvirate was formed be- tween Octavius, Antony and Lepidus; the object of which was the annihilation of the republican party. For the manner in 74 ROME, HISTORY OF. which they pursued this object, by pro- scriptions and violence, and tor their sub- sequent divisions, until the battle of Acti- um rendered Octavius master of the Ro- man empire, see the articles Antony, and Augustus. Rome now ceased to be a republic. The principal changes which the Roman constitution underwent during this period, have already been related. Bribery and private interest governed the assemblies of the people; interest and ambition actuated the public officers. The equestrian order now gained great power and immense riches. Marius extended the military system, but discipline was de- stroyed. The armies fought for their gen- erals rather than for the state. They obeyed whoever paid them. But litera- ture made great progress. To this period belong the poets M. Pacuvius, C. Lucilius, Plautus, Terence, Lucretius and Catullus; Uie historians Calpuraius Piso, Porcius Ca- to, Rutilius Rufus, Claudius Quadrigarius, and particularly Caesar, Sallust, Cornelius Nepos, Hirtius Pansa, &c.; Cicero, the orator and philosopher, and Terentius Varro, the learned grammarian, who like- wise wrote upon agriculture. At the close of this period began the golden age of Roman literature and art. The Greeks were imitated with taste and success. Not only the Roman youths went to Greece to complete their education, but learned Gre- cians flocked to Rome, and were em- ployed in education and instruction. The language reached its highest perfection, anil the theatre exhibited its masterpieces. Of the philosophical sects of Greece, the Bchools of Epicurus and Zeno met with the greatest success. Grecian artists ele- vated the standard of the arts, and Rome was filled with splendid buildings and the master works of sculpture. In the time of Caesar and Pompey, the Grecian artists Arcesilaus, Pasiteles, Zopyrus, Criton, Nicolaus Strongylion, and the great lapi- dary Dioscorides, resided at Rome. But the corruption of morals increased with the increase of luxury; the greatest part of the people, especially of the nobility, was sunk in debaucheries and vices of every description. Laws were of little avail; agriculture and th*1 mechanic aits were left entirely to slaves, who were treated in the most cruel manner. The common people lived, in spite of their poverty, in idleness, and were ready to de- vote themselves to those who would give them largesses. Every thing was to be obained by gold.—III. We are next to consider Rome with a monarchical gov- ernment, under the Caesars, from the foundation to the division of the empire, from the year of the city 727 to 1148 (or 395 A. D.). This period forms four divis- ions:—1. Octavius returned to Rome as a conqueror in 725, and for forty-three years remained at the head of the governinent. He was the first sovereign in Rome with- out adopting this title. Satisfied with the surname of Augustus (q. v.), which was given him in 727, he ruled with mildness, retaining the republican forms of govern- ment. He united in his own person the offices of consul, tribune, imperator and proconsul in all the provinces, and finally that of umagister morum" and pontifex maximus. To avoid the appearance of usurpation, he caused the supreme power to be confirmed to him from time to time. The senate acted the part of a council of state. The republican magistracies were retained, but their power was lost: on the other hand, the prefects of the city and of provisions became the most important of- ficers, because upon them depended the public tranquillity. A city militia (cohortes urbana) and a body-guard (cohortes pra- toriana) were formed. The governors of the provinces were paid and limited in their power. Improvements were intro- duced in the financial system. The dis- tinction between the public treasury and private puree of the emperor, naturally ex- isted at first; but afterwards both were united. The boundaries of the empire were extended, particularly by the addi- tion of Egypt (724), Pannonia (719), Mcesia (725), Rluetia, Vindelicia and Noricum (739), and by the complete subjugation of Northern Spain and Western Gaul (729). On the other hand, the Romans were un- successful against the Germans. The successor of Augustus was his step-son Tiberius (q. v.), from 767 to 790. Under him despotism was established by the tri- bunals of majesty (judicia majestatis). The servility and timidity of the senate in this matter was as criminal as the tyranni- cal character of the prince, who suffered himself to be guided from 776 to 784 by the monster Sejantis. His successors were Caligula (until 794) and Claudius (until 807); the former a mad tyrant, and the latter a dotard. The conquests in Britain began (796) under Claudius, and Maurita- nia (795), Lycia (796), Judaea (797), and Thrace (800), were declared provinces. His successor, Nero (from 807 to 821), a hypocritical tyrant, addicted to debauch and cruelty, was the last emperor of the family of Augustus. Under him the greatest part of Britain was made a Ro- man province, and war was successfully ROME, HISTORY OF. 75 carried on in Armenia and against the Jews. During the disturbances which followed Nero's death, in less than two years, three persons made themselves mas- ters of the throne by force—Galba, Otho and Vitellius. (See the articles.) This period, particularly the reign of Augustus, was the golden age of literature and the arts. Instead of politics, the distinguished men of the empire were engaged in sci- ence, and especially in polite literature: they also protected and patronised men of letters: such patrons, for example, were Maecenas and Agrippa. Augustus and Asiuius Pollio founded public libraries. In poetry, the names of Virgil, Ovid, Cor- nelius Gallus, Cornelius Severus, Tibul- lus, Propertius, Gratius Faliscus, Manilius, Horace and Pheedrus are distinguished; and there were a multitude of epigram- matists. Livy and Dionysius of Hali- carnassus wrote their valuable histories. Eloquence necessarily declined, but phi- losophy and mathematics found both admirers and cultivators. Virruvius was celebrated on account of his knowledge of architecture, and Hyginus on account of his Astronomicon. As a grammarian, M. Verrius Flaccus deserves to be men- tioned: geography had a Strabo, and ju- risprudence Q. Antistius Labeo, C. Anteius Capito and C. Trebatius Testa. Archi- tecture, sculpture and glyptics also flour- ished. After the death of Augustus, liter- ature declmed, and the style and language degenerated. M. Annaeus Lucan, Vale- rius Flaccus and Persius Flaccus distin- guished themselves, however, as poets; Velleius Paterculus, DiodorusSiculus and Valerius Maximus as historians; M. and L. Annaeus Seneca as rhetoricians and philosophers; and Aurelius CorneliusCel- sus as a physician. Asconius Pedianus wrote commentaries on the writings of Cicero; and in jurisprudence Masurius Sabinus, M. Cocceius Nerva, Cassius Longinus and Sempronius Proculus were eminent. The arts declined; the corruption of manners was increased by debauchery and unnatural passion; for- eigners and freedmen were the confidants of the emperor; the soldiers formed a distinct order, and served not the state, but the despots whom they rendered depend- ent upon themselves.—2. After the fall of Vitellius, Flavius Vespasianus (823) as- cended the throne. He restored the em- pire by introducing order into the finances, promoting public education, reviving dis- cipline, and abolishing the tribunals of majesty. Under his government, the war with Civilis the Batavian broke out, and the conquest of Britain by Agricola was completed. Vespasian reigned till 832, his excellent son Titus till 834, and the brother and successor of the latter, Domi- tian, a perfect tyrant, until 849. Under his reign arose the war with Decebalus, the king of the Dacians, who stirred up the wars of the Marcomanni, Quadi and Ja- zyges, from 839 to 843, which proved so unfortunate to the Romans. He was murdered, and was followed by several celebrated sovereigns. Nerva (until 851) abolished the reign of terror, diminished the taxes, and encouraged industry ; Tra- jan (until 870) restored, as far as possi- ble, a free constitution, and enlarged the empire by fortunate wars against the Da- cians, Armenians and Parthians; and Adri- an (to 891) improved the internal condi- tion of the empire, and the discipline of the soldiery. Rome was happy under the peaceful government of Antoninus Pius (until 914); under that of Marcus Aurelius, or Antoninus, the philosopher (until 933), great disasters and bloody wars with the Catti, Parthians, and especially the Mar- comanni, disturbed the empire; but his wisdom healed all wounds. With him (180, A. D.) ended the prosperity of Rome. The constitution of the state was now a limited monarchy founded upon civil free- dom. The offices of state became in part mere titles of honor; and, on the other hand, a great number of court offices were instituted, which were continually usurping power. Italy was divided into four provinces, which were governed by men of consular rank. The edidum perpet- uum effected great changes in the admin- istration of justice, and the imperial com- mands were continually encroaching upon the decrees of the senate. In the military department, likewise, great alterations had taken place, particularly a different divis- ion of the troops. Literature, particularly poetry and eloquence, were on the de- cline ; but the emperors endeavored to promote learning, by the collection of li- braries, by the erection of public halls, and by supporting instructers. The poets of this period are Silius Italicus, Papini- us Statius, Juvenal and Martial; the his- torians are Tacitus, Appian, Floras, Jus- tin, Curtius, Arrian, Suetonius and Plu- tarch ; the principal orator was Pliny the younger; Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius were distinguished as Stoic philosophers; and besides these there were many New Platonists; Galen and Scribonius Largus were the chief physicians. Frontinus wrote upon hydraulic architecture. Pliny the elder upon the productions of nature anil :e ROME, HISTORY OF. art, Columella upon agriculture and gar- dening, and Polyaenus and Frontinus up- on military stratagems ; Gellius was cele- brated for his knowledge of antiquity ; in geography Ptolemy and Antonjiius, author of a journal of travels to Britain, were eminent; and Quinctilian was distin- guished in rhetoric: Salvius Julianus, Aburnus Valens, Sextus Caecilius Africa- nus, Terentius Clemens, Vinidius Verus, and Junius Mauritianus, were celebrated jurists; aud Sextus Pomponius, C. Velu- sius Maecianus, Q.Cervidius Scaevola,and Ulpius Marcellus, were yet more distin- guished authors on the subject of juris- prudence.—3. From this time the decline of the Roman empire was constantly ac- celerated. Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius (from 933 to 945) was a monster. He purchased peace of the Marcomanni, and his generals fought successfully in Dacia and Britain. Great commotions followed his death. Pertinax reigned only two months, and Marcus Didius Julianus, "who purchased the empire, as the highest bidder, for an equal period ; the army in Illyria then chose Septimius Severus em- peror, and the one in Syria, Pescenninus Niger. The former maintained his claims, and reigned till 965. He kept in check the Parthians and Britons. Caracalla (till 970) was a tyrant; his murderer, Macri- nus, succeeded, and reigned till 971; Heli- ogabalus, a shameless voluptuary, till 975; and Alexander Severus, an excellent prince, till 988. After the latter, his mur- derer, Maximin the Thracian (till 991), ex- ercised a military despotism. While he was carrying on the war in Germany with success, the senate chose the elder Gor- dian emperor, and, after the death of Gor- dian, Maximus Pupienusaud Clodius Bal- binus. The pretorians murdered them, and raised the younger Gordian to the throne; and he reigned until 997, and Marcus Julius Philippus till 1002. Then succeeded Trajanus Decius (slain by the Goths, 1004); Trebonianus Gallus (till 1006); iEmilius ^Emilianus (three months); Pulius Licinius Valerianus (1011); Publius Licinius Gallianus (until 1021), under whom almost all the govcrnore raised themselves to the rank of emperors, and the Germans and Persians triumphed over the Romans; M. Aurelius Claudius (until 1023), who overthrew the Alemanni and Goths; Domitius Aurelianus (until 1028), who recovered all the lost countries, took Zenobia prisoner, and voluntarily evacuat- ed Dacia; 31. Claudius Tacitus (until 1029); Probus(until 1035), a warlike and prudent prince; M. Aurelius Cams (until 1036); and Marcus Aurelius Niinierianus (until 1037), an accomplished and gentle prince : Dio- clesian succeeded him (until 1058); he ap- poiutedM.ValeriusMaximianhiscolleague, and united Caius Galerius, Maximian asso- ciating Flavius Constantius Chlorus, in the empire, as assistants : they distributed the empire among themselves, without divid- ing it, and not only resisted the barbarians, but extended the empire in the East to Uie Tigris: the two emperors retired from the government (1058), and Galerius succeed- ed in the East, and Constantius in the West Galerius appointed two assistants (Caesars), Flavius Severus and Maximin. Constantius died in 1059, and left his do- minions to his son Constantine, who, in 1076, succeeded to the whole empire, by a series of perfidious artifices. In this period, the constitution remained nomi- nally the same, but a military despotism controlled evory thing. The soldiery made and unmade emperors. In the adminis- tration of justice, the emperors derided by their constitutions, so called. The cor- ruption of manners, the weakness of the empire, oppressive taxes, the poverty of the people, the tyranny of the rulers, and the encroachments of the barbarians, con- tinually increased. Literature and taste declined ; language and style degenerated. Some individuals studied the ancients, and took them for models. Among the poets, Terentianus Maurus and Nemesianus are worthy of notice ; among the historians, Dio Cassiusaud Herodian are of acknowl- edged merit; and the Scriptores Historia Augusta, Spartianus, Capitolinus, Trebel- lius Pollio, Vopiscus, Lampridius, and Vul- catius Gallicanus, must be mentioned. Apuleius wrote romances, and iElian compiled anecdotes. Mamert'mus, Naga- rius, Magnus Ausonius, &c, panegyrists of the emperors, and Latinus Drepanius, Eumenius and Pacatus composed rhetor- ical works. Latinus Solinus the gram- marian wrote an abridgment of Pliny's Natural History, under the title of Poly- histor; Serenus Samonicus a didactic po- em upon medicine; Palladiusa work upon agriculture; and Censorinus the gramma- rian a learned chronological work De Die natali. Papinian, Ulpian, Julius Paulus and Herennius Modestinus were eminent jurists. Art was extinct. The Christian religion was already widely extended.— 4. Constantine Uie Great (reigned until 1099) embraced Christianity, in 1064, from political motives, and it thus became the predominant religion. The imperial res- idence was removed to Constantinople; the empire was divided anew, and the ROME (ANCIENT CITY). 77 civil and military power were separated. After the death of Constantine, his three sons, Constantine, Constantius and Con- sfans, divided the empire, until Constan- tius, in 1106, united the whole, after a war of twelve years' duration. He reigned first with the Caesar Constantius Callus, and afterwards with the Csesar Julian, until 1114, maintaining constant wars with the barbarians. His successor was Julian (un- til 1116), an able and virtuous prince, called the Apostate, because he relapsed into heathenism. After him, Jovian reigned until 1117, Valentinian I, in the West, until 1128,Valens, in the East, until 1131, in whose reign the Huns entered Europe; Gratian and Valentinian II succeeded in the West; the former reigned until 1136, the latter until 1145, and Theodosius until 1147 in the East, and until 1148 over the whole empire. He divided the empire (395 A. D.), which henceforth remained sep-* rated, into the Eastern and Western Roman empires. (See the history of the former under the head Byzantine Empire, and of the latter under Western Empire.) To this period belong the following au- thors: Claudian the poet, Ammiauus Mar- cellinus, Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, and Zosimus, historians. Syminachus was celebrated as a rhetorician, and Themis- tius as a sophist. Vegetius wiv'e upon the science of war, and Macrobin.-- was a successful follower of Varro and Gellius. Victor and Sextus Rufus wrote upon the topography of Rome. From this time the Roman language continually degenerated by the intermixture of barbarous words, and the corruption of taste, until at length it wholly disappeared in the Romanic lan- guages, and all learning perished. For the earlier periods of Roman history, see Nie- buhr's Roman History, Ferguson's History of the Roman Republic, Wacksmuth's Ear- ly History of Rome (in German, 1819). For the history of the empire, see the works of Tillemont, Crevier, Gibbon, and that of Htibler (3 vols., Freyburg, 1803). Ancient Rome, although visited for a thousand years by various calamities, is still the most majestic of cities. The charm of beauty and dignity still lingers around the ruins of ancient, as well as the splen- did structures of modern Rome, and bril- liant recollections of every age are con- nected with the monuments which meet the passing traveller at every step. The char- acteristics of ancient and modern times are no where so distinctly contrasted as within U>e walls of Rome. Ancient Rome was built upon several hills, which are now scarcely discoverable, on account of the vast quantities of rubbish with which the valleys are filled. (Seethe preceding his- torical sketch.) The eastern bank of the Tiber was so low as to subject the city to frequent inundations. The extent and population were veiy different at different times. We speak here of the most flour- ishing period. Vopiscus, in his life of Aurelian, relates that the circumference of the city, after its last enlargement by that emperor, was 50,000 paces, for which we must probably read 15,000, as Pliny estimates the circumference, just before the reign of Aurelian, at 13,000 paces, and the accounts of modern travellers agree with this statement The inhabitants at that time may have amounted to about 3,000,000. The number of inhabitants en- joying the rights.of citizenship was never more than 300,000. Romulus sunounded the city with a wall, or rather with an earthen mound. Of the four gates which he built—the Porta Can no n talis, the Pan- dana or the Saturnia, the Roman gate, and the Mugionia—the Carmentalis alone re- mains. The wall ran from mount Pala- tine, at the foot of mount Aventiwe, to the Tiber; one part of it then extended be- tween the Tiber and the Capitoline hill, and on the other side separated the Pala- tine from the Ccelian, Esquiline, Yiminal, and Quirinal hills, and finally terminated at the capital. The second, or Uie Servian wall, was much more extensive, and em- braced all the above mentioned hills, on the southern and eastern sides; ran round under mount Aventiue to the Tiber; thence passed to the west side of the river, where, being continued in the form of a triangle, as far as the summit of* Janicu- lum, it separated this from the other hills ; and then, proceeding to the southern end of the island of the Tiber in a direct course, embraced the whole body of the buildings beyond the river. On the north side of the city, the old walls of Romulus were; mostly preserved; but the old wall termi- nated at the summit of Quirinalis, while the Servian extended to its easternmost extremity, and then ran round the other hills towards the east. The Pinciau hill, Campus Martins, and the Vatican hill, therefore, lay entirely outside of it. The third, or Aurelian wall, likewise included all these parts. It ran from the north- eastern exuemity of Quirinalis, northward- ly ; embraced the Campus Martius, which it separated from the Pincian hill; extended beyond the latter to the river; enclosed, beyond the river, the Vatican, in a large bend ; and then joined the old wall, which reached to the summit of Janiculum ; so 78 ROME (ANCIENT CITY). that the island of the Tiber was now con- tained within the limits of the city. In so large a circuit the number of gates must have been considerable. Pliny enumer- ates thirty-seven, of which several yet re- main, but under different names. Ancient Rome had several bridges, of which some are still passable. The lowest and oldest bridge was the Pons Sublicius, which led from mount Aventine into the valley be- low Janiculum, and is no longer standing. The second led from the forum to Janic- ulum, and was called Pons Senatorius, because the solemn procession of the sen- ate passed over it, when the Sybilline books were to be carried from Janiculum. It was the first stone bridge in Rome, and still exists in ruins under the name of Ma- ry's bridge (Ponte Rotto.) Two bridges led to the island in the Tiber, one from the east, and the other from the west side; the former was called Pons Fabricius (now Ponte di Quattro Capi), and the latter Pons Cestius (now Bartholomew's bridge). A fourth bridge, Pons Janiculensis (now Ponte Sisto), led from the Campus Mar- tius, near the theatre of Marcellus, to Ja- niculum. The ruins of the fifth, Pons Vaticanus, or Triumphalis, may be seen near the hospital of S. Spirito, and led from the Campus Martius to the Vatican. The iElian bridge (Pons YElius; now the beautiful bridge of St. Angelo) led to the Moles Adriani. Beyond the wall, and above the Pincian hill, was the seventh bridge, Pons Milvius, (now Ponte Molle), built by iEmilius Scaurus, after the time of Sylla. The streets of Rome, even af- ter the city was rebuilt under Nero, were very irregular. The public squares, of which there were a great number, were distinguished into area, squares in front of the palaces and temples; campi, open places, covered with grass, which served for popular assemblies, public processions, for the exercise of the youth in arms, and for the burning of the dead bodies ; and fora, which were paved, and served either for the assembling of the people, for the transaction of public affaire, or for the sale of goods, or for ornament Among the latter, the Forum Romanum (see Forum), and Campus Martius (q. v.), were the most celebrated. The earliest division of Rome was made by Servius Tullius; he divided it into four quarters, which he called Tri- bus urbanae ; they were the Tribus Subur- bana, Collina, Esquilina and Palatina. This division continued till the reign of Augustus, who divided the city into four- teen regions, according to which ancient Rome is generally described: 1st Porta Capena; 2d. Coeli Montium ; 3d. Isis et Serapis, or Moneta ; 4th. Via Sacra, after- wards Templum Pacis; 5th. Esquilina cum colle et turri Viminali; 6th. Alta Semi- ta; 7th. Via Lata ; 8th. Forum Romanum ; 9th. Circus Flaminius ; 10th. Palatium ; 11th. Circus Maximus; 12th. Piscina Pub- lica; 13th. Aventinus ; 14th. Trans Ti- berim. The temples, theatre's, amphithe- atres, circuses, naumachiae, porticoes, ba- silica?, baths, gardens, triumphal arches, columns, sewers, aqueducts, sepulchres, &c, are the principal public buildings and monuments. For the capital, the citadel, and principal temple of Rome, consecra- ted to Jupiter Capitolinus, and the Pan- theon, see the articles. Next to these, the following were the most remarkable : the temple of iEsculapius, in the island of the Tiber, which was consecrated to that god, now the church of St. Bartholomew; the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, in the Via Sacra, now the church of S. Lo- renzo in Miranda; the magnificent tem- ple of Apollo, which Augustus built of white marble, on the Palatine, in which were preserved the Sybilline books (it contained, besides many other curiosities, a splendid library, and served as a place of resort to the poets, who here recited their works); the temple of the Caesars (Templum Caesarum), which contained the statues of the Caesars, the heads of all which were struck off at once by light- ning ; the temple of the Dioscuri, in the Forum Romanum, under the Palatine hill, opposite the church of Sta. Maria Libera- trice, built in honor of the two youths, who, in the battle of the lake Regillus, as- sisted the Romans in gaining the victory, and were supposed to be Castor and Pol- lux ; the temple of the goddess Seia, under the Palatine, built by Servius Tullius, which Nero enclosed in his golden palace, and caused to be covered with transparent Cappadocian marble; the temple of the confederacy, under the name of Templum Diana commune, which the Latin cities built in union, by the persuasion of Servi- us Tullius, and upon a monument in which were inscribed the articles of the confederation (this temple was situated upon the Aventine hill, near the church of Sta. Prisca); the temple of Janus, upon the island of the Tiber, near the modern Sis- tine bridge, one of the most beautiful of ancient Rome; the temple of the Flavian family, in which Domitian was buried, still standing on the Piazza Grimana ; the tem- ple of Hercules and the Muses, built it* the ninth region by Fulvius Nobilior, who placed here the images of the Muses, ROME (ANCIENT CITY). 79 brought by him from Ambracia ; the tem- ple of Honor and Virtue, in the first re- gion, built by Marcus Marcellus, and or- namented by the Marcelli with the monu- ments of their family ; the temple of Ju- piter Stator, on the declivity of the Pala- tine hill, and vowed by Romulus on an occasion when his soldiers began to flee; the temple of Jupiter Tonans, built by Augustus with much splendor on the slope of the Capitoliue hill; the beautiful tem- ple of the Lycaonian hill, on the island of the Tiber, which thence received the name of Lycaonia; two temples of Isis and of Serapis; the temple of Juno Moneta, built upon the spot where the house of Manli- us was torn down, on the fortifications of the Capitoline hill, because the awakening of the garrison on the attack of the Gauls, was attributed to this goddess; the temple of Liberty, built by Gracchus in the thir- teenth region, and restored by Asinius Pol- lio, who there established the first public library; the temple of Mars, on the east side of the Appian Way, before the Porta Capena, in the first region, in which the senate gave audience to generals who claimed the honor of a triumph, and like- wise to foreign ambassadors (the church delle Palme stands upon its ruins); the temple of Mars Ultor, built by Augustus with great splendor, when he recovered the eagles of the legions that had been con- quered by the Parthians; the splendid tem- ple of Minerva, which Domitian built in the forum of Nerva; another temple of the same goddess, which Pompey built in the Campus Martius, and which Augustus covered with bronze ; the temple of Peace, once the richest and most beautiful tem- ple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in the Via Sacra, in the fourth region, which con- tained the treasures of the temple of Jeru- salem, a splendid library, and other curios- ities, but was burnt under the reign of Commodus; the temple of the goddess Salus, which was painted by Fabius Pic- tor, the first Roman painter; the temple of Saturn, built by Tarquin the younger, which was afterwards used for the treas- ury and the archives of Rome ; the tem- ple of the Sun, which Aurelian erected at an enormous expense, and of which some ruins still exist; several temples of Venus, and among them, particularly, the magnif- icent temple of Venus Genitrix, which Caesar caused to be built to her as the ori- gin of his family, and the temple of Ve- nus and Roma, of which Adrian himself designed the model; the temple of Vesta, one of the oldest and most remarkable, built by Numa on the southern summit of the Palatine: in it were contained the an- cilia, or sacred shields, and the palladium, sacred fire, &c. Of the palaces, the im- perial was the most distinguished. It was built by Augustus upon the Palatine hill, and gave the name to the tenth region of the city. The front was on the Via Sacra, and before it were planted oaks. Within the palace lay the temple of Vesta, and also that of Apollo, which Augustus endeav- ored to make the chief temple in Rome. The succeeding emperors extended and beautified this palace. Nero burnt it, but rebuilt it, of such extent that it not only embraced all the Palatine hill, but also the plain between that and the Ccelian and Esquiline, and even a part of these hills, in its limits. He ornamented it so richly with precious stones, gold, silver, statues, paintings, and treasures of every descrip- tion, that it justly received the name of domus aurea (golden house). The follow- ing emperors not only stripped it of its ornaments, but Vespasian and Titus caused some parts of it to be pulled down. Do- mitian afterwards restored the main build- ing. In the reign of Commodus, a great part of it was burnt; but it was restored by him and his successors. In the time of Theodoric, it needed still further repairs ; but this huge edifice subsequently became a ruin, and on its site now stand the Far- nese palace and gardens, and the Villa Spada. Among the theatres, those of Pom- pey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus, were the most celebrated. Pompey built that which bore his name, after his return from Greece, and adorned it with the most beautiful Grecian statues. An aqueduct brought water into every part of it. In order to protect it from destruction, he built within its precincts a splendid temple to Venus Victrix. It was capable of con- taining 40,000 persons. Caligula first fin- ished it, hut Tiberius had previously re- stored the scenes: Claudius, still later, did the same thing, and the Gothic king The- odoric caused it to be repaired. A few remains of it are yet to be distinguished near the palace Ursini. The theatre of Balbus, the favorite of Augustus, was situ- ated in the Campus Martius. The theatre of Marcellus was built by Augustus in memory of his nephew Marcellus. It accommodated 22,000 spectatore, and was repaired by Vespasian. Some beautiful ruins of it are still to be seen. Among the amphitheatres, that of Titus was the most remarkable. (See Coliseum; and for the circus maximus and the circus of Caracalla, see Circus.) Among the re- maining circuses, the following deserve to 80 ROME (ANCIENT CITY). be mentioned: the circus Agonalis, in the ninth region; the circus Aurelius, in the gardens of Heliogabalus, in the fifth ; the circus Flaminius, in the ninth, one of the largest and most remarkable, upon the ru- ins of which the church of St. Caterina de' Fuuari and the palace Maffei now stand; the circus of Flora in the sixth region, upon the same spot which the Pi- azza Grimana now occupies, where the licentious Floralia were celebrated; lastly, the circus of Nero, in the fourteenth re- gion, near the modern church of St. Peter; and the circus of Sallust, the ruins of which are still visible near the Colline gate. Without stopping to describe the Nauma- chia* (q. v.), we will proceed to the porti- coes or colonnades. Among these are the Porticus Argonautarum, also called Por- ticus Neptuni, Agrippae, or Vipsanii, which Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa built in 729, and adorned with paintings, repre- senting the history of the Argonauts: it was situated in the Campus Martius, sur- rounded by a laurel grove, and the marble pillars, still visible in the Piazza di Pietra, jirobably belonged to it; the splendid por- tico of Europa, in the Campus Martius, supposed to have been built by Augustus, and containing the history of Europa ; the Porticus llecatoustylon, in the ninth re- gion, so called from its having 100pillars; the portico of Livia, in the third region, built by Augustus, and demolished by Ne- ro ; the portico of Metellus, founded by Metellus Macedonicus, between the tem- ple of Apollo, built by him ; and that of Juno, in the ninth region, and ornamented with statues, brought by him from Mace- donia; the Porticus Milliarensis, or of the thousand columns, the ruins of which are yet to be seen in the gardens of the duke of Muti; the portico of Octavia, built by Augustus; and the portico of Pola, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa; the porti- co of Pompey, called the Corinthian, from its pillars being of that order of architec- ture ; Pompey built it near his theatre, and ornamented it with golden tapestry: final- ly, the portico of Uie sun (Porticus Solis), which was built by Aurelian. Among the Basilicas (q. v.), one of the most beautiful was the ^Emilian, on the northerly side of the Forum Romanum, built by Paulus JE- milius. VVe will also mention the Basilica Caii, or Lucii, on the Esquiline hill, the splendid Basilica Julia,onthe southernside of the Forum Romanum, built by Julius Caesar, and the Basilica Portia, which was the oldest, and was built by Cato the Cen- sor. Of the public baths, some of which equalled in extent large palaces, and were ornamented witli still greatersplendor,there have been enumerated about 22 warm, and 856 cold, besides 880 private baths. Maecenas and Agrippa founded the first public baths, which were afterwards sur- passed by those of Caracalla, and these, in their turn, by those of Dioclesian, ves- tiges of which remain till this day. Rome was likewise rich in magnificent gardens. The gardens of Lucullus, in the ninth re- gion, hold the first rank ; after these, tha gardens of Asiuius Pollio, Julius Caesar, Maecenas, Heliogabalus, o'cc. Of the tri- umphal arches, the most celebrated are, that of Constantine, the ruins of which are yet seen ; that of Drusus, in the Appian Way, of which the modern gate of St Se- bastian is said to have been built; that of Gallieuus, and those of Severus and Titus, which are yet in good preservation; the former in the Forum, and the latter in the Vicus Sandalarius. Among the columns, the most beautiful was Trajan's pillar, 118 feet in height, still standing. Instead of the statue of that emperor, which it for- merly bore, Sixtus V placed upon it a statue of St. Peter, in bronze, twenty-three feet in height. The bass-reliefs, with which it is ornamented, represent the exploits of Trajan, and contain about 2500 half and whole human figures. A flight of stairs, within the pillar, leads to its summit. The columna rostrata, which Duillius erected in commemoration of his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, and Uie pillars of An- toninus and Aurelian, are still standing. The sewers (cloaca), by means of which the filth and superfluous water of the city were conveyed into the Tiber, are among the most remarkable architectural works of ancient Rome; Uiey lire subterranean canals, of from ten to sixteen feet in height, and from twelve to fourteen in width, and, although constructed in the earliest ages of the city, are of such an indestructible solidity, that several earthquakes have but slightly injmed them; and some parts of them are in perfect preservation. (Con- cerning the aqueducts of Rome, of which about twenty have been enumerated, sec Aqueduct.) Among the magnificent se- pulchral monunents, the mausoleum of Augustus and the Septizoni'.im of'Septim- ius Severus surpassed all others in splen- dor. This city was also rich in splendid private buildings, and in the treasures of art, with which not only the public places and streets, but likewise the residences and gardens of the principal citizens, were ornamented, and of which but compara- tively few vestiges hav*e survived the rav- ages of time. See Burton's Antiquities of ROME (MODERN CITY). 81 Rome (Oxford, 1821); Nardini's Roma Antica (Nibby's edition, with annotations, plans, &c., Rome, 1820, 4 vols., 8vo.); Venuti's Descrizione topographica delle Aidichita di Roma (3d edition, with Piali's notes, Rome, 1824, 2 vols, quarto, with 72 engravings). Modern Rome; the capital of the States of the Church, the residence of the pope, and for centuries the capital of Christen- dom, at present the capital of the world of the arts (41° 53' 45" N. lat.; 12° 28' E. Ion). It is about thirteen miles in circuit, and is divided by the Tiber in- to two parts. The churches, palaces, villas, squares, streets, fountains, aque- ducts, antiquities, ruins,—in short, every thing proclaims the ancient majesty and present greatness of the city. Among the churches, St. Peter's is the most conspicu- ous, and is, perhaps, the most beautiful building in the world. Bramante began it; Sangalloand Peruzzi succeeded him; but Michael Angelo, who erected its im- mense dome, which is 450 feet high to the top of the cross, designed the greatest part. Many other architects were afterwards employed upon it; Maderno finished the front and the two towers. The erection of this edifice, from 1506 to 1614, cost 45,000,000 Roman crowns. Before we anive at this beautiful temple, the eye is attracted by the beautiful square in front of it, surrounded by a magnificent colon- nade by Bernini, and ornamented by an ^Egyptian obelisk, together with two splendid fountains. Upon entering the vestibule, Giotto's mosaic, la Navicella, is seen. Under the portico, opposite the great door, is Bernini's great bass-relief repre- senting Christ commanding Peter to feed his sheep ; and at the ends of the portico are the equestrian statues of Constantine by Bernini, and of Charlemagne by Corna- chini. The union of these master works has an indescribable effect. The harmony and proportion which prevail in the inte- rior of this august temple are such, that, immense as it is, the eye distinguishes all the parts without confusion or difficulty. When each object is minutely examined, we are astonished at its magnitude, so much more considerable than appears at first sight. The immense canopy of the high altar, supported by four bronze pil- lars of 120 feet in height, particularly at- tracts the attention. The dome is the boldest work of modern architecture. The cross thereon, is 450 feet above the pave- ment. The lantern affords the most beauti- ful prospect of the city and the surround- ing countiy. The splendid mosaics, tombs, paintings, frescoes, works in marble, gilded bronze and stucco, the new sacristy, a beautiful piece of architecture, but not in unison with the rest, deserve separate con- sideration. The two most beautiful • churches in Rome next to St. Peter's are the St. John's of the Lateran, and the Santa Maria Maggiore. The former, built by Constantine the Great, is the parochial church of the pope; it therefore takes precedence of all others, and is called Omnium urbis et orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput (the head and mother of all churches of the city and the world). In it is cele- brated the coronation of the popes. It contains several pillars of granite, verde antico,and gilt bronze; the twelve apostles by Rusconi and Legros ; and the beautiful chapel of Corsini, which is unequalled in its proportions, built by Alexander Galilei. The altar-piece is a mosaic from a paint- ing of Guido, and the beautiful porphyry sarcophagus, which is under the statue of Clement XII, was found in the Pantheon, and is supposed to have contained the ashes of M. Agrippa. The nave of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore is sup- ported by forty Ionic pillars of Grecian marble, which were taken from a temple of Juno Lucina: the ceiling was gilded with the first gold brought from Peru. We are here struck with admiration at the mosaics; the high altar, consisting of" an antique porphyry sarcophagus ; the chapel of Sixtus V, built from the designs of Fontana, and richly ornamented ; the chapel of Paul V, adorned with marble and precious stones; the chapel of Sforza, by Michael Angelo; and the sepulchres of Gugliehno della Porta and Algardi. In the square before the front is a Corinthian column, which is considered a master- piece of its kind. The largest church in Rome next to St. Peter's was the Basilica di San Paolo fuori delle Mora, on the road to Ostia, burnt a few years since. (See Paul, Churches of St.) The church of S. Lorenzo, without the city, possesses some rare monuments of antiquity. The church of San Pietro in Vincola contains the celebrated statue of Moses, by Mi- chael Angelo. The church of St. Agnes, in the place Navona, begun by Raiiialdi and completed by Bono mini, is one of the most highly ornamented, particularly with modern sculpture. Here is the admirable relief of Algardi, representing St. Agnes deprived of her clothes, and covered only with her hair. The Basilica of St. Sebas- tian, before the Porta Capena, contains the statue of the dying saint, by Giorgetti, a pupil of Algardi, and the master of Ber- 82 ROME (MODERN CITY). nini. Under these churches are the cata- combs, which formerly served as places of burial. In the church of St. Agnes, before the Porta Pia, among many other beautiful columns, are four of porphyry, belonging to the high altar, and consider- ed the most beautiful in Rome. In a small chapel is a bust of the Savior by Michael Angelo, a masterpiece. In the church of St. Augustine, there is a picture by Raphael, representing the prophet Isaiah, and an Ascension, by Lanfrauco. The monastery has a rich library, called the Angelica, and increased by the library of cardinal Passionei. The following churches also deserve to be mentioned, on account of their architecture and works of art ; the churches of St. Ignatius, St. Ce- cilia, S. Andrea della Valle, S. Andrea del Noviziato, the Pantheon (also called la Rotonda), in which Raphael, Aunibal Ca- racci, Mengs, &c, are interred. All the 364 churches of* Rome contain monuments of art or antiquity. Among the palaces, the principal is the Vatican, an immense pile, in which the most valuable monu- ments of antiquity, and the works of the greatest modern masters, are preserved. Here are the museum Pio-Clementinum, established by Clement XIV, and enlarged by Pius VI, and the celebrated library of the Vatican, (q.v.) The treasures carried away by the French have been re- stored. Among the paintings of this palace, the most beautiful are Raphael's frescoes in the stanze and the logge. The principal oil paintings are in the ap- portamento Borgia, which also contains the Transfiguration, by Raphael. In the Sixtine chapel is the Last Judgment of Michael Angelo. The popes have chosen the palace of Monte Cavallo, or the Quiri- nal palace, with its extensive and beautiful gardens, for their usual residence, on ac- count of its healthy air and fine prospect. The Lateral) palace, which Sixtus V had rebuilt, by Fontana, was changed, in 1693, into an alms-house. Besides these, the following are celebrated : the palace della Ccincelleria, the palace de' Conservator!, the palace of St. Mark, the buildings of the academy, &c. Among the private palaces, the Barberitii is the largest; it was built by Bernini, in a beautiful style. Here are the Magdalen of Guido, one of the finest works of* Caravaggio, the paintings of" the great hall, a masterpiece of Peter of Cor- tona, and other valuable paintings. Of works of sculpture, the Sleeping Fawn, now in Munich, was formerly here; the masterly group representing Atalanteaiul Meleager, a Juno, a sick Satyr, by Berniui, the bust of cardinal Barberini, by the s;ime artist, and the busts of Marius, Sylla and Scipio Africanus, are in this palace. The library is calculated to contain 60,000 printed books and 9000 manuscripts; a cabinet of medals, bronzes, and precious stones, is also connected with the library. The Borghese palace, erected by Bra- man te, is extensive, and in a beautiful style; the colonnade of the court is splendid. This palace contains a large collection of paintings, rare works of sculpture, valuable tables, and utensils of rich workmanship, of red porphyry, alabaster, and other ma- terials. The upper hall is unrivalled ; the great landscapes of Vernet, with which it is adorned, are so true to nature, that, upon entering, one imagines himself transported into real scenes. The palace Albani, the situation of which is remarkably fine, pos- sesses a valuable library, a great number of paintings, and a collection of designs by Caracci, Polydoro, Lanfrauco, Spaguo- letto, Cignani, and others. The palace Altieri, one of the largest in Rome, is in a simple style of architecture, and contains rare manuscripts, medals, paintings, &c, and valuable furniture. In the palace Colonna there is a rich collection of paint- ings by the first masters; all the rooms are decorated with them, and particularly the gallery, which is one of the finest in Europe. In the gardens are the ruins of the baths of Constantine and those of the temple of Sol. The Aldobrandini (q. v.) palace contains the finest monument of ancient painting—the Aldobrandine Wed- ding, a fresco purchased by Pius VII, in 1818, iu which the design is admirable. The great Farnese palace, begun from de- signs of Sangallo, and completed under the direction of Michael Angelo, is cele- brated both for its beauty and its treas- ures of art. The Caracci and Domenichi- no have immortalized themselves by their frescoes in its gallery. The Farnese Hercu- les, the masterly Flora, and the urn of Cae- cilia Metella, formerly adorned the court; and in the palace itself was the beautiful group of the Farnese bull. But when the king of Naples inherited the Farnese estate, these statues, with other works of art, were carried to Naples, where they now adorn the palace degli Studj. Not far off is the palace Cor-Zmi, where queen Christina lived and died in 1689. It contains a valuable library and gallery. The palace Giusti- niani also had a gallery adorned with nu- merous valuable statues and works of sculpture; its principal ornaments were the celebrated statue of Minei'va, the finest of that goddess now known, and the bass- ROME (MODERN CITY). 83 relief of Amathea suckling Jupiter. These treasures were nominally bought by Napoleon, and are now in Paris. The paintings are chiefly in the possession of the king of Prussia. In the palace Spada is the statue of Pompey, at the foot of which Caesar fell under the daggers of his murderers. We have yet to mention the palace Costaguti, on account of its fine frescoes; Chigi, for its beautiful architec- ture, its paintings and library; Mattei, for its numerous statues, reliefs and ancient inscriptions ; the palace of Pamfili, built by Borromini, for its splendid paintings and internal magnificence ; that of Pamfili in the square of Navona, with a library and gallery; Rospigliosi, upon the Quiri- nal bill, &.c. Among the palaces of Rome, which bear the name of villas, is the Villa Medici, on the Pincian mount, on which were formerly situated the splendid gardens of Lucullus: it once contained a vast number of masterpieces of every kind ; but the grand-dukes Leopold and Ferdinand have removed the finest works (among them, the group of Niobe, by Scopas) to Florence. This palace, how- ever, is yet very worthy of* being visited. Under the portico of the Villa Negroni are the two fine statues of Sylla and Marius, seated on the sella curulis. In the ex- tensive garden, which is three miles in circuit, some beautiful fresco paintings have been found in the ruins of* some of the houses. The Villa Mattei, on the Coelian mount, contains a splendid collection of statues. The Villa Ludovisi, on the Pin- cian mount, not far from the ruins of the circus and the gardens of Sallust, is one and a half miles in circuit, and contains valuable monuments of art, particularly the Aurora of Guercino, an ancient group of the senator Papirius and his mother (or rather of Phaedra and Hippolytus), an- other of Arria and Paetus, and Bernini's rape of Proserpine. The Villa Borghese, near Rome, has a fine, but an unhealthy situation. The greatest part of the city, and the environs as far as Frascati and Tivoli, are visible from it. It has a gar- den, with a park three miles in circuit. This palace was ornamented in its interior, and furnished with so much richness and elegance, that it might have been consid- ered the first edifice in Rome, next to the capital, particularly for its fine collection of statues. The most remarkable among them were the Fighting Gladiator; Silenus and a Faun ; Seneca, in black marble, or rather a slave at the baths ; Camillus; the Hermaphrodite ; the Centaur and Cupid ; two Fauns playing on the flute; Ceres; an ./Egyptian ; a statue of the younger Nero ; the busts of Lucius Verus, Alexander, Faustina and Verus; various relievos; among which was one representing Cur- tius ; an urn, on which were represented the festival of Bacchus; another support- ed by the Graces ; two horns of plen- ty, &c. The greatest part of these has not been restored from Paris. The exte- rior is ornamented with ancient reliefs. The Villa Pamfili, before the Porta di .San Pancrazio, also called Belrespiro, has an agreeable situation, and is seven miles in circumference. The architecture is by Algardi, but has been censured by con- noisseurs. In the interior there are some fine specimens of sculpture. Full de- scriptions of this and of the Villa Bor- ghese have been published. The Villa Albani, upon an eminence which com- mands Tivoli and the Sabina, is a temple of taste and splendor. The cardinal Al- exander Albani expended immense sums upon it, and, during the space of fifty years, collected a splendid cabinet The ceiling of the gallery was painted by Mengs, and is a model of elegance. The Villa Lante and the Villa Corsini deserve to be mentioned on account of their fine prospects. The Villa Doria (formerly Algiati), in which Raphael lived, contains three fresco paintings of this great master. The Villa Farnese contains the remains of the palace of the Roman emperors. The capital (q. v.) contains so many and such magnificent objects of eveiy descrip- tion, that it is impossible to enumerate them here. We must be satisfied with mentioning the equestrian statue of Mar- cus Aurelius, before the palace; the Captive Kings, in the court; the columnarostrata; and within, the colossal statue of Pyrrhus; the tomb of Severus; the Centaurs, of ba- salt; the beautiful alabaster pillars; the masterpiece in mosaic, which once be- longed to cardinal Furietti, representing three doves on the edge of a vessel filled with water, which is described by Pliny. The fountains are among the principal ornaments of the squares in Rome. The fountain in the Piazza Navona, the most splendid of them all, has been particularly admired ; it is surmounted by an obelisk, and ornamented by four colossal statues, which represent the four principal rivers in the world. The fountain of Paul V, near the church di San Pietro in Monto- rio, is in bad taste, but furnishes such a body of water, that several mills are car- ried by it. Tin* fountain di Termini is adorned with three reliefs, representing Moses sulking water from the rock, and 84 ROME (MODERN CITY). with a colossal statue of that prophet, with two ^Egyptian lions in basalt. The splen- did fountain of Trevi supplies the best water, which it receives through an an- cient aqueduct. Among the streets, the Strada Felice and the Strada Pia, which cross each other, are the most remarkable ; among the bridges, that of St. Angelo (formerly Pons ^Elius), 300 feet in length; and among the gates, the Porta del Popolo (formerly Porta Flaminia). Of ancient monuments, the following yet remain : the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the column of Trajan, that of Antonine, the amphitheatre of Vespasian; the mausoleum of Augustus, the mausoleum of Adrian (now the for- tress of St. Angelo); the triumphal arches of Severus, Titus, Constantine, Janus, Nero and Drusus; the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Stator, of Jupiter Tonans, of Concordia, of Pax, of Antoninus and Faustina, of the sun and moon, of Romu- lus, of Romulus and Remus, of Pallas, of Fortuna Virilis, of Fortuna Muliebris, of Virtue, of Bacchus, of Vesta, of Minerva Medica, and of Venus and Cupid; the re- mains of the baths of Dioclesian, of Cara- calla and Titus, &c.; the ruins of the the- atre of Pompey, near the Curia Pompeii, where Caesar was murdered, and those of the theatre of Marcellus; the ruins of the old forum (now called Campo Vaccino); the remains of the old bridges; the circus maximus ; the circus of Caracalla ; the house of Cicero ; the Curia Hostilia; the trophies of Marius; the portico of Philip and Octavius; the country house and tower of Maecenas; the Claudian aqueduct; the monuments of the family of Aruns, of the Scipios, of Metella (called Capo di Bove); the prison of Jugurtha (Carcere Mamertino), in which St. Peter was im- prisoned ; the monument of Caius Cestius, which is entirely uninjured, in form of a pyramid, near which the Protestants are buried ; the Cloaca Maxima, built by Tarquin, &c. Besides the obelisk near the Porta del Popolo, that raised in the pontificate of Pius VI, on mount Cavallo, is deserving of notice. The principal col- lections of literature and the arts have already been noticed ; but the Museo Kircheliano deserves to be particularly mentioned: there are, besides, many pri- vate collections and monastic libraries, which contain many valuable works. Such treasures, especially in the arts, make Rome the great school of paint- ers, statuaries and architects, and a place of pilgrimage to all lovers of the arts ; and there are here innumerable studj of paint- ing and sculpture. Roman art seems to have received a new impulse. The acad- emy of San Luca was established solely for the art of painting; and there are also many literary institutions in the city. Tht principal college of the university, erected by the popes Innocent IV (1245), Boni- face VIII (1303), and Clement VI (1311), is called delta Sapienza, from its motto, Initium sapientia timor Domini. It is a splendid building, in which there are eight professors in theology, six in law, eight in medicine, five in philosophy, one in the fine arts, and four in the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac and Arabic languages. Of the other colleges, in which instruction is given in the sciences and in languages, the Collegium de propaganda Fide is par- ticularly remarkable for its rich library and its printing-office, which is worthy of being visited, and which contains works in thirty ancient and modern languages : besides these are the Collegium Clemen- tinum, the Collegium Romanum and the Collegium Nazarenum, institutions for in- struction in the Oriental languages, the Hungarian and the German college, &c, Among the academies and learned socie- ties in Rome, the most important are the academies of Roman history, of geogra- phy, of ecclesiastical history, of Romas antiquities, of the Arcadians, &c. Th« two principal theatres are those of Al- berti and Argentina, in which operas and ballets are exhibited ; the theatres della Valle and di Capranica are of the second rank, in which comic operas, comedies, and sometimes tragedies, are performed. La Paze and La Palla Corda are of the lowest rank, in which the opera buffa and farces are acted for the amusement of the populace. But they are opened only for a short time during the year. The festi- vals in Rome most worthy of notice ar« the grand procession on Corpus Christi day, and the ceremonies of Passion week in the Sistine chapel, where is performed the immortal Miserere of Leo Allegri; the illumination of the cross on St. Peter's, the illumination of the Pauline chapel, &c.; besides these, there are the illumina- tion of the immense dome of St. Peter's, upon the day of that saint, the great fire- works, or the Girandola of 4500 rockets, which are discharged from the castle of St. Angelo, upon the anniversary of the pope's coronation, and which produce an indescribable effect, on account of the vi- cinity of the river, in whose waters tht lights are reflected. (For the Carnival, Bee the article.) The climate of Rome from July until October is unhealthy, and the foreigner is then exposed to dangeroiw ROxME (MODERN)—ROMAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 85 fevers. This aria cattiva renders whole quarters of the city uninhabitable during these months. It appears to extend grad- ually, and to be about to take full posses- sion of the eternal city. (See Campagnadi Roma, Malaria, and Pontine Marshes.) The south wind, known by the name of sirocco, affects the elasticity of the muscles without being dangerous. Consumption has in Rome a malignant character, com- municating itself to the healthy by means of articles of clothing and furniture, and spreading among occupants of the same house with the diseased person, even with- out such adventitious aid. It is even com- municated by books. The water is different in different parts of the city. The fountain of Trevi furnishes the most wholesome wa- ter ; that from the therma of Dioclesian and the fountain of Gianicola is unwholesome, and banished from all tables. In Rome, the hours are counted up to 24, as is the case in many of the other Indian cities. The most frequented promenade is UieCor- so. From 22 to 24 o'clock (5 to 7), it is filled with pedestrians and equipages. In 1824, Rome contained 136,300 inhabitants ; 35,900 houses; 346 churches, 81 of them parish churches; 30 monasteries, and up- wards of 120 palaces. In 1830, the pop- ulation was 144,542, among which were 35 bishops and archbishops, 1490 priests, 1983 monks, 2390 nuns, and 10,000 Jews residing on the left bank of the Tiber, in a quarter called Ghetto. The view of the majestic ruius; the solemn grandeur of the churches and palaces; the recollections of the past; the religious customs; the magic and almost melancholy tranquillity in the splendid villas; the enjoyment of the end- less treasures of art,—all this raises the mind to a high state of excitement.—See Fea's Descnzione ; the splendid Vedute di Roma, by Piranesi (2 vols., folio, 138 plates); Description of Rome, by Platner, Bunsen and Gerhard, with a Sketch of the History of the old, and of the Restora- tion of the new City, by Niebuhr, with plans and views, in two volumes (in Ger- man) ; Rome in the 19th Century. For other works on the subject, see the article Italy, Travels in. Roman jEra, and Calenoar. (See Calendar, and Epoch.) Roman Language. The old Latin and the Roman languages are different. From the first—traces of which are yet to be found in the laws of Uie twelve tables, and which became obsolete so early that, in the time of Cicero, the hymns of the Salii (priests of Mars) were unintelligi- ble^—the Roman language was formed, VOL. xi. 8 posterior to the adoption of Uie laws of the twelve tables, not without being influ- enced by the Greek. It was divided into the sermo urbanus, rusticus, and peregri- nus. The first of these dialects was spok- en hi Rome itself, the second in the coun- tiy, and the third generally in the prov- inces. If we possessed the Origines of the elder Cato, we should be able to de- cide with certainty who were the earliest inhabitants of Italy, and what was the ori- gin of the native Latin language. We are able only to discover from the scattered and disconnected accounts of the an- cients that the OZnotrii (who were proba- bly of Arcadian, or, rather of Pelasgian origin), the Ausonii (among these are in- cluded the Osci and Volsci), the Sabelli or Sabines, the Tyrhenii (Emirians and Tuscans, from whom originated the augu- ry and the priesthood of the Romans), and, lastly, the Umbri, are to be considered as the principal aborigines of Italy, to whom the old Latins, or the abgrigines, as they were called, joined themselves. With these the Trojans under JEneos were in- corporated ; but the number of these was too small to have any decisive influence upon the Latin language, although these foreigners at length obtained dominion over the whole countiy. The Greek col- onies are more important hi this view, viz. the Achaians, Locrians and Dorians, who inhabited Middle and Lower Italy, and extended then* customs, and even the com- mon use of their language, beyond their own settlements hi this country. The Latin must, therefore, necessarily have been much influenced by the language of these colonies. Besides Uie old Italian language, we read of the Etrurian, Uie Oscian, and the Volscian, which, perhaps, were only di-fferent dialects. The Oscian maintained itself still later among the At- ellani. After Uie conquest of the south of Italy and Sicily, of Macedonia and Achaia, the Greek language must have been better known to the Romans; and thus the influence of the Greek language upon the formation of the Roman came to be of more importance. We likewise find, in the derivation of many words, as well as in the syntax of this language, fre- quent traces of Greek origin ; and, indeed, the oldest Roman auUiors (for example, Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, and even Catullus) make use of many Greek idi- oms. The Romanic languages (see Ro- manic) are formed, for Uie most part, from the dialect of the countiy and the prov- inces. Roman Literature. The history of 86 ROMAN LITERATURE. Roman literature is generally divided into four periods:—1. from the earliest times till Cicero; 2. till the death of Augustus, usually called the golden age, to which, however, some earlier writers are consid- ered to belong; 3. till the death of Tra- jan, called the silver age ; 4. till the sub- jugation of Rome by the Goths, called the brazen age. Poetry, in this language, as in all others, preceded prose; but Ro- man prose was not of native growth; it was an exotic, to which Greek models first gave birth, and which rhetoric and the schools afterwards improved (see Rhet- oricians); for native poetry in Rome was blighted in Uie bud by Grecian influence. To this belong the Saturaian songs. Among the first essays in poetry were the Atdlana Fabula (q. v.), and the succeed- ing attempts were likewise, with few ex- ceptions, dramatic. Livius Andronicus, a Greek captive of Tarentum, first gave the Odyssey to the Romans, about 500 years after the foundation of the city, and made them acquainted with the dramati- cal riches of the Greeks by means of Lat- in translations, or imitations of Greek tragedies and comedies. He was follow- ed by Naevius, who wrote a historical po- em on the first Punic war, the two tragic writers Pacuvius and Attius, and by En- nius (q. v.), the first epic poet, and the founder of Roman poetry, whom Cicero and Virgil esteemed very highly. Ennius introduced the Greek hexameters, and wrote the Roman annals, in eighteen liooks, &c. Contemporary with him was Plautus, of whose pieces twenty-one are now extant. His power was greatest in low comedy; he possessed humor, wit, and1 a genuine comic language. Next fol- low Caecilius, of whose works we are ac- quainted with the titles and fragments of forty-five pieces, and Terence, a success- ful imitator of Menander and others, who was distinguished by the truth and delica- cy of his dialogue, his finished style, and Uie regular disposition of his Greek char- acter pieces. These three comic writers took the new comedy of the Greeks as their model (comadia palliata). On the other hand, Afranius, with a few others, intrdduced Roman manners upon the stage (comadia togata). Soon after him, Lucilius (q. v.) discovered a talent for sat- ire, of which he was the father among the Romans. The Romans, after this pe- riod, had no distinguished dramatic writ- ers ; their pieces were mostly translations or imitations of Grecian works. Of the mima (comic monodramas) of Laberius and Syras, we know too little to assign them a definite place; but they are celebrat- ed. The later tragic writers, likewise, of the Augustan age, Asinius Pollio, Varius with his Thyestes, and Ovid with his Medea, are praised; but it is easy to imagine- the causes which must have contributed to prevent tragedy from flourishing on the Roman stage. We need only to remem- ber the kings led in triumph, and left to perish in prison, the gladiatorial games, and the combats of wild beasts. Among a people who took delight in such scenes, we could not expect to find a relish for the tamer excitement and moral influence of tragic spectacles. The only specimen of the tragic poetry of a later age which is preserved to us, is the ten tragedies under the name of Annaeus Seneca, but which are, not without reason, ascribed to several authors. They are rude decla- mations, without nature or truth, which originated from the schools of the rheto- ricians ; and their bombast could please only the most uncultivated minds. Lu- cretius, who took a new path among the earlier poets of Rome, wrote a philosophi- cal poem, in six books, concerning the na- ture of things, after the system of Epicu- rus, which he adorned with a true poetic coloring. He took a different course from many scientific poets among the Greeks, and is an animated delineator of nature, full of strength and originality, but not without harshness and obscurity. Catul- lus was distinguished in a different de- partment—in lyric poetry, in elegy, and in epigrams. He had much real wit and delicacy of feeling, but, like most of the amorous and satirical poets of the an- cients, paid too little regard to decency of expression, which is easily explained by the relative condition of the two sexes at that time. Much purer and more grace- ful are the works of Tibullus, to whom we may, with Quinctilian, adjudge the first rank among elegiac poets. With the age of Augustus, and the loss of liberty, a new spirit appeared in Roman litera- ture. Augustus himself and Maecenas were the patrons of poetic talent. The first of the poets thus patronised is Virgil, who, in his ^Eneid, represents the land- ing of ./Eneas and the foundation of his dominion in Latium. Although the poet himself directed this work to be destroy- ed, on account of its imperfect state, it is a noble monument of his wish to create for his contemporaries a new Iliad; and, though he has fallen short of his model, he cannot be denied the praise of patriot- ic feeling, refined taste, and highly poet- ical language. More perfect, of its kind, ROMAN LITERATURE. 87 is his poem on agriculture (Georgica), which, in the form of a didactic poem, and in a highly finished style, exhibits his views and feelings respecting rural life. His earlier Eclogues, or pastorals, manifest the same love for nature and a country life. If we recognise in Virgil the first epic and didactic poet of the Romans, Horace is the favorite of the lyric muse, and the priest of the muses, although one cannot judge with certainty concerning his originality, after the loss of his Gre- cian models ; yet his odes are often found- ed upon national subjects, and then he discovers strong feelings, expressed in a manner becoming a Roman. Many of his odes are patriotic, and others breathe a most charming grace. This poet is also eminent in satire, a species of writing original with the Romans, and which ap- pears to have had a decisive influence on the character of their literature. In most of his epodes and epistles, he touches, with a playful ease and great versatility, upon the ridiculous rather than the crim- inal, although the latter was not altogeth- er excluded from his satire. In the Au- gustan age, Propertius and Ovid are among the elegiac poets whom we still possess. In Propertius, a certain dignity appears in the midst of his habitual sensuality, al- though he was often forced in his thoughts and expressions. The most fruitful poetic talent, and the greatest ease of versification, cannot be denied to Ovid (q.v.); he only in- dulged too much in his fertility of invention, and was often unmanly in his elegiac com- plaints. The most characteristic of his poems are the Fasti, or the poetical de- scription of the Roman festivals, and their origin ; the least pleasing are, perhaps, his Heroides, or heroic epistles, of which he is the inventor. They are too monoto- nous, and too much filled with amorous complaints, to have either dignity or truth ; they are rather to be considered as rhe- torical exercises. Of the other poets be- longing to this age there is little to be said. Some esteemed elegiac writers, such as Pedo Albinovanus and Cornelius Gallus, are almost entirely lost to us. A poem upon ^Etna, attributed to Cornelius Seve- rus, who is praised by Quinctilian, has lit- tle inventive power; and the didactic po- em of Gratius Faliscus upon the chase (Cynegeticon), and that of Manlius upon astronomy, some passages excepted, are more valued for then* materials than their mauner, which, though inferior, resem- bles Uie productions of the Alexandrian school of Greek poetry.—The third age, after the death of Augustus, begins with Phaedrus, an imitator of j-Esop, who has more merit, in regard to style, than inven- tion and manner. The degeneracy of Roman poetry is displayed in the harsh and obscure Persius. He and Uie later Juvenal expressed their indignation at Uie comiption of the age with unrestrained severity, but have more moral than poeti- cal value. In the principal writers of Uie later poetry—Lucan, who returned to the historical epic in his versification of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, and the bombastic Statius, who wrote the Thebaid and the beginning of the Achil- leis, in verse, to say npthing of the minor poets—we find a universal barrenness of invention, and a coldness, which vainly endeavors to kindle itself and its hearers by the fire of rhetoric. These poets had long since lost all poetic feeling, and even the love of republican freedom. With such a corrupt taste as that of the Ro- mans, poets like the pompous Statius, or the wanton epigrammatist Martial,to whom we cannot deny wit and fertility of inven- tion, could alone be successful. Lucan, however, with all his defects of plan and unworthy adulation, sometimes exhibits great elevation of sentiment, vigor of ex- pression, and a happy delineation of char- acter. Valerius Flaccus, who describ- ed Uie Argonautic expedition in verse, in imitation of Apollonius Rhodius, endeavored to shine by his learning, rather than by his originality and fresh- ness of coloring, and Silius Italicus, a great admirer of Virgil, who selected the second Punic war, as Uie subject of a he- roic poem, is merely a historic poet. In the fourth period, Roman literature sunk to a still lower state. The twenty-four fables of Arvienus, or Arvianus, are in a stiff and forced style ; on the other hand, the poem of Nemesianus, on the pleasures of the chase, and the seven eclogues of Calpurnius, have some pretensions to pu- rity and ease of style. Ausonius, in his epigrams and idyls (so called), and par- ticularly in his poems on the Moselle, forms as it were the line of division be- tween Uie ancient and the modem world ; Claudian appears almost a miracle hi this brazen age. Although not free from rhe- torical and epigrammatical excrescences, and, from the desire of displaying his learning, he is still far above his age, and often approaches to a graceful style. We conclude this part of the subject with Ru- tilius Numantianus, whose voyage to Gaul, in elegiac measure, is not without merit, and with two Christian poets, Pruden- tius and Sedulius, in whose writings we 88 ROMAN LITERATURE. find hardly any thing but modern features and the first germs of the church songs. In the Roman prose literature, which is, on the whole, of' a higher character than the poetical, eloquence, history, philoso- phy and jurisprudence are the principal departments. After the Romans had en- tered Greece as conquerors, and began to pay more attention to learning, and par- ticularly after they became sensible of the political importance of eloquence, the Greeks were necessary to their conquer- ors, as teachers of rhetoric, and of the Greek language and literature, although in this period they were twice banished from Rome. (See Rhetoricians, and Grammarians.) Theoretical instruction was connected with the practice of* decla- mations, as a preparation for public speak- ing, as forensic eloquence was always the object of ambition during the republic. Of their orators we know many merely by name and by the reputation which they enjoyed. To this class belong Cor- nelius Cethegus, Tiberius Gracchus, Cotta, Sulpicius, but particularly Licinius Crassus, Antonius, Hortensius, and even Caesar himself. Cicero not only acquired the most splendid fame in eloquence, the finest models of which we possess in the fifty-nine orations of his yet extant, but also appears a<$ a teacher in his rhetorical works, and in general had a most im- portant part in founding Roman prose literature. In the age of Augustus, after the death of the last champion of Roman liberty, free eloquence necessarily became silent; yet the works of this, and even of later periods, were more or less imbued with Uie old spirit. The panegyric of Pliny the younger upon Trajan may be considered as the last note of Roman elo- quence : the author was distinguished in Rome as a forensic orator. We can best judge of the fallen state of eloquence by examining the works of Fronto, and later orators (the panegyrists), in imitation of Pliny. Quinctilian, a contemporary of Pliny, is to be regarded as the last stay of rhetoric, both by instniction and his own example. We have under his name 19 greater and 145 smaller declamations. But his merit is greater as a rhetorician and grammarian. In his twelve books De Institutions oratorio, he explains the characteristics of the best models, and at the same time lays down the best rules. Cicero, Caesar, and Terentius Varro, in Uie most flourishing ages of Roman lite- rature, had, by their grammatical writ- ings, contributed to promote a scientific study of the language, and to give it there- by a settled fonn. Varro, the most learn- ed philologist and antiquarian of his age, wrote a work upon the Latin language, in twenty-four books, of which only six remain entire. In a rhetorical view, the declamations (controversia and suasoria) of" Marcus Seneca, and particularly the valuable dialogue On the Causes of the Decline of Eloquence, which has been attributed by most authors to Quinctilian, must be named. Later grammarians, or teachers of language and literature of* the age of the Antonines, are Aulus Gellius, Censorinus, Nonius Marcellus, Pompo- nius Festus, Macrobius, Donatus and Priscianus, who are valuable for their grammatical information, their commen- taries upon more ancient authors, and then* preservation of fragments of them. The first historical writings were merely details of events, preserved in the annals of the high priest (pontifex maximus), upon a tablet in his house, and the catalogue of the consuls, with a notice of the most remarkable events, recorded in the temple of Juno Moneta (libri lintei). Fabius Pictor, Albinus Posthumius, the elder Ca- to, Coelius Fannius, Valerius of Antium, and some others, were the first historians among the Romans, but without any pre- tensions to skill in the historical art. Great authors firet appeared in the most splendid age of Rome. The spirit, the beautiful simplicity and the judicious style of Julius Caesar, in his Commenta- ries on the Gallic and Civil Wars, carried on by himself, have always been admired. The style of Sallust is sometimes forced, but he displays great care in his nan*ative and in his delineation of character, with such richness of thought and depth of ob- servation,that he may not disadvantageous- ly be compared with his model Thucydi- des. If we except the lost universal history of Trogus Pompeius, Livy embraces the widest field among the Roman historians, and deserves to be called perfect in nar- ration and style, although some have at- tributed to him a certain Patavinity (the provincial dialect of his native city, Pata- vium). His history begins with the arri- val of .(Eneas in Italy, and reaches to the year of Rome 744; but a few books only are extant. Cornelius Nepos stands next to these models of historical writing, with his lives of distinguished generals, at least for purity of style. It is to be la- mented that his pruicipal historical work is lost. Under the oppression of despot- ism, even history, which had hitherto been so well sustained by the Romans degenerated: this appears from the forced ROMAN LITERATURE. 89 and declamatory style of Velleius, from whom we possess a short sketch of Ro- man history, in which he indulges in Uie grossest flattery. Floras is still more to be condemned: he wrote an abridgment of Roman history ; but his style is bom- bastic, and his adulation disgraceful. Va- lerius Maximus, hi his memoirs of mem- orable men, is a mere compiler and col- lector of anecdotes. Suetonius, besides his rhetorical and grammatical works, wrote the lives of the emperors, which are interesting from their contents. Taci- tus elevated himself above a degenerate age by his truly Roman spirit, his depth of thought, and power of expression, which has been often imitated, but seldom with success. It may be said, with truth, that hi him the poet, the philosopher and the historian are united. After Trajan, we meet no great authors ; but Greek lit- erature again asserted its claims, and Ro- man history was treated of by Greek authors. It is perhaps owing to Justin's abridgment, that we have lost Uie general history of Trogus Pompeius, in forty-four books. So great was Uie ignorance of Roman history under the later emperors, that Eutropius was ordered by the empe- ror Valens to write a short sketch of it. Of Aurelius Victor little need be said, and we cannot greatly lament the loss of his principal work upon the origin of the Roman people, which extended only through one year after the foundation of Rome. Ammianus Marcellinus is of su- perior merit, and, although his style is somewhat barbarous, contains interesting views, and displays a sound judgment. The six authors of the imperial history (Scriptores Historia Augusta), Spartianus, Capitolinus, Trebellius, Vopiscus, Galli- canus. and' Lampridius, deserve litUe praise. The Romans distinguished them- selves in philosophy only by spreading the doctrines of the Greek philosophers in a popular language ; and the most em- inent statesmen, in Uie most flourishing periods of Rome, were friends and ad- mirers of philosophy. Among the earlier Romans, Lielius, Scipio Africanus the younger, and Lucullus, deserve to be men- tioned in this view. Of Uie lofty spirit of Lucretius, although he embraced an odious system, and the principles of Hor- ace, who called Epicureanism an insane ivisdom, we have already spoken; but Cicero, by the introduction of the more elevated moral philosophy of Uie Greeks, rendered the most important service to the intellectual cultivation of his country- men. He did not wander in the laby- rinths of speculation, but he clung to philosophy in prosperity and adversity. and taught it in a classical language. Originally a follower of Plato, he often adopted the eUiical lessons of the Stoics, or, when their excessive austerity repelled him, embraced those of Aristotle. The doctrines of Epicurus he rejected as inju- rious to men, and especially in their rela- tions of citizens. His works also afford much information in regard to the history of ancient philosophy ; for example, his Tusculan questions. Philosophy, alUiough sometimes persecuted by the emperors, as it had been earlier by Cato the elder, always found admirers at Rome, and al- most every school had its adherents there; but it was more the subject of conversa- tion, in the schools and in the world, than of writings. The old academy and the school of Epicurus were at first Uie most popular; but oppression turned men to Stoicism, which, with its pompous apo- thegms, influenced some of Uie poets also, as Lucan, for example. The philosopher Annaeus Seneca, in the age of Nero, of whom, besides other works, we possess twelve philosophical treatises, is distin- guished for his artificial subtleties and glittering antiUieses ; but his writings con- tain many excellent thoughts, finely ex- pressed. In the fourth period of Roman literature, we shall only mention Apuleius. The most known of his productions is Uie Golden Ass. He was of the sect of the New Platonists; and, even in the pleasing tale of Psyche, we find traces of the Pla- tonic philosophy. The epistolary style is connected with eloquence, and Roman literature contains some collections of epistles worthy of imitation. The letters of Cicero are mostly addressed to the greatest men of his age, on passing events, and are written with purity, and elegance, and simplicity. They contain authentic materials for the history of the time, and are the last memorials of the republic. The letters of Pliny the younger are writ- ten with taste and elegance, and give us a pleasing picture of their author ; but they are too artificial, and appear to owe their existence less to any real occasion for writing Uian to the wish of appearing as an author. The twenty-four letters of Annaeus Seneca to Lurilius relate chiefly to the philosophical system of the Stoics, and are more worthy of attention for their matter, than their manner, which partakes of the common faults of his style. We have yet to notice Uie letters of* Symmachus, about the end of the fourth century, and those of Uie still later 90 ROMAN LITERATURE. Apollinarius Sidonius, who was also known as a poet The former are not unsuccessful imitations of Pliny the younger; the latter are marked by the faults of their age, but are interesting for their contents. With the poets are con- nected the mythological authors of the Romans. The Roman worship was in a great measure similar to Uiat of the Greeks, but by no means entirely the same, as many have supposed: the he- roic mythology of the Greeks was intro- duced into Rome by the poets, although it had no connexion with the national traditions. The Roman mythological writers, therefore, derived their knowl- edge mostly from Greek sources, and have little that is peculiar or original. The domestic religion of the Romans is to be learned from their antiquarian and historical authors. Hyginus, whose age we cannot accurately determine, left a collection of 277 mythological stories, which are, perhaps, the outlines of ancient tragedies. A poetical astronomy of the same author illustrates the constellations celebrated in poetry. The age of Ful- gentius, by whom we have three books of mythological fables, is equally uncer- tain. Petronius, a contemporary of Nero, may most properly be mentioned here, as he is connected with the poets by his Satyricon, in which he describes the cor- ruption of his age with wit and vivacity, and by his poetical pieces interspersed through that work. In mathematics, the Greeks had laid the foundation for a sci- entific geometiy and astronomy, and med- icine opened a wide field for their inven- tive spirit. In all these departments, the Romans were not much distinguished. Among the mathematical authors, Vitru- vius is the first, both in time and merit He was also an architect; and his work on architecture is still highly esteemed. Frontinus wrote upon aqueducts, Vege- tius upon the military art (the application of mathematics to the art of war could not fail to find favor among the Romans); and after him Firmicus Maternus wrote a Mathesis ; but this is, in reality, a treatise on astrology, as was also the work of Ju- lius Obsequens on prodigies. Pomponius Mela and Vibius Sequester are worthy of being mentioned as geographers. The latter gives a list of the names of rivers, seas, mountains, forests, &c. Tacitus, by his description of ancient Germany, may be included under this head. Physicians were first esteemed among the Romans after Uie time of Caesar and Augustus ; and the eight books of Celsus on medi- cine, which form only a part of a large encyclopaedia, are very important, both on account of their contents and their style. iEmilius Macer and Aulus Apuleius (not the Apuleius before mentioned) wrote concerning the qualities of plants. We also possess some unimportant treatises on med- icine by Scribonius Largus and Marcellus Empiricus; and there is still extant a poem on the subject of this science by Serenus Sammoniacus, a favorite of the emperor Severus. Several agricultural works of the Romans are entirely lost to us. There is still extant a work on agriculture, which bears the name of Cato the elder ; and the three books of the learned Varro on hus- bandly are very important and instructive. The works of Columella and Palladiuson agriculture, are partly written in verse, and deserve commendation. A miserably writ- ten work on the art of cookery is ascribed to the notorious gourmand Apicius.— Among the polyhistors is Pliny the elder, who wrote a work on natural history, in which he at the same time treated of cos- mography and geography, medicine and the arts, with great erudition, but yet in a stiff style. He has given us an example of what the Romans might have done, with their great advantages, for the exten- sion of human knowledge. Solinus made an abridgment of this work. Fi- nally Marcianus Capella, in the fifth cen- tury, wrote, in barbarous language, a sort of encyclopaedia, under the name of Sa- tyricon (on account of the variety of its contents), in which he treated of several of the sciences, with their most important principles. On a review of Roman litera- ture, we find, that it continued to flourish only for a short time, from Cicero till the death of Trajan, that the prose reached a higher degree of excellence than poetiy, in which various departments obtained va- rious success, and that, notwithstanding the merits of the Romans in art and litera- ture, the Greeks excelled them. Perhaps their literature, at least the poetry, would have attained a greater elevation, if they had imitated less, and sought for original ideas in domestic scenes.—See Manso, On the Characteristics of Roman Litera- ture (in German, Breslau, 1818); Cavria- na, Delle Scienze, Lettere ed Arti dei Ro- mani dalla Fondazione di Roma fino al Augusto, Mantua, 1822, 2 vols.); Dun- lop's History of Roman Literature (3 vols., 1828). In jurisprudence alone did Ro- man literature acquire an entirely peculiar character, and an elevation which it has maintained down to the latest times, and which has enabled it to exert a powerful ROMAN LITERATURE—ROMULUS. 91 influence on all Uie refined nations of modern Europe. (See Civil Law.) Roman School. (See Italy; division, Italian Art.) Rom illy, sir Samuel, an eminent law- yer, the son of a jeweller, of French extraction, was born in London, in 1757. He received a private education, and was placed in the office of a solicitor, which he quitted to study for the bar, to which he was called in 1783. For some years his practice was chiefly confined to draughts in equity; but he gradually rose to distinction in the court of chancery, in which he ultimately took the lead, being equally distinguished by his profound le- gal information, and logical and forcible eloquence. His general politics agreeing with those of the whigs, he was, during the short administration of Mr. Fox and lord Grenville (1806), appointed solicitor- general, and knighted. When his party went out of office, he remained in parlia- ment, where he became distinguished by his talent in debate, and particularly by the eloquence with which he pleaded the necessity of a revision of the criminal code, wiUi a view to the limitation of capital pun- ishment, and a more appropriate regulation of the scale of penalties. On this subject he also composed a very able pamphlet— Observations on the Criminal Law of Eng- land (1810)—and to his exertions may be traced the final detennination of the ex- ecutive to the reforms and condensation of the various acts in regard to crime, which have since taken place under the superintendence of sir R. Peel. Sir Sam- uel Romilly also published Objections to the Creation of a Vice-chancellor (1812); and was in the height of popularity and reputation, when a nervous disorder, pro- duced by grief at the death of his wife, to whom he was devotedly attached, depriv- ed him of reason, and, hi a fit of temporary frenzy, he terminated his useful and phil- anthropic existence, November 2, 1818. A collection of his speeches, with a Me- moir of his Life, by H. Peters, was pub- lished in 1820. B. Constant published his Eloge (Paiis, 1819). Romulus was the founder and first king of Rome. According to tradition, his mother was Rhea Sylvia, a daughter of Nu- mitor, king of Alba, and one of the priest- esses of Vesta, who were employed in preserving the fire sacred to this goddess, and were bound to spend then* lives in strict chastity. She was devoted to the service of Vesta, by her uncle Amulius, who had deprived her father of liis tlirone, and wished to prevent her from having posterity who might dispossess him of his usurped crown. But the royal maid for- got her vow of chastity, and male twins were the fruit of her clandestine amour. In order to escape the horrible punishment denounced by the law against those ves- tals who violated their vows, Rhea Sylvia gave out that Mars, the god of war, was the father of her children. This artifice saved the mother, and a fortunate accident her children, who were exposed by com- mand of Amulius in a wild and desert country on the banks of the Tiber. Here a she wolf is said to have found them, and to have suckled them until chance brought thither a countryman, Faustulus by name, who took them home and educated them. With him Romulus and Remus spent their youth, exercising themselves in the chase, and sometimes in rapine. The younger, Remus, was taken prisoner by the servants of Amulius, and his courageous brother collected a small band of enterprising com- panions, with whom he not only freed his brother, but likewise deprived Amulius of his usurped throne, and reinstated his old grandfather Numitor in his dominions. After the termination of* this exploit, Rom- ulus, in connexion with his brother, re- solved to build a city. The gods, it is said, during a solemn sacrifice, pointed out the proper site, by the flight of seven eagles. Thus was Rome founded in the year 752 (according to others 754) B. C. The una- nimity which had heretofore prevailed be- tween the two brothers, ended with this enterprise: either from ambition or a sud- den burst of anger, Romulus imbrued his hands in his brother's blood. According to another tradition, Remus fled from the anger of his brother beyond the Alps, and founded Rheims. The small numbers of friends who had followed Romulus were by no means sufficient to people his city ; he saw himself, therefore, compelled to make it a place of refuge for every houseless ex- ile. Men enough were thereby gained ; but the Roman citizens soon wanted wo- men, and their proposals for the daugh- ters of the neighboring cities were reject- ed by the fathers of the maidens, who looked with an envious eye on the increase of this city. On this account Romulus in- stituted a religious festival, to which he invited the Sabines (see the article Sabines), with their wives and daughters. They came; but, in the midst of the festival, the unarmed strangers were suddenly attack- ed, and deprived of their wives and daugh- ters, and every Roman hastened to provide himself with a female companion. The two states thus became engaged in war; but 92 ROMULUS—ROOT. the entreaties of the ravished females, who threw themselves between the contending parties, at length effected a peace, and Rome gained by her union with the Sa- bines an important addition. Many suc- cessful wars, which always ended in ad- ditions of population and territory to the infant state, confirmed and extended its power. Romulus was strict and arbi- trary ; too much so, perhaps, for his sub- jects ; and his sudden disappearance nat- urally excited the conjecture that he fell by the hand of a malcontent. According to tradition, he ascended to heaven into the company of Uie gods, after he had completed the work of founding the eter- nal city; and, until the introduction of Christianity, Rome worshipped its founder in temples expressly dedicated to him. It is likewise possible that he was struck by lightning; for his disappearance is said to have happened during a tiiunderstorm, while he was without the city, near the marshes of Caprea, reviewing his army. Romulus reigned about thirty-seven years, and was about fifty years of age; and the rude, but, considering the time and circum- stances, the appropriate laws and ordi- nances, which he gave his people, bear wit- ness of his capacity as a ruler. When Romulus died, Rome, according to a cen- sus which he caused to be made a short time before his death, is said to have con- tained between 3000 and 4000 men ca- pable of bearing arms. (See Rome.) Roncesvalles (French Roncevaux); a valley in Navarre,. ■ between Pampeluna and St Jean de Port, where, according to tradition, the rear of Charlemagne's army was defeated by Uie Arabs, in 778, and the brave Roland (q. v.) killed. The battle forms an essential part in the fabulous cy- clus of Charlemagne. The chief place of Uie valley, called ateo Roncesvalles, is traversed by Uie (so called) gates of Roland, leading over the Pyrenees to France ; and hi Uie church of the little place, fabulous antiquities bearing the name of Roland are shown. The French, under Moncey, here defeated the Spaniards in 1794 ; and Soult took a strong position here in 1813, from which Wellington drove him. RoNno (Italian), or Rondeau (French); a composition, vocal or instrumental, gener- ally consisting of three strains, the first of which closes in the original key, while each of the others is so constructed, in point of modulation, as to reconduct the ear, in an easy and natural manner, to the first strain. The rondo takes its name from the circumstance of Uie melody go- ing round, after both the second and third strain, to the first strain, with which it finally closes. Ron sard, Pierre de, an early French poet, who contributed to the improvement of the language and literature of his coun- try, was born of" a noble family of" Ven- dome, in 1524. Having finished his edu- cation, he resided some time at the court of James V of Scotland, and, on his re- turn from his travels, was employed in a diplomatic capacity in Germany. At the Floral games, at Toulouse, he triumphed over his competitors, and received a silver statue of Minerva, which he presented to Henry II. He was greatly esteemed by that prince, and by his successors, Francis II and Charles IX. He distinguished himself in the wars against the Huguenots; obtained the abbey of Bellozane ; and was also prior of St Cosme,near Tours, where he died in 1585. His writings, consisting of sonnets, madrigals, eclogues, lyric pieces, elegies, and satires, and an epic poem, La Franciade, are of little merit. (See France, Literature of, division Poetry, pp. 264 and 265.) Roof. (See Architecture, vol. i. page 337.) Rooke, sir George, an English admiral, descended of an ancient family, in the county of Kent, was bom in 1650. His strong predilection for a seafaring life in- duced him to enter the royal navy at an early age, in which he rose to the highest situations. His conduct in several naval expeditions under king William and queen Anne placed his name high in his profes- sion ; especially the gallantry which he displayed in the destruction of the French and Spanish fleets in Vigo bay, 1702, and the capture of Gibraltar, in 1704. Sir George occupied a seat, during several par- liaments, for Portsmouth, and another at the council-board of the lord high admi- ral, prince George of Denmark. His votes on several occasions, particularly one in favor of Harley as speaker of Uie house of commons, in 1701, obscured his merits hi the eyes of the court party ; the value of his services was depreciated, and his good fortune ascribed to accident. He at length retired in disgust from the service to his family seat in Kent, where he died in 1709. (See Campbell's Lives of the Admirals.) Root, in arithmetic and algebra, de- notes any number or quantity, which, by successive multiplications into itself, pro- duces powers. (See Power.) Thus 2 is a root of 4, 8, 16, because 2x2 = 4- 2X2X2 = 8; 2x2x2X2:=16.' The power is named from the number of Uie factors, and the root is named from the power. Thus if a quantity be multi- ROOT—ROSA. 93 plied once by itself, the product is called the second power, or square, and the quan- tity itself the square root, or the second root of the product; if multiplied twice, we have the third power, or cube, and the quantity is the cube root, or third root; and so on: the fourth root is the biqua- drate. Beyond this the roots are com- monly called the fifth, sixth, &c. roots. The algebraic sign of root is */, and the fourth root of sixteen, equal to two, is writ- ten thus: ^/ 16=2. The same is the case with algebraic magnitudes: as, ^/(a»+2aA + 62) = a-|-&. Toextract the given root of mathematical expres- sions, is one of the most important of math- ematical operations. Root Husbandry. (See the article Agriculture.) Root, of plants. (See Plant.) Rope, in mechanics. (See Mechanics.) Ropiness ; a frequent disease of wines, which have undergone an incomplete fer- mentation ; or of sweet wines that have been bottled too soon. It shows itself by a milky or flaky sediment, and an oily ap- pearance of the liquor when poured out. It arises from a partial combination of the mucilaginous, exttactive, and saccharine principles of the wine. Rosa, Mount (Mons Sylvius); the high- est summit of the Swiss Alps, separating the Valais from Italy (lat. 45° 55' N.). (See Alps.) According to the latest meas- urements, it is about 15,535 feet high, be- ing from 200 to 250 feet lower than Mont Blanc, (q. v.) From the ever-blooming gardens of the Borromean isles, the trav- eller arrives in nine hours at Macugnaga, at the foot of the glaciers (q. v.) of mount Rosa. The valleys on the east and south are inhabited by people of German origin. Those on the west are uninhabited. Mount Rosa derives its name from its consisting of a number of lofty peaks, rising from a centre somewhat like the leaves of a rose. Jos. Zumstein made five journeys (1819— 1822) to Uie summit. In 1820, lie passed the night i**i a cleft in the ice twelve fath- oms deep, to be able to reach the summit the next day. The group seems to con- sist, particularly in its upper half, of mica slate, which alternates occasionally with gneiss. It contains gold, silver, copper, and iron mines. Granite, in large masses, is found only at the foot of the mountain. Winter and summer rye ripen here at the height of from 5500 to 6000 feet; the grape, as high as 3090 feet (on the north- ern side 2200 feet); a covering of green turf is found as high as 9639 feet; the pyrethrum Alpinum and Phyteuma pauci- florum grow 11340 feet above the sea, on rocks free from ice. Between the north and south side there is a difference in the limit of vegetation of almost 1000 feet. The limit of perpetual snow is, on the south side, 9500 feet; the limit of trees, 7000 feet.