/ A ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. A POPULAR DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND BIOGRAPHY, BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME; including A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES in AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY; ON THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF THE GERMAN CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON. EDITED BY FRANCIS LIBBER, ASSISTED BY E. WIGGLESWORTH. Vol. I. CAREY & LEA. SOLD IN NEW YORK BY G. & C. & H. CARVILL—IN BOSTON BY CARTER & HENDEE. 1830. EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to witi Be it remembered, that on the tenth day of August, in the fifty-fourth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1829, Carey, Lea &. Carey, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the tight whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " Encyclopasdia Americana. A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and Biography, brought down to the present Time ; including a copious Collection of Original Articles in American Biography; on the Basis of the seventh Edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon. Edited by Francis Lieber, assisted by E. Wigglesworth." In conformity to the aot of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned:" and also to the act, entitled, " Au Act supplementary to an act, entitled, ' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned;' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints." 6 *' ^ * ^ D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pemtsylvania. A? V, 1 PREFACE. It is customary, and very properly so, to reserve the preface of an encyclopedia till the publication of the concluding volume ; but the char- acter of the present work renders it proper to state, briefly, at this time, the particulars in which it differs from the numerous works of that descrip- tion, with which the public are already acquainted, and to explain the plan which has been pursued by the editors in performing their task. The German work, which has been adopted as the basis of the ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA, grew out of the wants of the age. The last half century, particularly the latter part of it, has probably been more fertile in memorable events, and important discoveries and inventions, than any equal period in history. How many extraordinary changes have we witnessed in both hemispheres, as well in politics, in the sciences and in opinions, as in the individuals who have borne a conspicuous part in the affairs of the civilized world during that time ! How important have been the results of the numberless voyages of discovery, the revolutions of states, and the wars, which have excited so intense an interest during that period—an interest which has been the more constantly kept up, as the facility of communication between all the branches of the great human family seems, at the same time, to have gone on in- creasing in proportion to the multitude of events and circumstances which have thus influenced their destiny. Formerly, years would elapse before iv PREFACE. the most important facts could pass the barriers which an imperfect naviga- tion of the ocean, or a diversity of languages, had thrown between nations. Now, even the petty quarrels and frolics of students in a German or French university find their way, in the course of a few weeks, into the columns of an American newspaper. Then, a century would pass by, be- fore even a Shakspeare was justly estimated beyond the confines ot his native land; while now, we daily find, on title pages, the united names of publishers in three or four different nations, and in both continents. Thus rapidly does knowledge of every kind now diffuse itself over the globe, and extend the circle of civilization. In comparison with the present state of the world, how small was the theatre on which the gods of Grecian fable and the heroes of Grecian his- tory performed their parts in that interesting drama! During the period of Roman history, it is true, the field of civilization had become much more enlarged j but, in our own times, it has extended over both hemi- spheres, and science gathers contributions from every quarter of the globe. It is therefore become necessary, that every well-informed man, who would keep his relative place during this advance of society, should possess himself of many kinds of knowledge, which might have been dis- pensed with in former periods; the different sciences and arts, closely connected as they have ever been, having now more common bonds of union than in any preceding age. Considerations of this nature induced the German editors to project a work, which should furnish the general reader with all the information, that should be necessary to make him acquainted with the events and discoveries of interest, which did not happen to fall within the range of his particular studies. For the plan of this Encyclopedia we are indebted to the late Mr. Brockhaus, a bookseller of eminence at Leipsic, who was the publisher, and, at the same time, the principal editor. He called it the Conversation- Lexicon, as being a work chiefly designed for the use of persons, who would take a part in the conversation or society of the well-informed PREFACE. v circles. The character of the work, however, has been, to a certain degree, changed by numerous improvements in each successive edition; and its original title has therefore ceased to be strictly appropriate. But, as the book had become well known, and gained its well-deserved popularity, under that name, it was thought inexpedient to reject its original appellation : it is accordingly included in its new title—Allgemeine deutsche Real- Encyklopctdie fur die gebildeten Stande. ( Conversations-Lexikon.) Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1827—29. The value attached to this undertaking of Mr. Brockhaus is evident from the fact, that about 80,000 copies of the work, now consisting of 12 volumes, have been published since 1812; besides which two pirated editions have appeared in Germany. There has also been a Danish translation (published by Soldin, Copenhagen), a Swedish, and likewise a Dutch (published by Thieme, at Zutphen). A French translation is also preparing at Brussels. More than two hundred contributors are enumer- ated in the preface of the original, of whom we will only mention a few, whose fame is by no means confined to the limits of their country:—G. W. Becker, in Leipsic; Chladni, in Kemberg; Gruber, in Halle; Hassel, in Weimar; C. H. L. von Jakob, in Halle ; Niemeyer, in Halle; Oken, in Munich; Kurt Sprengel, in Halle ; von Aretin, in Amberg; W. Gese- nius, in Halle; F. Jacobs, in Gotha; J. S. Vater, in Halle; Paulus, in Heidelberg j K. W. Bessel, in Konigsberg; Fr. Mohs, in Freiberg; Schubert, in Erlangen. In presenting this work to the public in the English language, my intention has been, by making such changes and additions as the circumstances of this country required, to render it as useful and accepta- ble to the general reader here as the original is in Germany; and I have cherished the hope, that the circumstance of its being an American ency- clopedia, not merely in name, but as constituting an extensive repository of information relating to America, as well as to the various branches of general knowledge, would give it a peculiar value with that great European vi PREFACE. nation, whose language and literature are the common property of them- selves and their descendants in the United States. In the title page, this work is stated to be formed upon the basis of the German Conversation-Lexicon; and if the reader will compare it with the original, and consider the numerous additions and corrections which have been made, I hope he will not find cause to charge this title with being too pretending. My idea of a good American encyclopedia has been, that it should contain, besides the most valuable portions of the English encyclopedias, and the topics of peculiar value to an American reader, information upon all subjects of general interest on the continent of Europe. The publishers have, with great liberality, supplied all the means and facilities which were desired by the editor. The trustees of the Boston Athenaeum have obligingly allowed free access to their ample library, which does so much honor to the metropolis of New England. But, above all, I ought to acknowledge the zealous and able co-operation of my friend and associate, Mr. Wigglesworth, who will not permit me here to express my obligations to him in such terms as my feelings would dictate. With him I shall be happy to share whatever approbation the public may think the work shall deserve. Some of the departments of science and literature, which were but im- perfectly treated in the original German work, have been entirely re-written for this edition; for example, Zoology (by Dr. Godman of Philadelphia, au- thor of the well-known American Natural History), Mineralogy and Chem- istry. The departments of Political Economy and Geography have also been much enlarged. Numerous entire articles of American and English Law have been introduced, and large additions made to the original articles on Jurisprudence, which, in the German work, are mostly confined to subjects of Roman, German and French law. In general Biography, large additions have been made. The articles on American Biography are entirely original, and have been furnished by Mr. Robert Walsh, Jr., whose learning and taste are a sufficient pledge of their value. Their apparently dis- PREFACE. vii proportionate length may, with a foreign reader, require some apology; but I persuade myself, that, with the American reader, the new and interesting information they contain will be deemed a sufficient reason for their not being further abridged. Such readers, too, will appreciate the value of many details of American history, which are not yet to be found, and could hardly be entitled to a place, in a general work upon that subject. Besides the contributions of Mr. Walsh, many new and valuable articles have been written by distinguished American scholars, particularly in relation to their own country, and to other parts of the American continent. The biography of living citizens of the United States has, for obvious reasons, been omitted; but the reader will find an 'account of our most distinguished foreign contemporaries. In Theology, and, indeed, in all the other departments of the work, the reader will not understand me as intending to give any opinions of my own, except when expressly so stated: my wish has been not to obtrude opinions, but to furnish facts. I have endeavored, as far as it was in my power, that the articles relating to any particular religious sect should present opinions and tenets as that sect would exhibit them ; and, in cases where the same point of doctrine is considered differently by different sects, that the respective views of all should be given. The articles on the Fine Arts are, in the original work, particularly complete; and I hope the Encyclopedia Americana will, therefore, be found satisfactory in a department in which the English encyclopedias have hitherto been very deficient The subject of Heraldry, which occupies so large a space in English encyclopedias, is wholly omitted in the original work; and it has been thought best to follow the example of the German editors in this particular, in order to make room for other matter of far greater value and interest in a country where the well-known sentiment of antiquity is felt in its full force— Nam genus et proavos et que non fecimus ipsi Viz ca nostra voco. vrii PREFACE. It is evident that a work of this description must be unequal; deficiencies will doubtless be observed j but in what similar work will they not be de- tected? It has been our endeavor, however, to correct such errors as existed in the German work, and in preceding English works of this kind. While criticising the faults of the present work, it is hoped that the reader will not overlook the improvements made upon the labors of past writers; and that he will keep in mind the remark of Scaliger—Lexicographis et grammaticis secundus post Herculem labor. If the present work shall conduce to the diffusion of knowledge in this fortunate country, whose happiness is founded on its liberty, and whose liberty is to be preserved only by widely-spread information; if it shall contribute to make known what has been done or thought, attained or suffered, by other portions of the human family; if it shall contribute to enlarge our views, and to destroy prejudices, to animate youth to a per- severance in virtue and to the pursuit of true glory, by exhibiting to them, on the one hand, the fearless votary of truth and patriotism, and, on the other, the real character of men whose perverted talents, however splendid, cannot redeem them from the severe but just sentence of impartial history;— I shall receive the most gratifying reward for the many laborious days which have been devoted to the present undertaking. FRANCIS LIEBER, Philos. Dr. Boston, Massachusetts, August, 1829. For the sake of compression, the initial letter of the name of an article, instead of the whole name, is often used in the body of the article. The other,abbreviations used are but few, and of the common sort, such as e. g., exempli gratia (for instance) ; i.e., id est (that is); q.v., quod vide (which see), signifying see that article. For other abbreviations which may be met with, see the article Abbreviations. In the alphabetical arrangement of words, the letter / has been separated from J, and the letter U from V. Words to be found in Johnson's Dictionary, which, according to the plan of this Ency- clopedia, would receive only a definition, have been seldom introduced into the list of articles. ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA. A, in almost all languages, is the first let- ter of the alphabet, because, if pronounced open, as in father, it is the simplest and easiest of all sounds. This is the only mode of pronouncing it in almost every language except the English. To produce this sound, the mouth is merely opened, without the contraction or extension ne- cessarily accompanying the utterance of either of the other vowels. A is the letter with which children generally begin to speak, and it serves to express many and even opposite emotions, e. g. admiration, pain, astonishment, laughter, (with the pre- ceding H,) disgust, pleasure, according to the mode in which it is uttered. For the same reason, a is found, in all original lan- guages, in many words which infants utter to designate the objects with which they are most nearly connected, e.g. in the names by which they call their parents. Hence, in Hebrew, am is mother, ab father; in old Greek and Gothic, atta is father; in Latin, mamma signifies the breast. Many philologists are of opinion, that a (as in father) was the original vowel in most of those words which designate objects ex- pressive of great strength, quickness, &c, as these first attracted the attention of men; and it is true, that, in original languages, a appears in very many words belonging to the class just mentioned, e. g. the numerous rivers, Aa (pronounced like a as in father) in Switzerland and Germany, &akarr« (thalatta, Greek for sea.) A (as in father) is very rarely the predominating sound in the cries of animals. In these, the sounds ee, ow, u, and a, (as in fate,) generally prevail. We do not include the sounds of singing birds, which are inarticulate music, like that of wind instruments. The regularly arched roof of the human mouth, and the vol. i. 1 other fine organs of speech, with which the Creator has blessed mankind above all lower orders of animals, are necessary to pronounce the melodious sound a (open.) A is, generally speaking, the favorite sound of singers, because it is the most musical and full of those which the mouth of man can utter. Several diphthongal sounds, as i (in pine), are, in singing, to be resolved into a (open) and another simple sound. The frequent occurrence of a (open) in the Italian language, is one of the many causes which render the Tuscan dia- lect so favorable for music. The English language is the only one among the culti- vated modern tongues, which has four (ac- cording to others still more) sounds for the single character a. Most of the modem languages, as French,Italian,German, &c, have only the open or Italian a, pronounced ^hort or long. Other languages have also the sound of the English a, as in all, e. g. the dialect of Finland. In Greek, this letter, when prefixed to a word, has the power of negation, like the syllable un in English, and hence it was called alpha privativum. In many English words derived from the Greek, thee has the same power.—Among the Greeks and Romans, a was used as an arithmetical sign: by the former, for 1; by the latter, for 500. (See Abbreviations.)—-A, in music, the sixth diatonic interval of the first or lowest octave of the modern scale: a indicates the same interval in the second octave. As the capital A is used in the first instance, and the small a in the next, the former is called the great octave, the other the small, a, with a line above, denotes the same interval in the third, and a, with two lines, the same interval in the fourth octave. The first of these, from each denomination of the note in the oc- 2 A.—ABBE. tave being designated by a line, is termed the one-lined octave, the other the two- lined, and so on. A, major, is that key, in modern music, in which the sixth diatonic interval is assumed as the fundamental tone of the major key. To maintain the natural characteristic of the major, f, g, and c must be made sharp, f# a# c#. According to Schubart's Characteristics of Music, this key conveys the expression of innocent love, content, and cheerfulness. (See .Key.) If any numeral figure is added to the letter A, when prefixed to a vocal composition, it denotes the number of voices for which the piece is intended: thus, A 3 signifies for 3 voices. Aa, the name of a great number of riv- ers in Switzerland, Germany, France, and Holland; so, also, Aach, which is, in Ger- man, originally the same name with Aa, only pronounced with an aspirated termi- nation. (See article A.) Aachen. (See Aix la Chapelle.) Aargau, Argovia, Argau, formerly a part of the cantons Berne and Zurich, but since 1798 a separate canton. In 1803 it received a large accession of territory. Capital, Arau; population, 132,763. Sev- eral liberals have fled, in modern times, from Germany, and lived for a while in A., protected by government. (See Swiss Confederacy.) Aaron, (Heb. a mountaineer,)the broth- er of Moses, and first high-priest of the Israelites. (See Moses.) Aaron, or Hardn al Raschid. (See Harvn and Caliph.) Abacus signified, among the ancients, a kind of cup-board, or buffet. They were, In times of great luxury, plated with gold. It also signified a table covered with dust, on which the mathematicians drew their mathematical figures, as the pupils of the Lancastrian schools do at present. It also signified an ancient instrument for facilitating arithmetical operations, which was, with the ancients, very necessary, as their way of writing numbers rendered any calculation very difficult. In architect- ure, Vitruvius tells us, it was originally in- tended to represent a square tile laid over an urn, or rather over a basket. The form of the abacus is not the same in all the orders of Greek architecture. Modern architects have given different signifi- cations to the word abacus. (See Ar- thitecture.) Abatis, (Fr.) Trees cut down and laid with their branches turned towards the enemy, in such a way as to form a defence for troops stationed behind them. They are made before redoubts, or other works, to render attacks difficult; or sometimes along the skirts of a wood, to prevent the enemy from getting possession of it. In this case, the trunks serve as a breastwork, behind which the troops are posted, and for that reason should be so disposed that the parts may, if possible, flank each other. Abatis may sometimes be of essential ser- vice by retarding the progress of the enemy. Abauzit, Firmin, was born in Languc- doc, 1679. In consequence of the revoca- tion of the edict of Nantes, his mother, who was a Protestant, took refuge with her son in Geneva. He engaged with such eager- ness in his studies, that he made great pro- ficiency in languages, theology, antiqui- ties, and the exact sciences. At the age of nineteen, he travelled into Holland, where he became acquainted with Bayle and Bas- nage. Thence he passed into England, where he was favorably noticed by New- ton, and invited to remain by king William on very advantageous conditions. He determined, however, to return to Geneva, and, devoting himself to study, he rendered important assistance to a society engaged in translating the New Testament into French. In 1727, he was appointed public librarian in Geneva, and was presented with the freedom of the city. He died in 1767. Abauzit was a profound scholar, a true philosopher, and a sincere Christian. His conversation was unostentatious, but instructive and animated. He was simple in his manners, independent and decided in his opinions, but a friend to universal toleration. He defended the Principia, and even detected an error in that work, when very few men could understand it. New- ton declared him "a fit man to judge be- tween Leibnitz and himself." Rousseau describes him as the "wise and modest Abauzit;"and Voltaire pronounced him "a great man." His knowledge was exten- sive in the whole circle of antiquities, in an- cient history, geography, and chronology. In theology his researches were deep, and his moderation enabled him to avoid th 8 violence of theological parties. His work 6 are chiefly on theological subjects. An Essay on the Apocalypse, Reflections on the Eucharist, and On the Mysteries t\f Religion, are his principal writings. Abbas, Abbassides. (See Caliph.) Abbe, before the French revolution, was the title of all those Frenchmen who devoted themselves to divinity, or had at east pursued a course of study in a theo- logical seminary, in the hope that the king would confer on them a real abbey; that is, a certain part of the revenues of a. mon- astery. (See Abbes commandataires.) Or- ABBE.—ABBOT. 3 darned clergymen were those only who devoted themselves entirely to the per- formance of clerical duty: the others were engaged in every kind of literary occupation. There were so many of them, poor and rich, men of quality and men of low birth, that they formed a particular class in society, and exerted an important influence on its character. They were seen every where ; at court, in the halls of justice, in the theatre, in the coffee-houses. In almost every wealthy family there was an abbe, oc- cupying the post of familiar friend and spiritual adviser, and not seldom that of the gallant of the lady. They corre- sponded, in a certain degree, to the phi- losophers who lived in the houses of the wealthy Romans in the tune of the em- perors. A round toupet, a short, black, brown, or violet coat, completed the ap- pearance of an abbe. Abbes commendataires. The king of France had formerly the right of ap- pointing abbots over two hundred and twenty-five monasteries. These abbots enjoyed a third part of the revenues of the monastery, but had no authority over it, the charge of superintendence being committed to a prieur claustral. Ac- cording to rule, every abbot ought to receive ordination in the course of a year, but the pope dispensed with the rule, and the abbe spent his income (from 1200 to 150,000 French livres) wherever he pleased. This shocking abuse excited the indignation of the people, and was one of the causes of the revolution. The lower sinecures of this kind, the abbayes des savans, were used as pensions for learned men; the richer, to provide for the younger sons of the nobility. Abbey. (See Abbot and Monastery.) Abbot, George, archbishop of Canter- bury, born 29 Oct. 1562, studied at Ox- ford. When the translation of the Bible was begun, in 1604, by order of king James, Abbot was one of the eight di- vines to whom it was committed. In 1609, he went to Scotland to assist in effecting a union between the kirk of that country and the church of England, and conducted the business with much moderation and address. In Dec. 1609, he was made bishop of Litchfield and Coventry; in Jan. 1610, bishop of Lon- don; in Nov. following, archbishop of Canterbury. His enemies ascribed his rapid promotion to flattery of the king. In 1613, however, he opposed James' project of a divorce between lady Fran- ces Howard and the earl of Essex, and, in 1618, the royal declaration, permitting Sunday sports, which he prohibited the reading of in church. His health de- clining, he went to Hampshire for recrea- tion, and, being invited to a hunt by lord Zouch, had the misfortune to shoot the game-keeper with an arrow aimed at a deer from a cross-bow. This accident affected hitn so much, that, besides set- tling an annuity of 201. on the widow, he kept, during the remainder of his life, a monthly fast on Tuesday, the day of the unhappy event. Though troubled with the gout, he performed the ceremony of crowning Charles I. He was never much in this monarch's favor, and was sus- pended from the exercise of his functions as primate, on refusing to license a ser- mon preached by Dr. Sibthorpe, in jus- tification of a loan demanded by the king. At a meeting of parliament he was re- stored, and died at Croydon, Aug. 5,1633, aged 71. Abbot, Charles, from 1802 till 1817 speaker of the British house of commons; born 1755, studied at Westminster. His father was Dr. Abbot, minister of All Saints' church, at Colchester. Impelled by the desire of distinction, he devoted himself to the study of the law, though possessed of a considerable fortune. His object, however, was not professional reputation, though he had an extensive practice in the court of chancery. On account of a Latin poem which he wrote on the empress of Russia, Catherine II., the Russian ambassador in London pre- sented him, in the name of the empress, a gold medal. He wrote some treatises on legal subjects, and was chosen in 1790, 1796, and 1802, into the house of commons. As a member of parliament, he exerted himself to introduce better order into the printing and distribution of the acts of parliament; and endeavor- ed, though in vain, to effect a reform in the phraseology of the statutes, which should make them more perspicuous. In 1795, he supported Pitt's famous Riot Act, and always attached himself to the min- isterial party. In 1796, he proposed, as chairman of the committee of finance, an amendment in the promulgation of the laws, which was accepted. In 1799, he supported the imposition of the in- come tax. In 1800, he proposed to im- pose upon the collectors of the public revenues the interest of the sums un- collected, in order to prevent deficits in their returns; and voted to continue the Mutiny Bill till 1807. He was succes- sively first secretary of state in Ireland, 4 ABBOT. and lord commissioner of the treasury ; was made privy counsellor, and in 1802 speaker of the house of commons. This post is fatiguing, but lucrative on account of the large fees for the enrolment of pri- vate bills which pass the house. These bills are referred to a committee, whose reports are almost always accepted, un- less they propose an innovation on some established usage. The speaker is very watchful to prevent the occurrence of any thing informal in the wording of the bills, and to check all personalities in de- bate. This superintendence A. is said to have exercised with much impartiali- ty. When the opposition made a motion in the house of commons to impeach lord Melville, (Dundas,) the votes were equal, and the motion was decided in the affirm- ative by A.'s casting vote. In 1817, he resigned his office of speaker, on account of weakness in his eyes, and entered the house of lords, having been created vis- count Colchester. He is the author of a treatise on commerce and maritime law, according to the principles of the British ministry, (Lond. 1802, a third edit. 1808.) Died May 8, 1829. Abbot, (Heb. abbas, father,) was origi- nally the name of every aged monk; but since the 8th century, it denotes the head of a monastery. The abbot requires un- conditional obedience from his monks, and his office is to supervise the whole brotherhood, to enforce the observance of the rules of the order, and manage the property of the convent. Since the 6th century, abbots have always been priests; and, since the second council of Nice, in 787, have enjoyed the power of confer- ring the lower orders of priesthood ; but, in the essential points of jurisdiction, were every where subject to the dioce- san bishop, till the 11th century, and in- dependent of each other. The conse- quence of the abbots grew with the wealth of their monasteries; several, es- pecially in those countries where the dif- fusion of Christianity proceeded from the monastic establishments, received epis- copal titles and privileges; all held a rank next to that of bishop, and had a vote in the ecclesiastical councils. Equal privi- leges and rights appertained to the abbess- es as the superiors of the nunneries, except that they have seldom been allowed to vote in synods; and the power of ordain- ing, the administration of the sacraments, and other sacerdotal offices, were ex- pressly forbidden them, in the 9th centu- ry. About this time, by the favor or from the wants of the kings, abbeys fre- quently came into the hands of the laity What avaricious barons had extorted from single convents in the 8th century, the weakness of the Carlovingians accorded to their partisans, as a reward of fidelity and military merit, since the kings pos- sessed the right of patronage over all ab- beys established on their crown lands or family estates, and generally over all which derived their origin from the roy- al bounty, (monasteria regalia.) Thus, in the 10th century, a nuinber of the most considerable convents in the territory of the Roman church had lay abbots, or ab- bot-counts, (abbates milites, abba comitcs,) who appropriated to their own use the income of these institutions. In clois- ters fallen to such worldly masters, the spiritual supervision was discharged by inferior abbots, deans, or priors. To the princes and princesses of the royal family, abbeys were presented, to defray the ex- penses of their tables: the richest were retained by the kings themselves; (thus Hugh Capet was abbot of St. Denis, near Paris, and of St. Martin, at Tours.) Nun- neries were sometimes assigned to men, and monasteries to distinguished females. But this abuse, which had crept even into the Byzantine empire, rarely sur- vived the laymen who had received the gifts. These were called commendatory abbots, because the form of the presen- tation was a recommendation of the con- vent to their protection. The zeal, which, in the beginning of the 10th century, urged a reform in monastic discipline, gradually succeeded in abolishing such donatives to the laity; and military abbots were now more rarely seen discharging, in person, the duties of a soldier, though the convents under royal patronage were for a long time retained, to reward the ser- vices of the crown vassals in war, by con- tributions of money and peasants. The superiors of the military clergy bore, in the camp, the name offield abbots, as the name of abbot was, in the middle ages, frequently used to denote not only magis- trates (asabbaspopuli,the praetor at Gen- oa) and secular ecclesiastical dignitaries, but also the chiefs of religious and jovial fraternities, e. g. abbas cornardorum, stulto- rum,the abbot of misrule. In consequence of the reform commenced at Cluny, there arose new monasteries without abbots, over which the abbot of the convent of reformed Benedictines, at this place, ap- pointed priors or pro-abbates, or even co- abbates, who remained dependent on him. Besides the Benedictines, only the gray monks of Vallombrosa, the Cistercians, ABBOT.—ABBREVIATIONS. 5 Bernardines, Feuillans, Trappists, Grand- montani, Preemonstratenses, and some bo- dies of regular choristers, denominate their superiors abbots. In the other orders, the ti- tles majores, ministri, priors or rectors, were in use. Besides the female branches of the above orders, the nuns of Fontevraud and the female secular choristers have ab- besses. These have always remained un- der the jurisdiction of their diocesan bish- ops. The abbots of many other convents, on the contrary, shook off the authority of the bishops, and acknowledged no mas- ter but the pope. The mitred abbots en- joyed the right, frequently conferred on the Benedictines in the middle ages by the pa- pal legate, of adopting the episcopal title and insignia. Only a few, however, pos- sessed the episcopal power with dioceses of their own, of whom there was not one in France. Before the period of seculariza- tion, there were in Germany, but in Ger- many only, princely abbots and princely abbesses. These abbeys were secular- ized in 1803, and became principalities. By rule, the choice of abbots appertains to the chapters of their convents. In the in- dependent abbeys, this is followed by the papal confirmation ; in the dependent, by the episcopal: yet, for a long time, many abbeys in Italy have been conferred by the pope, and, in France, by the king, not- withstanding the concordat of 1516. The secular clergy, who enjoy these benefices without observing the rules of the order, are termed secular abbots; on the other hand, their vicars in the convents them- selves, like all abbots of the monkish order, are called regular abbots. Younger sons of distinguished families have often en- tered the ranks of the secular clergy, in order to become secular abbots, and to receive the income of an abbey, without be- ing restricted by monastic rules. As such expectants were called in France abbes, this became a general appellation for young secular clergy who were out of office. (See Abbe.) Since the revolution, which changed the abbeys into national property, and took from those expectants the object of their exertions, this class has diminished in France; but it is yet nu- merous in Italy, where young scholars are called abbots, merely from having under- gone the tonsure, though not in orders. Napoleon led a whole army of Italian abbots to Corsica, where they lived on reduced incomes, till the restoration scat- tered them again over Italy. At the time of the reformation, several abbeys and convents were retained for the benefit of the clergy and the support of unmarried females. Some Protestant clergymen, therefore, still bear the title of abbot, with which dignity the right of sitting in the diet of the states is united; as, for exam- ple, in the Wurtemburg assembly. There are also Protestant ladies who are called abbesses. In Lower Saxony, this dignity was indeed abolished, at the time of the confiscation of the cloisters, etc., under the French Westphalian government; but in some countries, e. g. in the kingdom of Hanover, it has been restored. In the Greek church, the superiors of a convent are called higumeni, mandoaz, and the ab- bots general, archimandrites. Abbreviations ; (called by the Ro- mans notm; hence notarius, a short-hand writer.) The desire of saving time and space, or of secrecy, led to the invention of abbreviations in writing. The abbre- viations of the Romans were of three sorts: 1. Words and syllables were abbre- viated, sight; 2. One letter was substituted for another, for the purpose of secrecy; 3. Arbitrary signs were used, like those of mathematics. The siglm are again of three kinds, according as the abbreviations relate to syllables, words, or phrases. The two last kinds of siglce are sometimes called note Tironiana; from Cicero's freed man, Tullius Tiro. Ennius, how- ever, had already invented 1100 of those signs, to which Tiro added the preposi- tions. Othersincreasedtheirnumberstill more, and Lucius Annseus Seneca collect- ed and arranged 5000 of them. But even Ennius was not their first inventor. Every written language has such abbreviations. Many of them are indeterminate and un- certain, and the contents of many old writings and inscriptions remain, on that account, ambiguous. The oldest and most common abbreviations are those of names, titles, and formulas; e. g. M. Mar- cus, iEd. adilis, Cos. consul, Coss. con- soles, &c. The monks, in the middle ages, made use of many abbreviations in copying the classic authors, on which ac- count the manuscripts of that time can- not be read with ease, except by practised eyes. These abbreviations often give rise to different readings. They have been much less used since the invention of printing. The Germans employ them, for ordinary words, in greater proportion than other civilized nations. The abbre- viations in the English law are numerous; there are also a great many for English titles. Many words in the modern lan- guages arose from abbreviations of Latin terms, as they were taken by the ignorant for the words themse Ives. The following 6 ABBREVIATIONS.—ABBT. list contains many of the abbreviations most frequently met with: Roman Abbreviations on Coins, fyc.— A. U. C. or AB. U. C. ab urbe condita, from the foundation of the city: C. centum: CIO or CXO, 1000: 00, 5000: CCCIOOO, 100,000: C. ML. centum miUia: COS. consul: COSS. consules: C.R. civis Romanus: D. O. diis optimis vel deo optima: I. H. S. Jesus hominum Salvator: IMP. imperator: K. kalenda: M. S. manu scriptum: NON. APR. nonis Apri- lis: PON. M.poritifexmaximus: PRID. KAL. pridie kalendas: QJJ1R. quirites: RESP. respublica: S. C. senatus consul- turn: S. P. Q. R. senatus populusque Romanus: VL. videlicet. Abbreviations in common use.—A. B. or B.A. bachelor of arts: Abp. arch- bishop: A. C. ante Christum: A. D. anno Domini, in the year of our Lord: Admr. administrator: Ala. Alabama: A. M. ante meridiem, forenoon; also, anno mundi, in the year of the world; and artium magister, master of arts: Ark. T. Arkansas territory: B. C. before Christ: B. D. bachelor of divinity: B. M. bachelor ofmedirine: Bp. bishop: B. V. blessed Virgin: C. or Chap, chapter: C. or cent, a hundred: C. B. companion of the Bath: C.C. Caius college: C.P.S. keeper of the privy seal: C. S. keeper of the seal: Ct. Connecticut: Ct. count: Cwt. hundred weight: D. C. District of Columbia: D. D. doctor of divinity : Del. Delaware: D. F. defender of the faith: D. G. Dd gratia: D. T. doctor of theolo- gy : T>wt.pennywdght: E. G. exempli gratia: Ex. example: Exr. executor: F. A. S. fellow of the antiquarian society: F. L. S. fellow of the Linnaan society: F.'R. S. and A. S. fellow and associate of the royal society: F. S. A. fellow of the society of arts: Gal. gallon: G. C. B. knight-grand cross of the Bath: Geo. Georgia: G. R. Georgius rex, king George: H. or hr. hours: Hhd. hogs- head: H. M. S. his majesty's ship: lb. or ibid, ibidem, in the same place: I. e. id est, that is: -f I. H. S. Jesus hominum Salvator: L fl. S. in hoc cruce salus: 111. Illinois: In.Indiana: Incog, incog- nito, unknown: Inst, instant, or of this month: J. U. D. juris utriusque doctor: K. B. knight of the Bath: K. C. B. knight commander of the Bath: Ky. Kentucky: Kil. kilderkin: Kt knight: L. or lib. libra, pound; and also, liber, book: La. Louisiana: L.D. lady day: Ldp. lordship: Lea. leagues: Lieut. lieutenant: L.L.D. legum doctor, doc- tor of laws: L. S. locus sigilli, the place of the seal: M. A. master of arts: Mass. Massachusetts : M. C. member of con- gress : M. D. doctor ofmedirine: Md. Ma- ryland: Me. Maine: Messrs. mesdeurs, gentlemen : Mic. T. Michigan territory: Mis. Missisrippi: Mo.Missouri: M. P. member of parliament: MS. manuscript: MSS. manuscripts: N. B. nota bene, take notice: N. C. North Carolina: Nem. con. or Nem. diss, ncmine contradicente, or nem- ine dissentiente, unanimously: N. H. New Hampshire: N. J. New Jersey: N. S. new style: N. Y. New York: Obt. obedient: Oh. Ohio: O. S. old style: Oxon. Ox- ford: Oz. ounces: Pa. Pennsylvania: Pari, parliament: Part.participle: Per cent, per centum, by the hundred: PI. plu- ral : P. M. post meridiem: P. S. postscrip- tum: Q. question: Q. E. D. quod erat demonstrandum: Q,. E. F. quod erat fa- ciendum : Q. S. quantum sufficit: Q» V. quod vide: Rev. reverend: R. I. Rhode Island: R. N. royal navy: Rt. Hon. right honorable: Rt. WpfuL right worship- ful : S. south: S. or St. saint: S. or Sec. seconds: S. C. South Carolina: Sec. secretary: Sh. shillings: ss. scili- cet: St. street: Ten. Tennessee: Ult. ultimo, last: U. S. United States: Va. Virginia: Viz. videlicet: Vt. Vermont: W. or Wk. week: Xmas. Christmas: Xn. Christian: Xper. Christopher: Y*. the: Ym. them: Y". then: Yr. your, and year: Y8. this: Yl. Jfarf. Abbreviatori. Officers in the court of Rome, appointed to assist the vice chancellor in drawing up the pope's briefs, and reducing petitions, when grant- ed by the pope, into proper form, to be converted into bulls. The 12 first have the dress and rank of prelates; 22 others belong to the lower clergy; the rest are laymen. The salary of an A. of the first rank in the last century was 2000 scudi. Abbt, Thomas, a philosophical writer, born Nov. 25th, 1738, at Ulm in Suabia, early manifested distinguished talents, and taste for the sciences. In 1756, he entered the university of Halle, where he applied himself to metaphysics and math- ematics, quitting theology, to which he had at first devoted himself. In 1760, he was invited to join the university of Frankfort, on the Oder, as professor ex- traordinary. Here he wrote, amidst the tumult of war, his treatise on Death for one's Country. In the following year, after he had accepted an appointment as professor of mathematics, at Rinteln, he lived six months at Berlin, where he became intimate with both the Eulers, Mendelsohn and Nicolai, and took an ABBT.—ABELARD. 7 active part in the letters on literature, (Lit- eraturbriefen.) He died in 1766, in the prime of life, at the residence of one of the minor German princes, his intimate friend and protector. A.'s writings ex- hibit acuteness, imagination, and spirit, and abound with practical philosophy, particularly his treatise on " Merit." He certainly would have ranked among the most distinguished writers, if he had lived till his mind was fully matured. Young as he was, he deserves to be numbered among the writers, who, in the time of Lessing, labored with united zeal to"* raise and refine German literature. Abbera, a city on the Thracian coast, which is said to have been founded by Hercules. Though it boasted of being the native place of Democritus and Pro- tagoras, yet it was regarded among the ancients as notorious for stupidity. Wie- land has portrayed it as such, in an amus- ing manner, in his Abderites. Abdication, properly speaking, is only a voluntary resignation of a dignity, partic- ularly the supreme. Of royal abdications, the most famous are those of the empe- rors Diocletian and Maximian, in 305; of the emperor Charles V., in 1556; of the queen Christina of Sweden, in 1654. They have been the most frequent in Spain: Charles I., in 1556; Philip V., in 1724; Charles IV., in 1808: next in Savoy and Sardinia: Amadeus I., in 1440;* Victor Amadeus II., in 1730: but only a few in- dividuals have remained faithful to their resolutions; e. g. Diocletian, Charles V., and Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia, who abdicated in favor of his brother Fe- lix, in 1821. (See Piedmont, revolution of.) Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia, attempt- ing to resume the government by force, was imprisoned by his son, Charles Em- anuel III. Involuntary resignations are also called abdications; e. g. Napoleon's abdication at Fontainebleau. The right of a prince to resign the crown cannot be disputed; but the resignation, as some say, can affect only his personal right to the crown, and cannot prejudice his de- scendants ; still less force upon the state another constitution, or another family. The abdication of Charles IV. of Spain, according to them, could only take effect in favor of the legitimate successor, but could not entitle a foreign sovereign to establish a new dynasty. The abdicated prince is sometimes allowed exterior marks of homage, the title of majesty, &c.; but sovereign powers he can no longer exercise. Out of his own country, he en- joys not the honors of a monarch, nor, in general, jurisdiction over his suite. If he, in whose favor the abdication was made, dies, or declines the offered dignity, the right of the abdicated prince is re- vested. Thus Philip V. of Spain resumed the throne upon the death of his son Louis, which took place half a year after he had resigned in his favor. But queen Chris- tina of Sweden made a similar attempt in vain. Voluntary abdications, as they are called, are often involuntary, and the effects of court intrigue. Abdomen, in anatomical language, the belly. Abdominal muscles, the muscles of the belly. Abel, the second son of Adam, a twin brother of Cain. The latter was a tiller of the ground, A. a shepherd. Both brought their offerings before the Lord; Cain, the first fruits of the ground; A., the firstlings of his flock. God accepted the offering of A.; the offering of Cain he rejected. The latter, instigated by envy, murdered his brother in the field. Thus the first murder on earth was committed. The opinion of several Christian fathers, that A. died un- married, has given rise to the sect ofAbelites or Abelonites, (q. v.) The church considers the offering of A. as the pattern of a pure and holy offering, pleasing to God, and Christ himself calls him the just. Abelard, Peter, originally Abailard, a monk of the order of St. Benedict, equally famous for his learning and for his unfortunate love of Heloise, was bom in 1079, near Nantes, in the little village of Palais, which was the property of his father Berenger. His inclination led him to the study of the sciences; and, in order to devote himself fully to philosophy, he ceded to his brothers his rights of primo- geniture and his estates. He studied poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, jurispru- dence, and theology, the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin languages, and soon became familiar with them; but scholastic phi- losophy chiefly engaged his attention. Though Bretagne then possessed many distinguished scholars, A. soon acquired all they could teach. He went therefore to Paris, the university of which attracted students from all parts of Europe. Wil- liam de Champeaux was the most skilful disputant of his time. A. made so good use of his instructions, that he was often victorious over his master, in contests of wit and logical acumen. The friendship of Champeaux was soon succeeded by enmity, in whicih his other scholars took part, and A., wh o had not yet completed his 22d year, escai led the consequences of their ill-will, by fi xing himself at Melun. 8 ABELARD. where he was soon followed by a multi- tude of young men, who were induced, by his reputation, to leave the schools of Paris, in order to attend his lectures. Envy pursued him here, and he left Me- lun for Corbeil, where he was no less admired and persecuted. In compliance with the advice of his physicians, he soon after remitted his labors, for the purpose of restoring his disordered health by a journey to his native place. After two years, he returned with renovated strength to Paris, became reconciled to his former teacher, and opened a school of rhetoric, the fame of which soon deprived all the others of their pupils. He lectured on rhetoric, philosophy, and theology, and educated many distinguished scholars, among whom were the future pope, Cce- lestin II., Peter of Lombardy, bishop of Paris, Berengar, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Bernard. At this time, there resided at Paris a young lady, by name Louisa or Heloise, niece to Fulbert, a canon of that city, then of the age of 17 years. Few ladies surpassed her in beauty, none equalled her in genius and knowledge. A., though already of the age of 39 years, became inspired with such violent love for Heloise as to forget his duty, his lectures, and his fame. Heloise was no less sus- ceptible. Under the pretext of finishing her education, A. obtained Fulbert's per- mission to visit her, and finally became a resident in the house of the canon. The lovers lived several months in the utmost happiness, occupied more with their love than with their studies. But the verses in which A. celebrated his passion were circulated in Paris, and finally reached the eyes of Fulbert. He separated the lovers, but too late; Heloise was already pregnant. A. fled with her to Bretagne, where she was delivered of a son, who died, however, early. He now resolved to marry her secretly. F. was obliged to give his consent, and Heloise, who, from a false delicacy, preferred to be his mistress rather than his wife, and had formerly written to him that she would not deprive the world of so great a man by domestic cares, at last consented. The marriage was performed, and, in order to keep it secret, Heloise remained with her uncle, whilst A. retained hifi former lodg- ings, and continued his lectures. They saw each other but seldom:, Fulbert, how- ever, thought the reputati on of his niece would be injured by th'is secret union, and made it known; but, Heloise, valuing A.'s fame higher than, her own good name, denied her marr jige with an oath. Fulbert manifested his anger by ill treat- ment; to deliver her from which, A. carried her away a second time, and placed her in the convent of Argenteuil. Fulbert erroneously believed it was in- tended to force her to take the veil, and, under the influence of rage, he subjected A. to an ignominious mutilation. A. he- caine, in consequence, a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil at Argenteuil. After time had somewhat moderated his grief, he re- sumed his lectures, and incurred new persecutions; his enemies accused himof heresy at the council of Soissons, 1122, on account of his Essay on the Trinity. They succeeded in having it declared heretical, and A. was condemned to bum it with his own hands. Continued per- secutions obliged him at last to leave the abbey of St. Denis, and to retire to a place near Nogent-sur-Seine, where he built an oratory, which he dedicated to the Holy Ghost, and called it Paraclete. Being subsequently appointed abbot of St Gildas de Ruys, he invited Heloise and her religious sisterhood to reside at his chapel Paraclete, and received them there. The lovers saw each other here again for the first time after a separation of 11 years. A. lived afterwards at St. Gildas, which afforded him but a gloomy residence, troubled by unsuccessful at- tempts to reform the monastery, and struggling always with his love for He- loise, and the hatred of the monks, who even threatened his life. St. Bernard, who had long refused to proceed against a man whom he esteemed, finally yielded to the repeated remonstrances of his friends, laid the doctrines of A. before the council of Sens, in 1140, had them condemned by the pope, and obtained an order for his imprisonment. A. appealed to the pope, published his defence, and went to Rome. Passing through Clu- ny, he visited Peter the Venerable, who was abbot there. This humane and en- lightened divine effected a reconciliation between him and his enemies; but A. resolved to end his days in retirement. The severe penances which he imposed upon himself, together with the grief which never left his heart, gradually con- sumed his strength, and he died, a pat- tern of monastic discipline, in 1142, at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Chalons- sur-Saone, at the age of 63 years. He- loise begged his body, and had him buri- ed in the Paraclete, with the view of re- posing in death by his side. In 1800, the ashes of both were carried to the museum ABELARD.—ABERDEEN. 9 of French monuments at Paris, and, in Nov. 1817, were deposited under a chapel, within the precincts of the church of Mo- namy. A. was distinguished as a gram- marian, orator, logician, poet, musician, philosopher, theologian, and mathema- tician ; but he has left nothing to justify the reputation which he enjoyed among his contemporaries. He excelled in the art of disputation. His doctrines were often reprehensible, and his behavior censurable. His love and his misfortunes have secured his name from oblivion; and the man, whom his own century ad- mired as a profound divine, is now cele- brated as the martyr of love. The letters of A. and Heloise have been often pub- lished, in the original and in translations. Abelites, Abelians, or Abelonians. St. Augustine gives this name to a Christian sect, which probably sprang from the Gnostics. They abstained from matri- mony, to avoid propagating original sin, but adopted the children of others, and brought them up in their own principles. This society existed, towards the end of ihe 4th century, among the people who dwelt near Hippo, in the northern part of Africa, and borrowed their name from Abel, the son of Adam, because he died unmarried and without children. They hare found followers in the Shakers, (q.v.) Abensberg, district and town in the circle of Regen, and kingdom of Bavaria, 83 miles from Ratisbon, on the Abens, has 230 houses, and 1080 inhabitants. It is the birth-place of the Bavarian histo- rian, John Thurmaier, who called him- self, from his native place, Aventinus, lived from 1466 to 1534, and left seven books of Bavarian annals. Here Napo- leon, April 20, 1809, obtained a victory over an Austrian army, under the arch- duke Louis and general Hiller, (see Eck- miihl,) who retired, with the loss of 12 cannons and 13000 men taken prisoners, to Landshut. This battle became impor- tant from its consequences—the taking of Landshut, on the 21st, the battle of Eck- muhl, on the 22d, and the taking of Ratisbon, on the 23d of April. Abercromby, sir Ralph, a distin- guished British general officer, was born in 1738, at Tillibodie in Clackmannan- shire. His first commission was that of cornet in the 3d regiment of dragoon guards, in 1756; and he gradually passed through all the ranks of the service, un- til he became a major-general, in 1787. On the commencement of the war with France, he was employed in Flanders and Holland, with the local rank of lieu- tenant-general, and, in that critical ser- vice, displayed equal skill and humanity. In 1795, he received the order of the Bath, and was appointed commander-in- chief of the forces in the West Indies. In this expedition he captured the islands of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad, with the settlements of Deme rara and Essequibo. On his return, he was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland; but, for reasons very honorable to himself, was quickly removed to the correspondent command in Scotland. In the attempt upon Holland, in 1799, sir Ralph had the sole command on the first lauding, and both his troops and himself greatly distinguished themselves. His royal higlmess the duke of York subse- quently arrived, under whom sir Ralph acted. The final failure of the expedition is well known. The next and conclud- ing service of this able and meritorious officer was in the expedition to Egypt, of which he was commander-in-chief. He landed, after a severe contest, at Abou- kir, Mar. 8, 1801; and on the 21st of the same month was fought the battle of Alexandria, in which sir Ralph was un- horsed and wounded in two places ; not- withstanding which he disarmed his an- tagonist, and gave the sword to sir Sid- ney Smith. The general kept the field during the day, and was then conveyed on board the admiral's ship, where he survived about a week. His body was conveyed to Malta, and interred beneath the castle of St. Elmo, and a monument was voted to him, by parliament, in St. Paul's cathedral. His widow was also created baroness Abercromby, with re- mainder to the issue male of her late hus- band ; and a pension of 2000J. a year was granted in support of the dignity. Sir Ralph A. left four sons, George, a barris- ter at law; John, a major-general; James and Alexander. Aberdeen ; the principal city in the north of Scotland; lat. 57" 9' N. Ion. 2° 8> W. It is divided into Old and New A. The old town was of some importance as early as 893. The population of O. and N. A. is supposed to be about 40,000. A. has two colleges, King's and Maris- chal's, which, though quite distinct, are considered as forming one university, called the U. of king Charles. There are about 150 students in each of these col- leges. The cotton manufactories in the vicinity of A. employ nearly 1000 per- sons. Vessels to the burthen of about 40,000 tons belong to the port, which is extensively engaged in the whale and W ABERDEEN.