(Frontispiece.) 
Cl. AUDI AN AQUEDUCT (ROME), BUILT IN 50 A.D. WATER-SUPPLY 
(CONSIDERED PRINCIPALLY FROM A 
SANITARY STANDPOINT.) 
WILLIAM P. MASON, 
BY 
Professor of Chemistry, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; 
Member of American Philosophical Society, American Chemical Society, 
American Water-Works Association, New England Water- 
Works Association, Franklin Institute, etc,, etc. 
FIRST EDITION. 
FIRST THOUSAND. 
NEW YORK: 
JOHN WILEY & SONS. 
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 
1896. Copyright, 1896, 
BY 
WILLIAM P. MASON. 
ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPBR AND PRINTER, NEW YORK. PREFACE. 
COMPILATION must of necessity enter largely into an un- 
dertaking such as the present; and disconnected tabulations, 
together with frequent references to the findings of other 
investigators, naturally form no small portion of the body of 
the text. The writer hopes and believes that full acknowl- 
edgment has been given whenever material has been ex- 
tracted, from either the published works or private notes of 
other authors, and he trusts that the contrast may not be 
considered too vivid between such extracts and the humbler 
record of his own inquiries. It is hoped that this book may 
prove of interest to several .classes of men, quite widely sep- 
arated in tastes and occupations: to the physician, who wishes 
to keep in touch with this particular phase of sanitary science, 
but whose time does not permit of his undertaking such 
investigation personally; to the hydraulic engineer, whose 
professional duties prevent his sifting out from the mass of 
recent bacteriological and chemical results such facts as bear 
upon his specialty; to the water-analyst, or the chemical 
student, who may seek to employ analytical methods widely 
used, and largely based upon the report of the committee of 
the American Association for Advancement of Science; and, 
finally, to the general reader who, as a water consumer, feels 
a natural interest in the continually recurring water problem 
of the day. PREFA CE. 
The writer is under obligations to so many persons, both 
here and in Europe, for courtesies extended and information 
furnished, that it is quite hopeless to properly enumerate 
them here; but he desires to express his especial indebted- 
ness to the Engineering News for its kind assistance in secur- 
ing a number of the illustrations. 
William P. Mason. 
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 
Troy, N. Y., February, 1896. CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER I. 
PAGE 
Introductory, 1 
Magnitude of Ancient Water-supplies. Roman Aqueducts and the 
Supply of Rome. 
CHAPTER II. 
Drinking-water and Disease, 8 
“ Normal ” and “ Polluted ” Waters. Peaty, Brown, and Swamp 
Waters. Paludal Poisoning. Saw-dust Water. Odors and Tastes 
found in Waters. Wholesomeness of Hard Waters. Influence of 
Turbidity upon Health. Relation between Turbidity and Presence of 
Bacteria. Sewage-polluted Waters. Analyses of Sundry Epidemics 
of Cholera and Typhoid-fever. Relation of Typhoid-fever Death- 
rate to Improved Water-supply. Drinking-water of India and China. 
Power of Water to Carry Specific Disease. Viability of the Cholera 
and Typhoid Germs. Sterilizing Action of Sunlight. Action of Cold 
upon Bacteria. Statistics as to Sources of Typhoid Fever. Typhoid 
Fever and Rainfall. Estimated Yearly Tax Levied upon the Com- 
munity by Typhoid Fever. 
CHAPTER III. 
Artificial Purification of Water, 97 
English Filter-bed System. Composition of Foreign Filter-beds. 
Analysis of Sand. Ice on Filters. Cost of Building and Maintenance 
of Filters. Efficiency of Filter-beds. Rates of Filtration. Methods 
of Cleaning Filters. Management of Filters. Mechanical Filtration. 
Anderson’s Process. Filter-galleries and Cribs. Distillation. Aera- 
tion. Electrical Methods of Purification. Household Filtration. 
Charcoal Filters. 
CHAPTER IV. 
Natural Purification of Water 171 
Nitrification. Sewage Purification at Asniferes. Direct Oxidation. 
Sedimentation. Purification by Freezing. Purifying Action of Sun- VI 
CONTENTS. 
PAGE 
light. Self-purification of Streams. Rate of Purification Varies with 
Amount of Contamination. Changes in Fresh Sewage upon Standing. 
Seasonal Variation in Purity of Streams. Laws Relative to Pollution 
of Streams. 
Rain, Ice, and Snow 201 
Impurities in Air. Country and City Air. Country and City Rain. 
Monthly Variation in Composition of Rain-water. Impurities in 
Rain-water. Tanks and-Cisterns. Ice as Food. Law to Prevent Sale 
of Impure Ice. Viability of Bacteria in Ice. Ice and Disease. Ar- 
tificial Ice. Snow. Country and City Snow. Wholesomeness of 
Snow-water. 
CHAPTER V, 
CHAPTER VI. 
River- and Stream-water, 216 
Seasonal Variations in Composition of River Water. Discharge 
and Sediment of Rivers. Rainfall, Evaporation, and Flow of Streams. 
Normal Rainfall, by States, of the United States. Relation of Evapo- 
ration to Rainfall. Lines of Equal Evaporation for the United States. 
Rainfall and River-flow. Influence of Forests upon Water-supply. 
Proper Care of a Watershed. 
Stored Water, 257 
Lake-water. Evidence of Sedimentation. Vertical Circulation in 
Lakes and Deep Reservoirs. The Stagnant Bottom Layer. Cause of 
Coloring Matter and the Bleaching Action of Light. Changes in 
Ground-water during Open Storage. Growth of Algae in Stored 
Water. Preparation of Reservoir Bottoms. Sedimentation in Reser- 
voirs. Covered Reservoirs. Disinfection of Reservoir. Effect of 
Street-main upon Bacteria in Water. 
CHAPTER VII. 
Ground-water 287 
Physical Properties of Soils. Movement of Water through Soils. 
Underground Streams versus Water-table. The “Underflow” of the 
Plains. General Character of Ground-water. Dug and Driven Wells. 
“Silting up” of Gang Wells. Infiltration-galleries. Pollution of 
Ground-water. Viability of Cholera and Typhoid Germs in Soil. Lo- 
cation of Wells. Contamination by Privy Vaults. Reliance to be 
Placed upon Purification by Filtration through Soils. Relation of Ty- 
phoid Fever to Water and Drainage. Testing Wells for Possible 
Contamination. 
CHAPTER VIII. CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER IX. 
PAGE 
Deep-seated Water, 
Conditions Governing the Storing of Deep-seated Waters. Meth- 
ods of its Reaching the Surface. Sea-springs. Artesian Wells. 
“ Breathing Wells.” Capacity of Rocks to Absorb Water. Exhaus- 
tion of Deep-seated Water. Character of Deep-seated Water. Con- 
tamination of Deep-seated Water. Bacteria in Deep-seated Water. 
Chemical Examination of Water, 348 
Largely Based upon the Report of the Committee of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science. 
CHAPTER X. 
Bacteriological Examination of Water, 421 
CHAPTER XI. 
Quantity of per Capita Daily Supply, 438 
Statistics of, per Capita Supply, and Rates Charged in American 
and Foreign Cities. Statistics Showing Increase of Waste of Water. 
Influence of Meters in Preventing Waste. Influence of Meters upon 
Public Health. Estimated Future Population of Great Cities. 
CHAPTER XII. 
Action of Water upon Metals 447 
Tanks, Pipes, Conduits, Boilers, etc. Action upon Lead, Iron, 
Zinc, and Galvanized Iron. Tuberculated Pipes. Protection of 
Water-mains. The Bower-Barff and Other Processes. Corrosion of 
Boiler-plates. Boiler-scale. Boiler-scale “ Preventives.” 
CHAPTER XIII. 
APPENDIX. 
A. Analyses of City-water Supplies 465 
B. Typhoid-fever Death-rates for American and European Cities, 466 
C. Memorial to Congress from American Water-works Associa- 
tion, 468 
D. Effects of Contaminated Waters upon Fish, 472 
E. Water for Industrial Purposes, 473 
F. Liquids Deemed Polluting by English Rivers-pollution Commis- 
sion, 475 
G. Use of Sea-water for Street-washing, Sewer-flushing, etc, . 477 WATER-SUPPLY. 
CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 
From remote antiquity the highest value has been set 
upon an abundant and pure water-supply. Centres of popu- 
lation sprang up in ancient times around those points where 
it was readily available, and great expenditures, of labor 
and treasure, were made to carry it to places where it was 
not naturally plenty. Not only was a generous daily per 
capita allowance sought for, but we note in the centuries 
gone by unmistakable evidences of a keen appreciation of the 
dangers lurking in a polluted supply; and upon this point 
many of the ignorant consumers of our own day and genera- 
tion would be benefited did they consult the wisdom of the 
past. 
Hippocrates, who wrote upon the value of pure water 
some four hundred years before the beginning of our era, 
advised boiling and filtering a polluted water before using it 
for drinking,—advice which all must consider entirely “ up 
to date. 
He further believed that the consumption of swamp- 
water, in the raw state, produced enlargement of the spleen. 
Pliny (a.d. 70) in his “ Natural History” (book xxxi., 
chapters I. to VI.) devotes large space to the discussion of 
potable water, and thus speaks of one of the numerous sup- 
plies of Rome, which, by the way, is a water in use to-day: 
“ Among the blessings conferred on the city by the 
bounty of the gods is the water of the Marcia, the cleanest 2 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
of all the waters in the world, distinguished for coolness and 
salubrity. 
Libavius in 1595 refers to Pliny’s work, and adds the 
curious suggestion that the weight of a water is proportion- 
ate to its potability. 
During the Middle Ages it was observed that water some- 
times became poisonous through being distributed in lead 
pipes. 
Although Lascaris, who died in 1493, did not recognize 
the power of water to intensify and spread certain epidemics, 
it is interesting to observe that his teachings upon the origin 
of disease came very near the germ theory of the present 
day. 
Much the larger undertakings connected with ;-icient 
water-supply were those built entirely for, or at least in 
connection with, general systems of irrigation. “ The ex- 
tent of some of these great hydraulic works can be conjec- 
tured from the ruins remaining. Lake Maeris, in Egypt, 
was constructed at least 2000 years before Christ. Its di- 
mensions were sufficient to regulate the annual inundation 
of the Nile, receiving the surplus waters when there was 
danger of a flood, and supplying the needed deficiency when 
the river reached a stage which would not irrigate the crops. 
This, with other large reservoirs of flood-waters, enabled a 
population of 20,000,000 to exist in the valley of the Nile, 
while it now supports barely one fourth of the number. 
“ In ancient times the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
now almost a desert, were densely populated. Four thou- 
sand years ago the rulers of Assyria had converted those 
sterile plains and valleys into gardens of extreme productive- 
ness by the construction of immense artificial lakes for the 
conservation of the flood-waters of the rivers, and great dis- 
tributing-canals for irrigation. One of these canals, supplied 
by the Tigris, was over 400 miles long and from 200 to 400 ■ INTROD UCTOR Y. 
3 
feet broad, with sufficient depth for the navigation of the 
vessels of that time.* 
“ In India tanks, reservoirs, and irrigating-canals were 
constructed many centuries before the Christian era, and a 
great part of that country was kept in the highest state of 
cultivation. Some of the tanks or artificial lakes covered 
many square miles, and were often fifty feet in depth. 
“ Evidences exist in New Mexico and Arizona that in 
prehistoric times a race now extinct had extensive irriga- 
tion-works and cultivated large areas.” (Wyckoff.) 
Professor F. H. Cushing advises the author of his dis- 
covery of ancient reservoirs of large size in southern Arizona. 
Lake Maeris, above spoken of, is described by Herodo- 
tus as 413 miles in circumference and 300 feet deep. More 
modern travellers place the circumference at 50 miles. It is 
said to have been constructed 2084 B.C., and to have been 
connected with the Nile by a canal 12 miles long and 50 feet 
broad. 
On the site of ancient Carthage there are still to be seen 
the great cisterns for storage of water, eighteen in number, 
and each about one hundred feet long, twenty feet wide, 
and nearly twenty feet deep. They were originally covered 
with earth, and to-day are in marvellously good repair. They 
lie in two long rows and empty into a common gallery situ- 
ated between the rows. They belonged to the ancient or 
Punic city.f 
“ Drinking-water was supplied to ancient Carthage, from 
a spring 60 miles distant from the city, by means of a con- 
duit, which in its course cut through mountains by tunnels 
and crossed valleys by lofty and massive aqueducts, in one 
instance 125 feet high. This conduit was four feet wide and 
* The Nahravvan Canal. It is of great antiquity, and its former importance 
is shown by the ruins situated along its course. 
f See “ Carthage and Carthaginians,” by Bosvvorth Smith. 4 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
six feet high, was covered throughout, and was constructed 
most substantially of masonry lined internally with cement.” * 
“ Amongst the wonderful monuments of the former 
greatness of the Singhalese people must be mentioned the 
ruined tanks, with which scarcely anything of a similar kind, 
whether ancient or modern, can be compared. Thirty co- 
lossal reservoirs, and about seven hundred smaller tanks, still 
exist, though for the most part in ruins. In February, 
1888, the largest and most important tank in Ceylon, that of 
Kalawewa, was, after four years of labor, completely restored. 
It was built 460 A.D. to supply Anuradhapura with water, but 
has been ruinous for centuries. Now again it contains an 
area of seven square miles of water, twenty feet deep, and 
supplies smaller tanks more than fifty miles distant.” f 
When we reflect that these great works of antiquity were 
accomplished without the aid of steam, electricity, or ex- 
plosives, we are impressed with the belief that, in intelligent 
perseverance at least, “ there were giants in those days.” 
Our respect does not lessen when we contemplate the extent 
of the supply of water poured into the “Eternal City.” 
The following is freely taken from Forbes’ lecture on the 
Roman aqueducts: 
ROMAN AQUEDUCTS, ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. 
Date of Construction. 
Length. 
Appia 
312 
B.C. 
11 miles 
Anio Vetus 
... 272 
6 < 
43 “ 
Marcia. 
Herculea branch .. .. 
145 
6 i 
61 “ 
3 “ 
Tepula 
C i 
13 “ 
Julia 
34 
i i 
15 “ 
Virgo 
i c 
14 “ 
Augusta 
10 
A.D. 
6 “ 
* 52d Congress, Sen. Doc. 41, Part. I, page 430. 
f Chambers’s Encyclopaedia, in. 80. IN TROD UCTOR Y. 
5 
Alsietina 
Date of Construction. 
. IO “ 
Length. 
22 “ 
Claudia 
50 
C t 
16 
< i 
Anio Novus 
52 
i 6 
58 
i t 
Neronian branch 
97 
i L 
2 
< i 
Traiana 
.. 109 to 
200 “ 
42 
< l 
Hadriana ., 
117 to 1585 “ 
15 
i < 
Aurelia 
. 162 
C i 
l6 
c i 
Severiana 
200 
C i 
IO 
6 6 
Antoniniana branch... 
215 
i 6 
3 
C i 
Sabina—Augusta 
130 to 
300 “ 
i5 
i i 
Alexandria 
226 
i 6 
15 
i i 
(The miles above given are Roman, of 4854 feet. The entire length of the 
aqueducts in English miles would be 381.) 
It has been calculated that, altogether, the supply was 
332,306,624 gallons daily, which would have been over 332 
gallons per capita upon a basis of a population of one million. 
Notwithstanding that some of these aqueducts were dam- 
aged during the wars of the sixth and seventh centuries, the 
supply did not entirely cease until the fourteenth century, 
when Rome was abandoned by the papal court. In the 
present day four of the ancient sources still supply the city 
with water. 
Of the imposing lines of arches which stalk across the 
Campagna none is more interesting than the stately Claud- 
ian aqueduct. (See frontispiece.) 
Speaking of it, Pliny says: “ The preceding aqueducts 
have all been surpassed by the costly work more recently 
commenced by the Emperor Caius and completed by Claudius. 
The sum expended on these works was 350,000,000 of 
sesterces.’ ’ * 
Near the city the Claudian arches were filled up by 
Aurelian, and made to do duty as part of the city wall, the 
* About 12,700,000 dollars. 6 
WA TER-SUP PL Y. 
great gateway permitting passage at this point being known 
as the Porta Maggiore. 
It is curious to observe that waters from different sources 
were carried in separate channelways upon the same arches. 
Speaking of the Marcia, Tepula, and Julia waters, Fron- 
tinus says: “ The three are carried on the same arcade, 
the highest being the Julia, then the Tepula, and lowest the 
Marcia.” Near the Porta Maggiore the three channels are 
still distinctly to be seen. 
It remains to say a word about the “ castella ” so often 
found along the courses of the Roman aqueducts. Forbes 
calls them “ filtering-places,” but such they could not have 
been—at least in the modern acceptation of the expression. 
They varied in size and in the number of their chambers, 
some having but four, while others numbered as many as 
twelve, compartments. One of the smallest size is here illus- 
trated : 
The water entered chamber A and passed by means of 
holes in the floor into C, thence through openings in the 
wall into D, from which it rose through holes in the floor 
into B, and then passed on to Rome. A breaking of undue 
“ head ” would take place in the “ castellum,” as is accom- IN TROD UCTOR Y. 
7 
plished in a more modern fashion at Vienna to-day;* but 
the real benefit derived from the construction of these cham- 
bers was probably the opportunity given for sedimentation. 
Thus Frontinus says: “ At the seventh mile, on the Via 
Latina, the Marcia, Tepula, and Julia are taken into a cov- 
ered ‘ filtering-place,’ where, as though breathing again after 
their course, they deposit mud»” 
* At Vienna the aqueduct has a fall of 11,000 feet in the first io miles, and 
io feet per mile the balance of the way. It is about 60 miles long. The “head” 
is throttled by gates, every ioo feet of fall on the upper section. See Engi- 
neering News, Nov. 29, 1894. CHAPTER II. 
DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
In that excellent treatise upon “ Water-supplies and In- 
land Waters,” issued by the Massachusetts State Board of 
Health, waters are classified as “ normal ” and “ polluted,” 
the former being such as are free from addition, directly or 
indirectly, of either sewage or industrial waste. 
The relation of “ normal ” waters, as a class, to sanitary 
science constitutes a subject by itself, and one shrouded in 
much confessed ignorance and conflicting testimony, as is 
instanced by the doubt we entertain of the effect of “ peaty 
water ” upon the human organism. 
Bog-waters in Ireland, especially those of Lough Sheighs 
in the county of Cavan, and of Lough Neagh, have long been 
used for the treatment of skin-diseases. The mineral waters 
of Askern, in Yorkshire, England, are about saturated with 
peaty material from the neighboring bogs, and have for many 
years been successfully used in the treatment of chronic 
rheumatism and skin-diseases. 
Bothamley thinks it not improbable that the dissolved 
peaty matter is the curative agent in these waters.* 
The water supplying the town of Mount Holly, N. J., is 
pumped from RancocuS'Creek, and is at all times colored 
dark brown by dissolved peaty matter derived from a cedar 
swamp. It has never been known to produce gastric troubles, 
and the inhabitants think highly of it. An analysis by Prof. 
A. R. Leeds shows it to contain, in parts per million: f 
* J. Chem. Soc. lxiii. 696. 
f A. A. A. S. xxxvi. 128. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
9 
Free ammonia 060 
Albuminoid ammonia 155 
Required oxygen 5.500 
It is true that a typhoid epidemic was traced to the use 
of this water, but it was shown to have been an instance of 
specific pollution, in no way connected with the peaty char- 
acter of the town supply. 
“ Certain affluents of the Orinoco and Amazon have what 
is called black waters {aquas ncgras). When seen in mass, 
they are of a coffee-brown or of a greenish black. In the 
shade they are almost black, but in a glass they are brownish 
yellow, though very transparent. They have no disagreeable 
taste, and are preferred for drinking. 
The samples analyzed contain, in parts per million, 28 
of humic compounds, 1 of lime, 16 of total solids, and no 
nitrates. The residue contained silica, alumina, iron, man- 
ganese, and potassium. The waters do not undergo any 
chemical change on keeping.” * 
This ability to “ keep well ” is very frequently observed 
in brown waters, but it is by no means universal, nor does it 
seem to be a necessary characteristic indicating potability, 
for certain swamp-waters in which changes do occur during 
storage—notably that of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia—are 
held in esteem by sailors for use at sea after the “ working ” 
has been completed. 
In writing to the author regarding this latter water Sur- 
geon-General J. R. Tryon, of the U. S. Navy, says: 
“ I beg to enclose herewith copy of analysis made of 
Lake Drummond (Dismal Swamp) water in October, 1891, 
at the Naval Museum of Hygiene. 
“ This has always been considered a very pure water, and 
before the general adoption of condensers was much used 
* Chem. News, lviii. 305. 10 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
for naval vessels. The bureau has no special data bearing 
upon the relation to disease with the use of the class of 
waters referred to.” 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION. 
(Expressed in Parts per Million.) 
Color Yellow 
Odor Sweetish 
Turbidity None 
Sediment Very slight 
Residue on evaporation 294.0 
Loss on ignition 258.0 
Fixed solids 36.0 
Free ammonia .016 
Albuminoid ammonia 1.75 
Nitrogen as nitrites. None 
Nitrogen as nitrates 5.00 
Chlorine 1.50 
Flardness 49.3 
The city of Portsmouth, Va., uses a swamp water, and 
Norfolk, Va., has used a brown water for twenty years with 
entire satisfaction. 
Many of the surface-waters of Massachusetts are colored 
brown, especially that of the Acushnet River, supplying the 
town of New Bedford. Experiments made with this water 
showed that its dissolved nitrogenous matter remained per- 
manent for months without the development of “ free am- 
monia,” or other indications of decay.* 
Writing to the author regarding sundry peaty waters 
which had come within his experience, Dr. Chas. Smart, 
of the army, says: 
“ No bad effect was attributed to any of these waters. 
1 had one, however, which, with the characters just men- 
tioned, showed many infusoria, rotifers, and amoeboid 
* Mass. Bd. Health, toyo, 547. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
11 
masses such as are seen in marsh-waters; but for these last 
characteristics I should have called it a peaty water. As 
it was a well-water, I suspected vegetable debris in the 
well, and directed investigation, when quite a depth of com- 
pacted dead leaves was taken out. This water was con- 
sidered to have caused diarrhoea, and its use had been 
abandoned for some time before the sample was taken for 
investigation.” 
As illustrating, on the other hand, the undesirable char- 
acter of some swamp-waters, the celebrated case of the Argo 
may be recited: In 1834 the ship Argo, in company with 
two other vessels, transported 800 soldiers from Algiers to 
Marseilles. All started in good health, and all three ships 
reached Marseilles on the same day. Of the 120 soldiers 
on the Argo all but 9 were attacked by fever, and 13 died. 
None of the 680 men on the other two vessels were taken 
ill, nor was there any fever among the crew of the Argo. 
On inquiry it was ascertained that all of those on the other 
vessels, and also the crew of the Argo, were furnished with 
water from a pure source, but that the supply for the sol- 
diers on the Argo was derived from a marsh.* 
A more modern illustration is afforded by the experience 
of Long Branch, N. J., in August, 1887. The town took 
its water-supply from Cranberry Creek, which rises in a 
cypress swamp about four miles to the west. It happened 
that at the time mentioned the dam on this creek gave 
way and the water, which is very heavily charged with 
peaty matter, was pumped directly into the mains without 
having the customary interval for sedimentation, clarification, 
and bleaching. The result was an epidemic of diarrhoea, 
which affected numbers of the summer visitors, and filled 
the New York papers with long articles of complaint. 
An examination of the water, made at the time by Prof. 
* Parke’s “ Hygiene.” 12 
WA TEP-S UP PL Y. 
A. R. Leeds, showed that out of 187 parts per million of 
total solids 92 parts were organic, and nearly the whole of 
this was oxidizable by potassium permanganate. Filtration 
remedied the evil, and no such trouble has since obtained. 
It has been the author’s fortune to meet with but few 
cases of illness traceable to peaty waters, and in all such 
instances the patients suffered from a mild and transient 
form of diarrhoea, caused by water from a low-lying, shallow 
lake or pond, surrounded by low wooded banks. What- 
ever be the morbific principle of such waters, it appears 
to be removed by suitable filtration. 
Tidy is inclined to look with doubt upon the dictum 
that peaty water induces diarrhoea, for he finds the death- 
rate from such cause lower than the average in certain towns 
whose water-supplies are exceedingly peaty in character, 
although he admits that in some Irish towns furnished with 
peaty water the death-rate from diarrhoea is excessive.* 
Mrs. E. H. Richards very properly points out that such 
peaty waters as are found unwholesome may owe their toxic 
qualities to the presence of materials other than the brown 
coloring-matter. 
When we dwell upon the fact that the milder enteric 
disorders rarely get into the “death-rate,” and that visit- 
ing strangers may suffer from a cause to which the accli- 
mated natives are not susceptible, we appreciate that such 
data as Tidy furnishes do but emphasize what we believe to 
be a fact, that in dealing with peaty water we must con- 
sider it as largely an unknown quantity, possibly entirely 
harmless, but also the possible centre of much trouble, 
especially if the amount of organic matter present be large. 
Even the same water may not at all times be equally po- 
table, for, as J. W. Mallet has well said: “ It seems quite 
conceivable that a water containing organic matter of any 
* J. Chem. Soc. xxxvii. 319. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
13 
kind may be harmless at one time and harmful at another, 
when perhaps a different stage of fermentation or putre- 
factive change may have been entered upon, and special 
organisms may have made their appearance or entered upon 
a new phase of existence. Thus there might possibly be 
safety in drinking a peaty water, or water filtered through 
beds of dead forest leaves, when fresh; danger when, after 
a certain amount of atmospheric exposure, bacterial organ- 
isms had become developed; and safety, again, perhaps, 
after the growth of such organisms had fallen off, and more 
or less of the available organic matter had been consumed.” * 
When, therefore, the question arises as to the advisa- 
bility of introducing a peaty water as a town supply, the 
possible unsatisfactory character of the same must always 
be borne in mind, and the municipal authorities should be 
prepared for the probable necessity of constructing a filter- 
ing-plant. Moreover, a distinction should be always drawn 
between a flowing water carrying fresh peaty material in 
solution and a water derived from a stagnant swamp. “ In 
certain cases it may be a fact that the algae decay rapidly, 
but that new growth absorbs the products of decomposi- 
tion, so that they do not accumulate in the water. Shallow, 
stagnant bodies of water, which in the heat of summer are 
full of vegetable and animal life, become in time foul, be- 
cause decay gets ahead ot growth and the products of de- 
composition accumulate.” 
Dr. Bartley has lately written upon the relation of water 
to paludal poisoning,f and has dwelt upon the observation 
that persons who drink the water of stagnant ponds in ma- 
larial regions suffer more than those who avoid the use of 
* Schroder has recently observed that peat, particularly if it be of acid reac. 
tion, possesses the power of quickly destroying the cholera germ. He found 
the spirillum killed after an exposure of five hours to peat-dust.—J. Soc. Chem. 
Ind. xiii. 538. 
f Brooklyn Med. J., Jan. 1893. WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
such waters. He refers to the instance furnished by La- 
veran, a case where one detachment of soldiers partook of a 
certain well before dinner, while another detachment drank 
of the same water after a hearty meal. A large number of 
the first group of men became malarial, while of the second 
none contracted the fever. He explains this incident by 
the fact that the gastric juice of an empty stomach is neu- 
tral or alkaline in reaction, while in the second the gastric 
juice was acid and destroyed the organisms. 
In the Sanitarian for August, 1892, Dr. Waggener writes: 
“ In January, 1886, a company of forty healthy marines 
were sent to the navy yard at Pensacola, Fla. During 
their first year frequent attacks of malaria began to show 
themselves among these men, which increased in number 
during the second year, and during the third year the dis- 
ease became so prevalent that, before August, twenty-five 
of the party were in the hospital at one time. During this 
year they were so broken down that they were all sent to 
Norfolk, Va., where they all recovered. These marines 
drank the water from a driven well at the yard. The 
officers and their families drank only from a cistern, and no 
case of malaria appeared among them, proving that the wells 
were probably the cause of the sickness among the marines. 
“ In 1875 the naval hospital at Pensacola was rebuilt. 
It proved to be a very unhealthy place, malarial diseases 
being very commonly contracted by patients and all others 
who came there. This continued until 1890. At this time 
there was a change in the water-supply. A cistern was 
constructed and the use of well-water from the driven wells 
was abandoned, with the cessation of malarial attacks. The 
soil at the location of the hospital is composed of a sandy 
top with a swampy marl underneath. This peaty soil con- 
tains organic matter, and in some way produced these 
diseases. DRINKING- WA 'TER AND DISEASE. 
15 
Laveran reaches the following conclusions upon this sub- 
ject: “ 1st. There have been observed cases in which, in the 
same locality, persons living in identical conditions, but 
using drinking-waters from different sources, the one group 
being attacked in a large proportion, while the other group 
of persons are scarcely affected at all. 
“ 2d. In certain otherwise unhealthy localities the paludal 
fevers have been seen to disappear by supplying pure drink- 
ing-water instead of the previously used stagnant waters. 
“ 3d. In localities otherwise healthy one can contract in- 
termittent fever by drinking water from an unhealthy locality. 
“ 4th. Travellers in malarial countries have found that 
on boiling their drinking-water they escape the disease in a 
large proportion of cases.’’ 
Dr. H. Martyn Clark, of the city of Amritsar, India, in a 
paper read before the Scottish Geographical Society in 
April, 1892, says: “ The malarial poison is usually breathed 
into the system, but it is, in my opinion, quite as com- 
monly imbibed. Water is contaminated in two ways: 
either by the power it has of absorbing malaria which passes 
over its surface, or, in the case of wells, through the subsoil- 
water. * * * In 1884 a party of workmen, sent to repair 
a bridge over the Chuka, drank of this stream, and, out of 
thirty, only three escaped fever, while several of them died.’’ 
Dr. W. H. Daly, of Pittsburgh, Pa., writes:* “Obser- 
vations and studies on the subject, and investigations made 
in various districts from Manitoba to Louisiana, and all along 
the southern coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and of Cuba, 
Yucatan, and certain districts in Mexico, lead the writer to 
the conclusions that so-called malarial disease is not easily, 
if at all, contracted by inhaling so-called malaria or bad air 
of the low, swampy, or new lands, but it is distinctly, if 
not almost exclusively, due to drinking water that has come 
* Medical Record, Sept. 15, 1894. 16 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
into contact with and become infected with the malaria 
germs that exist in the earth and waters of the swamp and 
low lands. This germ does not ordinarily, if at all, float in 
the air during the day, nor does it find easily a vehicle in the 
fog or vapors of the night.” * 
Writing upon paludism, Dr. Chas. Smart says: “ The 
propagation of malarial disease by means of drinking-water 
has of late years been accepted by those who have made a 
special study of the subject. Proof was difficult, because 
of the general and unquestioned acceptance of the doctrine 
of an aerial miasm as the cause of all malarial disease. 
When the requisite spot of malarial soil was not present to 
account by its exhalations for some obscure or anomalous 
case, its existence was assumed. But these obscure cases, 
when attention was directed to them, were found to be very 
numerous. They were common all over our Western Ter- 
ritories, on elevated grounds, where there was apparently no 
source of malarial exhalation, and these cases were always 
of a serious character; remittent fevers rather than simple 
agues- They were common in certain districts of the country 
in the winter season, when, in accordance with the theory 
of a malarial miasm exhaled into the atmosphere and in- 
haled into the lungs, the frosts of the season should have 
imprisoned all such exhalations, and these cases also were 
severe rather than mild. But in all these instances of seri- 
ous malarial diseases without malarial soils to account for 
them the drinking-water used was derived from a malarious 
locality, and in some the prevalence and aggravated char- 
acter of the sickness was proportioned to the amount of the 
organic impurity in this water. On the assumption that the 
water was impregnated with malaria from the soil, these 
* A very full investigation, tending to show close relationship between 
paludal poisoning and water-supply, will be found in the Fifth Biennial Report 
of the North Carolina State Board of Health, 1893-1894. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
17 
obscure cases ceased to be obscure. But this is not an as- 
sumption, for there is a groundwork of fact to support it as 
solid as that which sustains the theory of the aerial trans- 
mission of the disease. The prevalence of these fevers has 
been decreased with an improvement in the water-supply. 
The remittents of our Western Territories have declined in 
frequency since the country became settled and a better 
water-supply was found than that of the ponds, ditches, and 
tanks used by the overland travellers. Recent reports from 
some of the most unhealthy districts of India show an ex- 
traordinary change in the insalubrity of the country coinci- 
dent with the procurement of a supply of drinking-water 
from deep and carefully protected wells.” 
In the report of the Michigan State Board of Health, 
1882, the proposition is made by Dr. Mulhern that the pres- 
ence of decomposing sawdust in water is a cause of malaria. 
Whether or not this can be proven, it is unquestionably true 
that such material can render water highly objectionable. 
In certain portions of Michigan the enormous lumber trade 
has forced upon the people sanitary problems of very un- 
usual character. 
“ In some places large areas of low ground, but little 
above the water-level of the adjacent lake or river, have 
been built up with sawdust until sufficient elevation has 
been secured to build houses on these made-lands. To such 
an extent have whole blocks and streets been built up with 
this sawmill waste that the epithet ‘ sawdust city ’ applies 
with singular force to some of the most enterprising business 
centres. 
Take as an example the water from an open well in 
Grand Haven, excavated in a sawdust area, the well 7 or 8 
feet deep, and the water-level only 3 feet below the surface. 
The water contained 260 parts solids in 1,000,000 parts of 
water, 170 parts being volatile and organic. It contained 18 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
1.5 parts free ammonia, and 1 part albuminoid ammonia. 
It contained so much combustible matter and nitrates in solu- 
tion that on evaporating a litre in a large platinum basin and 
heating the residue at one edge a brisk deflagration spread 
over the whole dish. 
“ 1. These sawdust waters all contain an amount of or- 
ganic matter sufficient to condemn them for potable and 
culinary use. 
“2. They all contain resinous extractive matter in so- 
lution. 
“ 3. They all contain nitrogenous material capable of 
yielding albuminoid ammonia greatly in excess of the sani- 
tary limit. 
“ 4. They contain all the chemical elements necessary 
to sustain low forms of plant-life. 
“5. In the presence of so large an amount of organic 
matter and the chemicals of plant-life, these waters may 
become dangerous by nourishing and reproducing the germs 
of epidemic disease, should they find lodgment therein.” 
However interesting to the microscopist may be the 
lower forms of animal and vegetable life, with which many 
of our surface-waters are often crowded, it is yet an open 
question whether or not they are of any importance to the 
sanitarian. Odors, variously described as “ musty,” ‘‘ fishy,” 
“cucumber,” “green-corn,” “horse-pond,” and the like, 
are frequently produced by the death and decay of these 
little organisms, especially of those known as algae; but, 
however objectionable these odors and tastes may be from 
an aesthetic standpoint, it has not been proven that they 
are productive of disease. When the small plants are them- 
selves swallowed, “ they act mechanically chiefly, perhaps 
like unripe fruit, when affecting the health at all, in causing 
diarrhoea; but the filtered water is harmless.” * 
* First Report Mass. Bd. Health, 1879. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
19 
The possibility of preventing the growth of these minute 
organisms will be considered in a subsequent chapter.* 
Although natural waters are to be found bearing in solu- 
tion most varied assortments of mineral ingredients, yet 
such cannot be considered potable, except in the sense that 
they are medicinal, and they consequently do not find place 
in the present writing. When those minerals are present, 
however, which give to the water the characteristic known 
as “ hardness,” the case is quite different, for such a prop- 
erty obtains, to a greater or less degree, in every public 
supply. As to the wholesomeness of such a water, there is 
widespread opinion that a high degree of hardness is not 
compatible with safety; but although hard waters do often 
produce certain intestinal derangements in persons not ac- 
customed to their use, there are no sufficient statistics on 
record tending to confirm the popular belief that they lead 
to the formation of urinary calculi. It is a matter of com- 
mon observation that sudden change from the use of a pure, 
soft water to one equally pure, but harder, or vice versa, 
results in temporary intestinal derangement, showing the diffi- 
culty to be due rather to the change than to the inherent 
character of the water employed. As has been pointed out 
by Prof. Drown, the waters of the south of England are ex- 
ceedingly hard, but the statistics do not show an increase 
of death-rate resulting therefrom. While considering the 
wholesomeness of hard water, the English Rivers Pollution 
Commission (Sixth Report) collected the following statistics, 
the comparison having been made between towns of the 
* A. R. Leeds refers to the oily nature of some of the products of plant 
growth. The acid residue of such oily compounds being volatile and of bad 
taste and smell, carbonic acid will, at times, liberate the objectionable acid, 
thus producing a taste or smell where none existed previously. He has known 
cases of such liberation during the manufacture of “soda-water.” (Am. Water 
Works Asso.,xii. 193.) 20 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
same class, in which the general conditions of life are similar. 
The conclusion was: “Where the chief sanitary conditions 
prevail with tolerable uniformity, the rate of mortality is 
practically uninfluenced by the softness or hardness of the 
water. 
TOWNS SUPPLIED WITH SOFT WATER. 
Kind of Town. 
Number 
of 
Towns. 
Average 
Population. 
Average 
Annual Mortality 
per 
1000 Inhabitants. 
Seaport 
5 
162,801 
29.4 
Inland manufacturing 
5 
172,860 
29.7 
Inland non-manufacturing 
8 
10,751 
25-4 
Watering-places 
5 
48,430 
19-5 
TOWNS SUPPLIED WITH MODERATELY HARD WATER. 
3 
226,172 
108,715 
62,372 
33,48o 
32.1 
8 
3 
19.2 
TOWNS SUPPLIED WITH HARD WATER. 
Seaport 
6 
IX6,406 
25-1 
Inland manufacturing 
5 
144,981 
25-5 
Inland non-manufacturing 
20 
29,169 
23.2 
Watering-places... 
12 
53-170 
20.4 
In an article on “ The Importance of Magnesia in Drink- 
ing-water” * Percy Frankland shows that a very great per- 
centage of the population of England are to-day using waters 
containing from 40 to 60 parts of MgO per million; and 
that, consequently, the prejudice existing against magnesian 
waters, on account of their supposed production of calculi, 
goitre, and cretinism should not be given undue importance 
* International Congress of Hygiene, London, i8gt. 21 
DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
until a thorough investigation has demonstrated that it is 
founded upon truth. 
Lying between ordinary hard waters and those of a true 
mineral character is a group of waters, principally of artesian 
origin, which contain sundry objectionable mineral ingre- 
dients, such as magnesium chloride, hydrogen sulphide, and 
the like, and which would hardly be considered potable did 
they occur in well-watered regions, but which are thankfully 
received by people very willing to take almost any water 
they can obtain. 
Turbidity is exceedingly common in the river-waters of 
this country, particularly in those of the great central basin. 
The quantity of suspended claylike material present natur- 
ally varies in each stream with the conditions of the season, 
being at times entirely absent in some of them, while with 
others the existence of more or less muddiness appears to be 
a constant characteristic.* 
With reference to the influence of the suspended mineral 
matter upon health, we find some conflict of opinion. It is 
an unquestioned fact that very roily water is ingested by 
many of our communities with no traceable evil results, but 
the preponderance of testimony goes to show that immunity 
is attained by continued use, and that the visiting stranger 
is not upon the same platform of safety with the acclimated 
native. To quote a typical instance: “ In 1868 the right wing 
of the 92d Highlanders, going up the River Indus, suffered 
from diarrhoea from the use of the river-water, which at the 
time was very muddy. The left wing of the same regiment 
* Ockerson reports that four different surface-samples of Mississippi river 
water contained 576, 788, 1030, and 348 parts per million ol sediment. On July 
2, 1894, the same river-water, at New Orleans, contained 2360 parts per mill- 
ion of solids, mostly silt. Below the junction of the clear Mississippi with the 
muddy Missouri, the two waters How on for many miles, side by side, with a 
distinct line of division. 22 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
used water from the same source, but precipitated the sus- 
pended matters with alum, and had no diarrhoea. The right 
wing then adopted the same plan with like success.” * 
In reply to the claim so often advanced that turbidity is 
a positive advantage, as tending to remove objectionable 
material from a sewage-polluted river-water, it should be 
stated that suitable arrangements for sedimentation must be 
furnished, otherwise no advantage can be expected from the 
mere presence of the suspended mineral ingredients. It is 
a well-known fact that precipitating solids will drag down 
with them other finely divided substances which, if left to 
themselves, would require long periods of time for complete 
sedimentation, and that even soluble salts will often be in 
part carried down by the same cause, as every student of 
quantitative analysis knows to his sorrow. 
It may readily be conceived that, acting in obedience to 
this principle, the depositing silt would gather to itself, and 
carry with it, many germs of disease which, if left to them- 
selves in clear water, would require much longer time to fall; 
but that there is any advantage to be looked for in using a 
turbid water without sedimentation, and thereby swallowing 
turbidity, germs, and all, is scarcely rational. 
The following is in illustration of the influence of turbidity 
in causing a more rapid deposition of bacteria diffused 
throughout a body of water. The results represent the 
relative numbers, per cubic centimetre, at the surface of a 
body of water, and at varying depths in the same, under the 
condition of clearness and also of material turbidity. 
The experiment was conducted with a tall tin vessel, one 
foot in diameter, and tubulated at intervals of one foot, for 
drawing samples. The time of settlement was made two 
hours; and the numbers of bacteria found per cubic centi- 
* Parke’s “ Hygiene,” I. 341. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
23 
metre at the successive depths are stated in terms of the 
number in the surface sample, that being called one hun- 
dred. 
Muddy 
Water. 
Clearer 
Water. 
Surface 
ioo 
IOO 
Depth of one foot 
“ “ two feet 
134 
125 
166 
142 
“ “ three feet 
186 
169 
“ “ four feet 
266 
254 
Two hours of settlement were not enough to bring out 
marked contrast between the waters, although the principle 
was sustained. 
“ As the result of one year’s observation made by Theo- 
bald Smith a relation was found between turbidity and the 
presence of bacteria. Bacteria were most abundant in 
winter, January and February having the highest average; 
August, September, and October, the months of the great- 
est prevalence of typhoid fever, having the lowest. Bac- 
teria, most of which were harmless, were most abundant 
after heavy rains, and their presence in association with tur- 
bidity proved the then source to be from the washing of the 
surface of the soil. 
“ In the latest bacteriological report on Potomac water 
Theobald Smith adheres to this statement, and says that 
fecal bacteria and turbidity were coincident; that is, that 
rainfall carries into the Potomac whatever may happen to 
be on the surface of the soil—clay, manure from the helds, 
inorganic or organic matter of any sort.” 
The really serious item of contamination, the one to 
which the sanitarian’s attention is most quickly drawn, is 
that of sewage introduction, and a consideration of the ques- 
tions arising upon this topic dwarfs all others into comparative 24 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
insignificance. Shall a water once polluted with sewage- 
material be again used for human consumption ? If there 
be danger in such use, what is its nature, what is its extent, 
and are there available means for averting it ? These are 
popular questions of the day with which the sanitarian has 
to grapple. 
It would hardly be wise to take the reader’s time with a 
resume of matters, possessing only historic interest, pertain- 
ing to this topic; suffice it to say that, within the very 
recent past, strong views were entertained concerning the 
self-purification of streams, and also upon certain features of 
natural and artificial filtration, which we now believe to have 
been erroneous. That polluted public water-supplies have 
caused widespread illness and death is established beyond a 
peradventure, and, from among the many illustrations that 
might be cited, the author offers the following in evidence, 
some of the data having been collected by himself or within 
his personal experience : 
In the autumn of 1887 the city of Messina, Sicily, was 
visited by an epidemic of cholera. The plague lasted from 
September 10th to October 25th, during which time there 
were some 5,000 cases and 2,200 deaths. Although foi a 
time the number of daily cases was excessive, running as 
high as 400, the ordinary number was about 70. The popu- 
lation was stampeded, falling from 71,000 to about 25,000. 
The government felt that a very possible cause for the 
rapid spread of the scourge lay in a contaminated drinking- 
water, and an inquiry, resulting in a development of the 
following facts, fully confirmed the suspicion: The water 
as it left the gathering grounds in the mountains was of ex- 
cellent quality, but it was conveyed to the city in a conduit 
entirely open. Those who are familiar with European cus- 
toms will remember that the washing of soiled clothing is 
there largely an out-of-door occupation, conducted in the DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
25 
nearest available water-course. For the benefit of the Mes- 
sina washerwomen a portion of the public water was de- 
flected, before reaching the walls, and turned into neighbor- 
ing washing-pools of stone. A fair proportion of this de- 
flected water, after having been used for laundry purposes, 
found its way back into the channel, and continued its 
course to the city. Further contamination occurred within 
the town itself, for the reason that the mains of the distrib- 
uting system were of unglazed tile, badly joined, and were 
laid in the immediate vicinity of unglazed tile sewers, also 
very leaky. The sewers were at times found on top of, and 
parallel with, the water-mains. 
Acting upon its conviction as to the cause of the great 
mortality, the government sent tank ships to the mainland, 
filled them with pure “ Serino ” water, supplied the people 
therewith, and the daily number of cholera cases immediately 
fell from seventy to five; or, to quote an expression of the 
time, “ the plague ceased as if by magic.” An entirely new 
and efficient distributive system has since been introduced, 
the open conduit has been replaced by modern pipe and the 
city has escaped further visitation by cholera.* 
Prof. W. T. Sbdgwick gives the following description of 
the outbreak of cholera at Genoa, Italy, in 1884: 
“ Cholera had appeared in Spezia, some fifty miles away; 
but after cholera had been raging in Southern Europe nearly 
two months, Consul Fletcher of Genoa wrote to the authorities 
in Washington: ‘ I do not believe the officials in any city in 
Europe could be more watchful or take more extreme pre- 
cautions to ward off the epidemic than those in authority in 
Genoa. The result is that Genoa is in as healthy a state 
* The influence of the washerwomen in spreading cholera in Messina reminds 
us that the great epidemic at Cuneo, Italy, in 1884, resulting in 3344 cases, was 
traced to identically the same source. Infected linen had been washed in a 
brook communicating with the public water-supply. 26 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
to-day as it is possible for human agency to make it, consid- 
ering its peculiar construction and its proximity to the sea.’ 
The cholera was then but fifty miles distant; but for a month 
later the city retained its healthfulness, when suddenly the 
cholera appeared, and in one week one hundred and sixty- 
nine people died with this disease, nine-tenths of whom were 
supplied by one of the three public water-supplies of the city. 
“ Upon investigation it was found that upon the stream 
which was the source of this water-supply, thirteen miles 
from the city, between one thousand five hundred and two 
thousand laborers were at work upon a railroad, and in the 
previous week cholera had broken out among them. They 
washed their clothes in this stream, and some of their bowel 
discharges probably also found their way into it. On the 
tenth day after the cholera appeared in Genoa, this source 
of water-supply was cut off, and the portion of the city 
which it served was supplied from one of the other sources. 
The daily deaths from cholera immediately decreased, and 
in six days the number had fallen from thirty-eight to ten. 
The whole number of cases in the sections of the city sup- 
plied by the polluted water was four hundred and forty-four, 
and in the two sections supplied by public water-supplies of 
unpolluted water the whole number was fifty-five.” * 
An interesting case, showing the relation of water-supply 
to disease, was presented to the author recently. The vil- 
lage of Jessenitz, some 40 miles from Hamburg, was, until 
lately, of an unsavory sanitary reputation, typhoid fever and 
* “In the town of Askhabad, on August 3, 1892, there were only eleven 
patients in the hospitals, and they were convalescent. The epidemic was over 
and the people were congratulating themselves on their escape. On that night 
twelve soldiers were taken sick with the disease. On the following day 400 
persons fell ill, and within a few days there were over 400 deaths in the town. 
It was afterwards learned that some soldiers, just recovering from cholera, had 
gone to the stream which furnished the water-supply, and had washed their 
clothes. The epidemic followed as a very natural result.”—Ohio Board of 
Health, 1893. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE 
2 7 
diphtheria having been plentiful and frequent. About 30 
feet below the village site is a stratum of clay, above which 
lies the water-bearing layer into which common open wells 
of the inhabitants were sunk. Suspicion “having been cast 
upon the water-supply, new wells were driven near the old 
sites to a depth of seventy feet, passing through the deposit 
of clay. The old wells were closed and the good sanitary 
results were both immediate and marked. None of the 
former trouble has been experienced. 
In 1890 two violent outbreaks of typhoid fever occurred 
in the valley of the Tees River.* 
The Tees is a small stream of northern England, about 
seventy miles long, and navigable for about four miles from 
its mouth. 
Most of the towns of the valley take their water-supplies 
from the river, but a large scattered population receives 
water from other sources. The estimated population using 
Tees water at the time of the outbreak was 219,435, and 
the number not using such water was 284,181. 
In many places, especially in the towns, the river re- 
ceives all sorts of polluting additions, which are carried on 
by the current to the intakes below. During dry weather, 
the stream recedes considerably, leaving uncovered its rocky 
foreshores, which accumulate filth of every variety, and 
retain the same until, by reason of heavy rain, the river sud- 
denly rises and sweeps the refuse downward towards the 
towns nearer the sea. 
The result produced upon the thoughtless public, of such 
an extra and concentrated dose of sewage material added to 
their water-supply, is best shown graphically by the accom- 
panying chart, where it will be observed that increase of 
rainfall is followed by increase in cases of typhoid fever 
* See 21st Report of the London Local Government Board. 28 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
among the 219,435 persons using the Tees water, after an 
interval corresponding to the incubation period of the dis- 
RAINFALL AND TYPHOID FEVER IN THE TEES VALLEY, ENGLAND. 
ease, while no appreciable result is noticed among 284,181 
people of the same district, using other sources of supply. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
29 
The “ typhoid rates ” given in the chart are “ cases,’ 
not “deaths. 
It is especially worthy of note that “ increased rainfall ” 
is separated from “ increased typhoid ” by an interval cor- 
responding with the incubation period of the disease. 
It fell to the author’s duty to investigate certain points 
relating to the typhoid epidemic occurring in the valley of 
the upper Hudson during the autumn and winter of 1890-91, 
and the facts seem especially instructive. 
By a glance at the accompanying chart, the locations 
will be observed of the several cities and towns situated at 
and near the junction of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. 
Every one of these centres of population drains into the river 
on whose banks it is situated, and each of them, except 
Lansingburgh, takes all or the greater portion of its water- 
supply directly from such river by means of pumps. Mark 
this difference, however, Waterford and Troy are supplied 
with Hudson River water above the junction with the Mo- 
hawk; Lansingburgh is furnished with water from the hills 
east of the town, and the village of Green Island obtains its 
water from wells driven into its sandy soil. The others use 
Mohawk or Mohawk-Hudson water. 
The several intakes are indicated on the chart by squares. 
Under date of April n, 1891, the Health Officer of Sche- 
nectady wrote the author: “ The marked increase in typhoid 
fever began in July, 1890, and has just let up. We have 
had about 300 cases. Doctors have not been particular in re- 
porting them, and we have had so many cases of anomalous 
fevers that diagnosis is questionable. Seventy deaths 
have been reported.” Permit me to say that it was not 
the rule during this epidemic for physicians to do their 
whole duty in reporting cases. I knew of one instance in 
which only two or three cases were reported out of twenty- 
five. Schenectady is a very old town (of 20,000 inhabi- 30 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
tants), and its sewerage system is doubtless none of the best, 
but its drainage eventually reaches the Mohawk and is car- 
ried onward with the current. 
The following information was obtained from Dr. Leo, 
Health Officer of Cohoes, and from Dr. Peltier, his prede- 
cessor. Population of Cohoes is 22,000. 
The epidemic of typhoid began in Cohoes about the end 
of October, 1890, and ceased about the middle of the fol- 
lowing March. Altogether there were about 1,000 cases. 
The cases were mild in character, resulting in very few 
deaths. Cohoes takes its entire water-supply from the Mo- 
hawk and returns its sewage into the same river. Boiling of 
water for drinking purposes was recommended, and no 
typhoid developed among families who followed the recom- DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
31 
mendation, except in those instances where members of 
such families drank unboiled water while at work away from 
home. A portion of the city is owned by the great Har- 
mony Knitting Mills, and is built up with tenements for 
their employees, of which there are many hundreds. These 
tenements are kept in excellent repair and the plumbing is 
the best in the city, but extends to kitchen sinks and drains 
only. No water-closets are employed, as each house is fur- 
nished with privy vault in backyard. Typhoid was espe- 
cially bad in this quarter. The Cohoes Health Officer has 
professional occasion to visit in Waterford (population 5,400) 
and in Lansingburgh (population 10,000), which towns are 
connected with Cohoes by bridges. He reports that hardly 
a case existed in either of those towns, and it is to be noted 
that one of them draws water from the upper Hudson above 
the Mohawk junction, and the other is supplied from the 
hills. 
West Troy is situated on the Hudson and sewers therein, 
but by aid of the chart it will be noticed that its water- 
supply comes from the Mohawk some distance above Cohoes. 
Its population is 13,000. The following information was 
obtained from Dr. McNaughton, Health Officer: 
“ Epidemic typhoid began the last of November. At 
meeting of Health Board, about December 15th, fifty cases 
were reported. Of these, forty-two had used Mohawk water, 
the remainder well-water. On December 20th, the Mohawk 
supply was shut off and arrangements made with the town 
of Green Island (which village, by the way, had no fever) to 
use a portion of its supply. One week thereafter the weekly 
report of cases showed fifteen, and the second week there- 
after but one case was reported. The Green Island supply 
was used one month. Upon returning to the Mohawk 
supply in the middle of January, a slight increase in typhoid 
was observed. Total number of cases exceeded 100. The 32 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
fever, as in other places, was very mild, resulting in ten 
deaths. 
Troy is situtated directly opposite West Troy. Its popula- 
tion is 65,000. Its water-supply comes partly from lakes back 
in the hills, partly from the Hudson above the Mohawk junc- 
tion. 
There were very few cases of typhoid in Troy during the 
year, and of those few a large percentage were imported 
from Schenectady and West Troy. 
Troy dumps 8,000,000 gallons of sewage into the Hud- 
son daily. 
Six miles below Troy is the city of Albany; population, 
100,000. Albany takes its water through an intake in the 
side of the wharf, directly in front of the city. Not only 
does sewage from the upper Hudson and Mohawk flow 
toward it, but during flood tide and south wind, the return 
of its own sewage from the sewer outfalls below has been 
prove 1 by the floating of buoys. 
The typhoid epidemic began in Albany the last of De- 
cember, 1890. The disease was very mild in character, 
resulting in sixty-two deaths during the months of January, 
February and March, 1891. The total number of typhoid 
cases reported during the same period was 411, but this 
figure I have reason to know is absolutely unreliable. Al- 
bany experienced a very serious epidemic during the winter 
of 1890-91, and the alarm was widespread, of that there can 
be no question. A small portion of the city receives its 
water-supply from an inland gravity source. Typhoid was 
not nearly so plenty in that section, only eighteen cases hav- 
ing been reported to the end of March. 
At Van Wie’s Point, four miles below Albany, the la- 
borers employed in cutting ice for the great ice-houses had 
typhoid fever break out among them during January. They 
used river water for drinking purposes. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
33 
Typhoid germs were carefully looked for in the water 
and were not found. But such a negative result does not 
appear surprising. There are those who hold that this out- 
break of typhoid fever is to be explained in some other way 
than by attributing it to a contaminated water-supply, but 
when we bear in mind that, out of this group of closely 
situated cities and towns, all of those which used the Mo- 
hawk-Hudson water contracted the fever, and that all those 
which did not use such water escaped, there is much food 
for thought. 
Two important cases of typhoid outbreak must be added 
to those given, because, though often quoted, and doubtless 
familiar to most readers, the lessons they teach are too 
valuable to risk losing from the memory. The first is from 
a description by Dr. E. F. Smith: 
“ The city of Plymouth, Pa., contains a population of 
about 8,000. In this small community within a period of a 
few weeks there were more than 1,000 cases and too deaths 
from typhoid fever. The epidemic was studied on the spot 
by competent New York and Pennsylvania physicians, so 
that no doubt is left either as to the nature of the disease 
or as to the method of its introduction and spread.* The 
facts, sifted and tested by rigid and expert scientific methods, 
are as follows: The general water-supply of Plymouth is 
obtained from a mountain brook, a number of dams being 
thrown across the stream for this purpose. During part of 
the winter of 1884-5, owing to the deep freezing of this 
stream, the hydrant water was taken from the neighboring 
river, Susquehanna. There are very few houses on the 
banks of the mountain brook, and it would seem that the 
stream is unusually well protected from sources of contam- 
ination. During the time that the stream was frozen a 
*“ Report upon the Epidemic of Typhoid Fever at Plymouth, Pa.” By 
Lewis H. Taylor, M.D., of Wilkesbarre, Pa. 34 
IVA TER-S UP PL Y. 
man came from Philadelphia sick of typhoid fever. He had 
contracted the disease at a place from which three other 
persons, sick with fever, had been removed to the hospital. 
This man was cared for in a house near the source of this 
mountain stream, or at least considerably above where the 
city water-supply was procured. The discharges from the 
bowels of the sick man were not disinfected. They were 
thrown by the nurse on the deep snow of a sidehill sloping 
toward the stream which was not over forty feet distant. 
A sudden rise in the temperature toward the close of March 
caused a general thaw, and the melted snow of the hillside 
with its mass of typhoid poison was swept into the stream. 
At just this time, owing to the rise of the water in the 
brook, the Susquehanna river water was shut off from the 
water mains, and that of the brook turned on again. In 
this way the typhoid poison was pumped to all parts of the 
city. In about two or three weeks hundreds of cases of 
fever developed, and these were confined exclusively to per- 
sons who used the hydrant water. No cases were traceable 
to well-water except much later, and by secondary infection. 
Whole groups of families using well-water or river-water 
exclusively escaped entirely. In parts of the city where 
the use of well-water was the rule and the use of hydrant 
water the exception, only those families suffered which used 
the latter. One notable instance is mentioned by Dr. Taylor 
where in the upper end of the city one family only suffered 
from the disease. It was supposed at first that all in that 
vicinity used well-water, but further inquiry showed this 
one family to have been in the habit of catching and using 
the hydrant water which leaked from the main aqueduct on 
its way dowm into the city, preferring the pure water of the 
mountain stream to that of the foul wells of the neighbor- 
hood. Such cases are, of course, no argument in favor of a 
return to the use of well-water, but only one for greater DRINKING- IVA TER AND DISEASE. 
35 
care to prevent accidental contamination. This outbreak 
speaks volumes in favor of the specific nature of the typhoid 
fever poison. 
The cost of this outbreak, in actual cash, is fortunately 
well established, and is deserving of attention by those 
charged with the care of the public health. It is itemized as 
follows : 
Loss of wages for those who recovered $30,020.08 
Care of the sick 67,100.17 
Yearly earnings of those who died .... 18,419.52 
The second instance, above referred to, is described by 
Professor Frankland, and is a classic in water literature: 
“ The outbreak of typhoid fever occurred at the village 
of Lausen, near Basel, Switzerland, and it was exhaustively 
investigated by Dr. A. Hagler of Basel, who has given a full 
account of it in the Deutsches Archiv. f. Klin. Med. xi. 
The source of the poison was traced to an isolated farm- 
house on the opposite side of a mountain ridge, where an 
imported case of typhoid, followed by two others, occurred 
shortly before the outbreak. A brook which ran past this 
house received the dejections of the patients, and their 
linen was washed in it. The brook was employed for the 
irrigation of some meadows near the farm-house, and the 
affluent water filtered through the intervening mountain to 
a spring used in all the houses of Lausen, except six, which 
were supplied with water from private wells. In these six 
houses no case of fever occurred, but scarcely one of the 
others escaped. No less than 130 people, or seventeen per 
cent, of the whole population, were attacked, besides four- 
teen children, who received the infection whilst at home for 
their holidays and afterwards sickened on their return to 
school. 
“ The passage of water from the irrigated meadows to 36 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the spring at Lausen was proved by dissolving in it, at the 
meadows, 18 cwt. of common salt, and then observing the 
rapid increase of chlorine in the spring water; but the most 
important and interesting experiment consisted in mixing 
uniformly with the water 50 cwt. of flour, not a trace of 
which made its way to the spring, thus showing that the 
water was filtered through the intervening earth, and did 
not pass by an underground channel. 
“ These are the main features of the case, according to 
the works above cited. It affords a clear warning of the 
risk attending the use, for dietetic purposes, of water to 
which even so-called purified sewage gains access; notwith- 
standing that, as at Lausen, such water may have been used 
with impunity for years, until the moment when the sewage 
became infected with typhoid poison.” * 
When it is remembered that much of the Chicago sewage 
flows into Lake Michigan, and that until recently the intakes 
supplying the city with the lake-water were situated only 
a few hundred feet off shore, a comparison of the typhoid 
death-rates before and after the driving of the four-mile 
tunnel is suggestive. The tunnel was opened December 
3d, 1892. 
Year ending 
Sept. 30, 1892. Sept. 30, 1893. 
Deaths in Chicago from typhoid fever... 1790 712 
Per cent of typhoid deaths to total deaths 6.72 2.64 
This is better seen, and in more detail, by consulting the 
following map, kindly furnished by the Engineering News. 
Much as the new tunnel has done for Chicago, the diffi- 
culty has not as yet been entirely remedied, as is shown by 
the following abstract and ward map (page 39) published by 
the Chicago Tribune of Sept. 28, 1895: 
“ Typhoid fever is epidemic in Lake View. While the 
* Nature, xm, 447. MAP OF CHICAGO SHOWING BY WARDS THE PERCENTAGES OF DEATHS FROM TYPHOID 
FEVER TO TOTAL MORTALITY AND THE WATER WORKS INTAKES AND SEWER OUT- 
LETS FOR THE YEARS ENDING SEPT. l8Q2, AND SEPT. 30, 1803. WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
spread and prevalence of the disease are not so great in 
Hyde Park and the Town of Lake, still conditions in these 
two sections of the city are so severe as to cause alarm. In 
Lake View it is reported there are at least 1000 cases of 
typhoid fever now. There is scarcely a block in the dis- 
trict without one or more cases. 
“ The whole trouble rests with the impure water-supply, 
and so long as the residents drink it without boiling it they 
will put into their systems the pollutions that permeate the 
lake both north and south of the Lake View intake tunnel. 
North of the tunnel five sewers empty into the lake, and 
just south of it there are eight more. That this is the 
cause of the unusual number of cases of typhoid fever in 
the district is evident. The disease is only normal in the 
area south of Chicago avenue and Thirty-ninth street. All 
of the West Side is particularly free. This is because the 
district between Chicago avenue and Thirty-ninth street is 
supplied with water through tunnels from intake cribs two 
and four miles out in the lake. 
“ From Thirty-ninth street south to the city limits the 
disease is prevalent, but cannot be said to be epidemic. The 
same causes operate to create the disease there as in Lake 
View. Both Hyde Park and the Town of Lake are supplied 
with water from the Sixty-eighth street pumping station. At 
this station 35 per cent, of the water pumped is said to be 
pure, but the other 65 per cent, is polluted. Like Lake 
View the supply is taken from an intake crib only a mile 
from the shore line and in the midst of the sewage and refuse 
deposits of the South Side.” 
Attention is here asked to the following table (taken from 
Engineering News, April 21, 1892) giving typhoid statistics 
for the cities of Chicago, Philadelphia, and New York. The 
influence for good of the much purer New York water- 
supply is apparent, as also is the fact that typhoid is on DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
39 
MAP SHOWING TYPHOID-FEVER DISTRICTS. 
5"—Sewers emptying into the lake; A—Lake View one mile crib; B and C—Two and four- 
mile cribs supplying district not infected; D—One and two-mile Hyde Park and Town of 
Lake crib. Shaded wards are where disease is epidemic. 40 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the decrease at the metropolis, while the reverse is shown 
by the figures for the other two cities, where an increase of 
population is accompanied by an increased contamination of 
the sources of water-supply. 
DEATH-RATES PER 10,000 INHABITANTS FROM ALL CAUSES, 
AND FROM TYPHOID IN CHICAGO, PHILADELPHIA, AND 
NEW YORK, FOR THE 22 YEARS 1870 TO 1891, INCLUSIVE. 
Year. 
Chicago. 
Philadelphia. 
New York. 
All Causes. 
Typhoid. 
All Causes. 
Typhoid. 
All Causes. 
Typhoid. 
1870 
246 
9.00 
227 
6.06 
288 
4-47 
1871 
209 
8.14 
221 
4-47 
282 
2.62 
1872 
277 
14.26 
262 
5-09 
337 
3-98 
1873 
252 
7-15 
203 
4-85 
296 
3-19 
1874 
205 
5-34 
I97 
5-95 
279 
2.96 
1875 
194 
5-09 
223 
5-25 
294 
3.60 
1876 
204 
4.00 
217 
9.22 
274 
3-02 
1877 
182 
3.61 
188 
6-37 
236 
3.10 
1878 
i65 
3-24 
179 
4.61 
237 
2.8r 
1879 
181 
4-38 
172 
3.82 
241 
2.28 
1880 
208 
3-40 
209 
5-88 
264 
3-08 
1881 
257 
10.52 
225 
7-43 
309 
4-77 
1882 
236 
8.24 
226 
7-33 
295 
4.02 
1883 
199 
6.22 
221 
6.38 
257 
4.72 
1884 . 
198 
5.62 
215 
7- T3 
257 
3-49 
1885 
187 
7.46 
225 
6.42 
254 
2.88 
1886 
195 
6.86 
206 
6.36 
258 
2.99 
1887 
203 
5-01 
218 
6.25 
261 
2.82 
1888 
190 
4-52 
200 
7.72 
261 
2-37 
1889. 
176 
4.70 
I99 
7.07 
251 
2.51 
1890 
182 
3-40 
207 
6.36 
246 
2.16 
1891 
231 
16.64 
214 
6.27 
257 
2.26 
Averages 
208 
6.90 
212 
6.20 
270 
3-19 
Hazen, in his recent work on “ Filtration of Public 
Water-Supplies,” gives the following data for cities of 
50,000 inhabitants for the year 1890, compiled from the 
U. S. census.* 
* Hazen also gives the following annual typhoid death-rates per 10,000 
inhabitants, showing present improvement : 
London, 1881-1890, average 1.8 
Dresden, 1878-1888 “ 1.7 
Hamburg “ “ 3.9 
Berlin “ “ 3-i DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
41 
Two cities with less than 50,000 inhabitants with excep- 
tionally high death-rates have been included, and at the 
foot of the list are given corresponding data for some large 
European cities of 1893. 
TYPHOID FEVER DEATH-RATES AND WATER-SUPPLIES 
OF CITIES. 
City. 
Deaths from 
Typhoid 
Fever. 
Water-supply. 
Total. 
Per 
10,000 
living. 
Birmingham.. 
26,178 
69 
26.4 
Five Mile Creek 
I. Denver 
106,713 
232 
21.7 
North Platte River and wells 
2. Allegheny 
105,287 
192 
18.2 
Allegheny River 
3. Camden 
58,313 
77 
13.2 
Delaware River 
4. Pittsburg 
238,617 
304 
12.7 
Allegheny and Monongahela rivers 
Lawrence .... 
44,654 
54 
12.1 
Merrimac River 
5. Newark. 
181,830 
181 
IO O 
Passaic River [gallons daily 
6. Charleston.. . 
54,955 
54 
9.8 
Artesian wells yielding 1,600,000 
7. Washington. . 
230,392 
200 
8.7 
Potomac River 
8. Lowell 
77,696 
64 
8.2 
Merrimac River 
9. Jersey City... 
163,003 
134 
8.2 
Passaic River 
10. Louisville. 
161,129 
122 
7.6 
Ohio River 
11. Philadelphia.. 
1,046,964 
770 
7-4 
Delaware and Schuylkill rivers 
12. Chicago 
1,099,850 
794 
7-2 
Lake Michigan 
13. Atlanta..... 
65,533 
47 
7.2 
South River 
14. Albany 
94.923 
67 
7 1 
Hudson River 
15. Wilmington .. 
61,431 
43 
7.0 
Brandywine Creek 
16. St. Paul 
133,156 
92 
69 
Lakes [reservoirs 
17. Troy 
60,956 
42 
6.9 
Hudson River and impounding 
18. Los Angeles.. 
50,395 
34 
6.7 
Los Angeles River and springs 
19. Nashville .... 
76,168 
49 
6 4 
Cumberland River 
20. Cleveland.... 
261,353 
164 
6.3 
Lake Erie 
21. Richmond.... 
81,388 
50 
6 1 
James River [reservoir 
22. Hartford 
53,230 
32 
6.0 
Connecticut River and impounding 
23. Fall River.... 
74,398 
44 
5-9 
Watupa Lake 
24. Minneapolis.. 
164,738 
94 
5-7 
Mississippi River 
25. San Francisco 
298,997 
166 
5-6 
Lobus Creek, Lake Merced, and 
26. Indianapolis.. 
105,436 
57 
5-4 
White River [mountain streams 
27. Cincinnati.... 
296,908 
151 
5-i 
Ohio River 
28. Memphis .... 
64,495 
33 
5-i 
Artesian wells 
29. Reading 
58,661 
29 
4-9 
Maiden Creek and springs 
30. Baltimore.... 
434-439 
202 
4-7 
Impounding reservoir 
31. Omaha 
140,452 
63 
4-5 
Missouri River 
32. Columbus... . 
88,150 
38 
4-3 
Surface-water and wells 
33. Providence... 
132,146 
53 
4-0 
Pawtuxet River 
34. Kansas City.. 
132.716 
53 
4.0 
Missouri River 
35. Rochester.... 
133,896 
53 
3-9 
Hemlock and Candice lakes 
36. Evansville ... 
50,756 
20 
3-9 
Ohio River 42 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
TYPHOID FEVER DEATH-RATES AND WATER-SUPPLIES 
OF CITIES. (Continued.) 
City. 
Deaths from 
Typhoid 
Fever. 
Water-supply. 
Total. 
Per 
10,000 
living. 
37. Boston 
448,477 
174 
3-9 
Impounding reservoirs 
38. Toledo 
8i,434 
29 
3-6 
Maumee River 
39. Cambridge.. . 
70,028 
24 
3-4 
Impounding reservoir 
40. St. Louis 
45L770 
145 
3-2 
Mississippi River 
41. Scranton 
75,215 
24 
3-2 
Impounding reservoir 
42. Buffalo 
255,664 
80 
3-i 
Niagara River 
43. Milwaukee .. . 
204,468 
6l 
3-0 
Lake Michigan 
44. New Haven. . 
81,298 
22 
2-7 
Impounding reservoir 
45. Worcester.... 
84,655 
22 
2.6 
Impounding reservoir 
46. Paterson 
78,347 
20 
2.6 
Passaic River (higher up) 
47. Dayton 
61,220 
15 
2.5 
Wells [ervoirs 
48. Brooklyn .... 
806,343 
194 
2.4 
Wells, ponds, and impounding res- 
49. New York. ... 
1,515,301 
348 
2-3 
Impounding reservoir 
50. Syracuse 
88,143 
18 
2.0 
Impounding reservoir and springs 
51. New Orleans.. 
242,039 
45 
I.9 
Mississippi River 
52. Detroit 
205,876 
40 
I.9 
Detroit River 
53. Lynn 
55,727 
9 
1.6 
Impounding reservoir 
54. Trenton 
57,458 
9 
1.6 
Delaware River 
London 
4,306,411 
719 
1.7 
Filtered Thames and Lea rivers, 
Glasgow 
667,883 
138 
2.0 
Loch Katrine [and from wells 
Paris 
2,424,705 
609 
2.5 
Spring water 
Amsterdam .. 
437,892 
69 
1.6 
Filtered dune-water 
Potterdam ... 
222,233 
12 
• 5 
Filtered Maas River 
Hague 
169,828 
3 
.2 
Filtered dune-water 
Berlin 
1,714,938 
161 
•9 
Filtered Havel and Spree rivers 
Hamburg .... 
634,878 
115 
1.8 
Filtered Elbe River 
Breslau 
353,551 
37 
1.1 
Filtered Oder River 
Dresden 
308,930 
14 
•5 
Ground-water 
Vienna 
1,435,931 
104 
• 7 
Spring-water 
The following table, compiled by G. W. Fuller, is 
worthy of study. The Cochituate water-supply was intro- 
duced into Boston in 1848, and, since its introduction, very 
much has been done to increase its purity. The change for 
the better is very marked, judging from the death-rate. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
43 
TABLE SHOWING DEATH-RATES FROM TYPHOID FEVER 
IN BOSTON, 1846-1892. 
Years. 
Deaths per 
10,000 
Inhabitants. 
1846-49 17.4 
1850-54 8.2 
1855-59 * 5-0 
1860-64 5.7 
1865-69 5.6 
1870-74 7.6 
1875-79 4-2 
1880-84 4-9 
1885-89 4.1 
1890-92 3.2 
In the State of Connecticut the typhoid statistics for 
the past 35 years show a continual improvement, which 
must be due, at least in part, to abolition of old private 
wells for new and better water-supply. The percentage of 
deaths (for the entire state) from typhoid to total deaths 
from known causes stands as follows: 
Average for the five years 1855-60 4.99 per cent. 
“ “ “ “ “ 1860-65 5.86 “ “ 
“ “ “ “ “ 1865-70 5.80 “ 
“ “ “ “ “ 1870-75 4.69 “ “ 
“ “ “ “ “ 1875-80 2.77 “ “ 
« “ “ “ “ 1880-85 2.25 “ “ 
" “ “ “ “ 1885-90 2.21 “ “ 
For 1893 1.84 “ “ 
Some very interesting statistics, compiled for the Massa- 
chusetts Board of Health by Mr. H. F. Mills,* show how 
greatly the typhoid death-rate is improved in towns by a 
change from the domestic well system to that of a public 
supply. 
* Mass. Board of Health, 1890. 44 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
CHANGE IN THE DEATH-RATE FROM TYPHOID FEVER PER 
10,000 INHABITANTS IN THE CITIES OF MASSACHUSETTS 
WHICH INTRODUCED WATER-SUPPLIES FROM 1867 TO 
1876. 
Annual Average, 
1859-68. 
Date of 
Water-supply. 
Annual Average, 
1878-89. 
Per Cent of 
Former. 
I. Holyoke 
6.73 
1873 
8-93 
133 
2. Lawrence 
8-34 
1875 
8-33 
IOO 
3. Lowell 
6.16 
1872 
7-63 
124 
4. Fall River 
7.78 
1874 
6.32 
8l 
5. Springfield 
9.67 
1875 
5.29 
55 
6. Taunton 
6.12 
1876 
5-02 
82 
7. Northampton... 
10.98 
1871 
4.04 
37 
8. Lynn 
9.06 
1871 
3.87 
43 
9. New Bedford .. 
7.77 
1869 
3-80 
49 
10. Newton 
6.57 
1876 
3-65 
56 
11. Malden 
8.04 
1870 
3-54 
44 
12. Fitchburg 
10.59 
1872 
3.16 
30 
13. Woburn 
8.29 
1873 
2-95 
36 
14. Somerville 
4.28 
1867 
2-95 
69 
15. Chelsea 
5-97 
1867 
2.89 
48 
16. Waltham 
8.12 
1873 
2.42 
30 
For the entire state the rates are as follows: 
DEATHS FROM TYPHOID FEVER IN MASSACHUSETTS DURING 
TWENTY YEARS. 
Year. 
Total Deaths. 
Rate per 10,000 
Population. 
Percentage of 
Typhoid Deaths to 
Total Deaths. 
1873 
1406 
8.9 
4-15 
1874 
1147 
7-1 
3-6 
1875 
1059 
6.4 
3.02 
1876 
881 
5-3 
2.65 
1877 
814 
4-8 
2-59 
1878 
679 
3 9 
2.l6 
1879 
637 
3-6 
2.00 
1880 
882 
4.9 
2.50 
1S81 
IO72 
5-9 
2.94 
1882 
1079 
5-8 
2-93 
1883 
860 
4.6 
2.28 
1884 
875 
4.6 
2.36 
1885 
768 
3-9 
2.02 
1886 
800 
4.0 
2.15 
1887 
922 
4-5 
2.26 
1888 
943 
4-5 
2.24 
1889 
891 
4.1 
2.13 
1890 . 
835 
3-7 
I.92 
1891 
821 
3-6 
1.82 
1892 
827 . 
3-5 
l.6g DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
45 
In considering the foregoing table, it must be remem- 
bered that the cities of Lawrence and Lowell draw their 
supplies from the Merrimac River at points where the sewage 
contamination is so gross that no improvement whatever 
could be expected from the introduction of such water in 
the raw state, and that at Holyoke the wide use of a polluted 
canal-water largely neutralizes the benefits resulting from the 
purer city supply. If these three cities be omitted from 
consideration, then the average annual typhoid death-rates, 
for the remaining thirteen, during the stated periods, before 
and after the introduction of public water,would be: 
Before introduction of public supply, 7.94 per 10,000. 
After introduction of public supply, 3.83 
This is a showing which is very encouraging, and which 
effectually answers the frequently recurring question, “ How 
was it our fathers got along so well without all these so- 
called modern improvements?” 
Such figures as the above, and others like them that 
might be quoted, stand in evidence that the question is a 
begged one, and that our progenitors were not so well off 
as many people fancy. 
In illustration of just this point, it is instructive to note 
the statistics given for the total death-rate of London, by 
Dr. Lyon Playfair, at the Social Science Congress held at 
Glasgow in 1874: 
Period. Death-rate per 1000. 
1660-79 SO.O 
168I-9O 42.I 
I746-55- - 35-5 
1846-55 24.9 
I87I 22.6 
The same statistics, but more extended, are given 46 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
graphically in the report of the State Board of Health of 
Michigan, and are here inserted: 
DEATHS IN LONDON FROM ALL CAUSES PER IOOO POPULATION PER ANNUM IN 
PERIODS REPESENTING THE I7TH, l8TH AND I9TH CENTURIES. 
At the time of the author’s visit to Vienna in 1874, the 
typhoid death-rate was averaging about 11.5 per 10,000 
* The average annual typhoid death-rate per 10,000, for the five years 
ending May, 1893, for the following cities situated upon the Merrimac river (in 
the order named) is given by the Massachusetts Board of Health, 1892, as— 
Concord, N. H 3.88 
Manchester. N. H 2.95 
Nashua, N. H 4.77 
Lowell, Mass 10.66 
Lawrence, Mass 12.72 
Haverhill, Mass 3.63 
Newburyport, Mass 3.60 
At the time only Lowell and Lawrence used river-water. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
47 
inhabitants. Pure water from the mountains was shortly 
afterwards introduced to replace the old wells, and the rate 
has now fallen to considerably less than 2. 
In the course of an excellent article on “ Hygiene of 
Public Water-supply,” embodied in a report on the con- 
dition of the joint water-supplies of Pittsburgh and Alle- 
gheny, and published February, 1894, Dr. E. G. Matson 
makes the following comparison: “ Consumption is fatal at 
nearly the same period of life as typhoid fever, which ob- 
viates to a great extent the errors which arise when the 
ages of the populations are left out of account. The fol- 
lowing table shows the importance of typhoid fever as a 
cause of death at the beginning of adult life in three cities, 
compared with consumption. At this period typhoid fever 
is the most important single cause of death in Pittsburgh and 
Allegheny. 
i8go. 
Percentage of Total Deaths, 20-29. 
Deaths in 10,000 Living at all Ages. 
Typhoid Fever. 
Consumption. 
Typhoid Fever. 
Consumption. 
Pittsburgh 
27.6 
19-5 
13.2 
14.7 
Allegheny 
38.1 
24.8 
I7.I 
14.4 
Paris 
4-9 
59-1 
3-2 
49-0 
“ The strong contrast between the prevalence of a disease 
which water does not influence and typhoid fever, which 
finds its surest line of attack through water, points plainly 
to the greatest sanitary defect of our cities.” 
Considering that it is usual to allow the deaths from 
typhoid fever to represent ten per cent, of the actual num- 
ber of cases, the prevalence of the disease in Pittsburgh and 
Allegheny is certainly very pronounced.* 
* Allegheny and a portion of Pittsburgh are supplied from the polluted 
Allegheny River. 
The epidemic at Providence, R. I., in Nov. 1888, was traced to typhoid 
pollution entering the river at a point 3J miles above the pumping station. 
Typhoid bacilli were found by Prudden and Ernst in the private filters of the 
Providence houses. 48 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
As showing the exceeding difference between care and 
no care in the selection of water for potable supply, the fol- 
lowing quotation is taken from a report by Dr. Simmons, 
of the Yokohama Board of Health, covering certain features 
of the water question in India: 
“ The drinking-water supply is derived from wells, so- 
called ‘ tanks ’ or artificial ponds, and the water-courses of the 
country. The wells generally resemble those in other parts 
of Asia.. The tanks are excavations made for the purpose 
of collecting the surface-water during the rainy season and 
storing it up for the dry. Necessarily they are mere stag- 
nant pools. The water is used not only to quench thirst, 
but is said to be drunk as a sacred duty. At the same 
time, the reservoir serves as a large washing-tub for clothes, 
no matter how dirty or in what soiled condition, and for 
personal bathing. Many of the water-courses are sacred; 
notably the Ganges, a river 1600 miles long, in whose waters 
it is the religious duty for millions, not only for those living 
near its banks, but of pilgrims, to bathe and to cast their 
dead. The Hindoo cannot be made to use a latrine. In 
the cities he digs a hole in his habitation; in the country he 
seeks' the fields, the hill-sides, the banks of streams and 
rivers when obliged to obey the calls of nature. Hence it 
is that the vicinity of towns and the banks of the tanks and 
water-courses are reeking with filth of the worst description, 
which is of necessity washed into the public water-supply 
with every rainfall. Add to this the misery of pilgrims, 
their poverty and disease, and their terrible crowding into 
the numerous towns which contain some temple or shrine, 
the object of their devotion, and we can see how India has 
become and remains the hot-bed of the cholera epidemic. 
In the United States official report, the horrors incident 
upon the pilgrimages are detailed with appalling minuteness. 
W. W. Hunter, in his Orissa, states that 24 high festivals DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
49 
take place annually at Juggernaut. At one of them, about 
Easter, 40,000 persons indulge in hemp and hasheesh to a 
shocking degree. For weeks before the car festival in June 
and July, pilgrims come trooping in by thousands every 
day. They are fed by the temple cooks to the number of 
90,000. Over 100,000 men and women, many of them un- 
accustomed to work or exposure, tug and strain at the car 
until they drop exhausted and block the road with their 
bodies. During every month of the year a stream of devo- 
tees flows along the great Orissa road from Calcutta, and 
every village for three hundred miles has its pilgrim encamp- 
ments. The people travel in small bands, which at the time 
of the great feasts actually touch each other. Five-sixths 
of the whole are females, and ninety-five per cent, travel on 
foot, many of them marching hundreds and even thousands 
of miles, a contingent having been drummed up from every 
town or village in India by one or other of the three thou- 
sand emissaries of the temple, who scour the country in all 
directions in search of dupes. When those pilgrims who 
have not died on the road arrive at their journey’s end, 
emaciated, with feet bound up in rags and plastered with 
mud and dirt, they rush into the sacred tanks or th'e sea, 
and emerge to dress in clean garments. Disease and death 
make havoc with them during their stay; corpses are buried 
in holes scooped in the sand, and the hillocks are covered 
with bones and skulls washed from their shallow graves by 
the tropical rains. The temple kitchen has the monopoly 
of cooking for the multitude, and provides food which, if 
fresh, is not unwholesome. Unhappily, it is presented be- 
fore Juggernaut, so becoming too sacred for the minutest 
portion to be thrown away. Under the influence of the 
heat it soon undergoes putrefactive fermentation, and in 
forty-eight hours much of it is a loathsome mass, unfit for 
human food. Yet it forms the chief sustenance of the pil- 50 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
grims, and is the sole nourishment of thousands of beggars. 
Some one eats it to the very last grain. Injurious to the 
robust, it is deadly to the weak and wayworn, at least half of 
whom reach the place of suffering under some form of bowel 
complaint. Badly as they are fed, the poor wretches are 
worse lodged. Those who have the temporary shelter of 
four walls are housed in hovels built upon mud platforms 
about four feet high, in the centre of each of which is the 
hole which receives the ordure of the household, and around 
which the inmates eat and sleep. The platforms are covered 
with small cells without any windows or other apertures for 
ventilation, and in these caves the pilgrims are packed, in a 
country where, during seven months out of the twelve, the 
thermometer marks from 85 to 100 degrees Fahr. Hunter 
says that the scenes of agony and suffocation enacted in 
these hideous dens baffle description. In some of the best 
of them, 13 feet long by 10 feet broad and high, as 
many as 80 persons pass the night. It is not, then, sur- 
prising to learn that the stench is overpowering and the heat 
like that of an oven. Of 300,000 who visit Juggernaut in 
one season, 90,000 are often packed together for a week in 
5,000 of these lodgings. In certain seasons, however, the 
devotees can and do sleep in the open air, camping out in 
regiments and battalions, covered only with the same meagre 
cotton garment that clothes them by day. The heavy dews 
are unhealthy enough; but the great festival falls at the 
beginning of the rains, when the water tumbles in solid sheets. 
Then lanes and alleys are converted into torrents or stinking 
canals, and the pilgrims are driven into the vile tenements. 
Cholera invariably breaks out. Living and dead are huddled 
together. In the numerous so-called corpse-fields around 
the town as many as forty or fifty bodies are seen at a time, 
and vultures sit and dogs lounge lazily about gorged with 
human flesh. In fact, there is no end to the recurrence of DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
incidents of misery and humiliation, the horrors of which, 
says the Bishop of Calcutta, are unutterable, but which are 
eclipsed by those of the return journey. Plundered by 
priests, fleeced by landlords, the surviving victims reel home- 
ward, staggering under their burdens of putrid food wrapped 
up in dirty clothes, or packed in heavy baskets or earthen- 
w ire jars. Every stream is flooded, and the travelers have 
often to sit for days in the rain on the bank of a river before 
a boat will venture to cross. At all these points the corpses 
lie thickly strewn around (an English traveler counted forty 
close to one ferry), which accounts for the prevalence of 
cholera on the banks of brooks, streams, and rivers. Some 
poor creatures drop and die by the way; others crowd into 
the villages and halting-places on the road, where those 
who gain admittance cram the lodging-places to overflowing, 
and thousands pass the night in the streets, and find no 
cover from the drenching storms. Groups are huddled under 
the trees; long lines are stretched among the carts and 
bullocks on the roadside, their hair saturated with the mud 
on which they lie; hundreds sit on the wet grass, not daring 
to lie down, and rocking themselves to a monotonous chant 
through the long hours of the dreary night. It is impossible 
to compute the slaughter of this one pilgrimage. Bishop 
Wilson estimates it at not less than 50,000. And this de- 
scription might be used for all the great Indian pilgrimages, 
of which there are probably a dozen annually, to say noth- 
ing of the hundreds of smaller shrines scattered through the 
peninsula, each of which attracts its minor hordes of credu- 
lous votaries. So that cholera has abundant opportunities 
for spreading over the whole of Hindostan every year by 
many huge armies of filthy pilgrims; and the country itself 
well deserves the reputation it universally possesses of being 
the birthplace and settled home of the malady. 
With the Chinese it is quite different. s‘ Although their 5 2 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
country is in closest proximity to India, and of much greater 
extent and twice as populous, you will find that cholera is 
comparatively rare. The drinking-water supply of China is 
derived from wells, springs, and natural streams. Now, 
though the wells and springs are used in China for drinking 
purposes to much the same extent and in much the same 
manner as in India, yet the rivers and lakes are not drunk 
from as a part of a religious duty, nor is bathing in them a 
sacred rite. The absence of pilgrimages contributes to keep 
the water comparatively uncontaminated. 
“ Human manure is valuable and hoarded for fertilizing 
purposes. Hence, the excreta are deposited by the individ- 
ual in a receptacle made for the express purpose, and from 
motives of economy kept in a fairly good condition of repair. 
Even in cities and large towns latrines are not employed. 
Special wooden boxes are among the first necessities of bed- 
room furniture, and form part of every bridal outfit. The 
contents are daily emptied into earthen jars or wooden 
tubs placed in the court-yard of the house, whence they are 
removed by the scavenger either direct to the fields, or to 
boats destined to convey them to a distance. Thus the 
greatest amount of security attainable is provided against 
the contamination of the water-supply from this source. A 
still more potent preventive of infection is to be found in 
the fact that the Chinese will always, if possible, boil water 
before drinking it, even if they are unable to make it in to 
some kind of tea. Here it is easy to see in the contrast 
between the customs of the Hindoo on the one hand and the 
Chinese on the other, how in the one case every possible facil- 
ity is provided for the propagation of infection; in the other, 
how the danger of contamination is reduced to a minimum.’* 
This statement concerning China is hardly in accord with 
the following naval report: 
“ In Japan and China the close relation of the food and DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
53 
water-supply with the excreta not only illustrates the aetiol- 
ogy of cholera, but, at the same time, shows what small 
prospect there is of its extermination. In Japan the soil 
is tilled in absolute contiguity to the wells, and is fertilized 
with liquefied human excreta. Dr. Jameson, a physician 
of Shanghai, cites an instance where, under a spigot, he saw 
the rice for the daily food being washed at the same time 
with a vessel just emptied of cholera discharges.” * 
Illustrations such as have been given, showing the power 
of water to carry specific disease, could be very greatly mul- 
tiplied, and detailed reference could be made to the cele- 
brated epidemics of typhoid at Florence, Italy; Caterham, 
England; and Lowell and Lawrence, Mass. But, while 
passing these instances with the simple statement that they 
were all traceable to polluted drinking-water, it is well to 
pause for a moment to consider what may be learned from the 
terrible outbreak of cholera at Hamburg, Germany, in 1892. 