—See Der Monte Rosa, eine topographische und naturhistorische Skizze nebst emem Anhange der von Herrn Zum- stein gemachten Reisen zur Ersteigung seiner Gipfel (Vienna, 1824). Rosa, Salvator; a celebrated painter, distinguished likewise as a musician and a poet He was the son of an architect and surveyor, and was born at the village of Renella. in the kingdom of Naples, in 1615. He was intended for the church; but leaving, of his own accord, the semi- nary in which fie had been placed for education, at the age of sixteen, he de- voted himself to the study of music, and with such success that he became a skil- ful composer. His eldest sister having married Francesco Francanzani, a painter of considerable talent, Salvator, from fre- quenting his work-room, acquired a pre- dilection for the art, in which he after- wards excelled. He at first amused him- self with copying whatever pleased his fancy in the paintings of his brother-in- law ; and his latent genius being thus awakened, his sketches were so much admired, that he was easily persuaded to adopt painting as a profession. But his taste was formed more from the study of nature among Uie wilds of the Apennines than from the lessons of other artists; and he delighted in delineating scenes of gloomy grandeur and terrible magnifi- cence, to which the boldness of his con- ceptions, and the fidelity of his representa- tions, communicate a peculiar" degree of interest. He worked for some tune at Naples in obscurity, till, one of his pic- tures being observed by the famous painter Lanfranco, he generously recommended Salvator to notice, and procured him ef- fectual patronage and support. He re- moved to Rome, where he established his reputation, and raised himself to celebrity and independence. He afterwards went to Florence, where he was patronised and employed by the grand-duke and other members of the family of Medici. At length returning to Rome, he painted many pictures for the churches in that city, where he died in 1673. His satires and other poetical productions have been often printed under the title of Rime di Salvatore Rosa, Pittore e Poeta Napolitano. On account of his caustic wit, he was ex- cluded from the Roman academy. Some time after, the academy having refused 94 ROSA—ROSCOMMON. admission to another artist, who practised surgery as well as painting, Salvator Ro- sa observed that it was very injudicious in them, as the academy greatly needed a surgeon to replace the legs and arms that the members daily dislocated. Rosary, among the Catholics, consists of a string with a number of small beads of different sizes, which they use in say- ing over their prayers. It was intro- duced, according to some, by Domiriicus de Guzman, the founder of the Dominican friars, in the first half of the thirteenth century. There are always in the rosary five or fifteen divisions, each containing ten small beads and one large one: for each of the smaller beads an Ave Maria, and for each of the larger a Paternos- ter (q. v.) is repeated. The Benedictine monks; however, as early as the sixth century, are said to have repeated their prayers, while at their work, according to a series of small beads, which were fas- tened upon a string. In honor of the vic- tory obtained over the Turks at Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571), pope Gregory XIII, in 1573, instituted the festival of the rosary, which is annually solemnized on the firet Sunday of October. Pope Clement XI extended this festival through all the Catholic part of Western Europe, in hon- or of the victory gained over the Turks at Peterwardein, Aug. 5,1716. The Asi- atic worshippers of the grand lama, and the Mohammedans, make use of a similar string, provided with beads, for saying their prayers. The string of the Mohammedans has ninety-nine small beads, which they, in their prayers, drop through their fingers, one after the other, while they recount the ninety-nine quali- ties of the Deity, mentioned in the first part of the Koran. Their beads are gen- erally made of holy earth, from Mecca or Medina. Roscellinus. (See Nominalists.) Roscoe, William, was born in 1752. His parents were in an humble sphere of life, and could only afford him a common school education; and even this was inter- rupted. At an early age, he was articled to an attorney in Liverpool; and this obliged him to study the Latin language ; but he did not confine himself to what was necessary to his profession, and by dint of hard study, he read and made himself master of the most distinguished Latin classics. In this he was assisted by a friend. He next studied the Italian and French languages, and in the former he became uncommonly proficient. He still found time to attend to his business, and to peruse the English poets. At the age of sixteen, he commenced poet, and com- posed Mount Pleasant, a descriptive po- em. Having finished his clerkship, he was taken into partnership, by Mr. As- pinall, an attorney of considerable prac- tice ; and he carried on the whole of the business, to which he paid a strict atten- tion. During this period he contracted a friendship with doctor Enfield and doctor Aik'ui. Painting and statuary were also objects of his attention, and, in 1773, he read, at the society in Liverpool, an ode on those subjects, and also sometimes read lectures there. When the question of the slave-trade was brought before the public, Mr. Roscoe took a warm part in favor of the abolition, and most cordially joined Mr. Clarkson in his endeavors. He also wrote a reply to a Spanish Jesuit on that subject. His Scriptural Refuta- tion of a Pamphlet on the Licitness of the Slave-Trade, and his Wrongs of Africa, appeared in 1788; and, in 1795, he brought out the work which has gained him so much celebrity—the Life of Lo- renzo de' Medici (2 vols., 4to., 1795). About the year 1797, Mr. Roscoe retired from the practice of an attorney, and en- tered himself as a student of Gray's Inn, with a view to the bar. During this pe- riod, he had leisure for other studies, and published the Nurse, a poem, from the Italian, and wrote the Life and Pontificate of Leo X (4 vols., 1805). Though the Life of Leo is not equal to his Lorenzo, it is a composition which displays talent and extensive research. Mr. Roscoe be- ing attached to the whig party, they sup- ported bun as a candidate to represent Liverpool, and he was successful, but at the next election was thrown out. He had, some time before, entered into busi- ness at Liverpool as a banker, but was unsuccessful. He died in June, 1831. Mr. Roscoe was the author of several po- litical pamphlets, and the great mover and supporter of several public works in Liverpool. To the botanic garden and to the Atheneum he lent much effective assistance. His Life and Correspondence has been recently announced. Roscommon, Wentworth Dillon, earl of, was born in Ireland, in 1633, and was educated at Caen, in Normandy. Return- ing to England on the restoration, he plunged into the dissipation of the disso- lute court, ruined his estate by gamin**, became involved in quarrels, and found It necessary to go to Ireland. Here he pur- sued nearly the same course, and soon after returned to England. From this ROSCOMMON—ROSE FEASTS. 95 time he began to act with more discre- tion, and became distinguished among the wits of the day. On the accession of James II (q. v.), he went to Italy, and died at Rome in 1684. His principal production is the poetical Essay on trans- lated Verse. Johnson calls him the most correct writer of English verse before Dryden. Rose. The rose has always been the favorite flower among civilized nations. The beauty of its foliage, the elegance of its form, the large size and agreeable tints of the flowers, together with their de- licious fragrance, have all conspired to acquire for it the distinction of the queen of flowers. The species of rose are nu- merous, especially on the Eastern conti- nent, and are extremely difficult to distin- guish. All seem to be exclusively con- fined to the temperate and cold parts of the northern hemisphere. About half a dozen are found in the U. States. They are spiny shrubs, with pinnated leaves, provided with stipules at their base; the flowers are very large, and are disposed, in a greater or less number, at the sum- mit of the branches, or upon lateral branchlets; the calyx is enlarged below, and contracted at its orifice, where it divides into five lanceolate segments ; the corolla consists of five heart-shaped pet- als, and the stamens are numerous ; the seeds are very numerous, covered with a sort of down, aud are attached to the in- terior of the tube of the calyx, which, after flowering, takes the form of a fleshy globular or ovoid berry. The rose has given its name to a distinct family of plants, the rosacea, comprehending the apple, peach, cherry, raspbeny, straw- beny, fcc. Roses in general are not deli- cate with respect to the nature of the soil, but flourish in almost every kind. Their easy culture has distributed them into almost every garden. The color is, in different species and varieties, red, white, yellow, purple, or striped, either simple or in almost numberless shades and mixtures; the flowers are single, semidouble and double. Many hundred varieties are enumerated in the European catalogues, and new ones are produced annually : some of them are quite black. New varieties are obtained from seed, but the usual mode of propagation is by lay- ers. All will grow by cuttings, and some freely, but this mode is seldom resorted to. For preserving delicate varieties, the best mode seems decidedly that of bud- ding on hardier sorts. To produce strong flowers, requires some attention in prun- ing : old wood should be yearly cut out, and the young shoots thinned and short- ened according to their strength, aud whether number or magnitude of flowers be desired. Where very large roses are wanted, all the buds except that on the extreme point of each shoot should be pinched off as soon as they make their appearance, and the plant liberally sup- plied with water. Some roses are culti- vated on a large scale for commercial purposes, for distilling rose water, and for making ottar or essential oil of roses. Six pounds of rose petals will impregnate, by distillation, a gallon of water stt*ongly with their odor ; but a hundred pounds scarcely affords half an ounce of ottar. (See Ottar of Roses.) Perfumers, distil- lers and confectioners make great use of the perfume of the rose. A conserve and a sirup, which are used in medicine, are also prepared from their petals: these last, if bruised and reduced to a paste, moulded and dried, will preserve their fragrance for many years. In the north of Europe, the berries of the rose, with the addition of" sugar, are sometimes em- ployed in the preparation s of domestic wines; and the pulp, in a dried state, affords a grateful ingredient in sauces. The leaves of every kind of rose have been recommended as a substitute for tea; and in Europe are employed in currying the finer kinds of leather. Rose Acacia (robinia hispida); a high- ly ornamental, flowering shrub, inhabiting the southern parts of the Alleghany mountains, and now frequently seen in gardens, in Europe, as well as in the U. States. It is a species of locust, and the flowers resemble those of the common locust, but are very large, and rose-color- ed. Their beauty is enhanced by the brown, bristly covering of the stalks and calyx ; they somewhat resemble the moss rose, hi this respect. The stem is very hispid. (See Locust.) Rose Feasts. At Salency (a village near Noyon, in the ci-devant Picardy, now department of the Oise), a festival, of a peculiar kind, is celebrated June 8. A girl is selected (formerly by the seigneur, at present probably by the justice of the peace) from three most distinguished for female virtues. Her name is even pro- nounced from the pulpit, that objections may be made to her. She is afterwards conducted in procession to the church, where she hears the vesper service, kneel- ing in a place' of honor. After this, she used to open a ball in the evening with the seigneur. She receives a present. The 96 ROSE FEASTS—ROSES, WAR OF THE. girl is called la rosiere, because she is adorned with roses. The feast was imi- tated in several other places (e. g. at Su- rene, near Paris). Though the effect has been good, it is undoubtedly exaggerated by some travellers. The eighth of June is the day of St. Medard, bishop of No- yon (475 to 545), and tradition says he established the festival, but the Bolland- ists (q. v.) mention nothing of Uiis fact. It is more probable that its foundation dates from the time of Louis XIII. From him comes the silver clasp, which holds the wreatii of roses together; and to his time probably belongs the picture of the first rose feast in the church of Salency. Rose of Jericho(anastaticahierichun- tia); a cruciferous plant, growing in the arid wastes of Arabia and Palestine, which possesses the curious property of recovering its original form, however dry it may be, upon immersion in water. The generic name has been applied to it from this circumstance, and, in the Greek, sig- nifies resurrection. It is a small, annual, herbaceous plant, three or four inches high, with minute white flowers, which are succeeded by a little pod, divided into two cells, each containing one or two seeds. When the seeds are ripe, the leaves fall off, Uie branches curl inwards, and interlace, forming a rounded pellet about as large as the fist, which is torn up and rolled over the sands by the autumnal winds. In this state, if moistened, it grad- ually unrolls its branches, and contracts again into a ball as it becomes dry. This circumstance has often been taken ad- vantage of to impose on credulous per- sons. Rose Wood (amyris balsamifera); a small West Indian tree, the wood of which forms an important article of com- merce, and is much used by cabinet- makers for the covering or veneering of tables and other furniture. Its grain is of a dark color, and very beautiful. The tree yields an odoriferous balsam, much esteemed as a medicine in various dis- eases, and as an external application. A species of amyris grows wild in East Florida; but it is little known. Rosemary (rosemarinus officinalis); a shrubby, aromatic plant, growing wild in the southern parts of Europe. It belongs to the labiata, and has but two stamens. The stem is three or four feet high, bear- ing opposite linear and sessile leaves,which are smooth and shining above, and whit- ish and cottony on their inferior surface ; Uie flowers are pale-blue, or almost ash- colored, and disposed in little racemes, which arise from the axils of the leaves towards the extremities of Uie branches: Uiey expand in April and May. All parts of the plant have a strong and penetrat- ing odor. The leaves are used in Italy for seasoning certain dishes. Rosemary is tonic and stimulant, and formerly en- joyed considerable repute as a medicine, but is now rarely employed. It yields, by distillation, a light, pale, essential oil, of great fragrance. It is less used in medicine than as an aromatic, and is the principal ingredient in Hungary water.— A second species of rosemary is found to- wards the southern extreme of South America. Rosenmuller, John George, a cele- brated German theologian (born in 1736, died in 1815), was professor of theology at Erlangen and Leipsic, and distinguish- ed himself as a preacher, and by his ac- tivity in the cause of education. Of his numerous works, we shall mention only his Scholia in N. Testament., and his Hist. Interpretationis Librorum Sacrorum(5vo\s., 1795—1814).—His son Ernest Frederic Charles, a distinguished Orientalist, born in 1768, was educated at Leipsic, where he heard the lectures of Morus, Platner, Beck, &c. In 1795, he was extraordina- ry professor of Arabic, and, in 1813, or- dinary professor of Oriental literature. Among his works are his valuable Scho- lia in Vet. Testamentum ; Scholia in Nov. Testamentum; the East, in Ancient and Modern Times (6 vols., 1818—20); Man- ual of Biblical Antiquities, and Manual of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis (4 vols., in German). These works contain a great mass of valuable matter, critical, exegeti- cal, geographical, and historical. Rosen- muller has also rendered important ser- vices to Oriental literature by his Institu- tiones Lingua Arabica (1818); Arabum Adagia; Analecta Arabica (1826,2 vols.), &c.—A second son, John Christopher (born 1771, died 1820), was an eminent anatomist, and (1802) professor of anato- my and surgery at Leipsic. Besides some writings on subjects of natural history, he was the author of Anatomico-Surgical De- lineations (German and Latin, 1804—12, 3 parts), Manual of Anatomy, and of seve- ral articles in Pierer's Medical Dictionary, and other periodicals, and of various oth- er literary works. Roses, War of the, from the reign of Henry VI (1452) to that of Henry VII (1486). (See Great Britain; also Edward IV and V, Richard III, and Henry VI and VII.) * ROSETTA—ROSS. 97 Rosetta ; a city of Egypt, near Uie mouth of that branch of the Nile ancient- ly called the Bolbitic, now commonly called the canal of Rosetta (see Nile); lat. 31° 24' N.; Ion. 30° 28' E.; population, 13,500, principally Copts. Rosetta is thought to have been built by the caliphs, in the ninth century. It is important as a depot of goods brought down the river, and forms the medium of communication between Alexandria and Cairo. The city is more neatly built than the other Egyp- tian cities, and is particularly distinguish- ed for the beauty and luxuriant vegetation of its environs. The streets are not, how- ever, broad; and, as the houses are of several stories, each projecting over that beneath, they nearly meet at the top, which promotes coolness, but gives a gloomy appearance to the place. The celebrated Rosetta stone was found here during the French campaign in Egypt. (See Hieroglyphics.) Rosetta Stone.—See Hieroglyphics (p. 314); also the work of the marquis Spineto on Hieroglyphics, mentioned in that article. In his work, a full account is given of the discovery of the art of de- ciphering the hieroglyphics, for which this stone furnished the firet means. There is also (p. 58) a translation of the curious decree, which is partly reprinted in Stuart's Translation of Greppo's Essay on the Hieroglyphic System. Rosicrucians ; members of a society the existence of* which became known, unexpectedly, at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Its object was, os- tensibly, the refonnation of state, church, and individuals ; but closer examination showed that the discovery of the philos- opher's stone was the true object of the fully initiated. A certain Christian Ro- senkreuz, who was said to have lived long among the Bramins, in Egypt, &c, was pretended to have founded the order, in the fourteenth century; but the real foun- der is believed to have been Andrea, a German scholar, of the beginning of the sixteenth century, whose object, as is thought, was to purify religion, which had been degraded by scholastic philosophy. Others tiiink that he only gave a new char- acter to a society founded before him, by Agrippa von Nettesheim. Krause (men- tioned in Uie article Masonry, Free) says that Andrea occupied himself from early youth with the plan of a secret society for the improvement of mankind. In 1614, he published his famous Refonnation of the whole wide World, and Fama Fraternita- tis. Christian enthusiasts and alchemists vol. xi. 9 considered the society poetically de- scribed in those books as one really exist- ing ; and thus Andrea became the author of the later Rosicrucian fraternities, which extended over Europe, and were even brought into connexion with free-mason- ry. (q. v.) After a number of books had been written on the Rosicrucian system, and the whole exploded, the interest hi the Rosicrucians was revived, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, in conse- quence of the abolition of the order of Jesuits, and the stories of their secret •machinations, as well as of" the frauds of Cagliostro (q. v.) and other notorious im- postors. Rosiere, La. (See Rose Feasts.) Rosin. (See Resin.) Roskolnicians, also Raskolnicians ; schismatics of the Russian Greek church. They call themselves Starowerzi (i. e. fol- lowing the old faith), or Isbraniki (i. e. elected). They suffered much persecu- tion under Peter the Great. Catharine II gave them religious liberty. Many tribes of Cossacks and a great part of the inhab- itants of Siberia belong to this sect. Rosoglio, or Rosoli ; originally some- times used as a generic term for the creams, or superfine liqueurs (see Li- queurs), but is more generally applied to a certain species of these. Rosoli. (See Rosoglio.) Ross. (See North Polar Expedi- tions.) Ross, George, a signer of the Declara- tion of Independence, was born, in 1730, at Newcastle, Delaware, where his father was the pastor of the episcopal church. He commenced the study of the law in Philadelphia, at the age of eighteen, and, when admitted to the bar, establish- ed himself in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. In 1768, Mr. Ross was chosen a repre- sentative in the assembly of Pennsylva- nia, and retained his seat hi that body un- til 1774, when he was elected one of the delegates to the first general congress at Philadelphia. At the time of his election, he was also appointed to report to the as- sembly of the province a set of instruc- tions to regulate the conduct of himself and his associates. In 1777, indisposition caused Mr. Ross to resign his place in congress ; on which occasion Uie inhabit- ants of Lancaster voted him a piece of plate, to be paid for out of Uie county stock. Mr. Ross, however, thought it his duty to decline the present. On the dis- solution of the proprietary government in Pennsylvania, a general convention was assembled, in which Mr. Ross was ap- ROSS—ROSTOPSCHIN. pointed to assist in preparing a declaration of rights on behalf of the state, in form- ing rules of order for the convention, and in defining and settling what should be considered high treason and misprision of treason against Uie state, and what pun- ishment should be inflicted for those of- fences. In April, 1779, Mr. Ross was ap- pointed a judge of the court of admiralty for the state of* Pennsylvania; but, in the ensuing July, a sudden and violent attack of the gout terminated his life in the fifti- eth year of his age. Ross, Man of. (See Kyrle.) The vii- • lage of Ross is in Herefordshire, twelve miles south-east of Hereford, and a hun- dred and fifteen north-west of London. Rossbach ; a village, in the Prussian province of Saxony, between Naumburg and Mereeburg, famous for the derisive victory which Frederic the Great obtained there over the imperial and French troops under marshal Soubise, Nov. 5,1757. Rossberg; a mountain in Switzerland, near the east bank of lake Zug, and not far from Righi. (q. v.) In 1806, in con- sequence of a long continuance of heavy rain, a large mass detached itself, and covered with desolation the valley of Goldau. Part of it reached lake Lowerz, which rose above its banks. Above a hun- dred lives were lost by this disaster. Rossini, Gioachimo; the most popular of the living operatic composers of Italy, whose works have been received with equal applause on both sides of the At- lantic. In his seventeenth year, accord- ing to an Italian journal, Rossini began to unfold his musical talents, and in his thir- tieth year he had already numbered above thirty brilliant triumphs. The annals of music hardly contain another such in- stance of rapid success. Rossini was born at Pesaro, a small town of Romagna, in 1792: his father was a strolling musician, his mother an under singer at the inferior theatres. While a child, he sang on the stage at Bologna with his mother, but re- ceived no regular musical education, re- lying principally upon his acquaintance with the works of recent composers, Hay- dn, Mozart, Cherubini, Spontini, and his own talents for singing. He began to coin- pose at an early age, wrote an overture and a cantata(II Pianto d'Armonia)'m 1808, and became the director of a musical soci- ety. In 1812, his first opera was perform- ed at the theatre Delia Valle in Rome. His next productions were the following, writ- ten in the order in which they are given: L'Inganno felice (1812); Ciro in Babilo- nia, an oratorio; La Pietra di Paragone, a buffa, with which he made his debut in Milan and Ciampiale. His Tanrredi, which was brought forward at Venice in 1813, with brilliant success, attracted the greatest attention. From that time his works were called for by all the Italian theatres; and, by his rapidity of execution, he contrived, though often to the injury of his reputation, to answer all the de- mands made upon hiin. It is well known that the same overture sometimes serves for several operas, both comic and tragic. His next pieces were Aureli- ano in Palmira ; the buffa piece, 11 Turco in Italia; Elizabetta (1815); U Barbiere di Seviglia; Qtello(1816); Cenerentola; La Gazza ladra; Armida (1817); Moise; Ric- cardo e Zoraide (1818); Odoardo e Cris- tina; La Donna dd Logo ; Bianco e Fal- liero (1819); Matilda di Chabran, or Cor- radino (1821); Zdmira (1822); Semiramide (1823). In 1822, Rossini went to Vienna, and the next year to London. In 1824, he was at Paris, but produced little, and soon visited the northern parts of Ger- many. (See Italy, division Italian Music.) Rosstrappe (horse's hoof-mark); one of the finest spots in the Hartz mountains, near the village Thale, on the river Bode, above which the rocks rise 830 feet. One of these, a rugged and precipitous peak, has on its top an indentation like the print of Uie hoof of a gigantic horse, which gives its name to the neighboring district. Rostock ; a seaport of the Baltic, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, with 19,024 in- habitants, among whom no Jew is suf- fered. It was a member of the Hansa (q. v.) from the earliest time of this league to 1630, when the greater league was dis- solved. Its former importance was great. Its university was founded in 1419; it has twenty-three professores ordinarii, but is one of the less important universities of Germany. No subject of Mecklenburg- Schwerin can have an appointment in that countty under the government, with- out having studied for some time in Ros- tock. There are generally but about a hundred and fifty students there. The library has about 80,000 vols. Lat. N. 54° 0> 1"; Ion. E. 12° 12' 16". It is the largest city of the grand-duchy. In 1824, four hundred and eighty-six vessels en- tered this port, and five hundred and seventeen cleared out. Rostopschin, Feodor, count, was born in 1760, of an ancient Russian family. He entered the imperial guards as a lieu- tenant, and afterwards travelled into for- eign countries. He was afterwards highly promoted under Paul I, and loaded with ROSTOPSCHIN—ROTHSCHILD. 99 orders, but afterwards dismissed in dis- grace. Under Alexander, he obtained the important post of governor of Moscow, and exercised an important influence over the campaign of 1812, even if Uie asser- tion of the French, that the burning of the city was his work, should be untrue. He himself decidedly denied this charge in his Viriti sur I'Incendie de Moscow (Paris, 1824). It is certain, however, that he caused his villa near Moscow to be burnt, and took measures for the destruction of the magazines in that city. Buturlin calls him the author of the conflagration, and the public voice in Russia coincides with this opinion. In 1814, he accompanied the emperor Alexander to the congress at Vienna. He afterwards travelled, and spent several years in Paris, where he became acquainted with some of the most distin- guished families, and united his daughter in marriage to a grandson of the cele- brated count Segur (French ambassador to the court of Catharine II). He re- turned to Russia, and died in Moscow, at the commencement of the year 1826. Rostra (incorrectly rostrum); a tribu- nal (suggestus) in the forum in Rome, whence the orators used to harangue the people, so called from the beaks (rostra) of the ships taken from Uie Antiates, with which it was adorned. Rot, Dry. (See Dry Rot.) Rota or Ruota Romana; the high- est papal court of appeal, whose juris- diction extends over all Catholic Chris- tendom, and which decides not only spiritual controversies, but all questions concerning ecclesiastical benefices of a value above five hundred scudi; and the decisions thereof have the highest author- ity, derived from the doctrine of the pope's infallibility. The rota Romana has a collegiate constitution, and consists of twelve prelates, of whom three must be Romans, one a German, one a French- man, and one a Spaniard. They collect- ively bear the title of auditori della rota, or auditors of the holy apostolical palace, because their sessions are held semi-week- ly in the palace of the pope. The name of this court is derived, perhaps, from the circumstance that the floor of their hall is overlaid with marble slabs in the form of wheels (rota): according to some, it is so named because, in ancient Rome, a round public building stood upon the place where this tribunal was first established. Other supreme courts, as, for example, at Genoa, have borne the same name. This court ceased with the papal government, but is now reestablished. (See Curia, Papal.) Rotation. The motion of the differ- ent parts of a solid body about an axis is called rotation, being thus distinguished from the progressive motion of a body about some distant point or centre; thus the diurnal motion of the earth is a mo- tion of rotation, but its annual motion one of revolution. Rotation of Crops. Some sorts of crops exhaust the soils on which they grow, much less than othere, as is the case with many of what are called green crops, when compared with the white or corn kind; so that it is highly advantageous to alternate them. Moreover, certain sorts of green crops are well suited, by the shade of their leaves and the kind of cul- ture which they require while growing, for keeping the ground clean from weeds, and in a mellow and suitable state for the reception of the more valuable sorts of grain crops. All the culmiferous plants injure the ground in a high degree, which probably depends upon their having but few, and those small, leaves, so that they are obliged to draw their nourishment chiefly from Uie soil; also from their seeds ripening all at the same thne, and the plants ceasing to grow when they begin to ripen, so that the roots cease to pene- trate into Uie ground, and, of course, to move or loosen it The green crops, and those of the root kind, being opposite to the white in each of the respects just mentioned, serve, generally speaking, when alternated with them, to counteract their injurious effects. The alternation of crops is a matter of vast importance in agriculture, and one in which great im- provements have been made within the last century. Roth ; German for red, and found in many geographical names, as Rothweil (red village). , Rothschild. This celebrated Euro- pean house has raised itself from an hum- ble sphere to an unexampled degree of wealth and importance by judicious en- terprise, a sagacious and systematic series of operations, which thousands of others had the same opportunities to take ad- vantage of, a reputation for fair dealing, and a correct estimate of men and events. The father of the five brothers now liv- ing, Mayer Anselm, was born at Frank- fort on the Maine, in 1743, and died in 1812. His parents died when he was but eleven years old, and he was,, as is com- mon with poor Jews in Germany, edu- cated for a teacher. This occupation not suiting his taste, Rothschild engaged in trading, in a small way, and was not long after employed in a banking house in Han- 100 ROTHSCHILD—ROTTEC K. over; and in a few years his industry and frugality made him master of a small cap- ital. Returning to Frankfort, he married, and established the banking house, which is still in existence. His activity, intelli- gence and integrity in a short time pro- cured him a continually increasing credit, particularly after his nomination as agent to the landgrave of Hesse, hi 1801. In 1802,1803 and 1804, his affairs continued to prosper so much, that at this period he was able to contract for a Danish loan of four million dollars. The house now consists of his five sons; Anselin, born in 1773, the head of the house, resides at Frankfort; Solomon, born in 1774, re- sides alternately at Berlin and Vienna, principally at the latter place; Nathan, born in 1777, has lived in London since 1798; Charles, born in 1788, is at Naples ; and James, born in 1792, at Paris. In 1813 occurred those political events which raised the house of Rothschild to the position it has since occupied in Uie commercial and financial concerns of the world. In a period of twelve years, about 500 million dollars were raised by the house for different powers, by way of loan or subsidy, which were distributed in nearly the following proportion: for Eng- land two hundred millions, for Austria fifty millions, for Prussia forty millions, for France eighty millions, for Naples fifty millions, for Russia twenty-five millions, for several German courts four millions, for Brazil twelve millions, exclusive of va- rious other large sums. The remarkable success of the Rothschilds, setting aside Uie great opportunities which they have enjoyed from favorable circumstances, may be attributed to their strict adher- ence to two fundamental maxims. The first of these, in compliance with Uie dy- ing injunctions of their father, is their conducting all their operations entirely in common. Every proposition of magnitude made to one of them is submitted to the deliberations of all; no project is adopted until thus fully discussed, and it is then ex- ecuted by united efforts. A second prin- ciple is, not to aim at exorbitant profits, to set definite limits to every operation, and, so far as human prudence and over- sight can do, to render it independent of accidental influences: in this maxim lies one of the main secrets of their strength. The reasonableness of their tenns, the punctuality with which they execute their contracts, the simplicity and clearness of their plans, and their judicious manner of carrying them into effect, fortify their credit A constant exchange of couriers is kept up between them, who are fre- quently in advance of those of the gov- ernment. Several princes have publicly acknowledged their obligations by con- ferring nobility and other honors upon the different members of the family. In the latter part of 1831, the Rothschilds con- tracted for a loan of 15 million francs for the court of Rome, which may be increas- ed to 25 millions. Rotrou, Jean, a French tragic poet, born at Dreux, in 1609, was the most dis- tinguished dramatic writer among the predecessors of Comeille. (q. v.) Of his thirty-six tragedies, tragi-comedies and comedies, only one—the tragedy of Ven- ceslas (as revised by Mannontel)—keeps the stage; the plot of this piece is bor- rowed from the Spanish of Roxas. Ro- trou endeavored to elevate the tone of the drama by giving it a moral purpose, and his heroes and heroines are made to utter Christian sentiments. Richelieu, who granted him a pension, could not prevail upon him to assist in decrying the Cid of Comeille. In 1650, Rotrou fell a victim to a pestilential disease, to which he no- bly exposed himself in the discharge of his official duties, as one of Uie pruicipal magistrates of his native place. His (Eu- vres appeared at Paris in 1820, in 5 vols. (See France, Literature of, division Dra- matic Poetry.) Rotteck, Charles von, a distinguished German historian, professor at the Catho- lic university of Freiburg, hi Baden, was born in Freiburg, in 1775. In 1798, he was appointed professor of universal his- tory. In 1818, he exchanged the chair of history for that of natural law and pol- itics. He is a member of the academy of sciences in Munich. Rotteck is distin- guished from almost all other German historians, by the circumstance that his works, in addition to deep research and critical acuteness, display a civic spirit, if we may call it so. Though born in a countiy where civil liberty was so little understood in Uie time of his education, he has, nevertheless, learned to under- stand it, and to trace its developement in history. His chief work is his Universal Histoiy, the ninth volume of which ap- peared in 1826. The sixth edition is probably published by this time. As a recommendation of this work, we would mention that the subscription for an abridgment of it was prohibited in Prussia in 1831. His work on Standing Armies and a National Militia was translated into English and French, and Benjamin Con- stant translated his Ideas on Representa- tive Estates. Rotteck has been likewise active as a representative in the chamber ROTTECK—ROUEN. 101 of Baden. Besides liis more extended works, he has written several important articles in periodicals and encyclopedias, and Manual of Natural Law and Poli- tics. He would have found a noble field, had he been born in a countiy where the activities of men were unchecked by arbitrary institutions, or at a time of a warm struggle for freedom in his own countiy. Rotten Boroughs. (See Great Brit- ain, division English Constitution, p. 610, and Parliamentary Reform, at the close of the last volume of this work.) Rotterdam ; a city of the Netherlands, province of South Holland, on the right bank of the Meuse, which is here above a mile in widtii, twenty miles from its mouth ; lat. 51° 55' N.; Ion. 4° 28' E.; twelve miles south-east of the Hague, thirty-three south- west of Amsterdam. Rotterdam is the sec- ond city in the Dutch provinces, for com- merce and wealth, and contains 63,093 in- habitants. The form of Rotterdam is tri- angular, its longest side (above a mile and a half* in extent) stretching along the bank of the Meuse. The town is suirounded by a moat, and entered by six gates towards the land, and four towards the water. It is traversed by the Rotte, a broad canal, which here joins the Meuse. Rotterdam is intersected, even more than other towns in Holland, by canals, which divide the half of the town, near the river, into sev- eral insulated spots, connected by draw- bridges. These canals are ahnost all bor- dered with trees. The row called the Boomtjes is the finest in the city, as well in regard to buildings as for its pleasant prospect across the Meuse. Next to the Boomtjes comes Uie Haring-vliet. The other streets are, hi general, long, but nar- row. The houses of Rotterdam are rather convenient than elegant: their height is of four, five or six stories. Of the public buildings of Rotterdam, the principal are the exchange, finished in 1736, the great church of St. Lawrence, from the top of which there is a most extensive prospect. After these come several other churches, the whole number of which is fifteen, the town-house (an old edifice), the admiralty, the academy, Uie theatre, the exteusive buildings of the East India company, a number of large ware-houses, and a few manufactories. Rotterdam has an active transit trade; the manufactures are not extensive; sugar refineries and distilleries furnish the chief articles of industry. There are several learned societies. It is the birth-place of the celebrated Erasmus. Rotterdam received the title and privileges of a city in 1270. Its commerce suffered severely from the French revolution; and, in 1825, an inundation of the Meuse did great damage to the city. (See Nether- lands.) Rotunda (rotonda) ; every building round within and without, as the Panthe- on, in Rome. Roubilliac, Louis Francis, a sculptor, was a native of Lyons, in France, who settled in England, in Uie reign of George I; and, in the absolute dearth of native talent which prevailed at that period, he long stood at the head of his profession. He executed a statue of Handel for Vaux- hall gardens, and another of sir Isaac Newton, erected at Trinity college, Cam- bridge ; but was chiefly employed on se- pulchral monuments. He wrote satires in his native language, lie died, in Lon- don, in 1762. Rouble ; a Russian coin. (For the silver rouble, see Coin, division Russian; for the paper rouble, see Assignation.) By the official valuation of the paper rou- ble, in the payment of taxes, a few years since, one silver rouble was equal to three roubles sixty copecks paper. Roucou. (See Annotto.) Roue. This term is applied to a person, in the fashionable world, who is devoted to a life of pleasure and sensuality, and regardless of the restraints of moral prin- ciple. Philip, duke of Orleans, who, dur- ing the minority of Louis XV, was regent of France, and had a low opinion of men in general, and his friends in particular, applied the name of roues to his favorites and boon companions, to signify that they were fit to be broken on the wheel. Rouen (Rothomagus); a city of France, formerly capital of the province of Nor- mandy, at present of the department of the Lower Seine, on the right bank of Uie river Seine, eighty-six miles north-west of Paris, forty-five south-east of Havre. The population, by the official enumera- tion of 1827, was 90,000: it is now esti- mated to exceed 100,000. Rouen is an archiepiscopal see, and the seat of vari- ous judicial and administrative authori- ties, and is one of the richest commercial cities of France. The Seine is crossed by a bridge of boats, which is paved, and rises and falls with the tide, and a new stone bridge, recently erected. The city is not prettily built, the streets being most- ly narrow and dark, and the houses chiefly of wood. The quays along Uie river are handsome. The principal pub- lic buildings are the great cathedral, the church of the ancient abbey of St. Ouen, 102 ROUEN—ROUSSEAU. remarkable for its lofty tower, Uie palais de justice, and the theatre. In Uie mar- ket-place aux veaux is a statue of the maid of Orleans, who was burnt here by the English, in 1430. Rouen has several literary and scientific institutions and so- cieties, and seminaries of education, a public library, a mint, fourteen churches, several hospitals, &c. The transit trade of Rouen is considerable. The city is sev- enty miles from the sea, including the windings of Uie river, and, with the aid of the tide, vessels of 150 or 200 tons come up to the quays. It is more impor- tant as a manufacturing place, having manufactures of cotton, linen, woollen, iron ware, paper, hats, pottery, sugar-re- fineries, &c. Dyeing is also extensively carried on. Rouget de l'Isle. (See Marseillaise Hymn.) Roum (i. e. the kingdom of the Romans); a name given to Natolia by Solyman, sul- tan of the Turks, when he invaded and became master of it, in the eleventh cen- tury. It is now chiefly applied to a part of Asiatic Turkey, extending from the Mediterranean to the Black sea, east of Caramania and Natalia- and west of Ar- menia and Uie government of Diarbekir, including the governments of Sivas, Adana and Marasch. (See Turkey in Asia.) Roumelia. (See Romania.) Round Robin (corruption of ruban rond, a round ribbon) was used, originally, by Uie French officers when signing a re- monstrance. They wrote their names in a circular fonn, so that no one should be obliged to head the list. Round Table. If we may believe tra- dition, towards the end of the fifth century, there reigned in Britain a Chris- tian king, Uie British Uther-Pendragon, who had a most powerful and not less wise and benevolent enchanter, Merlin, for a counsellor. Merlin advised him to assemble all his knights, who were dis- tinguished for piety, courage, and fidelity towards him, at feasts about a round ta- ble. It was calculated to receive fifty knights, and was to be occupied, for the present, only by forty-nine, one place re- maining empty for an occupant yet un- born. This was Arthur, or Artus, son of the king by Igerna, whom the king, by the magic power of Merlin, was pennit- ted to enjoy under the form of her hus- band. Merlin had exacted a promise that Uie education of the prince should be in- trustedto him; and he accordingly instruct- ed him in every thing becoming a brave, virtuous and accomplished knight Arthur, therefore, at a later period, occupied the empty seat at the round table, which, un- der him, became the resort of all valiant, pious and noble knights. (See Merlin, and Arthur.) This table, admission to which became the reward of Uie greatest virtues and feats of arms, afforded materials for Uie romantic poets of the Anglo-Normans, forming a distinct cycle of characters and adventures. (See Romance, and Chivalry.) According to another account, Arthur himself established the round table at York. Von Hammer thinks Uie fiction is of Eastern origin. The adventures of" the knights of the round table are founded on the legend of the Sangreal, or Sangraal, which is probably a corruption of the Latin sanguis realis, or the French saing real (true blood). According to this le- gend, Joseph of Arimathea received into Uie cup from which Jesus drank at Uie last supper Uie blood which flowed from his side on the cross. By means of this cup, called graal, Joseph performed the most astonishing miracles, in different countries, particularly in Britain—a pow- er which was also possessed by his de- scendants, who inherited the cup. In the course of time, however, it was lost; and, for the purpose of recovering it, Pendra- gon, father of Arthur, founded the order of the round table, the knights of which bound themselves to wander over the whole world ill search of the sangraal. This legend was probably blended with the British traditions of king Arthur by the Trouveres, or Anglo-Norman poets. Among the romances of the round ta- ble, are Tristan de Leonnois, Lancelot du Lac (see Lancelot), Perceforest, Sangraal, &c. Rousseau, Jean Baptiste, an eminent French lyric poet, born at Paris, in 1671, was the son of a shoemaker, but received a good education, and, at an early period, displayed a strong taste for poetry. In 1688, he obtained a situation in the ser- vice of the French ambassador at Copen- hagen, and subsequently accompanied marshal Tallard to England, as his secre- tary. He wrote several pieces for the the- atre, on the success of one of which, hav- ing, according to the Parisian custom, ap- peared on the stage to receive Uie con- gratulations of the audience, he is said to have had the ingratitude to disown his father, when the old man, rejoicing at his son's triumph, came forward to speak to him, before the friends who surrounded him. In 1701, he was admitted into the academy of inscriptions and belles-lettres, and his lyric compositions procured him ROUSSEAU. 103 high reputation among the French lite- rati ; but his turn for satire, and his quar- relsome temper, at length involved him in disgrace. Some abusive and indecent verses were circulated at Paris, which Rousseau was accused of having written, but which he disclaimed, and professed to have discovered the author in the per- son of his enemy, Saurin. To relieve himself from the obloquy under which he labored, he commenced a prosecution of that academician, for composing the de- famatory couplets in question, and having failed in substantiating the allegation, he was exiled from France in 1712. He went to Switzerland, and afterwards resided at Vienna, under the patronage of prince Eugene. The latter part of his life was spent in the Netherlands, where he ob- tained a pension from the duke of Arem- berg, which he resigned on having for- feited the favor of that nobleman. His death took place at Brussels, in 1741. An edition of his works was published under his own inspection, by Tonson (London, 1723,2 vols., 4to.); and since his death they have been often printed, in yarious forms. The best edition is that of Amar, with a commentary and life of the author (5 vols. Paris, 1820). The same editor has also published his (Euvres Poetiques, witii a commentary (2 vols., 1824). Rousseau's works are—1. Four books of Odes, the firet book containing odes from the Psalms: purity and elegance of expression are here combined with beauty and dignity of ver- sification ; but the lyric enthusiasm is of- ten wanting; 2. cantatas, of which he was the creator, and in which he is very distinguished; 3. epistles in verse, the least pleasing of his works, but highly popular in their day, on account of their satirical allusions; 4. allegories, forced and monotonous; 5. epigrams, which, next to his odes and cantatas, are the best of his works, and, with some exceptions, are witty, finely turned, and well express- ed ; 6. four comedies in verse, and two hi prose ; 7. his operas have no merit. Rousseau, Jean Jacques, born at Ge- neva, in 1712, was the son of a watch-ma- ker. His mother died in bringing him into the world, and he therefore calls his birth his first misfortune. In his Confes- sions, he tells us that at the age of seven he was very devout; that at this time he was a great reader of romances; and at the age of eight Knew Plutarch's Lives by heart He also became acquainted with Tacitus and Grotius, which lay about in his father's shop, while quite a boy, and his musical taste was displayed at die same early age. In his tenth year, he was plac- ed with a clergyman in the country, and in his fourteenth was articled to an en- graver, whose severity disgusted him with his situation. He therefore ran away froi 11 his master, and, after wandering about for some time in Savoy, became a convert to the Catholic religion, to save himself from starvation. Being placed in a monastery to receive the necessary instruction, the young convert soon made his escape, and, after a series of adventures, was recom- mended, by a clergyman, to the notice of madame de Warens, in Annecy, who caus- ed him to be instructed in science and mu- sic, aivl treated him with the greatest affec- tion. At the age of twenty, Rousseau went to France, with the expectation of being able to maintain himself by giving lessons in music. In Besancon, he sang at some concerts with success, and received the promise of a place; but after teaching music some time at Chamberry, he went, on account of ill health, to Montpellier. Here, finding the sea air not to agree with him, he returned to his benefactress, and remained with her until 1742, when he received the place of secretary to the French ambassador in Venice. After re- maining there a year and a half, he went to Paris, and made his living by copying music, employing his leisure hours in the study of natural science. In 1750, he gain- .ed the prize offered by the academy of Dijon, on Uie question, whether the revi- val of learning has contributed to Uie im- provement of morals, taking the negative side of Uie question, it is said, at the sug- gestion of Diderot. He soon after brought out his Devin du Village, a comic opera, of which he had himself composed the music. This piece was received with gen- eral favor, and the author was almost wor- shipped by Uie French; but Uie appear- ance of his celebrated Letter on French Music (1753), in which he pointed out its defects, excited a general stonn. Singers and connoisseurs, who could not wield the pen, contributed to spread calumnies, pas- quinades and caricatures against the au- thor, who retired to Geneva. By his change of religion he had lost the rights of a cit- izen. He now again embraced Protestant- ism, and was formally reinstated in the privileges of a free citizen of Geneva. From Geneva, Rousseau went to Cham- berry, where he wrote his essay Sur I'ln- egaliti parmi les Hommes. This work excited still more sensation than his prize essay. In it he compares the wild and civilized man, represents the fomier as the state of nature and innocence, and treats 104 ROUSSEAU—ROVEREDO. the idea of property, and the wealth and inequality of condition to which it gives rise, as the source of misery and corrup- tion among men. He now returned to Paris, and, fixing himself at Montmorency (q. v.), wrote his Social Compact, his New Eloisa, and his Emilius—works which had a powerful influence on his age. His po- litical treatises, particularly the essays on the social compact, and the ine- quality of conditions, were the sources of many of the speculative errors of the French revolution. His New Eloisa pro- duced a very different, but equally strong sensation in France, where love merely fluttered around the toilet, and in-those countries where female virtue was looked upon with respect. His celebrated work on education, Emile, ou de I'Education (1762), was originally written for the use of a mother. It was condemned by par- liament to be burnt on account of its reli- gious views, and he himself was sentenced to imprisonment. He wished to retire to Geneva; but he was also threatened with imprisonment there, and his book was burnt by the common hangman. He there- fore took refuge in Moitiere-Travers, a small village of Neufchatel, where he again found himself among Protestants, the simplicity of whose worship was agreeable to him. The Geneva clergy as- sailing him from their pulpits, he wrote his celebrated Letters from the Mountains, in reply to their calumnies. This work, with his Letter to the Archbishop of Paris, and his Dictionnaire Physique Portatif were publicly burnt in Paris, in 1765. New troubles drove him from Moitiere, and he resided two months on Peter's island, in the lake of Bienne. His residence here produced his Botaniste sans Maitre. Nei- ther was he long tolerated here ; but the canton of Berne ordered him to quit the country without delay in the severest sea- son of the year. On reaching Paris, he became the object of ridicule to the phi- losophers, but was kindly received by Hume, whom he accompanied to Eng- land ; but, yielding to his unfounded sus- picions of his friends hi England, towards whom he conducted with the most perverse ingratitude, he left the country, and return- ed to Paris in 1767. (See Hume's Private Correspondence, London, 1820.) In 1768 he published his Musical Dictionary, and soon after appeared his melo drama of Pygmalion. As he grew older his dislike of society increased, and he retired in May, 1778, to Ermenonville (q. v.), near Paris, where he died of apoplexy, July 2 of the same year, at the age of sixty-six years. He was buried in the isle of poplars, where a monument is erected to his memory. The principal traits of his character were an enthusiastic passion for love and free- dom, a spirit of paradox, an inflexible ob- stinacy, and a warm zeal for the good of men, combined with a gloomy hypochon- dria. His works were published at Paris, 10 vols., 1764, and have often been re- published. The best edition is that of 1824, seq., 20 vols., with the notes of Musset-Pathay, who is the author of an excellent work—Histoire de la lie et des Ouvrages de J. J. Rousseau (1 vol., Paris, 1827). Theresa Levasseur became his companion in 1745; in 1768 Rousseau manied her. His children by her had all been placed in the foundling hospital. She was faithful to him, and knew how to gratify his humors, but had no other merit. In 1791, a fete champdre was es- tablished at Montmorency, in honor of Rousseau, and his bones were deposited, in 1794, in the Pantheon. Roussillon ; before the French revolu- tion, a province of France, once belonging to Spain, bounded north by Languedoc, east by the Mediterranean, south by Cata- lonia, and west by the Pyrenees; about eighteen leagues in length, and twelve in breadth. The land is fertile in general. The principal rivers are Uie Tet and Tech. Perpignan (q. v.) is the capital. It now forms the department of the Eastern Pyre- nees. The counts of Roussillon governed this district for a longtime. The last count bequeathed it to Alphonso of Arragon, in 1178. In 1462, it was ceded to Louis XI of France ; but in 1493 it was restored to the kings of Arragon, and in 1659 was finally annexed to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees. (See Pyrenees, Peace of.) Roussillon Wines ; in general, the wines of the province of this name. The best for export are those of Baix, Tormil- la, Salces, Rivesaltes, Spira, Collioure, Bagnols, Parcous, and St. Andre. The red sorts are thick, of a beautiful color, and used chiefly to improve other wines. A particular sort is called Grenache, and is, at first, similar to the Alicant wine, dark red, but grows paler with age, and in the sixth or seventh year is similar to the fa- mous Cape wine. Of the white Roussil- lon wines, the Maccabeo is the most costly. Roveredo (in German, Rovereith); a well built town in Tyrol, in the valley of the Adige, on the road from Trent to Peschiera, with about 12,000 inhabitants, who chiefly live by spinning, dyeing, and selling silk, particularly sewing silk; lat. 45° 55' 36" N.; Ion. 11° 0* 43" E. The ROVEREDO—ROXBURGH. 105 place is of military importance, as is prov- ed by several battles which have been fought there. Massena obtained a victoiy at this place over a part of the army of Wurmser, September 3 and 4,1796. The loss of Uie Austrians was estimated at 5000 men and 25 cannons. Rovigo ; a town on a branch of the Adige, in the Lombardo-Venetian king- dom, with 1000 inhabitants, from which Napoleon gave the title of duke to his minister of police, Savary. (q. v.) Rowe, Nicholas, an English dramatic poet, born in 1673, at Little Berkford, Bed- fordshire, was the son of John Rowe, a serjeaut-at-law. He studied at Westmin- ster, as king's scholar, under the celebrated Dr. Busby, and at the age of sixteen was entered a student at the Middle Temple ; but on the deaUi of his father, he gave up the law, and turned his chief attention to polite literature. At the age of twen- ty-four, he produced his tragedy of the Am- bitious Stepmother; Tamerlane follow- ed, which was intended as a compliment to king William, who was figured under the conquering Tartar; while Louis XIV, with almost equal want of versimilitude, ranked as the Turkish Bajazet. It was, however, a successful piece; and indeed, with little nature, contains many elevated and man- ly sentiments. His next dramatic per- formance was the Fair Penitent, re-mod- elled from the Fatal Dowiy of Massinger. In 1706, he wrote the Biter, a comedy, which being altogether a failure, he was prudent enough to keep to his own line, and, from that time to 1715, produced his Ulysses, Royal Convert, Jane Shore, and Lady Jane Grey. When the duke of Queensbury was made secretary of state, he appointed Mr. RoWe his under-secreta- ry. This post he lost by the death of his patron; and, on the accession of George I, he was made poet-laureate, and also obtained several posts, Uie emol- uments of which, aided by his paternal fortune, enabled him to live respectably. He died in 1718, in his forty-fifth year, and was buried in Westminster abbey, where his widow erected a monument to his memory. Rowe was respectable, and possessed agreeable talents for society. His dramatic fables are generally interest- ing, and the situations striking; his style singularly sweet and poetical; his pieces forcibly arrest attention, although they but slightly affect Uie heart. As an origi- nal poet, Rowe appears to advantage in a few tender and pathetic ballads ; but as a translator, he assumes a higher character, as in his version of Lucan's Pharealia, published after his death, which, although too diffuse, was highly praised by John- son. The poetical works of Rowe were published collectively, in 3 vols., 12mo., 1719. Rowe, Elizabeth, a lady distinguished for her piety and literary talents, was the daughter of Mr. Singer, a dissenting min- ister of Ilchester, where she was born in 1674. She became accomplished in mu- sic and painting at a tender age, and even attempted versification in her twelfth year. In 1696, she published a volume of Poems on several Occasions, by Philomela. The charms of her person and conversation procured her many admirers, among whom she chose Mr. Rowe, the son of a dissenting minister, whom she lost a few years after marriage, by a consumption, at the early age of twenty-eight. On this event she retired to Frome, where she produced the greatest part of her works, the most popular of which was her Friendship in Death, or Twenty Letters from the Dead to the Living—a work of a lively imagination, strongly imbued with devotional feeling. This production, which was published in 1728, was followed, in 1729 and 1731, by Letters, moral and en- tertaining, in Prose and Verse. In 1736, she published a History of Joseph, a po- em, which she had composed in early life, After her death (1736), doctor Isaac Watts published her Devout Exercises of the Heart; and in 1739 her Miscellaneous Works, in Prose and Verse, appeared in 2 vols., 8vo., with an account of her life and writings prefixed. Roxana. (See Alexander.) Roxburgh, duke of, was a celebrated bibliomanist His library of 9353 works, which was particularly rich in old ro- mances of chivalry, and in early English poetry, was sold by public auction in Lon- don, in 1812. The catalogue was made out by G. and W. Nicol. The prices paid for some works were enormous. A copy of the firet edition of Boccaccio (Venice, in 1471, folio) was bought by the marquis of Blandford (duke of Marlborough), for 2260 pounds sterling; a copy of the first work printed by Caxton, with a date, Re- cuyell of the Historyes of Troye (1471, folio), was sold for 1000 guineas; and a copy of the first edition of Shakspeare (1623, folio) for 100 guineas. The Rox- burgh club, fonned in commemoration of this triumph of bibliomany, celebrates its anniversary (June 17), on that of the sale of the Boccaccio. Every year, one of the members is required to be at Uie expense of an impression of some rare book, of 106 ROXBURGH—RUBENS. which only copies enough for the club are struck off. Roxolana. (See Solyman II.) Ror, Rammohun. (See Rammohun Roy.) Royalists. In France, after the revo- lution of 1792, this name was given to the adherents of the Bourbons ; and from the restoration, in 1814, down to the revolu- tion of 1830, it served to designate those who were in favor of the old system of things, and opposed to liberal principles. Those of the fomier royalists who contin- ue to adhere to, and in fact are often ac- tive for the elder line of the Bourbons, are now generally called Carlists (from Charles X). Those royalists who carried farthest the doctrine of legitimacy (q. v.), the touchstone of this party, are called ultras, without addition, though this tenn might be, and in some cases actually is, applied to the ultra-liberals. Royer-Collard, Pien*e Paul, one of the most profound orators in the left cen- tre (see Centre) of the French chamber of deputies, bom in 1763, at Sompuis, near Vitiy le Francois, in 1789 was chosen ad- vocate of the parliament of Paris. He was elected a member of the common council of Paris, being considered a friend of legal freedom. With the tenth of Au- gust his membership ceased. He passed safely through the bloody period of 1793 and 1794, and in May, 1797, was chosen a member of the council of five hundred, from the department of Mame ; but three months later, on the 18th of Fructidor, he was expelled, because he was opposed to the oatii required of the clergy. He after- wards, together with the marquis of Cler- mont-Gallerande, the abbe Montesquiou, and M. Becquey, was one of the counsel- lors of the king in France, until Louis XVIII fled to England, when this body was dissolved. Royer-Collard now lived devo- ted to the sciences, and, in 1811, was made dean of the philosophical faculty, and professor of the history of modern philos- ophy. Here, for two years, he displayed the talents of a Pascal. So profound was he in theory, so convincing was his logic, and so animated and eloquent his deliv- ery ! Victor Cousin was his scholar. He likewise exhibited the rare talent of phil- osophical eloquence as a political orator iii the chamber, where his calm and firm character gave something of the sublime to his independent thought. Royer-Col- lard adhered, as appears from his Dis- courses (Discours), printed in December, 1813, to the Scotch school of philosophy. In 1814, Louis XVIII appointed him di- rector-general of the press and the book trade, and afterwards state counsellor and knight of the legion of honor. When Napoleon returned, in 1815, he resigned all his political offices, and remained only a professor. After the second restoration, he was again called into the council of state, and appointed president of the de- partment of education. I lere he effected much good, especially in the normal school, which is now abolished; he like- wise defended all he could against the ef- fects of party hatred. In the session of the chamber, in 1815, he voted with Uie minority for the charter, and for the con- stitutional mode of election. In the fol- lowing sessions he maintained Uiat the chamber of deputies is not bound by the opinions of its constituents, being merely an elective, and not a representative body, and was often proposed as a candidate for the presidency. In the session of 1817, he was considered as the head of the few deputies who were called doctrinaires. (q. v.) After 1819, he was no longer at the head of the department of public educa- tion, probably because his views did not coincide with those of the ministry; for he opposed with all his ability Uie iaws of exception (see Laws of Exception); the new mode of election ; the grant of the 100,000,000 francs for the Spanish war, and similar measures, until the disso- lution of the chamber in 1823. Being again elected from the department of Mame, for the session of 1824, he voted against septennial elections, and, in 1825, against the laws respecting sacrilege. In 1827, he was chosen a member of the French academy in place of La Place. In February, 1828, he was chosen presi- dent of the chamber of deputies, and re- chosen in 1829 and 1830. Rozier, Pilatre de. (See Aeronautics.) Rubble Walls. (See Architecture, vol. i, page 335.) Rubens, Peter Paul, the most em- inent painter of the Flemish school, was the son of a doctor of laws and a sheriff of Antwerp, who, during the troubles of the Low Countries, retired to Cologne, where his celebrated son was born in 1577. The family subsequently returned to Antwerp, where the subject of this ar- ticle received a literary education, and early displayed a talent for design, which induced his mother, then a widow, to place him with the painter Van Oort, whom he left for Uie school of Otto Ve- nius. His talent having made him known to the archduke Albert, governor of Uie Netherlands, that prince employed hiin RUBENS—RUBICON. 107 on several pictures, and recommended him to the duke of Mantua, at whose court he remained six years, studying the works of Giulio Romano, and other great artists, and paying particular attention to Uie coloring of the Venetian school. In the interval he also visited Madrid, on a commission for the duke, where he saw some of the finest works of Titian and other masters. On leaving Mantua, he visited Rome and other cities of Italy, copying some of the best pictures, and perfecting himself in every branch of his profession. After a residence of seven years in Italy, he returned to Antwerp, being recalled by the illness of his mother, who died before his arrival. This event induced him to retire to the abbey of St Michael, where he gave himself up for a time to solitary study. His reputation now stood so high, that he was called to the court of the archduke, and pension- ed ; soon after which, he married his first wife, and lived in a style of great magnifi- cence, which excited much envy among inferior artists, who sought to lower his reputation by attributing the best parts of his pictures to his numerous pupils. These calumnies he treated with disre- gard, and, aware of the source of much of the ill-will, relieved the necessities of some of his principal decriers. For the cathedral at Antwerp he painted that great masterpiece, the Descent from the Cross; for the Jacobites the Four Evangelists; and he continued to execute many great works with surprising facility, until, in 1620, he was employed by Mary de' Medici to adorn the gallery of the Luxembourg, for which he painted a well- known series of magnificent pictures, al- legorically exhibiting the principal events in the life of that princess. Such was the opinion of his general talents, that he was chosen, at the recommendation of the archduchess Isabella, to be Uie private negotiator of a peace between Spain and England; for which purpose he visited Madrid in 1628, where he was treated with great distinction. He painted for Philip IV, and his minister Olivarez, twelve or fourteen of his most celebrated pictures, in the short space of nine months; and, in 1629, he returned to Flanders with a secret commission, and proceeded to England. AlUiough not received open- ly as a minister, Charles I, who was both a patron and judge of the fine arts, was much gratified by his visit; and, during his stay in England, where he succeeded in his negotiation, he was engaged to paint the ceiling of Uie banqueting-house at Whitehall. He also executed several oth- er pictures for Uie English nobility, some of which are to be found at Blenheim, Wilton, Easton, &c. He remained in Eng- land about a year, during which time he re- ceived the honor of knighthood, and then returned to Flanders, where he married the beautiful Helen Formann, his second wife, and was nominated secretary to the council for the Low Countries. He maintained a highly dignified station through the rest of his life, which was one of continued prosperity, until his death at Antwerp, in 1640, in the sixty- third year of his age. Rubens, beyond all comparison, was the most rapid of the great masters; and so many pictures bear his name, it is impossible not to credit a part of what was asserted in his own days, that the greater portion of many of them was performed by his pupils. His great characteristics are freedom, animation, and striking brilliancy and disposition of coloring, the favorite tone of which is that of a gay magnificence, from which, whatever Uie subject, he never deviated. Besides the excellence of his general powers, he saw all the objects of nature with a painter's eye, and instantly caught the predominating feature by which the object is known and distinguished ; and, as soon as seen, he executed it with a fa- cility that was astonishing. According to sir Joshua Reynolds, he was the greatest master of Uie mechanical part of his art that ever existed. His chief defects con- sist in inelegance and incorrectness of form, a want of grace in his female fig- ures, and in the representation of youth in general, and an almost total absence of sublime or poetical conception of charac- ter. The works of Rubens are found in churches, palaces and galleries through- out Europe ; for every branch of the art was cultivated by him,—history, land- scape, portrait, and even common life. His celebrated Rape of the Sabines is in the national gallery of Great Britain. The number of engravings from the de- signs of Rubens exceed three hundred. This great painter, who was no mean scholar, wrote some treatises on his art in very good Latin. (See sir Joshua Rey- nolds's Works ; Walpole's Anec.; Fuseli's Lectures.) Rubezahl. (See Ruebezahl.) Rubicon ; a river of Italy, anciently forming the boundary between Gaul and Italy. Caesar, by passing this river wiUi his troops, and thus leaving the prov- ince assigned him, made war on Uie re- public. (See Casar.) 108 RUBRIC—RUGEN. Rubric, in the canon law, signifies a tiUe or article in certain ancient law books ; thus called because written, as the titles of the chapters of our ancient Bibles are, in red letters.—Rubrics also denote the rules and directions given at the be- ginning and in the course of the liturgy, for the order and manner in which the several parts of the office are to be per- formed. There are general rubrics, special rubrics, a rubric for the com- munion, &c. In Uie Romish missal and breviary are rubrics for matins, for lauds, for translations, for beatifications, &c. Ruby, Oriental. (See Corundum.) Rudder. (See Hdm.) Rudesheimer. (See Rhenish Wines.) Rue (ruta graveolens); a strong-scent- ed plant, cultivated in gardens, but more frequently in Europe man in the U. States. We have hardly a native plant with which it can be compared in appearance. The root is perennial, woody; Uie stems, branching almost from the base, about two feet high, bearing alternate petiolate and very much divided leaves; the flowers are yellow, and disposed in corymbs at the summit of the branches; the calyx is persistent, and divided into four or five segments; the corolla consists of as many oval petals, and is longer than the calyx; the stamens are eight or ten, and the style single. The odor of rue is veiy strong and disagreeable, and the taste ac- rid aud bitter. It has been celebrated as a medicinal plant from high antiquity, and a great variety of virtues have been attributed to it, but is now comparatively little used, being chiefly employed in cases of hysteria and flatulent colic. Not- withstanding its disagreeable taste and odor, the leaves were employed for culi- nary purposes by the ancient Romans, and even now enter into the composition of certain dishes, and especially of salads, in some parts of Italy and Germany. About twenty species of rue are known, all natives of the eastern continent. Rpebezahl ; the name of a mountain spirit, sometimes friendly, sometimes mis- chievous, dwelling in the Riesengebirge, in Silesia. Riibezahl corresponds to our Robin- Goodfellow. He has become, of late, the hero of some operas. (See Browny, and Elf.) Ruff (machetes pugnax). A species of Uie shore birds, alike curious in the disposition of its plumage and for its pug- nacious character. It i3 about a foot in length, with a bill an inch long. The plumage varies so much in color, in dif- ferent individuals, that many imaginary species have been fonned. It derives its common name from the disposition of the long feathers of the neck, which stand out like the ruff formerly worn: it is, how- ever, only the male that is furnished with this appendage, which he does not gain till Uie second year, before which period he closely resembles the female. They are birds of passage, appearing at certain seasons of the year, in great numbers, in the north of Europe. They are generally taken in large nets, resembling those used in this countiy for the capture of the wild pigeon. When fattened, they are dressed like the woodcock, without wiUidrawing their intestines or their contents, which are considered by the connoisseurs as af- fording the most delicate kind of season- ing for these birds. The males are much more numerous than the females, and during the pairing season have numerous and severe conflicts for the possession of their mates. These combats are Uius de- scribed by Pennant and other writers :— The male chooses a stand on some dry bank near the water, round which he runs so often as to make a bare circular path ; the moment a female appears in sight, all the males within a certain distance com- mence a general fight, placing their bills to the ground, spreading their ruff, and using the same action as the common cock. This pugnacious disposition is so strong, that, when they are kept for the purpose of fattening, their place of con- finement is obliged to be dark, as, the mo- ment any light is admitted, they attack each other with such fury, and fight with so much inveteracy, as to occasion a great slaughter. The female lays four eggs, forming her nest in a tuft of grass, and in- cubates about a month. Rugen ; the largest island in the Baltic, belonging to Germany, about a mile from the continent, containing 360 square miles, and 28,000 inhabitants. It belongs to the government of Stralsund, in Uie Prussian province of Pomerania. (q. v.) Its northern coast consists chiefly of pre- cipitous chalk rocks, and the whole island is rich in romantic scenery, for which rea- son it is much resorted to by travellers. The capital is Bergen, with 2200 inhab- itants. The Stubbenkammer, the north- eastern promontory, rises 543 feet above the sea. Not far from it is the Stubbe- nitz, a beautiful beech wood, probably the place where, according to Tacitus, Uie ancient Rugians worshipped the goddess Hertha. Arcona (lat. N. 54° 3S7 46"; Ion. E. 13° 25' 35") is the most northern point of Germany proper. Rugen came under RUGEN—RULE OF THREE. 109 the Prussian government in 1815, with the rest of Swedish Pomerania. The Rugians are a hardy race of fishers and husbandmen. The inhabitants of the pe- ninsula of Moiikguth are very tall.—See J. J. Griimbke's account of the island (in German ; Berlin, 1819, 2 vols.). Rugendas, George Philip, one of the most famous battle painters, was born at Augsburg, iu 1006. After six years' study, his right hand became dis- abled by a fistula. He continued to work with the left. He painted and engraved much. His pictures are full of spirit and ease; there is an endless variety in Uie attitudes of his horses. Among his en- gravings, all labored with uncommon care, are distinguished six large ones, rep- resenting Uie siege of Augsburg, of which he was a witness. He died at that city, in 1742. His sons George Philip (died 1774) and Christian (died in 1781) are also known as engravers. Ruhe, the German for rest, used as an affix to several geographical names; for instance, Carlsruhe (rest of Charles; place of repose for Charles). Rchnkenius, David (properly Ruhn- ken), professor of history and eloquence in the university of Leyden, one of the most celebrated classical scholars of his time, and especially distinguished for his simple, beautiful, classic Latin style, was born in 1723, at Stolpe, in Hither Pome- rania. His opulent parents designed him for study, and sent him at first to Konigs- berg, where he made himself acquainted with classic authors of antiquity, and also practised music and other of Uie fine arts. In his eighteenth year, he went to Witten- berg, and studied with eagerness the philosophy of Wolf Two years after, he went to Leyden, to enjoy the instructions of the celebrated Hemsterhuys in the Greek language. There he spent six years, and devoted himself to Uie whole circle of the humane studies, under the guidance of his great teacher. The first fruits of his application were two Episto- la critica (1749 aud 1751); the subject of the first of which was the hymns of Homer, Hesiod, aud the Greek anthology ; of the second, Callimachus, Apollonius and Orpheus. It was now his wish to obtain a philosophical professorship hi some Dutch university; but, having no prospect of such an appointment, he re- sumed, at Hemsterhuys' advice, Uie study of the Roman law, which he had begun in Wittenberg. But without being di- verted from Greek literature, he under- took an edition of Plato. For this end, VOL. xi. 10 he procured from the library of San- germann, at Paris, a transcript of the only existing copy of Timaeus's Lexicon of Plato, and published it, with a com- mentary (Leyden, 1756 and 1789). So much critical and grammatical erudition can rarely be found condensed into so narrow a space. This work was suf- ficient to give Ruhnken a rank among the firet philologists of his times. As he had become fond of his easy life in Hol- land, he declined several honorable offers of professorships in foreign countries, and devoted his leisure to a literary tour, with the intention of consulting the prin- cipal libraries of Europe. For a year, he labored amid Uie treasures of Uie royal library of Paris, where, with unwearied industry, he transcribed and collated manuscripts, and made excerpts from them. Hemsterhuys had, meanwhile, found opportunity, as he was now op- pressed with age and sickness, to get Ruhnken appointed assistant lecturer on the Greek language; and, on the death of Ouderdorp, he was appointed profes- sor of histoiy and eloquence. Of his numerous works, among which are his Memoir of Hemsterhuys, his edition of Muretus, Uie most distinguished is his Velleius Paterculus(Leyden, 1779)—a true model for the treatment of Latin classics. In 1780, he published a hymn of Homer to Ceres, which Mathai had discovered in Moscow, and communicated to him in a letter. In his intended edition of Plato he had only finished Uie scholia, when death put an end to his activity, in 1798. His life has been written in a masterly manner by his scholar Daniel Wytten- bach. Rule of Three, in arithmetic, called by some authors Uie golden rule, is an ap- plication of the doctnne of proportion to arithmetical purposes, and is divided into two cases, simple and compound; now frequently tenned simple and compound proportion.—Simple rule of three, or sim- ple proportion, is when, from three given quantities, a fourth is required to be found, that shall have Uie same proportion to Uie given quantity of the same name, as one of Uie other quantities has to that of the same name with itself. This rale is, by some authors, divided into two cases; viz. the rule of three direct, and the rule of three inverse; but this distinc- tion is unnecessary, and the two cases are now generally given under one head by Uie best modern authors; but as Uiey are Btill retained by others, it will not be amiss to point out the distinction. The rule of 110 RULE OF THREE—RUM. three direct, is when more requires more, or less requires less, as in this example : " If three men will perform a piece of work, as, for instance, dig a trench forty- eight yards long, hi a certain time, how many yards will twelve men dig in the same time ?" where it is obvious, that the more men there are employed, the more work will they perform, and therefore, in this instance, more requires more. Again, " If six men dig forty-eight yards in a given time, how much will three men dig in the same time ?" Here less requires less, for the less men there are employed, the less will be the work that is performed by them ; and all questions that are in this class are said to be in the rule of three direct.—The rule of three inverse, is when more re- quires less, or less requires more ; as in this case—" If six men dig a certain quan- tity of trench in fourteen hours, how many hours will it require for twelve men to dig the same quantity?" or thus, "If six men perform a piece of work in seven hours, how long will three men be in performing the same work ?" These cases are both in the inverse rule; for in the first more requires less, that is, twelve men being more than six, they will re- quire less time to perform the same work; and in the latter, the number of men be- ing less, they will require a longer time. All questions of this class are said to be- long to the rule of three inverse. These two cases, however, as we before observ- ed, may be brought under one general rule, as follows:—Rule. Of the three given terms, set down that which is of Uie same kind with the answer towards the right hand; and then consider, from the nature of the question, whether the answer will be more or less than this term. Then, if the answer is to be greater, place the less of the other two terms on Uie left, and the remaining term in the middle ; but if it is to be less, place the greater of these two terms on the left, and the less in the middle; and in both cases, multiply the second and third terms together, and divide the product by the first term for the answer, which will al- ways be of the same denomination as Uie third term.—Note 1. If Uie first and second terms consist of different denomi- nations, reduce them both to the same; and if the third term be a compound number, it is generally more convenient to reduce it to the lowest denomination contained in it.—Note 2. The same rule is applicable whether the given quantities be integral, fractional or decimal. Rules of Legislative Bodies. (For those of the U. States, see the article Con- gress ; also Jefferson's Manual of Parlia- mentary Practice. For those of England, see the article Parliament; also the Prece- dents of Proceedings in the House of Com- mons, 4th ed., 181b, 4 vols., 4to, by Hatsel.) The French chamber of deputies, June 23, 1814, received a full system of" rules of ninety-four articles. But there is hardly a session in which the course of the de- liberations is not interrupted by violent exclamations, and the hubbub of the ma- jority. In their leading features, the French rules are the same with the Eng- lish and American. Some of the princi- pal peculiarities are, that, for preliminary investigations, the whole chamber is di- vided, by lot, into nine committees (bu- reaux), of which the chairmen, or reporters, as they are called, in every case form a committee of nine members, which ap- points one of their number to report to the chamber. Private petitions are either wholly rejected (la chambre passe a I'or- dre dujour), or delivered to the ministers for consideration. It may, however, hap- pen that they give rise to serious discus- sions in the chamber. Motions must be put in writing, read, and a day fixed for their discussion. Such a motion, more- over, must, as in other parliamentary bodies, be seconded; and its discussion may be prevented by a call for the previ- ous question. If the further discussion is resolved on, all who wish to speak give in their names to the clerk, and, after the report of the committee, the speakers are heard, in turn, from the tribune. The members do not speak in their places, but from a sort of pulpit. No deputy can speak twice on the same subject. Most of the speeches are still read, and few of the members are able to speak without preparation. The chamber commonly votes by the members on one side of a question rising, and the others remaining seated, and the secretary decides on which side is the majority. But on the passage of laws, the main vote is always taken by balls (scrutin secret), hi which all the members are called by name (appd nomi- nal), every one receives a black and a white ball, and votes by casting one of them in an urn. The chamber of peers, on the contrary, votes by written yeas and nays. Propositions from the king may be submitted to Uie chambers by the ministers (who, by virtue of their office, have a seat and voice in both chambers), or by special commissioners. Rum ; the distilled liquor obtained from the fermented juice of the sugar-cane or RUM—RUMINANT. Ill molasses. The following is the process employed in Jamaica : The materials for fermentation are molasses, scummings of the hot cane-juice, or sometimes raw cane-liquor, lees, or dunder (as it is called), and water. The dunder answers the purpose of yeast, and is usually prepared by a separate fennentation of cane, sweets and water. The materials being mixed in due proportions (which are about equal parts of scummings, dunder and water), the fermentation (q. v.) soon begins, and in twenty-four hours trie liquor is fit for the first charge of molasses, which is added in the proportion of three gallons for every hundred gallons of the liquor. Another charge is added in a day or two, or afterwards. The heat in fermentation should not exceed 90° or 94°. The fer- mentation falls in six or eight days, and the liquor grows fine and fit for distilla- tion, (q. v.) In about two hours after lighting Uie fire, the spirit begins to run (in a still of 1200 gallons); and it is col- lected as long as it is inflammable. The firet spirit is called, in the country, low wines; and it is rectified, in a smaller still, to the Jamaica proof, which is that in which olive oil will sink. The spirit called New England rum is prepared from molasses, and largely exported. Rumelia, or Rum-Ili. (See Roma- nia.) Rumford,Count,so called from the title confened on him by the elector of Bavaria, was born in Woburn, New England, in 1752. His name was Benjamin Thompson. He acquired, when young, a knowledge of natural philosophy, by the aid of the professor of that science in the college of Cambridge. He then employed himself as a teacher, till he was raised to inde- pendence by an advantageous marriage, when he became a major in the militia of his native province ; and when the war took place between Great Britain and her colonies, his local knowledge enabled him to render services of importance to the English commanders. He went to England, and, as the reward of his ser- vices, obtained a situation in the foreign office, under lord George Germaine. To- wards the close of the war, he was sent to New York, where he raised a regiment of dragoons, of which he was appointed colonel, and thus became entitled to half- pay. Returning to England iu 1784, he received the honor of knighthood, and was for some time one of the under secre- taries of state. Soon after, he went to the continent, and, through the recommenda- tion of the prince of Deux-Ponts (after- wards king of Bavaria), entered into the service of the reigning elector-palatine and duke of Bavaria, when he effected many important and useful reforms in both the civil and military departments of the state. Among these was a scheme for Uie suppression of mendicity, which he carried into execution at Munich and other parts of the Bavarian territories, providing labor for able-bodied paupers, and exciting a spirit of industry among the lower orders of the people in general. As the reward of his success in this and other undertakings, he received from the sovereign of Bavaria various orders of knighthood, was made a lieutenant-gen- eral, and created count Rumford. He left Bavaria in 1799, and returned to England, where he employed himself in making experiments on the nature and application of heat, and on other subjects of econom- ical and philosophical research. He like- wise suggested the plan, and assisted in the foundation, of the royal ii stitution, which led to other establishments of a similar description. In 1802, he removed to Paris, where he took up his residence; and, his wife being dead, he married the widow of the celebrated Lavoisier ; but the union proved unfortunate, and . rpa- ration ere long took place. Count Rum- ford then retired to a country house at Auteuil, about four miles from Paris, and there devoted his time to the embellish- ment of his domain, and to the cultivation of chemistry and experimental philosophy. Though he disliked both the character and politics of the French, he prefened the climate of their country to every other; and he therefore procured permis- sion from the king of Bavaria to continue in France, and retain the pension of 1200 pounds a year, granted him by that prince. He died in August, 1814, leaving by his firet wife a daughter, who resided at Bos- ton, in the U. States. Count Rumford was by no means a man of learning, his litera- ry acquirements being confined to the English, French and German languages; but he was familiar with the discoveries and improvements of modem science, and the industry and perseverence with which he pursued his inquiries enabled him to make some considerable additions to our knowledge of chemistry and practical phi- losophy. Besides a great number of pa- pers hi various scientific journals, he pub- lished four volumes of Essays, experi- mental, political, economical, and philo- sophical. Ruminant, in natural history, is applied to an animal that chews over again what 112 RUMINANT—RUNIC ALPHABET AND WANDS. it has eaten before. This is popularly called chewing the cud. Rumjanzoff, Nicholas Petrowitsch, count, chancellor of the Russian empire, was the son of the field-marshal Peter Rum- janzoff, or Romanzoff (q. v.), distinguished in the reign of Catharine by his victories over the Turks. He began his career about 1785, as Russian ambassador at Frank- fortonthe Maine. He was afterwards min- ister of commerce,anddid much to promote the internal and foreign trade of Russia. In 1807, he became minister of foreign af- fairs, and, soon after, chancellor of the em- pire. He accompanied the emperor, in 1808, to Erfurt; and, in 1809, concluded peace with Sweden. During the cam- paign of 1813—14, he remained in Peters- burg, at the head of the department of for- eign affairs, which, however, were direct- ed, in the imperial camp, by the empe- ror himself. After the return of the em- peror, he resigned the port-folio to count Nesselrode. From this time, count Rum- janzoff, who had almost totally lost his hearing, lived retired from public affairs, and devoted his great riches to patriotic and scientific undertakings. He pro- moted greatly the introduction of the sys- tem of mutual instruction. Kotzebue's voyage round the world was executed, and the description of it printed, at his ex- pense. The Russian codex diplomaticus has been printed, at his expense, at Moscow, since 1813. For professor Hase of Paris he defrayed the expenses of an edition of Leo Diaconus, and to the imperial acad- emy of science he gave 25,000 roubles, to be spent in printing old Russian annals and chronicles. He also caused a monu- ment of much importance, as connected with the history of art in the middle ages, the Chersonese gates of the cathedral at Novgorod (containing forty-six biblical and historical scenes), to be described by Adelung (q. v.), and the work to be print- ed at his expense. In 1820, he established on his domains (containing one town, ninety villages, and 30,000 souls), at Homel (in the government of Mohilew), a charita- ble school. He collected from sixty to two hundred of the vagrant and mendicant children of bond-peasants in a wing of his castle, where they were clothed, fed, taught on the system of mutual instruction, and exercised in some trade. To Rum- janzoff, also, we are indebted for the firet edition, in the Tartar language, of Abulgasi's History of the Mongols and Tartars (Kasan, 1825). The count died at St. Petersburg, in January, 1826, in the seventy-third year of his age, without children. Among other things, he left a valuable collection of Oriental coins. Runic Alphabet and Wands. This alphabet, peculiar to the ancient northern tribes of Europe (Germans and Scandi- navians), is considered, by some scholars, to have existed before the Christian era; by others, to have originated later. The similarity of a few Runic characters to corresponding Roman one--, proves noth- ing, as it prevails with but a few of them ; moreover, the Runic alphabet has but six- teen characters: Uiis limited number is hardly reconcilable with the idea of the Scandinavians having borrowed it from the Romans. Rude nations want many, rather than few, characters for their unde- fined sounds. Yet could the northern tribes, immersed as they were in ignorance, have invented their own alphabet? Frederic von Schlegel advances the hypothesis, that the Phoenicians, navigating in early antiquity to the coasts of the Baltic, might have canied the art of writing to those northern regions, and that the Runic grew out of the Phoenician characters, and was preserved by the priests, together with several magic arts. The similarity of a few of the Runic signs to those of the Romans, might be explained by the fact, that the Romans themselves received their characters from an Eastern source. The fact, that in Spain and other countries hi the south-west of Europe, remains of the Runic and Runic stones (tomb-stones, land-marks, &c.) are met with, is to be ex- plained from the influx of the tribes of ancient Germany and Scandinavia into those countries at the time of the general migration of nations. W. C. Grimm, in his Ueber Deutsche Runen (Gottingen, 1821), endeavors to show that the Germans had, probably, in ante-historic times, characters of more than accidental similarity to those of the Greek and other alphabets, and that the German Runic, projierly so called (that of the Saxons of the northern Elbe), is between the ancient north- ern (Scandinavian) Runic and the Anglo- Saxon ; so that the German Runic origin- ated from the former, and produced the latter. The word rune be derives, as Mone does, from runen (i. e. to make a slight incision or scratch): others derive it from the German raunen (i. e. whisper); hence runic, as designating a secret, mys- terious writing, belonging to the priests. According to Dahlmann and Kopp, the northern Runes are of later origin than is generally supposed." The Runic codices are proved to be of less antiquity than some written iu common characters. RUNIC ALPHABET AND WANDS—RUSH. 113 Langebeck found, in 1753, that none of Uie numerous Runic writings hi Gotii- land reached back farther than the year 1200 of our era; the latest were of the year 1449. (See Biynjulf's work on the Runes, and Rasmus Nyerap's works.) —Runic ivands were willow wands, in- scribed with mysterious characters, and used by the heathen tribes of the north of Europe, in the performance of magic ceremonies. Such wands were also em- ployed by the ancient inhabitants of Swe- den and Norway, to note the succession of time. To this day, the peasants of those countries use similar wands instead of an almanac; and hi Germany sticks are used in keeping the ordinary accounts between families and the persons from whom they receive their daily supplies; for histance, the family and the baker each have a stick, and the two are put to- gether, aud a notch made in them with a file, when bread is delivered; thus each has a check on the other. Runnymede, m England; the cele- brated meadow where the conference was held, June 15, 1215, between John and the English barons, in which the former was compelled to sign Magna Charta (q. v.), and the Charta de Foresta. (See John.) It is five miles east of Windsor, in Surrey, und is now divided into several enclosures. Rupert or Robert of Bavaria, prince, the third son of Frederic V, elector palatine and titular king of Bohemia, by the princess Elizabeth of England, daughter of James I, was born in 1619, and, becoming an exile through the misfortunes of his father, at the commencement of the civil war in England, he offered his services to his uncle, Charles I, and had the com- mand of a corps of cavalry, at the head of which he distinguished himself at the battle' of Edgehill, in 1642, and at Chal- grave Field, in 1643. Soon after, he took Bristol, and obliged the enemy to raise the sieges of Newark and of York. He dis- played his courage at Marston Moor and at Naseby; but his impetuosity and impru- dence contributed to the disastrous result of those engagements. He afterwards shut himself up in Bristol; but, having sur- rendered that place, after a short siege, to Fairfax, his conduct so much displeased the king, that he dismissed the prince from his service. He then went abroad, and, after the death of Charles I, he was made commander of that part of the fleet which adhered to Charles II, in 164S. Prince Rupert for some time earned on a predatoiy warfare against the English, and at length sailed to France, and joined 10* Charles II at the court of Vereailles. His time was chiefly devoted to scientific studies, till the restoration, when he re- turned to England. In 1666, he was ap- pointed, in conjunction with Monk (q. v.), to the command of a fleet against the Dutch; and, in the next war with Hol- land, in 1673, was made admiral of the fleet. In 1679, he was nominated a mem- ber of the new privy council; but from that period he interfered but little in pub- lic affairs, leading a retired life, and spent much of his time at Windsor castle, of which he was governor. Many useful inventions resulted from his studies, among which are the invention of prince's metal, and the discovery of Uie method of" en- graving in mezzo-tinto. The prince died in London, 1682. Rupert's Drops, or Glass Tears. (See Annealing.) Ruppin, Count. Under this name the king of Prussia travels incognito. Ruppin is a small town in Brandenburg. Rupture. (See Hernia.) Rural War. (See Peasants' War.) Ruscsuck, also Rustschuk, in Bulga- ria, in the sangiacat of Nicopolis, is situated on the right bank of the Danube, at the confluence of the Lorn, and almost op- posite Giorgiev. The city, formerly an important fortress, has extensive works and a castle. It is the see of an arch- bishop, and has 30,000 inhabitants; partly Turks, partly Greeks, Armenians, Gypsies and Jews; and carries on an active trade, manufactures silk, wool, cotton, leather, tobacco, &c. Ruscsuck is of the highest importance in a military point of view, as the wars between Russia and the Porte, in 1809, 1810, and 1811, have proved. Rush. This term is, strictly speaking, applied to the different species of juncus, sedge-like plants, chiefly growing in marsh- es, with inconspicuous greenish flowers, though belonging to the class hexandria of Linnaeus. The J. effusus, or soft rush, is a common plant, in low grounds, in the more northern parts of the eastern and western continents, and is rendered con- spicuous by its tufts of long awl-shaped leaves and stems, somewhat resembling the spines of a porcupine. The flowers are in loose, lateral panicles. The leaves and stems are used for making mats, bas- kets, and children's ornaments, and their pith is used for wicks to burn in lamps. The species of/'wncu.?are herbaceous plants, inhabiting the northern hemisphere, with fibrous and usually perennial roots; then- leaves are cylindrical or a little com- pressed, often containing transverse inter- 114 RUSH. nal partitions, which give them a jointed appearance; their flowers are small, green- ish or brownish, terminal or lateral, and generally disposed in panicles or corymbs. We have several species in the U. States, the most remarkable of which is the /. militaris of Bigelow, a strictly aquatic plant, attaining large dimensions, and the largest of the American species. The different species of scirpus, or club-rush, are also common in marshes. They are distinguished by having their flowere dis- posed iu little solid oval spikelets; in some species, terminal and solitary; in others, forming wide-spreading panicles. The bull-rush (S. lacustris) is aquatic, growing in deep water throughout the northern hemisphere. It is used for the bottoms of chairs, and, for the finer sort, is cut when a year old. Cottages are sometimes thatched, and pack-saddles stuffed with it. The Chinese cultivate the & tuberosus, or water chestnut, in tanks, the bottoms of which are manured and exposed for a time to dry in Uie sun. The tubers of the roots are eaten either boiled or raw, and are esteemed both as food and medicine. This plant has not yet been introduced into Europe. Rush, Benjamin, M. D., was born on the 24th December, 1745 (old style), near Philadelphia, and, iu 1759, entered the college of Princeton, where he graduated, in 1760, before he had completed his fif- teenth year. The next six years of his life were devoted to the study of medi- cine. During his novitiate, he translated the aphorisms of Hippocrates into Eng- lish, and also began to keep a note-book of remarkable occurrences, which he con- tinued through life. From a part of this record, written in the seventeenth year of the author's age, we derive the only ac- count of the yellow fever of 1762, in Phil- adelphia. In 1766, he went to Edinburgh to study at the university in that city, and took his degree of M. D. there hi 1768. The next winter he spent hi London; in the spring, he went to France; in the au- tumn, he returned to Philadelphia, and commenced the practice of his profession. In 1769, he was elected professor of chem- istry in Uie college of Philadelphia, and when, in 1791, the college was merged in the university of Pennsylvania, he was appointed professor of the institutes and practice of medicine, and of clinical prac- tice. In the previous year, he had begun to publish his new principles of medicine, depending chiefly for the cure of diseases upon bleeding and cathartics; and these were more or less developed by him in his successive annual courses of lectures, for the subsequent twenty-three years of his life. In the year 1793, when Philadel- phia was desolated by the yellow fever to an extent almost equal to that of the rav- ages of the plague in the old world, the theories and the active strength of doctor Rush's genius were put to the test. All the physicians, for some tune after the com- mencement of this disease, were unsuccess- ful in its treatment. Doctor Rush adopted anew mode of treatment, to which he was led by a manuscript of doctor Mitchell, of Virginia, respecting the yellow fever which prevailed there in 1741. His success was great, and naturally brought him a great increase of practice. He had scaicely a moment of repose. Whilst at his meals, his house was filled with persons, cliiefly the poor, waiting for his advice ; every day he was obliged to refuse numerous applications, and in riding through the streets he was often forced to tear himself away from persons who attempted to stop him, and to drive his chair as speedily as possible out of the reach of their cries. His incessant labors of body and mind, by night and day, nearly cost him his life; but, by timely and proper treatment, he was rescued from the grave. This was the most eventful year of his life, and in it he laid the foundation of a reputation inferior to few in the annals of medicine. Doctor Rush did not confine his attention exclusively to the practice of his profes- sion, but took an active and zealous part in political affairs. He was an ardent friend of liberty, and was one of the sign- ers of the Declaration of Independence. In 1777, he was appointed physician-gen- eral of the military hospital in the middle department; some time after which, he published his observations on our hospi- tals, army diseases, and the effects of the revolution on the army and people. In 1787, he was a member of the convention of Pennsylvania for the adoption of the federal constitution, which received his warmest approbation. During the last fourteen years of his life, he was treasurer of the U. States' mint. Doctor Rush took a deep interest also in the many private associations for the advancement of hu- man happiness with which Pennsylvania abounds. He was an honorary member of many of the literary institutions, both of this country and of Europe. In 1805 he received a medal from the king of Prussia, for his replies to certain questions respecting the yellow fever. On a similar account, he was presented with a gold medal, in 1807, from the queen of Etruria; RUSH—RUSSELL. 