—ABILDGAARD. other fisheries. About 2000 barrels of salmon are exported annually. Aberdeen, George Gordon, earl of, also viscount Formatine, one of the 16 Scottish peers, who have seats in the house of lords, was sent as ambassador to Vienna, for the purpose of concluding an alliance between England and Austria, which he signed Oct. 3,1813, at Teplitz. He negotiated, also, the alliance of king Murat, of Naples, with Austria, in 1813; but endeavored in vain to reconcile those courts in 1815. Lord A., as an admirer of Grecian art, instituted, in 1804, the Athe- nian Society, each member of which must have visited Athens. Aberli, John Lewis, a landscape painter, famous for his Views of Switzer- land ; bom in 1723, at Winterthur. He relinquished the manner of his teacher, Meyer, an indifferent artist, went to Berne, received better instruction from John Grimm, and at first painted portraits. But his inclination for landscape painting gained the ascendency. He went, in 1759, with his pupil Zingg, to Paris, and returned, esteemed and admired, to Berne, where he died in 1786. His manner has been very often imitated, yet his sketches have always maintained the reputation of being the best in their kind. Aberration of light. We see an object because the rays of light proceed- ing from it strike our eyes, and we see the place of the object in the direction in which they proceed. Let us now imag- ine the earth, in its circuit round the sun, just arrived opposite to a fixed star, which sends off rays perpendicularly to the di- rection of the earth's motion. The eye of the spectator meets the ray, and as he perceives not his own motion, he sup- poses the light to be moving in an oppo- site direction ; as, when we sail in a boat, the trees on the shore appear to pass along by us. Thus the eye misses the perpendicular ray, but meets an oblique one, and thence receives the impression of the light in the direction which results from this compound motion, namely, in the diagonal of a parallelogram, the sides of which represent the real motion of the light, and the apparent one, (i. e. the mo- tion of the earth,) which take place at the same time. The spectator sees the star in its true place only when he is either approaching it, or receding from it, in a straight line. When moving in any other direction, the star appears a little in advance of its true position in the same direction (the maximum is 20"—25"); and we call by the name of aberration of light these apparent changes in the situation of the heavenly bodies, occa- sioned by the motion of the earth. We easily see that these changes are common to all the heavenly bodies, and are only more striking in the case of the fixed stars. They afford an additional proof of the motion of the earth. In consequence of this aberration, the fixed stars appear, during the revolution of the earth about the sun, according as they are situated, either in the plane of the ecliptic, or in its poles, or somewhere between them, in the first case to deviate in a straight line to the right or left of their true place, in the second to describe a circle, in the third an ellipse about that point, which further observation determines to be their real situation. This discovery we owe to Bradley, (q. v.) For the aberration of light, see the elementary works on astron- omy, the dictionaries of natural philoso- phy by Gehler, Fischer, &c. There is a very good account of it in Biot's Traile Elementaire d' Astronomic Physique, Paris, 1811, 2d Treatise, vol. 3, page 120, et seq. Tables of aberration, accompanied with explanations, are to be found in the baron von Zach's works, Tabulm spedales Ab- errationis et Nutationis, etc., Gotha, 1806, and in the same author's Nouvelles Tables d' Aberration et de Nutation pour 1404 Etoi- les, avec une Table generate d1 Aberration pourlesPlanktes etles Cometes, Marseilles, 1812, and Supplement, 1813. Abildgaard, Nicolai Abraham, his- torical painter to the king of Denmark, and knight of the order of Danebrog. He was bom at Copenhagen, in 1744,. and died there in 1809, director and pro- fessor of the academy of fine arts. He was undoubtedly the greatest genius, in painting, that Denmark ever possessed. AH his works display profound study, richness of imagination, and remarkable power of expression. Five years' resi- dence in Italy completed the education which he had received in the academy of arts at Copenhagen, yet his works never lost the character of originality. The creations of his productive imagina- tion were sometimes of a gloomy, and always of a grand and solemn character. Modem painting can hardly show a finer coloring. A considerable number of the large pictures in the apartments of the royal palace at Christian sburg, burnt down in 1794, were by A. A. has painted four pictures, representing, with much force of allegorical expression, the most striking periods of European history. But few of his works in the palace were saved ABILDGAARD—ABO. 11 from the conflagration. A considerable number of his pictures, however, still exist in and out of Copenhagen. The wounded Philocletes is as vigorous as his Cupid. is delicate; both are executed in tho style of a master. There are also an excellent Socrates, Jupiter weighing the fate of man, and others. His last works were four large paintings, representing scenes from Terence. Nearly all his works are those of a painter formed by the study of the ancients, and of the re- mains of antiquity. Nothing escaped his observation, which stood in the remotest relation to his art. He was likewise a distinguished lecturer in the royal acade- my of arts, and has left several disciples, painters as well as sculptors, who do honor to their master and to their coun- try; amongst whom, superior to all the rest, is Thorwaldsen. A. acquired repu- tation as a writer by some short essays the object of which was, partly, to correct a false taste in regard to the arts, partlj to illustrate the earlier works of art. Abiponians ; a warlike tribe of Indiana, between 28° and 30° S. lat., on the banks of the Rio de la Plata, consisting of 5000 persons, who pay little attention to agri- culture, but employ themselves principal- ly in hunting and fishing. During the five rainy months, they resort to the isl- ands of the Rio de la Plata, or to the tops of trees. The Abiponians prefer the flesh of tigers to every other meat, super- stitiously believing that it gives new cour- age to the warrior. Long lances, and arrows with iron points, are their weap- ons. They are often at war with the Spaniards. Their wives are not much browner than the Spanish ladies. The men are tall, with aquiline noses, are good swimmers, and fond of painting fig- ures on their skin. Their caziques are, in times of peace, their judges, in war their leaders. In peace, however, their authority is very limited; for if a cazique should attempt an unpopular innovation, the multitude would leave him, and join other tribes. Abjuration, oath of; the oath by which an Englishman binds himself not to ac- knowledge any right in the pretender to the throne ofEngland. It signifies, also, accor- ding to 25 Charles II., an oath abjuring par- ticular doctrines of the church of Rome. Ablegati ; in diplomatic language, pa- pal ambassadors of the second rank, who are sent with a less extensive commission, to a court where there are no nuncios. This title is equivalent to envoy. (See Ambassador.) Abo (in Finnish, Turku) contains 1100 houses, and 11,300 inhabitants. Since 1817, it has ceased to be the capital of the government of Finland. The Russian administration has endeavored, however, to support it by other means; and it continues to be the capital city of a district, as well as the seat of a Luther- an bishopric, (in 1817, raised to an arch- bishopric,) and of the supreme court of justice for South Finland. The mouth of the river Aurajocki, protected by a promontory of the gulf of Bothnia, forms the harbor of the city, which, since 1817, has been the chief place of export from Finland to Sweden, and even to the Mediterranean. It has important sugar- works, and manufactures of leather, linen, sail-cloth, cordage, glass, coarse broad- cloth, &c. Many ships are built in its docks. The academy which Gustavus Adolphus established in 1628 was chang- ed by Christina, queen of Sweden, into a university, which was endowed still more liberally by the emperor Alexander. It had, in 1824, forty professors, and more than 500 students, a library of 30,000 vols., a botanical garden, an observatory, an anatomical building, and a chemical labo- ratory, a cabinet of medals and minerals, a collection of mechanical and agricultu- ral models, a society for the promotion of science, one for natural history, a Bible society, &c. In the autumn of 1827, the whole city, including the buildings and library of the university, was burnt down. The Russian government has taken ener- getic measures for rebuilding it. Abo, peace of! Aug. 17,1743, Sweden here concluded peace with Russia. This ended the war which broke out Aug. 24, 1741, between Russia and Sweden, at the instigation of France, in order to prevent Russia from partaking in the Austrian war of succession. In this war, after the victory of Lacy, near Wilmanstrand, Sept. 3, 1741, the Russians conquered all Fin- land, in consequence of the mistakes of the Swedish generals, Lowenhaupt and Bud- denbrog. The empress Elizabeth promis- ed, however, to give up a great part of her conquests, if Sweden would choose the prince Adolphus Frederic ofHolstein-Got- torp, bishop of Lubec, heir to the Swedish crown, instead of the crown-prince of Den- mark. This was done July 4,1743. Thus, in 1751, the house of Holstein-Gottorp took possession of the Swedish throne, which it lost again after the abdication of Gus- tavus IV., in consequence of a resolution of the states of the kingdom, May 10,1809, which took effect upon the death of 12 ABO—ABOUKIR. Charles XIII., Feb. 5,1818. After this election, the treaty of peace was signed at A., in which Sweden ceded to Russia the Finnish province of Kymmenegord, with the cities-and fortresses of Frederics- hamm and Wilmanstrand, and the city and fort of Nyslot. From that time, the river Kymmene has been the boundary between Sweden and Russia, until the latter power obtained the whole of Finn- land, at the peace of Fredericshamm, Sept. 17,1809. June 25,1745, peace was concluded between Sweden and Russia, at St Petersburg. Abolition. (See Pardon, right of.) Abolition of slavery. The Society for mitigating and gradually abolishing the State of Slavery throughout the British Do- minions, sometimes called the Anti-slave- ry Society, has been recently formed. His R. H. the duke of Gloucester is president of the society. In the list of the vice-presi- dents are the names of many of the most distinguished philanthropists, and, among them, that of the never-to-be-forgotten champion of the negro's cause, Mr. Wil- berforce. The society has already pub- lished several works illustrative of the state of slavery, and pointing out its evils in a commercial, political, and religious point of view. (See Slavery, Colonization Sodety and WQberforce.) The more im- mediate objects of the society are to ame- liorate the condition of the slaves, and to facilitate the means by which they may obtain their freedom; and, for the accom- plishment of these purposes,—To remove all the existing obstructions to the manu- mission of slaves: To cause the slaves to cease to be chattels in the eye of the law: To prevent their removal, as slaves, from colony to colony, and, under certain modi- fications, their sale or transfer, except with the land to which they may be at- tached: To abolish markets and com- pulsory labor on Sunday, and to make it a day of rest, as well as of religious worship and instruction; and also to se- cure to the slaves equivalent time in each week, in lieu of Sunday, and in addition to any time which, independently of Sun- day, is now afforded them, for cultivating their provision grounds: To protect the slaves, by law, in the possession and transmission of the property they may thus or in any other way acquire: To enable the slave to purchase his freedom by the payment at once of a fair price for his redemption, or of a fifth part of that price at a time, in return for an additional day in the week to be employed for his own benefit: To make the testimony of slave? available in courts of justice, both in civil and criminal cases: To relieve all ne- groes and persons of color from the burden of legally proving their freedom, when brought into question, and to throw on the claimant of their persons the burden of le- gally proving his right to them : To pro- vide the means of religious instruction for the black and colored population, and of Christian education for their children: To institute marriage among the slaves, and to protect that state from violation and from either forcible or voluntary disrup- tion : To put an end to the driving sys- tem : To put an end, also, to the arbitrary punishment of slaves, and to put their persons as well as property under the guardianship of the law: To provide that all children born after a certain day shall be free,—care being taken of their edu- cation and maintenance until they shall be capable of acting for themselves: To provide that no colonial governor, judge, attorney-general or fiscal, shall be a pos- sessor of slaves, or shall have a direct and obvious reversionary interest in such property, or shall be the agent of the pro- prietors of slaves. The society has fur- ther proposed, that the final extinction of slavery should be accomplished by the redemption of all females from the lowest age, to about 40; by which means all their posterity would be born free. The cost of this measure is estimated at 300,000?.; but should parliament refuse to accede to this or some other effective plan, the society trust that their object will, nevertheless, be obtained by bring- ing free labor into competition with slave labor; so that the latter shall be- come of so little value as to be not worth retaining. The parent society is sup- ported by many auxiliaries, not fewer than 250 of which are in active operation in various parts of the kingdom; and if they continue to proceed with the energy that has hitherto marked their progress, there can be little doubt that they will finally succeed in a cause, in which truth, jus- tice, and the dictates of religion, are ar- rayed on their side. Aborigines ; the name given to the eldest inhabitants of a country, of whose origin nothing certain is known. The Roman historians give this name to the people who dwelt in the vicinity of Rome, before the arrival of the Trojans. Differ- ent derivations of the word are given. For the right of aborigines to the soil, see Indians, and Occupancy, right of. Abockir, the ancient Canopus, is at present a village with 100 Arabian inhabit- ABOUKIR—ABRACADABRA. 13 ants: it has a strong castle on the western side of a spacious bay, protected by a projecting point of land and several small islands, and is situated on the Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of Alexandria. This place has become distinguished, in mod- ern times, by the naval battle, in which the English admiral Nelson annihilated the French fleet, between the first and the third of August, 1798. May 19,1798, the latter sailed from the harbor of Tou- lon, to convey an army to Egypt, under the command of general Buonaparte. As soon as the English admiral St Vin- cent, who was cruising before Cadiz, re- ceived information of this, he despatched rear-admiral Nelson, with 14 ships of the line, to the Mediterranean, with orders to seek and attack the French fleet Aug. 1, Nelson caught a glimpse of the French ships in the road of A. and gave the sig- nal of battle. The French captains, who were just then assembled on board the admiral's ship, had hardly time to retire to their posts, before the first English ship began the attack. Although the French fleet was disposed in a curved line, as near as possible to a small island, protected by a battery of cannon and mortars, Nelson suddenly ordered half of his force to break through, between the island and the French line of battle, and to sail under the shore, in their rear, while the other half approached their front, and anchored within pistol shot; so that the French ships were attacked from all sides. At sunset, about half past 6 o'clock in the evening, the bat- tle began. At the end of an hour, 5 French ships were dismasted and taken. The French admiral, Brueys, was killed by a cannon-ball; his ship, L'Orient, how- ever, continued the battle with great spir- it, until she took fire. About 10 o'clock, this splendid vessel, of 120 guns, blew up. Of 1000 men, but 70 or 80 were saved. Capt. Casabianca was mortally wounded, and his son, a boy 12 years old, volunta- rily remained in the burning ship, and shared his fate. The other ships contin- ued the cannonade till the morning, which witnessed the entire defeat of the French fleet. But 2 ships of the line and 2 frig- ates escaped to Malta and Corfu; 9 ships of the line were taken, 1 blown up, and another, together with a frigate, burned by the French themselves; 1 frigate, however, was sunk. Thus the naval power of France in the Mediterranean was a second time annihilated; the British flag waved triumphant from Gibraltar to Alexandria ; Buonaparte's communica- vol. i. 2 tion with France was cut off, and his enemies, with renovated hopes, united again, in the subsequent year, in a new coalition. (See Egypt, landing of the French in.) Aboulfeda. (See Abulfeda.) About ; the situation of a ship imme- diately after she has tacked, or changed her course. Abracadabra ; a term of incantation, which was formerly believed to have the power of curing fevers, especially the slow fevers, the intermittent of 4 days, and the hemitritaeus, so called by Hip- pocrates, which was generally fatal. At present, this word is, for the most part, used in jest, without any particular mean- ing, like hocus pocus. According to Q. Serenus Sammonicus, it ought to be writ- ten so as to form a magic triangle, in or- der to produce the supposed effect; viz. ABRACADABRA BRACADABR R A C A D A B A C A D A CAD A or as follows: Abracadabra Abracadabr Abracadab Abracada A b r a c a d A b r a c a A b r a c A b r a A b r A b A The triangle, thus formed, reads Abraca- dabra, beginning with A, and thence pass- ing over to any line you please, and stop- ping at the last letter of the first line. Greek amulets, which bear the inscription abpakaaabpa, leave no doubt that this magic word, properly, ought to be pro- nounced Abrasadabra, though the Jews say also Abracalan. Abrasadabra proba- bly means divine decree, and is derived from the sacred name of the Supreme Being, Abrasax, or Abras. Others are of opinion that the term Abrasax took its origin from the first letters of the Hebrew words Ab, Ben, Ruach hakodesh, (Fa- ther, Son and Holy Ghost,) and from the initials of the Greek words, ounrmia Sen* Ivlov, (salvation from the wood of the cross.) Abrasax is neither an ./Egyptian, nor Greek, nor Hebrew, but a Persian name, which denotes the Persian deity, Mithras.—Superstitious people, moreover, 14 ABRACADABRA—ABRAIIAMITES. used to write the word Abracadabra, in the manner above-mentioned, on a square piece of paper; then folded it so as to cover the writing, sewed it together with white thread, hung it, by a piece of tape, around the neck, so as to reach the heart, wore it for 9 days, and then went, before sunrise, in profound silence, to a river which flowed to the east, took it from the neck, and threw it, but without opening or reading it, into the water over their heads. Abraham ; the father, and most cele- brated patriarch of the Jews, with whom their history commences, as, likewise, the promises given them by God, and the miracles performed in their favor. He was born at Ur, in Chaldaea, about 2000 B. C, and descended in the eighth gen- eration from Shem, Noah's eldest son. He passed his early days in the house of his father, Terah, where he was kept from idolatry, which prevailed in his family. Obedient to the voice of God, which pointed out his noble destiny, and com- manded him to settle in Canaan, he went to that country with his father, his wife, and his nephew, and fixed his abode at Haran, in Mesopotamia. After his fa- ther's death, he led a wandering life, in obedience to the will of God. He visited Sichem, Bethel, and Gerara, whence he returned to Bethel. Frequent dissensions between his servants and those of Lot caused their final separation. A. remain- ed at Mamre, but Lot settled in Go- morrah. Afterwards, on hearing that four Arabian chiefs had invaded Gomorrah, and carried off Lot with his family and property, A. pursued them with 318 ser- vants, conquered them, and rescued his nephew, and all that belonged to him. God revealed futurity to A. and ratified his covenant with him and his posterity, by the law of circumcision. The ad- vanced age of A. and Sarah seemed to render doubtful the fulfilment of these promises, when three angels, in the shape of travellers, came to visit them. They were sent to punish Sodom and Gomor- rah for their wickedness, and announced that, at their return, Sarah would be a mother. Though she was 90 years old, she conceived, and bore Isaac, at the time designated by the angel. When Isaac had reached his 25th year, God wished to put A.'s fidelity to a new trial, and commanded him to sacrifice his only son, on mount Moriah. The old man was ready to obey. The victim was already placed on the altar, and about to receive the fatal stroke, when God, convinced of the obedience of his servant, stopped his lifted arm. Sarah died, but A. married Keturah, who bore him 6 more children. He died 175 years old, and was buned near Sarah, in a cave which he had bought for his sepulchre from the sons of Heth. Not only the Jews, but also the Arabians, derive their origin from this pa- triarch : the Greek and Roman churches have introduced his name into their le- gends. He is also mentioned in the Ko- ran, and some of the Mahometan writers assert that A. went to Mecca, and com- menced the erection of the temple. The Jews have at all times honored his tomb and his memory. His history, as given by the rabbins, is a mixture of truth and fiction. Abraham a San eta Clara; bom in Kra- henheimstetten, in Suabia, June 4, 1642. His true name was Ulrich Megerle. He was distinguished, as a preacher, for the originality of his conceptions. At Marien- brunn, in the south of Austria, he joined, in 1662, the barefooted friars of the order of St. Augustin, applied himself to philoso- phy and theology, in a monastery of his order at Vienna, was then employed as preacher in the convent of Taxa, in Bava- ria, and soon called to preach at the im- perial court of Vienna, where he contin- ued till the year 1709, when he died, 67 years old. His sermons are burlesque, and foil of the strangest notions. His striking peculiarities, agreeable, however, to the spirit of his age, procured him a numerous audience, and his sermons were not without effect, since they treated of popular subjects, and were seasoned with much sarcasm, adapted to all ranks. The titles of some of his writings show the tone in which they are composed: as, Fy on the World, or, about Virtue and Vice; Salutary Mixture; Abraliam a Sancta Cla- ra's Nest of newly-hatched Fools, or curious Workshop of various Fools, both male and female, etc. A. was, by nature, a popu- lar orator; he joined to an odd exterior a strong mind, endowed with a thorough knowledge of mankind, and a fervent love of truth. With the boldest frank- ness, he scourges the follies of his age, and vigorously attacks the weak mysti- cism and pedantry of most preachers of his time. Abraham, heights of. (See Oitebec.) Abrahamites, Abrahamians, or deists of Bohemia, were a number of ignorant peasants, who came forth from their ob- scurity in 1782, confiding in the edict of toleration published by Joseph II., and avowed the same belief which Abraham ABRAIIAMITES—ABRLVL. 15 professed before the law of circumcision. The doctrine of the unity of God, and the Lord's prayer, were all which they re- garded in the Bible. Their petition for freedom in religious worship was, how- ever, rejected, because they refused to declare themselves Jews, or members of any of the established Christian sects. The emperor Joseph, less enlightened in matters of religion than is generally be- lieved, drove these honest people, in 1783, from their possessions, because they re- sisted all attempts made for their conver- sion, and dispersed them, by military force, among various places, on the boun- daries of Hungary, Transylvania, and Sclavonia, where they were compelled to embrace the Roman Catholic faith, and the men to join the frontier militia. Many of them adhered firmly to their religious principles. Abrantes ; a city of 3,500 inhabitants, on the right bank of the Tagus, in the province of Estramadura, in Portugal. It is considered as of great military impor- tance, on account of its situation on a number of steep hills, forming a defile; by reason, likewise, of its old castle, con- verted into a citadel; and of the river, which is navigable as far as this place. The Portuguese, in this fortress, braved the Spaniards as early as 1762. In 1808, the army under Jixnot arrived at A., after a dangerous and tedious march along the banks of the Tagus, through the woody, mountainous and barren Beira. Junot ordered the castle, as well as the city, which he found ungarrisoned, to be placed in a state of defence; and, in spite of the great fatigue of his troops, hastened to Lisbon, then occupied by 15,000 Por- tuguese soldiers, and inhabited by 350,000 souls. The quickness of his march, and the daring courage with which he took possession of this capital, at the head of only 1500 grenadiers, induced Napoleon to make him duke of Abrantes. At a later period, however, he committed gross mistakes. At the capitulation of Cintra, A. was surrendered to the English, who made it still stronger. It was, however, of no importance during the remainder of the war, except to Massena, who re- connoitred it at the time when he sat down before the strong position of the duke of Wellington, between Santarem and Peniche. Abrasax. (See Abraxas.) Abraxas Stones,or Ajsrasax Stones, are veiy numerous, and represent a hu- man body, with the head of a cock and the feet of a reptile. The inscription Abraxas or Abrasax is often found on them, in Greek characters, which betray, however, a foreign origin. Bellermann, in his Essay on the Gems of the Ancients, bearing the Image of Abraxas, Berlin, 1817, declares only those having the above inscriptions to be genuine. The gems which have been imported into Europe from Egypt and Asia, and are also found in Spain in great abundance, belonged, according to his opinion, to the religious sect of the Basilidians, and were used, partly as means to teach secret doctrines, partly as symbols, partly as amulets or talismans. Grotefend derives the name from the Persian language; Bellermann thinks it to be a composition of the Egyp- tian words Abrac and Sax, and renders it " the holy word of bliss," which reminds us of the Tetragrammaton of the Jews. Different explanations have been proposed by others. The ancients attempted to give meaning to the word by considering the letters as Greek numerals, which make together 365.—The name of Abraxas stone is, in modern times, applied to a variety of gems that exhibit enigmatical compositions, strange words in foreign characters, as Ablanathanalba, &c, and even to those which bear the emblems of Sabseism, the sun and moon, with other symbols, which want, however, the char- acteristic type of the Basilidians. These are more properly called Abraxoids. The Basilidian names, seen on many stones of this class, are explained by Bellermann, by the aid of the Semitic languages. The interesting disquisition on this subject of Neander, professor at the university of Berlin, deserves to be carefully compared with the opinions advanced by Beller- mann. Abrial, Andre-Joseph, bom March 19, 1750, at Annonay, department de I'Ardeche, at present count and peer of France, &c, studied law in Paris, and embraced the principles of the revolution, during which he was, for a long period, commissioner of the executive power in the court of cassation. In 1799, he or- ganized the republican government in Naples. After the 18th of Brumaire, the first consul intrusted him with the ministry of justice, saying, as it is related, " Not I, but the public voice nominates you." After 18 months, he quitted this station, and entered the senat conserva- teur. In 1804, he organized the depart- ment of justice in Italy, when the young Cisalpine republic was again dissolved. In 1811, he was made count of the em- pire, and was for 10 years a member of 16 ABIAL—ABRUZZO. that committee in the senate, ridicu- lously called commission de la liberie in- dividuelle, while it daily submitted, with blind subservience, to the imperial orders. In 1814, Abrial voted for the overthrow of the imperial dynasty. Louis XVIII. made him a peer, and since that time he has voted with some independence in the chamber of peers. Abruzzo, the northern extremity of the kingdom of Naples, is bounded on the north and west by the states of the church, on the east by the Adriatic, on the south by Puglia and Terra di Lavoro. It contains 628,600 inhabitants,- and is di- vided into A. ulterior, which comprises the north-western, and A. citerior, which comprises the south-eastern part. The highest part of the chain of the Apennines crosses this mountainous country. In A. ulterior, especially, it is very lofty, with steep cliffs, and throws extraordinary obsta- cles in the way of internal communication. The rivers which rise in A., the Trento, Trontino, etc., generally flow in a direct course into the Adriatic sea, and have (the Pescara and Sangro excepted) the character of torrents. They are often suddenly swollen by the rains, especially in the spring, and then sweep away the bridges and all means of communication. The climate of A. is severe. The sum- mits of the mountains are covered with snow from October to ApriL Thick woods crown the eminences; the valleys only are productive; and even they (as the inhabitants are mostly shepherds) afford but a very scanty supply of grain. Almond, walnut, and other fruit-trees thrive every where; olives, in the lower regions, near the sea. The finest herds of all kinds of cattle feed on the heights and in the valleys, and constitute the only article of export The most impor- tant cities are Aquila, Pescara, (both for- tresses,) and Sulmona. The importance of A. consists, principally, in its military sites. Projecting like a bastion 60 geo- graphical miles, far into the territory of the church, it becomes especially impor- tant from the circumstance that but one military road, and that an extremely dif- ficult one to an army, leads into the king- dom. There is, indeed, no one like it across the mountains, from the shore of the Mediterranean to that of the Adriatic sea. The kingdom of Naples, therefore, if well defended, is exposed to serious attacks on two roads only; namely, on that which stretches along the Mediter- ranean sea and the Pontine marshes, from Rome, by Terracina and Capua, to Na- ples ; or on the one which runs along the Adriatic, from Ancona, by way of Atn, Pescara, etc. into the interior. On the latter road, each of the many parallel riv- ers forms an excellent position, where the right wing may always be protected by the sea, the left by the contiguous mountains, from which the flank of the assailants is itself exposed to attack. To force these positions would cost a bold enemy much blood. It would be yet more dangerous to attempt to pass Ter- racina, on the other road, without having possession of A.; for as soon as the army had arrived at Terracina, the rear might be attacked on the left from Rome and the mountains. Finally, should the in- vaders advance by both roads at once, all communication would be destroyed before they reached Pescara, whence a good road leads over the chain to Sul- mona and Teano. They would meet with all the above difficulties, and, at the same time, incur the danger of being de- feated in detail. The possession of A. is, therefore, indispensable for the attack of Naples; to force it, however, would be very difficult. As has been said above, of the roads from the states of the church into this province, only the one from Rie- ti, through Civita ducale to Aquila and Sulmona, is practicable for artillery, and only two others for regular troops, and that with difficulty. All the other ways are nothing more than paths through morasses, where the troops must march in single files, and the cavalry lead their horses. The road from Rieti is, there- fore, the only one on which a serious at- tack can be undertaken; but the strong pass of Antrodocco, and numerous good positions, facilitate its defence. Besides, the thick forests with deep ravines afford advantages for a partisan warfare, in the manner of the guerillas, or the Tyrolese and, had the Neapolitans a warlike spirit, the possession of A., whenever attacked, would not have been obtained without a great sacrifice. But when a people is destitute of courage and energy, when the soldiers, sunk in cowardly apathy, run away at the mere idea of a battle, the most favorable ground will be of no ad- vantage. This is the reason that A., so well adapted for a defensive war, has al- ways been of little use; that Naples has been the prey, sometimes of the Austrians, at other times of the French or the Span- iards ; and that the inhabitants have but seldom resisted the conquerors. Once only, in 1798, did the natives of A. rouse themselves against the victorious French ABRUZZO—ABSENTEE. 17 they killed their general, Hilarion-Point, took general Rusca prisoner, and did im- Kortant injury to the conquerors, especial- j to the column of general Duhesme. But as the Neapolitan army had been defeated in the states of the church, and fled in the most cowardly manner wherever the French showed themselves, these momentary ebullitions of courage were of little avail to the descendants of the bold Samnites, Marsi and Sabini, who once dwelt on these mountains, a terror to the Romans ; and the subsequent petty commotions, in 1806, partook too much of the character of common robberies to merit commendation. In 1815, when Murat advanced against the Austrians, the government was too much hated to be able to organize a popular war after the battle of Tolentino. Instead of re- sisting, the soldiers born in A. dispersed to their homes, when they marched through this province on their return, and the rivers on the eastern coast rather hindered the retreat of the Neapolitans than the advances of the foe, who pro- ceeded without opposition, both by the roads along the coast and over the moun- tains, with columns composed of light troops, and by this daring step effected the entire dissolution of the Neapolitan army. In 1821, the revolutionary party at Naples hoped that A. would afford the greatest advantages in a defensive war; and the Venditas of the Carbonari, the popular assemblies, and even the French chamber of deputies, again resounded with praises of the ground and of the spirit which inspired the inhabitants, the worthy descendants of their daring ances- tors. The result completely disappointed expectation. After the plan of the Aus- trians to attack A. on the road from Ci vi- ta ducale to Aquila and Sulmona was de- termined on, general Pepe resolved to commence the offensive. On March 7th, 1821, he crossed the boundary of Civita ducale, and attacked general Geppert, at Rieti. His troops advanced with reluct- ance, found themselves surrounded by two battalions of Austrians, and deter- mined to retreat. The Austrians quickly pursued ; the division under Wallmoden reached the strong pass of Antrodocco on the 9th, attacked and soon obtained pos- session of it, another division having al- ready taken the pass of Borghette with- out resistance, while one portion of the Neapolitans fled from dissatisfaction with the new government, and another from cowardice. The whole Neapolitan army being dispersed, the militia and volun- teers returned home; the troops of the line, weakened by desertion, withdrew into the interior of the country; and Pepe himself left the army, in anger at their cowardice. Aquila opened its gates on the 11th; the citadel then capitulated, and the inhabitants of Abruzzo furnished the Austrians with provisions, without evinc- ing any desire to prolong this partisan war. By the speedy advance of the Aus- trians to Sulmona, general Carascosa, who held possession of the road of Ter- racina, and also the corps which protect- ed the road along the coast of the Adri- atic, were surrounded, and both the regulars and militia, having dispersed, hastened back. Thus ended a war, which affords another proof, that even the pass of Thermopylae has no value unless de- fended by Spartans. The inhabitants of this mountainous region are generally banditti, who render the frontiers of Na- ples and of the territories of the church extremely insecure. These banditti con- sist of the peasants living in the moun- tains, who possess property and families, but, in addition to their agricultural con- cerns, make a trade of robbery. Urged by rapacity and poverty to murder and plunder, they unite and fall upon the traveller, and not unfrequently upon the inhabitants and houses of the plains. Absalom, (in Danish, Axel,) bishop of Roeskilde or Rothschild, and archbishop of Denmark from 1158 to 1201; renowned as a clergyman, statesman, general, and navigator; descended from a family of high rank, and, even from his early youth, a friend and counsellor of king Walde- mar I., whose ability in peace and war procured him the surname of the Great. A. had a large share in the administration of Waldemar I. He was active, humane, and learned ; set an example of industry to the monks, and improved the condi- tion of the church in Denmark. In his youth, he studied at Paris. Under his di- rection Saxo wrote the valuable Danish chronicle. A. never abused his power or the favor of the king; so that Waldemar ever remained his friend. He had the honor of being the founder of the chief city of Denmark,Copenhagen. He built the castle, called, after him, Axelburg, and the city, Axelstadt. This castle, enlarged and improved, served the kings of Denmark afterwards for their residence, till the 18th century. A. died, A. D. 1201, in the 73d year of his age. His grave is still seen in Soroe, then a convent in Zealand. Absentee ; a word in modem times particularly applied to those land-owners 18 ABSENTEE—ABYSSINIA. f and churchmen of Ireland who reside in England, or in foreign countries. In 1715, a tax of 4 shillings in the pound was levied on alb profits, fees, pensions, &c, derived from Ireland, in all cases where the persons receiving them should not reside in that country for six months in the year; power to grant leave of ab- sence being reserved to the crown, In 1753, the tax ceased. Absolution. In the ancient Chris- tian church, absolution was a judicial act, by which the priest, in the name of the community, invoking the favor of God, announced to the penitent his remission from ecclesiastical punishment, and re- admission into the bosom of the church. Private absolution having become preva- lent for four centuries, through priests acting in the place of the bishop, the opinion was spread among the people, that they had the power of absolving, by their own authority, and without the consent of the church. But down to the 12th century, they used only the formula, " may God or Christ absolve thee;" which is still the form in the Greek church, and, in the Romish, makes a part of the ceremony. The council of Trent, sess. xiv. cap. 3., declares the essence of the sacrament of penance to lie in the words of absolution. Among Protestants, abso- lution is chiefly used for a sentence, by which a person, who stands excommuni- cated, is released from that punishment. The formula of absolution in the Romish church has been said to be absolute, in the Greek church, deprecatory, and in the Protestant churches, declarative; but this is a matter strongly contested be- tween Protestants and Romanists. The fathers of the church and the best modem theologians are unanimous in the belief, that God alone can forgive and deliver from sin; that a judicial power over the souls of Christians is conferred neither on priests nor teachers. Abstraction; an operation of the mind, by which we detach from our con- ceptions all those circumstances that ren- der them particular, and thereby fit them to denote a whole rank or class of be- ings. Abulfeda; known by the name of Ismael, prince of Hamah, in Syria, sur- named the victorious king, and the pillar of religion. This Arabian, famous as a historian and geographer, was born at Damascus, in the year of the Hegira672, A. D. 1273. He sprung from the family of the Ayubites, which had already given birth to the famous Saladin, and was re- nowned for the valor of its members. While a youth, he distinguished himself in various campaigns. From his uncle he inherited the principality of Hamah ; but, on account of a quarrel with his brother, he did not come into possession of it for several years; after which he remained undisturbed therein till his death, in the year of the Hegira 732, A. D. 1333. All writers who mention him represent him as a prince of the greatest talents, equally remarkable for courage and coolness in war, and for wisdom in council. Amid the cares of government, he devoted himself with zeal to study, drew the learned around him, and ren- dered his power and wealth subservient to the cause of science. He was well acquainted with history, jurisprudence, medicine, botany, mathematics and as- tronomy, and has bequeathed to us the fruits of his long inquiries in several valu- able works, of which his history of the hu- man race, and his geography, entitled, The true SUuation of Countries, are the most famous. We have several partial transla- tions and editions of them, viz. of the his- torical works, 1. Annales Moslemiri Arab. et Lot. Op. et Stud. Reiskii, 1789—94,5 vols. 2. De Vita et Rebus gestis Mohammedis, erf. Gagnier, 1723, to which Schultens has annexed an appendix. For portions of his geography, we are indebted to Graevius, Reiske, Muratori, Michaelis, Rink, Eich- hom, Rosenmuller, Paulus and Rommel. Abulfeda's own manuscript is at Paris. He is a trustworthy author, and his style is good. Abvdos ; an ancient city of Asia, on the eastern side of the Dardanelles, fa- mous for the bridge of boats, which Xerx- es is related to have thrown here across the Hellespont, and for the loves of Hero and Leander. This city defended itself with great courage against Philip of Ma- cedon. Another Abydos was an ancient town of Upper Egypt, which contained the palace of Memnon, and the celebrated temple of Osiris, built by Osymandes. Under Augustus, the town was reduced to ruins, but to the west of it, in the pres- ent village of El-Berbi, magnificent ruins are still found. Ab yla ; a mountain in Africa, one of the pillars of Hercules, as they were anciently called; being directly opposite to Calpe, (now Gibraltar,) in Spain, from which it is distant only 18 miles. Between these mountains are the straits of Gibraltar. Abyssinia; an extensive kingdom of Africa, bounded on the east by the Red sea, on the north by Sennaar, on the west ABYSSINIA. 19 and south partly by Sennaar and Kordo- fan, and partly by vast and barbarous re- gions, of which the names have scarcely reached us. Pinkerton makes Abyssinia 770 miles in length, and 550 in breadth. The number of inhabitants is from 4 to 5 millions, the greater part of whom are of Arabian extraction, mixed with Jews, Turks and Negroes. The ancients called this country, and some of the parts adja- cent, in a peculiar sense, Ethiopia. They also gave the same name, indefinitely, to the interior of Africa, and even to a great part of Asia. The Ethiopian kingdoms, of which the ancients had any distinct knowledge, were two. The first, and the only one known to the earliest writers, is Meroe, or the Peninsula, which they sup- posed to be an island, formed by the suc- cessive union of the Nile with the Asta- boras and the Astapus, (Blue River and Tacazze.) The chief city of Meroe was placed by them on the Nile, in lat 16° 26'; and Bruce saw near Chendi, in Sen- naar, immense ruins, which probably be- longed to this ancient capital. The other kingdom was not known until the Greeks, under the successors of Alexander, had extended their navigation along the east- em coast of Africa. It was that of the Axumitae, situated upon the Red sea, and occupying part of the Abyssinian prov- ince of Tigre. The capital, Axum, still remains, though in a state of decay. Its port, Adulis, was the channel by which the finest ivory then known was export- ed, and a commercial intercourse main- tained with the coasts both of the Red sea and the Indian ocean.—The Abyssin- ians boast that their country was the Sheba of Scripture, and that it was con- verted to Judaism several centuries be- fore the Christian era. It is much more certain, that, prior to the middle of the fourth century, the nation was converted to Christianity, which it has ever since professed. This is, however, more tinc- tured with Judaism than among other na- tions. Boys and girls are circumcised; the Mosaic laws in regard to clean and unclean meats are respected; the seventh day is their Sabbath, and their altars have the form of the ark of the covenant. In their dogmas they follow the Monophy- sitic doctrine. (See Monophysites.) In the church service they use the Bible, with the apocryphal books, in the Tigre or Gheez language, which is their lan- guage of literature. Baptism and the eucharist are administered according to the ritual of the Greek church, of which they have all the festivals and fasts. It is, however, peculiar to the Abyssinians, that persons of rank receive larger pieces of bread at the Lord's supper, and that no one is admitted to it before his 25th year, because they pretend that no one is accountable for sin before that age, and that all who die prior to it are sure of sal- vation. They consider the bodies of the dead as unclean, and hasten their in- terment. Their small, round, conical churches stand on hills, near running water, surrounded by cedars, and are foil of pictures. During the service every body is obliged to stand, as in the Greek churches. The shoes are left at the door, and passing horsemen must dismount. The service, like that of the Greek church, consists in reading parts of the Bible and praying. The clergy, who are very igno- rant, generally marry, and are distin- guished by a cross, which they offer to passengers to be kissed. The head of the Abyssinian church is called Abuna, (our father,) and is generally taken from the Coptic priests, as the Abyssinians and the Copts keep up a communication with , each other in Cairo. Under the abuna are the kamosats, or the chief priests of the secular clergy, the learned theologi- ans and monks. The latter pretend to be of the order of St. Augustine, and are divided into two classes. The members of one, living unmarried, reside in weal- thy convents; those of the others, with their wives and children, live around the churches, supported by agriculture. Both sorts, as well as the numerous nuns, travel about the country, trade in the markets, and do not appear scrupulously observant of their vow of chastity. The Abyssinian clergy have neither a particular dress nor peculiar privileges. A. is now divided into three separate states, Tigre, Amhara, and Efat The negus, or nagush, as the king of all A. was called before its division, lives at Gondar, in Amhara, en- joying only a nominal sovereignty, and watched by the chief of that state. The pope has several times attempted to gain over A. An opportunity of reducing the Abyssinians to the Roman church was offered by their war with the Turks, in which the regent Helena sought assist- ance for David II., the minor negus, from the Portuguese, in 1516. In 1520, a Por- tuguese fleet, with soldiers and priests, arrived in A., and after the Turks and Gallas (a warlike, mountain people, in the south and west of A.) had been repulsed, by the assistance of the Portuguese, to- wards the end of the 16th century, the zealous Catholics obtained a footing, of 20 ABYSSINIA—ACADEMY. which the pope knew how to take advan- tage. He sent Jesuits to convert the in- habitants to the Roman Catholic religion, and a Portuguese colony supported their enterprise. In the beginning of the 17th century, the Roman Catholic ritual was introduced; the Jesuit Alphonso Mendez was elected patriarch of A., in 1626, the celebration of the 7th day as the Sabbath abolished, and the whole religious system accommodated to the Catholic model. But this favorable turn of affairs Was of short duration. The negus Basilidas be- gan his administration in 1632, by yield- ing to the wishes of the majority of the people, who were opposed to the Roman Catholic faith. He banished the monks with the patriarch, and ordered the Jes- uits who remained to be hanged. Almost all the Catholic missionaries have since suffered death, and all the attempts of the Roman propaganda to establish the Cath- olic faith in A., until the end of the last century, have proved fruitless.—In the western part of this country, an inde- pendent government of Jews has long existed. They call themselves Falashas, that is, exiles; the state is called Falas- jan. They have their own government, which is allowed by the negus, on con- sideration of their paying a certain tribute. Bruce found there a Jewish king, Gideon, and a queen, Judith.—The customs of the Abyssinians are described by Bruce and Salt as exceedingly savage. They eat the raw and still quivering flesh of cattle, whose roaring is to be heard at their feasts. A perpetual state of civil war seems the main cause of their pecu- liar brutality and barbarism. Dead bod- ies are seen lying in the streets, and serve as food to dogs and hya?nas. Marriage is there a very slight connexion, formed and dissolved at pleasure; conjugal fidel- ity is but little regarded. The rulers are unlimited despots in ecclesiastical and civil affairs, disposing of the lives of their subjects at pleasure.—A. is foil of high ranges of mountains, in which the Nile takes its rise. The climate, on the whole, is fine, and the soil exceed- ingly fertile. The vegetable and animal kingdoms are very rich, and afford many species peculiar to this country. One of the most important natural productions of A. is salt, covering a great plain,which oc- cupies part of the tract between Amphila and Massuah. The plain of salt is about four days' journey across. For about half a mile the salt is soft, but afterwards be- comes hard, like snow which has been partially thawed, and consolidated. It is perfectly pure: it is cut with an adze, and carried off by caravans. The country is rich in gold, iron, grain and fruits. Com- merce is in the hands of the Jews, Arme- nians and Turks. . . Acacia, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean-tree ; in the Linnaean system, a spe- cies of mimosa. The flowers of this plant are used, by the Chinese, to produce that yellow color, which we see in their silks and stuffs. They make a decoction of the dried flowers, and add alum and calcined oyster-shells. In the materia medic a, aca- cia is the inspissated juice of the unripe pods of the mimosa nUotica of Linnaeus. Academy ; an association of scholars or artists, for the promotion of the sci- ences or arts, sometimes established by government, sometimes voluntary uni- ons of private individuals. The acade- mies at Paris, Stockholm and Berlin, are in part institutions for the purpose of in- struction; but at first their only object was the one above-mentioned. The mem- l>ers of an academy either select their own branches of study, or pursue those which the government assigns to them. The results of their labors are read in the reg- ular meetings, and printed among their proceedings. The name is derived from the Athenian academy, belonging to a certain Academus, a famous school for gymnastic exercises, and the place where Plato taught. The appellation academy is also used to denote the various philo- sophical sects, whose doctrines were taught in that institution. In this sense we speak of the first, second and third academies; the founders of which were Plato, Arcesilaus and Lacydas or Car- neades. The first institution of antiquity, which merits the name of academy, in the modem sense of the term, was at Alexan- dria. Attracted by the generosity of the Ptolemies, a numerous association of scholars was collected here, who were to have labored for the extension and per- fection of human knowledge, but soon fell into idleness, or the exercise of gram- matical subtleties. From Alexandria the Jews borrowed the custom of founding academies, which were established, after the close of the first century, in the cities on the Euphrates, Sora, Neharda and Punebedita. From them the Nestorians learned, in the sixth century, to value science, and imparted the same spirit to the Arabs, whose excellent caliphs, Al- mansor, Harun al Raschid and Almamun, founded a number of academies, which were extended from Cordova to Bochara in the farthest east, with the greatest sue- ACADEMY. 21 cess. At the court, too, of Charlemagne, we find an academy, founded by the em- peror, at the suggestion of his instructer Alcuin, of which he was himself a mem- ber. This useful institution was dissolved after the death of Alcuin, and we after- wards find no academies, properly so called, till the time of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, when sev- eral Grecian scholars were compelled to fly to Italy. Lorenzo de' Medici then founded, at Florence, the first Grecian academy, under the care of Argyropylus, Theodore Gaza, and Chalcondylas. Cos- mo afterwards established the Platonic academy, the object of which was the study of the writings of Plato, and the restoration of his philosophy. These es- tablishments did not subsist long, but their places were filled by others of a more general character, which spread themselves over all the cities of Europe. We will arrange the most important older ones, that still exist, according to the sub- jects to which they are devoted. General scientific academies. The Acade- mia Secretorum Naturoz, founded at Naples in 1560, for the promotion of the mathe- matical and physical sciences, was abol- ished by the papal interdict. It was fol- lowed by the Accademia dei Lincei, found- ed at Rome, by prince Cesi, about the end of the same century ; of which Gali- lei was a* member. The Accademia del Cimento arose in the beginning of the 17th century, under the patronage of prince Leopold, afterwards cardinal de' Medici, and numbered among its members Paolo di Buono, Borelli, Viviani, Redi, Magalotti and other distinguished men. The Acca- demia degV Inquieti, at Bologna, afterwards incorporated with the Accademia delta Tracria, published several excellent trea- tises under the title Penrieri Fisico-Mate- matid, 1667. In 1714, it was united with the Institute at Bologna, and has since been called the Academy of the Institute, or the Clementine Academy, (from Clement XI.) It possesses a large collection of natural curiosities and a numerous library. The Academy of Sciences at Bologna, or the In- stitute of Bologna, was established in 1712, by count Marsigli. (See Bologna.) In 1540, an academy was established at Rossano, in the territory of Naples, under the name Societa Sdentifica Rossanense degV Incuri- od, at first for the belles lettres, but since 1695 for the sciences also. The Royal Academy at Naples has existed since 1779. Its publications contain some in- structive disquisitions on mathematical subjects. Of the Italian academies, we would also mention those at Turin, Padua, Milan, Sienna, Verona, Genoa, all of which have published their transactions. Italy may be called the mother of academ- ic institutions. Jarckius enumerates 550 of them in his catalogue.—The French Acad- emy of Sciences at Paris, Academic Royale des Sciences, founded in 1666, by Colbert, received the royal ratification in 1699. The members were divided into four classes—honorary members, active mem- bers or pensionaries (receiving salaries), assories and elkves. The first class was to contain ten, and each of the three oth- ers twenty persons. The president was appointed by the king out of the first class. From the second, a secretary and treasurer were selected. The duke of Orleans, when regent, abolished the class of eleves, and substituted for it two new classes, the one of which comprised twelve adjuncts, and the other, six asso- ctis; to which latter class no particular branch of science was assigned. A vice- president was to be appointed annually by the king from the first class, and a director and sub-director from the second. In 1785, the king added classes for natu- ral history, agriculture, mineralogy and physics; so that the whole now consisted of eight classes. He also incorporated the associes and the adjuncts (adjoints). This academy has rendered many services to science, especially by the measurement of a degree of the meridian. Since 1699, it has, with a few late exceptions, annu- ally published a volume of its transactions, which constitute a series of 139 volumes. Rouille de Meslay founded two prizes, which the academy annually distributed; the first, of 2500 livres, for the promotion of physical astronomy ; the second, of 2000 livres, for that of navigation and com- merce. In 1793, the academy was abol- ished ; and the National Institute took its place, and that of the other academies; but they were restored by Louis XVIII. Im- portant academies, besides those of Paris, still exist in the principal cities of France, e. g. at Caen, since 1705; at Toulouse, the first volume of whose transactions appeared in 1782; at Rouen, since 1736; at Bordeaux, since 1703; at Soissons, since 1674; at Marseilles, since 1726; at Lyons, since 1700; at Montauban, since 1744; at Amiens, since 1750; at Dijon, since 1740; etc.—An Academy of Arts and Sciences was founded in Berlin in 1700, by king Frederic I; some changes were made in 1710, principally relating to the presidency. The members were divided into four classes; the first were to devote 22 ACADEMY. themselves to natural philosophy, medi- cine and chemistry; the second to math- ematics, astronomy and mechanics; the third to the history and language of Ger- many; the fourth to oriental literature, with a view to the conversion of the hea- then. Each class chooses a director for life. The first president was the famous Leibnitz. The institution began truly to flourish under Frederic II, who invited distinguished scholars from foreign coun- tries, and appointed Maupertuis president Public sessions were held semi-annually, on the birth-day of the king, and the an- niversary of his accession to the throne. In the latter, a prize medal of 50 ducats is adjudged to him, who has best answer- ed the question proposed by the academy. Since that time, their transactions have appeared in a series of volumes, under the title Memoires de V Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres a Berlin. They are now, however, always published in the German language. New alterations were made in 1798, in order to give a more useful direction to the labors of the academy: among other things, the royal library and the cabinet of arts were united with it.—At Manheim, in 1755, the elec- tor, Charles Theodore, established an acad- emy, according to the plan of Schopflin. It consisted, at first, of two classes, the his- torical and physical; the latter was divid- ed, in 1780, into the physical, properly so called, and the meteorological. The transactions in the departments of history and physic have appeared under the title Acta Academice Theodoro-Palatina; in the branch of meteorology, under the title Ephemerides Societatis Meteorological Pala- tina.—The academy at Munich has existed since 1759, but was much enlarged when Bavaria was exalted to a kingdom. Its memoirs are entitled Abhandlungen der baierschenAkademie.—Peter the Great had projected the establishment of the Imperi- al Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, and consulted Wolf and Leibnitz on the subject; but his death prevented the execu- tion of his project, which was completed by Catharine I. Its first sitting was held Dec. 1725. The empress appropriated about 30,000 roubles a year for the sup- port of the academy; fifteen distinguished scholars in different departments received pensions as members, with the title of professors. The most famous of them were Nicholas and Daniel Bernouilli, the two de Lisles, Bulfinger and Wolf. Un- der Peter II, the academy languished; but revived under the empress Anna, and declined again after her death. Under Elizabeth, it flourished anew. It was en- larged und improved, and an academy of aits added in 1747, which was separated again in 1764. Its annual income amounts to 60,000 roubles. This academy has con- tributed much to a more accurate knowl- edge of the interior of Russia, by sending men like Pallas, Gmelin, Stolberg, Gul- denstadt and Klaproth, to travel through single provinces, and has thereby given rise to some excellent works. The num- ber of active members, besides the presi- dent and director, amounts to fifteen. In addition to these, there are four adjuncts, who attend the sittings, and are admitted, on the first vacancies, to the rank of members. The academy has an excellent collection of books and manuscripts, a valuable cabinet of medals, and a rich collection in natural history. Its transac- tions appeared from 1728 to 1747, during which period they amount to 14 volumes, under the title Commentarii Academia. Srientice Imperialis Petropolitanac. From that time till 1777, they were published under the title Novi Commentarii, in 20 volumes. They were subsequently enti- tled Acta Academia, and at present the new series is called Nova Acta. The commentarii are all in Latin; the acta are partly in Latin, partly in French.