The city had at that time a population of 640,400. In 
the official tabulation, the epidemic is noted as having lasted 
from August 16th to November 12th, although 42 deaths 
appear to have taken place in the next month (December) 
and 20 in 1893. The total number of cholera cases 
reported during that time was 17,020, with a total death- 
list of 8,605, a mortality percentage of 50.05. 
months the cases were: 
August 7,427 
September 9,341 
October 181 
November 7 
December 42 
January 20 
February.. 1 
March 1 
17,020 
* Report of Surgeon-General U. S. Navy, 1892. 54 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
To a proper appreciation of the conditions of this epi- 
demic, a study of the local map is essential. 
AFTER REINKE AND SEDGWICK. 
It will be observed that Altona (143,000 population), 
Hamburg (640,400 populaiton), and Wandsbeck (20,000 
population), are practically one and the same town, separ- 
ated by only imaginary boundaries, which a stranger could 
not locate. The three municipalities are, however, sup- 
plied with water from three different sources. Wandsbeck 
obtains filtered water from a lake unexposed to contamina- DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
55 
tion; Hamburg pumps water from the Elbe river, and in 
1892 the intake was situated just south of the city, but not 
far enough up stream to escape contamination from a reces- 
sion of polluted water at flood tide. After some imperfect 
sedimentation, the water passed directly to the consumer 
without filtration. Altona, strangely enough, pumps its 
water from the Elbe at a point about eight miles below 
that at which the river receives the combined sewage of the 
three cities, with their population of over 800,000. Fortun- 
ately for Altona, this most grossly polluted supply is filtered 
with exceeding care before delivery to the people. Further 
description of the Hamburg epidemic can best be given in 
the words of Dr. Thorne, medical officer of the London local 
Government Board.* 
“ The different behavior of Hamburg and Altona as re- 
gards cholera is extremely interesting in this connection. 
The two towns adjoin; they are practically one city. The 
division between the two is no more obvious than that be- 
tween two densely-peopled London parishes, and yet a spot- 
map indicating the houses which were attacked with cholera, 
which was shown to me by Professor Koch, points out 
clearly that whereas the disease prevailed in epidemic form 
on the Hamburg side of the boundary line, that line, run- 
ning in and out among the streets and houses and at times 
passing diagonally through the houses themselves, formed 
the limit beyond which the epidemic as such did not extend. 
The red dots on one side of the dividing line were proof of 
the epidemicity of cholera in Hamburg; their comparative 
absence on the Altona side of it was proof of the absence of 
an epidemic in Altona. To use Professor Koch’s own words: 
‘ Cholera in Hamburg went right up to the boundary of 
Altona and there stopped. In one street, which for a long 
* “Cholera Prospects and Prevention,” London, 1893. 56 
IVA TER-S UPPL Y. 
way forms the boundary, there was cholera on the Hamburg 
side, whereas the Altona side was free from it.’ And yet 
there was one detectable difference, and one only, between 
the two adjacent areas—they had different water-services. 
“ Professor Koch has collected certain proofs which he 
regards as crucial on this point, and Dr. Reincke has sup- 
plied me with a small plan in support of the contention. 
At one point close to and on the Hamburg side of the 
boundary line between Hamburg and Altona is a large yard 
known as the Hamburger-Platz. It contains two rows of 
large and lofty dwellings, containing seventy-two separate 
tenements and some 400 people, belonging almost wholly 
to those classes who suffered most from cholera elsewhere in 
Hamburg. But whilst cholera is shown by the spot-map to 
have prevailed all around, not a single case occurred amongst 
the many residents of this court during the whole epidemic. 
And why? Professor Koch explains that owing to local 
difficulties water from the Hamburg mains could not easily 
be obtained for the dwellings in question, and hence a supply 
had been laid on from one of the Altona mains in an adja- 
cent street. This was the only part of Hamburg which 
received Altona water, and I am informed that it was the 
only spot in Hamburg in which was aggregated a population 
of the class in question which escaped the cholera. At the 
date of my visit to Hamburg a notice-board was affixed at 
the entrance of this court. It stated that certain tenements 
were to let; but above all, in large type, and as an induce- 
ment to intending tenants, was the announcement that the 
court was not only within the jurisdiction of Hamburg, with 
the privileges still attaching to the old Hanseatic cities, but 
that it had a supply of Altona water.” 
During this epidemic the deaths in the several cities 
were: DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE, 
57 
Population. 
Deaths. 
Deaths per 10.000 
Inhabitants. 
Hamburg 
640,400 
8605 
134-4 
Altona 
143,000 
328 
23.0 
Wandsbeck 
20,000 
43 
22.0 
“ That infectious matter was communicated to the Elbe 
water from Hamburg is not in any rvay a hypothesis. 
Cholera germs had been as a fact found in the Elbe water. 
They were found a little below the place where the Ham- 
burg main sewer flows into the Elbe. They were also found 
in one of the two (Altona) basins into which the water flowed 
before filtration.” * 
The following analysis of the Hamburg public supply from 
the Elbe river, during the cholera epidemic of 1892, is given 
in Chemical News, LXVI., 144: 
Appearance Turbid and very yellow 
Taste Slightly unpleasant 
Odor Extremely small 
Deposit Small and dirtv-looking 
Chlorine 472.000 per million 
Free ammonia 1.065 “ “ 
Albuminoid ammonia o 293 “ “ 
Nitrates ... 26.430 “ “ 
Required oxygen (15 minutes) 0.928 “ “ 
“ (4 hours). 3428 “ “ 
Total solids 1160.700 “ “ 
To the sanitarian or engineer, who purposes dealing with 
the question of public water-supply, some knowledge of the 
aetiology of the two prominent water-borne diseases, “ chol- 
era ” and “typhoid fever,” is essential to the proper and 
successful fulfilling of his professional responsibilities. 
* Koch, Zeit. fur Hygiene und Infect.-Krank., xiv. 58 
WA TER-S UP PL V. 
The cholera “ germ ” (spirillum cholera Asiatic a), or 
“ comma bacillus,” was discovered by Koch in 1884 in the 
excreta of cholera patients and in the intestinal contents of 
those dead of the disease. 
The spirillum will grow in ordinary culture jelly at the 
usual room temperature, forming in twenty-four hours small 
white colonies which increase in size and finally entirely 
liquefy the gelatine. Growth is arrested if the temperature 
exceed 107° F., or if it fall below 590 F. 
In shape it is not unlike the “ comma whence it derives 
its name, and the union of two or more attached end to end 
often causes the appearance of semicircles, S-shaped figures, 
and long spiral filaments. In size the “ germ ” varies from 
q.8 to 2 microns in length, and from 0.3 to 0.4 in breadth. 
It is generally conceded that the cholera spirillum does not 
form spores, a characteristic which permits of its ready de- 
struction by heat, a “spore ” being much more difficult to 
destroy than a full-grown bacterium. Sternberg found the 
thermal death-point to be 520 C. (125.6° F.), the time of 
exposure having been four minutes, and, although a slightly 
higher figure has been recorded, by other investigators, there 
is no question but that the degree of heat required is very 
low. 
“ In a moist condition this spirillum retains its vitality 
for months. Koch found in his early investigations that 
rapid multiplication may occur upon the surface of moist 
linen, and also demonstrated its presence in the foul water 
of a tank in India which was used by the natives for drink- 
ing purposes. It is quickly destroyed by dessication, as 
first determined by Koch, who found that it did not grow 
after two or three hours, when dried in a thin film on a glass 
cover.’* If the thickness of the film be considerable, or if 
the drying take place on silk threads, the vitality may remain 
for some weeks. (Kitasato.) DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
59 
Viability of the Cholera Spirillum in Water. 
(Babes, 1884-85.) Found the organisms alive after seven 
days in Seine water. 
(Wolffhiigel, 1886.) The germ may live fifteen to twenty 
days in unsterilized tap-water. He repeatedly found it 
alive after three months, and believes this due to what has 
been termed acclimatization. Rarely the organisms die in 
the first few days. After five to seven days they are many 
times more numerous than in the primary inoculation. 
(Karliniski, 1889.). Found the organism dead after two 
or three days in unsterilized spring water. 
(Hockstetter, 1887.) The organism lives indefinitely in 
unsterilized tap-water even when the water contains large 
numbers of other organisms. He found the germs alive 
after an interval of 392 days. 
(Nicati and Rietsch, 1885.) Found the spirillum alive in 
sterilized distilled water after twenty days. In sterilized 
water from the Port of Marseilles after eighty-one days. In 
Marseilles canal-water, thirty-eight days. In sea-water, sixty- 
four days. In bilge-water from an iron steamship en route 
from Japan, thirty-two days. 
Stoddart finds that there is no antagonism between the 
cholera spirillum and ordinary water organisms. He has 
kept it alive for weeks in both pure and polluted waters. 
According to Kitasato the germs of typhoid and cholera 
are more hardy than bacteria of putrefaction. On the other 
hand, Esmarch found that pathogenic germs in dead bodies 
were quickly killed by putrefactive bacteria. According to 
Giaxa, cholera germs quickly died in water containing many 
other bacteria, and typhoid germs also died, but less quickly. 
Schiller found that cholera germs lived 14 days in a mixture 
of excrement and urine, and for 13 days in Berlin sewage. 
Cunningham found cholera germs lived 4 to 5 days in clean 60 
WA 7'ER-S UP PL Y. 
water at room temperature, and in dirty water 4 to 9 days. 
In the latter water, previously boiled, the germs lived 25 
days. In garden earth, 10 to 26 days. In same earth 
mixed with faecal material, 6 to 9 days. In same mixture 
of earth and faecal matter previously cooked—i.e., sterilized 
—47 days. 
Gruber and von Kerner show the power of the cholera 
germ to remain alive in river-water, and in that of the 
Vienna city supply, for seven days. 
Sternberg believes that increase of either the cholera 
spirillum or the typhoid bacillus in ordinary water is un- 
likely to occur, owing to the interfering action of the com- 
mon water bacilli. 
According to Boer and Bolton the cholera spirillum is 
killed by a two-hours’ exposure to the following solutions: 
hydrochloric acid, 1:1350; sulphuric acid, 1:1300; caustic 
soda, 1:150; ammonia, 1:350; mercuric cyanide, i: 60,000; 
silver nitrate, 1:4000; arsenite of soda, 1:400; malachite 
green, 1:5000; methyl violet, 1 : 1000; carbolic acid, 1:400; 
mercuric chloride, 1 : 10,000; blue vitriol, 1 : 500. 
“ Experiment has shown the spirillum to be very sensi- 
tive to the action of acids,* and to be quickly destroyed by 
the acid secretions of the stomach, of man or the lower 
animals, when the functions of this organ are normally 
performed. ’ ’ 
“'The spirillum is not found in the blood nor in the 
various organs of individuals who have succumbed to an 
attack of cholera, but it is constantly found in the alvine 
* Stutzer states that a solution of .05 per cent of sulphuric acid is fatal to the 
cholera spirillum in fifteen minutes, and a. 02 per cent solution kills in twenty- 
four hours. He found that iron pipes could be disinfected by sulphuric acid 
without the metal being sensibly attacked, and estimates that 100 kilos of 6o° 
B acid (1 lb. of acid to 40 imp. gallons of water) would disinfect 40,000 litres of 
water at an expense for acid of about 18 cents per 100 imp. gallons of water 
treated. (Rideal.) 61 
DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
discharges during life and in the contents of the intestine 
examined immediately after death. It is evident, therefore, 
that the morbid phenomena must be ascribed to the absorp- 
tion of toxic substances formed during its multiplication 
in the intestine. As a rule the spirillum is not present in 
vomited matters.” ' 
“ The most satisfactory evidence that this spirillum is 
able to produce cholera in man is afforded by an accidental 
infection which occurred in Berlin, in the case of a young 
man who was one of the attendants at the Imperial Board 
of Health when cholera cultures were being made for the 
instruction of students.” * 
An entirely similar case came under the writer’s obser- 
vation, in Paris, while attending the course at the Pasteur 
Institute. One of the students, an Italian, was in the 
habit of constantly smoking cigarettes while at work. He 
became inoculated with Asiatic cholera through laying 
down his cigarette in contact with a cholera preparation. 
He took the typical disease and recovered. A friend of 
the author’s reports a like instance of infection, observed 
by him while a student in Koch’s laboratory. 
Pettenkoffer and Emmerich each swallowed pure cultures 
of the comma bacillus, with the result of producing only 
temporary diarrhoea, and they thereupon claimed that the 
germ is not to be considered as the cause of cholera. As 
opposed to this, Roux points out that the pure cultures 
referred to above may have been attenuated and very far 
from the point of virulence. Moreover, he shows that, 
even when truly virulent cultures are swallowed, the dis- 
ease does not surely result. The author was informed that 
this point was recently covered at the Pasteur Institute by 
the swallowing of virulent germs from the same culture, by 
* Sternberg’s “ Manual of Bacteriology,” 1893. 62 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Roux, Metchnikoff, and two others. Of these four, three 
had diarrhoea and one had typical Asiatic cholera. 
The President of the National Plealth Society of Eng- 
land says in a recent address: “ We may lay aside all ped- 
antry and mystery-talk of epidemic constitution, pandemic 
waves, telluric influences, cholera blasts, cholera clouds, 
blue mists, and the like terms of art with which an amiable 
class of meteorologists has delighted to cloak their ignor- 
ance. Cholera is a filth disease carried by filthy people to 
filthy places. It only develops where it finds dirty places, 
and the dirty habit of drinking polluted water and living 
on a polluted soil. Cholera does not travel by air-waves 
or blasts. We drink cholera and we eat cholera, but we 
cannot catch cholera as we catch measles, scarlatina, or 
whooping-cough. 
“ In India, where the water for domestic purposes is 
empounded in open excavations in the ground, like those 
near brickyards in this country; in India, where the people 
wash their soiled clothing by the side of these same tanks, 
and allow the waste water to flow back into them in inno- 
cent disregard of all sanitary laws; in India, where the 
people deposit all ordure on the surface of the ground, not 
having in most cases even the pretense of a pit or cess- 
pool; in India, where the people drink the water in which 
they have just bathed, cholera is never absent. It is not 
necessary to invoke the currents of the air to explain the con- 
stant occurrence, or the terrible virulence of the disease. And 
yet, in this same India, the people who are brought under 
the civilization of the West, through the labor of the Chris- 
tian missionaries, and who adopt new modes of living with 
their change of religion, escape the cholera as completely 
as if there were no such disease. 
“ Cholera is always carried. It never travels on its own 
account or by its own conveyance, and it is not half so 63 
DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
bad a disease as it has been painted by a frightened 
public. 
“It is stated on the authority of the head nurse, that 
not a single case of cholera originated in the hospital of 
Hamburg during the recent epidemic in that city, though 
the sick were often placed two in the same bed and the 
dead in long rows. Amid the gloom and excitement, scores 
of suspects were hurried off to the hospital who were after- 
wards found to be suffering from some other disease. Not 
one of these persons contracted the disease from the cholera 
patients with whom they were forced to associate. It 
would seem as if the safest place at the time of a great 
epidemic of cholera would be where there is the most 
sickness. All of these statements point to the fact that 
cholera is not infectious, and that the danger has been very 
greatly over-estimated.” * 
The bacillus of typhoid fever was first described by 
Eberth in 1880, and more recent investigations tend to 
confirm the belief in its aetiological relation to the disease. ■) 
* British Medical Journal. 
f The following observers report the discovery of the typhoid bacillus in 
water, strongly suspected of having caused typhoid fever: 
Widal. Gazette heb. Med. et Chir., 1887, 146. 
Moers. Centralblatt f. allgem. Gesundheit, 11. 144. 
Kamen. Centralblatt f. Bakteriologie, XI. 32.- 
Beumer. Deutsche med. Wochenschrift, 1887, No. 28. 
Henrijean. Annal. Micrographie, II. 401. 
Fodor. Centralblatt f. Bakteriologie, XI. 121. 
Per6. Annal Inst. Pasteur, v. 79. 
It is interesting to note that recent investigations have shown that com- 
mon flies may aid in distributing the disease, inasmuch as the cholera germs 
are not kilted by passing through their digestive organs. 
“ Pettenkofer has given the key to the whole situation by saying that filth 
is like gunpowder, for which cholera is a spark. A community had better 
remove the gunpowder than try to beat off the spark ; lor in spite of their 
efforts, however frantic, this may at any time reach the powder, and if it does, 
is sure to blow them to pieces.” (Sedgwick.) 64 
WA PEP-SUP PL Y. 
“ Pathologists are disposed to accept this bacillus as the 
veritable ‘ germ ’ of typhoid fever, notwithstanding the fact 
that the final proof that such is the case is still wanting. 
This final proof would consist in the production in man, 
or in one of the lower animals, of the specific morbid phe- 
nomena which characterize the disease in question, by the 
introduction of pure cultures of the bacillus into the 
body of a healthy individual. Evidently it is impracti- 
cable to make the test upon man, and thus far we have 
no satisfactory evidence that any one of the lower ani- 
mals is subject to the disease as it manifests itself in 
man. ” * 
Since the writing of this passage by Sternberg, much 
work has been done, by Sanarelli, upon aritficial typhoid 
fever, and he has shown that the disease is capable of ready 
transmission to animals (see Annales de l’lnstitute Pasteur). 
“ The period of collapse, that is to say, the last phase of 
the typhoid infection, is what we produce experimentally 
in animals. With them the typhoid poison manifests itself 
too quickly to permit the resistance of the organism to 
express itself as fever during the early stages of intoxi- 
cation. If the Eberth bacillus could produce its toxin in 
the human organism with the same intensity that the 
germs of cholera produce theirs, typhoid fever would be- 
come, like cholera, a malady both short and apyretic.” 
(Sanarelli.) 
The typhoid bacillus is usually one to three microns long 
and from 0.5 to 0.8 micron broad. Its ends are rounded. 
Growth readily takes place at ordinary temperatures in cul- 
ture media, and the colonies do not liquefy the gelatine. 
Spores are not produced. In inoculated milk it develops 
* Sternberg’s “Manual of Bacteriology.” 65 
DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
abundantly, a property which has been productive of many 
serious outbreaks of the disease.* 
The “germ” is capable of maintaining its existence 
quite independent of the living animal body, as was proven 
by Frankel and Simmonds, who showed that it multiplied 
in the spleen after death. “ This does not in any way 
weaken the evidence as to the aetiological role of the bacil- 
lus, but simply shows that dead animal matter is a suitable 
nidus." (Sternberg.) 
Blythe also considers its probable normal existence that 
of a saprophyte—i.e.} an organism subsisting on decaying 
organic material.f 
There are those who believe, and it is a very conceivable 
belief that the progenitor of the typhoid bacillus is often 
a saprophyte, which takes on its pathogenic properties by 
cultivation through successive generations, under favorable 
conditions as to light and temperature, and amid suitable 
* For a list of thirty-six epidemics of typhoid, traceable to a polluted milk- 
supply, see Engineering Record, April 28, 1894. 
Also a description of the more recent outbreak at Montclair, N. J.—Engin- 
eering News, April 19, 1894. 
Such cases commonly arise from washing milk-cans with water confessedly 
impure, but “ thought to be good enough to wash cans with.” 
“ I spoke of milk as a favorite medium for the growth of the cholera spirillum. 
Milk has also served as a vehicle for conveying the infection of that disease. 
In 1887 an outbreak of cholera occurred on board the Ardenclutha, moored in 
the Ganges, and, by a process of elimination, Dr. W. J. Simpson, health officer 
for Calcutta, succeeded in tracing the disease to the use of a certain milk- 
supply. Fourteen of the crew who had not partaken of this milk remained 
altogether free from sickness ; whereas of ten who drank it, nine, or ninety 
per cent, sickened—four with fatal cholera, five with so-called ‘ diarrhoea ’—the 
one who escaped having only drunk a ‘ thimbleful.’ The milk being stopped, 
all sickness was stayed. In this case the milk—which was procured from a 
distance and had been brought on board by a native—was admittedly some- 
what copiously diluted with the contents of a tank polluted by cholera excreta. 
Cases of cholera occurred amongst the natives using the tank water directly 
after the contamination took place, and this localized outbreak amongst them 
was simultaneous with that on board the Ardenclutha.” (Thorne.) 
f “Manual of Public Health.” 66 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
filthy surroundings. Many illustrations are available, in the 
world of larger vegetables, of great changes in structure 
and properties due to cultivation under an altered environ- 
ment. Isolated cases of typhoid may be thus accounted 
for where it would be difficult to suppose contagion from a 
previously existing case. 
In a recent paper before the British Medical Association, 
Mr. H. R. Kenwood suggests the possibility of the typhoid 
bacillus being an evolution from the bacillus coli communis, 
an organism ever present in the intestines, and adds that 
greater changes may be artificially induced, both functional 
and morphological, in bacteria, than are represented by the 
slight differences between the bacilli in question. 
Recent investigations by Sanarelli show, however, that 
the differences between the two bacilli covered by Ken- 
wood’s suggestion are really very great; but, while the 
bacteriologists search for further light upon the question 
of the ancestry of the typhoid germ, the evolution, or sap- 
rophyte, theory is a good working formula for the sanitarian, 
and upon it he should for the present rest, remsmbering 
that typhoid fever and filth are very closely related. 
The great influence of light upon the growth of the 
typhoid germ has been demonstrated by Janowski, who 
found that freshly inoculated gelatine, if kept in the dark, 
developed colonies in three days; if placed in diffused day- 
light, growth oceured in five days; but if the exposure were 
to direct sunlight, for six hours, the gelatine became sterile. 
This inability to survive long exposure to sunlight is not 
peculiar to the typhoid bacillus.. Fortunately for us, such 
sterilizing action is of wide application, and is one of na- 
ture’s chief lines of defence against overwhelming bacterial 
infection. A simple illustration, showing the inhibiting 
action of sunlight toward such common bacteria as liquefy DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
6 7 
culture-jelly, may be readily made as follows: Pour some 
melted jelly, previously inoculated with a drop of broken- 
down culture medium, into a Petri dish, upon the bottom 
of which have been pasted letters cut from black paper. 
When the jelly has set, expose the inverted dish, for sev- 
eral hours, in a cool place, to the bright sunlight. After 
exposure, place the preparation in the dark, at the usual 
culture temperature (220 C.). Liquefaction will be found 
to take place only in the portions shaded by the paper, and 
the letters will be found sharply countersunk in the jelly. 
ILLUSTRATING STERILIZING ACTION OF SUNLIGHT. 
Burnett found that the water furnished to Colombo, in 
the island of Ceylon, although not of high quality from a 
chemical point of view, rarely contained more than two 
microbes per cubic centimetre. As the supply is from ex- 
tensive, shallow surface-waters, the explanation is offered 68 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
that nearly complete sterilization results from prolonged ex- 
posure to the direct rays of the tropical sun.* 
It is generally observed that the number of bacteria in 
river-water is less in summer than in winter, but it must 
not be hastily concluded that this is due entirely to the 
sterilizing action of light. As is shown upon another page, 
the summer feeders are commonly springs, while in winter 
much impure surface washing reaches the streams. More- 
over, the action of light does not penetrate the water to any 
considerable depth. 
Sternberg, and also Janowski, found the thermal death- 
point of the bacillus to be 56° C. (132.8° F.), the time of 
exposure having been ten minutes. 
Typhoid bacilli are not destroyed by extreme cold. The 
epidemic at Plymouth, Pa., in 1885, is a case in point. 
As we have seen (page 33), the outbreak was traced to the 
dejecta of a single patient, which had been thrown upon the 
frozen ground and snow, during the early part of January, 
and which remained there until washed into the stream by 
the thaw occurring on March 26th. During this period the 
temperature had fallen to 22° F. below zero.f 
* Chem. News, LXX. 285. 
f Very similar to the Plymouth outbreak is the one which occurred at 
Windsor, Vt., a town of some 2000 inhabitants, during the spring of 1894. 
The following is extracted from the newspaper account of the epidemic. 
Several miles west of Windsor, and fully a mile from the reservoir which 
supplies the town with water, is a farm-house built on a hillside. About 200 
feet below the house a brook tumbles down from a spring. The spring sup- 
plies the brook, and the brook supplies the reservoir which supplies Windsor 
with drinking-water. All the rain and snowfall of that hillside, upon which 
the farm-house stands, drains into the brook. In January a farmer’s daughter 
was taken ill and for four weeks her prostration continued. A physician from 
the village attended the case, which he appears to have considered merely as a 
severe attack of the grip. It was not the grip at all; it was typhoid fever. 
The patient’s excreta went into the family privy vault on the hillside. That 
was in January, and everything was frozen solid. For several weeks the 
typhoid germs remained in the vault in a frozen state, without having their DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
69 
Prudden found the germ capable of development after 
having been frozen in ice for over one hundred days, and 
he also made the interesting observation that alternate 
freezing and thawing proved fatal to it. 
“ The typhoid bacillus retains its vitality for many 
months in cultures. The writer has preserved bouillon cul- 
tures for more than a yea-r in hermetically sealed tubes, and 
has found that development promptly occurred in nutrient 
gelatine inoculated from these. Dried upon a cover glass, it 
may grow in a suitable medium after having been preserved 
for eight to ten weeks. When added to sterilized distilled 
water it may retain its vitality for more than four weeks, 
and in sterilized sea-water for ten days. Added to putre- 
fying faeces it may preserve its vitality for several months; 
in typhoid stools for three months; and in earth, upon which 
bouillon cultures had been poured, for five and one-half 
months.” * 
potency in the least impaired. In March came a heavy thaw, and the melting 
snow swelled the brook, carrying the contents of the vault into the stream 
below; for, although the vault was deep, the side next the brook was left 
entirely open and there was nothing to keep the infectious germs in their prison 
with the snow-water of the hillside pouring down. The germs were carried 
into the reservoir under the ice, which was still many inches thick, and there, 
in the temperature of ice-water, they remained until the last of March, when 
they swept through the aqueduct down upon the unsuspecting town. 
The suddenness with which Windsor was struck by this epidemic, and the 
rapidity with which the disease was spread, is a somewhat remarkable fact. 
The great majority of cases appeared between March 29 and April 4. They 
kept coming until April 7 by the half-dozen, and then there was a let-up. 
About X2o cases in all were reported to the health officer. Many, of course, 
were of a mild form, but there was no mistaking the disease. No one thought 
of calling it the grip. The epidemic hit all sorts of families, rich and poor, 
clean and unclean. The majority of patients were under 14 years of age, the 
youngest being if years and the oldest a man 44 years of age. Both the infant 
and the middle-aged man died, making 13 in all. 
Luckily the source of the contagion was soon discovered, for all the cases 
came in households using the aqueduct water for cooking or drinking purposes, 
while among families depending entirely upon well-water no typhoid appeared. 
* Sternberg, “ Manual of Bacteriology.” 70 
IVA TER-SUPPL V. 
Theobald Smith states it to be generally admitted that 
the “disease germs found in water, rarely, if ever, increase in 
number, even if the water be polluted, and they finally die.” 
An experiment was undertaken at the Lawrence experi- 
ment station to determine the viability of the typhoid bacil- 
lus in water near the freezing point. After specific inocula- 
tion, the river-water was placed in a bottle surrounded with 
ice, and a portion was removed daily for examination, with 
the following results: 
ist day 6120 germs per cubic centimeter 
5 th “ 3100 “ “ “ 
10th “ 490 “ “ “ “ 
15th “ 100 “ “ “ “ 
20th “ 17 “ “ “ “ 
25th “ o “ 
Some few survived until the twenty-fourth day. 
“ The longest time we have been able to keep the germs 
of typhojd fever alive in Merrimac River water is about 
three weeks; more commonly they disappear in one week. 
This short period of existence presents the probable reason 
why the fever may be readily carried down a river from 
city to city, while a polluted stream may enter one end of 
a large pond, whose waters are changed only after months, 
and a water-supply drawn from the opposite end may be 
continually free from the disease pollution.” * 
* Mills, Am. Soc. C. E. xxx. 364. 
At a mill at Canton, Mass., in June, 1888, out of 120 men some 50 were 
taken with typhoid. The families of these men were not affected. The drink- 
ing-water of the mill was from a well on the opposite side of a ledge and 54 
feet distant from a privy vault, which latter had received typhoid dejecta eight 
months previously. By experimenting with salt, direct connection by infiltra- 
tion from vault was shown. Note the time element in this case.—J., New Eng. 
Water Works Asso. v. 150. 
An odd instance of viability in bacteria is quoted by Dr. Baker of the 
Michigan Board of Health. It seems that a cannon ball, previously smeared 
with a culture of a specific germ, was fired through a cake of culture-jelly, and 
that colonies were afterwards developed in the medium. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
71 
It would appear that the conditions under which typhoid 
fever occurs obtain more frequently in the country than in 
large cities. This statement is hardly in accord with popu- 
lar belief, but it has been proven true for Massachusetts, 
and a study of the following statistics will show it to be also 
true for the state of New York: 
AVERAGE ANNUAL TYPHOID DEATH-RATE, PER 10,000 IN- 
HABITANTS. 
For the whole State, for the five years 1888-92 ... .2.740 
Typhoid death-rates for 1892, per 10,000 inhabitants: 
For the largest six N. Y. cities 2.402 
“ “ “ rest of districts ” 3.331 
Population per Square Mile. 
“ “ Maritime district 1400 2.000 
“ “ Hudson Valley district 117 3-625 
“ “ Adirondack & Northern dist. 26 2.324 
“ “ Mohawk Valley district 80 4-758 
“ “ Southern Tier “ 60 2.852 
“ “ East Central “ 59 2.040 
“ “ West Central “ 65 2.000 
“ “ Lake Ontario & Western dist. 174 3-540 
“ “ whole State 130 2.566 
The difference here observed must be largely due to the 
greater care exercised in the selection of a water-supply for 
a city, as compared with that so frequently displayed in 
the sinking of a country well. It would seem that a due 
saving of the steps of the housewife is all that the average 
farmer thinks about when selecting a site for his well, and he 
digs it in the most convenient position, and entirely without 
regard to local surroundings. The writer saw one domestic 
supply drawn from a tall pump, which was nearly covered 
by a manure heap of so great proportions that the pump- 
handle had to be extended by splicing a stick thereon in 72 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
order to permit of its being reached. The water was caught 
in a small trough extending over, and resting upon, the top 
of the manure pile. 
The maintenance of the water-supply in a pure state, 
however, is not of itself enough to eliminate typhoid fever. 
The local hygienic conditions must be good as well, other- 
wise the resisting powers of the human organism will be 
lowered and left unable to oppose the invading germs, which 
may come from some other source. 
In recent work by Sanarelli, conducted at the Pasteur 
Institute, Paris, this point is well covered. He shows that 
if animals are previously injected with the toxins of certain 
bacteria, such as coli communis, they afterwards succumb 
to inoculation with Eberth bacillus with complete symptoms 
of typhoid'. 
Other unfinished experiments point towards the obtaining 
of similar results, when the animals are inoculated with 
typhoid culture, after they have been compelled to breathe 
air laden with putrefactive materials for a certain time. 
These results are very suggestive, and bear directly 
upon the relation of unsanitary surroundings and develop- 
ment of typhoid.* 
From both experiment and experience, we are forced to 
conclude that “ good water” and “ clean surroundings” go 
hand in hand in protecting the people against typhoid fever 
and cholera. The following table was prepared by Dr. E. 
F. Smith, in support of this proposition: 
* As tending in the same direction, Nocard and Roux “found by experi- 
ment that an attenuated culture of the anthrax bacillus, which was not fatal to 
guinea-pigs, killed these animals when injected into the muscles of the thigh 
after they had been bruised by mechanical violence. Charrin and Roger found 
that white rats, which are unsusceptible to anthrax, became infected and fre- 
quently died if they were exhausted, previous to inoculation, by being compelled 
to turn a revolving wheel. Pasteur found that fowls, which have a natural 
immunity against anthrax, become infected and perish if they are subjected to 
refrigeration after inoculation.” (Sternberg.) DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
73 
TYPHOID AND CHOLERA IN BUDAPEST, 1863-77, 
1. Influence of filthy houses : 
Deaths from cholera per 100 houses 
when the interior of the Dwelling . 
was _ 
1. Very clean 92 
2. Clean 199 
3. Dirty 268 
4. Very dirty 402 
Deaths from typhoid fever per 100 
houses when the interior of the- 
Dwelling was 
1. Very clean 165 
2. Clean 177 
3. Dirty 182 
4. Very dirty 356 
Cholera deaths per 100 houses when 
the Yard was 
2. Influence of filthy yards : 
1. Very clean .. 188 
2. Clean.... 214 
3. Dirty 263 
4. Very dirty 389 
Typhoid fever deaths per 100 houses 
when the Yard was 
1. Very clean 159 
2. Clean 186 
3. Dirty 208 
4. Very dirty 282 
Another tabulation from the same source is here given. 
MEAN ANNUAL DEATH-RATE IN UNSEWERED AND SEWERED 
CITIES IN RECENT YEARS. 
City. 
Period Included. 
Rate 
per 
1000 
Living. 
Unsewered. 
33- 
25-3 
34- 
52.0 
37-4 
31.0 
32.8 
27.2 
24-5 
42.7 
39-9 
28.8 
40.0 
50.0 
37-o 
5 years, 1880—84 
1881. .....'. .' 
Turin 
20 years, 1865—1884 
2 years, 1879 and 1880 .... 
13 years, 1870—1882 
Recent years 
Average 
LO 
00 74 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
City. 
Period Included. 
Rate 
per 
1000 
Living. 
20 years, 1865-84 
22.7 
24.9 
28.1 
20.9 
26.3 
30 5 
3i-7 
25.0 
28.9 
20.4 
33-7 
28.0 
24.1 
23-9 
21.5 
Twenty large English cities 
10 vears, 1869-78 
Average of 5 years, 1874, ’78, ’79, ’83, ’84 
10 years, 1875—84 
15 years, 1870—84 
10 years, 1S75-84 
10 years, 1875—84 
20 vears, 1865—84 1 
10 years, 1875—84 
20 years, 1865-84 
1 years, 1870—84 
20 years, 1865—84 
20 years, 1865—84 
Average 
26.0 
Boccaccio, in the introduction to his “ II Decamerone,” says that in Florence 
alone upwards of 100,000 persons perished by the Black Death between March 
and July, 1348. Italy, says Rochard, was almost depopulated. Geneva lost 
40,000 inhabitants, Naples 60,000, Venice 70,000. In the brief space of four 
years all Europe was scourged, and it is estimated that not less than 40,000,000 
perished. In 1665, in London, no less than 100,000 died of this disease. Mar- 
seilles suffered a terrible epidemic as late as 1720, Moscow in 1771. It appeared 
also in Malta in 1813, and in the Balearics in 1819. This disease is still present 
in Western Asia, and it even invaded certain fishing villages on the shores of 
the Volga as recently as 1878. See Pepys’ Diary, vol. 11. ; Hecker’s “The 
Black Death in the Fourteenth Century,” chap. iv.; Rochard’s “ LaValeur Econo- 
mique de la Vie Humaine,” etc., C. R. and Mem. du Cong. Int. d’Hygiene, 
tome 1., p. 72, etc. 
An analysis was made, by the Michigan State Board of 
Health, of the sources whence typhoid fever was derived in 
that state, and the results are given in the following table.* 
SOURCE OF CONTAGIUM OF TYPHOID FEVER. 
Table exhibiting the reported “Source of Contagium ” of cases of typhoid fever 
in Michigan during the year 1891. 
Reported Sources. 
Number 
of Cases. 
Traced to former cases 322 
Probably traced to former cases 2 
* It is known that generations of contact with yellow fever has produced a 
partial race immunity for the negro race against that sub-tropical disease. 
Query: Have the conditions of northern and civilized life, with crowding, 
bad water, and bad sewerage, gradually established a partial race immunity 
against typhoid fever among white people? 
This latter disease is especially fatal to the negro. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE 
7 5 
Number 
of Cases. 
Attributed to infected, contaminated, or surface water 1477 
Attributed to drinking infected or impure milk 8 
Cases reported as coming from outside jurisdictions.. 192 
Attributed to defective sewerage, or drainage 44 
“ “ filthy or unsanitary conditions 117 
“ “ going in swimming, and going in water 2 
“ “ stagnant water 9 
“ “ malaria 8 
“ “ overwork 3 
“ “ la grippe 3 
“ “ taking cold... 2 
Cases reported as “ sporadic ” 9 
“ “ to have arisen de novo (1 “sponta- 
neous,” and 6 “ local ”) 18 
Cases the sources of contagium of which were re- 
ported as unknown 560 
Cases the sources of contagium of which were not re- 
ported, or the statements were too indefinite for 
classification 1894 
Total 4670 
Reported Sources. 
So long as a water is bright, and pleasant to the taste, 
it is next to impossible to persuade the average well-owner 
that it is unfit for use, and a suggestion to pour carbolic 
acid or kerosene into the neighboring privy vault may be 
rejected as “ liable to spoil the well.” After all sources of 
possible danger have been examined, it must be admitted 
that outlying isolated cases of typhoid fever are often difficult 
to explain; but it should not be forgotten that the disease 
does not manifest itself until a considerable time after in- 
fection, the incubation period being usually about fourteen 
days, and therefore the possibility of its having been im- 
ported must be always borne in mind. 
“ After the reception of the infection, there is, in all 76 
WA TF.R-SUPPL Y. 
communicable diseases, an interval during which the patient 
remains in apparent health, or perceives at the most some 
languor. This period lasts from one to five days in the 
case of cholera. For typhoid fever its duration varies from 
nine days to three weeks. The latter disease begins so grad- 
ually that the patient generally does not come under the 
observation of a physician until he has had the fever for 
several days. If water infected by typhoid fever dejecta 
were to be drunk by a considerable number of persons Au- 
gust first, the first case would appear about the ninth or 
tenth, and fresh cases would continue to appear until the 
twenty-third. There would be more on the fourteenth or 
fifteenth than at any other time. The deaths would nearly 
all occur the next month—September. These laws of de- 
velopment are of great aid in discovering the cause of brief 
epidemics, by indicating the period in which it must have 
been common to all the persons attacked.” (E. J. Matson.) 
An argument always advanced against the proposition 
that a typhoid epidemic in a town is to be accounted for by 
the use of a contaminated water-supply, is that only a few of 
the inhabitants are attacked, while all use the water. Why 
should the majority escape ? For full discussion of the wide 
subject of “ immunity,” thus introduced, the reader must be 
referred to the extensive monographs written thereon; but let 
it be here said that recent investigations tend to support 
the view, advanced by Sternberg in 1881, that immunity 
depends upon an inherited or acquired tolerance to the 
toxic products of pathogenic bacteria. 
He shows how putrefactive bacteria, introduced into 
drawn blood, maintained artificially at body temperature, will 
quickly multiply and produce decomposition, while the same 
“ dose ” of bacteria injected into the circulation of a living 
animal will rapidly disappear and leave no trace. 
So likewise, in many cases, with pathogenic organisms. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
77 
The invading bacterium is seized upon by the guardian leu- 
cocytes of the blood, and destroyed by a process of assimi- 
lation, provided ‘ ‘ the captors are not paralyzed by some 
potent poison evolved by their prisoner, or overwhelmed by 
its superior vigor and rapid multiplication.” 
A single disease germ may prove fatal, as has been shown 
by Cheyne, who experimented upon guinea-pigs with anthrax; 
but, if any considerable degree of vital resistance be present, 
the “ bacterial dose ” may have to be very greatly enlarged 
to produce observable effects. Thus, the above investi- 
gator found that “ for rabbits the fatal dose of the microbe 
of fowl cholera is 300,000 or more, that from 10,000 to 
300,000 cause a local abscess, and that less than 10,000 
produce no appreciable effect.” He found 225,000,000 
of the Proteus vulgaris fatal to rabbits, but that less than 
9,000,000 gave an entirely negative result. 
Another interesting point that arises in this connection 
is the wide difference between the intensity of the attacks 
induced by a “ virulent ” and an “ attenuated virus.” It is 
well known that, if the conditions attending the cultivation 
of a pathogenic microbe be unfavorable to its ready growth, 
if they be just short of the death point, if the germ be 
obliged to struggle for existence through successive genera- 
tions, the result is an organism of less vigorous constitution, 
and one capable of producing only a fraction of the amount 
of “ toxin ” elaborated by its sturdy progenitor. 
inoculation with such “ attenuated virus ” might be fatal 
to the very susceptible, but a larger number of the resistant 
portion of the community would escape, and the great ma- 
jority of all cases occurring would be designated as “ mild.” 
We constantly hear of the great preponderance of 
“ mild ” cases reported during the prevalence of city epi- 
demics of typhoid fever, and our thoughts naturally turn 
to attenuation of virulence caused by unfavorable surround- WA TER-SUPPL V. 
ings (e.g., the conditions of water-carriage) as an explanation 
of the observed fact.* 
The first, or at least one of the first, to call attention to 
the relation between water and typhoid fever was Dr. 
Michel, of Chaumont, France.f In 1855 he observed that 
typhoid, which was epidemic in the above place, varied in 
number of cases and in intensity inversely as the quantity of 
water in the public wells. 
Pettenkoffer, of Munich, about the same time, undertook 
extended observations upon variations in the height of 
ground-water, and, a little later, relationship was shown 
between these variations and the occurrence of typhoid fever. 
Those who hold with Pettenkoffer claim that the ele- 
ments of the disease readily multiply in the soil, and are 
driven therefrom, along with the ground-air, upon the rising 
of the water level at the time of the autumnal rains. 
Latham, in speaking upon this point, says: 
“ No great variation in the vertical rise and fall of sub- 
soil water is the healthier condition. The ground always 
contains air, and, as the ground-water sinks, air is drawn in to 
supply its place. After long dry weather the air of the 
soil is thus laden with products of decomposition. A rain 
now occurring, the ground-air is displaced, and since said 
rain is liable to seal the surface, the tendency of the air is to 
escape laterally, i.e., into cellars. Dry summers invariably 
mark unhealthy years. Typhoid fever occurs after the 
autumn rains. 
“ All the great epidemics of typhoid have occurred in 
years when the ground-water was especially low, and after 
a slight rise in the same.” 
* Note also Miquel’s theory of auto-intoxication of water. See Chapter XI. 
f “ Influence de 1’eau potable sur la sante publique.” Paris, 1889. 
\ Typhoid fever is essentially an autumn disease, as may be seen from the DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
79 
Pettenkoffer’s “ground-air theory” is not gaining the 
majority of supporters, a more reasonable view being that, 
as the water surface lowers in a well, the base of the cone 
of drainage, whose apex is at that surface, is extended, and 
consequently, more widely situated points of pollution are 
embraced with its influence. 
Perhaps the most exhaustive examination of the relation 
of the height of ground-water to the prevalence of typhoid 
following statistics. One authority ventures to suggest that bacteria 
plants, have their own particular seasons for growth. 
, like other 
DEATHS FROM TYPHOID AND TYPHO-MALARIAL FEVERS IN CONNECTICUT FOR 
EIGHT YEARS, ARRANGED BY MONTHS. 
(From the State Board of Health.) 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
Average 
1883-1890 
January 
20 
31 
20 
13 
14 
11 
24 
26 
19.9 
February 
15 
14 
15 
9 
10 
11 
13 
18 
I3-I 
March 
20 
15 
19 
18 
13 
16 
19 
11 
16.4 
April 
22 
20 
17 
15 
12 
8 
13 
17 
15-5 
May 
24 
16 
8 
23 
12 
17 
16 
15 
16.4 
June. 
13 
15 
13 
11 
8 
9 
13 
13 
11.9 
July 
23 
19 
30 
16 
13 
17 
29 
20 
20.9 
August 
67 
46 
37 
51 
30 
36 
47 
35 
43-6 
September 
61 
5i 
49 
43 
34 
58 
49 
49 
49-2 
October 
78 
72 
39 
39 
28 
75 
49 
60 
55-0 
November 
45 
55 
3i 
35 
27 
3i 
30 
4i 
36.9 
December 
48 
25 
17 
25 
24 
25 
12 
23 
24.9 
Total 
436 
379 
295 
298 
225 
314 
314 
328 
323-7 
The prevalence of typhoid during the autumn, as shown by the above table, 
is also markedly illustrated by the returns of the Ohio State Board of Health 
for the year 1892. 
The number of deaths from typhoid fever, as reported by months, was as 
follows: 
January 38 
February 27 
March 32 
April 19 
May 27 
June 36 
July ■ 52 
August 71 
September 105 
October 78 
November (1891) 86 
December (1891) 40 
The total number of deaths in the State from typhoid was 611, which is a 
rate of 4.8 per 10,000 inhabitants. 80 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
that has been made in America, is to be found in the work 
of the State Board of Health of Michigan. 
Observations have been made by that board during a 
period of many years, and the results, graphically shown 
herewith, indicate in a very marked manner that increase 
of typhoid and lowness of water in wells move in practically 
the same curve of variation. 
So convinced were the Michigan authorities of the truth 
of this proposition, that they issued, during the autumn 
of 1894, a circular of warning, which is here quoted in part: 
“Beware! Unusual Danger now from Typhoid Fever, 
because of Drought. 
“ The water in the representative well, near the centre of 
the State, last September was three inches more than the 
average of previous years; this year it is four inches less 
than the average. 
“ For the second week in September, typhoid fever is 
reported from thirteen places more this year than last year, 
etc., etc.” 
The Michigan statistics go, further on, to show that in 
October, 1894, the water in the standard well stood eleven 
inches lower than in October, 1893, and seven inches lower 
than the October average for the eight years, 1886-1893. 
For September, 1894, typhoid fever was reported from 
121 places in the state, an increase of forty-six places over 
the report for September, 1893. 
For October, 1894, typhoid was present at 165 places, 
as against 109 for the same month of 1893. 
For October, 1894, the prevalence of the disease was 
forty-four per cent above the October average for the eight 
years, 1886-1893. 
During the three months of September, October, and 
November, 1894, the ground-water of Michigan grew con- 
stantly lower. It is difficult to see just how these data DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
81 
could be made to fit the “ground-air” theory of Petten- 
koffer or Latham as a cause of typhoid fever ; for such 
theory calls for sudden rise in ground-water level. 
The precipitation data for Michigan are given in the table 
on page 82. 
It has been the continued experience in Michigan that 
typhoid is coincident with low ground-water, as is illustrated 
graphically on page 83, and is not dependent upon sudden 
rise in the same. 
An interesting exception to this rule has been noted, 
occurring during the season of heavy frost, when surface 
pollution is prevented from reaching the subsoil. 
The second table on page 82 was furnished me by Dr. 
Henry B. Baker, secretary of the Michigan State Board of 
Health, to whom I am also indebted for much other informa- 
tion. 
We do not possess in New York such complete records as 
to the condition of the ground-water as they have in Michi- 
gan; but the rainfall, upon which ground-water depends, is 
on record, and the reports show that more than the average 
amount of rain fell in New York during the autumn of 
1894, following, as it did, an exceedingly dry summer. 
If typhoid fever bear relation to sudden rise in level of 
ground-water, as has been held, rather than to the prolonged 
low state of such level, as is taught in Michigan, then surely 
the autumn of 1894 was a very favorable time for a marked 
outbreak of the disease in the state of New York, but no 
such condition is reported by the sanitary authorities. 
Just how the year of 1894 compared, in the matters of 
typhoid and rainfall, with 1893 and 1891, may be seen from 
the chart on page 84. 
The above years were chosen for comparison because 
the summer of 1893 was very wet, and because the entire year 
of 1891 was especially noted for prevalence of typhoid fever.. 82 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
PRECIPITATION DATA FOR MICHIGAN. 
1893 1894 Normal 
January 2.55 1.88 2.18 
February 2.65 1.81 2.67 
March 2.39 2.16 2.32 
April 4.43 2.28 2.44 
May 2.79 5.79 3.52 
June 3.26 2.82 3.91 
July 2.74 1.40 3.09 
August 1.19 0.49 3.04 
September 2.34 3.42 3.00 
October 3.67 2.86 3.05 
November. 2.90 1.76 3.02 
December 3.64 1.33 2.51 
AVERAGE TOTAL ANNUAL RAINFALL 
At Stations in Michigan the same for Lansing, the Inches of Earth above the 
Ground Water at Lansing, the Inches of Water in an Undisturbed Well at 
Lansing, and the Reported Sickness from Typhoid Fever in Michigan, as 
Indicated by the Per Cent of all the Weekly Card-reports which Stated the 
Presence of Typhoid Fever during the Seven Years and Each of the Seven 
Years, 1885-91. 
CO OO CO CO oo 00 co 
O O CO CO CO Co CO 
*4 O vO CO QN CM 
1 i 
• • • • • . 
::::::: 
i 
• • • • . . . 
i 
i 
Av. 7 years, 1885-91 
Year, and Period of Years. 
CO CO to to to CO CO 
»-« o cove O to oi 
O' to cn CO H Co 
O' O court to O to 
CO 
b 
O' 
Average Total Annual Rainfall 
at Stations in Michigan, in 
Inches. 
to CO to to CO to CO 
vp CO Co cn O O 4-* 
O O to O cn cn 
cn O' CO Qn co to m 
to 
vO 
4* 
cn 
Total Annual Rainfall at Lan- 
sing, in Inches. 
U U U « k) H k) 
O O O kO vO 03 00 
►H O O M -t*. 
to 
O 
CO 
Inches of Earth above the 
Ground Water at Lansing. 
to to m to CO 4^ 
CO 00 vO O 4* to O 
CO 
M 
Inches of Water in an Unused 
Well at Lansing. 
111I+++ 
M M 
0003 to to 03 M vO 
II 
Ground Water Higher (+) or 
Lower (—) than the Seven 
Years’ Average in Inches. 
M *—< HH — 
H OO o O O co oo 
0 
Average Per Cent of all Weekly 
Card-reports Stating the Pres- 
ence of Typhoid Fever. 
+1+++1i 
to M M M M M tH 
II 
More (+) or Less (—) Sickness 
from Typhoid Fever than the 
Seven Years’ Average. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
COINCIDENCE OF PREVALENCE OF TYPHOID FEVER AND LOWNESS OF WATER IN 
WELLS. (STATE OF MICHIGAN.) 84 
IVA TER-S UPPL Y. 
RAINFALL AND TYPHOID FEVER. VARIATIONS FROM NORMAL. (STATE OF 
NEW YORK.) DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
These curves are very irregular, and suggest in places 
relation between low rainfall and prevalence of the disease; 
but the remarkable concordance exhibited in the Michigan 
chart is here sought in vain. 
New York does not stand alone in its failure to accord 
with the Michigan rule, as is seen from the following Con- 
necticut statistics: 
j894- 
1893. 
Normal. 
Rainfall in 
Inches. 
Deaths 
Typhoid. 
Rainfall in 
Inches. 
Deaths 
Typhoid. 
Rainfall in 
Inches. 
Deaths 
Typhoid. 
July 
2.40 
15 
1.89 
18 
4.99 
14.8 
August 
I.70 
38 
4.86 
14 
5-17 
32.8 
September 
4 63 
38 
2.24 
37 
3-76 
41.4 
October 
6.11 
32 
4-75 
49 
3-90 
42.6 
November 
4-23 
37 
2.56 
35 
3-90 
40.2 
As elsewhere, so in Connecticut, the summer of 1894 
was very dry, and very heavy rains fell in the autumn, yet 
the autumn death-rate was below the normal. If any 
weight is to be attached to the sudden rise in ground-water, 
surely here was an opportunity for its exhibition; but the 
rise in water level was followed by no increase in typhoid. 
Minnesota was also an apparent exception to the Michi- 
gan rule, as we see from the following: 
1894. 
Normal. 
Rainfall in 
Inches. 
Deaths 
Typhoid. 
Rainfall in 
Inches. 
Deaths 
Typhoid. 
August 
1.22 
39 
2.80 
43 
September 
2.04 
42 
2.04 
67 
October 
3-37 
47 
i-55 
87 
November 
0-54 
30 
0.69 
62 
This state presents a refutation of the “ground-air” 
theory, for there was certainly a “ sudden rise ” in level 
of the ground-water, without corresponding increase of ty- 86 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
phoid; but there was no real exception here to the “ Mich- 
igan rule,” for it will be remembered that the said rule 
calls for marked lowness of ground-water, and we notice 
that the autumn rainfall was above the normal in this state. 
Among the other states heard from, the majority un- 
questionably fall under the Michigan rule. Definite infor- 
mation regarding mortuary statistics was, in the cases of 
many states, impossible to secure, and only such expressions 
as “ considerable typhoid,” “ largely increased typhoid,” 
were obtainable. No statistics whatever are kept in certain 
states, and from them no results could be recorded. 
The health department of Iowa writes, under date of 
December 17, 1894: 
“ There is greatly increased typhoid fever in this State. 
Scarcely a town or township is exempt.” 
The Iowa rainfall was: 
1894. Normal. 
August. 1.58 3.60 
September .... 3.57 3.70 
October. . 2.67 2,85 
Here again is noticed the probable low condition of 
ground-water, and the application of the Michigan rule. 
The Board of Health of Ohio writes: “We have noticed 
a very decided increase of typhoid fever in our State during 
the past autumn. It has also been noticable that the increase 
has been almost wholly in our small villages, where wells 
are used for water-supply.” 
The Ohio rainfall was: 
1894. Normal. 
August 1.67 3.04 
September 3.31 2.94 
October 2.01 2.57 
November 2.17 2.99 
This was also an instance of prolonged low water, with 
results following the rule. DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
87 
In the records show large amount of ty- 
phoid present during the autumn of 1894, with rainfall as 
follows: 
1894. Normal. 
August 1.84 4.90 
September 6.30 3.72 
October... 4.26 3.48 
November..... 2.50 3.33 
A word is necessary here regarding the great precipitation 
for September. It will be remembered that, on the eighth 
of that month, an exceedingly violent but short storm 
swept over the eastern coast of the United States, with 
very heavy rainfall. 
A great portion of this rain found its way directly to the 
streams and water-ways, and the ground-water received 
but little reinforcement. 
In Maryland “ there has been a decided increase in the 
number of typhoid fever cases during the past six months 
(i.e., June to December, 1894) in all parts of the State. 
The rate of mortality has been low.” 
The rainfall was: 
1894. Normal. 
August 1-55 4-76 
September 245 3.87 
October 3.17 376 
November 3.65 2.78 
Low condition of ground-water is here very apparent, 
and the State falls under the rule. 
In Wisconsin “there is thought to have been a slight 
increase of typhoid in the State during the past autumn 
(1894), but not very marked.” 
The Wisconsin rainfall was: 88 
WA TER-SU PPL V. 
1894. 1893. 
August 0.78 2.03 
September 3.58 2.32 
October 3.04 2.49 
November 1.93 1.33 
Comparison with the normal for this State is not possible 
from the data in the writer’s possession. It will be noticed, 
however, that the autumn was probably wet, and the typhoid 
was practically normal. 
The author does not possess the normal values for Massa- 
chusetts, but a comparison of 1894 with the previous year 
stands as follows: 
Typhoid. 
1894. 
Rain. 
Typhoid. 
1893. 
Rain. 
August 27 1.75 40 5.22 
September 83 3.46 60 2.38 
October 60 4.96 116 4.01 
November 58 3.36 104 2.17 
Evidently, Massachusetts is not to be rated as in accord 
with the Michigan rule. 
In Indiana, so far as the Board of Health has been 
advised, “ there has been about the usual amount of ty- 
phoid fever, following dry weather, more than there is after 
a season of plentiful rainfall.” 
The Western States, so far as heard from, are thus seen 
to follow, as a class, what has been styled the “ Michigan 
rule,” with the apparent exception of Minnesota ; but it 
has been shown that this is really no exception at all in 
view of the more than normal rainfall. Now, what reason- 
able explanation can be given for the failure of New York, 
Connecticut, and Massachusetts to accord with the rule? 
While not wishing to dogmatize upon manifestly scanty 
data, the suggestion is offered that, so far as these three 
States are concerned, larger shares of their populations derive DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
89 
their drinking-water from more or less carefully selected 
sources of public supply, and are conseqently less ex- 
posed to the danger arising from the local contamination of 
private wells. 
Whether the exhaustive study of facts does, or does 
not, support the view that the relation of typhoid fever 
and rainfall, so far as ground-water is concerned, deals with 
the question of low ground-water, rather than with fluctua- 
tions in its vertical height, it admits of ready illustration 
that marked relationship certainly exists between this dis- 
ease and the sudden -influx of storm waters, flooding the 
polluted foreshores of smaller rivers. We have seen such 
a case in the epidemic of typhoid, in the valley of the Tees, 
page 28. 
However much the statistics referring to Asiatic cholera, 
and especially to typhoid fever, may be considered as espe- 
cial indicators of the purity of a town’s water-supply, it 
must not be supposed that the general death-rate is un- 
worthy of careful study as well. 
It is widely known that the present potable supply for 
Paris is vastly superior to the water from the Seine, which, 
until recently, was all that the inhabitants had for domestic 
use. The following figures, giving the total death-rate for 
a group of five years before the introduction of the purer 
water and for a similar period after the Seine had been 
abandoned for drinking purposes, well illustrate the benefit 
of the change. 
1860 4I,26l 24.32 
1861 43-664 25.74 
1862 42,185 24.87 
1863 42,582 23.33 
1864 44,913 24.60 
Total Deaths. 
Rate per Thousand. 
Average. 
24.57 90 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
1888 53.303 21.99 
1889 56,059 23.12 
1890 56,660 23.37 
1891 54,443 22.45 
1892 57,137 23.53 
22.89 
These averages show a saving of 1.68 per thousand, or, 
based on the last stated population of 2,424,705, they rep- 
resent the preservation of 4072 lives annually in the city of 
Paris. 
Still more striking are the statistics furnished by San 
Remo, a town of 18,000 inhabitants, situated upon the 
Italian Riviera. The present superb water-supply (intro- 
duced December, 1883) comes from the mountains, and is 
one of the best in Europe, while the former one was de- 
rived from shallow domestic wells sunk into a filthy city 
soil. The following table for total death-rate is interesting: 
Total Deaths. 
Rate per Thousand. 
Average. 
1879 362 22.37 
1880 368 22.74 
1881 320 19.75 
1882 347 21.30 
1883 441 26.91 
22.61 
1884 312 18.91 
188 5 409 24.65 
1886 334 20.10 
1887 331 19.81 
1888 270 15.90 
1889 353 20.37 
1890 307 17.34 
1891 317 17-92 
1892 352 19.83 
19.65 
It will be observed from the above averages that the 
total death-rate has been lowered a trifle over 13 per cent 
by the introduction of pure water. Still more striking is a DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
91 
statement made to the author by Dr. Martemuci, the leading 
local physician. He said: “ Where I now have one typhoid 
case, I had forty before the change in the water-supply.” 
The following is extracted from the report of the New 
Jersey State Board of Health for 1893. 
To show a part, at least, of the effect of polluted water- 
supplies in the large cities of the state, the populations of 
five of the larger cities from 1880 to 1890, and the record of 
deaths from enteric diseases as recorded by the report of the 
Bureau of Vital Statistics, are given in the following table. 
Enteric diseases are ordinarily the most competent to show 
the effect of specific pollution in potable water. 
Trenton. 
Camden. 
Paterson. 
Jersey City. 
Newark. 
Population, 1880 
29,910 
41,659 
5D03I 
' 120,722 
136,508 
Population, 1890 
58,488 
58,274 
78,358 
163,987 
181,518 
Average pop. for decade.. 
Total deaths from enteric 
44,199 
49,966 
64,699 
142,354 
159,013 
diseases for 11 years.... 
Average number deaths, 
163 
541 
302 
1,121 
I,o6l 
etc., for each year 
Death-rate per 10,000 from 
14.8 
49.I 
27.4 
102 
96.3 
ent .ric diseases 
3-3 
9.1 
4.2 
7.2 
6.0 
From this table it will be seen that Trenton, taking its 
water-supply from the Delaware above the city—almost 
entirely unpolluted by sewage—has the lowest death-rate; 
it is closely followed by Paterson, which takes its water 
from the Passaic above the falls, and before serious pollution 
occurs; while Newark and Jersey City, both supplied from 
the lower Passaic, largely polluted by sewage, and Camden, 
supplied from the lower Delaware at a point affected by 
the sewage of Camden, Philadelphia, and the entire popu- 
lation as far up the river as Trenton, all have abnormally 
high death-rates. Had Newark’s rate for the decade been 
no greater than Trenton’s, a saving from enteric fever alone 
of 429 lives would have been effected among its people; 92 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
and if Jersey City had the same rate, 553 persons would 
have been saved. Could figures be more convincing ? It 
should be understood that these are not statistics collected 
in support of any preconceived theory, but are the official 
returns of the State Health Department, and, therefore, 
should be given the weight of unprejudiced authority. 
As cities increase in size there are introduced into the 
total death-rate disturbing factors that must be considered in 
comprehensive study. Thus, the influence of simple crowd- 
ing is well illustrated by the following statistics for various 
London districts: * 
Mean 
Death-rate, 
1885-91. 
Districts with a density of under 40 persons per acre 15.27 
Do. from 40 to 80 19.04 
Do. from 80 to 120 19.24 
Do. from 120 to 160 22.60 
Do. over 160 23.88 
County of London, with a density of over 57 19.90 
Finally, in view of the intensely practical spirit of the 
age, let us consider the question, 
Does pure zvater pay ? f 
To abandon an existing water-supply system or to purify 
the polluted water that it furnishes, always involves the 
* Engineering News, Dec. 28, 1893. 
f A suit for damages for the death of a man from typhoid fever, alleged to 
have been caused by drinking impure water, has been brought by a widow in a 
Western city. 
“We cannot expect to find the effect of impure water always sudden and 
violent. The results of continued imbibition of polluted water are indeed often 
gradual and may elude ordinary observation, yet be not the less real and appre- 
ciable by close inquiry. In fact it is only when striking and violent effects are 
produced that public attention is arrested ; the minor and more insidious, but 
not less certain evils, are borne with the indifference and apathy of custom." 
(Fox, “Water, Air, and Food.”) DRINKING-WATER AND DISEASE. 
93 
outlay of much money, and the city taxpayer has the right 
to inquire whether or not the benefit derived is a fair equiva- 
lent for the cash expended. Impure water affects the 
yearly death-rate, as a whole, much less than that section 
of it which deals with diseases recognized as “ water-borne,” 
prominent among which is typhoid fever. No better meas- 
ure can be selected of the wholesomeness of a city supply 
than that furnished by a list of the annual cases of this 
serious disease. 
Typhoid fever is doubtless, to a very large extent, a 
preventable disease, but the means of prevention, in the 
shape of great public works, are expensive, and again the 
question is asked, Do these works pay? Can we afford to 
save the typhoid victims ? 
According to Rochard, the economic value of an individual 
“ is what he has cost his family, the community, or the State 
for his living, development, and education. It is the loan 
which the individual has made from the social capital in 
order to reach the age when he can restore it by his labor.” 
The statement of this value, in form of money, is a 
difficult matter, which has been variously settled by sundry 
investigators. Chadwick considers an English laborer equiv- 
alent to a permanent deposit of £200 (say $980). Farr 
gives (say $78°) as the average value of each human 
life in England. A French soldier is rated as worth 6000 
francs (say $1200). 
In view of the fact that typhoid fever selects by far the 
greatest number of its victims from among those in the very 
prime of life, to the relative exclusion of the very young 
and the very old, it will be reasonable to follow the figure 
fixed upon by E. F. Smith, and place the loss caused the 
community by a death from typhoid at $2000. This will be 
noticed to be less than half the figure so frequently referred 
to in the courts of this State for the value of a human life 94 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
For the sake of illustration, let us consider the tax levied 
annually by typhoid fever upon a city of one hundred 
thousand inhabitants; for instance, Albany, N. Y. 
PTom statistics given in the last five annual reports of 
the State Board of Health, the deaths due to typhoid 
fever in Albany average seventy-five for the year. 
Rating the money value of each life at the figure given 
above, this death-rate would mean an annual pecuniary 
loss to the city of $150,000. 
Funeral expenses are variously estimated at from $20 to 
<|30. Should we accept the intermediate value of $25, this 
item would cause $1875 dollars to be added to the above 
sum, thus raising the total direct loss through death to 
$151,875. 
But typhoid fever does not always kill. Its mortality 
rate is commonly quoted at about ten per cent. For the 
present purpose, should we assume nine recoveries for 
each death from the disease, and place 43 days as the 
period of convalescence (the average of 500 cases at the 
Pennsylvania Hospital), we should have a term of 29,025 
days as representing the time lost, per year, by the 675 
persons who have the fever and recover. Thus an annual 
loss of over 79 years has to be borne by the city’s capital 
of productive labor. 
This great amount of enforced idleness, when translated 
into money value, should very properly be added to the 
death loss above estimated. 
Fixing the rate of wages at $i per individual per day 
—a very low figure, considering that the bulk of typhoid 
patients are in the very prime of life—there is a loss of $43 
of wages for each recovery, or a total yearly loss for the 
city from this item of $29,025. The cost of nursing and 
doctors’ bills equal at least $25 per case, which is a very 
low estimate, thus adding the further amount of $16,875 to DRINKING- IVA TER AND DISEASE. 
95 
the gross sum. Expressed in tabular form, this yearly tax 
imposed by typhoid fever upon the city of Albany is given 
below, and, upon a most conservative estimate, it is practi- 
cally $200,000, which is $2 a year for each man, woman, 
and child in the city, or a yearly tax of $10 for every family 
of five persons. 
75 deaths at $2000 each $150,000 
75 funerals at $25 each 1,875 
Wages of 675 convalescents during 43 days at $1 
per day 29,025 
Nursing and doctors’ bills for 675 convalescents at 
$25 each case 16,875 
Total tax levied annually by typhoid fever upon the 
city of Albany S197,775 
It can readily be seen that public works which could 
eliminate a reasonable fraction of this great tax would pay 
for themselves in the course of a few years, even though 
they were originally expensive. 
Finally it is right to inquire what fraction of the present 
typhoid loss it would be reasonable to hope to save if pure 
water should be served to the city in place of its present 
polluted supply. To answer this question recourse must 
be had to statistics obtained from other cities, covering 
periods before and after better water-systems had been in- 
troduced. Such data have been already given for a number 
of cities and communities, and it only remains to anticipate 
what will be later said of Munich, and state that improved 
water and sewerage have reduced the annual typhoid mor- 
tality from an average of 25.4 per 10,000 to 2.7. 
Surely pure water pays in a city with such a record, 
and likewise it would pay in the newer but growing cities 
on this side of the Atlantic. Americans insist upon being 96 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
supplied with much more water per capita than is usually 
furnished in Europe, but they are singularly indifferent as 
to its quality. It would be a reform of great moment if 
they could be induced to curtail the present enormous waste 
of public water, such as that of Buffalo, for instance, which 
is stated to be 70 per cent of the entire pumpage, and to 
expend the money thus permitted to leak away in a vigor- 
ous effort to improve the quality of the supply. No such 
lowering of the typhoid death-rate as occurred at Munich, 
San Remo, and sundry other places could be looked for, 
perhaps, but a large percentage of the present rate could 
be cut off, and, we think, from a consideration of the above 
figures, that such a reduction would pay. 
No weight should be attached to the argument, so often 
advanced by the individual householder, that he and his 
family “ have used the water without evil result for fifty 
years.” A single family is too small a collection of units 
upon which to base any estimate touching the question at 
issue. 
Placing the typhoid death-rate for Albany, as above, 
at seventy-five annually, it would call for one death in a 
family of five persons every 261 years, a period much be- 
yond the limits of ordinary family record. CHAPTER III. 
ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
PURE water is better than purified water; of that there 
can be no shadow of a doubt; but, as the former often 
cannot be obtained, the consumer must at times be cont .nt 
with the latter or go without. The art of removing sus- 
pended material from water, by some form of filtration, 
has been known during many ages, although it was not put 
in extended practice until very recent time^.* 
The modern methods of filtration claim to do something 
more, and better, than merely to strain off the grosser ele- 
ments of turbidity; and so fully do the people of Europe 
appear to believe this claim a just one, that with them a 
city water-works without an attendant filter-plant is becom- 
ing almost a novelty.f The method of purifying water on 
the large scale, which deserves first attention on account of 
its early use and wide application, is commonly known as 
THE ENGLISH FILTER-BED SYSTEM. 
Briefly described, an English filter-bed is a tight reser- 
voir, suitably underdrained, and containing some six feet of 
stratified filtering material, of progressive degrees of fine- 
* The “siphoning” of liquid from one vessel to another by the capillary 
action of porous material, such as a strip of cloth, and the consequent separa- 
tion of the liquid from suspended material, was well known to the ancients, 
and is frequently mentioned. (Bolton, “Ancient Methods of Filtration.” Pop. 
Sci. Monthly, xvi. 495.) 
f Filtration of surface-water, before delivering the same for public con- 
sumption, is now specifically ordered by the laws of Germany, and rules are 
laid down for its proper accomplishment. 98 
WA TER-SU PPL Y. 
ness, beginning at the bottom with six inches of broken 
jstone and ending with an upper layer of fine sand. 
SECTION op anENGLISH FILTER BED 
SOUTHWARK Sc VAUXHALL WATER CO. 
LONDON. 
Much diversity exists in the relative thickness of the 
several layers, some filters being constructed with a very 
thick upper layer of fine sand, while with others the finest 
material is put on as a comparatively thin cover. The 
Dutch filters are especially marked in the thinness of their 
beds, a feature by no means to be recommended; for, al- 
though much of the actual work of filtration is done by the 
upper layer of sand, yet if the thickness of the body of the 
bed be unduly reduced, that portion of the water which is 
in the act of being delivered will bear too large a ratio to 
that filling the interstices of the coarser layers; as a result, ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
99 
COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FILTER-BEDS. WA TER-SUPPL V. 
COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FILTER-BEDS, IN INCHES 
Fine 
Sand. 
Coarse 
Sand. 
Fine 
Gravel. 
Medium 
Gravel. 
Coarse 
Gravel. 
Small 
Stones. 
Large 
Stones. 
Total 
Depth. 
Berlin 
22 
2 
6 
5 
3 
4 
12 
54 
Warsaw 
24 
2 
3 
12 
II 
52 
Zurich 
32 
6 
4 
6 
.... 
48 
Hague 
12 
IO 
10 
6 
38 
Hudson, N. Y 
6 
(sea-shells) 
18 
6 
6 
6 
6 
24 
72 
r Chelsea 
54 
.... 
3 
39 
...» 
96 
c 
o 
Lambet 1 
36 
(shells) 
12 
36 
84 
•O J 
G 1 
o 
J 
Southwark and 
Vauxhall.... 
36 
12 
(shells) 
9 
9 
66 
1 W. Middlesex.. 
27 
12 
27 
66 
Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 
24 
... 
18 
6 
24 
72 
currents will be established, and ruinous channel-ways be 
quickly worn in the uppermost stratum. 
It must not be thought, however, that the extreme top 
layer of sand, with its cover of slime, does the entire work, 
so far as purification is concerned. That this is a miscon- 
ception is shown by Reinsch, who has just published his 
observations of the Altona filters. He found the unfiltered 
water to contain 36,320 microbes per cubic centimetre. 
After passing the slime layer there yet remained 1876, 
but after passing the entire depth of sand there were 
found but 44 per cubic centimetre. Thus the lower layers 
have uses other than mere regulation of flow. 
A decreasing, but yet positive, efficiency is noted in the 
lower levels of the filter-bed. (See table on page 102.) 
For proper working, the thickness of the fine sand layer 
should be made not less than twenty-four inches, and this 
depth should not be permitted to fall below twelve inches, 
by the successive removals of layers of its upper surface for 
purposes of cleaning. The German law prohibits the reduc- 
tion of the fine sand layer below this limit of twelve inches. SECTIONS OF DUTCH FILTER-BEDS. 102 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
SHOWING AVERAGE ANALYSES OF SAND AT DIFFERENT 
DEPTHS IN FILTERS.* 
Depth from Surface, 
in inches. 
Organic Nitrogen. 
Parts per 1,000,000 
by Weight of Dry Sand. 
Bacteria 
per gramme. 
i 
200 
6,600,000 
I 
95 
1,940,000 
3 
94 
720,000 
6 
47 
300,000 
12 
40 
90,000 
24 
23 
47,000 
36 
16 
35,000 
48 
12 
29,000 
60 
12 
26,000 
The engineering structures containing these various beds 
of filtering materials differ from one another in size, shape, 
and method of construction, according as the preference of 
the designer may dictate or the necessities of the case may 
demand. In London the result of long experience has 
been the selection of one acre as the proper superficial area 
of a filter-bed, and new constructions are carried on with 
that rule in view. Usually the inner wall-surface is nearly, 
or quite, vertical, but the Holland filters (see page ioi) form 
a notable exception in this particular, having a slope, at 
times, of more than one to one. 
An objection to an entirely vertical wall is that there is 
possibility of improperly filtered water passing down between 
it and the sand. A wall broken into steps would afford a 
better opportunity for a good joint being made with the 
sand. 
The composition of the body of the side-walls is as 
varied as one would expect to find it among reservoirs in 
general; running from earth embankments with clay puddle 
cores, to structures of pure concrete, or even of dressed 
stone. 
* Mass. Bd. Health, 1894. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
103 
Such as are constructed of earth are, however, carefully 
protected on the inside, by suitable paving, from the dam- 
aging action of ice and waves. 
The new filters of the Southwark and Vauxhall Com- 
pany (London) have a layer of three-inch agricultural drain- 
pipe, placed side by side with open joints, over the entire 
bottom, thus securing very perfect flow to the clear-water 
reservoir. (See illustration, page 98.) 
Usually these filter-plants are entirely open, but in those 
localities where the winters are severe, it becomes necessary 
to throw over them a cover, which is commonly of concrete, 
resting upon columns of the same material. 
At Stuttgart, both the open and covered forms of filter 
are in constant operation, and as the latter never freeze, the 
relative advantages of such a form, in saving trouble from 
ice, may be there satisfactorily studied. 
Thick ice renders it practically impossible to properly 
clean a filter, and the resulting imperfect purification of the 
filtrate is often coincident with increase in the death-rate. 
This was noted in Berlin in the winter of 1889, when an 
outbreak of typhoid fever followed the deficiency in purify- 
ing power of the open filters. That portion of the city 
supplied with water from the covered filters was not visited 
by the epidemic. 
In England the climate does not demand the construction 
of the expensive covered filters, and, as a rule, much trouble 
from ice is not experienced; but even there exceedingly 
cold weather will at times occur, bringing with it large addi- 
tions to the bill for expenses of maintenance. A notable 
winter in this particular was that of 1884, when seventy men 
were constantly employed in removing ice from the South- 
wark and Vauxhall beds. (See illustration on page 105.) 
Mr. Allen Hazen, in his excellent work on “ Filtration 
of Public Water-Supplies,” advocates the covering of filters 104 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
OPEN AND COVERED FILTER-BEDS AT STUTTGART, GERMANY. io5 
REMOVAL OF ICE FROM LONDON FILTER-BEDS. 106 
WA TER-S UP PL Y. 
in all localities where the mean January temperature is 
below the freezing-point. His recommendation is unques- 
tionably a sound one. 
An idea of the interior appearance of a covered filter 
may be obtained from the cut on page 107 showing a filter 
belonging to the Warsaw works, in which the various layers 
of filtering-material are shown in section. 
The engraving on page 108 is from a photograph, showing 
the new covered beds at Zurich, Switzerland, in process of 
construction. 
The sections illustrated on page 109, by Piefke, are of 
the Berlin beds. 
As is well known, the great city of London buys all of 
its water from eight private companies, and every gallon 
delivered for use is carefully filtered by the said companies, 
with the exception of what is derived from deep wells in 
the chalk. Certain statistics relating to these great plants 
are here given: 
Total 
Daily Supply 
Number 
Area of 
Depth of 
Name of Company. 
Source of Supply. 
in 
of Filter- 
Filter- 
Filter- 
U. S. Gallons. 
beds. 
beds, 
in Acres. 
materials. 
12,727,000 
7 
6f 
8 ft. 
f Thames river J 
East London. .. 
J Lee river ! 
j Chalk wells j 
51,495,000 
31 
29f 
3 ft. 6 in. 
J Springs J 
Grand Junction. 
Thames river 
22,391,000 
15 
I7f 
5 ft. 6 in. 
Kent 
Deep Chalk wells 
Thames river 
17,126,000 
23,509,000 
none 
Lambeth 
10 
9i 
7 ft- 
fChadwell springl 
New River 
•j Lee river l 
[Chalk wells j 
43,190,000 
20 
16^ 
5 ft. 7 in- 
Southwark and 
Vauxhall 
Thames river 
34,oSo, 000 
12 
T4| 
5 ft. 6 in. 
West Middlesex. 
Thames river 
21,627,000 
12 
15 
5 ft. 6 in. 
Total 
226,145,000 
107 
io9| ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
107 
A COVERED FILTER, WATERWORKS OF WARSAW, RUSSIA. (AFTER I.INDLEY.) COVERED FILTER-BEDS AT ZURICH, SWITZERLAND, UNDER CONSTRUCTION, ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
109 
Fig-3. 
Section through inlet pipe.. 
Fig. 5. 
jPlan. ™- 
Fig-2. 
Cross section shouring clear water canal and overflow. 
SECTIONS OF BERLIN FILTER-BEDS. (AFTER PIEFKE.) 
Fig-1. 
JSlevation through the clear water canal. 
Fig.4. 
Sanclcoclc. 
Concrete, clay. 
*' canal. 
Fig. 6. 
Section of cov-ereci filler. 
metres. 110 
WA TF.R-S UP PL Y. 
The cost of constructing a filter-bed upon the general 
plan described must necessarily greatly vary, in direct ratio, 
with the local cost of materials, and with the difficulty of 
the engineering problem involved. 
For some well-known plants the cost of construction is 
given, as follows, exclusive of the price of land: 
London.—A bed one acre in filtering area costs from 
$24,000 to $39,000, depending on the nature of the ground. 
Those of the Southwark and Vauxhall plant each cost the 
latter sum. All these beds are uncovered. 
Liverpool.—Same as London. 
Zurich.—Covered beds, complete, cost 120 francs per 
square metre of filtering surface (about $2.25. per square 
foot, or $98,000 per acre). The uncovered beds, previously 
in use, cost two-thirds of this sum. 
Hamburg.—The new filters are all open, and cost 33 
marks per square metre of sand-surface (about 70 cents per 
square foot, or $30,500 per acre). 
Berlin.—The covered filters cost $70,000 per acre, and 
the open ones about two-thirds that sum. Lindley gives 
a general estimate for the continental filters, as follows: 
Open, $45,000 per acre; covered, $68,000.* 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y.—The two (uncovered) beds cost to- 
gether (in 1870) $75,694, which is at a rate of $112,641 per 
acre, including price of land. 
Hudson, N. Y.—The plant consists of two filter-beds, one 
of 9071 square feet sand-surface, built in 1874, and one of 
23,017 square feet surface, built in 1888. The initial cost 
of the smaller bed, together with the dear-water reservoir, 
was $37,450. The newer and larger filter was built for 
$17,350—the much lower figure for the second filter being 
accounted for by the partial preparation of its site at the 
time of the earlier construction. 
* See also Engineering News, Aug. 16, 1894. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
Ill 
Ilion, N. Y.—The beds are small, of 3040 square feet 
each in sand-area. The detailed cost is here given: 
170 cli. yds. ashlar masonry @ $10.00 $1700 
332 “ “ rubble “ “ 5.50 1826 
240 “ “ concrete “ 5.00 1200 
no “ “ filtering gravel “ 1.50 165 
551 “ “ “ sand “ 1.50 827 
900 “ “ embankment “ • .32 288 
32.3 M brick, laid dry “ 8.00 258 
11.8 “ “ “ in cement., “ 12.50 148 
431 lin. ft. cut coping, 6 X 30 in “ 1.25 539 
176 “ “ “ “ 4 X 12 in “ .35 61 
247 sq. ft. 6-in. Hudson R. bluestone flagging. “ .40 99 
Total $7111 
This is at a rate per acre of $101,900. 
These figures do not include sedimentation basins, which 
are essential in all cases where the water to be filtered is 
materially turbid. These basins need not be of great size. 
Storage sufficient to equal the twenty-four hours’ supply is 
quite enough, for in that time the great bulk of suspended 
material will settle, and the balance can be economically 
removed by the filter. Where no settlement is permitted 
before running a turbid water upon the filter, an unneces- 
sarily rapid clogging of the sand results, with consequent 
increase in frequency of cleanings. 
The method of underdraining these Ilion beds is the 
same as that in use on some of the newer London plants, 
and “ consists of two courses of brick laid dry, the bottom 
course being of brick laid end to end, in lines at right angles 
to the main collecting drain, with spaces equal to the width 
of a brick between the lines; a second course of brick being 
laid at right angles to the first, and as closely as possible.” 112 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Very excellent drainage is thus secured, upon a plan operat- 
ing similarly to the agricultural tile-pipe already mentioned. 
When a battery of several filters is under construction, 
it is very desirable that the separate beds be so arranged 
as to permit of the flow being watched from each one indi- 
vidually, otherwise the general filtrate might be damaged 
by the poor working of a single member of the group, and 
no means would exist of detecting and remedying the evil. 
An interesting table, illustrating this point, is given on 
page 134. 
An important departure from the established type of 
open filter-beds has recently been made at Lawrence, Mass., 
after a design, furnished by Mr. H. F. Mills, which takes 
advantage of the benefits derived from intermittent filtra- 
tion. The area of the bed in question is 2% acres and its 
proposed daily capacity is 5,000,000 U. S. gallons. 
In this plant, both the bottom of the containing reser- 
voir and the surface of the filtering sand have transverse 
ridges, notably higher than the depressions between them: 
the ridges of the bottom corresponding to the depressions 
of the sand-surface. The water is admitted along the de- 
pressions in the sand-surface, in concrete gutters laid for a 
short distance thereon, and gradually overflows the surface 
until the sand-ridges are covered by a foot. 
The underdrains are of tile-pipe, laid with open joints, 
and covered with graded coarse materials. The filtered 
water is pumped to the consumers, and the running of the 
pumps and the opening or closing of the inlet are so ar- 
ranged as to permit of the filtering-sand being entirely 
drained once in each twenty-four hours, whereby thorough 
aeration is secured.* The cost of the filter has been about 
$67,000. 
* Excellent as are the results reported from the Lawrence filter, it is very 
questionable if they be better than those to be obtained by continuous filtration. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
The following is the latest report of its efficiency: 
Unfiltered. Filtered. 
December, 1894.. 23,800 364 
January, 1895 18,700 206 
February, “ 15,040 283 
March, “ 20,770 405 
April, “ 8,420 84 
Average 17,350 268 
Bacteria per cubic centimetre. 
Average per cent of bacteria removed 98.46 
The depths of water permitted upon filters of the Eng- 
lish type are almost as various as the compositions of the 
beds themselves, as is illustrated by the diagram on page 
114* , 
Three and a half to four feet of water may be taken as 
the depth most commonly in use, and it is important that 
this depth, when once determined upon, should be main- 
tained a constant. At Hudson, N. Y., the head of water 
varies exceedingly, running from a few inches to over six 
feet. Such inequality as must result in the rate of filtration 
cannot but cause wide differences in the purity of the filtrate. 
With many of the more modern filters the rate of de- 
livery of filtered water is independent of the depth of water 
on the sand, being controlled by an effluent regulator, an 
excellent form of which was devised by Lindley for the 
Warsaw works, and is shown on page 115. The outflow takes 
place through the horizontal slits under a head which is 
maintained constant by means of the floats attached to the 
upper end of the cylinder which telescopes the fixed outlet. 
Aeration of the bed, so essential when treating sewage, is hardly necessary 
when dealing with water, which carries in solution enough oxygen to do all the 
work required. TER-SUP PL V. 
COMPOSITION OF FILTER-BED, AND DEPTH OF WATER (iN METRES) FOR SUNDRY 
GERMAN CITIES. (KUMMEL.) ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
EFFLUENT REGULATOR. (LINDLEY.) 
VARIATION IN HOURLY CONSUMPTION OF WATER AT BERLIN, STATED IN CUBIC 
METRES. (FRANKEL). 116 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
By use of some such device as Lindley’s, associated 
with a simple overflow-pipe to correct errors from too deep 
flooding of the bed, constancy in rate of filtration can be 
assured, a point of material importance in the proper man- 
agement of a filter. 
Of course, inasmuch as no city uses a constant quantity 
of water during each hour of the twenty-four, it becomes nec- 
essary, in order to permit the filtration to go on with regu- 
larity, to provide a pure-water reservoir large enough to 
store the filtered water accumulating during the hours of 
the night, and from which may be furnished the supply 
required during the day, when the rate of filtration is not 
equal to that of consumption. 
To show how the hourly consumption may vary in a 
large city, the diagram on page 115, taken from a recent 
report, indicates the variation for the city of Berlin. 
Considerable difference is noted as to the amounts of 
water permitted to pass the sand during twenty-four hours, 
as is shown by the table given below, representing the de- 
livery of some well-known European beds: 
RATES OF FILTRATION.* 
U. S. Gallons per 
acre per day. 
U. S. Gallons per 
square foot per day. 
Vertical Inches 
per hour 
3,179,880 
13,895,640 
j 7,492,000 to 
( 10,672,000 
2,134,440 
2,613,525 
2,613,525 
2,178,000 
1,655,280 
2,570,000 
2,700,700 
2,570,000 
1,873,000 
1,655,280 
73i 
319 
172 to 245 
49 
60 
60 
<Jo 
38 
59 
62 
59 
43 
38 
5-0 
21.3 
11.5 to 16.4 
3-3 
4.0 
4.0 
3-3 
2-5 
4.0 
4.1 
4.0 
2-7 
2-5 
Stuttgart 
West Middlesex 
* The Massachusetts experiment station reports the following average per ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
117 
The best practice places two and a half million U. S. 
gallons per acre per day, or four vertical inches per hour, as 
the limit, beyond which the rate should not be pushed.* 
By direction of the Imperial Board of Health, the maxi- 
mum rate of filtration has been fixed in Germany at 4 inches 
per hour (i.e., 8 feet per day, or 60 gallons per square foot 
of surface). 
Mr. Bertschinger reports that at Zurich the rate of filtra- 
tion varies from 9 to 44 feet per day. 
In very carefully conducted experiments Kiimmel, of Al- 
tona, found that the number of bacteria per cubic centimetre, 
while the filter was passing 4,8, and 16 feet per day, was: 
At 4 feet per day ntc>97 
“ 8 “ “ “ 5 “ 79 
“ 16 “ “ “ 7 “ 72 
centage of bacteria remaining in the filtrate, when filtration is conducted at the 
following rates: 
0.5 million gallons per acre daily 0.010 per cent bacteria remain 
1.0 “ “ “ “ “ 0.048 “ “ “ “ 
1.5 “ “ “ “ “ 0 067 “ “ “ “ 
2.0 “ “ “ “ “ 0.088 “ “ “ 
3.0 “ “ “ “ “ 0.356 “ “ ‘ “ 
Recent experiments at Lawrence have resulted in the following very high 
rates of duty for the sewage-filters : “ Briefly stated, they find that by running 
the sewage through 5 feet of gravel the size of buckshot, through which a cur- 
rent of air is passing, and then turning the sewage upon the sand-filter, a com- 
bined rate of filtration for the gravel and sand of 320,000 gallons per acre per 
day was secured, and this with a very perfect purification, 95.5 per cent of the 
organic matter and 99.S per cent of the bacteria being removed. It is notable 
that fully three fourths of the organic matter was removed in the gravel tank.” 
—Engineering News, Nov. 29, 1894. 
* The necessity of limiting the daily delivery of a filter to the above quantity 
is questioned by the Massachusetts Board of Health in an investigation just 
published. They find that while such a rate is proper for new filters, a much 
higher delivery may be assigned to those which have been in service during a 
long period, “ Owing apparently to a more extended accumulation of gelatinous 
films within the main body of the filtering material.” There may be conceived 
to exist “ a necessary period of biological or chemical construction as truly as 
the more obvious case of a necessary period of engineering construction.” 
{Mass. Bd. Health, 1894, 609.) s 118 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
In consequence, although he accepts the dictum of the 
board of health, he considers the question of the proper rate 
of filtration as not entirely closed. 
For the purpose of cleaning a filter of the English type, 
a gang of laborers is set to work upon the drained bed, and 
by means of sharp shovels they pare off the upper half inch 
of sand and pile the same into small heaps, whence it is 
removed by wheelbarrows to the sand-washer. This thin 
upper layer of sand (the Schmutzdecke of the Germans) con- 
tains the material separated from the water by filtration. It 
is quite compact, and is so distinctly separated from the sand 
below as to make the work of its removal very simple. It 
is liable to be quite membranous in character, and its imper- 
viousness to water is what causes the filter to become 
“ dead ” and require cleaning. 
Beyond the mere gradual accumulation of suspended 
matter strained from the water, the claim is made that the 
Schmutzdecke is in part composed of slimy, jelly-like material, 
produced through bacterial agency, which serves to entangle 
and hold suspended substances of all kinds. As we shall see 
further on, the makers of the automatic filters attempt to 
imitate such action by the use of alum. 
The frequency with which the filters have to be cleaned 
depends upon the condition of the water being filtered, and, 
for the same water, the condition will vary greatly with the 
time of year and character of the season. Thus, the London 
beds experience difficulty from March to July, becoming 
during those months quickly clogged with fish-spawn, which 
arrests filtration, and at times renders it necessary to remove 
the water from the top of the filter before the obstruction 
can be taken off with rake and shovel. 
From July until October another difficulty, scarcely less ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
119 
serious, is the growth of vegetation, which begins upon the 
bottom. 
Roughly stated, it may be said that a filter becomes 
“ dead ” (i.e., nearly impervious to water), and consequently 
demands cleaning, once every three or four weeks in summer 
and about half as frequently in winter; but it is not possible 
to lay down hard and fast general rules applicable to all 
filters. So many variable quantities enter the consideration, 
that the question of proper time for scraping must be an- 
swered for each filter by itself, basing decision upon intelli- 
gent observation of the number of bacteria removed, the rate 
of flow, and the obvious general efficiency. 