115 and, in 1811, the emperor of Russia sent him a diumond ring, as a testimony of his respect for his medical character. The life of this great and good man was ter- minated April 19,1813, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Notwithstanding his great labors as a lecturer and practitioner, he was a voluminous writer, having, dur- ing forty-nine years, from the nineteenth year of his age to within a short period of his death, been constant hi the employ- ment of the pen. His printed works con- sist of seven volumes, six of which treat of medical subjects, and the other is a collection of essays—literary, moral and philosophical. He also wrote various po- litical essays, which were published in the papers of the tune. From the result of his individual experience and observa- tion, he established more principles, and added more facts to the science of medi- cine, than all who preceded him in his native countiy. He possessed a lively imagination, a retentive memory, and a discriminating judgment, together with the power of intense application. He was, moreover, philanthropic, kind and reli- gious. Rushworth, John, an industrious col- lector of historical matter, born in 1607, was, for some time, a student at Oxford, which he quitted for Lincohi's-inn, where he remained until he was called to the bar. He was, however, more attached to politics than to law, and made it his busi- ness to attend parliament, the star-cham- ber, and other courts, when important business was transacting, in order to take notes of what he saw and heard. In 1640, he was assistant clerk of the house of* commons ; and when sir Thomas Fair- fax became general of the parliamentary forces, he was appointed his secretary. lie was a member of parliament in 1658, and, iu 1660, he was reelected for Ber- wick in the healing parliament. In 1667, he was made secretary to sir Orlando Bridges, keeper of the great seal, but, after the decease of that lawyer, was arrested for debt, and committed to the king's bench prison, where he died in 1690. His Historical Collection of private Passages in State, weighty Matters in Law, and re- markable Proceedings in Parliament, was published at different times, in folio, until it amounted to eight volumes, including the trial of the earl of Strafford, published in 1680. The first seven volumes of these were reprinted uniformly in 1721. Russell, lord William, Uiird son of the firet duke of Bedford, and a distinguished supporter of liberty, was born about 1641. He was educated in the principles of con- stitutional freedom espoused by his father, and yielded to the vortex of dissipation introduced by the restoration, until his maniage with Rachel, second daughter and co-heiress of the earl of Southamp- ton (then widow of lord Vaughan), which wholly reclaimed him. He represented the county of Bedford in four parliaments, and, being highly esteemed for patriotism and independence, was regarded as one of the heads of the whig party. When Charles II, exasperated at the court of France for withdrawing his pension, ap- peared desirous of joining the continental confederacy against Louis XIV, a French war being generally popular in England, the parliament voted a large supply of men and money. The whigs, aware of the king's character, dreading to give him an army, which might as probably be em- ployed against liberty at home as against France, opposed the measure. This move- ment being acceptable to the French king, an intrigue commenced between the lead- ing whigs and Barillon, the French am- bassador, the consequence of which was the receipt, on the part of some of them, of pecuniary assistance, in order to thwart the intended war. From that minister's private despatches, sir John Dahymple, in his Memoirs of Great Britain, has pub- lished a list of those persons; but lords Russell and Holland are specified as re- fusing to receive money on this account. (See Sidney, Algernon.) In 1679, when Charles II found it necessaiy to ingratiate himself with the whigs, lord Russell was appointed one of the members of the privy council, lie soon, however, found that his party was not in the king's confi- dence, and the recall of the duke of York, without their concurrence, induced him to resign. Although his temper was mild and moderate, his fear of a Catholic suc- cession induced him to take derisive steps in die promotion of the exclusion of the duke of York. In June, 1680, he went publicly to Westminster-hall, and, at the court of king's bench, presented the duke as a recusant; and, on the November fol- lowing, carried up Uie exclusion bill to the house of lords, at the head of two hun- dred members of parliament The king dissolved the parliament, and resolved thenceforward to govern without one; and arbitrary principles were openly avowed by the partisans of the court. Alarmed at the state of things, many of the whig leaders favored strong expedients, in the way of counteraction, and a plan of in- surrection was formed for a simultaneous 116 RUSSELL. rising in England and Scotland. Among these leaders, including the dukes of Mon- mouth and Argyle, the lords Russell, Es- sex and Howard, Algernon Sidney and Hampden, different views prevailed; but lord Russell looked only to the exclusion of the duke of York. While these plans were ripening, a subaltern plot was laid by some inferior conspirators, for assas- sinating the king on his return from New- market, at a farm called the Ryehouse, which gave a name to the conspiracy. Although this plan was not connected with the scheme of the insuiTection, the detection of the one led to that of the other, and lord Russell was, in conse- quence, committed to the Tower. After some of the Ryehouse conspirators had been executed, advantage was taken of the national feeling, to bring him to trial, in July, 1683; and pains being taken to pack a jury of partisans, he was, after very little deliberation, brought in guilty of high treason. " It was proved," says Hume, "that the insurrection had been deliberated on by the prisoner; the sur- prisal of the guards deliberated, but not fully resolved upon; and that an assassi- nation of the king had not been once men- tioned or imagined by him." The law was, on this occasion, stretched to the prisoner's desttuction, and his condemna- tion was deemed illegal by judge Atkins and many other authorities, not to dwell on the act which on this ground reversed his attainder. Once condemned, such a victim was too agreeable to the court, and to the vindictive feelings of the duke of York, to meet with mercy; and the offer of a large sum of money from his father, whose only son he had now become, to the duchess of Portsmouth, and the pa- thetic solicitations of his wife, proved in vain, and he obtained remission only of the more ignominious parts of his sen- tence. He was too firm to be induced by the divines, who attended him, to subscribe to the doctrine of non-resistance, then the favorite court tenet of the day; and it is to be regretted that he was induced to write a petitionary letter to the duke of York, promising to forbear all future op- position, and to live abroad, should his fife be spared. It is presumed that this letter was written in compliance with the solicitations of his fnends, for he nobly refused the generous offer of lord Caven- dish to favor his escape by exchanging clothes; and, with equal generosity, de- clined the proposal of the duke of Mon- mouth (q. v.) to deliver himself up, if he thought the step would be serviceable to him. Conjugal affection was the feeling that clung closest to his heart; and when he had taken the last farewell of his wife, he exclaimed, that the bitterness of death was past. He was beheaded in l,in< ohi's- inn fields, July 21, 1683, in the forty- second year of his age. To the'charucter of this regretted nobleman for probity, sincerity, and private worth, even the en- emies to his public principles have home ample testimony. Of his talents, Burnet observes, that he was of a slow but sound understanding.—Lady Rachel Russell, his wife, by the affectionate zeal with which she assisted her husband, and the magna- nimity with which she bore his loss, ob- tained the respect and admiration of the world. Upon his trial, she accompanied him into court; and when he was refused counsel, and allowed only an amanuensis, she stood forth as that assistant, and ex- cited the respect and sympathy of all who beheld her. After his death, she wrote a touching letter to the king, in which she asserted that the paper delivered by him to the sheriff*, declarator}* of his inno- cence, was his own composition, and not, as charged by the court, dictated by any other person. She spent the remainder of her life in the exercise of pious and social duties. A collection of her letters was published in 1775 (4to.). Lord John Russell has written a life of lord William Russell. This exemplary woman died in 1723, aged eighty-seven. Russell, lord John, is the third son of the duke of Bedford, and was born in 1792. He completed bis education at Cambridge, aud entered parliament in 1818, as member for Huntingdonshire, which he continued to represent till 1826, when he lost his seat for that county, on account of his views of the Catholic relief question. He was then returned for the borough of Bandon, in Ireland, and is at present member for Devonshire. Lord John Russell, though not distinguished for brilliant or commanding talents, has held a respectable standing in parliament by his attention to business. Immediately after taking his seat, he brought forward a motion for parliamentary refonn, pointing out in his speech the abuses of the rotten and close boroughs, and recommending the grant of the elective franchise to the large towns. The only result of this at- tempt was the disfranchising of the bor- ough of Grampound, the franchise of which was transferred to the county of York. During the succeeding years,'lord J. Russell brought forward a series of mo- tions for reform, which were all negatived. RUSSELL—RUSSIA. 117 His Bill for the Disfranchisement of Pen- ryn (1828) passed the commons, but was rejected by the lords. In the session of 1828, he brought in a bill for the repeal of the corporation and test acts, which was passed into an act. On the fonnation of the new whig ministry (Dec. 30, 1830), he was made paymaster of the forces, and, as such, has since been admitted into the cabinet, and brought in the ministerial refonn bill. (See Parliamentary Reform, at the end of the last volume.) Russia. The Russian empire stretches over half Europe, and the whole of" North- ern Asia, from the Baltic to the Pacific, and includes vast territories on the north- western coast of North America. It lies between lat. 38° and 79° N., and Ion. 19° E. and 130° W., extending through 211 degrees of longitude. It is bounded N. by the Northern or Icy ocean; W. by Norway, Sweden, the Baltic sea, Austria and Prussia; S. by Turkey, the Black sea, Persia, the Caspian sea, Independent Tar- tary, China, and the U. States of North America; and E. by the British posses- sions in North America. The total super- ficial area is estimated at 8,000,000 square miles, of which about 1,500,000 are situ- ated in Europe, and 5,600,000 in Asia. The southern boundary of the American possessions of Russia was fixed by the convention of 1824, between Russia and the U. States, at 54° 40' N. lat. The Russian dominions compose about one seventh of the habitable globe. European Russia is for the most part level, but in the southern parts the face of the country is somewhat uneven. Between the Black and Caspian seas is the Caucasus (q. v.); in the south-west are branches of the Carpathian mountains (q. v.), and in the north-west the elevated plain of the Wol- chonski forest. In the east is the Ural (q. v.) chain, dividing Europe from Asia, and terminating at the Frozen ocean. Several branches of this chain shoot off into Asiatic Russia, among which are the Schooget, with its salt mines, the Sok mountains, the Little Altai, the Baikal mountains, the Apple and Stamvovvoi mountains, which form the Chinese and Russian boundary, and extend to the Tchutschian peninsula. The south- western part of Russia consists of steppes (q. v.), which are either uninhabited, or furnish pasture-grounds to nomadic tribes. The climate is various. In the south, the winters are short and mild, the spring early, the summers long and hot, with little rain, and a late autumn. In central Russia, the winters are longer and more severe, particularly in the eastern parts, and the summers shorter; in the north, quicksilver freezes so as to be malleable even in a warm room, and the waters are frozen from October to the end of May. In central Russia corn is raised in con- siderable quantities, but in the northeni parts the crops are small and uncertain. Washed by the Frozen ocean, which forms the White sea and the basins of the Obi, Yenissey and Lena, on the north ; by the Pacific ocean, with Beering's and Cook's straits, and the gulfs or bays of Anadyr and Kamtschatka or Okotsk, on the east; by the Black sea on the south ; and by the Baltic, with the gulfs of Both- nia,Finland and Riga on the west,—Russia has two great declivities, the one towards the north-east and north-west, and the other towards the south. Down these flow the Dwina, with the Jug and the Suchowna, the Petchora, the Obi, the Yenissey and the Lena, in the north ; the Duna, the Niemen, and the Neva, in the north-west; and the Don, the Dnieper, the Cuban, the Volga and the Ural, in the south. Besides numerous salt springs and small lakes, Russia contains fourteen large bodies of water, among which are the Caspian sea, lakes Ladoga, Onega and Peipus, lake Sak, in the Crimea, and lakes Baikal, Aral and Altin. Artificial water communications are constantly in- creasing on a systematic plan. The ca- nals of Vishney-Volotchok, connecting Petersburg with Astrachan, the Novgorod canal, the Beresina canal, connecting the Baltic and Black seas, and the Ladoga canal, by which the navigation of the tem- pestuous Ladoga is avoided, are among the most important. A system of water communication extends through Siberia, from the Chinese wall to Petersburg, Archangel and Riga, so that European wares can be procured at moderate prices in Kolyvan, Tomsk and Irkutsk. Russia raises much more corn than it consumes. Fruits and wine are produced in abun- dance. The forest also yields important articles of export, besides supplying the consumption: mulberry trees have been planted to a great extent. The raising of cattle, horses and sheep, the keeping of bees (600,000 pounds of wax and honey can be annually exported), and silk- worms (furnishing 16,000 pounds of silk yearly), are profitable occupations. Cam- els, buffaloes, and wild animals of all sorts, are also numerous. The annual product of the fisheries is reckoned at 15,000,000 roubles. Gold (from the Be- resov mines), silver (from the Kolyvan 118 RUSSIA. and Nertchinski mines), platina, copper, iron, zinc, quicksilver, alum and salt (to the yearly amount of 500,000,000 pounds), are among the mineral productions. The total value of the natural productions of the empire is estimated to exceed 40,000,000 roubles. The population of Russia, in- cluding Poland and Finland, is 57,000,000, of nine different races:—1. Sclavoni- ans, 44,000,000, including the Russians (42,000,000, among whom are the Cos- sacks, about 600,000 capable of bearing arms) and the Poles ; 2. Finns, who are scattered over the country, from Tornea and the Niemen to the Obi (3,000,000); 3. Tartars, from the Dniester to the Cau- casus (2,000,000), mostly under their own government, without agriculture or fire- arms; 4. Georgians and Circassians (2,000,000); 5. Samoiedes ; 6. Mant- choos ; 7. Mongols, to whom belong the Calmucks; 8. eastern tribes (including Tchutsches, Kuriles and Aleutians) ; 9. Jews, particularly in the Polish prov- inces. Besides these races, there are natives of almost all countries of Europe and Asia, as Greeks, Arabs, Hindoos, Gypsies, French, English and Danes. There are among these Russian subjects eighty tribes, diffeing in language, reli- gion and manners, 1 om the rudest state of barbarism to the highest degree of Euro- pean civilization. The population is di- vided into four classes, the nobility, clergy, common people or freemen, and peasants or serfs. In 1811, the number of persons subject to do military duty was as fol- lows : 643,135 persons engaged in trade ; 6,389,279 crown peasants; 10,113,177 peas- ants belonging to individuals; 1,077,636 appanage peasants ; 112,453 freemen ; in all, 18,335,730 men. We find manufac- tures of leather, tallow, candles, soap, felt, coarse linen, mats of the bark of the lin- den tree, hardware, and the art of dyeing, among the Russians before the time of Peter the Great; but since his reign these have been carried to much greater per- fection, and many new manufactures have been introduced. In 1815, Russia con- tained 3253 manufacturing establishments; 23 of these deliver to the government an- nually cloth of 700,000 roubles in value, and there are, besides, 181 private estab- lishments. Drugs are prepared in forty- five laboratories ; and there are distilleries of brandy, of which 120,000,000 gallons are consumed hi the country. Ship building is carried on in the large villages on the Wolga and in the seaports. On the Wolga, boats are built without iron, which are eventually used in Petersburg, Astrachan and other cities for fuel. The fabrication of fire-arms is the most impor- tant branch of metallic manufactures ; in Tula alone 17,000 muskets, 6500 pair of pistols, and 16,000 side-arms, are made by about 6000 workmen. The board of manufactures, in Moscow and Petersburg, has the superintendence over all the branches of manufacturing industry. The commerce is carried on partly by land and partly by sea. The inland commerce is neither impeded by tolls nor staples, but is facilitated by navigable rivers, lakes, ca- nals, the snow in whiter, and the great faire, especially at Novgorod. Goods may be exported from any port or frontier place, but can be imported only into Petersburg, Riga and Odessa. The foreign land trade in Asia is with China, Persia, Bucharia, and the Caucasian countries, and in Europe with Turkey, Galicia, Prussia, Silesia and Saxony. This branch of trade is chiefly in the hands of Armeni- ans, Bucharians and Jews, while the mar- itime is chiefly carried on by the English. Since 1815, the yearly value of the im- ports by sea has amounted to 28,000,000 roubles, and that of the exports to 45,000,000. The shares of the American commercial company, and of that of the White sea, command good prices. The board of commerce in Petersburg is the supreme tribunal in all commercial mat- ters. In 1770, a bank was established, whose paper is at par, and has afforded great facilities to the inland trade. The government is an unlimited monarchy; the emperor is autocrat of all the Russias ; the state is indivisible; the ruler cannot be, at the same time, ruler of any other countiy (since 1815, however, he has been king of Poland), and must be of the Greek religion. In 1797, the succession was settled hi the male line, by the rules of primogeniture, and, in failure of males, in the female line. All the princes of the blood are called grand-princes. By the ukase of March 20, 1820, it was declared that only the children of a marriage ac- knowledged by the emperor are capable of succeeding to the throne. The highest councils are, 1. the imperial council, under the presidency of the emperor, erected Jan. 1, 1810, with four departments—that of legislation (the supreme tribunal in civil and ecclesiastical suits), that of war, that of civil and ecclesiastical affairs, and that of finance ; 2. the senate, for home affairs (a deliberative body, consisting of eight departments, three of which have their seat in Moscow); 3. the holy synod; 4. the ministry of state. The ministers RUSSIA. 119 have a seat and voice in the imperial council and in the senate. The ministry is divided into three sections—that of foreign affairs, war, the marine, the home department, ecclesiastical affairs, educa- tion and finance ; that of the imperial treasuiy; and that of the public accounts, roads and canals, and justice. The whole state is divided into fifty-one governments and several provinces ; of these, forty are hi Europe, exclusive of the Cossacks of the Don, the Cossacks of the Black sea, and the kingdom of Poland, (q.v.) The rev- enue, including that of Poland, amount- ed, before the recent disturbances, to 855,000,000 ; the public debt, in 1*^24, was 8170,000,000. The bank paper, which, since 1817, has been in a course of re- demption, was about $150,000,000. The army, in 1822, consisted of more than 1,000,000 men, among whom 613,000 were infantry, 118,000 cavalry, 47,000 artillery, 105,000 irregular cavalry, 77,000 in garrison, 27,000 supernumeraries, and 50,000 forming the Polish army. In 1827, the number of troops was 649,300, exclu- sive of 20,000 officers, which, in 1828, was increased, on account of the Turkish war, to 870,000. (See Military Colonies.) The navy has its principal station on the Baltic ; it consists, according to the most probable accounts, of 32 ships of Uie line, 25 frigates, 20 corvettes and brigs, 87 smaller vessels, 25 floating batteries, and 121 gun-boats, with 6000 cannon and 33,000 men. The principal naval station, on the Baltic sea, is Cronstadt, and, on the Black sea, Sebastopol. There are some ships on the Caspian. No country in Europe supports its military forces so cheaply as Russia. The prevailing reli- gion is that of the Greek church, with a full toleration of all religions ; all Christian sects enjoy equal privileges. The su- preme direction of the affairs of the Greek church is intrusted to the holy synod at Petersburg ; subordinate to this are 20 arch-priests, with the same number of consistories, and 68,000 secular clergy; there are 480 male and 80 female con- vents, with 7300 monks and 1300 nuns, all of the rule of St. Basil. (See Greek Church.) Those who adhere to the old Greek church are called Roskolnicians. (q. v.) There are about 40,350,000 mem- bers of Uie Greek church (including 570,000 Roskolnicians); 6,000,000 Catho- lics and united Greeks; 2,400,000 Luther- ans ; 83,000 Calvinists; 9200 Herruhut- ters; 6000 Mennonites; 100,000 Arme- nians; 3,100,000 Mahometans; 500,000 Jews; 300,000 worshippers of the grand lama; and 600,000 fetichists. For all branches of education, Russia has nume- rous and excellent institutions, among which are the eight universities of Mos- cow, Helsingfore, Wilna, Dorpat, Peters- burg, Charkow, Kazan and Warsaw. In 1829, the number of students was 3647. There are, also, a number of primary and intermediate schools ; in 1824, the whole number was 1411, with 69,269 scholars, besides 344 schools maintained by the Greek clergy for the lower classes, with 45,851 pupils. The Petersburg Bible so- ciety, instituted by the emperor Alexan- der, had, in 1818, 128 branches, and has printed the Bible in 29 languages. One hundred and fifty years ago, there were only two printing establishments in Rus- sia ; there are now sixty-one. The popu- lation of Russia is composed of four dif- ferent classes, as has already been men- tioned. The boors or peasants are the property of the crown or of individuals; they amount to about 35,000,000, and are in a state of great poverty. They are sometimes emancipated by their owners, and are sometimes permitted to purchase their freedom. The noble families are about 150,000, comprising 750,000 indi- viduals, and enjoy some privileges and exemptions. The freemen, not nobles nor clergymen, are divided into six classes— the inhabitants of cities, the three guilds (capitalists, according to their income tax), the trades, foreigners or strangers, Uie notable citizens (savans, artists, bankers), and the colonists. In regard to rank, these classes form fourteen gradations; and all who can claim either of the eight highest are considered as noble. Russia has six orders, of all of which the emperor is grand-master. The order of St. An- drew, the oldest and most distinguished, was founded by Peter I, Nov. 30, 1698, as a military order of merit, for those generals who had distinguished them- selves in the Turkish war. The female order of St. Catharine, was founded by Peter I, Nov. 24, 1714, in honor of his wife, Catharine, who had rescued him from his difficult situation on the Pruth. The Alexander Newsky order was insti- tuted by Peter I; but the amuigements were completed by Catharine I, Aug. 30, 1725. The military order of St. George was revived by Alexander in 1801. The order of St. Wladimir, for civil and mili- tary merit, instituted by Catharine II, (1782), was revived by Alexander (1801). The order of St. Anne is an order of merit for all ranks, and even foreigners. The spiritual order of St. John, instituted 120 RUSSIA. by Paul in 1797, has a Greek priory, with 128,000 roubles income, and a Catholic priory, with 84,000 roubles income. The present reigning house of Holstein-Got- torp was preceded by that of Romanoff, the first prince of which, Michael Feodo- rowitsch, ascended the throne in 1613, and died in 1645. His successors were Alexis Michailowitsch, died 1676; Feodor Alex-. iewitsch, died 1632; Ivan Alexiewitsch, and Peter I, Alexiewitsch, the former till 1688 ; the latter assumed the title of empe- ror in 1721, died 1725; Catharine, em- press, died 1727; Peter II, died 1730; Anna, died 1741; Ivan III, deposed 1740; Elizabeth, died 1762:—House ofHolstein- Gottorp: Peter III, deposed 1762; Cath- arine II, the Great, died 1795; Paul I, died 1801; Alexander, died 1825. Nicholas I, Paulowitsch, born July 7, 1796, married, July 13, 1817, the Prussian princess Char- lotte, (born July 13, 1798), succeeded his brother Alexander, after the renunciation of the throne by his elder brother Con- stantine Caesarowitsch, in Dec. 1825. The heir apparent is Alexander Nicholaie- witsch, born April 29, 1818; the other children of the emperor are, Maria, born 1819; Olga, born 1822; Alexandra, born 1825; Constantine Nicolaiewitsch, born 1827. The emperor has one brother, Michael, born 1798, and two sisters, Maria, wife of the duke of Saxe-Wei- mar, and Anna, (born 1795), wife of the prince of Orange. The sons and daugh- ters of the imperial house have the title of grand-princes, and grand-princesses of Russia, with the style of imperial high- ness. (See Statistique de la Russie, by Schnitzler, Paris, 1829.)—After these statistical sketches, let us now throw a glance at what has been effected by the government, for the most important public interests, during the last 15 years. Civilization has made rapid progress dur- ing this period; the peasants, in general, have acquired some legal protections against the caprice of their masters, and the great work of emancipation has been effected in the Baltic provinces. In 1818, the nobility of Courland abolished ville- nage,and in 1819 the Livonian nobles made a provision for its gradual extinction, by which all peasants bom after that year were declared to be born free, and all bondage was to cease after 1826. In 1823, the emperor directed the imperial council to take measures for preventing the sale of the peasants, independently of that of Uie land to which they are attached. In the military colonies, there are no serfs. The settlement of foreign colonists in Russia has been encouraged, and the German and Swiss have emigrated in great numbere to the southern parts of Russia. The government has also made grants of wild lands, in the southern dis- tricts, to military veterans, and, by a ukase of 1822, the crown peasants of the provinces, in which the land is poor, are permitted to settle on the fertile lands hi Siberia. Some of the nomadic tribes have begun to practise agriculture, and receive assistance from the government, which requires them, however, to embrace Christianity. The Jews have been en- couraged to turn their attention to agricul- tural and mechanical industry; and agri- cultural societies and schools have been established. In 1820, the number of sheep in Russia was estimated at more than sixty millions; and the wool ex- ported from Odessa was considered equal to the best Spanish. The army is clothed in domestic woollens. The discovery of gold and platuia in the Ural mountains (see Ural), in 1821 and 1823, is of the highest importance, and government has done much to promote the science of mining, and the establishment of salt works. The cultivation of the grape has been introduced, with the happiest results, in Siberia. The subject of education has also received the attention of government: the management of this department be- longs to the ministry for ecclesiastical affaire. In 1823, besides the seven univer- sities, there were eighteen institutions for the promotion of science and the arts, and in 1824, observatories were erected at Nicolaieff, on the Black sea, and at Mos- cow. There are also gymnasia, provincial schools, and schools for the instruction of the lower classes on the Lancasterian plan. The different religious denomina- tions have good theological institutions, and the Bible has been widely dissemi- nated, in different languages, among the people. Some distinguished patrons of science, as well as the government itself, have caused scientific voyages and jour- neys to be prosecuted at their own expense. (See Kotzebue, Krusenstern, Ro- manzoff, and North Polar Expeditions.) The legislative committee, by order of the emperor, published the Institutions and Pandects of the Russian law, in 1819—23, in twenty-two volumes. A complete collection of the Russian laws and legal decisions has been published since 1821, and there is also a collection of the crim- inal laws, in sixteen volumes (1753—1826), and a collection of the laws relating to Uie taxes, the public accounts, Uie investi- RUSSIA—RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. 121 gation of the condition of the population, &c. (21st vol., 1IS27). Among the partic- ular laws, the ukase of 1822, abolishing the practice of branding, after the punish- ment of the knout, deserves mention. Russian Bath. (See Bath, vol. i, page 610.) F g Russia, History of—1. Early History. A number of nomadic tribes, reaching to the confines of the Roman Empire, were com- prehended under the name of Scythians and Sarmatians. They inhabited the countries between the Don and Dnieper, described by Herodotus. Strabo and Tacitus mention, also, the Roxolani as a Sarmatian tribe. Iu the second century of the vulgar era, the Goths came from the north into the countries between the Don and the Danube. From the fifth century, the Alans, Huns, Avars and Bul- garians followed each other in this region. The Slavi, a Sannatian tribe, retired more to the west and north ; the Chazars, pressed by the Avars, entered, in the sixth century, into the countries between the Wolga and the Don, pressed forwards by degrees to the Danube, conquered the Crimea, and tims came into close contact with Uie Byzantines. (The empress Irene was a Chazarian princess.) The Petchen- egues, who were of a kindred stock with the Chazars, and dwelt along the Caspian sea, moved towards the west, and pressed the Hungarians to Pannonia, whilst they occupied the countries between the Don and the Aluta. In the north of Russia dwelt the Tschuds (Finns and Estho- nians), Finnish tribes. All these tribes were wandering herdsmen and hunters. At a later period only, a part of them ac- quired some degree of civilization by en- tering the provinces of the Roman empire, coming into contact with the Byzantines, and embracing Christianity. The Scla- vonic tribes showed earliest the germs of civilization. They passed, hi the fifth and sixth centuries, from the northern part of the Danube down the Vistula, and up the Dnieper. They built the two cities Novgorod (novus hortus*) and Kiev, which, at a later period, became power- ful by means of their commerce, but, at the beginning, suffered greatly from the Chazirs. Novgorod also suffered from the Varagians, a piratic tribe on the Baltic, and therefore sent to beg their protection, offering to submit to their sovereignty in return. Induced by this offer, many of this tribe went, in the year ♦ The Russian language uses, as is known, g instead of h (hospodar, gospodar). VOL. XI. 11 862 (according to Nestor, from the other side of the seaf), under the conduct of the brothers Ruric, Sineus and Truwor, their chieftains, and founded three prin- cipalities in the neighborhood of the city of Novgorod. After the death of his brothers, Ruric ruled alone, and united his countrymen and the Slavi into one people—the Russians. The new state, with a military organization, embraced Northern Russia, and was known under the name of Holmgard, Gardarike, and Ostrogard. Ruric died in 879. His son Ig- hor, under his guardian Oleg (Olaf), con- quered Kiev, and made it his capital. Ig- hor's widow and successor embraced Chris- tianity in 955, in Constantinople. Hence the introduction of the Greek ritual into Russia. The grandson of Ighor, Wladimir I of Novgorod, the Saint, or the Great, unit- ed the whole of Ighor's dominions in 980. He made extensive conquests, married the Greek princess Anna, was baptized, at Chereon, in 987, and died in 1015, having endeavored to give his people a higher de- gree of civilization. He divided his domin- ions among his twelve sons: according to the Slavonic custom, the various temtories inherited by his sons were to remain under the grand principality of Kiev; but bloody family wars ensued for the dignity of grand-prince. Wladimir II, remotely connected with this line, was elected grand-prince by the people of Kiev, in 1114. Alexius Comnenus, the Byzantine emperor, acknowledged him as czar. His son George built Moscow in 1147. The surrounding nations took advantage of the internal dissensions of the country to in- vade it. The most dangerous of these t The ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia re- ceived different names in the different countries in which they settled. In England, they were called Danes ; in France, Normans ; in Russia, Warmgi- ams, or Varagians (translated wandering hunters, adventurers). The Tschuds, in the Finnish dialect, called them Ruotsi, Rutzi (i. e. foreigners, adven- turers) ; hence Rohs, and now Russians. This appellation was used, even before the time of Ru- ric, by the Byzantines, though not before the be- ginning of the ninth century. According to Nes- tor, the term Russians became general only after the Varjagi had made themselves, through Ruric, the ruling caste among the Slavi. Nestor calls Ruric and his brothers Njemtzi (i. e. Germans); Thunmann and SchlOzer consider them to be Scan- dinavians (Normans); Ewers calls them, without f round, Chazars. Ruric and his followers proba- cy came from Vagria, from the then known port Aldeigaborg, now Aldenburg, or Oldenburg. They were, perhaps, Frisians, or Jutes. The first place which Ruric founded near Novgorod, and fortified, was called by him Aldeigaborg, from which, to this day, lake Ladoga (formerly Aldoga) has its name. 122 RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. neighbors were the Mongols (from 1223). After a devastating war of fifteen years, and when the grand-prince George II had fallen in battle at Ska, in 1238, against the khan Batu, the Mongols (q. v.) occupied all Russia, Novgorod only being except- ed by treaty. In respect to civilization, the Russians were then in a low condi- tion, owing to the variety of tribes of which they were composed, and their military organization. Commerce was chiefly in the hands of German merchants, who, since 1200, had entered the countiy with the missionaries from Uie Dwina. Novgorod and Kiev were the chief com- mercial cities. Events were recorded in monkish chronicles (yet in the language of the country), of which, since Nestor (who died about 1113), a long series is ex- tant. Whilst the Mongols oppressed the Russians, the Livonians, Teutonic knights, and Swedes, attacked them on the other side. An annual tribute was paid to the Mongols, and nothing was to be undertak- en which should appear dangerous to the latter ; yet, even in this condition, the Russian princes carried on some success- ful wars. Alexander defeated the Swedes, in 1241, on the Neva, and received the surname of Newsky. (See Alexander Newsky.) His youngest son, Daniel, came to the throne fourteen years after Alexan- der's death, lived in Moscow, and, in 1296, first assumed the title of grand- prince of Moscow. The Russians strug- gled against the Tartars, and even defeat- ed them, in 1360, but were obliged, nev- ertheless, to return to the condition of tributaries.—II. Middle Period. Iwan I (Wasiliewitsch the Great, who reigned from 1462 to 1505) succeeded, after a struggle which continued from 1477 to 1481, hi freeing Russia from the Tartars. The conquests of Timour, and partitions of the Tartar territory, had weakened the power of the Mongols. In this period, the Cossacks arose. The Poles and Li- thuanians had conquered the whole of Western Russia to Kiev, and subjected the vanquished people to religious perse- cution, as well as political oppression. On the east, the Tartars of the Crimea bore hard upon Russia. The discontented therefore retired into the fertile but unin- habited Ukraine, and adopted a military organization, under the control of ata- mans (hetmans). The wife of Iwan I (Zoe, a Greek princess, through whom the double-headed eagle came into the Russian arms) did much good in Russia. Iwan made the indivisibility of the realm a fundamental law; he introduced fire- arms into Russia, and made Kasan de- pendent upon her. His son Wasilei had many conflicts with the Poles. The Ger- man emperor Maximilian endeavored to make peace between them, in order to in- stitute a sacred league of Christian princes against the Turks, and sent baron von Herberstein (q. v.) to the czar. Pope Clement VII strove to win the czar over to the Roman Catholic church, and offer- ed him the royal title ; but Poland did not enter into the pope's plan. In the promo- tion of civilization, Iwan Wasiliewitsch II surpassed all his predecessors. German artists and learned men went, by the way of" Liibeckjto Russia; printing-offices were established ; commerce was promoted by a treaty with Elizabeth of England, in 1553, as the English had just found the way by sea to Archangel. Iwan estab- lished a standing army, the Strjelzi, or Strelitzes (shooters); conquered Kasan in 1552, the kingdom of Astrachan in 1554, and strove to drive the Teutonic knights from Livonia ; but Denmark, Poland and Sweden attacked him, and a conspira- cy in the interior broke out. In this em- banassment, he implored the emperor Rodolph II and pope Gregory XIII to interfere ; and the nuncio of the latter brought about the peace of Zapolia be- tween Iwan II and Stephen Bathory,king of Poland, in 1582, by which Livonia was ceded to Poland. Towards the end of Iwan's reign, the Cossack Yermak discov- ered Siberia (about 1578). Iwan died in 1584. Feodor, his successor, conquered Siberia entirely in 1587, and surrendered Esthonia to Sweden in 1595. Feodor, the last of Ruric's descendants, died in 1598; and Russia was shaken by internal convulsions and external wars, which greatly retarded her progress in civiliza- tion. The war of the Polish party with the party of the pseudo-Demetrius* was not ended until Michael Fedorowitsch as- cended the throne in 1613; after which a treaty of peace was concluded at Stol- bowa, with Sweden, in 1617, and at Di- velina, with Poland, in 1618.—III. Mod- ern History. The Russians elected Michael, a son of Philaret, metropolitan ofRostoff, and, at a later period, patriarch (Philaret's original name was Feodor Nikitowitsch Romanoff), in 1613, czar, with unlimited and hereditary power. After having over- come many obstacles, he reigned in com- * The genuine Demetrius, younger son of Iwan II, and brother to Feodor, is said to have been murdered by the usurper Boris; but modern in- quiries have Ibrown much doubt on this subject. The murdered Demetrius is a saint in Russia. RUSSIA, 1HSTORY OF. 123 parative tranquillity, till 1645. Under his son Alexei, the last pseudo-Demetrius was beheaded, in 1653. In this period, also, begin the wars with the Turks (neighbors of the Russians since 1472), on account of the Ukraine, in 1671. Alexei (died in 1676), and his sou, Feodor III (died in 1682), did much for Uie industry, commerce, internal organization, legisla- tion, &c. of the empire. The former es- tablished the firet posts in Russia, and humbled the patriarchs ; whilst the latter put an end to the claims of the nobility to the higher offices, by burning their pedi- grees. He appointed his halt-brother, Pe- ter, his successor, passing over the weak Iwan. After 1689, Peter ruled alone, having put Sophia, sister to Feodor, in a convent, and having received from Iwan a surrender of his claims to the govern- ment. Russia now extended from Arch- angel to Azoph ; but was as yet separated from the Baltic. The inhabitants of this vast territory formed one nation, united by the ties of language and religion. Peter made the Russians Europeans, as Philip had made the Macedonians Greeks. (See the article Peter I.) By the acquisi- tion of the coasts of the Baltic, Russia en- tered into the series of European powers. At Pultawa, July 8, 1709, the supremacy of Sweden in the north was destroyed; and, in 1721, Sweden, exhausted by a struggle of 20 years, concluded the peace of Nystadt, under hard conditions. (See Northern War.) Peter's views respecting Persia, the Porte, and Poland, were real- ized by his successors.—His wife, Catha- rine I (q. v.), reigned from 1725 to 1727, under Menschikoff's influence, only occu- pied with the concerns of the interior. Under Peter II, her successor, who died in 1730, the Dolgorucky, who had over- thrown Menschikoff, found so much to occupy them in the domestic affairs of the countiy, that they did not pay much at- tention to the foreign relations. When Anna (q. v.), niece of Peter I, and, from 1711, widow of Frederic, duke of Cour- iand, ascended the throne, the nobles endeavored to limit the power of the sovereign; but their plans were frustrated, and a cabinet composed of foreigners was the consequence. Miinnich and Oster- inann, of Peter's school, turned their 'houghts to foreign aggrandizement.— Russia established her influence over Po- and, by putting Augustus III on the hrone. Miinnich took Azoph and Ocza- cow by storm; the victory of Stewu- schan, in 173!), threw Choczini and Mol- davia into the Russian power—advantages, however, which were lost, in consequence of the unfortunate campaign of the Aus- trians, and the peace of Belgrade, in 17:i\). Russia, nevertheless, had acquired, by these conquests, much influence among the powers of Europe ; arid her armies were vastly improved. Anna died in 1740, and Iwan III, two months old, was placed on the throne, under Biron's guardianship: but, Dec. 6, 1741, the princess Elisabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, as- cended the throne, and imprisoned Iwan III (grandson of the sister of Anna). Elis- abeth, (q. v.), who was notorious for gross and open licentiousness, sent the chancellor Ostermann and field-marehal Miinnich to Siberia. The German lan- guage had, till then, prevailed at court and in the chief schools; but the French now gradually gained the ascendency. France had instigated Sweden to a war with Russia, during the Austrian war of suc- cession, in order to prevent Russia from affording aid to Maria Theresa of Aus- tria ; but the conquest of Finland caused the peace of Abo (q. v.), Aug. 17,1743. The act of succession of prince Adolphus Frederic, of* Holstein-Gottorp confirmed Uie influence of Russia over Sweden. In favor of this prince, his cousin Charles Peter Ulrich, of Holstein-Gottorp, resigned his claims upon the Swedish throne, and was declared by his aunt, the empress Elisabeth, in 1743, her successor in that of Russia. Lesiocq (q. v.) was banished, and Bestucheff", taking charge of the for- eign relations, changed the foreign policy of the country, so that, in 1747, Elisabeth renewed her alliance with Austria and England, and sent an army to Germany against France, by which means she con- tributed to bring about the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle. (q. v.) In 1754, Russia as- sisted Austria against Prussia, in the seven years' war. Elisabeth died Jan. 5, 1762, and her successor, Peter III (q. v.), the admirer and friend of Frederic the Great, immediately concluded a peace and alli- ance with him. But Catharine II de- prived her husband of his throne and life, July 9, 1702, and continued only the peace with Frederic, and not the alliance. With the reign of this able, artful and licentious woman begins a new era in Russian history. (For an account of her life, see Catharine II.) As soon as she had relieved the countiy from an exhaust- ing war, she invited all kinds of colonists into it, and collected around her distin- guished foreigners to assist her plans; schools, laws, commerce, industry,—every thing received a new impulse. The 124 RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. revenue rose from thirty millions of roubles to sixty millions; the army was increased to 450,000 men; the navy to forty-five vessels of the line. She caused, in 1764, Stanislaus Poniatowski, who had been one of her lovers, to be elected king of Poland; and foreign laws were forced upon the people; but their despair produ- ced, on a sudden, the general confederacy at Bar, and Poland resisted Catharine for six years. She was victorious by land and sea against the Porte (1770), and would have been able to humble Poland, had not the breaking out of the plague in Moscow, the insurrection of a common Cossack, Pugatscheff (q. v.), and the rev- olutions in Sweden, given so much em- ■-loyi:--nt to her forces. At length, the partition of Poland took place (Aug. 5, 1772), and Russia received that part of" Poland which lies between the Duua, the Dnieper, and Drutsch. (See Poland.) Be- sides this, the influence of Russia upon that unhappy country was confirmed by the establishment of a permanent council, the guarantee of an elective kingdom, and the liberum veto. July 22,1774, she concluded peace with the Turks, by which she ac- quired Kinburn, Azoph, part of the Cri- mea and Kabarda; all the other conquests were restored. In 1776, she divided the empire into governments. In 1780, she instituted the alliance, called the armed neutrality, between Russia, the German emperor, Prussia and Portugal, against the naval power of the English. In 1778, she had taken a new lover, Potemkin (q. v.), who directed the Russian policy until 1791, when he died. With him she planned the expulsion of the Turks from Europe, and the reestablishment of the Byzan- tine empire; but political considerations prevented the execution of this idea at the time it was projected; and when it was resumed, ten years later, it succeeded but very partially. In 1783, Russia took possession of Little Tartary; thus she held the key to the Ottoman empire. The favor of Prussia had been won by the firet partition of Poland, that of Austria by the project of an exchange of Bavaria. Austria, in fact, was even connected with Russia by an alliance against Turkey, so that the idea of expelling the Turks was not a mere chimera. The war with the Porte began. The attempt of the Turks to reconquer the Crimea was frustrated; then* fleet was defeated, in 1788, at the mouths of the Dnieper. Oczakow was taken by a bloody assault; but again the Austrians were unsuccessful. Joseph II lost, at Lugos, September 20, 1788, his health and military reputation. Yet the Austrian and Russian armies were subse- quently victorious; but, in 1790, Austria retired from the theatre of war, after the convention of Reichenbach; and when Gustavus III of Sweden had invaded Finland, Catharine became inclined to peace. The Turks did not take advan- tage of the propitious moment. The peace of Werela, in 1790, put an end to the war with Sweden, after several naval battles, advantageous to the latter. Aus- tria concluded peace with Turkey at Sis- tova, in 1791; Russia at Jassy, January 9, 1792, by which only Oczakow, with its territory, was taken from the Porte, and Uie Dniester became the frontier of Rus- sia towards Moldavia and Bessarabia. During this war, Prussia had prevented Poland from joining Russia against the Turks; and the Prussian party in Poland, with Ignatius Potocki at their head, gave a new constitution to the country, May 3, 1791. Felix Potocki, at the head of the Russian party, formed, hi 1792, the con- federation of Targowitz, for the support of the old constitution. But Pmssia, at war with France, feared a war with Rus- sia, and, breaking her word given to the Poles, marched an army into Poland. The second partition pf this ill-fated coun- try took place at Grodno, August 17,1793 (see Poland), by which Russia acquired 13,609 square miles (the greater part of Lithuania with Wilna, 'of Volhynia, and the rest of Podolia). The wreck of the republic was annexed to Russia by the act of union. In 1794, Kosciusko (q. v.) and Madalinski rose for the deliver- ance of their country. In the same year, the republic was entirely dissolved. In this last partition, Austria also took a share. October 24, 1795, the boundary treaty be- tween Russia and Prussia was concluded, and finally settled January 26, 1797. Courland (q. v.) was taken by Russia as a Polish fief.- Catharine died November 17, 1796, having added to the empire of Rus- sia 210,000 square miles of fertile land. She had not taken an active part against the French revolution, though she had concluded an alliance with England and Austria; but her only son, Paul I (q. v.), united with Naples, Turkey, Aus- tria and England, whilst Bonaparte was in Egypt. Suwaroff, commander of the united Austrians and Russians in Italv, was victorious at Cassano, April 27, 1799' on the Trebia, July 17, and at Novi) August 15; but political considerations obliged him to march back, and Masseur. having been victorious over Korsakoff in RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. 125 Switzerland, he was compelled to retire to Upper Germany. The alliance be- tween Russia and Austria was broken, as was also that of Russia with England. Paul was embittered against England for occupying Malta ; yet the naval war was continued jointly. The Russians and Turks occupied Corfu. In 1800, the re- public of the Seven Islands was estab- lished under the guarantee of the Porte and Russia, and was occupied by troops of the latter until 1807—a circum- stance which very much increased the Russian influence in the Mediterranean. Paul renewed the plan of an armed neu- trality in the north, in consequence of which the battle of Copenhagen took place, April 2, 1801; but the emperor had died nine days previous, and his successor declared himself for peace and for Eng- land. Under Alexander's mediation, the peace of Luneville (q. v.) was concluded. He then devoted himself to the internal improvement, appointed a committee, un- der prince Lapuchin, for the revision of the laws, constituted the senate as a kind of intermediate body between the mon- arch and the people, and gradually mitigat- ed the rigor of bondage, especially in the crown-villages and the German provinces. The police, especially that of the health department, was greatly improved; about 2000 physicians were paid by govern- ment ; vaccination was introduced. Ag- riculture was much improved under him, and some nomadic tribes, as well as the Nogay Tartars, devoted themselves to hus- bandry. Science was fostered. Krusen- stem circumnavigated the world. In Char- kow and Kasan, universities and schools were established. But Alexander soon be- came engaged in the desolating conflicts of Europe with France; at first in 1805, in favor of Austria, until the unfortunate battle of Austerlitz; in the next year in connexion with Prussia. Again unsuccess- ful, Russia concluded peace with France at Tilsit, in 1807; received a part of Po- land (Bialystock), and ceded Jever; evacu- ated Cattaro and Corfu ; broke off all con- nexion with England ; and declared war against Sweden, the only ally of Britain. In the same year (1809), the peace of Fredricshamm made Finland and East Bothnia, with Tornea and the Aland islands, a Russian province. In the war between Austria and France, hi 1809, Russia took but little share, but continued with vigor the war with the Porte and wiUi Persia. By the peace of Vienna she received a part of East Galicia, which, however, was restored at the con- 11 * gress of Vienna. When, at length, Rus- sia objected to the extension of France to the river Trave, on account of the empe- ror's connexion with the duke of" Olden- burg, and could not, in her commercial system, accede to the views of Napoleon, the war of 1812 began, which, in the se- quel, involved all the powers of Europe, and caused the overthrow of Napoleon, in 1815. (See Russian-German War.) Russia, it is true, had suffered immensely by this devastating war; but it emerged as a power of preeminent importance, and strengthened by the addition of Poland (q. v.) to its immense territory. This in- fluence seemed, during the reign of Alex- ander, continually to increase by means of the holy alliance (q. v.), founded and supported by him. At Vienna, in 1815, at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1818, at Troppau, Laybach, Verona (see Congress), this in- fluence was manifested, and the French cabinet was for a considerable time divid- ed into an English and a Russian party. During the straggle with Napoleon, Rus- sia discontinued its hostilities with Persia and the Porte. The peace of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, with the latter, gave her Moldavia as far as the Pruth, Bessarabia, and the chief mouths of the Danube: the peace of Tiflis, in 1813, with the former, gained her all the territory west of the Caspian sea, between the Kur and the Araxes, Georgia having been united before with Russia, in 1801; and, on the east coast as far as the gulf of Balkan, with the exclusive navigation of the Caspian sea. Particularly since the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, Russia may be consid- ered as having found that her influence over Europe would be best promoted by the continuance of peace, which would enable her to develope those resources which make a countiy formidable in war. Alexander labored with great sagacity to develope the military power as well as the productive capacity of his empire, and at the same time interfered in the affaire of Italy and Spain, and exerted a great control over France and Gennany, the less supportable as it was founded on the predominance of force over intelligence. He reorganized almost the whole interior of the empire. (See Alexander I.) After the death of this emperor, December 1, lf-25, his brother Nicholas ascended the throne, Constantine Caesarowitsch having renounced his right. (See Constan- tine, and Nicholas I.) A conspiracy, men- tioned already in the article Alexander, broke out December 26, 1825, when the regiments of the guard, who had 126 RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. taken the oath to Constantine immedi- ately after Alexander's death, were to take the oath to Nicholas. Two compa- nies refused, and a tumult ensued, which continued for one day, and was sup- pressed at last by the mingled firmness and moderation of Nicholas. The investiga- tion of this matter brought to light a con- spiracy which had existed already for years, founded, as it would appear, partly on crude political ideas, partly on the of- fended pride of the old Russian nobility. The committee of investigation published a report May 30 (June 11), 1826. The most guilty, some high officers, were hanged, others sent to Siberia, and others pardoned. The foreign relations of Rus- sia with China have remained unaltered since the treaty of eternal amity between the two countries, concluded in 1727. This treaty provides for Uie residence of a Russian mission (a mission of young men who study Chinese) in Pekin, by means of which the Russians always maintain a communication with the capi- tal of China. According to the peace of Gulistan, October 12, 1813, ratified at Tif- lis, September 15, 1814, Russia received, besides the territory along the Caspian and the exclusive navigation of that sea with ships of war, the right of trade in Persia, in consideration of paying a duty of five per cent., and engaged to support that prince, whom the reigning sovereign should designate for his successor, and not to suffer any interference of a foreign power in the internal affairs of Persia. General Jermoloffat the same time made war upon the mountaineers of the Cau- casus, who make a business of robbery. Most of them had submitted in 1823, and, in the same year, seven khans of the Kirguises and Calmucks had passed from the Chinese sovereignty voluntarily un- der the Russian. About this time the Per- sian shah had appointed his son Abbas- Mirza his successor, when the settling of the new boundaries caused disputes, which were not settled at the time of Al- exander's death. Nicholas sent prince Menschikoff to the court of Teheran, to propose an exchange of the province in question; but the warlike Abbas-Mirza thought the moment propitious for attack- ing Russia, and marched, August, 1826, over the frontier, called the Mussulman subjects of Russia to anns, and advanced as far as Elizabethpol; but, September 14, the Persian army was defeated, and Sep- tember 25, general Paskewitsch overcame the Persian crown-prince at Elizabethpol, and freed the Russian territory. Septem- ber 28, Russia declared war against Per- sia. Paskewitsch, be'uig appointed com- mander-in-chief, passed the Araxes, took, April 27, the celebrated Armenian mon- astery, Etschmiasin, October 3, the for- tress Sard or Adad, and, October 19, the fortress of Erivan, the bulwark of Persia against Russia. The Russians now en- tered ancient Media without opposition, and forced the shah to sue for peace. November 5,1827, the preliminaries were signed, according to which Persia ceded the khanships of Erivan, on both sides of the Araxes, and the khanship of Na- kitschevan, paid the expenses of" the war, and the losses caused by the invasion. In the article Ottoman Empire (vol. ix, p. 460), we have touched upon Uie relations between the Porte and Russia, during the years 1826 and 1827. (For the part of Russia, in the mediation between Tur- key and the Greek insurgents, and in the batUe at Navarino, see the end of our article Greece, Revolution of Modern.) The patience of Russia was now ex- hausted by the conduct of the Porte. February 27, 1828, the Russian minister Nesselrode declared to France and Great Britain, that his sovereign must have sat- isfaction for the violation of the treaty of Ackermann, and for the hatti sheriff of December 20, 1827, which the Porte had addressed to all the pachas, and which contained many offensive charges against Russia. March 14, the emperor Nicholas issued a declaration of war against the Porte. The Russian forces passed the Pruth, May 7, to the number of 115,000 men, including persons of all descriptions, attached to the camp. Count Diebitsch, to whom the plan of the campaign was ascribed, was chief of the emperor's staff* which, on May 19, arrived before Brailow. Count Wittgenstein was commander-in- chief. Jassy was occupied May 7, Bu- charest May 12, and Brailow invested on the 11th. June 11, the third division of the Russian army, in which was the em- peror's head-quarters, crossed the Danube. June 15, an attempt was made to cany Brailow by storm, but without success"; it capitulated, however, on the 19Ui. The Russians had now the lower Danube in their power, which secured the connexion of the army with Russia. The divisions advanced singly. After the battles of the 7th and 20th of July, the Turks retired into the fortified mountain position of Choumla, which was the centre of their operations. The Turkish amiy, under Hus- sein Pacha, here consisted of more than 40,000 men. Varna, fortified by nature RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. 127 and art, and defended by the favorite of the sultan, the capudan pacha, and the warlike Jussuf Pacha of Seres, formed the right wing of the Turkish position. Around these gates of Constantinople (as they are called), Varna and Choumla, the hottest conflict ensued. The principal army, 45,000 men strong, under field-mar- shal Wittgenstein, with whom the empe- ror had his head-quarters, approached Choumla, whilst lieutenant-general Roth besieged Silistria, and lieutenant-general count Suchtelen watched Vama. The grand vizier would not give battle at Choumla, but confined himself to the de- fence of the place. The Russians took possession at last of the key of Uie Bal- kan, Prawodi, from which a strong divis- ion of the army might have pressed for- ward to Aidos; but they did not dare to leave Choumla and Varna in their rear, and some battalions, who had proceeded too far, suffered loss near Eski Stambol, and an intrenchment was taken by the Turks. In proportion to the difficulty of carrying on the siege, in a vast and almost uninhabitable countiy like Bulgaria, under the fatal influence of the climate, were the efforts of the Russians to get posses- sion at least of Varna. After this place had been invested on the land side by prince Menschikoff, and on the sea side by the fleet from the Black sea, returning from Anapa, under admiral Greig, breach- es were made. Omer Vriones advanced to its relief, but was driven back by prince Eugene of Wiirteinberg; a body of troops forced their way into the bastion, October 7, and entered the city, which they soon left again. Terrified by this, the enemy gave up all further resistance, and Jussuf Pacha came himself to the Russian camp to negotiate. The capudan pacha retired into the citadel. The Russians took pos- session of all Uie bastions of the fortress, October 11, after two months' siege, with- out any conditions on the part of the in- habitants. The capudan pacha had lib- erty to retire with 300 men. Jussuf Pacha of Seres went over to the Russians with several Turkish troops, and repaired to Odessa. After this conquest, Uie Rus- sians drew back from Choumla, October 15. The siege of Silistria did not take place till the last of September. Winter came on unusually early, and diseases be- rarae prevalent; a scarcity of food and provender existed, so that the siege was raised on November 10th. The campaign in Asia was successful; prince Menschi- koff; on the 22d of June, had taken the fortress of Anapa, on the Black sea, which was dangerous for the provinces of Russia beyond Uie Caucasus, in consequence of which the predatory population of the neighboring mountains submitted to the Russians. The Russian army under count Paskewitsch forced Uieir way from Cau- casus and Ararat into Asiatic Turkey, and took by storm, July 5, the strong fortress of" Kara, the central point of Turkish Ar- menia, together with the enemies' camp. Whilst the Russian fleet on the Black sea destroyed a Turkish flotilla, August 8, and the batteries of* Iniada, on the coast, near Constantinople, and supported the attack on Varna, Paskewitsch took the fortresses of Achalkalaki, Gertwiss, and, July 26, Poti, which being situated at the mouth of the Phasis, secured the possession of Min- grelia and Imiretia. The Turks, indeed, wished to press forward from Arsrum, (Erzerum), and for this purpose placed an army of 30,000 men near Akhalzich. But Paskewitsch crossed an almost im- passable mountain, and beat the enemy at Kura, and, on the 21st, the principal body of his forces, after which he took Akhal- zich by storm (on the 25th). The citadel capitulated. Several strong fortresses fell into the Russian power up to the 21st of September, so that the whole pachalic of Bajasid, as far as the banks of* the Eu- phrates, was conquered. The campaign in Europe corresponded less to the gen- eral expectation. The numbers of the army were not so complete as had been calculated, and the supplies were defi- cient. The loss of the horses could not be immediately repaired. The prevalent dis- eases had greatly weakened the anny. At last, a severe winter came on, and put an end to the campaign in both countries. Its results, however, were important. In Europe and Asia, Russia had taken pos- session of two Turkish principalities, and three pachalics, fourteen fortresses and three castles, besides commanding a long line of countiy, and four passages over the Danube. The Russian emperor had repeated, during and after the campaign, as well as before it, to the British ambas- sador-extraordinary, lord Heytesbury, his inclination for peace with the Porte, on the terms of indemnification for the ex- penses of the war, and security against future injuries and violations of" treaties; but the Porte had rejected all mediation on the basis of the London treaty, and re- fused to send envoys to negotiate with the ambassadors of the three powers, and the commissioners of the Greeks. On the contrary, Mahmoud had announced anew campaign, with Uie words, " Honor and independence are worth more than life." Hitherto the negotiations had been car- » 128 RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. ried on in Constantinople, with the reis effendi, by the minister of the Nether- lands. He had delivered to the reis effendi the manifesto of France, Great Britain and Russia, of August 11, 1828, which made known to the Porte the motive and object of the French expedition against the Morea. The Prussian ambassador, Canitz, likewise advised the Porte to yield, but, till January, 1829, without suc- cess. The sultan had even banished to Asia many of the friends of peace among the ulemas, on account of their senti- ments. Still he showed, on several occa- sions, an unexpected regard for the laws of nations. He did not close the Bospho- rus against the trade of neutrals with Rus- sia until the 13th of September; the Russian prisoners were well treated; the Russians settled in Constantinople were protected, and the irritated Turks were kept in unusual restraint. On the other hand, Jussuf Pacha of Seres, for surrender- ing Varna, which had till then resisted all attacks, was banished, and his estates con- fiscated. The grand vizier, Mehmed Se- lim, was deposed for his delay in reliev- ing that fortress, and banished to Gallip- oli. At length a strong body of cavalry from Asia, under the command of the brave Tshapan Oglu, joined the forces, to open the campaign of 1829. February 21, l--*2'>, general Diebitsch* was appoint- ed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces; but even previous to that event, and in the midst of winter, the Russian forces had not been reduced entirely to inaction. The fortresses of Kale and Tounio, on the Danube, were taken at the end of January, with eighty-seven pieces of cannon, while the thermometer of Fahrenheit was at zero. February 18, a flotilla of thirty Turkish vessels, frozen up near Nicopoli, was destroyed. Feb- ruary 25, the fortress of Sizeboli, beyond the gulf of Bourgas, east of the Balkan, was taken by a Russian fleet. The gar- rison, consisting of about 16,000 Albani- ans, retreated, and joined the main body under Hussein Pacha. But it was in Asiatic Turkey that the serious operations of the campaign commenced. On the night of March 3d, a Turkish force of more than 20,000 men made an attack on Akhalzich. General Paskewitsch imme- "Diebitsch was the son of a Silesian officer in i iqiUq S'an'anc* a^terwards in the Russian service. In 1813, he was lieutenant-general and quarter- master-general, and, subsequently, adjutant-gen- eral to Alexander. In the battle of Austerlitz he was wounded in the hand ; at Dresden he re- ceived a severe contusion, and had two horses shot under him ; and he distinguished himself in the actions of Eylau and Fried/and. diately sent a reinforcement to the relief of the place, and on the 16th the besieg- ing force retreated. June 14th, a body of Turks, who had been drawn down, by the movements of the Russians, from the mountains of Adjar, were attacked in their intrenched camp by generals Mou- ravieff and Bourtsoff. The camp was earned by assault, and large stores of pro- visions and ammunitions, nearly 400 pris- oners, &c, were taken. An army of 50,000 men had been collected by the seraskier of Erzerum, and divided into two corps, one commanded by the pacha of three tails, Hagki, an officer of high renown in Asiatic Turkey, who, with 20,000 men, was stationed at the passes of the mountains of Saganlon ; the other, of 30,000 men, under the seraskier of Erzerum himself. These two corps, by the manoeuvres of general Paskewitsch, were separated from each other, and suc- cessively totally defeated, at the beginning of July. July 3, Paskewitsch took pos- session of Erzerum, the centre of the Turkish power in Asia. The seraskier, commander-in-chief of the whole Turkish army, and governor of all Asiatic Turkey, was taken prisoner, together with four principal pachas, and 150 pieces of can- non. The sharpest contest of the Asiatic campaign was occasioned by the attempt of the pacha of Van to rescue from the Russians the fortress of Bajasid. The attack was made with 7000 infantry and 5000 cavalry, aided by the fire from a bat- tery, on a range of rocks, which swept the Russian troops on the flank and rear, and the fire of musquetry from the in- habitants of the Tartar quarter of the place. After thirty-two hours of inces- sant fighting, the Turks retreated. The career of Paskewitsch in this campaign had been one of continual success; and such had been his preceding campaign in Persia. In the European provinces, the campaign commenced by the renewal of the siege of Silistria, under the immedi- ate direction of Diebitsch. May 17, a de- tachment of the Russian army, posted near the village of Eski Arnaoutlar, was attacked by the Turkish army command- ed by the grand vizier from Choumla, at three in the morning. The battle lasted till eight in the evening, when the Turks retired. June 11, the battle of Kou- levtcha, or Prawodi, took place between the army of Diebitsch and that of the grand vizier. It was contested with ob- stinacy, and the victory displayed rather the superiority of European tactics than of courage. June 30, Silistria surren- dered, and the garrison of 10,000 men RUSSIA, HISTORY OF. 129 became prisoners of war; 220 pieces of cannon, 80 standards, and the whole Turkish flotilla, fell into the hands of the Russians. Immediately after the sunen- der of Silistria, Diebitsch commenced his preparations for the passage of the river Kamtchik and the Balkan moun- tain. He left his camp before Choumla July 17. July 22, the Russians had made such progress, that the general head- quarters of" the army were removed to Erketch, on the summit of the Balkan, after considerable opposition from the Turks, at the passage of the Kamtchik. Mezeinbri was occupied on the 23d, and fifteen pieces of cannon, and large quan- tities of warlike stores, taken. Arriving on the shores of the Euxine, the progress of the army was aided by the cooperation of the fleet under admiral Greig, consist- ing of three ships of the line, three frig- ates, and some smaller vessels. After the successive occupation of sundry villages from day to day, the last resistance on the part of the Turks before the Russians reached Adrianople, was made at Slivno, or Selimno, said to be next in importance to Adrianople, among the cities of the Ottoman empire. The Turks abandoned the city August 12, after a very feeble re- sistance. From this time the Russians encountered hardly any difficulties, before reaching Adrianople, except such as arose from the excessive heat of the weather, the rocky ground, and bad state of the roads. On the 19th, the Russians ap- proached Adrianople, which was occupied the next day without opposition. Nego- tiations now commenced, and, September 14, a treaty of peace was signed, the principal points of which were the cessa- tion of hostilities; the restoration by Rus- sia of the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia, and of all the towns occupied by the Russians in Bulgaria and Ru- melia; the settlement of the boundaries between the two powers in Europe and Asia; the provisions for the religious lib- erty, independent administration and free trade of the people of Moldavia and VVa- lachia; freedom of commerce to Russian subjects throughout the Ottoman empire, as secured by former treaties ; free com- merce and navigation of the Black sea to all nations at peace with the Porte; the stipulation of the Porte to pay 1,500,000 ducats of Holland to Russia within eighteen months, as an indemnification for losses of Russian subjects, and a fur- ther sum, such as should be agreed on, as an indemnity for Uie expenses of the war; the accession of the Porte to the arrange- ments of Russia, Great Britain and France, respecting Greece. By a subsequent sep- arate act, the indemnities mentioned as stipulated were agreed to be paid by in- stalments, the first in four increasing pay- ments at short intervals; the second in ten annual instalments. On the first pay- ment of the portion of the smaller sum, the Russian forces were to retire from Adrianople; on the second, to recede be- yond the Balkan; on the third, to repass the Danube ; and on the fourth payment, to evacuate the Turkish territory. Thus the emperor Nicholas, according to the pledge which he had given to his allies at the commencement of the war, stopped short in the career of conquest, when he had obtained the objects for which the war was professedly undertaken.—The beginning of" the insunection in Poland has been given in the article Poland. The following is a short account of the struggle which ensued.* When the diet of Poland met, Dec. 18, 1830, at Warsaw, general Chlopicki resigned the dictator- ship ; on the 20th, indeed, he was rein- stated in the office, but he finally resigned, January 19, 1831. Whilst Poland was preparing for the unequal conflict with great enthusiasm, at least among the bet- ter educated classes, the Jews not except- ed, the emperor Nicholas, December* 17 (24), 1830, issued a proclamation to the Poles, calling upon them to submit to their legitimate government. January 21, prince Radzivil was elected commander- in-chief of the Polish army, and on the 24th, the termination of the Russian dy- nasty in Poland was declared. Marshal Diebitsch, who had so successfully con- ducted the war with the Turks, entered Poland at the head of a large army. He advanced as far as Warsaw, and was vic- torious over the Poles near the walls of their capital, February 25, 1831 (the loss of the Poles is stated to have been 5500; that of their enemies 4500); but when prince Radzivil resigned the command on the 28th, and Skrzynecki, then only a colonel, was appointed in his place, the Polish cause gained strength. This brave officer, though finally unsuccessful, like the heroic Kosciusko, proved that he de- served a better fate. March 31, he was victorious over the Russians near Praga, in a night attack. He advanced cautious- ly, and, favored by the darkness of the night, reached their cantonments without * As our only information on this sad subject is derived from the newspapers, and works compiled from such sources, we have thought it best to con- fine ourselves to narrow limits. 130 Rl SSI A, HISTORY OF. being perceived. The advanced guard of general Geismar, consisting of 8000 or 10,000 men, was first attacked, and almost wholly destroyed: the Poles took 4000 prisoners and 1600 pieces of cannon. Immediately afterwards, he attacked gen- eral Rosen, who was posted with 20,000 men at Demoe Wielski, and obliged him to retreat with the loss of 2000 prisoners and nine pieces of cannon. Another important victory was afterwards gained near Zelech- ow, where 12,000 Russians were killed, wounded or taken, with twelve pieces of cannon. During this action,the Lithuanians and Volhynians, who served in the Rus- sian army, turned their arms against the Russians, and materially contributed to the success of the Poles. The peasants in various quarters of Poland now took an active part in the war, and hastened, with whatever weapons they could obtain, to the army. Insurrections broke out in Lithuania, Volhynia, Kowno, the Ukraine, VV'ilna, and even in ancient Po- land, as far as Smolensk. On the other hand, general Dwernicki, who had been sent to make a demonstration in the rear of the Russians, and who had been victo- rious over them, was at last compelled to 1-ass hito the Austrian dominions, where le surrendered to the authorities of that country, April 27, with 5000 Poles. He is said to have been treated humanely. Skrzynecki, after having had several un- successful encounters with the Russians, and having avoided a decisive engage- ment with an enemy superior iu strength, at last fought the battle of Ostrolenka, May 26. The Russian anny is said to have amounted to 55,000, and the Polish to 20,000. The Russians were victorious. The same day the Polish general Clila- povski was victorious over the Russians, under Sacken, at Mariampol. The ardor of the people still continued, and hopes were entertained in every country that the manly resistance of the Poles would in- duce the powerful cabinets to interfere ; but, unfortunately, Prussia and Austria, being themselves in possession of a part of the spoils of Poland, did all in their power to prevent interference, whilst Eng- land and France were too much occupied at home to render essential aid. June 19, count Diebitsch suddenly died of the chol- era morbus, which the Russian army had carried to Poland, at Klechewo, having been superseded, on the 16th of the same month, by general Paskewitsch, whose campaign in Asia has been already men- tioned. The military operations were now prosecuted with new vigor, and Uie emperor, who, in a manifesto addressed to the Russians, had called them the le- gitimate masters of the Poles, was ready to make every sacrifice to regain the Polish throne. The Poles were success- ful, July 14, under general Chrzanski, five miles from Warsaw, against the Rus- sians ; but, owing to causes which have not yet been satisfactorily explained, a change of government took place in "Warsaw, and general Skrzynecki was superseded by Dembinski as commander- in-chief. The behavior of the former seems to have been throughout exempla- ry, and such was his deportment on his discharge from the supreme command. The skill and valor of generals Roziski and Czartoryski were no longer of any avail. A conspiracy of the Russian pris- oners in Warsaw was discovered and punished. Krukowiecki was appointed Polish dictator. Paskewitsch made prep- arations for the taking of the city, in which he succeeded September 7, at six o'clock, when the capital surrendered by capitu- lation, after a most sanguinary conflict of two days' duration, during which the Polish soldiers behaved heroically, whilst it is not yet sufficiently explained, whether the authorities did their duty. The Polish army, followed by the diet and the members of government, retired through Praga, on the night of the 7th, and, early on the 8th, the Russians entered War- saw.* The Polish army remained for a short time at Modlin; but the country was soon obliged to submit entirely to the Russian forces, with which the grand- prince Michael, brother to the emperor Nicholas, had entered Warsaw. He or- ganized a provisory government, of which, at first, he himself, and soon after, general Paskewitsch, was the head. This general * The St.Petersburg papers of October, in the of- ficial account of the taking of Warsaw, say that 132 pieces of cannon, 2,000,000 of cartridges, a vast quantity of military stores of every description, and immense magazines of provisions, fell into the hands of the Russians ; that 3000 prisoners were taken, among whom were 60 staff and superior officers ; that many more must have perished dur- ing the attack, by the burning of the buildings, and the destructive fire of the artillery, which, during the two days, expended 29,000 cartridges ; that, besides the above-mentioned prisoners, above 4000 soldiers of the Polish army, 1200 generals and officers, had quitted the Polish service, and joined the Russians ; that the whole loss of the Russian army was 3000 killed, including f>3 offi cers, and 7500 wounded, including 445 officers. The public will probably soon receive an account of the whole revolution, from the Polish refugees in France. A work on this subject has been ad- vertised in Boston, as preparing for the press, by major Hordinsky, a Polish officer. RUSSIA, HISTORY OF^JtUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. 131 was made prince Warszawski (the War- so vian) as a reward for his services. A son of amnesty was proclaimed ; but the corps of generals Romarino, Kamniski and Rubinski were prohibited from re- turning to Poland, because they continued in arms after the capitulation of Warsaw, in contempt of the orders of the Polish commander-in-chief. Many distinguished Poles were sent into the interior of Russia or to Siberia; many of all ranks emigrat- ed, chiefly to France. They were every where, in Germany and France, enthusi- astically received by the people, and in the latter country were also aided by the government. General Skrzynecki is said to live in Austria, and to be honorably treated. Though the kingdom of Poland, it seems, is not to be entirely incorporated with Russia, like those portions which were torn from it by the partitions, yet the intention of the Russian government ap- pears to be to deprive it entirely of a gen- eral diet, and to establish provincial cham- bers. Thus that gigantic power, which, even under an enlightened monarch, is, from the very form of its government, hostile to the constitutional principle, de- veloping itself so rapidly in the west of Europe, and which unites the force both of barbarism and civilization, has come close upon western Europe, and exercises, at least for the present, a powerful influ- ence upon it; as is evinced—if an exam- ple among so many were necessary—in the Belgic question. However distant the time may be, Europe will not be safe until Poland is reestablished; without which, Austria and Prussia, particu- larly the latter, must remain bound to Russia. Russian-German War, 1812—1815. Be- tween France and Russia a coldness had arisen since 1809, although the meeting of the monarchs of the two countries at Erfurt, in 1808 (especially when the geo- graphical situation of their states was con- sidered), seemed to give assurance of a lasting peace. The slight share which the tardy army of Russian auxiliaries took in the war against Austria, showed that its commander had received injunctions to be circumspect in his proceedings. At the same time, all the Russian harbors were opened to the English, provided they displayed the American flag, while French goods were strictly prohibited. This induced Napoleon, in order to en- force his commercial prohibitions against England, to make himself master of the northern sea-board of Germany, and incorporate the country of the duke of Oldenburg, a near relation of Alexander, with France. Against this proceeding, Russia made an energetic protest; and, as early as 1811, five Russian divisions assum- ed a position opposite Warsaw. On the other hand, Napoleon caused the fortresses on the Vistula and Oder to be declared in a state of siege, sent thither large masses of troops, and occupied Swedish Pome- rania, because Charles XIII of Sweden declined a closer connexion with France. (The causes of the war between France and Russia are further treated of in the article Napoleon, Appendix of vol. x.) The Russians adopted the plan of offen- sive operations; and it had been resolved to treat the approach of the French to the Oder as a declaration of war, to let the Russian army enter Prussia, ascertain the sentiments of this state, and commence hostilities. But political considerations, especially the situation of Prussia, urged the abandonment of this plan. On the French side, the visit of so many princes and kings, and even of the Austrian em- peror, to Dresden, gave intimations of some great project, although Napoleon's departure from Paris, according to the Moniteur, had no object but a review of the army of the Vistula Perhaps he might still hope to avert the gigantic smug- gle, without departing from his purposes; at least for this object the count de Narbonne proceeded to the camp of Alexander, at Wilna, and offers of peaceable arrange- ments were made. For the contest in the Peninsula, which daily became more obstinate, and consumed a large amount of men and money, might well appear to him an obstacle in the way of a struggle with Russia; but he calculated that his army, amounting nearly to one million, all of which he had rendered perfectly dispo- sable by the institution of a new national guard of 80,000 men, would be sufficient lor the conflict in both quarters ; and he also relied upon a great mass of auxiliary forces, chiefly promised by the confedera- tion of the Rhine (100,000 men), and, final- ly, on the alliance with Prussia and Austria, which covered him on both flanks, secur- ed his retreat, and both together furnished 60,000 men. When, therefore, Napoleon's ambassador, the object of his mission un- attained, returned to Dresden, half a mill- ion soldiers (French, Germans, Italians, Poles, Swiss, Spaniards, and Portuguese), with more than 1200 cannon, were put in motion, about the end of July, to attack the Russians on the other side of the Niemen and the Vistula. The Russians, hi three divisions, occupied a line includ- 132 RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. ing Kiev and Smolensk to Riga. The first western army (127,000 men), iu Lithu- ania and Courland, was commanded by Barclay de Tolly, who had till then been minister of war, under whom was Witt- genstein ; the other western army (48,000 strong), between Smolensk and Kiev, was commanded by prince Bagration. Gen- eral DoctorofF led a third body of forces, which served to keep up the communica- tion between the other two. Goods and records had long before been generally conveyed into the interior. Riga, Smo- lensk, &c, were fortified, and an en- trenched camp established on the Dwina. Napoleon, already near the Russian fron- tier, made another diplomatic attempt, and sent count Lauriston, who had for- merly been ambassador at Petersburg, to the emperor Alexander; but their views were too much at variance, and Napoleon said, in his usual tone, '• The conquered assume the style of the conqueror; fate overcomes them ; let their destiny be ful- filled." June 24, his main forces passed the Niemen, while the rest crossed the Vistula farther down. As the passage took place near the influx of the Wilna,* and this river, which flowed on their left flank, was also crossed, the Russians were surrounded as far as the Dwina, entirely separated from the second west- ern army, and compelled either to risk a * The fir-it Russian western army was stationed along the Niemen as far as Grodno, and comprised six corps of infantry and two of cavalry. The second western army was in the vicinity of Slonim, consisting of four battalions of infantry and one of cavalrv. The communication between them was kept up by the hetman Platoff, wiih 10,000 Cos- sacks, at Bialystock. The army of Volhynia, under Tormassofif, at Lutzk, was composed of two divisions of infantry, and one of cavalry, con- taining^ together about 20,000 men. In Cour- land, Riga was protected by general Essen with about 10.000 men. One reserve was formed by general M loradowitsch in Novgorod, another by genera I CErtel in Smolensk. There were, moreover, 16,000 men, underSteinheil, in Finland,which, sub- sequently, with the 25th division of infantry from Petersburg, reinforced the corps of Wittgenstein. In September, Kutusoff's army of 85,000 men, which had been till then employed against the Turks, first united itself with the forces of Tor- massofF. Soon after the invasion commenced, militia companies were formed in Moscow, Pe- tersburg, and other places, for supplying the army. Some of these companies fought at Borodi- no, and several divisions of them accompanied the army in Germany, in 1813. The Russian plan of the campaign was, by retreating, to avoid a deci- sive battle, until the enemy should be remote from all his resources, and weakened by marches through a desolate region, and the Russian army should be so considerably strengthened by the ac- cession of all the forces that might be, meanwhile, raised, as to have a decided superiority. The derisive battle with divided forces, or to make a speedy retreat. They chose the latter, and sacrificed their great maga- zines, which were to have given subsist- ence to their right wing. Wilna, which had been Alexander's head-quarters, now became the head-quarters of Napoleon, who here organized (an important secon- dary object of this war) the restoration of Poland. Napoleon made a considerable stay in Wilna, partly for that purpose, partly for the sake of obtaining informa- tion of the operations of the right wing under Poniatowski, Schwartzenberg, and Regnier, over whom the king of West- phalia was commander-in-chief. He had received orders to keep the second west- ern army still separate from the first, from which it had been divided by the march to Wilna, and to prevent any junction farther in the rear. These orders mar- shal Davoust, who joined on the left the flank of the king of Westphalia, executed so fully, that the corps of general DoctorofF was separated from the forces of Bagra- tion, as well as from the western army of Barclay de Tolly, and almost surrounded, when a rain of thirty-six hours made the roads impassable, and the sudden change to cold from intolerable heat, killed, by thousands, the horses of the French, ex- hausted by wants of all kinds, so that Docto- rofF escaped with moderate loss. The cau- bodies of troops detached on the two wings, were to prevent the enemy from spreading out his forces, and to cooperate in his destruction, if he should be defeated. Calculation was also made of the possible arrival of the Moldavian army after the conclusion of peace with the Porle. Particu- lar circumstances, however, gave rise to many errors in the execution of this plan. Napoleon s scheme, on the contrary, was, to use every effort to compel the Russians to battle, to destroy them after the defeat, and, pressing forward with haste to the capital, to proffer peace. Collateral corps were, meanwhile, to cover his line of communica- tion with Germany, weaken the resources of the enemy, and lead them to take false steps. But the French commander, long accustomed to suc- cess, committed the mistake of attempting to carry on the war in Russia, as ir Lombardy, without magazines : he overlooked the fact that he ruled the conquered country only in a comparatively small extent, and must, therefore, leave the enemy in possesion of his resources : he entirely mistook the character of his enemy. He, never- theless, made good use of the chief error of the Russians—the wide interval between the two western armies—by crossing the Niemen at Kow- no, and advancing with rapidity to Wilna. Murat hereupon pursued the western army, which retired to the entrenched camp at Drissa. Macdonald drove general Essen back towards Mittaw, and Oudinot, Wittgenstein to Wilkomirz. Twodivisions under Kamensky were separated from the second western army, and joined the corps in Volhynia. RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. 133 tion, boldness and courage of prince Ba- gration, with the want of military pene- tration on the part of the king of West- phalia, likewise frustrated the plans against him. He even succeeded in sur- prising, on his retreat, the Poles in Roma- noff", and destroying a corps of" 6000 men, and hi stationing in Volhynia general TormassofF, who not only perpetually confronted the extreme right wing of the French, but, by a bold attack on its flank, took prisoners a whole brigade of Saxons, in Kobryu, July 27. At Mohilew, he finally succeeded in throwing himself, with all his forces, on marshal Davoust, who defended hhnself with ability, but would not have escaped without tin- greatest loss, had not Bagration beeii every minute in fear of an attack from the king of Westphalia on his flank. When the news of these events had reached Wilna, Napoleon hastened to his troops, which already stood on the Dwina, where they were watching the Russians in their large entrenched camp, and had suffered con- siderable loss from their sallies. A bridge of boats gave the Russians the advantage of stationing their main forces on which- ever bank of the Dwina they pleased. The cam}) was extremely strong, both by nature and art, since the eminences of the right bank commanded die left. Napoleon, however, ordered a detachment to go round the camp by the road to Poloczk ; and, as the previous consequences of his judicious division of the Russian line had not yet been repaired, that is, the two Russian western armies had not yet form- ed a junction, the Russians had no alter- native but to let half their forces be de- troyed, or to leave their camp and hasten to the Dnieper, where Bagration hoped to join them. Prince Wittgenstein alone maintained his situation, in order to cover the road to Petersburg, and to prevent Uie investing of Riga. The main army of the French, with the exception of three corps under Reggio, Macdonald and St. Cyr, which blockaded Riga, and endeavored to take possession of" the road to Petersburg (which gave rise to a number of bloody indecisive battles), now went, part across the Dwina, part along the river as far as the heights of Wolgonsk, iii pursuit of the Russian army, whose rear-guard fre- quently fought considerable battles with the pursuers, and, from the 25th to Uie 27th July, contested every foot of ground at and behind Ostrowno. But marshal Davoust, pressing forward between the armies of Bagration and Barclay de Tolly, and thus keeping them apart, finally com- vol. xi. 12 pelled them to quit the field and retire to Smolensk. Heat, and want of all kinds, had, meanwhile, operated so detrimentally on the French army, that it was obliged to halt at this point for ten days, during which the two Russian armies finally formed a junction under the walls of Smo- lensk. They immediately began to act on the offensive* With 12,000 cavalry they attacked general Sebastiani (August 8), and drove him back, with loss, a mile and a half. On the 17th, the main body put itself in motion to encounter the French army, which had advanced, on the 10th, to compel, if possible, a general battle. When Napoleon saw his attempts to sunound the right whig of the Rus- sians defeated, he ordered his right wing, under Poniatowski, to hasten, by way of Ortza, by rapid marches, to cut oft' the Russians from Moscow. On Uie otiier hand, Bagration hastened to defend tins road, and Barclay de Tolly sought to retard the enemy as much as possible. Smolensk, an old place, formerly strongly fortified, and the whole position on the Dnieper, greatly favored his plan; and not till the midnight of the 17th, after a loss of many thousands, did the French suc- ceed in taking this bulwark, reduced, for the most part, to a ruin. The French army was now in possession of the road to Moscow, and formed a triangle, with the left angle before Riga, with the right on the Bug, and with the foremost at Smolensk, on the Dnieper. On the left, aild in the rear, it was tolerably based, but very badly on the right flank, where the division of TormassofF was continu- ally making attacks. August 19, Napo- leon left Smolensk, in pursuit of the Rus- sians, whose rear encountered, at Volon- tina, the French van under marshal Ney. The duke of Abrantes, who had super- seded the king of Westphalia, had already come up in the rear of this body, when part of the main army of the Russians hastened to its succor; and by this means it succeeded in leaving, though with great loss, the narrow defile, 30 miles in length. The Russian army retired, in haste, burning all the towns through which it passed. With equal haste, the troops of Napoleon followed, suf- fering more and more from want and * According to Russian accounts, the first army alone was in Uie battle of Smolensk, as the second, immediately after the junction, had proceeded by rapid marches to Dogorobusch, and covered in its reai- the road to Moscow. After the battle, the two armies again united, notwithstanding the exertions of the enemy. 