— The Royal Academy of Sciences at Stock- holm originated in a private association of six learned men, among whom was Linnaeus, and held its first session June 23, 1739. In the same year appeared its first memoirs. The association soon attracted public attention, and, March 31, 1741, the king conferred on it the name of the Royal Academy of Sweden. It receives, however, no pension from the crown, and is conducted by its own mem- bers. A professor of experimental phi- losophy only, and two secretaries, are paid from the funds of the society, which are considerable, arising from legacies and donations. The presidency is held in turn by the members residing at Stockholm, each one remaining in office three months. The treatises read in the sittings appear quarterly. The first forty volumes, till 1779, are called the Old Transactions; the subsequent volumes are called the New. The papers relating to agriculture appear under the title (Economica Acta. Prizes consisting of money and gold medals are annually offered.—The Royal Academy at Co- penhagen sprang from a society of six literary men, to whom Christian VI com- mitted, in 1742, the care of his cabinet of medals. They subsequently enlarged ACADEMY. 23 their plan, so as to form a regular acade- my. One of these literary men was the count of Holstein, at whose suggestion Christian VI took the academy under his protection in 1743, endowed it with a fund, and directed the members to extend their studies to natural history, physics, and mathematics. It has published fif- teen volumes, in the Danish language: some of these have been translated into Latin.—The Royal Irish Academy at Dublin was formed, in 1782, mostly of the members of the university, who assem- bled weekly. Its transactions have ap- peared regularly since 1788. As early as 1683, there was an academy in Dublin, but, owing to the distracted state of the country, it soon declined. In 1740, a Physico-Historical Society was instituted there, which published two volumes of transactions, still extant. This also soon declined.—In Lisbon, the late queen established an academy of science, agri- culture, arts, commerce and economy in general, consisting of three classes; those of natural science, mathematics and national literature, and comprising sixty members. It has published Memorias de Letteraturo Portugueza, Memorias Econo- micas, together with scientific transactions and a Colleccao de Livros ineditos de Histo- ria Portugueza. Academies for the promotion of particular departments of science.—1. Medical. The Academia Naturae Curiosorum, at Vien- na, called also Leopold's Academy, was formed in 1652. At first, it published its treatises separately, but after 1684, in vol- umes. Under Leopold I, who favored it in a high degree, it adopted the name Catsareo-Leopoldina Natnroz Curiosorum Academia. Similar academies were es- tablished at Palermo, 1645, in Spain, 1652, at Venice, 1701, and at Geneva, 1715.—2. Surgical. A surgical academy was estab- lished at Paris, 1731, which proposes annually a prize question. The prize is a gold medal of the value of 500 livres. A surgical academy was founded at Vienna in 1783. Three prize medals, each of the value of 50 guilders, are yearly adjudged to the most successful students.—3. An academy of theology was established, in 1687, at Bologna.—-4. Coronelli founded, in the beginning of the 18th century, a geographical academy at Venice, under the title of the Argonauts: the object is to publish good maps and descriptions of countries.—5. Historical. King John V founded, in 1720, a royal academy of Portuguese history at Lisbon, consisting of a director, four censors, a secretary, and fifty members: the subject of their study is the ecclesiastical and political history of Portugal. In Madrid, an association of scholars was instituted about 1730, for the purpose of investiga- ting and explaining the historical monu- ments of Spain, ft was formed into an academy by king Philip V, in 1738. It consists of 24 members, and has published several ancient historical works; some for the first time, some in new editions. The Academy of Suabian History, at Tubingen, was established for the purpose of pub- lishing the best historical works, and the fives of the best historians, as well as for compiling new memoirs.—6. For the study of antiquities. An academy exists at Cortona, in Italy, for the study of Etrurian antiquities; another at Upsal, in Sweden, for the elucidation of the north- ern languages, and the antiquities of Sweden. Both have published valuable works. The academy which Paul II established in Rome, for the same pur- pose, soon came to an end, and the one founded by Leo X met with the same fate, after it had flourished some time. Others, less important, rose on their ruins. But all similar institutions were surpassed by the AcaMmie des Inscriptions, at Paris, founded by Colbert, in 1663, for the study of ancient monuments, and for the perpetuation of the remarkable occurren- ces of their own country, by means of medals, statues, inscriptions, &c. At first, it had but four members, who were chosen from those of the French acade- my ; but in 1701, the number was fixed at ten honorary members, ten associis, ten pensionaires, and ten eieves. They met semi-weekly in the Louvre, and held every, year two public sessions. The class of eieves was finally abolished. The king annually appointed their president and vice-president The secretary and treasurer held their offices for life. Their memoirs (from 1701—93) constitute 50 volumes, in 4to. It experienced the fate of all the French academies, and is now restored. The Herculanean Academy was instituted at Naples, in 1755, by the min- ister Tanucci, to explain the ancient moniunents found in Herculaneum, Pom- peii, &c. Their labors have appeared, since 1775, under the title Antichitd di Ercolano. In 1807, Joseph Buonaparte founded an academy of history and anti- quities at Naples, which has fallen into decay. The academy founded in the same year at Florence, for the explanation of Tuscan antiquities, has published some volumes of memoirs. In the same year, 24 ACADEMY. likewise, a Celtic academy was establish- ed at Paris, the objects of which were the elucidation of the history, manners, anti- quities and monuments of the Celts, espe- cially those in France; also, researches into the etymology of all European lan- guages by the aid of the Celto-Breton, Welsh and Erse dialects; together with investigations respecting the Druidical worship. Lenoir is its president. Its transactions appear under the title Me- moires de I'AcacUmie Celtique.—7. For the improvement of language. The Accade- mia delta Crusca, or Academia Furfurato- rum, was formed in 1582, and first attracted attention by its attacks on Tasso. Its principal merit consists in having compil- ed an excellent dictionary, and edited with care several of the ancient poets of Italy. The Academic Frangaise, formed in 1629, was then a private association; six years after, it was raised by Richelieu to the dignity of an academy of the French language, grammar, poetry and eloquence. The number of members was fixed at 40, and from them a director and a chancellor were elected every two months, and a secretary for life. Besides many other valuable works, it has pub- lished a dictionary of the French - lan- guage, (first edition in 1694.) At Madrid, the duke of Escalona founded an acade- my for the improvement of the Spanish language, in 1714, which the king en- dowed with various privileges. It has done much towards purifying and perfecting the language, especially by the compila- tion of a dictionary. In Petersburg, an academy for the improvement of the Russian language was founded in 1783, and united with the academy of sciences. In Sweden, also, a royal academy of lan- guage was instituted in 1789.—Many lit- erary societies are distinguished only by name from academies. Such are the Royal Society of Sciences, at Gottingen, founded in 1750; the Royal Society of England, founded in 1645. This society has made observations and experiments on most of the works of nature; has im- proved agriculture, navigation, naval, civil and military architecture, &c. It has registered experiments, observations, &c, and, from time to time, published the most valuable, under the title of Philo- sophical Transactions. The Royal Soci- ety of Dublin, for the encouragement of husbandry and the arts, established in 1731, has been one of the most active establishments of the kind in Europe. The Royal Society of Edinburgh was established in 1783 Besides these, thojre are the Society of Antiquaries of London, 1751; the Literary and Philosophical So- ciety of Manchester, 1781; the literary associations of Haarlem, Flushing, Rot- terdam, Brussels, Amsterdam, Copenha- gen, Upsal, &c. From Europe they have spread to the other quarters of the globe. In Asia there has been a society of arts and sciences, at Batavia, since 1778; a society of sciences at Calcutta, in Bengal, since 1784; and one at Bombay, to which we are indebted for the most important information respecting India and other parts of the East. The principal learned academies and societies in the U. S. of America, are the following: 1. The American Philosophical Society, Phila- delphia, founded in 1769. This society has published nine volumes, 4to., of Transactions. In 1815, it appointed a large committee to superintend a histori- cal department which has published one vol. 8vo. 2. The Massachusetts Histori- cal Society, Boston, founded in 1791. It has printed 22 vols., 8vo., of Collections. 3. The Comiecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Haven, founded in 1799, has published one vol. of Transactions. 4. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, founded in 1780, has published four vols., 4to., of Transactions. 5. The Historical Society of New York, founded in 1809, has published four vols., 8vo., of Collections. 6. The Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, founded in 1815, has published two vols., 4to., of Transactions. 7. The Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, found- ed in 1818, has published five vols., 8vo. 8. The Lycaeum of Natural History, New York, foimded in 1818, has published two vols., 8vo. There are, besides, the Histori- cal Society of Concord, New Hampshire, the Essex Historical Society, Salem, Mas- sachusetts, the Columbian Institute, at Washington, D. C, and some others; but their publications have been few. Academies devoted to the promotion of the fine arts sprung up in the middle of the 16th century. The academy of Paris has been a model for many subsequent institutions of a similar character. The earliest union of painters, for objects sim- ilar to those of modern academies of art, was the fraternity, formed at Venice, in 1345, under the name of San Luca, which sprung from a society under the pat- ronage of St Sophia. However, neither this nor the society of San Luca, estab- lished at Florence, in 1350, bore the name of an academy. The Accademia di San Luca, founded at Rome, in 1593, by Frd. ACADEMY —ACAPULCO. 25 Zucchero, first obtained a settled charac- ter in 1715. The academy at Milan may have preceded the time of Leonardo da Vinci, who is generally regarded as its founder. The academies of Bologna, Parma, Padua, Mantua, Turin, are all of recent origin, and have never obtained the importance which such institutions acquire in large capitals, where the finest works of art serve as guides and incen- tives to genius. The Academy of Painting at Paris was established by Louis XIV, in 1648, and the Academy of Architecture by Colbert, in 1671. This latter now exists under the name of Acole Spiciale des Beaux Arts, and is divided into departments, in a way which might serve as a model. Since 1391, the painters of Paris have been united in a society called the Fra- ternity of St. Luke, which has received charters from several kings. Among the towns of France, Bordeaux had the ear- liest academy. We now find one in al- most every town of consequence. The French academy at Rome, in the Villa Medici, is a branch of the academy of Paris. Nuremberg had the first estab- lishment of this kind in Germany. Its academy, founded by Sandrart, 1662, and long conducted by him, gained new dis- tinction from the celebrity of Preissler. The academy of Berlin was founded in 1694, was remodelled and received a fresh impulse in 1786; that of Dresden, established in 1697, was united with those of Leipzig and Meissen, in 1764, and has still the form given it by Hagedorn. The academy of Vienna was founded by Jo- seph I, and completed by Charles VI, in 1726; that of Munich was established in 1770; those of Diisseldorf and Man- heim are more valuable now than they were originally. Weimar, Cassel, Frank- fort, Bern, should not be omitted in this enumeration. The Academy of Painting at Madrid had its origin in 1752; the Royal Academy of Painting at London, in 1768. Lately, a branch of the London academy has been established at Rome, which, we have reason to hope, will prove more useful than the parent society. Ed- inburgh has possessed a similar society since 1754. At Brussels, Amsterdam, Antwerp, there are distinguished acade- mies. Stockholm has had, since 1733, an academy of the fine arts, founded by count Tessin. Since 1738, one has ex- isted at Copenhagen, but its privileges were conferred on it in 1754. This acad- emy has exercised an important influence. The academy of Petersburg was found- ed in 1757, and extended in 1764. Its vol. I. 3 influence in awakening diligence and en- terprise among the Russian artists has been lately very apparent.—For schools of music, see Conservatory. Academy. (See Plato.) Acadia, the English, and Acadie, the French spelling of the Indian name of Nova Scotia. Shuben-acadic is the pres- ent name of the principal river of Nova Scotia; shuben, in the Indian dialect of the country, signifying river. (See Nova Scotia.) Acanthus ; the name ofan ancient town in Egypt, also of one in Caria, and an- other in Macedonia (near mount Athos), &c.—Also, a genus of plants (commonly called bear's-breech), of the order angio- spermia, class didynamia. The leaves of the A. are large, and very beautiful. It grows wild in Italy.—In architecture, an ornament resembling the leaves of the acanthus, used in the capitals of the Co- rinthian and Composite orders. Acapulco is the best Mexican harbor on the Pacific ocean; Ion. 98° 507 W., lat 16° 50'N.; pop. mostly people of color. Both the harbor and the road- stead are deep, with a secure anchorage from storms. It is the most considerable port on the S. W. side of Mexico. Heav- ily-laden ships can lie at anchor, close to the granite rocks, which environ the roadstead and harbor. On account of the steepness of these rocks, the coast has a wild and barren appearance. At the entrance of the harbor is situated an island, Roqueta or Grifo, which forms a western entrance of 700 or 800 feet broad, and an eastern, a mile or a mile and a half broad, and from 24 to 33 fathoms deep. On the north-west lies the city, defended by fort San Diego, situated on an eminence. It has not more than 4000' inhabitants, mostly people of color. The number used to increase much on the arrival of the galleon from Manilla. Few commercial places have a more unhealthy situation. The usual heat in the day is from 86 to 90° Fahrenheit; in the night, till 3 o'clock, A. M., 78°, and from that time till sunrise, 64 to 62°. The sun's rays are reflected by the white rocks up- on the city, where no creature is com- fortable, except the musquitoes. To pro- cure fresh air, the Spanish government caused a passage to be cut through the rocks on the east; but neglected, wliat was far more necessary, to drain and dike the morass, on the same side, situ- ated most favorably for the culture of the sugar-cane. About the middle of the dry season, the water disappears, and the 26 ACAPULCO—ACCENT. effluvia of putrid substances infect the air. Here the yellow fever of the West Indies, and the cholera morbus of the East Indies, sweep away many stran- gers, and especially young Europeans. The calms, under the fine, which fre- quently continue for a long time, are a natural obstacle, which renders a voyage from Callao to Acapulco more difficult, and often longer, than one from Callao to Cadiz. Steam-boats would be of great advantage in this quarter. In order to take advantage of the trade-winds, it is especially necessary to keep at a distance from the line. This, however, is imprac- ticable on a coasting voyage from Aca- pulco to Callao. The exports hitherto from Acapulco have been mostly silver, indigo, cochineal, Spanish cloth, and some peltry, which comes from California and the northern part of Mexico. The im- ports consist of all the valuable produc- tions of Asia. Acarnania, now called H Carnia and E Despotato; an ancient country of Epi- rus, divided from iEtolia by the Ache- lous. Acatholici are, in general, those who do not belong to the Catholic church. In certain Catholic countries, Protestants are distinguished by this name, which is considered less odious. Acbar. (See Akbar.) Acceleration. (See Mechanics.) Accent ; the law which regulates the rising and falling of sounds or tones. Music and language, which are subject to this law, both originate in the feelings; and, although they at last separate from each other, and music remains the lan- guage of the heart, while speech, or lan- guage, properly so called, becomes the language of the mind, yet the latter does not entirely cease to speak to the heart; and music and language thus retain cer- tain qualities in common; these are part- ly internal and partly external. Both are adapted to the expression of emotions ; and thence arise the movements, some- times slow and sometimes quick, which we perceive in them. They thus become subject to quantity or time ; and we dis- tinguish sounds, with reference to quan- tity, into long and short. In order to ex- press an emotion distinctly and plainly, there must be a suitable arrangement of the organs for the sounds intended to be produced; for, in a series of sounds measured by the relation of time, and regulated also by relation to some fun- damental tone, there will be found a cer- tain connexion and association, which represent the emotions in their various relations and gradations ; it is this also, which distinguishes correctly what is of primary importance from what is secon- dary, renders the unimportant subordi- nate to the important, and gives proper weight to that which is significant. A succession of tones thus becomes a mu- sical composition, which comprehends in itself a definite meaning or sense; and, to express this, particular regard must be had to the signification and im- portance of single tones in connexion. The stress, which is laid on the tones, according to the gradations of meaning, constitutes what we call accent. We dis- tinguish the acute, or rising accent, the grave, or falling, and the drcumflex. The circumflex accent falls on those syllables or tones which are long in themselves; the grave properly denotes merely the absence of any stress; and thus we have only the acute left, to give a designation to tones. The reasons for designating a tone by accent, and dwelling on it longer than its established quantity requires, are either mechanical, rhythmical, or empbat- ical. We divide accent into grammatical and rhetorical, or the accent of words and of sentences, which last is called empha- sis. The former rests on physical or me- chanical causes ; the latter has for its ob- ject the relations of ideas. The laws which govern both are briefly the fol- lowing: A syllable or tone of the natural length receives the grammatical or verbal accent; but there are two causes, which distinguish some syllables of a word from the rest—their mechanical formation and their signification. In the word strength- en, for instance, mechanical causes com- pel the voice to dwell longer on the first syllable than on the second, and hence a greater stress is laid on that syllable. Rhetorical accent, or emphasis, is design- ed to give to a sentence distinctness and clearness. In a sentence, therefore, the stress is laid on the most important word, and in a word, on the most important syllable. Without attaching itself, in language, to the quantity of a word, or, in music, to a certain part of a bar, the accentual force dwells on the important part; and, in order that this force may be rendered still more distinguishable, it hastens over those parts, which, though otherwise important, the context renders comparatively unimportant. It follows, from what has been said, that the accent of words and the accent of sentences, or emphasis, may be united or separated at pleasure. It may now be asked, ACCENT—ACCESSARY. 27 whether emphasis destroys verbal accent and quantity; and whether, for this rea- son, euphony does not suffer from em- phasis. In answering this question (in which lies the secret of prosody in gen- eral, and the difference between the mod- ern and ancient), four points come under consideration : 1. If the accent coincides with a syllable which is long from me- chanical causes, it elevates the syllable, and imparts stress to its prosodial length. 2. The accent does not render an invari- ably long syllable short, but deprives it, if it immediately follows the accented syllable, of a portion of its length. The quantity, therefore, if it does not coin- cide with the accent, may be somewhat weakened by it. 3. Although the accent cannot render an invariably long syllable short, it can change the relative quantity of common syllables. 4. The accent can never fall on syllables invariably short. These are the rules which are of the greatest importance, not only to the versi- fier, but also to the declaimer, and to the actor, so far as he is a declaimer. The grammatical and rhetorical nomen- clature of the English language is very defective and unsettled; and hence has arisen a great degree of confusion among all our writers on the subject of accent and quantity in English. We have per- verted the true meaning of long and short, as applied to syllables or vowels; and, by our peculiar application of those terms, we have made ourselves quite unintelli- gible to foreign nations, who still use them according to their signification in the ancient languages, from which they are derived. An English writer of some celebrity (Foster, on Accent and Quan- tity), whose own work, however, is not free from obscurity, observes, that he has found the word accent used by the same writer in four different senses—some- times expressing elevation, sometimes prolongation of sound, sometimes a stress of voice compounded of the other two, and sometimes the artificial accentual mark. For a long series of years, however, accent, as Johnson has remarked, in Eng- lish prosody, has been the same thing with quantity; and another English writer of celebrity, bishop Horsley, observes, that it is a peculiarity of the English language that quantity and accent always go togeth- er, the longest syllable, in almost every word, being that on which the accent falls. In other languages, as Mitfbrd justly re- marks (Essay on the Harmony of Lan- guage), generally, the vowel character, representing indifferently a long or a short sound, still represents the same sound, long or short. A contrary method is peculiar to English orthography. With us, the same vowel sound, long and short, is rarely rep- resented by the same character; but, on the contrary, according to the general rules of our orthography, each character represents the long sound of one vowel and the short sound of another. This is eminently observable, as Dr. Johnson has remarked, in the letter i, which likewise happens in other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted, but a sound wholly different. In addi- tion to the difficulties arising from an imperfect nomenclature, as above re- marked, there is an intrinsic difficulty in the extreme delicacy of the distinctions of tone, pitch and inflections in language, and the want of an established notation, corresponding to that which we have in music ; and, we may add, in the words of Hermann (DeEmendandaRationeGraec. Gram.), "Quam pauci vero sunt qui vel aliqua polleant aurium subtilitate ut vocum discrimina celeriter notare apte- que exprimere possint!"—The Chinese are said to have but 330 spoken words; but these, being multiplied by the differ- ent accents or tones which affect the vow- els, furnish a language tolerably copious. Acceptance. (Law.) An acceptance is an engagement to pay a bill of ex- change according to the tenor of the ac- ceptance, and a general acceptance is an engagement to pay according to the ten- or of the bill. What constitutes an ac- ceptance is, in many cases, a nice ques- tion of law; but the general mode is for the acceptor to write his name on some conspicuous part of the bill, accompanied by the word accepted. In France, Spain, and the other countries of Europe, where oral evidence in matters of contract is not admitted to the same extent as in Eng- land, a verbal acceptance of a bill of ex- change is not valid. Accessary, or Accessory; a person guilty of an offence by connivance or participation, either before or after the act committed, as by command, advice, or concealment, &c. In high treason, all who participate are regarded as princi- pals. Abettors and accomplices also come, in some measure, under this name, though the former not strictly under the legal definition of accessaries. An abet- tor is one who procures another to com- mit an offence, and in many, indeed in almost all cases, is now considered as much a principal as the actual offender. An accomplice is one of many persons 28 ACCESSARY—ACCOMPANIMENT. equally concerned in a felony. The name is generally applied to those who are ad- mitted to give evidence against their fel- low-criminals, for the furtherance of jus- tice. Acclamation (acclamatio); in Ro- man antiquity, a shouting of certain words by way of praise or dispraise. In ages when people were more accustomed to give full utterance to their feelings, ac- clamations were very common, wherever a mass of people was influenced by one com- mon feeling. We find, therefore, accla- mations in theatres, senates, ecclesiastical meetings, elections, at nuptials, triumphs, &c. The senate of Rome burst into con- tumelious acclamations after the death of DomitianandCommodus. The theatrical acclamations were connected with music. Nero, who was as fond of music as of blood, ordered 5000 soldiers to chant ac- tclamations when he played in the thea- tre, and the spectators were obliged to join them. In the corrupt period of the Roman empire, the children and favor- ites of the emperors were received with loud acclamations, as the French empe- ror was greeted with Vive V empereur! and the French king is with Vive le roi! The Turks have a custom somewhat sim- ilar, at the sight of their emperor and grand viziers. The form among the Jews was Hosanna! The Greek em- perors were received with jiya9r\ rvxn I (good luck), or other exclamations. Be- fore a regular system of voting is adopt- ed, we find its place supplied, among all nations, by acclamations. So Tacitus in- forms us that the Germans showed their approbation of a measure by clashing their shields and swords. The bishops, in the early times of Christianity, were long elected by acclamation. In the course of time, acclamations were admitted into the churches, and the people expressed their approbation of a favorite preacher by exclaiming, Orthodox! Third apostle I &c. They seem to have been sometimes used as late as the age of St. Bernard. The first German emperors were elected by accla- mation at a meeting of the people in the open air; and the Indians, in North America, show their approbation or dis- approbation of proposed public measures by acclamations. Accolade, a word derived from bar- barous Latin, is composed of ad, to, and coUum, neck, meaning, originally, an em- brace. It signifies an ancient ceremony used in conferring knighthood. Anti- quaries are not agreed wherein the acco- lade consisted. Some think it signifies the embrace or kiss, given by the person who conferred the honor of knighthood. It is more probable that it consisted m an imitation of a blow on the neck, or on the cheek, signifying that this should be the last blow which the new-made knight should endure. The ceremony of stri- king the candidate with the naked sword, which afterwards took the place of the blow with the hand, had the same meanr ing. The Roman master also gave a blow to his slave, at the time of his eman- cipation, which, therefore, was called manumission; and in those parts of Ger- many where the ancient corporations of mechanics still continue, the apprentice receives a blow from the oldest journey- man, when his apprenticeship is at an end. The blow or stroke was in use among all Christian nations of the middle ages in conferring knighthood. (See Chivalry.) Accommodation ; properly, the adap- tation of one thing to another; in philos- ophy, the application of one thing by analogy to another. It is also used in the- ology ; thus, a prophecy of Scripture is said to be fulfilled improperly, or by way of accommodation when an event hap- pens to any place or people similar to that predicted of another. Some theologians also say that Christ said many things to his disciples by way of accommodation, viz. entering into their views, and telling them only what they were capable of un- derstanding. Others think this theory in- consistent with the purity of Christ A., in law, is used for an amicable agreement or composition between two contending parties. These accommodations are fre- quently effected by means of compromise and arbitration. Accompaniment, in music, (French, accompagnement; Italian, accompagna- mento,) is that part of music which serves for the support of the principal melody (solo or obligato part). This can be exe- cuted either by many instruments, by a few, or even by a single one. We have, therefore, pieces of music with an accom- paniment for several, or only for a single instrument. The principles on which the effect of the accompaniment rests are so little settled, that its composition is perhaps more difficult than even that of the melody, or principal part. Frequent- ly, the same musical thought, according to the character of the accompaniment, produces a good or bad effect, without our being able to give a satisfactory rea- son for the difference. Hitherto, the Italians have been most distinguished for ACCOMPANIMENT—ACCUSATION. 29 expressive accompaniments contained in a few notes, but productive of great effect. In this respect, the Italian music general- ly surpasses the German and French, as it never weakens the effect of the prin- cipal part by means of the accompani- ment The French are far behind both the other nations, in respect to this part of composition, as they frequently esti- mate the effect by the quantity of notes. The accompaniment requires of the per- former the most scrupulous study, and of the composer the greatest care and deli- cacy. The accompaniment of various solo instruments, e. g. the violin, flute, piano, &c. is extremely difficult, and to give it foil effect requires great knowl- edge and skill. The Italian composers accordingly consider a piano accompani- ment for a foil orchestra, especially in the recitativo, (q. v.) as a great problem, which they have labored zealously to solve. As the object of every musical accompani- ment is to give effect to the principal part, the accompanier should always aim to support, and by no means to overpower and oppress it. Of all composers, Mozart, even in respect to the accompaniments, claims the first place for the simplicity and beauty with which he amalgamates the leading and accompanying parts, through his unrivalled knowledge and excellent management of the parts for every individual instrument. Accord. (Mus.) (See Concord.) Accord ; in common law, an agree- ment, between two or more persons, to give and accept satisfaction for an offence or trespass committed, which becomes a bar to a suit. Accouchement (French); the deliv- ery of a woman in child-bed. . Accum, Frederic, a German, from the Prussian province of Westphalia, went to London in the year 1803, where he delivered a course of lectures on chemis- try and experimental physics, the basis of which was the discoveries of Priest- ley and other English chemists. He form- ed a connexion with Rudolf Ackermann, a German artist in London, to promote the general use of gas for fighting cities, and his work "On Gas Lights" was main- ly instrumental in producing the exten- sive use of gas-lights in London, and all the great cities of England. He subse- quently published a manual of practical ihemistry, which is in high estimation in England. He was suspected of having purloined from the " Royal Institution," the library and reading-room of which were, in part, committed to his care, plates and treatises; and the accusation of the overseer of this institution bore hard upon him in a court of justice; still nothing could be legally proved against him. For several years, A. has lived in Berlin, where he has received an appoint- ment. Accumulation. (See Capital.) Accusation (from the Latin ad, to, and causari, to plead); an assertion, im- puting to some person a crime, or a fault: in law, a formal declaration, charging some person with an act punishable by a judicial sentence. In Rome, where there was no calumniator publicus, no attorney- general, every one was permitted to pros- ecute crimes of a public nature. There- fore accusations very often took place against innocent persons, on which ac- count it was not considered at all disrep- utable to be accused. Cato is said to have been accused 42 times, and as often absolved. Also in Prussia and Austria there exists, according to the codes of these countries, no public accuser. The courts accuse, try and sentence upon in- formation received from the police, to which private individuals apply. This is called the process by inquisition, in con- tradistinction to process by accusation or appeal. In the common law of Germa- ny, the process of appeal, in which the person injured appears as the accusing party, is not general, yet not abolished. (See Criminal process.) For accusation in England and France, see Jury. At Athens, if an accuser had not the fifth part of the votes on his side, he was obli- ged to pay a fine of a thousand drachmas. .^Eschines, who accused Ctesiphon, was condemned to pay this fine. At Rome, a false accuser was branded with the letter K on his forehead, (used for C, i. e. Ca- lumniator.) The accuser was also watch- ed to prevent his corrupting the judges or the witnesses. The Spanish inquisi- tion forces the suspected person to accuse himself of the crime objected to him. In France, peers are to be accused of crimes only before the chamber of peers, and the chamber of deputies alone has the right to accuse ministers, as such, before the peers. Accusing, in these cases, is called impeaching. In the United States, any officer of government, the president not excepted, is impeachable, and the con- stitution provides the accuser and the judges. In no monarchy can the king be brought to trial for a crime, though, in some cases, his conduct may be such aa to amount to a virtual abdication of the throne. Blackstone says, "When king 30 ACCUSATION—ACHAIA. James II invaded the fundamental con- stitution of the realm, the convention de- clared an abdication, whereby the throne was rendered vacant, which induced a new settlement of the crown. And so far as this precedent leads, and no farther, we may now be allowed to lay down the law of redress against public oppression." Aceldama (Heb., a field of blood); the field purchased by the Jewish rulers with the 30 pieces of silver which Judas returned to them in despair, after betray- ing Christ This field they appropriated as a burial-place for strangers. The place is still shown to travellers. It is small, and covered with an arched roof. The bodies deposited in it are, it is said, consum- ed in three or four days, or even less time. Acephali (headless); several sects of schismatics in the Christian church, who rebelled against their Christian head, or refused to acknowledge any; for exam- ple, the monophysite monks and priests in Egypt, who did not acknowledge the patriarch, Peter Mongus, because he had not, at the adoption of the Henoticon, in 483, expressly condemned the council of Chalcedon. They were divided into three parties, but were soon lost among the oth- er monophysites. The Flagellants (q. v.) were also Acephali, because, as a sect, they acknowledged no head.—This term is also applied to certain nations repre- sented, by ancient naturalists, as formed without heads, their eyes, mouths, &c. being placed in their breasts, shoulders, &c. Acerbi, Giuseppe, was born at Castel- Goffredo, in the territory of Mantua. He spent a portion of his youth in Mantua, and there acquired a knowledge of Eng- lish. On the invasion of Lombardy, by the French, in 1798, he accompanied Bel- lotti from Brescia to Germany; thence he went to Denmark and Sweden, and lastly to Finland, in 1799. In Tornea, he met colonel Skioldebrand, a good land- scape painter, and with him planned a voyage to the North Cape. He was the first Italian that ever penetrated so far. On his return, he visited England, where he published a lively description of these travels, in a work in 3 volumes, in 1802. In his account of Lapland, A. has made good use of the exact information of the Swedish missionary, Canut Leem. The book was translated in Paris, under the eyes of the author, by M. Petit Radel. For 6 years, A. published, in Milan, the journal Biblioteca ltaliana, the spirited crit- icisms of which have given an impulse to the literary character of Italy. He has actively opposed the pretensions of the Accademia della Crusca, and the arro- gant pretensions of the Florentine dialect. For several years past, spirited sketches of the latest Italian literature by A. have appeared, and have received universal approbation. His appointment as consul- general of Austria m Egypt, 1826, com- pelled him to resign the Biblioteca ltal- iana to other hands. Acerra ; an altar set up by the Ro- mans, near the bed of a person deceased, on which his friends daily offered incense till his burial. Acetic Acid; the acid which, in a more diluted state, is called vinegar. Achjsans are properly the inhabitants of the district Achaia, in the Peloponne- sus ; but this name is very frequently, es- pecially in Homer, given to all the Gre- cians. Achaeus, a son of Xuthus and Creusa, went to Thessaly with a number of followers, but was soon driven out, and compelled to withdraw to the Peloponne- sus, where he settled in Sparta and Ar- gos, the inhabitants of which were called Achaans. Of the Grecian nations en- gaged in the siege of Troy, the Achaeans were the most numerous and powerful. After the conquest of this city, being overcome by the Dorians, they retired to Ionia, on the northern coast of the Pelo- ponnesus, gave to the country the name of Achaia, and founded a republic, which was subsequently famous for the Achaean league. This league was at first formed by a few cities, for the maintenance of their security and indepenaence; but 1 afterwards included ali the uiher cities of Achaia, together with Athens, Megara, &c. Sparta, however, did not join the confederacy. After the destruction of Corinth, B. 0. 146, the states composing this league were made a Roman prov- ince, under the name of Achaia. (See Greece.) AciiiEus, in ancient history,—1. A king of Lydia, deposed and hanged for extor- tion. Ovid. 2. The founder of the Achaean state in the Peloponnesus, son of Xuthus king of Thessaly. 3. A tragic poet of Eretria, who lived some time after Soph- ocles. 4. Another poet of Syracuse. 5. A cousin-german to Seleucus Ceraunua and Antiochus the Great, kings of Syria, who enjoyed, for many years, the domin- ions he had usurped from Antiochus; but at last was betrayed by a Cretan to the last-mentioned king, and, his limbs being cut off, his body was sewed in the skin of an ass and gibbeted. Achaia ; properly, a narrow district of ACHAIA—ACHERON. 31 Peloponnesus, extending westward along the bay of Corinth. Early writers, par- ticularly the poets, sometimes include all Greece under the name of Achaia. At the time of the Achaean league, the Ro- mans applied the name of Achaia to all the country beyond the isthmus, which had entered into the league ; after the dis- solution of which, Greece was divided, by a decree of the Roman senate, into two provinces, viz. that of Macedonia, con- taining also Thessaly, and that of Achaia, including all the other states of Greece. (See Gibbon's Roman Hist. chap. 1, vol. i.) Achard, Frederic Charles, born at Berlin, April 28, 1754, an eminent natu- ralist and chemist, principally known by his invention, in 1800, of a process for manufacturing sugar from beets, which, since that time, has been brought to greater perfection. He was director of the department of physics, in the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. To enable him to extend his manufacture, the great importance of which was acknowledged by the French Institute (July, 1800), the king of Prussia presented him with an estate at Kunern, in Silesia, where his establishment, at the time of the closing of the ports of Europe, by the decree of Berlin, was attended with such success, that, in the winter of 1811, it daily yielded 300 pounds of sirup. Achard connected with it, in 1812, an institution for the purpose of teaching his mode of manu- facture, which attracted the attention of foreigners. He died at Kunern, April 20, 1821. Besides a number of treatises on physics and agriculture, he published sev- eral articles on the manufacture of sugar from beets. Achates ; the companion of ./Eneas, and his most faithful friend, celebrated by Virgil. Acheen, Atcheen, Ac hem or Ac hen; part of Sumatra, of a triangular form, and containing about 26000 square miles. The lands between its two ranges of mountains are fertile. The Achanese are stouter, taller and darker-colored than the other people of the island, more in- dustrious, have more general knowledge, and deal, as merchants, in a more liberal manner. They are Mahometans; their sailors are expert and bold, and employ a multitude of vessels in trade and fishing. The government is despotic, monarchical, and hereditary; their laws extremely se- vere. The capital of the kingdom is Acheen, Ion. 956 46' E., lat 5' 22' N.; pop. about 36000. Its chief trade is now with Hindostan, from whence it receives cot- ton goods in return for gold dust, jewels, sapan wood, betel-nut, pepper, sulphur, camphor and benzoin. Europeans bring there opium, iron, amis, &c. (See Mars- den's History of Sumatra.) AcHELOUs,also Aspropotamus, a riv- er running between ^Etolia and Acarna- nia, has its source on mount Pindus, flows through the first settlements of the Gre- cians around Dodona, and falls into the Ionian sea. The banks of this river are the only places in Europe, which formerly afforded habitation to lions.—Hesiod calls A. the son of Oceanus and Thetis. Oth- ers say differently. He wrestled with Hercules for Dejanira, and, when thrown to the ground, assumed the shape of a terrible serpent, then that of an ox, and, after he had lost a horn, he fled, ashamed, to his waters. From the broken horn, it is said, the nymphs made the horn of plenty. He was the father of the sirens. Achenwall, Godfrey, born at Elbing, in Prussia, Oct. 20, 1719, first gave a dis- tinct character to the science of statistics. He studied in Jena, Halle and Leipsic. In 1746, he settled at Marburg, and lec- tured on history, the law of nature and of nations, and afterwards, also, on statis- tics. In 1748, he was appointed professor at Gottingen, where he remained until his death, May, 1772. A. travelled through Switzerland, France, Holland and England, and published several books on the history of the European states, the law of nations, political econo- my, &c. Most of them have gone through several editions. His principal endeav- or, in his lectures and historical works, was to distinguish, in the long series of occurrences which are recorded in the annals of nations, every thing which might have contributed to form their character, and fix their political condi- tion. His chief merit consists in the set- tled character which he has given to, and the new light which he has thrown on the science, which explains systemati- cally the nature and amount of the active powers of a state, and hence deduces the sources of its physical and moral pros- perity. He gave it the name of statistics. His most distinguished pupil, who suc- ceeded him at the university of Gottin- gen, was Schlozer. Acheron ; the name given by the an- cients to a river of the infernal regions, over which Charon conducted the souls of the dead in a boat, for which he re- ceived an obolus, placed under the tongue of the deceased. Only the shades of those who had obtained a burial in this 32 ACHERON—ACHILLES. world, or had, at least, some earth thrown upon their bodies, were carried over the river; others were obliged to wander on its banks a whole century. In ancient geography, there are 5 different rivers, named Acheron. The one in Epirus (now a province of Janina) flows first through the lake Acherusia, then, for a short distance, through the rocks of the Cassiopeian mountains, and falls, near Prevesa, into the Ionian sea. It is now called Velchi. A branch of the Nile, in the neighborhood of Memphis, is also called Acheron, and a lake, Acherusia. Over this the Egyptians ferried their dead, to bury them on an island in the lake, or on the opposite shore; or, if the judge of the dead condemned them, to throw them into the water: hence the Greek fable. The cave of Cerberus, call- ed Acherusis, is found on the banks of the river Acheron, in Bithynia, near Hera- clea. There is also a swamp in Campa- nia, between Cumae and the promontory of Mysenum, called by the ancients Ache- rusia. At present, there are salt works on this spot Achilleis ; a poem, by Statius, in hon- or of Achilles. (See Statius.) Acherusia, in ancient geography,—1. A lake in Egypt, near Memphis, over which, according to Diodorus, the bodies of the dead were conveyed for judgment The boat was called baris, the boatman, Charon. Hence came the Grecian fable of Charon and the Styx. 2. A river in Calabria. 3. A lake in Epirus, through which runs the river Acheron. 4. A lake between Cumae and the promontory Mi- senum. 5. A peninsula of Bithynia, on the Euxine, near Heraclea. Achilles ; according to the poets, son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and of Thetis, daughter of Ne- reus, grandson of ^Eacus. His mother dipped him, when an infant, in the waters of the Styx, which made him invulner- able, except in the heel, by which she held him. It had been foretold to Thetis that A. would acquire immortal glory, but, at the same time, meet an early death, if he went to the siege of Troy; while, on the other hand, if he remained at home, he would enjoy a happy old age. To prevent him from taking part in the war against Troy, Thetis disguised him, when 9 years old, in a female dress, and sent him, under the name of Pyrrha, to the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, with whose daughters he was educated. The prophet Calchas, however, announc- ed to the Grecians that Troy could not be taken without the aid of A. He was consequently sought for every where, and finally discovered by the crafty Ulysses, who came to the court of Lycomedes dis- guised as a merchant, and offered to the daughters of the king various female or- naments, among which arms were inter- spersed. The princesses seized the orna- ments, but A. took the arms. It was now an easy task to persuade the fiery and ambitious hero to join the other princes of Greece in the expedition against Troy. Phoenix and the Centaur Chiron had been his instructors. The latter had taught him medicine, music, and riding; the former, more especially his tutor, fol- lowed him to Troy, to render liim an el- oquent speaker, and a brave warrior. A. appears in the Iliad, of which he is the hero, not only as the bravest, but also as the most beautiful, of the Grecians. He sailed to Troy with 50 ships filled with the Myrmidons, Achaians, and Helleni- ans, and destroyed 12 cities on the islands and 11 on the main land. Juno and Mi- nerva took him under their special protec- tion. On account of a quarrel with Aga- memnon, whom the princes had chosen their leader, he withdrew from the field, and permitted Hector, at the head of the Trojans, to destroy the ranks of the Gre- cians. He remained implacable against the king, on account of Briseis, daughter of Brises, and wife of Mines, king of Lymessus, who had fallen to his share, in the division of the booty, but whom Agamemnon had taken from him, because he was obliged to restore to her father Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, who had fallen to his own share, in order to avert from the Grecians the plague sent by Apollo, in answer to the prayers of the old man, his priest. Nei- ther the defeats of the Grecians, nor the offers o£Agamemnon, appeased the wrath of the hero. He, however, permitted his friend Patroclus, in his own armor, and at the head of his own warriors, to min- gle again in the combat. Patroclus fell by the arm of Hector; and, to revenge his death, A. resolved to return to the field. Thetis herself brought him new and costly arms, made by Vulcan, among which the shield was particularly beauti- ful. He became reconciled to Agamem- non, received the presents which were offered, and, refreshed by Minerva with nectar and ambrosia, hastened to the bat tie. The Trojans fled, and a part of them rushed into the river Xanthus and per- ished. The bodies obstructed the course of the stream, and the river-god, disgust- ACHILLES—ACIDS. 33 ed with the carnage, commanded A. to desist. Not being obeyed, he overflowed his banks, and rushed against the hero. Encouraged by Neptune and Minerva, A. opposed Xanthus, who called to his aid the waters of Simois. Juno then sent Vulcan, and the west and south winds, who drove the river-god back to his proper limits. But A. pursued the Trojans to their city, which only the in- terference of Apollo prevented him from taking. Hector alone remained before the Scaean gate, and, having fled 3 times round the city, pursued by A., finally of- fered himself for combat. A. slew him, and, after dragging his body round the city, resigned it, for a ransom, to Priam. Here the narration of Homer ends. A., as represented by this sublime poet, is of a fiery and impetuous character, and has little of that firmness and rational valor which constitute the true hero. In this respect, the heroes of the German poem "Das Nibelungenlied" are far greater and nobler than those of Homer. The further history of A. is told as follows: Falling in love with Polyxena, he sought her hand, and obtained it; for which he promised to defend Troy. But Paris slew him with an arrow, which pierced his heel, in the temple of Apollo, where he was celebrating his nuptials. Others say it was Apollo who killed him, or di- rected the arrow of Paris. A bloody con- test ensued about his body. The Greeks sacrificed Polyxena on Ids tomb, in obe- dience to his request, that he might en- joy her company in the Elysian fields, where he is also said to have married Medea. When Alexander saw his tomb, it is said that he placed a crown upon it, exclaiming, " that A. was happy in hav- ing, during his fife-time, a friend like Pa- troclus, and, after his death, a poet like Homer." Achilles Tatitjs ; a Greek novelist, or Erotic writer, so called, born at Alex- andria, lived, probably, at the end of the 3d and the beginning of the 4th century, and taught rhetoric in his native city. In his old age, he became a convert to Chris- tianity, and rose to the dignity of a bishop. Besides a treatise on the sphere, which we know only from an abridgment still extant, we possess a romance of his, in 8 books, styled, The Loves of Clitophon and Leucippe, which, as regards the sub- ject and composition, is not without merit, and in some parts shows much ability. The language, though rich in rhetorical ornaments, is not free from sophistical subtilty. The charge of obscenity, which has occasionally been brought against the work, is very properly met by a Greek epigram, which remarks, that the scope of the work is to be considered, namely, to teach temperance, to show the punish- ment of unrestrained passions, and the reward of chastity. The best editions are the following; that published at Leyden, 1640, one published at Leipsic, by Bode, with the notes of Salmasius, 1776, and that of Mitscherlich, 1792, (Bipont.) Achmet III, a Turkish emperor, son of Mahomet IV, reigned from 1703 to 1730. Many remarkable events took place during his reign, of which we shall here only mention, that Charles XII, after the battle at Poltawa, found protection at his court. Charles succeeded in involving A. in a war with the czar Peter the Great, which would have had a very unfortunate issue for him, if the prudence of Cath- arine, his mistress, whom he afterwards married, had not averted the impending danger. (See Peter I.) A. established the first printing press at Constantinople, in 1727. Towards the end of his reign, the janizaries revolted against him, and he was thrown into the same prison in which his successor, Mahomet V, had been confined, before he took A.'s place on the throne. He died in 1736. Achmim, or Echmim ; a considerable town of Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile, called by the ancients Chem- nis and Panopolis, by the Copts Smin. Though reduced from its former magnifi- cence, it is still one of the finest towns of Upper Egypt It has some manufacto- ries. Abulfeda speaks of a superb temple here. The immense stones which com- posed it, sculptured with innumerable hieroglyphics, are now scattered about, and some are transferred into a mosque. A. contains also a triumphal arch, built by the emperor Nero. This place is fa- mous also for the worship of the serpent Haridi. Achromatic Telescopes. (See Optics.) Acids (acida); a class of compound bodies, which have the following char- acteristic properties: the greater part of them, a sour taste, and most of them are very corrosive; they change the vegetable blues to red, are soluble in water, and have great affinity for the alkaline, earthy, and metallic oxyds, with which they form neutral salts. Some acids have no sour taste, but their affinity for the three classes of bodies above-mentioned is al- ways characteristic. If a few drops of sulphuric acid, nitric acid, or muriatic acid, be added to a solution of blue litmus, 34 ACID—ACOLYTHI. it becomes red. The same is the case if they be ad ied 10 other vegetable colors, as violet, &c. Hence these colors are employed as tests of acids, that is, to as- certain when they exist in any substance. We may add the infusion to the fluid in which we are trying to detect an acid, but a more convenient method is, to spread it on paper, and allow it to dry. If a strip of this be put into a fluid in which there is an acid, it instantly be- comes red. Some acids appear only in a fluid state, either gaseous, as carbonic acid, or liquid, as sulphuric acid ; others appear in a solid form, or crystallized, as benzoic acid, boracic acid, &c. All acids are compound bodies, and are sometimes divided into four classes, the three first of which are compounded with oxygen ; the fourth class consists of those which, at least according to some modern chemists, have no oxygen; e. g. sulphuretted hy- drogen. The first class consists of acids compounded with oxygen and one other body; the second class comprises the acids compounded of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; the third class consists of those acids which contain nitrogen, in addition to the three substances above- mentioned. The ancient chemists were acquainted with but few of the acids now known; they divided them, according to the kingdoms of nature, into mineral, vegetable and animal acids. This divis- ion, however, cannot now be retained, as there are some acids which appear in all the kingdoms; e. g. phosphoric acid. If the same radical be compounded with different proportions of the acidifying principle, forming different acids, the most powerful acid receives a name from the radical, terminating in ic; the weaker, a name formed in the same manner in ous; e. g. sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid, nitrous and nitric acid; and, where there are intermediate compounds, the term hypo is occasionally added to the com- pound next above it in point of acidity. Thus hyposulphuric acid signifies an in- termediate acid between sulphurous and sulphuric acids; hypophosphorous add, an acid containing less oxygen than the phosphorous acid. (For Prussic acid, Py- roligneous add, &c. see Prussic, Pyrolig- ncous, &c.) Acirs ; hurricanes of snow which pre- vail among the Cevennes, in the south of France. Villages are sometimes so rap- idly covered, that the inhabitants have no means of communication, but by cutting passages under the snow. Aukermann, Rudolph, was bom in 1764, at Schneeberg, in Saxony, where his father was a saddler. He received his education at the Latin school of his native city, and, after learning the trade of his father, travelled through the coun- try as a journeyman, according to the custom of Germany. After residing for some time at Paris and Brussels, he went to London. He there became acquaint- ed with Facius, a German, who had un- dertaken to conduct a journal of fashions, (Journal des Modes,) and met with tolerable success. A. soon afterwards published, in the same way, drawings of coaches and curricles, invented, drawn and painted by himself. The novelty and elegance of the forms excited universal attention, and he received orders for drawings from all quarters. This laid the foundation of a trade in works of art, which his activity, attention and precision in business so much enlarged in a short time, that he was enabled to marry an English woman, became a citizen of London, and founded an establishment called Repository of Arts, in the Strand, in the centre of Lon- don. It is one of the curiosities of the British capital, and gives employment to several hundred men. An account of every thing new has appeared for 8 years in A.'s splendid journal, Repodtory of Arts, Literature and Fashion, the first series of which, in 14 volumes, costs £18; and the new series already amounts to more than 40 numbers. Every number contains three or four elegant, colored copperplates. For 8 years he has also been engaged in a series of topographical works, exhibiting all the splendor of Brit- ish aquatinta, which already constitute a small library, and, for truth of design and elegance of execution, are hardly surpass- ed by any similar undertaking in any country. He now has the most instruct- ive books of the English and other lan- guages translated into Spanish, (princi- pally by the well-known Blanco White,) and sends them to America, where his eldest son is engaged, in Mexico, in ex- tensive dealings in books and works of art. For some years he has also published the first souvenir in England, called the Forget me not. When the association was formed, in 1813, for the relief of those who had been plunged into misery by the war in Germany, A. showed himself an active philanthropist. A. is now the best lithographer in London. He employs in the summer 600 men, every day, in and around London. Acolythi, or Acolytes ; servants of the church, who appeared in the Latin ACOLYTHI—ACOUSTICS. 