It is not customary, nor desirable, to have the newly 
scraped filter remain out of service until the sand removed 
is washed and returned to its place; for the fine sand-layer 
should be thick enough to permit of a number of successive 
scrapings without impairment of its efficiency; therefore the 
sand taken off during a series of parings is all washed and 
returned at one time.* 
As already stated (page 100), the upper sand-layer must 
not be reduced below a thickness of twelve inches by these 
successive scrapings, and it is better to stop much short of 
this limit. 
Considerable variation is found among the methods em- 
ployed to accomplish the cleaning of the dirty sand—from the 
refined system in use at Liverpool to the comparatively 
simple and less efficient process employed at London. At 
the latter place, washing is undertaken by the use of a simple 
hose played upon the sandheap, suitable inclined drains 
carrying off the wash-water. At Liverpool and other places 
* Lawrence experiments show that the best practice is to build a filter with 
so deep a sand-layer as to permit the successive scrapings to cover a period of 
a year before renewal with clean sand. Otherwise there is a tendency for fine 
material to form sub-surface clogging at the junction of the old and the clean 
sand. (Mass. Bd. Health, 1894.) CLEANING LONDON FILTER-BEDS. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
rotary sand-washers scour and clean the sand with great 
thoroughness. 
At Hudson, N. Y., the new filter was built with an ar- 
rangement by which the water from the pumping-engines 
could be delivered at the bottom of the bed, if so desired, 
and forced upward through the filtering-materials. It was 
hoped to thus float off the “dirt-cover” from the upper 
sand, and thereby save labor in cleaning. 
After a thorough trial the method was pronounced a 
failure, and abandoned. But even had the dirt-layer been 
successfully floated off, this mode of procedure would have 
been a very questionable one; for the water introduced into 
the lower levels of the bed by the reversed current was un- 
filtered, and must shortly have polluted the filtering materials; 
and even had the water been pure, the delivery of it, direct 
from the force main, would certainly have tended to the 
formation of channel-ways in the sand, a result very fatal to 
good filtration. 
The cost of cleaning a filter and washing the removed 
sand depends upon the plan adopted for the latter work, 
and upon the local price of labor. 
The following figures give the cost for cleaning per million 
U. S. gallons of water filtered: 
London $0.86 
Liverpool 1.14 
Ilion, N. Y 0.82 
Hudson, N. Y 0.88 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y.* 2.78 
* The statement of the present superintendent is : “ For the thirteen years 
that these beds have been under my supervision, 1881 to 1893, inclusive, the 
total expenditures for all purposes including repairs, purchase of new sand, 
cleaning beds, and washing sand have been $22,715. During this period 
7,716,997,902 gallons of filtered water were pumped to the city, giving a total 
average expenditure of $2.94 per million gallons.” This is, of course, exclusive 
of interest charges. 122 
WA TEP-SUPPL Y. 
The fairest of the above figures is that for Liverpool, in- 
asmuch as the American plants named are but very small 
ones; but it must be remembered that some correction is 
proper, to allow for the difference in price of labor before 
comparison is made. In Liverpool the laborer receives 95 
cents per day, as against $1.50 paid at Hudson, N. Y. The 
Liverpool sand-washing is very carefully and completely 
done. 
Outside of the interest items upon price of plant and 
price of needed land, there is not much beyond the cost of 
cleaning to charge against filtration, because the question of 
fixed salaries would enter into the water-works expense bill 
in pretty nearly the same figures whether a filter-plant were 
established or not. Charge for maintenance of pumps would 
naturally be excluded from filtration charges. 
The cost of running the new filters at Hamburg, Ger- 
many, is twenty-one marks (about $5) Per million U. S. 
gallons filtered water. This sum, however, includes pump- 
ing and pump repairs. 
The cost of operating the filters (covered and open) at 
Zurich, Switzerland, per million U. S. gallons of water de- 
livered, has been given by Preller as follows:* 
Covered. Open. 
Superintendence $0.15 0.19 
Cleansing and replenishing sand 0.16 0.28 
Breaking ice 0.03 
Renewing filtering material 0.17 0.31 
Maintenance, intake and mains 0.08 0.09 
Repairs and sundries 0.03 0.04 
6$ interest and sinking fund 5-47 5*79 
6.06 6.73 
The relative yield per acre per day 
in U. S. gallons is given as...,... 7,800,000 6,500,000 
* Proc. Inst. C. E., cxi. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
123 
These rates of filtration are very high, but are often 
exceeded by these same filters. (See page 116.) As a 
consequence, the cost of the water per million gallons is 
lowered. 
Before consenting to the large outlay of funds required 
for filtration by the English filter-bed system, the tax-payer 
very properly asks what efficiency may be looked for from 
such a construction. 
The best answer to this question is to quote the recorded 
duties of some existing plants. 
At Hudson, N. Y., the author found the following results 
from samples taken May 12, 1894. Results are stated in 
parts per million: 
Filtered. Unfiltered. 
Free ammonia 014 .070 
Albuminoid ammonia 106 .140 
“ Required oxygen ” (Kubel) 4.100 6.500 
Chlorine 3.000 3.000 
Nitrogen in nitrites zero trace 
Nitrogen in nitrates 100 .100 
Total solids (dried at 2120 F.) 80.500 83.500 
Loss on ignition 34.000 37.500 
Bacteria per cubic centimetre 57 787 
Bacteria removed by filtration 92.76 per cent 
The bed at the above date was evidently not doing its 
best work, in view of the lack of increase in the nitrates. As 
has already been noticed (page 113) this filter is run with con- 
siderable lack of uniformity. 
Percy Frankland reports that, as an average result for 124 
WA TER-S UP PL Y. 
three years, the London filters removed 97.6 per cent of the 
bacteria present in the unfiltered water.* 
The London official report for August, 1895, is: 
Unfiltered 1720 
Filtered.. 34 
Bacteria removed 98.03 per cent 
As an illustration of the efficiency of the Stuttgart filters, 
the following counts are given of the number of bacteria per 
cubic centimetre in the filtered and unfiltered Neckar water: 
August. 
September. 
October. 
November. 
December. 
8942 
16 
O.17 
1310 
52 
3-9 
918 
54 
5-9 
2712 
517 
19.1 
3462 
53 
1-5 
In examining these figures it would appear to be in a 
measure true that the percentage of purification varied di- 
rectly as the extent of original contamination, and our 
* During the year 1888 the efficiency of the filters running on Thames water 
stood as follows : 
c 
a 
Feb. 
Mar. 
April. 
sA 
cU 
s 
June. 
>> 
3 
bib 
3 
a 
<v 
(/) 
O 
O 
> 
O 
£ 
Dec. 
Average. 
Thames, unfiltered 
Chelsea 
Middlesex 
Southwark 
Grand Junction 
Lambeth 
92000 
T27 
60 
177 
90 
189 
40000 
152 
146 
766 
349 
820 
66000 
54 
408 
742 
617 
321 
13000 
38 
158 
47 
56 
I57 
1900 
43 
71 
47 
77 
64 
3500 
63 
56 
24 
40 
140 
1070 
37 
27 
35 
*5 
55 
3000 
32 
11 
27 
4 
33 
1740 
36 
26 
106 
20 
92 
1130 
14 
33 
35 
16 
27 
11700 
82 
31 
167 
25 
126 
10600 
71 
16 
136 
208 
151 
62 
88 
192 
126 
181 
Reduction, per cent.. 
99-9 
98.9 
99.4 
99-3 
96.8 
4070 
98.1 
7625 
96.8 
99-3 
96.8 
97.8 
99-3 
98.9 
98.4 
London Water 
in general for 
1895. 
Fil- Unfil- 
tered. tered. 
7334 
9236 
9J75 
3425 
1720 
2432 
2603 
— 
44 
4i 
46 
18 
19 
3° 
34 
62 
68 ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
125 
thoughts at once revert to what is claimed for the influence 
of “ bacterial jelly” (page 118) in arresting the passage of 
germs.* At least such figures support Koch’s view that a 
well-managed filter should deliver a filtrate containing less 
than one hundred germs per cubic centimetre, irrespective 
of the number in the unfiltered water. 
No better illustration can be given of what sand-filtration 
is capable of accomplishing than is presented by the record 
of the ten filters at Altona, Germany, during the month of 
February, 1893. The average number of germs per cubic 
centimetre in the raw Elbe water for that month was 28,667, 
whilst the corresponding average for the filtered water was 
only 90; showing a removal, by filtration, of 99.69 per cent 
of germs of all kinds. 
What this removal meant for the city of Altona, during 
the cholera outbreak at Hamburg in 1892, has already been 
touched upon (page 55) and may be epitomized in a single 
word—“ safety. ” 
The filter at Lawrence, Mass., belongs to a class of its 
own, and, by its intermittent action, seeks to derive a large 
fraction of its efficiency from a thorough development of the 
nitrifying organism within the bed, and thus burn the organic 
nitro materials to nitrates. A record of its work may be 
suitably given here, and best in the words of H. F. Mills, its 
designer: 
“ The removal of bacteria is not merely a straining proc- 
ess; it is accomplished by making conditions unfavorable to 
the life of bacteria in the passage through the filter, which 
conditions grow with the proper use of the filter. In the 
* Piefke, of Berlin, showed that sterilized sand possessed no power of 
removing bacteria from water, and that the important factor in efficient filtra- 
tion is the coating of slime which gradually envelopes each individual sand 
grain, and forms an adhesive surface. In this connection see also Mass. Bd. 
Health, 1890, 848. 126 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
first three days 75 per cent of the number of bacteria applied 
came through the filter. In the next three days 30 per cent 
came through, but in the first week in October only 4 per 
cent came through, and in the next week 2 per cent; that 
is, during the first three weeks’ use the number of bacteria 
in the effluent rapidly decreased to 2 per cent of the number 
applied, and from that time to the present, excepting on 
two occasions, when work on the filter or in the pump-well 
interfered with the results, the effluent from the filter has 
contained 1.7 per cent of the number of bacteria contained 
in the river-water, the filter having removed 98.3 per cent 
of all the bacteria in the water applied to it. 
“ But the result given to the people is better than this. 
It appears that with the removal of those parts of the 
organic matter that are easily oxidized, the food material 
of the bacteria has been removed, and as the water flows 
on through the reservoir and through the pipes,* the con- 
ditions of life are still unfavorable for the bacteria, and 
they go on decreasing, so that the numbers found at the 
outlet of the reservoir are but 1.2 per cent of the num- 
bers in the river-water ; and at the tap in the City Hall 
the numbers of bacteria found are but nine-tenths of one 
per cent of the numbers in the river-water. More than 
99 per cent of all of the bacteria of the river-water has been 
removed. 
In the following table are given the average results of the 
analyses of chemical samples and of corresponding bacterial 
samples, collected from different parts of the Lawrence water- 
works, from October 13, 1893, when the filtered water had 
apparently reached all points in the service pipes, to De- 
cember 15 : 
* This favorable influence of the mains of a city is referred to again upon 
another page. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER, 
127 
Ammonia. 
Chloiine. 
Nitrogen as 
Oxygen Consumed. 
Bacteria per Cubic 
Centimetre. 
Per Cent of Bac- 
teria Removed. 
6 
u 
£ 
T3 
‘0 
a 
B 
3 
< 
Nitrates. 
Nitrites. 
.084 
.202 
2.2 
.14 
• 003 
3-9 
14,000 
Effluent from filter 
.068 
.109 
2.2 
•31 
.005 
2.8 
258 
98.16 
Reservoir outlet 
•033 
.133 
2-3 
•27 
.OOI 
2.7 
“3 
99.19 
City Hall tap 
.023 
.122 
2.3 
•30 
.OOO 
2.5 
87 
99-38 
Experiment Station tap... 
.019 
.110 
2.2 
•31 
.OOO 
2.3 
93 
99-34 
[Parts per 1,000,000.] 
How Lawrence has benefited by the action of this filter 
may be judged from the fact “ that the mortality from 
typhoid fever has, during the use of the filter, been reduced 
to 40 per cent of the former mortality, and that the cases 
forming nearly one half of this 40 per cent were undoubtedly 
due to the continued use of unfiltered river-water drawn 
from the canals.” 
In referring to the action of the Lawrence filter, Mr. 
Mills says: 
“ The question may arise, if water contains so much air 
why does not nitrification take place in a reservoir ? The 
reason is that nitrification will not take place unless the water 
with the air comes in contact with certain bacteria, which in 
some unknown way cause the process to be carried on. These 
bacteria attach themselves to the grains of sand of the filter 
and remain there, and when air is present they can in a short 
time cause the nitrifying process to be carried on so com- 
pletely that nearly all of the organic matter in the water is 
burnt up, and with this burning the disease germs in the 
water are killed.” * 
* In the experimental filtration of sewage at Lawrence, through sand, it 
was found that nitrification did not begin until the temperature of the effluent 
(in winter) rose to 39° F., but that after nitrification was once established a 128 
WA 'TEA'-SUP PL Y. 
The thoroughness with which nitrification, and conse- 
quent purification, can be accomplished, by filtration through 
shallow beds of even very coarse material, has been perfectly 
worked out and demonstrated by the admirable investigations 
of the Massachusetts experiment station, and one important 
point elucidated is that a small amount of oxygen (1 to 3 
per cent) in the air of the filter is as effective as a larger 
quantity. 
It would be impossible here to devote space to a proper 
recounting of the valuable work of the Massachusetts State 
Board of Health upon the subject of filtration, but a few 
words from a report of G. W. Fuller, one of the bacteriolo- 
gists in charge, will give an idea of the efficiency with which 
bacteria may be removed by five feet of filtering-material in- 
telligently managed: 
“ The actual efficiency of the filters was tested by the 
application of typhoid fever germs and other important 
kinds of bacteria, and observations on their passage through 
the filters. The pure cultures of the micro-organisms were 
grown in dilute bouillon solutions. Twenty-five or fifty 
cubic centimetres of these solutions, containing millions of 
germs, were applied to the filters in a small quantity of 
water, and the effluent was examined at frequent intervals 
for several days. Fifty-five such experiments were made 
during the first five months of 1892, with these average 
results: 
reduction of temperature to 350 F. did not stop the process. Also, that bacteria 
decreased rapidly when nitrification commenced. 
The presence of soil, as was formerly supposed, is not necessary to a good 
filter, in fact, it may act disadvantageously. Sand alone has been found to give 
excellent results. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF IVA 'TER. 
129 
Number of filters tested 11 
Number of experiments with typhoid-fever germs • 22 
Number of experiments with B.prodigiosus 19 
Number of experiments with B. coli communis 14 
Average rate of filtration, gallons per acre, daily.. 1,350,000 
Number of bacterial determinations 914 
Average number of bacteria per cubic centimetre 
applied 104,200 
Per cent removed 99-48 
[The extreme limits in the rates of filtration in the 
several experiments were 280,000 and 2,600,000 gallons per 
acre, daily.] 
“ These experiments were very severe tests upon the 
efficiency of the filters in removing bacteria, because the 
number applied was probably greater than would occur in 
practice, and furthermore the organic matter introduced with 
the bacteria served them as a food material. The experi- 
ments made during the latter portion of the year are much 
fairer, because the bacteria were applied in small and long- 
continued doses at frequent intervals, and the food material 
applied with them did not increase the organic matter in the 
river-water beyond the limits of variation observed from 
time to time in the amount originally present. The species 
of bacteria used was B. prodigiosus, on account of its easy 
and reliable differentiation, its similarity to the typhoid 
fever germ in its mode of life in Merrimac River water, and 
the fact that it has never been found native in this country. 
In the following table are summarized the average results of 
daily experiments from September 16 to December 31, 1892 : 
Number of filters experimented upon u 
Number of bacterial determinations 2,372 
Rate of filtration, gallons per acre, daily 1,700,000 
Average number of B. prodigiosus per cubic cen- 
timetre applied 5,700 
Per cent removed 99.87.” 130 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
With reference to the portions of the filter doing the 
greatest duty in germ removal, the Lawrence experiments 
show the following numbers of bacteria found in a grain of 
sand at successive depths: 
Depth from Surface. 
i inch 
A “ 
Bacteria per Grain of Sand. 
i 
u 
140,000 
2 
a 
4 
a 
6 
66 
The filters here referred to were small ones constructed 
for experiment. Among the interesting records of their 
achievements, it is especially worthy of note that but very 
few of the typhoid germs, applied to them in the form of 
pure cultures diluted with water, were able to pass into the 
filtrate, and that in many cases the effluent was entirely free 
of the specific organism, as is shown below: 
Material of Filter.* 
Size of Sand in 
Millimetres, 
Ten per cent finer 
than 
Rate of Filtra- 
tion, U. S. Gal- 
lons per acre, 
daily. 
Per cent of 
Applied 
Typhoid Germs 
Removed. 
Kind of 
Filtration. 
Sand 
(feet) 
Loam 
(inches) 
5i 
O 
.48 
(coarse mortar-sand) 
980,000 
99-95 
Intermittent. 
1,000,000 
99.00 
‘ ‘ 
< < 
l t 
.26 
860,000 
99.90 
lt 
5 
2 
340,000 
100 
< i 
< t 
320,280 
100 
< 6 
4 t 
< < 
< ( 
280,000 
100 
“ 
4 < 
ti 
it 
460,000 
100 
Continuous. 
(i 
< t 
400,000 
100 
< < 
400,000 
100 
5 
X 
.19 
1,560,000 
100 
Intermittent. 
« < 
« < 
* ( 
2,140,000 
100 
“ 
< ( 
« « 
t t 
2,740,000 
98.40 
“ 
it 
1,540,000 
99.84 
* * 
5 
I 
.19 
1,540,000 
100 
Continuous. 
4 < 
< < 
2,100,000 
97.22 
4 < 
« 
I. 540,000 
99.86 
“ 
5 
o 
.19 
1,540,000 
100 
» < 
2 
o 
.19 
1,500,000 
99.16 
it 
I 
o 
.19 
1,540,000 
99. eo 
“ 
I 
I 
.19 
1,480,000 
98.44 
‘ 1 
* The filters here studied were of an experimental type only. For practical ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
131 
Upon these results the report from which they are de- 
rived comments: “ Deeper filters are much safer than shallow 
ones'; low rates are safer than high rates; and, at the same 
average rates, continuous is quite as effective as intermittent 
filtration for the removal of bacteria.” More recent inves- 
tigations were made by the board in 1893, upon the efficiency 
of much coarser material, permitting a much higher rate of 
filtration. Some of the results are here given: 
Average Per Cent of Applied 
Depth of 
Sand. 
(Inches.) 
Average Rate of 
Bacteria which Appeared 
Method of Operation. 
Filtration. 
(Gallons per Acre, 
Daily) 
in the Effluent. 
Water Bacteria. 
B. Prodigiosus 
6o 
Continuous. 
7,660,000 
1.48 
O. 171 
6o 
“ 
7,700,000 
1.19 
O.I48 
6o 
Intermittent. 
j 3,740,000 
( [6,545,000]* 
1.50 
0.210 
12 
Continuous. 
3,700,000 
2.34 
o-337 
60 
Intermittent. 
j 3,660,000 
( [6,405,000]* 
3-i3 
0.463 
6o 
(t 
i 2,900,000 
] [5,075.000]* 
1.83 
0.366 
60 
Continuous. 
5,550,000 
1.04 
0.183 
As an interesting illustration of the purifying powers of 
sand-filters, the following comparisons are made between the 
waters of wells actually in use at Lawrence and the effluents 
from filters filtering city sewage.f 
purposes it is very unadvisable to place fine material, such as loam, below the 
surface. Clogging is sure to result in a location difficult to reach, and the filter 
eventually passes out of service. 
* The rates of filtration enclosed within the brackets are for the time when 
water was actually applied ; the other rates are averages for the whole time, 
including the periods of rest. 
f Mass. Board Health, 1890 [2], 599. 132 
WA TEK-S UPPL Y. 
In Parts per million. 
Bacteria per 
Cubic Centimetre 
Free 
Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
Chlorine. 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrates. 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrites. 
Tank i, for two months 
•313 
1 
.272 
48.3 
17.8 
.008 
549 
Well-water, Atlantic Street 
1.410 
• 155 
80.8 
23-7 
.024 
4370 
Tank 13, for six months 
.011 
.105 
72.8 
12.5 
.004 
76 
Well-water, Hampshire Street 
.078 
.118 
75-i 
20 0 
.007 
128 
Tank 6, for three months 
.036 
.104 
49.8 
16.6 
.002 
678 
Well-water, Andover Street 
.184 
.046 
27.9 
15.0 
.0:8 
46 
Tank 4, for two months 
.025 
.108 
37-2 
7-5 
.002 
20 
Well-water, Salem Street 
.070 
.086 
76.7 
14.0 
.014 
447 
Tank 2, for four months 
.007 
.065 
39-8 
7-i 
.OOO 
17 
Well-water, Lowell Street 
.012 
.070 
71.1 
21.0 
.OOO 
27 
Tank 7, eight months 
.014 
.063 
40.4 
10.6 
.OOO 
7 
Well-water, Haverhill Street 
.022 
.050 
24.4 
5-5 
.016 
344 
Tank 6, for six months 
.014 
.074 
45-r 
11.1 
.OOI 
319 
Well-water, Mechanic Street.. .... 
• Ol6 
.076 
52-9 
42.0 
.OOO 
240 
The sewage effluents are certainly at least as good for 
potable use as some of the above waters. 
Very marked influence was noted at Altona, upon the 
germ contents of the filtered water, as a result of scraping 
the bed of its “dirt-layer.” (See table on page 134.) 
The table gives the daily performance of the Altona 
filters during February, 1893, and suggests the wisdom 
of the policy, in vogue at various places upon the continent, 
of wasting the filtrate for a time, immediately after cleaning 
the filter. 
The necessity for this waste, as indicated by the Altona 
results, does not accord with the experimental experience 
obtained at the Lawrence experiment station, nor do they 
there find any appreciable diminution in the bacterial effi- 
ciency of the experimental filters due to scraping, provided 
there be no mechanical disturbance of the main body of the 
sand." 
* Mass. Board of Health, 1893. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
133 
NUMBER OF GERMS CONTAINED IN THE WATER OF THE 
ALTONA WATER-WORKS. 
February 
Filter. 
R.W. 
E.W. 
I. 
2. 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 
7- 
8. 
9- 
IO. 
v j 
V 
V. j 
I 
832 
154 
28,520 
2 
88 
212 
550 
908 
142 
35,340 
3 
106 
374 
R. 
76 
636 
no 
40,920 
4 
123 
276 
208 
96 
530 
146 
31,360 
5 
176 
206 
544 
84 
362 
105 
33,480 
6 
418 
306 
401 
82 
334 
68 
39,680 
7 
234 
204 
446 
94 
R. 
94 
41,660 
S 
50 
22 
40 
24 
' 28 
136 
I46 
368 
84 
152 
130 
28,560 
9 
48 
28 
R. 
32 
54 
194 
152 
182 
64 
122 
72 
44,140 
io 
108 
50 
88 
20 
28 
120 
98 
110 
58 
112 
126 
42,160 
11 
68 
60 
76 
78 
36 
140 
R. 
126 
76- 
204 
152 
34,100 
12 
72 
58 
240 
60 
38 
no 
288 
80 
70 
282 
82 
26,040 
13 
34 
30 
560 
48 
28 
82 
214 
186 
86 
374 
104 
24,800 
14 
40 
46 
354 
24 
18 
52 
164 
142 
46 
364 
142 
34,080 
15 
26 
28 
76 
14 
18 
44 
74 
48 
26 
72 
49 
40,260 
]6 
38 
26 
84 
2J. 
22 
52 
76 
60 
R. 
120 
78 
25,420 
17 
20 
36 
156 
R. 
22 
48 
82 
86 
324 
130 
95 
26,400 
18 
26 
18 
102 
54 
32 
54 
112 
72 
82 
126 
91 
26,440 
19 
24 
20 
88 
78 
28 
44 
98 
82 
64 
102 
70 
24,800 
20 
26 
22 
70 
104 
24 
36 
96 
88 
34 
78 
46 
19,840 
21 
20 
14 
80 
68 
R. 
34 
96 
44 
30 
152 
50 
34,720 
22 
34 
R. 
46 
62 
158 
34 
68 
36 
64 
* 
42 
18,250 
23 
46 
246 
52 
66 
138 
46 
56 
54 
72 
174 
68 
14,560 
24 
22 
42 
32 
36 
72 
22 
72 
76 
34 
44 
54 
11,080 
25 
18 
36 
30 
28 
48 
16 
48 
42 
36 
38 
48 
12,360 
26 
M 
20 
24 
21 
34 
12 
40 
36 
28 
34 
32 
9.370 
R. Cleansing of the filters. 
E.W. Elbe water before filtration, 
R.W. Pure water reservoir, 
* Experiment failed. 
Kiimmel, of Altona, fills up the newly-cleaned filter, from 
beneath, with filtered water, to the top of the sand; runs on 
the raw water; lets it stand ten or twelve hours, and then 
starts filtration, with satisfactory results. 
When, however, the filter has had new sand placed upon 
it, the numbers of bacteria in the water have been found as 
follows: 134 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Before filling up 42 
One day after filling up 1880 
Two days “ “ “ 752 
Three “ “ “ “ 208 
Four “ “ “ “ 156 
Five “ “ “ “ 102 
Six “ “ “ “ 84 
He insists upon the necessity of wasting the water for 
several days after such filling.* 
A recent critic of the filter-bed system refers to the re- 
moval, by the bed, of ninety, odd, per cent of all bacteria 
present in the raw London water, and then notes that re- 
duction of the typhoid death-rate has been by no means so 
large. As an explanation of the observed facts, he suggests 
that the small size of the typhoid bacillus prevents its being 
arrested by the filter as easily as its larger companions. 
In reply, it must be said, firstly: Typhoid fever would 
not entirely disappear from London, or any other city, were 
the water-supply absolutely sterile, for the sufficient reason 
that bad water, although a main cause of the disease, is not 
the only one. Secondly: Filtration is very far from being 
a simple straining process; were it so, all bacteria would 
pass the filter with equal facility, for differences between the 
several sizes of these extremely minute objects would be 
small indeed as compared with the spaces between the grains 
of sand. Whatever its size, the bacterium is caught by the 
zooglcea jelly surrounding the grains of sand, or is killed by 
the adverse conditions set up during nitrification, or both. 
For the proper management of a well-constructed filter, 
so as to obtain the good results of which the structure is 
capable, Piefke, of Berlin, insists upon (1st) wasting the fil- 
* See Am. Soc. C. E., xxx, 334. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
135 
trate immediately after each cleaning; (2d) uniformity in 
rate of filtration: (3d) low rate of filtration. 
Beyond these points it would be proper to also require 
a very slow and careful filling of the sand-voids with clean 
water admitted through the underdrains after cleaning has 
been accomplished; for if the water be'passed in hurriedly, 
disturbance of the sand body by the escaping air will as- 
suredly take place, resulting in the passing of bacteria through 
the channel-ways so formed. 
The impure water, after having been run on to the filter, 
should, according to the best German authority, be permitted 
to settle for twenty-four hours, and form a thin film of de- 
posit before the . filtration is resumed. -At the Lawrence 
experiment station doubt has been expressed as to the 
necessity for this delay, but final decision has not been 
reached. 
Especial care should be taken that no freezing of the sand 
take place during the time of cleaning. The difficulty of 
preventing this is, of course, a question involving climate, 
and for very cold countries the only solution of the problem 
is the construction of covered filters. 
Where open filters are in use in Europe, the attendants 
depend upon a careful watching of the weather, and very 
rapid work during cleaning, to prevent freezing. Should 
the sand once become frozen, the difficulty is a serious one, 
for, as was demonstrated at Altona, the water above the sand 
does not thaw the ice nearly as rapidly as one would expect, 
and, moreover, thawing takes place unequally over the surface, 
whereby a discharge of the whole filtrate occurs through only 
a fraction of the bed, with most unsatisfactory results. 
Where the winters are as severe as at Hudson, N. Y., 
cleaning an open filter is often impossible, and the most that 
can be done is to keep the ice-cake floating clear of the sand.* 
* The filter there in use should unquestionably be covered. 136 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
As to the most effective size for filtering-sand, that is 
yet an open question, and is undergoing experimentation, 
although at Hamburg the size claimed as best is that of one 
millimeter (0.04 inch) in diameter of grain.* 
Uniformity in the sand is quite as important as size of 
grain, and especial care should be taken to have this vital 
point carefully secured. 
A modification of the English filter-bed has just been 
proposed to meet the special conditions found at Philadel- 
phia, where the authorities naturally desire to utilize the 
existing concrete-lined reservoirs. The plan offered is to 
partition the reservoirs off into sizes proper /or filters, and 
build upon the floor a suitable supporting rack to hold the 
bed of filtering-materials; the same to consist of a thin bot- 
tom layer of fine gravel, upon which is to rest the usual 
thick layer of filtering-sand. Filtration is to take place up- 
wards, and washing is to be done downwards, the inlet 
for raw water and outlet for waste-water being the same. 
By this arrangement the designer hopes to avoid all compli- 
cations from ice, the ice-cake being permitted to form freely 
and float clear of the sand-bed. 
During washing a current of air is let into the space un- 
derneath rhe bed, with a view to tumble the grains of sand 
and break up the sediment, so as to enable it to pass out 
with the wash-water. 
So far as principle is concerned, there may be little dif- 
ference between upward and downward filtration, but in 
* “That sand presents the conditions most favorable for very complete purifi- 
cation of sewage, the finer 10 per cent of whose grains has diameters equal to 
or less, but not much less, than 0.2 millimetres. 
“ It was found that heating the sand of a filter to 300° F. or more, and pour- 
ing boiling water through it, caused 100 times as many bacteria to pass through 
it with sewage, for three months, as passed through a similar filter whose sand 
and first water had not been heated. This appears to be due to preparing the 
organic matter in the sand and in the water by heat, so that it is a better food 
for the bacteria.” (Mills in Am. Soc. C. E., xxx. 350.) ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF IVA TER, 
137 
practice there would be serious objection to the former plan. 
Much difficulty would be experienced in securing uniformity 
of work over the whole area of the bed, owing to the im- 
possibility of preventing the dirt-layer falling off in spots, 
and it is well known that uniform action is of vital impor- 
tance. It is, moreover, a dangerous practice to foul a filter 
in a place beyond reach of inspection and repair, for there 
is no way of determining whether or not the provided means 
of cleaning are working satisfactorily. The designer is at 
pains to state that the scouring action of the air and reversed 
current of water, during cleaning, cannot disturb the proper 
structure of the bed; but this must be accepted as a doubt- 
ful proposition. 
MECHANICAL FILTRATION. 
Although the rapid filtration of large volumes of water 
(usually under pressure) through very limited sand-areas is 
accomplished by appliances patented and controlled by nu- 
merous companies, yet the use of such apparatus is so nearly 
confined to this side of the Atlantic as to warrant the em- 
ployment of the generic expression “ American Filter Sys- 
tem. 
Roughly outlined, this plan consists in adding to the 
water to be filtered a minute dose of common alum, aver- 
aging between one quarter and one half of a grain per gallon, 
and then admitting the water to the filter, which is a cylin- 
der of wood or boiler iron, three quarters full, of uniformly 
fine sand. The carbonates present in the water decompose 
the alum, with the formation of a white flocculent precipi- 
tate of aluminum hydrate, quite jelly-like in appearance.* 
The action of this aluminum hydrate is much the same as 
* For instance, the carbonate of calcium acts as follows : 
K2A12(S04)4 + 3CaCOa + 3H20 = 3CaS04 + K2S04 + 3C02 + Al2(OH)6. WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
that of the white of egg in clearing coffee. It entangles all 
suspended matter, disease germs as well as inorganic material, 
and deposits the same on the surface of the sand, whence it 
is removed and driven into the waste-pipe by a reverse cur- 
rent of filtered water at the time of cleaning the filter. The 
cleaning occupies but a short time, not much beyond fifteen 
minutes, and can be accomplished by a waste of less than 
ten per cent (usually four per cent) of the daily delivery of 
filtered water. Thus, it is observed, the mechanical filter 
produces an artificial inorganic jelly to replace the “ bacteriae 
jelly” of the English filter-bed, already alluded to on page 
124 and 125. In properly managed filters of this type no 
alum (or, at most, a trace) reaches the filtrate, for only such 
a quantity is admitted to the water as will be decomposed 
by the amount of carbonates present. 
A further action of the precipitated aluminum hydrate is 
to unite with the soluble coloring matter of the water, thereby 
rendering the filtrate colorless. The proper “dose” of 
alum solution is administered by means of a small automatic 
measuring apparatus exterior to the filter.* 
A detailed description of any of the filters under this class 
would hardly be necessary here, especially as such informa- 
tion is to be had so readily, by application to any one of the 
several companies making them; but in place thereof, one 
or two cuts are inserted representing common forms, and the 
general method of operation may be judged therefrom. (See 
pages 140 and 141.) 
The general method of placing these filters in gangs for 
city supply is also worthy of illustration. (See page 142.) 
The illustrations above referred to represent filters operat- 
ing under pressure, and arranged to receive the ‘ ‘ dose ’ ’ of alum 
* It must be understood that the use of alum, or some other suitable coagu- 
lant, is imperative in these filters. Filtration through sand alone, at so high a 
rate, would be but a straining action incapable of efficient removal of bacteria. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
139 
immediately before the filter is reached by the entering water. 
On pages 142 and 143 are given illustrations of a kindred form 
of filter which is open at the top, and which possesses a set- 
tling-tank between the point where the alum reaches the water 
AUTOMATIC PRESSURE-FILTER. 
and the filter proper. The sand-bed in this filter is quite 
shallow, and is stirred up, during the process of cleaning, by 
revolution of the rake shown in the drawing. 
In attempting to give the cost of a large plant for me- 
chanical filtration, it must be remembered that the case is AUTOMATIC PRESSURE-FILTER FILTER-PLANT OF 30 FILTERS, EACH 8 FEET DIAMETER BY 30 FEET LONG 142 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
very different from one involving the building of an English 
fi-lter-bed. In the latter instance the engineering problems 
are chiefly considered, while in the former the item of patent 
and proprietary rights becomes of pronounced importance. 
VIEW OF OPEN FILTER-SHOWING SAND, AGITATOR, AND DRIVING MACHINERY. 
Where a factor of such variable value is introduced into the 
calculation, an outsider can give but an indifferent estimate 
of cost, and it is perhaps best to merely state that any one 
of the several companies building these filters can, if it wish, 
greatly underbid the English system for plants of like ca- 
pacity. Some idea, however, of the cost of this system 
may be obtained from the following report, by Capt. T. W. 
Symons, of the U. S. Engineer Corps, upon the question of PLAN op BATTERY OF OPEN FILTERS, WITH SETTLING-TANK, 144 
IVA TER-S UPPL V. 
filtering the Potomac River water for the supplying of Wash- 
ington, D. C.: 
“ It is estimated that the total cost of everything needed 
to carry into effect the plan proposed will not exceed $600,- 
OOO. This estimate has been arrived at from a careful con- 
sideration of everything necessary to be done, and after 
consultation and correspondence with many engineers and 
manufacturers familiar with the use of water-wheels, centri- 
fugal pumps, etc., and particularly from the estimates fur- 
nished for the filtering-apparatus proper by the filtering com- 
pany consulted. The actual final cost must depend upon 
the terms which can be secured from parties owning the 
patents on the methods and devices which it may be decided 
to adopt. 
“ It is impossible to make a close estimate of the cost of 
each particular part of the plan until all details are decided 
upon. 
“ It is possible that the sum mentioned may be reduced 
when the work comes to be done by inviting such competi- 
tion as the case affords. 
“ The filtering company, after carefully going over the 
whole subject, have expressed a willingness to enter into con- 
tract to do everything required under the most stringent 
guarantees so that the total cost should not exceed the sum 
mentioned. 
“ It seems, therefore, perfectly safe to assume that the 
entire cost for everything required for the filtration of 40,- 
000,000 gallons per day will be covered by the amount of 
$600,000. 
“ This will give sufficient water for a city of 250,000 in- 
habitants, allowing 160 gallons per day per capita, or for a 
city of 300,000 inhabitants, allowing 133 gallons per day per 
capita. 
“ This estimate includes the thorough cleansing of the re- ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
145 
servoir, and making and guarding the connections with the 
reservoir to and from the filters and to the turbines, making 
the turbine-well and outlet-tunnel, putting in the turbines, 
shafting, gearing, belting, pulleys, pumps, aerators, coagu- 
lators, pipe-mains, hydraulic valves, and operating appliances, 
filters, etc.—in fact everything required, with facilities for 
putting in more filters and more pumping power at a small 
additional cost. 
‘‘The total cost per year for maintenance for the filtration 
of 40,000,000 gallons per day is estimated at $18,000, made 
up as follows: 
Attendance $3,000 
Waste of filtering material 1,000 
Painting and repairs 3,000 
Heating, lights, lubricants, etc 2,000 
Coagulants 9,000 
$18,000 
“ The total yearly cost for maintenance would represent, 
if paid entirely by the citizens of the district, an annual ex- 
pense of 8 or 9 cents per capita. 
“ The interest on the entire original cost at 3 per cent 
would under the same supposition represent a further addi- 
tional expense of 8 or 9 cents per capita. 
“ This whole amount of maintenance and interest would 
make the cost per 1,000,000 gallons, on the supposition that 
40,000,000 are used per day, $2.46.” 
As the cleaning of such filters is only a question of the 
occasional turning of valves, the labor item is necessarily 
very low. The repair bill is also small, and the filtering-ma- 
terial does not require frequent renewal. In very cold 
climates the plant must be housed and the temperature 
therein kept above freezing. 
The areas of these filters are so small compared with IVA TEK-S UPPL Y. 
filter-beds that the delivery per square foot of sand-surface 
is relatively very high. For instance, the delivery of me- 
chanical filters proposed for the city of Providence, R. I., 
was to have been at the rate of 128,000,000 gallons per acre 
daily. The following is extracted from a publication by a 
filter company: 
SCHEDULE OF VARIOUS SIZES OF FILTERS. 
Gallons per 
iS • . 
minute. 
Max. 
Gallons 
Test 
a 5? 
br.S.2 
Inlet 
and 
Waste 
Pres- 
ter. 
Height. 
Outlet- 
Pipes. 
West- 
East- 
per 24 
sure per 
£ a« 
pipes. 
ern 
ern. 
Hours. 
Sq. in. 
States. 
+ 
States. 
t/i 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
12 in. 
4 
ft. 6 in. 
t 
in. 
3 
T 
in. 
2 
3 
4,320 
IOO 
273 
300 
16 “ 
4 
“ 6 “ 
1 
1 < 
s 
( t 
3 
5 
7,000 
300 
350 
450 
20 “ 
4 
“ 6 “ 
1 
I 
5 
7 
10 000 
IOO 
400 
700 
24 “ 
5 
* ‘ 
1 i 
I± 
7 
10 
14,400 
IOO 
950 
1,000 
30 “ 
5 
“ 6 “ 
II 
10 
15 
21,500 
IOO 
1,400 
1,475 
36 
5 
“ 6 “ 
14 
< < 
ii 
< ( 
15 
20 
28,800 
IOO 
1,700 
2,000 
40 “ 
5 
“ 6 “ 
2 
2 
20 
3° 
43,250 
IOO 
I,9CO 
2,700 
50 “ 
5 
“ 6 “ 
ai 
2i 
30 
40 
57,600 
IOO 
2,700 
5,000 
5 ft. 
6 
“ 
2i 
< t 
2i 
40 
60 
86,400 
IOO 
3-500 
7,350 
6i “ 
6 
“ 8 “ 
3 
3 
70 
100 
144,000 
IOO 
4,250 
'13,500 
8 “ 
8 
“ 6 “ 
4 
4 
1 ( 
100 
150 
216,000 
IOO 
8,000 
20,000 
10 “ 
8 
“ 6 “ 
6 
«< 
6 
i i 
170 
250 
360,000 
100 
12,000 
31,500 
*8 “ 
20 
ft. long. 
8 
< < 
8 
H 
300 
400 
576,000 
200 
12,000 
54,000 
QUANTITY OF ALUM (IN POUNDS) REQUIRED PER MILLION 
GALLONS OF WATER CALCULATING FROM A TO I 
GRAIN PER GALLON. 
tV gra’n Per gallon 14.2857 
A “ “ “ 28.5714 
A “ “ “ 42.8571 
A “ “ “ 47-1428 
A “ “ “ 714285 
A “ “ “ 85.7142 
A “ “ “ 99-9999 
A “ “ “ 114.2856 
A “ “ “ 128.5715 
1 “ “ “ 142.8572 
* Horizontal. 
f The water in Western States is generally much more turbid than in 
Eastern States. 
These filters can be made to withstand any required pressure up to 200 
pounds, at additional cost for strengthening same. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
147 
When the water is so soft as to be deficient in the neces- 
sary quantity of carbonates to decompose the alum added, 
the bed of ordinary filtering-sand is replaced by a mixture 
of such sand and granulated marble. 
In illustration of the efficiency of mechanical filters, the 
following is extracted from the report of J. J. McKenzie 
upon the duty of the St. Thomas plant: 
“ I have completed the bacteriological examination of the 
samples of St. Thomas city water, and have to report the 
following: 
Sample from well before filtration 45,000 per c.c. 
“ “ tap after “ 90 “ “ 
The analyses on page 148 are extracted from a publication 
of a filter company. 
The same company commonly issues the following guar- 
antee : 
STANDARD OF PURITY 
1st. All odor, color, and impurities in suspension shall be 
removed. 
2d. The free ammonia in the filtered water shall not ex- 
ceed 0.05 part in 1,000,000. 
3d. The albuminoid ammonia shall not exceed o. 1 part 
in 1,000,000. 
4th. No measurable amount of the coagulant, or other 
purifying agent used, shall be left in the filtered water. 
5th. The microbes in the filtered water shall not exceed 
100 colonies per cubic centimetre. 
Nearly akin to the alum-charged filter-plants referred to 
above is a group of appliances in which some form of iron is 
the active agent. 
“ Spongy iron, obtained by the reduction of hematite ore 148 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
Locality 
Bordentown, N. J. 
Long Branch, N. J. 
Somerville, N. J. 
Little Rock, Ark. 
Source of supply.. 
Delaware River. 
Cranberry Creek. 
Raritan River. 
Arkansas River. 
Date 
November 6, 1891. 
July 8, 1892. 
August 15, 1892. 
December 24, 1892. 
Before 
After 
Before 
After 
Before 
After 
Before 
After 
Condition 
Filtration. 
Filtration. 
Filtration. 
Filtration. 
Filtration. 
Filtration. 
Filtration. 
Filtration. 
Color • 
Yellow, 
turbid. 
None. 
Dark 
yellow. 
None. 
Dark 
brown. 
Faint. 
Brown, 
turbid. 
None. 
Taste : 
Flat, 
muddy. 
Pleasant. 
Very 
peaty. 
None. 
Earthy. 
Pleasant. 
Earthy. 
Pleasant. 
Smell 
Like 
taste. 
None. 
Peaty. 
None. 
Earthy. 
None. 
Earthy. 
None. 
Free ammonia, in parts per 1,000,000 
■05 
.015 
1.32 
•035 
•13 
0.52 
.015 
.015 
Albuminoid ammonia.. 
Oxygen required to oxi- 
.21 
• 05 
•445 
.095 
•49 
0.15 
•135 
•035 
dize the organic mat- 
ters 
1.14 
•45 
12.32 
1.785 
6.55 
0-95 
4.0 
.83 
Nitrites .. 
.025 
.0015 
.025 
Nitrates 
.876 
.87 
1.78 
Trace. 
1.13 
1 • l3 
Chlorine 
11.25 
10.75 
3-5 
3-5 
2-5 
1-25 
8.25 
8.25 
Total hardness 
22.5 
22.5 
72.5 
72.5 
60.0 
55-o 
Permanent hardness.... 
10.0 
37-5 
67-5 
12.5 
35-o 
Temporary hardness... 
15- 
15-0 
22.5 
12.5 
35-0 
5-o 
47-5 
20.0 
Total solids 
154.0 
130.6 
95-2 
71.4 
267.2 
159.8 
283.4 
121.4 
Mineral matter 
Organic and volatile 
126.0 
114.6 
52.8 
54-o 
219.4 
127.2 
252.8 
105.6 
28.0 
16.0 
42.4 
Less ti 
No 
17.4 
tan 1. 
ne. 
47.8 
• 5 
• 5 
32.6 
3 
3 
30.6 
2. 
.1 
15.8 
25 
„ , . . , „ (maximum... 
Grains of alum used per gallon j minimum 
.28 \ 
.28 >a 
verage. 
CITY WATER-SUPPLIES, BEFORE AND AFTER FILTRATION. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
149 
at a temperature a little below that of fusion, thereby ren- 
dering the metal porous or spongy in form, was first made 
use of by Bischof, whose process was patented in England in 
1871, though Dr. Medlock had secured a patent in 1857 for 
a process of purification based upon the use of metallic iron 
plates, and Spencer in 1867 introduced a material which he 
called magnetic carbide, in which the active agent was iron. 
The carbonic acid in the water, acting upon the iron in 
one or the other of these forms, produces a ferrous carbon- 
ate, which, by oxidation, yields hydrated ferric oxide, and 
this is believed to effect the oxidation of organic matter and 
serve as a coagulant as w'ell, producing a flocculent precipi- 
tate, which is subsequently separated by sedimentation or 
filtration through sand.” 
“ Anderson’s Process ” is, perhaps, the best known among 
the “iron methods’’ of purification. In this process the 
water is forced through purifiers consisting of iron cylin- 
ders revolving on hollow trunnions which serve for inlet 
and outlet-pipes. On the inner surface of the cylinders 
are curved ledges running lengthwise, w'hich scoop up and 
shower down through the water cast-iron borings or 
punchings, as it flows through the cylinder, so that every 
portion of the water is brought into contact with the 
iron, which is kept constantly bright and clean by attrition. 
The water issuing from the purifiers is exposed to the air, 
by allowing it to flow through a trough, to secure the pre- 
cipitation of the ferric hydrate, and by filtration through 
sand this precipitate is subsequently removed. 
Excellent results are claimed for, and are doubtless pro- 
duced by, the Anderson process, but an additional and ex- 
pensive step is introduced in the item of revolving machin- 
ery, before the water is run upon the sand-filters; and it is 
not proved that this further outlay of capital is necessary, in 
view of the cheapness of some of the other and simple-r meth- 150 
WA TER-S UPPL V. 
“ revolver,” Anderson’s process. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
151 
ods. Moreover, the process will, in some cases, signally fail, 
especially with brown and peaty waters, because of the iron 
forming a soluble compound with the organic matter present. 
Mr. E. Devonshire, who is an advocate of this system of 
purification, places the cost of the plant as follows: The re- 
volving machinery alone, adapted to places already posses- 
sing filters, would be $5,000 per million gallons capacity. 
Where an entire plant is introduced, filters and all, the ex- 
pense would be $20,000 per million gallons flow. He be- 
lieves that the working expenses, exclusive of interest 
charges, would amount to about two dollars per million gal- 
lons filtered water. 
Through the courtesy of Mr. H. Regnard, of the “ Com- 
pagnie Generale des Eaux, ” the writer was given every op- 
portunity to examine the Anderson plant, in operation at 
Boulogne-sur-Seine, and also the larger one under construc- 
tion at Choisy-le-Roi. A plan of the Boulogne installation 
is given herewith. It consists of two “ revolvers ” * (4 feet 
6f inches in diameter and 12 feet io£ inches in length) 
through which the raw Seine water is pumped. The water 
takes three and a half minutes to pass through the “ revol- 
ver, ” after which it is delivered to an “aerator” consisting 
of inclined troughs with step-like obstructions to break the 
current. The greater portion of the insoluble ferric hydrate 
formed in the “ aerator ” is permitted to deposit in the “ de- 
canters ” (i.e., long troughs in which the water passes alter- 
nately under and over the division-walls) and thence the 
water passes to the sand filter-beds. 
Each drum has a capacity for purifying 2500 cubic metres 
(660,000 U. S. gallons) of water in twenty-four hours. Four 
grammes (about 62 grains) of iron are required for the treat- 
ment of one cubic metre (264 gallons) of water. 
*Only one is shown in the illustration. 152 
WA PER-SUPPL Y- 
ANDERSON PROCESS AT BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
153 
The rate at which the water passes the filters is four ver- 
tical metres (about 13 feet) per twenty-four hours. 
The “ Compagnie Generale des Eaux ” has put in a 
number of Anderson plants, and Mr. Regnard states that the 
average original cost, including all charges except price of 
land, is 30 francs ($6) per cubic metre (264 gallons) daily 
capacity. 
The same authority states that the cost of maintenance, 
including all charges, together with salaries and interest on 
cost of plant, but excluding interest on cost of land, averages 
one centime (-£. cent) per cubic metre (264 gallons) of purified 
water. 
The present daily allowance per capita at Boulogne is 
twenty gallons. 
The efficiency of the Boulogne plant has been carefully 
watched by Miquel, and his average results from thirty-one 
examinations made during the year are: 
Raw water 333835. bacteria per c.c. 
Purified water 1755. “ “ “ 
Percentage of removal 99.3 
A friend of the author’s, who is an expert in water mat 
ters, writes: 
“ At Antwerp, while I was there, the Nethe water, after 
churning with iron, was aerated and then allowed to pass into 
a subsiding reservoir. From this it was pumped on to the 
ordinary English sand filter-bed, and filtered at the usual rate 
or a little slower. Mr. Anderson said that by scraping the iron 
precipitate from the surface of these filter-beds with iron chains 
they could somewhat prolong the period of their activity. 
Filtering after subsidence is essential to the iron process. 
As much opportunity for breaking up and deposit of the 
iron must be given as possible, and then the ordinary filtra- 
tion is resorted to. The iron forms a soluble compound with 154 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
certain organic substances, extractive and peaty matters es- 
pecially, and this must pass through the same slow process 
of separation by filtration as is usually resorted to when iron 
is not used. Indeed Easton & Anderson told me that in 
many cases their process could not be used at all when the 
extractive matters were large, and that before deciding to in- 
troduce the process they practiced with a small experimental 
plant. This has been my own experience. With peaty 
waters the soluble iron compound could be taken out by 
alumina, but just as good a purification could be obtained 
by alum alone (and precisely the same amount had to be 
used) as if the iron had not been employed.” 
In an attempt to avoid a supposed excessive expenditure 
of money for the construction of filtering-plants, recourse is 
at times had to infiltration-galleries built along the banks 
FILTER-GALLERY. NICHOLS. 
of a stream, or to a filter-crib sunk in the stream itself. The 
former devices have, in general, proved inadequate when the 
water is derived from the stream, and not from the water ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
155 
flowing toward the stream, owing to the frequent silting up 
of the fine passages through which the water flows. 
Filter-cribs sunk in a quickly-running stream do not easily 
choke with silt, owing to the clearing effects of the current; 
moreover, arrangements are usually provided by which a re- 
verse current can be made to pass through the filtering-walls 
gf the crib from within outwards. 
In either of these two methods for securing a clean water- 
supply there is this objection, however, that the filtering- 
apparatus is beyond daily inspection and out of easy control, 
and may even be beyond repair. This was recently illustrated 
at Florence, Italy, where the filtering-gallery,on the banks of 
the Arno, was materially extended in order to add to the 
city’s diminished supply, when, to the surprise and chagrin 
of all concerned, the quantity of water available was found 
to be even less than it was before. 
The following extract is made from the specifications for 
a filtering-crib at Kensington, Pa., and shows the general 
character of such structures. The crib in question is 200 
feet long, 32 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. It is designed to 
deliver three million gallons daily: 
“ The width and length of the excavation shall be such 
that the crib may be sunk to its proper position on a uniform 
and level bottom, the slopes of the excavation to be such 
as to permit the earth to keep in position without sliding in 
the bottom. 
“The crib shall be built generally of 2 X 8-inch hemlock 
plank, of such length as to break joints. The longitudinal 
rows shall be 4 feet, and the transverse rows 8 feet c. to c. 
Blocks 2X8X8 inches shall be placed between the rows of 
longitudinal pieces. At each intersection or point where one 
plank crosses another, the plank shall be firmly spiked to the 
one below with 5-inch spikes having large heads. On top of 
the crib 2 X 4-inch hemlock shall be placed on edge and spaced 156 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
about two inches apart, to prevent the stone from falling 
into the crib. These 2 x4s shall be secured in their place 
by capping-pieces, all to be firmly spiked together with 
spikes 9 inches long. 
When the crib is ready for sinking, it shall be uniformly 
loaded on the top with stone sufficient in quantity to sink it. 
After the crib has been satisfactorily sunk to its position, 
stones shall be filled about the sides to prevent the gravel 
from working into the crib, and then the hole caused by 
the excavation shall be refilled to lines with selected gravel 
and sand.” 
From the sanitary standpoint, the method for purification 
of water which excels all others in efficiency is distillation. 
The peculiar taste of freshly distilled water is, however, 
disagreeable to many, and for that reason the process is not 
likely to become speedily popular, even if the expense be 
not too great. In a recent paper before the American So- 
ciety of Civil Engineers, Mr. Hill advocated the use of dis- 
tilled water for city supply, and basing his calculation upon 
one million gallons daily, delivered by small separate distri- 
bution-mains, he estimates that the total cost of the water, 
interest charges included, would be one-eighth of a cent 
per gallon, which would be at the rate of $1250 per million 
gallons. 
Distilled water is used for drinking purposes on practi- 
cally every vessel in the United States Navy, and Surgeon- 
General Tryon says: “ It may be stated that the medical 
officers of the navy recognize the great value of distilled 
water in the improvement in health that has followed its in- 
troduction, particularly on certain foreign stations 
The apparatus used upon these vessels is one devised by 
Chief Engineer G, W. Baird and called by his name. An 
especial feature of value is the introduction of the steam into ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
157 
the condenser in such a manner as to drag with it a constant 
and regulated current of air, thereby causing very efficient 
aeration during the very act of condensa- 
tion. By this means and the subsequent 
passage through a bone-black filter, the 
water loses much of the disagreeable taste 
above referred to, and by further standing 
for some 
twelve hours 
the taste en- 
tirely disap- 
pears. 
Plans have 
been recent- 
ly prepared 
for a ioo,- 
ooo - gallon 
plant, of the 
Baird type, 
for use in 
a Western 
town. The 
estimate is 
that 3f gal- 
lons of water 
may be dis- 
tilled with one pound of coal, and that the entire expense for 
labor and fuel would amount to one dollar per thousand gallons 
delivered To this should be added something for inciden- 
tals, and also a further sum for interest on cost of plant. 
Recently a French patent has been taken out for ster- 
ilizing water, and afterwards filtering it, by heating it to 
130° C. (266° F.), under pressure. It is claimed that, inas- 
much as the water, during cooling under pressure, reabsorbs 
BAIRDS CONDENSER. 158 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the gases driven out by the heat, the objectionable taste of 
distilled water is avoided. 
That complete sterilization takes place at the high tem- 
perature attained there can be, of course, no question. 
Even the spores of the now known pathogenic bacteria 
are rapidly destroyed by exposure to the temperature of 
boiling water, although those of certain non-pathogenic 
varieties will resist that temperature for hours. “ In the prac- 
tical application of steam for disinfecting purposes it must 
be remembered that, while steam under pressure is more 
effective than streaming steam, it is scarcely necessary to 
give it the preference, in view of the fact that all known 
pathogenic bacteria and their spores are quickly destroyed 
by the temperature of boiling water; and also that super- 
heated steam is less effective than moist steam. When con- 
fined steam in pipes is ‘ superheated ’ it has about the same 
germicidal power as hot dry air at the same temperature.” 
(Sternberg.) 
Aeration of water has always held in the public mind a 
position of prime importance as a means of purification, and 
there is unquestioned benefit arising from such source, but 
the benefit is not to the extent that is properly believed, 
as will be more fully shown in another chapter. 
Agitation and aeration very effectually prevent the abun- 
dant growth of algae,with their objectionable tastes and smells; 
and undoubted improvement in quality of water results from 
the establishing of a fountain in, or otherwise blowing air 
into, a too-quiet reservoir.* But the expectations of those 
* The aeration of the water of a large storage-reservoir by means of com- 
pressed air, to be furnished from an air-compressor on a small steamboat to 
be placed on the reservoir, is reported as proposed by the Butte City Water- 
works Co., of Butte, Mont. The work will be carried on only during the hot 
weather. It is evidently intended to prevent the development of unpleasant 
odors or tastes in the water, due to stagnation and the growth of large num- 
bers of minute organisms in the water. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
159 
who hope to thus easily eliminate pollution of a more serious 
character will not be realized. 
FOUNTAIN IN RESERVOIR AT ROCHESTER, N. Y., WHEN DISCHARGING AT 
THE RATE OF 3,000,000 GALLONS PER TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. (FROM 
PHOTOGRAPH.) 
So tar as aeration is required to furnish oxygen where- 
with the nitrifying organism can do its work, it has already 
been pointed out that the organism does not suffer any loss 
of its efficiency even though the oxygen be greatly reduced 160 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
in quantity below the normal supply. Dr. Drown found, in 
experimenting on sand-filtration, that there was no advantage 
in offering the nitrifying bacterium an excess of oxygen; just 
as complete oxidation was obtained with only from one to 
three per cent of oxygen present in the atmosphere of the 
filter as when the full allowance was supplied. 
Aeration is of especial value in rendering highly ferrugi- 
nous, deep well-waters, which are otherwise pure, fit for 
domestic use. By blowing air into such waters, or by even 
letting them stand freely exposed to the atmosphere, the 
iron is oxidized to insoluble ferric oxide, and may be easily 
removed by filtration. 
A German water-supply containing 19.2 parts per million 
of iron is rendered fit for use by passing through a scrubber 
of lump coke. Thus both aeration and filtration are accom- 
plished by one piece of apparatus. The deposit of iron on 
the coke is afterwards removed by washing. Dr. Drown 
reports a water containing 9.12 parts of iron per million. 
Regarding this water he says: 
“ When the water is exposed to the air it quickly be- 
comes clouded, and in a short time a reddish-brown precipi- 
tate forms. This is due to the ferrous oxide in solution in 
the water becoming oxidized by the oxygen of the air, the 
ferric oxide thus formed being insoluble in water. 
“ When the oxidation is complete the ferric oxide may be 
filtered out and the filtered water is permanently clear and 
colorless, and has very little iron remaining in solution. The 
process of oxidation may be hastened by various mechanical 
means, such as blowing air through it or exposing the water 
in thin layers to the air. I have tried a great many experi- 
ments in the laboratory as to the best and most rapid means 
of precipitating the iron in a form that it may be successfully 
filtered out through a layer of sand. I have been successful 
in removing the iron almost completely when filtering through 161 
ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
rather coarse sand, at a vertical rate of 60 inches an hour or 
of nearly 900 gallons per square foot of filtering surface, 
and even a higher rate could be used successfully. The 
water thus treated by aeration and filtration contained only 
0.02 parts per 100,000, less than half the amount contained 
in the present water-supply.” 
“ In most instances water of this character, so soon as 
freed from its iron compounds, has been shown to be of un- 
exceptionable quality. Frequently a mere aeration will 
suffice; as, for example, at Norderney, a watering-place on 
the North Sea.” The iron-water as taken from the wells 
dug in the sand of the island is unfit for use. “ It is aerated 
in a tower in which is a standpipe, and from this passes to 
a closed reservoir, precipitation takes place and the water 
becomes serviceable.” * 
It must not be supposed that the presence of air in solu- 
tion is essential to a good water, for some of our best sup- 
plies, derived from deep wells, are entirely devoid of it. 
“ The sterilization of water used in bathing has been reported upon by 
Messrs. Foster and Nijland, chemists, of Hamburg. Their purpose was to 
destroy the cholera-microbes still possibly remaining in the water of the Elbe 
used for this purpose. They find that a 2.4 per cent solution of ordinary 
toilet-soap will kill the bacilli of cholera in from 10 to 15 minutes, or the 
ordinary duration of a bath. Salicylic and phenylic soaps are no more efficient, 
for to 150 litres of water they require 360 grammes of soap, which is practically 
too large a dose. On the contrary, a soap with 1 per cent of corrosive sub- 
limate will kill the bacilli in one minute, with a dose of 0.12 grammes of this 
soap to the litre of water. To sterilize the water in 10 minutes 0.06, or even 
0.03 grammes of soap per litre of water will suffice. The sublimate alone acts 
still better, and a solution of 1 kilo of sublimate to 30,000,000 litres of water is 
sufficient to kill the cholera-bacilli in 5 minutes. For an ordinary bath 5 milli- 
grammes of the sublimate will afford every security, according to the chemists 
quoted.”—Engineering News. 
In these days of “ applied electricity,” it would be 
strange indeed if attempts were not made to harness up the 
* Salbach in Am. Soc. C. E. xxx. 2g6. 162 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
“ fluid ” for the work of water-purification, as an addition to 
the many other tasks already assigned to it. 
In 1888 Dr. A. R. Leeds patented a process for remov- 
ing the organic impurities in water by subjecting them to 
the action of the nascent gases resulting from the electrolytic 
decomposition of a portion of the water itself. So far as the 
writer is aware, this process has not been pushed in general 
practice, and, however desirable it may be in theory, it is 
questionable if it be suited to the conditions likely to obtain 
in large plants. 
Quite recently the attention of the public has been called 
to the “Woolf” process for water-purification as exem- 
plified in the experiments conducted at Brewster, N. Y., 
upon a portion of the New York City supply. 
The “ Woolf” method consists in decomposing a weak 
solution (2 or 3 per cent) of common salt (sea-water, for in- 
stance) by means of a current from a dynamo, and then 
adding the electrolyzed liquid to the water to be purified in 
the proportion of about 10 grains per gallon of water or 1 
part to 5833 by weight. 
The product of the electrolysis is fancifully styled “ elec- 
trozone,” but the germicidal power it possesses is due to 
the well-known sodium hypochlorite formed during elec- 
trolysis, and not to the fancied presence of ozone. Even 
were ozone really in the liquid, its value as a germicide 
would be very doubtful in the light of recent investigations. 
“ Development of spores of pathogenic microbes ceases 
in air containing o. i % by volume of ozone, but as soon as 
the proportion of ozone falls below this figure all antiseptic 
action disappears. Air becomes unfit for respiration long 
before it is saturated with ozone to the above degree. Hence 
all ozone appliances recommended for disinfection depend 
upon an erroneous assumption.” * 
* Annales de VInst. Pasteur. ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
163 
The sodium hypochlorite prepared by the Woolf method 
is not different from that made in the ordinary way, and in 
germicidal power it is equalled by an equivalent weight of 
the corresponding calcium salt, called “ bleaching powder,” 
the efficiency of each being measured by the amount of avail- 
able chlorine present.* 
To “ disinfect ” ,a water by either of these hypochlorites 
does not appeal to one as a suitable means for increasing its 
potability. Mr. Woolf estimates the cost of the properly 
■electrolyzed salt-water as ten cents per thousand gallons. 
Somewhat recently another electrical purification method 
has appeared, which differs from the older “ Webster ” proc- 
ess only in the substitution of aluminum for iron in the 
anode plates. In the “Webster” process, the hydrated 
oxide of iron resulting from the disintegration of the anode 
by the passage of the electric current acted as a precipitating 
agent, and to this action is to be ascribed whatever value 
the method possesses. In the instance above referred to, 
where aluminum terminals are substituted for iron, the action 
is very similar, and purification is accomplished by the pre- 
cipitating power of the hydrate of aluminum, resulting from 
the dissolution of the plates. Thus the method becomes 
really a chemical one nearly akin to the filtration systems 
using alum. The proprietors of the process claim exceeding 
low cost, and the results are apparently good. (See illustra- 
tion on annexed page.) 
Household filtration on the domestic scale is in very gen- 
eral operation, yet satisfactory results are obtained in an ex- 
ceedingly small percentage of cases. 
The companies manufacturing the chemical filters pre- 
viously mentioned all make sizes intended for domestic use, 
* The insoluble salts resulting from the use of “ bleaching powder ” would 
be a disadvantage in its use unless opportunity were afforded for settlement, 
and, moreover, it would render the water harder. 164 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
but the skilled labor furnished by a city whose sole 
duty it is to attend to the public plant is very rarely obtain- 
able in the average household; consequently the filter is 
neglected or mismanaged, or both. In short, filtration, to 
Raceway 20 feet long and 18x16 inches in cross-section, with alternate aluminum and zinc 
plates four inches apart. The raw water enters through F, passes underneath each alternate 
plate and over the top of every other alternate plate, until it emerges through escape-pipe K, 
where it is sprayed and aerated and goes through G into storage-tanks. 
A is an ammeter and B a voltmeter to measure the electric current utilized. C is the posi- 
tive wire from the dynamo connected with each aluminum plate, and D is the negative wire 
connected with each zinc or iron plate. H is a ball and cock which regulates the flow of 
water. /, J, and Ware the switches to make and break the electric circuit. Forty volts and 
twenty amperes of current are used for this apparatus. 
ELECTRO-ALUMINUM APPARATUS TO PURIFY 75OO GALLONS IN 24 HOURS, 
be effectual, should be municipal. A house-filter that has 
come widely into use, and upon which very many people 
pin their faith, is the well-known “ Pasteur. ” It is com- ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
165 
monly operated under the pressure of the city mains, but 
may also be arranged to work without additional pressure 
beyond that of the atmosphere. The cut herewith given 
shows its simplest form, and, for those unacquainted with 
its use, it may be said that it consists of a cylinder of fine 
unglazed porcelain (called “candle” on account of its size 
and shape) enclosed by one of metal; and that, connection 
having been established between the latter and the supply- 
pipe, the water is forced through the pores of the porcelain 
to the inside of the cylinder (the so-called candle), whence 
it drops into the reservoir, leaving the suspended matter as 
a coating upon the “ candle’s ” exterior surface. 
Examination of the efficiency of the 
Pasteur filter has been thoroughly done by 
a number of investigators, with results that 
may be summarized as follows: Water can 
be completely sterilized by filtration through 
porcelain, but the filtration must not be 
continued for many days at a time. The 
length of time during which a sterile fil- 
trate may be obtained will depend upon 
the temperature of the filter and its con- 
tents. Thus, according to P'reudenreich, 
at temperature of 590 to 64° F. the fil- 
trate was sterile for from 15 to 2 1 days, at 
a temperatue of 720 F. it was sterile during 
9 days, while at a temperature of 950 F. itremained sterile 
only 5 days.* 
Water-pressure is not a factor in causing germs to pass 
through the porcelain, for their method of penetration is one 
of development rather than a transporting of initial bacteria; 
in other words, they “ grow ” through the filter. Even when 
* Centralbla.lt fur Bakteriologie, XII. 240. 166 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the pressure is nil they accomplish the passage in the usual 
length of time. 
From a consideration of these facts the line of manage- 
ment for a “ Pasteur ” becomes plainly evident. The “ can- 
dle ” and its rubber packing must be removed at least once 
a week, thoroughly washed, and then boiled for half an hour 
before being reset in position. 
Especial care should- be taken that the rubber packing 
make a tight fit, as otherwise the filtrate may pass around 
rather than through the porcelain. The filter should not be 
located in too warm a place. 
An arrangement, suggestive of the Pasteur, is in use on 
a large scale for filtering the city supply at Worms, Ger- 
many. Clean sand mixed with a little soda and silicate of 
lime is moulded into slabs feet X feet X 4 inches, and 
concaved on one side. These are then baked to hard biscuit- 
ware. Two slabs, placed with their concave sides next each 
other, form a closed vessel into the cavity of which the water 
can penetrate through the porous walls, leaving the dirt 
upon the outside. Series of these pairs connect with the 
pure-water drains. Material deposited upon the outside of 
these upright slabs falls to the bottom of the reservoir and 
is easily removed, while, as additional means of cleaning, a 
reverse current of live steam may be passed through the 
system. Although the results obtained by this system are 
good, they do not appear to be better than those secured 
by the cheaper and more widely known methods. 
As showing the marked advantage to be derived from the 
introduction of filtered water or of water originally of good 
quality, the following is extracted from a report of the 
Minister of War of France, published in the “ Journal Offi- 
cial de la Republique Franchise ” for April n, 1895, re- 
ferring to typhoid fever in the French army, before and since 
the introduction of better water: ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
167 
“ To render a more accurate account it will be well to 
examine what has been the result in several garrisons where 
typhoid fever was formerly a prominent and formidable 
scourge. In the military district of Paris the number of 
cases amounted to 824 in 1888, and to 1179 in 1889; since 
the water of the Vanne has been substituted for Seine 
water the mortality from typhoid was only 299, 276, 293, 
258. At the commencement of 1894 the Vanne was acci- 
dentally polluted; “while typhoid fever visited all the sur- 
rounding districts, the garrison itself had 436 typhoid cases, 
of which 310 were in the months of February, March and 
April. During the first two months of this year they had 
only 8 cases. 
“ At Beauvais, during three consecutive years, there were 
20, 96, and 72 cases of typhoid fever. The use of spring- 
water since 1891 reduced the number of cases to 2, 9, 8, 
and 5 for each of the following years. 
“ The serious epidemic of Auxerre in 1892 affected 129 
men; filters were put up, and there was not a single case of 
typhoid in 1893, and but I in 1894. 
“ At Melun the cases of typhoid have, since the setting 
up of the filter, decreased from 122 in 1889 to 15, 6, 2, 7, 
and 7. 
“ In the garrison of Cherbourg there have been 110 and 
119 cases observed in 1888 and 1889; filters were put up in 
1890, and the cases of typhoid fever fell successively to 21, 
8, 11, 3, and 3. 
“ We must not forget to speak of the garrison at Dinan, 
which, having had in three years 835 typhoid cases, has had 
annually, since filtration of its drinking-water, but 1, 2, 3, 
and 1. 
“ Absolutely identical results, due to the same cause, 
have been noticed from year to year at Montpelier, where 
the number of cases of typhoid fever fell from 391 to 49, 168 
tv A TER-SUPPL Y. 
then to 14. At Perpignan, where, after having been 131 
and 197, it is now but 18. It was the same at Blois, Ven- 
dome, Lure, Auxonne, Vitre, Tulle, Clermont-Ferrand, 
Chambery, Privas, Avignon, Toulon, Nice, Tarascon, Beziers, 
Lunefi etc., etc. In the fifteenth corps there were 1018, now 
there are only 337; in the twelfth corps, 616 is now reduced 
to 68. In the garrison of Angouleme, in particular, it fell 
from 326 to 25; finally, in the eighteenth corps, it reached, 
in 1888, 292 cases, and is now only 38. 
“ A progressive and constant decrease justifies the cer- 
tainty of the effect of the substitution of spring and filtered 
water for water which the army commonly used in their 
barracks.” 
For the whole French army, the statistics are: 
Cases. Deaths. 
1886 7771 964 
1887 613O 763 
1888 4884 801 
1889 4274 701 
1890 3901 607 
1891 3603 561 
1892 4820 739 
1893 33H 550 
1894 3060 530 
Many types of household-filters are of such character as 
to preclude the possibility of sterilization, and some of them 
it is even impossible to clean without the entire renewal of 
the filtering-material. Such defects are necessarily fatal to 
proper filtration. The stone filters one sees at times, where 
the water is caused to drip through fine-grained sand-rock, 
or similar material, act as mere strainers and are absolutely 
unreliable. Currier demonstrated that sponge filters, after 
use for even a single day, furnished a filtrate containing five ARTIFICIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
169 
hundred times as many germs as the unfiltered water. The 
author has seen household-filters of many types so seriously 
contaminated that a water could not but be rendered worse 
by passage through them, and yet such appliances were in full 
use, and greatly trusted on account of the apparent clearness 
of the water drawn from them. 
The unsatisfactory results observed where really good 
household-filters are in use are unfortunately very apparent, 
but the fault is more commonly with the attendant than 
with the filter. The common belief is that a filter, once 
established, is good for all time, and the author could tell 
tales of what he has seen, in otherwise well-organized estab- 
lishments, that would stagger belief. 
Much stress is often laid upon the purifying effects of 
animal charcoal, and the great quantity of occluded oxygen 
the fresh charcoal contains fully justifies for a time the high 
praise given it, but such material is nearly impossible to 
cleanse, and it has been repeatedly shown that a more ob- 
jectionable appliance could scarcely be found, from a sani- 
tary point of view, than a neglected charcoal filter. For in- 
stance, Frankland finds that in the case of such a filter having 
been in use a month, the filtrate contained 6958 germs per 
cubic centimetre, as against 1281 per cubic centimetre in 
the unfiltered water.* 
During the typhoid outbreak which occurred at Provi- 
dence, R. I., some years ago, a number of private house 
filters were examined by Dr. Prudden, and three of them 
were found to contain the typhoid bacillus.f 
How very unsafe filters of animal charcoal are, particu- 
larly if they be old, may be quickly seen from the following 
record, made by Percy Frankland, of water passed through 
a filter composed of six inches of such charcoal, in a fine 
state of division: 
* Chemical News, Lil. 27. 
f N. Y. Med. Jour. l. 14. WA TER-S UP PL V. 
Period. 
Organism per Cubic Centimetre. 
Unfiltered Water. 
Filtered Water. 
Initial 
Very numerous. 
none 
After 12 days 
2800 
none 
After i month 
1280 
7000 
The use of the old filter is thus seen to materially dam- 
age the water. 
Finally, there is no way of purifying a polluted water, as 
some people would have us do, by throwing a remedy into 
the well or cistern; neither is there any value in coloring 
the water with wine before drinking it, a custom so widely 
observed in Europe. 
In 1873 Crookes proposed the following mixture for ad- 
dition to the highly impure waters of the Gold Coast before 
they were used by the troops during the Ashantee war: 
Calcium permanganate I part 
Aluminum sulphate io parts 
Fine clay 30 “ 
The mixture does not act quickly enough for use by sol- 
diers on the march. It was found that moving organisms 
survived for more than a day in an intensely red solution 
of permanganate.* 
* Chemical News, LXXI. 43. CHAPTER IV. 
NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
NATURE disposes in sundry ways of the various elements 
of impurity added to water, but by far the most efficient of 
these is the interesting process termed “ nitrification.” This 
is a change of state best established by infiltration through 
soil, a few feet of such passage being capable of doing more 
to restore a water to its original purity than many miles of 
flow in an open channel. 
Nitrification is accomplished by a bacillus, whose function 
is to tear asunder the objectionable nitrogenous organic ma- 
terials and convert them into harmless inorganic forms, which 
are at the same time valuable as plant-food. 
The conditions under which this little germ can thrive 
must be met, otherwise its oxidizing action will quickly 
diminish, or even entirely cease. Darkness is favorable, and 
strong light stops all action. A supply of free oxygen 
must be at hand, but, as has been pointed out by Drown, a 
small fraction of the amount normally present in the atmos- 
phere will quite suffice for complete nitrification. A base, 
preferably calcium carbonate, is necessary to fix the nitric acid 
formed, and the presence of some phosphate is also required. 
The action of the organism is mainly confined to the 
upper layers of the soil, i.e., to those portions subject to 
cultivation, and it rarely occurs below a depth of six feet.* 
* This diminution in number occurs in the case of other germs as well, as 
is shown by Koch. Beumer found in unclean earth forty-four million bacteria 
per cubic centremetre at a depth of three metres, and only five millions.at a 
depth of six metres. 172 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
The most favorable temperature for its development is 98° F. 
One feature of special interest is that the nitrifying or- 
ganism does not thrive in presence of a great excess of or- 
ganic matter. It cannot be successfully cultivated in either 
bouillon or strong sewage. Furthermore, it is noticed that 
where nitrification is once thoroughly established, other germs 
tend to die out, probably on account of lack of food-supply. 
The great importance of this purifying process of nitri- 
fication will be better appreciated when we come to consider 
the question of ground-water, for it is at once apparent that 
our wells must receive large contributions from drainage ma- 
terial poured into and upon the soil. One thing must be 
ever borne in mind when depending upon the purifying 
action of soil, namely, that its power must not be overtaxed 
by excessive doses of sewage-material, and that its filtering 
action must always be permitted to be intermittent, so that 
a proper supply of oxygen may always be present. The 
importance of aerating the filtering-soil between the succes- 
sive applications of sewage has been abundantly shown by 
the Massachusetts Board of Health, and the advantages of 
so doing are demonstrated on the large scale at the sewage 
farm of Asnieres, near Paris.* 
* The sewers of Paris, aggregating over 750 miles in length, constitute one 
of the sights of the city. They may be inspected without charge on the first 
and third Wednesdays of each month in summer by writing for a permit to the 
Prefect de la Seine. Descent is commonly made near the Madeleine by a sub- 
stantial stairway of stone, and the boats awaiting the party at the foot of the 
steps are fully as large and quite as comfortable as Venetian gondolas. 
The great sewer, which is tunnel-like in dimensions, being 16 feet high and 
18 feet broad, is, on occasion of a visit, lighted with lamps alternately red and 
blue, and as these stretch away into the distance the effect is decidedly striking. 
Under ordinary circumstances the sewage confines itself to the central 
channel-way, but upon occasion rises above the sidewalks on either hand. The 
central channel I should estimate as io feet wide and 4 feet deep, with a curved 
bottom and a walk on either side. The boats, with their loads of visitors, are 
pulled by ropes in the hands of attendants who walk along the sidewalks. On 
either side of the sewer may be seen the large mains carrying the city water- 
supply and also the telegraph cables. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
173 
Sewage for the purpose of this irrigation at Asnieres is 
conducted throughout the irrigated district in open conduits 
of earth about 2 feet wide and 3 feet above the surface of 
the surrounding country. Small side-gates at intervals 
admit the sewage to the furrows between the rows of grow- 
ing plants, such gates being opened and the furrows filled 
whenever, in the judgment of the attendant, the vegetation 
can appropriate the sewage. 
The face of the land is all divided into small sections, in 
places less than an acre in area, and each such division is 
flooded independently. What is very important to note is 
that the filtration of the sewage through the soil is entirely 
intermittent in character, and that nitrification is given 
abundant opportunity for full development. 
Any surface-clogging of the ground is avoided by suit- 
able use of the spade. So far as the quantity and quality 
of the crops raised are concerned, they appear to be very 
near perfection. 
Flowing at the base of the gentle slope of the irrigation 
district is a sparkling stream, several feet wide, consisting of 
the effluent or underdrainage of the sewage farm. It is full 
of trout and has the appearance and taste of ordinary drink- 
ing-water. The distance of this stream from the nearest 
The collect cur-general, or main collecting sewer, after receiving the contents 
of the tributaries starts from the Place de la Concorde and descends to As- 
nieres, nearly 3! miles distant. 
This great sewer carries about 350,000 cubic feet of sewage per hour 
(63,000,000 gallons per day), but is capable of passing many times that quan- 
tity. 
The sewage from that portion of the city lying on the left bank of the Seine 
is piped under the river, passes below the Avenue Marceau and the Place de 
l’Etoile at a depth of about ioo feet from the surface of the ground, and joins 
the colledeur-glnlral not far from the point where the latter empties its contents 
into the Seine. 
Before the mouth of the main sewer is reached, a portion of its contents is 
deflected and used for irrigation upon the farm and “model garden” at As- 
riieres. 174 
WA TEK-SUPPL Y. 
irrigation point is about 100 feet. The average analysis fore 
the year 1889 of the sewage admitted to the farm and of the 
water of the effluent stream mentioned above, was as follows: 
Parts per Million. 
Sewage. Stream. 
Chlorine 78.0 71.0 
Organic matter 45.0 1.4 
Nitrogen as nitrates 6.8 23.1 
In this connection it may be incidentally stated that the 
average composition of city sewage in the United States, as 
given by Mills, is: 
Water 998 parts 
Mineral matter 1 part 
Organic matter 1 “ 
1000 parts 
Owing to smaller volume of water-supply, per capita, 
European sewage may be taken as about twice as strong as 
the above.* 
The conclusions reached by the Massachusetts Board of 
Health are as follows: 
“ The purification of sewage by intermittent filtration 
depends upon oxygen and time; all other conditions are 
secondary. Temperature has only a minor influence; the 
organisms necessary for purification are sure to establish 
themselves in a filter before it has been long in use. Im- 
perfect purification for any considerable period can invar- 
iably be traced either to a lack of oxygen in the pores of the 
filter, or to the sewage passing so quickly through that there 
is not sufficient time for the oxidation processes to take place. 
Any treatment which keeps all particles of sewage dis- 
* Because of great waste of water, Troy sewage is still weaker, as is shown 
elsewhere. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
175 
tributed over the surface of sand-particles, in contact with 
an excess of air for a sufficient time, is sure to give a well 
oxidized effluent, and the power of any material to purify 
sewage depends almost entirely upon its ability to hold the 
sewage in contact with air. It must hold both sewage and 
air in sufficient amounts. Both of these qualities depend 
upon the physical characteristics of the material. The ability 
of a sand to purify sewage, and also the treatment required 
for the best results, bear a very close relation to its me- 
chanical composition.” 
We have seen that nature makes abundant provision for 
the removal of pollution from water that is poured upon the 
soil; let us now inquire as to the efficiency of those means, 
so highly thought of by the people at large, and supplied 
wherever the water passes over riffles and falls, namely, agi- 
tation and aeration. Does direct oxidation take place, and, 
if so, to what extent ? With a view of obtaining light upon 
this question, an extended series of experiments was un- 
dertaken in the writer’s laboratory in the following manner:* 
Varying amounts of sewage were placed in bottles, water 
added until the dilution reached 3000 c.c., the mixture was 
then thoroughly stirred, and 1500 c.c. were taken out and 
analyzed. The bottle containing the remaining 1500 c.c. 
was then securely fastened to the connecting-rod of a hori- 
zontal steam-engine of 1 o-inch stroke, running at a speed of 
75 revolutions per minute, so that in an hour the water was 
subjected to 9000 violent concussions and traveled 1.25 
miles. 
The lengths of time during which the waters were thus 
lashed into spray varied from 18 to 60 hours. The mean 
temperature of the water during the shaking was 30° C. 
An analysis of each water after shaking showed that the 
amount of oxidation which took place during the agitation 176 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
of the water was very trifling, a finding entirely in accord- 
ance with Prof. Leed’s observations of the water of the 
Niagara River before and after passing Niagara Falls. 
Direct oxidation does not seem to be a factor of any consid- 
erable importance in the purification of polluted water. 
In just this connection, and as a result of his own inves- 
tigations, Frankland says: 
“ I should say that it is simply impossible that the oxi- 
dizing power acting on sewage running in mixture with water 
over a distance of any length is sufficient to remove its nox- 
ious quality. I presume that the sewage could only come 
in contact with oxygen from the oxygen contained in the 
water and also from the oxygen on the surface of the water, 
and we are aware that ordinary oxygen does not exercise any 
rapid oxidizing power on organic matter. We know that to 
destroy organic matter the most powerful oxidizing agents 
are required. We must boil it with nitric and chloric acid 
and the most perfect chemical reagents. To think to get 
rid of organic matter by exposure to the air for a short time 
is absurd.” 
Of course what has been said refers to direct oxidation 
by atmospheric oxygen and does not cover the possibility 
of improvement by destruction of objectionable microbes; 
but, bearing in mind the known powers of resistance of the 
various bacteria, it is difficult to conceive of any appreciable 
diminution in their numbers resulting from a short-time ex- 
posure of the water in the form of spray. 
Neither is it easy to see that the labors of the nitrifying 
bacillus can be materially aided by the momentary passage 
of a fall, when we remember the small percentage of dis- 
solved oxygen required for the fulfilment of its task. 
That the said nitrifying bacillus can, under any circum- 
stances, accomplish in a water the quantity of work expected 
of it in a soil is, of course, not to be hoped for. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
177 
It must not be assumed, however, that the old and 
firmly planted belief of the people is entirely false, and that 
aeration is v/ithout any value whatever. As has been said 
(page 158), keeping a water well saturated with atmospheric 
oxygen, either by spraying it in form of a fountain, as at 
Rochester and elsewhere, or by pumping air into it, either 
in the reservoir or directly into the force-main, unquestion- 
ably renders less likely the growth of algae, with their ac- 
companying odors and tastes, and also removes, by direct 
displacement, any foul gases already in solution. 
It is therefore undoubted wisdom to encourage the exist- 
ing tendency to aerate public waters, but the true action of 
such aeration must be always kept in mind, to the exclusion 
of false and exaggerated notions of its value. 
Sedimentation is another purifying process upon which 
wide dependence is very justly placed. Its consideration 
would properly come under a discussion of lake and reservoir- 
waters, but a word should be said here with reference to 
what may be expected of it in the cases of streams and 
rivers. 
With a view of determining to what extent sedimentation 
can be depended upon for the purification of streams, the 
following inquiry was undertaken. 
Upon four different occasions (covering various conditions 
of medium, high water, and flood) samples were analyzed 
from that section of the Hudson River extending between 
Troy and Albany. The stations at which samples were 
taken are situated over one mile apart, beginning at State 
Street, Troy, and ending at the Albany intake, five miles 
below. Two samples were taken at each station during ebb- 
tide and in mid-channel; one two feet from the surface and 
the other, as near as could be judged, two feet from the 
bottom. 178 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
The first set of samples was taken on April 26, the river 
being at the time two feet above normal. The appearance 
of the water on that date was clear, and, owing to warm 
weather during the early part of April, all snow-water was 
probably absent from the river. 
The second set of samples was taken on May 12, the 
water being 4.2 feet above normal. The State canals had 
already been opened and numerous tugs and steamboats 
agitated the water; it had rained on the previous day. The 
water appeared clear. 
The third set of samples was taken on May 23, the water 
being very turbid and reading 11.5 feet above normal. 
On May 31 the fourth and last set of samples was col- 
lected. The water was still high, reading 9.5 feet above 
normal, and was very turbid. 
All samples were analyzed as soon as obtained, and 
from the examination of the analytical results the conclu- 
sion seems to be justified that water containing a consider- 
able amount of suspended matter capable of settling is to a 
certain degree purified, in accordance with the well-known 
laboratory observation that solid material, no matter how 
minute, on settling will often drag with it and precipitate 
more or less other materials, even though the latter be in 
solution. 
As expected, total solids were higher during flood; at 
the same time the analysis showed the water in a poorer con- 
dition than when the river was low, even though the dilution 
was much greater. This is to be accounted for by the fact 
that during high water a great increase of surface washing 
occurs which always carries greatly increased impurities to 
the main stream. 
The examination of the total solids showed sedimentation 
at all stages of the river, the average being nearly constant 
throughout the entire distance. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
179 
Such sedimentation is, however, decidedly small. An 
idea of the amount deposited may be obtained from the fact 
that average differences between the upper and the lower 
samples at station C* is 3.47 per cent of the total solids in 
the upper sample. The results for “ required oxygen ” dis- 
closed the fact that sedimentation takes place, though the 
percentage of improvement appeared much smaller than 
that indicated by the total solids. The fact that free am- 
monia increased showed a step toward oxidation. 
During flood, albuminoid ammonia increased, owing to 
more fresh organic matter coming into the stream and de- 
composing from the first to the second stage of oxidation. 
In order to get some idea of general purification, the 
following is a tabulated statement showing the amount of 
each ingredient in the upper sample at Albany as compared 
with the corresponding one at Troy. The calculations are 
based on the averagef results in parts per million. 
Troy. Albany. 
Free ammonia 0.0418 0.6000 
Albuminoid ammonia 0.1667 0.1550 
Required oxygen 6.5310 5.8750 
Nitrates 0.4636 0.4872 
Total solids. „ 94.2500 116.0000 
Nitrites were found in traces only. The results for “ re- 
quired oxygen” showed some improvement, but the differ- 
ences were two small to be noteworthy. Nitrates had a 
tendency to run high in lower samples, giving signs of oxi- 
dation, but such oxidation appeared to have been exceed- 
ingly slow, judging from the results obtained. 
A review of the evidence given leads to the belief that 
* End of the second mile. 
f The complete analyses for each station are published in J. Anal, and Ap- 
plied Chetn. Vi. 505. 180 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
sedimentation is a source of river purification in streams 
such as the Hudson, although not nearly so pronounced a 
one as has been heretofore held. 
So far as the removal of bacteria from river-water by 
sedimentation is concerned, it must be remembered that, 
their specific gravities being but slightly greater than unity, 
they sink but slowly in still water, and of necessity still less 
rapidly in that which is moving. That specific germs do 
not completely subside during long distances of flow may be 
inferred from the typhoid statistics already given. 
The old notion that water completely purifies itself by 
freezing has by no means died out, and even after Prudden’s 
able report on the contaminated condition of much of the 
public ice-supply, we find educated people collecting ice 
from sources so polluted as to be beyond question unfit to 
furnish drinking-water. A somewhat aggravated case of 
this kind having presented itself, the following experiments 
were undertaken to outline the relation existing between an 
ice and the water from which it is frozen. The materials 
employed for experiment were mixed with ordinary tap- 
water. The given weights are in grammes per 100 c.c. of 
water. (See table on next page.) 
Dilute sulphuric acid was prepared of a strength = .3280 
gms. H2S04 per litre. The ice from same when melted re- 
tained H2S04 corresponding to .0390 gms. per litre. Ice 
retained 11.89 Per cent °f the HaS04 in the water. 
From the foregoing it will be observed that organic im- 
purity is more liable than mineral matter to pass into ice, 
and, inasmuch as the organic impurity is the more objection- 
able of the two, the distinction is important. It will be 
noticed that the waters containing sewage and urine formed 
ices of the greatest organic percentages. 
Of the fifteen waters containing organic impurity, the NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
181 
Total residue from 
100 cc. 
Loss on Ignition. 
Volatile and Organic 
Matter. 
Inorganic Residue. 
Per Cent of the Mineral 
Matter Originally in 
the Water yet Remain- 
ing in the Ice. 