134 RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. the climate. Meanwhile, Barclay de Tolly had to resign the chief command to Kutu- soff, who had reaped new laurels in the Turkish war just ended. Reinforced by militia and reserves, he resolved to await the enemy seventy miles from Moscow, hi a strong position, which was entrenched as well as time pennitted. September 5, the French encamped opposite him, and, on Uie evenuig of the same day, one of the outworks of the Russian camp was taken, after the most dreadful slaughter; and at sunset of the 7th began the most bloody battle of this war, in which the one party fought to put an end to all their privations and sufferings, the other to defend their countiy and preserve its capital. (See Moskwa, Battle of the.) The Russians lost 25,000 men; the French themselves estimated their own loss at 10,000 ; the number of wounded cannot be ascertained. Although the Russians were broken in their centre by the perse- verance of Ney and the viceroy, on the right and left they remained masters of the field of battle; and, without any great loss of artillery, and still less of prisoners, they were able to retire to Moscow, whither Napoleon's army, after two days' repose, followed in two divisions, of which the first was designed to attack the Rus- sians in the flank. KutusofF did not dare to risk a battle before the gates of Moscow. He marched through, and abandoned it to the flames and the French, who, Sep- tember 14, entered the desolate city. Moscow (q. v.) was devoted to destruc- tion, and all the hopes built on the pos- session of it disappointed. KutusofF, by a lateral march to the south, stationed himself at Kaluga, and threatened eveiy minute to interrupt the communication of the French with their base on the Vistula. His Cossacks pressed forward to Smolensk. Werega, situated south of Moscow, constituting, as it were, a post for the protection of the French, was sur- prised by him, September 29. Nothing could save the French army but a speedy retreat or peace. Of the latter Napoleon entertained the more hope, as he was too proud for the former. Eveiy day height- ened the sufferings of his army, the pro- visions having been wasted, and foraging becoming continually more dangerous, from the conflux of Russian peasants and Cossacks. After KutusofF had been re- inforced from all quarters, by Cossacks and by militia, the summoning of which Alexander had himself superintended in summer, and the French army had been diminished in equal proportion (their loss in "Moscow, by famine, assassination, the assaults of* marauders, «.Vc, was rated at 40,000 men), he suddenly threw aside the mask of pacific negotiations, and (October 8) caused a strong body, under general Bennigsen, to surprise, at Taru- tino, the unexpeeting French, commanded by Murat and Sebastiani, and drove them back with great loss. From necessity, Napoleon now did what he should have done four weeks before: October 19, he evacuated Moscow. By his original di- rection towards Kaluga, he gained, in- deed, a march of KutusofF; but, after the engagement at Malo-Yaroslawetz (Octo- ber 24), after which the Russians drew back, Napoleon was either deceived re- specting this circumstance, or not suffi- ciently informed ; and his army, confined to the high road to Smolensk, also drew back, which was the principal cause of its destruction. For, eveiy moment, the want of cavalry became more perceptible, while the Russians, with theirs, could multiply attack on attack. The French colu inns, consequently, had to march con- tinually in denser order: in addition to this, the country was a desert, and want of all kinds had already dissolved the bonds of obedience, while the severity of the win- ter now covered the roads with ice and snow, destroying men and horses by thousands ; and the Russians attacked in continually increasing numbers. After a thousand sacrifices, Smolensk was reach- ed (November 12). But in vain had the remnants of the army hoped to find there repose, nourishment, clothing. The peace with the Porte had permitted the Moldavian-Russian army, under admiral TschitschakofF, to put itself in Napoleon's line of communication. Leaving some forces behind, to employ the Austrians and Saxons in Volhynia, he proceeded with the rest of the army to the Beresina, where he tried to form a junction with Wittgenstein on the Dwina, in order to cut off" Napoleon altogether.* The * Here the two wings of the Russians could at- tack with decided effect; for Wittgenstein, af- ter being joined by ihe Finland corps, had defeat- ed, on the Drissa, the troops left al Poloczk by Na- poleon, with such loss, Oct. 18, that they had to retire across the Dwina. They, nevertheless, succeeded in uniting their forces at Czasnicki Oct. 30, with the ninth corps, and, Oct. 15. repel- ling Wittgenstein's attack at Smoliani. But, in- stead of pursuing his foe on the march to Rataliczi Wittgenstein now turned against Baran, by doing which he abandoned the corps of Tschitschakoff,on the Beresina, to its fate. During this contest on the Drissa, the army of Volhynia was defeated, Aug. 12, by the combined Austrian and Saxon force on the Poddobna, and driven back to Lutzk, RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. 135 French army was, by this means, obliged to leave Smolensk on the 13th, and, with the loss of two whole battalions, under Davoust and Ney, at a temperature of 5° above Fahrenheit's zero to 8° below it, with no food but the flesh of the horses, perishing by thousands, hastened to antici- pate the enemy, who were pressing for- ward from the north and south. This KutusofF might, perhaps, have frustrated; but after the battle (November 18) at Krasnoi, from causes as yet unknown, he relinquished the pursuit, and Napoleon had the good fortune to be met by fresh troops from the Dwina, who compensated, at least in some degree, for the entire loss of his cavalry ; and, reinforced by these, under the command of Belluno, Reggio and Dombrowski, he succeeded in de- ceiving admiral Tschitschakoff* respecting the true point of passage over the Bere- sina, at Semlin, above Borissoff*. There, on the 27th and following days, the pas- sage took place, with a loss of" 20,000 men and a great part of the baggage and artil- lery. But the road to Wilna, which was entered, was very long, and the cold, which increased every day, together with the most horrible want, earned disorder, miseiy and despair to the highest pitch. December 3, Napoleon issued his twenty- ninth bulletin from Molodetschno ; and, on the 4th, at Smorgonie, he intrusted the command of the army to the king of Naples, and hastened himself, under the strictest incognito, by way of Warsaw and Dresden, to Paris. Marshals, officers of high and low rank, followed the ex- ample of the emperor. No company kept long together. The sole object of behind the Styr. But being reinforced to double its foi mer strength by the army of the Danube, it socn compelled that body to retreat; and its commander, admiral Tschitschakoff, leaving gene- ral Sacken with 25,000 men at Brzese, marched ihence, Oct. 27, in the direction of Minsk, in the rear of the main army of the French. The two bodies attempted to prevent him, bul were them- selves incessantly pursued by Sacken; and after they had beaten him at Wolkowisk on the 16th Nov., and driven him behind Brzese, Tschi- tschakoff, who had already apprized Wittgenstein of his march, through colonel Czenitschef, succeed- ed in entering Minsk, Nov. IG, where he rested three days, captured Borissoff on the 21st, but left it again on the 23d, and on the 26th displayed his forces opposite the enemy on the Beresina. The Russian army on this day was still on the banks of the Dnieper. Wittgenstein should now have joined Tschitschakoff, but, instead of so doing, he pursued, on the 27lh, the division Par- lonncaux of the ninth corps, and captured it; but, meanwhile, Napoleon had effected, though with great loss, a passage over the Beresina, which Tschitschakou could oppose, but not prevent. all was to save life, and, if possible, the booty taken from strangers or their com- rades. In Wilna, the last remains were attacked by surprise, and driven to the Niemen, behind which they dispersed in all directions, carrying pestilence wherev- er they went. Of the whole army which crossed the Niemen in June, the Prussian almost alone returned, which had saved itself by a capitulation (at Tauroggen, December 301 and remained in arms, under York, in Prussia. The Austrians and Saxons, driven back to Warsaw, also returned to their frontiers. The capitu- lation of the Prussian general York was the signal of the awakening of the Prus- sian people, who, for five years, had been humbled by the French. January 22, the king went from Potsdam to Breslau, and (Feb. 3, 1813) summoned all capable of bearing arms to battle for their countiy. He did not yet designate his object, but his people understood him, and, with unparal- leled enthusiasm, thousands poured forth to the places of rendezvous,from every sec- tion of the countiy; thousands too old for battle contributed their savings. In vain had the French, with the aid of their last reserves, and of troops thrown together in haste, made efforts to remain on the Pre- gel, on the Vistula, and on the Oder. The Russians advanced slowly indeed, but ev- eiy where with overwhelming power; and the viceroy of Italy, on whom Napoleon had devolved the chief command, could do nothing but retire behind the Elbe with the least possible loss. March 8, after the last battle, he crossed the river to Magde- burg. Prussia now declared war against France, and concluded an alliance with Russia. Shortly afterwards, KutusofF's proclamation at Kalisch announced the dis- solution of the confederation of the Rhine, March 25th. Meanwhile, Napoleon had formed in France a new army, which passed the Rhine at the end of March. But Austria was neutral, the confedera- tion of the Rhine without strength and without will, the popular insuirection al- most univereal in northern Germany; along the Elbe and to the Weser, time alone was needed to arm the people, who were here more enraged than in many other German couutries,because they were more immediately and severely oppressed by French dominion. Napoleon appreciated the danger, and hastened to despatch the most necessary forces to the points most threatened. Happily for him, the Rus- sians and Prussians were not in a state to derive the full advantage from the favor- able situation of things. The forces of 136 RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. the Russians were almost exhausted; those of the Prussians had firet to be fonned; the blockade of the fortresses on the Oder and Vistula occupied many troops. Ku- tusofF manifested littie zeal for the emanci- pation of Germany, and wished it to be attempted, not from Saxony, but on the Lower Elbe; time was lost in negotiations with the king of Saxony, during which KutusofF fell sick, and died, at Buntzlau, April 28. The viceroy was thus enabled to unite the remnants of the array under the walls of Magdeburg, and even ad- vance against Berlin, by this means oc- casioning the indecisive engagement at Leitzkau or Mockern, April 5, while Van- dr. :me and Davoust, between the Weser an.i Lower Elbe, put down the popular fermentation with iron hand, and threat- ened the city of Hamburg, which had most spiritedly shaken oft' their yoke; when the whole right bank of the Elbe was cleared of Uie French by Uie bold Tettenborn. The allied army, hardly 70,000 strong, now had in front an army of the French of almost twice their strength. Napoleon united his forces with those of the viceroy, who marched in a southerly direction along the Saale, and crossed this river at Wettin, while Napo- leon passed it at Jena. May 1, he advanced upon the Elbe. The Prussians and Rus- sians saw themselves in danger of being cut off" from the river by a march from Merse- burg by way of Leipsic, and resolved to give battle. The engagement was com- menced at Grossgorschen, not far from Lutzen (q. v.), about noon of May 2, and had no object but to surround Napoleon, who was pressing on to Leipsic, with the left wing, cut him off" from the Saale, and with the right attack his flank. But this was well protected by detachments posted in the villages of Grossgorschen, Kaja, &c. Unexpected as was the attack, the French resisted it with bravery. Napo- leon's main body, divided into large squares, either repelled all attacks, or soon recovered their lost advantages. The en- gagement in the villages thus lasted, with terrible slaughter, till dusk, when the coips of Lauriston, forming Napoleon's van- guard on the way to Leipsic, came up to attack the allies in the right flank. This compelled them to retreat to their old po- sition, which, not being pursued by Na- poleon, they left, May 3, retiring to the Upper Elbe, without loss of artillery, but with great loss in killed and wounded (about 15,000), which was, however, at least equalled by the loss of the French. Napoleon followed the allies with the in- fantry, but from want of cavalry, which was still behind, could do them but little damage. May 8, he was already master of Saxony and the Elbe, Dresden having been evacuated, Torgau having been opened by general Thielemann, and the siege of" Wittenberg having been raised. The king of Suxouy now bad to return from Prague, and Napoleon proceeded to Lusatia, where the allies, reinforced by a body of 17,000 men under Barclay de Tolly, awaited him at Bautzen, behind the Spree, in a strong position. But Napoleon had also received new forces from the confederation of the Rhine and from France; and thus began, May 19, the prelude to a second great battle, which was fought on the 20th and 21st, at and near Bautzen, and, the right wing of the allies having been surrounded, terminated to their disadvantage, so that the Prussians and Russians drew back towards Schweid- nitz, in Silesia, and the French advanced to Breslau, though with several losses, es- pecially at Gorlitz, where Duroc and two other generals fell, and at Hanau. A truce, which was concluded June 4, under Austrian mediation, at the village of Plas- witz (in the circle of Strigati), allowed the French to remain masters of the Oder as far as its entrance into the Saxon tenitory, and of the whole Elbe to its outlet, while it also allowed the allies to procure rein- forcements, to await the arrival of the crown-prince of Sweden, who took an ac- tive part against Napoleon, and to give Austria time either to complete its prepara- tions and join the allies, or to negotiate a peace, which was to be discussed in a congress to be held at Prague. This truce was peculiarly disadvantageous to Napo- leon. He derived no advantage from it, except that a number of bold partisans, who swarmed in his rear, had to retire over the Elbe till June 12, and that he could maintain Hamburg, which, support- ed by so many friends,—Danes, Swedes, Prussians, Russians, Englishmen,—and finally abandoned by all, had been already occupied by the French, June 2, through Danish mediation. The congress of Prague began its session at a late period, and led to nothing. Russia and Prussia made such conditions as were required by national honor and independence; the mediation of Austria, and the neutral- ity which she had observed, Napoleon re- garded as infidelity to the alliance of the previous year. Austria evidently took part in the negotiations at Prague, without a sincere wish for peace. August 17, the war began more fearfully than ever. The RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. 137 participation of Austria in the war Napo- leon had anticipated after the battle of Liitzen, and he had, for that cause, sent the viceroy with officers aud subalterns to Italy, to collect an army. For the same reason, Bavaria had to draw out its forces on the Inn. They were joined by a corps of chosen men, chiefly cavahy, which had come from Spain, but the main bodies on the side of Napoleon were stationed on the Upper aud Middle Elbe and at Hamburg ; those on the side of the allies, in Bohemia and Silesia, with the excep- tion of the great corps which covered Berlin, and protected the Lower Oder against Davoust. The allies had agreed, especially since the convention at Trach- enberg, on the 9th, 10th and 11th July, to suiround Napoleon's flank, from Bohemia, his right in particular, and to cut him off" from his base of operations. For that purpose, Blucher immediately drew back as Napoleon advanced against him, while the main army, under the command of prince Schwartzenberg, entered Saxony; and Dresden, which had been fortified at the time of the truce, had begun to cher- ish hopes, when Napoleon's main forces arrived from Lusatia by forced marches, and not only repulsed the assault on Dres- den (q. v.), but also (August 27) inflicted on the allies a defeat, which, as they were cut off* from the main roads to Bohemia, and all the by-roads were destroyed, would have caused the annihilation of the whole army, if from that moment Napo- leon's star had not set for ever. The vic- tor at Dresden, on the 26th and 27th Au- gust, where Moreau (q. v.) was mortally wounded, was stayed in his progress by the defeat of Vaudamme, at Culm, Au- gust 30; by the simultaneous overthrow of his army in Silesia, under Macdonald; by the hard-fought battles at Gross-Bee- ren, August 23, at Belzig, August 27; and by the defeat which Ney suffered at Den- newitz, September 6. In addition to these misfortunes, want of all kinds prevailed in exhausted Saxony, and lamentations in the hospitals, where thousands perished of dysenteries and fevers. At last, by some rapid, well-covered marches, Blucher formed a junction on the Elbe with the crown-prince of Sweden, while he sur- prised a French corps under count Ber- trand, watching the passage at Warten- burg. and took up a position between the Muldau and Elbe. As soon as he was advised of this, Napoleon started from Dresden, October 7, in the hopes of over- powering them both separately. But they had already crossed the Muldau to Uie 12 * Saale. The great Bohemian army had also advanced on his right flank. These and Bliicher's flying corps met in his rear, and general Thielemann, who had ex- changed the Saxon service for the Rus- sian, took whole troops of French fugi- tives, and fought several battles between the Elster and the Saale, almost all of which resulted to the disadvantage of the French. On the opposite side, the bold Czernitschef pressed forward so rapidly with his Cos- sacks to Cassel, Uiat he was able, October 1, to declare the kingdom of Westphalia dissolved. After some movements on the right bank of the Elbe, which seemed to threaten Berlin, Napoleon proceeded with his main army to the plains of Leipsic. at which he arrived with the guards Octo- ber 14, when Schwartzenberg had already commenced against the king of" Naples, who had commanded the left wing of Napoleon from Dresden, a reconnoisance, which resulted in a smart skirmish of the cavalry at Liebertwolkwitz. Meanwhile, Augereau had brought up an excellent corps de reserve: his army had also been reinforced at Erfurt by 14,000 newly organ- ized fugitives; and, as he probably thought, that he had deceived the crown-prince and Bhicher by movements made the other side of Wittenberg, and Uiat he had gained so much time, that he could meet the great Bohemian army alone hi a decisive engagement, he did not delay to encounter it in the spacious plain near Leipsic, between the Pleisse, Elster and Parthe. About nine o'clock in the morn- ing of October 16, the engagement com- menced to the south of Leipsic. Napo- leon had rested his right wing, under Poniatowski, on the Pleisse, and strongly garrisoned all the villages from Konnewitz to the river. His centre was stationed at Wachau. The left wing was supported by the heightsof the Parthe. Prince Schwartz- enberg sought to turn the right wing; but all his efforts were vain, because Napoleon made such progress hi the centre, that all the reserves destined for that manoeuvre had to be used for the reinforcement of the centre. After destructive attacks on both sides, Napoleon had gained some ground in the centre and on the left wing. Count Bertrand repelled an attempt of" the Bohe- mian army to gain possession of the defile of Lindenau, and, at the same time, of Na- poleon's whole line of retreat, perhaps of the city of Leipsic itself. But the duke of Ragusa was very unfortunate at Mock- em, where he occupied a wide line to the north of Leipsic, and was unexpectedly attacked by general Blucher with the 138 RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. greatest impetuosity, totally defeated, after an obstinate resistance, on his left wing, and driven back, in disorder, to Gohlis. On the 17th, Napoleon negotiated, through count Meerveldt, who had been taken prisoner, for liberty to retire undisturbed, and for an armistice, both of which pro- posals were the less listened to, because the allies could now conduct then* op- erations with a mutual understanding, the crown-prince of Sweden having joined Bliicher with upwards of 60,000 men, and general Bennigseii, with almost an equal number, being every minute expected from Grimma. October 18, therefore, a fearful conflict took place at Leipsic. The French fought with des- peration, to save their honor and secure their retreat, which had been commenced at day-break. Their centre and their right wing, from Probstheyda to Konnewitz, remained firm. The left, supported in Schonfeld on the Parthe, was defeated rather by the defection of the Saxons and Wurtembergers, than from want of brave- ry ; and nothing but the inexplicable care- lessness of Napoleon on the 19th October converted the regular retreat, at last, into a flight, and a general overthrow of the rear. (See Leipsic.) This battle emanci- pated Germany. Bavaria had already (October 8) renounced the confederation of the Rhine, and united with Austria. All the German princes followed this ex- ample, with the exception of the king of Saxony (prevented by his imprisonment in Leipsic), Jerome of Westphalia, and the prince-primate. After the loss of many thousands, in prisoners and disabled, Napoleon, assailed or harassed in every quarter, was obliged, in order to gain the Rhine, to sustain a bloody conflict (Oc- tober 31) with the Bavarians and Austri- ans stationed at Hanau. (q. v.) The allies made a halt on the Rhine, in order to unite the forces of liberated Germany with those furnished by England and Hol- land, which was now working its own emancipation. The number of troops col- lected against Napoleon in 1814 amounted to 1,208,000. The only remaining vestiges of Napoleon's power were the fortresses on the Vistula, Oder, Elbe, &c, in which, however, his best troops, cut off* from all succor, finally perished, from want and suf- fering, or were forced to surrender. Even the Danes, who had been forced to form the closest union with Napoleon, in con- sequence of the hard terms proffered them by England and Sweden in the spring of 1813, were obliged to concede to the crown-prince of Sweden, in the peace of Kiel (Jan. 14,1814), all that they had formerly refused. The Rhine having been passed subsequently to Jan. 1, 1814, at Caub, Manheim, Rastadt, Ehrenbreit- stein, and Dusseldorf, it was easy to see that Napoleon would be eventually over- powered, because in France many had fallen from him since fortune forsook him, and the old ar'-tocracy raised their heads again, whilst the people at large were exhausted by war. Immediately after his arrival, he had indeed set every spring in motion, in order to repeat, once more, the unexampled exertions which had been made in 1811 and 1813. But affairs in Spain had taken a most un- favorable turn. Marshal Jourdan had been totally defeated by Wellington, at Vittoria (June 21, 1813), and had been forced back to the Pyrenees, with the loss of his artillery; and, subsequently, Soult and Suchet had with difficulty kept the enemy from the soil of France itself, and it was consequently necessary to send thither new forces. For the first time, therefore, the senate ventured, though timidly, to represent the misery of France, when repeated decrees of Napo- leon ordered the levy of nearly half a million new conscripts of 1807—1814, the organization of cohorts of national guards, and the formationof four armies of reserve. Still stronger tenns did the deputies Laine and Raynouard use in the legislative body; and, in consequence of the general indig- nation at the enormous expenditure of human life, great difficulties now present- ed themselves, when the demands of self-defence were imperative, in the way of collecting the myriads which were necessary, and to provide them with artillery, horses, and other requisites. Beyond the Rhine, therefore, from Swit- zerland to Holland, which was for the most part voluntarily evacuated by the French, the allies found but little resistance. Al- most without loss of blood, they were able to gain possession of mount Jura, to put their left wing in communication with the Austrian army of Italy (which, com- manded by general Hiller, had threatened, from Tyrol, to cut off* the viceroy, and hail obliged him to retreat to the Adige), to make themselves masters of all the passes to Italy, of the city of Geneva, of the roads over the Simplon and Bernard, and, as early as the 9th January, to occupy a new line, covered on the left by the Seine, on the right by the Meuse, hi Alsace, Lor- raine, Deux-Ponts, &c, with the exception of the invested fortresses. Napoleon had issued a proclamation for a kind of general RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. 139 rising of Uie people, or a levy in mass. This measure, which did wonders in the revolution, had, in this instance, but little effect among the suffering people. In a few quarters only, and not till the excesses of the enemy, exasperated by national hatred, had occasioned excitement, did the call produce some effect, but could give no new direction to the course of affairs. The allies, continuing to ad- vance, occupied the Saar, the Moselle, the passes of Ardennes, almost without a blow. In no instance had a French general strength enough to maintain the most important points against the over- whelming force of the invaders; and it was hoped, by the middle of February, to reach Paris in safety, when Napoleon, who left it on the 25th January, and went to join his army (assembled, after infinite trouble, on the Aube), fought, from January 27 to February 3, a number of battles, which, with that at Brieune, on Februaiy 1, form one of the most striking exhibitions in military history. Napoleon put forth all his skill. He lost the battle of Brienne, after his army of 70,000 men had made the most desperate resistance, which, regardless of danger, he super- intended eveiy where, and left behind 73 cannon and 12,000 prisoners, to retire, as it seemed, beyond Troyes. Mean- while, the eagerness of the allies to im- prove the first victory on the soil of France, gave rise to a separation of their forces, of which Napoleon took advan- tage judiciously and boldly. Having re- ceived on wagons new troops from the anny of Spain, he proceeded, with rapidi- ty, from the Seine to the Lower Mame, along which the anny of Bhicher was marching, in security, to Paris. He broke through its centre, and destroyed, at Champeaubcrt (February 10), the column of general Olsusieff*. Without the aid of general York, general Sacken would have met with a similar fate the next day, at Montmirail. In like manner (Februaiy 14), Napoleon repulsed, with considerable loss, at Vauchamp and Etoges, the col- umns led by the field-marshal himself. With great exertions, a union was, at last, effected with Bliicher's reserves. Schwartzenberg and Wrede were then, with the Wurtemberg troops, beyond the Seine ; for Napoleon had been deem- ed sufficiently enfeebled to allow them to proceed towards Paris in two large columns, one on the Seine, the other on the Mame. This idea had been, in part, recommended by the baiTeniiess of Cham- pagne. The great triangle between the Seine and Mame consequently separated them, for in it stood Napoleon's army. To make a lateral movement, it was ne- . cessaiy to cross the Seine, over which there were only two points of passage, at Nogent (strongly fortified) and at Bray, without a bridge, but in sight of a weak French reconnoitring party. Napoleon now hoped to gain important advan- tages over the army of Schwartzenberg. Wrede, united with Wittgenstein's corps, had to return across the Seine (February 17). On the 18th, Napoleon attacked the Wurtembergers, at Montereau, at the confluence of the Yonne and Seine ; but .they retired, though with loss, to the left bank of the Seine. Schwartzenberg now hastened back, and passed the Seine at Troyes, to renew his communication with Blucher. Constantly hard pressed, the allies had to continue retiring; and the situation of affaire was so uncertain that, in the head-quarters of the monarchs themselves, a diversity of opinions prevailed, which had au influence on the congress of Cha- tillon. (q. v.) But in this very crisis, which inspired Napoleon with such hopes that he raised his demands higher at Chatillon than he had done since the battle of Leipsic, a new turn was given to affairs. The allies concluded the treaty of Chaumont. (q. v.) After the indecisive battle of Bar sur Aube (February 27), Napoleon marched against Blucher, who was approaching the northern army, the van of which had already taken Sois- sons, but had lost it again. But in a lucky moment, Soissons capitulated (March 2), and Blucher formed a junction with the northern anny, under Billow, who had taken several fortresses in the Low Countries and Picardy, especially La Fere (Februaiy 26), with a great quantity of stores, by means of general Thumen. The duke of Weimar, who arrived with 30,000 Saxons and other troops, had blockaded the unconquer- ed piaces. On the extreme left wing, also, of* the allied anny, from Geneva, the most derided advantages were gain- ed. The count of Bubna here, like- wise, had been obliged to contend, till Februaiy 25, wiUi obstacles of all kinds Marshal Augereau, inspirited by some reinforcements from Spain, had received from Napoleon orders to advance on this side, and repulse the left flank of the allies. All the Austrian wounded were taken to Berne, and Geneva was consid- ered iu great danger; but when the prince of Homburg and count Bianchi came up with considerable reinforcements, Auge- 140 RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. reau lost his former advantages as rapidly as he had gained them. Napoleon now saw himself in danger of being sur- rounded on both flanks, and confined between the Seine and Marne. lie therefore (March 9] attacked Blucher's anny at Craone, and, on the 10th, gave battle at Laon, and was defeated. He now returned across the Aisne and Marne, took Rheims, and threw himself with impetu- osity on Schwartzenberg, at Arris sur Aube ; but, repulsed on the 20th and 21st, with loss, he resumed his former plan, to approach the Rhine in the rear of the al- lies, supported by the fortresses of the Moselle, exhort the people to a general ris- ing, unite with Augereau,and intercept the retreat of the allies. But the allies, merely keeping watchon him, made a rapid march to Paris (q.v.); for marshal Augereau had already been driven back to Lyons, which capitulated March 21. After the victory over Soult at Orthes, Februaiy 27, the English had gamed possession of the city of Bordeaux, and driven back mar- shal Soult to Toulouse. Finally, advices were received at head-quarters, from Paris itself, disclosing the existence of an anti- Napoleon party, and describing the con- quest of the city as easy, it being defended solely by the national guards. The battle of March 30 gave them access to the cap- ital of France. Napoleon's family had already fled from the city. Alexander now declared that he would never treat with the emperor or his family. April 1, a pro- visional government was organized by Tal- leyrand, which declared Napoleon depos- ed, and transferred the crown to the Bour- bons. Napoleon hastened back too late for the preservation of Paris. He approach- ed only as near as Fontainebleau. Here the fragments of the troops which had left Paris, according to the capitulation, were reunited; but Marmont, with his corps, abandoned the emperor April 4. After many negotiations, Napoleon abdicated the throne, stipulating only for the imperial ti- tle, the island of Elba, with entire sover- eignty, two millions of francs, &c, all of which were granted him. April 9, an ar- mistice was concluded with all the French commanders. Most of the fortresses situ- ated without the boundaries of ancient France, opened their gates; the others, situ- ated within it, acknowledged Louis XVIII willingly or unwillingly. Davoust, in Hamburg, hesitated Uie longest: he did not depart till May 29. At the same time, the taking of Paris decided the fate of It- aly. In this country, partly through the excellent precautions of" the viceroy, part- ly through the equivocal conduct of Ma- rat, king of Naples, who had left the party of Napoleon, and, favored by Austria, em- braced that of* the allies, without doing any thing in good earnest for them, the war had not taken a decisive course. Since the battle which the viceroy had fought with the Austrian general on the Mincio, he maintained his position on this river, with an army of 30,000 men, at most, against the same number of Neapolitans and 50,000 Austrians. The accounts from Paris gave here, also, a new direction to affaire. April 16, a truce was concluded, which allowed the French troops to depart for France, and compelled the Italian to remain. But an insuirection in Milan made a change in regard to the condition, that the fate of Italy should be decided in Paris ; and prince Eugene resigned his command of the troops to the Austrian gen- eral Bellegarde (who had taken I Idler's place), and went, by way of Verona, to Munich. Aleanwhile, the count of Artois had entered Paris, as the representative of Louis XVIII. April 23, he concluded a general trace with the allied monarchs, and a preliminary treaty respecting the fu- ture conditions of peace. Louis XVIII en- tered Paris himself, May 3. On the 5th, Schwartzenberg resigned the chief com- mand, and the armies retired with rapidi- ty to the Rhine, though peace was not signed till May 30. (See France, since 1814.) On the whole, on account of the great expectations excited by the hatred against France, the joy at this peace was very slight, although it had taken from France upwards of one hundred fortified places, and twenty-five millions of souls. The tranquillity of Europe was soon again disturbed. In France, Louis XVIII did not succeed in winning the love of the people, to which he had so long been a stranger. Napoleon, therefore, escaped from Elba, and reascended the French throne March 20, 1815. (See Napoleon.) The monarchs being determined to sup- port the Bourbons, the flames of war were again kindled. About 770,000 soldiers were gathered from Germany, Russia, Belgium (which was united into"one king- dom with Holland), F.ngland, and Den- mark. Napoleon, on his side, was not idle. From all France, he had convened in Paris to a great champ de Mai, in the beginning of June, 4000 deputies, who swore fidelity to the new constitution and to him. From the 20th March, he, Carnot, Davoust, and othere, had done eveiy thing to put the anny in a respectable state. Their efforts were very much aided by the enthusiasm RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. 141 of the old soldiers, who had, meanwhile, returned home from imprisonment. The Austrian emperor was threatened by a storm in Italy, which seemed to be con- nected with that in France. 3Iurat, king of Naples, had been obliged to undergo, at Uie congress of Vienna, a contest with the Bourbon courts ; so much the harder, as England was under obligations to the for- mer king of Naples, and, moreover, un- derstood M mat's equivocal behavior the year before, and therefore declared, in express terms, that he could not remain king. Austria alone, the more faithful to her engagements with him because it was less for her advantage to have a Bourbon for a neighbor, in the south of Italy, spoke in lus favor; but either gave up his cause at last, or, at least, Murat thought himself abandoned by her, or believed that the land- ing of Napoleon would afford him means, during the prevailing fermentation in Ita- ly, to make himself master of the whole peninsula; so that, on the 4th of April, without declaration of war, he attacked Rome and the Austrian line of troops with 50 to 60,000 men. The Austrians, hardly 12,000 men strong, under general Bianchi, retreated, fighting, behind the Po, where they maintained themselves till the troops sent thither in wagons had arrived; after v'.ich, general Frimont, who command- ed them, advanced again so quickly, and so skilfully, that, twenty days after, Murat was in the most desperate situation; and his dispirited troops by degrees dispersed, and would not stand an attack. Surcound- ed, and cut off from thex best roads, he saw himself forced to retreat continual- ly through by-paths, where artillery and baggage were lost. An attempt to save himself by a truce, failed, from the firm- ness of the Austrian general; another, at Tolentino, May 1—3, to improve his situ- ation by arms, was frustrated by the valor of his enemy ; and, inconsequence of this last vain attack, made with desperation, and much personal exposure, his army to- tally dispersed, and he himself fled to France.—His wife was taken to Austria. The wreck of the army, 5000 strong, laid down theirarms behind the river Voltunio, May 20. Half the Austrian army, on account of the unexpectedly slight re- " sistance which they had met with, had proceeded to Upper Italy, in order, from thence to enter France, over the Alps. But orders from Vienna delayed the invasion, Uiat the Russians might have time to come up. Half of June had consequently elapsed, when the attack was made on the side of Napoleon, equally impetuously and unex- pectedly. Immediately after the champ de Mai, he left Paris for the army of 150,000 select troops, stationed on the northern boundary, taking with him the guards assembled at Lyons, and, with them, attacked, at day-break, June 15, more than 200,000 Englishmen and Prussians, who were encamped along the Dyle and Sam- bre, under the command of Blucher and Wellington. Without giving them time to unite, he drove the Prussians back be- hind Fleurus, and defeated them at Ligny, June 16; while Ney attempted to re- tard, at Quatre Bras, the English, who were hastening on the Brussels road, and prevent their junction with Blucher. In the battle that took place there, in which the duke of Brunswick fell, Ney was un- able entirely to accomplish Napoleon's ob- ject ; but neither could Wellington come to the succor of the Prussians, who were, therefore, obliged to make a retreat, in which they were favored by the darkness of the night. The next day, Napoleon de- tached two of his corps tfarmie to pursue the Prussians, who were retreating to Wavre: with the rest of the army, he ad- vanced, on the Brussels road, to crush the English, as he thought he had crushed the Prussians. Wellington had, meanwhile, assumed a position before the great forest of Soigny, on an elevated plain, which formed a natural fortress. (See Water- loo, Battle of) On the 18th, Napoleon at- tacked this position, in the conviction that the English would not make a long resist- ance. But all his attacks were unsuccess- ful, and the more he wasted his forces in vain, the more terrible was his defeat, when, towards evening, the army of the Prussians, beaten on the 16th, but only the more eager for battle, coming up from Wavre in two divisions, fell upon the right wing and the rear of the French army, through the defile of St. Lambert. Wel- lington, now making a general movement forward, in one hour the whole French army was dispersed, and Napoleon him- self earned along with the fugitives. Blucher ordered all the cavalry to pursue the fugitives, in the moonlight night. All the artillery and baggage was lost; no point of retreat was specified ; they who had hoped to be in Brussels in the morn- ing, wandered about on the Sambre, in the ** most melancholy condition. Not a single corps d'armie opposing the conquerors, the fortified places situated in their route were taken or surrounded. Deputies from Paris, suing for a truce, and announcing Napoleon's abdication, were not heard. The allies advanced, taking advantage of 142 RUSSIAN-GERMAN WAR. the first consternation. June 27, they were already masters of the main roads leading to Paris, and expected to gain possession of the capital without a stroke of the sword. But the two French generals Vandamme and Grouchy, who had pursued the Prus- sians, after the battle on the 16th, and had driven general Thielemann from Wavre, at Uie very moment when Napoleon's ar- my was dispersed, made such a rapid and judicious retreat, that, to the surprise both of friend and foe, they airived, with moderate loss, under the walls of Paris at the same tune with Blucher and Welling- ton. Paris was better fortified than in 1814 ; but, as the fortifications were sur- rounded, the city was in danger of being stormed on its weakest side. Grouchy aud Vandamme were the less able to encoun- ter the allies, as every day brought acces- sions to the forces of the Prussians and English; a truce was, therefore, made, and Paris evacuated. (See Paris.) All the troops retired behind the Loire, with their baggage, artillery, &c, and on the 6th the city was sunendered. Thus the war was essentially decided by the battle of Water- loo. While the Russians, Bavarians, Wur- tembergers, and Ausnians,were coming up from all sides, the French forces stationed in different quarters were too inconsidera- ble to do any thing but shed their blood in vain, notwithstanding the brave resistance of Rapp under the walls of Strasburg, of Suchet before Lyons, and notwithstanding popular hisunections in several parts of Alsatia and Lonaine. Armistices put an end, by degrees, to the war in these quarters the more speedily, because Louis XVIII had already made his entry into Paris, J u- ly 9. Immediately after his retu m, Napo- leon had abdicated. He hoped, perhaps, by that means, to appease the storm, and departed for Rochefort, where he finally, July 15, surrendered to the English. In Paris, a diversity of opinions prevailed in the chambers of peers and representa- tives. Their attention was occupied, while the conquerors advanced, with the subjects of a republic, of Napoleon II, and a new constitution ; till Fouche, who stood at the head of the provisional government, clos- ed their halls, and Louis reascended the throne, strongly as such a proceeding was deprecated by the voice of the people in the chambers and in the army. This resto- ration had much influence on the event of Uie war. The princes had received Louis as their ally. In their declarations, they had spoken merely against Napoleon, not against the French people. The more active a part the people had taken against them, and the more strongly they still expressed themselves, in some places, against the Bourbons, so much the more cautiously had they to act, in order to maintain the Bourbons on the throne (contrary to the former opinion of the prince regent), against the will of the French people. France w*as, therefore, still overwhelmed with troops, and the ministere of the allies were engaged with those of Louis in the adjustment of political relations; but up to September 29, the parties were so far from agreeing, that the former all took their departure. Not till new ministers had been appointed, a few days after, by Louis XVIII, were the preliminaries of peace signed (October 2): these were confirmed in the definitive treaty of November 20, which, 1. fixed the boundaries of France as they were in 1790 ; but, 2. took from it the fortresses of Landau, Saarlouis, Philippeville, Marienburg, Vereoix, with a certain circuit of temtory about each, to be subsequently defined; 3. provided that Huningen should be dismantled; 4. fixed an indemnity of 700,000,000 francs for the expenses of the war, payable in five years; 5. provided that a line fromConde, through Bouchain, to Bitsch, should be occupied, for the same time, by the allies, with 150,000 men, at the expense of France; and, 6. secured the demands of all private per- sons on France, with the exception of the bank of Hamburg, emptied by Davoust in 1813. This was the actual termination of the war; for, till then, the northern for- tresses of France had been besieged, at least by the Prussians, and for the most part conquered. By a separate agreement, half voluntary, half forced, the restoration was granted of all the works of art, of It- aly, Germany, &c, accumulated in Paris since 1792. Respecting Napoleon, the allies agreed that he should live at St. He- lena, at the expense of England, as a prisoner of war, but with all the allevia- tions of which such a situation could ad- mit. His whole family was banished from France, under penalty of death, and the members of it were obliged to have pass- ports from the great powers. The banish- ment of the Bonapartes was again pro- nounced in 1831, together with that of the elder line of the Bourbons. Murat, im- pelled by an unhappy ercor, and deceived by the Neapolitan police, made an attempt to recover his kingdom, and, October 13, died the death of a criminal, at Pizzo, in Calabria. (See Murat.) (See the Histoire de I'Expidition de Russie, with an atlas, 3d edition, Paris, 1825, 3 vols., by the French colonel of artillery, marquis de Cham- RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 143 bray. The Russian colonel Butturlin'sflisr. milit. de la Campagne de Russie en 1812, Paris, 1824, 2 vols., with plans, was used by Chambray, in the new edition of his work. See, also, the marquess of Lon- donderry's Narrative of the War in Ger- many and France, in 1813 and 1814 ; and Segur's Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Armie pendant VAnnie 1812 (Paris, 1825, 2 vols.). Russian Language and Literature.— Under this head we must distinguish two languages: 1. The Russian language, originally the dialect of the Sclavi, who founded the empire. It underwent, as did the empire itself, various changes. Thus it has, by degrees, incorporated into itself much of the Scandinavian, Mongo- lian, Tartar (1225 to 1477), and German, also the Polish and French languages. The improvement of this forcible and harmonious idiom is not, however, con- cluded, but is continually advancing by means of the national literature.—2. The Sclavonian language, or that of the Scla- vonian Bible. It was fixed by the trans- lation of the Holy Scriptures, and so set- tled that it has since experienced but few alterations. It is the language of the Bible, of the old chronicles, as, for in- stance, Nestor's, about 1100, of the ecclesi- astical laws, of some of the pastoral instruc- tions, and of the prayers in the liturgy.— A mixed language arose from the combi- nation of these two already mentioned, which is used in sermons, in rhetorical prose, and in the higher species of poetry. Its principal ingredient is the Sclavian language; but it has bonowed those words and phrases from the Sclavoni- an, which, being used for the expres- sion of biblical ideas and images, have thereby acquired more strength aud dig- nity. The Sclavonian, however, prevails in sermons, and the Russian in oratorical prose, and in the more elevated kinds of poetry.—History of the Russian Language. The firet period, which was the longest, and most destitute of literary productions, extends from the foundation of the em- pire to LomonosofF, who firet introduced a permanent change into the Russian language. Important, as contributing to fix the written language, was the intro- duction of a current written character, whereby the unwieldy letters before used, and introduced by Cyril, were superseded (see Cyril), for the full expression of the tones, which are peculiar to the Sclavian language, and for which Uie Greek letters were neither suitable nor sufficient. Cyril had bonowed some characters from the Asiatic alphabets, the form of which was an impediment to a people not fond of writ- ing. About the end of the seventeenth century, Elias Kopiewitsch improved it, and brought the letters to their present form, for the embellishment of which so much has been done in the last ten years, that the Russian characters may compare in beauty of form with those of any Euro- pean language. The history of the Scla- vian press has, in modern times, attract- ed much attention, and a copy of a work printed in 1475 has been found. A Scla- vonian psalter was printed at Cracow, 1481. The psalter of Kiev (1551) is the oldest work printed in Russia itself. Cra- cow was the cradle of Sclavonian typog- raphy. The oldest monuments of the language are, Oleg's treaty of peace and commerce of the year 912; Igor's treaty with the Greek emperor (945); the mu- nicipal charter of Novgorod (1019): but the most important memorials are the Russian laws in the time of JaroslafF (who died in 1054); the expedition of Igor, a heroic poem of the twelfth centu- ry ; popular songs, and the poems of the prince Cantemir, in the reign of the em- press Anna. This predecessor of Lomo- nosofF possessed true talent, had received a European education, and was well acquainted with the classics. His poems consist of satires and epistles, in which, in imitation of Horace and Boileau, he de- scribed in true colore the manners and faults of his times. The spirit of his poems is modern, the form antique, but his verse is rhymed. He likewise trans- lated into Russian Fontenelle's Dialogues on the Plurality of Worlds; but the lan- guage was as yet too little refined to pre- serve the beauty of the original. This period shows only individual monu- ments of a written language iu the first stages of improvement. Peter the Great had, unintentionally, given it a retrograde direction, when he introduced many for- eign expressions, in place of a great num- ber of* existing technical terms, which thus became disused, so that the language itself became poorer, and was disfigured. The second period extends from Lomo- nosofF to Karanisin. LomonosofF (q. v.), a man of genius, created the language of Russian poetry, by the introduction partly of poetical expressions and partly of new forms, which he borrowed principally from the German literature, and which served his successors as models. His example likewise shows how the Russian language can be enriched and ennobled by expressions and phrases from the Scla- 144 RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. vonic. He first developed its grammati- cal structure, and contribute'd also to form its prose. His odes relate to the circum- stances of the day ; we find in them little poetry, but much rhetorical richness. In his tragedies, the lyric tone prevails, and dramatic power is sought for in them in vain. In epic poetry, his Peter the Great was a first attempt; there are individual passages, indeed, of great merit; but the poem, as a whole, is devoid of interest. His imitations of the Psalms are rich in poetical expression. His epistle on the utility of verse shows his great command of the language. SumarokofF, an author celebrated in his time, is too diffuse upon every subject. His fertility in tragedy and comedy, in satires, epistles, elegies, eclogues, fables, epigrams and songs, gave him reputation; but in no department can he be considered a model. KeraskofF has produced two large epics upon the conquest of Kasan, and upon Wladimir the Great, besides tragedies, odes and epistles. His language is beautiful, and far more smooth than that of LomonosofF, but his talents are much less conspicuous. He was considered in his time as the Ho- mer of Russia; but he is now forgotten.— Maykoff acquired a reputation by two burlesque poems, which were, however, not the less worthless on that account.— Kniashjinin imitated the French in his tragedies and comedies, too closely in- deed, but not without talent. Some com- edies, in which he has interwoven many of the follies of the times in which he lived, have maintained themselves upon the stage till the present time. He very much excelled SumarokofF; and some of liis scenes, even now, are read with pleas- ure, although the language has proceeded so far in improvement.—Kostroffdeserves mention on account of his translation of the first books of the I had into Alexan- drine verse, and of Ossian into prose. His language is not without force.—BobrofF, a wild genius, has left behind him a number of bombastic odes, and a descriptive poem, Tauria, a chaos, but which contains here and there somebrilliant passages.—Bogda- nowitsch (q. v.), author of a poem called Psyche, in imitation of La Fontaine, is naif, and full of grace and originality, but diffuse, and deficient in taste.—Oseroff* belongs, if his language is considered, to this period, although his poems appeared in that which followed. The plan of his tragedies is French, the language neither pure nor beautiful, but the expression is often forcible, and the description of the pas- sions natural; some scenes are really tragic; some of his characters arc well delineated and supported.—Petroff* was a true poet, but his language is rude ; he had many ideas and striking images. He celebrated the victories of Catharine the Great in his odes. His heroes were Po- temkin and Romanzoff. His translation of the jEneid into Alexandrine verse is veiy unpolished in its language, but is full" of power.—LomonosofF also com- mences the series of prose writers of this period. His eulogies upon Peter the Great and Elizabeth contain few ideas, but much rhetorical ornament. Both of these writings are entirely different from those of his predecessors. They have veiy much improved the language, but still have not given it a permanent form. The same may be said of his scientific treatises upon electricity ami metallurgy, of his Essay towards a Russian gram- mar, and of his Rhetoric, which contains many fragments translated from the an- cients.—Weissen (Wisin) wrote two com- edies in prose, full of genuine humor, which describe in true colore some of the absurdities of the age; both of these have maintained themselves upon the stage. He also wrote two very original satires, and some translations from Mon- taigne and Terrasson.—Muravieff, the tu- tor of the emperor Alexander, composed for his noble pupil several treatises upon Russian history, some dialogues of the dead, and some fragments, in the manner of the English Spectator, under the title of the Suburban. His style is not wholly pure, neither has he a great command of language : it is evident that he has formed his style from Uie imitation of French writers; but he is full of ideas, and partic- ularly rich in imagery. When we read his works, we feel that his mind is con- versant with all the beauty contained in ancient and modern literature. A good heart, a pure mind, and a love of virtue, are conspicuous iu every thing that he has written. He was in advance of his age. But he had little effect upon his contemporaries, as he permitted but few of his writings to be printed, and his works did not appear till long after his death. In general, it may be said, that during this period the genius of Lomono- sofF awakened a taste for literature in his nation. People eagerly read every thing that was printed, particularly poetical productions. In SumarokofF they saw a great tragic writer, and in the poem of KeraskofF, with all its defects, an Iliad. They felt the beautiful, but did not know how to distinguish it from what was mis- RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 145 trable. Taste was in the cradle, and criticism still unborn. We may consider this age as the awakening period of genius and poetry. In the last half of it, a man of genius made his appearance, who be- longed to no school, of an original and peculiar mind, without high cultivation, but unique in his kind, and the true rep- resentative of Russian poetry. This man was Derschawin. (q. v.) He celebrated the glory of the Russian arms during the reign of Catharine, as did LomonosofF and PetrofF; but while these were only eulogists of their sovereign and her gen- erals, Derschawin celebrated them in the true spirit of a poet. He remained a phi- losopher even at Uie foot of the throne : Ins own character appears in whatever he said of others: he awakened great and patriotic feelings, and at the same time described nature with inimitable touches. His productions, however, are not the best models, but they glow with a fire which kindles poetical sentiment. This period produced a great number of trans- lations, particularly from the French; they are all, however, without merit as regards style, but they show the general desire and love of the age for literature. In this age the great dictionary of" the Russian academy appeared, projected ac- cording to an entirely new plan, and in which the etymological order of the words is followed. This work furnishes great facilities for Uie study of Uie Russian lan- guage and literature. The Russian academy (founded October 21, 1783) has had great influence in directing the atten- tion of authors to the pure elements of Uie language; several societies have like- wise been formed for the improvement of the language. Finally, one man con- tributed greatly to the spread of literary taste, who had himself but little learning, but a good natural understanding, a love for the sciences, and withal a happy talent for illustration. This was Novikoft*. He founded a typographical society, and edit- ed a satirical journal, under the title The Painter, which at that time was very much read, and opened to Karamsin a field for Uie exhibition of his literary powers.—In the third period, Karamsin (q. y.) is the representative of prose, and Dmitrieff* of poetry. The periodical edited by the former, after his return from his travels, effected a decided change in the Russian language. He revealed to his country- men the secrets of happy diction, clear- ness, beauty and precision. The same perfection which he gave to prose, Dmi- trieff* gave to poetry. Karamsin's career vol. xi. 13 as an auUior may be distinguished into three epochs. The firet began with his editing the Journal of" Moscow. In this publication appeared fragments of his Letters of a travelling Russian, and his tale*-, which were afterwards publish- ed collective!}. These productions ex- hibit genuine taste, though they appear like the effusions of a youth. His re- marks and notices of the writings of for- eign countries, which appeared in that publication, excited an interest in foreign literature throughout Russia, and develop- ed the genu of true criticism. The sec- ond epoch commenced with the publica- tion of the European Courier. This periodical drew the attention of the public to politics, and awakened reflection. His essays upon some of the political topics of Uie day, and upon morals, are models in their respective kinds. His beautiful style gave to his ideas a still higher charm. The third epoch is marked by his History of Russia. This history, as a literary production, is a mine for all au- thors of his nation. No Russian prose writer since Karamsin has acquired a high reputation: greater purity, perhaps, prevails than did before, but his style has not been equalled. Many have wished to imitate him, but they have only shown their own inferiority. Makaroff* has edit- ed a Critical Journal; he wrote very cor- rectly, but his style is dry. Batuschkoff has been able to give grace to his prose, and the Italian harmony to his verse. Shukoffskij was, after Karamsin, Uie ed- itor of the European Courier, and wrote in it some essays in prose. These, and other authors, have each of them some peculiar merit, but they are not equal to their master. Besides, their works are unimportant, and cannot, there- fore, much promote the further develop- ment of the language. The Russian lite- rature is very barren in original works on the subject of philosophy. In the history of the language of poetry, DmitriefF's im- itations of La Fontaine and his tales make a particular epoch. Before him Lomono- sofF, and especially DerschaAvin, had fur- nished models of poetical beauty, and opened the way to bold originality. Witiiout checking the flight of genius, Dmitrieff* knew how to direct it so as not to offend against taste and sound criti- cism. We possess about one hundred excellent fables by him, in imitation of La Fontaine and others, many songs, which have become popular, and odes, considered classical, without having Uie brilliancy of Derschawin's originality and 146 RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. boldness. Dmitrieff has given Uie lan- guage of Russian poetry its permanent form. Neledinsky-Meletzsky is less pure and correct than Dmitrieff, but many of his songs are in the mouths of the com- mon people. The true fire of passion an- imates his poetry. Chemnitzer is esteem- ed as a fabulist; his expression is natural, but very prosaic. KrilofF, a poet in the full sense of the word, is, in his depart- ment, like Derschawin, Uie representative of Uie national poetry, for his fables are almost all original. Derschawin, in his odes, described the bright side of his age; but KrilofF, in his fables, painted the ab- surdities and prosaic thought of his time. In expression less pure and perfect than his predecessor Dmitrieff, he, however, excels him in descriptive powers. KrilofF has much observation ; his fables, which, in this respect, will bear comparison wiUi Uie best in any literature, are rich in ideas and instruction; many of his verses, therefore, are now current as proverbs.— ShukofFskij has enriched the poetical language of the Russians, by describing ideas and feelings which had not been treated in their literature. His poems are a true picture of his individual character at the time in which he wrote them. They therefore possess uncommon at- traction for the reader. His predilection for German poetry, which was before his time but little known to his countrymen, induced him to incorporate it with Uie Russian in his imitations ; his poems, on this account, have a peculiar stamp, which has given a singular charm to their deep melancholy feeling and natural tone.— Batjuschkoff pleases by the charms of his diction. With a brilliant imagination he united the finest taste, and he is inimitable in the choice and harmony of his expres- sion. We possess of his writings some amorous elegies, ingenious epistles, and attempts at lyric poetry—all excellent. Prince Wiasemskij expresses much in few words: this sometimes gives his lan- guage an air of stiffness and dryness; but his satires and epigrams are particularly happy. His prose suffers still more than his poetry from this brevity.—Wostokoff has richness of thought, power of imagi- nation, and warmth of expression ; but his style is but little refined.—Gneditsch deserves much credit for his translation of Uie Iliad into Russian hexameters. The general characteristic of this period is an elegance and correctness previously foreign to Russian literature. The lan- guage has acquired a more settled char- acter; but Russian prose still wants the labor of thinking minds to perfect it. The poetical language- of Uie Russians alone can be called rich. The latest peri- od of Russian literature is yet in its bloom. Already it numbers one very promising poet, Alexander Puschkin, who is distin- guished for his imagination and originali- ty, and whose style is in the highest de- gree refined. Karamsin's historical work now opens a new field for national poetry. Russian history was previously envel- oped in Uie obscurity of chrouicles and traditions. Karamsin dissipated this ob- scurity, and threw light upon the darkness of the past. Poetry, by his torch, may now light her own. Among other living poets, may be mentioned Kosloff (q. v.); Gribojedoff, the author of a very amusing comedy; Glinka, a lyric poet, full of fire ; baron Delwig (the editor of the Russian Almanac of the Muses, called the Flow- ers of the North, in 1825 and 1826); Schaz- ykoff, Baratinskij, &c. Among the trans- lators we may mention professor Mersla- koff* of Moscow, who has translated Tasso's poem of Jerusalem Delivered. Russian prose enumerates, at the present time, but few original productions. There are many journals, but they are for Uie most part filled with extracts from foreign periodicals. The critical department of them cannot be important, because the national literature is poor; nevertheless, among a great number of tolerable prose writers, Gretsch has distinguished him- self; his style is easy, although he some- times offends against good taste. For many years he edited the best Russian journal. He has likewise been engaged in Uie composition of a Russian grammar. In connexion with this, besides Uie old Russian grammars of Ludolph (Gram- matica Russica et Manvductio ad Linguam Sclavonicam, Oxford, 1696, quarto), of Grdning (Stockholm, 1750), of Lomono- Roff, Rodde, Heym (Riga, 1821), that of the Russian academy (St. Petersburg, 1802), particularly Uiat of Vater (Leipsic, 1808), and that of Tappe, on account of the hap- pily chosen examples and practical ex- ercises (St. Petersburg and Riga, 1810; 5th edition, 1820), deserve to be recom- mended, as well as Puchmayer's System of Uie Russian Language, in German (1820). They all, at least the modern, embrace only Uie common Russian. For Uie Sclavonian or ecclesiastical language grammatical aids are greaUy needed. The grammar of the ecclesiastical Sclavi- an, written in the Russian language, which Peter Winogradoff published in 1811, is far surpassed in value by Dobrowsky's RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 147 bistitutiones Lingua Slawica Dialecti vete- ris (Vienna, 1822). The government it- self has taken charge of grammatical ed- ucation, and prohibited the sale of Lew- itzkij's small Russian grammar (St. Pe- tersburg, 1814), which was put under the interdict of the minister of instraction, in 1814, "on account of its many defects and false definitions." Concerning the diction- aries of the Russian language, by Rodde, and Heym, a German, Russian, and French pocket dictionary (Riga, 1805), and many others, see the review, by Schlozer, in the Gottingen Gelehrten Anzeigen, 1810, number 47. Since that, A. Oldekop has published a Russian-Gennan and a Ger- man-Russian dictionary, in 5 vols. The present president of the Russian academy, admiral and minister Alexander Schisch- koff, caused a second edition of the acad- emy's dictionary to be published in 6 vols. quarto, in the year 1826. After having thus characterized the poets and prose writers who have had an influence upon the formation of the Russian language, we will touch more particularly on certain portions of the Russian literature, as fol- lows : I. The old popular songs and tra- ditions, which were formerly neglected by the Russians, have now excited their at- tention, on account of their similarity to the English, Spanish, and Scandinavian ballads. Like these ballads, they appear to refer to a connected series of popu- lar traditions. In that period, however, to which these old songs belong (1015— 1224), the national poetry had not freed itself from the old Sclavian mythology; and Uie Russian tales and popular tra- ditions have thereby acquired a peculiar charm of a fantastical description, which is particularly remarkable in the story of Filipat and Maxim, and their valorous deeds; the maniage of Devgieiewas, and the carrying off* of Straligovnas, in the tale of Shinagrip, the czar of" the Adori- ans. Prince Wladimir I, with his knights, is the central point of this whole series of tales, which may be compared with the stories of Charlemagne and his peers, and those of king x\rthur and the Round Table. The heroes, Dobrenja Nikititsch, and IVchurilo Plenkowitsch, and others, here take the place of the well known and har- monious names of Roland, Rinaldo, and Amadis. J. Muller published the Expedi- tion of Igor against the Polowziaus (from the old Russian; Prague, 1811 and 1812), and this poem has since passed through several editions in the Russian original. Prince Wladimir and his Round Table (Leipsic, 1819) is a German imitation, drawn from a collection of old Russian songs, which were printed at the sugges- tion of Romanzoff*. Prince ZertelofFIs Spirit of Russian Poetry, or collection of old Russian songs (St. Petersburg, 1822, in 2 vols.), has excited the attention of the Russians to this portion of their literature. The ecclesiastics of that period displayed a peculiar degree of intellectual activity; and there were also laymen of considera- ble merit. Nestor (q. v.) has mentioned many men of rank who shared in this in- tellectual labor. These beginnings could not, however, be of permanent conse- quence, because literary institutions of a high character were wanting. The Greek teachers of the public schools at Wladi- mir, Smolensk, and Halitsch, did not dif- fuse a taste for Grecian antiquities, which might have been a pennanent barrier against barbarism. The Mongolian peri- od had a withering influence on literature. In the rich convents only, which the Mon- gols respected, were preserved some re- mains of intellectual cultivation. Thence are derived the materials for the history of that period, which alone give us some insight into it, particularly the annals in the old ecclesiastical language, composed by St. Simon, bishop of Susdal (who died in the year 1226), the Stufenbuch of Cyprian Uie metropolitan (who died in 1406), and the Chronicles of Sophia, or the Russian annals from 862 to 1534 (edited by Stro- jefF, Moscow,1820—1822, quarto). These, and the lives of Alexander the Great, of the Roman emperors, of Mark Antony, and of Cleopatra, related after the manner of stories, were the only books. As Uie authors despised the language in common use, which, by its additions from the Tartar tongue, had acquired a foreign character, displeasing, even to the people themselves, and made use only of the old Sclavonian di- alect, the taste for reading, even if we do not take into consideration the other inconve- niences attending it, must necessarily have been confined to a few. As the Russians did not travel, nor lear»any foreign lan- guages, they were not connected, by in- tellectual bonds, with the rest of Europe. There were no schools in Great Russia. The press exercised but little influence, as it was exclusively devoted to Uie inter- est of the church, and the amusements of the people were nide. In the dramatic exhibitions which were founded on reli- gious stories,and performed by die students of Kiev, in the principal cities, during their holydays, Judith striking off* the head of Holoiernes, Ahasuerus ordering Ha- inan to be hanged, and the spectacle of 148 RUSSIA?,* LANGUAGE AM) LITERATURE. the three men in the fiery furnace, excited the highest applause. The Sclavonian- Russian dramas of the monk Simeon of Polotsk (1628—1680) may be considered as an improvement on the others. These were acted in the time of Feodor III, first in the convent, and afterwards at court. Amateurs may find his Nebuchadnezzar, and his Lost Son, printed in the eighth vol- ume of the old Russian library, and most of his other productions in manuscript, in Uie library of the Synod, at Moscow. The first foreign comedy translated into Rus- sian was Moliere's Midecin malgri lui (Physician in spite of Himself), w'hich was performed by the czarina Sophia Alex- iowna, and the ladies of her court. The Poles served as models, particularly in po- etry ; and the translation of the Psalms of David (Moscow, 1680), by the above-nam- ed Simeon of Polotsk, deserves to be men- tioned. As early as the seventeenth cen- tury, instances of versification can be pro- duced, which endeavored to imitate the Greek peculiarity of long and short sylla- bles ; but they had no permanent effect. Even the restriction of verses to a particu- lar number of syllables, was considered too stiff" and unnatural; and, to the pres- ent day, there remains in their poetry (which exhibits, for the most part, the na- tional peculiarities) a free and unrestrain- ed style, which neither requires lines equal in their number of syllables, nor assonance, nor rhyme, but rests upon certain laws of accentuation.—II. Peter the Great en- deavored to advance literature by technical aids. For this purpose he patronised the press, and, in 1704, himself invented a set of written characters for the Russian lan- guage, which, being similar to the Roman characters, might make the communica- tion and interchange of thoughts with Uie rest of Europe more easy. With this character the firet Russian newspaper was printed, in 1705, in the ecclesiastical press at Moscow. The ukase press was estab- lished in 1711, and from it, in 1714, pro- ceeded the first St. Petersburg gazette. Translations of foreign works, for the most part German, were intended to excite a love of reading; and he hoped, by means of the young Russians, whom he sent abroad to travel, to convince his people of the advantages of education. At his death, he left fifty-one schools for the people, fif- ty-six schools for the garrisons, and twen- ty-six other institutions for the children of the clergy, which, however, had little perceptible influence upon the great work of civilization. It was, however, less at- tachment to ancient usage, Uiat opposed the effect of his labors on a people very susceptible of impressions, than the arti- fices of the state officers, to whom the .public improvement was, frequently at least, an object of little importance. (Se. Academies.) The academy of sciences, from 1725, promoted the scientific direc- tion which intellectual cultivation had ta- ken, because the want of a national liter- ature had not yet been felt. Establish- ments for the promotion of knowledge and education increased daily by imperial lib- erality, and Catharine II, by the patronage which she bestowed upon the arts and sciences, greatly contributed to the ad- vancement of her nation. The endeavor to rival foreign countries became general, and those of the nobility and public of- ficers who were capable of intellectual en- joyment, gave themselves up to it with such zeal that Paul 1 became alarmed, and ordered the communication with foreign countries to be stopped. Alexander I, in Uie first years of bis reign, established lit- erary institutions and popular schools, took care that the clergy should be more thor- oughly educated, and patronised talent with imperial liberality. Sopikoffj in hw Essai de Bibliographic Russe (St. Peters- burg, 1813—1823, in 6 vols.), has enumer- ated, alphabetically, 13,249 original works and translations published in Russia, in the Sclavonian and Russian languages, from the establishment of the press (in 1553) to 1823. Since the year 1820, in which alone 3400 works appeared, among which nearly half were translations (more than 800 from the French, and 483 from the German), the annual number has very much decreased. In 1824, only 264 works were published, most of which were trans- lations, particularly historical and geo- graphical works, poems and romances.— III. Poetry. With all the imitation of the poetical fonns of foreign (ountries, tin- national song has always maintained an honorable rank, and celebrates love and war, games, church festivals, and ban- quets. Among the older ones, those of the Cossack Semen Klinioffskij (who died in 1725) are much esteemed : a collection of such as yet enjoy a high reputation, is to be met with in OstolopofF's Dictionary of ancient and modern Poetry (St. Peters- burg, 1821), in which the names of Dmi- trieff*, Neledinskij-Mclezkij, Karamsin, and Shukoffskij, are distinguished above all others. Since the Russian prosody be- came more settled by means of Knas Con- stantine Denietrhis Kantemir (q. v., who died in 1744), every kind of poetry has been attempted, from the difhyrarnbie ;o RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 149 the madrigal. The popular songs of the Russians, which are preserved among the common people, belong to the time of Pe- ter the Great and the empress Elizabeth, who herself wrote verse. The lyric de- partment has been particularly successful. We must likewise mention the philosoph- ic odes and epistles of the prince Ivan Michailowitsch Dolgorucki (who died in the year 1823), under the title of the Ex- istence of my Heart. Poetical tales, for which the old traditions furnish many ma- terials, have been written by SumarokofF, Kriloffj BatjuschkofF, Dmitrieff", and Shu- kofFskij. The Russian theatre was firet established in 1758. In this year, there was a private theatre erected at Yaroslav, which was soon transfeired to the royal residence, and, in consequence of the pre- dilection of Catharine II for the drama, soon won the favor of the people. Suma- rokofF wrote the firet regular tragedy, and was succeeded by Kniashjnin. The most distinguished dramatic writer, Wladimir OserofF, has had the honor of having his works often translated. His GEdipus( Pe- tersburg, 1805), his Dmitrij the Donian, his Fingal, and the RoslofF of Kniiishj- nin, are considered the most important specimens of tragic literature. Kniiishjnin has also accomplished much in comedy. The genius of the Russians, so sensible to the ridiculous, and so capable of imitation, would lead us to expect a rich harvest in comedy, if the readiness with which they adopt eveiy thing foreign did not check the productiveness of native talent. The opera in a court, which, like the Russian, delights in splendor, must naturally excite a lively interest. The first, written by SumarokofF, was performed at St. Peters- burg in 1764; and, since that time, there have continually been authors in this de- partment of the drama. In didactic poe- try, KeraskofF's Fruits of the Sciences for- merly were in much repute. At the pres- ent time, the fables of Dmitrieff*, Chem- nitzer, and KrilofF, have gained many ad- mirere. Of Kriloff's Russian Fables (St. Petersburg, 1826), a part has been publish- ed in the Russian language at Paris, with a French translation, by count Orloff*. The minor species of poetiy find a ready admis- sion into the twenty-one Russian literary journals (which were in circulation in 1824, throughout the capital), and are veiy ac- ceptable to the literary public, which is yet small.—See N. von Gretsch's Manual of the Russian Literature, or a Colledion of Specimens from poetical and prose Writers (St. Petersburg, 1821, in 4 vols.), and Borg's Poetical Productions of the Russians (Ri- 13* ga, 1823, in 2 vols.), both in German; also Bowling's Specimens of the Russian Poets (2d edition, London, 1821), and Dupre de St. Maine's Anthologie Russe (Paris, 1823). A. Oldekop's St. Petersburg Journal is likewise to be recommended to all friends of literature, on account of the collections therein published. Among the periodi- cals, those which make us acquainted with the internal condition of the empire—as Bulgarin's Northern Archives; the Siberi- an Herald of Sspaszkij ; the Son of the Country, by Gretsch ; and the Promoter of Knowledge—are worthy of notice.— IV. Prose. Russian prose is undoubtedly inferior to the poetry of the same language. In pulpit oratory, in which its first prog- ress was made, a bombastic rhetoric has prevailed, which is often accompanied with little intrinsic merit, as the homilies of Feofan Prokopowitsch (who died in 1736), of Gedeon, Platan, Anastasij, Geor- gij, Protoiereni Lewanda, Michajl the me- tropolitan, Filaret, and othere, abundantly prove. Lately, a hypocritical rather than pious tone has passed from these homi- lies into political writings. The secular discourses, to which, for example, Lo- monosofF owes his celebrity, are partly composed in a pancgpical style, which leads us to doubt the genuineness of the feeling which is displayed. LomoiiosofFs discourse, however, on the character of Peter the Great, delivered April 26, 1755, is often mentioned as a masterpiece of eu- logy. Karamsin's oration, delivered at the assembly of the Russian academy, De- cember 5, 1818, corresponds more to the present taste. Nicholas Karamsin's name must likewise be mentioned with distinc- tion in almost eveiy department of de- scription. He has given to Russia a work which may be honorably compared with the historical writings of any nation. A great number of the most distinguished literati and statesmen of* Russia, have pre- feired, in their works, to use foreign lan- guages rather than their own. Russia has not yet produced romances, combining originality with beauty of* description, which may be worthy of being translated into foreign languages. Karamsin, Shu- kofFskij, and Benizkij, are the best models for the novelist. The Russian accounts of voyages and travels deserve the attention of foreigners. Since the first voyages of the Russians round the world, in the ships Nadeschda and Neva, under the com- mand of captain Krusenstern, the Ameri- can company or individuals have annually sent ships to the north-west coast of Ameri- ca; and Golownin's Voyages (1807—1814); 150 RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE—RUTLEDGE. those of lieutenant von Kotzebue, at Uie expense of the count Romanzoff; those of lieutenant LasarefF; those of Bellings- hausen and WassUjeff; those of lieutenant Wrangel; MurawiefF's travels ; Broneff- ski's researches in Tauria, &c.—have pro- duced very important results in a scientif- ic point of view. Many of them exhibit traces of the improving state of the lan- guage, in passages containing much beau- ty of description. The Russian academi- cians and literati (Fralin, Knig, Schmidt, &c.) have distinguished themselves in Oriental literature. Fralin, at the expense of count Romanzoff", superintended the collection of extracts for Hammer's work, Sur les Origines Russes, extraits de Manu- scrits Orientaux, and likewise the printing of Abulghasi's Historia Mongolorum et Tatarorum (Kasan, 1825). ^Y olkoff* has been laboring upon a dictionary of the Tartar language. Senkoffski has publish- ed the text and translation of the Derbent- Nameh, and the French-Arabic lexicon of Berggren. He likewise published, in the Polish language, a Collection of ancient Accounts, in the Turkish Histories, relative to the History of Poland (Warsaw, 1824). Professor BoldyrefF has likewise publish- ed, at Moscow, a Manual of the Arabic Language (1824), and a Persian Chresto- mathy (in 2 vols., 1826). In 1825, eighteen journals were published in St. Petersburg, and seven in Moscow, and six alma- nacs. Bestuchefrs and RylejefTs Pole- star, a souvenir for 1824, and the Flowers of the North, for the following years, have mot with decided approbation. In 1826, there appeared at St. Petersburg only six gazettes and fifteen periodicals. To promote the knowledge of Russian lit- erature, Von Koppen published, in 1825 and 1826, at St. Petersburg, a bibliograph- ical paper. The society of the friends of Russian literature, established in St. Pe- tersburg in 1816, the founders of which are N. Glinka and N. J. Gretsch, have conducted the publication of a collection of the most distinguished native produc- tions and translations (now consisting of 16 vols.). See the Survey of the most mod- ern Russian Literature, in the 7th volume of the Annals of Literature (Jahrbiichci der Literatur), published at Vienna. Russia, Black; fonnerly a subdivision of Lithuania, now forming the Russian governments of Minsk and Grodno. Russia, Great; former name of a prov- ince comprising a large part of European Russia, extending from the Frozen ocean to about the middle of the course of the Don; now divid «1 into nineteen governments. Russia, Little; name of Uiat part of Russia lying south of Great Russia; now forming the governments of Tchernigov, Chereon, Kiev, Ekaterinoslav,and Poltava. Russia, Red; formerly an independent duchy, which belonged to Poland after 1396, and formed the palatinates of CheLm, Belcz and Lemberg. It now belongs chiefly to Austria, but partly to Russia. Russia, White, was a part of Lithuania, which now fonns the Russian govern- ments of Smolensk, Mohilev, Vitepsk, and a small part of Minsk. Russia Leather is prepared in Rus- sia, chiefly from cow-hides, and is highly esteemed for its flexibility, durability, and impenetrability by water. The red leath- er is much used in foreign countries for book-binding, and, although it is imitated in some places, the Russian is distin- guished by its peculiar odor. The best is made in Astrachan, and it forms an im- portant article of export. Russian Hunting Music, or Horn Music This consists of horns, of which each produces but one tone. Twenty, thirty, or even forty* performers, have each a horn. These horns vary like the pipes of an organ. One of Uiem sounds only every C, another every D, &c, through- out the tune. The performers are, for the most part, serfs, and so well skilled, that every one sounds his note with the greatest accuracy, whenever it is necessary; and the tones of the different instruments sound as if Uiey proceeded from a single instrument. The Russians have carried this music to such a pitch of excellence as to execute pieces of Pleyel, Haydn and Mozart, and likewise to mark the distinctions between piano and cres- cendo, with the greatest effect. This mu- sic is heard at a great distance, and sounds, when far off", like a harmonicon. It was invented by Narischkin. In 1763, these instruments were used, with great success, at a festival. in Moscow ; and they afterwards received great improve- ments. Rust is the oxide of a metal, and is composed of oxygen combined with a metal. (See Oxygen.) Rusty Gracki.e. (See Blackbird.) Ruta Baga, or Swedish Turnip. (See Turnip.) Rutleoge, John, an eminent revolu- tionary patriot of South Carolina, early manifested his zeal in the cause of Amer- ican liberty. He was a member of the first congress of 1774, where he was dis- tinguished for his Demosthenian elo- quence. When Uie temporary constitu- RUTLEDGE. 151 tion of South Carolina was established, in March, 1776, he was appointed its presi- dent, and commander-in-chief. He con- tinued to occupy the station until the adoption of the new constitution in 1778, which he opposed on the ground of its being too democratic, annihilating as it did the council, and reducing Uie legisla- tive authority from three to two branches. In 1779, however, he was chosen gov- ernor, with authority to do whatever the public safety required, and soon took the field at the head of the militia. During the siege of Charleston, he left Uie city, iit the request of governor Lincoln, that the executive authority might be preserved, though the capital should fall. In Janu- ary, 1782, he called a general assembly, and addressed them in a speech, in which lie depicted the perfidy, rapine and cru- elly, which had stained the British arms. I le d ied J anu ary 23, 1800. He was a man of eminent talents, patriotism, energy and firmness. To his government during the most calamitous scenes of the war, within the state of South Carolina, is to be at- tributed, in a great degree, the successful termination to which it was brought. He early perceived the superior merit of gen- eral Greene, and seconded his views with all the influence of the civil authority: his discernment was likewise manifested by his judicious promotion of Sumter, Ma- rion and Pickens. It should also be men- tioned to his honor, that, though invested with dictatorial powers, he never gave oc- casion for complaint. Rutledge, Edward, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born of a respectable family at Charles- Ion, South Carolina, in November, 1749. After a proper education, he was placed in the office of his elder brother, to prepare himself for the practice of the law. In 1769, he was sent to England to complete his legal studies, where he was entered at tiie Temple. On his return home, in 1773, Mr. Rutlcdge commenced the practice of his profession, and was rising to eminence as a lawyer, when he was elected to a seat in the firet continental congress, assembled at Philadelphia, in 1774. His having been chosen at his age to so dignified a post, shows the high esteem with which he was thus early regarded by his countrymen. Owing to the strict secrecy which was preserved concerning the transactions of Uie congress at that time, nothing is known of his course in this new situation. He continued a member till 1777, and took an active part in the debates preceding Uie declaration of independence. When that decisive measure was adopted, and the political horizon of the country had become darkened by the misfortune of our anny on Long Island, with other em- barrassing circumstances, the British re- newed their negotiations for a reconcilia- tion. Doctor Franklin, John Adams and Mr. Rutledge, were deputed by congress to confer with lord Howe on the subject. This conference accordingly took place, but resulted in nothing of importance to either party. Mr. Rutledge used after- wards to relate an anecdote of doctor Franklin, to this effect:—When the com- missioners took leave of lord Howe, his lordship had diem conveyed to New York in his own barge. As they approached the wharf, the doctor began to jingle some gold and silver coin in his breeches pock- et. Upon their arrival at the wharf, he offered a handful of" the money to the sailors who had rowed the boat; but the commanding officer not permitting them to receive it, he replaced it in his pocket, and afterwards explained this conduct to his associates by saying, " As these people are under the impression that we have not a farthing of hard money in the countiy, I thought I would convince them of their mistake. I knew, at the same time, that 1 risked nothing by an offer which their regulations and discipline would not per- mit them to accept" In 1779, Mr. Rut- ledge was again appointed to congress; but indisposition obliged him to return home before he had taken his seat. His native state had now become the theatre of war, the scantiness of its population offering a comparatively easy conquest to the British arms.. Mr. Rutledge com- manded a company in a battalion of ar- tillery, and was engaged in dislodging a party of regular troops from Port Royal island. Notwithstanding their superior discipline and then* advantages of position, the British were compelled to retreat. WhilstCharleston was closely beleaguered, Mr. Rutledge endeavored to elude the vigi- lance of the enemy, in order to accelerate the advance of troops to its relief. In this attempt, he was taken prisoner, and sent to St. Augustine, where he remained near twelve months before he was exchanged. He afterwards resided some time in the vicinity of Philadelphia, but, as soon as possible, proceeded to Uie south, and, on the reestablishment of civil government in Carolina, after the successes of the Americans there, in 1782, was one of the representatives who were convened at the village of Jacksonborough. Though he assented, as a member of this assembly, 152 RUTLEDGE—RYE. to the adoption of a bill of pains and pen- alties, he was inclined to excuse such as were compelled, by unavoidable circum- stances, to keep aloof from the stand- ard of freedom. This intemperate con- vention adjourned a little previous to the evacuation of Charleston by the British, in December, 1782, when Mr. Rutledge returned home, and, soon after, resumed the practice of his profession. He was a conspicuous member of the state legislature, in which body he was opposed to any further increase of African slavery in the Southern States, and, afterwards, an unwearied advocate of the federal con- stitution. Mr. Rutledge was subsequently elected colonel of an artillery regiment, and supplied the place of general C. C. Pinkney in the senate, upon Uiat gentle- man's leaving his seat. He quitted the profession of the law in the year 1798, when he was elected governor of the state; but lived to complete only half the term. His weak constitution had become considerably broken by hereditary gout, which did not, however, make him relax in the execution of his official duties. While attending a session of the legisla- ture at Columbia, his sickness increased so much as to render him desirous of re- turning to Charleston ; but, in compliance with the requisitions of the state constitu- tion, he remained at the seat of govern- ment until the legislature had adjourned, and, while on his return home, encoun- tered heavy rains ami cold. Soon after his arrival at Charleston, he was confined to his bed, and expired, January 23, 1800. In person, Mr. Rutledge was above the middle height, and inclining to corpu- lency ; he had a fair complexion, with a pleasing countenance. His manners were amiable and polished, and he was an ora- tor of a superior stamp. His eloquence was various and beautiful, rather than vehement. Ruysch, Rachel, one of the most cel- ebrated painters of fruit and flower pieces, was born at Amsterdam in 1664, and died in 1750. Her pictures are distinguished for truth and splendor of coloring, united with great finish. Ruysdael, or Ruysdaal, James, one of the greatest landscape painters, was bom, in 1635, at Harlem. His brother Solomon (bora 1616, and known for the beauty of his representation of marbles, &c.) seems to have been his teacher. James died in his native city in 1681. His aim appears to have been a faithful, but poetical conception of gloomy, and some- times wild, nature. Landscapes with dark clouds hanging over them, church-yards, or thick woods after a thunder-storm, cas- cades between thick foliage, lakes and riv- ulets surrounded by overhanging treee, &c, are his subjects, and are represented admirably. The figures in his paintings were executed by others. Ruyter, Michael Fitz Adrian; a cele- brated Dutch admiral, born at Flushing in 1607. He entered young into the naval service of his country, and rose from the situation of cabin-boy to that of captain, in 1635. He was sent, in 1641, to the as- sistance of the Portuguese, who had thrown off the yoke of Spain; on which occasion he was appointed rear-admiral; and, two years after, he was employed against the Barbary corsairs. In the war between the Dutch and English, which commenced in 1652, Ruyter repeatedly distinguished himself, especially in the terrible battle fought in Februaiy, 1653, near the mouth of the Channel, when Blake (q. v.) commanded the English, and Tromp (q. v.) and Ruyter the Dutch. He afterwards served against Uie Portuguese, the Swedes, and the Algerines, previously to the naval warfare between England and Holland, in the reign of Charles II. He commanded in the great battle fought in the Downs, in June, 1666, against prince Rupert (q. v.) and the duke of Albemarle (see Monk); and, in Uie following year, he insulted the English by his memorable expedition up the Thames, when he de- stroyed Upnor castle, and burnt some ships at Chatham. He was admiral of the Dutch fleet at the battle of Solebay in 1672, aud signalized his skill and courage on several other occasions. He died in the port of Syracuse, April 29, 1676, in consequence of a wound received in an engagement with the French, a few days before, off" Messina. His body was car- ried to Amsterdam, where the states-gen- eral erected a monument to his memory. Rye (secale cereale); a species of grain, generally considered, in temperate cli- mates, next in value to wheat It is a grass, from four to six feet high, with a fibrous annual root, producing one or sev- eral slender culms, which are provided at their articulations with linear and smooth leaves; the flowers are greenish, disposed in a terminal simple compressed spike, four or five inches in length. It is sup- posed to have been brought originally from the Levant, but has been cultivated in Europe from a very ancient period. Of all domestic plants, it has been the least altered by cultivation, and no per- manent variety has been produced. It a RYE—RYSWICK. 