35 church as early as the 3d century; but in the Greek, not till the 5th. Their office was to light the candles, thence they were called acccnsores; to carry the tapers in the festal processions, thence ceroferarii; to present the wine and water at the supper; and, in general, to assist the bishops and priests in the perform- ance of the ceremonies. They belonged to the clergy, and had a rank immediately below the subdeacons. In the Roman church, the consecration of an acolythus is the highest of the lower kinds of ordi- nation. The person ordained receives a candlestick and chalice, in token of his ancient employment. The duties, how- ever, formerly appertaining to this office, have been performed since the 7th cen- tury by menials and boys taken from the laity, who are improperly called acolythi, in the books of the liturgy of the Catho- lic church. The modern Greek church no longer retains even the name. Aconita ; a vegetable poison, recent- ly extracted from aconitum napellus, or. wolFs-bane, (properly alkaline,) by Mr/ Brande. The analysis has not yet been made known. Acoustics. One of our most impor- tant connexions with external objects is maintained through the sense of hearing; that is, by an affection which certain ac- tions or motions, in those objects, pro- duce on the mind, by being communicat- ed to it through the ear. The peculiar excitation or motion perceptible by the ear is called sound; and the considera- tion of this motion, its qualities and trans- mission, forms the science of acoustics. Philosophers make a distinction between sound and noise: thus those actions which are confined to a single shock up- on the ear, or a set of actions circum- scribed within such limits as not to pro- duce a continued sensation, are called a noise; while a succession of actions which produce a continued sensation are called a sound. It is evident from the mechan- ism of the ear, so far as it is understood, that it is a refined contrivance for convey- ing a motion from the medium which surrounds it to the auditory nerve; and that this nerve must receive every motion excited in the tympanum. Every motion thus excited, however, does not produce the sensation of sound. That motions may be audible, it is necessary that they impress themselves upon the medium which surrounds the ear with velocities comprised within certain limits. These motions are commonly produced by dis- turbing the equilibrium which exists be- tween the parts of a body. Thus, for example, if we strike a bell, the part which receives the first impulse of the blow is driven nearer to the surrounding parts; but, the impulse having ceased, it is urged back by a force of repulsion which exists in the metal, and made to pass beyond its former position. By the operation of another property of the met- al, namely, cohesive attraction, it is then made to return in the direction of its first motion, again, beyond its position of re- pose. Each of these agitations influ- ences the adjacent parts, which, in turn, influence those beyond them, until the whole mass assumes a tremulous motion: that is, certain parts approach to and recede from each other; and it only recovers its former state of repose, after having performed a number of these sonorous vibrations. It is evident that such vibrations as are here described must result from the combined operation of attraction and repulsion, which, to- gether, constitute the elasticity of solid bodies. When fluids, whose elasticity is confined to repulsion, emit sounds, a force equivalent to that of attraction in solids is supplied to them by external pressure. The sonorous vibrations of bodies are ex- ceedingly curious, and the more diffi- cult to be understood from our habits of measuring changes or motions by the Bight; but these motions affect very sen- sibly another organ, while they are al- most imperceptible to the eye; and, as we are without the means of converting the ideas derived from one sense into those derived from another, the sensa- tion of the motion of sound does not as- sist us to understand its precise nature, as compared with visible motions. Thus, the ear at once perceives the difference between a grave and an acute sound; but it is only from attentive observation by the eye, that we discover the different rapidity of succession in the vibrations which produce them. The vibrations of a great many bodies, as strings, bells and membranes, when emitting sounds, may, however, be distinctly seen, and even felt; but they may often be rendered more sensible to the eye by a little arti- fice, such as sprinkling the vibrating body with sand, or some light, granular substance. Sound may be produced without vibrations or alternations; thus, if we pass the nail quickly over the teeth of a comb, the rapid succession of single shocks or noises produces all the effect of vibrations. It must be evident that the rapid motions here described, whether 36 ACOUSTICS. originating in vibrations, or a succession of concussions, must be communicated from the body, in which they are excited, to the sheet of air, or whatever else be in contact with it, and from this again to another sheet beyond the first; thus dif- fusing the motion in every direction. The agitation of the sounding body must thus be communicated to the surround- ing medium to a great distance, and im- pressed upon any body situated within this distance ; if this body be the ear, the tremor excited in it by these agitations will be perceived by the mind. The necessity of some medium for the trans- mission of sound is proved by experi- ment. If a bell be rung in an exhausted receiver, the sound will be hardly per- ceptible, while the tones will become clear and distinct, on re-admitting the air. Having thus given a general outline of the source and propagation of sound, we shall proceed to consider, with as much minuteness as the limits of this work will permit, some of the more important facts connected with them.—The most obvious characteristics, by which we distinguish different sounds, consist of differences in their degrees of what we call loudness, and acuteness, or pitch. We can pro- duce, at pleasure, sounds having different degrees of loudness, from the same sono- rous body, by making the concussions upon it more or less violent; disturbing in a greater or less degree the arrange- ment of its parts. So two bodies of like substance and figure, but unlike mass, when subjected to the same shock, emit sounds unlike in loudness; and, again, bodies of like mass and figure, but unlike substance, form sounds more or less loud, when subjected to the same shock. In this latter case, the loudness has a re- lation to the quantity of elasticity pos- sessed by the bodies; and in all cases, when the disturbance of the parts is car- ried beyond the elastic power of the body, so as to produce a permanent change of figure, no increase of loudness is induced. From a consideration of the preceding facts, we may conclude, that loudness de- pends upon the quantity of motion, or sonorous vibration, in which it originates. The other principal characteristic of sound, its acuteness or pitch, depends upon the frequency with which the con- cussions or vibrations of the sonorous body succeed each other. That sounds may be audible to a common ear, it is necessary that the concussions upon the medium, which communicates them, should follow each other in such succes- sion, that not more than 8192, nor tow than 32, distinct concussions shall be made upon the medium during the lapse of one second. Some ears, however, can perceive sounds emanating from vi- brations a little beyond the extremes to which the perceptions of other ears are confined. We should be careful not to confound the frequency of vibrations with the velocity of vibratory motion. A string may vibrate with a greater or less velocity, as it passes its axis to a greater or less distance ; yet the times of its vi- brations may be all equal. The differ- ence of velocity, affecting the quantity of motion only, would produce no change, except in the loudness of the sound. To those sounds which proceed from in- frequent vibrations, we give the name of grave or low; those from frequent vibra- tions we call sharp or acute. When vibra- tions succeed each other in equal times, their sound excites a pleasant sensation, and they are called musical. When two bodies are made to sound together, if their vibrations are performed in equal times, the sounds are said to be in unison. When the vibrations are performed in unequal times, so that some of those of the one are not accompanied by those of the other, the ear perceives a degree of dissonance in the sounds. If, however, the vibrations meet after short and regular intervals, the dis- sonance is not easily detected, and the sounds are said to accord. During the continuance of most primary sounds, however excited, we perceive other and more acute sounds co-existing with them. These are called their harmonics. They are supposed to originate in a series of secondary vibrations, more short and fre- quent than the principal vibration. Thus a sounding string, for example, may be supposed not to pass its axis in a simple curve, but to resolve itself into a tortuous line, formed by a number of smaller curves, each of which vibrates across its own axis, thus producing its harmonics. It is perhaps some combination of the harmonics with the primary sound, that characterizes the sound of different in- struments, though of the same loudness and pitch, so that we can distinguish one from another. The air, being the common medium which surrounds the ear, is that by which sounds are usually transmitted. This transmission is performed with a velocity of about 1130 feet in a second- All other bodies, however, are capable of transmitting sound. It may be done perfectly, even by the solid parts of the head. If, for example, we hold the stem ACOUSTICS. 37 of a watch between the teeth, and cover the ears with the hands, the beats are heard more distinctly than when the in- strument is held at an equal distance in the air. The rubbing together of two stones under water may be heard, by an ear in the same medium, at the distance of half a mile. When the air, or any other body of indefinite extent, is dis- turbed, in a point situated within it, by a sonorous vibration, it forms a wave which passes from the disturbed point, as a cen- tre, in every direction. It follows that as the wave extends itself, the mass to be put in motion increases until the original motion is rendered insensible from the magnitude of the mass to which it has communicated itself. The velocity with which waves, thus formed, move through any homogeneous elastic medium, is al- ways equal to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling through half the height of the modulus of elasticity.* In applying this law to the transmission of sound by the air, it was for a long time found not to cive the same results as were obtained by experiment. Ine dis- crepancy, however, has been most inge- niously reconciled by a small correction for the latent heat made sensible by the compression; the effect of this being to increase the height of the modulus of elasticity. We ought, therefore, to find that liquids, and more especially some of the solids, should transmit sound much more rapidly than air; and this agrees most perfectly with various experiments. Cast-iron, for example, has been found to transmit sound with a velocity 10^ times greater than air. Sound does not readily pass from one medium to another; a sound made in the air is not easily distin- guished under water, although the dis- tance be very small. It is from this, probably, that cork and all soft cellular bodies are bad conductors of sound, as in these the sound must, in passing through the walls of the cells and the air con- tained in them, change successively from one medium to another. All sounds, whatever be their loudness or pitch, are transmitted with the same velocity; a fact most completely proved by every musical performance. Were it other- wise, indeed, this beautiful art could not exist. To make this apparent, it is only necessary to consider, that harmony is a combination of different sounds arranged with certain relations of time and pitch. Now, if one sound were transmitted with * The height of the modulus of elasticity of air is !J7,800 feet. VOL. I. 4 greater velocity than another, these rela- tions would differ at different distances, or be confounded, except at a single given point. Nay,further; melody, which is a succession of single sounds, would not reach different ears with the same rela- tions of time, if the different notes were not transmitted with equal velocities. Some observations on sound, in very high latitudes, seem to contradict the above law of transmission. The seeming anom- aly, however, is sufficiently reconciled by supposing the different strata of air, through which the sounds, in those in- stances, were transmitted, in very dif- ferent hygrometrical or thermometrical states; which would make corresponding differences in their modulus of elasticity. When a wave of sound meets an elastic surface, it is partly transmitted and partly reflected. This reflection, when it re- turns back perpendicularly, is called an echo. That an echo may be distinctly heard, it is necessary that the reflecting surface be at such a distance that the ori- ginal sound shall have ceased before the reflected one returns to the ear; other- wise they will be blended, and the echo not perceived.—Hitherto we have consid- ered the propagation of sounds in an un- confined medium, particularly the air, in which the wave of sound can diffuse it- self in every direction. When this diffu- sion is prevented by enclosing the medi- um in a surface capable of reflecting the wave so that the sound shall be confined to one direction, the transmission from one point to another is much more per- fect. Experiments have been made in this way, in which a hollow cylinder, about half a mile long, was formed by cast- iron pipes. The sound was transmitted by the air, in this cylinder, with wonder- ful distinctness. The least whisper, at one end of the cylinder, was distinctly heard at the other end. So perfect, in- deed, was the transmission, " that, not to hear, it was absolutely necessary not to speak." Captain Parry and lieutenant Foster made several experiments, during the northern expeditions, to ascertain the velocity of sound. A table of them is given in a number of the Edinburgh Phil- osophical Journal. These experiments were made at Port Bowen, by means of a brass six-pounder, over a range of 12,892.89 feet. The results given are the mean of four shots in one case, of five in another, and, in the rest, of six shots by each observer. The mean results varied from 12",7617 to 11",7387 and 11",5311 for the time in which the range of 12,892.89 38 ACOUSTICS—ACROCORINTHUS. feet was traversed by the sound. At the period of the experiment which gave the first of these results, there was a calm ; during the second, the wind was light; during the third, a strong wind was blow- ing. The velocity per second, in feet, was, in the first instance, 1010.28 : in the sec- ond, 1098.32; in the third, 1118.10. Omit- ting the last of the ten results (the last above given), on account of the strong wind, the mean of the other nine gives a velocity of 1035.19 feet, at the tempera- ture of 17.72, Fahrenheit.—The mean of a table of velocities formed from observa- tions made at Fort Franklin, by lieuten- ant Kendall, who accompanied captain Franklin, in his second journey to the shore of the Polar sea, gives a velocity of 1069.28 feet per second, at the tempera- ture of 9.14, Fahrenheit.—The science of acoustics, like the other physical sciences, has been in a constant state of advance- ment since the revival of learning. It appears that Pythagoras knew the rela- tion between the length of strings and the musical sounds which they produce. Aristotle was not only aware of this rela- tion, but, likewise, that the same rela- tion subsists between the length of pipes and their notes, and that sound was trans- mitted by the atmosphere. This consti- tuted the sum of ancient learning in this branch of science. These facts were taught by Galileo, and, moreover, that the difference in the acuteness of sounds de- pends on the different frequency of vibra- tions, and that the same string, if of uni- form thickness and density, must perfonn its vibrations in equal times. But, with- out attempting a history of modern dis- coveries in acoustics, we can only men- tion, that the names of Taylor, Moreland, Newton, Daniel Bernouilli, D'Alembert, Euler, Robison, Lagrange, Laplace, Chladni, T. Young and Biot are all con- nected with it. Of these, Newton gave the law of transmission, which we have stated in this article, and the correction for heat was made by Laplace. Acre ; a measure of land, containing four square roods, or 160 square poles or perches. The statute length of a pole or perch is 5£ yards, or 16£ feet; but the length of a pole, and, therefore, the size of the acre, varies in different counties in England. The Scottish acre contains also four square roods; one square rood is 40 square falls. The English statute acre is about three roods and six falls, standard measure of Scotland; or the English acre is to the Scottish as 78,694 to 100,000. The French acre, arpent, is equal to 54,450 square English feet, of which the English contains only 4«i,5oU. The Welsh acre contains commonly two English ones. The Irish A. exceeds the English by two roods, lDfft- perches, The U. S. of A. use the English statute A. Acre (Akka, St. Jean cPAcre); in the middle ages, Ptolemais, a city and harbor on the coast of Syria, capital of a Turkish pachalic, between the pachalics of Da- mascus and Tripoli, which contains 420,000 inhabitants, and 6275 sq. miles. This city, situated at the foot of mount Carmel, is the chief emporium of Syrian cotton, and contains about 16,000 inhab- itants ; its harbor, though full of sand- banks, is still one of the best on this coast. At the time of the crusades, A. was the principal landing place of the crusaders, and the seat of the order of the knights of St. John as late as 1291; hence the French name, St. Jean d'Acre. The Turks, under Djezzar, pacha of this place, who is famous for his cruelty, sustained, with the assistance of the British com- modore Sidney Smith, a siege of 61 days, by the French army under Buonaparte. After a great loss of men on all sides, the French abandoned the siege. (See Egypt, landing of the French in.) Acridophagi (Gr~, from bxqis, a locust, and (fuym, to eat); an ancient Ethiopian people, who are said to have fed on lo- custs. Acrisius ; the. father of Danae. (See Danae.) Acroceraunium ; in anc. geogr. a promontory of Epirus, on which are situ- ated the Acroceraunia or montes Cerau- nii. They run between the Ionian sea and the Adriatic, where Illyria ends and Epirus begins, and are the modem Monti della Chimera. Acrocorinthus ; a steep rock, about 2100 feet high, near the city of Cor- inth, of a gray eolor, and picturesque form, crowned with the remains of old Venetian fortifications, repaired a little by the Greeks, since the commencement of their revolution. It was famous, in an- cient times, for its citadel, and on its top stood, according to Pausanias, a temple of Venus. At its foot is a fountain, the an- cient Pyrene. The shape of the A. is that of a truncated cone. This little fortress has been several times taken and retaken in the war between the Greeks and Turks. The view from the top is one of the most charming in the world. It is thus describ- ed in the "Journal of Dr. Lieber," before whom no Christian traveller, in modern times, had probably visited it, as the ACROCORINTHUS—ACT. 39 Turks did not allow Christians to ascend it while it was in their hands:—"The view from this spot amply rewarded me for my trouble. To the north lay the ^high and snowy summits of Helicon and 'Parnassus, as described by Strabo, extend- ing far under the clear blue of a southern sky. On the west was seen the bay of Crissa, mount Cithaeron, and the prom- ontory of Olmiae. On the east the Saro- nic gulf washes the islands of Salamis and ^Egina. To the north-east lay the shore of Attica. There we could see Pen- telicus, Hymettus and Laurion, and even down to the cape of Sunium. The day was very clear, so that I could discern the acropolis of Athens. To the south I could see far into the territory of Argo- lis. To the west Achaia and Sicyonia lay in sight. The view comprehended the scenes of the best displays of Grecian art, science and valor." Acropolis (Greek); the highest part or citadel of a city, particularly that of Athens, where the treasury and public records were kept. It is situated on a rock, and has often been the subject of contest in the late war between the Greeks and the Turks. Acrostic (Greek); a poem, of which the first, and sometimes the final letters of the lines or verses form some particular word or words. The middle letters, also, are sometimes used for the same purpose. An example of the three kinds united may be seen in the following Latin hexameters: I nter cuncta micans I gniti sidera coel I, E xpellit tenebras E toto Phoebus ut orb E; S ic csecas removel IESUS caliginis umbra S, V ivificansque siinul V ero pra>cordia mot U, S olem justitias Sese probat esse beati S. The French abbes and nobles, before the revolution, often exercised their ingenu- ity in the composition of these poetical trifles. The French Encyclopedic mo- derne says, L'acrostiche etait alors unpoeme de cour ou de ruelle. Act, in law ; an instrument in writing for declaring or justifying the truth of any thing. In this sense, records, decrees, sentences, reports, certificates, &c. are called acts. The French lawyers distin- guish between, 1, private records (actes sous sdng prive), which must be acknowl- edged by the parties, in order to have legal force; 2, public documents (actes authen- tiques), which have legal force, without being acknowledged by the parties, as long as they are not proved spurious; and, 3, executive acts (actes ex< cutoires), which, until their genuineness is called in ques- tion (inscription hfaux), are also binding without acknowledgment by the parties subject to their operation. Of this kind are the records of the public notaries (actes notaries), and all the official documents of the French courts of justice. In Eng- land and the United States, act implies de- cree ; hence, an act of parliament is a de- cree of parliament, confirmed by the king, a statute. (See Great Britain.) At the close of each annual session, the decrees or acts of parliament are collected into one body, which forms the statute of that session, the several decrees of which are contained in separate chapters. They are quoted accor- ding to the year of the king's reign, and ac- cording to the chapter; e. g. the act of habeas corpus is the second chapter of the statute of the year 1680, the 31st year of the reign of Charles II, and is quoted, 31 Ch. II, c. 2. In America, there is no uni- form mode of quoting statutes: each sep- arate act is deemed a distinct statute. Generally, the acts are cited by their date and year; and, if more particularity is ne- cessary, by the chapter, when the statutes are divided into chapters. Acts in Ger- many are the records and documents of any transaction, especially of a lawsuit. The whole process, in that country, is carried on in writing. Nothing is receiv- ed as evidence, unless laid before the court on paper. When a criminal pro- cess begins, the prisoner is brought before a judge or assistant and a writer. The judge questions: the question is written on the left side of a folio sheet; on the right side the answer of the prisoner is set down. The same takes place with every witness. The reader can imagine to what an immense bulk these acts often in- crease in the course of a single process. If there are witnesses in other places, an order to examine them is sent, and the papers containing the minutes of their tes- timony are transmitted to the place of trial. The examining judge is called the judge of inquisition (inquisitions-richter). At the close of each stage of the exami- nation, the prisoner subscribes the min- utes made during that time with the words, "read in my hearing, approved and signed." He also signs his name, as do likewise the judge and the writer. When the acts are completed (closed), they are delivered to the court, who ap- point another judge to report on them and move for judgment, while another still acts as counsel for the prisoner. Af- terwards, the whole court in pleno de- cides. In fact, in Germany, the whole course of administration is conducted in writing. In Saxony, such acts are almost 40 ACT—ACTION. endless. In Prussia, also, they are very numerous. All acts are preserved in ar- chives. After sentence passed in one court, the whole pile of acts is sent to a court of appeal. Act, in the universities, signifies a the- sis maintained in public by a candidate for a degree. Act of Faith. (See Inquisition.) Acta Eruditorum ; the first literary journal that appeared in Germany. It enjoyed a long existence and great popu- larity. The example set by the Journal des Savans, and by the Giornale de' Lit- terati, but especially the increasing spirit of enterprise and activity among the Ger- man booksellers, induced Otto Mencke, professor at Leipsic, to lay the foundation of this periodical publication, in 1080. laving formed the necessary connexions, on his travels through Holland and Eng- land, and being assisted by the most em- inent German scholars, he commenced the journal in 1682, which increased in popularity from year to year. Among the contributors were Carpzov, Leibnitz, Thomasius, &c. Its object was, to give a faithful and particular account of books; and it was conducted on the same plan, even after a better taste in composition and greater independence were introdu- ced into literary discussions in the French journals published in Holland. The Ger- man journal began, however, to decline gradually in value, and in the number of its subscribers, particularly after 1754; and the irregularity of its appearance became at length so great, that the last volume, for 1776, was published in 1782, exactly a century from the time when the journal was commenced. The whole consists of 117 volumes in 4to., including the supple- mentary volumes and indices. Leibnitz, in this journal, first gave to the world his notions respecting the differential calcu- lus. Acta Sanctorum ; a name sometimes applied to all collections of accounts of ancient martyrs and saints, both of the Greek and Roman churches. It is used more particularly as the title of a volumi- nous work, comprising all those accounts, which was commenced at the instigation of the Jesuits, in 1643, by John Bolland, a Jesuit of Antwerp, and after his death continued by other divines of the same order, known by the name of Bollandists, (q. v.) to the year 1794, but not yet finish- ed, (Antwerp, Brussels and Tongerloo, 1643—1794, 53 volumes in folio.) Some imperfect notices of persons distinguished for their holy fives and religious constan- cy, during the period of the persecution of Christian believers, are found as early as the second and third centuries; par- ticular narratives and biographies com- menced with the 4th century, and were infinitely multiplied till the close of the middle ages. Since the 6th century, many works have been compiled from this immense mass of materials. The first critical collection of original legends was edited by Boninus Mombritius, in 1474. The above-mentioned collection, however, surpasses all others of the kind in extent, fidelity and impartiality. It is likewise distinguished for sound criticism and excellent illustrations, which will make it forever a most valuable store- house of ecclesiastical history, if truth is critically separated from fiction and su- perstition, by the historian who describes the manners and the spirit of those ages. Actjeon ; in fabulous history, the son of Aristaeus and AutonoC; a great hunter. He was turned into a stag, by Diana, for looking on her when she was bathing, and was torn to pieces by his own dogs. Also, a Corinthian youth, killed by Archi- as, one of the Heraclidae, in an attempt to carry him oft' from his father's house. Action (law) a term including private suits and public prosecutions. Actions are, therefore, criminal or civil; criminal, for the punishment of crime; civil, for the obtainment of right. Civil actions are divided into real, personal and mixed. Action real is that whereby a man claims title to lands or tene- ments in fee or for life. Action person- al is brought upon contracts, or injury to person or estate. Action mixed lies for a thing and against the person who has it. It seeks an object, and a penalty for its detention. Many personal actions die with the person. Real actions sur- vive. In all actions merely personal, for wrongs actually committed by the defend- ant, as trespass, battery, slander, the action dies with the person, and never can be revived, either by or against the executors or other representatives. But in actions on contracts, where the right descends to the representatives of the plaintiff, and those of the defendant have received ef- fects from the deceased sufficient to an- swer the demand, though the suits abate by the death of the parties, yet they may be revived against or by the executors. Again, actions are either local or transi- tory. Actions, real or mixed, for the re- covery of the freehold, or for damage done to it, are to be brought in the same county where the land lies. Actions on ACTION—ACTRESSES. 41 contracts, or for personal injuries, are not limited to a particular county. Actions are likewise joint or several; joint, where several persons are equally concerned, and one cannot bring the action, or be sued, without the other; several, in case of trespass, &c, where persons are to be severally charged. Every trespass com- mitted by many is several. Actium, a promontory on the western coast of Greece, in ancient Epirus, the northern extremity of Acarnania (now Albania),^ at the entrance of the Ambra- cian gulf, at present called capo di Figo- lo, or .#zto, on the gulf ef Arta, is mem- orable on account of the naval battle fought here between Antony and Octa- vius, Sept. 2, B. C. 31, in sight of their armies, encamped on the opposite shores of the Ambracian gulf. The forces of Octavius consisted of 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 260 ships of war; those of Antony, of 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 ships of war. Notwithstanding the advice of his most experienced generals, to meet Octavius by land, Antony, at the instigation of Cle- opatra, determined upon a naval engage- ment. His vessels advanced, beautifully ornamented, and remarkable for their size; those of Octavius, although smaller, were more skilfully managed. Both fleets were manned with the soldiers of the Roman legions, who considered a sea- fight like a battle on land, and the ships as forts which were to be stormed. Those of Antony threw fire-brands and missile weapons from catapults, whilst those of Octavius applied grappling-irons to the ships of the enemy, and boarded them. Soon after the beginning of the battle, before any thing decisive had taken place, the timid Cleopatra fled with 60 Egyp- tian ships, when she perceived the centre of Antony's fleet in an unfavorable posi- tion. Antony imprudently followed her. Octavius, perceiving his flight, proclaimed it aloud, and the deserted fleet was soon overcome, notwithstanding a brave resist- ance, and immediately went over to the enemy. Antony's troops, which were drawn up on the shore, and had beheld with amazement the flight of their leader, followed the example of the fleet. Antony fled with Cleopatra to Egypt, where he killed himself, to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies. Augustus enlarg- ed the temple of Apollo at Actium, in rominemoration of his victory, dedicated o Neptune and Mars the standards which he had taken, and instituted games, 'O be celebrated every 5 years, in coiu- 4* memoration of this battle, which made him master of the world. Acton, Joseph, prime minister of Na- ples, was bom in 1737, of Irish parents, who had settled in Besancon. After he had finished his education, he entered the French navy, which he soon quitted for the Tuscan, and was subsequently employed in the Spanish expedition against Barbary, in which he found an opportunity to distinguish himself. This led him to the Neapolitan navy, and then to the Neapolitan court, where he acquir- ed the favor of queen Caroline. He was successively appointed minister of the navy, minister of war, then director of the finances, and, finally, prime minister. In this office he contracted an intimacy with the English ambassador, sir William Hamilton, and, in concert with him, exer- cised a great, and by no means beneficial influence over the fortunes of Naples. A. is a new example, how dangerous it is for monarchs to intrust favorites with unlim- ited power. His implacable hatred against France led him, during the continuance of the Italian wars, to the most extravagant measures, which always turned out dis- advantageously for the royal family, and strengthened the French party, from which that of the Carbonari was after- wards formed. A. accompanied the king, in 1798, on Mack's expedition against the French army. During the presence of Nelson, he had previously presided over the renowned junta, which, to satisfy its hatred against men of different political opinions, with unprecedented cruelty, sought out victims in all ranks. After the unfortunate issue of Mack's expedi- tion, A. was removed from the helm of the Neapolitan government He died in 1808, hated and despised by all parties. Actors. (See Actresses.) Actresses, in the drama, appear to have been wholly unknown to the an- cients, men or eunuchs always performing the female parts. Charles II is said to have first encouraged their public appearV ance in England; but there is evidence that the queen of James I performed in a court theatre. Actors were long ex- cluded from good society, and actresses still longer, and perhaps the English were the first who admitted the most distin- guished into their first circles. Instances of exemplary conduct are not wanting amongst actresses in modern times. France, England, Italy and Germany have had many of unblemished reputa- tion. At Athens, actors were highly hon- ored. At Rome, they were despised, and 42 ACTRESSES—ADALBERT. deprived of the right of suffrage. The reason of this difference is, that, among the Greeks, the actors were freeborn citi- zens, and the dramatic performances had their origin in the sacred festivals; but, among the Romans, the drama was intro- duced by persons of the lowest class, Etruscan players and peasants of Atella. Actors and actresses continued for a long time to be treated with little regard hi France, after they had been admitted into good society in England. Marriages of Englishmen of high rank with actresses are not rare. In some parts of Germany, actors were formerly buried like suicides, in a comer of the burying-ground, sepa- rated from the other graves. How much the ancients studied the dramatic art may be seen from one fact, that Polus, a fa- mous Greek actor, when he had to play Electra, in the tragedy of Sophocles, made use of an urn containing the ashes of his own son, to represent the funeral um of Orestes. But here art ceased; this was again nature. Acts of the Apostles (noaztig twv anoa- toIcdv) ; one of the books of the N. Testa- ment, written in Greek by St. Luke (q. v.), the author of the Gospel which bears his name. It is addressed to Thcophilus, of whom nothing is known, and is evidently intended as a continuation of the Gospel, which the author himself calls his "first book." (Acts i, 1.) It has been universally received, and is generally allowed to have been written A. D. 63 or 64, but in what place is doubtful; Jerome says, at Rome; Grotius and Lardner think, in Greece; Michaelis, in Alexandria. It embraces a period of about 30 years, beginning im- mediately after the resurrection, and ex- tending to the 2d year of the imprison- ment of St. Paul in Rome. Very little information is given of any of the apos- tles, excepting St. Peter and St. Paul, and the accounts of them are partial and in- complete. Thus the history of St. Peter terminates with the death of Herod, al- though that apostle is considered to have lived and preached 24 years longer. It describes the gathering of the infant church after the death of its Founder; the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to his apostles, in the descent of the Holy Ghost; the choice of Matthias in the place of Judas, the betrayer; the testimony of the apostles to the resurrection of Jesus in their discourses, attested by miracles and sufferings ; their preaching in Jerusalem and in Judea, and afterwards to the Gen- tiles ; the conversion of Paul, his preach- ing in Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, his miracles and labors. Its place is gener- ally at the head of the apostohcon, or be- fore the epistles; but in some Mbb. it is found after the 13 Catholic epistles. The style of this work, which was originally composed in Greek, is purer than that of the other canonical writers; and St. Luke, in his quotations from the Old Testament, always makes use of the Septuagint ver- sion. Acuna, Christopher de, a Spanish Jesuit, bom at Burgos, in 1597. He is principally known as the author of a curious work, Nuevo Descubrimiento de- Gran Rio de las Amazones, (A new Descrip- tion of the Great River of the Amazons,) Madrid, 4 parts, 1641. Only two copies are said to exist at present. In 1682, a translation of one of them into French was published in 4 vols. 12mo. A.'s work is veiy curious. Acupuncture. Kampfer made known, more than 100 years ago, the Japanese and Cliinese method of curing arthritic and rheumatic complaints by acupuncture; but it is only a few years since it has been carefully examined and applied in England and France. (See ChurchHTs Treatise on Acupuncture.) In Japan and China, this mode of curing is applied much more frequently than in Europe, and even to the tenderest parts of the body. It consists in driving a fine needle one or two inches into the flesh of the af- flicted part. The opinions of the cause of relief by acupuncture are still very dif- ferent. Some writers think a galvanic influence on the nerves takes place. Acute. (See Accent.) Ad libitum, used in music for apia- cere, when the principal performer is at liberty to give way to his conceptions, to change the measure from quick to slow, or the contrary, without accompaniment, and to manifest his ability in the effusions of his fancy. The term is often used in the full score, to denote those parts which are not essential, and may be omitted. Adagio (Ital.) expresses a slow time. Used substantively, it expresses a slow movement. Sometimes the word is re- peated to denote a still greater retardation in the time of the music. Adalbert, or Aldebert ; a native of France, who preached the gospel in 744, on the banks of the Maine. He is re- markable as the first opponent to the in- troduction of the rites and ordinances of the Catholic church into Germany. He dared to assert, that the multiplication of saints and relics, and the practice of con- fession, were superfluous. On this ac- ADALBERT—ADAM. 43 count, he was accused of heresy, by Bon- iface, the apostle of Germany, and con- demned by two councils, at Soissons in 744, and at Rome in 745. Having finally made his escape from prison, he is said to have been murdered by some peasants, on the banks of the Fulda. Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg, a descendant of a princely house of Saxony, received his office, in 1043, from the emperor Henry III, whose relation, friend and follower he was. He accompanied Henry to Rome, where he was a distinguished candidate for the papal chair. Pope Leo IX, in whose behalf he had spoken at the synod of Mentz, 1049, made him his legate in the north of Europe, 1050. He superintend- ed the churches of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, but aspired in vain to the dignity of pope, or patriarch of the North. During the minority of Henry IV, who afterwards became emperor, he usurped, in concert with Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, the guardianship of the young prince, and the administration of the em- pire, and gained an ascendency over his rival, by indulging the passions of his pupil. After Henry had become of age to rule, A. exercised the government without control, in his name. A.'s pride and arbitrary administration induced the German princes, in 1066, to remove him by force from the court; but after a short contest with the Saxon nobles, who laid waste his territory, he recovered his for- mer power, which he held till his death at Goslar, March 17, 1072. He excelled his contemporaries in princely qualities, in talent, and in strength of mind; and if he had possessed magnanimity, and a wise spirit of moderation, he would have deserved the name of the great, which has been given him. The injustice and tyran- ny which stained his administration were mainly instrumental in producing the confusion and calamities, in. which the reign of Henry IV was involved. Adalbert of Prague, the apostle of Prussia proper, son of a Bohemian noble- man, was educated in the cathedral of Magdeburg, between the years 973 and 982, and appointed bishop of Prague in 983. He labored in vain to convert the Bohemians from paganism, and to intro- duce among them the ordinances of the church of Rome. Discouraged by the fruitlessness of his pious zeal, he left Prague, 988, and lived in convents at Montecasino and Rome, until the Bohe- mians, in 993, recalled him. But after two years, lie again left them, disgusted with their barbarous manners. He returned to Rome, and soon followed the emperor Otho III to Germany; on which journey he baptized, at Gran, St. Stephen, who subsequently became king of Hungary. After a visit to the monasteries of Tours and Fleury, he proceeded to Gnesen, to meet Boleslaus, duke of Poland; and being informed that the Bohemians did not wish to see him again, he resolved to convert the pagans of Prussia. But he lost his life in the attempt, being murdered by a peasant, April 23, 997, near what is now Fischhausen. His body was bought by Boleslaus, for its weight in gold, and became famous for its miraculous power. It was even visited at Gnesen by Otho III, in 1000, and removed from Bohe- mia by duke Brzetislaw. Its influence was greater than that of the saint himself. The Bohemians, who before had refused to receive the ordinances of the church, now suffered them to be introduced into Prague, on the sole condition, that these miraculous bones should be transferred to their city. Adam (Hebrew, formed of earth), the father of the human race, was, according to Genesis, made of clay, on the sixth day of the creation. God finished the work of creation by forming man according to his own image, making him master of all created things. He gave him Eve for his companion (in Hebrew, Heva, the mother of the living), formed of his flesh, that the earth might be peopled by their union. The garden of Eden, diversified with fruitful trees, was their abode, in which they found every thing to satisfy then- wants, and to afford them pleasure. But in the centre stood the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; and of this their Creator had forbidden them to eat. Eve was beguiled by the serpent to take of this fruit, and to eat of it with her husband. This crime destroyed their felicity. The appearance of things was suddenly changed before their eyes. They perceived their nakedness, and endeavor- ed to conceal it. In vain did A. seek to hide himself from the sight of God; in vain did he throw the blame of his trans- gression upon Eve; a curse followed them and the whole creation. Driven from the state of innocence, in which he was bom, A. saw himself condemned to earn his bread by the sweat of his brow All the evils of life and the terrors of death came upon him. He had three sons, Cain, Abel and Seth, and died at the age of 930 years, 130 of which he passed in Paradise. The history of A. is 44 ADAM—JOHN ADAM?. found, with little variation, in the tradi- tions of nearly all ancient nations, who seem to have derived their information from a common source. Adam. Three brothers of this name were sculptors. The eldest, Lambert Sigisbert, bom in 1700, at Nancy, where his father was also a sculptor, went, at the age of 18, to Metz, and thence to Paris. After four years study in this city, he received the first prize from the acad- emy, and soon afterwards went as a royal pensioner to Rome, where he passed 10 years. The cardinal of Polignac com- missioned him to supply the parts want- ing in the 12 marble statues, found in the palace of Marius, and known by the name of the family of Lycomedes, which task A. executed with great skill. When the erection of the large monument at Rome, known by the name of the fountain ofTre- vi, was contemplated, A. was one of the 16 statuaries appointed to furnish designs. That which he offered was accepted, but the jealousy of the Italian artists opposed its execution, and in 1733 A. returned to France. In 1737, he was chosen mem- ber of the academy, and afterwards pro- fessor. The statue of Neptune calming the waves, with a Triton at his feet, is a fine specimen of his skill. Besides vari- ous other works, he now finished the group of. Neptune and Amphitrite, to adorn the basin of Neptune at Versailles. A. was skilful in working marble; his anatomy is correct and his drapery good; but he was led astray by the bad taste of his time, which confounded the provin- ces of painting and sculpture. He died in 1759.—His brother, Nicholas Sebas- tian, bom at Nancy in 1705, studied the same art, under the care of his father, and in the academy of Paris. At the age of 18, he was employed in a castle near Montpellier, and went, after 18 months, to Rome, in 1726. After two years, he gained the prize offered by the academy of San Luca, worked in connexion with his brother, spent nine years abroad, and was finally admitted into the academy of Paris. His Prometheus lacerated by the vulture was exhibited as a specimen of his powers, but not finished until some time after the exhibition. His masterpiece is the tomb of the queen of Poland, wife of Stanislaus. In regard to his merits, what has been said of his brother holds tme of him. He died in 1778.—The third brother, Francis Gaspard, born at Nancy in 1710, was also a pupil of his father. In 1728, he joined his brothers in Rome, and improved greatly in their company. He then returned to Paris, gained the first prize of the academy, and in 174*5 visited Rome again, where he completed his studies. He then went to Berhn, instead of his brother Nicholas Sebastian, whom Frederic II had invited thither. He labored there several years, and died at Paris in 1759. Adamant. (See Diamond.) Adamantine Spar ; a stone of pecu- liar hardness, approaching to' that of the diamond. It will cut glass easily, and mark rock crystal. It is found in China and India, and, as M. Pini alleges, in Italy. Adami Pomum. (See Adam's Apple.) Adamites ; the name of a Christian sect, said to have existed in the 2d cen- tury ; and also of a band of heretics, which, in 1421, appeared in Bohemia, during the commotions occasioned by the doctrines of Huss. They were called A. because both men and women were said to appear naked in their assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the state of in- nocence, or to prove the control which they possessed over their passions. The tradition respecting the former sect of this name appears to have had its origin in a name of derision given to the Carpocra- tians of indifferent reputation. (See Gnostics.) The accounts of the latter A. are not to be relied upon with more cer- tainty. These were also called Picards, from the founder of their sect, Picard, (perhaps also Beghards.) They appeared about the year 1421, on an island in the river Lusinicz, where Zisca surprised them, but was not able to destroy the whole sect. In the following year, they were widely spread over Bohemia and Moravia, and especially hated by the Hussites (whom they resembled in hatred towards the hierarchy), because they re- jected the doctrine of transubstantiation. They subsequently formed one sect with the remaining Taborites, who have occa- sionally been confounded with the A. Adams, John, a distinguished patriot of the American revolution, was bom at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19, 1735. The ancestors of Mr. A. had left England for the wilds of America, in or- der to enjoy their religious opinions un- molested. They were among the first settlers of Massachusetts, Henry Adams, the great-great-grandfather of John, and one of the original proprietors of the town of Braintree, having fled from England, with other Puritans, in the year 1630. Their condition was that of substantial yeomen, who possessed the fee simple of JOHN ADAMS. 45 their lands, and maintained themselves and families by manual labor. Mr. A. having, when yet a boy, evinced great fondness for books, and readiness in learning, his father determined to give him a collegiate education, and placed him, in consequence, under the care of Mr. Marsh (who was afterwards the pre- ceptor of the celebrated Josiah Quincy), that he might be prepared for entrance into the university of Cambridge. He remained in that institution until the year 1755, when he received his bachelor's degree, and in 1758 that of master of arts. Whilst at college, he is said to have been distinguished by intense application, retentiveness of memory, acuteness of reasoning, boldness and originality of thought, strength of language, and an honesty of character which could neither assume nor tolerate disguise. After he had left college, he commenced the study of law, at Worcester, with colonel James Putnam, and, during the period he was so engaged, instructed pupils in the Latin and Greek languages, in order to be able to defray his expenses himself.—Before proceeding farther, it may not be amiss to notice the posture of affairs in Massachu- setts at that epoch. For a long time past, that province had been disturbed by al- most unremitted contentions between its inhabitants and the parliament of Great Britain, on various important subjects. The English legislature had, in fact, nothing to do with the colonies, as all do- minion acquired by conquest or discovery invariably accrued to the king. To him alone the emigrants paid allegiance and applied for protection, and, although par- liament always affected to believe itself entitled to regulate their concerns, they re- ceived very little interruption from it in the exercise of the privilege granted them by the king of governing and legislating for themselves. In the course of time, however, parliament became jealous of the power, approaching to independence, which they enjoyed, and began to impose unconstitutional restraints upon their commerce, to violate their charters, and, in short, to treat them so arbitrarily, that their spirit was completely roused, and a vigorous resistance called forth. Massa- chusetts, especially, had become a theatre of perpetual struggle for power on the one side, and for freedom on the other. But it was hitherto only an intellectual warfare, no idea of a separation from the mother country having ever been enter- tained.—In 1758, Mr. A. left the office of colonel Putnam, and entered that of Jere- miah Gridley, then attorney-general of the province, and of the highest eminence at the bar. Gridley had, some years previ- ously, superintended also the legal studies of James Otis, and, proud of his two pu- pils, used often to say, that " he had raised two young eagles, who were, one day or other, to peck out his eyes." In 1759, Mr. A. was admitted, at his recommenda- tion, a member of the bar of Suffolk. Mr. A. commenced the practice of his profession in that part of his native town now called Quincy, but first, brought himself into notice by his defence of a prisoner in the county of Plymouth, from which time a sufficiency of lucrative bu- siness generally occupied his attention. In 1761, he was admitted to the degree of barrister at law, and shortly after- wards was placed in the possession of a small landed estate by his father's decease. In February of this year, an incident occurred, which inflamed his enthusiasm in the cause of his country's rights to the highest pitch. The British cabinet had long shown a desire to assert the sovereign authority of parliament over the colonies in all cases of taxation and internal policy; but the first evidence of its having deter- mined to do so was an order in council, issued this year, enjoining the officers of the customs in Massachusetts Bay to exe- cute the acts of trade, and make application for writs of assistance to the supreme judi- cature of the province. These writs were a species of general search-warrants, au- thorizing those who were empowered to carry them into effect to enter all houses, warehouses, &c, for the purpose of dis- covering and seizing such goods as were not discharged from the taxes imposed upon them hy the acts. The officers of the customs applied for them, in pursu- ance of their instructions, to the court at Salem, but the demand was refused, on account of doubts concerning their con- stitutionality. It was then determined to have the affair argued by counsel in Boston. Great alarm now pervaded the whole community. Mr. Otis was engag- ed, by the merchants of Salem and Bos- ton, to oppose the concession of so for- midable an instrument of arbitrary power. In order to do so with entire freedom, he resigned the lucrative station of advocate- general in the court of admiralty, which he then enjoyed. Of the masterly man- ner in which he performed his duty, Mr. A., who was present at the discussion, has transmitted a vivid account. " Otis," says he, " was a flame of fire! With a promptitude of classical allusion, a depth 46 JOHN ADAMS. of research, a rapid summary of historical events and dates, a profusion of legal au- thorities, a prophetic glance of his eyes into futurity, and a rapid torrent of im- petuous eloquence, he hurried away all before him. American Independence was then and there born." He afterwards adds," Every man of an immensely crowd- ed audience appeared to me to go away, as I did, ready to take arms against writs of assistance." Speaking of this discourse on another occasion, he said, " that James Otis, then and there, first breathed into this nation the breath of life."—In 1764, he mar- ried Abigail Smith, second daughter of the reverend William Smith, of Weymouth, and grand-daughter of colonel Quincy, of mount Wollaston, a lady every way worthy of her husband, endowed by nature with a countenance singularly noble and lovely, and with a mind whose fine powers were improved by an excellent education. Her ardor in the cause of her country was as elevated as his own, and her piety unaffected and exemplary.—About a year afterwards, Mr. A. published in the Boston Gazette several pieces, under the title of " An Essay on Canon and Feudal Law," which were reprinted in London, in 1768, and called " A Dissertation on Canon and Feudal Law." It is, perhaps, not the smallest proof of its merit, that it was there attributed to Gridley, who at that time enjoyed the highest reputation for ability. The friends of the colonies in England termed it "one of the very nest productions ever seen from North America." The name of the real author was afterwards divulged, in 1783, when it was published in Philadelphia, by Rob- ert Bell, in a pamphlet form, with lord Sheffield's observations on the commerce of the American States, and entitled " An Essay on Canon and Feudal Law, by John Adams, Esq." It seems to have been the principal object of the author to extinguish, as far as possible, the blind and almost superstitious veneration of his countrymen for the institutions of the parent country, by holding up to their abhorrence the principles of the canon and feudal law, and showing to them the conspiracy which existed between church and state, for the purpose of oppressing the people. He inculcates the sentiments of genuine liberty, as well as the neces- sity of correct information on the part of his fellow-citizens, in order that they might be prepared to assert and maintain their rights by force, if force should ever become necessary. It was indeed a work eminently calculated to excite the people of America to resist, at all hazards, any infringement of their liberties.—In De- cember, 1765, Mr. A. was engaged, as counsel with Mr. Gridley and Mr. Otis, to support, before the governor and council, a memorial presented to the for- mer, from the town of Boston, praying that the courts, which had been closed on account of the opposition to the stamp act, might again be opened. Through their united exertions, the petition was successful. In the same year, he remov- ed to Boston, where he continued in the practice of his profession on a very ex- tensive scale. After he had resided there about two years, the crown officers of the province, thinking, perhaps, that his pat- riotism was not without its price, made him an offer, through Mr. Sewall (between whom and himself an intimate friendship subsisted, formed at the time when he was studying with colonel Putnam), of the office of advocate-general in the court of admiralty, the most lucrative post in the gift of the governor. This office also was one which conducted its incumbents di- rectly to the highest provincial honors. He refused it, however, as-he says in his preface to the late edition of Novanglus, " decidedly and peremptorily, though respectfully."—In 1769, he was appointed chairman of the committee, chosen by the town of Boston, for the purpose of drawing up instmctions to their represent- atives, to resist the encroachments of the British government His colleagues were R. Dana and Jos. Warren. At the time they were thus employed, the metropolis was invested by an armed force, both by sea and land, and the state-house sur- rounded by a military guard, with cannon pointed at the door. Large majorities of both houses of parliament had signified their approval of the measures adopted by the king; had promised him their sup- port, and besought him to prosecute, within the realm, all those who had been guilty of treasonable acts, in Massachu- setts, since the year 1767,in accordance with the decree of parliament of the 35th of Henry VIII. Nevertheless, the com- mittee performed their task with un- daunted firmness, and reported the in- stmctions which, no doubt, contributed to produce the strong resolutions subse- quently adopted by the legislature of Massachusetts. It was on account of these instmctions and resolutions, that the pro- vincial garrison was withdrawn, by order of the governor, from the castle, and reg- ular troops, in the pay of the crown, sub- stituted. The instmctions also formed JOHN ADAMS. 47 one of the specific charges made against the colony by the committee of the lords of council for plantation affairs, to the lords of council, July 6,1770.