Per Cent of Organic and 
Volatile Matter of the 
Water yet Remaining 
in the Ice. 
ioo c.c. urine diluted to io litres 
.0285 
.0070 
.0215 
Ice from same 
.0023 
.0022 
.OOOI 
O.46 
31-43 
500 c.c. urine diluted to 10 litres 
.1380 
.0469 
.0911 
Ice from same 
.0389 
.0213 
.0176 
19.32 
45.41 
10 c.c. urine in 10 litres of water 
.0112 
.OO47 
.0065 
Ice from same 
.0040 
.0018 
.0022 
33-84 
38.21 
100 c.c. glycerine diluted to 10 litres 
•7951 
.7911 
.0040 
Ice from same ... 
.1012 
.1005 
.0007 
17-50 
12.70 
50 gms. sugar dissolved in 10 litres water.. 
•4932 
.4860 
.0072 
4 
Ice from same 
• 1373 
.1360 
.0013 
18.05 
27.98 
50 gms. NaCl in 10 litres water * 
•5013 
O 
•5013 
Ice from same 
*•1449 
O 
.1449 
28.9 
10 litres of water tinted with indigo 
•0399 
.0336 
.OO63 
Ice from same 
.0027 
.0027 
8.03 
10 lines H20, with a little egg-albumen, 
i.e., \ of that in one egg 
.0163 
.Olig 
.OO44 
Ice from same 
.0038 
.0031 
.0007 
15-91 
26.05 
10 gms. Na2C03 in 10 litres of water 
.0907 
.OO38 
.0869 
Ice from same 
.0180 
.0025 
•0155 
17.83 
65.78 
10 gms. sugar in 10 litres of water 
.1045 
.0996 
.CO49 
Ice from same 
.0118 
.OIOO 
.0018 
36.73 
IO.04 
10 gms. oxalic acid in 10 litres of water... 
.0129 
.0067 
.0062 
Ice from same 
.0037 
.0022 
.0015 
24.19 
32.82 
10 gms. glycerin in 10 litres of water 
.0187 
.OI4O 
.0047 
Ice from same 
.0028 
OOIO 
.0018 
38.30 
7.14 
Trov City supply 
.0092 
•0035 
.0057 
Ice from same 
.0010 
.OOIO 
trace 
O 
28.5 
Very hard spring-water 
.0540 
O 
.0540 
Ice from same 
.0045 
O 
.0045 
8-3 
Water from Erie Canal where public ice- 
supply is taken 
.0112 
.0033 
.C079 
Ice from above locality used for public 
supply 
.0067 
.0025 
.0042 
53-2 
75-7 
* SUCCESSIVE CROPS OF ICE-CRYSTALS FROM SEA-WATER EXPOSED TO — 50° C. 
IN A BEAKER AND CONSTANTLY STIRRED. 
Volume. 
Original sea-water contained 1.979 per cent chlorine 1529 c.c. 
i° crop ice » contained 1.525 per cent chlorine 165 c.c. 
20 “ “ “ 1.624 “ “ “ 410 “ 
30 “ “ “ 1.§19 “ “ “ 390 “ 
4° “ •* “ 2.003 “ “ “ 354 “ 
Final mortar liquor “ 2.987 “ “ “ 210 “ 
1549 c.c. 
(” Observations on Arctic Sea-water and Ice,” by E. L. Moss., Proc. Roy. 
Soc. xxvii. 544.) * 182 
WA TENS UP PL Y. 
percentages of such impurity retained by the ice varied from 
7.14 per cent to 75.75 per cent, with an average of 34.3 per 
cent, while of the eighteen waters holding mineral impurity, 
the ices formed therefrom retained from a trace to 53.20 
per cent of such impurity, with an average of 21.2 per cent. 
The entire inadequacy of cold to purify water from bac- 
terial pollution is more fully referred to upon another page. 
It remains to say a word concerning the purifying action 
of sunlight supplementary to what has been already given 
on page 66. 
’ Very exhaustive investigations by Prof. H. Marshall 
Ward show light to have great germicidal action and that 
“ the rays which kill the bacteria are the blue and violet 
ones. The infra-red, red, orange, yellow, and green are 
without effect, and the effect weakens as we pass beyond 
the visible violet.” 
“ This explains why these organisms are destroyed so 
much more rapidly by the light of the summer sun than in 
winter; why a clear blue sky is so much more effective 
than a hazy one, and why direct sunlight acts so much more 
quickly than reflected or diffused daylight.” * 
Investigations upon this very interesting topic are of 
recent date, and are, as yet, in an uncompleted form, but 
enough has been done to show the marked toxic effect of sun- 
light upon bacterial life and its consequent aid to the effort of 
the sanitarian. For full and detailed information upon the 
subject, the reader is referred to the recent work of Percy 
Frankland.f Stated roughly, sunlight is fatal to bacteria, 
sooner or later, the intensity of the action depending upon 
the kind of germ and the brightness of the light. 
Buchner gives a very interesting and graphic illustration 
* Chemical News, lxx. 243. 
f “ Micro-organisms in Water.” NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
183 
of the action of light, using the typhoid bacillus for the 
demonstration,* and the value of such experiments is very 
far-reaching, and suggestions of great sanitary importance 
naturally follow. 
Of more direct bearing upon our present consideration, 
% 
however, are the investigations Buchner instituted concern- 
ing the action of sunlight upon the typhoid germ at different 
depths of water. He found that plates of inoculated jelly 
were sterilized by exposure during 4$ hours at a depth of 5 
feet 3 inches in the waters of Starnberger Lake, near Mun- 
ich; while similar plates exposed during the same period at 
a depth of 10 feet 2 inches barely exhibited any diminution 
of virility whatever. . 
The bearing this point has upon the influence of sunlight 
upon the self-purification of streams is at once apparent; 
but it must not be forgotten that a comparatively thin layer 
of water will cut off an immense deal of the germicidal power 
of sunlight, and we must consequently restrain our tendency 
to enlarge and exaggerate the beneficial action. 
In this connection it is interesting to study the antisep- 
tic action (recorded by Procacci) of mid-day sunlight, in 
June, upon bacterial life contained in drain-water forty 
inches deep. The light was passed through the water ver- 
tically, side-light being excluded, and the time of exposure 
was three hours. Comparison tests, kept in darkness, were 
also made. The results were as follows per cubic centimetre: 
Before Exposure. 
Sunshine. 
Darkness. 
Surface 
9 
3103 
Centre 
IO 
3021 
Bottom 
2115 
3463 
The sterilizing action of light upon the upper portion of 
the water is thus seen to have been very marked. 
* “ Einfluss des Lichtes auf Bakterien.”—Centralblatt f. Bakteriologie, xi. 
781. 184 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Self-purification of Streams. 
Pettenkoffer expresses the opinion* that “ ordinary sew- 
age may be, without hesitation, turned into any river or 
brook whose volume is fifteen times the volume of the sew- 
age, and whose velocity is not less than that of the stream 
of sewage. Under these circumstances the necessary dilution 
and self-purification take place after a short flow.” 
If this were only true, the vexed question of sewage 
disposal would be very largely disposed of, and enormous 
sums of money now expended in such disposal would be 
saved. That it is very far from being safe practice is evi- 
denced by such statistics as have already been quoted show- 
ing the serious pollution of large rivers by small streams of 
sewage inflow. It has been shown (page 30) that twenty- 
six miles of flow were not enough to protect Albany from 
the contaminated sewage of Schenectady, even when the 
rivers in question were so large as the Mohawk and Hudson, 
and with the high “ Cohoes ” falls on the route. 
Prof. Sedgwick gives an instance of similar carriage by 
the Merrimac River: 
“ In the eight months preceding August, 1892, two cases 
of typhoid were reported in Newburyport, in the subsequent 
TYPHOID INFECTION CARRIED TWENTY-FIVE MILES BY RIVER. 
Cases Reported. 
Deaths. 
Lowell. 
Lawrence. 
Newb’port. 
Lowell. 
Lawrence. 
Newb’port. 
November, 1892 
19 
14 
O 
3 
4 
O 
December, 1892 
70 
32 
4 
IO 
9 
I 
January, 1893.. 
38 
72 
28 
IO 
3 
3 
February, 1893. 
14 
23 
9 
7 
12 
0 
March, 1893.... 
4 
4 
1 
—From Mass. Reports, 1892. 
* Fischer, “ Das Wasser,” 268. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
185 
five there were ten; twenty-eight cases in January, 1893, 
were thus very unusual. These cases appeared in the same 
month, but earlier than the increase in Lawrence; they were 
therefore due to infection from Lowell, more than twenty- 
five miles distant. The people had warning of the danger 
from Lawrence.” 
In their sixth report (page 138) the Rivers Pollution Com- 
missioners of Great Britain say: “ We are led to the inevit- 
able conclusion that the oxidation of the organic matter in 
sewage proceeds with extreme slowness even when the sewage 
is mixed with a large volume of unpolluted water, and that 
it is impossible to say how far such water must flow before 
the sewage matter becomes thoroughly oxidized. It will be 
safe to infer, however, that there is no river in the United 
Kingdom long enough to effect destruction of sewage by 
oxidation. ” 
The inference contained in this old report is not entirely 
in accord with modern experience, for it will be shown that 
purifying changes take place with greater rapidity when 
sewage is present in water in ldrge rather than in small quan- 
tity; but the conclusion of the commissioners, that complete 
purification is impossible within reasonable length of flow, is 
certainly the accepted doctrine of to-day. We no longer 
look entirely to the chemical examination for our informa- 
tion, and we recognize other elements of harmfulness than 
merely dead organic waste material, and other means of oxi- 
dation than direct atmospheric action; but we believe, as 
they did, that self-purification of streams is a process not 
to be implicitly relied on, and that simple dilution enters 
largely into the safety-factor of those who drink water from 
a polluted river. 
It must not be thought that all self-purification is abso- 
lutely denied; on the contrary, much is unquestionably ac- 
complished. Thus Prausnitz found the following changes in 186 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
number of bacteria per cubic centimetre in the water of the 
Isar River at Munich, where the velocity of current is about 
three miles per hour: 
Above Munich 531 
Ten miles below Munich 91 n 
Seventeen “ “ 4796 
Twenty-six “ “ 2378 
From the chemical standpoint much has been said and 
written upon the ability of sewage-laden streams to purify 
themselves, and authorities of great weight are to be found 
on that side. Some time since a series of analyses were 
made, by Dr. Long of Chicago, of the dilute sewage con- 
tained in the Illinois and Michigan Canal. It is to be noted 
that this canal receives its supply of water (or rather dilute 
sewage) at Bridgeport, where the pumps deliver to it the 
filthy water of the Chicago River, contaminated with a great 
portion of the sewage of Chicago. From Bridgeport the 
water “ flows along the level to Lockport, twenty-nine miles 
below, requiring about a day'for its passage.” It receives 
no dilution on the way and is frequently agitated by passing 
boats. “ After passing Lockport the water descends to 
Joliet through four locks, and falls over a dam seven feet in 
height to point of collection. There is a fall of 58.2 feet in 
a distance of four miles, and no dilution takes place on the 
way.” The experiments with this canal-water have been 
both numerous and thorough, and judging from the mean 
results there is good ground for the statement that very 
considerable self-purification takes place during the flow of 
thirty-three miles. 
I have long been of the opinion, however, that what may 
be true for dilute sewage does not hold good as we approach 
the limit of potable water. 
In other words, so far as purification of a water by the NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
187 
natural processes of oxidation is concerned, I believe that 
the rate of such purification varies directly as the amount of 
sewage contamination. Given a stream with a certain 
amount of pollution, the per cent of such pollution which 
must disappear per mile of flow will continually decrease as 
the stream flows on. 
To return to Dr. Long’s figures. The analyses as given 
by him are as follows, in parts per million: 
At Bridgeport: 
Free Am. 
Albu. Am. 
Oxygen 
Consumed. 
June 
26 
O.64 
12.0 
July 
3 
2.7 
0.52 
6.8 
17 
25.0 
* r-5° 
22.4 
24 
5-5 
0-37 
12.6 
3i 
23.0 
1.76 
23.2 
Aug. 
7 
26.0 
1.50 
16.8 
14 
29.0 
1.64 
32.0 
21 
27.2 
1.50 
28.0 
28 
1.90 
35-2 
At Lockport: 
June 26 
0.56 
11.36 
July 3 
2.4 
0.42 
7.20 
17 
0.72 
12.80 
24 
9-2 
0.47 
14.80 
3i 
0.72 
10.70 
Aug. 7 
0.48 
9.60 
14 
15-2 
0.88 
9.76 
21 
0.84 
10.80 
28 
0.88 
12.40 
At Joliet: 
June 26 
17 
0.46 
7-36 
July 3 
1.8 
0.46 
9.76 
17 
i3-o 
0.44 
14.50 
31 
9-2 
0.44 
5.68 188 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
Aug. 7 
7-5 
0.42 
5-84 
i4 
9-8 
0.46 
5.76 
21 
9-o 
0.11 
0.52 
28 
0.32 
6.80 
Plotting these in graphic form they assume the shape 
shown on the accompanying charts, pages 189, 190, 191. 
The change in lake-level at various dates, together with 
other disturbing influences, caused comparatively clean water 
to reach the pumps at times, and we, therefore are furnished 
with data governing the purification of several variously con- 
taminated waters, while flowing under constant conditions. 
It will be noticed that the rate of purification per mile 
for the more grossly contaminated samples is much greater 
than that for those comparatively pure. Thus, during the 
flow from Bridgeport to Lockport the sample of July 3d loses 
11.2 per cent of its free ammonia and 19.3 per cent of its 
albuminoid ammonia, while the sample of August 28th loses 
55.5 per cent free ammonia and 53.7 per cent albuminoid 
ammonia while flowing the same distance. 
Even the best of these waters of the Illinois and Mich- 
igan Canal is very far from being potable, and we may con- 
sequently look for still further reduction in the purification 
rate as we near the potable limit. My experience with the 
waters of large streams contaminated with city sewage leads 
me to the belief that self-purification is exceedingly slow. 
The changes which take place in undiluted sewage are 
very rapid, as may be seen from the table given on page 192. 
In speaking of the apparent self-purification from organic 
matter of the river “ Wear,” Frankland points out that a 
large amount of water charged with iron from the coal- 
workings finds its way into the stream, and he calls atten- 
tion to the potency of iron in various forms for the removal 
of organic matter from water.* 
*J. Chem. Soc. xxxvn. 529. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
SELF-PURIFICATION IN ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANA 190 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
SELF-PURIFICATION IN ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
SELF-PURIFICATION IN ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANA IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
CHANGES OCCURRING IN FRESH SEWAGE UPON STANDI * 
Date 
Free Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrites and 
Nitrates. 
Bacteria 
per c.c. 
March n, 10.30 A. m. .. 
22.5 
9-7 
3-5 
1,190,000 
“ “ 12.30 P. M. . . 
25.0 
IO.O 
31 
1,085,000 
“ “ 3 P. M... 
25-5 
IO. I 
2.9 
1,505,000 
“ “ 6 P. M. . . 
28.5 
IO. I 
2-5 
1,530,000 
“ 12, 8 A. M. . . 
49-5 
10.8 
0-3 
20,475,000 
“ “ 12 M.. . 
50.0 
11 • 3 
0.2 
23,100,000 
“ “ 5 P. M. . . 
50.0 
10.2 
20,000,000 
‘ ‘ 13, IO.3O A. M. . . 
51 -o 
10.0 
12,810,000 
“ 14, IO.3O A. M. . . 
50 0 
9-5 
1 r.2^1;,000 
“ 15, IO.3O A. M. . . 
50.0 
9 3 
6,825,000 
“ l6, IO.3O A. M.. . 
50.0 
9-3 
4,485,000 
“ 18, IO.3O A. M.. . 
51.0 
8-3 
3,420,000 
“ 19, IO.3O A. M. . . 
52.0 
8.4 
2,341,000 
We have seen that the amount of oxygen dissolved in 
a water need not be large in order to permit the purifica- 
tion changes inaugurated by nature to go on; but in the 
event of the supply of oxygen being entirely cut off, putre- 
factive reactions are set up with very undesirable results. 
An interesting case of this kind is reported by Dr. 
Leeds as occurring during the winter of 1882-3. The ex- 
ceedingly bad taste and smell of the Philadelphia water was 
found by him to have been due to a superabundance of 
putrescible material, at a time when the dissolved oxygen 
was unusually small in quantity. The rainfall of the late 
autumn and early winter had been very slight, thus pro- 
ducing a low state of the river. Polluted water in extraor- 
dinary quantity had been admitted by the emptying of 
sundry dams and canal levels, and the atmosphere was cut 
off from direct action upon the river by a continuous coating 
of ice. Under these circumstances the foul-smelling com- 
pounds well known to form when organic matter decom- 
poses out of contact with air were produced in large quan- 
* Mass. Bd. Health, 1894. NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
193 
tity, to the great discomfort of the water-consumers. So 
considerable in amount were the gaseous products in this 
instance that it was possible to ignite them as they escaped 
from holes in the ice. The flame produced by igniting the 
gas issuing from a penknife-puncture of the white hollows 
under the ice is described as being usually six inches high, 
but once it was “ fully a yard high.” * 
A curious instance of similar character was reported in 
the Chicago papers of November 2, 1894. Refuse matter 
had accumulated in so great quantities in the Chicago River 
that the available oxygen was far too small in quantity for 
its proper oxidation. Gaseous and inflammable products of 
sub-aqueous putrefaction resulted, which upon ignition at the 
surface became almost dangerous to shipping. “ The tug 
A. Mosher was towing the schooner Ford River out of the 
South Fork, when both boats were surrounded by the fire, 
which was consuming the gases rising to the surface in huge 
bubbles.” 
Judged from the bacteriological standpoint, a consider- 
able monthly and seasonable variation will be observed in 
the relative purity of running streams. During the low water 
of summer, although the relative volume of sewage-inflow is 
large, yet the absence of surface-washings, due to storms or 
melting snow, usually causes diminution in the number of 
bacteria present; yet in the case of one wide but shallow 
river with which the author is familiar, the summer counts 
exceed those of winter, especially in the vicinity of towns, 
owing doubtless to the great sewage addition showing itself 
more clearly during the stage of low water. 
The river Seine at Paris shows the following variations 
in number of bacteria per cubic centimetre, the estimations 
*J. Frank Inst, lxxxvi. 26. 194 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
having been made at Ivry, just above the city, and at two 
points within the city but above the inflow from the main 
sewers: 
Ivry. 
Austerlitz Bridge. 
Chaillot. 
Winter 
43*500 
48,890 
91,128 
Spring 
33,440 
71,845 
Summer 
41,635 
144,650 
Autumn 
43.340 
53,965 
139,700 
Mean 
31.780 
44,482 
111,831 
Percy Frankland gives the following counts of bacteria 
per cubic centimetre in Thames water collected at Hampton: 
1886. 
1887. 
18 8. 
January 
30,800 
92,000 
February 
6,700 
40,000 
March .... .... 
.... 11,415 
30,900 
66,000 
April 
52,100 
13,000 
May 
2,100 
1,900 
June 
2,200 
3.5oo 
July 
3,000 
2,500 
1,070 
August 
7,200 
3,000 
September .... 
16,700 
1,740 
October.: 
6,700 
1,130 
November 
81,000 
11,700 
December 
19,000 
10,600 
At times it chances that some substance of especially 
marked smell or taste becomes mingled with the general 
mass of sewage contaminating a water, and a lively sense of 
pollution immediately takes possession of the consumers. 
For instance, some years since, a paper-mill dumped refuse 
containing a little carbolic acid into a tributary of the Pas- 
saic River, at a point above the common intake of the cities 
of Newark, Hoboken, and Jersey City. So strong was the NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
195 
odor and taste communicated to the supplies of the three 
cities that use of the water for drinking purposes was for a 
time discontinued. The quantity of carbolic acid consumed 
by each individual using the water was well-nigh infinitesimal 
and beyond possibility of doing ha'rm, yet serious objection 
was made to the “ pollution of a stream which was already 
laden with the sewage of fifty thousand persons residing at 
the city of Paterson, only eighteen miles above. 
Again: The city of Cleveland, O., takes its Lake Erie 
water from an intake situated beyond the breakwater, and 
the city sewage passes into the artificial harbor and thence 
is delivered into the lake at a point well down the east shore. 
It might be thought that there was little chance of sewage 
working so far westward against the general trend of current, 
but it so happens that oily material from the Standard Oil 
Company’s works constitutes a portion of the city sewage, 
and it has been noticed that a petroleum taste is given the 
water when the direction of the wind causes an accumulation 
of sewage in the harbor, which sewage is afterwards per- 
mitted to rapidly escape into the lake upon change in the 
weather. In each of these cases the special material was but 
a harmless indicator of the presence of the unrecognized but 
far more dangerous sewage pollution, yet the public strongly 
objected to the one and calmly accepted the constant pres- 
ence of the other. 
It will be remembered that some years ago, about 1879, 
a portion of Boston’s water-supply was considered in great 
danger of contamination with sulphuric acid, owing to the 
burning of chemical works situated upon one of the tribu- 
taries to Mystic Pond, whereby some fifty tons of oil of 
vitriol were washed into the stream. Mystic Pond is about 
eight miles below the site of the works, and mill-ponds in- 
tervene. Marked acidity was noticed at varying points in 
the course of the stream and intervening ponds, but no trace 196 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
of acid remained by the time Mystic Pond itself was reached. 
This instance has been often dwelt upon to shoM how 
thoroughly nature takes care of even the stable inorganic 
additions to surface-waters; but, as a companion-picture, 
the following is cited as a case in which purification was not 
nearly so rapid. 
On November 18, 1886, a cyclone struck the main build- 
ing of a sulphuric-acid establishment situated in northern 
New York and caused several hundred carboys of oil of vitriol 
to escape into a small neighboring pond of 150,000 gallons 
capacity. Some sixty or seventy feet south of this pond, and 
upon a level ten feet lower, is another pond of about 450,000 
gallons capacity, the water from which is used for boiler 
purposes by a large fertilizer manufactory. The ponds are 
separated by a heavy roadway embankment of, say, fifty 
feet in width. Undoubted and violent corrosion of new 
boilers having taken place at the fertilizer establishment, an 
investigation was inaugurated, and as a result a suit for 
damages was begun. 
Upon analysis made by the author on February n, 1887, 
nearly three months after the accident, the quantity of acid 
(H2S04) in the lower pond was found to be 385 parts per 
million of water, and, as was to have been expected, the 
action of such water upon metals was most marked. The 
material through which percolation had taken place was prin- 
cipally shale and partly sandy soil. The outlet of the lower 
pond varied with the season, but was an average stream 
of a foot or two in diameter. 
# 
On September 26, 1887, the acidity at the outlet had 
fallen to zero, but in two trenches dug on the north side 
of the pond toward the acid-works, the acidity showed 1083 
and 772 parts per million respectively. 
On March 29, 1889, over two years after the accident, 
the water in the trenches above referred to indicated 363 NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
197 
parts of acid per million, and the pond itself had again be- 
come acid to the extent of 28 parts per million. 
My examinations ended here, but another chemist made 
an examination on May 21, 1889, and found an acidity in 
the pond-water of 1.23 per million. 
Of course these ponds are, with their small outlets, very 
far from being running streams, and the amount of acid origin- 
ally dumped into the upper one bore a large ratio to the 
contained water; but when we dwell upon the Mystic Pond 
incident, and find that it was a question of days only until 
the more immediate mill-ponds freed themselves from con- 
tamination, we are impressed with the fact that nature can- 
not always do her work with uniform speed, and that at 
times her powers may be seriously overtaxed. The ponds 
which we have been considering did not communicate, and 
the acidity of the lower one was caused entirely by infiltra- 
tion through considerable shaly material. The variation in 
acidity was doubtless due to the disturbing influence of al- 
ternately dry and rainy weather. What is most to be noted, 
however, is the great length of time during which the acidity 
lasted. 
Sundry laws have been passed in various countries, from 
time to time, dealing with the question of prevention, of 
river-contamination, but none of them, perhaps, is more 
sweeping than the German act of July i, 1894. It prohibits 
the discharge into rivers of— 
(a) Substances of such a nature that their introduction 
may give rise to an infectious disease. 
(b) Substances of such a nature, or in such quantities, 
that their introduction may involve an injurious pollution of 
the water or the air, or a decided annoyance to the public. 
A special officer of the province is to determine as to the 
things and quantities covered by this act. WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
The English laws, adopted upon recommendation of the 
Rivers Pollution Commission (see report of that body), are too 
long for insertion here. They are quite detailed in character 
and have been criticised as being too severe to be effective. 
In America not so much has been accomplished along 
this line. At a meeting held September 25, 1894, of the 
American Public Health Association, the following resolu- 
tions were adopted: 
“ WHEREAS, It is the sense of the American Public 
Health Association that the pollution of potable water in 
America has reached such a point that the National Gov- 
ernment should be asked to take cognizance of the matter, 
with the view of devising means of prevention and relief; 
therefore, be it 
“ Resolved, That this Association memorialize the Congress 
of the United States, and ask that they shall authorize the ap- 
pointment by the President of a competent commission, clothed 
with power to fully investigate the whole subject of the pollu- 
tion of rivers and lakes by municipal and manufacturing waste, 
and provided with sufficient means to enable them to con- 
duct the examination in such a manner as shall be deemed 
best, the results of said examination to be published from 
time to time for the public information. 
“ Resolved, That in view of the danger to the public 
health by the sewage contamination of our fresh-water lakes, 
rivers, and streams, this Association memorialize the differ- 
ent federal governments, as well as the State and provincial 
governments, to pass laws prohibiting the contamination of 
these water-supplies by sewage from cities, towns, and vil- 
lages, and compel them to provide some means for the treat- 
ment and oxidation of this sewage before emptying it into 
these places.” 
In Pennsylvania the State Board of Health proposed the 
enactment of a law from which the following is extracted: NATURAL PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
199 
“ It shall be unlawful to put the carcass of any dead 
animal, or the offal from any slaughter-house, butcher’s es- 
tablishment, or packing-house, or any putrid animal sub- 
stance, or unpurified sewage, or human excrement, or other 
polluting matter, such as will render water injurious to 
health, into the water of, or upon the ice of, any pond, lake, 
stream, or river in this Commonwealth used as a source of 
water-supply by any city, borough, or village, within thirty 
miles of the point where such supply is taken, or to place 
any of the said polluting substances. on the banks of any 
such pond, lake, stream, or river, or the feeders thereof, 
within five miles of the point where such supply is taken. 
“ The State Board of Health shall have the general super- 
vision of all springs, wells, ponds, lakes, streams, or rivers, 
together with the waters feeding the same, used by any 
town, village, or city as a source of water-supply, with ref- 
erence to their purity, and shall examine the same from time 
to time and inquire what, if any, pollutions exist, and their 
causes.” 
Highly desirable as it would be to keep the waters of 
our great rivers in their natural condition of potable purity, 
the enormous expense of attaining to even an approximation 
to that state of things should be considered, and the possi- 
bility of causing great injustice to established institutions 
must be also borne in mind. 
Very large centres of population are already in existence 
which turn their sewage directly into the river upon the 
banks of which they stand. The up-stream city might well 
complain should it be forced, at great expense, to establish 
sewage-disposal plants, when the town below, for much less 
money, could secure a superior water from some pure inland 
source. 
To the author’s way of thinking, a land should be looked 
upon as watered by its smaller lakes, its springs, and its 200 
WA TER-S UP PL Y. 
brooks, and sewered by its great, especially its navigable, 
rivers. Its water-sources should be protected by law with 
exceeding care, and no river or stream should be added to 
its list of drains except after proper consideration by the 
State Board of Health, followed by legislative permission. CHAPTER V. 
RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
SAUSSURE has shown that a part of the water raised into 
the atmosphere resembles soap-bubbles. 
Clouds are composed of small vesicles, of which water 
forms the envelope. Every vesicle that rises from the sea 
must contain a small quantity of the solid matter which was 
dissolved in the sea-water. Similar vesicles also form on 
lakes, streams, and rivers, and the proportion of solid matter 
taken up in a given space will vary according to the relative 
proportions of these original vesicles that enter into the 
composition of the clouds.* 
Beyond this stated source of solid matter in rain-water, 
there is to be considered the large quantities of dust of all 
kinds continually carried into the atmosphere by the winds, 
and washed out therefrom by the falling drops. In the 
vicinity of large towns, various products of incomplete com- 
bustion and of industrial waste are added to the atmos- 
pheric impurities, and are precipitated along with the more 
commonly occurring dust.f 
The presence of soot in the air causes increase in the rain- 
water of such impurities as sulphuric acid and ammonia, by 
what appears to be direct absorption of such material by 
* Angus Smith, “ Air and Rain,” 233. 
f The English Alkali Act permits the presence of HC1 to the limit of 0.2 
grains, and of S03 to the limit of 4 grains in each cubic foot of air, taken at 
the foot of the stack of such industrial plants as generate such waste-products. 202 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the soot. This is shown by Mabery in the following analysis 
of the air of Cleveland, Ohio:* 
WEIGHT IN MILLIGRAMMES, PER LITRE OF AIR. 
Soot. 
87.5 
45.2 
iii.3 
41.8 
Sulphuric Acid. 
15-2 
6.3 
21.2 
13-9 
Ammonia. 
.070 
.OIO 
.120 
.003 
On September 8, 1894, there occurred the first rain, after 
the longest period of drought that had been experienced in 
the State of New York during forty years. Many forest- 
fires had occurred, and the atmosphere had been exceedingly 
hazy for weeks. 
The author collected rain-water, on the above date, in 
the Catskill Mountains, and the quantity of oily, sooty ma- 
terial it contained was very striking. 
The presence of iodine in the rain and surface-waters of 
certain districts has been known for years, and it has been 
claimed, but not satisfactorily proven, that there is a rela- 
tion between the occurrence of goitre and cretinism and the 
absence of iodine in the drinking-waters of the places where 
such diseases are most commonly found.f 
The various germs floating in the air, and ready to be 
carried down by the first shower, do not play a very material 
role from the hygienic standpoint, partly because of the im- 
probability of their being pathogenic in character, and partly 
because of the germicidal power of the direct sunlight to 
which they have been so thoroughly exposed. 
Nevertheless, it may be of passing interest to give the 
latest official figures issued by the Montsouris Observatory, 
France: 
* J. Am. Chem. Soc. xvii. .3. 
f Angus Smith, “ Air and Rain,” 241, RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
203 
BACTERIA PER CUBIC METRE OF AIR AT MONTSOURIS. 
* 
(Average for ten years.) 
January 160 
February 145 
March 225 
April 310 
May 305 
June 355 
July 465 
August 455 
September 310 
October 190 
November 195 
December.., 165 
Mean 275 
A comparison of country and city air shows the following 
number of bacteria per cubic metre: 
Montsouris 275 
Centre of Paris 6040 
There is a daily maximum of bacteria at 2 P.M and a 
minimum at 2 A.M.* 
* Miquel gives the following interesting comparison, in terms of bacteria 
per cubic metre, between the air of the Paris sewers and that of the public 
streets : 
Air of the Sewers. 
Air of the Streets. 
Bacteria. Moulds. 
Bacteria. 
Moulds. 
Winter 
3,210 
599 
Spring 
11,085 
865 
Summer 
12,070 
2,340 
Autumn 
*5.400 1,550 
7.365 
2,320 
Mean 
8,435 
1,530 
An interesting observation was made upon the air of the St. Antoine 
hospital, Paris, showing how large a fraction we retain of the bacteria we 
respire : 
Bacteria per Cubic Metre of Air. 
Before respiration 20,700 
After “ 40 204 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
As would have been expected, the Montsouris observa- 
tions found that the amount of carbon dioxide present in 
the air of the city was greater during the day, while in the 
country these relations were reversed. 
Rain-water collected twenty-five miles from London is 
reported as giving the following analytical results, for an 
average of seventy-three samples: 
Organic carbon 99 per million. 
Organic nitrogen 22 “ “ 
Ammonia .50 “ “ 
Nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites.. . .07 “ “ 
Chlorine.... 6.30 “ “ 
Total solids 39-50 “ “ 
Filhol found the following amounts of ammonia in rain- 
water collected near the city of Toulouse: 
January 0.60 per million. 
February 0.82 “ “ 
March 0.83 “ “ 
April 0.44 “ “ 
May 0.55 “ “ 
June 0.77 “ “ 
In the city of Toulouse itself the reading for February 
was 6.60 per million. 
These figures show the marked difference between city 
and country rain. 
Angus Smith and Boussingault place the average amount 
of ammonia in the rain of temperate climates as 0.5 per 
million. 
The monthly variation in the chlorine contained in rain- 
water collected at Troy, N. Y., is given in the following 
table, the determination having been made in a mixture of 
the entire rainfall for each month: RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
205 
January 2.50 per million. 
February 1.07 “ “ 
March 1.55 “ “ 
April 0.75 “ “ 
May 1.25 “ “ 
June 1.15 “ “ 
July I.05 “ “ 
August 2.00 “ “ 
September 0.60 “ “ 
October 3.00 “ “ 
November 2.25 “ “ 
December 2.50 “ “ 
Mean 1.64 per million. 
Even casual inspection will often show that rain-water is 
a long way from being chemically pure, and, high as this 
“ water from the heavens” is rated in the public mind, it is 
frequently polluted, when delivered for use, to an extent 
quite surprising to the collector of the supply. 
The author has often noted the confidence with which 
people will make use of water from a foul cistern, even when 
the odor of the water is strongly objectionable, because of 
entire faith in the purity of its original source. 
Thus water from a dirty cistern in West Troy showed the 
following analysis. In appearance the water was good. 
Free ammonia 1*050 per million. 
Albuminoid ammonia 175 “ “ 
Chlorine 2.000 “ “ 
Nitrogen as Nitrites strong trace 
Nitrogen as Nitrates 0.0 per million. 
Required oxygen 2.25 “ “ 
Total residue 20.00 “ “ 
The roof upon which the rain is caught is a twofold 
cause of impurity in the collected water; first, because of 206 
WA TER-SUP PL Y. 
the material of which it is composed, and, second, because 
of the foreign substances that may settle thereupon. 
In cities, the amount of street-dust blown upon the roof, 
and afterwards washed into the cistern, is much greater than 
is commonly supposed. Soot, excrement of birds (often a 
large item), fallen leaves, and various mossy growths are 
among the sundry additions to be found in a roof-collected 
water. 
A question of the first importance in considering a rain- 
water supply is the material out of which the walls of the 
storage cistern are to be made. Slate or stone-ware naturally 
suggest themselves as the most suitable materials, but they 
are not often available, especially if the cistern be a large 
one. Cement linings, particularly for underground struct- 
ures, are by far the most common, and the objection that 
the lime in them may somewhat increase the hardness of 
the water is not of much weight, in view of their convenience 
and low cost. 
Tanks of wood serve their purpose well, provided they 
be kept full; but if there be great fluctuation in the water- 
line, organic development is liable to occur, and the tank 
itself falls out of repair. The city of New Orleans possesses 
many tanks of cypress-wood. 
Cisterns of metal are open to a number of objections. 
Iron rusts and colors the water; lead is dissolved by rain- 
water very energetically, and is consequently highly objec- 
tionable; zinc is attacked, and also galvanized iron. Tin 
would be a suitable metal, but pure tin would be too expen- 
sive, and “ tin-plate ” would not be sufficiently substantial 
for such use. 
When the controlling circumstances demand a metallic- 
lined cistern, the metal chosen should be thoroughly coated 
with a good asphaltum paint. 
The commonly employed delivery-pipe which dips into, RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
20 7 
and remains in permanent contact with, the water of the 
cistern, should also be coated within and without like the 
cistern walls. 
It is exceedingly important that every cistern should be 
inspected and cleaned frequently, and upon no point does 
the public require more instruction than this. The writer 
could give instances of the grossest kind of pollution of 
cistern-water, arising from ignorant neglect of what would 
seem very simple and self-evident precautions. 
One form of underground cistern which has been very 
widely favored in the past is that belonging to the “ filter- 
ing ” type. It is constructed by simply dividing the cistern 
into two chambers by a vertical brick-wall. Water enters 
one of these divisions and is drawn from the other after per- 
colation through the dividing wall. Such an arrangement 
cannot be too strongly condemned. The wall is a mere 
strainer at the best; it cannot be properly cleaned, and it 
gives a very false sense of security. The very worst case of 
contaminated water the writer ever saw came from just such 
a cistern. 
The suitable location of an underground cistern is a 
matter that one might think could be safely left to the good 
sense of the average householder; but such is very far from 
being the fact. The writer examined one case in which, on 
account of a defective lining and a leaky sewer, a portion of 
the house-drainage was returned to the house along with 
the cistern-water and used for household purposes. In an- 
other instance an inclined cesspool was observed located in 
a bank ten feet above and fifteen feet to the west of the pit 
furnishing the family’s supply of water. 
Dr. Smart made a valuable report to the National Board 
of Health on the rain-water supply of New Orleans, in which 
he says that he found the wooden cisterns frequently lo- 208 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
cated “ in unventilated inclosures, rank with the emanations 
of unclean privies.” 
While its softness recommends it for use in the laundry, 
and while the absence of lime-salts renders it desirable for 
cooking, rain-water is, on the whole, not to be considered 
so suitable as a pure ground or surface-water for general 
domestic supply. 
Ice, especially in America, is unquestionably to be ranked 
as an article of food, and the enormous quantity of it con- 
sumed may be inferred from the fact that very recently an 
“ ice trust ” has been established, under the laws of Maine, 
with a capital of twelve and a half millions of dollars. 
Throughout the colder sections of the country “ natural 
ice” controls the market almost completely, and the dealers 
supplying the same “ harvest their crop ” from the first sheet 
of water they find conveniently located, without the least 
inquiry as to its suitable condition; thinking, if they think 
at all, that the process of freezing eliminates all objectionable 
features that the water may chance to possess. The author 
has examined ice from ice-houses deriving their supplies from 
canals, barnyard ponds, and the like—localities from which 
no one would ever dream of drawing a supply of water. To 
show the thoughtlessness of some of the large dealers, let it 
be said that in the short reach of the Hudson River extend- 
ing from Troy to Coxsackie, a distance of twenty-seven 
miles, there are sixty-eight large ice-houses, storing 1,408,- 
000 tons of ice. All of these houses take their ice from the 
river within the influence of the sewage of the cities of Troy 
and Albany and of various smaller towns. 
There is a law of Massachusetts, enacted in 1886, to 
prevent the sale of impure ice: 
“ Upon complaint in writing of not less than twenty-five 
consumers of ice which is cut, sold, and held for sale from RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
209 
any pond or stream in this commonwealth, alleging that said 
ice is impure and injurious to health, the State Board of 
Health may appoint a time and place for hearing parties to 
be affected, and give due notice thereof to such parties, and. 
after such hearing, said board may make such orders con- 
cerning the sale of said ice as in its judgment the public 
health requires.” 
Reference has already been made (page 180) to the small 
quantity of purification to be expected from the freezing of 
water when judged by chemical standards; and Dr. Prud- 
den has also shown how very imperfect the result is when 
viewed as a bacteriological question.* He gives the follow- 
ing experimental results for the bacillus of typhoid fever: 
Bacteria per Cubic Centimetre 
yet living in the melted ice. 
Before freezing Innumerable 
Frozen 11 days 1,019,403 
“ 27 “ 336,457 
“ 42 “ 89,795 
“ 69 “ 24,276 
“ 77 “ 72,930 
“ 103 “ 7,348 
Also: 
Before freezing 378,000 
Frozen 12 hours 164,780 
“ 3 days 236,676 
“ 5 “ 21,416 
“ 8 “ 76,032 
He found alternate freezing and thawing more fatal to 
bacterial life than a more prolonged period of continuous 
freezing.f 
* Medical Record, March 26, 1887. 
f Professor Dewar finds that bacterial life is very little affected by low tem- 
peratures. He says: “1 have submitted putrefying blood, milk, seeds, etc., 
for the space of an hour to a temperature of — 182° C.” (i.e., the boiling-point 
of liquid oxygen) "but found that they afterwards went on putrefying or 
germinating, as the case happened to be.” 210 
IVA TER-S UP PL Y. 
As concerning the relative merits of transparent and snow 
ice, Prudden gives the following determinations of bacteria 
per cubic centimetre contained in two varieties of ice cut 
from the same cake: 
Bacteria per Cubic Centimetre 
in the melted ice. 
j Transparent ice 46 
{ Snow-ice 10,020 
{Transparent ice... 3,192 
Snow-ice 15,624 
J Transparent ice 2,322 
| Snow-ice 55,062 
{Transparent ice 218 
Snow-ice 9,690 
j Transparent ice 918 
( Bubbly-streak ice 26,049 
The white ice is richer in bacteria, because it contains 
large quantities of air, and therefore is capable of more 
readily supporting the aerobic varieties. 
After extended experiments with both harmless and 
disease-producing bacteria, Prudden concludes: 
“ While no absolute percentage of destruction can be 
given which will indicate the degree to which water con- 
taining bacteria usually purifies itself from them in the act 
of freezing, experimental data justify the belief that in or- 
dinary natural waters there may be a purification of about 
ninety per cent.* The effect of freezing may in a general 
way be compared to that of filtration, but there is a very 
significant difference between them. By filtration, the var- 
ious species, dangerous and harmless, are eliminated with 
about equal efficiency, while in the purification by freezing 
the dangerous disease-producing species may be retained, 
* Bordoni Uffreduzzi finds that ice taken from the river Dora at Turin 
always contains ninety per cent less organisms than the river-water. RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
211 
while more or less of the harmless forms may be destroyed. 
Freezing may act as a selective filtration.” * 
The slower the formation of ice, and the deeper the water 
on which it forms, the better will be its quality, other things 
being equal. As the rate of formation decreases as the ice 
thickens, it follows that the lower portion of a thick layer 
is purer than the upper. Dr. Drown has strikingly shown 
the progressive improvement in quality from the top down- 
ward, by the analysis of successive fractions of a block of ice 
which was divided into five layers. 
It is a widespread habit among ice dealers to cut holes in 
the ice-field and permit the water to flood the field and 
freeze on top. The thickness of the “crop” is rapidly 
built up by this means, but the water so frozen is frozen as 
a whole, and the impurity of the resulting ice is necessarily 
equal to that of the water from which it is formed. 
Similar objection is properly made to the ice from very 
shallow ponds and flooded meadows, for there is manifestly 
in these cases little or no chance for the impurities of the 
water to free themselves from the thickening ice, which fre- 
quently forms to the very bottom of the pond. 
A widely talked-of instance of illness produced by ice 
occurred some years ago at Rye Beach, N. H. The contam- 
ination of the ice, which was gathered from a marsh, seemed 
to have been marsh-mud and decomposing sawdust. The 
data given the author by the local physician stated that dur 
ing the season some five hundred people at the hotel con- 
sumed this ice for six weeks. “ Of these, twenty-six adults 
were known to manifest grave and continued symptoms. A 
large number, probably the majority of the guests, drank the 
contaminated water with apparent impunity.” No one under 
f See also page 180. 212 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
the age of ten years was afflicted. The symptoms were gid- 
diness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, severe abdominal pain, 
fever, loss of appetite, and mental depression. The analy- 
tical results were: 
Ice. Pond-water. 
Free ammonia .208 .197 
Albuminoid ammonia .704 .597 
Mineral residue 78.0 649.6 
Organic residue 57.2 80.0 
Total residue 135.2 729.6 
Finally, let it be distinctly stated that the only proper 
rule to follow is never to harvest ice from a source from 
which it is unsafe to drink the water.* 
Artificial ice is making very rapid strides toward popular- 
ity, and if its manufacturers would confine themselves to the 
use of distilled water as a basis for their product, there is no 
question but that the confidence of the people would be well 
placed and permanently retained. 
Unfortunately there is a quantity of artificial ice offered 
for potable use that is made from very ordinary water; and, 
inasmuch as the method of formation causes the water used 
to freeze as a whole, all the impurities of the water are re- 
tained and concentrated in the centre of the cake of ice, that 
being the last portion to solidify. Unless the water em- 
ployed be distilled, artificial ice must, of necessity, be more 
impure than natural ice frozen from the same water. 
Snow can be considered only as an indirect source of water- 
supply, but as such it assumes a position of some impor- 
tance. The water from melted snow is commonly more im- 
* It is curious to note that the ice-supply for the island of Teneriffe is 
obtained from a cave ioo feet long, 30 feet broad, and 10 to 15 feet high, situated 
on the “ Peak,” 10,000 feet above the sea. RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
213 
pure than rain-water from the same locality, for the reason 
that its flakes act better than the spherical rain-drops for en- 
tangling impurities suspended in the atmosphere, and their 
low temperature is conducive to the absorption of ammonia. 
Analyses of city and country snows from the same general 
locality show marked differences which are illustrated in the 
results obtained from samples gathered in the open country 
and in the city of Troy, N. Y.: 
City Snow. 
(Troy, N. Y.) 
Country Snow. 
(Menands Station.) 
Free ammonia 
Albuminoid ammonia 
Nitrogen as nitrates 
Nitrogen as nitrites 
Chlorine 
Required oxygen 
Parts per million, 
.460 
.225 
.200 » 
Trace. 
1.87 
1.90 
Parts per million. 
■ *5 
.06 
T race. 
Slight trace. 
.60 
1.00 
Of course, as is the case with rain, the first portion of the 
fall must always contain the greatest amount of impurities. 
The chlorine in city snow (Troy, N. Y.) was thus found to 
vary during the same storm of two day’s duration. 
First day 3.05 parts per million. 
Second day 2.55 “ “ “ 
London snow was found by Coppock * to contain: 
Total solids 237.3 Per million. 
Mineral matter 89.3 “ “ 
Carbonaceous matter 156.5 “ “ 
Free ammonia 66.3 “ “ 
Albuminoid ammonia 93.0 “ “ 
The first half of the above-referred-to snowfall contained 
* Client. News, Lxxi. 92. 214 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
seventy-five per cent of the impurities. The carbonaceous 
matter was ordinary soot.* 
After snow is once upon the ground it changes in com- 
position quite rapidly, particularly in its contained ammonia. 
This change is, however, greatly influenced by the character 
of the surface upon which it rests. 
Thus, the tendency of snow to absorb impurities from 
the soil is shown by the following comparative analyses of 
samples taken from a roof and from a meadow: 
Fresh snow from roof 
Same snow after lying 
on roof two days.. 
Fresh snow from 
meadow 
Same snow after lying 
in meadow two 
days 
W 
to to un 
vO 4- O 
Free 
Ammonia. 
to M to W 
o m t-t LH 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
CO CO 
o Ln LT\ o 
Chlorine. 
trace 
trace 
trace 
trace 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrites. 
trace 
trace 
trace 
trace 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrates. 
M O 
-U CO <-n 
o O o 
Required 
Oxygen. 
On O tO 
cn m 4* to 
Total 
Residue. 
to w 10 
vO tO « *<f 
Loss on 
Ignition. 
Additional force is thus given to the saying, “ Snow is 
the poor man’s fertilizer,” and “ The fogs and snow remain 
to fatten the land.” 
The great influence that melting snow has upon spring- 
water is shown by the following analyses of a flow from a 
spring in Rensselaer County, N. Y. The water serves as an 
illustration, although it is not a “ normal ” water, as is seen 
from the high chlorine. (See table, top of opposite page.) 
The wholesomeness of snow-water has been gravely ques- 
tioned by a number of investigators; notably by Dr. Chas. 
Smart, of the U. S. Army. He holds that the malarious 
f Tissandier refers to cosmic dust found in Paris snow. Boussingault 
found in water from a heavy fog, which had lasted two and a half days, fifty 
parts of ammonia per million. RAIN, ICE, AND SNOW. 
215 
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June 
15. 10. 15. . 12. 5. 2. 6. 8. 5. 
Free ammonia trace trace .015 .010 .025 .027 .025 .01 .01 
Albuminoid ammonia.. .036 .03 .055 .035 .090 .078 .060 .04 .07 
Nitrogen in nitrites 000 .000 .000 .000 trace .000 .000 .000 .000 
Nitrogen in nitrates 116 .075 .15 .15 trace .30 .15 trace .05 
Chlorine 20.5 17.3 19. 19. 21. 20. 21.5 18. 17. 
“Required oxygen”... .000 .1 .4 r.15 1.5 1.0 .3 .1 .5 
Total solids 570. 570. 558. 534. 579. 543. 554. 553. 552. 
Loss on ignition 79. 62. 44. 114. 73. 63. 48. 52. 
Temperature F° 53.6 49 46.4 44.6 41 43.7 42 50 51.8 
Bacteria per c.c 158. 750. 1620. 2519. 166. 8520.476 
poison contained in such water is to be counted as the cause 
of mountain-fever.* 
A detailed account of an outbreak of “ aqua-malarial,” or 
mountain-fever, among U. S. troops stationed in Utah, is given 
in Buck’s “ Hygiene,” page 132. The disease is ascribed 
to the use of snow-water, and it is stated to be a widely- 
known fact among the native trappers that free use of water 
derived from the melting snow in the spring will produce the 
disorder. It is difficult, however, to entirely eliminate the 
influence of cold nights and hot days with free use of ice- 
cold water, from the presumed effect due alone to the snow. 
Dr. Frederick A. Cook,f the ethnologist of the Peary 
North Greenland Expedition, tells us that the northern 
Eskimo lives wholly on meat, about two-thirds of which he 
eats raw or frozen. The men are about five feet one and 
a half inches high, and weigh about one hundred and thirty- 
five pounds. They drink melted ice or snow for their water 
for ten months out of the twelve, and really have only two 
months out of every year of a virile existence. They never 
wash, and beyond a little rheumatism or a mild attack of la 
grippe they enjoy good health. They are fat and rounded 
like little seals. 
* Am. J. Med. Sci., Jan. 1878. 
f New York Jour, of Gynecology and Obstetrics. CHAPTER VI. 
RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER 
A VERY large number of cities derive their water-supplies 
from rivers—in Europe after careful filtration, but in Amer- 
ica usually without such purification. 
One of the important things for the consumer of such a 
water to bear in mind is that sudden and great changes in the 
character of the water are to be expected. 
For instance, the water of the Hudson River, sampled at 
a point above direct sewage-inflow (although below several 
large towns), shows the following variations: 
1894. 
Nov. 3. 
Dec. 15 
1895. 
Jan. 12. 
Feb. 5.. 
March 4 
April 5. 
April 10 
May 8.. 
June 5.. 
Sept. 20 
Oct. 30. 
owobbbbo’o oo 
in C04- W in Coin m 4- Co 
on O O CO lO in oi at on O 
Free 
Ammonia. 
hWhIOO'IO'-'hO hh O 
UiMMOOWUiOCO IJ\ CO 
0nOO<->*O<-nOOO 0^4 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
ooo 
trace 
ooo 
ooo 
trace 
trace 
trace 
trace 
ooo 
.0015 
trace 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrites. 
• "ft! 
•UnHnu«HM Mn 
• OnoncO'jio m n 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrates. 
W Ul U to • to • - 03 03 
cn O <a 'A • 4-. • • on on on 
Chlorine. 
M 02 uun 0 C» 03 03 
CO lo on O O 00 O O 
on on O O O O O in ui OO 
“ Required 
Oxygen.” 
• IOI 
on 00 +* 
Vj aa COsO CO-£* 0 
CO 00 CO OO CO l>3 00 
Total 
Residue. 
on 
in w vj coon W 4-» 00 
O m 4* CO h on 0 to on 
Loss on 
Ignition. 
ooo 
88.4 
68.8 
ooo 
ooo 
ooo 
II. 
495- 
ooo 
ooo 
Suspended 
Matter. 
(Silt.) 
4^ 
O'-U u IjS • 03 • 
•1 00 M 003 -t* • O' • 
•t*. O' • 
Temperature, 
F°. 
A river-water which is clear to-day may be muddy and 
less fit for use to-morrow. 
Another change, slow in operation but serious in result, 
is that induced by the establishment of sewerage systems in RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
217 
up-stream cities, through the growth of the population, 
which naturally sewers into the river. Touching this latter 
point, the author reported as follows upon a river-water 
proposed for city supply: 
“ Its analysis to-day is far from being a measure of its 
sanitary condition a few years from now. The cities and 
towns above are beginning to put in sewers, and the day is 
not far distant when the river will be marked by the infer- 
iority of its water.” 
Fischer gives the following seasonable variations for the 
water of the Danube: 
Suspended Material. Dissolved Material. 
Spring 
I 77.1 
Summer 
165.4 
I46.O 
Autumn 
76.5 
I78.6 
Winter 
I4.8 
199.0 
He found the Rhine water to vary between these limits 
for high and low water in 1886: ' 
Suspended material 249 to 12 
Dissolved material 246 “ 203 
Klinger’s results for the river Neckar are 
March 1888... 
Suspended Material. 
3 73 
Dissolved Material. 
272 
April 
<< 
0 
382 
June 
U 
400 
August 
a 
397 
September 
u 
65 
440 
It is to be noted that the bulk of variation lies in the 
item of suspended material, an'd that what is in solution is 
much more constant in amount. 
Below* is a statement of the number of days in each 218 
WA TEK-SUPPL Y. 
month, for 1891, that the Hudson River at Troy was 
“ dirty ” with suspended silt: 
January 17 days 
February 24 “ 
March 29 “ 
April 30 “ 
May o “ 
June o “ 
July 5 “ 
August 3 “ 
September o “ 
October o “ 
November 17 “ 
December 31 “ 
156 days 
The influence of autumn rains and the melting snows of 
winter is here well illustrated. The subjoined table is ex- 
tracted from the Engineering News of August 10, 1893, and 
shows what a large item the suspended matter of a river may 
amount to when considered in the aggregate. 
“ The first column gives the name of the river; second, 
DISCHARGE AND SEDIMENT OF LARGE RIVERS. 
River. 
Drainage 
Area, 
Square 
Miles. 
Mean 
Annual 
Discharge, 
second-feet. 
Sediment. 
Total Annual, 
Tons. 
Ratio by 
Weight. 
Height 
Column, 
one square 
mile base, 
feet. 
Depth over 
Drainage 
Area, 
inches. 
Potomac... . 
11,043 
20,160 
5,557,250 
i : 3,575 
4.0 
.00433 
Mississippi. . 
1,214,000 
610,000 
406,250,000 
1 : 1,500 
291.4 
.00288 
Rio Grande.. 
30,000 
1,700 
3,830,000 
1 : 291 
2.8 
.OOIIO 
Uruguay.... 
150,000 
150,000 
14,782,500 
1 : 10,000 
10.6 
.00085 
Rhone 
34,800 
65,850 
36,000,000 
1: i,775 
31*1 
.01071 
Po 
27,100 
62,200 
67,000,000 
x : 900 
59-0 
.01139 
Danube 
320,300 
315,200 
108,000,000 
1 : 2,880 
93-2 
•00354 
Nile 
I, 100,000 
113,000 
54,000.000 
1 : 2,050 
38.8 
.OOO42 
Irrawaddy .. 
125,000 
475,000 
291,430,000 
1 : 1,610 
209.0 
.02005 RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
219 
its drainage-area in square miles; third, the average annual 
discharge of the river in cubic feet per second. The fourth 
column gives the total amount of sediment, in tons, annually 
transported by the river; fifth, the ratio of the weight of this 
sediment to the weight of the water annually discharged; 
the sixth, the height of a column in feet, having a base of 
one square mile, that the sediment would cover; and the 
seventh, the depth in inches that the drainage-area would 
be covered if this total amount of sediment should be spread 
over it. The discharge and drainage-areas of the Rhone, Po, 
Danube, and Uruguay are taken from a paper by John Mur- 
ray in the Scottish Geographical Magazine for February, 
1887. The drainage-area of the Nile was measured by pla- 
nimeter from the best maps obtainable.” 
River-waters contaminated with special and unusual ma- 
terials are at times met with. Thus, the well-known Rio- 
Vinagre of South America contains i ioo parts of free sul- 
phuric acid and 1200 parts of free hydrochloric acid per 
million of water. The quantity of free sulphuric acid carried 
by it to the sea is over fifty tons daily. 
Some streams of Norway and Sweden furnish water so 
impregnated with infusion of woody material as to be de- 
structive of fish. Frankforter found “ tannates ” and “ gal- 
lates ” in the water of the upper Mississippi, due to the 
enormous number of logs floated down the stream from the 
great forests of the North. 
Judged also from the bacteriological side, flowing water 
will always show large variation in composition at different 
times, principally due to introduction of impurities carried 
down by storms from surface-sources. Variation will also 
be noted at different points of the length, breadth, and 
depth of the same stream, as common judgment would ex- 220 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
pect, arising from irregularities in mixing of tributary waters, 
and from changes in the rate of sedimentation. 
Dr. Beebe, of the New York City Board of Health, finds 
the bacteria in Croton water greatly increased after a storm. 
The increase is noted at the city hydrants about two days 
after the rain has fallen on the watershed. 
Ordinarily,, the bacteria are about 350 per cubic centi- 
metre, but a hard rain will raise the number as high as 7200 
per cubic centimetre. 
Tidal action has also much influence upon the variation 
in character of certain river-waters. The author has in mind 
several cities, situated upon large streams, which pump fairly 
good water during ebb-tide, but whose sewage is carried up 
stream by the reversed current of flood-tide, to and beyond 
the intakes, with exceedingly bad results. 
All such points are to be considered when selecting the 
position for a city’s intake. 
Herewith are given recent French results, showing influ- 
ence of flow upon bacterial contents of river-water: 
BACTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETRE IN SEINE WATER DURING 
A FLOW OF SEVENTY-FIVE MILES. 
Corbeil 14,000 
Choisy le Roi 67,000 
Port a l’Anglais 75,000 
Austerlitz 142,000 
Alma 438,000 
Auteuil 775,000 
Boulogne 327,000 
Suresnes 252,000 
Paris : 
AsnRres 401,000 
St. Ouen 2,040,000 
St. Denis.... 1,562,000 RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
221 
Argenteuil 3,576,000 
Poissy 391,000 
Mantes 307,000 
As supplementary to what has already been said regard- 
ing the self-purification of streams, a word may be added 
touching upon results obtained during an investigation, with 
which the author was connected, for the New York State 
Board of Health. 
The original intention with which this investigation was 
started having been to map out the zones of sewage contam- 
ination in the Mohawk-Hudson system, from the source of 
each river to Poughkeepsie, so that definite information could 
be secured as to the length of run required for the disposal 
of up-river sewage, and the relation of such self-purification 
to the question of the use of river-water for city supply, it 
is hardly necessary to state that the results, so far obtained, 
are but the small beginning of the great mass of data re- 
quired for such broad generalization. 
Meagre though they be, however, they are not without 
considerable value, and this is particularly true of the bac- 
teriological results, as prepared by Professor J. H. Stoller. 
The point already made, that the rate of self-purification 
varies directly as the extent of contamination, was based 
upon chemical considerations (page 187), but it receives confir- 
mation from the bacteriological standpoint, judging from Pro- 
fessor Stoller’s determinations. The conclusions made evi- 
dent by his work are: 
ist. The flow of six miles between Troy and Albany 
does not dispose of the contamination introduced at the 
former place. 
2d. The very gross pollution caused by the sewage of 
Albany rapidly lessens during the following ten miles, after 
which the residual impurity continues nearly constant. 222 
WA TF.R-S UPPL Y. 
This is in accord with the principle advanced during dis- 
cussion of the Chicago results, page 186. 
That the said “ residual impurity ” is an important mat- 
ter, even after the flow of many miles, may be seen upon 
consulting such statistics of water-borne disease as have been 
already given. 
RAINFALL, EVAPORATION, AND FLOW OF STREAMS. 
Rainfall is greatest within the tropics and near the sea, 
and it lessens near the poles. The average annual precipi- 
tation for the north temperate zone is usually estimated as 
35 inches. 
“ On the southerly slope of the Himalayas, northerly of 
the Bay of Bengal, at an elevation of 4500 feet, the rainfall 
for 1851 was 610 inches.” (Fanning.) Of this amount 147 
inches fell during the month of June. 
Crooks gives the following averages for annual rainfalls in 
inches: 
Madrid io 
Vienna • 18 
St. Petersburg 18.4 
Stockholm 20.4 
Berlin 22.8 
Paris 22.8 
Hanover 23.2 
London 25.2 
Rome 31.2 
Genoa 47.2 
Bombay 79.2 
Havana 92.4 
St. Domingo 109.2 
Wooded heights have usually much more precipitation 
than the plains, and, according to Frautrat, rainfall is greatest 
in evergreen forests. RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
223 
Exceptionally heavy rainfalls are not, for our purpose, 
especially worthy of record; but it may be interesting to 
note, very briefly, the following instances reported by the 
U. S. Chief Signal Officer.* 
A rain at Central City, Gilpin County, Cal., on August 
8, 1881, caused a depth of water of from four to six feet in 
the main street. 
At Wickenburg, Arizona, on August 6, 1881, in five 
hours, a dry river-bed became a torrent, running ten miles 
per hour, a mile wide, and from two to fifteen feet deep. 
At Rio Grande City, Texas, in May, 1885, in eleven 
hours, the Rio Grande River rose twenty feet, extending its 
width from one hundred yards to five miles. 
A further list of very heavy rainfalls may be found in 
Rafter and Baker, “ Sewage Disposal,” page 134. 
“ Mr. R. de C. Ward (Am. Met. Jour., March, 1892) 
states that in the memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini there is men- 
tion of the fact that an impending rainstorm was averted in 
the year 1539, on the occasion of a procession in Rome, by 
firing artillery in the direction of the clouds, which had al- 
ready begun to drop their moisture. M. Arago, the eminent 
French astronomer, states that as early as 1769 it was the 
practice in certain towns in France to fire guns to break up 
storms, but he expressed doubt as to the effectiveness of 
that method. There have been numerous learned disserta- 
tions published by the scientists of Europe within the last 
two centuries relative to the possibility of breaking the force 
of storms by the use of explosives, and the question seems 
to have been settled by a negative conclusion. 
In this country in recent years the question has assumed 
the opposite form, and the popular belief in the efficacy of 
* Senate Doc. 91, 50th Congress. 224 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
explosives as rain-producers has stimulated scientific inquiry 
and led to some costly experiments under government aus- 
pices. The basis of this theory is the statement, which large 
numbers of people accept as true, that great battles have 
been generally, if not invariably, closely followed by storms. 
This belief is deeply rooted in the popular mind, some- 
what like the various notions held by many people in rela- 
tion to the effects of the moon’s phases upon the weather. 
And it appears to be a traditional idea, for the belief that 
battles cause rain was prevalent before the invention of 
gunpowder. 
Plutarch says, “ It is a matter of current observation that 
extraordinary rains generally fall after great battles”: and 
he accounts for it on the supposition that the vapors from 
blood steam forth and cause precipitation, or that the gods 
mercifully send rain to cleanse the earth from the stains of 
warfare. 
While the question of rain-making by the use of explosives 
was under consideration at Washington the scientists of the 
Department of Agriculture made a thorough investigation 
of the subject, with all the records of the government at 
their command, and the conclusion reached was that there 
is no foundation for the opinion that days of battle were fol- 
lowed by rain any more than days when it was all quiet along 
the lines.” * 
Regarding the relation of great fires to rainfall, Prof. I. 
A. Lapham, of the U. S. Signal Service, writes of the Chi- 
cago fire as follows: 
“ During all this time—twenty-four hours of conflagration 
upon the largest scale—no rain was seen to fall, nor did any 
fall until four o’clock the next morning; and this was not a 
very considerable downpour, but only a gentle rain that ex- 
* Sage, Iowa Weather and Crop Service. RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
225 
tended over a large district- of country, differing in no 
respect from the usual rains. It was not until four days 
afterward that anything like a heavy rain occurred. It is, 
therefore, quite certain that this case cannot be referred to 
as an example of the production of rain by a great fire.” * 
The following chart and statistics f show the normal rain- 
fall for the United States, and also the same data for sep- 
arate states. 
“ In general, the rainfall decreases with the elevation 
above sea-level. This is very noticeable in passing along 
the parallel of latitude 40°. 
“ A very remarkable feature in the rainfall of the United 
States, appearing on most of the monthly maps, and dis- 
tinctly on the annual map, is the way in which certain 
peaks and ranges of mountains are outlined by the mean 
rainfall. 
“ Another series of facts of very great interest can be 
read from the maps in the consideration of the relations of 
rainfall to the leeward and windward sides of the ranges. 
This is by far the best marked on the Pacific coast, where 
the prevailing winds are distinctly from the west and reach 
the coast laden with moisture from the warm ocean. To. 
the westward, for instance, of the Sierra Nevadas on the 
annual map there is a rainfall of from 20 to 40 inches. Im- 
mediately to the eastward of this series of mountains the 
annual rainfall is only from 2 to 6 inches. Much the same 
is true of the Cascade Range, and even the Coast Range has 
* “ As a result of a long study of the rainfall of India, and perhaps no 
country affords greater advantages for the purpose, I have become convinced 
that dynamic cooling, if not the sole cause of rain, is at all events the only- 
cause of any importance, and that all the other causes so frequently appealed! 
to in popular literature on the subject, such as the intermingling of warm and 
cold air, contact with cold mountain-slopes, etc., are either inoperative or 
relatively insignificant.” {Nature, xxxtx. 583.) 
t Report of the Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau for 1891 and 1892. 226 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
RAINFALL AND SNOW OF THE UNITED STATES 
Annual and seasonal averages, seasonal variation and cubic miles for each State 
State. 
Area in j 
Square i 
Miles. ; 
Spring. 
Summer. 
Autumn. 
Winter, j 
Annual. 1 
Seasonal 
Variation. 
Cubic 
Miles. 
Inches. 
Inches. 
Inches. 
Inches, 
Inches. 
Inches. 
Alabama 
52,250 
14.9 
13.8 
10.0 
I4.9 
53-6 
i-5 
44.2 
Arizona 
113,020 
r-3 
4-3 
2.2 
3-1 
10 9 
3-3 
19.4 
Arkansas 
53,850 
14-3 
12.5 
II.O 
12.8 
50.6 
3 9 
42-5 
California 
158,360 
6.2 
0-3 
3-5 
II.9 
21.9 
40.0 
54-9 
Colorado 
103,925 
4.2 
5-5 
2.8 
2-3 
14.8 
2.4 
24.2 
Connecticut 
4,99° 
11.1 
12.5 
11.7 
H-5 
46.8 
1.1 
3-6 
Delaware 
2,050 
10.2 
11.0 
10.0 
9 6 
40.8 
1.1 
i-3 
District of Columbia. 
70 
11 0 
12.4 
9-4 
9.0 
41.8 
1.4 
0.04 
Florida 
58,680 
10.2 
21.4 
14.2 
9.1 
54-9 
2.4 
51.0 
Georgia 
59-475 
' 12.4 
15.6 
10.7 
12.7 
5i-4 
1-5 
48.2 
Idaho 
84,800 
4.4 
2.1 
3-6 
7.0 
17.1 
3-3 
22.7 
Illinois 
56,650 
10.2 
11.2 
9.0 
7-7 
38.1 
t-5 
34-0 
Indiana 
36,350 
11.0 
11.7 
9-7 
10.3 
42.7 
1.2 
24.2 
Indian Territory .... 
31,400 
10 6 
11.0 
8.9 
5-7 
36.2 
1.9 
17.7 
Iowa 
56,025 
8-3 
12.4 
8.1 
4.1 
32-9 
3-0 
28.8 
Kansas 
82,080 
8-9' 
11.9 
6.7 
3-5 
31.0 
3-4 
40.0 
Kentucky 
40,400 
12.4 
12.5 
9-7 
n.8 
46.4 
i-3 
29.3 
Louisiana 
48,720 
13-7 
15.0 
10.8 
14.4 
53-9 
1.4 
41.6 
Maine 
33.040 
11.1 
10.5 
12 3 
11.1 
45.0 
1.2 
23.2 
Maryland 
12,210 
11.4 
12.4 
10 7 
9-5 
44.0 
i-3 
8-3 
Massachusetts 
8,315 
11.6 
11-4 
n.9 
H-7. 
,46.6 
1.0 
5-9 
Michigan 
58,915 
7-9 
9-7 
9.2 
7.0 
33-8 
i-4 
3i-3 
Minnesota 
83,365 
6-5 
10.8 
5-8 
3.i 
26.2 
3-5 
34-4 
Mississippi 
46,810 
14.9 
12.6 
10.1 
15-4 
53-o 
1-5 
38.8 
Missouri 
69,415 
10.0 
12.4 
9-1 
6-5 
38.0 
1.9 
412 
Montana 
146,080 
4.2 
4.9 
2.6 
2-3 
14.0 
2.1 
32.1 
Nebraska 
77,510 
8.9 
10.9 
4.9 
2.2 
26.9 
5-o 
32.9 
Nevada 
no, 700 
2-3 
0.8 
t-3 
3-2 
7.6 
4.0 
14.4 
New Hampshire 
9,305 
9 8 
12.2 
11.4 
10.7 
44.1 
1.2 
6.3 
New Jersey 
7,815 
11.7 
13-3 
11.2 
II.I 
47-3 
1.2 
5-6 
New Mexico........ 
122,580 
1.4 
5-8 
3-5 
2.0 
12.7 
4.1 
24-5 
New York 
49>I7° 
8-5 
10.4 
9-7 
7-9 
36.5 
1-3 
28.3 
North Carolina 
52,250 
12.9 
16.6 
12.0 
12.2 
53-7 
1.4 
44'2 
North Dakota 
70,795 
4.6 
8.0 
2.8 
1-7 
17.1 
4-7 
19.1 
Ohio 
41,060 
10.0 
11.9 
9.0 
9-1 
40.0 
i-3 
25-7 
Oregon 
96,030 
9.8 
2.7 
10.5 
21.0 
44.0 
7.8 
66.7 
Pennsylvania 
45.215 
10.3 
12.7 
10 0 
9-5 
425 
i-3 
30.2 
Rhode Island....;.. 
1,250 
11.9 
10.7 
n 7 
12.4 
46-7 
1.2 
0.8 
South Carolina 
30,570 
9.8 
16.2 
9-7 
9-7 
45-4 
i-7 
21.6 
South Dakota 
77,650 
7-2 
9-7 
3-5 
2-5 
22.9 
3-9 
28.1 
Tennessee 
42,050 
13.5 
12.5 
10.2 
14-5 
50.7 
1.4 
33-4 
Texas 
265,780 
8.1 
8.6 
7.6 
Utah 
84,970 
3-4 
i-5 
2.2 
. 3-5 
10.6 
2.3 
M3 
Vermont 
9.565 
9.2 
12.2 
11.4 
9-3 
42.1 
1-3 
6.1 
Virginia 
42,450 
10.9 
12.5 
9-5 
9-7 
42.6 
i-3 
28.5 
Washington 
69,180 
8.6 
3-9 
10.5 
r6.8 
39-8 
4-3 
43-4 
West Virginia 
24,780 
10.9 
12.9 
9.0 
10.0 
42.8 
I.4 
16.6 
Wisconsin 
56,040 
7.8 
11.6 
7-8 
5-'2 
32.5 
2.2 
28.7 
Wyoming 
97.890 
4-3 
3-5 
2.2 
1.6 
11.6 
2-7 
17.9 
Total 
2,985,850 
/ 
Average 
9.2 
10.3 
8-3 
8.6 
36.3 
3.0 RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
227 
a very marked influence on the rainfall. The annual line, 
for instance, of 40 inches of rainfall passes down the coast 
from Vancouver Island almost parallel to and westward of 
the Coast Range, although for most of this distance these 
mountains are quite low. 
“ Another curious fact which may be mentioned in con- 
nection with the general rainfall of the United States is that, 
generally, the great swampy areas occur in regions of high- 
est rainfall. This is true, for instance, of the everglades of 
Florida, where the rainfall is from 50 to 70 inches per year. 
It is also true of the great swampy district lying on the 
coast of North Carolina, where the rainfall is 60 inches per 
year, and upward; also of the swampy district about the 
mouth of the Mississippi River; but is not so true of the 
celebrated swampy district lying to the west of the Missis- 
sippi along the Gulf coast. 
“ It is interesting to notice the effects of the Great Lakes 
on the rainfall visible on most of the maps. In general, 
it will be found that the rainfall is greater on the east shore 
of Lake Michigan than on the west shore. It is to be 
noted that the prevailing winds here reach the lake from 
the west. Either they gather up considerable moisture from 
the lakes which is deposited on the east shore, or, what is 
more probable, the temperature of the lake is such as to 
chill the air and cause it to deposit more of its moisture on 
the east shore than on the west. Much the same is true of 
the east shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, areas which 
are small in both cases, because the lakes themselves lie 
east and west. There is, however, a distinct increase of 
rainfall along the southeastern coast of Lake Erie and to the 
east of Lake Ontario. These features can be traced on the 
monthly maps, but more perfectly on the seasonal ones. 
The effect seems to be somewhat more marked in the cold 
seasons than in the warm, and it is a noteworthy fact that 228 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the areas of deep snows in Michigan and New York are 
found to be on the same line. The area of deep snows for 
Southern Michigan is from the middle of the west coast, in 
the vicinity of Manistee, nearly straight across the penin- 
sula; the area of deep snowfall in New York is to the east- 
ward of Lake Ontario, and, to some degree, to the south- 
ward, in the immediate vicinity of the lake. It should also 
be noted that the area for deepest snow in the United 
States not mountainous is along the south shore of Lake 
Superior, from Marquette eastward. This would quite 
agree with the suggested influence of the lakes, in that 
the air passing over Lake Superior comes largely from the 
northwest, and by the time it reaches the coast in question 
has already received a surcharge of vapor chilled by the sur- 
face of this lake. 
Another interesting point is the average rainfall for the 
entire United States. The average of all stations, by 
States, gives for spring 9.2 inches, for summer 10.3 inches, 
for autumn 8.3 inches, and for winter 8.6 inches, and a 
total for the year of about 36 inches. It appears that the 
rainfall over the United States generally is quite evenly dis- 
tributed through the year, varying in total amount for the 
seasons from 10.3 for summer to 8.3 for autumn. The 
spring and summer rainfalls are the highest; other things 
being equal the rainfalls of spring and, next to that, of sum- 
mer are the most useful for agricultural operations. 
“ With the depth given it is not difficult to get the aver- 
age total rainfall for the entire United States (excluding 
Alaska, where we have not sufficient information). For this 
purpose we may take the average for each State and mul- 
tiply it by the area of the State, including water-surfaces. 
Adding these together we get 1407 cubic miles as the aver- 
age annual total of water which descends as rain or snow in 
the United States. The figures for the areas are taken from RIVER- AND STREAM-IVA TER. 
229 
the census of 1890. The annual depth of rainfall which 
this gives is 29 inches, or less than that given by the other 
method. This is to be expected, as the other method gave 
equal weight to each political division, and these divisions 
are generally smaller in the regions of greater rainfall. 
“ To get some conception of this enormous mass of water 
we may compare it with the contents of the Great Lakes, 
and an approximate comparison is near enough. Lake On- 
tario is about 200 miles long and 70 broad, and its average 
depth is about 40 fathoms. It therefore contains about 
636 cubic miles of water. The annual rainfall would fill it 
two times and leave something over for a third time. Lake 
Michigan is about 310 by 70 miles and has an average depth 
of about 50 fathoms, and consequently contains about 1233 
cubic miles of water. The average annual rainfall would 
fill Lake Michigan and leave 174 cubic miles over. Four 
years of rainfall would probably be enough to fill all the 
Great Lakes.” (U. S. Weather Report.) 
Reports published upon State authority at times do not 
agree with the United States returns above given. Thus 
the Weather Bureau of the State of New York places the 
average annual rainfall for that State at 37.50 inches. 
The average annual rainfall for Massachusetts, as de- 
duced from long-continued observations, is given by the 
State Board of Health as 45.15 inches. 
Data for Connecticut, as published by its Board of 
Health, being averages for twenty years (1873-92), are: 
January 4.39 inches 
February 4.16 “ 
March 4.66 “ 
April 3.56 “ 
May 3.54 “ 
June 3.15 “ 
July 5.27 “ 230 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
August 5.36 inches. 
September 3.79 “ 
October 3.95 “ 
November 3.95 “ 
December.. 3.52 “ 
49.30 inches 
with a maximum of 60.26 inches in 1888, and a minimum of 
37.78 inches in 1892. 
Some observations were carried on at the weather station 
in Philadelphia in 1892 with a view to determine the effect, 
if any, of placing the rain-gauge at different elevations above 
the surface of the ground: 
TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS ON RAINFALL AT DIFFERENT 
ELEVATIONS ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE GROUND. 
Month. 
Elevation Above the Ground in Feet. 
O 
5 
IO 
15 
25 
5° 
January ... 
4-44 
3-7i 
3-62 
3-57 
3.62 
3-54 
February 
1.04 
0.87 
1.06 
0.99 
0.94 
1.14 
March 
5.06 
4-45 
4-47 
4.14 ■ 
4- 34 
3-96 
April 
2.40 
2.36 
2-45 
2.40 
2.11 
2-43 
May n. 
5-68 
5-45 
5-45 
5-52 
5-25 
5-92 
June 
2.31 
2.30 
2.28 
2.14 
2.20 
2.52 
July 
3-38 
2.89 
3-19 
3-14 
3-T9 
3-25 
August 
3-25 
3.10 
3-15 
3-13 
3.08 
3-14 
September 
2.47 
2.23 
2-33 
2.27 
2.13 
2-43 
October 
0.37 
0-35 
. 0.34 
0.36 
o-33 
0.37 
November 
6.81 
5-94 
6.66 
6.98 
6.58 
6.81 
December 
2.14 
1.76 
1.90 
2.06 
1.88 
1-95 
Totals 
39-35 
35-41 
36.90 
36.70 
35-65 
37-46 
“ The results further confirm those taken in 1891, and 
prove plainly that there is no material difference between 
50 feet elevation and the surface' of the ground. 
“ Discrepancies will be found in gauges placed in posi- RIVER- AND STREAM-WA7ER. 
tions where surrounding objects produce counter-currents 
of air. 
“ The tabulated results have been compared with those 
obtained from the gauge on the ground and the automatic 
gauge. The variations are caused by the wind acting upon 
the mast.” 
SEVERE DROUGHTS IN THE MIDDLE STATES.* 
“ Mr. C. Warren furnishes the following from records 
giving the length of the most noted dry spells in the Middle 
States: 
In the summer of 1634, 24 days, 
In the summer of 1637, 74 days, 
In the summer of 1642, 41 days. 
In the summer of 1662, 80 days. 
In the summer of 1664, 45 days. 
In the summer of 1688, 81 days. 
In the summer of 1694, 92 days. 
In the summer of 1705, 30 days. 
In the summer of 1715, 46 days. 
In the summer of 1728, 61 days, 
In the summer of 1730, 92 days. 
In the summer of 1741, 72 days. 
In the summer of 1745, 72 days. 
In the summer of 1764, 108 days. 
In the summer of 1755, 24 days. 
In the summer of 1763, 133 days. 
In the summer of 1773, 80 days. 
In the summer of 1791, 82 days. 
In the summer of 1812, 28 days. 
In the summer of 1856, 26 days. 
In the summer of 1871, 42 days. 
In the summer of 1875, 26 days. 
In the summer of 1876, 26 days. 
“ The longest drought above mentioned, which occurred 
in 1763, began on the first day of May, and many inhabi- 
tants of this country were compelled to send to Europe for 
grain and hay. 
“ These figures make Iowa’s recent drought—the worst 
the State ever knew or is likely to know in the future—seem 
mild in comparison. June 22d there was a fall of rain in 
Marshall County of 3.25 inches and no more until July 20th, 
when there was another of a twenty-fifth of an inch, making 
* Iowa Weather Service. 232 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
a dry spell of four weeks. So that our unprecedented 
drought is a mild one if it is to be compared with any one 
of dozens on record in the Eastern and Middle States. 
“ It should be noted that the longest period of drought in 
the above records occurred over a century ago, at which 
time but little progress had been made in clearing the vast 
forests, draining the ponds, tilling the fields, and making 
that section of the country habitable for civilized man. A 
careful study of records covering all the years since the 
early settlement of this country does not disclose any ap 
preciable decrease or increase in the seasonal precipitation, 
or in the temperature and humidity of the air.” * 
Evaporation measurements, both for land- and water- 
surfaces, have been conducted very carefully at certain points 
of the United States, and the results have been recorded 
by such competent observers as Desmond FitzGerald, W. J. 
McAlpine,f Professor Fuertes, T. Russell, and others. 
* Some Historic Droughts.—“ There have been droughts in all ages and 
countries. In the year 310 a.d. hardly a drop of water fell in England, and 
40,000 people died of famine. 
“The seven years of drought and famine in Egypt, recorded in Genesis, 
began in the year 1708 B.c. 
“ In 954 a drought began in Eurone 'asting four years. The summers 
were intensely hot and the famine prevailed everywhere ; 3,000,000 died of 
hunger. 
“ In 1771 an unprecedented drought prevailed throughout India. Scarcely 
any rain fell for a year, and hundreds of thousands died of famine, whole dis- 
tricts being depopulated. 
“ In 1837 drought and intensely hot weather prevailed in Northwest India. 
Over 800,000 persons perished from famine. Similar destruction was wrought 
by the same causes in 1865 and 1866, over 2,000,000 persons perishing of hunger 
in the two years.” 
f Wm. J. Me Alpine, in a report to the Water Committee of Brooklyn in 
1852, finds “that from 30 to 40 per cent of the falling rain and snow is carried 
off by evaporation.” The experiments were made by himself. In the same 
report the quotations are found as to the mean evaporation in inches at the 
following places : 
Great Britain 32 inches per annum 
Paris 38 “ “ “ RIVER- AND SI REAM-WATER. 
233 
From the reports of these gentlemen, and from other 
official sources, the following data have been drawn: 
TABLE SHOWING RELATION OF EVAPORATION TO RAINFALL 
(MASSACHUSETTS) 
Month. 
Average Year. 
Year of Low Rainfall (1883). 
Rainfall, 
Inches. 
Evapora- 
tion, 
Inches 
Excess or 
Deficiency 
of Rainfall, 
Inches. 
Rainfall, 
Inches. 
Evapora- 
tion, 
Inches. 
Excess or 
Deficiency 
of Rainfall. 
Inches. 
January 
4.18 
0.98 
+ 3-20 
2.81 
O.98 
+ 1.83 
February 
4.06 
I.OI 
+ 3-05 
3-86 
I.OI 
+ 2.85 
March 
4.58 
r-45 
+ 3-13 
1.78 
1-45 
+ 0 33 
April 
3-32 
2-39 
+ o-93 
I.85 
2-39 
— 0.54 
May 
3.20 
3-82 
— 0.62 
4.18 
3.82 
+ 0.36 
June 
2.99 
5-34 
- 2.35 
2.40 
5-34 
— 2.94 
July 
3-78 
6.21 
- 2.43 
2.68 
6.21 
- 3-53 
August 
4-23 
5-97 
- 1.74 
0.74 
5-97 
- 5-23 
September 
3-23 
4.86 
— 1.63 
1.52 
4.86 
- 3-34 
October 
4.41 
3-47 
+ 0.94 
5.60 
3-47 
+ 2.13 
November 
4.11 
2.24 
+ 1.87 
1.81 
2.24 
- 0.43 
December 
3-71 
1.38 
+ 2-33 
3-55 
1.38 
+ 2.17 
45.80 
39.12 
+ 6.68 
32.78 
39.12 
- 6.34 
Note. f- indicates excess of rainfall; — indicates deficiency 
In the year of low rainfall the evaporation was 6.34 
inches greater than the rainfall. During the warmer months, 
from April to September inclusive, the excess of evapora- 
tion was 15.22 inches, and during the other six months the 
rainfall was 8.88 inches in excess of the evaporation. These 
figures indicate that a pond will not lower by evaporation 
in a diy summer more than about fifteen inches, even if it 
receives no water from its watershed. 
Just determination of the rate of evaporation is a de- 
cidedly difficult problem to solve, for there exist so many 
disturbing factors which must be taken into the considera- 
tion—such as direction and force of wind, character of 234 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
soil, influence of crops, and such like matters—all of which 
tend to make the final result one of only very local appli- 
cation. 
At Rothamsted, England, with an average annual rain- 
fall of 31.04 inches, it was found that evaporation from 
bare soil amounted to 17.09 inches, and that 13.95 inches 
percolated to a depth exceeding five feet, and appeared as 
drainage. Of these 13.95 inches of drainage 9.44 inches 
collected during five months, beginning in October, and the 
remaining seven months furnished only 4.51 inches, showing 
that the ground-water depends upon winter drainage for its 
principal reinforcement.* 
“ Evaporation from saturated woodland soil is from 61 
to 63 per cent less than from saturated soil in the open, the 
rainfall in woodland commonly exceeding the evaporation, 
even in summer. 
“ Woldrich found that less water percolated in soil upon 
which grass was growing than upon a bare soil. Very light 
rains were wholly lost by evaporation from the grass. He 
also noted that when the snow melted in the spring the 
water from it passed from it into the bare land quicker, and 
in larger quantity, than it did into the soil that was grass- 
covered. 
“ According to Wollny, a calcareous loam which per- 
mitted 38 per cent of the rainfall to soak through when 
it was bare of vegetation percolated no more than 20 
per cent of the rainfall when grass or clover was growing 
upon it. 
“ After extensive investigation it has been established 
that the rain which falls upon a crop during its growth is 
insufficient for its maintenance, and that such a crop would 
die were it cut off from drawing upon the reserve water stored 
up in the ground. 
* J. Chem. Sot. li. 504. RIVER- AND STREAM- WA TER. 
235 
“ About one quarter of a summer rainfall may cling to 
the leaves of trees and evaporate directly therefrom, while 
at the same time the trees act as pumping-engines to dry 
the ground, owing to evaporation from their enormous leaf- 
surface. Thus clay lands often become very wet after the 
cutting off of the trees.” (Storer.) 
Johnson shows that filtration or percolation of water 
through two feet of soil in drain-gauges amounts to, in 
general, from 5 to 10 inches annually with a rainfall of from 
26 to 44 inches. 
The following is Risler’s table of daily consumption of 
water for different crops, quoted in an article on irrigation 
by W. Tweeddale:* 
Inches. 
Lucern grass from 0.134 to 0.267 
Meadow grass from 0.122 to 0.287 
Oats from 0.140 to 0.193 
Indian corn from o. no to 1.570 
Clover. from 0.140 to 
Vineyard .... from 0.035 to 0.031 
Wheat from 0.106 to o. 110 
Rye from 0.091 to .... 
Potatoes from 0.038 to 0.055 
Oak-trees from 0.038 to 0.030 
Fir-trees from 0.020 to 0.043 
Mr. Tweeddale concludes that “ from seed-time to har- 
vest cereals will take up fifteen inches of water and grasses 
thirty-seven inches. These conclusions agree with practice 
in irrigation, and show plainly that the demands of plant- 
growth cannot be ignored in tracing the disappearance of 
rain. The figures also explain the low summer flow of 
streams flowing from a highly cultivated watershed. They 
* Kansas State Board of Agriculture Report, December 31, 1889. 236 
IVA TER-SUPPL V. 
do not necessarily explain the effect of forests in regulating 
flow, since many watersheds, although cleared of trees, are 
not put under cultivation, but still show some change in 
flow. The action of forests is probably largely to retard 
surface-flow by means of irregular surfaces, caused by roots, 
fallen timber, absorbent mosses, and leaf accumulation, thus 
holding the water until it can be taken into the ground. 
This is not mere theory; it is based on observations made 
during many days spent in the forest, and is believed to 
almost, if not fully, account for the better sustained flow of 
forest streams and their lighter flood-flows.” 
The official figures of the United States Weather Service 
will be found on the following four pages. 
“ The daily evaporation from the surface of the United 
States has been generally assumed by engineers to be about 
0.4 in. in 24 hours. But experiments prove that this may 
be doubled under certain conditions of dryness, temperature, 
and pressure; and at other times the evaporation may be 
negative; that is, moisture is actually added to the contents 
of the evaporation-gauge. What the resultant effect of 
these changes is no one can at present foresee; for the ques- 
tion has not been properly studied before for utilitarian 
purposes.” (Fuertes.) 
The flow of streams depends upon causes quite various in 
character, such as deep-seated springs, melting of glaciers 
(e.g., the River Rhone), and other like unusual sources, but 
for the great majority of cases the flow is traceable directly 
to the rainfall and to springs of local origin. 
What is the amount of the “ run-off” to be expected 
per square mile of watershed is essentially an engineering 
question, not to be considered here beyond stating the 
views of some prominent authorities. RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
237 
DEPTH OF EVAPORATION, IN INCHES, AT SIGNAL SERVICE 
STATIONS, IN THERMOMETER SHELTERS, 
computed from the means of the tri-daily determinations of dew-point and wet- 
bulb observations. 
00 
00 
OO 
00 
00 
00 
00 
OO 
00 
00 
00 
00 
t^- 
00 
fs 
00 
00 
00 
N 
00 
N 
00 
Stations and Districts. 
*2 
M 
* 
M 
- 
M 
d 
rt 
-Q 
V 
£ 
Mar. 
Apri 
£ 
a 
£ 
June 
£ 
D 
bit 
3 
< 
Sept 
c 
Nov. 
Dec. 
Year 
New England. 