153 the only species of the genus. Rye suc- ceeds better in cold climates than wheat grows in a greater variety of soils, resists severe frosts better, and arrives at matu- rity sooner. All soils will produce rye, provided they are not too moist; and manv barren lauds, which are unsuitable for the cultivation of wheat, may be sown with this grain to advantage. The time of sowing is earlier than with any other grain. It does not require so much atten- tion (luring its growth as wheat, and the ripening varies according as the season is more or less warm and favorable, from the firet of July to the last of the month ; but, in general, it precedes wheat by fif- teen or twenty days. In some couirtries, it is customary to sow hi March ; but it rarely produces so well as when sown before the setting in of the winter. In many places, it is cultivated only for fod- der, which is an excellent plan, as cattle are often in want of green food in the early spring. Rye is the principal sus- tenance in the greater part of the north of Europe, and, after wheat, nourishes the greatest portion of the population of that continent. Even in more than half of France, rye bread, either pure or mixed with wheat in equal proportions, is the only kind to be procured. Rye bread is not so nutritious as wheat, but has more flavor. The farina, or meal, differs from Uiat of the latter in containing a much smaller proportion of gluten. In the norUi, the greater part of the ardent spirits is distilled from rye. The straw is long, flexible, and does not rot so easily as that of other grain: it is used by brick- makers and collar-manufacturers, and is considered an excellent material for the thatching of cottages and bams. Rye is but little cultivated in Great Britain. (For spurred rye, see Ergot.) Rye House Pjlot. (See Russell, Lord William, and Sidney, Algernon.) Rymer, Thomas, a critic and antiquary, studied at Cambridge and at Gray's-inn. In 1678, he published Edgar, a Tragedy, and wrote a work entitled a View of the Tragedies of the last Age. Succeeding Shadwell, in 1692, as royal historiogra- pher, he employed the opportunities af- forded him by his office, to make a col- lection of public treaties, which he began to publish in 1704, under the title of Fa- dera, Conventiones, et cujuscunque Generis . Ida publico, inter Reges Anglia et alios Principes (15 vols., folio, five more being added by Robert Sanderson). Rymer died in 1713. Rysurach, John Michael, a statuary, was the son of a painter of Antwerp, in which city he was born in 1694. He went to England early in life, and derived considerable reputation and profit from Uie exercise of his art, of which Westmin- ster abbey, and other cathedral churches, contain specimens, among which may be mentioned the monuments of sir Isaac Newton and the duke of Marlborough ; while others, and especially busts, enrich the best private collections, the heads of English worthies at Stowe, and in the Hennitage at Richmond, being of the number. His death took place in 1770. Ryswick ; a village and castle situated in South Holland, a league from the Hague, where the peace of Ryswick was concluded September 20 and October 30, 1697. Louis XIV had, in 1688, attacked the German empire in order to anticipate the league of Augsburg (the object of which was to set bounds to his conquests), and, at the same time, to frustrate the de- sign of William III, the stadtholder of Holland, to place himself on the British throne. When William landed in Eng- land (November 8, 1688), Louis declared war against Holland. He had already conquered the provinces of the Rhine, when the emperor Leopold and Uie states-general concluded a league against France (Vienna, May 12, 1689), to which Great Britain, Spain and Savoy acceded. The war was carried on by France on land with great success. Marshal Lux- embourg conquered the Spanish Nether- lands, and Cattinat was victorious in Italy. But the landing of the French in Ireland, at the instigation of the deposed Janles II, proved unfortunate, and the French fleet under marshal Tourville, was totally de- feated by the English and Dutch, under the command of admiral Russell, near La Hogue, May 29, 1692. Since that time, the British naval power has always main- tained an ascendency over the French. In the mean time, the duke of Vendome conquered Catalonia, and, August 7,1695, also Barcelona. This, and the wish of Louis to dissolve the great European league, before the Spanish throne should become vacant, hastened the conclusion of a peace. Savoy had already concluded a separate peace with France, at Turin, August 29, 1696, and connected herself with that power. Ujion this, Sweden medi- ated the general peace at the congress held at Ryswick, from May 9, 1697, until September 20 of the same year, when England, Spain and Holland signed a treaty of peace with France. Louis XIV restored all his conquests in Catalonia 154 RYSWICK—S. and the Spanish Netherlands, with the exception of eighty-two places, which had been taken by the process of reunion (see Louis XIV), and acknowledged William III as king of Great Britain and Ireland. The emperor and empire firet signed the treaty of peace with France October 30. Louis restored all the places which he had taken possession of in Germany by the process of reunion (see Louis XIV), with the exception of those which were situated in Alsace, the sovereignty of which was conceded to him. He likewise retained S ; the nineteenth letter of the English alphabet, representing the hissing sound produced by emitting the breath between the roof of the mouth and the tip of the tongue placed just above the upper teeth, so that the air is driven through the teeth. From this circumstance, * has sometimes been reckoned among the Unguals (as the tongue is essential in its pronunciation), sometimes among the dentals (as the teeth cooperate in producing the hissing sound). It is also one of the semivowels, as it can be pronounced without the as- sistance of a vowel, and the sound be prolonged indefinitely, like l,m,n,r; and Missula, in Martian, does not allow it to be a letter, but only a sibilus (hissing). In pronouncing s, the breath may be driven with more or less violence over the end of the tongue; hence, in most lan- guages, it has a twofold pronunciation— sharp, as in sack, sin, this, thus; and soft, as in muse,wise. The German Sinn (pronoun- ced zin), and Maus (pronounced mouse), and the French soit and base, are also ex- amples of these two sounds. In German, the s is soft at the beginning of a syllable, and sharp at the end or in the middle, while the contrary is usually the case in English. But in some parts of Germany (e. g. Hol- stein) s at the beginning is sharp. But the Germans have, besides, a peculiar character for the sharp s, being a contrac- tion of sz, which, when words containing it, are printed with Roman characters, is changed into ss, as Ross, Mass—an in- convenient contrivance, as the ss, accord- ing to the common German rule, always gives the preceding vowel a short pronun- the free city of Strasburg, which was taken in 1681. The clause of the fourth article of the treaty of Ryswick, accord- ing to which the Catholic religion, which had been introduced into the 1922 places now restored by the French, was to remain as it then stood, gave much dis- satisfaction to the Protestants. France restored all her conquests. The naviga- tion of the Rhine was declared free.— See Ades et Mimoires des Nigociations de la Paix de Ryswik (in 5 vols.). ciation, which is not the case with sz.—It is a fundamental rule of" etymology, Uiat if a word begins with two or more con- sonants, the last of them only belongs to the root, though the others are not always useless additions. This rule is particu- larly true of words beginning with * fol- lowed by one or more consonants; e.g. slime, from lime, Latin limus, in German Lchm and Leim, which, instead of slime, has Schleim (pronounced shlime). The German stumm, for the English dumb, which, in German (formerly also written dumb, now dumm), signifies stupid (one " who has not much to say for himself"), slippery (in German schlupfrig), from the Latin lubricus. In both these cases, Uie s has an intensitive power, which, in fact, it has very often, and of which numberless instances are found in all languages. But it is often put before words, apparently, without this meaning ; as in Servus, from the ancicn' Roman Erus, Eruus. The Greeks made Snphians of the Kythi. Tinn (in German Zinn) is of the same root with the Latin stannum. The Greek is. !i\i>>s, v\i and viuo became with the Lat- ins sus, sol, sylvia and sudor. Th is easy ad- dition of a to words is also the cause of its playing so prominent a part in the declen- sion of substantives and verbs in many, perhaps most languages. Notwithstanding the predominance of this letter in most languages, particularly in English,* the * If you hoar two persons conversing in Eng- lish at such a distance that nothing but the gen- eral sound of the discourse reaches your ear they appear to be engaged in a continual hissing' from the frequent occurrence of the *. The con- s. S—SABBATARIANS. 155 people of the South sea islands cannot pro- nounce it at all, and say, for instance, in- stead ofEllis,EUiki. The sounds of the let- ters s, r, t, sh and th (which, in fact, repre- sents but a simple sound, though written with two characters in English, whilst the Spaniards have one, the z), are all produced by a very similar motion of the organs; and hence the frequent change of the s into Uie other letters. (See the articles R and T.) The sound th is the transition be- tween * and t; hence Uie third person singu- lar of the present tense, ending, in German, in t, ended formerly, in English, in th, and now in s; e. g. has, hath (Germ, hat); brings, bringeth (Germ, bringet). S is so nearly akin to r, that Valerii, Furii, ara, carmen, lares, and numerous other words, were originally written Valesii, Fusii, asa, cas- men, loses. The Swedish and English hare is in German Hase. S often alternates with Uie soundsh(written in German sch); and some German tribes, particularly the Suabians, change the s regularly into sch, when it precedes anoUier consonant: thus they say bischt and hascht (pronounced bisht and hasht) for bist and hast; and even in High German, s, at the beginning of a word, followed by another conso- nant, is generally pronounced sh; this, in fact, was long considered by many correct; but at present, we Uiink, the weight of opinion is in favor of the sim- pler sound of s. It is a peculiarity of s, Uiat it may be sounded before all the sun- pie consonants—a circumstance which makes it so formidable a letter to lexi- cographers and encyclopaedists. S sig- nified seven, according to the verse:— S vera septenos numeratos significabit. Among the Greeks, a signified 200, and •) denoted 200,000; Uie sigma joined to the tau, i. e. c, denoted 6. The samech of Uie Hebrew, d, denoted 50, and with two points above, b, it signified 50,000. S is the common abbreviation for societas and socius (fellow). S. S. stands for sanctis- simus; S. D. for salutem dixit; S. P. D. for salutem plurimam dixit; S. P. Q. R. for the famous senatus populusque Ro- manus. S., in geography, stands for south ,* in music, for solo (alone), as T. for tutti (all). On French coins, 5 signifies Rheims. (See Abbreviations.) Saadi. (See Sadi.) Saale ; the name of several German rivers, the most important of which is Uiat which rises in Uie Fichtelgebirge in Bava- ria, and falls into Uie Elbe south of Barby. slant repetition of this sound produces a very bad effect in English vocal music- Several considerable places are situated on it, as Jena, Naumburg, Merseburg, Halle, &c. It is navigable to Halle, and it is intended to make it so to Naumburg. Saar Louis (in the time of the French revolution called Sarrdibre); Uie Prussian fortress nearest France, on the river Sarre, belonging to Uie government of Treves. Including Uie garrison, it has 7000 inhabitants. Vauban fortified the town for Louis XIV. In 1814, it was ceded to Prussia. Lon. 6° 507 E.; lat. 49° 20* N. Sabjeans ; the ancient name of the in- habitants of the modern Yemen, in Ara- bia. Their capital was Saba. Sab^ans. (See Sabians.) Sabaism (from the Hebrew Zaba, lord, from which God is called Zebaoth, Lord of the heavenly hosts, because the stars or powers of heaven are called Uie hosts of God); Uiat religion which worships the heavenly bodies, especially Uie sun and moon. The connexion of"these wiUi Uie constant changes in nature, and wiUi Uie condition of men, produced the idea of their divinity ; and the actual or sym- bolical connexion of the heavenly bodies and certain animals and plants, as well as Uie powers of nature, which are active in them, invested the latter also with a di- vine character, and made them objects of worship to the adherents of Sabaism. The sexual relations of living creatures gave rise to the fundamental idea of gen- eration, conception and production, which predominates in the Indian mythology, and became united with the doctrines of" Sabaism; and thus the latter received that character which we find it to have in Uie mythology of Western Asia. Egypt, Arabia, and particularly the region bounded east by the Euphrates and Ti- gris, west by the Mediterranean, and north by Uie Black sea, were the coun- tries where Sabaism prevailed in times previous to Christianity; and even Uie Hebrews often showed an inclination to- wards it. The religious history of the Chaldseans, Assyrians, Syrians, and tribes of Asia Minor, as given in Wagner's Contributions towards a general Mythol- ogy of the ancient World, in Gorres's History of MyUiuses, in Creuzer's Sym- bolik, and in Baur's Symbolik, shows the justice of the reproaches which Uie prophets of Uie Old Testament heap on Uie sensual worship of these heathens. Sabbatarians; those Christians who keep Uie seventh day as others do Sun- day ; chiefly found among Baptists. They hold Uiat Uie sabbath was establish- 156 SABBATARIANS—SABBATH. ed by divine authority, and changed from the seventh day to the first day of Uie week by human authority only. (See Sabbath.) Sabbath (a Hebrew word signifying rest) is Uie day appointed by the Mosaic law for a total cessation from labor, and for Uie service of God, in memory of the circumstance that God, having created the world in six days, rested on Uie seventh. Concerning the time when Uie Sabbath was first instituted, some Jewish writers and some fathers of the church have be- lieved, from the language of Genesis, chap. ii. v. 2 (where it is said that God blessed and sanctified the day), that it was estab- lished from the moment of creation; but, as there is no proof, in the Old Testament, that this day was observed by the patri- archs before Moses, others have supposed that the words in Genesis mean Uiat God intended to have the Sabbath celebrated in future; but some modern writers, par- ticularly English and American divines, adhere to Uie first opinion. (For the man- ner in which the Jews kept it, and the awful consequences of neglecting it, we refer the reader to the Old Testament Lev. xxvi.34,35; Neh. xiii. 16—18; Jer.xvii.21; Ezek. xx. 16,17; Numb. xv. 23—36.) A law so strictly enjoined, and whose observ- ance is of so public a character, was nat- urally kept by the Pharisees with the ut- most strictness, in its outward forms, so that they reproached the Founder of Chris- tianity, who taught that religion had its seat in the heart, and that God must be worshipped in spirit, with breaking the Sabbath when he healed the sick on that day. His rebuke of their hypocrisy is con- tained in John v. 16, and Matthew xii. 1 et seq.—Sabbath also signifies, in the Bible, Uie eternal rest of God ; also holy days in general. It likewise came to sig- nify a week.—The explicit injunction of Uie celebration of the Sabbath, the enu- meration of it even in the decalogue (Exodus xx. 8), had a great influence upon Christian observances; and there are many Christians to this day, especially in Eng- land and North America, who transfer all the injunctions contained in the Old Tes- tament respecting the observance of the Sabbath, to the first day of the week, and even give this the name of Sabbath. The use of the term Sabbath, in this application, we believe, is confined to these two coun- tries. In the earliest times of Christianity, Uie law of the Sabbath, like other parts of Uie Jewish faith, could not be received into Uie new religion, except spiritualized and refined like the sacrifices and other ceremonies. Every day, the whole life of the Christian, had become a Sabbath, destined for the service of God. St. Paul explicitly treats Uie reverencing of cer- tain days as invested with a holy char- acter by a divine ordinance, as Jewish and unchristian, and as a return to ser- vitude of Uie law. The firet communities assembled every day; e. g. the commu- nity of Jerusalem for common prayer, meditation on the Word, communion and love-feasts. Traces of Uiese daily meet- ings are found even later. With the spread of Christianity, however, and the neces- sity of instructing a greater number, the appointment of a certain time for this ser- vice became necessaiy. This was not a departure from the spirituality of the new religion, but only an accommodation to the wants of mankind. In the same way, peculiar persons became priests, though all Christians had an equal sanc- tity of character, and the departure from the spirit of Christianity consisted only in assuming a peculiar spiritual character for the priests. The gradual adoption of forms and ideas from the Old Tes- tament took place in the same way, in respect to the Sabbath, as in respect to the priesthood. When the Montanists in- tended to establish new fasts, assigned to fixed times, Uiey were reminded of the Epistle to the Galatians; but Tertullian treated the censure of St. Paul as attach- ing only to the celebration of Jewish fes- tivals. (Tertullian, De Jejuniis, c. 14.) The weekly and yearly festivals of the Christians originated from the idea of fol- lowing Christ, the crucified and the aris- en ; hence the festival of the resurrection, and the fasts preparatory thereto. In each week, the joyous festival was on Sunday, and Uie preparation for it was on Wednes- day and Friday, the days of* the Savior's passion. This point of view is necessary for a right understanding of the early fes- tivals. The desire of distinguishing the Christian from the Jewish observance, early gave rise to the celebration of Sun- day, the firet day of the week, instead of the Jewish Sabbath; the first trace of which is found in Actsxx. 7. This, how- ever, is by no means conclusive, because Uie community, collected on the first day of the week, might easily have been as- sembled by the near departure of St. Paul; and still less can be proved from 1 Corinth. xvi. 2. Another trace is in the Apoca- lypse, i. 10, as here we cannot suppose that by Lord's day is meant day of judgment. In the letter of Ignatius to the Magne- sians (chap, ix.), allusion is made to the SABBATH. 157 Sunday celebration, as the symbol of a new life, consecrated to Uie Lord, in con- tradistinction to the former Sabbath. Sun- day was distinguished as a day of joy, so that none fasted on it; people prayed standing, and not kneeling, in allusion to Christ having raised fallen man. Nean- der (q. v.), a most learned and faithful inquirer into ecclesiastical history, ob- serves,* that " Uie celebration of Sunday was always, like that of every festival, a human institution; far was it from the apostles to treat it as a divine command; far from them and from the first apostolic church, to transfer the laws of the Sab- bath to Sunday. But perhaps as early as the end of the second century, a mistaken application of this kind had grown up, be- cause, even then, the working on Sunday seems to have been considered sinful (as we may conclude from the words of Ter- tullian. De Orat., chap, xxiiif). Wednesday and Friday, the latter particularly, were sa- cred to the memory of the Savior's passion. Jewish-Christian communities, however, retained the celebration of Uie Sabbath, though they adopted also that of Sunday, and thus it became customary, in the Ori- ental church, to distinguish this day, also, by not fasting, and by praying in a standing posture: on the other hand, in the West- ern, and particularly in the Roman church, in which the opposition to Judaism pre- vailed, the custom grew up of using the Sabbath particularly as a fast-day. (Ter- tullian, De Jej., chap. 14.) And when, at a later period, the causes of this fasting on Saturday were lost, legends were in- vented to explain it, such as that Peter had fasted on this day to prepare himself for the disputation with Simon Magus. Ter- tullian speaks of this difference between the Oriental and Western churches with much moderation. The learned Hippol- ytus wrote, at the beginning of the third century,on this point of dispute." (Hierony- mus, Ep. 72, ad Vital.) Constantine the Great made a law for the whole empire (321 A. DA that Sunday should be kept as a day of rest in all cities and towns; but he allowed the countiy people to fol- low their work on that day. In Uie year 538 (A. D.), however, the council of Or- leans prohibited country labor; but be- cause there were still many Jews in Gaul, and Uie people fell into many supersti- * General History of the Christian Religion and Church (Hamb., 1826, vol. i, part 1, p. 514). t Solo die dominico resurrectionis non ab isto tan turn (the genuflexion), sed omni anxietatis hab- itu et officio cavere dcbemus, differentes etiam ncgotia, ne quern diabolo locum demus. VOL. XI. 14 tious uses in Uie celebration of the new Sabbath, in imitation of the practices of the Jews, the council declares Uiat to hold it unlawful to travel with horses, cattle and carriages, to prepare food, or to do any thing necessary to the cleanliness and decency of houses or persons, savors more of Judaism than of Christianity. J The reformation, abolishing so many of the festivals, which had increased in the Roman church to an immense number, naturally elevated the character of those which it left, as Easter, Christmas, &c, and Sunday; but Sunday, though consid- ered by the Lutherans as a proper day for religious service, was never regarded by them with that awe which was con- nected with its observance in the Old Testament. It is with them a day of rest and enjoyment, and many amusements are taken by Protestants on the European continent, during that day, which people there would think improper on week days appropriated for labor. Calvinism, which is altogether of a sterner character than Lutheran ism, may have induced its adherents to observe Sunday more strictly; but even at Geneva, the Sunday evening is spent in various amusements, in visit- ing, dancing, playing foot-ball, &c, and Uie labors of husbandry are permitted in harvest on Sundays. The custom of call- ing Sunday Sabbath indicates the inclina- tion to transfer Uie character of Uie Jewish Sabbath to the Christian Sunday. In fact, Uie Puritans, from whom it has descend- ed, showed, in many respects, a decided inclination to the sternness of Uie Old Testament (See also Sabbatarians.) The Puritans rejected, by degrees, the feasts of the church, as heathenish or popish; and the Sunday alone was retained, either because they considered it as, originally, of divine institution, or because, being conscious of the disadvantage of abolish- ing all festival days, they felt the want of a divine injunction for the one which j: In the fourth volume of Blackstone's Com- mentaries, p. 63, the commentator says that the profanation of the Lord's day is vulgarly, but im- properly, called Sabbath-breaking, and is punished by the municipal law, by a fine of three shillings and four pence; and that, by the laws of Eng- land, no fair or market is allowed to be held on any Sunday, except the four Sundays in harvest, on pain of forfeiting the goods exposed for sale. The law, however, does not prohibit (the commentator adds), but rather allows, any innocent recreation or amusement on the Lord's day, after service is over. But it prohibits work on that day, or exposure of goods for sale, except mackerel, milk, meat, &c, under Uie penalty of five shillings. He considers Sunday as a civil institution, to be regulated by the municipal law. 158 SABBATH—SABIANS. they kept. The Puritan austerity had manifested itself even in the reign of Eliz- abeth and Edward VI. Under both, the following injunctions were published:— " All parsons, vicars and curates shall teach and declare unto the people, Uiat they may, with a safe and quiet conscience, after their common prayer, in time of harvest, labor upon the holy and festival days, and save that thing which God hath sent; and if, for any scrupulosity or grudge of conscience, they abstain from working upon those days, that then they shall grievously offend and displease God."' But no where was Sunday kept with more rigidness and perfect abstinence from la- bor (prohibited even by many severe laws) than by the Puritan settlers of New Eng- land. The petitions lately presented to congress to prevent the transportation of Uie mail on Sundays emanate from the same spirit, and were considered by many as hostile to the principles of constitu- tional freedom, congress having no right to legislate on religious matters. See Sun- day Mails (Philad., 1830).—Laws still exist in several of the U. States for enforcing the strict observance of Sunday. So much did the Puritans consider the Chris- tian Sunday as a Jewish Sabbath, that a controversy has existed as to the time when Uie Christian Sabbath begins, many clergymen maintaining that it begins at sunset on Saturday; and some communities have acted on this view in their mode of observing it Whilst in America and England, many believe it of the utmost importance, for the interests of piety and morality, that Sunday should be kept with great strictness, the opinion of Uie ma- jority on the continent of Europe, may be said to be, that people whose weeks are spent in labor, should have some means of relaxation on the Sunday. The total denial of such means they consider injuri- ous to morality, as promoting a hypocriti- cal concealment of amusements, which, from this very cause, are apt to become immoral ones. Sabellians. (See Sabellius.) Sabellios, a Christian teacher at Ptolemais, a native of Africa, lived about 250, and is known as the founder of a sect, who considered the Son and Holy Ghost only as different revelations or manifesta- tions of the Godhead, but not as separate persons. The Trinity, according to them, is but a threefold relation of God to the world. The Logos of John, called, by the church, the Son, was compared by Sabellius to a ray emitted from tne sun, active in and through the man Jesus Christ, but by no means a separate existence from Uie one God. The Sabellians were suppressed in the fourth century by Uie orthodox church , but their views have always found adhe- rents, and, even now, theologians exhibit conceptions of the Trinity, coinciding with that of Sabellius, in order to make it intelligible by reason. Sabians, or CHaisnANS of St. John (likewise called Nazoraans and Menda- ans); a sect which, according to tradition, has existed from Uie time of John the Bap- tist. The members at present are found chiefly in Persia, and consider their origi- nal country to have been on the Jordan, whence, they say, Uiey were driven by the Mohammedans before the destruction of Jerusalem, and, being persecuted by the first caliphs, their temples destroyed, and their sacred books burnt, they fled to their present residence, and some also to India. Having been again persecuted, Uiey sub- mitted to the Nestorian bishop in Chaldaea, and allowed themselves to be called Chris- tians, but have been separated from them for more than three hundred years. The question, whether they are really of Gal- ilaean origin, and are derived from the disciples of John the Baptist, or whether tfiey formed their doctrines from a mix- ture of the Jewish, Christian, and Persian religions, and, having chosen John as au object of meditation and reverence, after- wards supposed him to have been then- founder, is difficult to decide. Tychsen has declared for the latter opinion; yet the argument seems stronger in favor of the former. In the middle of the seventeenth century, according to Ignatius a Jesu (Narratio Originis, &c, Christianorum S. Joh., Rome, 1652), there were from twen- ty to twenty-five thousand families of them. Five religious books of these peo- ple are known to us: 1. The Divan, of which we have only the extracts given by Ignatius. This book is said to have been given by God to the angels several thou- sand years before Uie creation of the world, though Mohammed is alluded to in it. 2. The Book of Adam, consisting of revelations brought by angels, or aeons, to Adam, and composed of eighty or ninety discourses, laudatory, didactic, hor- tatory and prophetic. 3. The Book of John, or Conversations of Angels. Speci- mens of this are given by Lorsbach. The bells and rosaries of the Christians are mentioned in it 4. Cholasteh, which con- tains the means and conditions of salva- tion. 5. The Book of the Signs of the Zodiac, of an astrological character, and only known from Uie account of Abraham SABIANS—SACCHINI. 159 Ecchellensis. (Eutychii Vindic.,\.3.) The language and alphabet of these books are altogether peculiar; the former is an Aramaean dialect, equally resembling the Syriac and Chaldean. Their religious doctrines stand in the same relation to those of Zoroaster, that Gnosticism and Manicheism do, except that they give to John the Baptist the elevated rank which the Gnosis gives to Christ. The latter and the Holy Ghost they look upon with the same contempt with which the Gnostics regarded the God of the Old Testament. Their system is a highly complicated doctrine of emanations, on which the influence of the Jewish cabala and of Mohammedanism is perceptible. The original being (like the endless time of the Zend-Avesta) is a divine sether (Ferha) of unspeakable splendor. Next to him is a female principle ^Ajar). From these two proceeds Mana (the lord of the king- dom of light). Then follow numerous aeons, or angels of light, and opposite to the kingdom of light is that of darkness, under Ur, with seven chief evil spirits, which inhabit the seven planets. Their theology ends with John the Baptist (Anusch), who came to win men, by bap- tism, for the kingdom of light. He was produced by a single kiss of his father Zachariah, and was married, but received his children out of the Jordan, one of the firet elements of light in their theology. Mohammed is the last false prophet, after whom no other will appear. They de- spise Mohammedans more than Chris- tians. The best part of their doctrine is their morals, founded on the repression of sensuality, as the only condition of virtue. The elect (they allow grada- tions of virtue) are forbidden to enjoy sensual pleasure, singing, dancing, &c. ; yet matrimony is often praised. Matri- monial fidelity, careful education of their children, respect for Uie first born, absti- nence from usury, &c, are inculcated. Their priests are divided into three orders. The priestly dignities are hereditary, de- scending to the eldest son. Baptism is their most solemn rite. It is the indispensable condition of the forgiveness of sin, and is administered to new-bom children and adults. The baptism of the latter takes place at least once every year, during the great feast of baptism, which lasts five days. They have also a kind of agape, or love-feast. Polygamy is not prohibited even to priests. Among their laws, in which we also find some resembling the Jewish, is one which prohibits mourning for the dead; but prayers are offered up, sermons delivered, and alms given. Their antipathy for blue is remarkable. A pretty complete list of works relating to this sect is given in Nosselt's Theolog. Litteratur (§ 474). See Norberg, De Rdig. et Lingua Sabaorum, in the 3d vol. of Comm. Soc. Goth. (1780); Walch, De Sa- bais (4th vol. ibid., 1781); Norberg's Codox Nasareus seu Liber Adami, Syriace tran- scriptus Latineque redditus (t i.—iii., 1815 and 1816); Tittman, Meletemata Sacra (Leipsic, 1816, p. 15 et seq.) Sabine River and Lake. (See Rivers, Navigable.) Sabines (Sabini); an old people of Italy, probably the descendants of the Ausonians, and related to the aborigines. This numerous people, who founded many colonies, lived in Uie Apennines, principally occupied with the care of herds. Horace has celebrated their hon- esty, modesty and simplicity of manners. Their country, to the west, was separated from Etruria by the Tiber; towards the south, by the river Anio (Teverone), from Latium; and towards the north, by the river Nar, from Umbria: towards the east dwelt the Sabine colonies of the Vestini and Marrucini, who separated it from the Adriatic sea: it therefore em- braced the principal part of the moun- tainous country of Uie Apennines. The soil is very fertile, and rich in pasturage. The productions are oil, fruits and wines, besides acorns in abundance. Sabines, Rape of the. (See Romulus.) Sable. (See Weasel.) Sacbut ; a bass wind instrument, re- sembling the trumpet, and so contrived as to be capable of being drawn out to dif- ferent lengths, according tec the acuteness and gravity of the scale required. The sacbut is usually about eight feet long, and, when extended to its full length, about fifteen. There are, however, sac- buts of different sizes, to execute different parts, particularly a small one, called by the Italians trombone piccolo, and by the Germans kleine Alte-Posaune, proper for the counter-tenor. Respecting the sacbut of the ancient Hebrews, commentators have differed much. Indeed, scarce any ancient instrument has been heard of, for which the sacbut or the psaltery has not furnished a name. Saccharine. (See Fermentation, and Sugar.) Sacchini, Anthony Mary Gaspard, was born at Naples, in 1735, and studied music under Durante. After being em- ployed in Rome, Venice, and several other cities of Italy, he went to London, 160 SACCHINI—SACKET'S HARBOR. where he composed Montezuma, Perseus, and the Cid. He was engaged for the • opera in Paris, in 1782, where his (Edipe a Colonne procured him great fame at the time of the quarrel between the Gluckists and PiccinisLs. He died in 1786, leaving fifty operas. His bust stands in the Pan- theon at Rome, next to Raphael's. Sac hem. In North America, this is the name given by some of Uie Indian tribes to their chiefs.—Sagamore is a word of similar import among the Indians. Sacheverell, Henry, D.D-> an English divine of the establishment, exalted into temporary importance by the spirit of party, was educated at Oxford. In 1705, he was appointed preacher of St. Savior's, Southwark. While in Uiis station, he preached his two famous sermons, in 1709, the object of which was to rouse appre- hensions for the safety of the church, and to excite hostility against the dissenters. Being impeached in the house of com- mons, he was brought to trial in Februa- ry, 1710, aud sentenced to be suspended from preaching for three years. This prosecution, however, excited such a spirit in the high church party, that it ultimately overthrew the ministry (see Bolingbroke, and Harley), and established the fortune of doctor Sacheverell, who, during his suspension, made a sort of tri- umphal progress through the kingdom. The same mouth that his suspension ter- minated, he was appointed to the valuable rectory of St. Andrew, Holborn, by queen Anne ; and such was his reputation, Uiat the copy-right of the first sermon which he afterwards was allowed to preach, sold for £100. He had also suffi- cient interest with the new ministry to provide handsomely for a brother. Little was heard of him after this party ebulli- tion subsided, except by his numerous squabbles with his parishioners. His abilities, even according to writers on his own side, were contemptible ; and, if we may credit doctor Swift, he was despised by the ministry whom his notoriety so much contributed to support. He died hi 1724. Sachs, Hans, the most distinguished mastereinger (q. v.) of Germany in the sixteenth century, was born at Nuremberg in 1494, and was by trade a shoemaker. He followed his business and made verses with equal assiduity. He became a Prot- estant, and died Jan. 19, 1576. His com- plete works appeared in 1570 et seq., in five folio vols., in Nuremberg; also in 1588, ibid.; and at Kempton, in five 4to vols. (1612—1616). Biisching published a selection of them in 1823 (Nuremberg, in 6 vols.). He possessed a fruitful genius, and, notwithstanding the rudeness of his language, his poems are distinguished for naivete, feeling, invention, wit, and strik- ing description. Sachsenspikgel (Mirror of the Saxons); a private collection of" legal precepts and legal customs, which had Uie force of law in the middle ages iii Germany, especially in the north of Germany. A Saxon nobleman (Epko von Repkau, or Eyke von Repgow) made this collection in 1215 et seq. It enjoyed great authority even in foreign countries, as Poland, Den- mark, &c, though the pope put many obstacles in its way, and though it was but a private collection. It is written in Uie old Saxon dialect, and is of much value, both for the lawyer and the philolo- gist. The study of it has been revived, of late, in Germany, and Homeyer pub- lished a critical edition of it in Berlin (1827). Sack (secco,Spanish; sec, French, dry); a general name for the different sorts of dry wine, more especially the Spanish, which were firet extensively used hi England in the sixteenth century. Thus we find the writers of that time speaking of " shen*is-sack," meaning Sherry, ami " Canary-sack," for the dry wines of the Canaries. Henderson gives some curious information on this point, on which there has been a good deal of confusion and dispute. (Ancient and Modern Wines, p. 308, seq.) The practice of putting sugar into wine, which we often find alluded to in Shakspeare and other writers, was not confined to the sacks, the English, at that time, sweetened all their wines. Sacket's Harbor; a post village and port of entry in the township of Hauns- field, Jefferson county, New York. It is situated on the south-west side of a bay of lake Ontario, called Black River bay, and about eight miles from the lake. Lat. 43° 55' N. ; lon. 75° 57' W. The bay and harbor are well situated for shel- ter and defence. The harbor is by far the best on lake Ontario for ship-building and as a naval and commercial depot. A crescent of land stretches off from the lower part of the village, forming an in- ner and an outer harbor. The latter has a depth of water sufficient for the largest ships of war, within two fathoms of the shore. The same depth of water extends to Black river, where there is another ex- cellent position for ship-building. The Madison barracks, situated just above the SACKET'S HARBOR—SACKVILLE. 161 village, were erected in 1816—17. They are built of limestone, and enclose three sides of a parallelogram, of about three acres. The side next to the lake is open. There are now laid up, at this port, a frigate of 68 guns, three ships of 28 each, four brigs, and a number of gunboats. The first settlement at this place was commenced in 1801, by Augustus Sacket. It advanced little till the commencement of the late war, when it became an impor- tant military and naval station. In 1820, it contained a population of 2020, includ- ing about 600 U. States' troops; and it seems not to have increased. Steam- boats and schooners pass frequently be- tween Sacket's Harbor, Niagara, and Og- densburg. Sackville, Thomas (lord Buckhurst and earl of Dorset), an accomplished statesman and poet, was the son of sir Richard Sackville, of Buckhurst, in the parish of Witham, in Sussex, where he was bom about 1527. He was first of the university of Oxford, but removed to Cambridge, and afterwards became a stu- dent of the Inner Temple. At both uni- versities he was distinguished for his per- formances in Latin and English poetry, and in the Temple he wrote his tragedy of Gorboduc. Of a poem intended to comprehend a view of the illustrious but unfortunate characters in English history, entitled the Mirror of Magistrates, he finished only a poetical preface, and one legend on the life of the duke of Bucking- ham. He was member in the two firet parliaments of Elizabeth, after which he travelled. On the death of his father, in 1566, he succeeded to a large inheritance, and was soon after raised to the peerage by the title of baron Buckhurst. He was then imprisoned, owing to the influence of the favorite, Leicester, in consequence of a report in disfavor of the latter, when sent on an embassy of inquiry into his conduct in Holland. In 1598, he was joined with Burleigh in negotiations for peace with Spain, and signed the treaty which followed with the states-general. On the death of that minister, he suc- ceeded him as lord high treasurer. In this situation he was instrumental in dis- covering the dangerous projects of the earl of Essex, at whose trial he presid- ed as high steward, in which office he conducted himself with great prudence and humanity. On Uie accession of James I, his post of treasurer was con- firmed to him, and, in 1604, he was cre- ated earl of Dorset He died suddenly, at the council-table, in April, 1608, at an 14* advanced age. This statesman ranks among the most prudent and able of the ministers of Elizabeth, and was a good speaker, and a still better writer. As a poet, he was the firet who approached to perfection in Uie English heroic stanza, and gave the firet example of regular tragedy in blank verse. His tragedy of Gorboduc, or, as entitled when printed in 1671, the Tragedie of Ferrex and Porrex, is a sanguinary story from early British history, composed with little pathos or attention to dramatic rules, but with con- siderable force of poetical conception and moral sentiment The language is also pure and perspicuous, and free from the turgidity which soon after prevailed. Sackville, Charles, sixth earl of Dor- set and Middlesex, was bora Jan. 24,1637. He received his education under a private tutor, and, after making Uie tour of Italy, was chosen member of the first parliament which assembled after the restoration. He made a great figure as a speaker, but declined all public employment, being wholly engrossed with gallantry and pleas- ure. He, however, served as a volunteer in the first Dutch war, in 1665, and, the night before the engagement, composed his celebrated song of " To all you ladies now at land," which is esteemed one of the happiest of his productions. He suc- ceeded to the estate of his uncle, James Cranfield, earl of Middlesex, in 1674, and, in 1675, to his title by creation. In 1677, on Uie death of his father, he also suc- ceeded him in his estate and the title of Dorset. He utterly disliked and discoun- tenanced the violent measures of James II, and early engaged for the prince of Or- ange, who made him lord chamberlain of the household. In 1698, on the decline of his health, he retired from public af- fairs, and died Jan. 19, 1705—6, leaving a son and daughter, the first of whom was created duke of Dorset in 1720. Lord Dorset wrote several small poems, which are included in Chalmers's collection; but they are not numerous enough to make a volume of themselves. "He was still more celebrated as a patron of poets and of men of wit, who, in their turn, have been very copious in their panegyric; and Prior, Dryden, Congreve and Addison all bear testimony to his merit. He was a very able critic; and Butler owed it to him Uiat the court relished his Hudibras. His own brief productions are those of a man of wit, gay and airy. SACKviLLE,George(viscount Sackville), was the third son of the first duke of Dorset, and was bom in 1716. He was 162 SACKVILLE—SACY. educated at Trinity college, Dublin, serv- ed* witii reputation at the battles of Foute- noy and Dettingen, and, in 1758, had at- tained the rank of lieutenant-general. The following year he commanded the British cavalry at the battle of Minden, under prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, whose ordere to advance with his troops during the engagement he disobeyed, either from cowardice or misapprehension. His be- havior was generally attributed at home to the former cause, and he was tried by a court-martial, convicted of dereliction of duty, and sentenced to be dismissed from the service. Under the administra- tion of lord Bute, he was restored to fa- vor. In 1775, he was appointed colonial secretaiy of state, and held that office during the progress of the war with Amer- ica. On relinquishing his post in 1782, he was created viscount. For a consid- erable part of his life, he was called lord George Germaine, having taken that name on succeeding to an estate left him by lady Elizabeth Germaine, who died hi 1769. (See Junius.) Saclactic Acid. (See Mucic Acid.) Saco ; a river which rises in the White mountains, and runs south-east into the Atlantic, below Saco, in Maine. It is 160 miles long, and has falls of 72 feet at Hi- ram, of 20 feet at Lymington, of 30 feet at Buxton, and of 42 feet at Saco. To Saco, six miles from its mouth, it is navi- gable. Saco ; a post-town and port of entry in York county, Maine, at the falls on Sa- co river. It is fifteen miles south-west of Portland. Population in 1830,3219. The falls at this place carry many saw-mills, and otiiers are constructed at the upper and middle falls. From these mills, great quantities of boards and other lumber are produced, which are shipped from Saco. The town has an active and profitable trade, and affords a great amount of water power for manufacturing purposes. Fac- tories are now erecting at the falls, which will soon increase Uie population and trade. Sacrament (Latin, sacramentum; the assumption of an obligation, an oath). This word received a religious sense, in the Christian church, from its having been used in the vulgate (q. v.), to translate the Greek uvorripiov. Among the early Latin ecclesi- astical writers, sacramentum, therefore, sig- nifies a mystery, a symbolical religious ceremony; but first acquired the peculiar sense which it now has in Uie Roman Catholic church, denoting seven particu- lar religious rites. The Catholic church considers a sacrament as a visible token, ordained by Christ, by means of which an invisible grace is communicated to Christians. The seven Roman sacraments, as confirmed by the council of Trent (sess. vii.), are—1. Baptism (Matthew xxviii, 19); 2. Confirmation (Acts viii, 14 —21, xix, 1—4); 3. the Eucharist (see Lord's Supper); 4. penance (q. v.); 5. ex- treme unction (James v, 14,15); 6. orders (Acts vi, 1—7; xiii, 1—1; xiv, 20—24; and 2 Timothy i, 6 and 7); and marriage, Uie sacred and indissoluble nature of which is conceived to be taught hi Matthew v, 31, 32; xix, 1—10; Mark x,2—13; Luke xvi, 18 ; Romans vii, 2—4; 1 Corinthians vii, 10 and 11. The Greek church agrees with the Roman church in the doctrine of the sacraments. (See Greek Church.) The Protestants, in general, acknowledge but two sacraments, baptism and Uie Lord's supper, considering a sacrament to be a festival instituted by Christ, by which he who partakes of it worthily, participates iu the influences of divine grace through sensible means and signs. The different views of the early reformers on the sub- ject of the eucharist are stated in the ar- ticles Carlstadt, Zuinglius, Lord'sJSupper. (See also, Reformed Church.) Luther and Melanchthon at firet acknowledged pen- ance or absolution as a sacrament, but af- terwards ranked it only as a preparation for the Lord's supper. The Quakers con- sider the sacraments as of little impor- tance. (See Quakers.) Sacrifices. (See Offerings.) Sacrilege ; Uie alienating to laymen, or common purposes, what was given to re- ligious persons and pious uses. The idea that sacrilege is to be punished with pe- culiar severity, as a profanation of things sacred, or a direct indignity to God, was controverted even in the chamber of Cath- olic France, in Uie debates respecting Uie bill sur le sacrilege, in 1825. See St. Edme's work, LaLegislation historique du Sacrilige chez tons les Peuples (Paris, 1825). Church robbery, or the taking things out of a holy place, is sacrilege, and, by the common law, was punished with more severity than other thefts, for the benefit of clergy (q. v.) was denied to Uie offenders; but it is now put by statute on a footing with oth- er felonies. Sacs. (See Indians, American.) Sact, baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre de, a distinguished Orientalist, member of the academy of inscriptions, and knight of the legion of honor, was bom, Septem- ber 21,1758, at Paris, where he early lost his father. He received a private educa- tion. In 1781, he was appointed counsel- SACY—SADI. 163 lor of the court of the mint, and entered, in 1785, as an associi libre, the academy of inscriptions, of which he became a reg- ular member in 1792. In 1791, the king made him one of the commissaries-gener- al of the mint. From 1793 to 1796 he lived in retirement in the country. On the establishment of the national institute, he was elected a member, but did not join it, as he was unwilling to take the oath of hatred against royalty. He refused to take this oath, also, as a professor in the spe- cial school of living Oriental languages; but he was suffered to retain this office, as it was almost impossible to find a man qualified to fill his place. His uninterrupt- ed occupation in scientific pursuits pre- served him during the reign of terror. When Napoleoa gave a new organization to the institute, Sacy became a member of the department of ancient literature and history. In 1808, he received the newly established professorship of the Persian language, in the collige de France, and was also chosen a member of the le- gislative body for the department of Uie Seine. April 3,1814, he declared himself in favor of Uie deposition of Napoleon, and took an active part in the discussions of the different bills which occupied the chamber during the session. In 1813, he was made a baron. The king, in 1814, ap- pointed him censor, and, in 1815, rector of the university of Paris, and, soon after, a member of the commission for public instruction. He has also been chosen member of many academies and learned societies. The most important writings of this first among living Orientalists are, his Arabic grammar and Anthology (pub- lished together, in 1810 and 1816, in 5 vols.), which excel all similar works (a second edition of the Arabic grammar was published in 1831); his translation of Ab- dollatif, which is invaluable, on account of the subjoined annotations; his Mimoires sur diverses Antiquites de la Perse (1793, quarto), wherein the ancient historical monuments are explained, with a deep knowledge of the language, and the whole subject; his Mimoires d'Histoire et de Littir- ature Orientale (1818, quarto); his general grammar; his little work On Carrier-Pi- geons; his Chrestomathie Arabe (2d edition, Paris, 1826, in 2 vols.); and many others. The Mimoires de VAcademic, and the No- tices et Extraits, of which latter work a number of volumes were wholly, or al- most wholly, composed by him, moreover testify as much in favor of his diligence as his comprehensive knowledge. As a teacher, Sacy has done much for Uie dif- fusion of a thorough knowledge of Uie Ara- bic and Persian in Europe, and has more- over educated excellent scholars. With strict integrity he unites the most pleasing and open character, and is always ready to promote the labors and studies of others. Saddccees ; one of the four principal sects of the Jews, Uie founder of whom was Sadoc, a Jewish rabbi, who lived about 200 years B. C. The doctrines in- culcated by his master, Antigonus, that we ought to practise virtue, not for the sake of reward, but solely on account of its own intrinsic excellence, led him to maintain that there would be neither re- wards nor punishments in another life. His adherents, therefore, denied the resur- rection and the immortality of the soul; believed neither iu angels nor spirits; but were very strict in their morals ; so that Christ, notwithstanding the reproach that they did not understand the Scriptures, did not censure them on account of then- morals. They succeeded to the highest^ dignities and offices, and even to Uie high priesthood. This sect still exists among the Caraites. (q. v.) Sadi, or Saadi (Sheik Moslehedin Sa- di el Shirazi), of Shiraz, one of the most celebrated lyric and moral poets of Persia, was born at Shiraz, in the year of the Hegira 571 (A. D. 1175), and died in the 116th year of his age (A.D. 1292). As his parents were poor, he was educated at the court of Abubeker, and received great fa- vors from different monarchs of Persia. He spent thirty years in travelling, and did not begin to write until his ninetieth year. He completed his works, which are ex- tensive, hi Uie last twelve years of his life. The Persians esteem him exceedingly, on account of his golden maxims, which they consider as a treasure of true wisdom, and also on account of his pure, elegant, and simple style. Of his works, we pos- sess, 1. a collection (Divan) of lyric po- ems in the Arabic and Persian languages, consisting partly of amatoiy poems, and partly of exhortations to partake in Uie joys of life, intermingled with serious reflec- tions ; 2. a moral work, under Uie title of Gulistan (the Garden of Roses), composed both of prose and verse, in eight books, with Uie following titles: "on the minds and morals of kings;" "on Uie minds and morals of dervises;" "on the quiet and happiness of contentment;" "on Uie importance of si- lence ;" "on love and youtii;" "on weakness and old age ;" "on the education of children and good morals;" and, lastly, "on the art of associating with men:" 3. a work in 164 SADI—SAGE. verse, called Boston (the Orchard}, con- taining a collection of histories, fables and moral instructions; 4. and, lastly, a collec- tion of moral sentences, also in verse, un- der the title of Pendnahmeh, or Molamaat. The complete works of Sadi have been published in Persian at Calcutta, in two large quarto volumes. Gentius has also published Gulistan, the finest of his po- ems, in Persian and Latin; and Dumoulin the same poem in Persian and English (Calcutta, 1823). Doctor Bernard Dorn has translated Three Pleasure-Walks from Saadi's Garden of Roses (Hamburg, 1827). The Pendnahmeh has been published sep- arately in the East Indies and England, in the Persian and English languages. There are also translations of many of his lyric poems, by Ouseley and others; and the Boston and Gulistan have been trans- lated into a variety of languages. (See Persian Literature.) Franklin and Mori- er, in their travels, have described his mon- ument, which is situated about nine miles to the north-east of Shiraz. Safe-Conduct ; a security granted by the sovereign authority, or persons dele- gated by it, to strangers, or other persons, to enable them to repair to, and return from a certain place undisturbed. In most of these cases, passports have now taken the place of special safe-conducts. Sometimes the safe-conduct is given to persons accused, to secure them against harm, when sum- moned to an examination. Thus the em- Eeror Sigismund gave a safe-conduct to luss, when he was cited to appear before the council at Constance (in this case, however, the safe-conduct was violated, and Huss was burnt, because the clergy Eersuaded Uie emperor that he need not eep his word towards a heretic); and Charles V gave a safe-conduct to Luther, to induce him to appear in Worms. Judges sometimes give safe-conducts to delin- quents, to enable them to act in their af- fairs. In Germany, a safe-conduct is sometimes granted, to give a person ac- cused an opportunity to defend himself without experiencing the usual disadvan- tages of a prosecution; and a safe-conduct is granted in criminal cases, " until some- thing penal is proved against the accused;" e. g. if the accused thinks he can make out an alibi, or that the act with which he is charged is not punishable, &c. Safety-Lamp. (See Damps.) Saffron. The true saffron (crocus sa- tivus) is a low, ornamental plant, with grass-like leaves, and large lily-shaped flowers, inhabiting the European conti- nent, and frequently cultivated for the sake of the yellow stigmas, which were formerly much employed in medicine, do- mestic economy and the arts: now they are used by painters and dyers ; also in cookery and confectionary. The bulbs an* planted in rows six inches apart, and three from bulb to bulb, in a well pulverized soil, not poor, nor a very stiff' clay, and in the month of July. The flowers are col- lected in September, and the yellow stig- mas, and part of the style, are picked out and dried on a kiln, between layers of pa- per, and under the pressure of a thick board, to form the mass into cakes. Two pounds of dried cake is the average crop of an acre, after the firs'* planting, and twenty-four pounds for the two next years. After the third crop, the roots are taken up, divided, and transplanted. Other spe- cies of crocus are often cultivated in gar- dens, on account of the brilliancy of their flowers, and Uie early season at which they flower. The term saffron is often applied to the carthamus tindorius, a large this- tle-like plant, with orange-colored flowere, belonging to the family composita. The root is perennial, but the stem herbaceous. It is said to have been originally brought from the East, but is now naturalized in many parts of Europe, and is, besides, ex- tensively cultivated. The flowere aid used by the Chinese, to communicate some of the fine rose, scarlet, purple, and violet colors to their silks; for this purpose the flowers are thrown into an infusion of some alkali, and left to macerate ; the col- ore are afterwards drawn out by the addi- tion of lemon juice in various proportions, or of any other vegetable acid. Great quan- tities of these flowers are annually im- ported into Britain, for dyeing and paint- ing. In Spain, they are used to color soups, olives, and other dishes. The Jews in Poland are remarkably fond of it, and mix it with their bread and most of their vi- ands. In Germany, it is cultivated in a light soil, well pulverized, and is sown in rows about eighteen inches apart, and af- terwards thinned, so as to leave three or four inches between the plants. In Sep- tember the plants begin to flower, and the field is then gone over once a week for six or seven weeks, to gather the expand- ed florets, which are dried in a kiln, in the same manner as true saffron. The car- thamus is sometimes used for culinary purposes, under the impression that it is the true saffron, but, if in too great quan- tities, communicates a purgative quality. Saga. (See Scandinavian Literature.) Sagamore. (See Sachem.) Sage (salvia). This genus differs from SAGE—SAHARA. 165 the majority of labiate plants in hav- ing but two stamens, instead of four. More than two hundred species are known which are herbaceous or shrubby, with opposite leaves, and flowers also opposite, or, more frequently, vcrticillate, forming spikes at the extremities of the stems and branches. The garden sage (S. officina- lis) was formerly in great repute as a su- dorific, aromatic, astringent, and antisep- tic. It possesses stimulant properties in a high degree, is tonic and stomachic; the odor is strong, aromatic, and agreeable ; the taste bitter, pungent, and somewhat resembling camphor, which substance, indeed, is contained in the plant. The leaves are often employed in seasoning dishes, especially in the south of Europe. The Chinese esteem this plant very highly, and use it as a tonic for strengthening the stomach, often giving it the preference to their own tea. We have several native species of salvia in the middle and more southern parts of the United States. Some of those species which inhabit the mountains of South America are very ornamental plants, remarkable for then- long scarlet flowere. Saghalien ; a large island, or peninsu- la, on the eastern coast of Asia; lon. 142° to 145° east; lat. 45° to 54° north. The northern part belongs to the Chinese, the southern to the Japanese empire. It is uncertain wheUier it is connected with the continent by a low and narrow neck of land, or is entirely separated from it. It is inhabited by a few barbarous tribes. Sago Palm (sagus Rumphii); a low species of palm, found wild in the East Indies. The trunk is upright, and is crowned at the summit with a tuft of pin- nated leaves, composed of veiy numer- ous, long, narrow, pointed, smooth leaflets. The fruit is about as large as a pullet's egg, covered with shining scales, and is edible. The trunk contains a farinaceous pith, which is a veiy wholesome aliment: sago is made from it, as from Uiat of most oth- er palms. For this purpose, the pith is taken out, bruised in a mortar, and put in- to a cloth or strainer: it is then held over a trough, and, water being poured in, the pith is washed through the cloth into the trough below: the water being then drawn off", the sago is taken out and dried for use or transportation. It is highly esteemed as an article of food. The preparation of sago, under different forms, constitutes a principal source of employment to the inhabitants of many parts of Uie coast of Malabar, and of several of the East India islands. Sago is granulated in a manner somewhat similar to that adopted in the preparation of tapioca (see Manioc), and in this state enters into commerce. Sagcenay ; a river of Canada, which flows into the St. Lawrence in lat. 48° N., Ion. 69° 407 W. Its course is south-east. At its mouth it is about a mile wide, but higher uji it has two or three times that breadth, and is deep enough for the larg- est ships. Its length is about 350 miles, and the tide flows up about 70 miles. Its current is remarkably rapid. The harbor of Tadousac, at its mouth, is sufficient to contain twenty-five ships of the line, af- fords good anchorage, and is well pro- tected. Saguntum; a celebrated city in His- pania Tarraconensis, near the river Tu- rius (Murviedro). It was in alliance with Rome, and therefore attacked by Han- nibal, 219 years B. C, and conquered after an obstinate siege; upon which the second Punic war commenced. The city of Murviedro (Muri veteres) now stands upon the same spot. In the war be- tween Spain and France, the army of Va- lencia, under Blake, was defeated here by Suchet, October 25,1811; in consequence of which the fort of Saguntum capitulated. Sahara, Zaara, or the Great Desert ; an immense tract of territory situated be- tween the states of Barbary and the coun- tries watered by the Niger, between lat. 16° and 30° N., and lon. 29° E. and 16° W.; superficial area, 1,800,000 square miles. In its greatest length, it extends nearly across Africa, from the Atlantic to the Nile, 45 degrees of longitude, or about 3000 miles; its breadth is about 15 de- grees, or 1000 miles. But the name is usu- ally limited to the main body of the des- ert, which lies to the west of Fezzan and Cassina, extending through about 30 de- grees of longitude. It is the largest des- ert on the globe. A great part of Uie sur- face consists of a dead level. In some parts it is covered with small sharp stones ; in some places the surface is diversified by ravines, rocks, and eminences covered with shrubs ; other parts are composed of moving sand, which, when blown by the wind, sometimes produces Uie most terri- ble effects, and whole caravans have been found buried beneath it. This vast tract is occasionally diversified by oases (q. v.), in which a supply of water affords support to a certain number of inhabitants, or, in some, merely furnishes springs, for the refreshment of travellers. These places are inhabited by nomadic Arabs. Lions, panthers, enormous serpents, ostriches and gazelles are found here. This desert is 166 SAHARA—SAINTS. traversed, for purposes of commerce, by means of the camel, by caravans some- times consisting of 2000 persons. (See Africa.) These caravans convey from Northern Africa salt, cloths, and various kinds of European goods, receiving in re- turn gold, ivory, and slaves. The coast of Sahara, extending along the desert, is, for the most part, rocky, dangerous, and destitute of harbors. Denham, Clapper- ton (q. v.), and Caillie (q. v.), are among the latest travellers who have crossed this desert. Saigon ; a city of Cochin-China, on the Dongnay, 56 miles from its mouth, in lat. 10° 50** N., lon. 106° 42' E., with a pop- ulation of 150,000 souls, of whom 10,000 are Chinese. The largest vessels can as- cend the river to Saigon, which has a safe and convenient harbor. The streets are regular, but filthy, and the houses are generally low, of wood, and thatched with straw. The citadel, which contains the royal palace and barracks, is situated on an elevation sixty feet above the river, and is strongly fortified. Mr. White, who visited it in 1819, saw 250 pieces of can- non here. There are also an extensive naval arsenal, a cannon foundery, with a great number of temples, several pagodas, and a Christian church in Saigon. Previ- ously to 1800, the commerce was monopo- lized by the Portuguese; but other Euro- pean nations, the Chinese, and Americans, have since engaged in it Rice, betel nut, sugar, pepper, cinnamon, silk, cotton, ivory, gold, and silver, are the chief arti- cles of export. (See Cochin-China.) Sail. (See Ship.) Sailing. (See Navigation.) Saint. Names of persons and places beginning with this prefix, and not given here, will be found under the head of the word following it. Saints (from the Latin sandus, holy), in its widest sense, is used by Catholics and Protestants to signify the pious, who in this world strictly obey the commands of God, or enjoy, in the eternal world, that bliss which is the reward of such a life on earth. In a narrower and more usual sense, Uie word saint signifies cer- tain individuals, whose lives were deemed so eminently pious, that the Greek and Roman Catholic churches have authoriz- ed the rendering of public worship to them: these two churches, however, by no means acknowledge, in all cases, Uie same saints. The doctrine of saints, and Uie ideas and usages which grew out of it; their worship and invocation; the power which they are considered to possess of interceding for men with God, and of working miracles; their peculiar patron- age of particular individuals, &c,—form one of the main points of difference be- tween the Protestants and the adherents of the above-mentioned churches. The Dictionnaire de Thiologie (Toulouse, 1817), a work exhibiting the Catholic faith, and defending it against Protestant- ism, speaks in Uie following manner of saints, in the narrower sense of the word: " The name of saint is given to a person who is not only much attached to the worship of the true God, but who is ex- empt from every considerable vice, and who practises the Christian virtues in an exalted degree; and as the bliss of heaven is the certain reward of such a life, we often understand by saints those who en- joy eternal felicity. When the church is convinced that an individual has led such a holy and pure life, when God has deigned to attest it by miracles, it places him among the number of the saints by a decree of canonization, and authorizes the faithful to render him public worship. (See Canonization.) The church, how- ever, does not intend to intimate thereby that such an individual has been exempt from every weakness of humanity, and that he has never sinned: human frailty does not admit of this perfection." The article from which this definition is taken treats the worship and invocation of saints, and their intercession, as something essen- tial to the Catholic faith ; while there are other Catholic writers who explicitly say, that Uie church has made the worship of saints, not a matter of doctrine, but simply of discipline, as the Catholic writer of the article Heilige, in the Ger- man Conversations-Lexicon. Without further statement of the views of Catholic writers, among whom, as may be imagin- ed, a great many shades of opinion pre- vail on this subject, from the enormous absurdity—by no means unfrequently maintained—that saints are persons who have led a life so much more virtuous than was necessary to obtain happiness in another state, that this surplus of virtue is made operative by their intercession for the salvation of others, down to the view of the German writer just mention- ed, we refer the reader to Uie decree of the council of Trent, as the acknowledged orthodox basis of the veneration of saints, images, relics, &c. It is explicitly stated there, that Jesus Christ is the only Re- deemer and Savior; but Uiat it is " good and useful suppliantly to invoke saints, and to resort to their prayers and assist- SAINTS. 167 ance;" Uiat Uiey pray for men; that their bodies are to be venerated by Uie faithful; and that the images of Christ, of Uie Vir- gin Mother of God, and of other saints, are to be also venerated; " not Uiat it is believed that any divinity or power re- sides in them, on account of which they are to be worshipped, or Uiat any benefit is to be sought from them, or any confi- dence placed in images, as was done for- merly by the Gentiles, who fixed their hope in idols; but that we honor Uie sub- jects represented, when we kiss their im- ages, or uncover our heads before them," &c. This is accompanied with the usual anathema against all who teach or pro- fess contrary doctrines. But so much depends upon the true understanding of the decrees on these points, and so easy is it to put various interpretations on human language, that we shall give Uiat part of the decree of the twenty-fifth session of Uie council of Trent, which relates to the sub- ject of this article, in the original.* The * " Mandat sancta Synodus omnibus Episcopis, et caeteris docendi munus curamque sustinentibus, ut juxta Catholicae et Apostolicae Ecclesiae usum a primaevis Christianas religionis temporibus re- ceptum, sanctorumque Patrum consensionem, et sacrorum Conciliorum decreta,in primis de Sanc- torum intercessione, invocatione, Keliquiarum ho- rore, et legitimo imaginum usu, fideles diligenter :<«struant, docentes eos, Sanctos, una cum Christo -egnantes, orationes suas pro hominibus Deo of- ferre ; bonum atque utile esse suppliciter eos in- vocarc; et ob beneficia impetranda a Deo per Filium ejus Jesum Christum Dominum nostrum, qui solus nosier Redemptor et Salvator est, ad eorurn orationes, opem, auxiliumque confugere : illos vero, qui negant Sanctos, i£terna felicitate in coslo fruentes, invocandos esse ; aut qui asserunt, vel illos pro hominibus »non orare; vel eorum, ut pro nobis etiam singulis orent, invocationem esse idololatriam, vel pugnare cum verbo Dei, adver- sarique honori unius mediatoris Dei et hominum Jesu Christi; vel stultum esse in coelo regnantibus voce vel mente supplicare, impie sentire. Sanc- torum quoque martyrum, et ahorum cum Christo viventium sancta corpora, quae viva membra fiie- runt Christi, et templum Spiritus sancti, ab ipso ad aRternam vitam suscitanda et glorificanda, a fidclibus veneranda esse, per quae multa beneficia a Deo hominibus praestantur: ita at afnrmantes, Sanctorum Reliquiis vencrationem atque hono- rem non deberi, vel eas, aliaque sacra monu- mcnta a fidelibus inutiliter honorari, atque eorum opis impelrandae causa Sanctorum memorias frus- tra frequentari, omnino damnandos esse, prout jampridem eos damnavit, et nunc etiam damnat Ecclesia. Imagines porro Christi, Deiparae Vir- ginis et aliorum Sanctorum in tempi's praesertim nabendas, etretinendas ; eisque debitum honorem et vcnerationem impertiendam; non quod creda- tur incsse aliqua in lis divinitas, vel virtus, propter quam sint colendae; vel quod ab eis sit aliquid petendum; vel quod fiducia in imaginibus sit Agenda, veluti ohm fiebat a Gentibus, quae in idolis speni suam collocabant; sed quoniam ho- CaUiolic Uieology has two different words for Uie veneration of saints, and Uiat of God and theMediator,thefonnerbeing call- ed dulia, the latter latria; and the church must watch that the fonner does not de- generate into the latter. How much the worship of saints, and Uie great variety of human characters which thus became ob- jects of veneration, contributed to Uie dif- fusion of Christianity in the middle ages; how it brought Christianity into connexion with the fine arts, by affording the most copious store of religious subjects to the genius of artists; and how the worship of Uie Virgin Mary became a very active element in Uie religion of the middle ages, as it still is a prominent feature in Uie Roman CaUiolic faith—would be highly interesting to consider; but our limits will not allow it. The Catholics regard their notions on the subject of saints as sup- ported by different parts of the Bible, e. g. Timothy ii, 12, various passages in the Apocalypse, Jeremiah xv, 1 and 5, Luke xvi, 9, and Uie writings of many of the early fathers, as Origen, who wrote in the third century (1 de Orat., n. 11, and sev- eral other places of the same character): for the invocation of the saints, Uiey refer chiefly to Genesis xlviii, 16, John xii, 26, xvii, 20, and many passages in early Christian writers. The Protestants object to the whole doctrine, and allege that even Christ himself said, " There is none good but one, that is God;" that not only is the idea of saints, as intercessors, no where contained in the Bible, but that it originated centuries after Uie establish- ment of Christianity ; that it is against the chief doctrine of Christianity, which de- clares all men to be sinners, and to be saved only by Christ; Uiat it is impious to imagine God like an earthly king, who is influenced by the suggestions of those around him; that Christ's mediation is founded either on an atonement, which is Uie more general opinion, or on his bringing the gospel to men; and Uiat it can be clearly proved that many saints, now so considered, never existed, but were the offspring of ignorance, mistak- ing, e. g. a Greek word in a church in- scription for the name of Uie saint to whom the church was dedicated, and Uiat others were of a very equivocal charac- nos qui eis exhibetur, refertur ad prototypa, quse illse repraesentant: ita ut per imagines, quas oscu- lamur, et coram quibus caput aperimus et pro- cumbimus, Christum adoremus, et Sanctos, quo- rum illae similitudinem gerunt, veneremur, id quod Conciliorum, praesertim vero secundae Ni- caenae Synodi, deeretis contra imaginum oppug- natores est sancitum." 168 SAINTS. ters 5* that fraud evidently sometimes had part in the creation of saints; and that a doctrine, which has led, for centuries, and so universally, to such gross superstitions, as Catholics themselves admit, have often arisen from the doctrine of saints, notwith- standing these superetitions are not sup- ported by the council of Trent, must be highly dangerous; for the essential question with regard to every law and doctrine, is not For what was it intended ? but How does it operate ? If Protestants do not see that the Bible contains any divine com- mand which could fairly lead to the invo- cation of saints, and to the supposition of their intercession for men with God, still less do they find any ground for the veneration of relics.—The doctrine of saints seems to us to have essentially originated from the virtues displayed by the martyrs. Heroism in suffering al- ways remained the most common ground of saintship, as, in fact, is natural, since the great Prototype of Christianity became such by his sufferings. When the gospel had filled the hearts of believers with the hope of an eternal life of felicity, death soon came to be considered as af- fording occasion for joy rather than soitow to the friends of the departed. Cyprian (q. v.) pronounces this opinion distinctly in his De Mortalitate. The anniversaries of the death of friends were celebrated by partaking of the Lord's supper, and try a gift laid on the altar, in return for which the prayer for the soul of the deceased was introduced into the prayers which preceded the communion. If this was Uie case with all, it was naturally still more so with the martyrs whose death was their glory. Hence the anniversaries of their suffering were called the dies nata- les, natalitia martyrum, yevcOXta run paprvpuv. We find in Eusebius (lib. iv, 15) the report of Uie martyrdom of bishop Polycarp, by the community of Smyrna. They say there, in answer to the reproaches of the heathens, "They (the heathen) do not know that we can never forsake that Christ, who has suffered for all Uie saved, nor can worship any one besides. Him * Doctor Reichlin Meldegg, Catholic professor ordinarius of ecclesiastical nistory, and tempora- ry dean of the theological faculty at Freiburg, says, in his Proposals for Refonnations in the German Catholic Church, " The old Roman breviary, crammed with fictitious or much colored anec- dotes of saints, with repetitions that weary, with passages of indecorous import, &c, requires a thorough revision." In another passage he says, "Some masses are founded on stories not suffi- ciently proved, or palpable fictions, as the mass of the lancea Christi, the inventio cruets, &c." we worship, as the Son of God; but the martyre we love, as they deserve, on ac- count of their unparalleled love of their King and Lord," &c. They continue: " We took up his bones, which are more precious than gold and jewels, and laid them down in the proper place; and God will grant, that we may assemble there in joy and gladness, and celebrate the festi- val of his martyrdom, in memory of the departed champions, and to exercise and prepare those who are still awaiting the struggle." In this passage we see, already, the beginning of the veneration of relics. By degrees, the veneration of martyrs and the estimation of their relics increased; and, according to the unanimous testimo- ny of the most distinguished fathers of Uie church of Uie fourth and fifth cen- turies, Uiey were even then invoked as intercessors at the Uirone of God. In ages when information is transmitted chiefly by tradition, facts easily become exaggerated, without intentional viola- tion of the truth; and soon many miracles were reported to have been wrought by then* relics or intercession. At the same time, it is undeniable, that, with the diffu- sion of Christianity, when danger was no longer connected with its profession, and many persons came over to this religion who had but an imperfect knowledge of it, and had not abandoned entirely their former superstitions, pagan notions often became blended with the new religion; and, as many statues of pagan deities were changed into those of martyrs and other persons distinguished for piety, so some hymns, originally addressed to these dei- ties, were now sometimes addressed to departed Christians, who had been emi- nent for piety; and the special protec- tion of certain persons or things, as ships, churches, &c, was attributed to them as intercessors with God. When monarchs became Christians, and Uie persecution of believers ceased, so that instances of martyrdom were no longer found, the retiring from the world to the seclusion of a convent, or other great sacrifices made from religious motives, often led to investing the deceased with the charac- ter of intercessors with God. A pious bishop, who had devoted his whole life to Uie welfare of his flock, was looked upon as retaining his care for it in the regions of eternal bliss; so that, by de- grees, many saints arose; and it naturally happened that this honor was sometimes paid to unworthy persons, and sometimes actual fraud was committed to obtain it. It was not uncommon for a person to be SAINTS—ST. CLAIR. 169 long considered and invoked as a saint, when it remained doubtful whether he was so regarded by the church. Hence we find that the council at Frankfort on the Maine, in 794, prohibited the invoca- tion of new saints; and Charlemagne again, in 805, revived the decree. The pope at last took the matter into his own hands. Pope John XV, in 993, gave the firet example of a canonization by the Roman see; and Alexander III declared, in 1170, that canonization was an exclu- sive right of the pope, wiUi whom it has since remained.* (See Canonization,and Beatification.) Few popes have become saints. Pius V, in 1712, was the firet for almost a thousand years, and, so far, has been the last. France, Naples, and the German empire, would not acknowledge the canonization of Gregory VII, by Ben- edict XIII, in 1728. One of the last, if not Uie very last canonization, is that of cardinal J. M. Tomasi, in 1807. Coun- tries, cities, arts, trades, orders, things, &c, have their patron saints; but the church, it seems, determines nothing in relation to them. St. Denis is the patron of France ; St. George, of Rus- sia; OlafF, of Norway; Cnut or Ca- nute, of Denmark; Nepomuc, of Bo- hemia ; Cecilia, of music ; Hubert, of hunting; Crispin, of shoemakers, &c. The Greek church (q.v.) does not acknowl- edge the saints canonized after its separa- tion from the Western Church. (See Acta Sanctomm.) Saint-Foin (hedysarum onobrychis); a plant, somewhat resembling the pea, which grows wild in the countries about the Med- iterranean, and is often cultivated else- where for fodder. The stem is about a loot and a half or two feet high; the leaves are pinnate, composed of small leaflets; the flowers are pretty large and showy, of a fine pink color, and are disposed in a short spike, upon a long axillary pedun- cle. Cattle are extremely fond of it. In its wild state, it is only found on dry, warm, chalky soils, where it is of great duration; and it is chiefly in such districts that it is cultivated to advantage. Its peculiar val- ue is, that it may be growu on soils unfit for being constantly under tillage, and which would yield little undergrass. The deeper Uie soil is stirred previously to sow- ing, the better. The seed is generally put in broadcast, at the rata of three or four bushels to an acre; and sometimes a little * The above-mentioned decree of the council of Trent also guards against the introduction of new miracles, new relics, &c, if not approved of by the bishop of the diocese. vol. xi. 15 red clover is sown afterwards, to pro- duce a crop the second season, when the saint-foin plants are but small. Saint-foin is highly nutritive, either cut green, or made into hay. The produce, on a medi- um of soils and cultivation, may probably be estimated at from one and a half to two tons the acre. The usual duration of this plant in a profitable state is from eight to ten years. It ordinarily attains its perfect growth in about three years. The propor- tion of nutritive matter in saint-foin is es- timated equal to that afforded by white and red clover. St. Albans (anciently Verulam); a town in Hertfordshire, England, twenty miles north-west of London; population, 3653. St. Albans owes its name to Alban (q. v.), the firet martyr in Great Britain, who was buried oil a hill near the town, where a monastery was dedicated to his memory. In 1455, a battle was fought here between the Yorkists and the Lancasterians; and, in 1461, another battle was fought between the same parties. St. Ann ; a city of New Brunswick. (See Frederickston.) St. Anthony's Falls. (See Missis- sippi River, and Anthony's Falls.) St. Anthony's Fire. (See Erysipelas.) St. Augustine ;. a city and seaport of East Florida, on a bay of the Atlantic, two miles within the bar; about thirty miles south of the mouth of St John's river, eighty south of St Mary's, three hundred and ten south of Charleston ; lat. 29° 45' N., lon. 81° 407 W. The town is built on a peninsula, is of an oblong form, and con- sists of four principal streets. The situa- tion is pleasant, and has the advantages of refreshing breezes, and the fragrance of orange groves. It has a good harbor, but the bar has only eight feet of water. The houses are built of stones formed by the accretion of shells, from the island of Anastasia, near the town. A fort, twenty feet high, with walls twelve feet thick, and mounting thirty-six guns, defends the town. In 1821, when Florida was ceded to the U. States, St. Augustine con- tained about 2500 inhabitants; and it has not increased. The appearance of this city indicates decay, and the country around it is too low and unhealthy to sustain it. St. Clair ; a river which flows from lake Huron into lake St. Clair. It is about forty miles long, one mile wide, transpar- ent, of easy navigation, and is a pleasant and noble stream.—Fort St. Clair is situ- ated at the upper end of this river. St. Clair ; a lake situated between lake Huron and lake Erie, and connected with 170 ST*. CLAIR— ST. REAL. boUi. It is about ninety miles in circum- ference, and has several fine islands. Its waters are remarkably transparent Lat. 42° 52' N.; lon. 82° 25* W. St. Cyr. (See Cyr.) St. Domingo. (See Hayti.) St. Elias ; a mountain on the western coast of North America, situated about twenty-five miles from the Pacific ocean, in lat. 60° 27' N., lon. 140° 51' W. It rises 17,850 feet above Uie ocean, and stands so separate from other mountains as to be a very important landmark. Its top is al- ways covered with snow. This is the most elevated summit of what is some- times called the Cordillera of New Nor- folk, and is one of the highest mountains in North America. St. Evremond. (See Evremond.) St. Francis; a river which rises in Missouri, and flows into the Mississippi in Arkansas, lat 34° 45' N. It is a large riv- er, and was formerly navigable 300 miles for large keel boats; but the earthquakes of 1811—12 raised its channel so much, and so irregularly, as to cause the waters to overflow the banks, and form a vast number of lakes and irreclaimable swamps along its former course. At high water, this river is still navigable about 200 miles; and there are several considerable settle- ments about seventy miles from its mouth. A great deal of land on its banks is fertile; its waters abound with excellent fish ; and the forests through which it flows afford abundance of the finest game. St. Gall (in German, Sanct Gallen); a canton of Switzerland, in the north-w*est part of the confederacy, bounded north by the lake Constance, east by Tyrol, south by the cantons of Schweitz and Glarus, and west by that of Thurgau; square miles 2100; population 140,000, of whom rather more than one half are Catholics. The man- ufactures of this canton, principally of linen and muslins, are extensive, and furnish the chief occupation of the inhab- itants. St Gall is formed from the estates of the rich Benedictine monastery of the same name, which were secularized by the French, and was admitted into the confed- eracy in 1803. The constitution is aristo- cratical, the government being conducted by a great council of one hundred and fifty members, and an executive council of thirteen, composed of members of the former. The canton sends a member to the federal diet. In 1830, St. Gall was the theatre of revolutionary movements, which were quieted by seasonable concessions. (See Switzerland.) The capital, St. Gall, with a population of 9000, is distinguished by Uie manufacturing and commercial ac- tivity of the inhabitants. It contains the old Benedictine abbey, has two libraries rich in manuscripts, and some learned soci- eties. St. George's Bank ; a fishing bank off' the coast of Massachusetts, east of cape Cod. St. Germain. (See Germain.) St. John. (See BolingbrokeS St. John's Bread, or Carob-Tree (ce- ratonia siliqua); a middling sized tree, with tortuous branches, which grows wild in the countries about the Mediterranean, and particularly abounds in Barbary and Egypt. It belongs to the leguminosa, and is allied to the locust The flowers are dioecious, small, inconspicuous, and dis- posed in spikes; they are succeeded by long, indehiscent, thick pods, pulpy inter- nally, and divided by several transverse partitions. The Moore make great use of the pods as an article of food, and they have a sweetish and very agreeable fla- vor. It is the only species of the genus. St. John's Wort (hypericum perfora- tum). This plant is abundantly natural- ized in the U. States. The 6tem is straight, one or two feet high, bearing ob- long and obtuse leaves, with semi-trans- parent dots. The flowers are in a termi- nal corymb, and of a bright yellow color. It formerly enjoyed a high repute for me- dicinal purposes, but is now entirely out of use. The flowers communicate a fine purple color to spirits and oils ; and the dried plant, boiled with alum, dyes wool yellow. It formerly enjoyed much celeb- rity among the superstitious, as a charm against witchcraft, &c. The species of hypericum are numerous in the U. States. They are herbaceous or shrubby, with opposite entire and dotted leaves, and are rendered conspicuous by the fine gold- en yellow of the flowers. St. Louis. (See Louis, St.) St. Maria de Puerto Principe ; a city of Cuba, capital of the department of the Centre, on the northern coast of the island, 300 miles south-east of Havana. It has a good harbor, and contains several hospi- tals. The population of the city and pre- cincts is 49,012, consisting of 32,996 whites, 6165 free persons of color, and 9851 slaves. Lat. 21° 2C N.; lon. 77° 45'W. St. Mary's River, and St. Mary's Falls. (See Mary's River, St.) St. Pelagie. (See Paris.) St. Peter's River. (See Peter's River.) St. Pierre. (See Pierre, Saint.) St. Real, C£sar Vichard, abbe de; a ST. REAL—SALAHEDDIN. 171 historian, born at Chamberry in 1639, studied with the Jesuits at Paris, where his talents and learning gained him friends. He accompanied the duchess of Mazarin to England, and afterwards resided again in Pans, assuming the title of abbe, al- though without having any benefice. His writings involved him in a controversy with Arnaud, who accused him of Socin- ianism. He died in 1692. His principal works are his Discours sur la Valeur ; his Sept Discours sur I' Usage de VHistoire ; and his Histoire de la Conjuration des Es- pagnols contre la Ripublique de Venise, which partakes of the romantic, and is by no means equal, in point of style, to his model, Sallust. His Don Carlos is well written, but is likewise of a romantic char- acter : his translation of Cicero's letters to Atticus is of less merit. A complete edi- tion of his works was edited bv Perau in 1757 (8 vols., 12mo.). St. Salvador. (See Bahia.) St. Salvador. (See Cat Island.) St. Sebastian. (See Rio Janeiro.) St. Simon. (See Simon, St.) St. Thomas, Christians of. (See Christians of St. Thomas.) Saintonge ; formerly a province in the west of France, bounded by the At- lantic, Poitou, Guienne, and Angoumois. It belonged to the English from the time of Henry II, until it was conquered by Charles V. It now forms the de- partment of the Lower Charente. The capital, Saintes, with 10,300 inhabitants, contains some fine remnants of ancient architecture. Saker ; a name formerly used for a small species of cannon. (See Cannon.) Sakhara ; the necropolis of ancient Memphis (q. v.), from whose ruins it is about two miles distant, on the edge of the Libyan desert. It is remarkable for its ancient monuments, among which are thirty pyramids, besides the ruins of a great number, and numberless grottoes, sarcophagi, the ibis-catacombs, &c. Salvcine. M. Leroux, a Frenchman, extracted this priuciple from willow bark, and presented a memoir* on it to the French academy in 1830. He recom- mends it as a febrifuge instead of quinine, and cases of cures with it have since been reported. Salacine (thus called by M. Leroux) is in the fonn of veiy fine nacre- ous white crystals, very soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether. It is in a high degree bitter. The process of preparing it - Me«rs. Gay-Lussac and Magendie reported very favorably en this memoir to the academy. may be found in the National Gazette (Philadelphia) of January 18, 1831. Saladin. (See Salaheddin.) Salaheddin Yuseph Ben Ayub, usu- ally called Saladin, a celebrated sultan of Egypt and Syria, was bom, hi the year 1137, hi the castle of Tecnib,of which his father, a native of Curdistan, was gov- ernor. In 1168, he was chosen to succeed his uncle Siracouh in the command of the annies of the Fatimite caliph Adhed, or rather of the sultan Noureddin, his imme- diate superior. He terminated the dynas- ty of the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt (1171), at the command of Noureddin, and subse- quently endeavored to supersede the mi- nor son of Noureddin himself, but did not succeed until after his death (1174), when he was recognised sultan of Syria and Egypt by the caliph of Bagdat. The great object both of his religion and his politics was now to expel the Christians from Pal- estine, and to recover the city of Jerusa- lem. An atrocious massacre of Mohamme- dan pilgrims by the French lord du Cha- tillon, added still more to his ardor; and his vow of revenge against the perpetra- tor he was enabled to make good by his famous victory on the plain of Tiberias, in 1187, where he captured Guy de Lu- signan with the chieftain Chatillon (whom he cut down after the battle with his own scimetar), and many more. The fruits of this victory were the towns of Acre, Said, and Barout; after which he laid siege to Jerusalem, which yielded (1187), in a ca- pitulation, to Uie articles of which Saladin faithfully adhered. He then proceeded against Tyre, but failed, in consequence of the destruction of his fleet by the Franks. The intelligence of the loss of Jerusalem, reaching Europe, produced the crusade under the emperor Frederic Bar- barossa (see Frederic), whose death in- spired the Mussulman with hopes which were soon damped by the arrival of the forces of Richard Cceur-de-Lion of Eng- land, and of Philip Augustus of France. The recovery of Acre by the two kings took place in 1191; upon which event Philip returned to France, and Richard, after twice defeating the sultan, took Csesarea and Jaffa, and spread alarm as far as Jerusalem. At length a truce was concluded between Richard and Saladin, by the terms of which the coast from Jaf- fa to Tyre was ceded to the Christians, whilst the rest of Palestine remained to the sultan. The departure of Richard freed Saladin from his most formidable foe. This active and able prince soon af- ter died at Damascus (in 1193), in the fif- 172 SALAHEDDIN—SALAMANDER. ty-sixth year of his age. Though charge- able with unjustifiable means of acquiring power, Saladin employed it, when obtain- ed, usefully for his subjects, whose bur- dens he lightened, whilst he benefited them by many useful works cud establish- ments. Magnificent in his public under- takings, he was frugal in his personal ex- penses. In religion he was zealous for his creed almost to fanaticism, but faithful to his engagements. A lasting proof of the tenor which his name inspired, was given by the Saladin Tenth, imposed by the authority of pope Innocent X on cler- gy and laity, for the support of the holy war. Saladin left a family of seventeen sons and one daughter, and was the found- er of the dynasty of the Ayoubites. Salamanca ; capital of a province of Spain, in the southern part of the kingdom of Leon. It is in a picturesque and agreea- ble situation on the Tormes, which is here crossed by a stone bridge, half of which is of Roman workmanship; lat. 41° 51N.; lon. 5° 10' W.; one hundred and twelve miles north-west of Madrid; population, 13,920, exclusive of the students and religious. It is badly built, witii narrow, crooked and dirty streets, but has some handsome squares, of which the Plaza Mayor, where bull-fights are exhibited in June, is one of the finest in Spain. There are here twenty-five parish churches and thirty- seven convents. The numerous church- es, with then* works of sculpture and painting, are described in Ponz's Viage de Espaha. The cathedral is a magnifi- cent Gothic edifice, begun in 1513, and completed in 1734: it presents great ine- qualities and disproportions. The old church, built in the twelfth century, has several interesting monuments; and in a chapel belonging to it, the ma*s is said ac- cording to the Mozarabic manner. The Jesuits' college, built in 1614, is one of the most splendid which the order possessed in Spain, and, since their abolition in 1798, it has been, iu part, occupied as a theological seminary. The university buildings consist of two divisions sepa- rated by a street, the escudas menores, and the university, properly so called, or escu- das mayores, hi which are the theological, law, medical, philosophical, philological, !iaped animal, but it has tour veiy small rudimentary feet, which have two toes each. It burrows in the mud, in swamps, or in the vicinity of streams, and occasionally visits the dry land, ft giows to the length of three feet, and is found in the Southern States. A second species, a tridadyla, disringui.-iied from the former by having three toes on each foot, has been discovered hi Arkan- sas. Salamander. (See Gabnlis, and Gnome.) Siuiii* (now Colouri) ; an island (area, HO s('*are miles) on th;- eastern coast of Greece, in the gulf of Argolis, separated from Attica by a narrow chan- nel, about half a mile wide. It is cele- brated for the naval victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians (B. C 480). ;***•••« Themistocles, and the article Navy.) Sal Ammoniac (See Ammonia.) Salangank, or Hirundo Esculknta. 'See Bind' Ntsts.) Salem. (See Jerusalem.) Salem, a seaport, and the capital of Essex county, Massachusetts, is chiefly built on a tongue of land, formed by two inlets from tiie sea, called North and South rivers, over the former of which is a bridge more than 1500 feet in length, connecting Salem with Beverly; and the South river forms the harbor. Salem is 14 miles north-east from Boston, 24 south of Newburvport, 450 from Washington; lat. 42° 34' N. ; lon. 70° 54' W. ; population in 1820,12,731; in 1830,13,886. This town is the second in Massachusetts in respect to population, and probably in respect also to wealth; but New Bedford now surpasses it in its amount of shipping, and Lowell and some other towns greatly exceed it in manufactures. The trade of Salem is principally with the East Indies, and it employs a veiy large capital. In I Hi**1, the number of vessels employed w this trade was fifty-three, canying 14,272 tons. The harbor of Salem has good anchorage ; but vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water usually lighten their canroes at s une distance from the wharves. The situation of the town is low, but pleasant and healthy. It is well built, and many of the houses have pleasant yards and gardens. The houses which have been" erected within thirty years are prhicipally of brick, and many of them are large and elegant. The town ex- hibits little of the bustle of business, but has the appearance of order, neatness, and the quiet enjoyment of domestic comforts. It contains a court-house, a jail, an alms-house, a market-house, an East India marine museum, and a lyceum. It has eight banks, with a total capital of •¥ 1,830,000 ; five insurance companies, total capital >*%"-0,uG'0; and one mutual insurance company, and an institution for savings. There are two libraries; an athenieum containing 6000 volumes, and a mechanics' library containing 1200 volumes. Three semi-weekly and two weekly papers are published. There are two white lead factories, sixteen tanneries, eleven rope and twine factories, and a chemical laboratory. The houses for worship a:,j, tliree for Calvinists, four for I 'iiitarians, two for Baptists, and one each for Episcopalians, Methodists, Christians, Human Catholics, Friends and Univer- > ilisfs, making fifteen in the whole. There are eight schools exclusively for boys, consisting of a Latin grammar school, an English high school, and six English grammar schools. There are two English grammar schools for girls, and eight primary schools, which are attended by children of both sexes. There are also two infant schools, one private, the other supported by charity; a pro- prietors' school for young ladies ; the Salem classical school; and many others. This statement indicates, what, is really true, that the people of Salem pay great attention to the education of their chil- dren. No child in the town, that is old enough, and has health to attend school, wants the means of obtaining a good edu- cation. In 1801, a society was incor- porated, composed of such persons as had sailed from this port round the cape of Good Hope or cape Horn, in the capacity of masters or supercargoes of vessels. The number of such persons living in Salem, in 1824, was about 160. This East India marine society is designed to SALEM—SALIANS. 