—A striking example of the firmness and uprightness of Mr. A. occurred during the course of that year. He had, hitherto, been very active in stimulating the people of his province to the strenuous maintenance of their rights, and had thereby aided in pro- ducing an excitement greater than he could have wished, and which he found it necessary to counteract. The people of Boston had become exasperated at the idea of a garrison placed in their city, and were extremely hostile to the soldiers composing it. These feelings led to an attack upon a party of them under the command of captain Preston, March 5. They fired on the assailants in self-de- fence, and killed several of them. The soldiers were immediately arraigned be- fore the civil authority, and Mr. Adams, in conjunction with Josiah Quincy and Mr. Sampson S. Blowers, was requested to aid them upon their trial. Although the minds of the people were inflamed al- most to madness, and the defence of the accused seemed to involve a certain loss of popularity, Mr. A. immediately under- took to act as their advocate. Mr. A. was no demagogue; he saw that the hon- or of his country was at stake, and he re- joiced, as has been well said, in the op- portunity of showing to the world, that the cause of America did not depend upon a temporaiy excitement, which could stifle the voice of justice, but upon the sober, steady, persevering determina- tion of the people to support their rights. The cause was conducted by him and bis colleagues with great ability, and the sol- diers were all acquitted save two, who were found guilty of manslaughter, re- ceived a slight branding as a punishment, and were then discharged. Scarcely any thing which occurred during the revolu- tion confers more honor upon the nation- al character, and did more service to the cause of America, than this triumph of justice.—Mr. A. soon received a proof that the public confidence in him was not diminished, by his election, in May, 1770, to the legislature of his state, as one of the representatives of the town of Boston. His conduct in this new situation display- ed the same patriotism, courage and hos- tility to the despotism of the mother country, by which he had always been distinguished. He took a prominent part in every public measure, and served on several committees, who reported some of the most important state papers of the time; among which were the address and protest to the governor against the remo- val of the general court from Boston to Cambridge. In Bradford's History of Massachusetts, we find the following ac- count of a controversy in which Mr. A. was engaged in the year 1773. "The ministerial regulation for paying the sal- ary of the judges, which rendered them wholly dependent on the crown, was the occasion of a learned and able discussion in the public papers, by William Brattle, senior member of the council, and John Adams. The essays of the latter were written with great learning and ability, and had a happy effect in enlightening the public mind on a question of very great importance. It subjected him, in- deed, to the displeasure of governor Hutchinson and the ministerial party; and at the next election in May, when chosen by the assembly into the council, the governor gave his negative to the choice. These essays were published in the Boston Gazette of February, 1773, under Mr. Adams's proper signature, and would make a pamphlet of 50 or 60 pa- ges."—In 1774, he was again rejected by governor Gage, and soon afterwards he was appointed one of the committee of the town of Boston, who prepared the celebrated resolutions on the Boston port-bill. June 17, of this year, governor Gage, having dissolved the assembly, this body, before separating, passed a resolu- tion to appoint a committee to meet other committees from other colonies, for the purpose of consulting upon their com- mon interests, and, in consequence, Mr. Thomas Cushing, Mr. Samuel Adams, Mr. John Adams and Mr. Robert Treat Paine were elected to the first continen- tal congress, which met at Philadelphia in the following September. Soon after Mr. A. was chosen, an incident occurred which gives an idea of his feelings on contemplating this great and daring na- tional movement. His friend Sewall, who had taken the ministerial side in pol- itics, and Mas at that time attorney-gen- eral of the province, hearing of his elec- tion, invited him to a morning walk, in the course of which he endeavored to dissuade hinj from his purpose of assum- ing the seat in congress to which he had been appointed. He told him that the determination of Great Britain to pursue her system was fixed; that her power was irresistible, and would involve him in destruction, as well as all his associates who persevered in opposition to her de- 48 JOHN ADAMS. signs. " I know," replied he, "that Great Britain has determined on her system, and that very determination determines me on mine. You know that I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her designs. The die is now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, five or die; survive or perish with my country, is my fixed, unalterable determi- nation." On bidding him adieu, Mr. A. said to his friend, " I see we must part, and with a bleeding heart I say, I fear forever. But you may depend upon it, this adieu is the sharpest thom on which I ever set my foot." Mr. A. took his seat in congress, Sept. 5, 1774, the first day of their session, and was soon chosen a member of some of the most important committees, such as that which drew up the statement of the rights of the colonies, and that which prepared the address to the king. He and his colleagues carried with them the character of being so thor- oughly desirous of independence, that, before they arrived at Philadelphia, warn- ing had been given to them, by many of the most respectable inhabitants of the Middle States, not to utter a word on that subject, as it was as unpopular as the stamp act itself! Ahnost all the delegates from the other colonies were impressed with the idea that England could be brought to terms, without resorting to a declaration of independence. Washing- ton alone, of the Virginia delegation, was doubtful whether the measures adopted by congress would be efficacious in at- taining the object for which they were designed. In one of his letters, Mr. A. says, that Richard Henry Lee used the following language to him, when they parted: "We shall infallibly carry all our points; you will be completely relieved; all the offensive acts will be repealed; the army and fleet will be recalled, and Britain will give up her foolish project." On his return to Massachusetts, he be- came engaged in a controversy with his friend Sewall, who was writing a series of essays under the appellation of Massa- chusettensis, for the purpose of vindicating the cause of the government party. Mr. A.'s papers were published in the Boston Gazette, with the signature of Novanglus, and exhibit the cause of America in the most triumphant and favorable light.— When Mr. A. resumed his seat in con- gress the following year, hostilities had in reality commenced between Great Britain and the colonists, though as yet not openly declared, and the blood of numbers of brave men had stained the plains of Lex- ington and Concord. On receiving the account of this battle, congress deter- mined upon war. It was necessary to fix upon some one for the post of com- mander-in-chief of the troops which were ordered to be raised. The eyes of all the New England delegation were turned upon general Ward, then at the head of the army in Massachu- setts. At a meeting of them, when that officer was proposed for nomi- nation, Mr. A. alone dissented, and urged the selection of George Washing- ton, one of the representatives from Vir- ginia. He was resisted, and left the meeting with the declaration that Wash- ington on the next day should be nomi- nated. He was accordingly nominated, at the instigation of Mr. A., by governor Johnstone of Maryland, and chosen with- out an opposing voice.—Five days after the appointment of general Washington, Mr. Jefferson made his first appearance on the floor of congress, having been chosen by the people of Virginia to fill the place of Patrick Henry, who had late- ly been elected the governor of that prov- ince. Between this distinguished man and Mr. A. a friendship speedily arose, which subsisted, with a short interrup- tion, during the remainder of their lives.— When Mr. A. returned to Massachusetts, after the dissolution of the congress of 1775, the post of chief justice of the state was offered to him, which he declined, on account of his belief that he should be able to render more effectual service to the cause of his country in its national councils. At the time that he resumed his seat in them in 1776, hostilities were active between Great Britain and the colo- nies. But the object of the latter was as yet merely to resist the authority assumed by the parent country to impose taxes upon them at pleasure. Few persons entertained the idea of a dissolution of connexion; very few, even of the delegates in congress, seemed to desire it; but among those few John Adams was the foremost. We have already mentioned its unpopularity. As soon as Mr. A. was suspected in Philadelphia of being an ad- vocate of that measure, he was repre- sented constantly in the most odious light, and even pointed at and avoided on appearing in the streets. Still, however, he persevered, made every day proselytes, and, May 6, 1776, moved in congress a resolution, which was, in fact, a virtual declaration of independence, recommend- ing to the colonies "to adopt such a government as would, in the opinion of JOHN ADAMS. 49 the representatives of the people, best conduce to the happiness and safety of their constituents and of America." This passed, after a hard struggle, on the 15th of the same month, and was the prelude to the glorious and daring resolution, moved by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, on the 7th of June following, and second- ed by Mr. A., " that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and in- dependent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political connexion between them and the state of Great Britain is, and of right ought to be, totally dissolved." The debate upon this motion was of the most animated character. It continued from the 7th to the 10th, when the fur- ther discussion of the measure was post- poned to the 1st of July. A committee of five was also appointed to prepare a provisional draught of a declaration of independence. The members of it were chosen by ballot, and were Thomas Jef- ferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Living- ston. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. A. were deputed a sub-committee to prepare the instrument, the former of whom, at the earnest solicitation of the latter, became its author.—On the 1st of July, Mr. Lee's resolution was again considered, and de- bated during that and the following day, when it was finally adopted. The draught of the declaration was then submitted for the purpose of undergoing an examination in detail. It was passed on the 4th of the same month, as prepared by Mr. Jeffer- son, with only a few alterations, which were made through a prudent deference to the views of some of the states. Mr. A. always preferred the draught as it originally stood. The declaration was not adopted without serious opposition from many members of the congress, in- cluding John Dickinson, one of the ablest men in that assembly. But their argu- ments were completely overthrown by the force and eloquence of Mr. A., whose speech on the subject of independence is said to have been unrivalled. Mr. Jeffer- son himself has affirmed," that the great pillar of support to the declaration of in- dependence, and its ablest advocate and champion on the floor of the house, was John Adams." Speaking of his general character as an orator, the same illustri- ous man observed, that he was " the Co- lossus of that congress: not graceful, not elegant, not always fluent in his public addresses, he yet came out with a power, both of thought and expression, which VOL. I. 5 moved his hearers from their seats."—Mr. Silas Deane, who was a commissioner, with Dr. Franklin and Mr. Arthur Lee, at the court of Versailles, having been re- called, Mr. A. was chosen, Nov. 28,1777, to fill his place. By this appointment, he was released from the laborious and im- portant duties of chairman of the board of war, which post he had filled since June 13, 1776. It is stated that he was a member of ninety committees, twice as many as any other representative, except Richard Henry Lee and Samuel Adams, of twenty-five of which he was chairman, although it was the policy to put Virginia generally at the head. Among these committees were several of the greatest consequence; one of them was that which was sent to Staten Island at the request of lord Howe, who had solicited an inter- view with some of the members of con- gress, which, however, produced no ef- fect, on account of the refusal of his lord- ship to consider them as commissioners from congress, and the declaration made by Mr. A., that " he might view him in any light he pleased, except in that of a British subject."—About two months af- ter his appointment, Mr. A. embarked in the Boston frigate, and arrived safely at his place of destination, though an English fleet had been despatched to in- tercept him. The treaties of commerce and alliance with France were signed before he reached that country, and, after remaining there until the following Au- gust, he returned to the United States, the nomination of Dr. Franklin as minister plenipotentiary to the court of Versailles having superseded the powers of the com- missioners. Immediately on his arrival, he was elected a member of the conven- tion to prepare a form of government for the state of Massachusetts, and placed up- on the sub-committee chosen to draught the project of a constitution, to be laid before that body. The general frame of the constitution, particularly the manner of dividing and distributing power, and the clause respecting the duty incumbent upon government with regard to the pat- ronage of literature and the arts and sci- ences, were the work of his pen. Three months after his return, congress again sent him abroad with two commissions, one as minister plenipotentiary to nego- tiate a peace, the other to form a com- mercial treaty with Great Britain. He em- barked in the French frigate Sensible, Nov. 17, and was forced to land at Corunna, in Spain, from which place he travelled over the mountains to Paris, where he arrived 50 JOHN ADAMS. in Feb. 1780.—After remaining a short time in that city, having found the French court jealous of his commission to form a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, he repaired to Holland in Aug. 1780, the same year in which congress passed a vote of approbation of his conduct, instead of recalling him, as the French minister, count de Vergennes, had solicited them to do, on account of his refusal to com- municate to him his instmctions about the treaty of commerce, and his opposi- tion to a claim set up by France, that, when congress called in the old conti- nental paper money at forty for one, a discrimination ought to have been made, in favor of the French holders of that pa- per.—The June previous to his journey to Amsterdam, Mr. A. was appointed in the room of Mr. Laurens to obtain loans in Holland, and, in December of the same year, was invested with full powers to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce with that country. Mr. A. at first had to contend with great difficulties in Holland. He was opposed by the whole influence of the British government, as well as by the power of the prince of Orange, and even, strange as it may appear, by the in- trigues of France herself, the professed friend and avowed ally of the United States. He found the people of Holland entirely unacquainted with the affairs of his country, and immediately began to impart to them information concerning that subject, using, for this purpose, prin- cipally, two newspapers, one called the Leyden Gazette, and the other Le Politique Hollandois, in which he wrote various political articles. He also published a series of twenty-six letters, in answer to a set of queries proposed to him by Mr. Kalkoen, an eminent jurist of Amster- dam, containing an account of the rise and progress of the dispute with Great Britain, and of the resources, spirit and prospects of the United States. These epistles, together with some essays writ- ten by Mr. Kalkoen, drawing a compari- son between the struggles of the United States for their liberty, and those formerly made by the seven United Provinces, which eventuated in their independence, had a great effect in enlightening the peo- ple of Holland, and inspired them with sentiments highly favorable to the Ameri- can cause. Shortlv afterwards, Dec. 21, 1780, a rupture took place between Eng- land and Holland, occasioned by the ac- cession of the latter to the armed neutral- ity, and the discovery of a negotiation between Mr. Lee, the American commis- sioner at Berlin, and Mr. Van Bcrckel, the pensionary of Amsterdam, for a treaty of amity and commerce.—Even at this early period, he had formed an opinion decidedly in favor of the establishment of a navy, and expressed it in almost all his letters to his friends at home.—In Ju- ly, 1781, he was summoned to Pans for the purpose of consulting upon the offer of mediation made by the courts of Aus- tria and Russia, and suggested an answer adopted by the French court, which put an end to the negotiation on that sub- ject ; the mediating powers refusing to acknowledge the independence of the United States without the consent of Great Britain.—Oct. 19, 1781, Mr. A., in opposition to the advice of the duke de la Vauguion, the French minister at the Hague, and on his own responsibility, communicated to their high mightinesses his letters of credence, presenting to their president also, at the same time, a memo- rial, dated April 19, in which he justified the declaration of independence, and endeavored to convince the people of Holland that it was for their interest to form a connexion with the United States, and to give them support in their difficul- ties. As he had not yet been acknowl- edged by the States General as the min- ister of a sovereign and independent na- tion, the president could not receive the memorial in form, but he engaged to make a report of the substance of what had been communicated to him by Mr. A. In the August previous, Mr. A. had received instructions to propose a triple alliance between France, the United Prov- inces and the United States, to exist as long as hostilities were carried on by the latter against Great Britain, one of" the indispensable conditions of which, on the part of Holland, was the recognition of American independence. The alliance never was effected, but the latter object Mr. Adams accomplished. Jan. 9,1782, not having received a reply to his memo- rial, he waited upon the president, and demanded a categorical answer. The States General then took the subject im- mediately into consideration, and Mr. A. was acknowledged, April 19, as ambassa- dor of the United States to their high migh- tinesses, and three days afterwards was received as such.—Having obtained as- surance that Great Britain would recog- nise the independence of the United States, he repaired, in Oct. 1782, to Paris, whither he had refused to go before such assurance was given, to commence the negotiation for peace, and there met Dr. JOHN ADAMS. 51 Franklin, Mr. Jay and Mr. Laurens, who, as well as Mr. Jefferson, had been ap- pointed his colleagues. Their instruc- tions, a part of which was " to undertake nothing without the knowledge and con- currence of the ministers of France, and ultimately to govern themselves by their advice and opinion," placed them almost entirely under the control of the French court. They were greatly displeased at being thus shackled, and, after a short time, finding themselves in a very embar- rassing situation, they boldly determined to disobey their instructions, and act for themselves and for their country, without consulting the ministers of a supposed treacherous ally. The definitive treaty of peace was ratified Jan. 14, 1784.—Af- ter serving on two or three commissions to form treaties of amity and commerce with foreign powers, Mr. A., in 1785, was appointed the first minister to London. It is related that, upon his introduction to the king, the latter, knowing his dis- gust at the intrigues of the French court, and wishing to compliment him, express- ed his pleasure at receiving a minister who had no prejudices in favor of France, the natural enemy of his crown. The reply of Mr. Adams evinced his patriot- ism and honesty of character. " May it please your majesty," said he, " I have no prejudices but for my own country." In 1787, whilst in London, he published his Defence of the American Constitu- tions against the attacks which they had sustained, and in October of that year, by his own request, he was allowed to re- turn to the United States. Congress, at the same time that they gave him such permission, passed a resolution of thanks to be presented to him for his able and faithful discharge of the various impor- tant commissions with which he had been intrusted.—Immediately after his return, Mr. A. was elected the first vice- president of the United States under the new constitution, and re-elected as such in 1793. He discharged the duties of his office until March 4, 1797, when he succeeded to the presidency, vacated by the resignation of general Washington. This great man's confidence he possessed in an eminent degree, and was consulted by him as often as any member of the cabinet As the two parties in the senate were nearly balanced, Mr. A., while act- ing, ex officio, as president of that body, had often to decide questions, by his casting vote, of the highest importance, and which had excited a great deal of party feeling. One instance of this oc- curred, when Mr. Clarke's resolution pro- hibiting all intercourse with Great Britain on account of the capture of several American vessels by British ships, and other grievances, was brought before the senate, after having been adopted by the house of representatives, April 18,1784. Upon this bill the senators were equally divided, and Mr. Adams decided against it, thinking that it would have no good effect upon the policy of England, would injure us as much as her, and perhaps occasion a war.—In 1797, he became, we have said, president of the U. S. It will not be necessary to enter into a detail of the events of his administration, as they belong rather to the department of the historian than of the biographer. It will be sufficient to mention a few important circumstances. When he commenced the discharge of the duties of his office, he found the government embroiled in a dispute with France, and, in one of his earliest communications to congress, com- plained, in dignified and eloquent lan- guage, of a grievous insult offered by the government of that country to the am- bassador of the United States. Wishing still to preserve peace, he despatched a commission consisting of three envoys, Messrs, Pinckney, Marshall and Gerry, to France. The French government treated them in the most contumelious manner. Such, however, was the violence of party spirit, and so large a portion of the American people entertained an en- thusiastic admiration of France, that even the measures which Mr. A. then took for sustaining the national dignity had no inconsiderable effect in diminishing his popularity.—Mr. A. was the founder of the American navy. Before his administra- tion, scarcely an American ship of war was to be seen upon the ocean; but, during this period, by his strenuous exertions, mainly, a very respectable naval force was created. His administration, how- ever, was not of long continuance, having pleased neither of the two great parties which divided the country (the greatest praise, perhaps, that it could receive), his measures being too strong for the demo- crats and too weak for the federalists. In consequence of this, after his term of four years had expired, March 4, 1801, it was found that his adversary, Mr. Jeffer- son, had succeeded by a majority of 1 vote. —After his retirement to his farm in Quin- cy, Mr. A. occupied himself with agricul- tural pursuits, obtaining amusement from the literature and politics of the day. He was nominated as governor of Massa- 52 SAMUEL ADAMS. chusetts, but declined being a candidate, wishing only for repose. During the dis- putes with England, which occurred while Mr. Jefferson was in office, Mr. A. published a series of letters, in a Boston paper, supporting the policy of the admin- istration. His published writings, besides those which we have already mentioned, are " Discourses on Davila," composed in 1790, while he was vice-president, and printed in June and July of that year, in the Gazette of the United States. In 1816, Mr. A. was chosen a member of the elec- toral college, which voted for the elevation of Mr. Monroe to the presidency; and, the following year, sustained the greatest af- fliction that he had ever been called upon to endure, by the loss of his wife. On this occasion, he received a beautiful let- ter of condolence from Mr. Jefferson, be- tween whom and himself their former friendship, interrupted for a time by the animosities of party, had been revived.— In 1820, he was elected a member of the convention, to revise the constitution of his state, and chosen its president. This honor he was constrained to decline, on account of his infirmities and great age, being then 85 years old; but he attended the convention as a member, and fuliiiiod the duty incumbent upon him as s-i h. After that, his life glided away in uninter- rupted tranquillity, until the 4th of July, 1826, when he breathed his last with the same hallowed sentiment on his lips, which on that glorious day, fifty years before, he had uttered on the floor of congress—"Independence forever." On the morning of the jubilee, he was roused by the ringing of the bells and the firing of cannon, and, on being asked by the servant who attended him, whether he knew what day it was, he replied, "O yes! it is the glorious 4th of July—God bless it—God bless you all." In the course of the day, he said, " It is a great and glo- rious day," and, just before he expired, exclaimed, "Jefferson survives." But Jef- ferson had already, at one o'clock, that same day, rendered his spirit into the hands of its Creator. Adams, Samuel, was one of the most remarkable men connected with the American revolution. He was descended from a family that had been among the early planters of New England, was born in Boston, September 27th, 1722, was educated at Harvard college, and received its honors in 1740. When he took the degree of master, in 1743, he proposed the following question; " Whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the commonwealth cannot be otherwise preserved ?" He maintained the affirm- ative, and this collegiate exercise furnish- ed a very significant index to his subse- quent political career.—On leaving the university, he engaged in the study of divinity, with the intention of becoming a clergyman, but did not pursue his de- sign. From his earliest youth, his atten- tion was drawn to political affairs, and he occupied himself, both in conversation and writing, with the political concerns of the day. He was opposed to governor Shirley, because he thought too much power was conferred upon him, and was the friend of his successor, Pownal, as the latter assumed the popular side. He became so entirely a public man, and dis- covered such a jealous, watchful and un- yielding regard for popular rights, that he excited the general attention of the patriot- ic party, and they took the opportunity, in the year 1766, to place him in the legisla- ture. From that period till the close of the revolutionary war, he was one of the most unwearied, efficient, and disinter- ested assertors of American freedom and independence. He grew conspicuous very soon after his admission into the house, of which he was chosen clerk, it being then the practice to take that officer from among the members. He obtained the same kind of influence, and exercised the same in- defatigable activity in the affairs of the le- gislature, that he did in those of his town. He was upon every committee, had a hand in writing or revising every report, a share in the management of every po- litical meeting, private or public, and a voice hi all the measures that were pro- posed, to counteract the tyrannical plans of the administration. The people soon found him to be one of the steadiest of their supporters, and the government was convinced, that he was one of the most inveterate of their opponents. When his character was known in England, and it was also understood that he was poor, the partisans of the ministry, who felt annoyed by the " disturbances in Ameri- ca," resorted to the usual practice, when the clamorous grow too troublesome, and proposed that he should be quieted by a participation in some of the good things they were enjoying. Governor Hutchin- son, in answering the inquiry of a friend, why he was not silenced in this man- ner, wrote, with an expression of impa- tient vexation—" Such is the obstinacy and inflexible disposition of the man, that he never can be conciliated by any office or gift whatever."—He continued in the SAMUEL ADAMS—ADAM'S APPLE. 53 legislature till 1774, when he was sent to the first congress of the old confederation. He had been previously chosen secretary of Massachusetts, which office was per- formed by deputy during his absence. He was one of the signers of the declara- tion of 1776, which he labored most in- defatigably and unhesitatingly to bring forward. He was an active member of the convention that formed the constitu- tion of Massachusetts; and, after it went into effect, he was placed in the senate of the state, and for several years presided over that body. In 1789, he was elected lieutenant-governor, and held that office till 1794, when, after the death of Han- cock, he was chos\sn governor, and was annually re-elected till 1797. He then retired from public life, and died at his house in Winter street, Boston, October 2, 1803, in the 82d year of his age.—He was one of that class who saw very early, that, "after all, we must fight;" and, hav- ing come to that conclusion, there was no citizen more prepared for the extrem- ity, or who would have been more reluc- tant to enter into any kind of compro- mise. After he had received warning at Lexington, in the night of the 18th of April, of the intended British expedition, as he proceeded to make his escape through the fields with some friends, soon after the dawn of day, he exclaimed," This is a fine day!" " Very pleasant, indeed," answered one of his companions, suppos- ing he alluded to the beauty of the sky and atmosphere. "I mean," he replied, "this day is a glorious day for America!" His situation at that moment was foil of peril and uncertainty, but, throughout the con- test, no damage to himself or to his coun- try ever discouraged or depressed him.— The very faults of his character tended, in some degree, to render his services more useful, by concentrating his exertions, and preventing their being weakened by indul- gence or liberality towards different opin- ions. There was some tinge of bigotry and narrowness both in his religion and politics. He was a strict Calvinist; and, probably, no individual of his day had so much of the feelings of the ancient Pu- ritans as he possessed. In politics, he was so jealous of delegated power, that he would not have given our constitutions inherent force enough for their own pres- ervation. He attached an exclusive val- ue to the habits and principles in which he had been educated, and wished to ad- just wide concerns too closely after a par- ticular model. One of his colleagues, who knew him well, and estimated him 5* highly, described him, with good-natured exaggeration, in the following manner: " Samuel Adams would have the state of Massachusetts govern the Union, the town of Boston govern Massachusetts, and that he should govern the town of Boston, and then the whole would not be intentionally ill-governed."—It was a sad error of judg- ment that caused him to undervalue, for a period at least, the services of Washing- ton during the revolutionary war, and to think that his popularity, when president, might be dangerous. Still, these un- founded prejudices were honestly enter- tained, and sprang naturally from his dis- position and doctrines. During the war, he was impatient for some more decisive action than it was in the power of the com- mander-in-chief, for a long time, to bring about; and when the new constitution went into operation, its leaning towards aristocracy, which was the absurd impu- tation of its enemies, and which his anti- federal bias led him more readily to be- lieve, derived all its plausibility from the just, generous and universal confidence that was reposed in the chief magistrate. These things influenced his conduct in old age, when he was governor of Massa- chusetts, and while the extreme heat of political feelings would have made it im- possible for a much less positive charac- ter to administer any public concerns, without one of the parties of that day be- ing dissatisfied.—But all these circumstan- ces are to be disregarded, in making an estimate of his services. He, in fact, was born for the revolutionary epoch; he was trained and nurtured in it, and all his principles and views were deeply imbued with the dislikes and partiaUties which were created during that long struggle. He belonged to the revolution; all the power and peculiarity of his character were developed in that career; and his share in public life, under a subsequent state of things, must be considered as sub- ordinate and unimportant.—His private habits were simple, frugal and unostenta- tious. Notwithstanding the austerity of his character, his aspect was mild, digni- fied and gentlemanly. He was entirely superior to pecuniary considerations, and, after having been so many years in the public service, must have been buried at the public expense, if the afflicting death of an only son had not remedied this hon- orable poverty. Adam's Apple is a kind of orange, the cirrus aurantium of Linnaeus.—The same name is also given to the protuberance in the fore part of the throat, occasioned by 54 ADAM'S APPLE—ADANSON. the projection of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. This name originated from the tradition, that a piece of the forbidden fruit, which Adam ate, stuck in his throat, and occasioned the swelling. Adam's Peak ; the highest mountain in the island of Ceylon, called by the inhab- itants Ham-al-el. It lies under 6° 49' N. lat., 80° 43/ E. Ion., and can be seen, in clear weather, from the sea at a distance of 150 miles. It has neither been meas- ured, nor geologically examined. The chief river of the island, Mahavillagonga, the mouth of which forms, at Trincoma- lee, the best harbor in all India, has its source in this mountain. It is considered sacred by the followers of Buddha, many of whom make pilgrimages to it. The betel-leaf is exchanged by them as a sign of peace, for the purpose of strengthening the bands of kindred, confirming friend- ships and reconciling enmities. A priest then blesses them on the summit, and enjoins them to live virtuously at home. According to Davy, the road which leads to the summit is, with all its windings, 8 miles long, and in some places very steep. Upon the top, the priests show a footstep which Buddha is said to have made. The place is surrounded by venerable old trees, particularly rhododendra. Adamson, Patrick, a native of Perth, and a distinguished Latin poet, was bom in 1536. After having studied at St. An- drews, he visited Paris, Padua and other places distinguished for their universities, and at Geneva imbibed the Calvmistic doctrines from the celebrated Beza. On his return, he escaped from the massacre of St. Bartholomew by flight, and lay concealed a long time at Bourges, where he composed his paraphrase of Job^and some other works. On his return to Scot- land, he was appointed minister of Pais- ley, and afterwards, by the favor and in- terest of the regent Morton, was raised to the archbishopric of St Andrews. In this elevated situation, he was surrounded with dangers and difficulties, and the viru- lence of the Presbyterians was successful- ly directed against him, as the firmest pil- lar of episcopacy. James VI, however, patronised him, and sent him as his am- bassador to England, where his eloquence and address gained him admirers, and raised such a tide of popularity in favor of the young king, his master, that the jealousy of EUzabeth forbade him again to ascend the pulpit while at her court. His principal objects in England were to gain friends for his master among the no- bles, and to support the cause of episco- pacy in Scotland. In 1584,he was.reed- ed, and so violent was.the »rntation.of the Presbyterians against him, that, at a pro vincial synod, he was accused and excom- municated ; and neither appeals to the ZgZfto the states, nor protestations of innocence, would have saved him from this disgraceful sentence, if he had not yielded to the storm, and implored pardon in the most abject terms. His life con- tinued a scene of persecution; even the monarch grew deaf to his petitions, and alienated the revenues of Ins see m favor of the duke of Lenox, so that A., in addi- tion to the indignities offered to his office, had to endure the pangs of indigence, m the midst of a forlorn and starving family. He died 1591. A 4to. volume of his works has been published, containing translations of some of the books of the Bible in Latin verse, frequently composed to alleviate his griefs and disarm the ter- rors of persecution. He also wrote a his- tory of his own times. Adanson, Michel, a botanist, bom at Aix, 1727, made natural history his favor- ite study, and chose Reaumur and Ber- nard de Jussieu for his guides. His em- ulation was roused by the brilliant success of the system of Linnaeus. He abandoned the study of divuiity, and, in the prosecu- tion of his favorite pursuits, made several journeys to regions never yet visited by man. In 1748, at the age of 21, he went to the river Senegal, in the belief that the unhealthiness of the climate would, for a long time, prevent naturahsts from visiting this countiy. He collected, with all the zeal of an enthusiast, invaluable treasures in the three kingdoms of nature; and, per- ceiving the defects in the established clas- sification of plants, endeavored to substi- tute another more comprehensive. He also prepared exact maps of the countries through which he travelled, and compiled dictionaries of the languages of the differ- ent tribes, with whose manners and cus- toms he had become acquainted. After a residence of 5 years in an unhealthy climate, he returned to his country, in the possession of very valuable collections, and published, in 1757, Histoire Naturelle du Senegal. Some masterly essays of his were printed in the memoirs of the French academy, and procured him the honor of being chosen a member of the institute. These essays were only preludes to his learned and comprehensive botanical work, Families des Plantes, 2 vols., 1763. The work, however, did not effect the object for which it was written,—the es- tablishment of a new system of botany, in ADANSON—ADDISON. 55 opposition to that of Linnaeus. He was preparing a new edition, with numerous alterations and important additions, when he formed the plan of publishing a com- plete encyclopaedia. In hopes of receiv- ing support from Louis XV, he began to collect materials, which, in a short time, inereased to an immense mass; and in 1775, he laid before the academy a pros- pectus of a work, on so large a scale as to excite general astonishment. It was carefully examined, but the result did not answer the expectations of the author. A.'s plan was good, but he was wrong in insisting upon the immediate pubUcation of the whole. This obstinacy is the rea- son that the work has never been printed. He continued, however, to increase his materials with unwearied diligence. Some valuable essays, printed in the memoirs of the academy, are all of his writings that subsequently came before the pub- lic. The idea of executing his great work continually occupied his mind, and he employed all his means for this purpose. But the revolution reduced him to ex- treme poverty, and when the national in- stitute chose him one of its members, he decUned the invitation because he had no shoes. A pension was then conferred upon him, which he enjoyed till his death, in 1806, continually employed in prepar- ing his great work. The number of his printed books is small, in comparison with the mass of manuscripts which he has left. A good selection of these would be very acceptable to the literary pubUc. Addi.ngton, Henry, lord viscount Sid- mouth, son of a physician, who united with the study of his profession a love for politics. Henry A., born in 1756, was educated with Pitt, the son of lord Chat- ham. The splendid career of his friend opened to him also the path to distinction. As a member of parliament, he supported Pitt against Fox with all his power. In 1789, A. was chosen speaker of the house of commons, and continued in this hon- orable office, even after the convocation of a new parliament. Ever faithful to the party of Pitt, he only once disagreed in opinion with his friend on the motion of Wilberforce, in 1792, to abolish the Afri- can slave trade, and voted for its gradual aboUtion. Through his influence, the time of prohibition was deferred till 1800. But this temporary difference of opinion neither destroyed their intimacy, nor pre- vented their agreement in the same gen- eral system of politics. Feb. 5,1801, Pitt resigned the office of chancellor of the exchequer in favor of A. While in this office, A. made several reports on the state of the finances in England, on the neces- sity of new loans, &c. He was an advo- cate of peace, after the treaty of Amiens, which was considered to have been brought about by him. But as soon as the treaty was violated, he propos- ed measures of hostility, and showed himself one of the warmest advocates of war. His enemies attempted to injure him, during the period of the king's ill- ness, in the beginning of 1804; but the sudden recovery of the king frustrated their designs. New attacks, however, compelled him to leave his station, to which Pitt was again raised, May 10. The king then conferred upon him the title of lord viscount Sidmouth, and hon- ored him with his confidence. In Jan- uary, 1806, he became again connected with the government, as keeper of the great seal, but soon resigned this office. In 1812, when lord Liverpool was ap- pointed first lord of the treasury, in the place of Mr. Perceval, who had been mur- dered, lord Sidmouth again took his seat in the cabinet, as secretary of state for the home department, but retired from office in 1822. Mr. Peel was his succes- sor. Addison, Joseph, a poet and miscella- neous writer, was born at Milston, Wilt- shire, where his father was rector, in 1672, and died 1719. He received the first part of his education in his native place: at the age of 11, his father having been appointed dean of Litchfield, he be- came a pupil of Mr. Shaw. But we have no account of his early character, except that he distinguished himself in a barring out. At the age of 15, he was entered at Queen's college, Oxford, where his Latin poem on the inauguration of WilUam and Mary obtained his election into Mag- dalen college, on the founder's bene- faction. His other Latin poems may be found with this in the Musa Angelicanoz, collected by himself. In 1693, having taken the degree of master of arts, he published his first attempt in English, some verses inscribed to Dryden, with a translation of part of the fourth Georgic of Virgil, and other pieces in prose and verse. In 1695, he wrote a poem "To King WilUam," and obtained the patron- age of lord Somers, keeper of the great seal, by addressing it to him. Having declined entrance into holy orders, he obtained a pension of £300 by the influ- ence of Somers, and Montague, chancellor of the exchequer, to enable him to travel; and in 1701, he wrote the Poetical Epistle 56 ADDISON. from Italy, to Montague, now lord HaU- fax, of which Dr. Johnson says, " It is the most elegant, if not the most sublime, of his poetical compositions." During his travels, he began his tragedy of Cato, and composed the Dialogues on Medals, and, after his return, which was hastened by ' the loss of his pension, he pubUshed his Travels. In Johnson's opinion, this work might have been written at home. In 1704, at the request of lord Godolphin, A. celebrated the victory of Hochstadt, or Blenheim, in a poem called the Cam- paign. Before it was finished, it pro- cured for him the office of commissioner of appeals, in winch he was the successor of Locke. About this time, he wrote al- so the opera of Rosamond, which was hissed from the stage, but was published with success. The next year he accom- panied lord HaUfax to Hanover, and was soon after chosen under-secretary of state. In 1709, he went to Ireland as secretary to the earl of Wharton, and was at the same time appointed keeper of the rec- ords in Bermingham's tower, with an allowance of £300 per annum. While A. was in Ireland, Steele, the friend of his youth, began the publication of the Tattler, a series of essays on literature and manners: to this paper A. became a contributor. The first number of the Tattler appeared in 1709, and was suc- ceeded, in March, 1711, by the Spectator, which was continued daily till December, 1712. Some time afterward, the Guar- dian was undertaken by Steele, and to this A. contributed. His papers in the Spectator are marked by one of the let- ters in the name Clio, and in the Guardi- an, by a hand. After the publication of the Guardian, the Spectator was revived, and the eighth volume completed. In this his papers are not distinguished by any mark. The popularity of these works was very great, 20,000 copies of the Spec- tator being distributed at one time, and they yet stand among the classics of Eng- lish literature. This preeminence is ow- ing to the genius of A. This kind of writing was new, and more adapted to produce an effect on the great mass of society than any hterary productions which had preceded it. It is the prolific mother of modem periodical literature. It describes and criticises the manners of the times, deUneates character, exposes the follies and reproves the vices which fashion countenances. It has contributed much to reform the taste of the English nation. A.'s papers, in these works, may be divided into the comic, the serious and the critical. His humor is peculiar, his satire easy and dehcate, and his wit is always on the side of truth and virtue. His serious papers are distinguished by beauty, propriety and elegance of style, not less than by their pure tone of moral- ity and religion. They are a code of practical ethics. His critical essays con- tain many just remarks, conveyed in an easy and popular manner, and display the results of much study and delicate taste. In 1713, A.'s tragedy of Cato was repre- sented with very great success. It had a run of 35 nights, and was always receiv- ed with applause. This was undoul tedly owing to party feelings; the whigs hail- ing whatever was favorable to liben v in the production of a whig, and the ti ries refichoing the approbation, to show that they did not feel the censure it was suo- posed to convey. But, although not ca1- culated to engage an English audience, the poetry is fine, and the principal char- acters well supported. A. was afterwards engaged in several periodicals, principally political, went again, as secretary of the viceroy, to Ireland, and was appointed one of the lords of trade. In 1716, he married the countess of Warwick, who was won with difficulty, and whose haughty treatment of him often drove him to a tavern. The year after his mar- riage, he was appointed secretary of state; but his inability to speak in public, and his solicitude about the elegance of his expressions, rendered him unfit for the duties of the office, and he soon retired, with a pension of £1500. His principal work, after this, was the Evidences of Christianity, a work useful at the time, as recommending the subject by elegance and perspicuity to popular notice, but since superseded by more complete trea- tises. His death was that of a Christian philosopher. Before he expired, he sent for his pupil, lord Warwick, a young man of loose life, and addressed him in these words: "I have sent for you that you may see how a Christian can die." This scene is alluded to in the lines of Tickell on his death: "He taught us how to live, and—oh ! too high The price of knowledge—taught us how to die." He was buried in Westminster abbey. A. was a sincere believer in the Chris- tian revelation; in politics earnest, but not violent, he was respected, if not beloved, by individuals of both parties. Serious and reserved in his manners, modest and even timid in society, he spoke little be- fore strangers. " I have never," said lord Chesterfield, " seen a more modest or a ADDISON—ADELUNG. 57 more awkward man;" but he was easy, fluent and familiar, in the company of his friends. He studied aU the morning, dined at a tavern, and spent the evening at Button's, a coffee-house frequented by the wits of the time. As a poet, he is distinguished for taste and elegance, but is destitute of high poetic genius. His prose is remarkable for its purity, perspi- cuity and simplicity, and for the higher graces of harmony and richness of meta- phor. It is the sentence of the great judge of English literature, that "he who would write English with correctness and elegance must give his days and nights to the study of Addison." His chief works are the tragedy of Cato, his papers in the Tattler, the Spectator and the Guardian, and the Evidences of the Chris- tian Religion. Address. In modem times, importance has been given to the manifestation of public opinion to the sovereign, in the form of addresses; and governments, in difficult emergencies, have in turn ad- dressed the people. A communication from the rulers to the citizens is called a proclamation. In France only, at the time when the sovereignty of the people was acknowledged, the higher authorities sent addresses to the people. An address is essentially different from a petition, since it contains only an expression of thanks, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, communi- cates information, justifies measures, &c. This practice owes its origin to the British parliament, which is accustomed to an- swer the king's speeches, dehvered at the commencement and close of each session, by a pubhc acknowledgment of the obli- gations of the nation. The same custom is adopted by the congress of the United States. (See Jefferson's Manual of Parlia- mentary Practice.) The constitutions of the several German states grant this right in a very limited sense. In Wurtemberg, it has been declared unconstitutional, in reference to the army, and in Bavaria, the estates have only the right of trans- mitting petitions to the king, and of com- plaining against the ministers of state. The right of the citizens, in associations or otherwise, to present addresses, is con- nected with the right of complaining, con- voking assemblies and signing in a body. It is obvious, that addresses of thanks and satisfaction, like those with which Napo- leon was so much pleased, are of impor- tance only in case the expression of pub- lic opinion is free. Adf.lm. (See Adhelm). Adelung, John Christopher. This scholar, distinguished for his exertions to improve the literature and language of his country, was bom August 8, 1732, at Spantekow, in Pomerania, where his fa- ther was a clergyman. He received his first instruction partly at Anklam, partly at Klosterbergen, near Magdeburg, and finished his education at Halle. In 1759, he was appointed professor in the Protestant academy at Erfurt; but, two years after, ecclesiastical disputes caused him to re move to Leipsic, where he apphed him self, with indefatigable activity, to the ex tensive works by which he has been so useful to the German language and liter- ature, particularly his Grammatisch-krit. Worterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart. Leipsic, 1774—86, 4 vols, and 1st half of the 5th. In 1787, he received, from the then elector of Saxony, the place of first librarian of the public Ubrary in Dresden. This office he held till his death, Sept. 10, 1806. A. has alone per- formed for the German language what whole academies have done for others. His grammatical, critical dictionary sur- passes the English lexicon of Johnson in the accuracy and order of the definitions, and more especially in the department of etymology, but is inferior to it in the selection of classic authorities, because A.'s predilection for the Upper Saxon, oi Misnian authors, induced him to neglect those writers whose country or style he disUked, and his taste was so limited, that he would not allow of any deviation from the estabfished forms and settled laws of style. His methodical mind was struck with terror at the irregularities and the flood of new words with which he thought the German language menaced, and could not appreciate its admirable flexibility and copiousness, in which it is equalled by the Grecian alone. Yoss and Campe have animadverted upon this defect with great truth, but perhaps with too little for- bearance. The second edition of the dic- tionary of A., 1798—1801, contains a number of additions which are valuable in themselves, but in no proportion to the progress which the language has made in the mean time, and show too plainly that the most unwearied industry cannot com- pensate for a defective plan. (See Ger- man Language.) Of A.'s other works, we would mention his German grammar, his Magazin fiir die Deutsche Sprache, his work on German style, his Aeltcste Geschichtc der Deutschen, his Directori- um, important for its exposition of the sources of the history of the south of Sax- ony, Meissen, 1802, 4to., and his Mithri- 58 ADELUNG—ADHESION. dates, in which last work he designed to Btore up the fruits of all his investigations, but finished only the first volume; for the three others, we are indebted to the lexicographer Vater, of Halle, who em- ployed for this purpose, partly the papers of the deceased, partly the materials col- lected by A. and W. von Humboldt, and partly the results of his own inquiries. A. was a man of blameless morals and amiable temper. He was never married. He daily devoted 14 hours to labor. Adelung, Frederic von, since 1825, president of the Asiatic academy at St. Petersburg, a nephew of the lexicogra- pher, was born at Stettin, 1768, and has distinguished himself as a historian and linguist. Having previously made him- self intimate at Rome with the treasures of the Vatican library, and published some interesting disquisitions on the old Gennan poems to be found there (Kon- igsberg, 1796 and 1799), he went to Pe- tersburg, where he took part in the direc- tion of the German theatre. In 1803, he was appointed tutor of the grand princes Nicholas and Michael, and received an order of nobility. He then applied him- self with great assiduity to the study of languages, in which he was much assist- ed by the collection of Backmeister, the librarian. He has written on the Rap- ports entre la Langue Sanscrite, et la Lan- gue Russe. At the request of his pat- ron, count Romanzoff, chancellor of the empire, he published a description of the remarkable doors of brass belonging to the church of St. Sophia, in Novgorod, which were said to have been cast in Magdeburg in the 11th century, and the most exact engravings of which were prepared by the order of the count. This work, which appeared at Berlin, 1823, with copper and lithographic plates, contains interesting contributions to the history of Russian art, and an essay on the Swedish, or silver door, so called, then in Novgorod, which was brought to Russia, as a trophy, from Sigtuna, the ancient royal residence of Sweden. A. is now preparing a Bibliotheca Glot- tica, an introduction to which has al- ready been pubUshed, entitled Uebersicht aller bekannten Sprachen, Petersburg, 1820. Adept. (See Alchemy.) Adersbach Mountains. These ex- tend, with some interruptions, from Ad- ersbach, a village of Bohemia, to the county of Glatz. Numerous clefts of va- rious size are found among the rocks, which rise in strange forms more than 100 feet high, and consist of a «»"*££ kind of ferruginous sand-stone. Ram and snow, filling the cavities of'the sur- face during the winter, form collections of wate" which gradually niters through the rocks, and produces these clefts. The sand-stone itself has, in the course of time, become very brittle, especially on the surface. The place is a great resort for travellers. Ades. (See Pluto.) . Adhelm, or Adelm, was bom in Wilt- shire, in the seventh century. He was made bishop of Shireburn, and extraor- dinary tales are related of his miraculous powers, and his voluntary chastity. He was, for the times, an eminent scholar, being acquainted with Grecian and Ro- man literature, a good writer, a poet of some merit, and an excellent musician. His works, which were numerous, are mostly lost. Adhesion, according to the latest phraseology of physics, means generally the tendency of heterogeneous bodies tq stick together; but cohesion implies the attraction of homogeneous particles of bodies. Adhesion may take place be- tween two solids, as two hemispheres of glass, or between a soUd and a fluid, or be- tween two fluids, as oil and water. Thus it is said that a fluid adheres to a solid, as water to the finger dipped into it But there is a great difference, in this respect, in different bodies; thus small particles of quicksilver do not adhere to glass, but they adhere to gold, silver and lead. Wa- ter adheres to the greatest part of bodies, unless it is separated from their surface by oily substances, dust, flour, &c. Fluids do not form a surface perfectly horizontal in vessels to which they ad- here so as to wet them, but rise, on the rontrary, around the brim of the vessels. This is proved by water, beer, &c. pour- ed into glasses, pails, pots, &c. Fluids, on the other hand, in vessels to which they do not adhere, sink around the brim, and rise in the centre. Thus quicksilver in a glass forms a convex surface. This phenomenon of the rising and sinking of fluids becomes still more remarkable in vessels of a small diameter; wherefore capillary tubes, so called, are used for performing experiments, and the singular effects produced are ascribed to capillary attraction. (See Capillary Tubes.) Water poured from a vessel to which it adheres so as to wet it, runs easily down the ex- terior surface, unless a peculiar direction is given to the vessel. This is never the case with quicksilver poured from a glass; ADHESION—ADMIRAL. 