Eastport 
0.9 
1.4 
1-5 
2-4 
2.5 
2-7 
2.2 
2.9 
2-5 
2.6 
2.2 
I .4 
25.2 
Portland 
I .o 
I .2 
1.8 
2.6 
1.8 
3-3 
3-8 
3-9 
3-4 
3-0 
2-5 
1.4 
29.7 
Manchester 
0.9 
i. 6 
2.2 
3-3 
3-8 
5-0 
4.1 
3-3 
2-5 
2.8 
2.4 
1.4 
33-3 
Northfield 
0.8 
i .0 
1-5 
2.3 
2-5 
3-4 
3-5 
2.7 
2-3 
1.8 
I. I 
1.0 
23-9 
Boston 
1.2 
1.6 
2.2 
3-4 
3-i 
4-7 
4-4 
4.0 
3-5 
2-7 
2.2 
1.4 
34-4 
Nantucket 
I. I 
1.1 
1.2 
i-5 
1.8 
2.1 
3-3 
3-8 
3-4 
2.7 
1.8 
1.8 
25.6 
Wood's Hoil 
0-5 
0.8 
1.8 
2.4 
1.8 
2-7 
2-7 
2.4 
2-7 
1.2 
0.8 
0-5 
20 3 
Block Island 
i. i 
r. 1 
1.2 
2.0 
1.8 
2.6 
2-5 
3-i 
2.8 
2.6 
1.8 
1.4 
24.0 
New Haven 
i. i 
1.6 
1.8 
2-7 
2-7 
4.x 
3-7 
3-8 
3-1 
3-2 
2.4 
1.6 
31.8 
New London 
Mid. Atlantic States. 
i.5 
i-3 
i-5 
2.6 
2.8 
4.0 
3-4 
3-9 
3-2 
3-i 
2.4 
2.1 
31.8 
Albany 
0.9 
1.2 
1.6 
3-3 
3-9 
4-5 
5-o 
4-7 
3-2 
3.0 
2.1 
1.4 
34-8 
New York City.... 
1.8 
1.4 
2.0 
3-4 
3-3 
4.6 
5.0 
5-2 
4-3 
4.1 
3-3 
2.2 
40.6 
Philadelphia 
i .6 
2.1 
2-5 
4-4 
4.0 
5-7 
5-7 
5-2 
4-3 
4.0 
3-3 
2.2 
4S.O 
Atlantic City 
I .2 
i .6 
1-5 
2.4 
1.8 
3-6 
2.9 
3-3 
2.4 
1.8 
x .2 
i.5 
25.2 
Baltimore 
2.0 
2.2 
2.8 
5 •1 
4-7 
5-6 
6.0 
5-0 
4.4 
4-3 
3-6 
2.4 
48.1 
Washington City... 
1.8 
1-7 
2-5 
4.2 
3-8 
6.0 
5-4 
4.9 
4.1 
4.2 
4-5 
2-5 
45 6 
Lynchburg 
2.6 
2.7 
3-4 
5-2 
4-5 
5-6 
4-7 
4-3 
3-3 
3-4 
3-2 
2.6 
45-5 
Norfolk 
So. Atlantic States. 
i.8 
1.6 
2-3 
3-5 
3-2 
4.2 
4.6 
3-7 
3-7 
2.9 
2-3 
1.8 
35-6 
Charlotte 
2.6 
2.6 
4-3 
6.4 
4-5 
5.8 
4.0 
4.0 
4.6 
4.0 
3-6 
2.6 
49.0 
Hatteras 
i.8 
1.6 
1.6 
2-5 
2.2 
3-0 
3-3 
4.1 
3-8 
3-2 
2.6 
1.6 
31-3 
Raleigh 
2.0 
1.8 
2 6 
3-8 
4.1 
5-4 
4.2 
3-2 
3-0 
2.7 
2.4 
1.8 
37-0 
Wilmington 
2.4 
2.2 
2-7 
3-3 
3-3 
4-3 
4-3 
3-i 
3-9 
3-4 
2.8 
2.7 
38.4 
Charleston 
2.5 
2-5 
3-5 
3-7 
3-9 
4.4 
4-5 
4-8 
4.2 
4.0 
3-2 
2-5 
43-7 
Columbia 
2.2 
2-3 
2.6 
4-8 
4-3 
5-4 
4.2 
3-8 
4.2 
3-4 3-6 
2.4 
43.2 
Augusta 
3-0 
2.6 
3-4 
5-3 
4.8 
5-0 
4.8 
4-5 
5-1 
4.1 
3-6 
3-i 
49-3 
Savannah 
3-3 
2.8 
4.1 
4-7 
4-3 
4.6 
4.2 
4-7 
3-4 
3-6 
3-5 
2.8 
46.0 
lacksonville 
2.9 
2.6 
3-8 
4-3 
4-6 
5-3 
5-o 
4-7 
3-8 
3-63.0 
2.1 
45-7 
Florida Peninsula. 
Titusville 
3-5 
2.6 
3-3 
3-8 
3-8 
4-3 
3-8 
4-3 
40 
4.1 
3-6 
3-1 
44.2 
Cedar Keys 
3-3 
2.8 
4.0 
4.6 
4-5 
5-i 
5-o 
5-5 
4-5 
4-1 
3 - 5 
2.6 
49-5 
Key West 
3-8 
3-7 
3-8 
4-5 
4.4 
4.8 
5-i 
5-1 
4-7 
4-3 
3-8 
3-6 
51.6 
Eastern Gulf States. 
2.7 
2 6 
4.0 
4 • 7 
4-5 
4-7 
5-8 
2-5 
5T-5 
Pensacola 
2.9 
2.8 
4.1 
4.0 
4-3 
4-6 
5-o 
5-4 
5-2 
4-5 
3-6 
2.4 
4S.8 
Mobile 
2.6 
2.5 
2.8 
3-5 
3 • 7 
4.0 
4.x 
4.6 
4.6 
4.1 
3-4 
2.2 
42.1 
Montgomery 
3-5 
3-3 
5-i 
6-5 
5-9 
5-8 
4-3 
4-5 
5-7 
4.6 
4-3 
3-1 
56.6 
Vicksburg 
2.1 
2-5 
3-6 
5-i 
5-7 
4-8 
4.0 
5-0 
4-7 
3-4 
4.0 
2.2 
47.1 
New Orleans 
2.8 
2.8 
4.1 
3-8 
4.2 
4.1 
4.1 
4-3 
4.4 
4.6 
3-7 
2-5 
45-4 
Western Gulf States 
Shreveport 
x .6 
2.1 
3.0 
4.8 
4-9 
4.2 
4.9 
5-2 
5-0 
4.1 
3-4 
2.4 
45-6- 
Fort Smith 
2.2 
2.7 
3-5 
5-3 
4-4 
4.6 
5-6 
4.6 
4-7 
5-9 
3-9 
2.2 
49.6 
Little Rock 
2.1 
2.8 
3-5 
5-5 
4.8 
4.1 
5-4 
5-9 
5.8 
5-2 
4-3 
2-3 
51-7 
Corpus Christi 
1.4 
1.6 
3-3 
3-o 
3-2 
3-9 
4.4 
4-3 
4-3 
4.1 
3-o 
2-3 
38.8 
Galveston . 
1.6 
2.8 
3-2 
2.9 
4-3 
4.2 
5-3 
5-2 
5-2 
4-7 
4.2 
2.4 
46.0 238 
WA TER-SUPFL Y. 
DEPTH OF EVAPORATION, IN INCHES, AT SIGNAL SERVICE 
STATIONS, ETC.—Continued. 
Stations and Districts. 
00 
00 
d 
cj 
00 
00 
00 
£ 
00 
00 
00 
rt 
2 
April, 1888. 
May, 1888. 
OO 
OO 
OO 
oT 
c 
P 
July, 1887. 
ts 
00 
bio 
P 
< 
Sept., 1887. 
Oct., 1887. 
00 
00 
> 
O 
£ 
00 
0 
Q 
Year. 
Western Gulf States. 
Palestine 
2.1 
3 o 
3-3 
4.2 
4-3 
4-5 
5-8 
4.6 
4-8 
4.4 
40 
2. I 
47-1 
San Antonio 
2.4 
3-3 
4i 
3-8 
4.0 
4-5 
6.6 
5.8 
5-2 
5-4 
4.2 
31 
52.4 
Rio Grande Valley. 
Rio Grande City... 
2.7 
3-5 
3-5 
3 6 
4-5 
4.6 
6.9 
7.0 
5.2 
4-9 
3-6 
3-1 
53-1 
Brownsville 
1.8 
2.6 
2.9 
3-o 
3-5 
3-9 
4.0 
4.1 
3-3 
3-0 
2.6 
2-3 
37-0 
Ohio Val. &l'enn. 
Chattanooga 
2.0 
3-3 
3-3 
5-3 
3-7 
4-3 
4-3 
50 
5-4 
4.0 
3-9 
1-9 
46.4 
KnokVille 
2.4 
2.6 
3-4 
5-0 
3-5 
4.2 
4.9 
5-o 
4-9 
4 1 
3-8 
2.1 
45-9 
Memphis 
2.1 
2-3 
3-i 
5-9 
5-3 
4.8 
4.9 
5-4 
5-5 
4-2 4-I 
2.4 
50.0 
Nashville 
1.9 
2 I 
3-2 
5-9 
5-o 
5-i 
5-5 
6-3 
5-9 
4.0 
3-3 
1.9 
50.1 
Louisville 
i-7 
2.1 
2.8 
5-h 
5-4 
5-8 
6.8 
7-4 
6.4 
4 9 
3-8 
2. I 
54-8 
Indianapolis 
i-3 
1.4 
2.2 
4.6 
4.8 
5-7 
7-7 
6.9 
5-2 
4.1 
3-i 
1.6 
48.6 
Cincinnati 
i.8 
i.8 
2.6 
4.9 
5-2 
6.4 
6-5 
6.6 
6.1 
4-7 
3-3 
2.1 
52.0 
Columbus 
1.6 
2.0 
2-3 
4-5 
4.8 
5-8 
6-9 
6.4 
5-1 
4.0 
2.6 
1.8 
47.8 
Pittsburg 
1.4 
1.9 
2.2 
3-8 
4.2 
5-4 
6.6 
5.6 
4-9 
3-4 
2.8 
2-3 
44-5 
Lower Lake Region. 
Buffalo 
o.8 
r. i 
i-3 
2.2 
3-3 
3-9 
4.9 
5.2 
3-9 
2.8 
1.9 
1.6 
32.9 
Oswego 
o.6 
1.0 
i.i 
2.2 
2,8 
3-8 
3-9 
4.0 
3-6 
2-7 
2.2 
1.0 
28.9 
Rochester. 
o.5 
i.i 
0.9 
2.6 
3-8 
4.9 
4.6 
4.1 
3-8 
2.6 
2.2 
1.3 
32.4 
Erie 
1.0 
1.4 
1.4 
2-7 
3-7 
4.6 
5-5 
4.8 
3-i 
2.5 
1.9 
1.2 
33-8 
Cleveland 
1.1 
1.4 
i-5 
2.9 
3-3 
4.4 
5-2 
4.9 
3.8 
3-4 
2.4 
1.4 
35-7 
Sandusky 
o.8 
1.4 
i-5 
3-2 
3-7 
4.6 
5 4 
5.4 
3-7 
3-4 
2.2 
i-3 
36.6 
Toledo 
O.q 
i.i 
i-5 
3.5 
3-8 
4.6 
6.0 
6.4 
3-7 
3-4 
2-4 
i-3 
38.6 
Detroit 
0.8 
1.1 
1.6 
3-o 
4-1 
4.8 
5-9 
5-2 
3-4 
2.8 
2.0 
i-3 
36-0 
Upper L.ake Region. 
Alpena 
0.7 
o.6 
0.9 
1.6 
2.1 
3-6 
3-8 
3-7 
2.8 
2.2 
i-5 
0.8 
24.3 
Grand Haven 
0-5 
0.7 
1-3 
2.6 
3-i 
3-8 
4-7 
3-8 
2.7 
2.6 
i-7 
1.1 
28.6 
Lansing 
o.6 
1.2 
1.4 
2.7 
2.8 
4.0 
4-3 
3-9 
2.4 
1.9 
1.4 
1.0 
27.6 
Marquette 
o.8 
o.8 
0.9 
i-7 
2.4 
3-3 
3-4 
3-3 
3-1 
2.2 
i-3 
1-3 
24-5 
Port Huron 
o.6 
1.0 
i.i 
2.6 
3-0 
3-8 
4.6 
4.2 
3-2 
2-5 
1-7 
1.0 
29-3 
Chicago 
1.0 
1.2 
1.8 
3-2 
3-3 
4.8 
5-4 
5-3 
4-1 
3-2 
2-3 
1.2 
36.3 
Milwaukee 
0-5 
1.0 
1.1 
2.4 
2.6 
3-8 
4.8 
3-7 
3-4 
2.9 
1.9 
0.9 
29.0 
Green Bay 
o.5 
o.6 
0.8 
i-7 
2.5 
4.1 
5-6 
4.2 
3-0 
2.4 
1.9 
0.9 
28.2 
Duluth 
0-5 
o.5 
0.6 
t-5 
2.4 
2-5 
3-9 
3-4 
3-o 
2-5 
1.2 
1.0 
23.0 
Extreme Northwest. 
Moorhead 
0.2 
1.4 
0.5 
2.1 
3-6 
3 8 
3-7 
3-3 
3-5 
2:4 
1-3 
0.5 
26.3 
Saint Vincent 
0.3 
0.3 
0.5 
1.8 
3-8 
3-9 
3-i 
2.6 
2.6 
2.0 
0.9 
0.3 
22.1 
Bismarck 
0.4 
0.6 
0.6 
3-0 
4-3 
4.1 
5-6 
4.2 
4.0 
2.6 
1.2 
0.4 
31-0 
Fort Buford 
1.4 
0.7 
0.6 
3-0 
4-7 
5-o 
6.2 
4-9 
4.8 
3-o 
i-7 
0.5 
35-5 
Fort Totten 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 
2.2 
4.6 
3-8 
4.2 
3-7 
3-7 
2-3 
1.4 
0.4 
27.2 
Up. Mississippi Gal. 
Saint Paul 
0.7 
0.7 
2.2 
2.0 
2-3 
4.1 
5-o 
3-7 
2.8 
2.4 
t-5 
0.7 
28.1 
La Crosse 
0.4 
1.2 
1.4 
3 3 
3-5 
4-4 
5-4 
4-7 
3-0 
3-o 
1.8 
0.8 
32.9 
Davenport 
o.5 
1.0 
1.8 
3 8 
.3-4 
4.6 
6.9 
6.2 
4 4 
3-o 
2.3 
1.1 
39-o 
Des Moines 
0.6 
1.0 
i-5 
3-7 
3-i 
4.2 
6.6 
4-7 
4.1 
3-3 
2-3 
0.9 
36.0 
Dubuque 
0.7 
1.0 
1.4 
2.2 
2 9 
4.2 
6.2 
4.8 
3-3 
2.8 
1.8 
0.9 
33-2 
Keokuk 
o.8 
I.I 
2.1 
4.2 
3-7 
4-3 
7.0 
6.8 
5-0 
3-8 
2.9 
1.2 
42.9 
Cairo 
i.6 
2.1 
2.9 
5-8 
4.4 
4-3 
5-6 
6-5 
5-i 
4-5 
3.8 
2-3 
48.9 
Springfield, 111 
o.8 
I.I 
2.0 
4.6 
3-8 
4-3 
5-4 
6-5 
4-5 
3-5 
2 9 
1.4 
40.8 
Saint Louis 
i-3 
1.6 
2-5 
5-5 
4-7 
5-0 
7-5 
8.0 
5-9 
4.9 
1 
39 
1.4 
I 52.2 RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
239 
DEPTH OF EVAPORATION, IN INCHES, AT SIGNAL SERVICE 
STATIONS,' ETC.—Continued. 
Stations and Districts. 
00 
00 
00 
c 
• 00 
00 
00 
xi 
V 
00 
00 
00 
u 
s 
00 
oo 
00 
’C 
a 
< 
00 
OO 
00 
a 
s 
June, 1888. 
ts 
00 
CO 
>> 
3 
►—» 
00 
00 
bi), 
P 
< 
N 
00 
a 
V 
<S1 
. 
00 
00 
O 
O 
N 
00 
00 
> 
O 
Z 
Dec., 1887. 
— 
Year. 
Missouri Valley. 
Lamar 
1.1 
i.6 
2.4 
44 
3.8 
4.0 
6.0 
4.6 
3 7 
3-6 
2.9 
1.5 
39-6 
Springfield, Mo.. . . 
1.1 
i-7 
2.4 
5-o 
4.8 
4.0 
5.0 
3-4 
34 
3-5 
3-1 
1.4 
38.3 
Leavenworth 
0.9 
i-5 
2-3 
4.6 
4-5 
50 
6.3 
4-5 
4.0 
3.9 
2.7 
1-4 
41.6 
Topeka 
1.1 
1.2 
2.0 
4.0 
4.1 
4.1 
6.3 
3-5 
3-2 
3-0 
2.2 
1.4 
. 36.1 
Omaha 
o.8 
i-5 
1.4 
4-4 
3-8 
5-2 
6.2 
5-2 
4-3 
4.3 
3-o 
1.4 
41.7 
Crete 
0.7 
1.1 
1.2 
3-5 
3-3 
4-5 
5-6 
4-7 
3-8 
3-6 
2.4 
1.1 
35-5 
Valentine ... 
1.2 
1.6 
1.8 
5-o 
3-2 
5-3 
6.9 
5.o 
5-2 
3-8 
3-3 
1-5 
43-8 
Fort Sully 
o.6 
0.9 
1.3 
4.4 
4.1 
5-2 
7-7 
4.9 
5-7 
3-6 
2.8 
0.7 
41.9 
Huron 
0-3 
0.7 
o.8 
3-7 
3-7 
4.1 
5-7 
4.2 
4*1 
3-i 
2.4 
0.7 
33-0 
Yankton 
0.4 
1.4 
1.2 
3-3 
3-i 
4.4 
4.6 
3-7 
2.9 
3-0 
2.2 
0.8 
31.0 
Northern Slope. 
Fort Assiniboine... 
o.8 
1.2 
1.2 
3-8 
4.1 
4.2 
6.8 
5-5 
4.8 
3-5 
2.5 
1.1 
39-5 
Fort Custer 
o.6 
i-5 
1.3 
5-4 
6.8 
4.9 
9.6 
8.0 
6.1 
3-4 
29 
i-5 
52.0 
Fort Maginnis 
1.1 
1-4 
1.1 
3-3 
3-2 
4.6 
6.8 
4.6 
3-8 
2.8 
2.0 
1.1 
35-8 
Helena ... 
1.1 
3-6 
2.1 
6.1 
4-3 
5-5 
7.2 
7-7 
6.4 
4-3 
3 0 
2.1 
53-4 
Poplar River 
0.4 
o.8 
o 8 
2-7 
4.9 
5-7 
6.0 
4.8 
4.4 
2-5 
i-7 
0.7 
35-4 
Cheyenne . 
3-3 
5-7 
4.0 
8.2 
5-2 
10.4 
8.0 
7-7 
8.6 
5-8 
6.1 
3-5 
76.5 
North Platte 
o.8 
1.8 
1.8 
5-4 
3-9 
6.9 
6.0 
4.8 
3-7 
2.8 
2-3 
1.1 
41.3 
Middle Slope. 
Colorado Springs.. 
3-0 
3-3 
4.1 
6.7 
5-6 
4-3 
6.7 
7.2 
6.8 
4.6 
4.2 
2.9 
59 4 
Denver 
2.8 
3-7 
3-5 
7.6 
5-8 
10,5 
8-3 
8-5 
6.1 
4.9 4.2 
3-t 
69.0 
Pike’s Peak 
2.1 
i-3 
i.5 
2.1 
1.8 
1.9 
3-0 
4.0 
3-0 
2-3 
2.8 
1.0 
26.8 
Concordia 
1-3 
2.8 
i.8 
4.8 
4-3 
5-7 
7-3 
5-2 
4-3 
4-5 
3-4 
1.8 
47.2 
Dodge City 
1.4 
2.4 
2.8 
4-1 
4.6 
7-4 
8-3 
6.6 
5-5 
5-2 
4 2 
2.1 
54-6 
Fort Elliott 
i-3 
1-9 
3-2 
5-i 
5-4 
8.2 
7.6 
6.2 
5-4 
4-7 
4.2 
2.2 
55-4 
Southern Slope. 
Fort Sill 
1.6 
2.0 
2.6 
3-8 
4.0 
4-4 
4.8 
7-5 
5-i 
4.2 
4-1 
2.0 
46.1 
Abilene 
1.8 
i-7 
3-i 
4.2 
5-0 
5-8 
9-5 
7-5 
6.2 
4-5 
3-4 
1-7 
54-4 
Fort Davis 
5-4 
5-7 
6.7 
8-5 
11.0 
12.0 
it.4 
9.0 
5-9 
5-2 
5-7 
4-9 
96.4 
Fort Stanton 
3-9 
3-9 
5-2 
7-3 
9-5 
10.9 
9.4 
11.6 
3-9 
4.0 
3-6 
3-8 
76.0 
Southern Plateau. 
El Paso 
4.0 
3-9 
6.0 
8.4 
10.7 
13.6 
9.4 
7-7 
5-6 
5-2 
4.6 
2.9 
82.0 
Santa F6 
3-0 
3-4 
4-2 
6.8' 
8.8 
12.9 
9.2 
9.8 
6.6 
6.7 
5-7 
2-7 
79.8 
Fort Apache 
2.6 
3-0 
3 6 
6.8 
9-4 
9 1 
7-i 
6.7 
5-3 
5-2 
4.1 
2.6 
65-5 
Fort Grant 
5-2 
4.8 
6 4 
9.2 
10.2 
13.8 
12.4 
10.5 
9.0 
7-9 
7.2 
4.6 
101.2 
Prescott 
1.4 
2.8 
3-6 
54 
6.2 
8.1 
6.6 
6-5 
4-7 
4-9 
3-6 
2.2 
56.0 
Yuma 
4-4 
5-2 
6 6 
9.6 
9.6 
12.6 
11.0 
10.2 
8.2 
8.2 
5-5 
4.6 
95-7 
Keeler 
3-0 
4.6 
6-3 
8.7 
9-3 
11.9 
12.8 
13-9 
10.6 
8.8 
5-9 
4.8 
100.6 
Middle Plateau. 
Fort Bidvvell 
o.8 
1.8 
1.8 
4.6 
5-2 
4.0 
8.8 
8.1 
5-0 
4.6 
2.4 
i-3 
48.9 
VVinnemucca 
0.9 
2.8 
6.2 
9.1 
9-3 
10.1 
n-5 
12.0 
9.9 
6.6 
3-7 
1.8 
83-9 
Salt Lake City 
1.8 
2.7 
3-6 
7-2 
6.9 
8.9 
9.2 
10.7 
9.6 
6.5 
5-0 
2.3 
74-4 
Montrose 
1.8 
2.7 
3-7 
6.2 
7.0 
11.1 
10.2 
8 3 
6.9 
5-2 
3-4 
2.0 
68.3 
Fort Bridger 
i.6 
2.5 
2.7 
4-3 
4-3 
6-5 
7-7 
6.8 
5-6 
4.2 
5-2 
4-7 
56.1 
Northern Plateau. 
Bois6 City 
i.6 
2.5 
3-8 
6.1 
6-5 
6.6 
10.0 
9.2 
7-4 
5-2 
3-2 
1.8 
63-9 
Spokane Falls 
0.7 
1-7 
2-7 
4.4 
5-4 
4.4 
7-7 
6.4 
3-8 
2.5 
1.7 
1.4 
42.8 
Walla Walla 
1.1 
2.9 
3-6 
6.2 
7-7 
5-7 
9.9 
7-9 
5.1 
3-4 
r.8 
2.4 
57-7 
ATorth Pacific Coast. 
Fort Canby 
r.2 
1.1 
i.8 
2.1 
2.8 
2-3 
1.8 
2.9 
1.8 
1.8 
r-5 
0.9 
21.1 240 
tv A TER-SU PPL V. 
DEPTH OF EVAPORATION, IN INCHES, AT SIGNAL SERVICE 
STATIONS, ETC.—Continued. 
Stations and Districts. 
00 
oo 
00 
c 
OJ 
00 
00 
00 
A 
V 
00 
00 
cd 
§ 
| April, 1888. 
00 
00 
00 
>> 
c3 
s 
OC 
00 
<u 
c 
S3 
July, 1887. 
00 
hi) 
p 
< 
Sept., 1887. 
. 
f'. 
00 
0 
0 
00 
00 
> 
0 
£ 
OO 
00 
6 
a; 
0 
Year. 
North Pacific Coast. 
Olympia 
1-3 
1.2 
1.8 
2-5 
4.1 
3-3 
3-2 
3-i 
2.4 
1-5 
i-3 
1.1 
26. s 
Port Angeles 
I .o 
0.9 
1.8 
1.8 
2.5 
2.1 
2. I 
1.8 
1-5 
1.2 
1 • 3 
1.1 
19.1 
Tatoosh Island ... 
I . 2 
I . I 
1.8 
1.4 
1.8 
1.8 
I.4 
1.4 
1.4 
1.6 
r.8 
1.4 
18.1 
Astoria 
I. I 
I .O 
1.6 
2.1 
3-0 
2-7 
3-o 
2.9 
2.6 
2-3 
1.8 
1.2 
25-3 
Portland 
0.9 
I. I 
2.4 
3-4 
5-o 
3-2 
5-4 
4.2 
3-4 
2-7 
1.8 
1.2 
34-7 
Roseburg 
1.2 
i .6 
2-7 
3-9 
4-7 
3-5 
5-4 
4-7 
5-o 
3-2 
x-7 
1.6 
39-2 
Middle Pacific Coast 
Red Bluff. 
3-o 
4.6 
5-4 
6.1 
7.0 
6.9 
11.0 
10.7 
10.1 
10.5 
5-9 
3-6 
S4.8 
Sacramento 
r.8 
3-i 
3-7 
4-3 
4.2 
5-6 
5-9 
5-6 
6-5 
7-3 
3-9 
2.4 
54-3 
San Francisco 
2.7 
2.7 
3-3 
3-i 
2.8 
3-i 
2.4 
2-5 
3-3 
5-o 
2.8 
3-o 
36.7 
South Pacific Coast. 
Fresno.. 
i.8 
2.8 
3-0 
5-6 
6.0 
7.0 
9.1 
10.2 
7.6 
6.73.8 
2.2 
65.8 
Los Angeles....... 
2-3 
2.0 
2.8 
3-4 
3-0 
3-8 
3-2 
3-5 
3-i 
4.1 
3-0 
3-0 
37-2 
San Diego 
2-9 
2-7 
2.5 
2.7 
3-3 
2.8 
3-2 
3-3 
2.9 
4-3 3-2 
3-7 
37-5 
Fanning believes that for ordinary watersheds it is fair to 
assume that 50 per cent of the annual rainfall flows off in 
the streams.* 
More in detail, it is as follows: 
Mountain slope or steep rocky hills 80 to 90 per cent 
Wooded swampy lands 60 “ 80 “ “ 
Undulating pasture and woodland 50 “ 70 “ “ 
Flat cultivated lands and prairie 45 “ 60 “ “ 
He also considers the “ low rain cycles” mean rainfall to 
be about 80 per cent of the general mean rainfall. 
According to the U. S. government reports, “ for the 
area of the United States east of the ninety-fifth meridian 
* An inch of rain amounts to 3630 cubic feet, or 27,155 U. S. gallons, or 
101.3 tons per acre. 
The weight of freshly fallen snow has been experimentally found to vary 
from five to twelve pounds per cubic foot. (Trautwine.) RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
241 
LINES OF EQUAL ANNUAL DEPTH OF EVAPORATION, IN INCHES. BASED ON OBSERVATONS FROM 
JULY, 1887, TO JUNE, 1888, INCLUSIVE. 242 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
the run-off is from 35 to 50 percent of the total rainfall. It 
appears to be largest in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, and 
diminishes from this region slowly to south and east, and 
rapidly towards the west. In the lower peninsula of Michi- 
gan, for instance, the run-off is 50 per cent of the total rain- 
fall. Along the Gulf coast it appears to be only from 30 to 
40 per cent, and along the Atlantic coast it probably varies 
from 30 to about 50 per cent. In general, for the interior 
States east of the ninety-fifth meridian the run-off is be- 
tween 40 and 50 per cent of the total rainfall. 
“ As soon as we cross the ninety-fifth meridian westward 
we find a very sharp fall in the percentage of run-off to the 
total rainfall. For the band extending north and south be- 
tween the ninety-fifth and one hundred and fifth meridians 
this percentage varies from 10 to 25 per cent, and over Iowa 
is about 33 per cent. The percentage is highest at the 
northern end of the band indicated, and lowest at the south- 
ern end. Going still farther westward we come to another 
very marked area, that of the Continental Divide; here the 
percentage of run-off suddenly increases, reaching the high- 
est figure to be found in the United States. From Mon- 
tana to Colorado it varies from 60 to 70 per cent of the total 
rainfall. In New Mexico it falls to about 33 per cent. This 
is evidently on account of the easy flow of water from the 
mountain ranges in the area in question. West of the 
Divide the run-off is again small, being only 15 or 20 per 
cent in Arizona and Nevada, about 30 per cent in Idaho, 
and nearly 50 per cent in Utah. Utah, it seems from its 
topography, partakes of the character of the band lying 
just to the east of it. Along the Pacific coast the run-off 
is about 25 per cent in Orgeon, 30 per cent'in Washington, 
and between 45 and 50 per cent in California. 
“ In general, we may say that the run-off on the more 
level areas of the United States is less than 50 per cent, RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
243 
and on the great plains may fall as low as 10 per cent. In 
the mountain regions it may rise to as high as 70 per cent. In 
the relatively dry areas, or the areas of distinctly dry seasons, 
the percentage is very much reduced.” * 
The following figures have been collected from various 
official sources, some of them having been prepared by C. 
C. Babb, of the U. S. Geological Survey: 
RAINFALL AND RIVER-FLOW FOR THE CONNECTICUT RIVER 
BASIN, AVERAGES FOR 13 YEARS, 1871-85. 
Month. 
Average Rain 
in Inches. 
River-flow in Inches 
on Whole Watershed. 
Per Cent of River- 
flow to Rainfall. 
January 
3-27 
1-93 
59-t 
February 
3.IO 
2.04 
65.8 
March 
3-94 
3-oo 
76-3 
April 
3.26 
4-73 
145.O 
May .... 
3-0 
4.19 
132.2 
June 
4.00 
1.46 
36.5 
July 
4-79 
1.02 
21.3 
August 
4.87 
1.06 
21.8 
September 
3.04 
0.89 
29 3 
October 
3-93 
1.11 
28.3 
November 
3-93 
1.76 
44.8 
December 
3-39 
2.06 
60.7 
44.69 
25-25 
56.5 
* “The point at which a region may be classed as arid and unfit for success- 
ful agriculture without irrigation should be lowered, it is believed, to 15 inches 
annual rainfall.” (Report of Chief Signal Officer, 1889.) 244 
WA TER-SUPPL F. 
RAINFALL AND RIVER-FLOW FOR SUDBURY RIVER (MASS.) 
WATERSHED, MEAN FOR 18 YEARS, 1875-92 INCLUSIVE. 
Month. 
Rainfall in Inches. 
River-flow in Inches 
on Watershed. 
Per Cent of River- 
flow to Rainfall. 
January 
4-430 
2.307 
52.08 
February 
4.076 
3-223 
79.07 
March 
4-055 
5.097 
IO9.49 
April 
3.214 
3-533 
IO9.93 
May 
3.269 
1-957 
59-87 
June 
3.016 
0.853 
28.28 
July 
3.788 
0-335 
8.84 
August 
4.266 
0-534 
12.52 
September 
3-163 
0.450 
M-23 
October 
4.200 
0.938 
22.33 
November 
4.144 
1-537 
37-09 
December 
3-565 
1.833 
51.42 
45.786 
2 2-.599 
49-36 
AVERAGES FOR THE SAVANNAH BASIN DURING 8 YEARS, 
1884-92. 
Month. 
Rainfall in Inches. 
River-flow in Inches. 
Per Cent of River- 
flow to Rainfall. 
January 
4-34 
2.50 
57-6 
February 
3-47 
2-59 
74.6 
March 
4.86 
3-13 
64.4 
April 
2.08 
i.gg 
95-7 
May 
4-05 
1.51 
37-3 
June 
4-44 
1.41 
31-8 
Ju'y 
6.46 
1.47 
22.8 
August 
4-59 
1.96 
42.7 
September 
3-70 
i-73 
46.8 
October 
3-03 
1.26 
41.6 
November 
1.68 
i-33 
79.1 
December 
2.71 
i-3i 
48.1 
45-41 
22.19 
48.9 RIVER- AND S TREA M- WATER. 
245 
AVERAGES FOR THE POTOMAC BASIN DURING 6 YEARS, 
1886-92. 
Month. 
Rainfall in Inches. 
River-flow in Inches. 
Per Cent of River 
flow to Rainfall. 
January 
3.21 
2.09 
65.2 
February 
3-35 
3-36 
IOO. I 
March 
4-39 
3.62 
82.6 
April .. 
3-48 
3-51 
IOI.O 
May 
5-ii 
2.36 
46-3 
June. 
5-25 
i-93 
•36.8 
July 
4.89 
1.00 
20.5 
August 
3.81 
0.78 
20.5 
September.... 
3-86 
1.06 
27-5 
October 
2.65 
1.21 
45-7 
November 
2.88 
1.79 
62.3 
December 
2.59 
1.32 
51.1 
45-47 
24.03 
53-0 
AVERAGES FOR THE NESHAMINY (PA.) BASIN DURING 
7 YEARS, 1884-91. 
Month. 
Rainfall in Inches. 
River-flow in Inches. 
Per Cent of River- 
flow to Rainfall. 
January 
4.28 
3-98 
93-1 
February 
4.42 
4.22 
95-2 
March 
3-88 
3-51 
9«-5 
April 
3-o6 
2.19 
71.6 
May 
3-75 
1.03 
27.6 
June 
4-31 
0-75 
17-4 
July 
6.05 
i-34 
22.2 
August. 
4.91 
i-35 
27-5 
September 
3-88 
1.18 
30.4 
October 
4.04 
1-34 
33-2 
November 
3-84 
1-73 
45-1 
December 
3-78 
2.56 
67.8 
* 
50.20 
25.18 
50.1 246 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
AVERAGES FOR THE CROTON (N. Y.) BASIN DURING 14 
YEARS. (BABB.) 
Month. 
Rainfall in Inches. 
River-flow in Inches. 
Per Cent of River- 
flow to Rainfall 
January 
3-65 
2.12 
58.2 
February. 
3-3° 
2,47 
74-9 
March. 
4-36 
3-8o 
89.6 
April 
3-64 
3.5-1 
96 5 
May 
3-28 
2.44 
• ‘ 74-4 
June 
3.66 
1.06 
29 0 
July 
3-92 
3-76 
0.60 ■ - • 
15-3 
September 
4.00 
0.93 
23.3 
October. 
4.00 
1.01 
25-3 
November 
3-98 
1-33 
33-4 
December 
3-53 
2.04 
57-8 
45-o8 
22.30 * 
49.6 
These figures for the Croton watershed are slightly different 
from those given by the N. Y. State Board of Health, which 
latter cover a period of 21 years, 1870-90 inclusive, and are 
as follows: 
Average yearly rainfall 48.37 inches 
Average yearly river-flow .. 24.52 “ 
Per cent of river-flow to rainfall 50*70 “ 
Even with uniformity in rainfall the rate of river-flow 
must vary, owing to such disturbing factors as frozen ground 
in winter and excessive evaporation in summer. 
For Eastern Massachusetts Mr. Desmond FitzGerald 
places the months in order of dryness, averaging as follows: 
1. July. 
2. September. 
3. August. 
4. June. 
5. October. 
6. November. 
7. May. 
8. December. 
9. January. 
Id. April. 
11. February. 
12. March. 
showing the wettest months to be the first four in the 
year. RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
247 
INFLUENCE OF FORESTS UPON WATER-SUPPLY. 
The following is freely condensed and extracted from the 
government report upon “ Forest Influences,” issued by B. 
E. Fernow, Chief of the Forestry Division. 
The liability of forests to increase the actual annual pre- 
cipitation is yet in discussion, but numerous data are avail- 
able, tending to show that such increase occurs. 
Field Station. 
Compared with Average over Open Regions. 
Name. 
Eleva- 
tion. 
Mean 
Annual 
Precip- 
itation. 
Name. 
Mean 
Annual 
Precip- 
itation. 
Surplus 
over 
Woods. 
Feet. 
Inches. 
Inches. 
Inches. 
IO 
28.4 
North Sea coast 
27.5 
77 
21. Q 
_4- n t 
25.6 
Hadersleben. ... 
112 
30.1 
Baltic coast 
26.0 
+ 4-i 
'X fS 
24.5 
Marienthal 
469 
22 5 
Thiiringen and Saxon provinces. 
23.2 
- 0.7 
500 
31-6 
30.4 
-f- 1.2 
1159 
32.3 
* < 
-i- 1.9 
Friedrichsrode.. 
1158 
26.5 
Thiiringen and Saxon provinces 
23.2 
+ 3-3 
1975 
44*2 
30 7 
+ 14-5 
2005 
38.3 
Schneidefeld .... 
2230 
50.2 
Thiiringen and Saxon provinces. 
23.2 
+ 27.0 
24OO 
38.9 
Silesian Mountains 
Sonnenberg ... . 
2549 
55-5 
Harz 
36.4 
+ 19.1 
Melkerei 
3071 
69.9 
Alsace-Lorraine 
30.4 
+ 39-5 
It seems from this that where the results at the stations 
near forests are compared with the general results in the 
section of country in which the station is situated the 
forest station usually shows more rainfall. Lintzel is excep- 
tional, because near young trees on an exposed moor. 
There is one further case, which is quoted by Dr. Bran- 
dis, for India. In the part of the central provinces between 
the Nerbudda River and Nagpur and Rajpur, embracing a 
part of the Satpura range of mountains, much attention has 
been paid for several years to the care of the forests, and 248 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
specially to protection against forest fires. In conse- 
quence a large territory, with scattered tree growth or en- 
tirely treeless, has been covered with a’dense growth of young 
trees. Over this region the rainfall has been as follows, at 
the stations named: 
1875 and Before. 
1876 to 1885. 
Per Cent of 
Increase. 
Years. 
Mean 
Annual. 
Inches. 
Inches. 
Badnur 
1867-1875 
39-83 
47-83 
20 
Chindwara 
1865-1870 
41-43 
48.48 
17 
Seoni 
1865-1870 
52.07 
54.76 
5 
Mandla 
1867-1S75 
53-58 
56.32 
5 
Burha 
1867-1875 
64.51 
7i 65 
11 
Bilaspur 
X865-1875 
41.85 
54 -8i 
21 
Rajpur 
1866-1875 
51-59 
54-41 
5 
Annual average 
49-27 
55-47 
13 
Finding the air strata above forest stations more moist and 
cooler, although only slightly so, than over field stations, we 
would infer that the tendency to condensation over wooded 
areas might be greater than over open fields. Experience 
and measurements seem to sustain this reasoning. 
While the forest may not everywhere increase precipita- 
tion over its own area and near it, yet the presumption is 
that large systems of forest growth over extensive areas 
alternating with open fields may establish sufficient differ- 
ences in temperature and moisture conditions and in air 
currents to modify the fall, if not in quantity, yet in timely 
and local distribution. 
Altogether the question of appreciable forest influence 
upon precipitation must be considered as still unsolved, with 
some indications, however, of its existence under certain 
climatic and topographical conditions in the temperate 
zone, especially toward the end of winter and beginning 
of spring. RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
249 
As one of the most striking examples of an increase of 
precipitation, seemingly due to forest planting, the experi- 
ence at Lintzel, on the Ltineberg heath, may be recalled, 
where, with a definite increase in forest conditions over an 
area of 25 square miles, a regular definite increase in rainfall 
beyond that of neighboring stations to the extent of 22 per 
cent within six years was observed, and a change from a 
deficiency to a considerable excess over the rainfall of these 
other stations. 
A very considerable part of the water falling as rain upon 
a forest is returned to the atmosphere by transpiration 
through the leaves. It must be remembered, however, 
that the smaller vegetables also pump water out of the soil 
in a similar fashion, often more rapidly, per acre, than the 
forest trees. 
During the period of vegetation the following varieties 
transpired per pound dry weight of leaves: 
Pounds of Water. 
Birch and linden 600-700 
Ash 500-600 
Beech 450-500 
Maple * 400-450 
Oaks 200-300 
Spruce and Scotch pine 50-70 
Fir 30-40 
Black pine 30-40 
Conifers, as was stated, transpire one sixth to one tenth 
of the amount which is needed by deciduous trees. 
The transpiration from leaves in full sunshine is decidedly 
greater than from leaves in the diffused daylight or darkness. 
The absolute amount of annual transpiration as observed 
in forests of mature oaks and beeches in Central Europe is 
about one quarter of the total annual precipitation. 250 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Evaporation in the forest is naturally much less than in 
the open fields. 
EVAPORATION IN WOODS IN PER CENT OF EVAPORATION 
IN THE OPEN. 
Dr. 
Ebermayer’s Results. 
German Observations. 
Water-surface. 
Bare Soil. 
Soil un- 
derFor- 
est Lit- 
tet and 
within 
Forest. 
Rain- 
fall. 
Water-surface. 
Rain- 
fall. 
Open. 
Woods. 
Open. 
Woods. 
Open. 
Woods. 
April 
I 
• 45 
1.15 
.64 
• 27 
I -75 
I 
•51 
1-37 
May 
I 
•43 
•91 
•37 
. 16 
.6S 
I 
• 47 
i-35 
June 
I 
•36 
X.07 
•38 
.14 
1.46 
I 
.41 
1.91 
July 
I 
•35 
.89 
•34 
. 12 
1.02 
I 
.38 
2-33 
August 
I 
• 34 
• 87 
•36 
.11 
1.00 
I 
•36 
1.98 
September.... 
I 
•33 
.92 
•39 
.11 
•59 
I 
•35 
2-54 
October 
I 
.41 
1.26 
•44 
.18 
3-45 
I 
• 37 
8-49 
May-Sept.... 
I 
•36 
•93 
• 35 
•13 
•95 
I 
•39 
2.02 
The forest cover, and especially the litter of a well-kept 
forest, may decrease the amount of evaporation within the 
forest to nearly seven eighths of that in the open. The 
reason for this important influence of the forest is due not 
only to the impeded air circulation, but also to the tem- 
perature and moisture conditions of the forest air and forest 
soil. 
The stations of Prussia allow the following average for 
evaporation, the amount evaporated in the open fallow field 
being called 100: 
Evaporated. 
Retained More 
than in Open 
Fallow Field. 
Per Cent. 
Per Cent. 
Under beech growth 
40.4 
59-6 
Under spruce growth 
45-3 
54-7 
Under pine growth 
41.8 
58.2 
From cultivated field 
90-3 
9-7 RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
251 
It is this protection against evaporation which gives to 
the forest its chief value as a guardian of water-supply. The 
forest floor, with its irregularities and its spongelike quali- 
ties, moreover, stops the rapid and ruinous draining of the 
surface, with attendant denuding of the land, and favors slow 
percolation through the soil and reinforcement of the springs. 
The New York Forest Commission, speaking of floods 
in the Adirondack region and the influence of forests in re- 
lation to them, say: 
“ In the uplands of the preserve there are many densely 
wooded tracts adjacent to others from which the forests have 
been stripped. The residents agree that in the former 
floods are unknown, while in the latter they are a yearly 
occurrence. Their appearance was coincident with the dis- 
appearance of the woods. It was then noticed that the 
bridges, which for many years had sufficed to span the 
streams during heavy rains, were no longer safe, and new 
ones with longer spans became a necessity.” 
They refer also to the effect of the removal of the forests 
in the Adirondack watersheds upon the navigation of the 
canals of the State and the whole system of inland commerce. 
They say: 
“ With the clearing away of the forests and the burning 
of the forest floor came a failure of canal supply that neces- 
sitated the building of costly dams and reservoirs to replace 
the natural ones which the fire and axe had destroyed. The 
Mohawk River, which for years had fed the Erie Canal at 
Rome, failed to yield any longer a sufficient supply, where- 
upon the Bla,ck River was tapped at Forestport, and its 
whole volume at that point diverted southward to assist the 
Mohawk in its work.” 
Ex-Governor Davis, of Maine, gives the following state- 
ment in regard to the effect of forest removal on the flow of 
streams in a case with which he is well acquainted: 252 
WA TEH-SUP PL Y. 
“ The Kenduskeag River empties into the Penobscot at 
Bangor. The stream rises some 30 miles from its mouth, 
one branch in the town of Dexter, and another in the town 
of Corinna. I am told that fifty or sixty years ago there 
was a continuous flow of water the year round in this stream, 
and at the town of Kenduskeag, 12 miles northeast of Bangor, 
were situated large lumber-mills on both sides of the stream. 
The water-flow was sufficient to carry them the year round. 
But during the past half century the land along the shores 
of the stream has been cleared throughout the greater part 
of its course. The result is that we have heavy spring 
freshets, also heavy freshets in the fall, sometimes doing 
much damage. I recollect, a dozen years ago or more, 
when living in the town of Corinth, through which said 
stream flows, almost every bridge on the stream was carried 
away in the month of March. Now, after the spring freshet 
subsides, the water falls rapidly until it dwindles to a very 
small stream, not one half the amount flowing during the 
summer months that did fifty years ago.” 
In consequence of deforestation evaporation from the 
soil is augmented and accelerated, resulting in unfavorable 
conditions of soil humidity and affecting unfavorably the 
size and continuity of springs. The influence of forest cover 
upon the flow of springs is due to this reduced evaporation, 
as well a? to the fact that by the protecting forest cover the 
soil is kept granular and allows more water to penetrate and 
percolate than would otherwise. In this connection, how- 
ever, it is the condition of the forest floor that is of greatest 
importance. Where the litter and humus mould is burned 
up, as in many, if not most, of our mountain forests, this 
favorable influence is largely destroyed although the trees 
are still standing. 
Snow is held longer in the forest and its melting is re- 
tarded, giving longer time for filtration into the ground, RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
253 
which also, being frozen to lesser depth, is more apt to be 
open for subterranean drainage. Altogether forest conditions 
favor, in general, larger subterranean and less surface drainage, 
yet the moss or litter of the forest floor retains a large part 
of the precipitation and prevents its filtration to the soil, and 
thus may diminish the supply to springs. This is especially 
possible with small precipitations. Of copious rains and 
large amounts of snow-water quantities, greater or less, 
penetrate the soil, and according to its nature into lower 
strata and to springs. This drainage is facilitated not only 
by the numerous channels furnished by dead and living 
roots, but also by the influence of the forest cover in pre- 
serving the loose and porous structure of the soil. 
Although the quantity of water offered for drainage on 
naked soil is larger, and although a large quantity is utilized 
by the trees in the process of growth, yet the influence of 
the soil cover in retarding evaporation is liable to offset 
this loss, as the soil cover is not itself dried out. 
The surface drainage is retarded by the uneven forest 
floor more than by any other kind of soil cover. Small pre- 
cipitations are apt to be prevented from running off super- 
ficially through absorption by the forest floor. In case of 
heavy rainfalls this mechanical retardation in connection 
with greater subterranean drainage may reduce the danger 
from freshets by preventing the rapid collection into runs. 
The temporary retention of large amounts of water and 
eventual change into subterranean drainage which the well- 
kept forest floor produces, the consequent lengthening in 
the time of flow, and especially the prevention of accumu- 
lation and carrying of soil and detritus which are deposited 
in the river and change its bed, would at least tend to alle- 
viate the dangers from abnormal floods and reduce the num- 
ber and height of regular floods. 254 
IVA TER-SUPPL V. 
Having once carefully selected a watershed, it should be 
protected with the greatest care which science suggests, and 
with the utmost vigor which the law allows. Right here is 
the weakness shown by many of our city councils. The 
law is strong enough, and the municipal rights are plenty, 
but it is often very difficult to move the authorities to proper 
action. The most fruitful source of evil arises from the 
unquestioned right of a riparian landholder to “ water his 
stock.” The broad interpretation of this right can be car- 
ried to an absurd degree; for instance, the writer has seen 
the open channel-way connecting the storage- and distribut- 
ing-reservoirs of a large city doing duty, at one point of its 
course, as a farm-yard drain, the cattle standing and defe- 
cating in the small stream at pleasure. 
It may not be amiss to here point out that regulations 
for the protection of a watershed which do well enough 
during summer months may entirely fail of effectiveness 
after the ground becomes frozen. Drainage material which 
at one time could sink into the ground and become oxidized 
by infiltration would at other seasons flow down steep slopes 
over the frozen surface, or if itself arrested by frost would 
be at a later date washed into the stream by melting snows 
over thje yet unthawed ground. Such cases of contamina- 
tion are not rare, and are at times followed by most serious 
consequences, as was instanced by the outbreak of typhoid 
fever at Plymouth, Pa. It is useless to depend upon the 
purifying action of frost, for, as Prudden has shown, typhoid 
germs can withstand being frozen in solid ice during a period 
of over three months. 
To repeat what we have already touched upon, the puri- 
fying action of filtration through common soil is another 
point frequently misunderstood, and yet of important bear- 
ing when considering the protection of a watershed. Such 
filtration is only effective when it is intermittent. RIVER- AND STREAM-WATER. 
255 
The nitrifying organism which accomplishes the oxida- 
tion of the objectionable sewage material can only operate 
in presence of atmospheric oxygen. A supply of air must 
be present in the pores of the soil or else purification ceases. 
After a “ dose ” of sewage has been applied to a soil a 
sufficient interval must elapse to permit the air to renew 
the exhausted oxygen; otherwise the slow-moving and con- 
tinuous stream of filth must carry its objectionable properties 
to considerable distances. 
How important, then, that every privy located within 
drainage distance of a source of water-supply should be built 
without a vault, and should have its cleanings removed at 
frequent intervals and applied to successive pieces of ground! 
However desirable for the moment a river may be as a 
source of water-supply, it must not be forgotten that the 
conditions may change in the course of years with the 
growth of population up-stream, as has been already 
noted on another page. Objection was recently raised, 
by the writer to the future use of the unfiltered water of a 
large river, on the ground that pollution of the stream by 
sewage material is certainly on the increase, and that the 
introduction of sewerage systems in the towns above will, 
at no distant date, render the river-water very undesirable. 
A small mountain brook was recommended instead. The 
local critics objected by saying: 
“ The assumed pollution of the water of the river by 
human occupancy upon its banks above the intake, in the 
light of modern science, cannot possibly be so great as it 
must, from necessity, be in the case of the inland stream 
when the occupancy and volume of the latter are compared 
with those of the river. The flow of the river amounts to 
about ten thousand cubic feet per second, while that of the 
stream is not over seventy feet per second, so that the oc- 
cupancy of three or four families upon the latter would afford 256 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
greater danger of pollution than all the occupancy upon the 
river above our intake, when calculated as to their relative 
proportion in value and numbers.” 
This point is not well taken, unless it be admitted that 
the three or four families on the stream chance to have 
their privies and drains empty directly into the brook with- 
out soil intervention, an arrangement which would, of course, 
be prevented by the city authorities. The sewerage system 
of a town does turn its contents directly into the river in a 
raw state and without any purification, such as obtains from 
intermittent soil filtration, as in the case of properly located 
and cared-for country privies. The river in question is a 
large one, but it is possible to seriously pollute it, and it 
would appear that the up-stream towns are making arrange- 
ments to do so by the establishment of sewerage systems. CHAPTER VII. 
STORED WATER. 
NATURE provides enormous quantities of water stored 
up in lakes and ponds ready for human consumption, and 
man frequently supplements this by impounding surface and 
deep-seated waters in artificial basins when the natural 
reservoirs of the district are unavailable or are insufficient 
in size. Some sharp lines of difference must be drawn, 
however, between the waters classed under this general 
head. 
Lakes of such great size as to be properly considered 
inland seas—the Great Lakes of North America, for instance 
—furnish water of very constant composition, free from the 
considerable vegetable contamination so frequently met with 
in small lakes and ponds. Large as these Great Lakes are, 
the influence of the sewage from cities upon their shores is 
nevertheless beginning to be seriously felt. The pollution 
of Lake Michigan by the sewage of Chicago is a widely known 
fact, and it is yet an open question whether the present 
intake, situated, as it is, four miles from shore, may not be 
shortly reached by the ever-swelling volume of the city’s 
refuse. A smaller instance of the same kind is met with at 
Erie, Pa. That city takes its water from Lake Erie through 
an intake situated near the shore in a bay formed by a 
somewhat long peninsula. City sewage is felt at the intake, 
as is shown by a comparison of the water at that point 
with a sample taken from the open lake beyond the pen- 
insula: 258 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Intake. Open Lake. 
Free ammonia 10 .02 
Albuminoid ammonia 175 .135 
“ Required oxygen ” 2.85 2.55 
Nitrogen as nitrites 001 trace 
Nitrogen as nitrates trace trace 
Cleveland, O., also takes water from Lake Erie, and 
the writer is informed that an oily taste is noticed, which 
can be accounted for only on the supposition that city sew- 
age, containing refuse from the Standard Oil Works, finds 
its way as far as the intake. 
Much opportunity is given in large lakes for sedimenta- 
tion to come into full play, and settlement is, in conse- 
quence, a very great item in the process of the natural puri- 
fication of their waters.* 
Thus Dunant found 150,000 germs per c.c. in water from 
Lake Geneva taken near the shore, and only 38 per c.c. in a 
sample from the middle of the lake. Percy Frankland 
examined the waters of two inlets of Loch Lintrathen and 
found them to contain 1700 and 780 germs per c.c. respec- 
tively, while the outlet of the loch contained but 30 per c.c. 
Saratoga Lake, which indirectly receives the sewage of 
Saratoga, is not by any means of large dimensions, yet Cur- 
rier finds the following evidence of sedimentation: 
Surface 56 germs per c.c. 
13 feet below surface 54 “ “ “ 
32 “ “ “ 163 “ “ “ 
In smaller lakes and ponds the influence of surrounding 
vegetation begins to be felt, often so seriously as to inter- 
* Examinations of Lake Ontario water by the Toronto Water Board at 
points to 3 miles from shore, where the depths ranged from 75 to 182 feet, 
gave an average of xoi bacteria per c.c. During violent winter storms, with 
high seas, the number of bacteria per c.c. was very greatly increased. STORED WATER. 
259 
fere with the use of their waters for potable purposes. For 
instance, sundry small lakes (averaging 160 acres in water- 
surface) have been found by the author to furnish waters of 
the following compositions in parts per million: 
Free 
Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
Chlorine. 
N as 
Nitrates. 
N as 
Nitrites. 
Total 
Residue. 
a 
.005 
.420 
2 
O 
O 
52 
b 
.025 
.800 
3 
O 
.OOI 
84 
.066 
.170 
3 ‘ 
46 
One of the above waters is from a shallow, lily-grown 
lake, and is liable to produce temporary diarrhoea in most 
people. Another comes from a lake so overcharged with 
vegetable organisms that when the water is “in blow ’’ 
handfuls of small plants may be gathered from any portion 
of its surface. 
Some very interesting observations have been recently 
made, chiefly by Dr. Drown, showing the influence of depth 
upon the character of water in lakes and storage-reservoirs. 
He found that during the summer season, owing to the 
comparative lightness of the warmer water, no circulation 
takes place below a depth of twenty feet, that being the 
usual distance to which wind and wave agitation extends. 
Should the lake be protected from the wind, the aerated 
layer may extend temporarily only ten feet from the sur- 
face, and below this level the cold, stagnant water rests, 
until such time as the chilling of the upper layer increases 
its gravity to and beyond that of the lower layer upon which 
it floats.* When this point is reached, readjustment of 
relative position is immediately instituted, in accordance 
* FitzGerald finds that Lake Cochituate, which has an area of 7S5 acres, is 
not affected by wind and wave action below twelve feet from the surface. 260 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
with the change in specific gravity, and the water of the 
lake “ turns over.” 
The formation of this stagnant layer begins in April in 
this latitude, and circulation is partly re-established in Oc- 
tober and completely so in November. With the advent of 
freezing weather a second period of stratification is inaugu- 
rated which continues until the surface thaws again in the 
spring. Vertical circulation then progresses until the warm 
sun of later April renders the surface-water so light as to 
float upon the colder layers beneath, when summer stagna- 
tion again begins. 
Whenever the lower stagnant layer is brought in contact 
with decomposing organic matter, as is the case in reservoirs 
with bottoms from which the vegetation has not been re 
moved, the dissolved oxygen present is quickly used up; 
quantities of extractive matters pass into solution and the 
water becomes foul in odor and dark in color. 
The following analyses, published by the Massachusetts 
State Board of Health, show this diminution, and ultimate 
total exhaustion, of dissolved oxygen in the stagnant layer. 
The amount of oxygen present is expressed as percentages 
of the amount required to saturate the water at the tem- 
perature when collected. 
DISSOLVED OXYGEN AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS. 
JAMAICA POND, BOSTON, JULY 14, 1891. 
Surface .. 
Depth. 
Temperature of 
Water, Deg. Fahr. 
75-4 
Per Cent of 
Oxygen. 
IOO 
io ft. below surface... 
75 
IOO 
20 ft. “ 
u 
54 
49 
30 ft. “ 
u 
42.4 
29.47 
35 ft. “ 
a 
42 
4.18 
40 ft “ 
« 
42 
O 
47 ft. “ 
« 
4i-3 
O STORED WATER. 
LAKE COCHITUATE, BOSTON WATER-WORKS (AUG. 17, 1891). 
Surface 74.7 79-15 
10 ft. below surface 66.4 83.69 
20 ft. “ “ 53.6 35-86 
30 ft. “ “ 49.3 21.33 
40 ft. “ “ 48.2 20.93 
45 ft. “ “ 48.2 1.65 
50 ft- “ “ 45.7 o 
57 ft. “ “ (bottom)... 44.8 o 
Even though the bottom of a lake or reservoir be per- 
fectly clean and sandy, the dissolved oxygen must surely 
diminish in the lower layers of water, for no water is without 
some oxidizable contents, but it will not be reduced to zero, 
nor will the water become damaged in quality. 
Uniform experience goes to prove that good water may 
be preserved in properly constructed reservoirs without de- 
terioration for indefinite lengths of time. It must be re- 
membered, however, in this connection, that to keep a 
ground-water in good condition it is necessary to cover the 
reservoir. Such waters are usually charged with mineral 
matter suitable for plant-food, and the higher organisms will 
be very likely to grow therein unless light be excluded. 
Thus the great reservoirs supplying the spring-waters of 
Paris are kept entirely dark, with the best of results. Res- 
ervoirs used to store the filtered surface-waters of continental 
Europe, as, for example, those at Stuttgart, are likewise 
dark, for the same reason. 
Algae depend for their development upon material furnish- 
ing nitrogen. Water containing a moderate amount of this 
element washed from natural sources will maintain but a 
moderate growth of such plant-life, but where nitrogen is 
present in great quantity as nitrates, as is often the case in 262 
1VA TER-S UPPL Y. 
deep-seated waters, the development of algae is commonly ex- 
cessive during reservoir storage.* 
Experience in Massachusetts, as elsewhere, indicates that 
storage of surface-waters in open reservoirs causes but little 
change in the character of such waters, and that what small 
change does take place is beneficial. The effect of the stor 
age of ground-waters in such reservoirs is, however, quite 
strongly marked. 
Commenting upon the following table, F. P. Stearns 
says: 
“ In interpreting these analyses it will not be far out of 
the way if we consider the nitrates as representing food; the 
suspended albuminoid ammonia, the algae and other organ- 
isms, and the dissolved albuminoid ammonia, an extract of 
dead organisms, with, perhaps, in addition, the excreta of 
live ones.” 
CHANGES IN GROUND-WATER DURING OPEN STORAGE. 
PARTS PER MILLION. 
Albuminoid Ammonia. 
Nitrogen as 
Nitrates. 
Water entered reservoir May 22 
Dissolved. 
.016 
Suspended. 
.000 
.600 
May 24 
•054 
.170 
•450 
May 2q 
.082 
.406 
.040 
June 26 
.128 
.060 
.030 
That the stagnation of water in the lower levels of the 
reservoir is not in itself objectionable has been well shown 
by Dr. Drown in his study of reservoirs Nos. 3 and 4 of the 
Boston Water-works: 
“ Water in the stagnant layer does not become foul 
unless there is decomposable organic matter present. Thus 
* In this connection see an excellent article by Rafter on “Fresh-water 
Algae and their Relation to Purity of Public Water-supplies,” Am. Soc. C. E. 
XXI. 483. STORED WATER. 
263 
in Basin 4 of the Boston Water-works, which was carefully 
prepared for the reception of the water by the removal of 
all soil and vegetable matter, and is supplied with a brown, 
swampy water from a watershed almost entirely free from 
population, the water is good at a depth of 40 feet, because 
the water contains very little organic matter with a tendency 
to decomposition. 
RESERVOIR NO. 3, BOSTON WATER-WORKS (AUG. 20, 1891). 
Surface 
6 ft. below surface 
12 ft. “ “ 
Temperature, 
Deg. Fahr 
. . 747 
. . 747 
70.0 
Per Cent of Dis- 
solved Oxygen. 
85.88 
85.06 
58.97 
O 
14 ft. “ 
15 ft. “ 
17 ft. “ 
19 ft. “ 
21 ft. “ 
a 
a 
O 
u 
O 
a 
O 
“ (bottom). 
. . 62.8 
O 
RESERVOIR NO. 4, BOSTON WATER-WORKS (AUG. 20, 1891). 
Surface 74.7 84.50 
10 ft. below surface 70.9 84.42 
20 ft. “ “ 61.9 28.02 
30 ft. “ “ 70 27.42 
35 ft. “ “ : 54.7 16.28 
ft. “ “ (bottom)... 54.7 15.10 
“ The contrast in the condition of the water in these two 
reservoirs is very striking. Reservoir No. 3, in which the 
oxygen is exhausted at a depth of 14 feet, receives a not 
inconsiderable amount of direct pollution from the towns 
of Marlborough and Southborough, while the drainage area 
of Reservoir No. 4, as has been already said, is very sparsely 
populated.” 
The following chart, which graphically shows the tem- 
perature variations during the summer season for different WA TER-SUPPL V. 
TEMPERATURE S STORED WATER. 
265 
depths of Lake Cochituate, was prepared by Desmond Fitz- 
Gerald for the report of the Boston Water-works. It will be 
noted that the temperature curves run together at the times 
of the semi-annual “ turn-over.” 
As supplementary to his investigation concerning the 
amount of dissolved oxygen in the water of ponds and reser- 
voirs at different depths during the summer months, Dr. 
Drown made similar determinations during severe winter 
weather, when the waters in question were covered with 
thick coatings of ice. The winter results fully confirmed 
those of summer, and showed that with exclusion of air 
the dissolved oxygen diminished in proportion to the quan- 
tity of organic material present, “ reinforcing the argument 
for the storing of clean water in clean reservoirs.” * 
As a result of the “ turning over ” in the spring and au- 
tumn the waters of lakes and deep reservoirs possessing 
dirty bottoms become fouled to a greater or less degree 
throughout their entire masses by virtue of the mingling of 
the waters of all layers during these periods of vertical circu- 
lation. 
The deeply stained water of the bottom imparts a shade 
of its color to the body of the water at large, and the nitrog- 
enous matter in solution, quickly oxidizing to “ nitrates,” 
furnishes food for countless millions of ” diatoms,” whose 
growth, development, and decay cause many of the unpleas- 
ant tastes and odors with which our city supplies are so 
frequently afflicted. 
The Boston Water-supply Department has made ex- 
tended study of the coloring-matter so common to the stag- 
nant layer, and of the observed facts that the color at first 
* Mass. Bd. Health, 1892, 331. 
An interesting case of trouble from insufficiency of dissolved oxygen in the 
water of the Schuylkill River has already been referred to. WA TER-SUPPL V. 
deepens on exposure to air and afterwards bleaches out. 
The department finds that these phenomena are more 
strongly marked in proportion as the bottom-water is rich 
in salts of iron and manganese. 
Those familiar with the properties and behavior of ferrous 
and ferric salts would have predicted that the soluble and 
light-colored ferrous compounds would, upon exposure to the 
atmospheric oxygen, oxidize to darker ferric salts, and ulti- 
mately fall as insoluble hydrated oxide, leaving the water 
bleached. 
Sundry vegetable and peaty extracts are exceedingly 
difficult to decolorize, and waters containing them cannot 
be rendered colorless by storage in presence of light and 
air in a period short of many months. Improvement in 
color always results from storage, but its entire removal is 
often impossible. 
FitzGerald reports the following seasonal changes in color 
of the waters of the Sudbury: The highest color is attained in 
the month of June, and then it rapidly lessens until Septem- 
ber. Towards the end of October the color increases again 
until December, and then decreases until it reaches its yearly 
minimum in the middle of March. Fie offers the following 
explanation: In the early spring the swamps are overflowed 
and the color is low on account of dilution. Concentration 
causes increase in color until early summer, after which time 
the swamp pools cease to overflow, and consequently the 
brooks grow clearer. Autumn rains wash highly stained 
water into the streams, increasing their color, which is after- 
wards lessened in winter by the freezing up of the swamp 
sources.* 
Much more recently FitzGerald has experimented regard- 
ing the action of lights of different colors on the reduction 
* “Metro. Water-supply,” Mass. Bd. Health, 1895, Appendix 3. STORED WATER. 
267 
of the brown color of water. The water under experiment 
was exposed during one month of summer in bottles of 
colored glass. 
Original 
Color. 
Final 
Color. 
Per Cent 
Reduction 
in Color. 
In white bottle 
1-05 
0-39 
u u a 
p 
oo 
i_n 
0.19 
Mean 
0.95 
0.29 
69.48 
In blue bottle 
0-39 
u a a 
ir-i 
OO 
d 
0.24 
Mean 
0.93 
0.31 
66.66 
In yellow bottle 
0.58 
u a a 
0.46 
Mean 
0.93 
0.52 
44.09 
In red bottle 
0-54 
a u a 
0.47 
Mean 
0.93 
0.50 
46.24 
To return for a moment to what has been said concerning 
the growth of diatoms, the following interesting chart, pre- 
pared by G. C. Whipple,* makes the relation of such growth 
to the periods of vertical circulation very distinct: 
“ The cell-contents of these algae consist of a membrane, 
cell-sap, nucleus, chromatophore-plates, and sometimes oil- 
globules and starch-grains. Biologists are at the present 
time most interested in the oil-globules, because it is being 
proved that the oils present in the micro-organisms are the 
direct cause of many of the bad tastes and odors of certain 
drinking-waters. 
* “ Observations on the Growth of Diatoms in Surface-waters.” WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE DIATOM 
GROWTHS AND THE STAGNATION AND CIRCULATION OF THE 
WATER IN LAKE COCHITUATE. 
(AFTER WHIPPLE.) STORED WA TER. 
269 
Among other conclusions Mr. Whipple holds that diatoms 
flourish best in ponds having muddy bottoms; that their 
growth is directly connected with the phenomenon of stagna- 
tion; that their development does not occur when the lower 
strata of water are quiescent, but rather during those periods 
when the water is in circulation from top to. bottom; that 
the two most important conditions for their growth are a 
sufficient supply of nitrates and a free circulation of air; and 
that both these conditions are found during the periods of 
vertical circulation. 
In view of what has been said the bottom of a proposed 
reservoir should, so far as possible, be cleaned of all varieties 
of vegetable material, and it is even desirable to also remove 
a portion of the upper soil, as it commonly carries quantities 
of organic remains. Decomposition of recently killed vege- 
tation takes place under water quite rapidly at first, but the 
process is shortly converted into one of exceeding slowness, 
particularly where the covering water is deep. So perma- 
nent, in fact, is timber which has been deeply submerged 
that the oaken piles which in prehistoric times supported 
the buildings of the Swiss “ lake-dwellers ” are still firm and 
solid, although black in color. Alternate flooding and ex- 
posure to sun and air is quickly destructive of vegetable 
matter, and as a result a reservoir with very gently sloping 
sides furnishes conditions favorable to a contaminated water- 
supply, particularly if it be liable at times to considerable 
reduction in depth of water. Even though the level of its 
contents be always maintained at high-water mark, sloping 
sides would permit thin layers of water to be overheated by 
the summer sun, thus encouraging abundant growth of 
aquatic plants, which subsequently decay, to the damage of 
the water. 
It is especially undesirable to permit the bottom of a 270 
IVA TER-SUPPL V. 
storage-reservoir to remain exposed for more than one 
season, for the reason that vegetation will develop in such 
quantity as to greatly damage the water when the bare 
slopes are again submerged. 
Owing to experience already obtained in such matters' 
the Boston authorities propose to remove the soil from the 
site of the new Nashua reservoir (about seven square miles 
of area) at a cost of $2,909,000. “ In order to determine 
the amount of soil to be removed a number of test-pits 
were dug in representative localities to a depth of three feet, 
and from the sides of these pits samples of the soil were 
carefully collected at different depths. Analyses demon- 
strated that the amount of organic matter in the ground was 
generally so small below the layer of black loam that it 
would be necessary to remove only this layer.” Some 800 
holes were dug to determine the average depth of this layer, 
and it was concluded to remove 9 inches from the wooded 
portions, and 11J inches from the cleared lands.* 
It would be best, in this connection, to give a short 
abstract from Dr. Drown’s final report. He says: 
“ In order to determine in any case just how far it is 
necessary to go in the removal of the surface-soil a knowledge 
of the composition of the soil, based on chemical analysis, 
is a much surer guide than the unaided eye. It is not 
merely a question of the effective cleaning of the bottom 
and sides of the reservoir, but also of avoiding the expense 
involved in stripping the soil to a greater depth than is 
necessary. In connection with the investigations of the 
State Board of Health relative to a water-supply for the city 
of Boston and its suburbs surveys have been made for an 
immense storage-reservoir on the south branch of the Nashua 
River above Clinton, and it was thought desirable that a 
* Mass. Board of Health, 1895. STORED WATER. 
271 
thorough knowledge of the character of the soil should be 
obtained as a basis lor determining the amount which it 
would be necessary to remove to obtain a clean bottom and 
sides practically free from organic matter. Samples of soils 
representing sections of the ground to a depth of 3 feet were 
taken in nine places, and in one case at the bottom of a mill- 
pond. 
“ Each of these nine sections was divided into six or seven 
samples for analysis, the upper portion being divided into 
thin layers of 2 to 3 inches, the lower portions, with less 
organic matter, into layers of 6 to 12 inches in depth. 
“ The amount of organic matter in these samples was de- 
termined, after careful drying to a constant weight at ioo° 
C. (2120 F.), by heating the samples to a bright red heat. 
The loss on ignition thus obtained represents approximately 
the organic matter in the samples. But in order to get a 
better knowledge of the character of this organic matter 
the amounts of carbon and of nitrogen were also deter- 
mined in each sample—the former by combustion in oxygen, 
the latter by the Kjeldahl method. 
“ The largest amount of organic matter found was from a 
swamp at the head of the Boylston mill-pond, and the next 
largest from the hillside near the site of the proposed dam. 
In all the series there is usually a rapid falling off in the 
amount of the organic matter below a depth of 9 to 11 inches. 
At the depth of 3 feet the amount of organic matter, as 
shown by the loss on ignition, in no case reaches 2 per cent, 
and in the majority of the cases it is below 10 per cent. 
The mud taken from the bottom of the mill-pond at differ- 
ent points contained very variable amounts of organic matter, 
from almost nothing at one place in the shallow portion to 
nearly 15 per cent in the deeper portion. 
“As a preliminary conclusion, based on the facts deter- 
mined in this investigation, it may be said that the effect of 272 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the organic matter in these various soils on the water in 
contact with them is simply a question of its amount, and 
that its origin and composition seem to be without marked 
influence. The watershed from which the samples were 
taken is very sparsely populated, and the organic matter 
in all cases is mainly of vegetable origin. 
“It is probable, therefore, that we need only concern 
ourselves with the amount of organic matter in a soil of this 
character in determining the necessity of its removal, and 
as a provisional standard we may perhaps fix to 2 per cent 
of organic matter, as determined by the loss on ignition of 
the sample dried at iOO° C. (2120 F.), as the permissible limit 
of organic matter that may be allowed to remain on the 
bottom and sides of a reservoir.’’ * 
As an instance showing the necessity of thorough removal 
of the upper soil-layer from a proposed reservoir site if bad 
odors are to be avoided the very recent experience with 
Reservoir M of the New York Croton water system is a case 
in point. The following is taken from the New York Times: 
“ The residents of Purdy’s Station, N. Y., lying at the 
foot of Reservoir M, have been very considerably agitated 
lately over the malodorous atmosphere which prevails about 
the reservoir and pervades the inmost recesses of Purdy’s 
dwelling-houses. 
“ So obtrusively penetrant has the odor become within the 
last few weeks that many folk, believing the water to be 
infected, have closed up the wells from which they procure 
their drinking-water, and some have even been forced to 
abandon the hamlet as a residence until the atmosphere 
regains its purity and pleasant odor. 
* No stripping of the soil from the bottom of the Vyrnwy reservoir, sup- 
plying Liverpool, was done, but the water is filtered before delivery for con- 
sumption. Filtration is so common in Europe that the same care in storage is 
not so necessary as it is in this country, where-the practice is to pipe the raw 
water direct to the consumer. STORED WATER. 
273 
“ On July 29, 1895, the upper gate of the reservoir was 
pulled up and the great flood of water which had been in 
process of collecting for a year began to gush down the 
Titicus, over Isaac Purdy’s old sawmill-dam, on to the 
east branch of the Croton, and into New York City, at the 
rate of 40,000,000 gallons per day. It was then that Purdy- 
ites began to detect in the atmosphere a smell which seemed 
to be a combination of everything offensive. 
“ An investigation was begun, and it was soon proved to 
everybody’s satisfaction that the decayed grass in the bottom 
of the reservoir was exclusively responsible for the odor. 
“ It was about five years ago that the work on Reservoir 
M was begun, and its completion dates from one year ago. 
It was built on condemned land on which formerly were 
gardens, orchards, and dwelling-houses, through which 
meandered a small stream known as the Titicus. The 1000 
acres of land covered by the reservoir were cleared of every- 
thing excepting the growth of grass, which was left in most 
cases intact, or at least was not ploughed.” 
Other reservoirs of the same system gave similar trouble 
for a number of years after their construction. 
Depth of reservoirs is not so important as the presence 
of food-supply in the matter of the existence or absence of 
organisms. The Massachusetts Board of Health reports the 
case of Filling’s Pond, a very old storage-reservoir, eighty- 
five acres in surface, with an average depth of only three 
feet. No abnormal growths appeared in this reservoir, nor 
did the water become offensive, although its temperature 
at times reached 8o° F. The explanation offered is that, 
owing to the age of the reservoir, the bottom mud no longer 
contains food-supply.* 
Sulphuretted hydrogen frequently adds its disagreeable 
* Mass. Board of Health, 1890 [1], 749. 274 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
smell to the offensive odors occurring in new reservoirs, 
particularly shallow ones. The decomposition of vegetable 
material, killed by flooding, causes a reduction of the sul- 
phates present to sulphides, and these sulphides are further 
acted upon by the acids also formed by such decomposition, 
with liberation of the foul-smelling gas. The author found 
this gas on one occasion due to a somewhat unusual cause. 
The reservoir-dam had been built of blast-furnace cinder, 
and the water was, in consequence, strongly impregnated 
from the sulphur compounds contained therein. 
Waters from underground sources should be distributed 
for use as soon as possible after they have been brought to 
the surface; for, as we have seen, they are commonly well 
supplied with plant-food in solution, and, under the influence 
of light and air, there is danger of abundant development of 
objectionable algae if much time for open storage be al- 
lowed. 
With surface-waters the case is quite the reverse, and long 
storage becomes a distinct advantage if the reservoir be 
jclean. 
Sedimentation of suspended impurities, and destruction 
of bacteria by simple lapse of time, are two sources of benefit 
arising from impounding of surface-water. 
Bacteria often die but slowly, and although a large per- 
centage of their number will disappear through storage, it 
should not be forgotten that they are very small and very 
light, and consequently are very long in settling; so that it 
should not be expected that a reservoir could do the efficient 
work accomplished by a filter. 
The Boston Water Department publishes the following 
table, showing the influence of sedimentation as measured 
by the number of bacteria per cubic centimetre of water: STORED WATER. 
275 
Month. 
Chestnut Hil! Reservoir 
Gate-houses. 
Chestnut Hill Reservoir. 
Brookline Gate- 
house. 
Taps. 
| Sudbury. 
| Cochituate. 
Effluent. 
Surface. 
Middle. 
j Bottom. 
Park 
Square. 
Mattapan. 
January, 1894.... 
294 
20 
97 
8l 
168 
236 
52 
73 
54 
February “ .... 
436 
141 
148 
70 
42 
84 
March “ .... 
137 
74 
no 
48 
IOI 
no 
40 
32 
30 
April “ 
48 
22 
76 
25 
77 
50 
57 
32 
72 
May “ .... 
54 
58 
7i 
152 
260 
298 
47 
30 
107 
June “ .... 
65 
248 
90 
36 
180 
187 
80 
157 
92 
July “ .... 
789 
1553 
1080 
169 
647 
650 
164 
46 
80 
August “ .... 
26 
192 
221 
ICO 
569 
701 
83 
102 
65 
September “ .... 
65 
192 
219 
69 
152 
432 
64 
IOg 
60 
October “ ,... 
95 
387 
242 
38 
181 
225 
126 
29 
42 
November “ .... 
85 
161 
228 
48 
120 
299 
37 
50 
30 
December “ .... 
49 
44 
124 
17 
27 
22 
Mean 
179 
258 
226 
77 
246 
3i9 
70 
6l 
62 
Percy Frankland found the following numbers of bacteria 
per cubic centimetre in Thames water at the intake of the 
Grand Junction Company, and in water from the large res- 
ervoir of the company, where the greater part of it had been 
stored for six months, and none for less than one month: 
Intake 1991 bacteria 
Reservoir 368 “ 
The value of sedimentation was shown at Philadelphia 
during the prevalence of typhoid fever in that city in 1891. 
“ By much the highest mortality is in the twenty-ninth 
and thirty-second wards. This is an elevated section of 
the city, newly improved and occupied for the most part by 
well-to-do people. The drainage is good and the laws of 
health are doubtless as well observed as in any other portion 
of the city. But these wards are too high to draw water 
from the subsiding reservoir, and they are accordingly fur- 
nished by direct pumpage from the river. This is the case 
also in the twenty-eighth ward adjoining, and the district 276 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
so supplied extends southward including the fifteenth ward,, 
another well-to-do part of the city where typhoid is espe- 
cially prevalent. These four wards, furnished by direct 
pumpage, have a population of 184,000, and report 317 
cases of typhoid fever, or at the rate of 172 to 100,000 in- 
habitants.” 
The West Middlesex Company causes its water to pass 
through two storage-reservoirs before it is delivered upon 
the filter-beds. The influence of such passage is seen in the 
following counts of bacteria as made by Frankland: 
Intake at Hampton 1437 per cubic centimetre 
After passing first reservoir 318 “ “ “ 
“ “ second “ 177 “ “ “ 
The influence of precipitating mud in hastening the fall 
of bacteria was investigated by Kriiger.* By the use of 
one half gramme of fine sterilized potter’s clay per litre of 
water he obtained the following counts of bacteria per cubic 
centimetre of water. The temperature was maintained at 
55° F. 
Water with Clay. 
Control Water Containing 
No Clay. 
Top. 
Middle. 
Bottom. 
Top. 
Middle 
Bottom. 
After standing 2 hours 
575 
887 
33-495 
5340 
6rio 
5480 
“ “ 20 “ 
52i 
155 
43,595 
5960 
6710 
6210 
“ “ 50 “ 
6933 
6190 
66,350 
7230 
5987 
6924 
As has been pointed out elsewhere this action was to 
have been expected, in view of the well-known tendency 
of falling solids to drag down other matters with them even, 
at times, when such other bodies are in solution. Bac- 
* Zeit. f. Hygiene, vii. 86. STORED WATER. 
teria, being in suspension, are more readily influenced by the 
■depositing silt. The very large counts observed in the bot- 
tom samples of the water containing clay are doubtless due to 
the fact that the sterilized clay contained abundant food for 
the germs and favored their rapid multiplication during the 
period of observation. 
The most apparent advantage to be obtained from stor- 
age is doubtless the removal, by sedimentation, of those sus- 
pended materials, mostly of mineral character, which cause 
unsightly turbidity in water. 
The theory of the clearing of water by settlement, and 
the most economic size for purely sedimentation-reservoirs, 
are questions which have been exhaustively discussed in our 
engineering societies by such men as J. A. Seddon, Whit- 
ney, and others, and reference must be had to their inter- 
esting and voluminous papers for full information. 
One or two very condensed abstracts would be in keeping 
here. Speaking before the Engineers’ Club of St. Louis, 
Seddon says: 
“ There is much need of some definite knowledge of how 
water clears, or what are the laws under which the sediment 
in suspension in it passes out. 
“ As far as the water-works engineer is concerned, the 
problem of simple settlement is confined to the consideration 
of a mixture of small particles of greater specific gravity than 
water, and of different sizes, which are at the commence- 
ment of settlement about uniformly distributed through the 
water, and which gradually settle out of it. That there 
must be some law or laws by which they settle out would 
hardly be questioned; yet, while any number of theories 
have been presented, I do not know of an effort that has 
been made public to substantiate or value any of them by 
a careful system of experiment and observation. 
“ With the theories that have been advanced it is an open 278 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
question whether settling-basins should be shallow or deep, 
open or covered, what is the economic number in a given 
system, and even whether the settlement should be accom- 
plished by a system of filling and drawing in rotation, or 
by a system of constant flow through the basins, water-works 
under each system being at present in process of construc- 
tion, with the chances of making standing blunders on a large 
scale. 
“ Experiments and observations were undertaken as a 
preliminary to the design of the settling-basins for the St. 
Louis Water-works extension. 
“ For the wind to have no effect we would conclude that 
the simple wave motion existing over the greater part of a 
basin was in itself no hindrance to settlement, and that 
the revolution of the basin, produced by the tangential force 
of the wind on its surface, was insignificant compared with 
the effect of the internal motion. It is hardly thought that 
this question of the wind effect is settled by the data, but it 
certainly shows much less than might be expected, and was 
a great surprise to me. 
“ But, leaving theory out of the question, the data alone 
were enough for the economic design of the settling-basins; 
for they show as a fact in all cases that there is not much 
difference between the clearness from top to bottom of the 
basin, and for settlement beyond twenty-four hours so 
little that the problem in St. Louis was practically one of 
economic storage of volume, and that an expensive covering 
to protect the basins from wind was not justified. As the 
economy of settlement by filling and drawing, contrasted with 
continuous flow, had been demonstrated by a former system 
of experiments, the above furnished all the information 
needed.” 
A statement of the experiments proving the economy 
of settlement in quiet basins over settlement during con- STORED WATER. 
279 
tinuous flow will be found in Engineering News, vol. XXII., 
page 607, December 28, 1889, et seq. 
Among the comments upon Seddon’s paper was the 
following: 
“ The experiments just referred to upon settling-basins 
into which a continuous current is allowed to flow, and upon 
others permitted to stand without filling or drawing for a 
period of settlement, have shown for Mississippi water that 
it is more economical of storage capacity to use the latter 
method. To secure the same result in the same time by the 
two methods it is necessary to reduce the motions in the water 
to the same amount, approximately. The size of basins 
necessary to produce the effect when the flow is constant is 
greater than that necessary when the basins are filled, al- 
lowed to stand undisturbed for a time, and then drawn off. 
In the Mississippi water there is a large proportion of very 
fine sediment which requires a long time to effect a settle- 
ment, and there is some which will not settle out except 
under the quietest possible condition.” 
Whitney calls attention to the fact that “ as the material 
in suspension grows finer the weight of each particle de- 
creases so much more rapidly in proportion than its surface 
there is, relatively, a larger amount of surface area in these 
fine particles, and a great deal of surface friction in their 
movement through a medium. Consequently they settle 
very slowly.” 
“ Ordinary convection currents, induced by normal changes 
of temperature, would be sufficient to keep these fine par- 
ticles in suspension, as it is known that currents of air keep 
fine particles of dust and ashes in suspension.” * 
Although great storage-reservoirs must of necessity be 
open, those used for service should unquestionably be cov- 
* Wiley’s “ Agric. Anal.” i. 180. 280 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
ered, especially so if the water to be stored be from an un- 
derground source. We have already seen that exposure of 
subterranean waters to sunlight commonly results in devel- 
opment of objectionable vegetable growths. The writer 
recently visited the somewhat peculiar reservoirs at Paris 
which hold the Vanne spring-water, supplying a large por- 
tion of the drinking-water used in the French capital. The 
springs are about 107 miles distant, and the grade of the 
conduit-pipes is 1 centimetre per 100 metres (0.4 inch per 
328 feet). In order to secure sufficient storage, and yet to 
economize space within the walls of Paris, two reservoirs 
were built, one on top of the other.* The lower one is 
constructed of concrete, and 1800 concrete columns support 
the upper story, which is of brick. This upper chamber 
is covered by a roof which rests on brick continuations of 
the concrete columns. The water area in each reservoir is 
272 X 136 metres (892 X 446 feet), and its depth in the upper 
one is 8| feet and in the lower one 13I feet. The total stor- 
age capacity is 200,000 cubic metres (52,800,000 U. S. 
gallons). The temperature of the water is constantly 48.2° 
F. in winter and 51.8° F. in summer. No trouble has ever 
been experienced with algae growths or odors. Cleaning 
takes place but once in five years, at which time about half 
an inch of compact hard deposit is removed. The reservoirs 
hold a supply sufficient for about six days. 
“ The gravitation supply for the city of Naples, brought 
in from Urcicoli, a distance of 31 miles, at a cost of about 
Li,400,000 ($280,000), is distributed from service-reser- 
voirs located in the hills overlooking the city. They lie 
within the bosom of Capedimonte Hill. The water is col- 
lected from springs, scarcely sees light on its passage to 
Naples through the aqueduct, and is there received into the 
* The Montmartre reservoirs of Paris consist of three superimposed cham- 
bers instead of two. STORED WATER. 
281 
service-reservoirs at Capedimonte for the lower level districts, 
and in the valley of the Fontanelle for the higher level dis- 
tricts. The water is distributed at an almost constant tem- 
perature of 550 F. The reservoirs instead of being placed 
on the hills are within them at a depth of some 150 feet 
from the surface. This situation, so admirable in itself, but 
which would usually be so costly, was probably forced on 
the engineer by the fact that the hill had already been honey- 
combed for building-stone; some of the old mines or “ Ca- 
flisch ” were enlarged and made use of for the reservoirs and 
the outlet-mains to the city. A visit to these reservoirs will 
not be easily forgotten, and the contrast between the bright 
hot summer’s day left overhead and the funeral darkness 
and icy chill of the lower region is extremely startling to a 
visitor. The low service-reservoir consists of five galleries ex- 
cavated parallel to each other. Their dimensions are 35.4 feet 
in height, and 30.3 feet greatest width. The depth of water 
is 26 feet, and the galleries are separated by a space of about 
30.3 feet of rock left unexcavated. The 1st, 2d, 4th, and 5th 
galleries communicate, so that the five galleries make three 
completely isolated basins. The lengths of Nos. 1, 2, and 
3 are 830 feet, and of the remaining two 666 feet. The 
variation in length was necessitated by the presence of a dis- 
used mine near No. 4 basin. The capacity of the five basins 
is 17,600,000 imperial gallons.* The veins in the rock filled 
with scarpine were well cleaned out and replaced with solid 
masonry as required. Up to five inches above top-water 
line the sides of the excavation were plastered in cement of 
varying thickness, from two inches at the base to one half an 
inch at the top. The plaster was put on in two layers.” 
Referring to the covering of the London reservoirs, the 
* 21,120,000 U. S. gallons. 
I imperial gallon = 1.2 U. S. gallons. 282 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
official examiner, Sir Francis Bolton, in his “ London Water- 
supply,” says: 
“ No greater improvement in water-works construction 
was ever effected than that of covering the reservoirs, and 
thus protecting the water from all atmospheric impurities as 
well as from light and heat. In proof of its efficiency it 
may be mentioned that reservoirs which when open re- 
quired cleansing out twice a year, owing to the vegetable 
growth, aerial impurities, and animal life constantly accumu- 
lating therein, have been found to be perfectly free from 
any objectionable deposit for five years after being covered 
over.” 
The lining of a service-reservoir is an important matter, 
and, unless properly looked after, may result in serious 
difficulties. 
Phipson reports a case * where a new subterranean reser- 
voir, built to store rain-water, and lined with hydraulic 
cement of bad quality, permitted its contents to become so 
charged with calcium hydrate as to be strongly alkaline to 
litmus paper. The water was thus rendered useless for 
domestic purposes. 
Where possible of application, very excellent results are 
obtained from the use of a lining of asphaltum. The follow- 
ing is taken from a report of the work done on the new res- 
ervoirs of Portland, Ore.: 
“ Among the most interesting features of the construc- 
tion of Portland’s new water-supply system is the use of 
asphaltum for the finishing coat of the reservoir-linings. 
“ Since the earliest history of man asphaltum has been 
extensively used in structural work in a variety of forms. 
The builders of the ditches and reservoirs that supplied 
ancient Babylon employed it to save leakage; the wonderful 
* Chemical Nczvs, lxx. 3. STORED WATER. 
283 
works of the Syrian and Egyptian builders all attest the use 
of this valuable material. 
“ The ancient artisans used the soft, pure asphaltum 
from the fountains of Is and from the shores of the Red 
Sea. Their works, uncovered by moderrn searchers, show 
the material in as good condition as ever. The disinterred 
works of the California Indians bear the same testimony. 
It has not changed by time. 
“ The Syrians, the Egyptians, and the Indians took it 
and applied it as they found it; therefore it lasts eternally, 
as it would in its native beds. In itself it is indestructible 
except by fire. It is only the spurious article, adulterated 
and weakened, that fails. 
“ The lesson taught by the testimony of centuries has 
been applied in the Portland work. The asphalt used in 
the reservoirs is pure natural bitumen, and it seals every 
pore of the brick and concrete backing as wax seals a jar of 
fruit or a bottle of wine. There can be no leaks so long as 
the linings stand.” 