175 afford relief to indigent members or their families, and to promote the knowledge of navigation and trade to the East Indies. The museum belonging to it is a very extensive and interesting cabinet of curi- osities, collected from all parts of the world. It is visited free of expense, on obtaining admission from any gentleman of the society. Salem is, next to Plym- outh, the oldest town in the state, and was settled in 16*28. Its Indian name was Naumkeag, or Naumkeak. Salep is obtained from the tuberous roots of one or more species of orchis, and is usually imported from Turkey and other parts of the Levant; though it may be prepared in any part of Europe, from many common species of orchis, as also, hi all probability, in the U. States. The process consists simply in washing the roots, and rubbing oft" the brown skin, when they are dried, and afterwards ground into powder. This powder, as an article of diet, is esteemed highly nutri- tious, containing a great quantity of fari- naceous matter in a small bulk. The roots are dug up as soon as the flower stalks begin to decay, and the newly formed bulbs, which have then attained their perfect state, are separated. An ounce of this powder and an ounce of portable soup, dissolved in two quarts of boiling water, will form a jelly capable cf affording sustenance to a man for a day ; consequently, it is of great use in long voyages, or travels by land. Salernum (now Salerno); a city in the province of Picenum, in Lower Italy, remarkable for the civitas Hippocratica, or medical institution, called also schola Salernitana, which flourished there in the twelfth century after Christ, and was the nursery of all the medical faculties of Europe. This was the principal source of modem practical medicine; and the dietetical precepts of this school were put into verse, and widely diffused. (See Medicine, History of.) Salesian Nuns. The nuns of the or- der of the visitation of the Virgin Mary are so called from their founder, Francis of Sales, by whom and his friend Chanta this order was established, iu 1610, at Anneey, in Savoy, originally as a refuge for widows and sick females. In pro- cess of time, however, it was enlarged, and devoted principally to spiritual exer- cises and the healing of the sick: the occupants were clad in black, and so numerous that, in Uie eighteenth century, there were 160 convents and 6600 nuns. There are still convents of the Salesian nuns in the principal cities of Italy, par- ticularly in Venice, Trieste and Breslau. They now devote themselves to the heal- ing of the sick and the education of young girls. Salfi, Francesco, bom in 1756, at Cosenza, in Calabria, after having re- ceived the rudiments of education, became his own teacher, and acquired extensive learning. After the earthquake, in 1783, he published a work entitled an Essay on Anthropological Phenomena, which treated on the moral influence of earth- quakes upon man. Some of the opinions in this work were of so bold a kind that they were near bringing him under the displeasure of the higher powers. He settled in Naples, and, in the dispute between the Neapolitan court and the pope, took the side of his sovereign, by publishing tliree tracts, and was rewarded by a conniiandery. He next produced several dramatic pieces of merit. The government suspecting him of revolu- tionary principles, he thought it prudent to retire to Genoa. When the French penetrated into Italy, in 1796, he went to Milan, took a part in the conducting of some of the journals, and was afterwards employed by the Cisalpine government. In 17i>9, he was secretary-general of the Neapolitan republic. In 1800, when the French reconquered Italy, he returned to Milan. In 1801, be was appointed in- spector of the great theatres at Milan, and professor of philosophy and history at the university of Brera. In 1807, lie was made professor of diplomacy, and, in 1809, of the law of nations. He now published some tracts, poems and translations, and composed his tragedy of Pausanias. On the dissolution of the kingdom of Italy, in 1814, he was recalled to his native coun- try, and received a pension and a place in the university. He afterwards took up his residence at Paris. He has here con- tinued Ginguene's History of Italian Lite- rature, and, in 1817, printed a Discourse on the History of Greece. Professor Salfi was one of the contributors to the Biographie Universelle. Salians, Salic Franks ; a people who firet appeared on the island of the Ba- tavi, and, when they were driven thence, among the Chamari, to the south of the Meuse. As long as the Cherusci are spoken of, nothing is heard of the Salii; but as soon as the latter are noticed, the Cherusci disappear, and are no longer mentioned. The Salians probably took their name from that of a river in their former countiy, and firet used it when 176 SALIANS—SALINE. they emigrated to Batavia, upon which they bordered. From the Salians origi- nated the Salic code of laws, which was probably drawn up in Latin, before the time of Clovis, by four of their most distin- guished men—Arogast, Bodogast, Salogast and Windagast. It was hi force, in some degree, even as late as the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The sixty-second arti- cle of this code is very remarkable, ac- cording to which, in Salic estates,—that is, Uiose which the Salic Franks had ob- tained by conquest in Gaul and modem France,—the daughters were excluded from the inheritance, and the sons alone were considered capable of succeeding to it. Notwithstanding this article had ref- erence only to private estates, the applica- tion of it was even extended to the throne; and it is certain that, from the earliest periods of the French monarchy, no princess succeeded to the throne, except by force of some law different from the ordinary usage. The Salic law was firet alleged against Edward, in the contests between Philip VI of France and Ed- ward III of England, about the French crown, and has, since that time, remained always in force. Salic Law. (See Salians.) Salieri, Anthony, imperial chapel- master at Vienna, was born in 1750, at Legnano, a Venetian fortress. He studied at Venice and Naples, under Pescetti, Gassmann and Gluck. His opera, the Dan aides, was at first considered, in Paris, to be chiefly the work of Gluck. Some of his most celebrated works are Tarare (introduced on the Italian stage under the title of Axur, King of Onnus), La Pas- sione di Gesii Cristo, La Scuola dei Gelosi, La Ciffra, Palmira (1795), Armida, Semi- ramide, the Fair of Venice, &c. He com- posed thirty-nine operas, partly Gennan, partly Italian. His death took place May 7,1825. Hummel, Moscheles (q. v.), and others, are his pupils.—See Mosel, On the Life and Works of Salieri (in Gennan, Vienna, 1827). Salii ; priests of Mars, whose name is derived from satire (to leap, to dance). Numa fixed their number at twelve; Tullus Hostilius increased it. Their ori- gin is thus accounted for by the Romans: In the time of Numa, Rome was deso- lated by a pestilence, which ceased when the gods let fall from heaven the aneile (a shield of a peculiar form). The sooth- sayers declared that this shield was the sign of the perpetuity of the Roman power, and advised that eleven others should be made similar to it, so that the true aneile could not be so easily pur- loined. This advice was followed, and all the ancilia were deposited in the curia. On the first of March every year, when the Salii offered sacrifices to Mare, they carried them about the city, clashing them together, executing warlike dances, and singing the Salian hymns—ancient songs in praise of Mars and the other gods, and of distinguished men, particularly of Mamurius, who made the eleven shields. The dress of the Salii was a purple tunic, embroidered with gold, and bound with a brazen belt, and a toga, with a purple border. On their head they wore a high cap, in the fonn of a cone, with a sword by their side, a spear or rod in their right hand, and an aneile in their left. None but patrician youths, whose parents were alive, could be admitted among the Salii. Salina ; a post-township of Onondaga county, New York, 130 miles west of Al- bany. It includes Onondaga lake, and the principal salt springs in the state. The water of the lake is salt; and wells dug on its margin, and springs flowing into it, are also salt. Very extensive salt works have been established for several years. The state of New York owns these waters, and exacts a duty of 12-i cents a bushel on all the salt manufactured from them. From 16 to 25 ounces of salt are obtained from a gallon of water. Be- sides the muriate of soda, small portions of the muriate of lime, sulphate of lime, oxide of iron, and Epsom salts, are con- tained in the water ; but these are easily separated. More than half a million of bushels of salt are annually produced, and these waters are doubtless capable of yielding a very much greater quantity. Most of the salt hitherto made has been fine; probably owing to its not being allowed proper time to form into large crystals. The price is about 25 cents a bushel. The outlet of Onondaga lake communicates with Seneca river, through which is opened an extensive boat navi- gation. The Erie canal passes through the south part of Salina, and a side-cut connects it with the village. There are four considerable villages in the township —Salina, Liverpool, Syracuse and Ged- des. The whole contained, in 1830, 6920 inhabitants. Saline ; a river of Illinois, which flows into the Ohio about twenty-six miles lielow the Wabash. It is navigable for boats thirty miles. The U. States have extensive salt works on this river, twenty miles by Uie river, ten in a direct line from its mouth, and twelve miles from Shaw- SALINE—SALIVA. 177 neetown. Salt is sold here at from 50 to 100 cents a bushel. Salisbury, Earl of. (See Cecil.) Salisbury, or New Sarum ; an ancient city of England, in Wiltshire, on the Avon. The cathedral is one of the finest in Europe, and is of the architecture of the thirteenth century. The whole build- ing may be viewed as composed of the church, the tower and spire, the cloister and the chapter-house. The church con- sists of a nave, with two lateral aisles, a bold and lofty porch projecting on the north side, a large transept with an eastern aisle, a choir with lateral aisles, and a sec- ond or small transept with an aisle, a Lady chapel at the east end, with an interme- diate vestibule or double aisle terminating the choir. On the south side of the church are a cloister, chapter-house, con- sistory court, and a vestry. The tower, which is built on four massive pillars in Uie centre of the church, is surmounted by a spire, rising to the height of 400 feet The bishop's palace is a large irregular building, the work of different periods, the earliest part being of Uie same age as Uie cathedral. The college of matrons, for the widows of clergymen, erected by bishop Ward, is a regular building, with small but commodious gardens. There are tliree parish churches in the city. In Catholic times, Salisbury contained a great variety of religious establishments, Uie remains of a few of which may be traced ; and the hospital of St. Nicholas continues still to maintain a master and twelve poor persons. There are six other hospitals in the city. Salisbury is noted for its manu- facture of cutlery. Formerly it was also remarkable for its manufacture of wool- lens ; but that branch of trade is now nearly extinct. Salisbury sends two mem- bers to parliament. Population, 8763. Twenty-one miles north-east of South- ampton. Salisbury Plain extends from Salis- bury twenty-five miles east to Winches- ter, and twenty-eight west to Weymouth. Its breadth in some places is near thirty miles. Numerous flocks of sheep are fed here. The famous Stonehenge, and other antiquities, both British and Roman, are found in this plain.—Stonehenge con- sists of a great collection of stones of im- mense size, which, from their being some erect, some reclining, but most of them lying upon the ground, seem to have form- ed at one time an extensive building. They fonn a perfect ruin, a confused heap of standing and fallen stones, many of them squared and hewn by art. By com- paring their relative situations, the shape and dimensions of the original structure can still be traced, which is supposed to have been a Draidical temple of enor- mous size. It is an object of great interest to the antiquary, and has excited more in- quiry and speculation than any other ruin of the kind iii Great Britain. But no important discoveries have been made within it; and its founders, the date of its erection, and the process by which such enormous masses of stone were conveyed to this desolate spot, and raised into their respective situations, are buried hi profound obscurity. The total number of stones of which the structure was com- posed, appears to have been one hundred and nine. Salisbury ; a post-town, and capital of Rowan county, North Carolina, thirty- four miles south-west of Salem. It con- tains the county buildings, an academy and a church. Population in 1830,1613. Near this town there is a remarkable wall of stone, laid in cement, plastered on both sides, from 12 to 14 feet in height, and twenty-two inches thick. The length of what has been discovered is about 300 feet. The top of the wall approaches within one foot of Uie surface of the ground. A similar wall has been discovered about six miles distant, which is from four to five feet high, and seven inches thick. No definite information exists respecting their age and use. Saliva ; the fluid which is secreted by the salivary glands hito the cavity of the mouth. The secretary organ is composed of three pair of salivary glands. The saliva is continually swallowed with or without masticated food, and some is also spit out. It has no color nor smell: it is tasteless, al- though it contains a little salt, to which the nerves of the tongue are accustomed. Its specific gravity is somewhat greater than that of water. The quantity of twelve pounds is supposed to be secreted in twelve hours. During mastication and speaking, the secretion is augmented, from the mechanical pressure of the mus- cles upon the salivary glands. Those who are hungry secrete a great quantity, from the sight of agreeable food. It assists the spirituous fermentation of fari- naceous sulxstances; hence barbarous na- tions prepare an inebriating drink from chewed roots. Saliva appears to consist, in a healthy state of the body, of water, which constitutes at least four fifths of its bulk, mucilage, albumen, and saline substances. The use of the saliva is, 1. It augments the taste of the food, by the 178 SALIVA—SALM. evolution of sapid matter. 2. During mastication, it mixes with, dissolves, and resolves into its principles, Uie food, and changes it into a pultaceous mass, fit to be swallowed: hence it commences chym- ification. 3. It moderates thirst, by moistening Uie cavity of the mouth and fauces, Salkeld, Little ; a hamlet of Eng- land, in Cumberland; near which is a circle of stones, seventy-seven in number, each ten feet high. At the entrance is a single one fifteen feet high. These are call- ed by the people Long Meg and her daugh- ters. They are probably a Druidical work. Within the circle are two heaps of stones, under which dead bodies are supposed to have been buried. 285 miles north of London. Sallee ; a seaport en the western coast of Morocco, at the mouth of a river of the same name, formerly the great hold of Moorish piracy; and immense depreda- tions were committed from it upon Euro- pean commerce. The river, which for- merly admitted large vessels, is now choked up with sand. Sallee has a bat- tery of twenty-four pieces of cannon, which commands the road, and a redoubt that defends Uie entrance of the river. On the opposite side of the river stands Rabat, called often New Sallee. It has been chiefly frequented by Europeans, and contained once numerous factories belonging to them ; but by order of the emperor, the trade has been transferred to Mogadon Lon. 6° 407 W.; lat 34° 3' N. Sallus.tius, Caius Crispus, was bom at Amiternum, a municipal city in the ter- ritory of the Sabines, in the year of Rome 668 '(66 B. C). His gay spirits and his fiery and restless disposition led him into many youthful excesses; yet it is not improbable Uiat he was less corrupt than has been commonly represented. We ought also to take into consideration the prevailing state of morals at that time, wiien we sit in judgment on his faults. His faithful and vigorous descriptions of the moral depravity of the Romans plain- ly show that he was accurately acquainted with it Through the favor of Caesar, he was appointed pretor, and sent to Nu- midia, where he collected great treasures. When he returned to Rome, he played a conspicuous part, and in the latter part of his life appears to have reflected on the vices of his youth, and to have lived more moderately. His death took place in the year of Rome 719 (B. C. 35). During the period of his retirement, he made the his- tory of his country his principal study. But, unfortunately, we have only a few fragments of Uie copious history which described the period from the death of Sylla to Uie conspiracy of Catiline. Two other historical writings of his have come down to us entire; one a description of the wars of Uie Romans against the crafty Jugurtha, Uie other of the conspiracy of Catiline. These are distinguished alike for their contents and their style. Sallust appears to have taken Thucydides as a model; but, hi the opinion of Quinctilian, he far surpasses him. The style of Sallust is vigorous, pure, and often very eloquent; his thoughts possess dignity, strength, truth and clearness. The principal edi- tions of this author are those of Corte, with a copious commentary (Leipsic, 1724), and Haverkamp (Amsterdam and Utrecht, 1742). Sally. In the defence of a place, if particular reasons do not determine to the contrary, frequent sallies are beneficial, in order to keep Uie enemy at a distance; to destroy the works; to bring in, if possible, Uie means of subsistence from Uie sur- rounding country; to afford an easy en- trance to men or arms; or to favor the operations of a friendly force without Aided by such a force, they are often de- cisive against the besiegers. They are undertaken to the most advantage after midnight, in cloudy or rainy weather ; but they must be so managed as to sur- prise the enemy, and, therefore, must be carried on with great secrecy; therefore the most resolute and faithful men are to be selected, and on going out all noise must be avoided. The object of Uie sally determines the number of soldiers; they are frequently accompanied by artillery and cavalry ; they must in no case sepa- rate themselves too tar from the fortifica- tion, to avoid being cut off, and, on their return, must neither obstruct the defence, nor occasion any confusion which may favor the attack of the enemy. By sallies with a small number of troops, the be- sieged often endeavor to entice the besieg- ers within the fire of the fortress, or to harass and exhaust them. A commander of a fortress will make use of sallies as long as he is able, as Uie best means of defence. Sallyport ; a large port on each quar- ter of a fireship, out of which the officers and crew make their escape into the boats as soon as the train is fired. Salm. Previously to the French revo- lution, there were two counties of this name, that of Upper Salm, chiefly in Lor- raine, and that of Lower Salm, chiefly in SALM—SALMON. 179 Luxemburg. Their possessions having been annexed to France in 1802, Uiey were indemnified from Uie secularisations beyond the Rhine. The elder house, Obersahn, or Upper Salm, is divided into Uie three branches of Salm-Salm, Salm- Kyrburg and Salm-Horstmar. The house of Niederealm, or Salm-Reiferscheid, is divided into three branches, Salm-Kran- theim, Salm-Reiferscheid, and Salm-Dyk, with domains in Suabia, the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine, and Lux- emburg. All the possessions of both houses have been mediatised. (See Me- diatisation.) Salm-Dyk, Constantia Maria de Theis, princess of, was bom at Nantes in 1767, of a noble Picard family. Her youth was devoted to study. In 1789, she was mar- ried to Pipelet, a surgeon, and went with him to Paris, where her Sappho, a lyrical tragedy, in three acts, was performed more than 100 nights with great applause. 1 ler Epitre aux Femmes was also received with Uie greatest favor. In 1803, Mad. Pipelet was married to the count of Salm- Dyk (created prince in 1816), and has since published several Eloges and Dis- cours Acadimiques. Her romance Vingt- quatre Heures d'une Femme sensible dis- plays great power of delineation. A collection of her poems (Poisies de la Princesse de Salm) appeared in 1817. The princess is a member of several learned societies and academies. Salmasius, Claudius (the Latinized name of Claude de Saumaise), distin- guished for his profound and extensive learning, was born at Semur, in Auxois (now the department Cote-d'Or), in 1588. His father, a respectable magistrate, and a learned man, instructed him in the ancient languages, and then sent him to Paris to study philosophy. His edition of Floras, which was published in 1609, and, accord- ing to his own assertion, had already been completed several years, is a remarkable proof of his early erudition. In 1606, he went to Heidelberg, to study law, under the celebrated Gothofredus (Godefroi). The excellent university library there gave him an opportunity to gratify his lit- erary curiosity, and to extend his reputa- tion by the publication of his learned la- bors. On his return to France in 1610, he began to practise his profession, but soon withdrew from it to devote his whole time to study; and Uie rest of his life was occupied wiUi critical labors and learned controversies. His mother, a Calvinist, had educated him in Protestant princi- ples ; and, in 1623, he married the daugh- ter of a respectable Protestant. Several years later, he passed some time at the countiy seat of his father-in-law, near Paris, where he completed his great labor on Pliny and Solinus. In 1629, his father was desirous of transferring to him his place, and the parliament of Dijon made no objection, alUiough he openly pro- fessed Calvinism ; but the keeper of the seals, Marillac, refused to sanction the step. The invitations of the univereities of Padua and Bologna were declined by Salmasius; but, in 1651, he accepted the offer of the professorship, which had been held by Joseph Scaliger at the university of Leyden. His friends made several at- tempts to induce him to return to France, and cardinal Richelieu offered him a pen- sion, on condition of his writing a histo- ry of his ministry. But Salmasius de- clined all these offers. In 1649, Charles II of England induced him to write a defence of his father (Defensio regia pro Carolo I), which was answered by Mil- ton's Defensio pro Populo Anglicano. (See Milton.) Tne zeal with which Sal- masius defended royalty in this work offended his republican patrons in Hol- land, and he therefore the more readily accepted the invitation of queen Christina to visit Sweden (1650). But the climate of Sweden was so unfavorable to his health, Uiat he returned to Holland the next year, and died in 1653, at Spa, whith- er he had gone for his health. Although virulent in controversy, Salmasius was remarkably gentle and kind in private, and at home was entirely governed by his wife. The most important of his nume- rous works are his Pliniana Exercita- tiones in Solinum; his edition of the Scriptores Historia Augusta ; De Mutuo; De Modo Usurarum; De Fanore Trape- zetico; De Re mUitari Romanorum; De Re Hellcnistica ; Observationes in Jus At- ticum et Romanum, &c. All his works display a wonderful variety, extent and depth of erudition, but are less remarka- ble for taste or judgment His learning was aided by a powerful memory. Be- sides Uie classical and many modern lan- guages, he was acquainted with Hebrew, Chaldaic, Arabic, Persian, Coptic, &c. He labored with great industry, but used the file sparingly. Salmon (salmo solar); a celebrated fish belonging to Uie trout genus, which in- habits the northern seas, and ascends the rivers in spring for the purpose of depos- iting its spawn. The excellence of its flesh is well known, but it varies some- what in different waters. In certain dis- 180 SALMON—SALSAFY. tricts, the abundance of Uiis fish forms a great source of* wealth to Uie inhabitants, and it often forms a chief article of suste- nance. The salmon inhabits the European coasts, from Spitsbergen to Western France, but is never seen in Uie Mediterra- nean. On the western shores of Uie Atlan- tic it is found from Greenland to the Hud- son, but is exceedingly rare in the latter riv- er, and never penetrates farther south. It ascends the St. Lawrence to lake Ontario, and entere the tributaries of that lake ; but the fall of Niagara presents a barrier to its farther progress into the continent. In Uie North Pacific the salmon again makes its appearance, and frequents, in vast num- bers, the rivers of North-western America, Kamtschatka, and Eastern Asia. A cold climate and clear water seem to be most congenial to its constitution. The salmon grows to the length of four, five or six feet, and usually weighs twelve or fifteen pounds. The body is elongated and com- pressed ; the color silvery-gray, with spots; the head of moderate size, and the upper jaw rather the longest. Almost all parts of the mouth, and even the tongue, are furnished with pointed teetii, as in Uie other trouts, and, like them, it has an adipose fin upon Uie lower part of Uie back. All the trouts are voracious and carnivorous, and in general seek the purest water. As soon as the ice melts, the salmon enter the mouths of rivers, and, as has been ascertained, almost always of those which gave them birth. They swim usually in immense bodies, in the middle of Uie stream, and near the sur- face : their progress is slow, and they make a great noise in sporting, if the weather be fine. They are easily fright- ened, either by a sudden noise or floating timber, and on such occasions sometimes turn aside from their course and return to the sea. When farther advanced, they make the most determined efforts to sur- mount rapids and cascades, and will leap a fall of twelve or fifteen feet in perpen- dicular height. If alarmed, they dart away with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow them. The velocity of this motion has been proved to equal twenty-five to thirty miles per hour. They penetrate far into the interior of Uie continents, and deposit their spawn in the lakes, &c, about Uie head-waters of the longest rivers. When the young are about a foot in length, they descend the rivers and take refuge in the ocean. Late in the following spring or in the beginning of summer, and after the old ones have ascended, the young again enter Uie rivers, and are then about eighteen inches in length. They again seek Uie ocean on the return of frosts. At two years old, the salmon weighs six or eight pounds, and requires five or six years to attain the weight of ten or twelve. The salmon- fishery is one of Uie most important branches of business in the north of Eu- rope. Immense quantities of this fish are taken every year, and form a considerable accession to the general mass of nutri- ment. The flesh is bright orange, but, though delirious to the taste, and very much sought after, is difficult of digestion. Formerly Uie New York market was sup- plied with fresh salmon from the Con- necticut river; but, since the erection of mill-dams and other obstructions, the fish have become scarce there, and now are brought ahnost exclusively from the state of Maine, packed in ice. Fresh salmon are very seldom seen in Philadelphia. Salonica, or Saloniki, or Salonichi (anciently Therma; afterwards called by Cassander Thessalonica); a city of Euro- pean Turkey, in Macedonia, at the north extremity of a gulf, to which it gives name; anciently Thermaic gulf; 272 miles west of Constantinople; lon. 22° 5& E.; lat. 40° .38' N. ; population, 70,000; 35,000 Turks, 20,000 Greeks, 12,000 Jews, and 3000 Franks. It is Uie residence of a pa- cha of three tails, and of a Greek arch- bishop, has an excellent commercial posi- tion, and, of the towns of European Tur- key, is second only to Constantinople in point of commerce. It is pleasantly situ- ated, being built on the declivity of a hill; and the approach to it from the sea is very imposing. The domes and minarets of mosques, together with other buildings, environed with cypresses, give it au air of splendor, but, like other Turkish towns, its interior by no means corresponds with its external magnificence. It is situated in the vicinity of a fertile district, and ex- ports cotton, tobacco, corn, and wool. The ancient walls are nearly entire, and are five or six miles in circuit; but within them are many void spaces. Of the re- mains of antiquity the most remarkable are the propylaa of the ancient Hippo- drome. The whole sculpture is in mar- ble, and is considered among the finest pieces of art which have escaped the ravages of time. To the early Christians in this citv, St. Paul addressed two epis- tles. * Salsafy (tragopogonporrifolius). This plant, which is often cultivated in gardens for culinary purposes, is sometimes called vegetable oyster, from a similarity in the SALSAFY—SALT. 181 taste of the root to the flavor of that fish. It belongs to the composita, and is allied to the endive and dandelion: the root is long, white, taperuig, and fleshy; the stems upright, two or three feet high, smooth, striated, hollow, and branching ; the leaves are alternate, embracing the stein, nanow, and long; the flowers are solitary and terminal, situated upon swell- ing peduncles ; the involucre or common calyx consists of several lanceolate, veiy acute and equal leaflets, much longer than the corollas; the corollas are violet pur- ple. It grows wild in the south of Eu- rope. The roots form a light and whole- some aliment, and are cooked in various manners. The mode of cultivation is, in every respect, similar to that of the carrot. Many prefer the root of the scorzonera Hispanica, a plant somewhat resembling the former, but with yellow flowere. The root of this last is carrot-shaped, about as thick as one's finger, taperhig gradually to a fine point, and thus bearing some re- semblance to the body of a snake ; hence the name of viper's grass. The outer rind being scraped off", Uie root is steeped in w*ater in order to abstract a part of its Litter flavor, and is then boiled or stewed in the manner of cairots or pareneps. The roots are fit for use in August, and keep good till the following spring. Its culture is the same as that of the salsafy, and it is a native of the same part of the globe. Salsette; an island on the western coast of Hindostan, formerly separated from Bombay by a strait 200 yards wide, across which, in the year 1805, a cause- way was carried. It is eighteen miles long by fourteen broad, and is well adapted for the cultivation of sugar, cotton, hemp, indigo, &c.; but it has hitherto been kept in a state of nature, for Uie purpose of supplying Bombay with wood, charcoal, and sea salt, of which there is a consid- erable manufactory. Salsette is remarka- bly rich in mythological antiquities; and the remains of reservoirs, with flights of stone steps round them, and the ruins of temples, &c, indicate a fomier state of prosperity and extensive population. Salt. This term was originally em- ployed to denote common salt, but was afterwards generalized by chemists, and employed by them in a very extensive and not very definite sense. They understood by it any body which is sapid, easily melt- ed, soluble in water, and not combustible ; or a class of substances midway between earths and water. Many disputes arose concerning what bodies ought to be com- vol. xi. 16 prehended under Uie designation, and what ought to be excluded. Acids and alkalies were allowed by all to be salts; but the difficulty was, to determine respecting earths and metals ; for several of* the earths possess all the properties which have been ascribed to salts, and Uie metals are capa- ble of entering into combinations which possess saline properties. In process of time, however, the term salt was restrict- ed to three classes of bodies, viz. acids, alkalies, and the compounds which acids form with alkalies, earths, and metallic ox- ides. The two first of these classes were called simple salts; the salts belonging to the third class were called compound or neutral. This last appellation originated from an opinion long entertained by chem- ists, that acids and alkalies, of which the salts are composed, were of a contrary na- ture, and that they counteracted one an- other ; so that the resulting compounds possessed neither the properties of acids nor of alkalies, but properties intermediate between the two. Chemists have lately restricted the term salt still more, by tacit- ly excluding acids and alkalies from the class of salts altogether. At present, then, it denotes only the compounds formed by the combination of acids with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, which are tech- nically called bases. When the propor- tions of the constituents are so adjusted that the resulting substance does not affect the color of infusion of litmus, or red cab- bage, it is then called a neutral salt. When the predominance of acid is evinced by the reddening of these infusions, the salt is said to be acidulous, and the prefix su- per, or bi, is used to indicate this excess of acid. If, on the contrary, the acid matter appears to be in defect, or short of the quantity necessary for neutralizing the alkalinity of the base, the salt is then said to be with excess of base, and the prefix sub is attached to its name. As almost every arid unites with every base, and sometimes in several proportions, it follows that the number of salts must be immense. Several thousands are already known, al- though not above thirty were believed to exist fifty years ago. The early names of Uie salts, so far as these bodies were known to chemists, were wholly destitute of scientific precision. At present, howev- er, they are universally designated accord- ing to the nomenclature of Morveau. The name of each salt consists mainly of two words, one generic, the other specific. The generic word precedes the specific, and is derived from the acid ; the specific comes 182 SALTS. from Uie base. For example, a salt con- sisting of sulphuric acid and soda, is spo- ken of generically under Uie name of a sulphate, and specifically, by adding Uie name of Uie base ; thus, sulphate of pot- ash. The termination ate corresponds with the acid whose termination is in ic, and the tennination ite with the acid whose termination is in ous; thus sulphuric acid gives sulphates; sulphurous acid, sulphites. There are some acids containing less oxy- gen than Uiose that terminate in ous: in such case, Uie word hypo is prefixed; thus we have fa/rpo-sulphurous acid, hypo-ni- trous acid, giving also salts Uiat are called fa/rpo-sulphites, and hypo-nitrites. When the salt is a compound of one atom, or pro- portional of acid with one of base, it is distinguished simply by the words denot- ing Uie acid and the base, without Uie ad- dition of any prefix. If the salt contains two atoms of acid united to one atom of base, the Latin numeral adverb bis or bi is prefixed. Thus bisulphate of potash is a salt composed of two atoms sulphuric acid and one atom potash. Were there three, four, &c, atoms acid, the numeral adverbs ter, quater, &c, would be prefixed. Thus quateroxalate of potash means a compound of four atoms oxalic acid and one atom of potash. When two atoms of base are combined with one atom of acid, this is denoted by prefixing the Greek numeral adverb dis. Thus diphosphate of potash means a compound of two atoms potash with one atom phosphoric acid. The pre- fixes tris, tetrakis, &c, indicate three, four, &c, atoms of base with one atom of acid. Salts of this description were formerly termed sub-salts; at least in those in- stanceswhere an alkaline reaction was pro- duced upon test-liquors from Uie excess of base. We have stated above that salts are at present understood to be compounds only of acids and bases. The discoveries of sir H. Davy require us to modify, in a number of instances, this generally receiv- ed definition. Many bodies, such as com- mon salt and muriate of lime, to which the appellation of salt cannot be refused, have not been proved to contain either acid or alkaline matter, but must, accord- ing to the strict logic of chemistry, be re- garded as compounds of chlorine with metals. Such compounds, possessing, for Uie most part, the properties of solubility in water, and sapidity, are to be included under Uie general name of salts. They are denominated chlorides, iodides, and bromides, of the metals, according to the particular constitution of each. Thus Uie compound of chlorine and calcium, for- merly known as muriate of lime, is called the chloride of calcium. The solubility of salts in water is their most important general quality. In this menstruum they are generally crystallized; and by its agen- cy they are purified and separated from one another, in the inverse order of their solubility. The determination of the quan- tity of salt which water can dissolve, is not a very difficult process. It consists in saturating the water exacUy with Uie salt, whose solubility we wish to know, at a determinate temperature, weighing out a certain quantity of that solution, evap- orating it, and weighing the saline residue. We shall give the results of some exper- iments upon the solubility of a few salts. Sulphate of Soda Salt soluble in 00 parts of water Temperature Anhydrous. Crystallized. 0,00° 5,02 12,17 11,67 10,12 26,38 17,91 16,73 48,28 28,76 37,35 161,53 30,75 43,05 215,77 32,73 50,65 322,12 40,15 48,78 291,44 50,40 46,82 262,35 59,79 45,42 70,61 44,35 84,42 42,96 103,17 42,65 Hence it appeal's that the solubility of sul- phate of soda follows a very singular law. After having increased rapidly to about the temperature of 33°, where it is at its maximum, it diminishes to 103,17°; and at that point it is nearly the same as at 30,5°. Solvinlily of Chloride of Potassium. Salt dissolved Temperature. in 100 water. 15,64° 43,50 49,31 55,63 74,89 65,51 105,48 77,89 ty of Chloride of Sodium (commo Salt dissolved Temperature. in 100 water. 13,89° 35,81 16,90 35,88 59,93 37,14 109,73 40,38 Solubility of Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom Salt). Temperature. In 100 water. 14,58° 103,69 39,86 178,34 49,08 212,61 64,35 295,13 97,03 644,44 SALTS—SALUTATION. 183 Solubility of Nitrate of Potash (Nitre). Salt dissolved Temperature. in 100 water. 0,00° 13,32 5,01 16,72 11,67 22,23 17,91 29,31 24,94 38,40 35,13 54,82 45,10 74,66 54,72 97,05 65,45 125,42 79,72 169,27 97,66 236,45 (For the chemical, natural, historical, and economical history of the most important salts, see the articles upon their respective bases.) Salt, Henry, bom in Litchfield, and educated in the grammar-school of that town, was sent to London, and placed un- der the tuition of an artist, but had not been long with him, before lord Valentia made him an offer to take him, on his projected journey to India; and Mr. Salt accompanied him to India as his drafts- man. During his travels in that countiy, and up the Red seaxand through Abys- sinia back to England, they were gone four years; and, on their return, lord Va- lentia published his travels, in three vol- umes quarto, splendidly ornamented with plates, from the pencil of Mr. Salt. The Account of Abyssinia was written by Mr. Salt, who was employed to carry presents to the emperor of Abyssinia. Mr. Salt, on his return, published twenty-four Views taken in India, the Red Sea, Abyssinia, &c, folio (1809); and, in 1814, an account of a Voyage to Abyssinia, and Travels in the Interior of that Country, quarto. This was the narrative of a second journey which Mr. Salt made to that countiy, on his return from which he was appointed English consul-general in Egypt, where he engaged in active researches into the antiquities of that country. He died, near Alexandria, in 1827. Saltpetre. (See Potash.) Salt-water Baths : those which are taken in the water of the salt-springs, ap- proach in virtue to the sea-baths. They are used chiefly in scrofulous and cutane- ous disorders, inveterate gout and syphilis, lameness, rheumatism, tendency to ca- tarrhs, &c. The daily repeated inspiration of the air near the salt-works is also benefi- cial in some complaints of the lungs. Even the drinking a small quantity of the briue, if not too strong, is of some use iii the above mentioned complaints. These baths may be easily established wherever there are inland salt-works. There are several in Germany, much frequented. See John C. Reil, On the Use and Appli- cation of the Brine-baths (Halle, 1809), and Tolberg's Experiments on the Use of Brine- baths (Magdeburg, 1811), both in Ger- man. For Sea-bathing, see that article. Salutation ; the signs, which custom has rendered common, for expressing to othere, in our intercourse with them, our esteem, love, submission, or good will. Greeting (in German, gruss, griissen), is derived from the Low German groten, to make great: thus God greet you, means, God make you great—bless you. Salu- tation sometimes consists of certain ges- tures. Sometimes an express assurance, or wish is added to these mute signs of feeling. The difference in the forms of salutation often extends so far, that one nation considere that a mark of rudeness which another esteems a mark of civility. In most German countries, it is an act of politeness to kiss the hands of ladies; but, hi Italy, this is regarded as a mark of fa- miliarity, which is permitted only to the nearest relations. On the contrary, the Russian ladies allow not only the band to be kissed, but even the forehead, and would consider themselves insulted by the omission of this ceremony. Instead of the customary salutation in the Protestant countries of Gennany,—Good morning, Your servant, &c,—the German Catholic salutes in the manner prescribed by the pope Benedict XIII (1728),—Praised be Jesus Christ; to which the answer is, Forever, amen. The miner's salutation is, Good luck to you (Gliick auf). The mil- itary salutations which were introduced among the Germans in the beginning of the sixteenth century, consist hi touching the hat or cap, lowering the standards and the sword, or raising the musket. Vessels, when meeting, salute each other by a dis- charge of cannon, by striking the flag, or by the cheers of the sailors, &c. If we ex- press our esteem for persons of distinc- tion, by bowing, and uncovering our heads, the Russian throws himself on the ground before his master, clasps his knees, and kisses them. The Pole bows to Uie ground, and the Bohemian kisses at least the gown of any one for whom he wishes to ex- press his profound respect. Mutual con- tact is regarded among almost all nations as the expression of friendly sentiments. The pressing of hands, embraces, and kisses, are among other nations also, as well as those of Europe, marks of esteem and love. Some nations, in saluting, touch other parts of the body. The Laplanders, 184 SALUTATION for instance, press their noses firmly to- gether. In one of the larger Cyclades, persons reciprocally moisten each other's hair; and the Franks are said to have pull- ed out a hair and presented it to the per- son saluted. The Turk crosses his hands, places them upon his breast, and bows. The salutation of the Hindoos in Bengal consists in touching the forehead wiUi the righthand, and bending the head forwards. They firet place the right hand on the breast with a profound inclination, then touch the ground, and finally the fore- head with the same hand. At the same time, they call themselves the most hum- ble slaves of him whom they salute. The inhabitants of the Manillas bend the body profoundly, place their hands upon their cheeks, raise one leg, and bend the knee. The inhabitants of Lamurzec, in the Pe- lew islands, seize the hand, or even the foot of the person whom they wish to sa- lute, and rub their face with it. In the island of Sumatra, the saluting person bows, begs the left foot of him -whom he ad- dresses, kneels on the ground, and ap- plies this foot to his crown, forehead, breast and knee : fiually, he touches the ground with his head, and remains for some mo- ments stretched out on his belly. The salutations in the East generally bear the stamp of a slavish mind. The veiy an- cient custom of throwing one's self on the ground before persons of distinction, and repeatedly kissing their feet, has continued to the present time. At an entertainment in Persia, Uie host goes a considerable dis- tance to meet his guests, bids them wel- come with the most respectful compli- ments, then returns hastily to the door of his house, and waits their arrival to repeat the same demonstrations of respect. In China, if two persons meet on horseback, the inferior in rank dismounts from his horse before the superior, and remains standing until he has passed. Sorne sal- utations are also peculiar to men, and oth- ers to women. When acquaintances meet, they join their hands upon their breasts, or above their heads, bend their head a little, and say Tsin, tsin—a compliment without any particular signification. In saluting persons to whom they owe more respect, they clap their hands, then raise them, and finally let them sink down to the ground. Friends who meet after a long separation, fall repeatedly upon their knees, and bend their heads to the ground, exclaiming, at the same time, Nafo 1 (Has all passed happily ?) or, Yung fo (Happi- ness is painted upon thy countenance). Women salute each other with the words Van fo (May all happiness be with you); but they are not allowed to salute men. Children fall on their knees before their parents, and servants before their master or mistress. In Japan, the inferior of two persons saluting takes off* his sandals, puts his right hand into his left sleeve, permits his hands, thus crossed, to sink slowly upon his knee, passes the other person with short, measured steps, and a rocking motion of the body, and ex- claims, with a fearful countenance, Augh! augh! (Do not hurt me!) In Siam, the inferior throws himself on the ground be- fore his superior. The latter then sends one of his attendants, who are veiy nu- merous in the case of persons of distinc- tion, to examine whether he has eaten, or carries with him any thing of an offensive smell. If this is die case, he receives a kick from the superior, and is compelled to re- tire immediately ; if otherwise, the servant lifts him up. Women, even when advanc- ed in age, are saluted with the names of the most beautiful and most precious ob- jects, but not without the additional word young; as "young diamond,"-"young gold," "young heaven," "young flower,"" &c. If friends wish to express their mutual at- tachment, they scratch their hand slight- ly, and reciprocally suck a drop of blood from the wound. In Ceylon, when person* salute, they raise the palm of the hand to the forehead, and make a low bow. Be- fore a superior they throw themselves up- on the ground, continually repeating his name and dignity, while the superior very gravely passes on, and hardly deigns to utter a word of reply. The greeting of the common Arabian is Saldm aleikum (Peace be with you),—a salutation which has been long in use among the Jews. At the same time, he places his left hand up- on his breast, as a sign mat this wish comes from his heart. The reply is, Alei- kum essdlam (With you be peace). But Arabians of distinction embrace each oth- er two or three times, kiss each other's cheeks, and inquire two or three times af- ter each other's health ; at the same time, each kisses his own hand. The Arabians of the Desert shake hands six or eight times. In Yemen, persons of distinction, after a long refusal, allow their fingers to be kissed. The Abyssinians and other nations fall on their knees, and kiss the ground. Several negro nations take each other's hands, and pull the fingers till thev crack. The negroes of Sierra Leone bend the right elbow, so that the hand touch- es the mouth; the person saluted does the same; they then put their thumb SALUTATION—SALVADOR, ST. 185 and fore-finger together, and withdraw them slowly. Other negroes snap their fingers in meeting each other, pull the comb out of their hair, and replace it. In Lower Guinea, the saluting person seizes Uie fingers of the saluted, brings them into a particular position, presses them, cracks them hastily, calling, Akkio, akkio (Thy servant, thy servant). On the Gold coast of Upper Guinea, friends embrace each other, join the fore-fingere of their right hands until they crack, bend their heads, repeating Auzi, auzi (Good day, good day). Persons of distinction, after cracking the fingers, exclaim, Bere, here (Peace, peace). If the Mandingoes salute a female, they take her hand, raise it to their nose, and smell it twice. Mr. Snellgrave, an Eng- lishman, with his companions, was saluted by a messenger of the king of Dahomey, attended by 500 negro soldiers, in a very novel manner. The officers of the corps approached their English guests with drawn swords, which they brandished over their heads with curious gesticulations and motions. They then placed their swords upon their bodies, and, after a repetition of these ceremonies, the messenger pre- sented them his hand, and drank to their health. In Morocco, foreigners are salu- ted by the Moors, on horseback, in a man- ner which may well startle those not ac- customed to it The Moor rides full speed towards the stranger, as if about to run him down; he then suddenly stops, and discharges his pistol over the head of the person. Persons of equal rank salute each other nearly in the European way. They shake hands, and kiss each other's face and beard, particularly if they are friends. The Egyptians extend their hands, place them upon their breast, and bend their heads. The greatest act of politeness is to kiss their own hand, and afterwards place it upon their heads. They only kiss the hand of men of distinction, not of women. Inferior officers hold the stimip of their superiors, mounting on horseback. In the divan, the inferior takes off the slipper of the superior, places it by his side, and receives the same saluta- tion from the latter. In other countries of Africa, people take off* their clothes, fall on their knees, bend Uieir heads to the ground, and cover their head and shoul- ders with sand. The Ethiopians seize the right hand of him for whom they wish to show respect, and raise it to their mouth. They even take his sash and tie it round their waist, so that he remains for some time half naked. The salutations between the different tribes in the north-west of 16 * America are very ceremonious. If two hordes of these savages meet, they stop at the distance of twenty or thirty steps, throw themselves on the ground, and re- main for some moments in this position. The two eldest of each party then advance and relate veiy circumstantially the dan- gers they have encountered. As soon as they have finished their relations, they all begin to sigh. These sighs are finally changed into a horrible yell, in which the young girls, particularly, endeavor to surpass the others of the tribe. With these affecting manifestations of sympathy both parties approach, but each sex separately. Tobacco pipes are handed about, and their affliction is soon changed into merriment. The manner in which the inhabitants of South America salute each other, is short. Their address is, Ama re ka (Thou); and the answer, A (Yes). The savage of Louisiana territory, when saluting a person of distinction, begins a loud howl. In the hut he repeats the salutation, holding his hands above his head, and howling three tunes. He returns thanks with another howl, when Uie superior invites him, with a low sigh, to sit down. In Otaheite,and particularly in the Society and Friendly islands, persons touch the ends of each other's noses. This salutation is returned by each rubbing the hand of the other on his own nose and mouth. The Otaheitan presents a person whom he chooses for a friend, sometimes with a part of his dress, sometimes with Uie whole. The inhabitants of New Guinea cover their heads with leaves. This action is also re- garded as a sign of peace. Saluzzo; fomierly amarquisate, which, after a long dispute between France and Savoy, was finally confirmed to the latter (1601), in exchange for Bresse and Bugey. It lay between Dauphiny and Nizza, and now forms a province of the Sardinian monarchy. The capital, of the same name, lies near the Po, and has a population of 10,150. The house of the marquises of Saluzzo was celebrated in the middle ages, and there are at present branches of it in France (Saluces), Naples, and Aus- tria. Salvador, St., or Bayamo ; a town of Cuba, near the southern coast, 520 miles- south-east of Havana, on the right bank of the river Bayamo, which forms a port at its mouth. The town is about twenty miles distant from the port. Lon. 76° 55'; lat. 20° 23'. Population, 7486; 2875 of which are whites, 3139 free persons of color, and 1472 slaves. Salvador* St. (See Bahia.) lr-ti SALVAGE—SAMARITANS. Salvage ; a recompense allowed by law for the saving of a ship or goods from loss at sea, either by shipwreck or other means, or by enemies or pirates. (See Prize.) Salvator Rosa. (See Rosa.) Sal vi, Giambattista. (See Sassofe- rato.) Salzburg; a city of Austria, on the Salza, chief place of the circle of the same name; lat. 47° 48' N.; lon. 13° 1' E. It contains, besides the cathedral, six- teen other churches, six hospitals, and several literary institutions. The princi- pal article of manufacture is hardware. The cathedral is more remarkable for so- lidity than elegance. The university was converted (1809) into an academy. The most striking feature of the place is its romantic situation amidst lofty mountains. The citadel stands in a bold and command- ing situation, and one of the gateways is cut through a solid rock, being 300 feet hi length, 30 feet in height, and 24 in breadth. Population, 13,000. Sixty-three miles south-east of Munich. Salzmann, Christian Gotthilf, a distin- guished teacher at Schnepfenthal, was born, in 1744, in the territory of Erfurt, where his lather was a Protestant preach- er. He himself was a clergyman in Er- furt, when the works of Rousseau and Basedow directed his attention more par- ticularly to the education of his own chil- dren. In 1778, he published Entertain- ments for Children, and Friends of Chil- dren, and, in 1780, his excellent Krebsbuch- lein, hi which he exposes, with keen irony, the prevalent mistakes in education. Ba- sedow invited him, in 1781, to take part in his Philanthropin, an establishment for education, at Dessau. He published his Sermons, &c. at this institution, from 1781 to 1783, in 4 small vols. In 1783, he began, and in 1788 finished, his novel Karl von Karlsberg, or, on Human Mis- ery, in 6 vols. In 1784, he established in SchnepfenUial (in Gotha), his own institu- tion. His prudent management, and the zealous cooperation of able assistants, made it prosper. He began with his own children, and a few othere; but pupils were soon sent to him, not only from all parts of Germany, but also from many for- eign countries. Some of these pupils were of very high rank. In 1797, he publish- ed his Heaven on Earth, which gained him the favor of many parents. In 1803, the number of his pupils was sixty-one. In 1788, he began to publish the Thurin- gian Messenger, a journal which was much read. A number of books on education, by him and his associates, contributed much to the changes which took place in education. His institution was distinguish- ed, moreover, for the health of the pupils, and the developement of their physical powers, which wasowiii', to its salubrious situation, to the attention paid to diet, and to the gymnastics introduced there by Guts-Muths. (q. v.) Six of his associates became his sons-in-law, and two of hi.- sons were among his associates. His daughters also taught. The wars in Europe, and the increasuig number of similar institutions, reduced the number of his pupils, so that, in 1807, he had but thirty-six children under his care. Salz- mann died in 1811, having effected much good as an instructer and a popular au- thor. Clearness and simplicity, piety and practical good sense, are the promi- nent features of his writings. He was dis- tinguished for firmness, sagacity, and un- ceasing activity, and was honored by thousands whom he had trained in the ways of" virtue and wisdom. His institu- tion continues under his son, Charles Salz- mann. Samarcand ; a city of Bucharia, situ- ated in a fertile and delightful region, 200 miles east of ..he city of Bucharia; lat. 39° 30- N.; lon. 68° 50''E. Its population is about 50,000. It is surrounded with a double wall, contains numerous fountains, 250 mosques, with 40 madrases, or reli- gious schools (see Mosques), a palace, sev- eral bazars, &c. Samarcand has been, for two centuries and a half, one of the great marts of the Asiatic inland com- merce. It was anciently called Marakan- da, and was the capital of Sogdiana, which lay on the northern frontiers of the Per- sian empire. Alexander is thought to have pillaged it. It was taken by Gengis Khan in 1220, and, under Timour, or Tamerlane (q. v.), became the capital of one of the most extensive empires in the world. Tamerlane, towards the end of the fourteenth century, established a Mo- hammedan university here, and Samar- cand became the seat of Asiatic learning. (See Bucharia.) Samaritans. After the fall of the king- dom of Israel, the people remaining in its territory, consisting of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, mingled wiUi some Assyrian colonists, were called by the Greeks Samaritans, from the city of Samaria, around which they dwelt. When the Jews, on their return from captivity, rebuilt the temple of Jerusalem, the Sa- maritans desired to aid in the work; but their offers were rejected by the Jews, SAMARITANS—SAMNITES. 187 who looked upon them as unclean, on ac- count of their mixture wiUi heathens ; and the Samaritans revenged themselves by hindering the building of the city and temple. Hence the hatred which prevail- ed between the Jews and Samariums, which, in the time of Jesus, when the latter were confined to a nanow strip of countiy between Juda*a and Galilee, pre- vented all intercourse between them, and still continues. Having never become in- dependent, the Samaritans have shared the fate of the country which they inhabit, and have suffered so much from the oppres- sions of the Turks, that not only the colo- nies of them in Egypt (which were in a flourishing condition in the seventeenth century) are now extinct, but the number of them inNaplousa (the ancient Sichem), and in Jaffa, the only places which con- tain Samaritans, was, according to De Sa- cy, not more than 200 in 1811. In then- religious opinions and usages, they resem- ble those Jews, particularly the Caraites, who reject the Talmud, and differ from the rabbinical Jews, in receiving only the Pentateuch and book of Joshua, and in rejecting all the other portions of the Bi- ble, as well as the Talmud, and rabbini- cal traditions. In their manners, rites, and religious ceremonies, they adhere strictly to the Mosaic law. Instead of the temple at Jerusalem, they worship on mount Gerizim, in Samaria, where, in more prosperous times, they celebrated their festivals, and offered sacrifices. The worship of one God, circumcision, the purifications, and feasts (except the Purim and the feast of the dedication), they have in common with the Jews. They believe in the existence of angels, in a resunection, and future retribution, and expect the com- ing of a Messiah, in whom they look only for a prophet. Their priests are of the tribe of Levi, and are treated as superiors. On account of their poverty, their only sacri- fice is a lamb, on the feast of Pentecost. In the synagogue, the Aramaic Samaritan dialect is used, but they generally speak Arabic, and they are distinguished by a white turban. They support themselves by mechanical labor and by money deal- ings. They avoid any connexions with other sects, and many only among their own nation. Each man is allowed two wives on his first marriage; but on the death of one of them, he cannot many again. In case both of them die, he is suffered to have one wife. This remnant of a declining race possesses one of Uie old- est, if not the oldest manuscript of the Pen- tateuch known to be extant (See Bible.) Samiel. (See Simoom.) Samnites ; the inhabitants of the an- cient province of Samnium, in Lower Italy, bordering on Uie country of the Peligni, Marsi, Campanians, Lucanians, and Apulians. In early times, they occu- pied the largest part of that country. They are described in Roman history as a people fond of war and of liberty, who were brought completely under the Ro- man yoke, after long and bloody wars, which continued, with a few interrup- tions, nearly 70 years. The first hostilities between the two states commenced in the year of Rome 411, when the Campanians, oppressed by the powerful Samnites, sought the aid of Rome. Valerius Cor- vus, the Roman consul, marched against the Samnites, and forced them to retreat, after a bloody engagement, to their own borders. At the same time, another Ro- man army had invaded the countiy of the Samnites, and, after a doubtful contest, gained Uie victory by the heroic decision of the young Publius Decius Mus. The vanquished nation was obliged to sue for peace; but maintained it only till they re- covered from their defeat. For in the year 426 a new war broke out, more bloody than the preceding, which was prosecuted the more obstinately, as the other states in Lower Italy came to the aid of the Samnites. Though the Romans were generally victorious, yet in the year 433, their army becoming involved in a narrow pass near Uie city of Caudi- um, and being sun*ounded on every side by the forces of the enemy, was obliged to submit to the disgrace of passing under the yoke. The senate, however, rejected the peace concluded with the enemy by the captive consuls, delivered up the authors of it to the Samnites, and sent other commanders to prosecute the war. The valiant Papirius Cursor succeeded in revenging the disgrace which his country- men had suffered by inflicting a similar ignominy upon the enemy. The war was still prosecuted with fuiy ; for the Samnites were vigorously supported by their neighbors, who feared Uie power of Rome ; and even Pyrrhus, Uie warlike king of Epirus, at the entreaty of Uie afflicted city of Tarentum, took up arms against the Romans. But the consuls, Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, Pub. Decius Mus, Curius Dentatus, Caius Luscinius Fabricius and others, triumphed repeatedly over the enemy, who fought with desperation; and, after the most fatal defeats, and the entire devasta- tion of their country, the Samnites, to- 188 SAM XITES—SAMOTHRACE. gether with the other nations which had assisted them, found themselves obliged to sue for peace. In 482, they obtained it. When the Italian allies of Rome revolt- ed against her, in the time of Sylla, the Samnites once more rose against their oppressors, and fought with desperation. But Sylla entirely subdued them, and com- manded that every Samnite should be put to death. Three days after the battle, lie ordered 4000 of them, who had been taken prisoners, to be put to death, on the Campus Martius. The few that remained lived from that time scattered in v illages. The Samnites cultivated varieus arts and manufactures; for the proximity of the refined Greeks in Lower Italy had a very beneficial influence upon them. Even their laws and constitution were boreowed in a great degree from the Greeks. Their form of government was democratic. At the commencement of a war they were accustomed to choose a common general. Samogitia ; a country of Europe, bounded by Courland, Prussia, and Lith- uania, formerly a province of Poland, now forming the government of Wilna, in Rus- sia. It was the firet of the Polish prov- inces incorporated with Russia, that raised the standard of insurrection in 1831. (See Russia.) Samoides. (See Samoyedes.) Samoom. (See Simoom.) Sam os, a Grecian island in the Archi- pelago, opposite to the ruins of Ephesus and the promontory of Mycale, the birth- place of Pythagoras, as is generally sup- posed, was the most important and pow- erful island of the Ionians. From the reign of Polycrates, 566 B. C, this island is celebrated in history for the worship of Juno, who was born here, and was also distinguished for its skilful seamen and enterprising merchants, who even sailed as far as the mouth of the Guadalquiver through the Pillars of Hercules (now the straits of Gibraltar). The fleets of the rich Samians often made the Persians tremble. At Samos were first cast statues in bronze. Samos lost the last shadow of republican freedom under Uie reign of the emperor Vespasian (70 A. D.). In the middle ages, this island was alternate- ly governed by the Arabs, Venetians, Genoese, and Turks: to Uie latter it finally became tributary, under an aga of the capudan pacha. It is 175 square miles in extent, very fruitful and moun- tainous, and besides the capital city, Cora, near which the ancient Samos and the temple of Juno (Herueum) lie in ruins (now called the Columns), it contains three other cities, Vahti, Carlovassi, and Founds. During the Greek revolution, owing to the many refugees from Natolia, Scio, Ipsara, and other places, the island contained about 50,000 Greek inhabitants (where there were formerly only 12,000). Near Samos lies the island of Icaria (Ni- cari), inhabited by 300 Greeks. This island is celebrated as being the place near which Icarus, the son of Daedalus (q. v.), fell into the sea, and where his dead body floated on shore; whence the name. In 1821, the inhabitants of Samos took up arms at the report of the execution of the patriarch. They fortified the harbors on the Little Bogas, to guard against an at- tack from the coasts of Natolia, and soon collected about 10,000 men. From that time the Samians continually attacked the neighboring coasts of Asia, and Scala Nuova in particular. July 16, 1821, the island was attacked by the Turks, but without success. The Turks, in August, 1824, again made a more furious attack; but the Greek fleet, commanded by Miaulis, repulsed the Turkish.—Samos has lately been visited by an earthquake of an extraordinary nature, that produced a large opening in one of the highest mountains of the island, from which sud- denly issued an enormous torrent of water, overflowing the country, and mak- ing its way to the sea. By degrees, the inundation subsided, and terminated in forming a river, which has its source at the opening formed in the mountain. Samothrace ; an island in the ^Egean sea, not far from Lemnos, on the coast of Thrace, opposite the Trojan territory, and celebrated for its mysteries (q.v.Uhe priests of which were at firet the Cabin (q. v.), and afterwards the Dioscuri. An initiation into these mysteries was supposed to have efficacy in preserving persons from dan- gers by sea; and it is related of the Argo- nauts, that, at the suggestion of Orpheus, who was one of the initiated, they were landed at Samothrace. Over these mys- teries there rests an impenetrable obscu- rity, which also extends to the deities that were revered. It appears certain that the Egyptian and Phoenician religious rites and ceremonies were afterwards uni- ted and mingled with those of the Greeks, and that, still later, the religious worship of the Samothracians was introduced into Etniria, although the names of the divini- ties were changed. Nevertheless, out of respect for its mysteries, this island en- joyed, even under the Roman dominion, a certain degree of freedom; and, even after SAMOTHRACE—SAMUEL. 189 the birth of Christ, these long celebrated mysteries still enjoyed reputation. Samoyedes, or Samoides ; a nomadic people traversing the immense frozen des- erts which extend along the ocean form- ing the northern boundary of European and Asiatic Russia. They extend from the river Mezen, on the European side, nearly to the Lena on the Asiatic; lon. 40 to 120 E., upwards of 2000 miles; in breadth the territoiy varies from 300 to 600. The population of this cold, dreary and barren countiy is not supposed to ex- ceed 20,000. The Samoyedes call them- selves Khasova, and are divided into three tribes—the Vanoites on the Petchora and Oby, the Tysia-Igoley on the Mezen, and the Khirutches in the interior of Si- beria. They are of small stature, usually between four and five feet; have a flat, round, and broad face, thick lips, wide nose, little beard, black hair, in small quantity. They live by hunting, are ex- tremely superstitious, and generally peace- able. As Uiey are unacquainted with the art of writing, their traditions are imper- fectly preserved only in their songs. When the victorious Russians first became ac- quainted with them, they had already been chased from their native seats by Uie Tartars, and separated from their kindred tribes. Their original country is unknown, but they appear to have come from the south. Their principal wealth consists in herds of rein-deer, which sup- ply them with food, clothing, tents, uten- sils, &c. Samp. A word borrowed from the North American Indians, to denote maize, broken coarse, boiled, and mixed with milk. Samphire (crithmum maritimum); an umbelliferous plant, remarkable for its lanceolate, fleshy leaflets, which grows wild along the sea-coast of Europe. Where it abounds, it is used by the inhab- itants as a pickle, as an ingredient in salads, or as a potherb. It can be culti- vated in gardens upon lieds of sand and rubbish, or in pots; and it is useful to furnish the stocks with a supply of salt; for, like other maritime plants, it pos- sesses the power of decomposing sea- water and retaining the soda. The seed is very similar to a grain of barley. Samson, judge of Israel, son of Ma- noah, a Danite, was bom, according to Usher, about 1155 B. C, and was educat- ed, from his birth, according to Uie com- mands of an angel, a Nazarite. (q. v.) At the age of 18 years, he fell in love with a young Philistine girl, whom he married. At the wedding-feast, Samson, who had formerly torn a lion in pieces, and after- wards found a swarm of bees in the car- cass, proposed a riddle to the guests, wagering thirty shuts and as many suits of clothes that they could not guess it in seven days: " Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth sweetness." The secret of his riddle being betrayed to them by his bride, Samson reproached them with ploughing with his heifer; but went to Askalon, killed thirty Philistines, and gave their clothes to his guests. His wife having, during his ab- sence in his own country, married again, he caught 300 foxes, and, tying them together, tail to tail, with a fire-brand be- tween them, let them loose in the fields of the Philistines. His own countrymen having afterwards delivered him up bound into the hands of his enemies, he snapped the cords asunder, and killed 1000 Philis- tines with the jaw-bone of an ass. From this period Samson was judge of Israel for twenty years. While he was on a visit to Gaza, the gates of the city were watched by the Philistines, with the inten- tion of killing him as he went out in the morning; but he rose by night, and car- ried off one of the gates of the city to a distance of twenty or thirty miles. Not long after he fell in love with Delilah, to whom he foolishly revealed the secret of his strength. By cutting off his hair, which was a violation of his obligation as a Nazarite, she deprived hhn of his pe- culiar powers, and betrayed him to his enemies, who put out his eyes, and set him to work hi a mill with slaves. At a great festival in honor of Dagon, Sam- son was brought out to furnish sport to the Philistines. But his hair had grown again ; and, his vigor having returned with it, he took vengeance on his enemies by pulling down over their heads the build- ing in which they were assembled, and under the ruins of which he also perished with them. Milton has made his death the subject of a drama—Samson Ago- nistes. Samuel ; a prophet, and the last of the judges of Israel. From his youth he was marked out as destined by God to reform the dissolute and irreligious practices of his nation. He grew up devoted to the temple service; and, sensible of the faults of his countrymen, he exhorted them, when they were hard pressed by the Phi- listines, to fear God, and worship him, as their only means of* deliverance. His prayers and sacrifices obtained for them the victory ; and the office of judge was 190 SAMUEL—SAN CARLOS. conferred on him. He governed Uie people twelve years; and his administra- tion was distinguished by the restoration of the neglected worship of Jehovah. He also gave new vigor to the theocrati- cal institutions of Moses, by Uie establish- ment of schools of the prophets. (See Prophets.) In his old age, the comiption of his sons, to whom he had transmitted the office of judge, excited discontents among the Hebrews, who demanded a king. Samuel reluctantly yielded to this revolution, but at the same time anointed the king of Uie general choice, imposing upon him such restrictions as should pre- serve Uie old constitution, and reproving him freely when he was guilty of injus- tice or impiety. But when Saul attacked the priestly office and privileges, Samuel anointed a new king, David. He did not live to see the contest between David and Saul decided; but, even after his death, his spirit, evoked by the witch of Endor, threatened the latter with the divine ven- geance. The books of Judges and Ruth and part of the first book of Samuel, have been attributed to him, but are probably by a later hand. San Carlos, Joseph Michael de Car- vajal, duke of, descended from the old kings of Leon, was born in Lima, in 1771, went to Spain at the age of 16, began his military career as colonel in the second regiment of Majorca infantry, of which his uncle was colonel-proprietor, was in the campaign of Catalonia, in the war of 1793, and a volunteer in the Toulon ex- pedition. On Uie death of his uncle he was appointed chamberlain, and after- wards governor to the prince of Astu- rias, now Ferdinand VII. His sys- tem of education was, however, not suita- ble to the views of Godoy (q. v.), whose influence deprived the duke of that post. In 1805, he was invested with Uie office of major-domo to Charles IV, and in 1807 was appointed to the viceroyship of Navarre. Three months after he had taken possession of his viceroyalty, he received orders to consider hhnself a pris- oner in the citadel. This airest arose out of a report that the duke had recom- mended to the prince to remove the queen-mother from all influence in the affaire of the kingdom, in case of the king's death, who at that time was very ill, and also to bring the prince of peace before the tribunals of his countiy. During the affair of the Escurial (see Fer- dinand VII), he was subjected to various severe scrutinies; and, though liberated at the same time as prince Ferdinand, he was ordered to remove sixty leagues from Madrid, and was prohibited from fixing his residence in Navarre. He resided at Alfaro when the French armies entered Spain. In the mean time, the insurrection in Aranjuez broke out, and prince Ferdi- nand being placed on the throne, he im- mediately called Uie duke about his per- son, and appointed him grand-master of the household and member of his privy- council. He an*ived hi Madrid some days before the prmce's departure for Bayonne, and accompanied him in that journey. The duke had several confer- ences with Napoleon on Uie subject of exchanging the crown of Spain for that of Etruria, and invariably assured him that the prince would not consent to any treaty without enjoying his liberty and being sanctioned by the cortes. The subsequent arrangements, however, which the prince was compelled to enter into, did not detach Uie duke from his service: he remained with him at Valencay, till, by order of Napoleon, he was called, with Escoiquiz (q. v.), to Paris. Suspicions, however, being entertained of the duke and Escoiquiz's influence over Ferdinand, Uiey were separated from that prince ; the duke being confined at Lons-le-Saulnier, and Escoiquiz at Bourges. The duke, in his retirement, cultivated his taste for bot- any, but above all for history, politics, and general literature. When it was deter- mined by Napoleon to reinstate Ferdinand on the throne of his kingdom, he fixed upon the duke of San Carlos as best suited, by his counsels and knowledge of all parties in Spain, to conciliate their re- gards. He was therefore called to Paris in November, 1813, and afterwards went to Valencay, where long discussions en- sued, which ended in the duke's setting out for Madrid, to obtain the consent of the regency to the treaty. He arrived January 16, 1814; but the arrangements made in France were not approved by the regency. In answer to applications for the return of the king to Spain, the duke of Bassano at length consented to the measure, and his majesty set out under the name of count de Barcelona. The duke was the only minister who accom- panied the king. The affairs of Spain were at that time under the direction of the regency; and under these circum- stances it was deemed prudent to go to Sar- agossa. The cortes, however, decided not to give up the reins of government, ami the king and the duke proceeded to Va- lencia in April. May 3, San Carlos was appointed, by the king, first secretary of SAN CARLOS—SAND. 191 state; and the next day he signed Uie infamous decree by which a despotism was established. General Freyre, who had been nominated to the ministry of war, declined Uie place, and the duke accept- ed it, in conjunction with that of minister of the king's household: the former office he shortly after resigned to general Eguia. The duke set about introducing a system of economy into the kingdom; established a junta of ministers, over whom he pre- sided ; took measures for repairing roads, increasing Uie number of canals, reviving the credit of the national bank; and insti- tuted several academies for Uie cultivation of the arts and sciences. Notwithstanding these benefits, his enemies were numer- ous ; and, finding them increase in Novem- ber, 1814, he demanded permission to re- sign, which the king granted, and don Pedro Cevallos was appointed to succeed him. He was nominated minister to Vi- enna, in Uie month of October, 1815; and in 1817 he was recalled and sent to the court of Great Britain in the same quality. In consequence of the troubles in Spain (1822—23), Uie duke retired to the court of Lucca, by which he was sent ambassador to Charles X, in 1825. He was subse- quently named ambassador extraordinary of Spain to Uie same court, and continued in that station till his death, July, 1828. Sanction, Pragmatic ; 1. the ordi- nance of Charles VII of France, drawn up at Bourges, hi 1438, conformably to Uie decrees of Uie council of Basle (q.v.), and on which rest Uie liberties of the Gallican church. 2. The decree of Uie German diet, at Mayence, in 1439, which sanction- ed Uie same decrees of this council. Both limited the power of the pope, but were altered by subsequent concordates. 3. The instrument by which the German emperor, Charles VI, being without male issue, endeavored to secure Uie succession to his female descendants. He soon in- duced most of the monarchs of Europe to guarantee it; but the elector of Bavaria, Charles Albert, the next heir to his do- minions, refused. This caused Uie Aus- trian war of succession, after the death of Charles in 1740. In Uie peace of Ffissen, April 22, 1745, Bavaria acknowledged Uie pragmatic sanction. 4. Charles III of Spain, when he ceded the throne of Naples to his third son, and his posterity, in 1759, called the law of succession, which he prepared for this branch of his family, sanctio pragmatica. Sand, Charles Louis, student of theolo- gy, who murdered Kotzebue (q. vA was bom October 5, 1795, at Wunsiedel, in Uie Fichtelgebirge, where his father held a judicial office. In 1812, Sand was sent to the gymnasium of Ratisbon. In 1814, he entered Uie university of Tubingen, and, in 1815, joined the Bavarian army as a volunteer against the French; but his corps was never brought into action. After peace, he continued his studies in Erlangen, where, in 1817, his most inti- mate friend was drowned before his eyes, without his being able to render him any assistance. In the autumn of 1817, he went to the university of Jena, where he was a member of Uie Burschenschaft (see Universities), but of no other secret or public society. His whole soul was ani- mated by Uiat love of country and liberty, which, ill defined, indeed, in some cases, was then the predominant sentiment of all Uie noble-minded youth of Germany. Their excitement was great, as, soon after the peace, most of Uie German govern- ments had shown a decided reluctance to perform the promises which they had made of improving the political condition of their subjects. Besides this, Uie idea of a union of the German states, so natu- ral to every German who reflects on the quarrels which have torn to pieces his unhappy country, took possession of the minds of the young, and especially of the students : at least, in them it was manifested more openly. The ideas of young men at a university, on the mode of effecting such political changes, must, of course, have been crude, ignorant as they were of life and of political affaire; but their desires were ardent; hundreds burn- ed to do something towards obtaining these ends; and many were ready to sacri- fice even their lives in the cause. These young men, we may be allowed to say, were inspired with as true a love of coun- try as ever existed; but Uie men of mature age, who ought to have regulated their ardor and guided their efforts, were want- ing to their duty, and occupied themselves merely with speculations, in which reli- gion and politics were confusedly mingled, and which were founded on eironeous conceptions of ages gone by. At this time, some writers attacked the prevailing excitement with severe ridicule; and, among these, Kotzebue distinguished himself. In free governments, such ridi- cule would have been little regarded; but in this period of enthusiasm for liberty, kindled by political oppression, it was felt with bitterness. Kotzebue was discov- ered to be acting at Uie instigation of Uie Russian government, which, of course, added to the exasperation. Sand looked 192 SAND—SANDAL WOOD. upon Kotzebue as an enemy of his coun- try, and a criminal of the blackest dye, whom the political condition of Germany rendered it impossible to punish accord- ing to the forms of law, and who was therefore to be regarded as at open war- fare with the true lovers of their countiy, who had a right to destroy him, as Uie only means left them for protecting their own rights. Having come to this con- clusion, he took the deed upon. himself, perfectly conscious, at the same time, that he violated the rules of social order, and willing to endure the punishment which was to be expected for such a deed. He was not, however, " made for murder," as he justiy said of himself, and could not easily resolve to act on his own conclu- sions. He struggled for months against his own convictions, and prayed for guid- ance : at last he resolved that it was cowardly to defer what he deemed an act of duty. On the afternoon of March 9, 1819, he went to Kotzebue's residence in Manheim, delivered a letter to him, and, while he was reading it, pierced him with a dagger, exclaiming, " Here, thou traitor to thy country." Having given him two more blows, he went down stairs, handed a paper, inscribed "Death-blow to Au- gustus von Kotzebue," to a servant, went into the street, knelt down, and having cried aloud, " Long live my German fatherland!" pierced his own breast, with the words, " I thank thee, O God, for this victory." The attempt at his own destruction is the only part of the trans- action which he ever regretted, and never tried to excuse. Kotzebue died soon after. Sand was executed near Manheim, May 20, 1820, aged twenty-four years, after having suffered much from the wounds which he had given himself, and from an operation which had been per- formed in consequence. He died with perfect calmness. The testimonies of his conduct at all periods of his life, given by his teachers, parents and friends, show that he was always strictly moral, and modest, and of uncommon purity of life. His character was mild and affectionate. He was a good scholar, although not of a rapid or penetrating understanding. His feelings were stronger than his reason. He was a warm and faithful friend, and uncommonly attached to his parents and brothers and sisters, so that his straggle, before he could resolve to commit mur- der, was intense. Sand's deed is a re- markable phenomenon in Uie moral world. As the spirit for the regeneration of Ger- many had manifested itself most strongly among the students and in the newly established gymnasia, on account of Uie many young men collected there, the lat- ter, in many German states, were closed ; and the governments, believing that Sand was merely Uie instrument of a secret society, commenced active inquiries to discover these secret societies; but they could not be found. It showed, moreover, a very incorrect appreciation of Sand's deed, to suppose that be was but the agent for executing an order. A com- parison between him and other persons, whom history records as urged by a mis- taken sense of duty to commit murder, as Ravaillac, Charlotte Corday, Staps, would be interesting.—See Vollstandige Uebersicht der gegen Sand gefuhrten Un- tersuchung (Stuttgard, 1820)—the publica- tion was not allowed until 1823 ;—also Actenauszuge aus dem Untersuchungspro- cess iiber K. L. Sand (Altenburg and Leip- sic, 1821), and Eight more Contributions to the Historv of" Aug. von Kotzebue and C. L. Sand (Muhlhausen, 1821). Sandal; a kind of covering for the feet, used among the Greeks and Romans, and which we find to be of the highest antiquity. It consisted of a thick cork sole, covered above and beneath with leather, and neatly stitched on the edge. It left the upper part of the foot bare, and was fastened on by means of straps, crossed over and wound round the ankle. In later times, sandals became articles of much luxury. The higher CaUiolic cler- gy wear a costly embroidered sock, which is called sandal. A kind of vessel employ- ed in the Meditenanean sea for the pur- pose of unloading large ships, is also called sandal. Sandal Wood (santalum album); a low tree, much resembling the privet in its leaves and flowers, but differing widely in its botanical characters. The leaves are opposite, petiolate, smooth, about two inches in length, oblong, and somewhat obtuse at each extremity : the flowers are small. This tree produces the white and yellow sandal woods of commerce, which were formerly thought to be obtained from different trees : but in India, as in a certain degree in all countries, most trees, when large and old, become col- ored towards Uie centre ; and this takes place in the sandal tree, the centre of which, with age, acquires a yellow color as well as great fragrance and hardness. This is the only part of Uie trunk that is used, being in universal esteem for its fragrance. It is manufactured into fight articles of cabinet furniture; and no insect SANDAL WOOD—SANDSTONE. 193 can exist, or iron rust (it is said) within its influence. The dust of this wood is used by the Bramins to form the pigment with which they give the tilac, or frontal mark, to the god Vishnu ; and the oil used in their ceremonies is obtained from the shavings, or at least scented by them. The true sandal wood grows chiefly on the coast of Malabar, and in the East In- dian islands. Sandarach ; a gum resin, which oozes spontaneously from the old trunks of the common juniper (juniperi's communis), and which is used in considerable quanti- ties in the preparation of varnish, particu- larly of one kind, employed by cabinet makers and painters, called vernix. In its powdered form, it is known under the name of pounce. (See Juniper.) Sandeman, Robert, in whom the sect called Sandemanians originated, was bom at Perth, in Scotland, in 1723. He studiedat Edinburgh, and afterwards engaged in the linen trade. On marrying the daughter of the reverend John Glass (founder of the Glassites), he became an elder in his congregation, and soon after published a series of letters, in which he endeavors to show that a justifying faith means nothing more than a simple assen^ to the divine mission of Christ. This position caused much controversy, and those who adopted it were called Sandemanians, and formed themselves into church order, in strict fellowship with the church of Scotland, but holding communion with no other. The chief opinions and practices in which this sect differs from others, are their weekly administration of the Lord's sup- per, washing each other's feet, &c. In 1764, Mr. Sandeman accepted an invita- tion to New England, where he died in 1771. His sect still subsists in Great Brit- ain. He was author of some other theo- logical tracts besides his Letters on Theron and Aspasio. Sandemanians. (See Sandeman.) Sandpiper (tringa); a genus of shore- birds, allied to the snipe, plover, curlew, and godvvit, and included by Linncsus under the order gralla. The bill is as long as the head, or longer, straight or slightly curved, rounded, slender, soft and flexible, without a cutting edge, and en- larged and obtuse at the extremity: it seems to perform many of the offices of a probe, and enables these birds to search in the soft mud for insects, small shells, or worms, which form their accustomed food. Their nostrils are linear, and situat- ed in a groove of the bill. Their tongue is filiform and pointed. The legs are desti- vol. xi. 17 tute of feathers for some distance above Uie knee, and Uie toes are short and inca- pable of grasping; hence these birds do not perch, but frequent Uie borders of ponds, rivers and marshes, especially in the vicinity of the ocean, and are often seen coursing rapidly along Uie strand, following the flux and reflux of Uie waves. Their wings are long, and their flight powerful. Some species prefer Uie inte- rior and the vicinity of fresh water, and othere almost exclusively inhabit the shores of the ocean. They build their nests in the grass, and the young at birth immediately follow their parents in search of food. At the approach of winter, they all quit the land of their birth, and migrate, in flocks more or less numerous, to warm- er climates. They moult twice a year, and their winter plumage is very different from the summer. Sandrart, Joachim von, a German painter and engraver, chiefly esteemed in the latter capacity, was born in 1606, at Frankfort, and died in 1688. He wrote a work called the German Academy of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting (1675, seq.). Sandstone is in most cases composed chiefly of grains of quartz united by a cement, which is never very abundant, and often, indeed, is nearly or quite invisi- ble. These grains are sometimes scarcely distinguishable by the naked eye, and sometimes are equal in size to a nut or an egg, as in those coarse sandstones called conglomerate, and sometimes pudding- stone or breccia. The cement is variablo in quantity, and may be calcareous or marly, argillaceous or argillo-ferrugi- nous, or even siliceous. When siliceous, the mineral often much resembles quartz. The texture of some sandstones is very close, while that of others it* so loose and porous as to admit the passage of water. Sometimes, indeed, this rock is vesicular. Some varieties are so solid as to give fire with steel, while others are friable, and may be reduced to powder even by the fingere. Its fracture is always granular or earthy, although it may be at the same time conchoidal or splintery. Some sandstones have a slaty structure, arising from scattered and insulated plates.of mica, and have been called sandstone slate. Its most common color is gray or grayish- white, sometimes with a shade of yellow- brown or green, and sometimes it is red- dish or reddish-brown. In some cases, the color is uniform, hi others, variegated. In addition to quartz, some sandstones embrace grains of feldspar, flint and sili- 194 SANDSTONE—SANDWICH ISLANDS. ceous slate or plates of mica. The mica is sometimes in considerable quantities iu those friable sandstones which accompany coal. Some sandstones are so fenuginous as to form a valuable ore of iron, contain- ing either an oxide or Uie carbonate of iron. Sandstone, although decidedly a secondary rock, has been formed at differ- ent periods, under different circumstances, and is hence associated with different rocks. Red sandstone is sometimes con- nected with coal. Sandstone, more par- ticularly in the older formation, sometimes contains metallic substances disseminated through Uie mass, or in beds or veins. Among these are sulphurets of iron, mer- cury, lead and copper, pyritous copper, and arsenical cobalt. Various organic remains occur in sandstone, among which are reeds, impressions of leaves, trunks of trees, and shells, both fluviatile and marine. In the U. States, sandstone is abundant in various parts. Sandstone, in some of its varieties, is very useful in the arts, and is often known by the name of freestone. When sufficiently solid, it is employed as a building stone. In most cases, it may be cut equally well in all directions ; but some varieties naturally divide into pris- matic masses. Some varieties are used as mill-stones for grinding meal, or for wearing down other minerals, preparatory to a polish. These stones, while rapidly revolving, sometimes buret with a loud and dangerous explosion. When the tex- ture is sufficiently porous, sandstone is employed for filtering water. Some va- rieties are used for whetstones. Some sandstones absorb moisture, and, by expo- sure to the changes of the atmosphere, are gradually disintegrated; others become more solid by much exposure. Pudding- stone, or conglomerate, is only a very coarse sandstone. It is composed of sili- ceous pebbles of quartz, flint, siliceous slate, &c, united by a cement, which is usually siliceous, sometimes both siliceous and ferruginous, and sometimes a little argillaceous. These pebbles vary in size from that of a pea to that of an egg. They are ordinarily rounded or oval; and it is, in fact, chiefly by the more or less rounded form of these pebbles that pud- dingstone is distinguished from breccia. It is sometimes employed for mill-stones, and some varieties receive a good polish. All true conglomerates must of course be composed of" fragments of previously ex- isting rocks. They have, however, been formed at very different periods. A brec- cia is an aggregate of angular fragments of the same mineral, or of different min- erals, united by some cement. Some- times, however, a few of the fragments are a little rounded. Sandwich Islands ; a cluster of islands in the North Pacific ocean, discovered by captains Cook and King in 1778, who gave them their present name iu honor of the firet lord of the admiralty. The group consists of ten islands, of which eight are inhabited, and extends from lat. 18° 50' to 22° 20- N., and from lon. 154° 53' to 160° 15' W., lying about one third of the distance from the western coast of Mexico to the eastern coast of China. The population of the whole group was estimated by captain King at 400,000, but, according to Ellis, does not at present exceed 150,000, the diminution being ow- ing partly to Uie desolating ware of Tame- hameha's reign, and partly to Uie ravages of a pestilence brought in by foreign ves- sels, which has twice prevailed in the islands. The total superficial extent is about 6000 square miles. The principal islands in extent and population are Hawaii (Owhyhee), 4000 square miles, 85,000 inhabitants; Maui (Mowee), 600 square miles, 20,000 inhabitants; Oahu (Woahoo), 520 square miles, 20,000, con- taining the town of Honolulu, the resi- dence of Uie king, of the foreign func- tionaries, and twelve or fourteen mer- chants, chiefly Americans, with about 7000 inhabitants; Tauai (Atooi), 525 square miles, 10,000 inhabitants. The lat- ter island and Nihau (Oneehow) are distin- guished for the cultivation of the yam, and are much resorted to by ships for supplies of that article. Most of the islands are vol- canic and mountainous. In some places, the volcanoes are in activity. Several of the summits are of great height. The lofti- est, Mouna Roa, and Mouna Kea, are esti- mated at about 15,000 feet. The climate is warm, but not unhealthy, the winter being marked only by the prevalence of heavy rains between December and March. A meteorological table gives as the greatest heat during the year, 88° of Fahren- heit, as Uie least, 61°. The only quad- rupeds originally found in these islands were a small species of hogs, dogs, and a sort of rat. There are now large herds of cattle in Hawaii, and many tame ones in Uie other islands, goats, sheep, and horses. There are no poisonous reptiles, excepting centipeds, which are neither large nor numerous. There are an abun- dance of sea-fowl on the coasts, and in Uie interior a species of parrot and a kind of woodpecker, with which the images of the gods were formerly adorned. The SANDWICH ISLANDS—SANDY HOOK. 195 vegetable productions are tare? (arum es- culentum), yam, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and strawberry. Oranges, grapes, and other tropical fruits, have been introduced, and thrive well, and some culinary vegeta- bles are cultivated for the shipping which resorts thither. The situation of the Sandwich islands renders them impor- tant to vessels navigating the Northern Pacific, partly for repairs and provisions, and partly in commercial respects. Af- ter the visit of Vancouver (1792), they were not much visited, except by traders from the U. States, who, having discov- ered among them the sandal wood, con- veyed large quantities of it to China, where it is burnt in the temples. The independence of the Spanish colonies, and the prosecution of the whale-fishery on the coasts of Japan have greatly in- creased their importance. The following account of the number and tonnage of American ships which annually visit them, is from Stewart's Visit to the South Seas in 1829 aud 1830 (New York,1831):—Ves- sels direct from the U. States for sandal wdod, returning by way of China or Manilla, six (together 1800 tons); vessels bound to North-west coast,which generally winter here, five (1000 tons); vessels bound from the Spanish-American repub- lics to China or the East Indies, eight (2500 tons); vessels owned by American residents, and trading to North-west coast, to Mexico, China, and Manilla, six (1000 tons); vessels engaged in the whale-fishery on the coast of Japan, 100 (35,000 tons); making a total of 125 vessels, and 40,000 tons. The natives are, in general, rather above the middle stature, well formed, with fine muscular limbs, and open coun- tenances^ Their hair is black or brown, and frequently curly; their complexion a kind of olive, and sometimes reddish- brown. Their language is a dialect of that spoken by the inhabitants of Uie Society islands. They are of a mild and gentle disposition, inquisitive and intelli- gent ; but previously to the abolition of their idolatrous religion, the practice of sacrificing human victims prevailed among tiiem. Since their adoption of Christianity, they have made a no less wonderful prog- ress in the arts of civilized life than in moral character. They have many convenient and handsome bouses, neat and comfort- able clothing, &c. Stewart, who visited the islands in 1829, after an absence of four or five years, gives a striking descrip- tion of the change which had taken place in that interval. After the visit of captain Cook, who was killed at Hawaii in 1779, the islands were involved hi a series of destructive ware between several rival chiefs, for the undivided sovereignty. The result of these struggles was the as- cendency of Tamehameha, chief of Ha- waii, a sagacious, enterprising and ambi- tious prince. He built a navy, anned his guard in the European manner, fortified his palace with cannon, encouraged com- merce, and introduced various mechanical arts among his subjects. On his death in 1819, he was succeeded by his son Riho- riho; and at about the same time idolatry was abolished and the idols burnt. Dur- ing the last year of his reign, Tauai and Nihau, the only islands of the group not subdued by Tamehameha, submitted to his government. Rihoriho, with his queen, died in England in 1824, and his brother and successor, Kauikeaouli, is at present (1832) about 20 years of age. The re- gency has been in the hands of the queen- mother, Kaahumanu. In 1820, a mission was established at Hawaii by the Ameri- can Board of Foreign Missions. The mis- sionaries fortunately arrived just after the abolition of the national idolatry, and their efforts have been attended with great suc- cess. Not only have they introduced the arts, comforts and usages of civilized society to a great extent, but the Christian religion has been embraced by nearly Uie whole population. Printing presses have been established, books printed in the native language, an alphabet of twelve letters (five vowels and seven consonants) invented, schools established, and church- es built The Missionary Herald for Jan., 1832, states the whole number of schools in the islands to be above 900, with 50,000 learners. Missions have been established in Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, Taui; and in 1830 a band consisting of seven persons (three missionaries), and in 1831 another of nineteen persons (eight mis- sionaries and a printer), sailed for the same destination. See Ellis, Tour through Hawaii (3d ed. 1827); lord Byron's Voy- age to the Sandwich Islands (1827); Stew- art's Residence in the Sandwich Islands. Sandwich-Land ; a banen, desert, and frozen island in the South Atlantic ocean, discovered by captain Cook in 1775; lat. 58° 35' S.; lon. 26° 44' W. Seals, whales, and other cetacea, penguins and other sea-birds, are the only animals found here. Sandy Hook ; a small island on the coast of New Jersey, in the township of Middleton, seven miles south of Long Island, and 25 south of New York. It was formerly a peninsula. Sandy Hook, 196 SANDY HOOK—SANHEDRIN. or Point, forms a capacious harbor. Here is a light-house on the north point of the Hook, in lat. 40° 26* N., lon. 72° 2' W. Sandys, George; second son of the archbishop of that name, born in 1577. In 1589, he was placed at Oxford. In 1610, he commenced his travels through the Le- vant and other parts of the Turkish empire, returning home through Italy, and staying some time at Rome. This journey occu- pied him upwards of two years. On his return.to.England, he published, in 1615, . an account of the countries through which he had passed. This work was followed by several poetical productions, the firet of which, a translation of Ovid's Meta- iu piloses, originally printed hi London in 1617, with the firet book of the ^Eneid annexed, is highly spoken of by Diyden, who styles, the author " the best versifier of the last age." He also wrote a Para- phrase on the Psalms and upon the Hymns dispersed through the Old and New Tes- taments (London, 1636; reprinted in folio, 1638), and some other works. He died in 1643. Sangallo, Antonio, an eminent Italian architect of the sixteenth century, was born in the environs of Florence, and was intended for the business of a carpenter; but, happily visiting Rome, where he had , two uncles who were architects, he was instructed by them in their art, his knowl- edge of which he perfected under Bra- . mante, whom he succeeded as architect of the chureh of St. Peter. He was much employed under, the popes Leo X, Clem- ent VII, and Paiil III, both in fortifying places and in the construction of public buildings, the grandeur and solidity of which have been much admired. He died in 1546. Sangiac (Turkish, horsetail) signifies, in the Turkish army, an officer who is al- lowed to bear only one horsetail, the pa- chas having two or three. The sangiac is also commonly Uie governor of a smaller district of country than a pachalic, thence called sangiacat, of which there are three or four in each pachalic. (See Turkey.) Sangiacat. (See Sangiac, and Turkey.) Sangraal, or Sangreal. (See Round Table, and Romance.) Sanguinarina ; a vegetable alkali, dis- covered by Mr. A. A. Hayes, of Roxbury, in the root of the sanguinaria Canadensis; or blood-root. It is obtained as follows: Digest the bruised root in three parts of cold diluted sulphuric acid (water ten, acid one); after 24 hours, decant the fluid, and repeat the operations twice, using water but slightly acidulated; mix the li- quors, and filter, and to the clear red liquor which passes, add a solution of annnonia, so long as it occasions precipitation ; de- cant the fluid after subsidence, and wasb the brown precipitate in cold water: it is sanguinarina combined with extractive and coloring matter, and mixed with some earths. Di.ssolve the soluble part in warm alcohol, and wash with the same ; distil the clear fluid from a glass retort; when the solution becomes turbid by con- centration, it must be decanted, while hot, into cylindrical vessels, one half filled with pure cold water: the alkali is pre- cipitated in the form of a yellowish-white bulky powder, mingled with a substance insoluble in diluted acids, and resembling resin; by dissolving the soluble part in muriatic acid with ten of* water, precipi- tating by ammonia, and treating as above, the alkali is obtained pure. It is a soft, white powder, destitute of odor, but hav- ing a bitter, acrid taste. It renders blue vegetable colore green; when heated, it melts into a brown, transparent and brittle substance. It dissolves in most acids, and forms along with them neutral salts of a pure scarlet-red color. The salts are sol- uble in water, to which they communi- cate their red color. They are inodorous; but their powder produces great irritation in the nostrils. They are all precipitated by infusion of galls,and are decomposed by alkalies and alkaline earths. The medicinal virtues of the salts of sanguinarina arechief- ly deobstruent, acrid-narcotic, and emetic. The efficacy of the blood-root is attribu- table solely to the presence of this alkali. Sanhedrin (Syriac), or Synedrium (Greek); literally a council. The highest ecclesiastical and secular court of the Jews (q. v.), which was established for the decision of their internal differences, and the settlement of their affairs, was called sanhedrin. It consisted of seventy-one members, of the rank of priests, elders, and interpreters of the law (those skilled in biblical knowledge, or scribes), under the direction of the high-priest Be- sides Uiis high council, which had its seat in Jerusalem, there were also inferior courts in the country towns, composed of persons of the same classes. In Jerusa- lem there were two of these inferior courts. These national tribunals were limited, by the Roman procurators, to the affairs, of religion and the settlement of questions relating to the observance of the Mosaic law; and they could not, even in such cases, inflict the punishment of death arbitrarily. After the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, these courts SANHEDRIN—SAN MARTIN. 