59 but it is so if poured from a vessel of lead, &c. Adiaphora (Greek); things indifferent in themselves, and of small importance: 1. objects and actions which deserve nei- ther praise nor blame; 2. in matters of church discipUne, customs and rites which may be retained or rejected without injur- ing belief or troubling conscience, because the holy Scriptures have neither forbidden nor ordauied them. This name was ori- ginally appUed to those instruments and ceremonies of the CathoUc church, which the Protestants admitted into their forms of worship, as altars, candlesticks, images, mass-vestments, Latin hymns, vespers and orisons, private mass, &c. On account of this admission, Flacius, a theologian of Jena, in connexion with the clergy of Lower Saxony, commenced a controver- sy, known by the name of the adiapho- ristic controversy, with Melancthon and the divines of Wittenberg, who received the name of Adiaphorists. The same trifles became subsequently marks, by which the strict Lutherans were externaUy dis- tinguished from the Calvinists, who had retained nothing of this kind. The more enlightened theologians of the 18th cen- tury caused the greater part of these ex- ternal distinctions to be laid aside; but new importance has been attached to them in our days; and the question has again been discussed, " what ceremonies belong to the A." Adipocire, from adeps, fat, and cera, wax; a substance of a light-brown color, formed by the soft parts of animal bodies, when kept for some time in water, or when preserved from atmospheric air. When this substance is subjected to a chemical analysis, a tme ammoniacal soap is first yielded, composed of ammo- nia, a concrete oil, and water. The oil may be obtained pure, and tins is called more strictly A. It was discovered on removing the animal matter from the burial ground of the church des Iniwcens, at Paris, in 1787, amongst the masses of the bodies of the poor there interred to- gether. In this place, about 1500 bodies were thrown together into the same pit, and, being decomposed, were converted into this substance. (See Nicholson's Journal, vol. 4, p. 135; Phil. Tans. 1794, vols. 84, 85; Journal de Physique, torn. 38, &c.) Adjutant ; in the military art, an offi- cer whose duty is to assist the major. Adjutant-general; an officer of dis- tinction who assists the general.—Among the Jesuits, this name was given to a se- lect number of fathers, who resided with the general of the order, and had each a province or country assigned to him, and their office was to inform the father-gen- eral of pubUc occurrences in such coun- tries. Admetus. (See Alceste.) Administrator (Latin); the person to whom the goods of a man dying intes- tate are committed by the proper author- ity, for which he is accountable when thereunto required. For matters relating to this title, see Executor. Admiral ; the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet of ships of war, or of the entire naval force of a country. Prob- ably this word is of Arabic origin, and signifies originally the emir, or prince, of the waters. In the time of the crusades, the office and name were introduced into Europe. The first authentic instance that occurs of admirals in Europe is about 1284, when Philip, king of France, created Enguerrand de Coucy admiral of his fleet. In the reign of Edward I, king of England, we find a title of honor, "Admiral de la mer du roy cTAngleterre" conferred for the first time on W. de Ley- bourne ; and about this time the jurisdic- tion of the English seas was committed to three or four admirals, who held the of- fice durante bene placito. From the time of Edward II, a regular succession of ad- mirals is to be traced; and in the 34th year of Edward III, John de Beauchamp, lord warden of the Cinque Ports, was created high admiral of England. The office un- derwent several changes, and persons of high rank, some of whom were entirely unacquainted with naval affairs, continu- ed to fill this office until 1632, when it was first put into commission, as it re- mained during the protectorate of Crom- well. James, duke of York, afterwards James II, exercised the functions of lord high admiral for several years of Charles IPs reign. Many of his regulations are observed to the present time, and evince his zeal for this most important service in England. During the reign of Wil- liam and Mary, the powers of the lord high admiral were committed to lords commissioners of the admiralty. Prince George of Denmark enjoyed this dignity during a short period of the reign of Anne; since which time it has always been vested in seven lords commission- ers, acting under the statute of William and Mary, till the year 1827, when the first step of Mr. Canning, as premier, was to prevail on the duke of Clarence to ac- cept the office of lord high atlmiral; but 60 ADMIRAL—ADMIRALTY COURTS. the duke, soon after the formation of the duke of WelUngton's administration, gave up the office. The income of the first lord-commissioner is at present equal to £5000 per annum. The surplus revenue forms what are called the droits of admi- ralty, and is appUed at the pleasure of government. To the lord high admiral, or lords commissioners of the admiralty of England, belongs the -power of decis- ion hi all maritime cases, both civil and- criminal; a jurisdiction upon or beyond the sea in all parts of the world ; upon the sea coasts in all ports, havens or har- bors, and upon all rivers below the bridge nearest to the sea :—according to the terms of the patent," To preserve all pub- Uc streams, ports, rivers, fresh waters and creeks whatsoever, within his jurisdic- tion, as well for the preservation of the ships as of the fishes; to reform too straight nets and unlawful engines, and punish offenders; to arrest ships, mari- ners, pilots, masters, gunners, bombardiers, and any other persons whatsoever, able and fit for the service of ships, as often as occasion shall require, and whereso- ever they shall be met with ; to appoint vice-admirals, judges and other officers durante bene placito; to remove, suspend, or expel them, and put others in their places; to take cognizance of civil and maritime laws, and of death, murder and maim." The lord warden of the Cinque Ports has, nevertheless, a jurisdiction ex- empt from the control of the admiralty within these ports, and the lord admiral seems to have his more proper jurisdic- tion confined to the main sea. Between high and low water marks, the common law and the admiralty have jurisdiction by turn. By the regulations of the navy, the lord high admiral grants commissions to inferior admirals to enforce obedience in all the branches of the service ; to all courts-martial for the trial of offences against the articles of war, upon which they decide by the majority of votes, a deputy judge advocate, who resides at Plymouth, presiding over those of most importance. To the office of lord high admiral are given, as perquisites, by the patent, "treasure, deodands and relics found within his jurisdiction; all goods picked up at sea; all fines, forfeitures, ransoms, &c.; all whales and large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming into any port, &c. by stress of weather, mistake or ignorance of war; all ships seized at sea, salvage &c, together with his shares of prizes. In ancient times, tliis officer carried a gold whistle set with precious stones.-In France the adrruia (ramiral) enjoyed, until 627 *ery jrrat prerogatives; but Richelieu, deeming the FnKceofthe office..^great,abohs^ed it. LouisXIV reestabhsheclitn. 1669w,th less power. ^ the revolution, this office of course, vanished with the aboht on of the monarchy. Napoleon renewed the office, and invested his brother-m-law Murat with it The duke of Angouleme was the first admiral after the restoration of the Bourbons. The highest officers m the French navy have only the title vice-ad- miral; after these follow the rear-ad- mirals (contre-amiraux).—Admiral of the Fleet; the highest naval officer under the admiralty of Great Britain, who, when he embarks, is distinguished by the hoisting of the union flag at the main-top- gallant-mast head.—The powers of the ford high admiral of Scotland have been vested, since the union, in the admiralty of Great Britain, which appoints a judge, cr vice-admiral, who executes its duties, and presides over an admiralty court in Scot- land.—Admirals, being commanders in chief of any fleet or squadron, carry their flags at the main-top-gallant-mast head, from which they are designated as admi- rals of the red, of the white, of the blue. They rank with field-marshals in the army. The vice-admiral carries his flag at the fore-top-mast head, and takes rank with the lieutenant-generals of the army. The rear-admiral carries his flag at the mizzen- top-mast head, and ranks with major-gen- erals.—The United States have no admi- rals. The board of the navy directs all the affairs of the navy.—The vice-admiral is a civil officer, appointed by the lords com- missioners of the admiralty, having judges and marshals under him. From his de- cisions, however, there is a final appeal to the court of admiralty. The place of vice-admiral of England is now a sine- cure. Ireland has four vice-admirals; Scotland one ; and the governors of col- onies generally hold a commission to preside over vice-admiralty courts. A. is also a name given to the most consid- erable ship of a fleet of merchantmen, oi of the vessels employed in the cod-fish- ery of Newfoundland. The ship whicli first arrives is entitled to this appellation, and some privileges; it carries during the fishing season a flag on the main-mast— A. in natural history, a very beautiful shell of the voluta genus. It is sold at a very high price. Admiralty Courts have cognizance of civil and criminal causes of a mari- time nature, including captures in war ADMIRALTY COURTS—ADONIS. 61 made on the high seas, and likewise of- fences committed, and many contracts made thereon. In civil suits, the judges decide unaided. In criminal cases, the judge in England is associated with three or four commissioners; in the United States, he is assisted by a jury. In the latter country, the admiralty jurisdiction is vested in the circuit and district courts of the Union. In England, it is divided between the instance and the prize courts, the former being the ordinary admiralty court, the latter being constituted by a special commission, in time of war, to take cognizance of prizes, though the individuals composing the court are the same in both cases. Admiralty Islands ; a cluster of isl- ands to the north of New Britain, in the South Pacific ocean, in about 2° 18' S. lat and 146° 44' E. Ion. There are be- tween 20 and 30. The Dutch discovered them in 1616. The islanders are black, but not of a deep shade; tall, and almost in a state of nudity. They evinced much kindness towards La Perouse. A. I. is likewise an island in George Ill's Ar- chipelago, on the north-west coast of New Norfolk, in America, between N. lat 57° and 58° 307, and between W. Ion. 134° and 135°. (See Vancouver's Voyage, vol. iii.) Adolphus of Nassau was elected em- peror of Germany, May 1, 1292, and crowned at Aix la Chapelle, June 25. He was of an illustrious family, and of approved courage ; but without any pat- rimony, except his sword, -and destitute of those great quaUties, which had raised his predecessor, Rodolph of Hapsburg, to the throne. A. owed his election, in part, to the arrogant conduct of Albert of Aus- tria; in part, to his intrigues with the electors of Cologne and Mentz, who im- posed on him the hardest conditions, and forced him to resign to them cities and territories, which were not his own. But, refusing to fulfil, when emperor, what he had promised when count, he soon saw himself hated and deserted by his friends. Urged by want of money, he received 100,000 pounds sterling from Edward I of England, and, in return, engaged to assist him against PhiUp the Fair of France; but he was by no means sorry to see the pope forbid his participation in the war. In this way he made himself contemptible in the eyes of the German princes, and became still more odious to them by taking advantage of the hatred of Albert, landgrave of Thuringia, against his sons, and purchasing this territory from him. vol. i. 6 This purchase involved him in a 5 years' war, in which he attempted, unsuccess- fully, to subjugate the country which he had bought. Disgusted at such disgraceful conduct, and urged on by Albert of Aus- tria, the college of electors, excepting those of Treves, Cologne and the Palat- inate, cited Adolphus to appear before it. Failing to appear, the throne was declar- ed vacant June 23,1298, and Albert of Austria elected. A war already existed between the two rivals, in which Adol- phus seemed superior, until, deceived by the manoeuvres of his foe, he found himself surrounded at Gellheim, and fell, after a heroic resistance, by Albert's own hand, July 2,1298. His body was depos- ited by Henry VII in the imperial vault at Spire, at the same time with that of Albert. His faults sprung mostly from the inadequateness of his abilities to his situation. One mistake followed another, and when, in the latter part of his career, he wished to adopt a better course, it was too late. Adonai ; one of the many Hebrew names for God. The word properly sig- nifies my lords, in the plural number, which is called, in the Hebrew grammar, pluralis majestatis. The Jews, who, from religious reverence, do not pronounce the name Jehovah, read Adonai in all the places in which the former name occurs. This practice commenced among the latter Jews after the Babylonish captivi- ty, at least before the time of Josephus. (See Geddes' Crit. Remarks, vol. i, p. 167, and Leigh's Crit. Sacr. in verb. Kvyios.) Adonic. The Adonic verse consists of a dactyle and a spondee or trochee, e. g. rarajflventus; and, on account of its animated move- ment, is adapted to gay and Uvely poetry. Long poems, however, would become monotonous if written entirely in a meas- ure so short, and recurring with no vari- ety. It is therefore rarely used by itself! Even the ancients always combined it with other kinds of verse; thus the last verse of the Sapphic strophe is Adonic. Adonis ; son of Cinyras by his daugh- ter Myrrha. The wood-nymphs educa- ted him, and he grew up so remarkably beautiful, that he became the favorite of Venus, who accompanied him to the chase, pointing out the dangers to which he was exposed. A., disregarding her advice, eagerly pursued the wild beasts of the forest, but, happening to fail in an attack upon a wild boar, he was mortally 62 ADONIS—ADOPTION. wounded by this ferocious animal. The goddess, hearing of his misfortune, hurried to his assistance, and in her haste her foot was wounded by a rose-bush, the flowers of which, formerly white, from that time took the color of blood. When she reached the spot, she found him Ufeless on the grass, and, to alleviate her grief and preserve his memory, she transform- ed him into an anemone. At her request, however, Jupiter permitted A. to spend 6 months with her, and the other 6 with Proserpine. A full explanation of this fable may be found in Creuzer's Symbolik und Mythologie der VMker des Juterthums. Adoptiani ; a reUgious sect which as- serted that Christ, as to his divine nature, was properly the Son of God; but, as to his human nature, only such by adoption, by baptism and regeneration, through which God's mercy adopts other men also as his children; for they could not comprehend how a human being could be caUed the Son of God in a literal sense. Flipandus, archbishop of Toledo, and FeUx, bishop of Urgel, in Spain, avowed this doctrine in 783, and made proselytes both in Spain and France. Charlemagne condemned their heresy at the council of Ratisbon, and dismissed FeUx from his office. This sentence was repeated 3 times; at Frankfort, 794, at Rome and at Aix la Chapelle in 799, because the bishop relapsed twice into his former error. He was then placed, for the remainder of his life, under the care of the bishop of Lyons. After the death of FUpandus, the whole controver- sy ceased. The dispute is worthy of notice, both on account of the modera- tion of Charlemagne, and because the opinion of the Adoptiani has often been made use of by those who have exerted themselves to adapt the doctrine of the divinity of Christ to the comprehension of man. (See Socinians.) Adoption, the admission of a stran- ger by birth to the privileges of a child, has come down to us in the Roman law. Its purpose was the acquisition of pater- nal power, which could either be ceded to the person adopting by the natural parent (adoption in the strictest sense), or be obtained by the assent of a person no longer under the patria potestas, or of his guardians. This second sort is called arro- gation. According to the ancient civil law, the adopted child left the family of its pa- rents or guardians, and became a member of the family of the person adopting it The emperor Justinian abolished this prin- ciple in regard to adopt.on P'?^ *° called. Adoption was intended to sup- ply the want of offspring 'n*0^^0"8 who might have been parents, kumichs therefore, and persons alreadjr having legitimate issue, were" excluded from this privilege. The person adopting must have been at least 18 years older than the person to be adopted. Guardians were not permitted to adopt their wards, nor a poor man a rich child. Females, strictly speaking, were not permitted to adopt, but might, with the permission of the sovereign, secure to any child the right of support and inheritance. In Germany, the rules respecting adoption are derived from the civil law, but require the sanc- tion either of the sovereign or of the ju- diciary. (Civil Code of Austria, 1. 179; Prussian Code, part 2, tit 2, § 666.) The adopted child receives the name of its adopter, but does not share in his rank if he be a nobleman, except by the special permission of the sovereign. In Prussia, a married couple must have lived many years without children, before they are allowed to adopt a child. The modem French law (Code civile, a. 343) also ad- mits adoption, but only on certain con- ditions. The code estabUshes three kinds of adoption—Vadoption ordinaire, la remuneratoire,etlatestamentoire. Those who wish to adopt must have supported the person to be adopted for six years, or the adopter's life must have been saved by the person to be adopted. Excepting in this last case, the latter must be as much as fifteen ye%rs younger than the former. Adoption (excepting as before) cannot take place until the person to be adopted is of age, and must be ratified by the dis- trict court as well as by the court of ap- peal. There is nothing corresponding with adoption in the law either of Eng- land or America. In Asia, adoption is a very common practice. The ceremo- ny is frequently performed merely by the adopting person exchanging girdles with the person adopted. The Turks de- clare adoption often before the cadi, and a writing regularly witnessed is drawn up. The law of Mahomet prescribes still an- other very curious ceremony of adoption. The person adopted is required to pass through the shirt of the adopter; and hence the phrase to draw another through one's shirt is, among them, expressive of adoption. An adopted son is called aki- etogli, that is, the son of another life. Sev- eral writers have applied this ceremony as explanatory of many passages both of the Old and New Testaments. ADORATION. 63 Adoration ; originally, the expression of the highest respect either to God or man; now used, more particularly, for the act of religious homage. The word lit- erally signifies applying the hand to the mouth; manum ad os admovere, i. e. to kiss the hand. The word kisring is the usual idiom of the Hebrew language to signify adoration. Herodotus considers the custom of kissing the hand in adora- tion to have been adopted by the Greeks from the Persians. It certainly prevailed at an early period all over the East. The Roman ceremony of adoration has been thus described: the devotee, having his head covered, appfied his right hand to his lips, the fore finger resting on his thumb, which was erect, and, thus bowing his head, turned himself round from left to right. The kiss given was called osm- ium labratum. Sometimes, however, they kissed the feet or even the knees of their gods. The Grecians generally worship- ped uncovered. During their prayers, their hands were raised above their heads with the palms turned towards heaven or the statues of their god; a custom still often seen, in Catholic countries, accom- panying fervent prayer; but generally the Christians clasp their hands during prayer, which is still the custom in Eu- rope, both among Catholics and Protes- tants. The first Christians often turned the face towards the east when they prayed. The Mahometans turn the face towards Mecca. Prostration, ac- companied sometimes by kissing the ground, is an ancient mode of adoring the gods, and expressing the highest re- spect for men. In Russia and Poland, it is still the custom for people of the lower classes to kneel down and kiss the gar- ment of the person to whom they wish to show respect. Diocletian offered his foot to be kissed by the courtiers, and even under Charlemagne and his son, the noblemen kissed the emperor's foot. Probably, therefore, the popes took this custom from the emperors, to whose power they laid claim in succeeding to their title of sovereign pontiff. They have an embroidered cross on the slipper of their right foot, which is kissed by the Catholics. When the late king of Spain was in Rome, he prostrated himself before the pontiff, and kissed the cross on his foot There is no doubt that the Roman emperors borrowed this custom from the East. In the primitive Christian church, this honor is said to have been shown to every bishop, as it often is still in the Greek church. In kissing the bishop's foot, the words nQoaxwS oe were, and still are used. The Jews, being an Asi- atic tribe, often prostrated themselves in the act of worship. (See Joshua, Judges, 1 Chron., Ezekiel, &c.) Taking off the shoes or slippers during adoration is an old custom in Asia. It is also practised on common occasions as an act of poUte- ness. The Oriental takes off his shoes before he enters the temple, the mosque, or the apartment of a man of respectabil- ity. This custom was also adopted by the Roman CathoUc church in some cases. At the adoration of the cross on Good Friday, the Roman CathoUcs walk bare- footed ; and the ceremony of humiliation, when the pope and aU the cardinals ap- proach the cross bare-footed, in the Cap- pella Sistina, cannot but make a deep impression on every traveller. Kneeling was in all ages a common posture of ado- ration, and originates from the feeling of humility in addressing a higher and mightier being. Sitting with the thighs resting on the heels, was an, ancient Egyptian attitude in the act of worship. There are many statues represented in this position. Standing with the body inclined forward, the eyes fixed on the ground, the hands probably resting on the knees, was an early eastern attitude of adoration. Dancing, screaming, rolUng on the ground, and many similar acts ac- company the worship of different savage tribes. Mr. Ward, one of the Baptist missionaries at Serampore, in a work on the history and literature of the Hindoos, has given a very curious and minute account of the modes of adoration, which they call pooja. The objects of adora- tion have been greatly diversified. In all ages, worship has been paid to idols, but many of the worshippers have re- garded the image merely as the repre- sentative of the Divinity. Protestants often mistake when they impute to Catho- lics, universally, the worship of external things, as being in themselves objects of adoration, while, in fact, they are regard- ed by the church merely as visible signs of the invisible Deity. The ancients placed crowns or garlands on the statues of the gods; and the CathoUcs still offer flowers to their saints and the virgin. It was common to sleep in the ancient tem- ples, with a view of receiving responses from the gods in dreams. The sick, in particular, slept for this purpose in the temple of jEsculapius. In the Roman Ca- tholic, church adoration is not offered to saints and martyrs, as has been suppos- ed, but their intercession in soUcited. The 64 ADORATION—ADRIAN. Phoenicians (the first navigators) adored the winds, a practice adopted by many other nations. The Persians adored the sun and fire. The Greeks and Romans adored fire under the name of Vesta. Pliny mentions the adoration of Ught- ning by gently clapping the hands. The Egyptians adored animals, plants and fishes; the Arabs, stones; the Scythians, swords; the Chinese, the statues of their ancestors. The Hindoos have not only an amazing variety of gods, but they worship human beings, beasts, birds, trees, rivers, fish, books and stones. (See Ward's View of the History, Literature and Religion of the Hindoos, and Bishop Heber's Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Produces of India, from Calcut- ta to Bombay, 1824—1825, with Notes up- on Ceylon, and an Account of a Journey to Madras and the Southern Promnces, 1826.) It must be remembered, that all ad- oration originates from two different sources, either from love and thankful- ness, or from fear. Adraganth, in medicine, gum dragon. It distils by incision from the trunk or roots of a plant which grows in the Le- vant. The gum is of different colors, white, red, gray and black, and is useful in medicine. Skinners use great quanti- ties, and prefer the red to the black. It is the astragalus tragacanthus of Linnaeus. Adrastea ; a daughter of Jupiter and Necessity, the servant of eternal Justice, the punisher of aU injustice, whom no mortal escapes. A. is generally a mere epithet, given to Nemesis, (q. v.) She is represented sometimes with wings, some- times with a rudder, and sometimes with a wheel. Adrastus, king of Argos; sonofTala- Iis and Eurynome. In obedience to the oracle which commanded him to give one of his daughters to a lion and the other to a wild boar, he gave Argia to Polynices, who came to him in a Uon's skin, and Deiphyle to Tydeus, who was dressed in the skin of a wild boar. He was one of the seven heroes who encamped before Thebes, and the only one who survived the siege. Ten years after this, he made a second expedition against Thebes, ac- companied by the sons of his former al- Ues, and took the city, but lost his son in the engagement, and died himself of grief. (See Thebes.) Adrian, the African, abbot of St Pe- ter's, Canterbury, in the 7th century, ac- companied Theodore, archbishop of Can- terbury, to England. A. was the precep- tor of Adhehn, and Bede extols the hap- py time when the island «yoyed hw to lion, and Kent "was the fountain of knowledge to the rest of En? and. Adrian, or Hadrian, *«**»■£&■ Roman ^^A'^TiS^3St ZjSclS;Sed'whenA.wasten years of age. A. showed very early great talents, and is said to have spoken the Greek language » perfectly in his 15th year, that he was called the young Greek. His memory is said to have been so extra- ordinary, that he could commit a book to memory by once perusing it, and that he could call all his soldiers by name. These stories may be exaggerated, but they prove the estimation in which his talents were held. He was an orator, poet, grammarian, mathematician, physician, painter, musician and astrologer. The greater developement of the sciences in modem times does not admit of distinc- tion in so many branches. His great qualities, however, were stained by great faults, so that he never won the affections of Trajan, who was his guardian. He was indebted for his elevation to the throne to the wife of Trajan, Plotina, who concealed the death of her husband until she had time to forge a testament bearing the name of the late emperor, in which he was made to adopt A. and de- clare him liis successor. Her bribes also had in the mean time prepared the troops to espouse the cause of A. After these preparations had been made, A. sent infor- mation of the emperor's death from Anu- och to Rome, pretended that the imperial dignity had been forced upon him, prom- ised the senate that he would discharge faithfully the duties of his station, and as- sured the pretorian guards that they should receive twice the usual present. A. D. 117, he ascended the imperial throne, appeared in Rome, and strove at first to win the favor of the people by the mildness of his administration. It was not long, however, before he manifested a cow- ardly and suspicious character, together with too great a devotion to pleasure. Among other things, he purchased peace from the Sarmatians and Roxolani, who had attacked Ulyria, by the payment of a tribute. From A. D. 120 to 131, he made his famous journey on foot, and with his head uncovered, through all the provinces of his empire. In Egypt, he lost his favorite Antinous (q. v.), whose death he lamented long and bitterly. During his stay of two years in Athens, he established a colony of Roman sol- diers on the site of the ruined Jerusalem; ADRIAN. 65 and on the spot where the temple of Solo- mon had stood, he erected a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus. Upon this, a dread- ful insurrectionbrokeout among the Jews, which lasted two years and a half. He embellished Athens with buildings, and finished the temple of the Olympian Ju- piter, begun 560 years before. A. died at Bajae, 138 A. D. in the 63d year of his age, and the 21st of his reign. He had good qualities and great faults. He pro- moted literature and the arts, did many good things on his journey, established the edictum perpetuum, enacted laws against dissipation and the cruelties of the slave trade, prohibited human sacri- fices, forbade the indiscriminate bathing of men and women, &c. Antoninus Pius succeeded him. It was with much difficulty that his successor could obtain a decree from the senate, granting him, according to usage, divine honors. A. wrote several books; among others a his- tory of his own life, under the name' of Phlegon, one of his freedmen, which is no longer extant. He composed, not long before he breathed his last, the fol- lowing lines: Animula, vagula, blandula, Hospes, comesque corporis, Quae nunc abibis in loca Pallidula, rigid?, nudula T Nee, ut soles, dubis jocos. Pope has imitated them. Adrian. There have been six popes of this name. The first, a Roman, ruled from 772 to 795, was a cotemporary and friend of Charlemagne, who, on account of A.'s able defence of his claims to the crown of France, protected him with his army, 774, against Desiderius, king of the Lombards, confirmed the donation of Pepin to the territory of the church, and made further grants himself. The pope was not allowed, however, to enjoy in peace the gifts of Charlemagne till 787, after the termination of the frequent campaigns of this king against the Ital- ian princes, who claimed the territory. By confirming the decrees of the council of Nice, 786, in favor of the worship of images, A. gave offence to Charlemagne, who was opposed to the practice, and procured a repeal of the decree at the council of Frankfort. The repeal was resisted by A.; but he so carefully and skilfully avoided offending the king, that he remained his friend, and honored him after his death, 795, with an inscription, yet preserved in the Vatican. Though by no means a profound theologian, A. obtained great influence by the correctness of his conduct, and his decision of character. By a prudent use of this influence, he greatly increased his power.—Adrian II, a Roman, was elected pope in 867, at the age of 75 years. He was esteemed for his virtues, and famous on account of his bold opposition to the divorce of Lothaire, king of Lotharingia, from his wife Thiet- berga. By interfering in the dispute, which arose after the death of Lothaire, between Charles the Bald and the empe- ror Louis, respecting the right of succes- sion, he made the former his enemy. He had another dispute in France, where bishop Hincmar of Laon had been dis- missed against his will; he likewise excommunicated the patriarch Photius of Constantinople, on account of his spiritual jurisdiction over Bulgaria, which diminished the authority of the pope, since the Greek church maintained its independence against him, and made Bulgaria dependent on itself. He died 872, in the midst of his conflicts with this church,—Adrian III, a Roman, elected 884, was pope for 1 year and 4 months only. He was opposed to the influence of the emperors on the election of the pope, and determined, if Charles the Fat should die without heir, to give Italy a new king.—Adrian IV, an Englishman, originally named Nicholas Breakspear, rose, by his great talents, from the situa- tion of a poor monk to the rank of cardi- nal, and legate in the north, where he established at Drontheim the first Nor- wegian archbishopric, and a second at Upsal. He was elected pope in 1154, and waged an unsuccessful war against William, king of Sicily, who, at the peace of 1156, claimed the privilege, still exist- ing in the monorchia Sicilies, so caUed, that, in matters relating to the church, nothing should be done by the pope without the consent of the king. The emperor Frederic I, who, before, had held his stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome, June 18, 1155, was opposed to this peace with William, his enemy. A. increased his resentment by the haughty language of his letters, and instigated the Lombards against him. Frederic, on the other hand, acted in ecclesiastical matters as if there had been no pope. Before these difficulties came to a close, A. died, Sept. 1,1159, at Anagni. The permission which he gave to Henry II, king of England, to invade Ireland, on the con- dition that every family of that island should pay annually a penny to the papal chair, because all islands belong to the 66 ADRIAN—ADRIATIC SEA. pope, is worthy of remark. On this grant the subsequent popes founded their claims on Ireland.—Adrian V, previous- ly called Ottoboni da Fiesco, of Genoa, settled, as legate of the pope, the dispute between king Henry HI of England and his nobles, in favor of the former; but died soon after his election to the papal chair, 1276.—Adrian VI, son of a me- chanic of Utrecht, and professor in Lou- vain, was, in 1507, appointed tutor of the emperor Charles V. When ambassador of the emperor Maximilian, in 1515, he persuaded Ferdinand the CathoUc to nominate young Charles his successor to the Spanish throne; after which he be- came, in 1516, bishop of Tortosa and regent of Spain, and, in 1517, cardinal. The Spaniards were not pleased with his severe and often partial government, and expressed great joy when, at the sug- gestion of Charles V, he was elected to the papal chair, in 1522. He was not less hated at Rome, on account of his antip- athy to classical literature, and his honest endeavors to reform the papal court, to abolish the prevailing luxury, bribery, and other abuses; but his efforts were frustrated by the cardinals, and, if they had been successful, could not have pre- vented the progress of the reformation already begun in Germany. A. opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even attempted to excite Erasmus and ZuingUus against him ; but his abilities were not equal to the existing emergency. His measures against France also were unsuccessful. Notwithstanding his honest efforts and upright character, he died unlamented, in 1525, after a reign of one year and a half. His reign was, according to his own confession, the most unhappy period of his Ufe. On his tomb, in the church of St Peter, is the follow- ing epitaph: Adrianus Papa VI hie situs est, Qui nihil sibi infelicius In vita, Quam quod imperaret, Duxit. Adrianople (in Turkish, Edrene), the second capital and residence of the Otto- man rulers, is situated in ancient Thrace (now Rumelia), on the banks of the navi- gable river Hebrus (now Maritza). On this spot a smaU town formerly stood, inhabited by the Bessi, a Thracian tribe. The emperor Adrian founded this city on the left bank of the Hebrus, caUed it after his own name, and made it the cap- ital of the province of mt Haemus. From the range of hills on which it is situated, it commands a beautiful prospect ove^a large and fertile plain, divided by two ranees of hills, between which the river mnf I was fortified, and resisted in the Xh century, the violent attack of the vic- toriousSb, who were however, igno- rant of the mode of conducting a regular siege. To give it the appearance of a Greek origin, the writers of Byzanti- um called it Orestea or Orestias. Ac- cording to their accounts, it is five days' journey distant from Constantinople. In 1360, it was taken by Amurath, the Turkish sultan; and from that time it continued to be the residence of the Turkish emperors for nearly a century, until the conquest of Constantinople. The number of the houses is 16,000, and that of the inhabitants 100,000, among whom there are 30,000 Greeks, under an archbishop. It contains also an impe- rial palace, 40 mosques, of which that of Selim II and of Amurath II are the most magnificent, 22 bathing estabUshments, with beautiful aqueducts, important manufactures, and exports, among other articles, oil of roses, which is made in its vicinity, of the best kind. Adrian's Wall ; a celebrated Roman work in the north of England. This work, though caUed by the Roman his- torians mums, which signifies a waU of stone, was only composed of earth cov- ered with green turf. It was carried from the Solway frith, in as direct a line as possible, to the river Tyne, on the east, at the place where the town of New- castle now stands; so that it must have been above 60 English and nearly 70 Ro- man miles in length. It consisted of four parts: 1, the principal agger, mound of earth or rampart, on the brink of the ditch ; 2, the ditch, on the north side of the rampart; 3, another rampart on the south side of the principal one, about five paces distant from it; 4, a large rampart on the north side of the ditch. For many ages, this work has been in so ruin- ous a condition, that it is impossible to discover its original dimensions with cer- tainty. But from their appearance, it seems probable that the principal ram- part was at least ten or twelve feet higlu. and the south one not much less; the northern one was considerably lower. The ditch, taken as it passes through a lime-stone quarry near Harlow hiU, ap- pears to have been 9 feet deep and 11 feet wide at the top. The north rampart was about twenty feet distant from the ditch. Adriatic Sea (mare Adriaticum, Adri- ADRIATIC SEA—ADULTERY. 67 anum), now more commonly called gulf of Venice, though in Italian, German and French the old name continues, is an arm of the Mediterranean included by the coasts of Italy, Illyria, Dalmatia, Al- bania and Epirus, about 200 leagues long and 50 broad, extending from south-east to north-west lat. 40° to 50° 53 north. It contains about 90,000 sq. miles of sur- face. Different derivations of the name are given. On the Austrian coast it has a number of small islands, and forms many bays, the most remarkable of which are those of Trieste, Quarnaro and Cattaro. It is called the gulf of Venice from the city of this name, which formerly claimed exclusive dominion over this sea, and in those times annually wedded it on As- cension Day. The ceremony was per- formed by the doge of Venice throwing a ring into the sea with great pomp. The entrance of the gulf is commanded by Corfu, one of the Ionian islands un- der the British government. The coast of the A. sea is, in many places, very dangerous. The most important ports on the gulf are Venice (since 1829 a free port), Trieste, Ancona, Otranto, &c. Adule ; Adulian Marble. Adule, a city in Ethiopia, mentioned by ancient authors as the most important commer- cial place of the Troglodytes and Ethio- pians, in later times the emporium of Axum, seems to be the same with the modern Arkiko. This city, now the res- idence of the Naib of Massuah, is fre- quently mentioned on account of an in- scription, first copied in the Topogra- phia Christiana, a work partly theological, partly geographical, written by Cosmas Indicopleustes, in the 6th century, under the reign of the emperor Justin. The in- scription, engraved on marble, is contain- ed in part on a throne, the remainder on a stone separated from it, and there are many inconsistencies in the several frag- ments, which have induced some scholars to declare the inscription spurious. Be- sides the genealogy of Ptolemy Euerge- tes, it contains on a second part, which Salt supposes to be of Axumitic, that is, of Ethiopic or Abyssinian origin, the cata- logue of nations whom some king boasts to have subdued. Buttmann (in Wolfs Museum der Alterthumskunde, vol. 2, p. 105) has removed the difficulties arising from the date on the marble, which is the 27th year of the reign of a king, whose name is unknown, probably not Ptolemy Euergetrs. Several things, however, re- main to be explained, and require a more accurate knowledge than we have at pres- ent of the country where the inscription was found. Adultery. Mankind, in almost all ages, and in all civilized countries, have regarded the violation of the marriage-bed with abhorrence. It has been punished in various ways and with different de- grees of severity, according to the general manners and morals of the country; sometimes with extreme and even cruel rigor; in other instances, with capricious and ridiculous penalties. By the Jewish law, it was punished with death. Strabo says the same was the case in Arabia Felix. Among the ancient Egyptians, it was not common, but when it did occur, a thousand lashes were inflicted on the man, and the woman was deprived of her nose. In Greece, the laws against it were severe. The rich were sometimes allow- ed to redeem themselves by paying a fine; in which case, the woman's father returned the dower which he had receiv- ed from the husband. Some suppose it was refunded by the adulterer. A fre- quent punishment there, was putting out the eyes. According to Homer, adulter- ers were stoned to death. By the laws of Draco and Solon, adulterers, when caught in the act, were at the mercy of the injured party. Adulteresses were pro- hibited, in Greece, from appearing in fine garments and entering the temples. Some suppose that this offence was made capi- tal by a law of Romulus, and again by the twelve tables; others, that it was first made capital by Augustus; and others,not till the reign of Constantine. The fact is, that the punishment was left to the dis- cretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The most usual mode of ta- king revenge was by mutilating, castra- ting, or cutting off the ears or nose. The punishment assigned by the lex Julia de adulteris, instituted by Augustus, was banishment or a heavy fine. It was de- creed by Antoninus, that, to sustain a charge of adultery against a wife, the husband who brought it must be inno- cent himself. Under Macrinus, adulter- ers were burned at a stake. Under Con- stantius and Constans, they were burned or sewed in sacks and thrown into the sea. But the punishment was mitigated under Leo and Marcian to perpetual banishment, or cutting off the nose ; and under Justinian the wife was only to be scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery ; at the expiration of two years, the husband might take her again; if he refused, she was shaven, and made a nun for Ufe. Theodosius instituted the 68 ADULTERY—BILL OF ADVENTURE. shocking practice of public constupration, which, however, he soon abolished. In Crete, adulterers were covered with wool, as an emblem of their effeminacy, and carried in that dress to the magistrate's house, where a fine was imposed on them, and they were deprived of all their privileges and their share in public busi- ness. The punishment in use among the Mingrelians is the forfeiture of a hog, which is usually eaten very amicably by the woman, the gallant and the cuckold. In some parts of India, it is said, that any woman may prostitute herself for an el- ephant, and it is reputed no small glory to have been rated so high. Adultery is stated to be extremely frequent at Ceylon, although punishable with death. Among the Japanese and some other nations, adultery is punishable only in the wo- man. Among the Abyssinians, the crime of the husband is punished on the inno- cent wife. On the contrary, in the Ma- rian islands, the woman is not punishable, but the man is, and the wife and her re- lations waste his lands, bum him out of the house, &c. Among the Chinese, adultery is not capital; fond parents will even make a contract with the future husbands of their daughters, to allow them the indulgence of a gallant. In Portugal, an adulteress is condemned to the flames, but the punishment is seldom executed. By the ancient laws of France, this crime was punishable with death. In Spain, the crime was punished by the deprivation of the instrument. In Poland, previously to the estabUshment of Chris- tianity, the criminal was carried to the market-place, and there fastened by the testicles with a nail; a razor was laid within his reach, and he had the option to execute justice on himself, or remain where he was and die. The Saxons con- signed the adulteress to the flames, and over her ashes erected a gibbet, on which her paramour was hanged. King Ed- mund the Saxon ordered adultery to be punished in the same manner as homi- cide, and Canute the Dane ordered that the offender should be banished, and the woman have her ears and nose cut off. In the time of Henry I, it was punished with the loss of the eyes and the genitals. Adultery is, in England, considered a spir- itual offence, cognizable by the spiritual courts, where it is punished by fine and penance. The common law allows the party aggrieved only an action and dam- age*. The Mahommedan code pronoun- ces adultery a capital offence. It is one of the three crimes which the prophet directs to be expiated by he Wood of a Mussulman. In France, before t»,e rev- olution, an adulteress was usually con- demned to a convent, where the husband could visit her during two years, and take her back if he saw fit. It he did not choose to receive her again by the expi- ration of this time, her hair was shaven, she took the habit of the convent, and re- mained there for life. Where the parties were poor, the wife might be shut up in a hospital instead of a convent. The Code NapoUon does not allow the husband to proceed against his wife for adultery, in case he has been condemned for the same offence. The wife can bring an action against the husband only in case he has introduced his paramour into the house where she resides. An adulteress can be imprisoned from three months to two years. The husband can prevent the ex- ecution of the sentence, if he sees fit to take her back. Her partner hi guilt is liable to the same punishment. In the United States, the punishment of adultery has varied materially at different times. In the state of Massachusetts, an adulter- er or adulteress may be set on the gallows for one hour, be pubUcly whipped, be imprisoned or fined. All or any of these punishments may be inflicted, according to the degree of the offence. Corporal punishment and exposure, however, are in that state always commuted into impris- onment and labor. Moreover, adultery is very seldom punished criminaUy in the United States. Advent (from the Latin adventus, i. e. adventus Redemptoris) signifies the coming of our Savior. The name is appUed to the holy season which occupies the 4 or 6 weeks preceding Christmas. The Ro- man Catholics spend this season in fast- ing, humiliation and prayer, as if prepar- ing for the reception of the Savior of the world. This holy season is first men- tioned by Maximus Laurinensis, a divine, in one of his homilies, written in the mid- dle of the 5th century, but is supposed to have been instituted by St. Peter. No nuptials could be celebrated in Advent, since the council held at Lerida, in the 6th century, in order that Christians might more frequently partake in the Lord's supper. Adventure, bill of; in commerce, a writing signed by a merchant, to testify that the goods shipped on board a certain vessel belong to another person, who is to take the hazard, the subscriber signing only to oblige himself to account to him for the produce. ADVENTURE ISLAND—ADVOCATE. 69 Adventure Island ; a small island in the S. Pacific ocean; Ion. 144° 18' W.; lat 17° 5' S. There is also an Adventure Bay, on the S. E. coast of New Holland; Ion. 147° 29/E.; lat. 43° 21'S. Adventurers, the society of; an an- cient company of merchants, erected for the discovery of unknown regions, open- ing new channels of trade, &c. It origi- nated in Burgundy, and was established by John, duke of Brabant, in 1248, for the encouragement of English and other merchants at Antwerp. It was afterwards confirmed in England by Edward HI and IV, Richard HI, Henry IV, V, VI and VII; and by patent of the last-men- tioned monarch, hi 1505, they received the title merchant adventurers. The in- fluence of the English merchant adven- turers at Antwerp was, in 1550, so great, that they were able to resist successfully the establishment of the inquisition in that city. Advocate of the Crown ; State Ad- vocate. The institution of crown advo- cates or public attorneys (minisUre public), which is found in almost all modern sys- tems of government, has been no where so well regulated as in France. The separa- tion of the office of judge from every other has been there completed, which is not only indispensable on principles of general constitutional law, but also desirable, that the people may see in the judiciary judg- es only, and not men who, by virtue of their office, are obUged to take care of the interests of the state and the government, and who, when these interests are in question, must be necessarily, at the same time, both party and judge. It is not suf- ficient that the judge be personaUy con- scious of impartiaUty; he should be so situated, that no particular effort should be required to attain it. Those who ap- pear before the judge should have no oc- casion to doubt it. It must be considered as a particular defect in criminal proceed- ings, if the judge is obliged, by his office, to occupy the place of accuser, as he must necessarily appear to be the adversa- ry of the accused persons. To avoid these inconveniences, the office of public advo- cate was established in France in early times, and constituted an essential part of the establishment for the administration of justice. It has given to the whole class of advocates higher honor and considera- tion. This institution originated in those times when the modem constitution of the courts began to develope itself, by means of permanent sessions of the par- liaments, and through the agency of per- manent members of these bodies, who were versed in the law. This period was about the beginning of the 14th century; for, although the lungs of the Merovin- gian and Carlovingian dynasties had their advocates (procuratores or actores regis), these were only officers appointed for the collection of the revenue; and the office of the crown advocate did not acquire greater authority until the highest court of law of the hereditary possessions of the line of Capet (the parliament of Paris) had attained a permanent session in that capital. As early as 1356, the procureur general appears making a complaint against the city of Tournay, which had maintained an asylum for the protection of notorious murderers, and proposed the abolition of a usage so contrary to the principles of justice. Every thing which related to pubUc order, the rights of the crown, and the general welfare, was pla- ced under the cognizance of these officers, who, as the president Henrion de Pansey says (De I'autorite judiciare en France, ch. 12, p. 185), have rendered incalculable services to the crown and to the people. In every supreme court of the realm (the parliaments), and in the cours souveraines, which were substantially equal to them, and in the chambres des comples, the cours des aides, &c. a procureur general was appointed, who was the soul of the institution, the representative of the king and state in the court. In his name were made all motions in the court; al- though the first avocat general took pre- cedence of him in rank, and though, in some cases, he was bound by the major- ity of voices, and the avocats generaux who stood next to him had the exclusive privilege of arguing orally at the sessions of the court, wherein they were entirely independent of the procureur general. In the same rank with the procureur general stood one or more avocats generaux, and under them were certain substitutes. The business was not apportioned among them every where in the same manner, but was arranged in each tribunal by pe- culiar regulations; but, as a common rule, the same distinction existed between them which generally prevailed in France between the orders of avocats and pro- cureurs, assigning to the latter that part in the management of a cause which was performed in writing, and to the former, the oral argument. Under the crown advocates belonging to the highest courts were the procureurs du roi, and there was no court in France, in which such an officer was not appointed, excepting 70 ADVOCATE. 6. It was only the consril du roi, and the commer- the correction of the aDUS_ 00(j or_ cial courts. Even in the feudal courts, his duty, moreover, to pres^ ^6 atmch_ the lord had a similar officer under the name of procureurfiscal. The sphere of action of the state advocates, as is evi- dent from the nature of the institution, ed He had no authority, indeed, to cor ea. ne u*u i if uut could make rect irregulanties himseu, uui ^ was very extensive and important. 1. It who were bound to de^r f the fac^to comprehended every thing that related to He could also make report ^ ^ the royal domains and the public proper- the higher authorities.. io y ty; and this part of their duties, which feet this part of his duty, it ™s Proved give origin to the whole institution, fur- that, every half year on the first Wednes- nishes now, in other countries, almost the day after the vacation of the^ourts^ only business of these advocates. The session should be heldwiA^closed doors fiscal, in most of the German states, has (originally on the first Wednesday of ev- been confined almost entirely to the rep- ery month , at which the P^cureurje- resentation and defence of the pubUc nhral should report aU the delmquenc.es property and the state treasury in the which he had observed uthepublicand courts; ofthe other branch of the official private conduct of the judges advocates duties of the French crown advocate, and infenor procureurs. Ihese reports, viz. the prosecution of crimes, only such as they were made on Wednesday, were portion has been assigned to the German called Mercurials, and, to give them more fiscal as consists in the support and de- weight, they were sent to the chancel or fence of the legal prerogative and fiscal of France. The avocat gbihaxwas also rights, and in the collection of the fiscal accustomed, at the first session of the court fines. 2. The crown advocate in France, after the vacation, to deliver a discourse in all criminal proceedings, occupied the on some important point of the official station of public prosecutor, and appeared duties of the judge or advocate, by which as a party against the accused. To him many of them, e. g. D'Aguesseau, have was assigned the duty of instituting the greatly distinguished themselves. 7. lo proceedings in criminal cases, of procur- the duties of the state advocates also be- ing evidence, of replying to the defence, longed the support of the authority of the and finaUy of introducing the motions for court to which they were attached; and, punishment By this means, the office 8. The representation of all corporations of judge was, in most respects, established and persons or things placed under the on correct principles, and relieved from especial guardianship of the state, viz. the the double and often inconsistent duty of church, charitable institutions, ecclesias- taking care as well of the accusation as of the defence. In France, the judges have only to decide correctly on the mo- tions of the parties. 3. In the old consti- tution of France, as well as in Germany, the departments of the police and the ju- diciary were in the same hands. In the exercise of power by the courts, as heads of the police, the crown advocates bore an important part. No police ordinance could be issued before the procureur ge- neral had been heard thereupon; in fact, they were usually proposed by him. 4. The ordinances of the king, both those of a pubUc and those of a private character, including pardons, promotions, &c, were published and carried into effect by entry on the records of the courts. Such entries, tical societies, congregations, minors, in- sane persons, notorious spendthrifts and absent persons. Whenever the interest of such persons or corporations came in question, it was necessary that the state advocate should be consulted and heard. Officers with such powers could not be treated as subordinate to the courts. In point of fact, the procureur general stood in the same rank with the president of the courts; and as his office, like the oth- ers connected with the administration of justice, was venal, extravagant sums were sometimes paid for it. The celebrated minister of finance under Louis XIV, Nicholas Fouquet, sold his office of first avocat general in the parliament of Paris, for 1,400,000 livres. The procureurs which, it is well known, often met with generaux and avocats generaux had also opposition, could be made only on the motion of the crown advocate. 5. It was the duty of this officer to watch over the execution of the laws, particularly in the courts themselves. Wherever the state advocate observed any violation or neg- lect of legal rules, he took measures for the same official dresses as the presidents; these were long, black, and, on solemn occasions, scarlet robes, square caps, &c. The revolution has made many changes in this institution. Its circle of official duties has been narrowed, but, on the other hand, it has gained in unity, connexion ADVOCATE. 