A very uncommon necessity arose, some two years ago, 
of disinfecting the reservoir-lining at Buffalo, N. Y. A 
typhoid fever epidemic of some magnitude was prevailing in 
the city at the time, caused by the entrance of the very foul 
water of a sewage canal into the public supply. As polluted 
water had unquestionably been pumped into the distributing- 
reservoir, it was determined to empty and disinfect the 
same before continuing its use. A very sharp discussion 
ensued among the local authorities as to the relative merits 
of chlorine and bromine for such disinfection, the latter 
having been already purchased for the purpose by the Board 
of Health. 
As between the two agents proposed the author decided 
in favor of bromine, as follows: 
“ Beyond question chlorine is, in general, a more ener- 284 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
getic agent than bromine, and manifests a greater intensity 
of chemical activity, tending to the breaking up of molecular 
structure, but as to germicidal power they are practically 
the same. Either of them is certain death to living or- 
ganisms. 
“ For use as a disinfecting solution the liquid form of 
bromine, under the ordinary conditions of temperature and 
pressure, its greater solubility in water, and the comparative 
permanence of the solution so formed, render it more suit- 
able and convenient than chlorine, and any small difference 
in actual cost per pound should not be admitted as a factor 
in the consideration. 
“ Chlorine* is to-day sold as a liquid under pressure (60 
pounds per square inch), but its boiling-point, at ordinary 
pressure, being about 30 degrees below zero, and the 
amount of the gas capable of being held in solution in water 
being about 2 per cent, the waste of gas during the manu- 
facture of ‘chlorine-water’ may readily be very excessive. 
“Bromine is a liquid at ordinary temperature and is solu- 
ble in water to about 3 per cent. In preparation of ‘ bro- 
mine-water’ any excess of bromine, owing to its high gravity, 
sinks to the bottom and maintains a constant state of satura- 
tion. 
“ After years of experience in the preparation and use of 
solutions of the two elements I can state that ‘ bromine- 
water ’ is capable of being prepared more easily and of being 
preserved for a much longer period than the corresponding 
chlorine solution- 
“ Not only is ‘chlorine-water’ more troublesome to pre- 
pare, but it deteriorates quite rapidly when exposed to the 
* Liquefied chlorine comes in iron cylinders containing about go pounds, at 
35 cents per pound, cylinder $16 extra. The latter, when empty, is returnable 
at full price charged, if in good condition. Liquefied chlorine is made by the 
manufacturers of coal-tar dyes in Germany, and is used in connection with the 
manufacture of such dyes. STORED WATER. 
285 
influence of light and air; and for service such as is desired 
in Buffalo the question might readily be raised as to whether 
or not the successive portions of the liquid used were of 
equal or even of efficient strength at the times of their 
employment. It would be the simplest of problems to 
maintain the ‘bromine-water’ at full saturation strength 
throughout the entire process of disinfection.” 
Bromine-water was used in the above instance and was 
applied as a spray by the help of a fire-engine. The results 
were satisfactory. 
As growing out of a consideration of reservoir-water, it is 
interesting to note the influence of the channels of distribu- 
tion, i.e., conduits and city mains, upon the character of the 
supply. The differences between the following sets of 
samples, taken by the author at a city intake and drawn 
from taps at the other end of the town, show the changes in 
the water resulting from passing through the pumping system 
and street mains: 
Bacteria per 
Cubic Centimetre. 
■ '; 
Intake. 
Tap. 
January 12 
1502 
February 5 
436 
April 10 
17,665 
2425 
October 30 
1,487 
IO9O 
It is instructive, and suggestive of the beneficial action 
of mains, to note that, for the year ending September 30, 
1892, when the lake-water was pumped directly into the Chi- 
cago mains from the old short-tunnel intakes, the percent- 
ages, by wards, of deaths from typhoid to total deaths were: 
Wards less than two miles from the lake 6.0 per cent 
“ more « “ “ “ “ “ 5.7 “ “ 
At the time of testing the new filter for the city of Law- 
rence, Mass., the efficiency was found to be a removal of 286 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
98.3 per cent of all bacteria; but by the time the water 
reached the city hall 99.1 per cent had disappeared. Thus 
credit should be given the street mains for the destruction 
of 0.8 per cent of the total germs. 
Similar evidence is presented by chemical analysis of 
water from the same town: * 
Albuminoid 
Nitrogen as 
Ammonia. 
Nitrates. 
Water as pumped to reservoir 
174 
•135 
Water from reservoir 
144 
.146 
Water from city tap two miles from 
reservoir, .117 
.192 
Currier gives the following counts of bacteria, showing 
influence of a flow of twenty-two miles in the Croton aque- 
duct : 
Dobbs Ferry 453 per cubic centimetre 
Central Park 175 “ “ “ 
Entirely similar results were obtained with the Mohawk 
River water by Prof. Stoller, and the beneficial action of 
the Schenectady mains is graphically shown by him in the 
Thirteenth Report of the N. Y. State Board of Health. 
In examining the Freiburg supply Tils found that the 
water from the reservoir contained fewer bacteria than that 
from the mountain source. But he also found that the bacteria 
increased in numbers after passing through the service-mains. 
Percy Frankland also found that the deep well-water fur- 
nished by the Kent Company contained fewer bacteria as 
it issued from the wells than when delivered by the city 
mains to the consumers. This is at variance with our ex- 
perience in this country, and possibly the explanation is 
that the deep well-waters supplied a large amount of mineral 
food and thus encouraged bacterial growth. 
* Mass. Board of Health, 1890. CHAPTER VIII. 
GROUND-WATER. 
The circulation of water in the soil is governed by gravity 
and surface-tension, and the latter is in turn affected by 
the structure of the soil, its composition, and the per cent by 
volume of the empty spaces between its particles. 
The “ voids ” in the subsoils of South Carolina and Mary- 
land, as determined by Whitney, show as a mean for twenty- 
three localities 48.73 per cent by volume, the extremes 
being 37.29 and 65.12. 
The rate at which water will flow through a soil * is de- 
pendent not only upon the aggregate volume of the voids, 
but also, and more particularly, upon their separate dimen- 
sions; for it can be readily seen that the inhibiting influence of 
friction will rapidly increase with the fineness of the soil-grain. 
This is seen in the following table, extracted from “ Phys- 
ical Properties of Soils.” f The rates of flow through a cer- 
tain depth are calculated for a uniform water-content of 12 
per cent. 
Soil (Maryland). 
Number of Grains per 
Gramme of Subsoil. 
Voids, 
per Cent. 
Relative Time, 
Minutes. 
Pine-barrens 
1,692,088,503 
40 
8 
Truck 
3,342,323,489 
45 
16 
Tobacco 
8,258,269,975 
50 
33 
Wheat 
10,357,871,515 
55 
45 
River terrace 
11,684,097,513 
55 
49 
Triassic 
14,735,778,341 
55 
56 
Helderberg 
19,638,258,585 
65 
100 
* In this connection see Wiley’s “ Agric. Anal.” i. 159 
f Bulletin 4, U. S. Depart, of Agric. 288 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Storer gives the following values for the water-holding 
powers of various soils. The figures show the percentage of 
water absorbed in terms of the weight of the dry soil, and 
were determined by drying, weighing, soaking, draining, 
and again weighing each sample. 
Quartz-sand, rounded edges 26 percent 
Quartz-sand with flakes of mica 32 “ “ 
Gypsum (earthy) 27 “ “ 
Loamy clay 50 “ “ 
White clay 74 “ “ 
Yellow clay 68 “ “ 
Loam 52 “ “ 
Fertile marly loam ... 59 “ “ 
Limestone-sand 29 “ “ 
Humus 180 “ “ 
Peat 201 “ “ 
A word of caution seems proper here. It must be re- 
membered that the above figures show what the sands and 
soils will hold, not what they would deliver. No pump could 
extract that final portion of the contained water which would 
remain as “ moisture,” and its quantity would be a very 
respectable percentage indeed of the amounts given. 
“ When a soil is only slightly moist, the water clings to 
its grains in the form of a thin film. When these soil-particles 
are brought together, the films of water surrounding them 
unite, one surface being in contact with the soil-particles and 
the other exposed to the air. If more water enter the soil, the 
film thickens, until finally, when the point of saturation is 
reached, all the space between the soil-particles becomes 
filled with water, and surface-tension within the soil is thus 
reduced to zero. Gravity then alone acts on the water and 
with a maximum force. 
“ In a cubic foot of ordinary soil the total surface of the 
soil-particles will be at least 50,000 square feet. It follows GROUND- WA TER. 
289 
that when the soil is only slightly moist the exposed water- 
surface of the films surrounding the soil-particles approxi- 
mates that of the particles themselves. If such a mass of 
slightly moist soil be brought in contact with a like mass 
saturated with water, the films of water at the point of 
contact will begin to thicken in the nearly dry soil at the 
expense of the water-content of the saturated mass. The 
water will thus be moved in any direction. 
“ During evaporation the surface-tension near the surface 
of the soil is increased, and the water is thus drawn from 
below. In like manner, when rain falls on a somewhat dry 
soil, the surface-tension is diminished, and the greater sur- 
face-tension below pulls the moisture down, even when gravi- 
tation would not be sufficient for that purpose.”* 
Wherever found, and under whatever circumstances, the 
water of the ground owes its origin to the rain or melting 
snow.f Attention is called to this point because of a wide- 
* Bulletin 4, U. S. Weather Bureau. Also Wiley’s “ Agric. Anal.” 1. 155. 
f “ Iowa contains a little over 35,000,000 acres of land- and water-surface. 
Upon this area the mean annual precipitation is about thirty-five inches (includ- 
ing rain and melted snow). Each acre receives 3955 tons of water each year, 
and the whole State receives the enormous aggregate of 138,000,000,000 tons 
per year. How is this vast amount of water disposed ol ? A considerable 
share sinks into the ground and is stored and held in the interstices of the soil 
and subsoil, and made available for plant-growth. The amount that is thus 
absorbed and held depends upon the depth of soil above the more impervious 
strata, and its porosity and capacity to receive moisture. In this prairie region 
the amount that enters the soil and is held there temporarily is much larger 
than in hilly or mountainous countries. The annual surface flow or run-off in 
the streams amounts, on an average, to about 30 to 40 per cent of the total 
rainfall. This leaves 60 to 70 per cent to be disposed of by percolation into 
the soil, evaporation by sun and air, and by transpiration through plants. In 
the growth of cereal crops a very large percentage of the soil-moisture is con- 
sumed, but the ratio it bears to the total has never been satisfactorily deter- 
mined. It has been ascertained, however, by careful experiments, that in the 
production of a ton of the dry matter of corn over 300 tons of water are re- 
quired. In the growth of a ton of oats more than 500 tons of water are con- 
sumed. These figures illustrate the fact that by making the soil more porous 
and by the production of vast crops we have lessened the flowage in the 
streams and greatly reduced the area of our ponds and shallow lakes. The re- 290 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
spread notion that the wells of fresh water often existing in 
the immediate vicinity of the ocean are fed with sea-water 
from which the salt has been removed by percolation through 
the sand of the beach. Much to the writer’s surprise, this 
inference is permitted in an engineering work of national 
fame. In some cases the fresh water found in the sand of 
the seashore originates some considerable distance inland, 
and the wells intercept it on its way towards an outlet in 
the sea; in other instances its origin is due entirely to very 
local rains, and its storage in the loose sand is owing to its 
being specifically lighter than the surrounding sea-water. 
An instance of this kind is met with in the island of Mus- 
keget, near Nantucket. The island is practically a mound 
of sand, raised but a few feet above the level of the ocean, 
cent drought has worked to the same end.” (Iowa Weather Service, December, 
1895.) 
The following curious instance of reinforcement of ground-water is given in 
Fernow’s “ Forest Influences”: 
“ The influence of forests on fogs and clouds has been frequently mentioned 
and observed in single cases. The fog seems to linger in the woods after it 
has cleared off elsewhere. Trees also act as condensers, as gatherers of dew, 
hoar frost, and ice, and the latter phenomenon is especially remarkable in the 
so-called ice-storms, where the accumulation is so great as to overload and 
break the larger limbs and branches. In these cases, however, the trees act 
like inorganic bodies. This is illustrated by a celebrated case on the island of 
Ascension, the details of which are due to Prof. Cleveland Abbe, who in 1890 
personally inspected the phenomenon. This case is especially worth quoting, 
because its records have been so badly understood. The principal water-supply 
for the garrison of this naval station is gathered several miles away, at the 
summit of Green Mountain, the upper part of which has always been green 
with verdure since the island was discovered; almost all of this water comes from 
slight showers and steady dripping of trees enveloped in cloud-fog on the wind- 
ward side of the mountain. Every exposed object contributes its drip; these do 
not condense the water, they simply collect it mechanically after it has been 
condensed in the uprising cooling air. Whatever fog-drops are not thus col- 
lected sweep on over the mountain and quickly evaporate again. Thirty years 
ago or more efforts were made to plant a few trees in the arid spot at the garri- 
son landing; none survived, but some few new shrubs were added to the flora 
of the mountain-top; extensive additions were also made to the mountain reser- 
voirs and drip-collectors and pipes of the aqueduct system. The few artificial 
scrubby plants have had no influence whatever in increasing the water-supply. GRO UND- WA TER. 
291 
and it is perhaps a mile in width. It was formed and is main- 
tained by ocean currents, and is covered by a scanty growth 
of grass. Anywhere upon this island fresh water may be 
obtained by digging down two or three feet in the sand. 
Necessarily the water to be secured from such a source is 
limited in quantity. Under the general head of deep-seated 
water we shall see that fresh water may reach the ocean 
from very distant sources, and under a head so great as to 
cause a veritable “ boiling spring” miles out at sea. 
A very commonly received conception of the occur- 
rence of ground-water is that it moves in very definitely 
localized streams, and that, to be successful, a well must 
be sunk directly into one of these. Of course the confor- 
mation of the country may, at times, cause this popular notion 
to closely coincide with the truth, but a more general de- 
scription of the occurrence of ground-water would be that 
of a widely extended sheet, and the expression “ water- 
table ” has been adopted with that view in mind. 
Underground streams, some of large size, do certainly 
exist, especially in limestone districts,* but their character 
would hardly permit of their being classed as typical ‘ ‘ ground- 
water.” If considered at all, they should be properly placed 
under “ deep-seated water,” but their importance as means 
of supply is entirely insignificant. 
The mean height of this “ water-table” (i.e., its distance 
from the surface of the ground) is governed by the average 
* “'The most remarkable well I have ever seen was on the old battlefield of 
Stone River, in Tennessee. A man in digging for water struck an underground 
stream He made the hole big enough to hold a water-wheel. The stream 
ran the wheel and pumped water up to the owner’s house. Underground 
streams, of course, are common enough. They are frequent in the limestone 
region of Texas, in the gypsum region of New Mexico, in the Appalachian 
region, and in the limestone region of Iowa and Missouri. The very fact that 
these streams are flowing shows that they are seeking a base level, and hence 
it is useless to try to tap them by artesian wells, because the water will not 
rise.” (R. T. Hill.) 292 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
rainfall and the opportunities for local drainage. The de- 
livery being into the rivers and streams of the district, or 
into the sea, there is always a slight inclination of the water- 
surface towards those natural drains, more especially in their 
immediate vicinity. The seaward slope of the water-table 
of the south half of Long Island, for instance, is from 8 to 
12 feet per mile. 
UNDERGROUND STREAM ENCOUNTERED IN DRIVING TUNNEL FOR WATER SUPPLY 
INTAKE, MILWAUKEE, WIS. 
When a well is sunk into this layer of ground-water, and 
draught by pumping made thereupon, a “cone of influence” 
is established, whose apex is at the bottom of the well, and 
whose lateral elements coincide with a new and steeper 
slope of the surface of the water-table. The steepness of 
this slope, and consequently the area of the base of the 
“cone,” will in large part depend upon the character of the 
soil through which the water is caused to flow. If the grain GROUND- WA TER. 
293 
of the soil be fine, the high degree of friction will greatly 
impede the velocity of the water, and as a result the slope 
will be steep and the base of the cone contracted, while 
the reverse conditions would obtain in a soil of open, sandy 
texture. 
Throughout the semi-arid region of the great Western 
plains the ground-water and deep-seated water development 
has received a very large share of attention indeed; for if it 
were true that the “ underflow,” which unquestionably exists 
there, constantly received inexhaustible reinforcements from 
the mountains farther west, it would be very apparent that 
sterile wastes might quickly be transformed into fertile 
meadows by the sinking of wells and irrigation on an ex- 
tensive scale. 
It is erroneously held by many otherwise well-informed 
people that the ground-water supplying the wells of large por- 
tions of the great plains of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, 
Wyoming, and Texas is derived from the melting of the 
snow on the Rocky Mountains; but, as is shown in the 
reports of Professors Hay and Hill,* “ the great body of 
the area of the plains is cut off from contact with the moun- 
tains by deep river-trenches, which make it impossible for 
them to receive any benefit from the melting of the moun- 
tain snows.” This is shown graphically on the next page. 
Referring to the “underflow” of the semi-arid region, 
Follett says: 
“ The question of utilizing this underflow for general ir- 
rigation has been studied in a desultory way for several 
years. Unfortunately the investigators have all been either 
real-estate boomers or enthusiasts, and have generally reached 
conclusions first and then looked for facts to substantiate 
them. 
“ Two years ago last tail 1 was employed as assistant 
* Senate Due. 41, part 3, $2d Congress. 294 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
engineer for the artesian and underflow investigation of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
of which Col. E. S. Nettleton was 
chief engineer. Under instructions 
from Colonel Nettleton I was de- 
tailed to collect facts bearing on 
this problem on the possibilities of 
general irrigation from the under- 
ground waters. Many facts were 
gathered, all tending to confirmation 
of the assumption that the sheet- 
water, broadly speaking, receives 
none of its supply directly from the 
mountains. This is important, as 
tending to assist in computing the 
possible supply. Its source must be 
the western portion of the great 
plains, with very little, if any, foot- 
hill drainage. Here the rainfall is 
light, and the soil in general not 
such as will freely imbibe water, 
and the evaporation is rapid. All 
these conditions tend to show that 
the supply of underground water 
must be limited. 
“ The next step will be to de- 
termine, if possible, the rate of 
movement of water in sand. Some 
English engineers determined by 
experiment that water moved 
through sand at the rate ot one 
mile per year, or £ inch per minute. 
Mr. Donald W. Campbell reports 
that he made some rough experiments in the Gila River sand, GRO UND- WA TER. 
295 
in Arizona, and thought he detected a movement of £ inch 
per minute. I tried in Cherry Creek sand, very coarse, and 
in a channel having about 25 feet per mile of fall. I could 
detect no movement, but my method of work was crude.” 
He concludes that: 
“ (1) The underflow is not supplied from the snow or rain- 
fall of the mountains. 
” (2) Its rate of movement in the sand is very slow, hence: 
“ (3) The amount which may be drawn from it without 
permanently lowering its level is small. 
“ (4) Each farmer on the great plains whose land is un- 
derlaid by this sheet-water at a moderate depth can hope to 
obtain by pumping water enough to irrigate a small garden 
and truck-patch, say two to five acres, but: 
“ (5) The supply is not such as to warrant large expendi- 
tures in constructing plants intended to obtain water suffi- 
cient for general irrigation. Even if momentarily successful, 
as a plant would be drawing down the surface of a lake 
with no outlet, the supply will be exhausted. In other 
words, the water-surface will be permanently lowered, and 
disaster to the irrigation-plant will follow. 
“ These conclusions are reached not only from a consid- 
eration of the facts here stated, but also by weighing many 
other known conditions/’ 
“ Sunk wells” are at times formed by the caving in of 
the surface of the ground, and the consequent exposing of 
pools of water in a country apparently destitute of moisture. 
Such cavings are due to removal of soluble material from 
beneath the crust by the solvent action of the “ underflow.” 
Pools of this description have been formed in Western 
Kansas.* 
When the conditions prevailing in the district do not favor 
* Senate Doc. 41, part 4, 52c! Congress, page 30. 296 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
the development of a spring on the side or at the base of 
a slope, the time-honored manner of tapping the underground 
supply is to sink the ordinary domestic well into the water- 
table. 
As illustrating what may be expected in the way of a 
ground-water from a locality beyond the reach of human 
contamination the following analysis is given of a spring- 
water from the summit of the Catskill Mountains: * 
Free ammonia .01 per million 
Albuminoid ammonia .06 “ “ 
Nitrogen as nitrates..., .01 “ “ 
Nitrogen as nitrites slight trace 
“ Required oxygen ” .40 per million 
Total solids no “ “ 
A very good ground-water from Rensselaer County, N. 
Y., contains: t 
Free ammonia 0050 per million 
Albuminoid ammonia 0075 “ “ 
Nitrogen as nitrates 5 “ “ 
Nitrogen as nitrites none 
“ Required oxygen ” none 
Total solids 97- “ “ 
A curious instance of the contamination of ground-water 
with mineral impurity is reported by Haworth.f In writing 
of Cherokee County, Kan., he says: The well- and spring- 
waters before the mines were opened were first-class, but as 
soon as the mines were opened all was changed, and the 
older the mines the worse the water. Animals of all kinds 
began to be seriously affected.” 
The mineral deposits of the section of country above re- 
* The sample was taken during a prolonged drought, 
f Am.J. Sci. XLIII. 418. GRO UND- WA TER. 
ferred to consist largely of zinc blende, and the development 
of the mining properties permits of a ready oxidation of the 
zinc sulphide to soluble salts. Zinc-bearing spring-water 
from the neighboring portion of Missouri is reported as con- 
taining as much as 327 parts of zinc sulphate per million parts 
of water. 
It is very well known that free sulphuric acid at times 
occurs in spring-waters of localities where pyrites is exposed 
to oxidation, and a very celebrated instance of such contam- 
ination has already been referred to. 
Arsenic is occasionally a constituent of spring-water; and 
manganese associated with iron is quite common in the 
ground-waters of some districts, especially Northwestern Mis- 
souri. In one water from that section of the country the 
writer found as much as 9.41 parts of carbonate of manganese 
per million parts of water. Most instances of the presence 
of metallic salts in water should, however, be classed under 
the general head of “ mineral waters,” and as such are here 
manifestly out of place. 
For the delivery of large supplies the ground-water can- 
not be conveniently tapped by ordinary dug wells, so that 
recourse is had in such cases to what is known as “ driven 
wells,” set within suitable distance of each other, and coupled 
to a general main through which the water is drawn by the 
pump. 
Each well is but an iron tube, perforated at its lower ex- 
tremity, which is driven through the soil to the water-bearing 
layer below. Single wells of this description, surmounted 
by a simple hand-pump, may be seen, in some instances, 
replacing the domestic well in the country door-yard, but the 
type is more commonly met with in “ gangs” of very con- 
siderable number for the supply of cities or towns. 
A method of sinking them by the use of live steam was 298 
WA TER-S UP PL Y. 
patented a few years ago, and, under some conditions of soil, 
may show considerable saving in first cost. 
A hole some 20 feet deep is first bored with an auger, 
and in this is inserted a 6-inch heavy galvanized wrought- 
iron pipe, its lower 6 feet being perforated with f-inch holes. 
Inside of this is placed a 2-inch steam-pipe, with a nozzle 
formed at its lower end, and steam at 150 pounds from a 
large boiler admitted. Sand, soil, stones, and steam escape 
from the 6-inch pipe in a continuous stream, and the pipe 
rapidly descends, being constantly turned by a man with 
heavy pipe-tongs at the mouth, and extra lengths added as 
necessary, until a supply of ground-water is found. 
By whatever method the “ driven well” is sunk, its mode 
of action is entirely similar to that of the common domestic 
well, from which it differs only in diameter, and it is supplied 
by the ground-water of the district in the same manner as its 
longer known progenitor. There is, in short, nothing gained 
in the majority of cases from the supposed exhaustion of air 
by the action of the pump. Much has been claimed under 
this head, and it has been urged that the zone of influence 
always widens rapidly under “suction” from an air-tight 
well; but it must be remembered that “ air-tight” is a term 
which can be usually applied to the well only, and not to the 
ground overlying the zone of influence. The porous soil will 
unquestionably admit all the atmosphere required, and con- 
sequently the flow of water will be determined by those 
forces, and those only, which govern in the case of wells of 
the ordinary type. 
When, however, the well passes through an extensive 
layer of impervious clay, and taps a water-bearing stratum 
beneath, then the opportunities for a development of the 
advantages of “ suction ” reach their maximum. 
Brooklyn, N. Y., is partly supplied with water by this 
system, and the attention of the public is often called to the DRIVEN-WELL PLANT, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 300 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
results obtained there, but it must be borne in mind that 
the southern half of Long Island * is pre-eminently suited to 
the driven-well system, it being but a sand-bank thrown 
up against an old glacial moraine, and that consequently it 
would not be wise to figure too closely upon such data for 
general practice. At the first station near the Brooklyn 
end of the conduit there are 124 wells, each of a diameter 
of two inches. They are placed in two rows, twenty feet 
apart each way, and are forty to sixty feet deep. The tubes 
are perforated for ten feet from the bottom. 
During a special trial of these wells the level of the local 
water-table was lowered eight feet by continuously pumping 
six million gallons daily for some time. This lowering of 
ground-water diminished uniformly in proportion to the dis- 
tance from the wells, and entirely disappeared at two thou- 
sand feet away. A few observations were taken at another 
station where the water was drawn down fifteen feet, and the 
* An investigation as to the extent, depth, and character of the water- 
horizons underlying Long Island has been made recently by Mr. N. H. 
Darton, of the U. S. Geological Survey. It has been found that the island is 
underlaid by many different sheets and streams of water, mainly of relatively 
restricted extent, and at various depths. They are not as orderly in arrange- 
ment as the regular succession of sheets of water which underlie New Jersey 
and some of the other regions southward, but they are very satisfactory water- 
bearers, and will be found in greater or less number under nearly every portion 
of the island. They vary in depth from 20 to 1000 feet or more. The surface 
of the granite gneiss and other crystalline rocks slopes gently to the south and 
east, and is overlaid by a great mass of sands, gravels, and clays, which thicken 
rapidly to the south, so that along the south shore they have a thickness which 
averages about 1000 feet. These beds are mainly coarse sands and gravels, 
which are filled with water, but in some areas the finer sands and even clays 
extend down to the bed-rock, and in these areas no large water-supplies would 
be found on the bed-rock surface. This was the case in the well at Woodhaven, 
which was sunk to the granite, at a depth of about 550 feet, without finding 
water. There may be other areas of this sort, but, in general, wide areas of 
coarse, water-bearing beds will be found on or very near the bed-rock surface. 
Mr. Darton has advised the City Works Commissioner to sink wells to the bed- 
rock before planning to extend the aqueduct system further eastward. (See 
Engineering News, May 30, 1895.) GRO UND- IVA TER. 
301 
effect was noticed over a radius of twenty-five hundred feet 
from the wells. 
Great dependence is often placed upon the driven-well 
system as being an arrangement by which pure water is 
guaranteed by the thoroughness of natural filtration on a 
large scale. There is one weak point in this view which 
must be always kept in mind and guarded against. The 
filter is a good one without question, but if damaged it is 
beyond repair and should be treated with corresponding 
care. The danger is that an additional supply is frequently 
sought for by an increase in pumping capacity rather than 
by an extension of the plant. As a result the wells are 
over-forced, there occurs undue lowering of the local water- 
table, rapid flow of water towards the exhausted locality 
causes channelways to form in the subsoil, and surface- 
water consequently enters the wells without suitable puri- 
fication. Such a condition of things being once established, 
no remedy is available. 
Writing about a large city plant, Breneman says: “ Seven 
million gallons of water are daily drawn from a system of 
100 wells, varying in depth from 45 to 100 feet, and cover- 
ing a line about 400 feet in length. Such a yield corre- 
sponds to a total rainfall of 32 inches a year upon 3000 acres, 
A very unusual form of well-plant is to be seen at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
Germany. About six miles from the city there has been constructed a brick- 
lined tunnel, some forty or more feet below the soil-surface of a pine forest. 
This tunnel is considerably over a mile in length, and its level is about that of 
the upper surface of the ground-water. Through its bottom a large number of 
tubed wells pierce the ground to the further depth of about forty feet, and the 
water pumped from them is carried by a common main laid upon the bottom of 
the tunnel. 
South Haven, Mich., is supplied with water from wells, which are driven 
very nearly horizontally under Lake Michigan. Such an arrangement is to be 
resorted to when the water is to be drawn from underneath a watercourse 
whose bottom is a thin layer of sand supported by a substratum of impervious 
material. (For cut see Engineering Record, May 20, 1893.) 302 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
or, roughly, represents the same annual rainfall upon all of 
the land within a radius of i| miles from the pumping-sta- 
tion. Owing to the sudden demand for this water the soil- 
waters must be continually drawn downward in the vicinity of 
the pumps, and the nearer regions must be more effectually 
drained than the more remote. The predicted consequences 
are abundantly realized. Shallow wells in the neighborhood 
are wholly or nearly dry since the pumping-station has been 
opened. A swamp, formerly existing about the station, 
has been dried up. The subsoil of a cemetery, 370 yards 
distant, which offers frequent opportunities for observation, 
is said by the sexton to be much drier than hereto- 
fore.” 
A fact often lost sight of is that driven wells, so far as a 
permanent supply is concerned, are dependent upon the 
amounts of rainfall, “ run-off,” evaporation, and plant re- 
quirements. There is not, contrary to popular conception, 
an underground reservoir from which unlimited quantities 
of water may be pumped. It is true that a reserve storage 
exists, that may be drawn upon in time of drought, but 
Nature keeps a strict account of such matters, and the de- 
ficiency created in time of need must be made up during the 
period of plenty; otherwise the delivery of the plant will 
gradually diminish and ultimately entirely cease. 
The result of heavy pumping was shown by the determi- 
nations of chlorine in the water from the old Liverpool wells. 
Lowering of the water-table, with infiltration of salt water 
from the River Mersey, was indicated, and at the same time 
evidence was presented, tf such could possibly have been 
desired, that salt cannot be removed from sea-water by per- 
colation through sand. (See page 290.) 
Galveston, Tex., had a very expensive experience, show- 
ing the inability of sand to freshen sea-water. The citizens 
of that town attempted to extend an excellent driven-well GRO UND- IVA TER. 
303 
plant which they possessed by increasing the number of 
wells, and they carried the draught upon the ground-water 
beyond the point of normal supply. As a result the entire 
system was damaged by the inflow of salt water from the 
Gulf. 
One very material advantage possessed by a driven well 
over a dug one is that it can be sunk deeper in the water- 
bearing sands at small expense, and, with a long strainer, 
can take water throughout a great fraction of its length. A 
dug well, on the other hand, has its construction hampered 
after water is reached, and its cost per foot is greater beyond 
that point; so that it commonly has to depend principally 
upon its bottom for supply, tapping, as it does, only the 
upper portion of the ground-water layer. 
When preparations are being made to sink a gang of 
driven wells, consisting of a considerable number of indi- 
viduals, one of the first questions that must be considered is 
the distance apart the wells should be placed so as not to 
draw from one another’s territory. This is a point upon 
which no fixed rule can be given. In the Brooklyn plant, 
to which reference has been made, the wells are twenty feet 
apart, but the local conditions may cause this distance to 
be materially increased in some cases. It is often poor econ- 
omy to place wells nearer than fifty feet from each other, 
and at times even one hundred feet may be the suitable 
distance. 
A good practice to follow would be to sink two wells at 
what judgment would indicate as a proper interval, pump 
from one of these, and, if the second be too much affected 
by such pumping, increase the distance for the third well, and 
so on until the proper distance be determined.* 
* One of the engineers whom Mr. Hazen met prospects for underground 
supplies in an interesting manner. He puts down three wells, located at the 
three points of an equilateral triangle, and from the relative heights of water in 304 
WA TER-S UPPL V. 
Closely related to the well systems already spoken of, the 
“infiltration-gallery” stands as a widely used method for 
securing the water of the ground.* 
Such a gallery is really but a dug well with one very long 
horizontal axis. Its position is usually near, and parallel 
to, the banks of some stream, such a site being chosen with 
a view of securing its supply from the water of the river. 
Except under exceptional circumstances, however, the water 
reaching the gallery comes from the landward side, and is 
the ground-water of the district for which the river is the 
drain. 
Rivers may indeed diminish in volume as they flow on- 
ward, and may even entirely disappear by sinking into the 
ground, as is the case with a number of streams flowing down 
the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, but this condition is dis 
tinctly exceptional. A river is commonly to be considered 
as a drain, into which water is received, but from which none 
flows. To such an extent is the bed of a river usually ren- 
dered impervious to the outward passage of water by the 
accumulation of fine silt that an old authority quite covers 
the case when he says: “ If you dug a well in the middle 
of a river, and kept out the surface-water, it is doubtful if 
you would get the river-water in your well.” 
The writer found the following results for water from a 
well sunk upon a sand-bank in a river, and for water from 
the river itself: f 
the wells deduces the direction of the underground flow. The velocity of the 
flow is tested by putting salt in one of the wells and testing the times and 
amounts of increase in chlorine at the well lower down. This engineer had no 
confidence in pumping tests to determine the permanent yield of wells. 
* See page 177. 
f The well-water formed adherent boiler-scale, and that from the river did 
not. GEO UND- W.A TER. 
305 
River. Well. 
Free ammonia .045 .045 
Albuminoid ammonia .155 .095 
“ Required oxygen ” 6 2.7 
Chlorine 2.9 4.3 
Nitrogen as nitrates .337 -127 
Nitrogen as nitrites o o 
Total residue 131 100.5 
Mr. Denman, in speaking of some very successful galleries 
at Des Moines, says: 
“ We are favored by nature in being able to take water 
from the valley of the Raccoon, which is surrounded on 
either side by high hills, not less than one hundred and fifty 
feet high; and in the valley there is sand and gravel of great 
depth. 
“We adopted years ago the gallery system with a great 
deal of success, and our supply of water is only limited by 
the expense of getting at it. At present we are engaged in 
the construction of filter-galleries, having added about twelve 
hundred feet to our original and former system 
“ We do not perceive any of the river-water in the supply 
in our galleries, although they are laid in the middle of the 
river. When the section of gallery was crossing the river, 
looking inside we failed to detect any water dripping from 
the top, although the river was flowing over it and only twelve 
feet above. The water from the galleries is much colder 
than that from the river.” 
A plan for the supply of Pittsburg has been recently sug- 
gested, and is substantially as follows: * 
“ The Allegheny River has the immense watershed of 
over 10,000 square miles above Pittsburg. Underneath its 
bed is a gravel deposit from 40 to 50 feet in depth. A large 
number of wells in the neighborhood of Pittsburg have been 
* Engineering News, January 4, 1894. 306 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
sunk along its shores, and they have uniformly yielded large 
amounts of water. The wells sunk along the shore have 
produced hard water, unfit for boiler purposes, but it may 
be that the ground-water under the centre of the stream is soft. 
“ For galleries depending largely upon a supply from the 
river there is suggested a series of flumes at least 15 feet 
wide and 4 feet high, made of wood and sunk into trenches 
dredged transversely in the bed of the stream. These should 
be placed as far apart as possible and should lead into a col- 
lecting-gallery placed parallel to the stream. As a precau- 
tion against silting a stand-pipe should be constructed whose 
contents could be emptied at will into any one of the infil- 
tration-galleries. In order to reduce the probability of tap- 
ping the ground-water and to avoid the necessity of softening 
the flumes could be placed in one of the numerous riffles of 
the Allegheny at a depth of about 10 feet below low water. 
With the coarse gravel found in the bed of the Alle- 
gheny a rate of infiltration of 300 gallons per square foot 
per day can be safely assumed, so that for a supply of 30,- 
000,000 gallons per day 100,000 square feet of area would 
be required. This can be obtained with seven galleries 15 
feet wide and 900 feet long.” 
It is greatly to be doubted if the proposed device would 
furnish river-water, if the depth of the dredged trenches 
were at all considerable; and as the local ground-water is ad- 
mittedly unsuitable, the same objection would, of course, 
apply to water from under the river-bed that is advanced 
against that secured from wells driven along the banks. 
The danger of silting, referred to by the author of the 
above plan, is certainly a very notable one, and the proba- 
bility of its occurring should be ever kept in view by the 
users of infiltration-galleries, filter-cribs, and driven wells. 
As an instance of the silting up of a gallery no better 
illustration can be given than the present nearly waterless GROUND-WATER. 
condition of the city of Florence, Italy. The expensive 
tunnel will probably have to be abandoned, and a new supply 
of surface-water introduced from the neighboring mountains. 
The suggestion above made of a stand-pipe, from which a 
reversed current could be instituted in the event of silting, 
would probably work better in so open a structure as the one 
proposed than in a closed subterranean gallery or in driven 
wells; but a reversed current so often fails in freeing a 
clogged well that we must confess to being somewhat pessi- 
mistic about the general reliability of the method. 
Dependence is constantly laid upon the excellent filtering 
powers of these underground galleries, and they justify it 
during the earlier periods of their use, but, considered as a 
filter, such a device is beyond cleaning and repair; it may 
clog, or, on the other hand, ruinous channelways may fol- 
low heavy pumping. In the first instance no water, and in 
the second instance polluted water, may result. 
As concerning the question of pollution of ground-water, 
an important paper was recently read and discussed in Lon- 
don on the influence of different kinds of soil on the cholera 
and typhoid organisms. The following is taken freely from 
the report: * 
“ The research was undertaken with a view to answering 
the following question: Had the soil in itself any action 
favorable or injurious to the life of the comma spirillum of 
cholera Asiatica and the bacillus of typhoid fever, or did the 
length of life of these organisms in soil simply depend upon 
the amount of moisture that might be present ? The action 
of the saprophytic bacteria present in the soil was left out 
of consideration. Sterilized soils alone were used. The 
experiments were carried out with white crystal sand, yellow 
* Medical Record, June 23, 1894. 308 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
sand, garden earth, and peat. These were sterilized by 
means of moist heat. In white crystal sand comma spirilla 
were alive on third but dead on fourth day; in yellow sand, 
alive on third but dead on fourth day; in garden earth, alive 
on third but dead on fourth day. The comma spirilla must 
have died, therefore, between the third and fourth days. 
Experiments were next made with a moist soil, which, how- 
ever, contained no excess of moisture. In moist white crystal 
sand comma spirilla were alive on the seventh day; in moist 
yellow sand comma spirilla were alive on the thirty-third 
day; in moist garden earth they were alive on the thirty- 
third day. 
“ Experiments were made to find the length of time 
comma spirilla would live in a soil when any excess of moist- 
ure was allowed to pass through the soil, but where little 
or no loss of moisture took place from the surface. Under 
such conditions the spirilla were alive in white crystal sand 
on the twenty-eighth day, in yellow sand on the sixty-eighth 
day, and in garden earth on the sixty-eighth day. In a soil 
deprived of its moisture the comma spirilla did not live 
longer than one to two days. In white silver sand, when 
moisture was allowed to escape, the spirilla were alive on 
the third day, but dead on the eighth day; but if evapora- 
tion of water was prevented the comma spirilla were alive 
on the forty-seventh day. In white crystal sand, where 
evaporation was allowed to take place, the spirilla were still 
alive on the twenty-seventh day with 1.57 per cent of moist- 
ure in the sand. The spirilla were dead on the thirtieth day 
with 0.66 per cent of moisture in the sand. When evapora- 
tion was prevented, the spirilla were alive*on the one hun- 
dred and seventy-fourth day, and the sand still contained 
7.1 per cent of moisture, showing a close relation between 
the amount of moisture in the soil and the length of life of 
the organisms. With regard to peat, it was found that the GRO UND- W.A TER. 
309 
comma spirilla were invariably dead in twenty-four to twenty- 
six hours, independently of the amount of moisture that 
might be present. 
“ Next as to the bacillus of typhoid fever on a dry soil 
where evaporation was allowed to take place: In white crystal 
sand the bacilli were found up to the ninth day, in yellow 
sand up to the eighteenth day, and in garden earth up to 
the fourteenth day; but in moist crystal sand the typhoid 
bacilli were alive on the twenty-third day, in yellow sand 
and in garden earth on the forty-second day. On soils 
which had been deprived of their moisture the bacilli were 
only found up to the seventh day. 
“ Experiments made with peat showed that on this soil 
the bacilli did not survive longer than twenty-four hours. 
Peat was the only one of the four soils used which exercised 
a distinct destructive action on the organisms, independently 
of the amount of moisture present. Experiments made to 
test the filtering capacity of the soils showed that with a 
filter six inches thick white crystal sand held back 99.6 per 
cent comma spirilla, yellow sand held back 99.9 per cent 
comma spirilla, garden earth held back 89 per cent comma 
spirilla, and peat held back 100 per cent comma spirilla. On 
the other hand, a current of water could carry the comma 
organisms through two feet and a half of porous soil. Con- 
clusions: White crystal sand, yellow sand, and garden earth 
had no marked action on the organisms—their length of life 
in the soil depending chiefly on the amount of moisture. 
Peat, on the contrary, was very deadly to both the comma 
spirillum and the typhoid bacillus. The soil acted as a good 
filter, holding back most of the organisms; but it was pos- 
sible for them to be carried through two feet and a half of 
porous soil by a current of water.” 
The action of the common saprophytes in the soil is 
known to be prejudicial to the growth of the cholera germ, 310 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
and, as these ordinary bacilli are more plenty in the upper 
layers of the soil, it is interesting to note the observation of 
Sternberg that “ the cholera spirillum in the months of Au- 
gust, September, and October grew at a depth of nine feet 
in the soil, but in the remaining months of the year failed 
to grow at six feet, although growth occurred at four feet.” 
This seems somewhat of a contradiction, unless it be 
meant that the spirillum fails to reach the stated depth after 
passing through the upper soil-layers. 
Sternberg also found that the bacillus of typhoid fever 
“ grew at a depth of nine feet during the greater portion of 
the year.” 
The opportunity for the contamination of well-water, 
particularly that of the common domestic well, is often very 
great. No proper conception of the right location for the 
house-well ever seems to enter the minds of most of our 
rural people, and if water can be had from a spot conven- 
iently near for general housework inquiry as to the quality 
of such supply is usually considered quite superfluous. The 
author has elsewhere referred to an instance where the well 
was entirely covered by a huge manure heap. 
In their Sixth Report the English River-pollution Com- 
mission state the case quite graphically: 
“ The common practice in villages, and even in many 
small towns, is to dispose of the sewage and to provide for 
the water-supply of each cottage or pair of cottages upon 
the premises. In the little yard or garden attached to each 
tenement or pair of tenements two holes are dug in the 
porous soil; into one of these, usually the shallower of the 
two, all the filthy liquids of the house are discharged; from 
the other, which is sunk below the water-line of the porous 
stratum, the water for drinking and other domestic purposes 
is pumped. These two holes are not infrequently within GRO UND- WA TER. 
twelve feet of each other, and sometimes even closer. The 
contents of the filth-hole or cesspool gradually soak away 
through the surrounding soil and mingle with the water 
below. As the contents of the water-hole or well are 
pumped out they are immediately replenished from the 
surrounding disgusting mixture, and it is not, therefore, very 
surprising to be assured that such a well does not be- 
come dry even in summer. Unfortunately excrementitious 
liquids, especially after they have soaked through a few 
feet of porous soil, do not impair the palatability of water, 
and this polluted liquid is consumed from year to year with- 
out a suspicion of its character, until the cesspool and well 
receive infected sewage, and then an outbreak of epidemic 
disease compels attention to the polluted water. Indeed, 
our acquaintance with a very large proportion of this class 
of potable waters has been made in consequence of the 
occurrence of severe outbreaks of typhoid fever amongst the 
persons using them.” 
The reckless manner in which a domestic well is frequently 
surrounded by sources of great pollution is here shown in 
an illustrated form from a Rhode Island case reported by 
E. W. Bowditch. (See top of page 312.) 
Although not so aggravated an instance as the above, yet 
the following case is sufficiently bad to justify hearty con- 
demnation. The well, which, with its surroundings, is 
shown in the following plan, is on Green Island, N. Y., 
and its water, which is in daily use, is doubtless responsible 
for the typhoid fever occurring in the neighborhood. The 
water-table slopes toward the well. (See bottom of page 312.) 
The analytical results of this water show very low “ am- 
monias,” but exceedingly high “ chlorine ” and “ nitrates,” 
adding further weight to Mallet’s decision that a knowledge 
of the amount of “ nitrates” is especially valuable for arriv- 
ing at a correct judgment as to the quality of a water: WA TER-S UP PL V. 
WELL SURROUNDED BY PRIVIES—RHODE ISLAND. 
WELL AND SURROUNDINGS—GREEN ISLAND, N. Y. GRO UND- IVA TER. 
313 
Free ammonia 01 
Albuminoid ammonia 02 
Chlorine 70.00 
Nitrogen as nitrites trace 
Nitrogen as nitrates 15.00 
“ Required oxygen ” 10 
A well at Highland Falls, N. Y., twenty feet in depth, 
said to furnish “very excellent water,” is some sixty feet 
distant from a privy in one direction, and the same distance 
from a graveyard in another. One public well, which the 
author succeeded in having closed after much difficulty, 
was fouled by cesspool infiltration to a large extent, yet 
because of the coolness and sparkle of its water it was widely 
popular, so much so that its final closing had to be accom- 
plished after midnight to avoid resistance. 
As an instance of excessive pollution the following an- 
alysis is given of a well-water from Southampton, England.* 
The water was “ in daily use for all domestic purposes, was 
fairly presentable to the eye, and not unpalatable. Under 
the microscope it showed starch-grains, paper, and animal 
hairs.” 
Free ammonia 56.800 
Albuminoid ammonia .332 
Nitrogen in nitrates 19.026 
Chlorine 22.000 
Phosphates heavy traces 
Total solids 417.OOO 
Unattractive as this English picture is, we can certainly 
match it in America; and in some cases the unsanitary ar- 
rangements causing the trouble receive more or less support 
from the law. 
In many of the towns of Ohio the local boards of health 
* Analyst, VI. 65. 314 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
determine the minimum distance to be allowed between a 
well and an uncemented privy-vault, and such distance is 
most commonly fixed at fifty feet. The permitted distance 
for the town of Norwalk, a place of 8000 inhabitants, is 
twenty-five feet. At Bond Hill the minimum distance al- 
lowed is twenty feet! * 
That any such distance of soil-filtration can protect a well 
from pollution, provided the polluting source be constant in 
character, is beyond even hoping for, and many instances 
could be given showing how even considerably greater dis- 
tances have also failed. 
Extract is here made from a report of the writer’s upon 
the question of closing certain city wells: 
“ As is well known, there are a number of street pumps 
in this city, and the water which they supply is cool, spar- 
kling, brilliantly clear, and generally relished. The ground 
* See Report Ohio Board of Health for 1892. 
F. O. Driscoll writes as follows to the Century Magazine concerning the 
city of Canton, China: 
“ The street paving was of loose granite slabs laid crosswise, about nine 
inches broad and six inches through, and as long as the street was wide. 
Although presenting a somewhat irregular surface, the face of each slab was 
generally worn smooth by the treading of unshod feet. A drain ran down the 
centre of each street, under the granite slabs, into which, between the joints, 
percolated rain-water, fluid refuse, and house-slops. These liquids ran out 
into the main tidal canals which intersected the city, and when they did not 
run, as was not infrequent, the slabs were raised, and the drains cleaned out. 
“The water supply of the city is entirely drawn from wells. So far as I 
could see there was one to each house. These wells were merely round holes 
about fifteen inches in diameter cut in a granite slab flush with the floor, and 
provided with a small bucket fastened to a bamboo for drawing the water, 
which appeared to be never more than from four to six feet below the well- 
stone. I imagine that the absence of continual diphtheria and typhoid fever, 
which such a water-supply naturally suggests, may be accounted for by the fact 
that fecal matter is not permitted to accumulate in the city, and that little, if 
any, water is drunk which has not been previously boiled. Then the fact of 
the houses being always open must of course insure their thorough ventilation.” 
The fact that human excrement is always collected in jars and sold for 
manure is perhaps a reason for typhoid fever being less common than one 
would expect from such insanitary conditions. GRO UND- WA TER. 
315 
into which these wells are sunk is the old river flood-plain, 
which extends from the present river to the eastern hills. 
Into this same soil pours the drainage from many cesspools 
and privies, and the slope of the ground in the centre of 
the city being away from the river, the natural drift of the 
ground-water toward a western outlet is to an extent im- 
peded. In consideration of these few facts, can any reason- 
able person expect to get pure water from such a source ? 
“It is a fatal error to fancy that because a water has a 
bright, sparkling, clear appearance and a pleasant taste 
therefore such water is wholesome. Carbonic acid gas is 
what causes the brilliancy and refreshing taste of a ground- 
water, and to the solvent action of that gas is due the clear- 
ness of many waters which hold much organic matter in 
solution. When it is borne in mind that carbonic acid is 
one of the products of sewage decomposition, the inference as 
to its possible source in the case of the present well-waters 
is not a pleasant one. During the last four years I have at 
different times examined the waters from several of these 
wells, and am persuaded that they are contaminated with 
sewage material beyond a peradventure. 
“It is hopeless to depend upon the purifying influence 
of the intervening soil to protect the wells from privy and 
cesspool fouling, because soil-filtration, in order to be effec- 
tive, must be intermittent. That is, after a ‘ dose ’ of sewage 
has been added to a soil (and the ‘ dose ’ must not be a large 
one) opportunity for thorough aeration of the soil must fol- 
low, or the second ‘ dose ’ cannot be purified. With a con- 
stant flow of polluting material the purifying powers of the 
soil quickly cease to act. 
“ It will be objected that these well-waters have been in 
use for many years without bad results following. Possibly; 
but it must be remembered that the imbibition of sewage 
derived from healthy sources may be quite harmless unless 316 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
it be in too concentrated a form, however undesirable it may 
be from an aesthetic standpoint. This has been experi- 
mentally proven many times. The serious part of it all is 
that the sewage which contaminates the well-water may, 
during an epidemic, suddenly become pathogenic in char- 
acter, and then the well becomes a distributing centre for 
disease. It may be that there are wells in this city and 
vicinity free from sewage infiltration, but it is certain that 
there are others not so fortunate. A city well is always to 
be suspected, and if, upon examination, its water is found 
impure, it should be forthwith ordered closed, particularly 
under circumstances such as threaten cholera invasion. The 
well-known case of the spread of the cholera in London 
by the use of well-water during the last epidemic is a special 
warning.” 
As illustrating how unexpectedly a good ground-water 
may become damaged on its way to the point of consumption 
a case recently observed by the writer while in New Jersey 
is worthy of mention. The well was found in good location 
and furnishing excellent water, but the pump-main was laid 
to the house by way of a somewhat distant stable, on top 
of which was the windmill supplying the power necessary 
to raise the water. The objectionable analytical results 
were found, upon investigation, to have been due to defective 
pump connections and infiltration of stable drainage. 
A few months since the Medical Society of the District of 
Columbia submitted to the House of Representatives a valu- 
able report, with numerous charts, showing the prevalence 
of typhoid fever in the capital and its relation to the use of 
water from the street wells. 
“ We know that water from the 310 pumps existing at the 
time of the report of 1889 was largely used by the people 
living on the 426 squares in which the 626 fatal cases oc- GROUND-WA TER. 
317 
curred. Even by those having access to Potomac water, 
well-water is largely consumed, on account of its being colder 
during the hot months of the year.” 
The committee of the medical society having the inves- 
tigation in hand divided the city arbitrarily into five sec- 
tions, and then found the following relations existing between 
the number of street wells in use in each section and the 
corresponding number of fatal cases of typhoid fever:* 
Deaths from Typhoid.- 
197 
179 
I 14 
84 
52 
Number of Wells. 
140 
70 
34 
4 7 
18 
To obtain the approximate number of total cases of ill- 
ness from typhoid the number of fatal cases should be 
multiplied by ten. The relation shown in the above figures 
is quite striking. 
It would not be amiss, perhaps, to refer to another point 
strongly illustrated in the Washington report above quoted, 
but before giving the numerical data the report contains the 
reader is asked to bear in mind what has been said in an- 
other chapter concerning the recent investigations of San- 
arrelli, which point to a relation between bad hygiene and 
susceptibility to typhoid fever. 
This work of Sanarrelli’s is of great importance as filling 
a gap long felt, and harmonizing to a great degree the hitherto 
opposing theories of “ ground-air” and “ water-supply ” as 
causes of typhoid fever. As so often happens, the middle 
course has proved the correct one, and the two theories are 
* In this connection see also “ Analysis of Washington Well-water,” by 
Richardson, /. Anal. Chem. v. 23. 318 
IVA TER-SUPPL V. 
found to be complementary rather than in opposition. Pet- 
tenkoffer’s “ground-air” introduces the insanitary condi- 
tions suited to the speedy development of the typhoid germ 
should it arrive with a contaminated water-supply. The 
Washington report lays special stress upon the fact that 
good water and good sewerage should go hand in hand if 
typhoid is to be avoided, and in the light of what we know to- 
day the point is unquestionably well taken. (See page 319.) 
The city of Dantzic received its good water in 1869, but 
the typhoid death-rate was not materially improved until 1872, 
when the city was sewered. Vienna showed the opposite 
condition; an excellent sewerage system, but a bad water- 
supply, had existed previous to 1874, and the annual typhoid 
death-rate ran as high as 34 per 10,000 of population. In 
1874 water of very superior quality was introduced, and in 
three years the typhoid rate had fallen to 1.1. We thus 
see that good sewerage alone is not all that will be required 
for desirable sanitary results. 
“ In Munich from 1854 to 1859, when no means existed 
to prevent the fouling of the soil, the mortality was 24 to 
10,000 inhabitants. From i860 to 1865 the sides and bot- 
toms of the pits of the privies were cemented, and the mor- 
tality fell to 16.8. From 1866 to 1873, with partial sewer- 
age, the rate was 13.3; from 1874 to 1880, with improved 
sewerage, it was 9.26; and from 1881 to 1884, with still 
greater improvements, it fell to 1.75 per 10,000 inhabitants. 
“ Typhoid fever increases in proportion to the saturation 
of the soil with decomposing organic matter, especially 
human excreta, and to the drinking of infected well-water. 
Typhoid fever decreases in proportion as a city is well 
sewered, and in proportion to the abandonment of the drink- 
ing of well-water* and of all contaminated water.” 
* City well water is of course intended. GRO UND- WA TER, 
319 
DEATHS FROM TYPHOID FEVER TO EACH 10,000 INHABITANTS BEFORE, DURING, AND SINCE THE INTRODUC- 
TION OF SEWERAGE AND WATER-SUPPLY. (AFTER E. F. SMITH, MICHIGAN STATE BOARD OF HEALTH.) 320 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
These are the carefully considered conclusions of the 
Washington committee, after a very painstaking investiga- 
tion, and they are graphically supplemented by the following 
chart, which abundantly explains itself: 
CONDITIONS OF SEWERAGE AND TYPHOID FEVER DEATH-RATES (PER 10,000 
INHABITANTS) AT MUNICH. (AFTER BAKER.) 
In view of his general observations and experience the 
author is strongly of the belief that seepage from the privy- 
pits into the domestic well is the cause of typhoid fever 
being largely a country disease; and he is interested in the 
passage of a law doing away with such vaults entirely. Some 
means of frequent removal of excrement, either by burial in GRO UND- IVA TER. 
321 
safe and successive spots, as is possible upon a farm, or by 
transportation to a distance, as can be arranged for by a 
country town, should be insisted upon by law. Economy 
of both purse and labor is now accomplished by virtually 
depositing all such material in the family well. 
“ In order to ascertain to what extent soil was contami- 
nated by privy-vaults I dug down near a privy-vault which 
was situated on the outskirts of the town and isolated, so 
that there were no other known sources of contamination 
around; I dug down a foot behind this privy-vault and took 
up some soil three feet below the surface to determine the 
amount of organic matter in it; then I went off 6 feet and 
did the same thing, then 12, then 18, then 24, then 30; 
and, without going into detail, suffice it to say that the con- 
tamination of the soil from that single privy, built upon 
nearly level ground, could be detected 50 feet from the 
vault plainly. This was determined by comparing the 
amount of organic matter in these different samples of soil 
with other soil of the same kind where there were no known 
sources of contamination.” * 
An excellent way to determine the probability of ob- 
jectionable drainage material entering a well is to place a 
quantity of a solution of common salt, of lithium chloride, 
or of fluorescein (Ca0Hi2O5) at the point whence contamina- 
tion is supposed to come. The normal composition of the 
water being known, there will appear an increase in “ chlo- 
rides,” a spectroscopic test for lithium, or a decided fluo- 
rescence in the water if there be drainage from the source in 
question. 
* Vaughan, Ypsilanti Sanitary Convention, July, 1885. CHAPTER IX. 
DEEP-SEATED WATER. 
SPRINGS of small flow, such as trickle out of the country 
hillside, are properly classified with the shallow wells already 
spoken of; they furnish “ground-water” only and are of 
local origin. 
Quite another matter, however, are those natural foun- 
tains which reach the surface in very great volume, possessed 
of a temperature radically different from that of the local 
subsoil, and holding in solution mineral materials that may 
be quite foreign to the neighborhood. Such water is always 
of distant source, and the gathering-grounds where it orig- 
inally falls as rain may be very far away indeed. 
Picture the outcrop upon some rainy upland of a porous 
stratum, encased upon either side by strata impervious to 
water; let the strata be possessed of a moderate dip, then 
let them be cut transversely at some point below, either by 
simple erosion or by a geologic fault, and the conditions for 
a deep-seated spring would be complete. Rain-water falling 
on the distant outcrop would pass down the porous stratum, 
picking up soluble material on the way, and would escape 
as a spring at the point where the strata were broken or 
eroded. 
Very notable springs due to geologic faults occur with 
frequency, but to Americans the best-known instance is to 
be found at Saratoga, although the water furnished is me- 
dicinal rather than potable, and therefore beyond our present 
consideration. DEEP-SEATED WATER. 
323 
At the head of San Antonio River, not far from the city 
of San Antonio, Tex., is situated a mammoth spring of pure 
water, whose daily outflow is some fifty million gallons. This 
spring is but one of a group of great springs which “ coin- 
cide almost exactly with the line of the great Austin Del Rio 
fault.”* 
A very curious instance of a spring of great magnitude 
caused by erosion cutting across the water-bearing stratum 
is to be found several miles out at sea off the coast of Florida, 
east of Matanzas Inlet.f 
There are several other springs on the same coast similar 
to this, although not so large. 
A shipowner familiar with the locality informs the writer 
that the volume of water boiling up in the ocean at the site 
of the Matanzas spring is» so large as to prevent a boat re- 
maining on it for more than a moment, as “ the boat is 
washed off from it as from the rapids of a river.” The same 
authority describes the odor of the water as that of a sul- 
phur spring, which is an additional point showing its kin- 
ship to the artesian waters of Jacksonville and St. Augustine. 
Fresh-water springs occur in the North Sea in the vicinity 
of the islands surrounding Holland, and are situated two 
or three miles from shore. “ Similar springs may be found 
in the Adriatic Sea, near Fiume, Abazzia, Triest, and in 
other places, so that the surface of the sea is slightly raised 
up and a whirlpool may be observed.” % 
Instances are by no means rare of the use of deep springs 
* Senate Doc. 41, 52d Congress. 
f There are some reasons for believing that the Matanzas spring is not 
caused by simple erosion, but rather by a bursting of the confined waters 
through a hole in the upper hard rock-layer. Successful sounding has not been 
accomplished in the spring itself, but in its immediate vicinity the ocean sud- 
denly deepens from a depth of 60 to one of 120 feet. 
$ Am. Soc. C. E. xxx. 300. 324 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
for water-supplies of magnitude,* but deep-seated water is 
much more commonly reached by special borings. 
It would be going too far to undertake a description of 
the process of drilling these deep wells, yet there are cer- 
tain facts concerning their cost and rapidity of construction, 
given us by Professor Carter, f which may properly be here 
inserted: 
“ The most difficult rocks to drill through are trap, 
quartzite, compact fine-grained sandstones, certain clay 
slates, granites, syenites, and compact hornblende schist, 
obsidian, etc. 
“ The softer rocks, such as talcose and chlorite schists, 
serpentine and other magnesian rocks, limestone, dolomite, 
hydro mica schists, and many coarse-grained sandstones, are 
readily drilled through. The foHowing table will show the 
thickness of rock pierced by a chisel drill 20 feet long, 5§ 
inches in diameter, weighing 700 pounds, guided so as to 
make a round hole: 
Locality (Pennsylvania). Rock. Rate. 
Duffield’s farm, on Stony Creek, near Belfry, Clay slate (Trias) ft. drilled in 10 hours 
ice company’s well, Norristown Sandstone (Trias) 5 “ “ 
Kunkle’s farm, Valley Green Road, near 
Flourtown Limestone (Silurian) 5J “ “ 
Wheadley’s farm, Chester County Hydro mica schist 7 “ “ 
Wm. Janeas’farm, near William Station.. .. Sandstone (Potsdam) 10 “ “ 
Roberts’well, Spring Mill Sandstone (Potsdam) 184 “ 7 hours 
“ The minerals which compose a rock may be very hard, 
and yet the cementing material may hold the grains so loosely 
that the drill will make rapid progress through the rock. 
Sandstone, when composed entirely of silica, or when the 
* The “Vanne” water, supplying a part of Paris, comes from springs in 
massive chalk near Troyes. The daily flow is 96,000 cubic metres (25,344,000 
U. S. gallons). Part of this flow comes from three high springs emptying 
directly into the conduit, and the rest from a dozen lower springs the waters 
of which have to be lifted by pumps, 
f J. Fk. Inst., September, 1893. DEEP-SEA TED WA TER. 
325 
cementing material is gelatinous silica, as in quartzite, is ex- 
tremely hard to drill, but when the cement which binds the 
grains is feldspar, which decomposes readily, then the grains 
are loosely held, and the rock is readily drilled. 
“ The price of drilling is about $2 per foot in Mont- 
gomery County, Pa., for wells six inches in diameter and 
from 100 to 200 feet deep; this is independent of the char- 
acter and hardness of the rock. 
“ Other contracts in Philadelphia have been made at 
the rate of $2.75 per foot for drilling down to 500 feet, and 
$3 per foot for drilling below a depth of 500 feet; this does 
not include the iron pipe for casing, but only the drilling. 
The six-inch iron pipe (internal diameter five and five-eighths 
inches) which is used to line the well varies in price from 
forty to fifty-five cents per foot.” 
To the foregoing statements of Professor Carter it would 
<v. 
be well to add that the presence of boulders, as in a glacial 
drift, very greatly increases the trouble and expense of well- 
boring. 
Wells are sunk through the shales and conglomerates of 
the Catskill Mountains, but not to great depths, at the rate 
of $2 per foot, and in the Hudson River shale of the upper 
valley at from $1.50 to $2 per foot. In the oil regions of 
Pennsylvania the average price is about $1 per foot for the 
boring alone. 
“ In Europe the various deep bore-holes range in the fol- 
lowing order: 
Feet. 
Domnitz, near Weltin, Germany 3287 
Probat-Jesar, Mecklenburg 3957 
Sperenberg, nearZossen., 4173 
Unseburg, near Stassfurt 4242 
Lieth-Elmshorn, Holstein 4390 
Schladebach . 5735 326 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
“ The Schladebach well was drilled under the supervision 
of the Prussian government, in search of coal. It appears 
that the total cost of drilling the well was $53,076, or at 
the rate of about $9.25 per foot of depth. The average 
daily rate of boring was 4.59 feet. The initial diameter of 
the hole is a little over 11 inches, and the least diameter in 
the lowest section is about 1.3 inches. Temperature observa- 
tions which were made showed that at a depth of 5628 feet 
the temperature was 133.8 FA Further work on this well 
has been abandoned.” 
The expression “ artesian ” has been extended to include 
deep wells under all conditions, but without proper license, 
because the term originally came from the name of the 
French province where deep wells were first successfully 
established, and such wells were “ flowing.” It is therefore 
to “flowing wells” only that the expression “artesian” 
properly attaches.f Whether, however, the well be a flow- 
ing one or one from which the water has to be raised by 
power, the conditions governing the storage of such water 
are essentially the same as have been already given when 
speaking of deep springs. An outcrop of a porous stratum 
in a rainy upland acts as the collecting area; this stratum is 
of moderate dip and is enclosed by other strata, impervious 
to water, lying above and below. 
Unless the strata form a basin or pocket the water of 
the porous layer will find its natural outlet in spring form 
where the layer is cut transversely by erosion or fault; but 
should a well be sunk at some intermediate point the water 
will rise in the same, or overflow, to a degree dependent 
upon the head to which it is subjected; that is, to the ele- 
* Mechanical News, December 15, 1892. 
f Wells of this class were first sunk, in Europe, at Lillers, in Artois, in 1126. 
In the Sahara and in China they have been known for many centuries. DEEP-SEATED WA TEE. 
327 
CONDITIONS OF WATER-BEARING STRATA IN RELATION TO OTHER FORMATIONS. 
(AFTER ROBERT FIAY.) 
a, well with one water-level; b and c, wells with two water-levels; g, water-bearing gravel; 
k, impervious shale. 
CONDITION FAVORABLE FOR FLOWING WELL. (AFTER HAY.) 
CONDITION UNFAVORABLE FOR FLOWING WELL. (AFTER HAY.) 328 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
vation of the gathering-grounds above the well, and to the 
freedom with which the water can flow down the porous 
stratum and escape through the outlets below. 
It would be difficult to find an artesian field more de- 
serving of study, or more interesting to the investigator, than 
the one underlying the southeastern corner of the United 
States, and which is tapped by the wells of Northern Florida, 
notably that of the Ponce de Leon at St. Augustine. 
No one has better knowledge of that interesting well 
than Mr. W. Kennish, who was in charge during its con- 
struction. The following data concerning the boring, to- 
gether with the analysis of the water, given later, are partly 
taken from private correspondence with Mr. Kennish and 
partly from his letters to the Engineering Nezvs : 
“ The pressure was found to be 17 pounds to the inch, 
and the flow 10 millions of gallons in 24 hours. 
“ A turbine wheel fed by this flow maintained 120 incan- 
descent lights at 16-candle power, proving that the well was 
capable of supplying a force equal to 15 horse-power. 
“Concerning the maintenance of*the supply, we are 
possessed of information upon which to form a judgment. 
There are now in the town of St. Augustine and its imme- 
diate vicinity in the neighborhood of fifty artesian wells vary- 
ing in diameter from 2 to 12 inches, and exactly the same 
force exists to-day as when the first well was driven about 
ten years since. Another ground for believing that the 
supply of water is so abundant that it will prove equal to 
any possible draught upon it by artesian wells lies in the un- 
varying pressure indicated by the very sensitive gauge of the 
electrical apparatus operated by the 12-inch well, surrounded 
as it is by wells on all sides being used in constantly varying 
quantities. Again, the increase in the diameter of the wells 
has been attended by more than a proportionate flow. 
“ While the dynamo was being operated by the 12-inch DEEP-SEA TED WA TER, 
well a 6-inch well in its vicinity 
was turned on and off suddenly 
to test the steadiness of the 
force, but the closest observa- 
tion did not detect the slightest 
trembling of the gauge. 
‘ ‘ From these various 
sources of information we can- 
not escape from the conclusion 
that the water under pressure 
beneath St. Augustine, and 
vicinity is practically bound- 
less. 
“ The ratio of increase in 
temperature is very nearly i° 
in every 50 feet. This increase 
was maintained until 86° was 
obtained at 1400 feet, where 
the well was stopped. 
“ Between 520 and 557 feet 
the rock changes from fossilif- 
erous limestone to conglomer- 
ate of chalk, green clay, and a 
very porous dark fossil stone, 
largely composed of moulds of 
shells, the substance of which 
has been washed out. 
“ This stratum, of 37 feet 
in thickness, is doubtless cav- 
ernous, through which an 
enormous flow passes, possibly 
to find its partial escape in the 
great ocean spring, five miles 
seaward from Matanzas, and 
possibly, still further from the 
PONCE DE LEON ARTESIAN WELL, 
ST. AUGUSTNE, FLORIDA. 330 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
shore, and at greater clepth, to swell the great ocean current 
—the Gulf Stream.” 
Such successive water-bearing strata as were encountered 
in the St. Augustine well are very frequently observed. 
Thus in a boring at Fort Worth, Tex., at a depth of 900 
feet a stream of water was struck flowing 170 gallons per 
minute, with a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch. At 
a depth of 1035 feet another lower stream was reached of 
200 gallons per minute and pressure of 21 pounds per square 
inch. This second stream having been also cased off, fur- 
ther boring developed a flow at 1127 feet in depth of 245 gal- 
lons per minute, with a pressure of 29 pounds per square inch.* 
One interesting feature of the deep wells of Northern 
Florida and of the sea-springs off the coast is the very great 
distances the waters must flow in their subterranean passage 
from the uplands of the interior, for there is no land within 
a long distance of St. Augustine of sufficient elevation to 
produce the ‘ ‘ head ” observed at the wells. 
Nearly akin to the Florida wells are those furnishing the 
public supply for Charleston, S. C., but the pressure and 
delivery from these latter are not so great. 
There are three of these flowing wells at Charleston, all 
of about equal depth, and furnishing the following amounts 
of water daily: 
diameter 200,000 gallons 
“ “ 300,000 “ 
5J “ “ 1,250,000 “ 
They pass through the following strata: 
Feet. 
O to 2 Mould 
2 to 8 Yellow sand 
8 to 12 Sandy clay 
12 to 17 White sand 
Feet. 
17 to 50 Blue clay 
50 to 61 Blue clay sands 
61 to 65 White sands 
65 to 85 Sandy marl 
* Senate Doc. 41, page 106, 52c! Congress. DEEP-SEATED WATER. 
331 
85 to 203 ) Argillaceous marl,with 
203 to 293 ( nodules 
293 to 390 Calcareous marl, with 
nodules 
390 to 393 Arenaceous limestone 
393 to 454 Calcareous marl 
454 to 466 Arenaceous limestone 
466 to 475 Calcareous marl 
475 to 476 White limestone 
476 to 489 Calcareous marl 
489 to 540 Alumina magnesian marl 
540 to 794 Marl 
794 to 836 Micaceous marl, with iron 
pyrites 
836 to 960 Marl with sandstone 
layers 
960 to 998 Sand, considerable water 
998 to 1000 Hard sandstone 
1000 to 1215 Marl, sand, and clay 
1215 to 1221 Sandstone, very hard 
1221 to 1230 Marl, sand, and clay 
1230 to 1310 Sandstone 
1310 to 1345 Dark sand and clay 
1345 to 1350 Broken shell and shell- 
rock 
1350 to 1390 Blue clay, with hard 
layers 
1390 to 1405 Green sand 
1405 to 1533 Marl, some shell, and 
some iron pyrites 
1533 to 1557 Hard sandstone 
1557 to 1560 Sand, water-bearing 
1560 to 1610 Argillaceous sand and 
sandstone 
1610 to 1820 Blue clay and sand 
1820 to 1845 Sand, with water 
1845 to 1850 Sand-rock, hard 
1850 to i860 Loose white sand 
i860 to 1862 Sandstone, hard 
1862 to 1880 Loose sand, with water 
1880 to 1900 Blue clay and sand 
1900 to 1910 Sand 
1910 to 1925 Argillaceous sandstone 
I925 to 1970 Alternation of sand-beds 
8 or 10 feet thick, and 
sandstone 2 to 5 feet 
thick between the beds 
1970 Sandstone, not pene- 
trated 
The direct connection with the sea of the water-bearing 
layers which these wells tap is shown by the water in them 
rising and falling with the tide, and it is of special interest to 
note the fact that the daily fluctuations in the wells do not 
coincide in point of time with the tides at Charleston, a cir- 
cumstance to be explained by the hypothesis of a very 
distant connection with the sea.* 
A singular case, illustrating the danger that may possibly 
follow the tapping of water-bearing sand under pressure, is 
* Tidal influence in the case of ordinary domestic wells is no.t unusual. 
Thus in one locality in Hampshire, England, tides in the river affect a well 
2240 feet distant. The well is 83 feet deep. 
There was a famous temple of Melcarth at Gades, containing a mysterious 
spring which rose and fell inversely with the tide. (Bosworth Smith, “ Car- 
thage and the Carthaginians.”) 332 
WA TEP-SUPPL Y. 
mentioned in “ Abstracts of Papers,” Institution of Civil En- 
gineers : * 
“ The town of Schneidenmuehl, in which the well referred 
to is situated, lies in the province of Posen, near the West 
Prussian boundary. In the autumn of 1892 the sinking of 
the well was commenced, and in May of the next year had 
reached a depth of 238 feet. From 49 to 52 feet of the 
upper layers were comparatively firm; then a layer of sandy 
silt was struck, having a thickness of 180 feet. A current 
of water was used during the boring operations as long as the 
upward pressure of the ground-water permitted. The tubes 
had a diameter of 4.72 inches to a depth of 82 feet, when 
they were reduced to 3.15 inches. 
“ On reaching a depth of 210 feet a strong current of 
muddy water issued from the tube. Sinking was continued, 
when at a depth of 236 feet the flow from the tube ceased; 
but a strong jet of water, amounting to 220 gallons per 
minute and containing 5 to 6 per cent of solid matters in 
suspension, issued through the ground at the side of the 
tube. The cause of the hydrostatic pressure which ejected 
the water with such force is sought for in the geological 
formation underlying the town of Schneidenmuehl. This 
town lies in the valley of the River Kuedow, an affluent of 
the Netze, and is partially surrounded by hills composed of 
drift sand, which offer little obstacle to the percolation of any 
rain-water falling upon them. Upon this sand, however, lies 
an impervious deposit composed of the more or less clayey 
sediment left by the river, and this deposit appears to have 
resisted the pressure of the water until it was pierced during 
the sinking of the well. 
“ An endeavor was made to stop the flow of water by 
drawing the tubes, but this proved unsuccessful, because all 
* See also Engineering Arezvs, December 20, 1894. BEEP-SEA TED WA TER. 
333 
solid matter which fell into the well from its sides was at 
once ejected with the water. Owing to the quantity of 
sand thrown out considerable subsidences of the surface took 
place, and the adjoining buildings were seriously damaged. 
Bags of sand and clay, stones, etc., were thrown into the 
well; but these were all swallowed up without staying the 
flow of water An attempt was then made to dredge out a 
well or shaft round the tube, but after eight days’ hard 
work a depth of only 2 feet was reached, owing to the 
quantity of sand driven up from below. It was next decided 
to drive down several tubes to the depth from which the 
water came, and this was done; but several of the tubes 
sank and were lost, so that finally only one tube remained, 
the minimum diameter of which was 5.9 inches. On the 
15th of June the ground sank suddenly to the extent of 
4.26 feet, carrying with it part of the adjoining houses. 
After this the flow of water became less, and none reached 
the surface except through the tube. On the 21st of June 
tubes of gradually diminishing diameter were fixed upon the 
main tube, when it was found that the water rose to a height 
of 65.6 feet above the street-level. By means of taps at 
different levels the water was gradually cut off, and on the 
22d of June it had altogether ceased to flow, and the danger 
to the town appeared to have been averted. 
“ On the 20th of September, however, the plug which 
closed the tube was removed, and the water again began to 
flow, sometimes containing as much as 20 per cent fine sand. 
The water forced its way upwards outside the tube, and 
finally the tube and the whole superstructure of the well 
sank. The method devised to close the well was to heap 
as rapidly as possible sufficient earth or sand upon the spot, 
so that the weight of the layer would counterbalance the 
upward thrust of the water. An area 69 feet in diameter 
was cleared, and the six tubes were carefully filled with fine 334 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
sand. The earth and sand which had previously been brought 
to the spot were thrown in at the rate of 1.962 cubic yards 
per minute until a conical mound was formed 6.56 feet high 
and 69 feet in diameter at its base. This method proved 
successful, and the issue of water from the bore-hole has 
now ceased.” 
Flowing wells at times occur which are not due to hydro- 
static pressure, but to the lifting of local water by gas-expan- 
sion. Such a case is reported by Professor Hay as occurring 
in Southeastern Kansas.* 
The same author also refers to “ rock-pressure ” as a 
cause of flowing wells of great depth. Such wells tap sec- 
tions of rock which are, together with the contained water, 
under enormous compressive strain, and the partial release 
of pressure in one direction causes the water to rise in the 
tube. 
A phenomenon occasionally met with in deep, non-flowing 
wells is that of “ breathing.” Mr. J. T. Willard, of Kansas, 
has reported a very interesting instance of that kind in which 
close observation was kept of the entrance or exit of air, 
and the corresponding barometric readings. With a low 
barometer the well air took an outward direction, and the 
reverse condition followed increased atmospheric pressure. 
Mr. R. T. Smith, of Winona, Kan., “ utilized such an 
air-current to blow a whistle which could be heard all over 
the town, warning the inhabitants of a possible storm.” Of 
course the volume of air moving in such cases is far greater 
than what would be equal to the cubic contents of the well- 
tube, and it comes from a storage in porous or cavernous 
strata. 
Attention is called by various writers—notably by Messrs. 
Todd and Swezey—to the liability of these “ breathing wells ’ ’ 
* Senate Doc. 41, 52d Congress, page 38. DEEP-SEATED WATER. 
335 
to freeze, owing to the sudden inflow of cold winter air from 
the outside. “ The pumps not infrequently froze to the 
depth of 70 or 80 feet below the surface, and in one case 
ice had been found in a pump-cylinder 100 feet down, which 
was about 10 feet above the water.” 
Other things being equal, the ability of a well to furnish 
an abundant supply of water will depend upon the water- 
absorbing qualities of the rock in which the well is bored. 
The following values are given by Hill:* 
CAPACITY OF ROCKS TO ABSORB WATER. 
(Expressed in parts by weight of water absorbed by 100 parts of rock). 
Sandstone 4 to 29 
Chalk 24.10 
Coal shale 2.85 
Basalt 0.83 
Granite (fine-grained) 0.12 
Granite (hornblendic) 0.06 
The author found the following values for the rocks of 
the State of New York: f 
Diorite, Palisades 0.22 
Granite, Peekskill 0.81 
Granite, St. Lawrence 0.23 
Gneiss, N. Y. City 0.19 
Mica schist, N. Y. City 0.39 
Hornblende schist, Antwerp 0.05 
Red slate, Granville 0.00 
Serpentine, Jefferson County,... 0.35 
Talc, St. Lawrence County 0.43 
Dolomite, St, Lawrence County 0.29 
* Senate Doc. 41, 52c! Congress. 
f Each specimen was weighed, soaked in water for forty-eight hours, rapidly 
wiped with a damp cloth, and again weighed. 336 
WA TER-SUPPL V, 
Potsdam sandstone, Potsdam .. 1.90 
Chazy limestone, Chazy o. 13 
Bird’s-eye limestone, Watertown 0.07 
Trenton limestone, Trenton Falls ... 0.04 
Hudson River shale, Cohoes 0.97 
Oneida conglomerate, Utica 0.09 
Medina sandstone, Medina 2.49 
Green shale, Rochester 0.27 
Clinton limestone, Rochester 0.23 
Niagara shale, Rochester 1.13 
Encrinal limestone, Lockport 0.11 
Niagara limestone 0.63 
Lower Pentamerous limestone, Schoharie... 0.48 
Oriskany sandstone, Oriskany Falls 1.44 
Schoharie grit, Schoharie 0.32 
Onondaga limestone, Jamesville o. 15 
Blue flagstone, Kingston 0.39 
Portage sandstone, Portageville 1.80 
Conglomerate, Panama 3.73 
Catskill sandstone, Catskill Mountains 0.90 
Conglomerate, Catskill Mountains 0.55 
Red shale, Catskill Mountains 0.72 
Contrary to the belief of many people, deep-seated water 
is not inexhaustible. If the porous layers containing it be 
extensive, an immediately available supply of large volume, 
which is the accumulation perhaps of ages, may be counted 
upon; but should the daily drain be larger than the natural 
reinforcement, the delivery must surely shrink in quantity, 
and finally cease. 
The serious effect of extending and heavily pumping the 
deep chalk wells supplying a portion of London is thus pointed 
out in the British Medical Journal for February 28, 1891: 
“ For every two gallons of water collected within the Lee 
valley London is withdrawing three from its reservoir in that 
chalk basin, and this quite apart from the amount every day 
required by the resident population of that area. The result DEEP-SEA TED IVA TER. 
337 
of such a process can only be a steady, if gradual, exhaustion 
of water from the chalk, and a progressive lowering of its 
plane of saturation; and, unfortunately, facts abundantly 
confirm this calculation, and prove that such a lowering of 
the deep-water level is proceeding, not merely in the valleys 
of the Colne and Lee, but in the main valley of the Thames 
itself as well; and this, moreover, to a degree which has 
already begun to excite the alarm of both agriculturists and 
manufacturers. 
“ Watercress-growing—one of the most important indus- 
tries of Hertfordshire, and one which few Londoners would 
willingly abolish—is being seriously damaged, and is threat- 
ened with destruction at no very distant date. Springs which 
were perennial and abundant thirty years ago have now run 
dry; the level of the water in deep wells has fallen more 
than 20 feet within less than as many years. Mills are being 
abandoned for lack of water-power, and rivers which once 
flowed regularly past ancient mansions, built to command a 
view of their bank-full streams, are now lost in swallow- 
holes, or flow only scantily, or for a few weeks in occasional 
years. In 1821 the water in a well in the east of London 
stood at Trinity high-water mark—22 feet above the present 
ordnance datum; in 1851 its average height was 43 feet 
below; and in 1881 it was 105 feet below ordnance datum, a 
lowering of 127 feet in sixty years, and indicating a fall in 
the plane of saturation in the chalk of more than 200 feet in 
the century. This depletion is not explicable on any theory 
of a diminished rainfall; for in this district the average of 
the last twenty years (during which the fall has taken place 
at an increasing rate) is nearly two inches above the average 
rainfall for the previous thirty years. The cause is to be 
found wholly and solely in the fact that water has been, and 
is being, increasingly drawn from the chalk basin in excess of 
its supply. Under these circumstances is it strange that the 338 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
population of the large area so immediately affected should 
be alarmed, or that they should believe that they have the 
strongest grounds for opposing any schemes by which the 
rate of depletion must be enormously increased, to their 
own immediate loss, and to the ultimate devastation of their 
county ? ’ ’ 
Deep water must not be expected in every locality. There 
is a widespread notion that every deep boring is sure to 
strike water in goodly quantity, if carried to sufficient depth, 
irrespective of any surface conditions whatever. The writer 
has been called to pass judgment upon the advisability of 
trying for an artesian supply for a settlement on the top of 
a mountain some three thousand feet high, and that, too, a 
mountain of erosion, with horizontal strata. Shallow borings, 
of only thirty to forty feet in depth, had furnished a limited 
quantity of water in the same general locality, and hence 
the proposition to increase the supply by the means above 
stated. The water obtained from the shallow wells was, of 
course, derived from the very local rainfall of the mountain- 
top, and was no indication whatever of a further deep supply, 
although the parties interested were of the opinion that 
water could be induced to run up hill, owing to some occult 
“ artesian” conditions. 
Water from deep sources has, commonly, characteristics 
of its own, distinguishing it from the ground-water of the 
neighborhood. One of the most easily recognized of these 
is high temperature. Albertus Magnus was the first to hold 
that low-lying waters are warmed by the native internal heat 
of the globe.* 
An excellent illustration of the gradual increase in tem- 
* Aristotle believed the high temperature of such water to be due to solar 
heat which penetrated the crust of the earth and accumulated in the interior as 
at the focus of a lens. DEEP-SEATED WATER. 
339 
perature with depth of boring has already been given in data 
concerning the Ponce de Leon well. 
Another peculiarity of deep water is the small quantity 
of dissolved oxygen it usually contains. This is by no means 
due to the pressure to which it may be subjected, for increase 
of pressure favors the solution of gases, but is rather owing 
to the abundant opportunity for removal of oxygen by con- 
tact with such substances as organic matter, and compounds 
of iron and manganese, presented during the long under- 
ground journey of the water from its point of collection. 
The water of the Grenelle well at Paris, which flows from 
a depth of 548 metres (about 1780 feet), contains no oxygen 
whatever.* 
In point of composition the waters of deep wells are 
almost always highly mineralized, as would be expected in 
consideration of the items of long time, long distance of flow, 
high pressure, and elevated temperature.f Sometimes the 
* Richardson finds that, as water at normal temperature and pressure ab- 
sorbs .0245 of its volume of air, at a depth of 1380 feet water would absorb its 
own volume of air (measured at atmospheric pressure). At a depth of 40,000 
teet (the soundings for at least one spot in the Pacific Ocean) the air contained 
would be 29 times (measured under normal pressure) the volume of the absorb- 
ing water. (Chem. News, lxvii. 99.) 
f The following analysis of water from “ Old Faithful ” Geyser may be 
taken as typical of such waters from the Yellowstone Park (Gooch and Whit- 
field, Bui. 47, U. S. Geol. Sur.): 
NH4C1 trace 
LiCl 34 per million. 
NaCl 639-3 “ 
KC1 47-8 “ “ 
CsCl trace 
RbCl trace 
Na2S04 27 “ “ 
KBr 5-i “ “ 
Na2B407 21.3 “ “ 
NaAsOa 2.7 “ •• 
Na2C03 208.8 “ “ 
NaaSiOs 27.9 “ “ 
MgCO, 2.1 “ 340 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
materials contained render the water unfit for use, even for 
boiler purposes, but more commonly the supply is such as 
to be considered a great boon to the fortunate possessor. 
Mr. Kennish furnishes the following analysis of the water 
from the Ponce de Leon well already spoken of. The water 
on issuing from the well smells strong of sulphuretted hydro- 
gen (a quality also observed in the water of the Matanzas sea- 
spring), but all odor leaves it after standing a short time. 
Suspended matter, 1.6 per million 
Silica 28.0 “ “ 
Alumina 1.2 “ “ 
Sodium chloride 1957.7 “ 
Potassium chloride 47.5 “ “ 
Magnesium chloride 353-4 “ “ 
Calcium sulphate 470.9 “ “ 
Strontium sulphate 18.6 “ “ 
Magnesium sulphate none 
Calcium bicarbonate 149.9 “ “ 
Magnesium bicarbonate 162.1 “ “ 
3190.9 “ “ 
A somewhat curious instance of the change that may come 
in the composition of a deep-well water from attempts to 
increase the flow by deeper boring was brought under the 
author’s observation a few years ago. At a depth of 800 
feet a valuable “ saline ” mineral water was obtained. With 
a view to increase the flow the owners sank the well to 1406 
feet, when the water suddenly changed to one of “ alkaline 
CaC03 3.8 per million. 
FeC03 trace 
MnC03 trace 
A1203 1.7 “ “ 
Si02 369. t “ “ 
HaS 0.2 “ “ 
1390.8 “ “ DEEP-SEA TED IVA TER. 
341 
carbonate” character, heavily charged with marsh-gas and 
sulphuretted hydrogen. 
Some years ago a small sample of brown water was sent 
to this laboratory by the gas company of Mobile, Ala. It 
came from an artesian well 600 feet deep, bored near the 
Gulf coast. A very simple and partial examination was made 
of it to determine its fitness for boiler use. It was decidedly 
alkaline from the presence of sodium carbonate, contained 
considerable salt, and in color was of a dark coffee-brown. 
It is to be regretted that circumstances did not favor a com- 
plete analysis of so interesting and unusual an artesian water. 
However, the gap has been filled by Professor Reuben 
Haines, who recently reported a “ remarkable artesian-well 
water” from Southern Alabama.* The description of the 
water, and the depth of the well (685 feet), combined with 
the location, lead to the conviction that the water was prac- 
tically the same as the one examined by the writer some 
years ago. 
The analysis and comments are best given in Professor 
Haines’ own words: 
“ Color (observed in tube two feet long)—very dark cof- 
fee-brown. 
“ Odor (heated to nearly ioo° C.)-—unpleasant, odor of 
damp rotten wood. 
“ Taste (warm)—disagreeable, stale, brackish alkaline 
with organic flavor. 
“ Transparency—almost clear, a small amount of whitish 
sediment. 
Free ammonia 6.90c per million 
Albuminoid ammonia 0.740 “ 
Oxygen consumed (Kubel) 10.892 “ 
*J. Fk. Inst., January, 1894. 342 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
Nitrogen in nitrates 040 per million. 
Chlorine 998.0 “ “ 
Total solid residue (dried at 1200 C.).... 2060.0 “ “ 
“ The mineral ingredients existed in the following com- 
binations: 
Potassium sulphate 2.2 per million 
Potassium chloride 44.0 “ “ 
Sodium chloride 1611.9 “ “ 
Sodium carbonate 293.3 “ “ 
Calcium carbonate 26.8 “ “ 
Magnesium carbonate 13.4 “ “ 
Silica, iron oxide, and alumina 8.5 “ “ 
2000.1 “ “ 
“ The more remarkable features of this artesian-well water 
which are here to be noted are the very high color, approxi- 
mating that of water from pools in bogs and swamps, and 
the enormous amounts of ammonia and of organic matter. 
Deep-well and artesian waters are usually colorless and 
particularly free from organic matter, on account of the 
vast amount of filtration to which they are generally sub- 
jected. It does not seem probable that so excessive an 
amount of ammonia as occurs in the Alabama well can be 
referred to decomposition of the vegetable substance alone, 
but that a portion of it, at least, must be caused by decom- 
position of the organic remains of fish and other marine ani- 
mals, which have been, perhaps, partially preserved from decay 
through the antiseptic properties of peat. A quantity of 
bones and shells mingled with sand is stated to have been 
thrown up by this well. 
“ The excessive amount of sodium chloride in this well- 
water may be attributed to the probable existence of salif- 
erous beds somewhere in the vicinitv. From the results of DEEP-SEA TED WA TEE. 
343 
analysis it is manifest that the water has no direct connec- 
tion with the sea, for its mineral composition is totally unlike 
that of sea-water. The pressure of the water at the mouth 
of the well is of itself sufficient evidence that the water has 
an altogether different origin.” 