197 were annihilated, with the Jewish state. The great sanhedrin assembled at Paris, in 1806, by Napoleon, was only an occasional expedient, in order to regulate the civil relations of the Jews in the French empire. San Marino. (See Marino.) San Martin, Jose de, is a native of the Missions, on the banks of the river Parana. He made his firet campaigns in the service of Spain, in Uie peninsula, holding the rank of captain; but he left Spain in 1811, and returned to his own country, where he rapidly rose to distinc- tion. He received from the revolutionary government of Buenos Ayres the com- mand of a division of the patriot army, with the commission of colonel. His first object was to improve the organiza- tion and discipline of" the cavahy, in which he succeeded so well as to gain a victoiy over a small detachment of royalist troops at San Lorenzo, in 1813. This affair made him so conspicuous that he was appointed to the chief command in the province of Tucuman, in the hope that he might restore the patriot cause in that quarter, which was almost prostrated by the successive defeats of Belgrano. San Martin found only 570 men in Tucuman, the remnants of the patriot force. In the course of a few months, he had contrived to raise an anny of 4000 men, from such slender beginnings. In 1814, he was obliged to resign his command by reason of bad health. When he resumed active service, he obtained the command in the province of Cuyo, contiguous to Chile, and devoted himself to the task of recruit- ing and equipping an expeditionary army, called the " army of the Andes," having for its object the liberation of Chile from the Spanish authority. The plan of the expedition was airanged hi concert with O'Higgins and other Chilean exiles, who had taken refuge in Mendoza, the capital of Cuyo. Two years were consumed in the preparations necessary for this impor- tant movement. At length, at the very beginning of 1817, the patriot army of 4000 men broke up its cantonments at Mendoza, and entered the gorges of the Andes, to cross into Chile. San Martin effected the dangerous and difficult pas- sage of the Andes in safety, and, February 12, encountering the Spanish forces posted at Chacabuco to resist his march, gained a complete and brilliant victoiy. Chile resumed its independence upon this event, O'Higgins becoming supreme director. Meanwhile, it was known that the vice- roy of Peru was fitting out an expedition against the Chilean patriots; and prepara- tions were made to receive it. The op- posing armies met at Maypu (April 5, 1818), and again San Martin gained a complete victory, which finally accom- plished the deliverance of Chile. Em- boldened by these successes, he now conceived the plan of carrying his liberat- ing arms into Peru itself, the only re- maining possession of Spain in South America. Meanwhile, the republic of Buenos Ayres was distracted by one of the numberless domestic bouleversemens which have rendered its public adminis- tration a satire on the name of govern- ment. The faction, which happened to possess an ephemeral ascendency in the capital, called on San Martin to relinquish his splendid enterprise of liberating Peru, and to recross Uie Andes with his army, for the purpose of wasting its energies in the provincial broils of the republic. San Martin, and the other officers of the expe- ditionary army, unanimously refused obe- dience to the order; in consequence of which he was denounced by the govern- ment at Buenos Ayres. Hereupon he resigned his commission into the hands of the officers, and was unanimously re- elected by them, thus holding his author- ity independent of the government The liberating army sailed from Valparaiso Aug. 21, 1820, Uie land forces, under San Martin, being supported by a squadron under lord Cochrane. They landed at Pisco, and, being sustained by the Peru- vians, gained possession of Lima and of most of the countiy, a revolutionary gov- ernment being installed in the capital, and San Martin declared protector of Peru, Aug. 3, 1821. Various measures were adopted, under his auspices, for giving firmness to the new order of things, although the royalists continued hi force in the interior, and still held the castles of Callao. A congress was convened at Lima, Sept. 20, 1822, by virtue of the de- crees of the protector; and he immediately resigned all his authority into their hands, accepting in return only the honorary titles of generalissimo and founder of the liberty of Peru, with a pension of $20,000 per annum. He withdrew from Peru, firet to Chile, and afterwards to Europe, find- ing little inducement, it is to be presumed, to enter into public life in Buenos Ayres, and perhaps doubting of his personal secu- rity in that countiy. In leaving Pern, he gave evidence of the purity and disinter- estedness of his purposes, and seems en- titled to the praise of good intention, if not of brilliant ability. He is still living. (Miller's Mem., v. i.) 198 SANNAZARO—SANTA ANA. Sannazaro, Jacopo, a distinguished Italian poet, who wrote both in Latin and Italian, was born at Naples, in 1458. He received his education in the school of Giuniano Maggo, and the academy of Pontanus, in which, according to the cus- tom in the Italian academies, he adopted the name of Attius Sincerus. An early passion for Carmosina Bonifacia, whose praises he sung under the names of Har- mosina and Phillis, unfolded his poetical talents. In the hope of conquering his love by separation, he went abroad, but, yielding to the impatience of his passion, returned to Naples, where he found his mistress dead. During his absence, he wrote his Arcadia, a series of idyls, which, although, like his other Italian poems, Uie work of his youth, still retains its reputa- tion. His poetry attracted the notice of king Ferdinand and his sons Alphonso and Frederic, who made him the com- panion of their jouraeys and campaigns. Frederic, who ascended Uie throne in 1496, gave him the delightful villa Mer- gellina, with a pension of 600 ducats. But, in 1501, his benefactor was obliged to abdicate the throne, and flee to France; and Sannazaro was too faithful to desert him in his reverses. After the death of Frederic, he returned to Naples, and died Uiere in 1533. He was buried in the church Santa Maria del Parto, which he had built at his villa. Sannazaro wrote sonnets and canzoni in Italian, several Latin poems, elegies, eclogues, epigrams, and a longer poem, De Partu Virgi- nia, in three books. His elegance of expression, no less than the poetical beauty of his thoughts, give him a dis- tinguished place among the modern Latin poets. Sanscrit, or Samscrit (that is, the perfect), also Deva-Nagara (that is, the divine) ; a Brahminical language (because it is understood now by the Brahmins alone), the present dead language of the Hindoos, in which the books of their religion and laws, besides many other works of different sorts, are written. The remarkable similarity between the San- scrit and Uie Greek languages reminds one of Gibbon's opinion, " that some, perhaps much, of the knowledge pos- sessed by the Indians, originated from the Greeks of Bactriana." Francis Bopp has published a Complete System of the San- scrit Language (Berlin, i825, quarto). A. Langlois, also, in his Monuments littiraires de I'Inde, ou Milanges de Littirature San- scrite, &c. (Paris, 1827), has presented a popular view of the Sanscrit literature. (See also Indian Languages, and Oriental Literature.) Sans-Culottes (i. e. without breech- es); the name given hi derision to the popular party, by the aristocratical, in Uie beginning of the French revolution of 1789. Like the epithet gueux (q. v.), be- stowed on the patriot party in the Nether- lands, and like that of Methodists, bestowed on the friends of Wesley, it was adopted by those to whom it was first applied by way of contempt. At the time when the most exaggerated principles of democracy prevailed, sans-culottism became a tenn of honor. In the French republican cal- endar, the jours complimentaires were at firet called jours sans-culottides. (See Cal- endar.) San Sebastiano, or Rio Janeiro. (See Rio Janeiro^) Sans-souci (French, without care); a palace near Potsdam, where Frederic the Great was fond of residing; hence he is sometimes called the philosopher of Sans- souci. Santa Ana, Antonio Lopez de, a Mex- ican general, of signal military abilities, and greatly distinguished in the political affaire of the republic, first became known extensively at the time of the second rev- olution (so called), when Iturbide promul- gated the plan of Iguala (Feb. 24, 1821). At the head of the desultory forces of the countiy, Santa Ana succeeded, by a coup- de-main, in driving the royalists out of Vera Cruz, and in obtaining possession of that city, of which Iturbide appointed him governor. The castle of San Juan de Ulua, which commanded the harborof Vera Cruz, continued to be held by the Span- iards ; and in November, 1822, Uie empe- ror came to Xalapa, in the hope of effect- ing an accommodation with the Spanish governor of the castle. Meanwhile dis- putes had arisen between Santa Aiia and general Echavarri, whom Iturbide had placed in command of the southern di- vision, including Vera Cruz. The empe- ror summoned Santa Aiia to Xalapa, to answer to the complaints made against him; and he, confident in the supposed good-will of Iturbide, whose cause he had zealously maintained, readily obeyed the summons. On his arrival, to his great surprise, he was treated harshly by Itur- bide, and deprived of his command. En- raged by this unexpected treatment, Santa Aiia hurried back to Vera Cruz, riding day and night so as to reach the city in anticipation of the tidings of his disgrace. Instantly assembling his own regiment, he exhorted them to take up arms against the SANTA ANA—SANTANDER. 199 odious usurpation of Iturbide, and found them all ripe for the project, they having, indeed, supported the emperor only out of attachment to their immediate chief. Santa Aiia accordingly unfurled the stand- ard of the republic at Vera Cruz, and commenced hostilities against the forces of Iturbide. In this state of things, Gua- dalupe Vittoria left his hiding-place in the mountains, to join Santa Aiia, and, being declared commander-in-chief of the insur- gents, soon drew to his standard the old republican champions of independence. The fall of Iturbide, and the adoption of the federal constitution, were the well- known consequences of this movement In the political arrangements that ensued, Santa Ana, not being duly considered, sailed from Vera Cruz (March, 1823) with six hundred men, and, landing at Tampi- co, advanced through the countiy to San Luis Potosi, where he took up his head- quarters, and declared himself protector of the federal republic. But he failed to inspire the people with confidence in his intentions, and was compelled to sub- mit to a force sent against him from the capital. He was discharged, however, and for several years took but little part in public affaire, living the chief part of the time in seclusion on his estate near Xa- lapa. In 1825, an expedition against Cu- ba was contemplated, to be conducted by him, but was never prosecuted. But, in 1828, he again appeared on the stage, and witn as decisive effects on the condition of public affaire as in 1822. When the news of Pedraza's election to Uie presi- dency, as the successor of Vittoria, reached Xalapa, Santa Aiia raised his flag in favor cf Guerrero; and such was his character- istic decision of purpose and execution, that the news of his rising, and of his investment and capture of the castle of Perote, reached the government almost simultaneously. Here he intrenched him- self, and published a plan, having for its leading articles the annulment of the elec- tion of' Pedraza, the declaring of Guer- rero to be elected instead of him, and the popular object of Uie expulsion of the Spaniards. At length, however, Santa Ana was compelled to yield to the government troops, and fled for refuge into the moun- tains of Oaxaca, under sentence of out- lawry, and apparently a broken and ra- ined man.' But, in the mean time, Uie movement had been followed up in other parts of the republic with better success. Pedraza was compelled to flee his coun- tiy, and Guenero was recognised as pres- ident elect. Santa Aiia was immediately appointed to the command of Uie very army sent against him, and to the govern- ment of Vera Cruz; and, on the inaugura- tion of Guerrero into office, was made secretary of war, and commander-in-chief of the army (April, 1829). These politi- - cal events a little preceded the foolish in- vasion of Mexico by the Spaniards, under Ban*adas, which afforded Santa Ana the opportunity of acquiring new laurel. Barradas landed near Tampico, July 27, 1829, and took up a position at Tamauli- pas, separated from Tampico only by the river of the same name. Here, or at Al- tamira, in the same neighborhood, Barra- das remained for about two months, when, after various engagements, he capitulated to the Mexicans under Santa Aiia, who had assumed the command of the troops of the republic. Scarcely had Guene- ro's administration time to enjoy this tri- umph, when the events of December, 1829, occurred, in consequence of" which Guerrero was driven from office, with his particular friends, and the vice-president Bustamente, assumed Uie direction of the government. Santa Aiia was then con- signed, for a while, to comparative obscu- rity ; but is now once more in arms, and engaged in a third attempt to revolutionize the government, by driving Bustamente from power. His military talents, his ac- tivity and enterprise, and his reputation for successful intrigue, render him a dan- gerous enemy to the government. Santa Cruz. (See Cruz, Santa.) Santa Fe ; capital of New Mexico; a territoiy of the Mexican republic, in the northern part of which it is situated, not far from the Rio del Norte; lat 36° 12' N.; lon. 109° 33' W.; 1500 miles north-north- west of the city of Mexico. The popula- tion is between 3000 and 4000. It is the centre of a considerable overland trade between the northern part of Mexico and the western states of this Union. (See Mex- ico, New, and Texas.) Santa Fe pe Bogota. (See Bogota.) Santa Fe de Guanaxuato. (See Gua- naxuato.) Santa Hermandad. (See Hermandad.) Santa Martha. (See Martha, Santa.) Santa Maura. (See Leucadia.) Santander, New. (See Mexico.) Santander (S. Andero); a small prov- ince of Spain (Las montanas de Santander e de Burgos), on the southern coast of the bay of Biscay, consisting of steep moun- tains and deep valleys. It is rich in iron of the best quality, and there are cannon founderies and manufactories of cast steel established in the mountain villages La 200 SANTANDER. Cavada and Liergams. The coast has some excellent harbors. The principal town, Santander (10,000 inhabitants), has a safe and commodious and easily acces- sible harbor, and was formerly one of the privileged ports (puertos habilitados) which were allowed a free trade with South America. Its commerce with the north of Europe, to which it exports much wool, is considerable. It is the see of a bishop. Santander, Francisco de Paula, was born at Rosario de Cucuta, in New Gre- nada, April 2, 1792, and received the best education which his countiy afforded. He commenced his studies in the place of his birth, and completed them at the college of Bogota. During his course of study in philosophy and law, he was dis- tinguished for his application, industry, » and aptness in acquiring whatever he un- dertook. He received his degree in 1809, at the very time when the revolution be- gan to agitate the country ; and, like most other young men of spirit and talent, im- mediately embarked in the cause of inde- pendence. At firet, he was merely an ensign in the militia of New Grenada; was afterwards selected as an aid by Man- uel Castillo, military commandant and po- litical chief of the province of Mariquita, and soon became attached, in the same capacity, to general Baraya. When Bo- liva:* projected his first invasion of Vene- zuela, Castillo was employed to drive the Spaniards, under Conea, from the defiles of La Grita; and Santander, with two companies, was ordered to turn the defile by ascending the neighboring heights. He was successful, and, in consequence, Cor- rea was obliged to destroy his baggage and retreat in disorder. Santander was next commissioned to defend the valley of Cucuta. He had but three hundred men. The Spaniards poured iu a force ten times stronger than his own, and com- pelled him to evacuate Rosario, where they afterwards committed the most hor- rible atrocities, and succeeded in destroy- ing Santander's little army. MacGregor was then sent to the succor of the prov- ince ; and Santander commanded his van- guard. They recovered the province; and Santander, being made a colonel, was again charged with its defence. He was attacked, but repulsed Uie assailants; and was subsequently appointed to the more important post of Ocana. Having scarcely five hundred men under his command, he was about to be attacked by a greatly su- perior body of troops, but, by a bold and fortunate manoeuvre, rejoined Urdaneta and Rovira, and the relics of the patriot divisions. He was now made second in command under general Serviez, who was posted at Puente Real. But the force of Murillo was overwhelming; and New Grenada became the prey of the Span- iards. Santander retired into Venezuela, and prepared to second the efforts of Bo- livar. He was employed to organize the militia of the province of Casanare. To prevent this, the viceroy Samano de- spatched a force, under Barreiro, of 2500 men, who were harassed by the few troops under Santander, until the latter was joined by Bolivar. An engagement at Bojaca terminated in the total defeat of Barreiro. This campaign restored Bogota to the patriots, and Santander was imme- diately appointed, by Bolivar, vice-presi- dent of Cundinamarca. He contributed, more than any other person, to the assem- bling of the congress of Cucuta; and that body elected him vice-president of Co- lombia. He took the oaths of office Oc- tober 3, 1821. From that period, he is to be considered as the actual head of the ex- ecutive ; because Bolivar, the titular pres- ident, being engaged in prosecuting the war in Quito and Peru, left the adminis- tration of affaire entirely to the vice-presi- dent. Like Bolivar, he was elected to a second term of office, to commence Jan- uary 1, 1827. He seems to have acted, all things considered, with judgment, pru- dence and ability, in the arduous task of balancing factions, giving effect to a new system, and healing the wounds of a country bleeding from a long war of the most terrible character. Until the insur- rection of Paez in Venezuela, which broke out in May, 1826, Santander's suc- cess corresponded to his patriotism. Dur- ing the residue of that year, he became extensively kuown as the great champion of that republican constitution which he was sworn to support, and, of course, be- came the object of unmitigated abuse, from the disorganizers and insurrection- ists of Venezuela. He ended actual hos- tilities with Paez, and left the insurrection to be quieted by Bolivar, to whom the disaffected appealed. In 1827, Santander entered upon his second term of office, and from that time was opposed to Boli- var, and was the rallying point of the con- stitutional and republican party. In Sep- tember, 1827, Bolivar entered upon the duties of the office of president, and, of course, the executive authority ceased to be vested in Santander, who was now re- garded as the personal enemy of Bolivar; but, in fact, was hostile only to the design of the liberator to suspend or subvert the SANTANDER—SAPPARE. 201 constitution, and assume the dictatorship of Colombia. This object he constantly and firmly resisted. After the dissolution of the convention of Ocana in 1828, when the suffrages of the anny placed Bolivar above the constitution, Santander sought to leave the countiy, but was unable to do it. At length, he was accused as an ac- complice in an attempt to assassinate Bolivar. Although nothing was proved against him, except the general fact that he was the head of the republican party; and although his character and standing alone were enough to negative the pre- sumption of his guilt; yet he was pro- nounced guilty, and sentenced to be ban- ished. A fresh charge of correspondence with malcontents in Popayan occasioned his confinement in the prison of Boca Chica; but, at length, he regained his lib- erty, and departed froni his country. Af- ter spending some time in Europe, he came to the United States in 1831, pre- paratory to returning to South America, where the death of Bolivar and the respect of his co-patriots have removed the ob- stacles to his influence. (Revue Amir., No. 3, p. 450.) In May, 1832, commissioners arrived in Philadelphia to inform him that he had been elected president of Co- lombia. :,'antee ; a river of South Carolina, formed by the union of the Congaree and Wateree. It flows into the Atlantic by two mouths, twenty miles below Georgetown. It affords good navigation, at some sea- sons, nearly three hundred miles, to Mor- gantown, in North Carolina. It is con- nected with Cooper river by a canal. The main branch in North Carolina is called Catawba. Santiago, the capital of Chile, is situ- ated in a pleasant plain on the Mapocho, thirty leagues distant from the Pacific, seven from the Andes, fifty-five miles south-east of Valparaiso ; lat. 33° 2& S.; lon. 70° 44' W. The population of the city and environs is about 40,000. Among the pruicipal buildings are the mint, the cabildo, government-house, cathedral, and other .churches, and several convents. The private houses are mostly built of ,clay baked in the sun; the churches and other principal buildings of brick or stone. The streets are straight and regu- lar, and the city contains a number of handsome squares. (See Chile.) Santiago, or St. Jago. (See Jago, St.) Sap. (See Plants.) Sap Green. This pigment is prepared by mixing the juice of the ripe berries of the buckthorn (rhamnus catharticus) with alum. The juice of the unripe berries has the color of saffron, and is used for staining maps or paper; and if the berries be gathered late in the autumn, the juice is purple. The buckthorn is a large shrub, with inconspicuous greenish flowers, some- what resembling the privet when in fruit, which grows wild throughout Europe, and is naturalized in some parts of the U. States. The bark affords a beautiful yellow dye. The benies are small, glob- ular and black, and possess purgative properties, but are chiefly employed in color-making, and sometimes in dyeing : they enter into commerce under Uie name of French berries. Sappare (cyanite; disthene; rhatiziter The primary form of this mineral is a doubly-oblique prism, of which the ter- minations are nearly rhombs. The angles of the prism are 106° 15- and 73° 45'; of the terminal plane on the prism, in one direction 100° 50' and 79° 10', and in Uie other 93° 15' and 86° 45'. It ordinarily occurs in four or eight sided prisms of considerable length, and destitute of reg- ular terminations. The cleavage is high- ly perfect, parallel with the broader faces of the prism, but less distinct in the di- rection of the nanower lateral face, and that of the terminal plane. Lustre vitre- ous ; color generally some shade of blue, occasionally very intense berlin-blue; it is also green, gray and white; streak white, transparent or translucent; hardness not inferior to that of feldspar; on the solid angles, equal to quartz; specific gravity 3.6. The massive varieties consist of large, broad, columnar individuals; some- times straight lamellar, often curved, vari- ously aggregated; having their faces of composition, in most cases, irregularly streaked. Three varieties of the present species, analyzed, the firet by Saussure, the second by Laugier, the third by Klap- roth, have yielded, Alumine, 54.50 55.50 55.50 Silica, 30.62 38.50 43.00 Lime, 2.02 0.50 0.00 Magnesia, 2.30 0.00 0.00 Oxide of iron, 6.00 2.75 0.50 Water, 4.56 0.75 0.00 Potash, 0.00 0.00 a trace. It is not altered on being exposed to heat, and is infusible even in very high degrees of temperature. It is entirely soluble in borax. Some crystals exhibit positive, oth- ers negative electricity, on being rubbed. It occurs in crystals, or massive, imbedded in rocks of gneiss and mica-slate, and is frequently accompanied by staurotide. 202 SAPPARE—SARAGOSSA. Crystals and large cleavable varieties are found at St. Gothard in Switzerland, the Zillerthal in the Tyrol, the Sau Alps in Ca- rinthia,at Chesterfield in Massachusetts,and Litchfield, Connecticut, in the U. States. The variety of a white color in fine, inter- lacing prisms, called rhatizite, comes only from Pfitsch in Uie Tyrol. Thin laminae of sappare are sometimes employed as a support in blow-pipe experiments with minerals. Blue transparent varieties are cut and polished, and then sometimes sold as an inferior kind of sapphire. Sapphire. (See Corundum.) Sappho, a distinguished Greek poet- ess, was born at Mitylene, on the island of Lesbos, and flourished about 600 B. C. Alca-us, like her, a lyric poet, and a native of the same island, is said to have loved her; but his passion was not returned. The brilliant fame which she enjoyed seems to have subjected her to calumny, and even to persecution, on account of which she left Lesbos. She is particu- larly accused of unnatural love to her own sex; hence the expression Sapphic love. She must not be confounded with a later Sappho, also a native of Lesbos, the place of whose birth was Eresus, fa- mous for having thrown herself from the Leucadian rock, in despair, on account of her unrequited love for a youth named Phaon. Ovid, however, confounds the two.—See Welker's Sappho vindicated against a prevailing Prejudice (Gottingen, 1816). The ancients ascribe various poems to the elder Sappho,—hymns, odes, ele- gies, epigrams,—of which only fragments have come down to us: these display deep feeling, glowing imagination, and a high finish. She is said to have invented several metres; at least one still bears her name, and has been used by ancient and modern poets:— — v^---------| \s V-' ---\S --- \^> -- V^---------I'vy'V^ --- ^/ -- «^< — \s---------| v^ v-- — \s — ^y — w w — ^y Saraband ; a dance, said to be de- rived from the Saracens. The tune is written in | or f time, and consists of two parts. Its character is grave and ex- pressive. It originated in Spain, where it was formerly danced to the castanets. Saracenic Style of Architecture. (See Architecture, vol. i, p. 342.) Saracens (Orientals); the name adopt- ed by Uie Arabs after their settlement in Europe, as the term Arabs (people of the West), which indicated their geographi- cal situation in Asia, was improper in Europe. Saragossa (in Spanish, Zaragoza); a city of Spain, capital of Arragon, lying in a fertile plain on the Ebro, one hundred and seventy-five miles north-east of Ma- drid ; lon. 1° 42' W.; lat. 41° 38' N. It is an old town, built on the site of the an- cient Roman colony Caesar Augustus, of which the present name is a corruption. The streets, with the exception of the long and wide Cozo, and a few others, are narrow and crooked. There is a fine stone bridge, six hundred feet long, over the Ebro. Previous to 1808, it had 55,000 inhabitants, eighteen churches, and forty monasteries. Among the churches, that of Our Lady of the Pillar (Nuestra Se- hora dd PUar) is celebrated for its mirac- ulous image of the virgin, to which pil- grimages are made from different parts of Spain. The canal of Arragon, nearly a hundred miles in length, which affords Navarre and Arragon a communication with the Meditenanean, approaches the city. The present population of the city is 45,000. Saragossa has gained celebrity by the two sieges which it sustained in 1808 and 1809. The adjoining provinces of Catalonia and Navarre were overrun by the French troops; Saragossa con- tained not more than two hundred and twenty regulars, and was unfortified ; and the public treasury was empty. When the people were seeking for a leader, the rank of Palafox, and the favor which he was known to have enjoyed with Ferdi- nand, directed their choice to him, and, accordingly, May 25, 1808, he was pro- claimed by them governor of Saragossa, and of all the kingdom of Arragon. He was then in his eight and twentieth year, and had but a scanty portion of military knowledge. He immediately called into service all the half-pay officers, formed several corps, composed, in part, of the students of the university, took other measures to sustain a siege, and, May 31, declared war against the French, in a proclamation remarkable for its energy. This paper was hardly issued, before a French corps of 8000 men marched to attack Saragossa. The French general was, however, met by the Spaniards, and, after a hard struggle, was compelled to retire. Palafox took advantage of this to quit the city for a while, in order to collect troops and organize the de- fence of the rest of Uie province. He returned with about 1500 men, who had retreated from Madrid, and was soon in- SARAGOSSA—SARATOGA SPRINGS. 203 vested by the French, who had received powerful reinforcements, and a train of artillery. The besiegers carried the post of Tonero and some other exterior works, not without great loss, pushed forward their attacks against the gates of El Carmen and El Portifio, began to bombard the city, July 22, and, August 4, forced their way into the place, by the gate of Santa En- gracia, and, at length, made themselves masters of nearly half of Saragossa. The French general now summoned Palafox to surrender. His summons was con- tained in the following laconic sentence: " Head-Quarters, St. Engracia, capitula- tion." With equal laconism, Palafox in- stantly replied, " Head-Quarters, Sara- gossa. War at the point of the knife." August 5, the brother of Palafox had opened a passage into the city, with 3000 regular troops. A council of war was now held, in which it was resolved that the remaining quarters of the city should be contested inch by inch, and that, should they be lost, the people should retire across the Ebro into the suburbs, destroy the bridge, and defend the suburbs to the last man. This resolution was unanimously applauded by the Saragossans. They did not, however, content themselves with resting on the defensive. They fell upon the besiegers with unequalled and irre- sistible fury. The struggle continued for eleven days, almost without intermission. Every day the people gained ground, till, at last, the enemy held only a narrow space within the walls. Convinced Uiat there was no longer any hope of success, the French general abandoned the siege, which had lasted sixty-one days, and cost him several thousand men. Palafox availed himself of the breathing-time thus obtained to increase his force, and con- struct additional works. He was not al- lowed a long respite. To reduce Sara- gossa to submission was, on many ac- counts, an object of great importance to the French. In November, therefore, a large army, under marshals Mortier and Moncey, marched to recommence the siege. Palafox was defeated at Tudela, and again under the walls of Saragossa, and the place was invested. Being sum- moned to surrender, he replied and acted with the same energy as before. The ap- proaches were vigorously carried on by Uie French, and a furious bombardment was incessantly kept up. Almost hourly combats took place between the besiegers and Uie besieged, in which the latter dis- played a desperate valor. At length, Jan- uary 27, a general assault was made, and the French established themselves on Uie breaches. Once more Uiey penetrated, by degrees, into the city, and once more they met with Uie most obstinate and san- guinary resistance. Old men, women and children, all took a part in endeavor- ing to stop the progress of the besiegers. Not only street by street, but house by- house, and even room by room, was con- tended for, like the outworks of a fortress, and frequently lost and recovered. The besiegers finally resorted to mining to win their way, their progress by open force being bought at too dear a rate. In this way they became masters of about one fourth of the surface of Uie city. Sara- gossa, however, would long have resisted all their efforts, had it not been assailed by a force more tenible than Uie besieg- ers. An epidemic fever raged in the place, and spread destruction among the ranks of the Saragossans, there being nei- ther hospitals, nor medicines, nor even shelter for the sick. Palafox himself was attacked by it, and, February 20, was obliged to give up the command to gen- eral St. Marc, by whom the capitulation was signed on the following day. The garrison was reduced to less than 12,000 men, who, when they marched out of the city, had more the appearance of spectres than of human beings. During this sec- ond siege, 54,000 of the besieged perished, of whom a fourth were soldiere. (See Spain.) Sar Louis. (See Soar Louis.) Saratoga; a post-township of New York, in Saratoga county, on Uie west side of the Hudson, thirty miles north-by- east from Albany; population in 1830, 2461. Saratoga is memorable as Uie place where general Burgoyne surrendered the British army, consisting of 5791 men, to General Gates, October 17, 1777. In 1819, aratoga township was divided, and Uie western part was named Saratoga Springs. Saratoga Springs is an incorporated village, containing celebrated mineral wa- ters, and is situated seven miles north-east of Ballston Spa, and thirty-two north of Albany; population in 1830, 2204. Here are extensive establishments for the ac- commodation of the numerous invalids and people of fashion, who resort hither during the summer season. The sur- rounding country has very few charms. The springs are very numerous, and sev- eral of them are very large. The Congress Spring is Uie most celebrated, and great quantities of the water are bottled and sent to all parts of Uie union. (For the ingredi- ents of this water, see Congress Spring.) 204 SARCOLATR^E—SARDINIA. Sarcolatr.e. (See ApoUinarians.) Sarcophagus (from oapf, flesh, and I in- * SARTO- duced him, by a considerable salary, to go to France in 1518. But his ex- travagant wife led him into acts of ingrati- tude against the prince. He soon went back to Italy, and appropriated to the use of himself and his wife large sums, which had been given him, by his royal patron, to purchase the pictures of great masters in Italy. He repented, it is true, of his faults, but could not recover the king's favor. Among other works, he painted, about this time, the beautiful Sacrifice of Abraham, which has since been placed in the gallery of Dresden. The following anecdote is related of his wonderful skill in imitation :—He copied Raphael's por- trait of Leo X so exquisitely as even to deceive Giulio Romano, who had aided Raphael hi the drapery. Among his most celebrated works is a Burial in the palace Pitti, and the Dead Savior with Mary and the Saints, in the gallery of the grand-duke ; also a beautiful Madonna, hi the church of I'Annunziata, called Ma- donna del sacco, and several others in Florence ; a Charity, now in Basle ; To- bias with the Angel; and several Holy Families; * the History of Joseph, in two paintings, in the Paris museum. In 1529, when Florence was taken, the sol- diere, on entering the refectory which contained his picture of the Last Supper, were struck with awe, and retired with- out committing any violence. He died of the plague, in ' 1530. His coloring in fresco, as well as in oil, was full of" sweetness and force: his draperies are easy and graceful. The naked, in his compositions, is excellently designed, but his figures want that force and vivacity which animate the works of other great painters, though they possess conectness, trutii and simplicity. Sometimes he is too anxious to produce effect. Giacomo de Pontonno was his pupil. Sarum, Old ; a rotten borough in Wiltshire, two miles north of Salisbury. It was anciently a considerable city, and by the Romans called Sorbiodunum, though at present reduced to some ruins and in- trenchments. Two members, however, are yet returned to parliament by the pro- prietors, and the election takes place in the field, on the spot where the last houses of the city stood. The present proprietor of Old Sarum (lord Caledon) paid about £60,000 for the small estate on which the borough stands. It was Uie original sit- uation of Salisbury, and the bishop had a castle here; but the see was removed to the present situation of Salisbury (q. v.), in the year 1219. Before the reforma- SATIRE. ^09 tion in England, the most celebrated lit- urgy in use in that country was that styled secundum usum Sarum, compiled by the bishop of Salisbury, in the eleventh cen- tury. Sassafras. (See Laurel.) Sassoferato ; a painter, so called from the place of his birth, a town in the duchy of Urbino, States of the Church. His true name was Giambattista Salvi. He was bom in 1605, learned the elements of his art from his father, and afterwards studied under Domenichino, Guido and Albani.. His works resemble those of the latter, and are executed with the same care. His paintings were chiefly the Madonna and Child, the latter sleeping. His heads are expressive and lovely. Satan. (See Devil.) Sate ; an Egyptian goddess. (See Hieroglyphics, vol. vi, p. 319.) Satin ; a soft, closely-woven silk, with a glossy surface. In the manufacture of other silken stuffs, each half of the warp is raised alternately ; but in weaving satin, the workman only raises the fifth or the eighth part of the warp ; thus the woof is hidden beneath the warp, which, present- ing an even, close and smooth surface, is the more capable of reflecting the rays of light In this way satin acquires that lustre and brilliancy which distinguish it from most other kinds of silks. The chief seats of this branch of manufacture are Lyons in France, and Genoa and Florence in Italy. From the East Indies are imported those light stuffs called In- dian or Chinese satins. They are either plain, damasked, striped, open-worked, or embroidered. Both in lustre and execu- tion, they are far inferior to the Lyonese satins ; they, however, possess this pecu- liar property, that, even after scouring, they retain their original gloss.- Satin-Spar ; carbonate of lime, in delicate, almost compact, white fibres. (See Lime.) Satire ; in the widest sense of tin- word, pungent ridicule or cutting censure of faults, vices or weakness.es; hence the phrase a " satirical person." In a narrower sense, in which it is more commonly used, it is a poem, of which ridicule and cen- sure are Uie object and chief characteris- tic. This species of poetry had its origin with the Romans: the name is derived from satur (by no means from satyr), and refers, originally, to the mixture of sub- jects treated, and of metres used, in the . earlier productions of this kind. Satire is one of the latest branches of poetry culti- vated, because it presupposes not merely 210 SATIRE—SATURN. much natural wit, but also acute obser- vation, and much variety of life and man- ners to call this wit into exercise. In fact, it is only in an advanced state of so- ciety, where folly and vice force them- selves ou the public eye, that a taste can exist for this species of production. As the object of satire is always castigation, it is distinguished from mere wit, which may occupy itself simply with the lu- dicrousness of particular relations. The form of satire is veiy varied. It may be in the shape of epistles, tales, dialogues, dramas (as with Aristophanes), songs, epics, fables, &c. The most common form of satire, however, is that of a sim- ply didactic composition. The ancients wrote their satires in iambic and dactylic verse. The moderns generally use the iambus, sometimes the Alexandrine (q. v.), sometimes the iambic verse of five feet, the latter sometimes, with, sometimes without rhyme. The proper didactic satire originated, as we have said, with the Romans; and its inventor was Lucilius: Horace, Juvenal and Persius devel- oped it. Vulpius, Casaubon and Konig have written on the Roman satire. Of the modern satirists, we may mention, among the Italians, Ariosto, Alamanni, Salvator Rosa, Menzini, Dotti, Gasparo Gozzi, Alfieri, &c.; among the Spaniards, Cer- vantes, Quevedo and Saavedra; among the French, Regnier, Boileau, and Vol- taire, &c.; among the Germans, Seb. Brand, Ulr. Hutten, Fischart, Haller, Ra- bener, Lichtenberg, Falk, Wieland, &c.; among the English, Donne, Rochester, Diyden, Butler, Pope, Swift, Young, Churchill, Johnson, Peter Pindar (Wol- cot), Gifford, Mathias ; among the Poles, Krasiczky. The Greeks had not the proper satire. The poem of Archilo- chus, and that of Simouides, were more properly lampoons; and the silli had probably a didactic form, but were of the nature of parody. Entirely different from the satire was the drama satyricon of the Greeks, invented by Pratinas—a mixture of tragic, at least heroic action with comic. These dramas served as inter- ludes and after-pieces, and had a low comic character. We possess only one— the Cyclops of Euripides.—See Eich- stiidt, De Dramate Gracorum comico-satyr- ico, &c, and Herrmann and Pinzger on the same subject. Satraps, in the Persian empire; the governors of the provinces which were called satrapies. The term satrap is sometimes used to signify a petty despot. Saturation. A fluid, -tyhich holds in solution as much of any substance as it can dissolve, is said to be saturated with it. But saturation with one substance does not deprive the fluid of its power of acting on, and dissolving some other bodies; and in many cases it increase** this power. The word saturation is alxo employed in another sense. The union of two principles produces a body, the properties of which differ from those of its component parts: when the principles are in such proportion that neither pre- dominates, they are said to be saturated with each other; but if otherwise, the most predominant principle is said to be subsaturated, and the other supersaturated. Saturday (Saturni dies, Saturn's day), so called from the planet Saturn; the seventh day of the Aveek ; the Sabbath of the Jews. It is called by the Italians, Sabbato; by the French, Samedi; and by the Germans, Sonnabend (Sunday eve), or in High German, Samstag, a corrup- tion of Sabbathstag (Sabbath day); and in Low German, Satcrdag, of the same ori - gin as the English. (See Week.) Saturn ; originally an old Italian di- vinity, who was afterwards confounded with the Kronos (Kpovof) of the Greeks. Uranus and Gaea (Ten*a) were the parents of the six Titans. The youngest of these Titans was Kronos (Time), who, when Uranus imprisoned his children, and thereby brought upon himself the anger of their mother, was instigated by her to vengeance, armed hhnself with a sharp knife, or sickle, and, as Hesiod says, cut off* the privities of his father, whereupon Uranus was deprived of his sovereignty. The Titans set free their imprisoned brothers, and the government fell into the hands of Kronos. He then married Rhea, who bore him several sons and daughters. But, as he well knew that he should be dethroned by one of his sons, he devoured the children that were born to him. Jupiter alone, whom Rhea concealed in Crete, where Terra promised to educate him, was pre- served. Rhea presented Kronos with a stone, in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed instead of the new bom in- fant By means of an emetic, admin- istered to him by Terra and Metis, he threw iip the stone, as well as all the children whom he had swallowed ; by the assistance of whom, Jupiter made war upon him and the Titans, and dethroned him, after a contest of ten years. Kro- nos was, together with the Titans, con- fined in the dungeons of Tartarus; whence, however, according to the later SATURN—SATYRS. 211 poets, they were released: according to Pindar, Jupiter recognised Kronos as the lord of the Fortunate Island in the western ocean. The unknown Hespe- ria was considered as the land where Uranus, and the succeeding Titans, reigned. But when this land became more accurately known, Kronos, and the golden age, were transferred to Italy. Kronos now becoming blended with Saturn, Saturn was represented as de- throned, cast out from his kingdom, and flying before his son; and as having se- lected a place of refuge in Italy, and concealed himself in Latium (from latere). There the aged king Janus shared with him his throne, and Saturn built upon the Saturnian mount (afterwards the Capitoline hill) the city of Satumia. His temple stood in the Roman forum, and in it were preserved the public treasures of the city. The Saturnian period was the golden age, which poets vied with each other in celebrating. At that time, the years rolled tranquilly away, and every moment offered an abundance of untroub- led enjoyment. Saturn has also been made the father of Chiron, the Centaur. Saturn. The thickness of the ring of the planet Saturn has lately been esti- mated by Uie German astronomer Bessel at 29-^ German miles (15 to a degree), 128^ English geog. miles. (SeePZoners.) Saturnalia ; a feast among the Ro- mans, in commemoration of the happy period under the reign of Saturn, when freedom and equality prevailed, when truth, confidence and love, united all, and violence and oppression were un- known. It continued, at first, one day ; then tliree; afterwards five; and finally, under the Caesars, seven days, viz. from the 17th to the 23d of December. The festival began as soon as the woollen bands which had bound the feet of Sat- urn's statue through the year were removed. At the commencement of this festival, a great number of wax tapers were lighted in the temple of Saturu, as a sign that no more human victims were to be sacrificed. The slaves were freed from restraint during this season, wore caps as badges of freedom, and went about dressed in tunics, adorned with purple, and in white togas. Mas- ters and slaves changed places; and while the servants sat and banqueted at the tables, they were waited on by their mas- ters and their guests, who, if they did not do this, were obliged to submit to all sorts of ridiculous punishments. Jests and freedom eveiy where, prevailed ; and all ceased from their various occupation.^. In the last days of the festival, which were added in later times, presents were sent from one to another, particularly little images of the gods, sigilla (seals), &c.; whence these days were sometimes called Sigillaria, and persons were greet- ed with the acclamations of " Io Saturna- lia! bona Saturnalia!" Some prisoners were also set free, who dedicated their chains to Saturn. Satyrs. The Greek mythology in- cludes, under the name of Satyrs (oarvpoi, nrupoj), as well as under those of Sileni, Fauns, and Pans, a species of beings who approach, more or less, to the nature of brutes, and particularly to the form of the goat. They were, originally, Pejp- ponnesian wood-gods. The develope- ment of the idea of these beings is due to the Attic drama, and the drama satyr- icon hi particular. The early Greeks pictured them as long-eared, bald-headed, and as having small protuberances behind their ears. Later artists made them like Pan, giving them horns and goats' feet. (See Voss's Mythological Letters, 2d vol. page 30.) In the representation of them by some artists, the brute charac- teristics, such as goats'' feet, a tail, pointed ears and horns, predominate. Others mainly preserve the human form, and resemble the brutes only by their goats' ears and tails, and sometimes by the introduction of little horns, in the first stages of their growth. To this we must add, however, the general cast of the face, the cheek-bones, the beard, and the flesh hanging down upon the neck from the ears. At other times, the brute char- acteristics are softened into a mere clownish, rude and awkward human form. The common difference made between the Fauns and Satyrs is, that Uie former are represented with pointed ears and short tails; the latter, on the contrary, appear with goats' feet. The Sileni are considered to be the old Fauns. This is, howevei*, erroneous. The Satyrs of the Greeks were, in fact, equivalent to the Fauns of the Romans. The whole race of Satyrs, Sileni, Fauns, and Pans, were generally regarded, among the an- cients, as divinities of the woods and ru- ral places, and grew up from different notions. The Satyrs and Sileni were the attendants of Bacchus, Uie signification of which cannot be determined, as the ori- gin of these representations was early lost. Perhaps the idea of them arose from men dressed in the skhis of beasts; or perhaps they were only symbolical, and 212 SATYRS—SAURIN. intended to represent man in a rude state. The parents of* the Satyrs were consid- ered, by some, to be Mercury and the nymph Iphtime; but, according to oth- ers, they were Bacchus and the naiad Nicaea. They were wanton, and were ex- tremely fond of music; and, at the festi- vals of Bacchus, always appear dancing and playing on musical instniments. Salcisse, in the military art, is a long train of powder sewed up in a roll of pitched cloth or leather, serving to set fire to mines. To every mine there are gen- erally two, that if one fail the other may take effect. Their length is determined by circumstances. Saucisson, in fortification, a kind of fagot made of thick branches of trees, bound together, to cover the men while exposed to the enemy's fire, when on some hazardous employment It is also used to repair breaches, stop passages, and make traverses over wet ditches. SAUKS,or Sacs. (SeeIndians, American.) Saul. (See Paul.) Saul ; king of Israel about 1050 B. C. He was descended from an humble family of the undistinguished tribe of Benjamin, but was noted for his personal beauty and courage, and, when the people became dissatisfied with the theocratico-republi- can constitution, was selected by Samuel (q. v.) for their king. He was not ac- knowledged by the whole people until after he had gained a victory over the Am- monites. Repeated successes over the Philistines, Edomites, Moabites, Ammon- ites, and even over a king beyond the Eu- phrates, confirmed his authority. But Samuel, who had reluctantly parted with Uie supreme power, continued to keep up a party in the nation, and, being offended by the encroachments of the king on the privileges of the priesthood, and by his disobedience to the commands of Jeho- vah in a war against the Amalekites, se- cretly anointed David (q. v.) as king. Saul discovered his rival, and his hatred against him was increased by the reputation which the latter acquired by his warlike exploits. A civil war, which broke out between the partisans of David and those of Saul, was terminated by the death of the latter, who, after the defeat of his forces by his rival, fell upon his own sword. The history of Saul's frenzy has furnished Alfieri with the subject of one of his masterpieces— Saul, a lyric Tragedy. Saumaise. (See Salmasius.) Saunderson, Nicholas; a celebrated blind mathematician, born in 1682. When a year old, he entirely lost his eye-sight through the small-pox. Notwithstanding this privation, he acquired a knowledge of Latin and Greek, and, having pur- sued his studies for some time, with the assistance of friends, he was, in 1707, sent to Cambridge. He took up his residence at Christ's college, and soon commenced giving lectures on optics. He became acquainted with sir Isaac Newton, and was chosen mathematical professor. He died 1739. His treatise on algebra was published after his death, at Cambridge (1740, 2 vols.). He left other works in an imperfect state, among which were com- ments on Newton's Principia, which were published at the end of his posthumous treatise on Fluxions (1756,8vo.). Saurin, James, a French Protestant preacher, son of a lawyer at Nismes, was bom in 1677. Upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685, his father re- tired with his family to Geneva, where the subject of this article made a considerable progress in learning, but quitted his studies, and went into the army. When the duke of Savoy, under whom he served, made peace in 1696, he returned to Geneva, with a view to engage in the ministry. In 1700, he visited England, where he preached nearly five years to his fellow refugees in London. He subsequently became pastor to a congregation of French refugees, who assembled in a chapel be- longing to the prince of Orange, at the Hague. He died in 1730, at the age of fifty-three. This eminent preacher pos- sessed great talents, and a fine address: his voice was strong, clear and harmoni- ous, and his style pious, unaffected and eloquent. He had the happy art of adapt- ing his arguments, with great skill, to the understanding of the audiences before whom he spoke, and was persuasive and pathetic, or plain, clear and argumenta- tive, as best suited his subjects or his hearers. His principles were those of moderate Calvuiism. He was the author of twelve volumes of Sermons (8vo.), se- lections from which were translated into English, and published, between 1775 and 1784, in five volumes, by Mr. Robert Robin- son (with a Memoir), a sixth being added, in 1796, by doctor Henry Hunter. Among his other works are Christianity in France (8vo.); Compendium of Christian Divinity and Morality; Discourses on the most Re- markable Events of the Old and New Tes- taments. Of this, his most considerable work, he nearly completed three vol- umes folio; to which Roques added a fourth on the Old Testament, and Beau- sobre two more on the New* Testament. SAUSSURE—SAVAGE. 213 Saussure, Horace Benedict de, a cele- brated naturalist, born at Geneva in 1740, distinguished himself so much at Uie age of twenty-two by his proficiency in the mathematical and physical sciences, as to be appointed professor of philosophy in his native place. He continued to dis- charge the duties of this office, for 25 years, with reputation. The leisure which his duties left him was occupied in scien- tific journeys to the volcanic region of France, to the south of Italy, and to Eng- land. A favorite object of his investiga- tions was the structure and height of mountains ; and to him we are indebted for the invention of several philosophical instruments ; as, for instance, an electrom- eter, a hygrometer, heliothermometer, &c. In 1779 he had ascended the Alps four- teen times in eight different places, and in 1787 he ascended Mont Blanc, and deter- mined its height by barometrical measure- ments. Saussure died in 1799. Among his writings, his Essais sur I'Hygromitrie, and his Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1779 —96), are the most valuable. Saussurite is a massive or compact mineral, found in large masses in the Monte Rosa; in Corsica; in the Bacher mountain in Lower Stiria, and in Bay- reuth. In certain varieties, traces of cleavage parallel to the sides of a prism of 124°, and to the shorter diagonal of such a figure, are observable. Fracture uneven, splintery; lustre pearly, inclining to vitre- ous; color white, passing into mountain- green ; streak white; brittle; frangible with much difficulty; specific gravity 3.25. It consists of silex 49, alumine 24, lime 10, magnesia 3.75, oxide of iron 6.50, and soda 5.50. Savage, Richard, an English poet of the last century, celebrated for his genius, irregularities and misfortunes, was born in London, about 1698. The singular story of Savage, adorned as it is by the pen of his intimate friend, doctor John- son (Lives of the Poets), has acquired great celebrity ; but there is reason to be- lieve that a great part of it is utterly ficti- tious. Savage was probably the son of a woman who had been employed to nurse a natural son of the countess of Maccles- field by earl Rivere. That lady always asserted—and there is no good cause for doubting it—that her child died while quite young, and that Savage was an im- postor. Johnson's account, taken from Savage himself, is, Uiat no sooner did he see the light, than a most unnatural hatred took complete possession of his mother; Uiat he was placed with a woman in the lowest state of indigence, with directions that he should be brought up in ig- norance of his birth, and in the meanest condition; that the interference of his maternal grandmother, lady Mason, a little alleviated his lot; and through her kindness he was placed at a grammar school in the neighborhood of St. Alban's, during which period earl Rivers died, re- voking a bequest he had made him, on being assured by the countess that her child had been some time dead; and that his mother endeavored to have him kid- napped and sent as a slave to the planta- tions. He was an apprentice to a shoe- maker (this is true), when the woman, whom he had been taught to consider his mother, dying suddenly, some of lady Mason's letters, among her papers, dis- covered to him, as he pretends, the secret of his birth; or, as appears probable, suggested to him the plan of assuming to be the child of lady Macclesfield, whom his mother had nursed, and to whom these letters really related. He now became an author for the means of bodily subsistence. His first work was a pamphlet on the Bangorian controversy, which was followed by two comedies, Woman's a Riddle, and Love in a Veil, which procured him the acquaint- ance of sir Richard Steele and Mr. Wilkes. In 1723, his tragedy, on the subject of sir Thomas Overbury, was brought out; the author himself perform- ed the principal character, but with little success : the profits of the piece, however, appear to have amounted to about £200. The poet was now rising in reputation, when, in 1727, in a broil in a house of ill fame, he killed a Mr. Sinclair; and, being tried for murder, a verdict of guilty was pronounced against him. Through the influence, however, of lady Hertford, the king's pardon was granted him. Soon after, lord Tyrconnel received him into his house, and allowed him two hundred pounds a year. In 1729, he published his Wanderer, a Moral Poem. A quar- rel with his patron once more turned him adrift upon the world, and he now pro- duced The Bastard, a poem of merit. A Birth-day Ode, addressed to the queen, procured him a pension of fifty pounds from her majesty, to which he was eventually mainly indebted for his sup- port. A satire against the clergy, entitled the Progress pf a Divine, caused a Erosecution to be instituted against him; ut the information was dismissed. From this period, he appears to have sunk into the lowest misery. The 214 SAVAGE—SAVARY. death of the queen, and the loss of his pension,completed his ruin; and, although a few friends raised a subscription, with a view of enabling him to reside in Wales, the same propensity to dissipa- tion induced him not only to squander the money advanced to him, but to incur a debt of eight pounds at Bristol; for which he was arrested, thrown into the county jail, and eventually removed to Newgate, where he died in 1743. Although Savage at one time received an allowance of fifty pounds a year from Mrs. Oldfield, and repeatedly extorted considerable sums of money from lady Macclesfield by threats of lampooning her, besides other sums from the admirers of his genius, his ex- travagance always kept him poor; and it is well known that he was the friend and companion of Johnson at the time when the latter was sleeping in the streets of London, houseless and pennyless. For (the true character and history of Savage, see Gait's Lives of the Players (London, 1831, 1st vol.). Savannah ; a river which makes the north-east boundary of Georgia, and sep- arates it from South Carolina. It is form- ed by the junction of the Tugalo and Kiowee, 100 miles by the course of the river above Augusta. The largest ves- sels come up to Five-fathom Hole, within three miles of the city of Savannah, eighteen miles from the ocean; large brigs come to the wharves; steam-boats of 150 tons ascend to Augusta, about 250 miles by water, and 127 by land; and pole- boats ascend lOo miles farther, and then 50 miles on the Tugalo branch. Boats on this branch carry from thirty to sixty bags of cotton, and return with eight or ten tons of merchandise. Tides flow up 25 miles. Savannah; a city of Georgia, and port of entry, in Chatham county, on the south bank of Savannah river. It is built on a sandy bluff* point, 40 feet high. It was laid out by general Oglethorpe in 1733. In 1829, it contained ten houses of worship, an exchange, a court house, a jail, a poor house, an hospital, a thean*e, an academy, two state banks, and a branch of the U. States bank. Two of the churches are for Africans; and one of these has more than 2000 members attached to the congregation. Population in 1830, 7303; lat. 32° 2' N.; lon. 81° 3f W. The town is regularly laid out; the streets are wide, and ornamented with the China tree. The chief part of the exports and imports of the state are landed here. In the year ending September 30, 1826, the exports were 190,578 bags of cotton, 11,455 tierces of rice, 170 hogsheads of tobacco. Since a safe inland passage to Charleston by way of Beaufort has been discovered, some part of Uie exports have passed from Au- gusta directly to Charleston. In Janua- ry, 1820, this town was burned; but it has been rebuilt in an improved style. The city abounds in benevolent institu- tions. Savannah was taken by the Brit- ishduring the revolution. (See Sherwood's Gazetteer of Georgia.) Savary, Rene, duke of Rovigo, was bom in 1774. He was Napoleon's minister of police, &c, and served with distinction, in 1789, in the line; also in 1796, under Moreau, and in 1799 under Desaix hi Egypt. After Desaix's death, at Marengo, in 1800, he became Napoleon's adjutant- general, and, soon after, was intrusted with the charge of the secret police. Bold, active, and dexterous (for example, in the discovery of the conspiracy of George and Pichegru),and at the same time zealously devoted to the emperor, he soon obtained the confidence of the latter. Napoleon em- ployed him on important missions. After the battle of Austerlitz, he was sent to Uie Russian and Austrian head-quarters, and, in 1808, to Ferdinand VII, at Madrid, whom he induced to come to Bayonne. On account of a brilliant charge which he successfully made at the head of his regi- ment at the battle of Friedland in 1807, the emperor made him duke of Rovigo (q. v.); and when Fouche fell into disgrace, he was appointed (June 3, 1810) minister of police. After Napoleon's return from Elba, Fouche was made minister of the police, and Savary was appointed general superintendent of the gens d'armes, and a peer of France. It is well known Uiat the British government refused to give him pennission to accompany Napoleon to St. Helena. Having been detained as a prisoner at Malta, he escaped, in April, 1816, to Smyrna. Thence he went, in 1817, to Trieste, in order to repair to Paris, to defend himself against a sentence of death passed on him December 25, 1816, by a court martial; but he was detained at Gratz until he returned to Smyrna, in June, 1818, where he engaged in mercan- tile business. In 1819, he went to Lon- don, and thence to Paris, where, Decem- ber 27 of that year, he presented himself before Uie court, and was acquitted. He then lived retired, but went to Berlin in 1823, to bring before Uie Prussian courts of justice an action against the Pmssian exchequer for indemnification (inadmissi- ble by the peace of Paris) for the loss of his dotations in the Prussian dominions, SAVARY—SAVIGNY. 215 which the king had presented to general Gneisenau. Failing in his object, he went back to Paris, and, in order to refute a pas- sage in the Mimorial of count Las Cases, published a fragment from his Memoirs (Sur la Catastrophe du Due d'Enghien), denying his privity to Uie arrest and execution of the duke, and maintaining, on the contrary, that the whole was planned aud carried into execution with- out the previous knowledge of Napoleon, by the minister who was then at the head of foreign affaire (Talleyrand). But Tal- leyrand justified himself before Louis XVIII; and other publications connected with this affair, particularly those of gen- eral Hullin and Dupin, bear so hard on the duke of Rovigo, that it is difficult to believe him not to have been privy to the hurried execution of the sentence. The duke of Rovigo was thereupon banished from the court; and from that time he lived in close retirement. His Mimoire sur la Mort de Pichegru,de. Wright,de Bathurst, etsurquelquesautres Circonstances de sa Vie (Paris, 1825), has weakened the force of the charges against Savary, although the occurrences with regard to Wright and Bathurst require a further explanation. He appears to be a man of courage and adroitness,but destined by nature to follow the lead of men of more decided talent and character. His Mimoires were published in 1828 (8 vols. 8vo.; in English, 4 vols.). He was appointed governor of Algiers in 1832. Savigny, Frederic Charles von, born in 1779, at Frankfort on the Maine, is one of Uie most distinguished professors of the civil law. After having finished his academic studies, in which Weis and Hu- go were his chief guides, and having ta- ken his degree, as doctor of laws, at Mar- burg, in 1800, he travelled, during several years, in Germany, France, and Upper It- aly, to investigate unexplored or little known sources of the civil law, and, after his return, was appointed professor of law at Marburg. In 1803, he wrote, at this place, his Law of Possession (5th edition, Giessen, 1827). In 1808, he was appointed professor at Landshut, and, in 1810, in the university established a short time previous at Berlin, where he continues to teach. He is a member of the academy of sci- ences at Berlin, of the council of state, and of the court of revision, or cassation (q. v.) for Uie Prussian provinces on the Rhine, where the French code has remained in force. His lectures on the pandects, the institutes and Uie history of the Roman law, are distinguished for clearness, pre- cision, and purity of language, and attract many students to Berlin. Savigny belongs to the historical school (so called) of Ger- man lawyers, though he cannot be termed its founder without injustice to Hugo and Schlosser. He was, however, the first to adopt this name for himself and his followers (Zeitschrift far die feschichtliche Rechtswissenschafl, edited by avigny, Eichhorn, and Goschen, I, 2, Berlin, 1815), to distinguish his- school from one which might, with equal reason, assume the title of the philosophical school, and call their opponents Uie unphilosoph- ical, as they are far from disregarding the historical developement of law, though they endeavor to deduce law mainly from Uie higher principles of our nature. Sa- vigny's views respecting the foundation of law—according to which it rests neither on positive legislation nor on the deduc- tions of reason—are contained in a Work published subsequently, in consequence of the wish expressed by other jurists, as Thibaut, Schmid, Gdnner, for the intro- duction of a general penal and civil code, and a uniform course of procedure throughout Germany. In tins work, en- titled Vom Berufunserer Zeit fur Gesetz- gebung und Rechtswissenschafl (Berlin, 1814, translated by a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, under the title, On Uie Aptitude of the present Age for Legislation and Juris- prudence, &c), he endeavors to show Uiat new codes are unnecessary and impracti- cable ; that the codes of France, Austria and Prussia are not adapted for introduc- tion into other countries; and that the German language is not even sufficiently matured for a code. Savigny's work, though replete with proofs of extensive erudition, and not devoid of sound views, exhibits also numerous traces of that dis- position to exalt the past and the distant, at the expense of Uie present and the near, so often met with among the learned, who are disposed to value most highly what has cost them most labor. The fondness for ancient laws and political institutions is most common in those countries which have the least political liberty. How of- ten does a German philologist assert that the greatest orators are those who were formed under the political institu- tions of antiquity, forgetting the great names who adom the histoiy of English eloquence! The work of Savigny cannot be called very philosophical, but it con- tains much matter for reflection. He has published a History of the Roman Law in the Middle Ages(4 vols.,1815—26; English, Edinb. 1829); other fruits of his 216 SAVIGNY—SAVINGS INSTITUTIONS. researches are contained in papers read before Uie academy of sciences, and in ar- ticles in Uie periodical mentioned above. Uncommon erudition, acuteness, and ele- gance in Uie exposition of his views, are allowed him, even by those who do not belong to his school. Savile, sir Henry, one of the most profound and elegant scholars of" his age, was bom in 1549, and, after graduating at Brazen-nose college, Oxford, removed on a fellowship to Merton college, in Uie same university. In his twenty-ninth year, he made a tour on the continent, for the pur- pose of perfecting hhnself in elegant lit- erature, and, on his return, was appointed tutor in Greek and mathematics to queen Elizabeth. Seven years after, the war- denship of his college, which he held for about six-and-thirty years, the provostship of Eton being added to it in 1596, was conferred on him. In 1619, he founded two professorships, in geometry and as- tronomy, at Oxford, besides conferring several other valuable benefactions, both in property and books, many of Uie latter forming still a part of the Bodleian libra- ry. Among his works, the principal are his Commentaries on Roman Warfare; RerumAnglicarumpost Bedam Scriptores; Pralectiones in Elementa Euclidis; and his edition of the writings of St. Chrysos- tom, hi eight folio volumes. Sir Henry Savile was Uie corcespondent of J. Scali- ger, Meibomius, Isaac Casaubon, and most of the learned men of his day. His death took place in 1622. Savile, George, marquis of Halifax, a statesman and writer, was born in 1630. On the death of Cromwell, he distinguish- ed liimself by his exertions in favor of Uie absent king, and on the restoration was raised to the peerage. He was re- moved from Uie council in 1675, through the influence of the duke of York (see James II), in consequence of his op- position to Uiat prince's measures in fa- vor of Uie Roman Catholic religion. But when Uie bill for excluding the duke from Uie succession was in agitation, his repug- nance to that measure brought him into disgrace with the party with which he had hitherto acted. In 1682, he was cre- ated marquis of Halifax, keeper of the privy seal, and president of the council, which dignities he retained in Uie early part of Uie succeeding reign, till his oppo- sition to the proposed repeal of the test acts caused his abrupt dismissal. From this moment lord Halifax continued in op- position, till Uie flight of James II, when he was chosen speaker of Uie house of lords in the convention parliament, and contrib- uted mainly to the elevation of William III to the throne. But, soon after the revolution, he resigned the privy seal, and, during Uie remainder of his life, voted against the court. A mortification in the bowels carried him oft* in 1695. He was the author of Advice to a Daughter, and of a variety of political tracts, the princi- pal of which are, Maxims of State ; the Character of a Trimmer; Character of King Charles II; Anatomy of an Equiva- lent ; Letter to a Dissenter, &c. Savin. (See Juniper.) Savings Institutions, or, as they are often called, Savings Banks, are an insti- tution of recent origin, but have already accomplished much good. They afford an opportunity for those who have any thing to spare, not only to deposit their savings in safety, but to receive interest for the sum so secured, against a time of sickness, or distress, or age. One of Uie first attempts with which we are ac- quainted to realize such an institution was made by Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London, in 1803, in which small sums were received, and in- terest allowed on them. The firet attempt on a larger scale was made in Edinburgh, in 1814 ; and soon after this example was imitated in England. The Scotch banks allowing interest on mere deposits, the managers of savings institutions in that country had no difficulty in investing their funds; but in England, this riot being the case, it became necessary to vest the de- posits in the public funds, in some in- stances paying a fixed interest, in others leaving the depositors to take their chance in the fluctuations of Uie stocks. Such was the extent of the operations of these institutions, that from 1817 to 1828 inclu- sive, the commissioners for Uie reduction of the public debt received from the directors of savings banks, including friendly societies, the sum of £13,746,546, for which government paid four per cent. interest. By act of parliament of July 28, 1828 (to consolidate and amend the laws relating to savings banks), for Uie further regulation of savings banks, the rate of in- terest was reduced to £3 8s. 5^d. per cent, per annum. November 20, 1830, there were 379 savings banks in England, and since that time five others have been established. The number of depositors in 369 banks, from which returns were re- ceived, was 367,812 ; the amount deposit- ed, £13,080,255: of the depositors, 187,770 deposited under twenty pounds, and 102,621 under fifty pounds. In Wales, there SAVINGS INSTITUTIONS—SAVONAROLA. 217 are twenty-five institutions of this kind, with 10,404 depositors, and an amount invested of £340,721. In Ireland, there are eighty- three, returns from sixty-two of which give 34,638 depositors, and an amount in- vested of £945,991. (See Pratt's History of Savings Banks.) The first savings bank in America was opened in Philadel- phia, in November, 1816. In Boston, an institution was incorporated in December of the same year; but its action did not begin until Februaiy following. Since Uiat time, these societies have become quite numerous, and, with hardly an exception, have been exceedingly prosperous. That of New York has the largest funds : next in magnitude is the institution at Boston ; then those of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Sa- lem, New Bedford. Perhaps the number may amount to forty or fifty ; for most of the northern maritime cities, and the larger manufacturing towns, afford strong en- couragement to such projects. In Boston, Uie number of depositors exceeds ten thousand, and the amount of funds cannot be short of a million and a half of dollars. Savonarola, Gerouimo, au Italian monk, celebrated for his eloquence, and his melancholy fate, was born at Fen*ara, September 21, 1452, and was designed for the medical profession. Religious enthu- siasm led him, at the age of fourteen, to leave his father's house secretly, and enter Uie order of Dominicans. Several years later, he began to preach at Florence, but with so little success that he determined to abandon the pulpit; and, retiring to Bo- logna, he devoted himself to metaphysical and physical studies. The reputation of his talents and learning induced Lorenzo de' Medici to invite him to return to Florence. Here Savonarola began to preach again ; and his discourses attracted such crowds that the church could not contain them. His extraordinary sanctity andhis powerful eloquence gained him great influence over the minds of the Florentines, and he was emboldened to assume a prophetic tone, and to urge with vehemence, and in pub- lic, the necessity of a reform in the church. The multitude looked upon him as divine- ly inspired, while some ridiculed him as a fanatic, and others denounced him as an impostor. He soon broke off* all connex- ion with his patron Lorenzo, whose char- acter he assailed, with prophecies of his approaching fall. He refused to make the customary visit to that chief, which it was his duty to do as prior of St. Mark's, and, when Lorenzo went himself to St. Mark's, refused to see him. Although Lorenzo de' Medici was repeatedly urged to adopt VOL. xi. 19 severe measures against him, he refused, either from lenity, or from his respect for the character of the preacher. When Lo- renzo lay on his death-bed (1492), Savona- rola obtained admission to him, and spoke to the dying man with Uie dignity of* his office. After the death of Lorenzo, and the expulsion of his son Pietro, Savonaro- la took the most active part in the politi- cal affairs of Florence. He put himself at the head of those who demanded a more democratical form of govern- ment, asserted Uiat God had commission- ed him to declare that the legislative pow- er must be extended to the citizens, that he himself had been the ambassador of the Florentines to heaven, and that Christ had consented to be their king. The new- ly elected magistrates accordingly laid down their offices, and the legislative func- tions were intrusted to a council of Uie citizens, which chose a committee from their own number for the discharge of Uie duty. Dissensions, however, distract- ed the new republic; the aristocratical and democratical parties persecuted each other with great fury, the former consist- ing of the friends of the old order of things, and the latter of Uie devout admir- ers of the monk. But the zeal of Savona- rola was not content with revolutionizing Florence ; he meditated the refonn of the Roman court, and of the irregularities of the clergy. The pontificate of Alexander VI could not fail to supply causes of com- plaint on both heads. He accordingly wrote, as his eulogists assure us, to the Christian princes, declaringthat the church was going to ruin, and Uiat it was their duty to convoke a general council, before which hewas ready to prove that Uie church was without a head, and that the reigning pope was not a true bishop, had never been worthy of the title, nor even of the name of a Christian. Alexander excom- municated him, and the bull of excommu- nication was read in the cathedral at Flor- ence ; but Savonarola despised the thun- ders of the Vatican, and continued to preach. His influence was still further increased by the failure of an attempt of Pietro de' Mediri to restore his family au- thority. But another party had, mean- while, arisen in opposition to him. His in- novations in St. Mark's and other monas- teries had excited the enmity of the monks, especially of Uie Franciscans of the strict observance, who denounced him from the pulpit as an excommunicated heretic. Fra Domenico da Rescia, a monk of his con- vent, offered, in the heat of his fanatical zeal, to prove the truth of his master's 218 SAVONAROLA—SAXE. doctrines, by passing through fire, if one of his opponents would undergo the same ordeal in defence of their opinions. The challenge was accepted by a Franciscan monk, and Savonarola, with his champion, appeared at the head of a large procession, chanting the Psalm lxviii, " Let God arise, and let his enemies be scattered." The Franciscan also presented himself, the fire was kindled, and Domenico was ready to enter the flames, bearing the host in his hands. But the crowd exclaimed against this sacrilege, as they termed it; and, as Domenico persisted in his determination, he thus happily escaped the ordeal for which he had offered himself. But this event was fatal to Savonarola. The peo- ple loaded him with insults, and he was finally thrown into prison. A spiritual court, under the direction of two papal commissioners, was held for his trial. His firmness and eloquence at firet threw his judges into confusion, but, being examin- ed on the rack, he confessed that he had falsely arrogated supernatural powers. He was condemned, with some of his adhe- rents, to be first strangled, and then burnt, and the sentence was executed May 23, 1498, in presence of a large multitude, some of whom considered him as a mar- tyr and a saint. This extraordinary man left, besides letters, a Treatise against As- trology, and several philosophical and as- cetical works (Opera, Lyons, 1633—40, 6 vols.). His sermons (Prediche, Florence, 1496), though wanting in the characteris- tics of finished discourses, contain powerful and stirring passages. (See Reformation.) Savoy (Savoia, Italian; Savoie, French); a duchy belonging to the Sardinian mon- archy (see Sardinia), and bordering on France, Switzerland, and Piedmont, with a superficial extent of 3750 square miles, and a population of 501,165. The great- est part of the duchy consists of lofty mountains and forests, alternating with deep and narrow valleys. The Cottian and Pennine Alps belong in part to Savoy, and the Gray Alps separate it from Pied- mont. (See Alps.) Mont Blanc (q. v.), the loftiest summit in Europe, is in Savoy. The Iseran, the Little St. Bernard, and mount Cenis, over which an artificial road leads from Savoy to Piedmont, are also in this duchy. (See Alps, Roads over.) Ma- ny of the summits are covered with per- etual snow and ice. Savoy is watered y the Rhone, the Isere, the Arve, which flows through the vale of Chamouni (q. v.), and the Arc. The lake of Geneva is on Uie borders. The smaller lakes are those of Bourget and Annecy. Near Uie lake of Bourget is an intermittent spring, called the Miraculous Fountain, which ceases to flow during periods varying from twenty minutes to towards three hours. The cli- mate is very changeable, and in the course of a day the severest cold is often succeed- ed by a great heat. The soil is mostly rocky, and far from fertile ; but where it is susceptible of being brought into cultiva- tion, it yields corn, though insufficient to supply Uie inhabitants, potatoes, hemp, flax, wine, chestnuts, and orchard fruits. The forests are extensive, and the pastures good ; grazing is therefore much attended to.—Game, the marmot, chamois, and ibex, are found in the mountains. Among the mineral productions are silver, copper, lead, iron, coal, and salt. The Savoyards speak a mixture of French and Italian. They are honest, faithful, frugal, and in- dustrious, but poor. They are often com- pelled to quit their ungrateful soil for a sub- sistence (as porters, pedlars, &c), but gen- erally return with their earnings to their country. Chamberry, the capital, with 11,991 inhabitants, is the only considera- ble town. Savoy was anciently inhabited by the Allobroges. It was under Uie Ro- man dominion till 400, belonged to Bur- gundy till 530, to France till 879, to Aries till 1000, when it had its own counts, and, in 1416, was erected into a duchy. In 1792, it was conquered by the French, and incorporated with France, as the de- partment of Mont Blanc. It was partly ceded to Sardinia by the first peace of Paris (1814), and by the second (1815), the remainder was given up to the Sardinian monarchy.—See Cribrario's Notizie sopra i Principi di Savoia (Turin, 1825). Saw-Fish (pristis antiquorum); a fish of the family of sharks, remarkable for having the head prolonged in the form of a long, flat plate, having strong osseous spines implanted like teeth on each mar- gin, the whole bearing some resemblance to a saw. This forms a powerful weapon, with which it attacks whales and other ce- taceous animals, towards whom this fish seems to bear an inveterate hostility. The habits of the saw-fish are otherwise, as well as their organization, the same as those of the sharks. It grows to Uie length of twelve or fifteen feet. The flesh is hard, coriaceous, and ill-tasted. Several species of saw-fish are now known. They inhabit all seas, from Uie polar ice to the equatorial regions. Saw-Gin. (See Cotton.) Saxe, Maurice, count de, a celebrated military officer, was the natural son of Augustus, king of Poland, by the count- SAXE—SAXONS. 219 ess of Konigsmark. He was born at Dres- den in 1696, and even in childhood dis- played some presages of his warlike ge- nius. At Uie age of twelve, he joined the allied anny under the duke of Marlbor- ough and the prince Eugene, and was present at the sieges of Lisle and Tournay, and at the battle of Malplaquet His father then gave him a regiment of cavalry, with which he served in Sweden, and was at the taking of Stralsund. His mother pro- cured his marriage with a German lady of rank, when he was but fifteen ; but the inconstancy of his temper occasioned a divorce after a few years. He was with prince Eugene, in Hungary, in the war with the Turks; but, after the treaties of Utrecht and Passarowitz, he withdrew to France, and was permanently attached to the service of that country by a brevet of mareschal-de-camp, given him in 1720, by the regent duke of Orleans. He applied himself to study at Paris, and made him- self intimately acquainted with profession- al tactics. In 1726, he was a candidate for the duchy of Courland; and he formed various other schemes of ambition at dif- ferent periods. On Uie death of his father, he declined Uie command of the Saxon anny, offered him by his brother Augus- tus III, and joined the French on the Rhine, under the duke of Berwick. He distinguished himself at Dettingen and Philipsburg, and, in 1744, was rewarded with the staff* of a marshal of France. He was employed in the war that followed the death of the emperor Charles VI, and, in 1745, gained the famous battle of Fontenoy, which was followed by the capture of Brussels, and many other places in Flan- ders. In 1747, he was victorious at La- feldt, and, in the following year, took Maestricht, soon after which the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded. Marshal Saxe survived that event a little more than two years, dying November 30,1750. He wrote a treatise entitled Mes Reveries, on the art of war (2 vols., quarto). General Grimoard, in 1794, published Lettres et Mimoires choisis parmi les Papiers origi- naux du M. de Saxe, depuis 1733 jusqu'en 1750 (5 vols., 8vo.). Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Gotha, Saxe- Meiningen, Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Al- tenburg, Saxe-Hilburghausen. (See the articles Coburg, Gotha, Meiningen, Weimar, Altenburg, Hilburghausen, and Saxony.) Saxifrage. The species of saxifraga are small herbaceous plants, with leaves entire or divided, ordinarily crowded about the base of the stem ; the small, delicate flowers are usually disposed in a raceme or panicle. These plants are chiefly con- fined to cold climates and mountainous situations: many of them contribute large- ly to ornament the cold and desolate re- gions near the verge of perpetual snow, or within the arctic circle. The species of saxifraga are much more common in Europe than in the U. States. More than a hundred and fifty are known, of which w«^ have two that are common in many parts of the Union; two others, Uiat are peculiar to the summits of some of the Alleghanies; and a third, which has been lately discovered on the White mountains of New Hampshire; the last, however, is identical with one from the north of Eu- rope. Many of the European species have been discovered in the northern parts of Canada, and on the North-west coast; and there are some peculiar to these parts of* our continent The name is sup- posed to be derived from growing in the clefts of rocks. Many are of easy culti- vation, and have long been favorites in the gardens; but the majority are delicate, and are liable to injury from mild and humid weather during the winter months. Saxo Grammaticus ; a learned histo- rian, who flourished in the twelfth cen- tury. He is supposed to have been a native of Denmark, of which kingdom, and its dependencies, he compiled an elaborate history, under the auspices of Absalom, bishop of Roschild. This work, which is said to have occupied him twen- ty years in its composition, has gone through several editions, especially those of Paris, 1514, Basle, 1534, and Sora in Denmark, 1644, folio: of these the latter is by far the most perfect. Saxo was a priest in the cathedral of Roschild, and is said to have been deputed on a mission to Paris, in 1161, for the purpose of inducing some of the monks of that capital to visit his native country, and assist in reforan- ing the discipline of the religious ordere there. He died in 1208. Saxons, Land of the. (See Transyl- vania.) Saxons, Saxony. Although the Sax- ons are first mentioned by Ptolemy, yet it cannot be doubted that they belong to the great northern German races, whose in- roads into the Roman territories rendered the name of Cimbrians and Teutones so formidable. In the third century of the Christian era, they were a numerous, war- like and piratical people, whose devasta- tions on the British and Belgian coasts gave rise to the appointment of" a partic- ular officer (comes littoris Saxonici) to de- 220 SAXONS—SAXONY, KINGDOM OF. fend these regions. In the middle of the fifth century, two considerable hordes of Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, laid the foundations of the Saxon kingdoms in Britain. (See Great Britain, and Anglo- Saxons.) Those who remained in Ger- many, the Westphalians, Eastphalians and Engrians, occupied a great extent of coun- try, of vague and varying limits, which bore the general name of Saxony (Sachsen). Charlemagne waged a thirty years'#*ar against the Saxons, and Wittckind, their national hero, with many of his country- men, submitted to his arms, and embraced Christianity. (See Germany, History of.) In 845, mention is made of a duke of Saxony; and in the new kingdom of Ger- many, the Saxons were the most power- ful of the six German nations, viz. the Eastern Franks, Saxons, Frisians, Thu- ringians, Suabians and Bavarians. In 919, Henry, duke of Saxony, was elected Gennan king (see Henry I), and transmit- ted this dignity to his son, grandson and great-grandson.