71 and solidity. These officers were at first called commissaries of the king, afterwards, of the government. Under the imperial government, particularly by the decrees of April 20 and July 6, 1810, the institution was put nearly on its old footing, and has remained so ever since. Attached to ev- ery court of appeal (cour royale) is a pro- cureur general; under him is an avocat ge- neral for the civil department of the court, and also one for that branch of the court which has appellate jurisdiction of cases trie J before the police correctionnelle,which has cognizance of all minor offences, sim- ple thefts, trespasses, and, lately, offences of the press. There are likewise two sub- stitutes or deputies to supply the place of these officers. All these stand immediate- ly under the minister of justice, receive commands from him, and give regular information of the administration of jus- tice within their precincts. It is incum- bent on them to send to the minister of justice, semi-annually, a list of processes, especially of delayed causes, that is, such as have been waiting for oral discussion longer than three months. Under them are the procureurs criminels in the courts of assize, and the procureurs du roi in the courts of the first instance (the provincial or district courts), and all the officers of the judicial poUce, so called, viz. the com- missioners of police, the mayors of cities, justices of the peace, officers of the gen- darmerie, field and forest rangers and their deputies. The sale of offices is abolish- ed; all the crown advocates are appointed by the king, hut not for life, like the judges; on the contrary, they are remov- able at pleasure. Their former official duties are lessened only in so far as the province of the courts has become more confined. The state advocates still take care that the laws are correctly adminis- tered, and act as representatives of the public interests. They are the organs of the executive department of government in the courts, and are required to attend to the execution of judgments in which the state is interested. As a part of their gen- eral duty of enforcing the strict observ- ance of the laws in the courts, it is also incumbent on them to oppose those judg- ments in which the parties acquiesce, but which contain any contravention or erro- neous exposition of the laws, lest the public should be thereby injured. These decisions, indeed, are binding on the par- ties, but a more strict adherence to the laws is enjoined on the courts for the fu- ture. One of the most important duties of the state advocates is, the institution of the trials for offences before the police courts and the courts of assize, which they are bound to attend to in their capacity of public prosecutors. All reports of crimes committed are to be made to the procureur criminel, and by him to that member of the district court, who is ap- pointed to conduct the preliminary exam- inations, the juge oVinstruction. The pro- cureur criminel searches out the evidence, summons the witnesses, and, when the preliminary examination is concluded, makes the necessary motions in court, either for the acquittal of the accused, or for the institution of further proceedings, varying, of course, according to the na- ture of the offence, which may be a mat- ter cognizable by the ordinary police magistrates, or falling within the jurisdic- tion of the police correctionnelle, or belong- ing to the courts of assize as a crime in the strict sense of the word. In aU these cases, an oral discussion takes place, but only criminal causes, technically so call- ed, before the courts of assize, are tried by a jury. The jurisdiction of the police correctionnelle is limited to offences, the punishment of which does not exceed 5 years' imprisonment. At the opening of criminal causes, the procureur general is required to ask of the court, in the first instance, a formal bill of complaint (mise en accusation), which formerly was found by the jury d'accusation (corresponding to the English grand jury), but now origi- nates from a branch of the court of ap- peals, and is very similar to the report of a special inquisition in the German courts. After this, the procureur general draws up the indictment, which serves as a basis for the subsequent proceedings, summons the witnesses, and assists in empanneUing the jury, as he has, like the accused, a right of challenging. He sees that the proceedings are rightly conducted, and is allowed to propose questions to the wit- nesses. After the examination of the witnesses is concluded, he makes the motions for condemnation (conclusions), grounded on the evidence produced in the course of the trial, and subsequently the accused is heard in his own defence. The court may decree a severer punish- ment than is moved for by the officers of government; and, on the other hand, the state advocate has the right to appeal from too mild a sentence (appel a mini- ma), though he is bound to acquiesce in an acquittal by the jury. Finally, the crown advocates attend also to the exe- cution of the sentence, and thus every thing is committed to them which may 72 ADVOCATE. be considered as flowing from the exec- utive department of government In re- gard to the great exceUence of this whole institution, there prevails but one voice among the French lawyers and statesmen. It allows the judges to lay aside all con- siderations except those of strict justice, as it relieves them from the duty of taking care of the interests of the government. By means of the subordination in which the state procureurs in the courts of the districts (arrondissemcnts) and the procu- reurs aiminels stand to the office of state advocate in the courts of appeals, and the procureurs generaux in the last to the min- ister of justice, that unity of influence is maintained, which the government should exercise over the courts and the adminis- tration of justice. When every thing goes on properly, this influence will not be al- lowed to overstep its natural and benefi- cial limits, and to interrupt or disturb the right of the judges to decide according to law. It cannot, indeed, be denied, that the great power confided to the state ad- vocates is liable to abuse. This is not the place to pronounce judgment on the complaints which have been brought against the procureurs generaux, e. g. on the occasion of the criminal trial of the merchant Fonk at Cologne; but the ex- istence of these complaints proves what it is in the power of a state advocate to do, if he chooses to misuse his power for purposes of oppression and the gratifica- tion of selfish passions. In France, of late, the state advocates are charged with being influenced too much by poUtioal differences of opinion. Some of them, in particular, have drawn upon themselves thereby very severe animadversions. It is said that, in the trials of general Berton, of Caron and Roger, at Colmar, and oth- ers, on account of political offences, they sought to impUcate persons against whom nothing could be proved but a justifiable opposition to the ministry, in accordance with the charter and the nature of a representative government It is well known how severely Benjamin Constant expressed himself on this point, with re- gard to the procureur general of Saumur. Certainly the dependence of the crown advocates on the government has a ten- dency to give a certain bias to their official conduct. But this bias is not very perni- cious, because it is a notorious and natu- ral consequence of their official situation, and the judge is required, as well as em- powered, to resist it.—England has also her superior state advocates, the attorney general and soUcitor general; but, in con- formity with the English J"'"^ ^ tern, their sphere of action is much more limited, and is not to be compared with that of the French ministdre public. In criminal causes, the prosecution is con- ducted, indeed, in the name and by the advocates of the crown ; but a great deal depends on the injured party, and the po- lice magistrates, that is, the justices of the peace. The former have it in their pow- er by avoiding to appear at the trial (al- though Uable to punishment for so doing), to defeat the whole proceeding; and, in every session of the courts, a large num- ber of accused persons are set free, be- cause, after a public summons or procla- mation in court, no person appears against them. In Scotland, the king's advocate, or lord advocate, is an officer of great power and dignity, and is empowered to commence prosecutions without com- plaint presented by an injured party.— So, in other countries, there exist officers under the names of fiscal, advocatus fisri, advocatus patrias, &c. • But these have not the authority which is indispensable to render their offices as efficient as that of the French advocate.—Frederic II of Prussia had the office of the French advocate hi mind when he conferred greater powers on the office of fiscal, and appointed a superior fiscal in each of the superior courts, to whom the provincial fiscals in the inferior courts were subor- dinate; at the head of these stood the fis- cal general at Berlin. But the institution was deficient in strength. It has not ac- quired the efficiency of the French mi- nistere public, and appears to have fallen almost entirely into disuse.—But, even in France, it is capable of an important, and, we may well say, a necessary extension of authority, if the constitutional respon- sibility of the higher offices of state is ever to be seriously insisted on. It is necessary, and this remark may be appli- ed to all representative governments, that the state advocate should be required to watch over the execution of the laws in the highest offices of government; and therefore a superior state advocate should be appointed, to whom (as to the Prussian fiscal-general) the ministers should be re- quired to render an account of their ad- ministration, and who, when any viola- tion of the law came to his knowledge, should be bound to make a report there- of to the representatives of the people. There should be a still further extension of the institution, by placing in subordi- nation to the crown advocate, who re- ceives the orders of the ministry, a state ADVOCATE. 73 or national advocate (in a narrow sense), who should be considered as the officer of the, people, and should be obliged to come forward whenever the interest of the treasury came into collision with that of wards, absentees, and the Uke. Then this institution would answer the high purposes for which it was designed. (See Das Institut der Staatsanwaltschaft, by Midler, counsellor of state, Leipsic, 1825.)—In the United States, the attorney general is an officer under the federal constitution, corresponding substantially to the English law officer of that name. His duty, as defined by the law of con- gress, is, to prosecute and conduct all suits in the supreme court of the union, in which the United States shall be con- cerned, and to give his advice and opin- ion upon questions of law, when required by the president of the United States, or when requested by the officers at the head of any of the departments, touching any matters that may concern their depart- ments. He is also required to examine all letters patent for useful inventions, and to certify to the secretary of state whether they are conformable to the law on that subject, previously to the pubUc seal being affixed to them. The attorney general of the United States is also a member of the president's cabinet council. In addition to this law officer, the government of the United States has in each of the states (which, in judicial proceedings, are styled districts) a district attorney, as he is called, whose duty it is, withm his particular state, to prosecute, on behalf of the United States, all delinquents for crimes and of- fences cognizable under the authority of the United States' laws, and all civil actions in which the United States shall be con- cerned, except those which come before the supreme court, in the district in which that court shall be holden. Besides these law officers of the general government of the United States, each of the states of the union has its attorney general and sub- ordinate public prosecutors, or attorneys, for its territorial subdivisions or districts; and their duties are, to prosecute and de- fend in aU causes, criminal and civil, aris- ing under the local laws of their respect- ive states, and in which their own state is concerned. Advocates. This profession has play- ed a conspicuous part in almost every civilized country. Among the Romans, the greatest statesmen and orators belong- ed to this class, devoting themselves es- pecially to the defence of criminal causes of importance. Those of less consequence vol. i. 7 and of a civil character were committed to procurators. The advocates of Eng- land and France are often men of high rank, enjoying an ample income and the prospect of attaining to the highest digni- ties of the state. Men of the best tal- ents, therefore, are found in their ranks. In Germany and some of the other coun- tries of Europe, the advocates occupy a comparatively subordinate station in the courts. The profession is there consid- ered only as a preparatory step to pubUc employments, and these frequently of an humble description. This is the cause of the inferiority of the German lawyers in general to those of England and France; and the whole administration of justice there suffers from the same cause. There are exceptions, however, in some of the German states, particular- ly in Pmssia. In the French revolution, the lawyers acted the most important part in public affairs. Advocati eccledarum, superintendents of the property of the church, divided, according to their several offices, into defensores, causidiri, adores, pastores laid, &c, were first appointed under the consulship of Stilico. The pope, at the same time, issued orders, that the bishops, abbots and churches should have good advocates. These offi- ces were first intmsted to canons, but afterwards were held even by monarchs; e. g. the German emperor, the king of France, &c. became advocati of the Ro- man church. The advocates set over single churches administered justice in secular affairs in the name of the bishops and the abbots, and had jurisdiction over their whole dioceses. In case of neces- sity, they defended the property of the clergy by force of arms. In the courts of justice, they pleaded the causes of the churches with which they were connect- ed. They superintended the collection of the tithes and the other revenues of the church, and enjoyed, on the part of the convents, many benefices and consid- erable revenues. After a time, these ad- vocates and their assistants becoming a burden to the clergy and the people under their charge, who began to suffer severely from their avarice, the churches attempted to get rid of them. Urban 111 labored to deliver the church from these oppressors, but was astonished to find, A. D. 1186, the German prelates, in con- nexion with the emperor Frederic I, op- posed to it. Under the emperor Frederic II, most of the German churches suc- ceeded, however, in abolishing these offi- ces by the grant of large sums of money 74 ADVOCATES—jEDILES. and of various immunities.—In the U. States, the profession of the law possesses an extensive influence upon society. It embraces, as it does in England, various classes of lawyers, such as proctors, con- veyancers, solicitors, attorneys, and lastly, and above aU, counsellors, or advocates. In the U. States, the different branches of the profession are often carried on by the same person, though this practice is not universal, especially in large cities. The higher ranks of lawyers in the U. States enjoy great public and private confidence. Many of them are selected for the first pub- lic employments in the state, e. g. for the presidency, for the office of senators and representatives in the national and state legislatures, for governors, for secretaries of the great departments, and for foreign embassies. From this class of men are also taken, almost as a matter of course, the judges of the various courts in the union. The constitutions and laws of the several states entitle every person, in civil as well as criminal cases, to the assistance of counsel, and generally two are admitted on each side. AU trials are public, and forensic eloquence is eagerly heard. The profession of the law is very numerous in the U. States, on accoimt both of its emoluments, and its free access to public favor and patronage. There is no diffi- culty in gaining admission to the courts, as an advocate, after three or four years of preparatory studies; and, after admis- sion, success is generally in proportion to talents and industry, and devotion to juridical studies. Of the seven presidents of the U. States, six were bred to the law. Advocate's Library. In 1660, the faculty of advocates in Edinburgh found- ed a library upon an extensive plan, sug- gested by sir George M'Kenzie, of Rose- haugh, advocate to Charles II and James II, who enriched it with many valuable books. It has been daily increasing since that time. It contains, besides law-books, works on all subjects, many original man- uscripts, and a great variety of coins and medals. Advowson (from advoco); in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice, or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a va- cant church. The name is derived from advocatio, because the right was first ob- tained by such as were founders, bene- factors, or strenuous defenders (advocates) of the church. Those who have this right are styled patrons. Advowsons are of three kinds—presentative, collative and donative; presentative, when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be instituted; coUatu, when the bishop is the patron, and msttutes or collates his clerk by a «**'« «£' * na- tive, when a church is founded by the king, and assigned to the patron without being subject to the ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without presentation, institution or mduc- Ady; the palm-tree of the island of St. Thomas. Its juice suppUes the place of wine among the Indians. The fruit, caU- ed abanga, is of the shape and size of a lemon, and is eaten roasted. An oil, prepared from this fruit, answers the pur- pose of butter. Adytum (from «, not, and &'«>, to en- ter) ; the most retired and sacred place in the ancient temples, into which priests only were allowed to enter. It corre- sponded to the Jewish holy of hoUes (sanctum sanctorum). Macvs ; son of Jupiter and the nymph jEgina, daughter of the river god Aso- pus. He acquired the government of the island called after his mother, and be- came, by his uprightness, a favorite with the gods. In compUance with his prayers, his father peopled anew the island, which had been depopulated by the plague. The new inhabitants sprung from ants, and were termed, on that account, Myr- midons. Greece, too, was delivered, at his entreatv, from a great drought and famine. T*he name of his wife was En- deis, and Peleus and Telamon were his children. iE., on account of his love of justice, was joined with Minos and Rhad- amanthus in the office of judging the dead. His particular duty was the dis- tribution of rewards and punishments. He is represented as seated upon a tribu- nal, bearing a crown and sceptre; as a distinguishing mark, he carries the key of the infernal world, given to him by Pluto. jEdiles ; Roman magistrates of sec- ondary rank, who had the supervision of public spectacles and public edifices, and decided questions relating to the erection of buildings, and to the police of the market. At first, there were but two, chosen from the common people (ozdiles plebdi). At the end of the 4th century from the foundation of Rome, two more were added from among the patricians, to whom an ivory chair (sella curulis) was allowed, and who were thence called ozdp.es curules. Julius Caesar added the third class (cediles Cereales), to whose care the pubUc granaries were intrusted. iEGEON—^GINETAN STYLE. 75 jEgjeon ; in ancient mythology, a huge giant, the son of Titan and Terra, who was fabled to have had 100 hands, with which he threw 100 rocks at once at Ju- piter, who, when he had overcome him, bound him with 100 chains. tEgean Sea ; the ancient name of the modern Archipelago (q. v.; see also JE- geus). jEgeus ; king of Athens and father of Theseus, by yEthra, daughter of Pittheus, king of Troezene. He caused him to be secretly educated at Troezene, to deceive the sons of Pallas (Pallantides), who ex- pected to succeed him, on the supposi- tion that he was childless. In order that he might recognise his son, he concealed a sword, and some other articles, under a stone, on his departure from Troezene, and left orders that Theseus should bring them to Athens when he had reached a certain age. As soon as this young hero became acquainted with his birth, he has- tened to Athens, where he was at first repulsed, and in danger of his life; but his father finaUy acknowledged him, and declared him successor to his throne. Under the erroneous idea that Theseus had been devoured by the Minotaur, JE. plunged into the sea, from which circum- stance the Archipelago, between Greece and Asia, as far as the Hellespont, re- ceived the name of the JEgean sea. (See Theseus.) iEGiNA,now Engia, or Egina ; a Gre- cian island in the Saronic gulf, about 30 nines in circumference. In ancient times, it constituted an independent state, and was rich and flourishing by reason of its commerce. The Greeks had a common temple in it, dedicated to Jupiter. The capital of this island was called also Mgina. jEginetan Style and Monuments of Art. An association of English and German artists and lovers of the arts was formed in 1811, chiefly with a view of obtaining an architectural survey of the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, at iE^i- na, which is one of the most beautiful remains of the Doric architecture. A sketch of this temple may be found in the EngUsh Journal of Science, and in Isis, a periodical edited by Oken, in Ger- many. This undertaking was amply re- warded by a fine collection of valuable sculpture, which once adorned the east- ern and western fronts of that noble edi- fice. It was purchased by the king of Bavaria in 1812, and the deficient parts restored by Thorwaldson. Every mem- ber of the association received a cast of it carefully executed in plaster of Paris. These works are valuable as faithful imi- tations of nature, and for the light which they shed over one of the darkest peri- ods in the history of art. They show that the ^Eginetan style of art was inde- pendent of the Attic. Pausanias calls SmiUs the Daedalus of ^Egina, assures us that he was the contemporary of Daeda- lus, and ascribes therefore to the jEgine- tan style equal antiquity and independ- ence with the Attic. The language and manners of ./Egina were Doric; and its sculpture has a Doric character, as dis- tinct from the Attic (which was original- ly Ionic) as Doric poetry and architect- ure. The characteristic peculiarity and aim of the iEginetan style is the faithful and exact imitation of nature, carried even to deception. Attic art was a daughter of the ./Egyptian,and a striving afterthe ideal is perceptible in both. To gain a clear idea of primitive art, we must distinguish between the ^Egyptian, ancient Attic, iEginetan and Etrurian styles. Rude- ness, stiffness and meagerness belong to the first attempts in every art. In other respects, they differ from one another, al- though, at a later period, they exercise a mutual influence. The perfection of art in Phidias has hitherto appeared almost a miracle; but we now comprehend how the ^Eginetan school, imitating nature with almost perfect exactness, pointed out the way to the ancient Attic, teaching it to rise from the abstract to the living, from the conventional to the natural. Thus we find the long-desired link of connexion between the ancient severe and beautiful styles. Since the creations of Phidias, the traces of the proper iEgi- netan style have disappeared. There was subsequently, therefore, only one perfect style of art, which spread over all Greece; and JEginetan became the name for primitive sculpture. Smilis was the father and founder of the Mgi- netan style of art; next to him came Cal- lon, who Uved between the 60th and 70th Olympiads (540—500 B. C.) About the time of Phidias, there Uved the following masters, famous in this style : Anaxago- ras, who made the Jupiter which was placed in Olympia at the common ex- pense of all the Greeks, who fought victo- riously at Platasa, B. C. 379; Simon, the maker of the consecrated offering of a certain Phormis at Olympia; and Glau- cias and Onatas, who flourished in the 78th Olympiad. The ^Eginetan figures now exhibited at Munich are 17. They may be divided into 4 classes: 1. upright, 76 iEGINETAN STY LI'—.EGISTII! S. clothed, and female; 2. advancing or fighting combatants; 3. kneeling, or archers; 4. lying, or wounded. The largest of these figures is Minerva. She is a little above the human size ; aU the others are rather below this measure. If we consider the style of these works, there prevails in every part of the bodies, the head excepted, a minute imitation of nature, without the least traces of the ideal. Still the imitation is neither poor nor offensive to the rules of art hut a good copy of beautiful nature, with the most perfect knowledge of the bones and muscles. With respect to proportion, these figures are slender, rather small at the hips, and the legs remarkably long. There is much life in the attitudes, though they are not altogether free from a certain stiffness, such as may be observed in the paintings of Giotto, Masaccio, Perugino, &c. The heads seem to belong to an earlier epoch of art; the eyes project, and arc lengthened somewhat in the Chi- nese fashion ; the mouth has prominent lips, with well marked edges; the corners in some are turned up; the nose is rather small; the ears finished with the greatest care; the chin is full, and» gen- erally too large. They all look alike, and exhibit not the slightest expression < i" passion; between conquerors and con- quered, gods and men, there is not the least difference. The appearance of the hair is not natural, but stiff and conven- tional. The arms are rather short; the hands natural to deception; not a wrinkle of the skin is forgotten. The legs are wefl shaped; the knees masterly; the feet elegant; and the toes, which are rather too long, run out parallel. The drapery is close to the body, with folds artificially arranged. Though the style is hard, the execution is tasteful ina the " well-fortified seat of the ^Eacidce," probably referring to these images, for no one of the sons of iEacus then remained in the country. The marble of which they are wrought is Parian, of the kind usually called Gre- chetto. The colors perceptible here and there on the figures are vermiUon and azure. All the decorations and foUage of the temple, which are generaUy carved, were painted. The niches of the fronts in which these figures stood were azure, the partitions red, the foliage green and yellow, and even the marble tiles were painted with a kind of flower. We cannot call this system of painting barbarous; we find it even on the Parthenon. Winc- kelmann was the first who conjectured the existence of an ancient school of art in /Egina, from the accounts of Pausanias. (See Wagner's Bericht uber die JEginetische Bildwerke herausgegeben, und mit kunst- geschichtliehen. Anmerkungen begleitet von Schelling, 1817; Wagner's Report on the JEginetan Remains of Art, &c.) Sub- sequently, K. Otfr. Miiller, in his learned and acute work, JEginadicorum Liber, Leipsic, 1820, attempted to determine their relation to the other monuments still extant; and Thiersch to investigate their mythological signification. Against the idea of a peculiar iEginetan style of art, deduced from these marbles, Henry Meyer wrote in Gothe's Kunst und Alter- thum, 3 Bd. 1. Heft., and opposed the derivation of Grecian sculpture from the Egyptian as strenuously as Winckelmann advocated it. ^Eginhard. (See Eginhard.) jEgis ; the shield of Jupiter, who is called by Homer the JEgis-bearer. It derives its name from the she-goat .ay to the state the tithe of the produce of the field, the fifth of the produce of the fruit-tree and the vineyard, and for every head of large stock,—and for every head of small stock,—yearly. 6. The pub- Uc lands shall b« farmed by the censors to those willing to take them on these terms. The funds hence arising are to be ap- plied to pay the army.—-The foregoing were the most important permanent pro- visions of the Licinian law, and, for its immediate effect, it provided that all the public land occupied: by individuals, over five hundred jugera, should be divided by lot in portions of seven jugera to the ple- beians.—But we must not hastily infer, as some readers of Niebuhr's work have done, that these agrarian laws did not in any manner violate private rights. This would be quite as far from the truth as the prevailing opinion already mentioned, which is now exploded. Besides the ar- gument we might derive from the very nature of the case, we have the direct testimony of ancient writers to the injus- tice of such laws, and their violation of private rights. It will suffice to refer to that of Cicero alone, who says, in his Offices (lib. 2, c. 21), " Those men who wish to make themselves popular, and who, for that purpose, either attempt agra- rian laws, in order to drive people from their possessions, or who maintain that creditors ought to forgive debtors what they owe, undermine the foundations of the state ; they destroy all concord, which cannot exist when money is taken from one man to be given to another; and they set aside justice, which is always violated when every man is not suffered to re- tain what is his own"—which reflections would not have been called forth, unless the laws in question had directly and plainly violated private rights. The vari- ous modes in which those rights might be violated would require a longer discus- sion, and one which would partake more of legal investigation, than might be ad- missible in the present work. But as the republic of the U. States, like that of Rome, has also been much occupied in legislating upon the subject of its public lands, and as laws have been made, in some ofthe states, bearing a considerable resemblance, in their operation, to the Roman agrarian laws, which wiU afford room for a useful and interesting com- parison between the laws of the two re- publics, we shall make some further re- marks upon this subject under the head of Public Lands. (See Lands, public.) Agricola, Cneius JuUus; a Roman consul under the emperor Vespasian, and governor in Britain, all of which he re- duced to the dominion of Rome, about 70 A. D.; distinguished as a statesman and general. His Ufe has been excellently written by his son-in-law, the famous Tacitus, who holds him up as an exam- ple of virtue. This Ufe of A., in addition to its excellence as a piece of biography, contains information interesting to the EngUsh antiquarian. Agricola, John, properly Schnitter, the son of a tailor at Eisleben, was born in 1492, and called, in his native city, mas- ter of Eisleben (magister Isleb.), also John Eisleben. He was one ofthe most active among the theologians who propagated the doctrines of Luther. He studied at Wittemberg and Leipsic; was afterwards rector and preacher in his native city, and, in 1526, at the diet of Spire, chap- lain of the elector John of Saxony. He subsequently became chaplain to count Albert, of Mansfeld, and took a part in the delivery of the confession of Augs- burg, and in the signing ofthe articles of Smalcald. When professor in Wittem- berg, whither he went in 1537, he stirred up the Antinomian controversy with Lu- ther and Melancthon. (See Antinomian- ism.) He afterwards Uved at Berlin, where he died in 1566, after a life of con- troversy. Besides his theological works, he published a work explaining the com- mon German proverbs. Its patriotic spirit, its strict morality and pithy style place it among the first German prose compositions of the time, at the side of Luther's translation ofthe Bible. In con- junction with Julius Pflug and Michael Heldingus, he composed the famous In- terim. Agricultural Chemistry. (See Chem- istry.) Agriculture is the art of cultivating the earth in such a manner as to cause it .04 AGRICULTURE. to produce, in the greatest plenty and per- fection, those vegetables which are useful to man, and to the animals which he has subjected to his dominion. This art is the basis of all other arts, and in all coun- tries coeval with the first dawn of civU- ization. Without agriculture, mankind would be savages, thinly scattered through interminable forests, with no other habi- tations than caverns, hoUow trees or huts, more rude and inconvenient than the most ordinary hovel or cattle-shed of the modem cultivator. It is the most univer- sal as weU as the most ancient ofthe arts, and requires the greatest number of oper- ators. It employs seven-eighths of the population of almost every civilized com- munity.—Agriculture is not only indis- pensable to national prosperity, but is em- inently conducive to the welfare of those who are engaged in it It gives health to the body, energy to the mind, is favorable to virtuous and temperate habits, and to knowledge and purity of moral character, which are the pillars of good government and the true support of national indepen- dence.—With regard to the history of agriculture, we must confine ourselves to slight sketches. The first mention of ag- riculture is found in the writings of Moses. From them we learn that Cain was a " tfller of the ground," that Abel sacri- ficed the "firstlings of his flock," and that Noah " began to be a husbandman, and planted a vineyard." The Chinese, Jap- anese, Chaldeans, Egyptians and Phoeni- cians appear to have held husbandry in high estimation. The Egyptians were so sensible of its blessings, that they ascribed its invention to superhuman agency, and even carried their gratitude to such an absurd excess as to worship the ox, for his services as a laborer. The Carthagin- ians carried the art of agriculture to a higher degree than other nations, their contemporaries. Mago, one of their most famous generals, wrote no less than twenty-eight books on agricultural topics, which, according to ColumeUa, were translated into Latin by an express decree of the Roman senate.—Hesiod, a Greek writer, supposed to be contemporary with Homer, wrote a poem on agriculture, en- titled Weeks and Days, which was so denominated because husbandry requires an exact observance of times and seasons. Other Greek writers wrote on rural econ- omy, and Xenophon among the number, but their works have been lost in the lapse of ages.—The implements of Gre- cian agriculture were very few and sim- ple. Hesiod mentions a plough, consist- ing of three parts—the share-beam, the draught-pole and the plough-tail; but an- tiquarians are not agreed as to its exact form; also a cart with low wheels, and ten spans (seven feet six inches) in width; likewise the rake, sickle and ox-goad; but no description is given of the mode in which they were constructed. The oper- ations of Grecian culture, according to Hesiod, were neither numerous nor com- pUcated. The ground received three ploughings—one in autumn, another in spring, and a third immediately before sowing the seed. Manures were appUed, and PUny ascribes their invention to the Grecian king Augeas. Theophrastus mentions six different species of manures, and adds, that a mixture of soils produces the same effect as manures. Clay, he observes, should be mixed with sand, and sand with clay. Seed was sown by hand, and covered with a rake. Grain' was reaped with a sickle, bound in sheaves, threshed, then winnowed by wind, laid in chests, bins or granaries, and taken out as wanted by the family, to be pounded in mortars or quem miUs into meal.—The ancient Romans venerated the plough, and, in the earUest and purest times of the republic, the greatest praise which could be given to an illustrious character was to say that he was an industrious and ju- dicious husbandman. M. Cato, the cen- sor, who was celebrated as a statesman, orator and general, having conquered na- tions and governed provinces, derived his highest and most durable honors from having written a voluminous work on agriculture. In the Georgics of Virgil, the majesty of verse and the harmony of numbers add dignity and grace to the most useful of all topics. The celebrated ColumeUa flourished in the reign of the emperor Claudius, and wrote twelve books on husbandry, which constituted a complete treatise on rural affairs. Varro, PUny and Palladius were likewise among the distinguished Romans who wrote on agricultural subjects.—With regard to the Roman implements of agriculture, we learn that they used a great many, but their particular forms and uses are very imperfectly described. From what we can ascertain respecting them, they ap- pear more worthy of the notice of the curious antiquarian, than of the practical cultivator. The plough is represented by Cato as of two kinds—one for strong, the other for Ught soils. Varro mentions one with two mould-boards, with which, he says, "when they plough, after sowing the seed, they are said to ridge." Pliny AGRICULTURE. 105 mentions a plough with one mould-board, and others with a coulter, of which he says there were many kinds.—FaUowing was a practice rarely deviated from by the Romans. In most cases, a fallow and a year's crop succeeded each other. Ma- nure was coUected from nearly or quite as many sources as have been resorted to by the moderns. Pigeons' dung was es- teemed of the greatest value, and, next to that, a mixture of night soil, scrapings of the streets and urine, which were applied to the roots of the vine and oUve.—The Romans did not bind their corn into sheaves. When cut, it was sent directly to the area to be threshed, and was sepa- rated from the chaff by throwing it from one part of the floor to the other. Feed- ing down grain, when too luxuriant, was practised. Virgil says, " What commen- dation shall I give to him, who, lest his com should lodge, pastures it, while young, as soon as the blade equals the furrow!" {Geor., Ub. i, 1. 111.) Watering on a large scale was applied both to arable and grass lands. Virgil advises to "bring down the waters of a river upon the sown corn, and, when the field is parched and the plants drying, convey it from the brow of a hill in channels." (Geor., lib. i, L 106.)—The farm management most ap- proved of by the scientific husbandmen of Rome was, in general, such as would meet the approbation of modern cultiva- tors. The importance of thorough tillage is illustrated by the following apologue: A vine-dresser had two daughters and a vineyard; when his oldest daughter was married, he gave her a third of his vine- yard for a portion, notwithstanding which he had the same quantity of fruit as for- merly. When his youngest daughter was married, he gave her half of what remain- ed ; still the produce of his vineyard was undiminished. This result was the con- sequence of his bestowing as much labor on the third part left after his daughters had received their portions, as he had been accustomed to give to the whole vineyard.—The Romans, unlike many conquerors, instead of desolating, improv- ed the countries which they subdued. They seldom or never burned or laid waste conquered countries, but labored to civil- ize the inhabitants, and introduce the arts necessary forpromoting their comfort and happiness. To facilitate communications from one district or town to another, seems to have been a primary object with them, and their works of this kind are still dis- cernible in numerous places. By em- ploying their troops in this way, when not engaged in active service, their com- manders seem to have had greatly the advantage over our modern generals. The Roman soldiers, instead of loitering in camps, or rioting in towns, enervating their strength, and corrupting their mor- als, were kept regularly at work, on ob- jects highly beneficial to the interests of those whom they subjugated.—In the ages of anarchy and barbarism which succeed- ed the fall ofthe Roman empire, agricul- ture was almost wholly abandoned. Pas- turage was preferred to tiUage, because of the facility with which sheep, oxen, &c. can be driven away or concealed on the approach of an enemy.—The conquest of England by the Normans contributed to the improvement of agriculture in Great Britain. Owing to that event, many thousands of husbandmen, from the fertile and well-cultivated plains of Flanders and Normandy, settled in Great Britain, ob- tained farms, and employed the same methods in cultivating them, which they had been accustomed to use in their na- tive countries. Some ofthe Norman bar- ons were great improvers of their lands, and were celebrated in history for their skill in agriculture. The Norman clergy, and especially the monks, did still more in this way than the nobility. The monks of every monastery retained such of their lands as they could most conveniently take charge of, and these they cultivated with great care under their own inspec- tion, and frequently with their own hands. The famous Thomas a Becket, after he was archbishop of Canterbury, used to go out into the field with the monks ofthe mon- astery where he happened to reside, and join with them in reusing their corn and making their hay. The implements of agriculture, at this period, were similar to those in most common use in modem times. The various operations of hus- bandry, such as manuring, ploughing, sowing, harrowing, reaping, threshing, winnowing, &c. are incidentally men- tioned by the writers of those days, but it is impossible to collect from them a defi- nite account of the manner in which those operations were performed.—The first EngUsh treatise on husbandry was published in the reign of Henry VIII, by sir A, Fitzherbert, judge of the common pleas. It is entitled the Book of Hus- bandry, and contains directions for drain- ing, clearing and enclosing a fann, for en- riching the soil, and rendering it fit for tillage. Lime, marl and fallowing are strongly recommended. " The author of the Book of Husbandry," says Mr. Lou- x06 AGRICULTURE. don, " writes from his own experience of more than forty years, and, if we except his biblical allusions, and some vestiges ofthe superstition of the Roman writers about the influence ofthe moon, there is very little of his work which should be omitted, and not a great deal that need be added, in so far as respects the culture of com, in a manual of husbandry adapt- ed to the present time."—Agriculture at- tained some eminence during the reign of EUzabeth. The principal writers of that period were Tusser, Googe and sir Hugh Piatt Tusser's Five Hundred Points of Husbandry was published in 1562, and conveys much useful instruc- tion in metre. The treatise of Bamaby Googe, entitled Whole Art of Husbandry, was printed in 1558. Sir Hugh Piatt's work was entitled Jewel Houses of Art and Nature, and was printed in 1594. In the former work, says Loudon, are many valuable hints on the progress of hus- bandry in the early part of the reign of EUzabeth. Among other curious things, he asserts that the Spanish or Merino sheep was originally derived from Eng- land.—Several writers on agriculture ap- peared in England during the common- wealth, whose names, and notices of their works, may be seen in Loudon's Ency- clopaedia of Agriculture. From the resto- ration down to the middle of the eigh- teenth century, agriculture remained almost stationary. Immediately after that period, considerable improvement in the process of culture was introduced by Je- thro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, who began to drUl wheat and other crops about the year 1701, and whose Horse- hoeing Husbandry was pubUshed in 1731. Though this writer's theories were in some respects erroneous, yet even his er- rors were of service, by exciting inquiry, and caUing the attention of husbandmen to important objects. His hostiUty to manures, and attempting, in aU cases, to substitute additional tillage in their place, were prominent defects in his system.— After the time of Tull's publication, no great alteration in British agriculture took place, tiU Robert Bakewell and others effected some important improvements in the breed of cattle, sheep and swine. By skilful selection at first, and constant care afterwards to breed from the best animals, Bakewell at last obtained a variety of sheep, which, for early maturity and the property of returning a great quantity of mutton for the food which they consume, as well as for the small proportion which the weight of the offal bears to the four quarters, were without precedent. Cul- ley, CUne, lord Somervule, sir J. *?. fee- bright, Darwin, Hunt, Hunter, Young, &c &c. have all contributed to the im- provement of domestic animals, and have left little to be desired in that branch of rural economy.—Among other works on agriculture, of distinguished ment, may be mentioned the Farmer's Letters, Tour in France, Annals of Agnculture, &e. &c. by the celebrated Arthur Young; Mar- shall's numerous and excellent works, commencing with Minutes of Agriculture, published in 1787, and ending with his Review of the Agricultural Reports in 1816; Practical Agriculture, by Dr. R. W. Dickson, &c. &c. The writings of Kaimes, Anderson and Sinclair exhibit a union of philosophical sagacity and patient experiment, winch have produced results of great importance to the British nation and to the world. To these we shall only add the name of John Loudon, F. L. S. H. S., whose elaborate Encyclopaedia of Gardening and Encyclopaedia of Agri- culture have probably never been sur- passed by any similar works in any lan- guage.—The establishment of a national board of agriculture was of very great service to British husbandry. Hartlib, a century before, and lord Kaimes, in his Gentleman Farmer, had pointed out the utility of such an institution, but it was left to sir John Sinclair to carry their ideas into execution. To the indefatiga- ble exertions of that worthy and eminent man the British public are indebted for an institution, whose services cannot be too highly appreciated. " It made farmers, residing in different parts of the kingdom, acquainted with one another, and caused a rapid dissemination of knowledge amongst the whole profession. The art of agriculture was brought into fashion, old practices were amended, new ones introduced, and a degree of exertion caU- ed forth heretofore unexampled among agriculturists in this island."—We shall now make a few remarks on the agricul- ture of different countries of Europe and ofthe U. States. French agriculture began to flourish early in the 17th century, under Hec- ry IV, and a work on that subject was published by OUvier deSerres. In 1761, there were 13 agricultural societies in France, and 19 auxiliary societies. Those of Paris, Amiens and Bourdeaux have distinguished themselves by their me- moirs. Du Hamel and Buffon made the study of rural economy fashionable, and other writers contributed to the advance- AGRICULTURE. 107 ment of husbandry. M. de Trudaine in- troduced the Merino breed of sheep in 1776, and count Lasteyrie has written a valuable work on sheep-husbandry. The celebrated Arthur Young made an agricultural survey of France in 1787— 89. Since that time, several French and EngUsh writers have given the sta- tistics of different districts, and the mode of cultivation there in use, and the abbe Rosier and professor Thouin have pub- lished general views of the whole king- dom. Buonaparte established many new agricultural societies and professorships, botanical and economical gardens, for the exhibition of different modes of culture, and the dissemination of plants. He also greatly enlarged and enriched that exten- sive institution, the National Garden, whose professor of culture, the chevaUer Thouin, is one of the most scientific ag- riculturists hi Europe.—The lands in France are not generally enclosed and subdivided by hedges or other fences. Some fences occur near towns, but, in general, the whole country is open, the boundaries of estates being marked by sUght ditches or ridges, with occasional stones or heaps of earth, trees in rows or thinly scattered. Depredations from pas- sengers on the highways are prevented by gardes champUres, which are estab- lished throughout all France.—Since the time of Colbert, the French have paid attention to sheep, and there are consid- erable flocks of Merinos owned by indi- viduals, besides the national flocks. That of Rambouillet, established in 1786, is, or lately was, managed by M. Tessier, an eminent writer on agriculture. Sheep are generally housed, or kept in folds and Uttle yards or enclosures. Mr. Birkbeck considers the practice of housing or con- fining sheep as the cause of foot-rot, a disease very common among them in France. Where flocks remain out all night, the shepherd sleeps in a smaU thatched hut, or portable house, placed on wheels. He guides the flock by walk- ing before them, and his dog guards them from wolves, which etUl abound in some parts of the country. In the south part of France, the ass and the mule are of frequent use in husbandry. A royal stud of Arabian horses has been kept up at Aurillac, in Limousin, for more than a century, and another has been more re- cently estabUshed near Nismes. Poultry is an important article in French hus- bandry. Mr. Birkbeck thinks that the consumption of poultry in towns may be equal to that of mutton. The breed of swine is in general bad; but fine hams are made in Bretagne from hogs reared on acoms, and fatted with Indian com.—The French implements of agriculture are generally rude and unwieldy, and the operations of husbandry unskilfully per- formed.—The vine is cultivated in France in fields and on terraced hills, in a way different from that which prevails else- where. It is planted in hills, like Indian corn, kept low, and managed like a plan- tation of raspberries. The white mulberry tree is very extensively cultivated for feeding the silk-worm. It is not placed in regular plantations, but in comers, in rows by the sides of roads, &c. The trees are raised from the seed in nurseries, and sold, generally, at five years' growth, when they have strong stems. They are planted, staked, and treated as pol- lards. The eggs of the silk-worm are hatched in rooms heated by means of stoves to 18° of Reaumur (72£ Fah.) One ounce of eggs requires one hundred weight of leaves, and wul produce from 7 to 9 pounds of raw silk. The hatching commences about the end of April, and, with the feeding, is over in about a month. Second broods are procured in some places. The silk is wound off the co- coons, in little balls, by women and chil- dren. The olive, the fig, the almond and various other fruits are also extensively cultivated in France. Agriculture in Germany. The ear- Uest German writer on husbandry was Conradus Heresbachius, who Uved and died in the 16th century. His work, De Re Rustica, was an avowed compilation from all the authors who had preceded him. No other books on agriculture, of any note, appeared previous to the 17th century. With regard to the present state of agriculture in Germany, we would remark, that the country is very exten- sive, and presents a great variety of soils, surface, climate and culture. Its agricul- tural produce is, for the most part, con- sumed within its limits; but excellent wines are exported from Hungary and the Rhine, together with flax, hams, geese, silk, &c. The culture of the mulberry and the rearing of the silk-worm are carried on as far north as Berlin. The theoreti- cal agriculturists are well acquainted with all the improved implements of Great Britain, and some of them have been in- troduced, especially in Holstein, Hanover and Westphalia; but, generally, speaking the ploughs, wagons, &c. are unwieldy and inefficient. Fish are carefiuly bred and fattened in some places, espe- 108 AGRICULTURE. cially in Prussia, and poultry is every where attended to, particularly in the neighborhood of Vienna. The culture of forests likewise receives particular attention in that country as weU as in France. The common agriculture of Germany is every where improving. Government, as weU as individuals, have formed institutions for the instruction of youth in its principles. The Imperial So- ciety of Vienna, the Georgical Institution at Presburg, and that of professor Thaer, in Prussia, may be numbered among re- cent institutions of this description. Agriculture in Italy. The cUmate, soil and surface of Italy are so various as to have given rise to a greater diversity of culture than is to be found in the whole of Europe besides. Corn, grass, butch- er's meat, cheese, butter, rice, silk, cotton, wine, oil and fruits of all kinds are found in perfection in this fertile country. Lou- don asserts that only one-fifth ofthe sur- face of Italy is considered sterile, while only a fifth of the surface of France is considered fertile. The population of Italy is greater, in proportion to its sur- face, than that of either France or Great Britain. Among the writers on the rural economy of Italy are, Arthur Young, in 1788, Sigismondi, in 1801, and Chateau- vieux, in 1812.—In Lombardy, the lands are generally farmed by metayers (from mrfa, half). The landlord pays the taxes and repairs the buildings. The tenant provides cattle, implements and seeds, and the produce is divided. The irri- gation of lands, in Lombardy, is a re- markable feature of Italian husbandry. AU canals taken from rivers are the property of the state, and may be car- ried through any man's land, provided they do not pass through a garden, or within a certain distance of a mansion, on paying the value of the ground occupied. Water is not only employed for grass-lands (which, when foUy wa- tered, are mowed four and sometimes five times a year, and, in some cases, as early as March), but is conducted between the narrow ridges of corn-lands, in the hoUows between driUed crops, among vines, or to flood lands, to the depth of a foot or more, which are sown with rice. Water is also used for depositing a sur- face of mud, in some places where it is charged with that material. The details of watering, for these and other purposes, are given in various works, and collected in those of professor Re. In general, watered lands let at one third higher price than those not irrigated.—The imple- ments and operations of agnculture in Lombardy are both imperfect The plough is a rude contrivance, with a han- dle 13 or 14 feet long. But the cattle are fed with extraordinary care. They are tied up in stalls, bled once or twice, clean - ed and rubbed with oil, afterwards comb- ed and brushed twice a day. Their food in summer is clover or other green herb- age ; in winter, a mixture of elm-leaves, clover-hay, and pulverized walnut-cake, over which boiUng water is poured, and bran and salt added. In a short time, the cattle cast their hair, grow smooth, round and fat, and so improved as to double their value to the butcher.—The tomato or love-apple (solanum lycopersicum), so extensively used in Italian cookery, forms an article of field-culture near Pompeii, and especially in Sicily, from whence it is sent to Naples, Rome and several towns on the Mediterranean sea. Agriculture ofthe U. States of America. The territory of the U. States is very extensive, and presents almost every variety of soil and climate. The ag- riculture of this wide-spread country embraces all the products of European cultivation, together with some (such as sugar and indigo) which are rarely made objects of tillage in any part of Europe. A full description of the agriculture of these states would require a large vol- ume. We shall confine ourselves to such sketches as we may deem of most practi- cal importance to those who are or intend to become cultivators of North American soil.—The farms ofthe Eastern, Northern and Middle States consist, generally, of from 50 to 200 acres, seldom rising to more than 300, and generally faffing short of 200 acres. These farms are enclosed, and divided either by stone walls, or rail fenceB made of timber, hedges not being common. The building first erect- ed on a "new lot," or on a tract of land not yet cleared from its native growth of timber, is what is caUed a log- house. This is a hut or cabin made of round, straight logs, about a foot in diam- eter, lying on each other, and notched in at the corners. The intervals between the logs are filled with shps of wood, and the crevices generally stopped with mor- tar made of clay. The fire-place com- monly consists of rough stones, so placed as to form a hearth, on which wood may be burned. Sometimes these stones are made to assume the form of a chimney, and are carried up through the roof; and sometimes a hole in the roof is the only substitute for a chimney. The roof i* AGRICULTURE. 109 mode of rafters, forming an acute angle at the summit ofthe erection, and is cov- ered with shingles, commonly split from pine-trees, or with bark, peeled from the hemlock (pinus canadensis).—When the occupant or "first settler" of this " new land" finds himself in "comfortable circumstances," he builds what is' styled a " frame house," composed of timber, held together by tenons, mortises and pins, and boarded, shingled and clap- boarded on the outside, and often painted white, sometimes red. Houses of this kind generaUy contain a dining-room and kitchen and three or four bed-rooms on the same floor. They are rarely destitute of good cellars, which the nature of the climate renders almost indispensable. The farm-buildings consist of a barn, pro- portioned to the size of the farm, with stalls for horses and cows on each side, and a threshing-floor in the middle; and the more wealthy farmers add a cellar under the barn, a part of which receives the manure from the stalls, and another part serves as a store-room for roots, &c. for feeding stock. What is called a corn- barn is likewise very common, which is built exclusively for storing the ears of Indian com. The sleepers of this build- ing are generaUy set up four or five feet from the ground, on smooth stone posts or pillars, which rats, mice or other ver- min cannot ascend.—With regard to the best manner of clearing forest-land from its natural growth of timber, the fol- lowing observations may be of use to a " first settler." In those parts of the coun- try where wood is of but Uttle value, the trees are felled in one of the summer months, the earUer in the season the bet- ter, as the stumps will be less apt to sprout, and the trees will have a longer time to dry. The trees lie tiU the foUow- ing spring, when such limbs as are not very near the ground should be cut off, that they may burn the better. Fire must be put to them in the driest part ofthe month of May, or, if the whole of that month prove wet, it may be appUed in the beginning of June. Only the bodies of the trees will remain after burning, and some of them will be burned into pieces. Those which require to be made shorter are cut in pieces nearly of a length, drawn together by oxen, piled in close heaps, and burned, such trees and logs being reserved as may be needed for fencing the lot. The heating of the soil so destroyn the green roots, and the ashes made by the burning are so beneficial as manure to the land, that it will produce a vol. i. 10 good crop of wheat or Indian com without ploughing, hoeing or manuring.—If new land lie in such a situation that its natural growth may turn to better account, wheth- er for timber or fire-wood, it wiU be an unpardonable waste to burn the wood on the ground. But if the trees be taken off, the land must be ploughed after clearing, or it will not produce a crop of any kind. —The following remarks on this subject are extracted from some observations by Samuel Preston, of Stockport, Pennsyl- vania, a very observing cultivator. They were first pubUshed in the New England Farmer, Boston, Massachusetts, and may prove serviceable to settlers on uncleared lands. Previous to undertaking to clear land, Mr. Preston advises,—" 1st. Take a view of all large trees, and see which way they may be feUed for the great- est number of small trees to be felled along-side or on them. After felling the large trees, only lop down their Umbs; but aU such as are feUed near them should be cut in suitable lengths for two men to roll and pile about the large trees, by which means they may be nearly all burned up, without cutting into lengths, or the expense of a strong team, to draw them together. 2d. Fell aU the other trees parallel, and cut them into suitable lengths, that they may be readily rolled together without a team, always cutting the largest trees first, that the smaUest may be loose on the top, to feed the fires. 