Water of high color, and of general swampy character, is 
also to be found in the deep wells in the vicinity of New 
Orleans. Only one explanation is apparent for all these 
cases, and that is that the water coming from its distant gath- 
ering-ground is constrained, for a portion of its underground 
course, to pass through deep-lying deposits rich in organic 
remains. 
As to what kind of rocks yield hard water and what kind 
furnish soft, we have but to consider the chemical and physical 
structure of the rock in question, and then, from the solubility 
data, a very fair judgment can be arrived at. Professor 
Carter has summed up this question very aptly.* He says: 
“ Water that passes through calcareous or magnesium 
rocks of great thickness will probably be hard, while water 
that passes through rocks composed of silica, alumina, iron, 
potash, or soda will probably be soft. The great deposits 
of limestone, marble, gypsum, and other calcareous rocks, 
as well as the magnesian rocks, such as dolomite, chlorite, 
and talcose schists, would then yield hard water. The gran- 
ites, gneisses, and many sandstones and slates would furnish 
soft water. This, in the main, is true, although there are 
some exceptions which local conditions modify. Some sand- 
stones will yield soft water, while other sandstones furnish 
hard water; it depends mainly upon the cement which binds- 
the grains together. If the cementing material be carbonate 
of lime or sulphate of lime, the water will probably be hard, 
*J. Fk. Inst., September, 1893. 344 
IVA TER-SUPPL V. 
especially if the well be of great depth and the water be 
long in contact with the rocks. If, on the other hand, the 
cementing material be feldspar, such as orthoclase or albite 
(not labradorite), or even gelatinous silica, the water will 
probably be soft. 
” In England many determinations of the hardness of 
spring and artesian waters from different geological forma- 
tions have been made; so that it can be safely predicted 
what kind of water an artesian well will yield when it is 
drilled in the Devonian, in the Silurian limestone, in the new 
red sandstone, or in the chalk. 
DEEP ARTESIAN-WELL WATER (ENGLAND), 
Hardness. 
Water from Devonian sandstone 170 
Water from magnesian limestone 430 
Water from new red sandstone 170 
Water from chalk 270 
Water from granite and gneiss, soft. 
Water from Silurian sandstones, slate, and shales, soft. 
Water from millstone grit, soft. 
Hard waters. 
“ Water which flows through calcareous channels is hard, 
while that which flows through silicious rocks is soft.” 
As has been shown, deep water may at times be too 
highly mineralized, or even too “ peaty,” for potable use, 
but such impurity is not all that may be present on occasion.* 
Even a deep well, especially if not a true flowing artesian, 
is not always exempt from local infiltrations of contaminating 
character. This is especially seen in the deep borings within 
the limits of the city of New York. The character and 
* Sworn statements have been made to the effect that numerous small fish 
were found in water issuing from deep artesian wells in Aberdeen, S. D., iSgi, 
six hundred miles from any known surface source of such fish. (Senate Doc. 
4!, 52d Congress, part 2, page 86.) DEEP-SEATED WATER. 
345 
vertical position of the rock strata underlying the metrop- 
olis are such as to permit surface drainage to reach to very 
considerable depths. The writer condemned a deep-well 
water from Erie, Pa., upon the following analysis: 
Free ammonia 2.025 
Albuminoid ammonia none 
Chlorine 69 
Nitrogen as nitrates .025 
Nitrogen as nitrites... none 
“ Required oxygen ” .85 
Total solids 487 
Phosphates strong traces 
Further information showed the well to have been bored 
within city limits, through a friable rock, and “ within 75 
feet of the nearest privy-vault. ” 
Adverse report was also made upon another well, which 
had been very carefully bored through rock (shale) for 
200 feet. Within 50 feet of the well was a large privy- 
vault. Sixty-five pounds of salt, dissolved in three barrels 
of water, were thrown into the vault, and the water of the 
well was watched for increased chlorine, with the following 
results: 
Before “ salting ” 58 parts chlorine per million 
After 15 hours’pumping 64.25 “ “ “ “ 
“ 36 “ “ 64.37 “ “ “ “ 
Other, but hardly necessary, instances could be given of 
contamination from adjacent elevator-shafts, gas-works, and 
the like. 
The following interesting point was lately brought out 
by Mr. Fanning during discussion of a paper before the 
American Water-works Association. Mr. Planning said: 
“ While recently making an examination of the sources 346 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
of water-supply for a city of New Jersey, located near a larger 
city, I gathered the data of the wells in the vicinity and 
over the southwestern part of the State with a view of learn- 
ing the amount arid direction of dip of the successive strata 
from the surface down, and of estimating the probable water- 
supply from the water-bearing sand strata available • for a 
city water-supply. In that city the question of a well- 
supply had been earnestly discussed and was favorably con- 
sidered. After plotting, in a diagram, the information show- 
ing the inclination and direction of the strata, the evidence 
seemed clear that the outcrop of the strata and the water- 
shed which would supply the water to wells in that city 
were in the neighboring city. It seemed to me unwise and 
unsafe for them to depend for their own water-supply upon 
the water that falls upon the surface in and about the neigh- 
boring city. 
“ This case illustrates the frequent necessity of tracing an 
underground water-supply to its surface source and water- 
shed, that there may be assurance that it is unobjectionable 
and clean, for if the source be unclean the filtration through 
the sand stratum will not protect it indefinitely.” 
Finally, a word concerning the probability of finding bac- 
teria in deep wells. Waters from such sources are not to be 
rated as “ uniformly sterile.” Leaving out of consideration 
such instances as the New York City wells, which permit 
the direct entrance of surface drainage, there are yet many 
deep waters showing abundance of bacterial life; but, for- 
tunately, the chances of encountering therein germs of ob- 
jectionable character are reduced to a minimum. Prof. 
Sedgwick has lately reported his findings upon this question: 
“ From our results we are forced to the conclusion that 
ground-waters, even the waters of deep wells, may not be DEEP-SEATED WATER. 
347 
by any means as free from bacteria as has been hitherto 
supposed. 
“It is plain that water absolutely free from bacteria is 
not ordinarily obtained from even deep wells, and that many 
deep wells contain as numerous bacteria as are found in many 
surface-waters.” 
The bacteria present in these waters, are, however, “ re- 
markable not only for slow growth, but, also, for the absence 
of liquefying colonies, and, in many cases, for the abundance 
of chromogenic varieties. These facts are especially impor- 
tant, as indicating the total absence of contamination by 
ordinary surface-water, and, as far as they go, they strengthen 
the confidence with which well-protected ground-waters may 
be regarded as sources of public water-supplies.” * 
♦Sedgwick, Mass. Bd. of Health, 1894. CHAPTER X. 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
A GREAT deal of popular misconception exists upon the 
subject of the analysis of potable water, and it is commonly 
supposed that such an examination may be looked upon 
from practically the same point of view as the analysis of an 
iron ore. That this belief is founded on fallacy may, how- 
ever, be readily shown. When an iron ore is submitted for 
analysis, the chemist determines and reports upon the per- 
centages of iron, phosphorus, sulphur, etc., found therein; 
and at that point his duties usually cease, inasmuch as the 
ironmaster is ordinarily capable of interpreting the analysis 
for himself. Even should the analyst be called upon for 
an opinion as to the quality of the ore, the well-known prop- 
erties of the several constituents make such a task an easy one, 
and, assuming the sample to have been fairly selected, the 
opinion may be written without any inquiry as to the nature 
of the local surroundings whence the ore was taken. 
A water-analysis, on the other hand, is really not an an- 
alysis at all, properly so called, but is a series of experiments 
undertaken with a view to assist the judgment in determining 
the potability of the supply. The methods of conducting 
these experiments are largely influenced by the individual 
preferences of the analyst, and are far from being uniform 
or always capable of comparison, thus often introducing 
elements of confusion where two or more chemists are em- 
ployed to analyze the same water. Some of the substances 
reported—“ albuminoid ammonia, ” for instance—do not exist CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
349 
ready formed in the water at all, and are but the imperfect 
experimental measures of the objectionable organic constit- 
uents, which our present lack of knowledge prevents our 
estimating directly. 
Thus the numerical results of a water-analysis are not 
only unintelligible to the general public, but are not always 
capable of interpretation by a chemist, unless he be acquainted 
with the surroundings of the spot whence the sample was 
drawn, and be posted as to the analytical methods employed. 
It is very common for water to be sent for analysis, with 
the request that an opinion be returned as to its suitability 
for potable uses, while at the same time all information as to 
its source is not only unfurnished, but is intentionally with- 
held, with a view of rendering the desired report unpreju- 
diced in character. 
Such action is not only a reflection upon the moral quality 
of the chemist, but it seriously hampers him in his efforts to 
formulate an opinion from the analytical results. 
For instance, a large quantity of common salt is a cause 
for suspicion when found in drinking-water, not because of 
any poisonous property attaching to the salt itself, but be- 
cause it is usually difficult to explain its presence in quantity 
except upon the supposition of the infiltration of sewage; 
yet an amount of salt sufficient to condemn the water from 
a shallow well in the Hudson valley could be passed as un- 
objectionable if found in a deep-well water from near Syr- 
acuse, N. Y. 
We thus see how important it is for the chemist to be 
tully acquainted with the history of the water he is to ex- 
amine in order that he may compare his results in “ chlo- 
rine ” with the “normal chlorine’’ of the section whence 
the sample is taken. 
A knowledge of the history of the water is no less im- 
portant in order to interpret the remaining items of a water- WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
analysis. Some time since a water was sent from Florida to 
this laboratory for examination, and was found to contain 
1.18 parts “ free ammonia” per million. Much “ free am- 
monia” commonly points to contamination from animal 
sources, and had it not been known that the water in question 
was derived from the melting of artificial ice made by the 
ammonia process the enormous quantity of ammonia found 
would have condemned it beyond a peradventure. As it 
was, the water was pronounced pure, the other items of the 
analysis having been found unobjectionable. 
Analytical results which would condemn a surface-water 
are unobjectionable for water from an artesian well, for the 
reason that in the latter case high figures in “ free ammonia,” 
‘‘chlorine,” or “nitrates” are capable of an explanation 
other than that of sewage-infiltration. Even though such 
water should have, at a previous period, come in contact 
with objectionable organic waste material, yet the interven- 
ing length of time and great distance of underground flow 
would have furnished abundant opportunity for thorough 
oxidation and purification. 
“ Deep ” samples taken from the same lake, at the same 
spot and depth, will greatly vary in analytical results if the 
temperature of the water at the several dates of sampling 
should be markedly different, owing to the disturbing in- 
fluence of vertical currents. 
Again, suppose it is desired to determine whether or not 
the water of a large stream is so contaminated with up- 
stream sewage as to be unfit for a town supply. An an- 
alysis of the water taken from the site of the proposed intake 
would very probably be valueless, because the enormous 
dilution to which the admitted sewage would have been 
subjected would remove from the analytical results everything 
of an absolute character. Examinations of any real value 
in such cases should always be of a comparative nature. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
351 
Samples should be taken above and below the point of con- 
tamination and again at the proposed intake. If the differ- 
ence between the first and second samples, which is a measure 
of the pollution, be maintained, or nearly so, at the point 
of intake, then the water should be condemned, no matter 
how completely the analytical results fall within the limits 
of the so-called standards of organic purity. 
Thus it is that a chemist must be in full possession of all 
the facts concerning the water which he is asked to examine, 
in order that his opinion as to its purity may be based upon 
the entire breadth of his past experience, for in no branch 
of chemical work is experience and good judgment better 
exercised than in the interpretation of a water-analysis. 
As Nichols has well said, “It is a great mistake to sup- 
pose that the proper way to consult a chemist is to send a 
sample of water in a sealed vessel with no hint as to its 
source. On the contrary, the chemist should know as much 
as possible as to the history and source of the water, and, 
if possible, should take the samples himself.” 
However faithfully the various chemical tests may be ap- 
plied to the question of the fitness or unfitness of a certain 
water for dietetic purposes, there is nothing upon which 
greater stress should be laid than a thorough personal knowl- 
edge of the surroundings of the source of supply. 
It has been held as a golden maxim by one of our best 
authorities on water-analysis “ never to pass judgment upon 
a water the history of which is not thoroughly known,” and 
the nearer this maxim can be lived up to the fewer will be 
the mistakes in the reports issued. 
In the taking ot samples for so important a matter as a 
town supply the chemist should unquestionably personally 
superintend their collection; but lor individual outlying 
waters printed instructions have to be frequently depended 
upon. Those issued from this laboratory are as follows; 352 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING A WATER-SAMPLE. 
Large glass-stoppered bottles are best for sampling, but as 
they are seldom at hand, a two-gallon new demijohn should 
be employed, fitted with a new soft cork. Be careful to 
notice that no packing-straw or other foreign substance yet 
remains in the demijohn, and thoroughly rinse it with the 
water to be sampled. Do not attempt to scour the interior 
of the neck by rubbing with either fingers or cloth. After 
thorough rinsing fill the vessel to overflowing so as to dis- 
place the air, and then completely empty it. 
If the water is to be taken from a tap, let enough run to 
waste to empty the local lateral before sampling; if from a 
pump, pump enough to empty all the pump connections; 
if from a stream or lake, take the sample some distance from 
the shore, and plunge the sampling-vessel a foot and a half 
below the surface during filling so as to avoid surface-scum. 
In every case fill the demijohn nearly full, leaving but a 
small space to allow for possible expansion, and cork securely. 
Under no circumstances place sealing-wax upon the cork, 
but tie a piece of cloth firmly over the neck to hold the 
cork in place. The ends of the string may be afterwards 
sealed if necessary. 
Bear in mind, throughout, that water-analysis deals with 
material present in very minute quantity, and that the least 
carelessness in collecting the sample must vitiate the results. 
Give the date of taking the sample, as full a description as 
possible of the soil through which the water flows, together 
with the immediate sources of possible contamination.* 
* Fear of cholera has lately caused waters to pour in floods into some of the 
analytical laboratories of Europe, and it is more interesting than reassuring to 
observe the methods followed in dealing with this accumulated work. 
In the laboratory of one public analyst the writer saw a large collection of 
water-samples, as yet unopened, from various localities. 
These samples some of which were weeks old, had been collected in a CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
353 
Having secured the sample, begin the analysis at once, 
for the reason that water is liable to rapid changes in char- 
acter during laboratory storage. For instance, the following 
analyses are of the same sample of water from the laboratory 
tap, drawn November 10, and allowed to stand in the sam- 
pling-bottle at ordinary room temperature: 
Nov. io 
Nov. 12 
Nov. 13 
Nov. 14 
Nov. 15 
Dec. 15 
Free ammonia. 
Albuminoid ammonia 
•037 
.220 
4-5 
trace 
•50 
4-35 
140 
11 
.042 
.178 
.042 
.191 
.050 
•175 
• 075 
•155 
.060 
.205 
N in nitrites 
N in nitrates 
Required oxygen 
trace 
•525 
4.6 
trace 
• 55 
4.2 
trace 
.60 
4.4 
trace 
.60 
4.1 
none 
.60 
4.6 
This water shows gradual oxidation of the nitrogen con- 
tents to nitrates, but on the whole is fairly stable. As show- 
ing, on the other hand, how rapid and how ununiform the 
storage changes may at times be, the following analyses by 
Liversidge are given.* (See table, top of next page.) 
These are, of course, exaggerated cases containing high 
ammonias, but they serve to point out the necessity of avoid- 
ing delay between the collection of the sample and the be- 
variety of vessels, principally claret- and whiskey-bottles, and the corks em- 
ployed were often old ones. 
When one considers the excessive care required for water-sampling, the 
thought that the above lot were doubtless taken by inexperienced hands, with 
the aid of vessels certainly old and probably unclean, does not increase one’s 
faith in the value of the analytical results. 
Much to my surprise, I also saw in one laboratory the old writing-paper 
packing for connecting the retort with the condenser, a method of union long 
since discarded for something more reliable. It is so easy a matter to ruin a 
water-analysis by indifferent attention to the proper setting up of the apparatus 
for the “ albuminoid ammonia ” process that modern practice discards, as in- 
efficient, several recommendations made by Wanklyn, the originator of the 
method, and among them the paper packing mentioned. 
* Chem. News, LXXI. 249. 354 
WA TER-S UPPL V. 
Horse-pond. 
Fish-pond. 
Peaty Water. 
Free 
Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
Free 
Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
Free 
Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
December n.. 
10.00 
7.00 
0.12 
O.90 
O.72 
O.19 
“ 12... 
2.00 
2.00 
O.II 
O.92 
1.12 
0.04 
I3” • 
8.00 
4.00 
0.16 
I.04 
1.12 
0.13 
“ 15-. 
7.00 
4-00 
0.16 
I.03 
I.08 
0.12 
“ 16... 
6.00 
2.00 
0.38 
O.69 
0.03 
O.O4 
19... 
5-oo 
2.00 
O 52 
O.56 
0.02 
0.03 
“ 20... 
4.00 
I.OO 
0.70 
O.38 
0.01 
0.01 
“ 21... 
2.00 
O.50 
O.9O 
0.30 
January 8 
0.50 
O 25 
I.38 
0.06 
“ 10.... 
0.07 
0.07 
1.50 
0.04 
. f . r 
ginning of the analysis. At the most, very few days should 
intervene. 
Another example, chiefly interesting as showing the suc- 
cessive steps in the oxidation of organic nitrogen, is here 
given. * Eighty samples of water, including all classes of 
surface-water, were examined at various intervals after stand- 
ing, and gave the following results: 
“ The organic matter in suspension decays in about seven 
days, as is shown by the increase in ‘ free ammonia.’ In 
about fourteen days this ‘ free ammonia ’ has disappeared, 
and ‘ nitrite ’ has taken its place, reaching a maximum in 
about twenty-one days. Later the ‘ nitrite ’ also disappears, 
and in twenty-eight days, or more, all the nitrogen has been 
converted into the form of ‘ nitrate.’ When the suspended 
matter is removed by filtration through paper, or by pre- 
cipitation with alumina, no change occurs, unless free am- 
monia were present at the outset.” 
Hitherto no small confusion existed, on account of the 
many ways in which the results of water-analyses were 
stated, but this difficulty, it is to be hoped, will be greatly 
done away with by the report of the committee of the 
* Report of the Massachusetts Board of Health, 1890, 865. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
355 
American Association for the Advancement of Science, ap- 
pointed to examine into this and other water questions. 
It was with a view to advance the cause of “ uniformity ” 
that the “water committee,’’ of which the author was a 
member, was appointed by the chemical section of the Amer- 
ican Association for the Advancement of Science, at its Buffalo 
meeting in 1886. The preliminary report of the committee 
may be found in the Journal of Analytical Chemistry, vol. iii., 
page 398. 
The committee recommended that all results be given in 
parts per million in weight. This method has the advantage 
that a litre, or fraction thereof, of water, having been oper- 
ated upon, and the substances found having been determined 
in milligrammes, no long arithmetical calculations will be 
required. 
Of course the assumption is made that a litre of water 
weighs a kilogramme—a true enough statement for potable 
waters, but one capable of introducing error where mineral 
waters are dealt with, whose specific gravities are appreciably 
above unity. In such a case the water is actually weighed, 
or else the weight is estimated from the known specific gravity 
and volume. 
Water should not be filtered before analysis. If sediment 
be present, it should be equally diffused by thorough shaking 
before measuring. 
The reason for this is that a water-analysis should repre- 
sent the water as the consumer uses it, and not in a con- 
dition improved by filtration. 
Water-analysis cannot be properly conducted in a general 
laboratory, because many of the tests would be ruined by 
the fumes common to such a locality. A separate room, 
reserved exclusively for water-work, is the best arrangement. 356 
WA TEE-S UP PL Y. 
The author finds it convenient to have the woodwork painted 
white and to have a broad titration shelf fixed across the 
window, with a black curtain capable of being pulled down 
to the level of the titration-dish. Excellent conditions are 
thus given for noting slight changes in colors, as required 
in the determination of chlorine. 
The appearance of a water is most conveniently noted in 
a glass tube two inches in diameter, two feet long, and 
closed at the ends by pieces of quarter-inch plate-glass. 
These tubes, as commonly constructed, have both end-plates 
cemented on, and the water is introduced through a small 
hole in the side of the cylinder. This is a poor arrange- 
ment, as it interferes with necessary cleaning. A better 
plan is to have but one end-plate fixed, as the other can 
be easily held in place by the hand, without any leakage 
occurring, while the tube is held horizontally for purposes 
of observation. 
No suitable standards covering degrees of turbidity have 
been established, and the observer must be content to de- 
scribe what he sees in words. Of course, should a special 
case demand it, the suspended material causing the turbidity 
could be filtered from a known volume of the water by 
means of a weighed Gooch crucible with asbestos felting, 
and its weight determined both before and after ignition. 
This would give some idea of the amount and quality of the 
turbidity. 
Odor and Taste.—It is customary to report such odor 
and taste as a water may possess, although in the great 
majority of cases very little information is derived from such 
examination, because of the frequency of negative results. 
A good water may be possessed of a slight marshy odor, 
while one of extremely dangerous character may be limpid, CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
357 
tasteless, and odorless. The test, such as it is, is best 
applied before and after heating the water to the boiling- 
point, and after thorough shaking in each case. 
Temperature.—A cool water should, if possible, be sup- 
plied for public use, but studies of temperature are exceed- 
ingly rare, for the sufficient reason that considerations of 
far greater weight determine the selection of a source of 
supply.* Should many temperature readings in deep water, 
as in a lake, be decided upon, no better device could be 
chosen for the work than the “ thermophone,” invented by 
Warren and Whipple. The following is clipped from a 
description issued by the present makers, E. S. Ritchie & 
Sons, Brookline, Mass.: 
“ The thermophone is an electrical thermometer of the 
resistance type. It is based upon the principle that the 
resistance of an electrical conductor changes with its tem- 
perature, and that the rate of change is different for different 
metals. 
“ The operation of taking a reading is as follows: Having 
connected the leading wires to the proper binding-posts of 
the indicator-box, the current is turned on and the telephone 
held to the ear. A buzzing sound in the telephone is found 
to increase or diminish according as the pointer is made to 
approach or recede from a certain section of the dial. By 
moving i*t back and forth a position may be found where the 
telephone is silent. When at this point, the hand indicates 
the temperature of the distant coil. Instruments of ordinary 
atmospheric range, i.e., from 150 to 1150 F., may easily 
be read to o. i° even by an inexperienced observer. With 
* The extreme variation of temperature for Croton water, as delivered by 
the street hydrants in New York City, for the year 1894 was : 
On February 24 * 340 F. 
On August 4 76° F. 358 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
a smaller range, or with an instrument having a larger dial, 
a greater precision may be obtained. 
“ It is more sensitive than a mercurial or other expansion 
thermometer, because the rate of change of resistance per 
degree is greater than the rate of expansion of liquids or 
solids, and, moreover, slight changes in resistance may be 
more easily and accurately measured than slight changes in 
length or volume. 
“ It sets quicker than most mercurial thermometers. In 
obtaining the temperature of water of various depths one 
minute has been found to be sufficient time to allow for 
setting. 
“ It is independent of pressure.” * 
The reaction of potable water is not often determined 
quantitatively. Should it be deemed necessary to measure 
it, the method in use at ’ Montsouris is as convenient as 
any other. The water is distinctly acidified with sulphuric 
acid, and then titrated with ammonia hydrate, using 
cochineal as an indicator.! 
* The deepest sounding found on the Challenger expedition was in lat. 
ii° 24' N., long. 143° 16' E. The depth was 4475 fathoms. 
Temperature of bottom-water 33-9° F. 
of surface- “ 8o° F. 
Most of the thermometers employed were crushed by the great pressure of 
five tons per square inch. 
f It must be remembered that in attempting to take the reaction with litmus 
paper of so dilute a solution as potable water one must be prepared to occa- 
sionally encounter what is known as "amphoteric action,” that is, a turning of 
blue paper red and red paper blue within limits that are at times quite wide. 
Such waters contain COa both free and combined, and the peculiar action re- 
ferred to is “ simply the result of competition for the base between the free 
carbonic acid and the red litmus, which is itself a weak acid having blue salts. 
When the red paper is placed in a solution containing carbonates and free car- 
bonic acid, it seizes a portion of the base until equilibrium is established. If 
the blue paper be placed in the solution, the free carbonic acid robs it of a part 
of the base, and liberates red litmus until the same condition of equilibrium is 
reached. (Seyler, Chcrn. News, lxx. 141.) CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
359 
Color.—Prof. A. R. Leeds has proposed the most con- 
venient method for stating the color of a water.* Observa- 
tions are made by the use of 50-c.c. “ Nessler ” jars, and 
unity of color is that caused by “ Nesslerizing ” 1 c.c. of 
the standard ammonium chloride solution, diluted to 50 c.c. 
with ammonia-free water, in exactly the same manner as in 
the determination of “ free ammonia.” (Page 389.) 
Turbid waters should be filtered before reading the color. 
As supplementary to what has been already said con- 
cerning the relation of the observed depth of color in a 
water to the amounts of iron and manganese contained 
therein, a number of determinations of iron in peat-forming 
materials, made by the Boston Water Board, are given 
below. The board finds that whereas iron enters largely 
as a cause of color in water from the stagnant layer of a 
deep pond, the color of a purely surface-water is mainly due 
to solution of organic material.f 
AMOUNT OF IRON IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS (DRIED AT 
ioo° C.). 
Leaflets of common brake .006$ 
Maple-leaves 042$ 
Elm-leaves 052$ 
Meadow grass, growing from tussock 006^ 
Meadow moss, fresh 038$ 
Meadow moss, one year or more old, and some 
grass 190^ 
Recent peat, from tussock 034^ 
Brown vegetable mould, from decayed stump.. 
Black peaty muck, from 2 to 3 feet 920^ 
*For cases of special investigation the Hazen “ platinum ” standard gives 
most excellent results, although somewhat more difficult to apply. (Am. Chem. 
J. xiv. 300.) 
f An excellent paper by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards on “ The Coloring Matter of 
Natural Waters” was lately read before the chemical section of the A. A. A. S. 
at its Springfield meeting, and is published in J. Am. Chem. Soc., January, 1896. 360 
IVA TER-S UPPL Y. 
Having accomplished the foregoing preliminary observa- 
tions, the examination proper comes now in order; but 
before going further a word should be said upon the vexed 
question of “ standards for interpretation of analytical re- 
sults.” 
A hard-and-fast “ standard ” is simply an impossibility, 
as indicated at the opening of this chapter. Results which 
would be considered satisfactory for one locality might 
be entirely inadmissible in another. Local standards are 
the proper ones by which to be guided, and it is to be re- 
gretted that local “ normals ” are not more frequently found 
on record. 
Mr. Reuben Haines offered the following figures repre- 
senting the averages of thirty-four different determinations 
of uncontaminated waters, and recommended them as stand- 
ards for pure waters in the neighborhood of Philadelphia: 
Parts per Million. 
Free ammonia 0.031 
Albuminoid ammonia 0.044 
Chlorine 11.9 
Nitrogen as nitrates 5-075 
Total solids 125.7 
For Massachusetts the information is more full, as is in- 
stanced by the fine chart of “ normal chlorine ” prepared by 
the State Board of Health. 
Following the description of each analytical process to 
be given hereafter there will be placed a paragraph headed 
“ Standards,” but the expression must not be permitted 
to mislead. The author’s intention is simply to place before 
the reader the opinions of various authorities, and he abso- 
lutely disclaims any desire to set boundaries to the free use 
of the analyst’s good judgment. The term “ standards ” is 
doubtless a poor selection, but, with the above explanation, 
it will serve in place of a more lengthy expression. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
361 
TOTAL SOLIDS. 
Source.—Material dissolved or suspended in water is nat- 
urally derived from the strata through which the water 
passes, or the surface over which it flows. Thus are ob- 
tained waters of all degrees of hardness (see “ Hardness ”) 
and of great variety of color and turbidity. 
Determination.—Thoroughly shake the vessel containing 
the sample and then measure out 100 c.c. of the unfiltered 
water by means of a pipette into a weighed platinum dish. 
Evaporate to dryness on the water-bath, being careful 
to place a filter-paper between the dish and the water in 
the bath in order to prevent any deposit of impurities on 
the under side of the dish. (A better plan is to make use 
of a porcelain water-bath filled with distilled water.) When 
dry, place the dish and contents in an air-bath and maintain 
the temperature at 105° C. for half an hour.* Cool in a 
desiccator and weigh. Replace in the air-bath and repeat 
the weighing at intervals of half an hour until a constant 
weight be obtained. The final weight, less the known weight 
of the dish, will give the amount of total solids. This weight 
multiplied by ten will give the weight of solids per litre of 
water, which, expressed in milligrammes, will represent p&rts 
per million. 
It was formerly the custom to ignite this residue, moisten 
with carbonic acid water, and again ignite and weigh. The 
loss in weight was reported as organic matter. 
* Dr. Albert Levy, of the Montsouris laboratory, Paris, dries this residue at 
180° C. for twelve hours before weighing. He gives the following illustration 
of how differently various waters act when dried at 1250 C. and 180° C.: 
125°. i8o°. 
Vanne 231 231 
Ourcq 483 445 
Marne 328 2§9 
Drain St. Maur 300 2qo 362 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Concerning such treatment Tidy remarks: “ It presup- 
poses three things: (a) that no organic matter is lost and 
none is gained during the evaporation of the water; (b) that 
all the organic matter is burned off by the ignition of a resi- 
due; (c) that nothing but organic matter is lost by ignition; 
but in all these points the process fails.” 
It is unnecessary to further detail the fallacies of this 
exploded method, but it is important to note that while no 
quantitative results are to be expected from the ignition in 
question, yet considerable insight may often be obtained as to 
the character of the water by observing the intensity of the 
charring and the presence or absence of fumes. 
Dr. Angus Smith goes so far as to say: “ It is remark- 
able what a clear insight is given into the quality of 
by simply burning the residue. We can, by the eye and 
smell, detect humus or peaty acids, nitrogenous organic 
substances (smell of burnt feathers), and nitrates, and esti- 
mate their amount to a very useful point of accuracy.” 
Dr. Smart says: “ The blackening during the process is 
of more interest than the mere loss of weight. No matter 
how few parts are lost, if the lining of the capsule blackens 
all over and the carbon is afterward dissipated with diffi- 
culty, the water is to be viewed as suspicious. What are 
called ‘ peaty ’ waters here constitute the exception.” * 
Dr. Smart conducts the ignition “ at a gentle heat, grad- 
ually attained,” a rule to be followed in all cases. Angus 
Smith pointed out that “ in waters containing nitrates and 
nitrites no organic matter would be apparent on burning 
unless more should be present than these salts could oxidize ” 
—a fact always to be borne in mind. 
Analysts commonly weigh the dish and contents after 
heating to redness, and report the “ loss on ignition.” 
* Report Nat. Board of Health, 1880. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OE WATER. 
363 
NOTE.—So much difficulty is often experienced in weigh- 
ing the “ total residue ” when the water contains hygroscopic 
salts, owing to the rapid absorption of moisture, that the 
author has of late substituted a large glass “ weighing-bottle ” 
for the platinum dish in this determination. The bottle is 
constructed with a small stopcock in place of a handle on its 
cover, in order to permit introduction of air, and consequent 
easy removal of the cover after the weighing is completed. 
The vessel is used in the same manner as the platinum dish, 
but, being covered upon withdrawal from the air-bath, the 
weighing may be done at leisure. Another 100 c.c. of the 
water is quickly evaporated in platinum, and ignited, in 
order to observe the blackening of the residue, if there be 
any. 
Standards.—As to the quantity of total solids that un- 
polluted water should contain, it would be well to note the 
following: 
Rivers Pollution Commission of Great Britain gives as 
averages out of 589 samples analyzed for total solids: 
Rain 29.5 
Upland surface 96.7 
Deep well 432.8 
Spring 282.0 
Dr. Smart (Nat. Board of Health, 1880): 
Safe limit 300 
To be condemned 1000 
A. R. Leeds (Water Depart. Wilmington, 1883): 
Standard for American rivers 150 to 200 
Wanklyn regards as permissible...,. 575 364 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
Note.—It is indeed rare for water to be considered too 
pure, but in a recent paper on the Loch Katrine water, 
which supplies the city of Glasgow, it was proposed to effect 
the silicizing of the water by bringing it in contact with red 
sandstone, thereby neutralizing its action on lead pipe, and 
checking any action it may have in producing infantile de- 
formity, which many people, rightly or wrongly, ascribe to 
the use of this water.* 
* J. Soc. Chem. Ind. v. 649. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
365 
HARDNESS. 
Before entering into the question of quantitative esti- 
mation, let it be premised here that “ hardness ” may be 
classified under two heads, viz., “Permanent” and “Tem- 
porary.” The former is occasioned by the presence of cal- 
cium sulphate, and other soluble salts of calcium and mag- 
nesium, not carbonates, held in solution by the solvent action 
of the water itself; such a water cannot be materially softened 
by boiling under ordinary pressure. 
“Temporary” hardness is caused by carbonates of cal- 
cium and magnesium held in solution by carbonic acid present 
in the water. Boiling such a water expels the carbonic acid, 
whereupon the salts separate from solution.* 
Many samples of water possess both “ permanent ” and 
“temporary” hardness, and the analyst is at times called 
upon to report each separately; but more commonly the 
total hardness covers all that is required. 
Ordinary hard soap is somewhat complex in structure, 
but for practical purposes we may consider it to consist of 
sodium stearate, NaC,8H3502. This salt, coming in contact 
with the calcium carbonate or sulphate contained in a hard 
water, is immediately decomposed, with formation of in- 
soluble calcium stearate according to the following equations: 
CaCO, + 2NaC„H„0, = Ca(C,.H„0,), + Na,CO, 
or 
CaSO. + 2NaC„H„0, = Ca(C„H„0,), + Na,SO, 
* With some it is considered that the calcium is present as a soluble bicar- 
bonate which breaks up upon boiling into carbonic acid gas and insoluble normal 
carbonate; but, as A. H. Allen says, it is not necessary to assume the existence 
of calcium bicarbonate (which compound has never been isolated) in order to 
account for the solubility of calcium carbonate. One water which he exam- 
ined evolved very small quantities of carbon dioxide on boiling, and yet the 
precipitated calcium carbonate was large in amount. He considers it “ proba- 
ble that calcium carbonate is capable of existing in a soluble colloid condition, 366 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Of course none of the soap can be depended upon for 
detergent purposes until all the calcium salts present have 
been thus provided for; hence the enormous waste resulting 
from the use of some waters may readily be imagined.* 
In undertaking the estimation of hardness advantage is 
taken of the reaction above stated. A solution of soap of 
known strength is prepared, and is then poured into a given 
quantity of the water to be examined, until a permanent 
lather is formed, whereupon, from the known quantity of 
soap used, the amount of “ hardening” salts present may be 
calculated. 
This soap test, commonly known as Clark’s, is not accu- 
rate, and is in some respects unscientific; but it is not with- 
out value, especially in a locality such as Troy, N. Y., where 
the enormous laundries use soap by the ton. 
Soap Solution.—From a new cake of Castile (Syria) soap 
scrape ten grammes of shavings. Dissolve them in one litre 
of dilute alcohol (£ water). If not clear, filter, and keep 
tightly stoppered.f 
changing, on boiling the liquid, to the ordinary insoluble modification.” {J. 
Soc. Chem. Inch Vll. 801.) 
* “ While no exact rule can be given for estimating the increased expense 
to a community caused by the use of hard water, in general it may be said 
{Eng. News, January 31. 1885) that each grain of carbonate of lime per gallon 
of water causes an increased expenditure of 2 ounces of soap per 100 gallons of 
water. The Southampton water contains about 18 grains of lime and mag- 
nesian salts per gallon. With such hard water it is probable that the increased 
expense for soap in a household of five persons would amount to at least $5 to 
$10 yearly; hence the inhabitants could afford to pay a higher water-rate by the 
amount of this difference for a soft-water supply.” {Engineering News, April 
16, 1892.) 
JThe above solution the author has always found satisfactory. Courtonne 
recommends the following, which he claims does not alter with lapse of time: 
Olive-oil 28 grammes 
Sodium hydrate solution of 36° B 10 c.c. 
Alcohol of 90# to 95$ 10 c.c. 
Saponify on the Water-bath. Agitate with 800 to 900 c.c. of alcohol of 60# 
to dissolve the soap. Filter into a litre flask, cool, and fill to the mark with 60# 
alcohol. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
367 
Standardizing the Soap Solution. — Carefully weigh out 
one gramme of pure CaCOs. Dissolve in a little HC1. 
Neutralize with a slight excess of NH4OH and dilute to one 
litre. Each cubic centimetre of this solution will contain 
an amount of calcium salt equivalent to one milligramme of 
CaCO,. 
Place 10 c.c. of this solution in an eight-ounce glass- 
stoppered bottle, make the volume up to 100 c.c. with pure 
water, and run in the prepared soap solution from a burette, 
little by little (shaking after each addition), until a lather be 
formed which persists for five minutes. Even when the 
amount of soap solution required is approximately known, 
never add more than half a cubic centimetre at once, and 
never fail to shake after such addition.* 
Note the amount of soap solution used. Now repeat the 
experiment, using 100 c.c. of pure water only (no calcium 
salt solution), and again note the amount of soap solution 
required. This second reading will give the amount of 
soap solution (no inconsiderable quantity) used up by the 
100 c.c. pure water, and by subtracting the same from the 
reading obtained in the first instance knowledge will be 
reached of the quantity of soap required for the calcium salt 
alone. Estimate now the value of 1 c.c. soap solution in 
terms of calcium carbonate and record the result on the 
bottle. Perhaps an example would be in keeping: 
8.2 c.c. soap solution are required for io c.c. CaC03 solution 
-f- 90 c.c. water. 
0.6 c.c. soap solution are required for 100 c.c. water. 
Hence 
7.6 c.c. soap solution are required for 10 m.g. CaCO, only. 
Hence 
i c.c. soap solution corresponds to 1.316 m.g. CaCO,. 
*See Chetn. News, August, t886. 368 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
Always place the date of standardizing on the bottle,, 
and re-standardize frequently, as the soap solution is not 
premanent. 
Determination.—Place 100 c.c. of the water in the eight- 
ounce bottle, run in the standard soap solution in the manner 
already stated, read off the amount required, multiply by 
the known value for 1 c.c. soap solution, multiply this again 
by ten, and there will be obtained the hardness expressed 
in so many parts of CaC03 per million of water. 
It was formerly customary to report hardness in “ de- 
grees ” rather than parts per million, but the difficulty of 
deciding which of the several systems of degrees was referred 
to provoked so much confusion that a change was made to 
the present simpler mode of expression.* 
Should a report of both temporary and permanent hard- 
ness be called for, the soap test must be made both before 
and after boiling. 
If the hardness due to salts of magnesia be required 
separately, shake the water up with a little solid ammonium 
oxalate, filter off the precipitated calcium oxalate on a dry 
filter, and determine the hardness in the filtrate. 
When a water is so hard as to require a greater amount 
of soap solution for the ioo c.c. of the water than suffices to 
saponify 23 m.g. CaCOs, better results are obtained by 
diluting with an equal bulk (or more, if necessary) of pure 
water, inasmuch as too heavy a precipitate of the calcium 
stearate appears to interfere with the proper lathering. Of 
course the influence of the additional quantity of water must 
be allowed for. 
* In England the Clark scale is in use. Each degree corresponds to one 
grain of CaC03 per imperial gallon of water, i.e., one part in seventy thousand. 
Below 6 degrees is considered soft. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
369 
For constant results the hardness of a water should be 
taken at a temperature of 150 C.* 
Standards. — The average hardness of good waters as 
given by the British Rivers Pollution Commission stands: 
Rain 3 
Upland surface 54 
Deep well 25a 
Spring 185 
Wanklyn allows 575 
Leeds’s standard for American rivers, 50 for soft, 150 for hard 
*J. Chem. Soc. LXiv. II. 347. 370 
IVA TER-S UP PL Y. 
CHLORINE. 
Water is rarely found free from chlorine, yet, notwith- 
standing its almost constant presence, there is hardly a fac- 
tor in the sum total of water-analysis towards which attention 
is more quickly turned, or regarding which there is closer 
scrutiny. 
Excepting in unimportant instances, chlorine is always 
present in the form of common salt, washed from the air or 
soil, or added as one of the constituents of sewage. Salt itself 
is, of course, unobjectionable in the quantity usually present, 
but being, as it is, so largely used in our food, there is always 
warrant for suspecting sewage contamination where the 
figures for chlorine run high. 
True it is that those figures are at times misleading, but 
they, like other data in water-analysis, must be considered 
with judgment, and due weight be accorded the character of 
local surroundings. 
If the district whence the water comes be naturally rich 
in salt, as, for instance, the deep-seated waters of Central 
New York, such fact must be borne in mind when formu- 
lating an opinion as to qualtity. Comparison should be 
made with a local water, of the same general character, known 
to be pure; and for that purpose State maps, such as that 
given herewith for the State of Massachusetts, would be 
most valuable, and their construction would be well worth 
the expenditure of public money. 
The influence of the sea upon the “ normal chlorine ” of 
Massachusetts is made very apparent by the chart. Such 
influence is naturally very marked in an insular country like 
England. 
“ The amount of chlorides in the rain is nearly always 
greater in the winter months than in the summer months. 
An abnormal amount of chlorides can generally be traced CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
371 
to storms from the southwest of England bringing salt spray 
from the Bristol Channel, about thirty-five miles distant. 
Crystals of common salt have been found after such storms 
on the windows of the college facing west. On one occa- 
sion, in September, 1867, Professor Church found chlorine 
equivalent to 6.71 grains of common salt per gallon (69.7 
parts per million of chlorine) in storm-water.” * 
Prof. Kinch reports the average amount of chlorine in 
the rain-water collected at Cirencester, England, during a 
period of twelve years to be 3.36 parts per million. 
This variation in the chlorine-contents of rain-water may 
also occur inland, although not to the same degree. Thus 
the mixed monthly rain and melted snow at Troy, N. Y., 
contains the varying amounts of chlorine already given on 
page 206. 
While not strictly city rain-waters, the Troy samples were 
doubtless somewhat affected by the neighborhood of the 
city. Ground-water is more directly influenced than rain- 
water by the presence of human habitation. Thus the Mas- 
sachusetts Board of Health (1890 [1], 680) finds that twenty 
persons per square mile will add, on the average, 0.1 part per 
million of chlorine to the water flowing from such district. 
The determination of chlorine in water is extremely 
simple. It depends upon the fact that, if to a solution of 
a chloride, which has been colored yellow by addition of a 
little potassic chromate, a solution of silver nitrate be added, 
white silver chloride will be produced until the last trace of 
chlorine be disposed of, whereupon red silver chromate will 
begin to appear. 
The reagents required are: 
Standard Silver Solution.—Prepared by dissolving 4.8022 
grammes of crystallized silver nitrate in one litre of water. 
* Chem. News, December io, 1886. 372 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
Each cubic centimetre of such a solution is of a strength 
sufficient to precipitate one milligramme of chlorine. A 
sample of this reagent a year old gave exactly the same 
results as when freshly prepared. In common with all other 
reagents for water-analysis, it should be kept in bottles 
having caps covering the stoppers, such as are used for vol- 
atile liquids. 
Potassium Chromate, Indicator.—Dissolve 2 grammes of 
the pure salt in ioo c.c. of distilled water. 
Saturated Sodium Carbonate Solution. — Dissolve 50 
grammes of the pure salt in 300 c.c. of distilled water. 
Determination.—One hundred c.c. of the water to be 
examined are placed in a porcelain dish; 1 c.c. of the potassic 
chromate solution is added, which will give a distinct yellow 
color, and then the standard silver solution is run in from a 
burette, until the red tint of the silver chromate just appears. 
From the known amount of silver solution used the amount 
of chlorine present is obtained, and this, multiplied by ten, 
will give the chlorine in milligrammes per litre or parts per 
million. 
For the sake of accuracy it is better, during the titration, 
to have a second dish of water, also colored with potassic 
chromate, in order that the formation of the red tint in the 
dish operated upon may, by contrast, be more readily de- 
tected. 
For determination of chlorine in any single sample of 
potable water likely to be encountered the above process is 
abundantly accurate, but should the work be of a compar- 
ative character, such as the watching of possible changes in 
the same water on different dates, or noting the variation in 
composition due to the flow of a river, it would be better 
to operate upon a larger quantity of water. 
For such purpose it is best to place one litre of the water 
in a large porcelain casserole, add 0.1 c.c. of the sodium CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF IVA TEE. 
373 
carbonate solution to avoid the possible loss of chlorine during 
evaporation, evaporate to 100 c.c., and titrate as above. 
Many waters give such deep color upon concentration, 
however, as to interfere with proper titration; under such 
circumstances it would be best to shake the water with 
recently precipitated aluminum hydrate and filter before 
measuring out the litre for evaporation. The coloring matter 
is thus removed. 
The material loss of chlorine that may occur should the 
evaporation be conducted without the addition of sodium 
carbonate is illustrated by the following experiment: 
To each of two litres of water 3.35 milligrammes of chlo- 
rine were added, in the form of common salt. To one of 
them was likewise added o. 1 c.c. sodium carbonate solution. 
Upon evaporating each to 100 c.c. and titrating they gave 
the following results: 
Water with carbonate added 3.35 m.g. of Cl 
Water with no carbonate added.... 3.25 “ “ 
The porcelain of the dish does not interfere with this de- 
termination, but it is very important to carefully scrub and 
wash down its sides after evaporation. It is also important 
to always evaporate to the same volume (i.e., 100 c.c.), for, 
as Hazen has shown, “ the volume of liquid in which the 
chlorine is determined has an effect on the amount of silver 
solution used in the titration.” It makes no difference at 
what rate the silver solution is added during titration. 
With waters high in chlorine it is often very difficult to 
decide just when the red color begins to appear, for the 
reason that it is hard to compare the clear yellow liquid of 
the comparison-dish with one which has become turbid from 
precipitation of silver chloride. 
Following a suggestion of my assistant, Mr. V. II. Grid- 
ley, it is now my practice to roughly determine the chlorine 374 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
present, and then to make a second determination, using for 
comparison 100 c.c. of distilled water to which has been 
added not only the chromate indicator, but also an appro- 
priate amount of standard sodium chloride solution, and an 
amount of silver nitrate solution just short of that necessary 
to satisfy the chlorine present. Of course if the chlorine 
ran so high as to render concentration unnecessary, then 
100 c.c. of the water itself, with the indicator and the partial 
dose of silver nitrate, would be the proper contents of the 
comparison-dish. 
By these means the eye is greatly aided in noting the 
slightest appearance of red tint, for in respect of turbidity 
both dishes are alike. If analysis of sewage be contem- 
plated, it would be better to abandon volumetric methods 
entirely, and weigh the silver chloride precipitate directly. 
Standards. — The Rivers Pollution Commission reports 
the average amount of chlorine in 589 samples of unpolluted 
water as follows: 
Rain 8.22 
Upland surface 11.3 
Deep well 51.1 
Spring 24.9 
Wanklyn considers 140 as possibly suspicious. 
Frankland considers the permissible limit as 50. 
Leeds’s standard for American rivers, 3 to 10. 
Ordinary sewage, about no to 160. 
Human urine (average of 24 samples), 5872. STATE BOARD OF HEALTH 
MAP OF THE 
STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
SHOWING 
NORMAL CHLORINE. 
EXPLANATION. 
The Amount of Chlorine is expressed in parts per 100,000. 
The Red Lines represent Norma! Chlorine. 
The Red Figures show Observed Chlorines which 
are Normal orn early so. 
The figures Underlined represent Chlorines of Ground Waters. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
375 
NITROGEN AS NITRITES. 
Frankland writes: “ When fresh sewage is added to water 
already containing nitrates, the latter are generally reduced 
to nitrites,” and it may be there are none to disagree with 
him; but when he adds that “ when nitrites occur in shallow 
wells or river-waters, it is highly probable that these waters 
have been very recently contaminated with sewage,” there- 
upon Wanklyn declares that “ nitrates and nitrites have been 
erroneously regarded as measuring the defilement of water.” 
Finally, in the report of the National Board of Health for 
1882 Mallet concludes: “ With the facts of this investigation 
before me I am inclined to attach special and very great 
importance to the careful determination of the nitrites and 
nitrates in water to be used for drinking.” 
This statement of Prof. Mallet so entirely accords with 
the uniform experience of the writer as to force him to 
regard it as conclusive. It is based on most carefully con- 
ceived and executed experiments which “ point strongly to 
the production of nitrites by oxidation of organic nitrogen, 
and their subsequent conversion into nitrates by further 
process of oxidation.” 
Whether, therefore, the presence of nitrites be considered 
due to reduction of pre-existing nitrates in presence of organic 
matter, or caused by direct oxidation of organic nitrogen, it 
becomes a necessity to estimate their quantity, for in either 
case the initial cause is probably contamination. 
Of the several methods used of late for the determination 
of nitrites the second one suggested by Griess seems to be 
the most deserving of favor. It depends in principle upon 
the red coloration (‘ ‘ azobenzolnaphthylamine sulphonic acid ’ ’) 
produced whenever “ sulphanilic acid ” and “ naphthylamine 
hydrochloride ” are added to an acidified solution of nitrite. 376 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
The test is exceedingly delicate and is capable of distin- 
guishing one part of nitrogen as nitrous acid in one thousand 
million parts of water. 
The reagents are prepared as follows: 
Sulphanilic Acid.—Dissolve 1 gramme of the salt in 100 
c.c. hot water. The solution keeps well. 
Naphthylaniine Hydrochloride.—Boil 4 gramme of the salt 
with 100 c.c. water for ten minutes, keeping volume con- 
stant. Place in glass-stoppered bottle and add a little pul- 
verized carbon to decolorize the solution. It tends to grow 
slightly pink on standing, but not sufficiently so to interfere 
with its use. P'ilter from carbon when required for use. 
Standard Solution of Sodium Nitrite. — Sodium nitrite 
may be bought, but its purity is always to be questioned, 
and moreover it is too deliquescent a salt to be weighed 
with ease and accuracy. It is better, therefore, to prepare 
the silver salt, which may be readily handled, and from it 
the solution required may be made. 
To a cold solution of commercial sodium or potassium 
nitrite add a solution of silver nitrate as long as a precipitate 
appears. Decant the liquid and thoroughly wash the pre- 
cipitate twice with cold water. Dissolve in boiling water. 
Concentrate and crystallize the silver nitrite from the hot 
solution. Dry in the dark at the ordinary temperature (using 
vacuum is better) and keep for use. 
Weigh out .22 gramme of the dry silver nitrite. Dis- 
solve in hot water. Decompose with slight excess of sodium 
chloride, cool if necessary, and dilute to one litre. Allow 
the precipitated silver chloride to settle, remove 5 c.c. of 
the clear solution, and dilute the same to one litre. This 
second dilution (which is the standard solution to be used) 
will contain an amount of nitrite per cubic centimetre equiv- 
alent to .0001 milligramme of nitrogen.* 
* The standard solution here advocated is much weaker than the one rec CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
377 
Determination.—In order to undertake the determination 
of nitrites place 100 c.c. of the water to be examined in a 
41 Nessler ” jar. Acidify with one* drop concentrated HC1. 
Add 1 c.c. of the sulphanilic acid solution, followed by 1 c.c. 
of the solution of hydrochloride of naphthylamine, mix,f cover 
with watch-glass, and set aside for thirty minutes. Prepare 
at the same time other “ Nessler ” jars containing known 
amounts of the standard solution of sodic nitrite and diluted 
to the 100 c.c. mark with pure distilled water (see page 387), 
adding the reagents as above. At the end of the time stated 
(thirty minutes) examine the depth of the pink color formed, 
and by comparing the unknown with the known an accurate 
determination of the amount of nitrogen present as nitrites 
may be made. 
Standards.—In a report upon the presence of nitrites in 
eighteeen “ natural waters, believed from actual use to be 
of good, wholesome character,” and collected from every 
variety of source, Mallet’s determinations show an average 
of .0135 part nitrogen as nitrites per million parts of water. 
The average, by the same investigator, for nineteen waters 
“ which there seems to be fair ground for believing have 
actually caused disease ” is .0403 part per million. 
In this connection, however, it would be well to bear in 
mind Frankland’s statement that “ the presence of these 
salts in spring and deep-well water is absolutely without 
significance; for although they are in these cases generated 
by the deoxidation of nitrates, this deoxidation is brought 
om mended by the committee of the A. A. A. S , the latter being undoubtedly 
too strong for convenient use. The committee’s solution contained .01 m.g. 
nitrogen as nitrite per cubic centimetre. 
* Addition of too much acid might cause nitrates to react as well. {Analyst, 
XII. 51.) 
f To accomplish this mixing it is best to use a stout glass rod ten inches 
long, at one end of which is fused a cross, composed of two pieces of glass rod 
3 inch in length. The mixer is used as a plunger. 378 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
about either by the action of reducing mineral substances, 
such as ferrous oxide, or by that of organic matter which has 
either been imbedded for ages, or, if dissolved in the water, 
has been subjected to exhaustive filtration.” This is merely 
another instance of how careful the analyst should be to 
become familiar with the source of the water before under- 
taking to pass judgment upon its quality. 
Nitrites should always be looked upon with suspicion if 
found in ground- or surface-waters. 
The absence of nitrites, moreover, proves nothing. I 
have recently had a most foul cistern-water for analysis 
which showed but a trace of nitrites and no nitrates, and 
yet the water was contaminated with the entire house drain- 
age, and produced most serious illness. 
Leeds’s standard for American rivers, 0.003 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WA TEE. 
379 
NITROGEN AS NITRATES. 
Taking Mallet’s statement as final, that there is every 
reason for assuming that nitrates present in water may be but 
the further step in the oxidation of nitrogenous organic 
matter, it necessarily becomes important to obtain an estimate 
of this constituent, which, in P'rankland’s opinion, is a factor 
in the measurement of “ previous sewage contamination.” 
The value of such determination may be further accen- 
tuated upon noting that Dr. Bartley, president of ‘the 
American Society of Public Analysts, found, to his sur- 
prise, that well-water contaminated with drainage from cow- 
stables had, in several instances, shown little or no free nor 
albuminoid ammonia (Wanklyn’s measures of Contamination), 
although large amounts of nitrites and nitrates were detected. 
Nitrates are more liable to indicate putrefaction of animal 
rather than of vegetable tissue, not only because of the 
greater quantity of nitrogen present in the former, but also 
on account of its more ready decomposition. 
Stoddart claims that “ natural waters can, at most, obtain 
but from to T2T grain of nitrogen as nitrates per imperial 
gallon (1.43 to 2.86 per million) from sources other than 
animal matter; and practically the whole of the nitrogen 
of sewage may be oxidized into nitric acid without diminish- 
ing the risk involved in drinking it.” 
“ The proposal to consider a water safe so soon as the ni- 
trogen has assumed the oxidized condition, irrespective of 
the quantity that may be present, is entirely irrational.”* 
Rain-water washes a very considerable amount of nitric 
nitrogen from the atmosphere; thus an official report gives 
the following amounts of nitrogen as nitrates in sundry rain- 
waters, showing at the same time the tendency of neighbor- 
ing towns to increase this item: 
* Analyst, xvm. 293 380 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
England, interior 19 
“ cities 22 
Scotland, near the coast 11 
“ interior 08 
“ cities 30 
“ Glasgow 63 
Montsouris, Paris, average of 18 years 73 
Nitrogen in the soil is increased by the fixing of atmos- 
pheric nitrogen through the agency of the roots of certain 
plants, such as peas, the process being aided by bacterial 
action.* 
Such fixed nitrogen eventually enters the ground-water, 
and a knowledge of the local “ normal ” for nitric nitrogen is 
consequently of advantage when studying the domestic well- 
waters of a neighborhood.! 
After having tried many ways for the determination of 
“ nitrates ” in potable water the writer has adopted a modi- 
fication of the old “ picric acid method,” as giving, on the 
whole, the greatest satisfaction. 
Phenol-sulphonic acid is made by the action of phenol 
on sulphuric acid: 
CbH5OH + HaS04 = C,H4(OH)SO,H + HaO. 
This reagent, reacting with nitric acid, forms tri-nitro-phenol, 
C.H.(OH)SOiH+3HNO, = C,H,(OH)(NO,),+ h,so.+2H,o, 
which forms yellow ammonium picrate when acted upon 
by ammonium hydrate: \ 
*An interesting experiment to show this was recently made in France. 
Peas were grown in a closed space, and the nitrogen lost by the confined air 
was found equal to what was gained by the ground and plants. No such fixa- 
tion of nitrogen could be obtained if the soil were previously sterilized. 
f Surface- and ground-waters of good quality are low in nitrates, for the 
reason that such material is quickly absorbed by growing vegetation, 
f See Analyst, x. 200. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
C.H,(OH)(NO,), + NH.OH = C.H,ONH.(NO,), + H.O. 
The intensity of this yellow color, produced in the water 
under examination, is compared with standard colors of known 
strength, and the quantity of nitrate present thus determined. 
The interference of chlorides with this process, resulting 
in readings decidedly lower than the truth, is well known, 
but the method is so easy and convenient that it occurred 
to the writer to try the addition of sodium chloride to the 
comparison standards rather than abandon the process. 
The “ chlorine ” in the water under examination having 
been previously determined, an appropriate volume of stand- 
ardized sodium chloride solution is added to each evapora- 
tion of standard potassium nitrate solution. Thus the water 
to be examined, and the nitrate solutions with which it is 
compared, all contain the same quantity of chlorine. The 
results are very satisfactory. 
The solutions required are: 
Phenol-sulphonic Acid. 
Sulphuric acid, pure and concentrated... 148 c.c. 
Distilled water 12 c.c. 
Pure phenol 24 grammes 
Standard Potassium Nitrate Solution.—Dissolve .7221 
gramme pure KNO, in 1 litre distilled water. Dilute 100 
c.c. of this solution to 1 litre with distilled water. This 
weaker solution, which is the standard employed, contains 
.01 milligramme of nitrogen as nitrate in each cubic cen- 
timetre. 
Standard Sodium Chloride Solution.—Dissolve 1.6497 
grammes pure NaCl (made from metallic sodium) in 1 litre 
distilled water. Each cubic centimetre will contain 1 milli- 
gramme of chlorine. 382 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
Determination.—Evaporate 100 c.c. (or less, according to 
nitrate-contents) of the water to dryness ori the water-bath, 
having previously added y c.c. sodium carbonate solution 
(see page 372) to prevent loss from volatilization of nitric 
acid. Thoroughly moisten the residue with 2 c.c. of the sul- 
phonic acid. Add an excess (about 15 c.c.) of ammonium 
hydrate. Make up to 100 c.c. in a “ Nessler ” jar, and com- 
pare the depth of color with those produced by operating 
upon different amounts of the standard nitrate solution, 
which have been evaporated and treated under precisely 
similar conditions. 
To each selected volume of standard nitrate solution 
there should be added before evaporation Ta¥ c.c. sodium 
carbonate solution and an amount of standard sodium chlo- 
ride solution sufficient to correspond with the amount of 
chlorine previously found to exist in the water. 
These evaporations, both of the water and the compar- 
ison standards, are best made in deep evaporating-dishes 
of glass 3f inches in diameter, and easily holding 100 c.c. 
After dryness is reached the dish, with its contents, 
should be at once removed from the water-bath. 
It is of the greatest importance that the conditions gov- 
erning the operations to which the water is subjected should 
be strictly followed in preparing the comparison solutions. 
Standards. — Referring again to Mallet’s report before 
quoted,* we find a very marked difference between the 
average amount of nitrates present in good, as compared 
with the quantity found in bad, waters. 
In thirteen samples of water “ known to be pure ” the 
nitrogen present as nitrates averaged 0.42 (the extreme 
limits being none and 1.04), while in twenty samples of 
water believed to be objectionable the average figures ran 
* Report National Board of Health, 1882. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
383 
as high as 7.239 (the extreme limits being none and 28.403). 
Such a difference justifies Mallet’s statement that he regards 
the determination of nitrates as of great importance. 
Elkin: dangerously polluted if in excess of.... 6.00 
Vienna Commission allows 1.04 
Hanover “ “ 2.60 
Brandes “ “ 7.00 
Fischer (Jour, fiir Prakt. Chem.) 7.00 
Leeds’s standard for American rivers. . . 1.11 to 3.89 
The Rivers Pollution Commission gives the following 
averages from 589 unpolluted waters for nitrogen as nitrites 
and nitrates together : 
Rain 0.03 
Upland surface 0.09 
Deep well 4.95 
Spring 3.83 
As illustrating how widely the nitrates may vary in deep 
wells of good character the following list is taken from the 
Analyst, xx. 84: 
Depth of Well N as Nitrate, 
in Feet. 
200. Stratford 0.00 per million 
200. Wimbleton 0.43 “ “ 
490. Chatham 6.85 “ “ 
900. Southend 0.71 “ “ 
600. Witham 6.43 “ “ 
160. Mistley 0.71 “ “ 
430. Braintree 0.28 “ “ 
305. Colchester 0.00 “ “ 
400. Norwich 11.43 “ “ 
Fresh sewage is often found entirely free of either nitrites 
or nitrates simply because the organic nitrogen present has, 384 
WA TER-SU PPL V. 
as yet, not had sufficient opportunity to become oxidized 
thereto.* 
*The sewage of Troy, N. Y., contains (sample of December, 1895): 
Parts per Million. 
Free ammonia .875 
Albuminoid ammonia 675 
Nitrogen as nitrates none 
Nitrogen as nitrites trace 
Chlorine 31 
“ Required oxygen ” 89 
Total residue 489 
Loss on ignition 315 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
ORGANIC MATTER. 
A revolution has been worked during recent years in the- 
determination of organic matter in potable water. Methods, 
have arisen and disappeared. Authors of the highest rank 
have combated each other in print, with a success in estab- 
lishing their views that has not always been commensurate 
with their positiveness in stating them. 
It was in an effort to throw a little unprejudiced light upon 
the several processes of rival writers that Mallet undertook 
the investigation from the report of which we here so often 
quote—an investigation that required a period of years for 
its accomplishment, and which marks an era in the history 
of water-analysis. As therein referred to there are three 
methods of estimating organic pollution worthy of special 
mention, viz.: (a) the combustion process of Frankland; (b) 
the albuminoid ammonia process of Wanklyn; (c) the 
‘ Forschammer ” process as modified by subsequent inves- 
tigators. 
Concerning the first, which is a direct combustion of a 
water residue, after the manner of an ultimate organic an- 
alysis, we note the following in the Analyst for September, 
1885: “ It is subject to many causes of error, and is of so 
extremely delicate a nature as to be almost abandoned at 
the present time.” In his report to the Philadelphia Water 
Board for 1884 Dr. Leeds, referring to this method, says: 
“ The determinations were discontinued, because the amount 
of information which they afforded did not appear commen- 
surate with the great labor which they involved.” 
This remark of Dr. Leeds is almost identical with state- 
ments made to the author by Albert-Levy and other French 
authorities. 
Speaking of the method, Mallet says: “ It cannot be 
taken up offhand and even tolerable results obtained at once.. 386 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
From the hands of a person without proper laboratory train- 
ing its results are utterly valueless. It is hence better 
adapted to regular use in a large public laboratory than to 
occasional use by a private individual in now and then ex- 
amining a single water.” 
In short, P'rankland’s combustion method is difficult, 
liable to error in unpractised hands, and its results are not 
indispensable for forming a correct opinion of the sanitary 
value of a water. 
A far more general method for obtaining information as 
to organic impurity is Wanklyn’s 
Albuminoid Ammonia Process.—By the employment of 
this method a knowledge of the amount of “ free ammonia ” 
present is also obtained. 
We may outline the process as follows: The “ free am- 
monia ” is distilled from a measured quantity of the water, 
and its amount is determined by what is known as “ Ness- 
ler’s ” method, which will be described later. A strongly 
alkaline solution of potassic permanganate is then added to 
another portion of the water and the distillation is repeated. 
Nitrogenous organic matters are thereby broken up and the 
resulting ammonia (“ albuminoid ”), which distils over with 
the steam, is determined by the “ Nessler” method, in like 
manner as before. It must be noted that the so-called 
“ albuminoid ” ammonia does not exist ready formed in the 
water, but is a product of the decomposition of organic nitrog- 
enous substances by the alkaline permanganate. The term 
is derived from the fact that “ albumen ” gives off ammonia, 
in like manner, when similarly treated. 
The reagents necessary are: 
‘ ‘ Nessler s Solution.—Dissolve 16 grammes mercuric 
chloride (HgCl2) in about half a litre of pure water. Dis- 
solve 35 grammes potassic iodide (KI) in about 200 c.c. pure 
water. Pour the first solution into the second, until a faint CHEMICAL EXAMINA TION OF WA TER. 
387 
show of excess is indicated. Add 160 grammes solid potas- 
sium hydrate (KOH). Dilute to one litre, and finally add 
strong solution of mercuric chloride, little by little, until 
the red mercuric iodide just begins to be permanent. Do 
not filter from excess of mercuric iodide, but let the same 
settle to the bottom of the vessel. The finished reagent 
should have a pale straw color. It is improved by age. 
“ Nessler’s ” solution will give a distinct brownish-yellow 
coloration with the most minute traces of ammonia or am- 
monium salts. If the quantity of ammonia be at all con- 
siderable, a brown precipitate will appear. The reaction in 
case of either precipitate or coloration will be 
2(2KI,HgI,) + NH3 + 3KOH = NHgjH.O + 7 KI + 2H,0. 
Pure Water.—This must be prepared with great care, 
in a room free from the usual laboratory fumes. In short, 
as has been already said, the entire examination of potable 
water should be undertaken in a locality other than a general 
working-laboratory. Fit a two-gallon retort to a large Liebig 
condenser, fill with good spring-water, distil, collect distil- 
late in 50-c.c. “ Nessler” jars, and to each successive jarful 
so collected add 2 c.c. “ Nessler ” solution.* After waiting 
five minutes, should a brown tint be observed upon looking 
through the liquid (longitudinally) at a white porcelain tile 
or piece of white paper, the presence of ammonia is indicated. 
Continue the distillation and the “ Nesslerizing ” of the 
successive 50-c.c. portions of the distillate until no coloration 
is obtained even after standing for five minutes. When 
ammonia ceases to be detected, the distilled water may be 
*The “Nessler” jars here used are carefully prepared, so as to have a 
uniform distance (8£ inches) between the bottom of the jar and the 50-c.c. mark. 
No mixer or stirrer is ever employed, as the high gravity of the “ Nessler ” 
solution causes it to quickly sink into and mix with the comparatively ’light 
distillate. 388 
WA TEP-S UP PL V. 
collected for use. The distillation should not be pushed too 
far, both on account of danger to the retort and of possible 
production of ammonia from decomposition of the organic 
material remaining in the bottom. In this laboratory we 
have for some time made use of a two-gallon copper retort 
with tin worm, and-find it most satisfactory for the prepara- 
tion of ammonia-freewater. There is no objection to its use, 
provided it be so carefully looked after as to prevent any 
approach to dryness. 
Alkaline Potassic Permanganate.—Dissolve 200 grammes 
solid potassic hydrate (KOH) and 8 grammes crystallized 
potassic permanganate (K2Mn208) in 1250 c.c. of pure water. 
Boil down to one litre and keep for use. 
Sodic Carbonate Solution.—Dissolve 50 grammes of the 
pure salt in 300 c.c. pure water. 
Standard Ammonia Solution.—Dissolve 1.5706 grammes 
of pure dry ammonium chloride in half a litre pure water. 
Dilute 5 c.c. of this solution to half a litre with pure water. 
This second solution will represent a strength of .01 m.g. 
of NH3 per cubic centimetre, and is the standard solution 
used. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OE WATER. 
389 
DETERMINATION OF FREE AMMONIA. 
Fit a one-quart glass tubulated retort to a large Liebig 
condenser,* letting the neck of the retort pass well into the 
condensing-tube (3 or 4 c.m.) and making the connection 
with a piece of large-size soft-rubber tubing. This connec- 
tion must be thoroughly tight. Place 200 c.c. pure water 
in the retort and add 10 c.c. of the sodic carbonate solution. 
Distil off two 50-c.c. jarfuls of water, and “ Nesslerize ” the 
second in order to be sure that no ammonia yet remains in 
the retort. Any ammonia that may have resulted from the 
imperfect cleaning of the apparatus, or that may have been 
present in the sodic carbonate solution, will usually all go 
over in the first 50 c.c. of distillate, but the same quantity 
(i.e., 100 c.c.) must be distilled off in all cases in order that 
when the actual analysis of the unknown water is started 
upon the condition as to volume may be always constant. 
In fact, it may be conveniently stated here that perfect 
uniformity of conditions is a requisite for success in water- 
analysis. 
To the contents of the retort is now added half a litre 
of the water to be examined. 
Distil and catch the distillate in 50-c.c. “ Nessler” jars. 
The rate of the distillation should be so managed as to allow 
about fifteen minutes for the filling of each 50-c.c. jar. Add 
2 c.c. “Nessler” reagent to each jarful, and continue the 
operation with each successive portion of the distillate until 
no further reaction for ammonia is apparent after waiting five 
minutes. Usually four jarfuls will be sufficient to carry off 
all free ammonia. 
From a small burette measure definite amounts of the 
standard ammonia solution into several clean “ Nessler ” 
* For a description of the retorts, condensers, etc,, used in this laboratory 
see page 400. 390 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
jars. Dilute each to the 50-c.c. mark with pure water, add 
2 c.-c. “ Nessler” solution, and after standing for five- min- 
utes compare as to depth of tint with the distillates already 
“ Nesslerized. ” With a little practice it will be found easy, 
by varying the amounts of standard ammonia solution used, 
to produce colors corresponding to those existing in the 
distillates, and thereby a most accurate knowledge of the 
quantity of ammonia actually present may be obtained. 
Such ammonia existed ready formed in the water, either 
free or as an ammonium salt, and passed over unchanged 
with the steam; it is therefore technically known as ‘ ‘ free 
ammonia. 
To make clear the calculation of results let us cite an 
example: Suppose the first jarful to have required 9 c.c. 
standard ammonia solution (diluted to 50 c.c.) to match its 
color when “ Nesslerized,” the second one 3 c.c., and the 
third 1 c.c. Then, since each cubic centimetre of the stand- 
ard ammonia solution corresponds to .01 m.g. NH3, the 
whole amount of “free ammonia” present in the original 
half litre of water would be: 
i° 09 
2° 03 
3° oi 
4° oo 
i-3 m-g- 
Multiplying this by two, to obtain the quantity for an entire 
litre, and remembering that I m.g. is the millionth part by 
weight of a litre of water, we find the total “ free ammonia ” 
present in the water to be 0.26 part per million. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WA TER. 
391 
ALBUMINOID AMMONIA. 
Throw out the residue remaining after the distillation for 
free ammonia, rinse the retort thoroughly, and refit it to 
the condenser. Place in the retort 200 c.c. pure water and 
50 c.c. of the alkaline permanganate solution. Distil off 
three 50-c.c. jarfuls, and “ Nesslerize ” the third one in order 
to insure freedom from ammonia. Add half a litre of the 
water under examination, and proceed with the distillation, 
and the “ Nesslerizing ” of the successive 50-c.c. portions of 
the distillate, as in the determination of free ammonia. The 
distillation is to be continued as long as is compatible with 
the safety of the retort, unless the ammonia should sooner 
cease to be evolved. The ammonia determined by this dis- 
tillation will be total (i.e., “free” plus “albuminoid”); 
therefore from the Nessler reading of each jarful of distillate 
must be subtracted the reading for the corresponding jarful 
for “ free ammonia,” the difference will give the “ albu- 
minoid ammonia.” 
The calculation is entirely similar to that for free am- 
monia, as stated. 
Interpretation of Results.—Concerning the interpretation 
of results, Wanklyn, the inventor of the method, is very 
dogmatic, and says: “ The analytical characters, as brought 
out by the ammonia process, are very distinctive of good 
and bad waters, and are quite unmistakable. There is, in- 
deed, hardly any branch of chemical analysis in which the 
operator is less exposed to the risk of failure.” This state- 
ment is altogether too strong. Waters of great organic 
purity, or those of great pollution, are undoubtedly easy to- 
classify, but with the great mass of cases which lie about 
the boundary-line between “ good ” and “ bad ” the greatest 
care -is to be exercised in the reading of results and the 392 
WA TEK-SUPPL V. 
passing of judgment. One rule, already mentioned, and 
upon which too much stress cannot be laid, is never to give 
an opinion concerning a water whose history and surround- 
ings are not thoroughly known. 
The “ free ammonia ” in artesian wells is often excessive, 
under circumstances that make animal contamination an im- 
possibility, and even rain-water, freshly collected after periods 
of long drought, will often exhibit properties calculated to 
mislead the analyst. 
C. B. Fox gives the following determinations in pure 
deep-zvell waters: 
Free 
Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
Well 230 feet deep. 0.80 0.05 
“ 250 “ “ 0.76 0.04 
« “ “ 0.74 0.03 
“ 330 “ “ 0.37 0.06 
“ 385 “ “ 0.59 0.04 
“ “ very deep 0 0.41 0.07 
This excess of free ammonia may be due either— 
il i. To entrance of rain-water; 
“2. To the beneficial transformation of harmful organic 
matter into the harmless ammonia, through the agency of 
sand, clay, and other substances which act on the water in 
xi manner similar to the action of a good filter; 
“ 3. To some salt of ammonia existing in the strata 
U'hrough which the water rises; or, 
'‘4. To the decomposition of nitrates in the pipes of the 
well. Mr. H, Slater suggests that the agent concerned in 
this reduction may, in the case of the deep-well waters, be 
■the sulphide of iron which is found in the clay. 
“ We conclude, then, that the presence of free ammonia 
in such comparatively large quantities in these deep-well 
waters is due to the reduction of nitrates and nitrites by CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
393 
sulphide of iron, or some kinds of organic matter, or some 
other agent, such oxidized nitrogen salts having been pro- 
duced in past ages by the oxidation of organic matter.” * 
Free ammonia in deep-well water may, however, be de- 
rived from very objectionable sources; as when surface pol- 
lution is admitted because of cleavage and fracture cracks in 
friable rocks, and because of the “ dip ” of the strata being 
nearly vertical. The writer has seen a number of such cases. 
Free ammonia is at times very high in the rain-water col- 
lected near large cities, and is liable to run higher in winter 
than in summer in such waters. 
Dr. Drown points out the low values commonly found for 
both “ammonias” in ground-waters of good quality, and 
places that for albuminoid ammonia as rarely exceeding .025. 
He shows the influence of growing plants in reducing free 
ammonia, and quotes as illustration the great difference in 
this item in the water of Mystic Lake with change of season; 
thus two readings for free ammonia were: 
August ooo 
January 573 
A further point that is mentioned by the same observer 
is the liability to high free-ammonia readings in water from 
wells sunk in ferruginous,f swampy regions, because organic 
matter associated with oxide of iron furnishes in absence of 
oxygen favorable conditions for development of 
Wanklyn would clear away all difficulty of interpretation 
* Fox, “Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food.” 
f Water passed through newly laid and rusty mains will often become 
materially changed in chemical character as well as in physical appearance. 
The influence of the iron rust is to reduce the nitrates present and increase the 
nitrites and free ammonia. A good water might thus be very readily con- 
demned upon the analytical results alone did the analyst not know its antece- 
dents. 
J Mass. Board of Health, 1892, 324. 394 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
by holding that “ albuminoid ammonia above .10 part per 
million begins to be a very suspicious sign; and over .15 it 
ought to condemn a water absolutely.” Such a hard-and- 
fast rule is too severe for general application. 
The author has seen many an excellent water greatly 
exceed these limits, particularly the brown waters supplying 
some of our Eastern towns. Many peaty waters, of proven 
wholesomeness, far exceed Wanklyn’s limits. As has already 
been pointed out, waters of a brown or peaty character are 
always to be looked upon very narrowly, but some of them 
are unquestionably of good quality, and all of them would 
be condemned by the proposed standards. 
The analyst must here again use his good judgment and 
decide whether or not there is natural and harmless cause 
for the high ammonia readings. The depth of color of 
the water will be a material guide to his decision. 
The writer has recently analyzed the water from a moun- 
tain lake, situated far away from all possibility of sewage 
contamination, with the following results: 
Free ammonia. 01 
Albuminoid ammonia .34 
An excellent mountain stream that the writer recently 
recommended for a city supply, although but slightly col- 
ored, ran: 
Free ammonia 055 
Albuminoid ammonia 230 
As a result of the analysis of fifteen drinking-waters from 
widely scattered sources, many of them city supplies, and 
all of them believed to be wholesome, Prof. Mallet gives 
figures for “ albuminoid ammonia ” that show an average of 
.152 part per million (highest = .325, lowest = .020)* CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
395 
Most of these would be unceremoniously condemned by the 
Wanklyn standard. 
In his report to the Water Department of the City of 
Wilmington for 1882 Dr. Leeds, as the outcome of his 
experience in the analysis of American waters, says: “ I 
should venture to propose, as an aid in determining whether 
a water-supply, derived (as most of our American cities’ water- 
supplies are) from a flowing stream, is good and wholesome, 
the following highest limits as a standard of purity: 
Free ammonia oi to .12 per million 
Albuminoid ammonia 10 to .28 “ 
Some years ago Dr. Smart pointed out that the rate at 
which the ammonia is evolved as of an importance at least 
equal to, if not greater than, the total amount of the same; 
he holds that: “ Gradual evolution of albuminoid ammonia 
indicates the presence of organic matter, whether of vege- 
table or animal origin, in a fresh, or comparatively fresh, 
condition, while rapid evolution indicates that the organic 
matter is in a putrescent or decomposing condition.” 
This is entirely in accord with the present writer’s ex- 
perience. Thus the evolution of albuminoid ammonia was 
found as follows when analyzing the water of a mountain 
lake in which was a considerable growth of pond-lilies and 
other water-plants: 
44 Nessler ” jar No. 1 0600 
“ “ “ 2 0450 
44 44 “ 3 0250 
“ “ “ 4 0150 
“ “ “ 5 OIOO 
“ 44 44 6 . .0075 
“ 44 44 7. 0050 
u 44 44 8 0025 
.1700x2=.34 396 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Water giving such results can be looked upon with much 
more favor than one presenting an albuminoid record such 
as the following: 
“ Nessler ” jar No. i 1000 
“ “ “ 2 0350 
“ “ “ 3 0125 
“ “ “ 4 0025 
“ “ “ 5 0000 
.1500X2 = .30 
The two illustrations just given bring out very nicely 
another point advanced by Dr. Smart, namely, that if each 
jar’s reading be about one half that of its predecessor the 
presence of peat, or of some equally permanent substance, 
is indicated; otherwise two thirds or three quarters of the 
total albuminoid ammonia would appear in the first jar. 
Thus we see that the reading of results is entirely a ques- 
tion of opinion and sound judgment, and in this connection 
Mallet’s conclusion cannot be read without marked interest; 
he says: “It is impossible to decide absolutely upon the 
wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of a drinking-water by 
the mere use of any of the processes for the estimation of 
organic matter or its constituents. I would even go further, 
and say that, in judging the sanitary character of a water, 
not only must such processes be used in connection with the 
investigation of other evidence of a more general sort as to 
the source and history of the water, but should even be 
deemed of secondary importance in weighing the reasons 
for accepting or rejecting a water not manifestly unfit for 
drinking on other grounds. There are no sound grounds on 
which to establish such general standards of purity as have 
been proposed.’’ * 
* “ The question of a standard by which to judge the quality of any particu- 
lar sample of water has frequently been discussed, but as yet no generally sat- CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
397 
As a further aid to judgment the following analyses are 
given of sundry waters, in different parts of the country, con- 
demned by the writer, several of them having caused disease. 
Also a few instances of waters of reliable quality. As else- 
where throughout the book, the results are in parts per 
million. 
| Number. 
Free 
1 Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
Chlorine. 
N as Nitrate 
N as Nitrite! 
1 Required 
1 Oxygen. 
nj *a 
554 
769 
487 
35 
215 
5225 
421 
681 
635 
779 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
IO 
Shallow city well 
City well 30 ft. deep (caused typhoid) 
Rock-drilled city well 57 ft. deep.... 
Spring-water (caused repeated cases 
of dysentery) 
Well near city 
Country well, strong salty taste 
Town well 
City well 250 ft. deep 
“ “ 255 “ “ 
“ “ 226 “ “ 
.025 
005 
2.025 
.OI 
.005 
-59 
.815 
1-59 
•31 
1.11 
.08 
•035 
0 
.025 
•045 
• 245 
•075 
■395 
.02 
.08 
122 
146 
69 
6 
24 
2803 
36 
102 
58 
199 
I7.38 
IO 
.025 
7 
9 
0 
0 
0 
0 
trace 
0 
0 
0 
0 
•25 
trace 
trace 
0 
0 
t-4 
I 
• 85 
.8 
1.1 
6-45 
1-3 
11 
Peaty mountain stream (autumn)... 
•055 
.23 
2.4 
0 
0 
7.4 
34 
12 
Same stream in winter 
•055 
.117 
1.9 
.08 
0 
6.6 
47-5 
13 
Mountain spring 
.04 
.048 
4 
1.404 
trace 
• 3 
228 
14 
Town supply, Elizabethtown, N. Y.. 
.048 
.002 
1.05 
•05 
0 
• 35 
106 
15 
Large well-situated spring 
.005 
.0075 
3-8 
•5 
0 
0 
97 
16 
High mountain lake (peaty) 
.01 
• 34 
2 
0 
0 
6.6 
43 
17 
Lake Erie, beyond sewage influence 
.02 
•135 
trace 
trace 
2-55 
t38 
It will be observed that a goodly proportion of the impure 
waters quoted have figures for free ammonia higher than 
isfactory conclusion has been arrived at. Several standards have indeed been 
proposed, but none has been generally adopted, and we cannot say that we re- 
gret the result. The laying down of any one general standard by which to 
judge the great variety of waters met with in different parts of the country and 
in different geological formations is, in our opinion, at once impossible and 
undesirable. 
“ By all means take into consideration and, on suitable occasions, make use 
of such general standards as have been laid down by chemists of high ability 
and large experience; but use these standards cautiously and with discrimina- 
tion, and judge every case on its own merits. Judge by its conformity to, or 
divergence from, the general character of the waters of the district from which 
it comes; in other words, have district standards instead of a general standard.” 
(A. Dupr6, Analyst, April, 1883.) 398 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
those for albuminoid ammonia. This is always a suspicious 
sign. 
One of the worst waters in the list, number two, would 
not have been condemned upon the ammonia items at all, 
thus showing the importance of judging from the completed 
analysis. Water number three, from Erie, Pa., is a rare 
case in the writer’s experience, showing no albuminoid am- 
monia. The well is drilled in friable shale and within short 
distance of city privies. Water number four was from an 
isolated country summer residence. The water is materially 
higher in “ chlorine ” and “ nitrates ” than the local “ nor- 
mals,” and is exposed to drainage from outhouse and 
stables. 
Water number six was from Coxsackie, N. Y., and was 
sent for analysis; it is impossible to account for such an 
amount of chlorine except by assuming exceedingly careless 
sampling. Water number nine was from a well drilled into 
Hudson River shale, and was protected from immediate 
surface drainage. The chlorine rose from 58 to 64.3 some 
fifteen hours after emptying a bushel of salt into a privy- 
vault fifty feet distant. 
Water number ten was from a drilled well, in shale rock, 
constructed with much more care than usual. Extreme 
precautions were taken to shut out all immediate surface 
drainage, and they were undoubtedly successful. Never- 
theless the neighboring privies contributed their seepage, 
raising the “ free ammonia” and “ chlorine” tremendously 
above the local “ normals.” Such results show us how 
unsafe it is to trust to the purity of rock-drawn water, when, 
owing to the seamy character of the rock, and the direction 
and angle of its “ dip,” almost direct connection may be 
established between the bottom of the well and the surround- 
ing sources of surface pollution. 
A comparison of waters eleven and twelve shows the in- CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
399 
fFuence of freezing weather in tying up the fountains of 
“ peaty ” contamination. 
In working the “albuminoid ammonia” process it is 
of importance that sundry minor details should be observed 
in order that concordant results may be obtained; attention 
is therefore called to the following points: 
1. Use a tubulated glass-stoppered retort, and connect 
the same with the condenser by large-bore soft-rubber 
tubing. The retort-neck should project 3 to 4 c.m. into 
the condenser-tube, and the rubber be drawn over both so 
as to make a perfectly tight joint. Particularly avoid the 
paper packing recommended by Wanklyn, as the same can- 
not but lead to loss of ammonia. 
Trouble is often experienced with certain waters, owing 
to their tendency to “ bump,” and thus permit of a portion 
of the retort contents being mechanically carried over into 
the condenser-tube. We avoid this difficulty by bending 
the neck of the retort through an angle of about twenty 
degrees at a point a little beyond its middle. Upon fitting 
such a bent retort to the condenser the contained liquid 
rests well towards the back, and splashing over is practically 
impossible. 
The condensers used in this laboratory are galvanized 
iron tanks 14 inches deep, 14 inches broad, and 20 inches 
long. They rest upon wooden benches of the same super- 
ficial area, and 12 inches high. The two condensing-tubes 
for each tank are of block tin, inch inside diameter, and 
enter the side of the tank inches from the top, dip im- 
mediately to near the bottom, and then slope gently to the 
exit-point one inch above the bottom on the opposite side. 
Just before entering the tank the tin tube is suitably enlarged 
to receive the neck of the retort. 
The “ Nessler ” jars used are long and narrow, being 1 
inches total length, and inches from the bottom to the 50- 400 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
c.c. mark. A very convenient lamp for heating the retorts 
is the broad flat “ Bunsen ” inches diameter) with numer- 
ous small jets over its surface. 
2. Keep the current of cooling water passing through 
the condenser at a velocity such that the difference between 
the temperature of the inflowing and outflowing water shall 
not exceed one degree centigrade. 
This is very easily done with condensers as large as those 
described. 
3. Be very careful to have the “ standard ammonia ” so- 
lutions and the distillates at the same temperature when 
the “ Nessler” solution is added; otherwise equal strengths 
of ammonia would strike different shades of color and pro- 
duce error. This end is best achieved by cooling the pre- 
pared standards in the same running tap-water that is used 
for the condensers. 
4. Even with the utmost precaution some ammonia will 
be lost through imperfect condensation. Dr. Smart found 
that “ the varying percentages of loss may be taken as rep- 
resenting the heating power of the flame used, or, inversely, 
the time occupied in distillation.” 
My assistant, Mr. Bowman, obtained the following differ- 
ent results for “ free ammonia” from the same tap-water 
by varying the time required to fill a 50-c.c. “ Nessler ” jar: 
Jar Number. 
5 Minutes. 
10 Minutes. 
15 Minutes. 
20 Minutes. 
I 
.0050 
•OO75. 
.0250 
.0250 
2 
.0025 
.0050 
.0075 
.0075 
3 
trace 
.0050 
.0060 
.0065 
4 
0 
trace 
.0025 
.0025 
5 
0 
trace 
trace 
trace 
6 
0 
0 
0 
0 
.0075 
•oi75l 
.0410 
.0415 
2 
2 
2 
2 
.0150 
•0350 
.0820 
.0830 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
40i 
SHOWING RKTORTS, CONDENSERS, AND “ NESSLER ” JARS FOR “ALBUMINOID AMMONIA” PROCESS. 402 
WA TER-SUP PL y. 
Repeating the same experiment, using a prepared water 
containing .15 part ammonia per million, the results were: 
! Jar Number. 
5 Minutes. 
10 Minutes. 
15 Minutes. 
.0450 
.0450 
.0500 
.0150 
.0125 
.0150 
3 
•0035 
.0025 
.0050 
O 
.0025 
O 
5 
O 
.0025 
O 
O 
0 
0 
.0635 
.0650 
.0700 
2 
2 
2 
.1270 
.1300 
. 14OO 
The amount of ammonia being therefore a function of 
the time employed, it becomes necessary to eliminate, so 
far as may be, any error that might arise from this source 
by conducting all distillations as nearly as possible at the 
same rate. So manage the lamp, therefore, as to fix 
the time required for the distillation of 50 c.c. at fifteen 
minutes. 
5. It is not sufficient to note the total amount of “free ’’ 
and “ albuminoid ’’ ammonias, but the full notes of the 
“ Nesslerizing’’ process must be retained, that the rate at 
which the ammonia passes over may be determined. As 
before stated, important findings may be deduced therefrom. 
Dr. Smart believes “that a water which in the third or fourth 
measure of its distillation gives a persistent evolution of 
4 free ammonia,’ which is followed in the progress of the 
experiment by a persistence of twice that quantity of ‘al- 
buminoid ammonia,’ probably contains area." He is, as the 
result of investigation, led to add that a water which yields 
such results will contain “as many parts per million of urea CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
403 
as there are hundredths of a milligramme of ‘albuminoid 
ammonia ’ persisting in each measure.” * 
In order to test the constancy of results when the conditions governing the 
work are strictly constant three samples of the same water were run for “ free ” 
and “albuminoid ” ammonias with the following results: 
Free Ammonia. 
Albuminoid Ammonia. 
.0075 
.0025 
trace 
o 
.0100 X 2 = .020 
.0275 
.0225 
.0075 
.0035 
.0025 
trace 
.0635 X 2 = .127 
A... 
.0075 
.0020 
trace 
o 
.0095 X 2 = .019 
•0325 
.0230 
.0075 
.0025 
trace 
o 
.0655 X 2 = .131 
B. 
0080 
.0025 
trace 
trace 
o 
.0105 X 2 = .021 
.0270 
•0225 
.0x00 
.0030 
.0025 
trace 
.0650 X 2 = .130 
C.. 