—(See Otho I, and Otho II.) The duchy afterwards passed (1125) to the Bavarian branch of the Guelf fam- ily, of which Henry the Lion (q. v.), cele- brated for his contest with the emperor, was a member (1146—1195). After sev- eral changes, which it is unnecessary to enumerate here, Frederic the Wanior, margrave of Meissen and landgrave of Thuringia, became (1424) duke and elec- tor of Saxony. (See Elector.) The union of these tliree countries rendered the Sax- on elector one of the most powerful princes in Germany. After the death of Frederic the Good, son of Frederic the Warrior, Ernest and Albert, sons of the fonner, divided the family possessions be- tween them (1485), and founded the Er- nestine and Albertine Saxon lines, which still exist The latter received Meissen, or Misiiia, and now constitutes the royal Saxon house. (See Saxony, Kingdom of.) The former retained the electoral dignity and Thuringia. Ernest was succeeded in the electorate by his sons Frederic the Wise (1486-1525) and John (1525-1532). The former is celebrated as the protector of Luther, the promoter of the reforma- tion and the founder of the university of Wittenberg. But for his prudence, firm- ness, and personal influence with Maxi- milian and Charles, Luther would proba- bly have met the fate of Huss. (See Reformation.) By the Wittenberg capit- ulation (May 19, 1547), the electoral dig- nity was transferred to the Albertine line, in the person of Maurice. (See the fol- lowing article, and Maurice.) The Ernest- ine house is now divided into the two branches of Weimar and Gotha, the lat- ter of which consists of the tliree lines of Meiningen, Altenburg and Coburg. (See the separate articles.) Towards the close of the fifteenth century, Germany was di- vided into circles ; and the large tract of countiy, known vaguely by the name of Saxony, was formed into the three circles of Upper Saxony, Lower Saxony and Westphalia, (q. v.) Upper Saxony was bounded by Poland, Silesia and Liisatia on the east, and by Frauconia and Bohe- mia on the south. It comprised the elec- torates of Saxony and Brandenburg, the duchy of Pomerauia, and a number of small principalities. Lower Saxony had Westphalia and the Rhine to the west, and Sleswick with the Baltic to the north, and comprised the electorate of Hanover, the duchies of Mecklenburg, Brunswick and Holstein, tiie free cities of Hamburg, Bremen and Liibeck, with several smaller states. By the dissolution of the empire in 1806, the distinction of circles was abolished. Saxony, Kingdom of, lying in the north-east part of Germany, is bounded on the south by Bohemia, on the east and north by Prussia (the duchy of Saxony), and on the west by the Saxon principali- ties and Bavaria. It is divided into five circles—Meissen, Leipsic, Erzgebirge, Neustadt and Upper Lusatia—with a su- perficial extent of 5800 square miles, and a population (1828) of 1,414,528. The capital, Dresden, has 56,000 inhabitants, Leipsic 40,700. Chemnitz (16,000), Frey- berg (12,000) and Bautzen (11,000) are the only other places with a population ex- ceeding 10,000 inhabitants. The face of the country is, to a great degree, moun- tainous. The Erzgebirge, which forms the boundary between Saxony and Bohe- mia, is more abrupt on the Bohemian than on the Saxon side (see Erzgebirge), and most of the hills are green even to their summits. The climate is as mild as that of any part of Europe in the same latitude. The soil is of moderate fertility. The mountainous districts in the south contain extensive forests, which are kept up with care, as the chief supply of fuel for the mines, coal and turf being much used for domestic fuel. In these districts, the valleys only are well cultivated; but in the level districts of the north, tillage is general. The products are wheat, barley, oats, and other grain, some tobacco and hops, and, in a few favorable siturvtions, grapes. The Elbe is the only navigable river. The other rivers are the two Mul- SAXONY, KINGDOM OF. 221 das, the two Elsters, the Queiss, &c. Saxony is rich in minerals ; silver, cobalt, lead, iron, copper, zinc, arsenic and quick- silver are among the metallic produc- tions; other minerals are topaz, chryso- lites, amethysts, agates, cornelians, garnet, cinnabar, porcelain-clay, &c. The chief mining operations are carried on in the Erzgebirge, and are under excellent man- agement (See Freybcrg, and Mine.) The value of the raw material produced is about 1,100,000 dollars, which, by the processes of industry, acquires a value of 3,000,000 dollars; 10,000 men are em- ployed in mining, and 50,000 in the sub- sequent processes. Of the domestic ani- mals, the chief attention has been be- stowed on the sheep, which constitute one of the chief sources of national wealth in Saxony. The Merino breed was intro- duced into the country in 1765, and the native breed has been improved to a won- derful degree. The number of sheep in the kingdom is estimated at two millions, yielding annually upwards of 4,500,000 pounds of wool. Hogs are numerous, but not sufficient for domestic consumption. The inhabitants are, with the exception of 2000 Jews and 34,000 Wends, of Ger- man origin, and are distinguished for in- telligence, industry and honesty. The language is intermediate between High and Low German (see German Lan- guage) ; that of the inhabitants of Dres- den is the best, though it is an error to suppose that the purest German is spoken there. Saxony was the cradle of the reformation, (q. v.) The Lutherans are 1,348,100; Roman Catholics, 48,000 ; Greek Catholics, 100; Calvinists, 300; Herrnhuttere, 1600. The royal house has been Catholic since 1697. The nobility enjoys exemptions from some taxes, tolls, &c, and some feudal rights and privi- leges. The peasants are some of them subject to feudal services, and in some instances are serfs. The Saxon peasant is loaded with taxes, and is not allowed to engage in the trades, which are carried on by the citizens or the inhabitants of the towns, who are not nobles. Literary men, preachers, professore and teachers like- wise have particular privileges. In no countiy of Europe is education more at- tended to than in Saxony, and in no coun- try, of equal extent, is the number of printing and book establishments so great. The university of Leipsic (q. v.) is the principal institution for education. There m*c common schools in all the parishes, and the lower classes are, very generally, taught to read and write*; in some of the 19 * larger towns, there are also free schools for the poor. In addition to these, there are two princely schools (Fiirstenschulen), founded from the revenues of suppressed convents, for the higher branches of edu- cation, fifteen gymnasia, two teachers' seminaries, one mining academy, one for- est academy, and three military schools. There are also numerous public libraries, among which are that of the university of Leipsic, and the royal library at Dresden, with 220,000 printed books and 2700 man- uscripts. The manufactures and trade are of greater extent than in most inland countries. The weaving of linen is an employment of old date, and is carried on in almost eveiy village: woollens are also manufactured in a number of towns; but both of these branches of industry have somewhat declined. Cotton spinning and weaving increased, to a great extent, to- wards the close of the last century; but the conveyance of the raw material is tedious and expensive. The manufac- tures connected with the mines are exten- sive. There are cannon founderies at Frey- berg and Dresden; cobalt is made into smalt; blue-dye, verdigris and green-dye are among the articles of manufacturing industry. The exports consist of wool and minerals, in a raw state, and of linen, yam, woollens and lace. The imports are silk, flax, cotton, coffee, sugar, wine, and sometimes corn. The revenue, which is derived partly from taxes, and partly from the regalia and royal domains, amounts to 4,500,000 dollars; the debt is 12,800,000. The peace establishment of the army consists of 13,300 men; the contingent to the Gennan confederacy of 12,000. The government of Saxony is a monarchy, limited by the privileges of the estates. The margraviate of Upper Lu- satia has separate estates. Those of the hereditary lands consist of the prelates and higher nobility, the gentiy and the burgesses. The estates have the power of" laying taxes and advising on subjects of public importance. The higher offices of administration are intrusted to a privy cabinet, with three cabinet ministere, for foreign affaire, for the home department, and for war; the privy council, the board of finance, the military board, the depart- ment of internal administration (Landesre- gierung), the court of appeal for judicial questions, the board of taxes, and the ec- clesiastical council and supreme consisto- ry. In June, 1831, a new constitution was promised. The king of Saxony lias the fourth vote in the German diet, and four votes in the plenum. Tt-e present 222 SAXONY, KINGDOM OF—SAXON SWITZERLAND. king, Anthony I, bom 1755, succeeded his brother in 1827. In consequence of the commotions in Dresden and Leipsic, in September, 1830, he associated his nephew Frederic Augustus (born 1797) in the government, as co-regent, the father of Frederic resigning his claims to the suc- cession in favor of his son. His prede- cessor was Frederic Augustus, his brother, created king of Saxony in 1806. There are three Saxon orders; that of the Saxon crown (Raulenkrone), founded in 1807; Uiat of St. Henry (1736), for military mer- it; and the civil order of merit (1815). We have already given a sketch of the early history of the country in the pre- ceding article: we shall here continue the sketch from the foundation of the Albert- ine line, which now occupies the Saxon throne. Maurice (q. v.), grandson of Al- bert, was put in possession of the duchy of Saxony and the dignity of elector by Charles V. His brother Augustus (1553 —86) made important accessions to the Saxon territories, and introduced many useful changes in the administration of the government. John George, his grand- son (1511—56), joined Gustavus Adolphus in the thirty years' war (q. v.); and the combined Swedish and Saxon forces de- feated the imperialists, under Tilly, in the battle of Breitenfeld (1631), and, under VVallenetein, in that of Liitzen (1632). Misunderstandings between the elector of Saxony and the chancellor Oxenstiern (q. v.) threw the former into the arms of the emperor; and, by the treaty of Prague (May 30, 1635), Saxony obtained from Austria a cession of the two Lusatias, be- sides other advantages. Frederic Augus- tus I (1694—1733) embraced the Catholic religion (1697), to obtain the crown of Poland. But Charles XII (q. v.) con- quered Poland, and occupied Saxony, sub- jecting it to heavy impositions; while, by the peace with Sweden, the latter country received no indemnification for its losses. (See Northern War.) Frederic Augustus II (1733—1763) also obtained the crown of Poland (as Augustus III, q. v.), after a war with France, and took part with Aus- tria hi the seven years' war. (q. v.) The peace of 1763 left the country, which had suffered severely during the war, loaded with a debt of more than twenty million dollars. It now became necessary for the government to renounce its ambitious schemes, and endeavor to lessen the pres- sure of the public burdens. Frederic Au- gustus III (1763—1827) reluctantly took part in the war of 1792, against France, and furnished only his contingent as a member of the empire, when war was declared by Uie imperial diet (1793). tn 1806, 20,900 Saxons were sent to the sup- port of Prussia; but after the battle of Je- na, a peace was concluded with France, and the elector acceded to the confedera- tion of the Rhine, with the royal tide. Large additions were made to the Saxon territory, 1807 and 1809; but these acqui- sitions were merely temporary. In the war of 1813, Saxony was the scene of the great struggle between Napoleon and the northern powers. The battles of Liitzen and Bautzen, Dresden and Leipsic (see the articles, and Russian-German War), stripped the king of Saxony of his newly acquired territories. The king himself was twenty months a prisoner of the al- lied powers, and his dominions were gov- erned by Russian and Prussian authori- ties. The fate of Saxony was long a subject of discussion at the congress of Vienna. It was at first proposed to unite it with Prussia; and nothing but the jeal- ousy of Austria seems to have saved it from this fate. Its partition was finally resolved upon, Februaiy, 1815, and the king was obliged to cede more than half of nis kingdom to Prussia. This cession included the whole of Lower Lusatia, part of Upper Lusatia, the circle of Wit- tenberg, and parts of those of Meissen and Leipsic, the greater part of Meiseburg, &c, 8160 square miles, with a population of 875,578. After the king's return to Dresden, he immediately turned his atten- tion to a system of public credit, and to Uie establishment of scientific and other useful institutions. By the partition, Sax- ony lost all its salt works, and its finest grain districts and forests, with some val- uable mining districts, but still retains the most populous manufacturing parts of the country, with the rich Freyberg mines. A prudent policy may heal the wounds she has received ; but her independence is altogether precarious. (See Politz's His- tory of the Kingdom of Saxony, and En- gelhardt's Description of Saxony, in Ger- man.) Saxony, the Prussian Duchy of ; a province of the kingdom of Prussia, chiefly composed of the cessions made by the kingdom of Saxony to Piussia, at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, together with other tenitories north of Anhalt and west of the Elbe and Havel. It is divided into the three governments of Magdeburg, Merseburg and Erfurt, and comprised, in 1828, 9653 square miles, with 1,409,388 inhabitants. It is very productive. Saxon Switzerland ; a name which SAXON SWITZERLAND—SCALDS. 223 has been improperly given, for about thirty years, to the eastern part of the circle of Meissen, in Uie kingdom of Saxony, on the Elbe. It is a group of mountains of sand- stone, with valleys and rivere of the most picturesque character, extending from Liebethal to the Bohemian frontier, about twenty-four miles long, and equally wide. Some of the rocks are 1800 feet high. It is one of the most charming spots on earth, and, on account of its vicinity to Dresden, so much resorted to for its treas- mes of art, attracts many visitors in sum- mer. (See Gotzinger's, Hasse's and Lin- dau's descriptions.) The name is improper, because the region does not resemble Swit- zerland, even in miniature ; and such com- parisons lower the object compared. Say, Jean Baptiste, a distinguished po- litical economist, was born at Lyons in 1767, and went to Paris at an early period of the revolution, occupying himself with literature. He was subsequently one of the establishers of the Dicade (Revue) Philo- sophique, with which he was, however, connected but a short time. In 1799, he was a member of the tribunate, but, being removed by Napoleon,declined subsequent offers of office from him, devoting himself entirely to his literary labors. His chief works are his Traiti d'Economic politique (5th ed., 3 vols., 1826), translated into English by C. R. Prinsep, and his Cours complet d'Economie politique pratique (4 vols., 1829). (See Political Economy.) The third edition of his Catichisme d'Econo- mie politique appeared in 1826. One of his most ingenious works is Le petit Vo- lume contenant quelques Aperpus des Hom- ines et de la Sociiti (1817). His statisti- cal treatises, De I'Angleterre et des Anglais (1815),and Des Canaux de Navigation dans I'Etat aduel de la France, are also es- teemed. Sbirri. In Italy, particularly in the States of the Church, there were formerly certain police officers, with a military or- ganization, who were called by tliis name. They were abolished in 1809. Scabious (scabiosa); an extensive ge- nus of plants, exclusively belonging to the eastern continent, aud most of the spe- cies to Europe and the countries about the Mediten-anean. The stems are her- baceous, and the flowers are united in heads at the extremities of the stems and branches, and resemble compound flow- ere. The S. succisa is remarkable for having the root suddenly truncated, and as if bitten off'; whence the name of devil's bit is applied to it. Sc^vola. (See Mucius.) Scaggerac (i. e. Scagen's reef); a sand-bank, which extends from cape Ska- gen, on the northern part of Denmark, a great way into the sea, on which account a large coal fire is constantly kept up there in the winter nights, as a mark for ships to avoid it. For this purpose, in the year 1753, a new tower, sixty-four feet high, was erected opposite to this sand-bank, on the spot where the former light-house stood, which had been demolished by the violence of the sea. The Scaggerac sea forms the communication between the German ocean and the Cattegat (See Baltic Sea.) Scagliola ; a mixture of fine gypsum and powdered selenite (pietra specolare), made into a paste with glue, and serving to form paintings of a stony hardness. The process is as follows:—Upon a tablet of white stucco (consisting of this gypsum paste), the outlines of the work designed are traced with a sharp instrument, and the cavities thus made are filled up with successive layers of paste, of the same composition, but colored. The applica- tion of the different layers is continued until all the varieties and shades of color required are produced, and the surface of the whole is then polished. Scagliola work has the advantage over mosaic of being susceptible of the greatest possible variety of coloring, and, from the same- ness of its material, of fonning a more compact mass, so that the painting can re- ceive a higher polish; by which means the colore are better preserved. The inven- tion of this process is ascribed to Guido del Conte, or Fassi (1584—1649), an in- genious mason of Cari, near Coneggio, in Lombardy. But we have some ancient specimens (as the Ilian tables) in white stucco ; and inscriptions of the middle ages show that the art was never lost. In Bologna, such works continued to be made from ancient times, with glue pre- pared from parchment, like that of the ancients. Guido's scagliola is a complete imitation of marble. Annibal Griffoni, his pupil, imitated small pictures, engravings, and oil paintings, in scagliola. Giovanni Gravignani, who represented the rarest sorts of marble intersected with figures, carried the art still further. The trae ob- ject of Uiese works, however, is the imi- tation of marble. There are some fine specimens of scagliola in Uie gallery at Florence, by Paolini. Scalds, or Skalds, like the rhapsodists of ancient Greece and the bards of the Celtic tribes, were at once the poets and historians of the Scandinavian race, the 224 SCALDS—SCALIGER. Icelanders, Danes, Norwegians. They sang Uie praises of Uie gods, and cele- brated the exploits of the national he- roes. (See Northern Mythology, Edda, Sa- gas, and Scandinavian Literature.) The scalds were the companions and chroni- clers of the chiefs, whom they accompa- nied to battle, and at whose court they resided in time of peace. A sacred char- acter was attached to them, and they performed the office of ambassadors be- tween hostile tribes. They were often richly rewarded for their songs, and even married the daughters of princes. A reg- ular succession of the order was perpetu- ated, and a list of 230 of the most distin- guished in the three northern kingdoms, from the reign of Ragnar Lodbrok to that of Valdemar II, is still preserved in the Icelandic language, among whom are several crowned heads and distinguished warriors of the heroic age. See Whea- ton's History of the Northmen (Philadel- phia, 1831, chap. iv.). Scale; a mathematical instrument,con- taining several lines, drawn on wood, brass, silver, &c, and variously divided, according to the purposes it is intended to serve; whence it receives various de- nominations, as the plain scale, diagonal scale, plotting scale, Gunter's scale, &c. Scale (from the Latin scala); the name given at first to the anangement made by Guido of the six syllables, ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la; also called gamut, (q. v.) The word scale is likewise used to signify a series of sounds, rising or falling from any given pitch or tone, to the greatest practi- cable distance, through such intermediate degrees as are determined by the laws of music. (See Tone.) Scaliger, Julius Caesar. The history of this celebrated scholar is involved in some obscurity, through his vanity. Ac- cording to his own story, he was descend- ed from the celebrated house of the Scal- igers (Scalas), princes of Verona, and was born at the castle of Riva, on lake Garda, became a page of Uie emperor Maximil- ian, whom he served in war and peace for seventeen years, then received a pension from the duke of Ferrara, studied at Bo- logna, commanded a squadron under the French viceroy, applied himself to the study of natural law, and, in 1525, accom- panied the bishop of Agen to his diocese in France, where he settled. This account found credit with some learned men, among whom was De Thou, the friend and admirer of his son Joseph; but others, even in his own day, as, for instance, Sci- oppius, ridiculed it, and treated it as wholly or mainly fabulous. According to Tira- boscbi, Scaliger was the son of Benedetto Bordone, a Paduan, who canied on the trade of a miniature painter in Venice, and received the name della Scala either from the sign or the situation of his shop. Scaliger resided in Venice or Padua till his forty-second year, occupied with study and the practice of medicine, and pub- lished some works under the name of Giulio Bordone. Either some promise, or the hope of bettering his condition, induced him to remove to Agen, where he passed the rest of his days. In 1528, he appears not to have formed any such design of giving himself out as a descendant of that princely family, for he was then styled, hi his act of naturaliza- tion, Julius Casar della Scala di Bordone, doctor of medicine, of Verona in Italy. He must, however, have appeared with some distinction in Agen, as, hi 1530, he manied a young lady of a rich and noble family there. It was from this period that he began to assert his princely descent, without furnishing any proof of the truth of his pretensions. But his name ac- quired celebrity by his writings, which gave him a high rank among the scholars of his age, although his- arrogance made many enemies. The boldness aud free- dom of some of his works rendered his faith suspected; but he died a good Cath- olic, October 21,1558, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. Scaliger was certainly a man of uncommon abilities; and although he was one of the late-learned, yet few men have surpassed him in erudition. He had a powerful memory, and an ac- tive mind: he thought boldly, if not al- ways logically. Of his physical works we may mention his Exercitationum exoteri- carum Liber quintus decimus de Subtilitate, ad Cardanum (Paris, 1557), Commentaries on the Work of Hippocrates De Insomniis (1538), and a work upon the treatises of Theophrastus and Aristotle on Plants, and of the latter on Animals, with a translation. As a philologist, he wrote two discourses against the Ciccronianus of Erasmus, an excellent work on the Latin language, De Causis Lingua Latina Libri xvih (Ly- ons, 1540; Geneva, 1580), the first philo- sophical treatise on this subject. His work De Arte podica Libri vii (Lyons, 1561 and 1581) gained him much reputa- tion, but displays more grammatical learn- ing than poetical imagination or critical spirit. Modern critics do not accord him the same praise which Lipsius, Casaubon, Vossius, &c, bestowed on him. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, son of the SCALIGER—SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. 225 preceding, was bom at Agen in 1540. In Uie eleventh year of his age, he was sent to Bordeaux, where he studied the Latin language for several years. The plague obliged him to return to his father, who required him to compose a Latin dis- course daily, by which means he soon became thoroughly acquainted with Uiat language. After the death of his father, he went, at the age of nineteen, to Paris, where he devoted himself to the study of Greek. Shutting himself up in his cham- ber, he read Homer and the other Greek poets and prose writers with such indus- try, that in the course of two years he had read them all. He next studied He- brew and other Oriental languages, and exercised himself in poetical composi- tions in the classical languages, having already, in his sixteenth year, Written a tragedy in Latin. He then for some time led an unsettled life, of which we have no particular account. His conversion to Protestantism doubtless prevented his ad- vancement in France; but, in 1593, he was made professor of polite literature at Leyden, where he died in 1609. He had the character of a scholar, absorbed en- tirely in his books, and paying little atten- tion to the common affairs of life, so that he was never rich; yet he refused several presents of money, sent him by distin- guished men, out of respect to his talents and learning. He was never married. In regard to pride and anogance, he was little inferior to his father, whose tales re- specting the origin of his family he en- deavored to confirm. He was also re- markable for his asperity and contemptu- ous tone towards liis adversaries. He boasted that he knew thirteen languages; and he was so entirely immersed in his studies, that he would pass whole days in his chamber without eating. Of his nu- merous works, the treatise De Emenda- lione Temporum (Paris, 1583; Geneva, 1609) is one of the most important In this learned work, he gave the firet com- plete and scientific chronological system, and, for these labors, and his discovery of the Julian period, deserves to be called the founder of this science. Many errors, which were exposed by Petavius and othere, he corrected in the Thesaurus Temporum, compledens Eusebii Pamphili Chronicon (Amsterdam, 1658). His an- notations to Theocritus, Nonnus, Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Seneca (tragedies), Varro, Ausonius, Festus, are characterized by an excessive subtilty, and too great freedom in regard to the text of the au- thors. His Poemata have little poetical merit; his Epistola are more valuable. On the whole, Joseph Scaliger had less genius than his father, but more learning and accuracy. Scalping ; a barbarous custom, among Indian waniors, of taking off their ene- mies' scalps with the hair on. These are preserved as trophies of victory. Scamander ; a small stream in Asia Minor, which has acquired celebrity from Uie songs of Homer, according to whom it was called, by the gods, Xanthus. It runs through the plain of Troy, and re- ceives the Simois, another small stream mentioned by Homer. The Homeric ac- count, that one of its sources was warm and the other cold, has been confirmed by modern travellers. Scammony is Uie inspissated juice of the root of a species of convolvulus (C. scammonia), which grows wild in Syria and other parts of the Levant. This juice is obtained, in the latter part of the spring, by making incisions in the upper part of the root, and placing shells or cups to re- ceive the milky fluid which exudes: twice a day Uie portion furnished by each root is collected, and dried in the sun. The* purest scammony is procured in this man- ner, but such is rarely exported. The scammony of commerce is merely Uie expressed juice of the entire roots, some- times even mixed with that of Uie stems and leaves, and evaporated to the consis- tence of a solid extract. It is of two kinds—the Aleppo, which is the best, and the Smyrna, which is inferior; both col- lected respectively in Uie vicinity of those two cities. Scammony has been known from a very ancient period; it is men- tioned by Hippocrates, and many peculiar virtues were attributed to it at that time; now it is considered only as an active purgative, and as such is still much in use. The dose varies from two to twelve grains, according to age, sex, or tempera- ment. The root of the plant is thick, fleshy and tapering, three or four feet in length, by three or four inches in diame- ter; it gives out one or several slender climbing steins, provided with triangular, arrow-shaped leaves; the flowers are large, white, or slightly purplish, disposed, two or three together, upon a common ax- illary peduncle. Jalap is also the root of a species of convolvulus. (See Jalap.) Scandalum Magnatum, in English law, denotes a wrong done to high personages of the land, as prelates, dukes, marquisses, earls, barons, and other nobles ; and also the chancellor, treasurer, clerk of the privy seal, steward of the house, justice of one 226 SCANDALUM MAGNATUM—SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. bench or other, and other great offi- cers of the realm, by false news, or false messages, whereby debates and discord between them and the commons, or any scandal to their persons, might arise. For slanders of this kind, though such as would not be actionable in the case of common persons, redress is provided by many old statutes. Scanderbeg (i. e. Alexander Bey), prince of Albania, whose proper name was George Castriotto, son of" John, prince of that country, was born in 1404. Being given by his father as a hostage to sultan Amurath II, he was educated in Uie Mo- hammedan religion, and, at the age of eighteen, was placed at the head of a body of troops, with the title of sangiac. After the death of his father, in 1432, he formed the design of possessing himself of his principality; and, having accompanied the Turkish army to Hungary, entered into an agreement with Hunniades to de- sert to the Christians. This design he put into execution; and, having ascended the throne of his fathers, he renounced the Mohammedan religion. A long warfare followed; but, although frequently obliged to retire to the fastnesses of mountains, he always renewed his assaults upon the firet favorable occasion, until the sultan proposed terms of peace to him, which were accepted. The Venetians having entered into a war with Mohammed II, induced Scanderbeg to renounce his treaty with the sultan. He obtained re- peated victories over the Turkish gen- erals, and saved his own capital, although invested by an army commanded by Mo- hammed hhnself. He was at length carried off" by sickness, at Lissa, in the Venetian territories, in 1467, in his sixty-third year. His death was soon followed by the sub- mission of Albania to the Turkish do- minion. When the Turks took Lissa, Uiey dug up his bones, of which Uiey formed amulets, to transfer his courage to themselves. Scandinavia-; the ancient name of the region now comprehending the three northern kingdoms, Denmark, Sweden and Norway. The inhabitants were known to the ancient nations of the south of Europe only by vague rumor. Taci- tus mentions the Suiones (Swedes) as a naval people. Pliny notices a peninsula called Nerigon (Norway, in Swedish, Nor- rige, Danish, Norge). Many suppose Iceland to be the Thule of the classic writers. The name Danus is first found in Gregory of Tours, in the sixth century of the Christian era. Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Jutland were inhabited, in the earliest times, by people of the Teutonic stock, and nomads of Fin- nish descent. According to Rask, Mag- nussen, Miinter and othere, the Scan- dinavians and the people of South Ger- many have a common origin with the Indian, Persian and Pelasgian tribes. B. C. 100, the natives of Jutland and Sleswick became formidable to the Ro- mans, under the name of Cimbri. About A. D. 250, commence the fabulous ac- counts of Odin, Othin or Woden. Till the middle of the ninth century, Scandi- navia was little known ; but the bold expe- ditions of the natives into the southern and western parts of Europe, and the dif- fusion of Christianity among them, about Uie year 1000, shed light on this region. At this period, the inhabitants of Scandi- navia were divided into hordes, like the Tartars. In the ninth and tenth centu- ries, these tribes enjoyed a golden age of piracy. By the western historians, they were spoken of under the title of Danes and Normans; in the English annals of that period, under the name of Easterlings; the Russians called them Varangians; and the Hispano-Arabic writers, Mantchoos. From Sweden, Norway, the Danish islands, from Jutland and Sleswick, the rude adventurers sailed to near and distant harbors within and without the Baltic, to Novgorod, Kiev and Plotzk, to England, Ireland, Holland, Germany, France, Spain and Italy; sometimes they only plun- dered and destroyed, and sometimes founded new states.—See Wheaton's History of the Northmen (Philadelphia, 1831), and the article Normans. Scandinavian, or Old Norse Literature, includes the literature of the people of Norway, Sweden and" Iceland, before their conversion to Christianity. It goes back as far as the earliest history of the north, and comes down to the period when the last traces of heathenism disap- pear. It is of great importance, both to Germany and England ; for, as they were converted to Christianity much sooner than the Scandinavians, they retain no literary monuments of their heathen pe- riod. The old Norse literature has pre- served to us not only Uie old versification, peculiar to all nations of Teutonic origin, and distinct from that of all the other western nations, but also a mythology which, mde as it is, approaches, in the rich invention which it displays, to the mythology of Greece. Not only the poetry and mythology, but likewise the history, Uie antiquities, of which the Ru- SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. 227 Die monuments (see Runes) are the princi- pal, and Uie existing collections of laws, afford rich materials for the knowledge of the pagan period of the northern coun- tries. Julius Caesar, Lucan and Tacitus furnished some slight hints on the charac- ter of the Scandinavian mythology. In the eighth century, native authors ap- peared, who rescued the traditions of the past from oblivion. The Lombard, Pau • lus Diaconus, the firet of these authors remaining (about the end of the eighth century), gives us, from the traditions of his countrymen, a dialogue between the deities Woden and Frea (Odin and Freya). A war had broken out, as he relates, between the Winiles and Wandeles. The latter prayed to their god Woden for assistance and victory ; Woden replied, that he would give the victory to the party which he should firet see on the rising of the sun. But the leaders of the Winiles, Ibor and Ayo (Agio), who by Saxo are called Ebbo and Aggo, had an ingenious mother, named Gambara, who was related to the gods, and whose coun- sel was esteemed by all the people. She went to Odin's wife, Frea (Freya, or more properly Frigga), and solicited vic- tory for her countrymen and subjects, the Winiles. Frigga advised that all the women of the Winiles should station themselves, at sunrise, with their hus- bands, opposite to the place whence Odin was accustomed to look to the east ; and, in order that he might immediately notice them, she directed that they should draw their long hair over their faces, so as to make it resemble a thick beard. The advice was followed, and the bearded females immediately struck the eye of Woden, who suddenly exclaimed, " Who are those long-beards ?" This was what Frigga expected; and, as it was an an- cient custom that a person who gave a name to a child, a hero, or a nation, should give them a present, Frigga cried, " They are the Winiles; and, as you have given them another name, it is your duty to give them a present: therefore give them victory." It was agreed; and from that time, the Winiles were called long-beards (whence Lombards). That the name of the people is founded on their long beards is mentioned by early authors, as Isidoras Hispalensis, who died in the firet half of the seventh century, as the general belief. Moreover, Uie days of the week must have been named in very early times, after the gods Tyr, Woden, Thor and Freya ; for in the time of Charlemagne, their names had become so well settled, Uiat when he gave new names to the months, he did not venture to alter the names of the days of Uie week. Adam of Bremen (who died in 1076), in his book De Situ Rcgnorum septentrionalium, gives an account of Uie Swedes, when they were yet, in part, heathens, of the temple of the gods at Upsal, and of the gods Thor, Woden and Frey (whom he calls Fricco). He shows how they are represented, but this is nearly all. Saxo Grammaticus, a Dane, was distinguished, in the second half of the twelfth century. His sixteen books of Uie Historia Danica are a remarkable phenomenon. Using the language of the Roman classics, and skilled alike in verse and prose, he takes a course peculiar to himself. The novelty of his subjects, the obscurity of his sources, the wonderful character of his stories, the charms of his style, produce a great effect. Samund Frode (died 1133), Are Frode (died about 1148), and Snone Sturleson (murdered in 1241), are also writers of much merit. Till the inven- tion of the art of printing, little was known of the literature of Scandinavia in the rest of Europe. The first important light shed on it was by Arngrim Jonson's dis- covery of a parchment manuscript of the prose Edda, that is, of the younger Edda, composed by Snone Sturleson. In Sep- tember, 1628, Jon son sent to the cele- brated physician Ole Worm (Olaus Wor- mius) this manuscript, now preserved in the library of the university at Copenha- gen, with its appendix, the Scallda. Ten years later, another Icelander, Bryngulf Svenson, discovered a second parchment manuscript of the prose Edda, and also a parchment manuscript of the poetical Edda. (See Edda.) Both were placed in the royal library at Copenhagen. In the year 1665, Peter Resen, or Resenius, pub- lished specimens of the poetical Edda, and the whole prose Edda. The speci- mens of the poetical part are entitled Ethica Othini pars Edda Samundi vocata Haavamaal, una cum ejusdem Appendice appdlata Runa Capitule a multis exoptata, nunc tandem Islandice et Latine in litcem produda est per Petrum Joh. Resenium (Copenh., 1665); 2. Philosophia antiquis- sima Norvego-Danica dicta Woluspa, qua est pars Edda Samundi, Edda Snorronis non brevi antiquioris, Islandice et Latine publici Juris primum facta a Petro Joh. Resenio (Copenh., A. D. 1665, 4 sheets, 4to.), with the variations in the text from the royal and Nolde copy, and a Latin translation, by Siephen Olai, an Icelander. The prose Edda bears the following title: 228 SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. Edda Islandorum anno Chr. MCCXV Islandice conscripta per Snorronem Sturla, Islandia Nomophylacem, nunc primum Is- landice, Danice et Latine ex antiquis codici- bus MSS. Bibliotheca Regis d aliorum in Lucem prodit opera et studio Petri Johannis Resenit, etc. (Copenhag., 1665). The text is founded chiefly on the manuscript of Stephen Stephanius, who died 1650, col- lated with other copies. The various readings are drawn from Uie royal copy and that of Worm. The Latin version is by Magnus Olai (1629), with extracts from a later and more accurate transla- tion, by Stephen Olai, of 1646. Neither of the Latin translations, however, ex- tends further than to the 68th Ddmisaga. But a Latin translation from the 69th to the 78th and last Ddmisaga (ten fables, which comprehend the German tales of the Nibelungen), was prepared afterwards by Thormod Torf aus (bom 1636, died at Copenhagen, 1719). In the sixty-eight Ddmisagas is unfolded the entire mythol- ogy of the north. The story of the char- acters and achievements of the gods is introduced by a fiction, relating how Gylfs, the king of Sweden, undertook a journey to the Asere (gods), to learn from their own mouths their nature and laws. He received from the eldest of the gods an account of the beginning of the world, the primitive giant Ymir, and the sons of Bor, the-origin of men, the giant Niorwi, the creation of the sun and moon, Uie celestial bridge of Bifrost, the building of the city of the gods, the dwarfs, the holy places of the gods, and the ash-tree of Ygdrasil, the dwellings of the gods, the origin of the wind, of summer and winter, and finally of all the Asere, and their mysterious history. But this is only the first part of this Edda. The other (Annar partur Eddu) treats of the names of the gods, and of all the synonyms and circumlocutions admissible in poetry, in alphabetical order, a genuine northern Gradus ad Parnassum. It has since ap- peared that there is still a third part of this Edda, containing the rules for one hundred different kinds of verse, and entitled Hattatal, Claris metrica. Unfor- tunately (at least this was the story thirty years ago), nearly the whole edition of the work of Resen was burnt; only six copies were saved, and the library of the university of Goltingen procured one of them for 100 ducats. But, whether this account is true or not, the Edda of Resen is a great literary curiosity. Notwith- standing these rich materials, to which Thomas Bartholin made extensive addi- tions of old Norse songs, in his work Antiquitatum Danicarum Libri tres (Co- penh., 1689), a century elapsed before this new and wild mythology produced any considerable excitement in Scandi- navia and Germany. Before the time of Resen, the lovers of northern antiquities had received from Ole Worm his Runic Monuments, in six books (1643); from Stephen Stephanius, a new edition, and full commentary on Saxo Grammaticus (1644) ; from Olaus Verefius, the Herva- rarsaga (1672), and the Runographia Scandica (1675). SchefFer's Upsalia Anti- qua (hi 1666, about the time of Resen) afforded interesting views of the doctrines and worship of the north, and Rudbeck, hi his Atlantica (1689), excited surprise for a time. Goranson, a Swede, com- menced, in 1746, a new edition of the prose Edda, and, in 1750, of the Vbluspaa. About the same time, Gottfried Schiitze, a patriotic German, wrote Apologies for the ancient Tribes of Germany and the North. The result of Grater's researches into the manuscripts containing remains of old northern literature hi the library of the university at Halle, was a collection called Northern Flowers (Leipsic, 1789, by Graff). His Bragur stimulated the learned, particularly of Germany and Denmark, to further investigations. A new spur was given to the study of Scan- dinavian literature by a rifacimeido of the Nibelungeidied, by Hagen, in 1807, presenting the same matter in a Gennan and Christian form, which the long ex- pected second part of the poetic Edda was to have given in a northern and heathen form; and the appearance, at length, of an Icelandic grammar and a dictionary by Rask. The principal sub- sequent publications on this subject are the commentary on the collective songs of the Edda,—Den aldre Edda (1821—23, 4 vols.),—by Finn Magnusen, the com- prehensive examination of all the his- torical and poetical traditions of the north, by Erasmus Miiller, in his Sagabibliothek (1817—20, 3 vols.), and his work On the Rise and Decay of Icelandic Historiogra- phy, with an Appendix on Uie Nationality of the old Norse Poems, translated by Sander (Copenh., 1815). The investiga- tions of the Runes (q. v.) have also been of much interest. The old northern sagas, or heroic tales, which were trans- lated into Danish, and published from the Icelandic manuscripts, by C. Chr. Rafh, secretary of the society of Scandinavian literature (Copenh., 1821—24,3 vols.), are of four sorts—mythic, mythico-bistorical, SCANDINAVIAN LITERATI RE—SCAPI'LA. 229 historical, and romantic. Tliese traditions are mostly of Icelandic origin. They were composed by monks, and written on calfskin, before the sixteenth century. The learned Icelander Ame Magnusen (died 1730) collected 1554 of these man- uscripts, and left by his will a large sum for their publication. This fund led pro- fessor Rafn, in connexion with doctor Brynjulfon (who died in 1827). Egilson and Gudmunssoiijof Iceland, to found a so- ciety for the publication of old Norse man- uscripts, which now includes 145 mem- bers. (Professor Rask is the president.) Of the amended text of the Sagas there have appeared three editions; one in Ice- landic, one in Danish, and one in Latin: the title of the last is, Scripta historica Islandorum de Rebus Gestis veterum Borea- lium. Of this edition, three volumes had appeared in 1827, which contain the saga of the Norwegian king Olaf Tiygveson, and other short sagas. (See Northern Mythology; also the work of Whea- ton, referred to above, and an article on Icelandic Literature, in the 17th number of the Foreign Quarterly Review.) Scania. (See Schonen.) Scanning, in poetry ; the measuring of a verse by feet, in order to see whether the quantities be duly observed. The term is chiefly used in regard to Greek and Latin verses. Thus a hexameter verse is scanned by resolving it into six feet; a pentameter, by resolving it into five feet, &c. Scape Goat, in Jewish antiquities ; the goat which was set at liberty on the day of solemn expiation, typically to bear away the sins of the people. Scapement. (See Watch and Clock- making.) Scapolite. A mineral which has pre- sented itself under a great variety of as- pects, and has hence been mistaken as af- fording,in its varieties,the foundation of sev- eral new species; instances of which are the following: Meionite, Dipyre, Bergmanite, Wcrnerite, Gabbronite, Ekebergite,and Nut- tallitc, all of which are now recognised as coalescing with scapolite. It is often seen in well defined crystals, which are right, square prisms, terminated at one or both extremities by four-sided pyramids. The length of the prism is about double its di* ameter. It is sometimes truncated on its lateral edges, and thus converted into an octagonal prism; cleavage not very distinct; fracture imperfect, couchoidal, uneven; surface of the prism sometimes longitudi- nally streaked ; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous upon the cleavage; color various vol. xi. 20 shades of white, gray and green; occasion- ally, also, red or purple; transparent, trans- lucent and opaque; brittle ; hardness be- tween apatite and feldspar; specific gravi- ty, 2.C—2.8. The massive varieties are co- lumnar, granular,and compact As respects some of the varieties which gave origin to the names above mentioned,—Meionite contains the fairest and most transparent varieties of the species of a white color; Dipyre occure in minute crystals, whose fonn is scarcely discernible, and imbedded in a steatitic rock; Bergmanite is massive, fine-grained, of a grayish, greenish or red- dish white color ; Wernerite is in crystals doubly terminated, of a greenish-gray color; from which Nnttallite scarcely dif- fers, except that the crystals have a tirfge of blue, and are slightly chatoyant. The following results, relative to the chemical composition of scapolite, were obtained, 1. by Stromeyer, from a variety of Meion- ite from Monte Somrna; and, '2. by Nor- denskiold, from the scapolite of Finland:— Silex, (L) 40.531 (2.) 43.83 Alumine, 32.726 35.43 Lime, 24.245 18.96 Potash, and a ) little soda, £ 1.812 0.00 Protox. iron, 0.182 0.00 Water, 0.000 1.03 In a strong heat, before the blow-pipe, scapolite melts into a vesicular glass, and intumesces considerably ; then it assumes the appearance of ice, and does not melt any longer. It is dissolved by borax, with effervescence. Meionite is met with among the minerals ejected by mount Ve- suvius. The other varieties of the species are met with in primitive mountains,in beds of iron ore or limestone, and are generally accompanied by augite and hornblende. Thus it occure at Pargas in Finland, hi Greenland, and in Saxony. Iu the U. States, the most beautiful varieties have been found at Bolton, in Massachusetts— the white, transparent crystals, as also the Nuttallite. It is likewise found in the sienite, at Boxborough ; also in Connecti- cut, at Canaan, where it exists in a mas- sive state, and in mountain masses. Large crystals of scapolite are found in the highlands of New York, near West Point, and at Amity, in Orange county, of the same state. Scapula, John, the author of a valuable lexicon of the Greek language, publish- ed originally iu quarto, in 1583, which has since gone through a varietvofeditions,par- ticularly an excellent one from the Elzevir press, and a recent one by Major (Lon- 230 SCAPULA—SCARLET FEVER. don, 1820, 4to.). Henry Stephens (q. v.), while complettng his Thesaurus, having employed Scapula to correct the press, Uie latter seoretiy abridged the work. The dictionary, thus treacherously stolen, ruined the sale of that of his employer. Scapulary (scapidarium) ; part of a monk's dress, consisting of two pieces of cloth, of which one covers the breast, Uie other the back. With lay-brothers, the scapulary only reaches to the knee ; with the other religious, to the feet. Scarabeus ; the beetle (q. v.), which was held in great veneration by the Egyp- tians. The most celebrated, and that which is alone to be found represented on ancient monuments, is Uie scarabeus sacer of naturalists. This is seen on the Isiac table, and is frequent among hieroglyph- ics : it passed as the symbol of immor- tality, and as the emblem of the sun. Another species was consecrated to Isis, and indicated the moon; its two horns resembling. the crescent of that planet. According to Caylus, the Egyptians gave the shape of the scarabeus to their amulets or rings. (See Hieroglyphics.) Scaramouch (Ital. scaramuccia); one of Uie grotesque characters of the Italian stage, which, about 1680, took the place of the old Spanish captain, was dressed entirely in black, a color commonly worn in Naples by courtiers and magis- trates. He represented the swaggerer, who is finally flogged by harlequin. The original scaramouch was a person named Tiberius Fiorelli, a native of Naples, who distinguished himself on the stage by his jests and his skill in mimiciy. In France, the scaramouch was used for a greater variety of parts. Scarborough ; a market and seaport town of England, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, a place of considerable trade, and much frequented for its mineral waters, warm baths and sea-bathing. It stands in the recess of a beautiful bay, on the borders of the German ocean, and rising from Uie shore in the form of an amphitheatre. The town is well built; the principal streets spacious and well paved. The buildings on the cliff" are striking, having in front a terrace nearly 100 feet above the level of the sands. An iron bridge of four arches, seventy-one feet span each, supported by stone pillars nearly seventy feet high, connects Uie terrace with a beautiful promenade, 350 •yards in length, leading to the Spa, and in full view of the sea, harbor, town and castle. The plantations and public walks are agreeable; and an elegant assembly- room and a handsome theatre arc open in summer evenings. The rides are also varied and romantic. Scarborough has two Episcopal churches, an Independent, Baptist, and Roman CaUiolic chapel, a meeting-house for Quakers, and two for Methodists. The ruins of the ancient castle form a very picturesque object, and great ornament to the town. The prom- ontory on which Uiey stand rises nearly 300 feet above the level of the sea. The area of the castle contains about nineteen acres. It was built about Uie year 1136, and became the scene of many important transactions in English histoiy. The harbor of Scarborough is commodious, and of easy access, and has been improved by extensive works. The present pros- perity of Scarborough is chiefly owing to its mineral waters, which have rendered the town a place of fashionable resort for health and pleasure. There are two wells, sa- line aperient, and chalybeate. It sends two members to parliament, chosen by the cor- porate body, consisting of forty-four per- sons. It was incorporated in 1181. Popula- tion in 1831,8750. Forty miles north-east of York; lat. 54° 18' N.; lon. 0° 23' W. Scarfing; a particular method of unit- ing two pieces of timber together by the extremities, the end of one being tapered so as to be set into the otiier, as in the keel-pieces. But when the ends of the two pieces are cut square and put to- gether, they are said to butt to one anoth- er ; and when another piece is laid on and fastened to both, as is the case in all the frame timbers, this is called scarfing the timbers; and half the piece which fastens the two timbers together is reckoned Uie length of the scarf. Scarification, in surgery; the opera- tion of making little cuts or punctures in Uie skin by means of lancets or other in- struments, particularly the cupping instru- ment Scarlatti, Alessandro, chapel-master at the Neapolitan court, born at Naples, 1658, was educated at Rome under Ca- rissimi, and, after residing some time in Germany and at Rome, passed the last years of his life at Naples, where he died, in 1728. The Italians called him the pride of art and the first of composers. Hasse says, that he was the greatest mas- ter of harmony among Uie Italians, and Jomelli considered his church music as the best of its kind. He composed a great number of motets, and about 200 masses. His opera La Principessajidele is esteemed his masterpiece. Scarlet Fever (scarlatina); a conta- SCARLET FEVER—SCAURUS. 231 gious fever, characterized by a scarlet-col- ored eruption on the skin, in patches, which, after three or four days, fall off in scales. Some have asserted that scarla- tina never attacks the same person a sec- ond time; more extensive observation has confuted this opinion. It seizes persons of all ages; but children and young per- sons are most subject to it; and it appears at all seasons of the year, but is more frequently met with towards the end of autumn or beginning of winter, at which time it very often becomes a prevalent epidemic. Scarlatina, in its inflammato- ry form, is not usually attended with dan- ger, although a considerable degree of de- lirium sometimes prevails for a day or two; but when it partakes much of the malignant character (scarlatina anginosa), or degenerates into typhus putrida, which it is apt to do, it often proves fatal. Scarp, hi fortification ; the interior slope of the ditch with which the fortifi- cation is surrounded, and which faces the country or champaign. Scarpa, Antonio, one of the most cel- ebrated anatomists and surgeons of the eighteenth century,was born in Lombardy, about 1746. His work Anatomica Disquisi- tiones de Audilu et Olfactu appcareH at Pa via in 3789 ; previously to which his An- atomica Observationes de Strudura Fenes- tra rotunda Auris (Modena, 1772) had already attracted the notice of the learned. At the time of" the revolution in Italy, he was deprived of his professorship in the university on account of his refusing to take the oath required by the Cisalpine republic. He now published his cele- brated work On Aneurisms (1804). When Napoleon, after his coronation at Milan, as king of Italy, arrived at Pavia (1805), and received the officers of the universi- ty, he inquired after Scarpa. He was informed that he had long ceased to be a member of the university, and was told the reason. " What," said Napoleon, " have political opinions to do here ? Scarpa is an honor to Pavia and to my dominions. Let him be honorably restored." Scarpa was the author of several other surgical works, besides those already mentioned. He died in Pavia in 1826. Most of his works have been translated into French and English. Scarron, Paul,a comic poet and satirist, was born at Paris, in 1610. His father, a counsellor of the parliament, wished to oblige him to take orders; but Uie son was averse to such a step. At the age of twenty- four, he travelled into Italy, where he gave himself up, without restraint, to in- dulgences of every kind, and continued his excesses, after his return to Paris, in such a manner as to bring upon himself the most painful diseases. At the age of twenty-seven, having appeared during the carnival at Mans as a savage, he was pur- sued bythe populace,and threw himself in- to a marsh. In consequence of this expo- sure, he lost the use of his limbs. Notwith- standing his sufferings, he never lost his gayety ; and, settling at Paris, his wit and social powers gained him the friendship of some of the most distinguished persons in the city and at court. After the death of his father, he had a lawsuit with his mother-in-law, in which, although his whole fortune was at stake, he made a humorous defence of his claims, and lost his case. Mad. de Hautefort, his friend, touched by his misfortunes, presented him to the queen. Scarron requested permission to call himself her majesty's valetudinarian. The queen smiled ; and Scarron, taking her smile as a commission, styled himself thenceforth Scarron, par la S'ace de Dieu, malade indigne de la reine. e now obtained a pension by his praises of Mazarin, whom, however, he soon after offended by his Mazarinade and his Typhon, and thus lost his pension. His marriage with Francoise d'Auhigne, af- terwards wife of Louis XIV, and marchi- oness de Maintenon (q. v.), however much it may have increased his happi- ness, did not improve his fortune; and he lived with so little economy, that he soon became involved in pecuniary difficulties. The comedies, which he wrote as a means of subsistence, were bonowed from the Spanish theatre. His Jodelet ou le Maitre Valet had great success. His Eneide travestie, and his Roman comique, particularly the latter, are among the most esteemed of his works. His works appeared at Paris (1737, 10 vols.). Scaurus, Marcus iEmilius. There were two distinguished Romans of this name, father and son. The former was chosen consul B. C. 116, and was after- wards princeps senatus. He was like- wise celebrated as an orator, and assumed a severity and dignity of manner which gamed him great consideration, both with the senate and people, artfully cloaking his ambition and rapacity. He also cele- brated a triumph, on account of his vic- tory over the Gauls. Although he al- lowed himself to be bribed in the war with Jugurtha, he conducted with such caution and cunning as to secure his re- election to the consulate, and his election to the censorship.—His son was remarka- 232 SCAURUS—SCEPTICISM ble for the brilliant display which he made as adilis curulis. He built a large and splendid theatre, and exhibited public games at great expense. Cicero defended him, when he was accused of being guilty of oppressions in the province of Sardinia. Sceaux, Garde des, or Keeper of the Seals. (See Keeper of Vie Great Seal.) Scenery ; the decorations of a stage, by means of which the different places in which the action of the drama is supposed to go on, are represented. In the theatres of the ancients, the scenes were not changed during the performance ; the sidewalls remained unaltered, and were decorated quite simply; perhaps, only painted with some not very bright color, adapted to any representation and every change of scene. When theatres were established in Europe, in the sixteenth century, these side-walls were not at firet provided with movable scenery. When the mysteries were represented on the stage, the actors sat on particular seats along the sides. As soon as the piece commenced, the spectators saw at once all the performers. When an actor was to make his appearance in the piece, be rose from his seat, and took it again at bis exit. In later times, there was a space on the side of the stage, in which some spectatore were admitted, particularly the critics and wits of the day. They had servants to wait on them, who brought them pipes.and tobacco ; for they smoked there as well as in other parts of the house. The representation of a tragedy was indicated by black hangings round the stage, and the changes of the scene merely by inscriptions, with the names of the places represented. It was left to the imagination of Uie spectators to supply the local circumstances. The Italian architect Serlio (died 1540) first placed on the sides of the stage movable scenes, so as to leave intervals between them, affording a free passage. In this way, the stage could be better lighted; for hitherto two chandeliers, suspended above the stage, had been used for this purpose ; but the new arrangement permitted the use of lights which were not seen by the spectatore, and, besides, the brilliancy of the light could be increased or diminish- ed, according to circumstances. In Eng- land, this mode of lighting was first in- troduced after Garrick's return from France. But a more important advantage of the movable 6ides was, that they could be varied as occasion required, so as to bring the place and circumstances of the action represented before the eye. Scepticism (from antnTtoQai, to look at distant objects with the hand held above the eyes, and secondly, to survey, consider). The Greek philosophers, called sceptics, were also called Pyn-honists, from Pyrrho of Elis; also Apordici, i. e. doubters ; Ephedici, that is, abstaining (from judg- ing). Pyrrho (bom 384 A. D.) was a man whose aim, according to Diogenes Laertius, was uprightness of life, uncon- cerned about philosophical speculation, which, as then pursued, was not favorable to integrity. He wrote nothing himself: but some information respecting him is contained in the extant fragments of the writings of Timon of Phlius in Achaia. He is represented as truly virtuous, hos- tile to all pride of opinion, and not esteem- ing mankind very highly. In fact, his scepticism was essentially different from that of a later period. Ten topics of ar- gument were used in the school of the sceptics, with this reservation, that nothing could be positively asserted concerning either the number or the force of" the ar- guments which may be urged in favor of uncertainty. They were, 1. That, on ac- count of the variety which takes place in the organization of different animal bodies, it is probable that the same external ob- ject presents different images to different animals, and man can have no reason for asserting that his perceptions are more conformable to the real nature of things than those of inferior animals. 2. That even among men there is a great diversity both of mind and body, which necessarily occasions a great variety of opinions ; ev- ery man judging according to his particu- lar apprehension, whilst no one is able to determine the real nature of things. 3. That the different senses give different reports of the same thing; whence bodies may have different properties from those which the senses lead us to suppose. 4. That the same thing appears different- ly, according to the different dispositions or circumstances of the person who per- ceives it; whence it is impossible for any one man to pronounce Uiat his judgment concerning any object is agreeable to na- ture. 5. That things assume a different aspect, according to their distance, posi- tion, or place; and no reason can be as- signed why one of these aspects should agree with the real object, rather than the rest. 6. That no object offers itself to the senses, which is not so connected and mixed with others, that it cannot be dis- tinctly separated and examined. 7. That SCEPTICISM—SCHADOW. 233 objects of sense appear exceedingly dif- ferent, when viewed in a compound and in a decomposed state; and it is impossible to say, which appearance most truly ex- presses their real nature. 8. That every object being always viewed in its relation to othere, it is impossible to determine what it is simply in its own nature. 9. That our judgment is liable to uncertain- ty, from the circumstance of frequent or rare occurrence; that which happens every day appearing to us in a very dif- ferent light from that in which the same thing would appear if it were new. 10. That mankind are continually led into dif- ferent conceptions concerning the same thing, through the influence of custom, law, fabulous tales, and established opin- ions. On all these accounts, every human judgment is liable to uncertainty; and we can only say, concerning any thing, that it seems to be, not that it is what it seems. Besides these topics, Uie latter sceptics made use of some othere. They maintained that every proposition requires some prior proposition to support it in infinitum, or supposes some axiom which cannot be proved, and is therefore taken for granted without demonstration, that is, may be denied; that, in argument, the point assumed, and that which is to be proved, may often be alternately used in each other's place, both being equally uncertain ; and, lastly, that nothing can be understood by itself, as appears from the endless disputes of philosophere con- cerning the nature of things; nor by means of something else, whilst itself re- mains unknown. An avoidance of all settled opinion on subjects of knowledge (itoxn), and a consequent tranquillity (drapa|(u) amid all the changes of life, were the be- ginning and end of this system. Sextus Einpiricus (q. v.), towards the end of the second century, canied out the system of scepticism with rare emdition and acute- ness, and separated the reasoning of the sceptics from Uie negative dogmatism of the later academy (see Plato); and to him we are indebted for our knowledge of sci- entific scepticism in its maturity. Of modern sceptics, we may mention Fran- cis Sanchez (bom 1562, at Brae am, in Portugal, died 1632); Francis de la Mothe le Vayer (born 1586, died 1672; Sor- biere and Foucher were his disciples; he declared his belief in revealed knowledge); Peter Daniel Huet (bom 1630, died 1721); Jos. Glanvill (died 1680); and Peter Bayle (born 1647), a man of great acuteness, and the celebrated Hume (born 1711). (See Hume.) A limited scepticism was V 20* recently taught by G. E. Schulze, of which the chief maxim is, that the origin of our knowledge is inexplicable.— See History and Spirit of Scepticism, &c, by Staudlin (Leipsic, 1794—95, 2 vols.). It is highly necessary to distinguish between that puerile doubting which disqualifies for forming a decided opinion in indi- vidual cases, and that scepticism which, in science, is opposed to dogmatism, and is indispensable to keep the human mind within due bounds in its eternal striving for a solution of the great riddle of ex- istence, and for a correct understanding of intellect, reality, and the power which pervades and upholds all existence. Sceptre (from sceptrum, oKrjnrpov), origi- nally a staff, the emblem of sovereign power. Some say that it was only a lance, without the metal point, to indicate Uie continuance of supreme power in time of peace; but in some cases it may have originated from the simple staff— with many tribes, the emblem of old age and wisdom. The baton, the short scep- tre, has always remained a sign of dis- tinction ; as in the case of the marshals. In the Greek assemblies, a pereon who wished to speak received a sceptre from the herald; and the judges also bore it while in the exercise of their authority. Kings swore by the sceptre. By degrees, it became the emblem of supreme power alone. Through the Roman emperors it passed to the Western monarchs. The sceptre and ball now fonn the two most important emblems of royal and imperial power. Schadow, John Gottfried, director of the royal academy of arts in Berlin, a dis- tinguished sculptor, was born in Berlin in 1764. His parents were poor; but fortunate circumstances, aiding his energetic charac- ter, enabled him to study sculpture, and go to Italy, where he made a group in terra cotta for the (so called) concorso di Palestra, and received tlife prize-medal. Some of the best known works, made or modelled by him, are the statues of gen- eral Ziethen, and of prince Leopold of Dessau, in Berlin, the monument of Lu- ther, in Wittenberg, the Victoria and the Brandenburg gate, in Berlin (which was carried to Paris, and afterwards restored), the monument of Blucher, at Rostock.— His son Rudolf, who died in 1822, was one of the most promising sculptors a: Rome. His-Sandal-binder and Spinner are celebrated, and have often been copied. —AnoUier son, Frederic William, is a painter, and, since 1826, has been director of the academy of painting at Dusseldorf. 234 SCHAFER—SCHARNHORST. Schafer, Godfrey Heniy, a distinguish- ed German philologist, was born at Leip- sic in 1764,entered the university in 1781, and enjoyed the philological instructions of Eraesti, Reiz, and Beck. In 1796, ap- peared his edition of Athcmeus, which was followed by the Opera Moralia of Plu- tarch, an edition of Herodotus, and sever- al other works. In 1806, his Meletenuda critica in Dionysii Hal. Artem rhetoricam procured him the privilege of lectur- ing. In 1808, he was appointed pro- fessor exu*aordinary of philosophy, and, in 1818, librarian of the university. Besides numerous classical works, Greek and Lat- in, the pubfication of which he has super- intended, he has published an unproved edition of Bos^s Ellipses, and contributed many notes and remarks to the recent London edition of Stephens' Thesaurus, of which he conected the proofs ; Ammo- nius de Different. Verborum Affinium (1H22); Phalaris Epistola (Leipsic, 1823); a revision of Reiske's Demosthenes (Lon- don, 18*22, seq.), and an improved edition of Plutarch's Lives (1830), are among his more recent labors. In some cases he has merely given a corrected impression of standard texts, in others corrected read- ings, while to some of Uie authors he has added valuable commentaries. Schaffhausen ; one of the smallest of the twenty-two cantons of Switzerland, in the northern part of which it lies, on the right bank of the Rhine, nearly surround- ed by Baden, and separated by the Rhine from the cantons of Zurich and Thurgau, on the south. Its superficial extent is 115 square miles ; population, 28,050, in sev- en towns and thirty-five villages, all Re- formed (Calvinists), except 210 Catholics. (See Switzerland.) The capital, of the same name, on the right bank of the Rhine, has a population of 7000 souls. Lon. 8° 37' E.; lat. 47° 43' N. It has a castle, a college (collegium humanitatis), with nine professors, a gymnasium, a town library, theological library, townhall, &c.,and man- ufactures of cotton, silk and leather. It is situated about a league above the celebrated cataract of the Rhine, of which the descent is seventy or eighty feet. (See Rhine, and Cataract.) The situation of the town gives it a considerable transit trade, all goods brought down the river being landed here. There is a wooden bridge here over the Rhine, 120 paces long; but the ingenious hanging bridge, which was built in 1758, was destroyed by the French in 1799. Schandau ; a small town in the centre of Saxon Switzerland, (q. v.), two leagues from the Bohemian frontier, with 1000 in- habitant. It is much visited in summer, on account of its channing situation, the beautiful scenery in its neighborhood, and its mineral waters. Scharnhorst, Gebhard David von ; born hi 17.1(i, at Ilamelsee, in Hanover. His father, in consequence of being em- broiled iu a lawsuit, was deprived of the i means of giving him a good education ; and young Scharnhorst was sent to a vil- lage school, where he remained till his fif- teenth year. A few works on the seven years' war, and Uie Austrian war of suc- cession, and more particularly the narra- tives of an invalid soldier,inspired him with a passion for the military life. To be at some future period a sergeant in command of an outpost, was at this time his ideal of felicity. At length his father gained his protracted suit, and with it au estate; and young Scharnhorst was received into the military school of count William of Scbauinburg-Lippe-Buckeburg. He sub- sequently entered Uie Hanoverian service, and soon distinguished himself by several excellent military works. In 1780, he was appointed teacher in the military school at Hanover. In 1793, he was made captain of horse artillery. In 1794, he distin- guished himself* so much under general Haminersteui, that George III gave him a sword of honor, and made him major. The duke of Brunswick recommended him to the king of Prassia, who appointed him lieutenant-colonel. In 1804, he was made colonel; in 1807, major-general; and, in 1813, lieutenant-general. In the unfortunate battle of Auerstadt he was wounded twice; yet he took part hi the battle of Eylau. (q. v.) After the peace of Tilsit, he was appointed president of the committee for the reorganiza- tion of the army, and here displayed great talents, giving the whole army a totally new constitution and spirit. He was equal- ly practical and scientific. He infused into the army a truly national feeling. When Prussia rose en masse, in 1813, it was chiefly Scharnhorst who contrived, by means of the corps of volunteers, and the landwehr (q. v.), as well as by having previously disciplined many more men than the peace of Tilsit authorized Prus- sia to keep in actual service, to arm ali persons capable of doing military duty. In the spring of 1813, he was chief of the staff in the army under Blucher, in Sax- ony. In the battle of Liitzen, his leg was severely wounded: and, not allowing him- self necessary rest, but setting out too soon for Vienna, to gain over the emperor of Austria to the cause of the allies, l.e SCHARNHORST—SCHELLING. 235 died, June 28, 1813, at Prague. His statue stands in the King's square, in Berlin. Schaclnburg, or Schaumblrg-Lippe. (See Lippe.) Scheele, Charles William, a celebrated chemist, who contributed greatly to the improvement of the science which he cul- tivated, born at Stralsund, in Sweden, in 1742, was apprenticed to an apothecary at Gottenburg. He became his own in- structer in chemistry, went to Upsal in 1773, where his abilities introduced him to the notice of professor Bergmann, and was admitted an associate of the acade- my. He subsequently became director of a pharmaceutical establishment at Kio- ping, where he continued to the close of his life, in 1786. He discovered Uie flu- oric acid, and the acids of tungsten and molybden; and his experiments on ba- rytas, chlorine, various animal and vege- table acids, on the composition of* water, and several other subjects, are in Uie high- est degree important. Scheeren ; the rocks on the coasts of Sweden and Finland, particularly those situated before Stockholm, which extend from seventy to eighty miles into the sea. The Scheeren fleet protects the entrance into the harbor, and consists of flat vessels, able to sail in shallow water. Scheererite ; a newly discovered mineral species, of a combustible nature, found iii a bed of brown coal near St. Gall, in Switzerland. It exists in loosely aggregated, whitish, feebly-shining, pearly, crystalline grains and folia. It is rather heavier than water, does not feel greasy, is very friable, and destitute of taste. It melts at 36° R. into a colorless liquid, in which state it resembles a fat oil. It seems to be a mineral naphthaline. Scheie. (See Sheik.) Scheldt, or Schelde (anciently Scal- dis, French Escaut); a river which rises in the French department of the Aisne, becomes navigable at Conde, and enters the kingdom of Belgium at St Antring. At Ghent it receives the Lys ; and it is fur- ther increased by two great canals which form a communication between Ghent, Bruges, and Sas. After passing by Den- den uonde, where it receives the Dender, Aupelmonde, where the Aupel, fomied by the junction of the Dyle and the two Nethes, empties into it* and Antwerp, where it is 1600 feet wide, it divides, eigh- teen miles below the latter city, into two great branches, the East and West Scheldt. The latter takes the name of Hondt, and empties into the North sea at Flushing. Both arms are connected with the Meuse and Rhine. The principal places on the Scheldt are Cambray, Valenciennes, Con- de, Tournay, Oudenarde, Ghent, Den- dermonde, Antwerp, and Flushing. In 17^4, the navigation of the Scheldt be- came a subject of dispute between Aus- tria (then in possession of Belgium) and the Dutch republic. The subject was amicably settled by the mediation of the king of France, Austria renouncing her pretensions to the free navigation of the river, in consideration of some cessions, and the payment of a sum of money by Holland. (See Netherlands, Appendix to last volume.) Schelling, Frederic William Joseph von, one of the most distinguished philos- ophers of Gennany, was born at Leon- berg, in Wurtemberg, in 1775, studied at Leipsic and Jena, iu which latter univer- sity he was a pupil of Fichte, whom he succeeded as professor there. Some years since, he was made secretary of the acad- emy of fine arts at Munich, and was enno- bled by the king of Bavaria. In 1820, he went to Erlangen,and delivered lectures at the university in that city. In 1827, he was appointed a professor in the universi- ty at Munich. His works are, On the Possibility of a Form of Philosophy in general (Tubingen, 1795)"; Contribu- tions towards a Philosophy of Nature (firet edition, Tubingen, 1795); Of the Soul of the World, a Hypothesis of the higher Natural Philosophy, for the Expla- nation of the general Organization of Things (Hamburg, 1798); First Sketch of the Philosophy of Nature (Jena, 1799); System of Transcendental Idealism (Tu- bingen, 1800); Lectures on the Method of Academical Study (Tubingen, second edition, 1814; firet edition 1803); Bruno, or On Uie Divine and Natural Principle of Things (Berlin, 1802); Philosophy and Religion (Tubingen, 1804); his Complete Philosophical Writings, of which the first volume only has yet appeared (Landshut, 1809); On the I (Ego), as a Principle of Philosophy, or On the Unconditional in Human Knowledge (firet edition, Tubin- gen, 1795); Philosophical Letters on Dog- matism and Criticism (in the Philosophi- cal Journal of Niethainmer, Jena, 1796); a discourse on the Relation of the Fine Arts to Nature, delivered in 1807, at the festival of the baptism of the king of Ba- varia ; his General Periodical, by and foi Germans, of which but three numbere ap- peared (Nuremberg, 1813); Representa- tion of the True Relation of the Philos- ophy of Nature to the improved Doctrine of Fichte (Tubingen, 1806). Of late, 236 SCHELLING—SCHICHT. Schelling has also occupied hhnself with mythological inquiries, a fruit of which is his Treatise on the Deities of Samothrace (Tubingen, 1816). To give a view of the philosophy of Schelling within our limits is impossible. It would require great mi- nuteness of explanation, both of his phra- seology and his ideas, and could not be made intelligible, in a limited space, to one who had not a previous knowledge of oth- er German philosophical systems. His system, moreover, has not yet been pre- sented to the public in a connected form, although he has promised so to exhibit it, in a work to be called the Ages of the World. The part of it as yet most de- veloped, is the philosophy of nature; the least developed part is the ethical. His influence upon various branches of Ger- man science has been very great. Among those who have earned out his philoso- phy of nature, are Steffens, Troxler, Oken (q. v.), Kiehnayer, Windischmann, Baader, Kieser, C. E. Schelling, Schubert, Nasse, Burdach, Creuzer, Solger, Gorres, Daub, Hegel, &c. Hegel, at a later period, pur- sued a course of his own, and adopted a dialectic method in philosophy. Other writers have labored on other parts of Schelling's system. Schemnitz (Hungarian, Selmecz-Ban- ya; Sclavonic, Stjawnitza); a royal free city of Hungary, in the county of Honth, eighty miles east of Presburg; lon. 18° 54' E., lat. 48° 48' N; population, with the suburbs, 20,211. It stands in the midst of the most picturesque scenery, a few miles from the Raab, and contains some good houses, and tolerably wide streets, though irregularly built, on account of the unevenness of the surface. The mines of Schemnitz are the most extensive in Hungary, and are hardly surpassed by any in Europe. In eighteen mines, 8000 workmen are employed. The yearly val- ue of the products is nearly one million dol- lars. • The chief metals are gold, silver, and lead, combined with copper and arsenic. The whole of the mining works are the property of the government The extent of ground containing the ores is about six miles square, and includes the town, most of which is undermined.— Schemnitz has a castle, one Lutheran and four Catholic churches, a Lutheran gym- nasium, and a mining academy, which has a director, five professors, and about 150 students. The course of education is com- pleted in three years. The greatest amount of gold was produced in the vear 1690, which yielded 1872 marks, or 132,428 du- cats. The value of the gold and silver obtained from 1740 to 1773, was thirty mil- lion dollars. Schenectady; a city of New York, on the south-east side of the Mohawk, fifteen and a half miles from Albany. It is reg- ularly laid out in streets and squares. The Erie canal passes through it; and it con- tains the county buildings, Uie buildings of Union college, and the usual variety of dwelling houses, school houses, houses of* worehip, shops and offices. Population in 1830, 4256. It is a pleasant and flour- ishing town, and is distinguished for the enterprise of its inhabitants. Union col- lege, in this city, was incorporated in 1794. It is a highly respectable institution; has 10 instructors, 205 students, 5150 volumes in its library, and 8450 in the students' libraries. The commencement is on the fourth Wednesday in July. The whole number of alumni in 1831 was 1373. Sherzo (an Italian word signifying joke, jest), in music; generally ap- plied to a passage of a sportive character in musical pieces of some length; e. g., to symphonies, quartettos, &c. Beethoven has made it a common part of the sym- phony, and it has taken the place of the minuet (q. v.) Schiavone, Andrea, an eminent painter of the Venetian school, whose true name was Medola, his surname (Uie Sclavonian) being derived from his birth place, was born at Sebenico, in Dalmatia, in 1522. His parents, who were in humble circum- stances, placed him with a house-painter, at Venice, where, at his leisure hours, he studied the works of Parmegiano, Giorgi- one, and Titian. The latter took him un- der his care, and soon after employed him in the library of St. Mark, where he is said to have painted three entire ceilings. He was accounted one of Uie finest color- ists of the Venetian school. Two of his compositions are in the church of the Pa- dri Teatini, at Rimini, representing the na- tivity and the assumption of the Virgin. His Perseus aud Andromeda, and the Apostles at the Sepulchre, are in the royal collection at Windsor. He died at Venice in 1582. Schicht, John Gottfried, one of the most scientific musicians and composers of sacred music, was born in 1753, near Zit- tau, in Saxony, and was the son of a poor weaver. In 1776, he went to the university of Leipsic to study law, but soon devoted himself entirely to muBic. In 1810, he was appointed to superintend the music in the two chief churches at Leipsic. He stud- ied the theory of music with great zeal and success, and conrposed several beau- SCHICHT—SCHILLER. 237 tiful pieces. Among his numerous works is his univereal hymn-book, which con- tains 1285 melodies, including 306 of his own publication, by II artel, at Leipsic. Several of his compositions are celebrated. He died in 1823. Schill, Ferdinand von, a Prussian cavalry officer, who distinguished himself by his daring expedition against the French, was bora in 1773, in Silesia. He was wounded in the battle of Auerstiidt, and took refuge in Colberg (q. v.), where he essentially contributed to save this for- tress—the only Prussian one which, in 1806 and 1807, escaped capture. He col- lected more than 1000 fugitives, and per- formed the boldest exploits; to reward which, the king made him a major, after the peace of Tilsit. His entry into Berlin, the next year, resembled a triumph : the inhabitants considered it an honor to quarter his soldiere in their houses. Schill burned to meet the French in the field. Li 1809, when the Tyrolese rose (see Ho- fer), Dornberg labored to excite an insur- rection iu Hessia ; and Schill was secretly instigated (not by the king, nor the govern- ment) to rise. He marched, April 23, with his regiment, out of Berlin, as he had done on many previous days, for the purpose of exercise. But this time he did not return. He inarched towards the Elbe. Here he found that he had mistaken Uie disposition of the Saxons. In Halle, he was informed of Napoleon's decisive victories at Tann, Abensberg, Eckmiihl and Ratisbon. Domberg's insuirection had miscarried. Schill called his officers together, and they agreed to proceed in their enterprise. May 5, he fought at Dodendorf with the Westphalians. He strove to reach East Friesland. Ten thou- sand francs were offered for his head, by Uie king of Westphalia. He now tried to reach the Baltic, probably to obtain sup- port from the English. After some con- flicts, he took Stralsund, and fortified it in haste. May 31, Stralsund was taken by Dutch troops, after a desperate defence. Schill himself fell, with many of his brave followers, fighting for a loug time in the streets. Twelve officers were taken here and at Dodendorf, and shot at Wcsel: the men were sent to the French galleys. A part of his troops forced their way into the open country, and compelled the enemy to allow them a free passage to Uie Prussian frontier, where a Prussian court-martial broke the officers, and sent them to a fortress. Though Schill's en- terprise miscarried, it had an electrifying effect on the Prussians. Schiller, John Christopher Frederic von, was born Nov. 10, 1759, at Marbach, a town of Wiirtemberg, on the Neckar. His father, originally a surgeon in the anny, was afterwards a captain, and final- ly superintendent of a nursery of trees attached to a castle of the duke of \\ ur- temberg. His parents were pious and upright; and if hisearly education did not afford much opportunity for the dev elope- ment of his genius, by intercourse with men of talents, or by a wide field of ob- servation, it was eminently calculated to awaken that sensibility to the good and the true, which forms so essential a trait in his character; and his early acquaint- ance with the Bible, making him familiar with the poetical passages of the Old Testament, contributed to develope Ms poetical genius. The visions of Ezekie! early excited a great interest in him. When a child, he always manifested an affectionate disposition, and was devotedly attached to his parents, and his sister. He loved, at a very early period, to re- peat the sermon which he had heard at church on Sunday. He would stand on a chair and preach with great zeal, never omitting the divisions which the minister had made in his discourse. His charita- ble disposition manifested itself early, and never left him. E'or a long time, he wished to study theology; although a brilliant tragedy, which he had seen performed on the stage at Stuttgard when he was nine years old, strongly attracted his attention towards the drama. His first poem is said to have been written the day before his confirmation, in 1772. He had, till this time, received instruction at a good Latin school, in order to prepare himself for the university, as his father strove to procure for him the benefits of" a good education, though his own had been neg- lected. At this time, Charles, duke of Wiirtemberg, having become weary of parade and dissipation, turned his thoughts to an object of a better character, though still a whim of a petty prince, viz. the establishment of a school on a military- monastic plan, where no effort should be spared to give the pupils the best educa- tion of which he could conceive. The duke sought for pupils among Uie sons of his officers, and offered to take young Schiller. His father could not well re- fuse such an offer; and, in 1773, Schiller was received into the Charles-school, sac- rificing his own inclinations to the interest of bis parents. I le studied jurisprudence at this institution, in which the pupils were kept so entirely separate from the 238 SCHILLER. world, that they were permitted to see no females, except their mothers or very young sisters, who visited them on Sun- days. Thus the influences, under which Schiller's talents were developed, were precisely opposite to those which operated on Gothe. (q. v.) The plan of the school was afterwards extended, and medicine allowed to be studied in it; and the school itself was transferred toStuttgard. Schil- ler now seized on the opportunity offered, and, iu 1775, began to study medicine and Latin zealously. His teachers did not all consider him as possessing uncommon talents; but the duke used to say, •' Let that boy alone; he will come to something." When 16 years old, he published a trans- lation of part of Virgil s ^Eneid in hex- ameters, in a Suabian periodical; but poetry was a forbidden fruit for him and his companions, and attracted them, there- fore, the more. Some poetical books found their way, by stealth, into the school—the works of Klopstock, Gereten- berg, Gothe and Lessing. In 1773, Schil- ler began an epic, the hero of which was Moses; but he destroyed it at a later pe- riod. Shakspeare kindled in him a pas- sion for the drama. He undertook two dramatic compositions, which he after- wards burned. Only some passages of one were retained in the Robbers. For two years he studied medicine very ar- dently, and wrote a Latin treatise On the Philosophy of Physiology, which was never printed. In 1777, at the age of 18 years, he began to write his Robbers—a composition with many striking faults; but which, nevertheless, awakens a power- ful interest Schiller himself says of it, that " he dared to describe men long be- fore he knew any thing of them within his grated cell;" but, notwithstanding this, it contains some deep views and admirable displays of character. In 1780, when he had finished his studies, he wrote a trea- tise, entitled Essay on the Connexion of Uie Animal and Intellectual Nature of Man, printed in 1821, in the Monatschrift of Berlin. In the same year, he was ap- pointed physician to a regiment in Stutt- gard. Whilst in the school, he had been able to compose only by stealth, and had often reported himself sick, in order to have the use of the lamp in the sick-room, while writing liis Robbers, not being al- lowed a light in his own room. Now he enjoyed, for the firet time, some degree of liberty. His Robbers was printed at his own expense, as he could not find any publisher who would take the risk; and, in 1781, he was requested to change the play in certain particulars, so as to adapt it for the stage at Manheim. In 1782, it was performed at Manheim, Schiller having willingly made changes wherever he could be convinced that they were im- provements. Not being able to obtain leave of absence, to go out of the limits of the state, he left his regiment without permission, saw his piece performed, and returned with the deepest conviction of the unfitness of his present situation for his talents ; particularly as the duke had ask- ed him, after the publication of the Rob- bers, to show him all his poetical produc- tions, and, upon his refusal, had prohibited him from publishing any thing more, ex- cept medical works. In 1783, the Rob- bers was performed again at Manheim, and he again attended the performance, but, this time, was discovered, and put under arrest During his detention, he formed the plan of his Cabale und Liebe, and conceived the idea of his Conspiracy of Fiesco. He was now convinced that he must leave Stuttgard, unless he should choose to sacrifice his poetry, the charm of his life; but how could he quit the army, when he had so long enjoyed an education at the public expense ? It was not probable that the duke would allow him to go. Some friends proposed to him to propitiate the duke by a panegyr- ical poem; but, much as he wished to gain his favor, chiefly on account of his beloved parents, he could not bring him- self to use these means ; besides, he knew that even if the duke should allow him to print poetry again, there was no safety in the exercise of the privilege. Schubart(q.v.) was sighing on Hohenasperg, on account of his Furstengruft, in which he had paint- ed, in strong colors, the burial-place of princes. He now thought of deserting , but the feeling of gratitude towards the duke, and the fear that his father, who, with his family, altogether depended upon the duke, would be made to suffer on his account, caused a great struggle in his mind. At last, the impossibility of living without poetry made him resolve to quit his situation. In 1782, he went, under an assumed name, to Franconia, where he was received by the mother of some gentlemen who had studied with him. He lived in great solitude, in a somewhat wild countiy, in a village call- ed Bauerbach, in order to remain con- cealed and secure against the possible per- secutions of the duke. In this situation he finished his Fiesco and Cabale und Liebe. In 1783, he went to Manheim, and con- ceived the idea of Don Carlos and SCHILLER. 239 Maria Stuart. During this period, he also composed the Battle, the Infanticide, and poems to Laura. In Darmstadt, he won the favor of the prince by read- ing to hhn some scenes from Don Carlos. In 1785, he went to Leipsic; towards autumn to Dresden, where inter- course with men of talents, the charming scenery, the beautiful gallery, and the library, detained him until 1787. Here he became acquainted with the father of the poet Korner. (q. v.) This gentleman has since written a biographical sketch of Schiller. During this period, he stud- ied all the works which he could procure, relating to the history of Philip II, to pre- pare himself for his Don Carlos; and these studies led to his History of the Re- volt of the United Netherlands (Leipsic, 1788, vol. i). His History of the most re- markable Revolutions and Conspiracies, of which only one volume was published, was also produced at this period. Don Carlos first appeared at Leipsic, 1787. He himself has written the best and se- verest critique on this piece, hi his Letters on Don Carlos. The Ghostseer (Leip- sic, 1789) was probably caused by the tales respecting Cagliostro. (q. v.) In 1787, Schiller went to Weimar, where W'ieland and Herder received him in a friendly manner. In 1788, he met Gothe, after the return of the latter from Italy. He had seen him but once before, in his boyhood,when Gothe, accompanied by the duke of Wiirtemberg, visited the academy where he was studying. He did not like him at firet: partly through his influence, however, he received, in 1789, a profes- sorship of philosophy at Jena. Schiller entered on his office with the discourse, What is univereal history, and for what is it studied ? He now devoted himself to history; and the few poetical produc- tions which he wrote at this period are mostly of a historical character, though the Gods of Greece was composed at this time; and he also then form- ed the idea of an epic poem, the hero of which was to be Frederic the Great. He paid much attention to philosophy, partic- ularly Kant's; and many of his philo- sophical and lesihetical treatises date from this period. He lectured on histoiy, and began to publish Historical Memoirs from the twelfth Century to the most re- cent Times (1790); and his Histoiy of the Thirty Years' War, which appeared first in the Pocket Almanac for Ladies, from 1790 to 1793. In 1790, he married. The French republic, at the beginning of Uie revolution, conferred on him Uie rights of citizenship, and the emperor of Germany ennobled him in 1802. Incessant study, protracted far into the night, and the use of stimulants, undennined his health. In 1793, he visited his parents; on which occasion the duke took no notice of him. The periodical Thalia having ceased in 1793, he formed the plan of publishing, with the cooperation of the firet writers of Germany, the Hora. He became more intimately acquainted with Gothe, return- ed with renewed ardor to poetry, and produced, particularly after 1795, the finest lyrical poems which appeared in the Hora, and in his Almanac of the Muses (firet number in 1796). In 1797, he pro- duced his firet ballads. In 1795, he con- ceived the plan of a play, to be called-the Knights of Malta; but all his other pro- jects gave way to Wallenstein (completed in 1799). Wallenstein's camp is a striking introduction to Uie parts which consti- tute the proper tragedy. From 1799, he lived in Weimar, where, in 1800 and 1801, Maria Stuart and the Maid of Orleans were produced. In 1803, appeared the Bride of Messina, and his last dramatic work, William Tell, in our opinion, much the best of his tragedies. Death pre- vented the completion of his Pseudo- Demetrius. He also adapted Shakspeare's Macbeth, Gozzi's Turandot, Racine's Phaedra, &c, for the stage, with which his dramatic works close. Among the numerous criticisms on his merits as a dramatist, we would refer the reader to Frederic Schlegel's Lectures on the His- tory of ancient and modern Literature (2d vol.). After attending a representation of his own Tell at Berlin, where he was re- ceived with much honor, he died at Wei- mar, May 9, 1805, only 46 years old, mourned by all Germany. Gothe well says of him: Er wendete die Bliithe Jwchsten Slrebens, Das Leben selbst an dieses Bild des Lebens. Schiller hated nothing so much as the vul- gar or mean. He strove perpetually for the noble and the beautiful; hence that melan- • choly hue which is sometimes spread over his productions. There exist seve- ral editions of his work: a very cheap one was published, in 1822, by Cotta, in eighteen small volumes. He left a widow and several children, in narrow circumstances. His correspondence with Gothe is interesting. The correspondence between Schiller and Will, von Hum- boldt (Stuttg., 1830) is, perhaps, more so ; because it gives us more insight into the growth of his mind. The best account 240 SCHILLER—SCHIRAS. of his life is that by madame von Wolzo- gen, his sister-in-law (f-tuttgard, 1830, 2 vols.). The second and third parts of his Wallenstein have been translated into English by Coleridge. His Don Carlos,and his Thirty Years' War, have also been translated. Schiller-Spar (from the German verb schillern, to exhibit a play of colors); a fo- liated mineral, whose primitive fonn is un- known. Besides the principal cleavage, there is a second one, less distinct: the in- clination of the one to the other is between 135° and 140° ; fracture uneven, splintery ; lustre metallic, pearly, and eminent upon the perfect faces of cleavage, indistinctly vitreous upon the other faces; color olive- green aud blackish-green, inclining to pinchbeck-brown upon the perfeet faces of cleavage ; streak grayish-white; hardness about that of fluor; specific gravity 2.69. It frequently occurs intermingled with ser- pentine. It consists of Silica................62.00 Magnesia .............10.00 Alumine..............13.00 Oxide of iron...........13.00 98.00 When exposed to a high degree of heat, it becomes hard, and forms a porcelain- like mass. It occurs at Basta, in the for- est of Hazeburg, in the Hartz. It is found in the U. States, at Blandford, Massachu- setts, in serpentine. Schimmelpennink, Rutgcr Jan, the last chief magistrate of the republic of the United Netherlands, or grand pensionary of the Batavian republic, was born at De- venter, in Holland, in 1761, and educated at Leyden, where he took his degree ; on which occasion he published Diisertatio de Imperio populari rite temperato. He afterwards practised at the bar with much credit In 1798, he was appointed am- bassador to France, by the Batavian re- public, in which post he acquitted himself with satisfaction to his country, and honor to himself. In 1801, he was accredited hi the same character, first* to the congress assembled at Amiens, and afterwards to England. The war having again broke out, Schimmelpennink resumed his em- bassy to France. In 1805, he was created grand-pensionary of Holland, but with different powers from those anciently at- tached to that character. This power, however, ceased in consequence of the elevation of Louis Bonaparte to the throne of Holland, and Schimmelpennink re- ceived, in lieu of his office, the grand-cor- don of the order of Holland, about that time instituted, and became, by the change in the government, a senator of France, as well as of Holland, the two countries being united. He received also the title of count, with the appointment of grand- treasurer of the Three Fleeces. He filled these offices down to the exclusion of Na- poleon froih the throne of France, and voted for the creation of" a provisionary government in the latter instance. Apnl 14, 1814, he sent in his resignation, and retired into private life. He died at Am- sterdam, in 1825. Schinkel, Charles Frederic, one of the most distinguished architects of the pres- ent age, professor in the academy of arts at Berlin, was born in 1781, at New Ruppin. He lost his father early, and studied at the gymnasium of Berlin. He afterwards ap- plied himself to architecture, went in 1803 to Italy and France, and returned to Germany in 1805. The disasters of Prus- sia in 1806 were severely felt by all ar- chitects, and Schinkel devoted hhnself to landscape painting, in which he succeed- ed remarkably well. One of his most successful attempts was to represent va- rious historical periods in a series of pic- tures. When the royal family returned to Berlin, his plans for several arrange- ments in the royal palace were approved by the queen. In 1819, he received au appointment in the ministry of commerce, manufactures, and architecture, and, in this capacity, has done much to improve the style of building in his country. In 1821, Schinkel was ordered to rebuild the theatre at Berlin. In 1824, the French institute made him a member of their body, as did also the academy of arts at Copen- hagen. Berlin has many architectural monuments by this master, and the prov- inces are full of churches and other edi- fices, public and private, planned by him. His greatest plan, that of a grand cathe- dral, which the king of Prussia intended to erect in Berlin, has never beeu execut- ed. The new museum at Berlin, a splen- did monument of art, is the last of his great works. It was finished in 1828. In 1824, he visited Italy a second time. His last and best picture represents a landscape with buildings in Greece, at the time of her highest prosperity. It was given by the city of Berlin to the princess Louisa, daughter of the king, when married to prince Frederic, son of the king of Uie Netherlands. Schiras; a city of Persia, capital of Farsistan; 160 miles south-east of Ispa- han ; lon. 52° 44' E., lat. 29° 37' N.; pop- SCHIRAS—SCHLEGEL. 241 ulation before the earthquake of 1824, 52,000. It is situated between two moun- tains, on a plain of unrivalled beauty and fertility, the boast of Persia, upwards of twenty miles long, and twelve broad. The environs are laid out in magnificent gar- dens, the flowere and fruits of which form a favorite theme of Eastern poetiy. Hafiz (q. v.) was a native of Schiras. His tomb, and that of Sadi (q. v.), are in the neigh- borhood of the city. The city is about six miles in circuit, but the walls have been suffered to fall to ruin. The streets are narrow, winding, and dirty, and the houses mean. The most remarkable public building is the great bazar, about a quarter of a mile long, built of yellow burnt brick, allotted to the different traders in the city. The citadel, the residence of the govern- or, is a fortified square of eighty yards. The royal palace within is far from being an elegant structure. Schiras canies on an extensive commerce, which consists chiefly in receiving from Bushire the spices and cotton goods of India, and trans- mitting them to Ispahan and Yezd. The sides of the hills that bound the plain of ■ Schiras, produce a wine, which has the highest reputation of any in the East. Schiras is an ancient city, and has been the capital of the Persian empire, but ex- hibits no ruins to attest its former greatness. Schirvan. (See Caucasus.) Schism (