3d. On hill-sides, fell the timber in a level direction; then the logs wiU roll together; but if the trees are felled down hill, all the logs must be turned round before they can be roUed, and there will be stumps in the way. 4th. By following these directions, two men may readily heap and burn most of the timber, with- out requiring any team; and perhaps the brands and the remains of the log-heaps may all be wanted to burn up the old, faUen trees. After proceeding as direct- ed, the ground will be clear for a team and sled to draw the remains of the heaps where they may be wanted round the old logs. Never attempt either to chop or draw a large log, until the size and weight are reduced by fire. The more fire-heaps there are made on the clearing, the better, particularly about the old logs, where there is rotten wood. The best time of the year to feU the timber in a great meas- ure depends on the season's being wet ox dry. Most people prefer having it felled in the month of June, when the leaves are of full size. Then, by spreading the leaves and brush over the ground (for 110 AGRICULTURE. they should not be heaped), if there should be a very dry time the next May, fire may be turned through it, and will burn the leaves, limbs and top of the ground, so that a very good crop of In- dian corn and pumpkins may be raised among the logs by hoeing. After these crops come off| the land may be cleared and sowed late with rye and timothy grass, or with oats and timothy in the spring. If what is called a good burn can- not be had in May, keep the fire out until some very dry time in July or August; then clear off the land, and sow wheat or rye and timothy, harrowing several times, both before and after sowing; for, after the fire has been over the ground, the sod of timothy should be introduced as soon as the other crops will admit, to prevent briers, alders, fire-cherries, &c. from springing up from such seeds as were not consumed by the fire. The timothy should stand four or five years, either for mow- ing or pasture, until the small roots of the forest-trees are rotten; then it may be ploughed; and the best mode which I have observed is, to plough it very shallow in the autumn; in the spring, cross-plough it deeper, harrow it weU, and it wiU pro- duce a first-rate crop of Indian com and potatoes, and, the next season, the largest and best crop of flax that I have ever seen, and be in order to cultivate with any kinds of grain, or to lay down again with grass.—These directions are to be understood as applying to what are gen- eraUy called beech lands, and the chop- ping may he done any time in the winter, when the snow is not too deep to cut low stumps, as the leaves are then on the ground. By leaving the brush spread abroad, I have known such winter chop- pings to burn as well in a dry time in August as that which had been cut the summer before."—The agricultural im- plements and farming operations of the U. States are, in most particulars, very similar to those of Great Britain. Cir- cumstances, however, require variations, which the sagacity of the American cul- tivator will lead him to adopt, often in contradiction to the opinions of those who understand the science better than the practice of husbandry. In Europe, land is dear and labor cheap; but in the U. States, the reverse is the case. The Eu- ropean cultivator is led, by a regard to his own interest, to endeavor to make the most of his land; the American cultiva- tor has the same inducement to make the most of his labor. Perhaps, however, this principle, in America, is generally carried to an unprofitable extreme, and the fanners would derive more benefit from their land, if they were to limit their operations to such parts of their pos- sessions as they can afford to till thor- oughly and to manure abundantly. A man may possess a large landed estate, without being called on by good husband- ry to hack and scratch over the whole, as evidence of his title. He may culti- vate weU those parts which are naturally most fertile, and suffer the rest to remain woodland, or, having cleared a part, lay it down to permanent pasture, which wUl yield him an annual profit, without re- quiring much labor.—The climate and soil ofthe U. States are adapted to the cul- tivation of Indian com, a very valuable vegetable, which, it has been supposed, could not be raised to advantage in Great Britain.* This entirely and very advan- tageously supersedes the field culture of the horse-bean (vicia faba), one of the most common fallow crops in that island. The root husbandry, or the raising of roots for the purpose of feeding cattle, is like- wise of less importance in the U. States than in Great Britain. The winters are so severe in the northern section of the Union, that turnips can rarely be fed on the ground, and aU sorts of roots are with more difficulty preserved and dealt out to stock, in this country, than in those which possess a milder cUmate. Besides, hay is more easily made from grass in the U. States than in Great Britain, owing to the season for hay-making being generally more dry, and the sun more powerful. There are many other circumstances which favor the American farmer, and render his situation more eligible than that of the European. He is generally the owner as well as the occupier of the soil which he cultivates; is not burthen- ed with tithes; his taxes are light; and the product of his labors will command more of the necessaries, comforts and in- nocent luxuries of Ufe.—The American pubUc seem, at present, fully aware of the importance of spirited and scientific agriculture. The state of Massachusetts has appropriated considerable sums to add to the funds of the agricultural soci- eties in that commonwealth. Institutions for the promotion of husbandry, cattle- shows and exhibitions of manufactures are common in every part of the Union. * Mr. Cobbett has lately attempted to raise Indian corn in England. In a book which he published in London, 1828, (A Treatise on CobbeWs Corn,) he professes to have met with much success in the cul- tnre of it. AGRICULTURE—AGRIGENTUM. Ill A periodical publication, entitled the American Farmer, is established at Balti- more, and another, called the New Eng- land Farmer, is published in Boston. Men of talents, wealth and enterprise have dis- tinguished themselves by their laborious and liberal efforts for the improvement of American husbandry. Merino sheep have been imported by general Humphreys, chancellor Livingston and others, and are now common in the U. States. The most celebrated breeds of British cattle have been imported by colonel Powel of Powelton, near Philadelphia; and there prevails a general disposition, among men of intelUgence and high standing in the community, to promote the prosperity of American agriculture.—We shall con- clude with a few brief notices of some of the most prominent benefits and im- provements which modern science has contributed to the art of agriculture. The husbandmen of antiquity, as well as those ofthe middle ages, were destitute of many advantages enjoyed by the modern culti- vator. Neither the practical nor the theo- retical agriculturists of those periods had any correct knowledge of geology, mineralogy, chemistry, botany, vegetable physiology or natural philosophy; but these sciences have given the modem husbandman the command of important agents, elements and principles, of which the ancients had no idea. The precepts of their writers were conformable to their experience; but the rationale ofthe prac- tices they prescribed they could not, and rarely attempted to explain. Nature's most simple modes of operation were to them inexplicable, and their ignorance of causes often led to erroneous calcula- tions with regard to effects. We are in- debted to modem science for the follow- ing among other improvements: viz. 1. A correct knowledge of the nature and properties of manures, mineral, animal and vegetable ; the best modes of apply- ing them, and the particular crops for which particular sorts of manures are best suited. 2. The method of using all manures of animal and vegetable origin while freah, before the sun, air and rain, or other moisture, has robbed them of their most valuable properties. It was formerly the practice to place bam-yard manure in layers or masses for the pur- pose of rotting, and turn it over frequent- ly with the plough or spade, tUl the whole had become a mere caput mortuum, desti- tute of almost aU its original fertilizing substances, and deteriorated in quality almost as much as it was reduced in quantity. 3. The knowledge and means of chemically analyzing sods, by which we can ascertain their constituent parts, and thus learn what substances are wanted to increase their fertiUty. 4. The introduc- tion ofthe root husbandry, or the raising of potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, &c. extensively, by field husbandry, for feed- ing cattle, by which a given quantity of land may be made to produce much more nutritive matter than if it were occupied by grain or grass crops, and the health as well as the thriving of the animals in the winter season greatly promoted. 5. Laying down lands to grass, either for pas- ture or mowing, with a greater variety of grasses, and with kinds adapted to a greater variety of soUs; such as orchard- grass (dactylis glomerata), for dry land, foul-meadow-grass (agrostis stricta), for very wet land; herds^-grass or timothy (phleum pratense), for stiff, clayey soils, ate. &c. 6. The substitution of fallow crops (or such crops as require cultiva- tion and stirring of the ground while the plants are growing), in the place of naked fallows, in which the land is aUowed to remain without yielding any profitable product, in order to renew its fertility. Fields may be so foul with weeds as to require a faUow, but not what is too of- ten understood by that term in this coun- try. " In England, when a farmer is compelled to fallow a field, he lets the weeds grow into blossom, and then turns them down; in America, a fallow means a field where the produce is a crop of weeds running to seed, instead of a crop of grain." 7. The art of breeding the best animals and the best vegetables, by a judicious selection of individuals to propagate from.—These improvements, with others too numerous to be here specified, have rendered the agriculture ofthe present period very different from that of the middle ages when it had sunk far below the degree of perfection which it had reached among the Romans. Agrigentdm, in ancient geogr.; now Girgenti or Agrigenti; a town in Sicily, in the vaUey of Mazara, about three miles from the coast. The modern town is near the ruins of the ancient one, is a bishop's see, and Ueson the river St Blaise, 47 nules S. Palermo; long. 13° 33> E.; lat 37° 22>, N.; pop. 11,876.—A. was much renowned among the ancients. Different stories are told of its foundation, among which is the fabulous tale, that Daedalus, who fled to Sicily from the resentment of Minos, erected it. Its situation was pecu- Uarly strong and imposing, standing as it 112 AGRIGENTUM—AGR1PPINA. did on a bare and precipitous rock, 1100 feet above the level of the sea. To this military advantage, the city added those of a commercial nature, being near to the sea, which afforded the means of an easy intercourse with the ports of Africa and the south of Europe. The soil of A. was very fertile. By means of these advan- tages, the wealth of A. became very great. It was therefore considered the second city in Sicily, and Polybius says (1. ix.) tliat it surpassed in grandeur of appearance, on account of its many temples and splendid pubUc buildings, most of its contempora- ries. Among the most magnificent of these buildings were the temples of Mi- nerva, of Jupiter Atabyris, of Hercules, and of Jupiter Olympius; the latter, which vied in size and grandeur of design with the finest buildings of Greece, is said by Diodorus (Sic. 1. xiii.) to have been 340 feet long, 60 broad, and 120 high, the foun- dation not being included, which was it- self remarkable for the immense arches upon which it stood. The tern pie was or- namented with admirable sculpture. But a war prevented the completion of it, when the roof only remained unfinished. Near the city was an artificial lake, cut out of the sohd rock, about a mile in circuit, and thirty feet deep; from which fish were obtained in abundance for the pub- Uc feasts. Swans and other water-fowl frequented it. Afterwards, the mud hav- ing been suffered to accumulate in this basin, it was turned into a remarkably fruitful vineyard. Both the temple of Ju- piter Olympius and the lake were the work of a number of Carthaginian cap- tives. The people of Agrigentum were noted for their luxurious and extravagant habits. Their horses were also famous. (Virgil, JEn. 1. iii. v. 705.) After the ex- pulsion of the Carthaginians from SicUy, it feU, with Utile resistance, under the power of the Romans. Diodorus states the population, in its best days, to have been not less than 120,000 persons. Many of the modern writers describe minutely this interesting spot. Christian churches have there, as in many other places, been erected out of the remains of temples. Agrionia ; a Grecian festival, solem- nized at night in honor of Bacchus. He was supposed to have fled, and the fe- males assembled to seek him. At length, tired of their vain, search, they exclaimed, that he had taken refuge with the Mu- ses, and concealed himself among them. These mysteries have been thought to signify that learning and the muses should accompany good cheer. This solemnity was followed by a banquet, at the close of which it was customary to propose to each other riddles, whence A. is used to denote a collection of riddk-s, charades, &c. Agrifpa, Henry Cornelius, born m 1486, at Cologne, was a man ot talents, learning and eccentricity. In bis youth, he was secretary to the emperor Maxi- milian, subsequently served 7 years in Italy, and was knighted. He says that he was acquainted with 8 languages. On quitting the anny, he devoted himself to science, and made pretensions to an ac- quaintance with magic. In certain lec- tures, he advanced opinions which in- volved him in contests with the monks for the remainder of his life. In 15:30, he wrote a treatise " On the Vanity ofthe Sci- ences," which was a caustic satire upon the inefficiency ofthe common modes of instruction, and upon the monks, theolo- gians and members of the universities. At a subsequent period, he produced another treatise at Antwerp, "On the Occult Philos- opher." This was a sketch of mystical the- ology, explaining, on the principles of the emanative system, the harmony of the el- ementary, celestial and intellectual worlds. Hi3 pretensions to skfll in occult science, particularly alchymy, led to his receiving numerous invitations from royal persona- ges and others of high rank, and his ina- bility to answer their absurd expectations produced their subsequent neglect of him. After an active, varied and eventful Ufe, he died at Grenoble, in 1539. AGRirPA, Marcus Vipsanius; a Roman, the son-in-law of Augustus, with whom he was twice consul. Although not of high birth, his talents soon raised him to honor. He distinguished himself as a general, and commanded the fleet of Au- gustus in the battle at Actium. As the minister and friend of the emperor, he rendered many services to him and the Roman state. He was impartial and up- right, and a friend of the arts. To him Rome is indebted for 3 of her principal aqueducts, and several other works of public use and ornament (See Augus- tus.) Agrippina. 1. The wife of the emperor Tiberius, who very reluctantly divorced her, when obUged to marry Julia, the daughter of Augustus, after the death of her first husband, Agrippa. A. was sub- sequently married to Asinius GaUus, whom Tiberius, stiU retaining his love for his former wife, condemned to perpetual im- prisonment, in the spirit of a jealous rival. —2. The daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, by JuUa, daughter of Augustus,; AGRIPPINA—AGUESSEAU. 113 wife of C. Gennanicus ; a heroic woman, adorned with great virtues. She accom- panied her husband in all his campaigns, and accused Tiberius, before the senate, of compassing his death. The tyrant, who hated her for her virtues and popu- larity, banished her to the island of Pan- dataria, where she starved herself to death. The cabinet of antiquities at Dresden pos- sesses 4 famous busts of this A.—3. A daughter of the last mentioned A. and Bister of Caligula, born at Cologne, which she enlarged, and caUed Colonia Agrippi- nm. She had the misfortune to become the mother of Nero, by Domitius Aheno- barbus. Her third husband was the em- peror Claudius, brother of her father, who married her after he had divorced Mes- salina. She was distinguished for ability and poUtical experience, but her ambition was boundless, and her disposition cun- ning and dissolute. She was murdered by Nero, her son, to whom she was troublesome after he had become empe- ror. It is said, that she begged the assas- sins to stab her first in the womb, that had brought forth such a monster. Ague, in medicine ; a disorder belong- ing to the class of intermittent fevers (fe- bres intermittentes.) It may be followed by serious consequences, but, generally, it is more troublesome than dangerous, and is sometimes even considered salutary. According to the length of the apyrexia, or intermission between one febrile parox- ysm and another, agues are denominated quotidians, tertians, or quartans; which latter are much the most obstinate, being generally attended with a greater degree of visceral obstruction than those the at- tacks of which return at shorter intervals. The quartan ague is apt to terminate in dropsy. An ague paroxysm has been di- vided into the cold, the hot and the sweat- ing stages. The feeUng of extreme cold, in the first stage, cannot be prevented by fire or the heat of summer. Generally, after the sweating stage, in which there is a profuse exhalation from the pores ofthe skin, with a flow of urine, depositing a co- pious sediment, of a lateritious or brick- dust appearance, the patient falls into a refreshing sleep, from which he awakes without any remains of indisposition, ex- cept a slight degree of languor and debiUty. Agues occur chiefly in situations where there are shallow, stagnant waters. Hence their frequency in Holland, in the East and West Indies, in the flat, marshy parts of England, and the thinly settled parts of the U. States, where they diminish with the clearing of the woods and the draining ofthe lands. The neighborhood of rivers or marshes, therefore, is carefully to be avoided by persons afflicted with agues. They are cured by medicines, which, at the same time that they exert a tonic influence, produce and keep up an impression upon the system greater than that communicated by the causes of the disease; such as Peruvian bark, various bitter and astringent drags, certain metal- lic salts, &c. Ague-cake ; a name sometimes given to a hard tumor on the left side of the belly, lower than the false ribs, said to be the effect of intermittent fever. Aguesseau, Henry Francis d', a man distinguished in the annals of French elo- quence and jurisprudence, was bom at Limoges in 1668, and early evinced dis- tinguished talents. His father, intendant of Languedoc, was his first instructer. The intercourse of d'A. with Racine and Boileau formed his taste for poetry. He was, in 1691, avocat general at Paris, and at the age of 32 years, procureur general of the parUament In this office, he ef- fected many improvements in the laws and the administration of justice, and took particular care ofthe government of hos- pitals. During a famine in the winter of 1709, he employed aU his power to re- lieve the suffering. As a steady defender of the privileges of the nation and the GalUcan church, he procured the rejection ofthe decrees of Louis XIV, and the chan- ceUor Voisin, in favor of the papal bull Unigenitus. Under the government of the duke of Orleans, he was made chan- ceUor in 1717, but feU, in 1718, into dis- Eace, on account of his opposition to aw's destructive system of finance, and retired to his country seat at Fresnes. He there passed, according to his own words, the happiest days of his Ufe, em- ployed in reading the Bible, projecting a code, and instructing his children. Math- ematics, agriculture and the arts and sci- ences occupied his leisure hours. In 1720, loud clamors against Law were raised throughout France, and it was thought that a man like d'A., who pos- sessed the love of the nation, was neces- sary to allay the general discontent. He was, therefore, replaced in his former dig- nity. This period of his life did not add to his renown; for he accepted his office from Law, and gave his consent to cer- tain weak and injurious plans, which the parUament rejected; he finally suffered the same parliament to be exiled to Pon- toise. In 1722, he was banished a second time, for opposing the cardinal Dubois, 114 AGUESSEAU—AIGNAN. but was recaUed in 1727 by the cardinal Fleury, and in 1737 restored to his fonner office. He formed the design of intro- ducing uniformity into the execution ofthe ancient laws, and of adding what was wanting. But this work surpassed the abiUty of a single man. He died in 1751, after resigning, in 1750, the office of chan- ceUor. His works, which have passed through several editions, are said, by Bou- terwek, to be models of their kind ; foil of spirit, judicious, elegant, yet powerful, and rich in valuable instruction for states- men and lawyers. His discourses, with which he opened the sittings of the par- Uament, are exceUent—His nephew, the marquis d'Aguesseau (Henry Cardin Jean Baptiste), peer of France, and member of the academy of sciences, died at Paris, January 22, 1826. He was a lawyer, member of the first national assembly, and senator under Napoleon; afterwards, a faithful adherent of the king. Agoirra, Joseph Saenz de,a Benedic- tine, and learned man, was born in 1630. He was censor and secretary of the su- preme council ofthe inquisition in Spain, and professor in the university of Sala- manca. He published commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics. He died at Rome, in 1699. Agustwi, in mineralogy; a term by which professor Tromsdorff has desig- nated a supposed new earth, discovered by him in 1808. It bears a great resem- blance to alumina.—Annates de Chimie, xxxiv, p. 133. ' Aguti, the cavia aguti of Linnaeus; an American animal, much resembling the Guinea pig. There are three varieties, all indigenous to South America and the West Indies. They Uve on vegetables, inhabit hoUow trees, and burrow in the ground. They eat like the squinels, grow fat, and are used as food in South Ameri- ca. They propagate very fast. Agyniani, or Agynnenses. (See Sha- kers.) Ahanta ; a kingdom on the Gold Coast of Africa, extending from the Ancobra to the Chamah; bounded on the west by Apollonia, and on the east by the Fantee territories. It is the richest, and in every respect the most improved district upon this coast. The principal towns are Ax- im, Dixcove and Succondee. Ahasoerds, in Scripture history; a king of Persia, the husband of Esther, to whom the Scriptures ascribe a singular deUverance of the Jews from extirpation, which they commemorate to this day, by an annual feast, that of Purim, preceded by what is called the fast of Esther. Dif- ferent opinions have been entertained by ScaUger, Prideaux and others as to which of the lungs of Persia mentioned mother historical books may be the A. ofthe Bi- ble.—Ahasuerus is also a Scripture name for Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, Ezra iv. 6. and for Astyages, king of the Medes, Dan. ix. 1. Ahitophel ; one of king David's coun- sellors, and highly esteemed for his po- litical sagacity. He was certainly one of the first men of his age, both for wisdom and wickedness. His advice to Absalom, who followed the wicked part of it, but left the wise part unaccomplished, to- gether with the tragical end of the poU- tician, the first suicide recorded in histo- ry, are well known. A-hull ; the situation of a ship when aU her sails are furled on account of the violence of a storm, when, having lashed her helm on the lee-side, she lies nearly with her side to the wind and sea, her head being somewhat inclined to the di- rection of the wind. Aid ; a subsidy paid, in ancient feudal times, by vassals to their lords on certain occasions. Aid-major. (See Adjutant.) Aignan, Stephen, a poet and author, born in 1773, at Beaugency, on the river Loire, and since 1814 a member of the French academy, has distinguished him- self by successful translations of the IUad, and of Pope's Essay on Criticism, into verse. The translation ofthe IUad is the best in the French language. He also translated the Odyssey, but we know not whether the version has been published. He translated, likewise, some English tales, e. g. the Vicar of Wakefield. His original writings consist of a tragedy, Bruiiehaut; an opera, Nephthali, with music by Blangini; and some excellent political essays, Sur lejury; De V etat des protestants en France, depuis le XV rikle, jusqu' a nos jours, &c. 2d ed. Paris, 1818, and Sur les coups d' etat; as well as vari- ous contributions of merit to the Minerve Francaise. He was liberal in bis views, wrote weU and independently, but with moderation. A. showed remarkable cour- age in publishing his tragedy, La Mart de Louis XVI, his first poem, a few weeks after the execution of the king. He held several pubUc offices during the reign of terror, and opposed, in some cases suc- cessfully, the tyranny of the administra- tion. A. died at Paris, June 23, 1824. His place in the academy was filled by Sommet AIGUILLON—AIR. 115 Aiguillon, duke d'; peer of France, and minister of foreign affairs under Louis XV; distinguished, as a courtier, by his ready wit, but destitute of almost all the quaUties that constitute the statesman. During his ministry the partition of Po- land took place ; and till it was actuaUy accomplished, d' A. knew nothing of this profligate project. Even Louis XV ex- claimed, when it came to his knowledge, " Had Choiseul been here, this partition would never have taken place." D' A. was born in 1720. When he first ap- peared at the court of Louis, he struck the fancy of the duchess of Chateauroux, mistress of the king. She obtained him an appointment in.the army in Italy. Af- ter experiencing many alternations of favor and disgrace, he was admitted, through the influence ofthe countess du Barry, into the ministry with the abbe Terrai and the chancellor Maupeou, af- ter Choiseul's downfall. His administra- tion of the department of foreign affairs was disgraceful to France, which, under him, degenerated from the high diplo- matic character she had hitherto sus- tained. He boasted of having brought about the revolution of Sweden in 1772, which now is made a matter of reproach to him. At the accession of Louis XVI, he was removed from the ministry. His place was supplied by the count of Ver- gennes, in 1774. D' A. was hated by the H queen, was exiled in 1775, and died in banishment in his 80th year. Ailsa, or Elsa ; a small, rocky island in the Frith of Clyde, near the W. coast of Scotland, of a conical form. It is a conspicuous object, 940 feet high, 7 miles from the shore, about 2 miles m circum- ference; Ion. 5° 8' W., lat. 55° 18' N. Innumerable sea-fowl, many of which are good for the table or valuable on ac- count of their feathers, frequent it; a few rabbits and goats live on its sterile surface. A ruinous castle stands on its summit, and is useful as a sea-mark. Excellent banks, well stocked with fish, surround it. Ainos, or Amus; the aborigines of Jesso and Saghalin, commonly called trild Kuriles, and supposed to be covered with hair in unnatural profusion. They are nearly black, and resemble the Kamt- schadales, but have more regular features. The Chinese and Japanese say that they have immense beards; captain Brough- ton, who anchored at Endermo harbor, in Jesso, in 1797, remarks, that the bodies of the men are covered with long black hair; and Kruseustern, the Russian navi- gator, mentions that a child of this de- scription was seen in 1805, but that the parents had no such characteristics, and he denies that it is general. Other testi- mony, e. g. that of the early missionaries at Japan, seems to confirm this peculiari- ty of the A. The women are very ugly. The A. are of a mild, liberal disposition ; their manners, however, are very Uttle known. Polygamy is practised among them. Agriculture they know very little of. They fatten bears for winter provis- ion. The A. were formerly independent, but are now in subjection to the Japanese. Ainsworth, Dr. Henry, an EngUsh- man, distinguished himself, about 1590, among the Brownists. His knowledge of Hebrew, and his annotations on the Holy Scriptures, gained him much repu tation. He died about 1629, in Amstei - dam. He is said to have restored to a Jew a valuable diamond which he had lost. The only compensation which he asked was a conference with some Jew- ish rabbies on the prophecies of the Old Testament relating to the Messiah. The Jew promised to bring it about, but, fail- ing of success, is said to have poisoned A. through shame and vexation. Ainsworth, Robert, born at Wood yale, in Lancashire, 1660, was master of a boarding-school at Bethnal-Green, whence he removed to Hackney and other places in the neighborhood of Lon- don. After acquiring a moderate fortune, he lived privately till 1743, when he died. He wrote the well-known Latin and English Dictionary, pubUshed in 1736; and in 1752, the fourth edition, under the care of Dr. Ward and William Younge, was enlarged to 2 vols, folio. Many edi- tions with improvements have followed. Aiou; a group of 16 islands in the east- em seas, off the N. coast of Waggiou, and surrounded by a reef 50 miles in compass, which is penetrated by a deep channel on the north-west side. Aiou Baba is the largest, about 5 miles in circuit, 500 feet high, Ion. 128° 25* E., lat 0° 32' N. Fish, turtle and tropical fruits abound in these islands. They have some trade with the Chinese. Air (Greek, a,\q ; Latin, aer), in natural philosophy, is that fluid, transparent sub- stance which surrounds our globe, reach- ing to a considerable height above its surface, perhaps 40 miles; and this ocean of air is the great laboratory in which most of the actions of life go on, and on the composition of which they depend. Though invisible, except in large masses, without smell or taste, yet it is a sub- 116 AIR. stance possessing all the principal attri- butes of matter; it is impenetrable, pon- derable, compressible, dilatable, perfectly elastic, and its particles are operated on like those of other bodies, by chemical ac- tion. To prove the impenetrability ofthe air, a very simple experiment is sufficient Plunge a glass receiver perpendicularly into water, after having put under the receiver a piece of cork. However deep you may plunge the vessel, the water never reaches the top of it, though it diminishes the volume of the air; the liquid, therefore, cannot penetrate the air. The cork serves to show how high the water rises. In fact, the most common occurences give constant proofs of the impenetrability ofthe air, and the theory of sailing, of windmills, &c. is based on that property of this fluid. (See Wind.) To prove that the air is ponderable, it is only necessary to weigh a large balloon, first empty, and afterwards fiUed with air. It has been found, that 100 cubic inches of air, very dry, taken at the temperature of 60°, and under the barometrical pres- sure of 30 inches, weighs 30.5 grains; and this weight is to that of water as 1 to 770. GaUleo first discovered that air is ponderable, though several preceding philosophers seem to have had some sus- picion ofthe fact. (See Galileo, Torricel- li, Barometer.) In consequence of this quaUty of air, the atmosphere which sur- rounds us exerts a pressure on all points of the globe proportionate to its weight; this is the cause of the rise of liquids in sucking-pumps, siphons and the barome- ter. To show this pressure, plunge the orifice of an exhausted tube, closed at the other end, into a liquid. The liquid, yielding to the pressure of the external air, rises in the tube till the weight of its column is equal to that of the atmospher- ic column. In this experiment water will rise 33 feet, and mercury 29 inches, provided the place where the experiment is tried is nearly on a level with the sea; for the height varies with the weight of the column of air, which diminishes in proportion as we ascend above the level of the sea. The height of the column of mercury in the barometer, therefore, affords a good means of determining the elevation of any given place. The weight of the column of air, which presses con- stantly on a man of middle stature, is equal to 32,3431 pounds. But this weight does no injury, because it is counterbal- anced by the reaction ofthe fluids, which fill the interior cavities of the body. (See Air-pitmp.) That air is compressible, and that the space which it occupies corre- sponds always to the pressure on it, has been shown by Mariotte. He took a bent glass tube, with legs of unequal length, exactly graduated; after having sealed the orifice of the shorter leg, he intro- duced a small quantity of mercury, suffi- cient to rise to an equal height in both legs. The air enclosed in the shorter leg then counterbalanced the atmospheric column. By raising the mercury in the longer leg to the height of 29 inches, the air in the shorter leg was compressed in- to half the space which it occupied at first. In other words, the Weight of two atmospheres (the column of mercury be- ing equal to one) compressed the air to this degree. Mariotte continued to pour mercury into the long leg, and found that the weight of 2, 3, 4, &c. atmospheres reduced the air confined in the shorter leg to i, J, i, &c. of its primitive vol- ume. In repeating this experiment, it is necessary to give time to the caloric which is disengaged to pass off. It seems as if the compression of air would be indefinite, if we had sufficiently pow- erful means; but as yet we have only been able to reduce its volume to one eighth. (See Compresrion,Air-gun.) The dilatabiUty of air consists in the tendency of a volume of confined air to occupy a greater space. In consequence, it presses equally in all directions on the sides of the vessel containing it, and this pressure increases or diminishes in proportion as the enclosed air is condensed or rarefied, provided the temperature remains the same. The dilatabiUty of air has, accord- ing to the preceding experiment, no limits. A bladder, almost empty, will become inflated if placed in an exhausted receiver. Elasticity being the property of a body to resume its original form as soon as the force which changes it ceases, it is evident, from what we have said, that it is a property of air. The different ap- plications made of air in the different branches of art are so various and nu- merous, that we cannot possibly enume- rate them. Of the chemical properties of air, it will be sufficient t6 mention the following: the ancients believed it a simple body, one of the four elements; modern chemists have discovered that it is composed of two bodies, apparently elementary,—oxygen and azote. The most accurate experiments have shown that this fluid, taken from different parts of the globe, and even at a great height, is composed of 21 parts of oxygen, 78 of azote, 1 part of carbonic acid, and some AIR. 117 atoms of hydrogen. The air refracts the rays of light, and its power of refraction is in the ratio of its density. (See Re- fraction.) It is capable of acquiring elec- tricity, and it refuses, when very dry, a free passage to the electricity which tends to escape from electrified bodies. (See Electricity.) When subjected to great heat or cold, it is dilated or condensed, but undergoes no change of properties. If it is suddenly compressed, much heat is disengaged, with a bright light. It en- ters bodies through the most minute pores, and adheres to them strongly; coal, particularly, absorbs a great quantity of air. (See Carbon.) Water and all liquids always contain it, and it can only be ex- pelled by a strong heat. Almost aU com- bustible bodies decompose it at a high temperature, which varies with the dif- ferent substances. They absorb its oxy- gen with the disengagement of more or less caloric and light, and form acids or oxydes: phosphorus, however, combines at a low temperature with the oxygen and azote of the air, and produces, with the former, phosphorous acid; with the latter, phospliureted nitrogen: the mois- ture of the air and the melting of the phosphorus favor these combinations. When the air is brought into contact with animal and vegetable substances, it changes them immediately, particularly if it is moist, and gives to some of them acid properties; it bleaches flax, hemp, silk, and increases the brilUancy of many colore. It is indispensable to the life of all organic beings; animals respire it in- cessantly, and decompose it; a part of its oxygen is transformed into carbonic acid, and this combination produces caloric, which contributes principally to the pres- ervation of animal heat (See Respira- tion.) Vegetables imbibe the carbon, which the carbonic acid, diffused through the air, contains. The air is the agent of combustion; the particles of bodies com- bine with its oxygen, and evolve heat and light. (See Combustion.) Finally, the air is the principal medium of sound. (See Acoustics.) For further information, see the articles Atmosphere, Gas and Con- tagion. Air, in painting, deserves the most ac- curate study of the artist, particularly of the landscape painter, as it is the medi- um through which all objects are seen, and its density or transparency deter- mines their appearance, both in respect to size and color. It softens the local colors, and renders them more or less decided or characterized, producing what is technically called tone. The appear- ances produced by the interposition of the air differ with the cUmate, the season, and the time of the day ; and landscape painters, who, in other respects, are not masters, have given the greatest charm to their pictures hy a happy imitation of these appearances, even where the ob- jects painted possessed in themselves very little attraction. Hackert, a Ger- man, who was a long time painter to the late king of Naples, excels, perhaps, in this branch of art, all modern painters. His views on this subject are given in his Ufe by Gothe. Air, fixed. (See Gas.) Air, in music (in Italian, aria), at the present day, means a continuous melody, in which some lyric subject or passion is expressed. It was originally opposed to the irregular declamation of recita- tive, or the more staid action of choral music. Saumaise regards the term as derived from the Latin aera. The air ap- pertained, consequently, to measured mu- sic, and, whether constituted of one or of more voices, this measured style (if not choral) was denominated air. But in mod- ern days, by way of distinction, the lyric melody of a single voice, accompanied by instruments, is its proper form of composi- tion. Thus we find it in the higher or- der of musical works; as in cantatas, ora- torios, operas, and also independently, in concertos. It should be constituted of euphonic simple lyric strains. An air formerly supposed as its ground-work a particular state of feeling or emotion, of a certain duration, expression and interest, to which the recitative is generally pre- paratory. Formerly, too, as essential to an air, a symphony, expressing the bur- den of the stanzas or couplets of the song (ritornello, or refrain), was introduced as tributary to the leading melody, which was followed by another and less elabo- rate part, forming the antithesis, to which was subsequently added a repetition of the first part. Since the days of Gluck and Mozart, these have declined, and other forms have been adopted, particu- larly by Mozart, more conformable to poetry, and more expressive of the senti- ments and situation of the singer. Still Mozart could not entirely withstand the prevailing taste, with reference to which he produced numerous bravura airs, not always hi character, yet not wanting in expression and effect. Another form of airs are the cavatinos (or single strains), lately introduced by the Italians, and cal- culated to add grace and embellishment 118 AIR—AIR-PUMP. to the song. At the present day, the Germans either adopt this or make use of other forms, as the subject may re- quire.—Arietta signifies a short, less elab- orate air, designed to express a more sim- ple and transient emotion.—Arioso is also applied to music resembUng the aria, and is inserted in single lyrical passages to vary the recitative. Air-gun; an instrument for the pro- jection of bullets by means of condensed air. The ancients were acquainted with the principles of its construction, and an instrument of this description was invent- ed by Ctesibus of Alexandria, who flour- ished about 120 B. C. The first modem account of an air-gun, which we meet with, is in the dements cPArtHlerie of David Rivaut, preceptor to Louis XIII of France. Air-pipes ; a recent invention for the ventilation of ships by means of the rarefying power of heat Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, is the inventor. If the usual aperture to any fire be closed up in front, and another be introduced by the side of the fire place, it will attract the current of air into that direction; and the coppers, or boiling-places of ships, are well known to be placed over two holes, separated by a grate, the one for the fire, the other for the ashes; there is also a flue from the tops for the discharge of smoke. Mr. Sutton's pipes, now, are in- troduced into the ash-place, and carried through the hold to any part of the ves- sel. The two holes before alluded to are closed up by strong iron doors; a con- tinued draught of air suppUes the fire, and creates a salutary circulation through any part of the vessel into which the pipes may be directed. They are made either of copper or lead. Air-pump ; a machine for the purpose of withdrawing the air from some vessel or cavity, and thereby making what is caUed a vacuum. It is one of the most curious and useful of philosophical instruments. By experiments with it, the weight, elasticity and many other properties of air may be shown in a very simple and satisfactory manner.—Let R be the section of a glass beU, closed at the top T, but open at the bottom, and having its lower edge ground smooth, so as to rest in close contact with a smooth brass plate, of which S S is a section. This glass is called a recriver, because it receives and holds substances on which experiments are to be made. If a little unctuous matter be rubbed upon the edge of the receiver R, and it be pressed with a slight circular motion upon the plate S S, it will be brought into such close contact as to be air-tight. In the middle is an opening A, which commu- nicates by a tube A B with a hoUow cyl- inder or barrel, in which a solid piston P is moved. The piston-rod C moves in an air-tight collar D, and at the bottom of the cylinder a valve V is placed, opening freely outward, but immediately closed by any pressure from without. There is thus a free communication be- tween the receiver R, the tube A B and the exhausting barrel B V. This com- munication extends in the same manner to a second similar barrel X V. When the piston C P is pressed down, and has passed the opening at B, the air in the barrel B V will be enclosed, and will be compressed by the piston. As it will thus be made to occupy a smaller space than before, its density, and consequently its elasticity, will be increased. It will therefore press downwards upon the valve V with a greater force than that by which the valve is pressed upwards by the external air. This superior elastic force will open the valve, through which, as the piston descends, the air in the bar- AIR-PUMP—AIR-TRUNK. H9 rel will be driven into the atmosphere. If the piston be pushed quite to the bot- tom, the whole air in the barrel will be thus expeUed. The moment the piston begins to ascend, the pressure of the air from without closes the valve completely. None of the external air can enter; and, as the piston ascends, a vacuum is left beneath it; but, when it rises beyond the opening B, the air in the receiver R and the tube A B expands, by its elasticity, so as to fill the barrel B V. A second depres- sion of the piston wUl expel the air con- tained in the barrel, and the process may be continued at pleasure. The commu- nication between the barrels and the re- ceiver may be closed by a stop-cock at G. It is evidently only in consequence ofthe elasticity of the air that it expands and fills the barrel, diffusing itself equally throughout the cavity in which it is con- tained. The operation of the machine depends, therefore, on the elasticity ofthe air, and it is obvious that a perfect vacu- um cannot be formed by it in the receiver, as only a part of the air is each time ex- pelled, and a portion must always remain after each depression ofthe piston. The degree of rarefaction produced by the machine may, however, be easily calcu- lated. Suppose that the barrel contains one third as much as the receiver and tube together, and, therefore, that it con- tains one fourth of the whole air within the valve V. Upon one depression ofthe piston, this fourth part will be expeUed, and three fourths ofthe original quantity wiU remain. One fourth of this remain- ing quantity will in like manner be ex- pelled by the second depression of the piston, which is equal to three sixteenths of the original quantity. By calculating in this way, it wiU be found that, after 30 depressions of the piston, only one 3096th part of the original quantity wUl be ^ft in the receiver. The rarefaction may thus be carried so far that the elasticity of the air pressed down by the piston shall not be sufficient to force open the valve. To show how far the exhaustion has been carried at any particular point ofthe process, a barometer-gauge is con- nected with the machine. This is a glass tube, opening at E into the receiver, and at F immersed in a cistern of mercury. As the rarefaction proceeds, the mercury rises from the pressure of the external air, and indicates how far this pressure exceeds that from within the receiver, that is, the degree of exhaustion. Both pistons are worked by the wheel H and winch Y, by means of the rack or tooth-work on the piston-rods. When one piston is raised, the other is depressed. The winch is then turned in the oppo- site direction, and the piston which had been raised is depressed, and the other raised. When the rarefaction of the air within the barrels is considerable, the pressure of the atmosphere upon each piston is not resisted from within, and therefore opposes its ascent. But this pressure is not felt by the operator, as the pressure upon one piston counterbalances that upon the other. The elasticity of the air is proved by the action of the machine. Its pressure is proved by the great firmness with which the receiver is pressed upon the plate S S during the rarefaction ofthe an* within. If any ani- mal is placed beneath the receiver, and the air exhausted, he dies almost imme- diately ; a Ughted candle under the exhausted receiver immediately goes out. Air is thus shown to be necessary to animal life and to combustion. A beU, suspended from a silken thread be- neath the exhausted receiver, on being struck, cannot be heard. If the bell be in one receiver, from which the air is not exhausted, but which is within an ex- hausted receiver, it still cannot be heard. Air is therefore necessary to the produc- tion and to the propagatipn of sound. A shrivelled apple or cranberry, placed be- neath an exhausted receiver, becomes as plump as if quite fresh. They are thus shown to be foil of elastic air. A great variety of experiments may be made, which are very interesting, but too nu- merous to be described.—The air-pump was invented by Otto de Guericke, bur- gomaster of Magdeburg, about the year 1654. Modifications and improvements were afterwards made by Boyle, Hawks- bee, Morton and many others. It is made in various forms, one of the simplest of which is that already described. Air-trunk; a contrivance by Dr. Hales to prevent the stagnation of putrid efflu- via in jails, or any apartments where many people are coUected. It consists of a long, square trunk, open at both ends, one of which is inserted into the ceiling of the room, and the other extends a considerable distance beyond the roof Through this trunk a continued circula- tion is carried on, because the putrid effluvia are much Ughter than the pure atmosphere. Dr. Keil estimates these effluvia arising from one man in 24 hours at not less than 39 ounces. These 120 AIR-TRUNK—AD£ LA CHAPELLE. trunks were first tried in the EngUsh house of commons, where they were 9 inches wide within, and over the court of king's bench, where they were 6 inches wide. Ai'sse (Demois.) weU known for her romantic adventures and unhappy fete, born in Circassia, 1689, was purchased by the count de Ferriol, the French ambassa- dor at Constantinople, when a child of 4 years, for 1500 Uvres. The seller de- clared her to be a Circassian princess. She was of great beauty. The count took her with him to France, and gave her an education, in which nothing was neglected but the inculcation of virtuous rinciples. Her disposition was good, but er Ufe immoral. She sacrificed her in- nocence to the soUcitations of her bene- factor. On the other hand, she resisted the splendid offers of the duke of Or- leans. Of her numerous suitors, she fa- vored only the chevaUer Aidy. This love decided her fete. Aidy had taken the vows at Malta; he wished to disen- gage himself from them; but his mistress herself opposed the attempt. The fruit of her love was a daughter, born in Eng- land. She was subsequently a prey to the bitterest remorse; she resisted her passion in vain, and lived in a continual struggle with herself, which her weak health was unable long to sustain. She died 1727, thirty-eight years old. Her letters are written in a pleasant and flu- ent strain, and exhibit a Uvely picture of the author's feeUngs. They contain many anecdotes of the prominent per- sonages of her times. They first ap- peared with notes by Voltaire, subse- quently with the letters of Mesdames de Villars, Lafayette, and de Tencin, 1806, 3 vols. Aix (among the Romans, Aqua Sextia), in the French department of the mouths of the Rhone, on the river Arc, contains 21,960 inhabitants, is the seat of an arch- bishop, a royal court of appeals and chamber of commerce, a school of theolo- gy and jurisprudence, a coUege, a con- siderable Ubrary, a learned society and a museum. Several manufactures are car- ried on in the city, principaUy of cotton ; they are, however, on the decline. The warm baths, too, are less visited than for- merly. In the church of the Minorites, Frederic the Great erected a monument to the marquis d' Argens. This city has the largest limits of any city in France. The numerous famiUes residing on the great gardens around the city are counted among the population, as is customary in France and Italy. This is the reason that the accounts ofthe population of the southern cities of Europe seem so fre- quently exaggerated to strangers, unac- quainted with the circumstance. Aix derives its principal support from the culture and manufacture of silk, in its extensive district, which contains marshy, sandy, calcareous and stony soils, together with the cultivation of the olive, and ofthe fruits of the south, which are well paid for by the luxury of northern France. Lon. 5° 97' E.; lat 43° 32> N. Aix la Chapelle (inGerman,Aachen); capital of the district of the same name, in the Prussian grand duchy ofthe Lower Rhine; 51° S57 N. lat; 5° 54' E. lon. The district contained, in the year 1825, upon 1550 square miles, 336,025 inhabitants, among which were 324,453 Catholics, 9686 Protestants, and 1891 Jews. The city itself contains 2732 houses, and, in 1822, had 34,584 inhabitants. It lies be- tween the Rhine and the Meuse, at a distance of about 37 miles from the for- mer and 18 from the latter. It is very pleasantly situated, in a fine vale, sur- rounded by beautiful hills. There are traces of its existence under the govern- ment of the Romans, to whom it was known as early as the time of Caesar and Drusus; Pliny mentions it under the name of Vetera. Here, according to some writers, the emperor Charlemagne was bom, A. D. 742; here he died, A. D. 814. The extensive privileges which he and other emperors conferred on this im- perial city, gave rise to the saying, that " the very air of A. made free even the outlaws of the empire." 55 emperors have been crowned in this city, and the imperial insignia were preserved here till the year 1795, when they were carri- ed to Vienna, and are now in the imperial treasury. Its citizens, throughout the empire, were exempt from feudal service, both in peace and in war; from attach- ment of their goods and imprisonment; from toUs and taxes levied on the proper- ty of travelling merchants, &c. By the peace of Luneville, concluded Feb. 9, 1801, which separated the left bank of the Rhine from Germany, the city was transferred to France, and remained, till the overthrow of Napoleon, the chief town of the department of the Roer. To its French name, Aix, the term la Cha- pelle has been added in order to distin- guish it from other towns of the same name. The market-place of A. is adorned with a statue of Charlemagne, in bronze. On the spot where, in ancient times, a AIX LA CHAPELLE. 121 Roman castle stood, the kings of the Franks built a royal castle, in German Pfalz. This was destroyed, A. D. 882, by the Normans, restored by the emperor Otho III, 993, and used in the 14th cen- tury as the town-house. This building contains many relics of old German art, the hall where the emperors were crowned, the bust of Napoleon and his first empress painted by David, a tower of Roman origin, &c. The minster was erected between the years 796 and 804, by the emperor Charlemagne, and was ornamented with great splendor. In the middle rises the monument of Charle- magne, with the simple inscription, Ca- rolo Magna. Above it hangs, suspended by a chain, a colossal crown of silver and gilt copper, a donation of Frederic I, which serves as a chandeUer for 48 can- dles. Here is to be seen the chair of white marble, on which several emperors have sat at the time of their coronation. It was formerly overlaid with gold. The church of the Franciscans is distin- guished by a beautiful picture of Ru- bens, the Descent from the Cross, which was carried to Paris, but has been brought back. The inhabitants are for the most part Catholics, many of whom are ac- tively engaged in manufactures. The cloths of A. are famous on the continent of Europe. A manufacture of needles, established about the middle of the 16th century, by Gauthier Wolmar, formerly employed more than 15,000 workmen, but in the year 1808 only 8000. A. con- tains 15 charitable institutions; it has 7 mineral springs, 6 of them warm. The most famous is the imperial spring, the vapor of which, if confined, deposites sul- phur. The rooms for bathing are excel- lent, with baths from 4 to 5 feet deep, in massive stone, after the old Roman fash- ion ; the greater part have bed-chambers with chimneys. At a distance of 500 paces from A. lies the village of Burt- sclreid, which also contains hot springs. The upper springs are in the viUage it- self, the lower in the valley, in the open air. The water is useful for washing and dyeing cloths. The upper springs contain no hepatic gas, and deposit no sulphur; in this respect they differ from the lower, and those of A. There are also in Burtscheid manufactures of broad- cloth, cassimere and needles. The coal- mines and pyrites in the surrounding country account for the hot-wells of A. and B. The names of several streets, Alexander, Francis, WelUngton street, remind us of the congress of A. in 1818. vol. i. H (See the article A. Congress at.) The histo- ry and description of A. with B. and Spa, by Aloys Schreiber, Heidelberg, 1824, is the best guide-book for travellers on the Rhine. Aix la Chapelle, congress at. In modern politics, the congress at A. in Oct. and Nov. 1818, is of high importance. The principal measures detemiined on at this meeting ofthe great powers which had conquered Napoleon were the fol- lowing: 1. The army ofthe allies, con- sisting of 150,000 EngUsh, Russian, Aus- trian, Pmssian and other troops, which, since the second peace at Paris, had re- mained in France, to watch over its tranquillity, was withdrawn, after France had paid the contribution imposed at the peace of 1815. The king of France was then admitted into the holy aUiance. Thus the congress of A. restored inde- pendence to France. 2. The 5 allies, the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the kings of Great Britain, France and Pn.s- sia, issued at this time the famous decla- ration of Nov. 15, 1818, a document of very dangerous tendency, too indefinite to settle any of the important poUtical questions then pending, but fuU of the personal views and feehngs of the mon- archs, and the legitimate offspring of the holy alliance concluded Sept. 26, 1815, at Paris. The friends of absolute gov- ernment in Europe, who confound the idea of the reigning famUy with that of the state and the government, admired the paternal professions of the sovereigns in this instrument, which is principally of a reUgious character; but sagacious politicians and the friends of justice fore- saw all the evils which it afterwards pro- duced. Its vagueness admitted of a great latitude of construction, and it was soon followed by a breach ofthe law of nations in the invasion of Italy and Spain under the newly-declared droit d? intervention armee, promulgated at Laybach, a direct consequence of the doctrines advanced at A. The holy alUance, with all the declarations of the succeeding congresses at Troppau, Laybach and Verona, affords the first instance of an avowedly personal alliance between many monarebs to main- tain certain principles of government, and attack every nation within their reach which adopts a different political creed. After the termination of the struggle against Napoleon, in which princes and people were firmly united, the former anxiously separated their interests from those of the latter, and at the congress at A. they openly manifested the designs 122 AIX LA CHAPELLE—AJACCIO. which every succeeding congress has developed more clearly. (See Holy Alli- ance.) The king of France, at this con- gress, became a member of the holy alli- ance only in his personal character, not as the constitutional chief of the French gov- ernment, foUowing the example of the present king of England, then prince regent. In feet, the accession of these two sovereigns was only to avoid appear- ing directly opposed to the alliance. 3. From the congress of A. are to be dated all the decisive measures of the German governments against the liberal spirit which had spread among their subjects since the wars with Napoleon. In A. it was first seen how unwilhng the king of Prussia was to fulfil his promises of libe- ral institutions, and how anxiously Aus- tria desired to suppress whatever tended to give force to pubUc opinion, to secure the rights of the people, or promote the cause of representative government At A. Mr. Stourdza, a Russian subject, pub- lished his influential work, Mernoire sur V Etat actuel de V Allemagne. The con- gress at Carlsbad (q. v.) was an immedi- ate consequence of the congress at A. It had reference, however, only to Ger- many. History will point out the period of these congresses as the aera of violent poUtical bigotry, corresponding to the for- mer ages of religious bigotry in its prin- ciples as in its measures. (See M.de Pradt's L' Europe apres le Congres