6. As already stated, do not observe the tint of a “ Ness- 
lerized ” solution until five minutes after the addition of the 
reagent. After the expiration of that time the color may be 
considered constant, no further material change taking place 
in twelve hours. Consequently, in the case of the examination 
of many successive samples, the “ Nesslerized ” standard so- 
lutions need not be made up for each water, but those pre- 
pared in the morning may be used during the entire day, 
* It must be noted, however, that Dr. Smart allows twenty minutes tor the 
filling of a 50-c.c. “ Nessler ” jar. 404 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
proper care being taken to protect them from the action of 
the atmosphere by covering them when not in use.* 
7. As has been already pointed out, water-samples will 
not keep many days; whence the necessity for a speedy 
analysis after the collection is once made. The changes 
which take place in water upon keeping have been care- 
fully investigated by Smart and Mallet,f and although their 
opinions upon this topic are not so full as the rest of their 
work, they are nevertheless very convincing. 
Investigations tending in the same direction and leading 
towards the same results were also undertaken in this labo- 
ratory before Mallet’s report appeared. 
The tendency is for “ free ammonia ” to disappear upon 
keeping; and, as a rule, the “albuminoid ammonia’’ also 
diminishes. From observations- made upon the appearance 
and disappearance of nitrites there seems to be little doubt 
but that the loss of “ free ammonia ’’ is to be accounted for 
by a process of nitrification. Nitrites are formed at the 
expense of the ammonia, and they, in their turn, are con- 
verted into nitrates by further oxidation. Nitrogenous or- 
ganic matter in water may be considered as belonging to two 
classes: first, “ that which passes readily into the condition 
of ‘free ammonia’ through purtrefactive agencies,’’ and 
which is consequently easily acted upon by the permanganate 
solution; and, second, that which is more stable, and from 
which no ammonia is evolved during distillation with the 
above reagent. Upon standing for any considerable time 
this latter class becomes slowly converted into the less stable 
* Standards of .01, .02, .63, .04, .05, .06, .07, .08, and .09 m.g. of NH3 in 50 c.c. 
water were prepared and “ Nesslenzed,” and after an interval of three days 
were compared with fresh preparations. It was observed that .03, .05, and .07 
had not changed. The remainder had darkened to a very slight degree, but 
less than .0025 in each case. 
fNat. Board of Health, 1882. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
405 
variety,* which in its turn is gradually converted into “ free 
ammonia,” the ammonia in turn becoming finally nitrified, 
as already stated. Thus we have a perfect system of changes, 
from the stable nitrogenous organic matter on the one hand, 
to the fully oxidized nitrate on the other. Of course we are 
citing but a typical case, and must be prepared to see all man- 
ner of departures therefrom in special instances, according as 
the character and amount of materials«and the nature of the 
environment may differ. 
* It is good practice to redetermine the albuminoid ammonia after the sam- 
ple has stood a number of days. By such means an idea may be obtained of 
the stability of the nitrogenous organic material whence such ammonia is 
derived. 406 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
OXYGEN-CONSUMING CAPACITY. 
(“REQUIRED oxygen.”) 
The third and last method for estimation of organic mat- 
ter that we shall touch upon is Kubel’s modification of the 
old permanganate process of Forschammer. The original 
mode of procedure was published in 1850 and “consisted 
merely in adding a solution of potassic permanganate of 
known strength, without any other reagent, to a measured 
amount of water to be examined, until the liquid had ac- 
quired a faint permanent tinge, and then noting the quan- 
tity used It was afterwards ascertained that more uniform 
results could be obtained, and with less expenditure of time, 
by causing the permanganate to act in the presence of free 
acid or free alkali.” Kubel uses a boiling temperature. 
The form of determination recommended is that em- 
ployed by Dr. Smart. The necessary solutions are: 
Standard Potassic Permanganate Solution. — Dissolve 
0.3952 gramme of the salt in one litre of distilled water. 
Each cubic centimetre of such solution will contain o. 1 m. g. 
of oxygen available for oxidation. The available oxygen of 
the permanganate in presence of sulphuric acid may be repre- 
sented by the equation 
KaMna08 + 3HaS04 = KaS04 + 2MnS04 + 3Ha0 + 5O. 
Solution of Oxalic Acid (H4C404.2HsO).—Dissolve 0.7875 
gramme of the crystallized acid in one litre of distilled 
water. This solution if titrated against the permanganate 
solution (while hot, and in presence of H4S04) should cor- 
respond to it c.c. for c.c. The equation is 
K4Mn40. + 3H4S04 + 5(C4H404.2H,0) = K4S04 + 2MnS04 
“j~ ioC04 -j- i8H40. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
407 
Ten c.c. of the oxalic acid solution, diluted with 200 c.c. 
pure water and 10 c.c. of the dilute sulphuric acid, should 
be titrated, boiling, with the standard potassic permanganate 
solution, and the amount of the latter required should be 
recorded. 
Dilute Sulphuric Acid.—One part of the strong acid to 
three of distilled water. 
Determination.—Place 200 c.c. of the water under exam- 
ination in a porcelain casserole; add 10 c.c. of the dilute 
sulphuric acid, and run in the standard permanganate solu- 
tion from a burette until the water has a very marked red 
color. Boil ten minutes, adding more permanganate from 
the burette from time to time, if necessary, in order to 
maintain the intensity of red color observed at the start. 
Do not let the color fade nearly out, and then add the per- 
manganate in quantity, at once, but strive to keep the color 
as nearly constant as possible by gradual addition. 
Remove the lamp, add 10 c.c. (or more, if necessary) of 
the oxalic acid solution to destroy the color, and then add the 
permanganate solution from the burette until a faint pink 
tinge again appears. From the total permanganate used 
deduct that corresponding to the 10 c.c. oxalic acid em- 
ployed, and from the remainder calculate the milligrammes 
of “available oxygen’’ consumed by the organic matter 
present in the water. Correction must be made for nitrites, 
ferrous salts, or hydrogen sulphide if any of them be present. 
Standards.—As this determination deals principally with 
the organic carbon present, the readings are naturally high 
in the cases of brown peaty waters, and surface-waters carry- 
ing organic matter in suspension. (See the list of analyses, 
page 397.) 
Leeds’s for American rivers 5 to 7 408 
WA 1EK- SUPPL V. 
Averages from determinations by Dr. Smart: 
Impure (14 samples) 5.880 
Doubtful purity (5 samples) 3-073 
Medium purity (15 samples) 1414 
Pure (18 samples) 0.581 
The severe character of the following French classifica- 
tion is due to the fact that spring-waters are popular in 
France, and surface-waters are filtered before use: 
Very pure I 
Potable 2 
Suspected 3 to 4 
Impure above 4 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
409 
LEAD AND COPPER. 
It at times becomes necessary to examine water for these 
poisonous metals, and the ease with which their dark sul- 
phides may be formed provides a ready method. (Miller.) 
Prepare a standard solution of lead nitrate, Pb(NOa)a, by 
dissolving 1.5990 grammes of the salt in one litre of distilled 
water. Each cubic centimetre will contain 1 m.g. metallic 
lead. 
Place the water in a 100-c.c. “ Nessler” jar; add 2 drops 
of concentrated HC1, followed by 1 c.c. of colorless ammo- 
nium sulphide, and match the tint by operating with measured 
amounts of the standard lead solution diluted to 100 c.c. 
This will not, of course, distinguish between copper 
and lead, but, inasmuch as each is objectionable, distin- 
guishing is really not necessary. 
In order to test the action of the water upon lead pipe 
permit it to remain in contact with both bright and dull 
lead (in separate vessels) for twenty-four hours, and then 
examine the water as above.* 
* As a test for lead Blyth suggests the use of an alcoholic solution of cochi- 
neal, which strikes a distinct bluish tint with water containing lead. One hun- 
dred c.c. Nessler jars are convenient vessels for use in making the test, and two 
of them should be employed, one containing the water under examination, and 
the other a water known to be lead-free. One c.c. of the cochineal solution 
should be added to each jarful of water. Copper will produce a color similar to 
lead in this test. (Analyst, IX. 41.) 410 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
IRON. 
This metal is objectionable if in considerable quantity,* 
particularly in water to be used for washing white goods, 
and for dyeing. To determine its quantity acidify a suit- 
able volume of the water with aqua regia; concentrate to 
100 c.c. ; place in a 100-c.c. “Nessler” jar; add 2 c.c. of 
ammonium sulpho-cyanate solution, and compare the depth 
of color produced with known amounts of standard iron so- 
lution diluted to 100 c.c. and similarly treated with am- 
monium sulpho-cyanate solution. 
The standard iron solution is prepared by dissolving o. 1 
gramme pure iron in a little HC1 to which a few drops of 
HNOj have been added, and then diluting to one litre. 
Iron which tends to increase in a well-water as the draught 
upon the underground supply grows in volume is a dis- 
couraging symptom; for the probabilities are strong that 
the water will eventually become unfit for use without re- 
moval of the ever-increasing iron. 
* Wanklyn believes that a drinking-water should not contain over 3 parts 
of iron per million. 
Parmentier finds alumina in all natural waters. (Chem. News, lxvi. 85.) CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
411 
ZINC. 
Zinc is not a cumulative poison, but its presence in a 
water is nevertheless distinctly objectionable. Galvanized 
iron pipe is attacked by certain waters, and spring-water is 
at times zinc-bearing, as has been especially noticed in South- 
ern Missouri.* 
For the determination of the metal it is best to evaporate 
considerable of the water, and make the usual gravimetric 
determination after precipitation as a sulphide. 
For qualitative purposes Allen’s test is useful: Render 
the water slightly alkaline with ammonia hydrate; boil; 
filter, and add a few drops of potassium ferro-cyanide. A 
white precipitate will form in presence of a trace of zinc. 
Arsenic occurs in some waters naturally, and chromium 
may be present from industrial waste. Should the presence 
of these elements be suspected, their determination should 
be undertaken, in the concentrated water, by the usual quan- 
titative methods. 
Parts per Million. 
PbS04 trace 
CuS04 0.5 
CdS04 0.9 
ZnS04 297.7 
FeS04 1.6 
MnS04 6.3 
Ala(S04)s 2.5 
* Zinc-bearing spring-water from Missouri 
Parts per Million. 
CaS04 109.9 
MgS04 19.0 
K,SO 5.6 
Na2S04 5.9 
NaCl 4.3 
CaCOj 72.0 
SiO, 13.7 
539-9 
(Hillebrand, Bui. 113, U. S. Geol. Sur.) 412 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
PHOSPHATES. 
T. L. Phipson holds that phosphates are never present in 
more than minute traces in waters fit for domestic use, but 
that in contaminated waters they are “always present,” a 
statement with which it is hard to fully concur. 
To determine them he takes a large measure of the water, 
adds a little alum solution, followed by a few drops of am- 
monia, and then makes the solution acid with acetic acid. 
The aluminum phosphate is filtered off, dissolved in nitric 
acid, and precipitated with ammonium molybdate solution 
in the usual way.* 
* Chem. News, lvi. 251. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
413 
DISSOLVED GASES. 
Oxygen.—No process with which the author is acquainted 
for the determination of the dissolved oxygen gives such 
desirable results as that devised by M. Albert-Levy, of the 
Montsouris Observatory, Paris. It is as follows: 
A pipette of about 100 c.c. capacity is provided with an 
upper and a lower stopcock, and the capacity of the same 
between the stopcocks is determined. Above the upper 
stopcock the tube is expanded into a short, cylindrical fun- 
nel. The pipette is completely filled with the water to be 
examined by immersion with both cocks open. The cocks 
having been closed, the pipette is wiped off and fixed in a 
suitable clamp, with its lower point dipping into a little 
dilute sulphuric acid. Two c.c. of dilute potassic hydrate 
solution are placed in the funnel and, by careful opening of 
the cocks, introduced within the pipette without the ad- 
mission of air. After washing the funnel 4 c.c. of a solu- 
tion of ammonium ferrous sulphate are placed therein, and, 
by similar means, also admitted within the pipette. In 
presence of the alkaline solution the oxygen dissolved in 
the water will immediately oxidize the ferrous salt to ferric, 
and a mixture of the two hydrates will shortly settle to the 
bottom after gentle agitation. After again washing the fun- 
nel 2 c.c. of sulphuric acid (equal parts acid and water) 
are placed therein, and the upper stopcock alone is opened. 
The higher gravity of the acid will cause it to slowly enter 
the pipette, where it will acidify the contents and dissolve 
the hydrates of iron. The contents and washings of the 
pipette, together with the acid from the beaker into which 
the lower extremity of the pipette has dipped, are now 
turned into a flask and titrated with the standard solution 
of potassic p&rmanganate already prepared on page 406. A 414 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
blank is now titrated containing a mixture of 100 c.c. of the 
water, 2 c.c. of the sulphuric acid, 2 c.c. of the potassic 
hydrate solution, and 4 c.c. of the ammonium-ferrous sul- 
phate solution. The difference between these two titrations 
(acid reaction having prevented oxidation in the second in- 
stance) will give the amount of ferrous salt oxidized by the 
oxygen dissolved in the water. The volume of the water 
operated upon will be the volume of the pipette (F) less 
the volumes of the alkaline and iron solutions, namely: 
v — (2 -|- 4) c.c. 
M. Albert-Levy makes further and valuable use of this 
method beyond the mere estimation of dissolved oxygen. 
Some time since he pointed out that various waters behave 
very differently when exposed to the light, so far as their 
contained oxygen is concerned. Some quickly lose their 
oxygen, thus: 
M.g. Oxygen per Litre. 
Seine water 10.6 
Same after 8 days 7.2 
Same after 15 days None 
Others act in a manner quite the reverse, thus 
Vanne water ii.i 
Same after 9 days 20.2 
Same after 60 days 39.7 
These different results arise from the greater or smaller 
quantities of organic life present, some endowed with chlo- 
rophyll and some not possessing such constituent—algae and 
bacteria, for example. 
Water heavily charged with microbes quickly loses its 
oxygen; while the greater number of algae, on the contrary, 
contribute oxygen by evolving it under the influence of CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
415 
light. Albert-Levy conceived the idea of making use of 
this difference in action to establish an approximate measure 
of the quantity of bacteria present. 
He makes an immediate determination of the dissolved 
oxygen present. 
A second sample of the water is then introduced into a 
glass-stoppered bottle, which it completely fills, and is placed 
in the dark, at a constant temperature of 330 C. for forty- 
eight hours. Such conditions are favorable for bacterial 
activity, while algae-growth is stopped. At the end of the 
time stated the dissolved oxygen is again estimated, and 
the amount found to have been lost will be in a measure 
proportional to the bacterial contents of the water. 
The loss of oxygen, divided by the amount of it origi- 
nally present, is styled the “coefficient of alterability." 
Such use of Albert-Levy’s method as above described 
is herewith graphically shown. The distances apart of the 
two curves for dissolved oxygen indicate the monthly varia- 
tions in number of bacteria present in the water. The influ- 
ence of surface-washing in spring and autumn is here well 
shown in increased bacteria, as is also the comparative 
bacterial purity in midsummer.* 
The' determination of other gases present in solution is 
not commonly of sufficient value to repay the expenditure 
of time required for such work. 
Should it be decided upon, however, to include an esti- 
mation of carbon dioxide in the analysis, Seyler’s method, 
as given in Chemical News, LXX. 104, is to be recommended. 
An odor like that of sulphuretted hydrogen must not be 
taken as proof positive of the presence of that gas in a water, 
inasmuch as mixtures of sundry hydrocarbons will often 
greatly mislead the sense of smell. 
* See page 195. 416 
WA PER-SUPPL Y. 
SEINE WATER TAKEN AT IVRY 
DISSOLVED OXYGEN. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
417 
The author has in mind such a case from Northern New 
York, and also another from Kansas, which latter water, by 
the way, contains much iron. 
According to Bunsen, one litre of water at 760 m.m. 
pressure may contain: 
At o* C. At io° C. At 200 C. 
Oxygen 41 c.c. 33 c.c. 28 c.c. 
Nitrogen 20 “ 16 “ 14 “ 
Carbon dioxide 1797 “ 1185 “ 901 “ 
What is generally known as the “ Michigan standard of 
the purity of drinking-water,” as specified by the Michigan 
State Laboratory of Hygiene, is here given: 
“ i. The total residue should not exceed 500 parts per 
million. 
‘‘2. The inorganic residue may constitute the total 
residue. 
“ 3. The smaller amount of organic residue the better 
the water. 
” 4. The amount of earthy bases should not exceed 200 
parts per million. 
”5. The amount of sodium chloride should not exceed 
20 parts per million (i.e., “ chlorine” 12.1 parts per million). 
“ 6. The amount of sulphates should not exceed 100 
parts per million. 
“ 7. The organic matter in 1,000,000 parts of the water 
should not reduce more than 8 parts of potassium perman- 
ganate (i.e:,‘‘ required oxygen ” 2.2 parts per million). 
” 8. The amount of free ammonia should not exceed 
0.05 part per million. 
“ 9. The amount of albuminoid ammonia should not ex- 
ceed 0.15 part per million. 418 
WA TEK-S UPPL Y. 
“ io. The amount of nitric acid should not exceed 3.5 
parts per million (i.e., “ N as nitrate” .9 part per million). 
“ 11. The best water contains no nitrous acid, and any 
water which contains this substance in quantity sufficient 
to be estimated should not be regarded as a safe drinking- 
water. 
“ 12. The water must contain no toxicogenic germs as 
demonstrated by tests upon animals. 
“ The water must be clear and transparent, free from 
smell, and without either alkaline or acid taste, and not above 
5 French standard of hardness.” 
Such a standard is much too severe for general use. The 
specifications for the new supply for Jersey City were based 
thereon, and it was not surprising that they were declined 
by the contractors. As has been so often said, a general 
standard of purity is impossible. Each case should be judged 
upon its own merits, after a careful study of all the relating 
facts. 
The following form of water report is in use at the University of Arizona : 
“ANALYSIS OF WATER from 
To Determine Value for Irrigation or Boiler Purposes. 
Total Residue on Evaporation, at temperature of boiling water 
Loss by ignition at low red heat, combined water and organic matter 
Color on heating, showing presence of organic matter 
Residue soluble in water, common salt, Glauber’s salt, etc 
Residue insoluble in water, but soluble in acid, lime, etc 
Residue insoluble in acid, silica—sand 
ANALYSIS OF WATER-SOLUBLE RESIDUE. 
Sodium chloride (common salt) • 
Sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and potassium, Glauber’s salt, etc 
Sodium carbonate (sal-soda) 
ANALYSIS OF ACID-SOLUBLE RESIDUE. 
Carbonates of lime and magnesia 
Sulphate of lime (gypsum) 
RESIDUE INSOLUBLE IN ACID. 
Silica (sand) CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
419 
The interest of a water-analysis centres in two points—the amount and 
character of total residue. Other things being equal, the less residue the better 
for the purposes of irrigation or boiler use. 
For Boiler Use.—A large amount of insoluble residue causes an incrusta- 
tion in the boiler. This incrustation is harder and more difficult to remove in 
case the water contains much gypsum. Large amounts of soluble solids, 
especially carbonate of soda, cause frothing. 
For Irrigation Use.—The amount of residue insoluble in water has no 
harmful effect. Residue soluble in water remains in the soil as soluble salts or 
alkali. Of these common salt and soluble sulphates which cause white alkali 
are harmless, except in large quantities. Carbonate of soda (sal-soda) which 
causes black alkali is exceedingly corrosive to plant-growth, and in quantities 
larger than two parts per hundred thousand must be looked on with suspicion. 
Land irrigated with such waters will be benefited by an application of one hun- 
dred pounds per acre of gypsum. Water having gypsum never contains car- 
bonate of soda. 
Water results are best reported in “ parts per million,” 
as already stated, but, at times, a demand will be made for 
a report stated in “ grains per U. S. gallon,” and to facili- 
tate conversion from one form to the other the table given 
herewith was prepared: 420 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
CONVERSION OF “ MILLIGRAMMES PER KILOGRAMME” INTO 
“ GRAINS PER U. S. GALLON ” OF 23 I CUBIC INCHES. 
One U. S. gallon of pure water at 60° F., weighed in air at 6o° F., at atmos- 
pheric pressure of 30 inches of mercury, weighs 58,334.94640743 grains.* 
Farts 
Grains per 
Parts 
Grains per 
Parts 
Grains per 
Parts 
Grains per 
per 
Million. 
U. S. Gallon. 
Million. 
U. S. Gallon. 
Million. 
U. S. Gallon. 
Million 
U. S. Gallon. 
i 
0.058335 
26 
1.516708 
51 
2.975082 
76 
4-433456 
2 
O.I16670 
27 
I.575043 
52 
3.033417 
77 
4.49179I 
3 
0.175005 
28 
1.633378 
53 
3.091752 
78 
4.550126 
4 
0.2333-10 
29 
1.691713 
54 
3.150087 
79 
4.608461 
5 
0.291675 
30 
1.750048 
55 
3.208422 
80 
4.666796 
6 
0.350010 
31 
1.808383 
56 
3.266757 
81 
4.725130 
7 
0.408344 
32 
1.866718 
57 
3.325092 
82 
4.783465 
8 
0.466679 
33 
1.925053 
58 
3-383427 
83 
4.841800 
9 
0.525014 
34 
1.983388 
59 
3.441762 
84 
4.900135 
IO 
0.583349 
35 
2.041723 
60 
3•500097 
85 
4.958470 
11 
0.641684 
36 
2.IOOO58 
61 
3.558432 
86 
5.016805 
12 
0.700019 
37 
2.158393 
62 
3.616766 
87 
5075140 
13 
0.758354 
38 
2.216728 
63 
3.675101 
88 
5-133475 
14 
0.816689 
39 
2.275063 
64 
3.733436 
89 
5.191810 
15 
0.875024 
40 
2•333398 
65 
3.79I77I 
90 
5-250145 
16 
0-933359 
41 
2.391733 
66 
3.850106 
91 
5.308480 
17 
0.991694 
42 
2.450068 
67 
3-908441 
92 
5-366815 
18 
1.050029 
43 
2.508402 
68 
3.966776 
93 
5-425150 
19 
1.108364 
44 
2.566737 
69 
4.0251II 
94 
5-483485 
20 
1.166699 
45 
2,625072 
70 
4.083446 
95 
5.541820 
21 
1.225034 
46 
2.683407 
7i 
4.141781 
96 
5.600155 
22 
1.283369 
47 
2.741742 
72 
4.200116 
97 
5.658490 
23 
1.341704 
48 
2.800077 
73 
4.258451 
98 
5.716825 
24 
1.400039 
49 
2.858412 
74 
4-316786 
99 
5.775159 
25 
I.458373 
50 
2.916747 
75 
4-375I2I 
100 
5•833494 
*See article by the author on “The U. S. Gallon” in Am. Druggist, 
January, 1888. CHAPTER XI. 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
APROPOS of the recent articles upon the question of chem- 
ical vs. bacteriological examination of potable water which 
have appeared in the English papers, it is noteworthy that 
there is a growing tendency among physicians and civil en- 
gineers to belittle the chemist’s opinion regarding the pota- 
bility of a water, and to pin their faith exclusively upon 
what the bacteriologist may have to say upon the subject. 
This feeling is strengthened by the publication of the results 
of such trials as that undertaken by the London Local Gov- 
ernment Board, in which, it will be remembered, water- 
samples purposely inoculated with typhoid germs were sent 
for analysis to one of England’s leading chemists and were 
by him pronounced pure. 
Those who set special value upon such a “ test ” of 
methods as the above, and who consider it quite final as 
showing the inability of chemistry to detect pollution in a 
liquid which the bacteriologist would instantly pronounce 
very foul, should remember that such a sample of water 
could not be found in practice, and that the very conditions 
under which it was prepared eliminated the chemical items 
indicating pollution, while they increased tremendously the 
signs governing the bacteriological side of the case. 
The bacteriologist sought for the Eberth bacillus, and 
very naturally quickly found it in a water purposely sown 
with the germ. 
The chemist looked for those elements which always 422 
IVA TER-SUPPL V. 
occur in sewage-laden water, whether the sewage be from 
sources of disease or otherwise, and, not finding them, he 
pronounced the water to be free from sewage addition. 
Sewage, as it occurs in practice, contains an immense 
deal of material other than that productive of disease, and it 
is upon just this comparatively harmless, but constantly 
present, material that the chemist relies for the indication 
upon which he bases his opinions. 
He is unable to say whether or not a sewage-laden water 
is disease-bearing on any particular date, for to him all 
sewage is alike, but he condemns the water, for the reason 
that, although it may be harmless to-day, it is impossible to 
predict what may be its condition to-morrow. 
Very recently the author was requested to make a 
bacteriological examination of the water of a certain well 
in order to determine if it were affected by neighboring cess- 
pools. 
The physician who made the request was impressed with 
belief in the paramount value of such an examination and 
the comparative uselessness of chemical analysis. 
It is quite certain that, had his suggestion been fol- 
lowed, the search would have been in vain for any specific 
microbe, but inasmuch as upon chemical analysis the “ chlo- 
rine” was found to run twenty-four parts per million, which 
is about ten times the local “ normal,” and the “ nitric nitro- 
gen ” nine parts per million in place of o. 116, the water was 
condemned offhand without going further. 
There is simply no comparison between the two methods 
in question for water problems of this class, and the value 
of chemistry is still more pronounced in those instances where 
it is possible to introduce common salt or lithium chloride 
into a source of suspected pollution, and then look for in- 
creased chlorine or presence of lithium in the water of the 
well. In legal cases touching upon this point of contami- BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
423 
nation of wells, by cemeteries, for instance, the chemical tes- 
timony is especially strong. 
In the matter of determining the suitability of a stream 
for city supply the services of the bacteriologist should be 
unquestionably secured, but it is doubtful if his report can 
be considered of more importance than that of the chemist. 
Chemical analysis, by comparing the water taken at the 
site of the proposed intake with that from the same stream 
above all points of possible pollution, can indicate whether 
or not up-stream contamination is felt at the lower point; 
nor is it necessary that the polluting sewage be from patho- 
genic sources in order that its presence may be recognized. 
As Dr. Dupre has pointed out, chemistry in such cases 
anticipates what may happen in the future, and, by timely 
advice, may prevent an outbreak of disease, while, on the 
other hand, the discovery of disease-germs in a water is only 
possible after the water has become infected. 
Bacteriology is of especial value, and greatly superior 
to chemistry, for the testing of filters and watching any 
variation in their efficiency. 
For this purpose the simple count of germs per cubic 
centimetre is most valuable, and differentiation is a secondary 
matter; for the assumption is a just one that a filter which 
will remove the harmless bacteria will take out the objection- 
able ones as well. 
It is very far from the writer’s desire to decry the value 
of bacteriology, but he cannot but feel that in their enthu- 
siasm over the great triumphs of the new science the people 
\ 
at large have gone slightly “ bacteria mad,” and are apt to 
expect more than can be furnished by the means and in- 
formation now available. 
When one considers the magnitude of the bacteriological 
field, it is manifestly out of the question, in a book of this 
scope, to go beyond a simple enumeration of the bacteria 424 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
present per cubic centimetre of a water under examination, 
leaving the problem of differentiation to be discussed by 
writers upon bacteriology. 
It has been asserted that the presence of a large num- 
ber of micro-organisms is no criterion of the quality of water, 
and that a mere enumeration of colonies is of little or no 
value. Without a thorough knowledge of all the accom- 
panying conditions such evidence is certainly insufficient, 
though, speaking in a general way, it may be accepted that 
numerous bacteria indicate the existence of a sufficient quan- 
tity of food, which, in water, is commonly of the nature of 
sewage. ‘ Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles 
be gathered together ’; or, to render the illustration more 
congruous, it may be said that a few weeds of a particularly 
hardy species may be found on poor soil, but, for number 
and variety, the ground must be rich. 
“ It is for the comparative examination, at different times 
and localities, of a water of known character, and for the 
detection of sewage contamination, that a bacterial enumera- 
tion is most useful.”* 
This is the same point which has already been made, 
when it was held that such examination is of great value 
for the watching of a filter-plant. 
Culture-jelly.—The following method of preparation of 
the jelly has been found very excellent by the writer. It 
was originally given him by Dr. Beebe, of the New York 
City Board of Health: 
Take one pound of lean beef, chop it fine, and let it soak 
overnight in 700 c.c. water. Strain through a cloth and 
make up to one litre with water. Add: 
* Engineering News, October 4, 1894. BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OE WATER. 
425 
Gelatine (best French) ioo grammes 
Peptone (Witte’s) io “ 
Common salt 5 “ 
Heat in a double-walled “ oatmeal-boiler” at a temperature 
between 350 and 40° C. until all is dissolved, then make 
very slightly alkaline by addition of sodic hydrate solution. 
Add the white of one egg, previously shaken up with about 
its own bulk of water, and stir thoroughly. Heat as rapidly 
as possible to boiling, stirring occasionally. Cover the mix- 
ture and keep the water in the outer vessel boiling during 
fifty minutes. 
Filter, with the use of the hot-water funnel, into test- 
tubes, placing about io c.c. in each tube. Plug the tubes 
with cotton and sterilize them in an Arnold’s sterilizer for 
fifteeii minutes on three successive days. 
It is best to make but one litre of the jelly at a time, as 
it does not keep well in stock. Old jelly has a tendency to 
become acid in reaction, which is unfavorable to the growth 
of certain bacteria. Some that is six months old at the 
present writing still gives good results, but its use is not to 
be recommended. 
Empty glassware is best sterilized by a single heating 
for one hour to 180° to 200° C. 
The i-c.c. pipettes used for the measurement of the 
water should be plugged with cotton near the end which is 
placed in the mouth; the whole pipette should then be placed 
in a suitable glass tube containing a cotton plug in its open 
end ; through such cotton plug the large end of the pipette 
is permitted to protrude. 
Pipettes so prepared may be sterilized, and maintained 
so in stock. 426 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
Water-samples are most conveniently taken in bulbs of 
glass (2\ inches diameter) with long thin stems, similar to the 
stock article in use for specific gravity 
determinations. These bulbs can be 
sterilized by the direct Bunsen flame and 
sealed while hot. Upon afterwards 
breaking off the point of the stem under 
water the water will enter the vessel be- 
cause of the partial vacuum, and the 
stem can be at once resealed in a candle- 
flame. 
Such bulbs are very convenient for 
taking deep samples, as the point of the 
stem can be broken by a separate string while the bulb is 
held by the sinking-apparatus. 
During transportation the bulbs filled with water-samples 
should be packed in ice. 
Upon arrival at the laboratory the base of the stem is 
cut through with red-hot carbon; i c.c. of the water, after 
agitation, is transferred, by means of a sterilized pipette, 
to a tube of culture-jelly (the jelly having been previously 
liquefied by immersing the tube in warm water, and the 
cotton plug having been held for a moment in the Bunsen 
flame); mixing is accomplished by tilting the tube forward 
and back, and the mixture is then quickly poured into a ster- 
ilized Petri dish inches diameter). After the jelly has 
again hardened the dish should be maintained, in the dark, 
at a temperature of about 22° C. 
Each individual bacterium, finding itself imbedded in 
material supplying abundance of food, proceeds to surround 
itself by a multitude of its offspring, until at length the 
“ colony” so produced becomes large enough to be seen by 
the naked eye. These colonies, each of which corresponds 
to one original bacterium, are of various sizes, as shown in BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER, 
427 
the accompanying illustration. Some of them do, and others 
do not, liquefy the gelatine. 
PETRI DISH, SHOWING COLONIES OF BACTERIA GROWING IN “ CULTURE-JELLY.” 
(Ohlmuller). 
Counting the colonies of bacteria is usually undertaken 
about forty-eight hours after the sowing, but it is well to 
delay it longer or to count sooner, according as the danger 
may be less or greater of the colonies growing into each 
other and thus confusing the count. 
When the number of the bacteria colonies is large, count- 
ing must be done with the aid of a ruled glass plate. The 
best device for this purpose with which the writer is familiar 
is one invented by a student of his, Mr. J. A. McPherson. 
It is a modification of the older form of counting-apparatus, 428 
WA IKR-S UPPL Y. 
but with a fixed upper plate of ruled glass and a lower sup- 
porting plate moved vertically by wedges. 
IMPROVED APPARATUS FOR COUNTING COLONIES OF BACTERIA 
An excellent counting-plate devised by another student 
of the writer’s is ruled in circles and sectors of circles instead 
of in squares. The difficulty of dealing with partial squares 
is thus avoided, and it is much easier to count over a specific 
fraction of the entire area of the Petri dish. 
The inverted Petri dish may be of any thickness, and 
yet be kept firm against the counting-plate, and consequently 
always within the focus of the lens. 
The method of sowing water-samples as given above 
is that in most common use, but a much superior manner 
of working is that practised first by Miquel, of Paris. He 
makes use of conical flasks, usually 2\ inches in diameter 
at the bottom, with a tubulated glass cap, ground at the BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WA TER. 
429 
joint. The tabulation is plugged with cotton. Such flasks 
receive io c.c. each of the culture-jelly when it is first made 
and are kept in stock like the test-tubes. 
Taken to the field, they may receive, on the 
spot, the i c.c. of water, and the chances of 
contamination during transfer to the Petri 
dish, and of multiplication during the jour- 
ney to the laboratory, are thereby avoided. 
Miquel never permits a greater number of colonies in one 
flask than can be counted with the unaided eye. He accom- 
plishes this result by first sowing one flask, as already stated; 
he then mixes i c.c. of the water with 9 c.c. of sterilized 
water and sows from that mixture, and afterwards mixes 1 
c.c. of the water with 99 c.c. of sterilized water and sows 
that mixture. Of course this must be done with great care, 
as any error is multiplied. 
Miquel does not usually count inside of two weeks, and, 
at times, waits even longer. 
Samples for bacteriological work are far more quickly 
damaged by keeping than are those intended for chemical 
analysis; thus: 
SPRING-WATER, TROY, N. Y. 
November 10 830 bacteria per c.c. 
“ 12 8,128 “ “ “ 
“ 13 9433 “ “ “ 
“ 15 12,740 “ “ “ 
Much more striking instances are given by Miquel. Thus 
for the Dhuis water: 
Temperature. Bacteria per c.c. 
12 noon 16.6° C. 57 
1-30 P*M 19-5° “ 143 
3 P.M 20-9° “ 456 430 
WA TER- S UPPL Y. 
For Vanne water: Temperature. Bacteria per c.c. 
Immediate 17° C. 56 
After 24 hours 21.2° “ 32,140 
Also for Vanne water: 
Immediate 15.90 “ 48 
After 2 hours 20.6° “ 125 
“ 1 day 2i.o° “ 38,000 
“ 2 days 20.5° “ 125,000 
“ 3 days 22.30 “ 590,000 
Deep-well water (Frankland) : 
Immediate 20° “ 7 
After i day 20° “ 21 
“ 3 days 20° “ 495,000 
The last instance shows that multiplication of bacteria is 
not to be accounted for by a simple increase of temperature. 
As has been already stated, it is exceedingly important 
to keep water-samples at freezing temperature during trans- 
portation to the laboratory. Germs do not commonly mul- 
tiply at such a temperature, but, as has been shown in 
France, this does not hold good for waters heavily charged 
with bacterial food. In'one instance “ sea-water, constantly 
maintained at o° C., changed in bacterial contents from 150 
to 520 per cubic centimetre in 24 hours.” 
On the other hand, great cold is not fatal to germ-life. 
Pictet and Yung, of Geneva, submitted a series of ordinary 
bacteria, furnished by Miquel, to a temperature below —ioo° 
C. during 36 hours without causing their destruction. 
The number of bacteria per cubic centimetre in water- 
samples taken from the same source at different times will 
greatly vary with the season and changes in local conditions. 
Thus the Hudson River water sampled at the Troy intake 
shows the following variation in bacterial contents during the BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
431 
colder half of the year; similar results for a Rensselaer 
County spring-water are also given: 
Hudson River. Spring. 
October 1,487 158 
( 626 
18,128 750 
November 
December 1,463 1,620 
January 4,022 2,519 
February 3,322 166 
March .... 8,520 
April 
( i,343 
\ 17,665 
4 76 
The influence of high water in the river is well shown by 
the difference between the early and late April samples. Sur- 
face-washing is the cause of such an increase. The effect of 
melting snow, and consequent surface-washing, is also shown 
in the March sample of spring-water. 
In general, it may be said that so long as a river is fed 
by springs, that is, during the hot months, the bacteria tend 
to remain low in numbers, but with the advent of floods 
germ-life increases in quantity, because of the washing of 
the surface of the ground by heavy rainfall and melting 
snow. During the period when severe frost ties up all sur- 
face sources the bacteria again diminish in numbers. 
Miquel gives the following averages for bacteria per cubic 
centimetre of Seine water taken at Ivry, and for the Vanne 
spring-water supply of Paris: 
Seine. Vanne. 
January 52,670 400 
February 43,120 1,625 
March 34,71® 1,560 
April 38,640 860 
May 12,930 720 
June 28,150 590 
July 14,130 865 
August 6,780 985 432 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Seine. Vanne. 
September 20,220 465 
October 22,350 495 
November 37,720 495 
December 78,950 525 
or 
Spring 26,570 720 
Summer 13,710 770 
Autumn 46,340 505 
Winter 43,500 1,200 
Annual mean 32>53Q 800 
The River Seine, unlike the Hudson, is not affected in 
the spring by the melting of great masses of northern snow. 
A well-water will often show great and irregular varia- 
tions in bacterial contents; thus Buchner cites the following 
case from Munich:* 
July 1 600 bacteria per c.c. 
“ 8 1,200 “ “ “ 
“ 15 '4,000 “ “ “ 
“ 21 80 “ “ “ 
“ 29 10,000 “ “ “ 
August 3 400 “ “ “ 
An interesting table is given in a French report, showing 
the variation in dissolved oxygen (parts per million) and in 
bacteria per cubic centimetre of Seine water during a flow 
of 87 miles, a large fraction of which flow is through the city 
of Paris: 
Dissolved Oxygen. Bacteria. 
Corbeil 12.5 14,000 
Choisy-le-Roi 10.8 67,000 
Auteuil 8.6 775,000 
Sevres 7.7 327,000 
Suresnes 7.6 252,000 
* “ Das Wasser,” Fischer, 36. BA C TERIOLOGICA L EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
433 
Dissolved Oxygen. Bacteria. 
Asnieres 7.6 401,000 
Clichy 6.6 
St. Ouen 5.8 2,040,000 
St. Denis 3.8 1,562,000 
Epinay 1.5 
Argenteuil 2.1 3,576,000 
Chaton 2.3 
Bougival 2.7 
Poissy 8.8 391,000 
Treil 10.1 
Meulan 11.7 
Mantes 12.8 307,000 
As has been said, Miquel permits only a few bacteria to 
enter the culture-jelly of a single flask, accomplishing this 
end by his system ot dilution, and he then waits at least 
two weeks before making the count. That this method has 
the great advantage of permitting slowly developing colonies 
to grow sufficiently to be recognized, which would be other- 
wise lost in the crowd of liquefying bacteria, is very evident 
from the following figures of Miquel. Out of 1000 bacteria 
in water, sowed in culture-jelly, the following numbers of 
colonies will appear on the successive days: 
1st day 20 colonies. 
2d “ 116 “ 
3d “ 118 “ 
4th “ 133 “ 
5th “ 143 « 
6th “ 107 “ 
7th “ 88 “ 
8th “ 55 “ 
9th “ 41 “ 
10th “ 38 “ 
nth “ 33 “ 
12th “ 29 “ 434 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
13th day 30 colonies. 
14th “ 25 “ 
15th “ 24 “ 
“ The complete analysis of a water may require from 
several weeks to several months of constant and difficult 
work; I may add that, in the present state of our knowl- 
edge, it is often impossible to complete it, for the reason 
that several of the species of bacteria we meet with are as 
yet unknown.” (Miquel.) 
As an expression of fifteen years of experience Miquel 
ventures to suggest the following classification of French 
waters, based upon the number of bacteria per cubic centi- 
metre : 
Excessively pure o to 10 
Very pure 10 to 100 
Pure 100 to i,ooo 
Medium 1,000 to 10,000 
Impure 10,000 to 100,000 
Very impure above 100,000 
Sterilizing a Water by heat is not so easy as most people 
imagine. Absolute sterility can be attained in about forty- 
five minutes by heating the water, under pressure, to 1150 C. 
Ordinary boiling for half an hour will destroy about 
99 per cent of all bacterial life, and, fortunately, that which 
remains is entirely harmless. No pathogenic germs are capa- 
ble of resisting such a temperature for half an hour, 
Experimenting with Seine water, which contained, at 
the ordinary temperature of 22° C., 848 bacteria per cubic 
centimeter, Miquel found the following decrease in numbers 
of germs as the temperature was raised: BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER. 
435 
Water Maintained 
15 Minutes at 
43° C 
50° “ 
6o° “ 
Bacteria per c.c 
Remaining. 
i32 
40 
70° “ 
27.2 
8o° “ 
QO° “ 
14.4 
IOO° “ 
5-2 
The following is a freely translated extract from Miquel’s 
“ Auto-infection of Waters 
“ When samples of various waters, pure and impure, are 
maintained at constant temperature, say 20° C., they behave 
very differently in the matter of the increase of their bac- 
terial contents. With pure waters the increase is rapid and 
temporary, while with impure waters it is slow and lasting. 
This fact appears to present great hygienic interest, for it 
shows that many waters are not only incapable of favoring 
the multiplication of certain organisms, but may be, for 
them, indifferent or even deadly media. 
“ The waters which are relatively the most nourishing to 
the known pathogenic organisms are the ‘ new ’ waters, 
that is to say, those waters which are slightly charged with 
bacteria, and which have never been the seat of large and 
sudden growths. Epidemics are more intense when the dis- 
ease is transmitted by waters which are ordinarily of a high 
degree of bacterial purity, by a ‘ new ’ water, for instance, 
which permits the disease-bacilli to multiply in great num- 
bers without difficulty. In the impure waters, such as have 
supported many generations of various bacteria, there have 
been secreted, during the existence of these organisms, cer- 
tain toxins which oppose the further multiplication of germs, 
if they do not rapidly kill them.” 
. Whatever may be the exact nature of the toxins referred 
to, they seem to be readily volatile. If water be slowly 436 
IVA TER-SUPPL V 
distilled, in specially constructed apparatus, at 30° to 350 C.,. 
such a distillate will not support bacterial life. Thus, when 
SHOWING RELATIVE RAPIDITY OF BACTERIAL GROWTH IN PURE (DHUIS) 
AND IMPURE (OURCQ) WATERS 
inoculated with germs from the dust in 1650 litres of labo 
ratory air, the counts per cubic centimetre were as follows: 
Immediate 75 bacteria per c.c. 
After 6 days 7 “ “ “ 
“ 16 “ 1.5 “ “ “ 
<< 2 “ 15“ (t 4* 
In contrast with this note the rapid increase following the BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OE WATER. 
437 
addition of the dust from 20 litres of air to river-water pre- 
viously sterilized in the ordinary manner. 
Immediate 6.5 bacteria per c.c. 
After 7 days 750,000 “ “ “ 
“ 10 “ 900,000 “ “ “ 
“ 31 “ 1,675,000 “ “ “ 
“ 90 “ 62,500 “ “ “ 
“ 119 “ 86,750 “ “ “ 
“ 272 “ 48,000 “ “ “ 
Note also the decrease in germ-life as the bacterial toxins 
accumulate. 
Cramer’s observations upon water from Lake Zurich also 
show the same decline in bacterial life through long keeping 
of samples: 
Immediate 143 bacteria per c.c. 
After 1 day 12,45 7 “ “ “ 
“ 3 days 328,543 “ “ “ 
“ 8 “ 233,452 “ “ “ 
“ 17 “ 17,436 “ “ “ 
“ 70 “ 2,500 “ “ “ 
For the enumeration of organisms, not bacteria, in water Mr. Geo. W. 
Rafter proposes the following improvement upon the method employed by 
Prof. Sedgwick : He filters a measured quantity (500 c.c. or 1000 c.c.) of the 
water through a small plug of sand held in the lower portion of a lunnel-siem, 
and then rinses the sand, and its collection, into a test-tube. After settling of 
the sand the liquid is decanted into another test-tube, and diluted to a known 
volume. After stirring 1 c.c. of the liquid is transferred to a special counting 
cell (50 X 20 X 1 millimetre), which it just fills. A cover-glass is floated upon 
the top, and the cell bottom is ruled into 1000 squares one millimetre on a side. 
Counting is thus rendered easy. CHAPTER XII. 
QUANTITY OF PER CAPITA DAILY SUPPLY. 
The following table is condensed from a very complete 
one, issued recently as a supplement to the Water and Gas 
Review : 
City, 
Population. 
Total Cost of 
Furnishing One 
Million Gallons 
of Water. 
Daily Con- 
sumption 
per Capita, 
Gallons. 
Rate Charged 
per Thousand 
Gallons, 
Cents. 
New York, N. Y 
1,900,000 
1,800,000 
1,200,000 
1,000,000 
574.569 
558,400 
500,000 
366,000 
300,000 
300,000 
257,000 
250,000 
230,000 
200,000 
188,000 
160,000 
150,000 
150,000 
145,700 
115,000 
105,000 
105,000 
106,000 
100,000 
98,000 
90,000 
90,000 
90,000 
87,773 
87,000 
80,000 
76,000 
70,000 
70,000 
65,000 
about $50 
92 
131 
143 
IOO 
75 
92 
12* 
8 to 10 
4 
7* to ii| 
10 to 30 
15 to 17* 
5i 
4.8 
2* to 6 
8* to 16* 
3i to 6* 
about $100 
220 
217 
124 
140 
105 
177 
80 
100 
$32 
about $40 
6 to 15 
12* 
10 to 35 
10 to 20 
20 
14 
5 to 25 
60 
48 
74 
247 
$160 
$26.35 
$70.89 
6 to 25 
12* 
3 to 10 
164 
70 
162 
88 
151 
130 
28 
75 
125 
53 
43 
200 
$30.70 
3i to 15 
7 to 15 
7} to 30 
$44.00 
$50.00 
$80 to $100 
$30.00 
8 
20 to 40 
20 
5 
Troy, N. Y.. QUANTITY OF PER CAPITA DAILY SUPPLY. 
439 
City. 
Population. 
Total Cost of 
Furnishing One 
Million Gallons 
of Water. 
Daily Con- 
sumption 
per Capita, 
Gallons. 
Rate Charged 
per Thousand 
Gallons, 
Cents. 
Charleston, S. C 
64,000 
62,000 
Saginaw, Mich 
60,000 
$13.25 
IOO 
6 to II 
New Bedford, Mass ... 
55,000 
$-13-59 
99 
2| to 15 
Manchester, N. H 
51,000 
$67.00 
50 
20 
Birmingham, Ala 
50,000 
Covington, Ky 
50,000 
$120.00 
62 
8 to 18 
Utica, N. Y 
Springfield, Mass 
87 
Harrisburg, Pa 
Augusta, Ga 
40, OOO 
Sioux City, Iowa 
40,000 
$45-oo 
43 
10 to 25 
Holyoke, Mass 
40, OOO 
77 
Binghamton, N. Y... 9-. ... 
38,000 
5 to 25 
To these data may be added the following figures, show- 
ing daily consumption in U. S. gallons per capita: 
Paris (spring-water supply only) ... 20 
Hamburg 26 
London (for all uses*) 44 
“ (for domestic use) 7! 39 
The average daily per capita supply for the cities and 
towns of New Jersey f for 1893 was 99 gallons. (See table 
top of page 440.) 
The nine large conduits of Rome at the time of Nero 
delivered 173,000,000 gallons daily. Afterwards the in- 
creased supply furnished 312,000,000 gallons daily, or over 
300 gallons per capita per day. 4; 
Upon glancing over such data as have been given for 
cities of the United States, and bearing in mind how often 
* The entire daily supply for London during August, 1893, averaged 
245,000,000 U. S. gallons, 
f Report of State Geologist. 
f 52d Congress, Sen. Doc. 41, part 1, page 431. For Forbes’s estimate see 
page 5- WA TER-S UPPL V. 
USE OF WATER IN SOME GERMAN CITIES (GALLONS PER 
CAPITA DAILY). 
(After Brackett.) 
Place. 
Population. 
Consump- 
tion. 
Place. 
Population.^ 
A Ilona 
156,soo 
26.07 
Barmen 
118,500 
33 • 59 
74,500 
34.78 
Berlin 
1,606,424 
16.37 
Kiel 
Bonn 
52,000 
Breslau 
335.QOO 
21.71 
Magdeburg 
198,000 25.24 
Chemnitz 
I39^74 
11.50 
Cologne 
255,000 
45-22 
Nuremburg 
145,000 17-41 
Crefeld 
105,712 
iS. 52 
Danzig 
107,085 
26.70 
280,200 
21.54 
Stuttgart * 
155,900 
22 . IO 
Elberfeld 
137,000 
29.92 
Wurzburg 
6I.0321 35.50 
Frankfort 
186,000 
36.26 
96,650 56.71 
48,200 
41.46 
Hamburg 
583,700 
58.00 
Average 
1 27.69 
the water furnished our towns is inferior in character, one 
is impressed with the thought that we Americans are much 
more concerned about the quantity of the supply than about 
its quality. 
There is no question but that our allowance is unreason- 
ably large. Fifty gallons is considered a generous amount 
per individual in Europe, but it would be considered quite a 
small allowance here in America. 
If we had but an increased cleanliness to show for our 
great use of water, there would be a measure of compensa- 
tion for the additional cost, but the writer confesses to an 
inability to detect wherein our American cities exceed the 
European capitals in this particular. 
Mr. D. Brackett makes the following analysis of the daily 
uses of water: 
“ The quantity needed for domestic use is not more than 
30 gallons per inhabitant, and in communities where the 
number of water-fixtures is small in proportion to the popu- QUANTITY OF PER CAPITA DAILY SUPPLY. 
441 
CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA IN BOSTON, BROOKLINE, NEWTON, 
FALL RIVER, WORCESTER, YONKERS, AND LONDON, AS 
DETERMINED BY METER MEASUREMENT. 
City or Town. 
1 Number of 
Houses. 
Number of 
Families. 
Number of 
Persons. 
Consump- 
tion, 
Gallons per 
Remarks. 
Family. 
Capita. 
1 
Roston 
.3' 
402 
1.461 
221 
59 
Highest cost apartment-houses in the city. 
Boston 
40 
628 
2.524 
<85 
46 
First-class apartment-houses. 
Bos-on 
223 
2,204 
8,432 
,23 
32 
Moderate class apartment houses. 
Boston 
39 
4>3 
1,844 
80 
16.6 
Poorest class apartment-houses. 
Boston 
339 
3.647 
14,261 
139 
35-6 
Average of all apartment-houses supplied by 
meter. 
40 
T 
828 
00 r r 
Newton 
490 
490 
2,45° 
132-5 
26.5 
All houses supplied with modern plumbing. 
6.6 
Newton 
278 
1,390 
34-5 
6.9 
These families have but one faucet each. 
Fall River 
28 
34 
170 
727-5 
25 5 
The mast expensive houses in the city. 
Fall River 
64 
148 
740 
42.0 
8.4 
Average class of houses, generally having 
bath and water-closet. 
Fall River 
70,000 
12.3 
Total domestic consumption. 
l6.8 
Worcester 
’ 81 
327 
80.2 
19.9 
Woodland street, best class of houses. 
Worcester 
37 
187 
118.1 
23-4 
Cedar street, best class of houses. 
t Tr»4 
229 
55-o 
Austin street, cheaper houses. 
Yonkers, N. Y. 
31,000 
21.4 
London, Eng.. 
1169 
8,183 
25-5 
Houses renting from $250 to $600; each have 
bath and two water-closets. 
London, Eng.. 
727 
5,089 
18.6 
Middle class ; average rental, $200. 
lation supplied a smaller quantity will answer all require- 
ments. For business, mechanical and manufacturing uses, 
the amount per capita will differ very largely in different 
cities, and for various reasons. It is not probable, however, 
that the actual requirement exceeds 40 gallons per capita in 
any of our large cities. 
“ The quantity needed for public use is not more than 5 
gallons, making a total of 75 gallons as the maximum quan- 
tity needed for actual nse, without any allowance for waste. ’’ * 
The quantity of water delivered to our American cities 
is not only great, but is distinctly increasing, as is shown 
by the statistics collected by Brackett: 
* Jour. Am. Soc. C. E. xxxiv. Y85. 442 
IVA TER-S UP PL Y. 
DAILY AVERAGE CONSUMPTION OF WATER IN GALLONS PER 
Years. 
Boston, 
Cochi- 
tuate 
Works. 
Boston, 
Mystic 
Works. 
Chi- 
cago. 
Phila- 
delphia 
Brook- 
lyn. 
St. 
Louis. 
Cincin- 
nati. 
Cleve- 
land. 
De- 
troit. 
c 
o 
1850 
139,800 
29,963 
121,376 
96,838 
77,860 
”5.435 
27,034 
2I,OTQ 
i860 
177,900 
112,172 
565.529 
266,661 
160,773 
161,044 
43,427 
45,619 
1- 
1870 
225,100 
87,071 
298,997 
674,022 
396,099 
310,864 
216,039 
92,829 
79,577 
a 
1880 
306,000 
107,700 
503.285 
847.170 
s66,66^ 
350,518 
255.139 
160,146 
116,340 
O 
p« 
4ioi13° 
117,500 
1,099,850 
1,046,964 
806,343 
45I>77° 
296,908 
262,353 
205,876 
i860 
97 
43 
36 
3° 
14 
52 
1865 
66 
27 
42 
5° 
29 
29 
22 
55 
1870 
66 
44 
73 
55 
47 
48 
31 
64 
1871 
6O 
56 
72 
55 
47 
53 
36 
76 
1872 
63 
70 
74 
54 
53 
45 
54 
4° 
88 
c 
*873 
72 
77 
88 
56 
59 
5i 
5° 
43 
98 
<874 
72 
73 
96 
58 
54 
55 
55 
45 
97 
a 
•875 
69 
86 
IOO 
69 
59 
6l 
60 
44 
120 
B 
1876 
71 
80 
103 
57 
62 
68 
49 
III 
s 
'877 
72 
75 
58 
59 
66 
64 
56 
III 
§ 
■878 
80 
76 
123 
64 
58 
67 
66 
52 
no 
(J 
1879—..... 
87 
88 
66 
60 
72 
68 
63 
125 
<u 
1880 
87 
87 
112 
68 
54 
72 
76 
65 
230 
u 
1881 
94 
80 
71 
56 
76 
87 
77 
145 
V- 
1882 
95 
73 
no 
76 
58 
76 
69 
68 
132 
> 
1883 
97 
74 
76 
58 
75 
66 
76 
146 
< 
1884 
73 
65 
114 
74 
6l 
63 
74 
83 
259 
1885 
73 
68 
Il6 
72 
64 
67 
64 
93 
176 
"rt 
1886 
74 
72 
118 
80 
65 
73 
74 
91 
176 
a 
1887 
80 
72 
120 
89 
65 
73 
88 
96 
197 
1888 
87 
75 
119 
IOO 
67 
74 
99 
95 
204 
1889 
81 
69 
123 
no 
67 
73 
99 
99 
172 
1890 
83 
7i 
127 
132 
68 
78 
”5 
106 
155 
1891 
90 
75 
135 
140 
70 
82 
>38 
III 
144 
1892 
96 
79 
234 
'43 
79 
89 
123 
118 
140 
1893 
107 
86 
H7 
150 
86 
95 
124 
130 
148 
89 
The simple, useless waste of water in our cities is some- 
thing enormous. In Chicago, Cleveland, Philadelphia, and 
Detroit the probable waste is fixed at about 50 per cent, 
while in Buffalo the enormous figure of 70 per cent is given 
by the city engineer. The waste for New York City is given 
as “at least 40 per cent ” by the Water and Gas Review. 
That the great bulk of this waste could be saved by 
meter measurement is an already demonstrated fact, and the 
fixing of a minimum daily allowance of water, for which the 
consumer would have to pay, whether he used it or not, 
would remove the objections that might be raised to meters 
upon sanitary grounds. The author has corresponded with 
city health officers in various parts of the country, with a QUANTITY OF PER CAPITA DAILY SUPPLY. 
443 
CAPITA PER DAY IN VARIOUS CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. 
Year. 
Population. Daily Average Consumption. 
mil i 
!>f 
II 
I8yo 
'1 
III 
mu § i fin |i itino 
i 
Salem. 
Jim 
Sift 5} S S 85*5 >8 £ v? £ £3 #£<2 8 
New 
Bed- 
ford. 
Ml! 
: : : : : $ £ *R £S &88 3. 
Lynn. 
mu 
5- 3- %■ S, S, & S S. % £5- =3- 3 5 ¥ $ 5} S 
Cam- 
bridge. 
?2S'S-A'M<S\8 S <8 S. 
i»g 
: 2 <3 S"S ST ST'S R'ftR'8'8 S'ST" S“S ; 
Lowell. 
5518 
! : ?S'9. %%%% SCRK 
Provi- 
dence. 
Blft 
i it's ».aas{^3iS!S5S5^i^s>5 
Louis- 
ville. 
mi* 
I'S S’5 S g K 
Mil- 
wau- 
kee. 
81 
: : g'J'ig S 8*8 ErS"2 5? 
• • M*"»WM*«*WWHMMMHWW 
view of determining what, if any, is the effect of the meter 
system upon public health, arising from an attempt on the 
part of the poorer classes to economize in the use of water. 
The reply from Providence, R. I., is quite typical: “ I do 
not find that it diminishes the proper use of water in the 
slightest degree. Its only tendency Is to diminish waste. 
There is in my opinion no objection, from a sanitary point 
of view, to the use of meters.” 
How great the useless waste of water may be is well 
shown by Mr. F. Crosby,* who has prepared a somewhat 
lengthy table of daily per capita supplies before and after 
* Jour. Am. Water-works Asso., 1895, page 90. 444 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
such waste was stopped. Taking an average of twenty of 
the numerous cases quoted, the per capita figures stand: 
Before repairs were made lS72 gallons 
After “ “ “ 281 
The experience of Mr. Dexter Brackett leads him to be 
“ of the opinion that it is not practicable to reduce the waste 
below 15 gallons per capita in our large cities, and that it 
cannot be maintained at that figure except by the universal 
use of water-meters, aided by Deacon meters or some similar 
device for detecting leaks in the street mains. In cities 
where water-meters are not generally used the quantity 
wasted will be from 20 to 100 gallons per capita, as the in- 
spection of mains and house-fixtures is mote or less rigid.” 
” The following-named cities are fair illustrations as to 
prevention of waste as shown by the use or absence of a 
meter system: 
“ Atlanta, 89.6 per cent, metered, 36 gallons per capita. 
“ Fall River, 74.6 per cent, metered, 29 gallons per 
capita. 
“ Allegheny City, no meters, 238 gallons per capita. 
“ Buffalo, r2(> per cent metered, 186 gallons per capita. 
“ Richmond, 1.4 per cent metered, 167 gallons per 
capita. 
“ Detroit, 2.1 per cent metered, 161 gallons per capita. 
“ Halifax, with one half the population of Fall River, has 
three times the per capita consumption.” * 
A spirit of prophecy must certainly enter the engineer 
who would accurately determine the future population of 
a city in order to provide sufficiently for its water-supply. 
In a paper read before Section I, American Association 
for the Advancement of Science, at Springfield, Mass., 
* Water and Gas Review. QUANTITY OF PER CAPITA DAILY SUPPLY. 
445 
September 3, 1895, Mr. E. L. Corthell dealt exhaustively 
with the growth of population of great cities and graphically 
illustrated the several densities and curves of increase. 
“ Recapitulating the statements in regard to ratio of in- 
crease at present in the several cities noted, the following 
summary is given: 
PRESENT PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE PER DEDADE, 
London 10.4 
Greater London 18.0 
New York 33.3 
Paris 10.0 
“ average last three decades 12.7 
Chicago,... 106.5 
Berlin 37.0 
Philadelphia 25.0 
St. Petersburg 15.0 
“ Even with the problematic conditions disturbing the 
future, there is sufficient ground on which to rest a predic- 
tion of population, which the author has the temerity to 
make, as follows: 
City. 
Est. pop. in 
1900. 
Est. pop. in 
1910. 
Est. pop. in 
1920. 
Greater London 
7,470,400 
8,516,256 
London 
4,967,784 
5.315-528 
New York 
4,953,000 
6,191,250 
Paris 
.... 2,697,300 
2,967,030 
3,234,063 
Berlin 
2,731,820 
3,496,729 
Chicago 
4,560,000 
8,208,000 
Philadelphia 
.... 1,414,500 
1,697,400 
2,002,932 
St. Petersburg 
1.339.728 
1,500,495 
As supplementary to what is found on page 438 relating 
co rates charged for water the following is given as applying 
to eleven cities that have adopted the general meter system : * 
* Water and Gas Review. 446 
WA TER-SUPPL y. 
San Francisco, Cal.. 
Rate. 
2I-J tO 40C. 
Per Galls. 
IOOO 
Minimum. 
$19.00 
Providence, R. I.... 
15 
“ 20 
a 
10.00 
Fall River, Mass 
IO 
“ 28 
a 
16.00 
Hoboken, N. J 
I5f 
“ 23^ 
u 
13.00 
Yonkers, N. Y 
5i 
“ 26^ 
it 
13.00 
Pawtucket, R. I 
6 
“ 30 
a 
10.00 
Newton, Mass 
12 
“ 35 
a 
10.00 
Woonsocket, R. I,.. 
IO 
“ 30 
u 
10.00 
Bayonne, N. Y . 
i3i 
“ 23i 
H 
Fitchburg, Mass 
5 
“ 35 
u 
Madison, Wis 
6» 
“ 26% 
a 
5.00 
A city ordinance of Brooklyn, N. Y., reads as follows : 
“ All water used for manufacturing purposes shall be 
charged for at the rate of one cent per one hundred gallons, 
or seven and one half cents per one hundred cubic feet, 
meter measurement. All water furnished and used for other 
purposes shall be charged and paid for at a rate of one and 
one half cents per hundred gallons, or eleven and one quarter 
cents per one hundred cubic feet, meter measurement, pro- 
vided, however, that in cases where an annual supply of 
water for a given purpose exceeds in cost the sum of one 
thousand dollars, meter measurement, such supply of water 
shall be furnished and paid for at the rate charged for manu- 
facturing purposes." 
In Paris the spring-water supply is charged for at the 
rate of 35 centimes (7 cents) per cubic metre (264 U. S. 
gallons), with special reduction for the small houses of work- 
ing-men. CHAPTER XIII. 
ACTION OF WATER UPON METALS: TANKS, PIPES, 
CONDUITS, BOILERS, ETC. 
Lead.—Max Muller finds that the action of soft water on 
lead depends upon the relative amounts of oxygen and car- 
bon dioxide present in solution. Distilled water, free from 
carbon dioxide, but containing oxygen, hardly acts upon 
lead, and water containing carbon dioxide, but no oxygen, 
is also without action; yet waters containing a fixed amount 
of dissolved oxygen, and varying amounts of carbon dioxide, 
were found to act upon lead with an energy which increased 
directly as the amount of carbon dioxide present, up to a 
certain limit, after passing which the addition of more carbon 
dioxide diminished the action upon the lead and finally 
stopped it altogether.* 
A. H. Allen finds by experiment that distilled water, 
acting overnight on bright lead, will contain lead carbonate 
an amount equal to 5.83 grains per U. S. gallon, f 
Sulphuric acid, even in very small quantity, will, con- 
trary to former opinion, increase the action of ordinary (not 
distilled) water on lead. Allen believes X the leading cause 
of the action of potable waters on lead to be the presence of 
a trace of some free acid.§ 
*J. Chem. Soc. LIV. 225. 
f Chem. News, xlvi. 145. 
f 100 parts per million. 
§ Lead water-service pipes at Kingston, Mass., have been declared danger- 
ous by the State Board of Health, according to reports. It is stated that the 
water contains a sufficient amount of acid to liberate the lead from the pipes, 
thus charging the water with this poison. 448 
WA TEK-SUPPL Y. 
Mr. Scattery, of England, has made some investigations 
relative to the influence of peaty material in causing an acid 
reaction in water and a consequent action upon lead. The 
plumbo-solvency of a troublesome water of this class in use 
at Wakefield, England, has been entirely removed by the 
use of carbonate of soda. 
A paper by Dr. Thompson before the British Medical 
Association in 1890 stated that Sheffield had a double supply 
of water: a high-level supply gathered from a damp peaty 
ground and delivered in an open conduit; and a second one, 
uncontaminated with vegetable material, and which flowed in 
a closed conduit. The former of these waters acted on lead 
pipe, and the latter did not. Many persons had died in 
Yorkshire from lead poisoning.* 
The medical officer of health for Eccleshill, England, 
reports that the water-supply of the district contains lead to 
the average quantity of % grain per imperial gallon.f Iron 
pipe is being substituted for all new services in the district.^; 
This entire question of the action of moorland and peaty 
waters upon lead is being investigated by the London Local 
Government Board, England. 
That all peaty waters act on lead must not be inferred, 
as some very brown ones, notably from New Jersey, are 
without such action. 
In a general way, it may be said that soft Waters attack, 
and hard waters protect, lead, but this rule is not without 
numerous exceptions, and one interesting exception is the 
fact that permanently hard water tends to attack the metal 
rather than to protect it. Waters of acid reaction take lead 
into solution, while those of neutral or alkaline character 
hold the basic hydrate or basic carbonate in suspension. As 
the latter class of waters often attack lead quite vigorously, 
* Report Surg. Gen. U. S. Navy, 1890. 
f 2.38 parts per million. J Ghent. News, lxx. 222. ACTION OF WATER UPON METALS. 
449 
the quantity of lead actually imbibed with an unfiltered 
water of this class may be considerably larger than in the 
case of a water where the lead is in solution. 
There is often some question as to what produces the 
acidity of a particular water, but one eminent investigator 
believes that nitric acid is very commonly the cause. Cer- 
tain it is- that nitrates are ordinarily present in waters which 
attack lead.* 
A very marked difference commonly exists between the 
action of the same water upon new, bright lead, and upon 
that which is dull from exposure, i.e., “ old lead.” 
Thus the writer found the following amounts of the metal 
(partly dissolved and partly suspended) in city rain-water 
which had been stored three and a half months in contact 
with lead-surfaces of the above description: 
Old lead 3.65 parts per million 
New lead 58.10 “ “ “ 
The important lesson derived from this is that lead-lined 
tanks for storage of rain-water, such are so often seen in the 
* Instances are on record of lead pipes having been in use during many 
years without having been acted upon by the water passing through them. 
Thus Fischer cites a case where the pipes had served over 200 years without 
action. An interior incrustation on a lead pipe which had been in use for 
conveying water at Andernach during a period of 300 years, was found to con- 
sist of : 
PbO 73-962 
BiOa 0.453 
CdO 0.120 
CuO 0.323 
FeaOa 1.552 
AUO, 1.035 
CaO 1.095 
MgO 0.283 
PjOj 8.446 
co2 1.110 
Cl 1-2541 
Organic matter. 0.388 
SiOa and clay 4-399' 
Water 6.141 
100.561 
The organic matter was said to have been caused by eels which had beem 
formerly employed to clear the pipe from material which had clogged it. 
Chem. Soc. xxxvm. 198.) 450 
tVA TER-SUPPL V. 
country, may grossly contaminate the water, especially while 
new, by diffusing throughout their contents the solid lead 
compounds formed by the action of the water. This form 
of contamination may be much greater than that arising from 
the lead actually in solution; but either form is bad, and if 
lead cisterns or storage-tanks be deemed necessary they 
should always be carefully painted on the inside with a good 
carbon (non-metallic) paint, and should be frequently in- 
spected.* 
In this connection may be mentioned the danger of hav- 
ing a suction-pipe of unprotected lead leading to the bottom 
of the domestic well or the cement-lined cistern. 
As already said, all waters do not act upon lead, and 
some very quickly form upon the metal a permanent pro- 
tective coating; but, in order to decide in which class to 
place any given water, it is much better to settle the ques- 
tion by direct experiment, such as permitting two samples 
of the water to stand in contact with bright and with dull 
metal, afterwards estimating the lead in each sample by the 
method already given, rather than to theorize upon the basis 
of the composition of the water. 
Carbonate of calcium is very efficient in protecting lead 
from attack. 
Crookes, Odling, and Tidy have shown also the great pro- 
tecting power of calcium silicate, and their belief is that water 
becomes lead-proof when the contained silica amounts to 
about 7 parts per million.f 
Where circumstances permit, an excellent method of 
checking the lead-dissolving powers of a soft water for city 
*It is thought that as little as grain of lead to the gallon has caused 
sickness, but grain is usually considered as the outside permissible limit.” 
(Taylor on Poisons.) 
t /• Soc. Chem. Ind. vil. 15. ACTION OF WA TEA UPON METALS. 
451 
supply is to admit to the reservoir or mains a suitable quan- 
tity of pure, temporarily hard spring-water. The amount 
of such spring-water required would depend upon its com- 
position, but would be probably very small. 
Zinc.—Galvanized-iron pipe is now so largely employed 
for carrying water that the possibility of the zinc coating 
being attacked has become an important question. 
Haines reports the presence of large quantities of zinc 
in water from a deep rock-drilled well near Philadelphia.* 
The outer casing, as well as the inner tube, are of galvanized 
iron. The water contained: 
Free ammonia 4.73 
Albuminoid ammonia .08 
Chlorine 8 
Nitrates trace 
Zinc 53.7 
Total residue 155 
Note that the nitrates probably present originally in the 
water have been reduced by the “zinc-iron couple” to 
ammonia. 
A similar case of reduction is given by Heaton.f 
The spring-water forming the public supply of Cwmfelin 
is carrried through half a mile of galvanized-iron pipe. The 
influence of such carriage upon the character of the water 
is shown by the analyses here quoted: 
At Spring. At Delivery. 
Free ammonia none .114 
Nitrogen as nitrate .8 none 
Total residue 154-3 270 
Zinc carbonate none 91.6 
An examination made by the writer of a rain-water which 
*J. Fk. Inst., November, 1890. 
f Chern. News, xlix. 85. 452 
WA TER-SUPPL y. 
had been stored in a galvanized-iron tank during four and a 
half months 'showed 20.9 parts metallic zinc per million of 
water. 
As in the case of lead, it is better to experimentally de- 
termine the action of a given water upon zinc, rather than to 
attempt to predict the same from a knowledge of the compo- 
sition of the water. 
Unlike lead, zinc is not a cumulative poison, therefore 
the presence of the metal in very small quantities is not so 
objectionable. There are not a few authorities who claim 
that zinc poisoning, through the use of water, has not been 
proven, although P. F. Frankland reports such a case arising 
from the use of water from a shallow, sewage-polluted well. 
Waters from such wells were long ago shown to act quickly 
upon zinc.* 
In the Analysty IV. 51, is a report of an analysis of the 
spring-water supply of Tuttendorf, Germany. The zinc 
present corresponds to .007 part of the oxide per million,, 
yet this water has been in use a century. 
With reference to the action upon health of the Cwmfelin 
supply, spoken of above, no report is forthcoming. 
The great insolubility of those compounds of zinc com- 
monly formed by the action of water upon the metal con- 
stitutes a material safeguard in its use. 
Dr. Boardmanf believes that oxide of zinc, as it occurs 
in drinking-water, is absolutely harmless. He says the same 
of the carbonate. As to salts in solution, he adds: “ Ad- 
mitting, then, that water which has been stored in reservoirs 
or drawn through pipes of galvanized iron always contains 
zinc in solution, in the form of one or more of its salts, the 
innocuity of those salts, in the quantities in which they occur, 
* Rivers Pollution Commission, 6th Report, 
f Report Mass. Board of Health, 1874. ACT/OIV OF WATER UPON METALS. 
453 
is attested by the experience and experiments of distin- 
guished observers.” 
He further says: “ At least with water fit for drinking 
purposes in other respects the contained zinc salts in solution 
-do not exert any deleterious effects upon the human system. 
Even if all the zinc in solution were in the form of chloride, 
the most active poison of the zinc salts, the anjount would 
still be insufficient to endanger health.” * 
However willing most of us may be to agree with the 
doctor in his first remarks, it would be doubtful policy to 
follow him to the extent of this final statement. 
There is reason to believe that certain waters can furnish 
dangerous quantities of zinc, and the use of galvanized iron 
for transmission of a water-supply should not be decided 
upon until chemical examination has shown the water in 
question to be without material action upon the zinc coating. 
Iron.—When present, this metal is ordinarily in the water 
before it enters the distributing-mains, and is not a result 
of action upon the iron pipes. Chalybeate waters hold the 
iron in solution as a carbonate, and inasmuch as j grain of 
the metal per gallon will give a distinct taste, it would be 
difficult to make such a supply popular with the public, 
even were the water not unsuited to a variety of uses, such 
as dyeing and washing. 
Such action as takes place upon the iron mains does not 
cause deterioration of the water carried in them, except in 
instances where the pipes lie empty a portion of the time, 
as when a surface pipe is drained in winter to avoid freezing. 
Iron corrodes very rapidly under such circumstances, and, 
* The chloride is perhaps the most poisonous of the ordinary salts of zinc; 
and yet, although small doses have killed, very large doses have been recovered 
from. In one instance, known to the writer, a glassful of the solution was 
taken in mistake for Hunyadi water. Vomiting immediately ensued and very 
serious illness followed, but the final recovery was complete. 454 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
when the water is turned on again in the spring, the iron 
oxide stains it for a considerable time. 
Cast iron pipes corrode more quickly in water containing 
an admixture of salt; this is seen in the street mains laid 
near the New York docks. “ The life of a pipe is very short 
in such locality, and sixteen to twenty-five years is probably 
the limit of service.” * 
The following abstract from Trautwine deals with the 
special action of sea-water upon iron: 
“ Genl. Pasley examined cannon and other metal from 
the wreck of the Edgar, which had been sunk in sea-water 
for one hundred and thirty-three years, and reports that 
‘ the cast iron had generally become quite soft, and in some 
cases resembled plumbago. Some of the shot, when ex- 
posed to the air, became hot, and burst into many pieces. 
The wrought iron was not so much injured, except when in 
contact with copper or brass gun-metal. Neither of these 
last was much affected, except when in contact with iron.” 
H. M. Howe gives the following in his “ Metallurgy of 
Steel”: 
LOSS OF WEIGHT IN POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT OF EXPOSED 
SURFACE PER ANNUM. 
Exposed to the 
Weather Inland. 
Immersed in 
Average. 
Canada. 
New York 
State. 
Fresh 
Water. 
Sewage. 
Wrought iron, black—i.e., 
unprotected 
.0013 
.0226 
.1370 
. 1690 
.0825 
Cast iron, black—i.e., un- 
protected 
.0063 
.0120 
.1483 
.2724 
. 1066 
There is a tendency with most waters to form what are 
Known as tubercles upon the inside of iron water-mains. 
* Jour. Am. Water-works Asso. XII. 27. ACTION OF WATER UPON METALS. 
455 
These are irregular projections, representing gradual accu- 
mulation, and consist largely of hydrated oxide of iron, at 
times mixed with some carbonate. The evil resulting from 
their presence is the material lessening of the delivering 
capacity of the main. 
In a paper by Mr. James Duane, in the transactions of 
the Am. Soc. C. E. for January, 1893, the deductions are 
as follows: 
“ (1) An uncoated main conveying water of the general 
chemical composition of the Croton will become badly tuber- 
culated in seven years, or probably much less. 
“ (2) That having reached a certain stage no further de- 
terioration takes place. 
“ (3) That in a 48-inch main (uncoated) the discharging 
capacity is reduced about 30 per cent (by tuberculation); 
or, to put it another way, tar coating at present prices is 
worth about $20,000 per mile. 
“ (4) That a properly applied tar coating is an absolute 
protection against tuberculation, a 48-inch main after eleven 
years’ service showing as high a coefficient as when first 
brought into use.” 
Exception was taken during the discussion of this paper 
to the statements concerning the arresting of the tubercula- 
tion process, for which the reader is referred to the original 
article.* The “ tar coating” is thus described in the Engi- 
neering News, September 26, 1895 : 
“ Dr. Angus Smith patented his process in England about 
* A piece of 6-inch cast-iron water-pipe, laid in 1822, was recently examined 
by Mr. John C. Trautwine, Jr., chief engineer of the Water Bureau of Phila- 
delphia. He found the thickness of the iron about the same as when laid, the 
outside showing little effect from rust, though the pipe was not dipped in any 
preservative compound before laying. The inside, however, was incrusted 
with a compound of oxide of iron and graphite, which occupied about one fifth 
of the total cross-section of the pipe. Practically no incrustation was found in 
a pipe laid in 1874; but this pipe had been coated inside and out before laying. 456 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
1850, and it was applied to the first coated pipes used in the 
United States, imported from Glasgow in 1858. His ‘ coal- 
pitch varnish ’ is distilled from coal-tar until the naphtha is 
entirely removed and the material deodorized He recom- 
mends the addition to this of from 5 to 6 per cent of linseed- 
oil. To coat the pipes, the pitch is heated in a suitable 
bath or tank to a temperature of about 300° F., and into this 
bath the pipes are immersed and allowed to remain until 
they, too, attain a temperature of 300° F. Mr. J. T. 
Fanning, in his “Water-supply Engineering,” states that 
a more satisfactory method is to heat the pipes in an oven 
to about 310° and then immerse them in the pitch-bath, 
which is maintained at a temperature of not less than 210°. 
The linseed-oil has a tendency to float and separate from the 
pitch at high temperatures. An oil distilled from coal-tar 
is now more generally used. The pipes should be free from 
rust and absolutely clean before treatment.” 
Mr. de Varona’s recent report upon additional water- 
supply for the city of Brooklyn sets forth the excellent results 
observed from the use of a pipe-coating of which the main 
constituents are Trinidad asphalt and linseed-oil in certain 
proportions. The pipes, previously heated, are dipped in 
the coating-tank, whence they are taken out and baked in a 
vertical position during twelve or fourteen hours. 
As replacing the old Bower-Barff process, by which a 
coating of magnetic oxide is deposited upon the hot metal, 
through the agency of superheated steam, according to the 
equation 
3Fe -f 4H20 = Fe304 +4HS, 
there has been introduced the Bertrand method, by which 
the same oxide is applied, but more after the manner of an 
enamel, and without that tendency to crack off which has 
always been an objection to the Bowers-Barff coating for 
water-pipe. ACTION OF WATER UPON METALS. 
457 
Boilers may be affected by water in two ways, namely, 
through corrosive action of the water itself, or, indirectly, 
through the secondary evils resulting from scale formation. 
Any free acid is objectionable in a boiler-water, even car- 
bonic acid, if the quantity be large. Sulphuric acid, so 
commonly present in mine-water from decomposition of 
iron pyrites, is highly objectionable: 
2FeSa + 70s -f- 2HsO = 2FeS04 -J- 2HaS04. 
Magnesium chloride is especially to be avoided for boiler 
uses, because the salt decomposes at the high temperature at- 
tained, with production of free hydrochloric acid. 
This acid, being readily carried over in the steam, the 
damage that it works is not confined to the boiler alone. 
The liberation of free fatty acid by the steam acting 
under pressure * upon lubricating-oils is another common 
cause of corrosion. 
It being known that ammonium chloride will prevent 
the decomposition of magnesium chloride, during evapora- 
tion, by forming therewith a stable double chloride, A. H. 
Allen suggests that the sodium chloride of sea-water acts in 
a similar way for the protection of marine boilers from the 
magnesium chloride found in sea-water. His remedy for 
stationary boilers compelled to use magnesium waters would 
be to add common salt to the feed-water.f 
In view of the bad effects of magnesium chloride upon 
boilers, he further contends that it should appear in the an- 
alysis to the fullest extent compatible with the total amounts 
of chlorine and magnesium. 
Water strongly alkaline with sodium salts, as is found in 
certain sections of the West, is also corrosive, for instance, 
* The widely known “ Tilghman patent” is an instance of such action, 
f J. Soc. Chetn. Ind. vn. 800. 458 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
such a water as that from Bitter Creek, Wyoming, which 
contains: 
Per Million. 
Calcium carbonate 13.1 
Silica (clay) 3.9 
Calcium sulphate trace 
Sodium sulphate 431-0 
Sodium carbonate 843.1 
Sodium chloride 96.3 
Silica (in solution) 8.6 
Such a water could be purified for boiler purposes by the 
use of barium chloride; but another, and possibly cheaper, 
method under the circumstances is that employed by Mr. 
A. Pennell. He writes to the author: “ Calcium sulphate 
is added, which forms sodium sulphate and precipitates cal- 
cium carbonate. A further dose of gypsum is then added, 
and the water is heated to 200° F., whereupon glauberite 
(Na2S04. CaS04) precipitates as semi-transparent crystals. 
All does not precipitate at this temperature, but the rest 
falls at boiler temperature and is blown off at intervals.’' 
Boiler-scale may be classified as of two general kinds; 
first, that which is friable and mud-forming, such as is caused 
by the employment of temporarily hard water; and, second, 
a hard, compact, and adherent form, arising from the use of 
water of permanent hardness.* 
From the nature of the case the latter is much the more 
objectionable, as a mud deposit is readily removed. The 
cause of the deposit of the calcium sulphate, which forms 
the compact scale, is found in the insolubility of that salt 
at the high temperature attained in the boiler. The curve 
of solubility is seen to closely approach the zero line at a 
temperature of 150° C. 
* The writer possesses some hard, dense, sulphate scale, of two inches in 
thickness, which was taken from the boilers of the steamer “Tybee.” ACTION OF WATER UPON METALS. 
459 
CURVE OF SOLUBILITY OF CALCIUM SULPHATE, 460 
IVA TER-SUPPL Y. 
As has been already said, page 365, the deposit of the 
carbonates held in solution by the temporarily hard water 
is caused by the escape of the solvent carbonic acid gas 
upon the temperature of the water reaching the boiling- 
point. 
Should means other than the elevation of temperature 
be employed for the removal of the carbonic acid in solu- 
tion, the precipitation of the dissolved carbonates would 
take place with equal certainty. 
Thus many years ago Dr. Clark patented a process, which 
still bears his name, for removing the carbonic acid by the 
use of limewater, according to the equation 
CO, + Ca(OH), = CaCO, + H,0. 
The calcium carbonate formed by the equation precipi- 
tates, and along with it also fall the calcium and magnesium 
carbonates originally held in solution in the water by the 
CO, thus destroyed. 
In America the “Clark process” for softening tempo- 
rarily hard waters is not very frequently resorted to, because 
our waters are commonly fairly soft, or else are permanently 
hard, a form of hardness for which the process is not suited. 
In England, however, where chalk deposits are so plenty, 
this method of purification is more often seen, and even on 
so large a scale as that required for a city supply. At South- 
ampton the water for 63,500 persons comes from a large 
well in the chalk, sunk in 1888; and it is softened by a 
“ Clark process ” plant of a capacity of 2,000,000 gallons 
daily. The water receives a charge of 10 per cent of its 
volume of lime water in a mixer and is then discharged into 
a softening cistern 38X23X3 feet. After partial precipita- 
tion, the milky water passes to perforated filter-plates cov- 
ered with cloth. The cost of this plant was about $50,000. ACTION OF WATER UPON METALS. 
461 
It provides tons of precipitate daily, and uses up \ ton 
of lime for the purpose.* 
For boiler purposes, the expensive filter presses would 
not be warranted, and simple settling-tanks should be sub- 
stituted. 
Care should be taken to avoid the introduction of more 
limewater than the reaction calls for, as a large excess 
would of itself cause a boiler-incrustation. The brown 
precipitate caused by pouring a solution of silver nitrate 
into limewater is a convenient indicator for use with the 
Clark process. As soon as the said brown precipitate ap- 
pears, in a sample of the treated water, upon addition of a 
few drops of silver nitrate solution, the further introduction 
of lime water should cease. 
The softening of permanently hard water may be accom- 
plished by the addition of a solution of sodium carbonate, 
which causes a precipitation of insoluble calcium carbonate: 
CaS04 + Na3C03 = CaC03 -f- Na3S04. 
At times this reaction and the resulting precipitation 
take place in settling-tanks or filter-plants, but more com- 
monly the equation is fulfilled in the boiler itself, and the 
non-adhesive mud is afterwards blown off. 
“ In England the London & Northwestern Railway has a 
plant at Liverpool which removes the hardness from over 
200,000 gallons of water daily, and it has also a plant at 
Camden Town, London. The Taff Vale Railway has a plant 
at Penarth Dock, near Cardiff, treating 50,000 gallons daily, 
and removing both the carbonates and sulphates of lime and 
magnesium. The cost per 1000 gallons softened is stated 
as about 1.26 cts. for the lime, soda, and alum used in the 
work.”t 
* Engineering, March II, 1892 ; see also Engineering News, April 16, 1892. 
f This plant was described in Proc. Inst. C. E. vol. xcvii. p. 354. 462 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
Scale from sea-water consists mainly of calcium sulphate 
and magnesium hydrate; in fact, as Driffield has shown, 
magnesium occurs in these deposits as hydrate, although 
precipitated as carbonate, the conversion to the former being 
accomplished by the high temperature of the boiler.* 
A very large number of boiler-scale “ preventives” and 
“ eradicators ” have been placed upon the market which are 
peculiar for nothing, as Professor Chandler has well said, 
except their high price. Such as have any value whatever 
may be duplicated, at very little expense, out of quite com- 
mon materials. 
Unfortunately many of these preparations are perfectly 
inert, and not a few are positively harmful. In the latter 
class, for instance, the writer has found such material as acid 
sodium sulphate colored with logwood. Such a preparation 
acts upon metals with half the intensity of pure sulphuric 
acid, and its continued use must surely work injury to the 
boiler. A large class of these “ preventives ” aim not at the 
actual prevention of a deposit, but rather seek to alter its 
physical character. 
Thus many of them are of a mucilaginous order, and their 
action is to so envelop the precipitating particles of mineral 
matter as to prevent their mutual adherence. A further 
action of such of the- compounds as contain insoluble ma- 
terial like sawdust, is to provide separated nuclei, about 
which crystallization of the scale-forming salts may occur. 
In the first instance, such an increase in the viscosity of the 
water may follow as to cause serious frothing or “ priming,” 
and in the second there is additional danger of getting solid 
substances carried over into the moving parts. It is very 
questionable if . as desirable results can be obtained by the 
* J. Soc. Chem. Ind. vi. 178. ACTION OF WATER UPON METALS. 
463 
employment of any of the “ eradicators ” as may be had by 
the use of ordinary sodium carbonate, or, still better, sodium 
fluoride. 
This latter salt, first suggested by C. A. Doremus, when 
introduced into the boiler accomplishes its work of rendering 
the deposit non-crystalline and non-adhesive, without causing 
the water to assume an alkaline reaction, as is the case when 
sodium carbonate is employed. 
The precipitate formed is always amorphous.* 
R. Jones obtains the best results for preventing boiler- 
scale by the use of sodium carbonate. He uses enough to 
constantly maintain the water slightly alkaline after filtra- 
tion, i.e., it gives a distinct red with phenol-phthalein, a 
solution of which the boiler attendant always has at hand. 
The boiler is blown off daily from the highest to the lowest 
water-level.f 
Excellent results are .also obtainable from the use of an 
iron-zinc couple, secured by attaching plates of zinc to the 
boiler-bracings. Protection of the iron results at the expense 
of the zinc plates. 
* J. Am. Chem. Soc, XV. 610. 
f Chem. News, lxvii. 185. APPENDIX. 
APPENDIX A. 
ANALYSES OF CITY WATER-SUPPLIES, 
Free 
1 Ammonia. 
Albuminoid 
Ammonia. 
j Chlorine. 
N as Nitrites 
N as Nitrates 
“ Required 
Oxygen.” 
Total 
Residue. 
Cambridge, Mass., average 1893.. . 
.106 
.202 
5-8 
.006 
.285 
4-043 
66.6 
Fitchburg, “ “ “ ... 
.OOI 
•233 
i-7 
0 
•033 
2.870 
26.8 
Haverhill, “ “ “ ... 
.003 
.182 
2.4 
O 
.020 
3.669 
27-3 
Lynn, “ “ “ ... 
•039 
.214 
5-5 
.OOI 
•054 
5.102 
36.1 
Springfield, “ “ “ ... 
.009 
.204 
i-5 
.001 
.026 
5-132 
37-6 
Boston, “ “ 1894... 
.006 
• 319 
4.1 
.OOI 
. 106 
6.295 
46.4 
Burlington, Vt. (Lake Champlain).. 
035 
.140 
0.7 
0 
trace 
1-525 
70.0 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (Hudson River) 
.050 
•125 
4-5 
trace 
trace 
2.287 
85.0 
.127 
I.I 
. 230 
Richmond, Va. (James River) 
•550 
.150 
1.17 
trace 
trace 
1-654 
105.0 
.260 
I.OO 
New Orleans, La. (Mississippi R.).. 
.040 
•325 
14.50 
0 
.080 
5-724 
340.0 
Charleston, S. C. (Artesian well)... 
.300 
.040 
130.00 
.368 
0 
2.043 
1j70.0 
Brooklyn, N. Y. (Ground-water).... 
.085 
13-5 
0 
16.0 
64.0 
Cincinnati, O. (Ohio River) 
. 108 
14.0 
.26 
140 
Philadelphia (Schuylkill River, aver- 
. IOO 
.46 
133-4 
Albany, N. Y. (Hudson River) 
.070 
.200 
2.5 
trace 
.082 
c. 7 
Troy, N. Y. (Hudson River) 
.040 
.150 
2.5 
O 
.041 
8.4 
Cohoes, N. Y. (Mohawk River) 
.060 
.210 
4.0 
.002 
.246 
3-55 
New York, weekly average for 1894. 
.012 
.082 
2-47 
0 
.258 
81.6 
Extreme variations of same 
.005 
1.025 
J2.04 
i'"1 
(67- 
.025 
<•175 
(2.89 
I.489 
*97- 
Paris (Vanne water, average for 1894) 
... 
6 
2.22 
.8 
254 466 
WA TER-S UPPL Y. 
APPENDIX B. 
DEATHS FROM TYPHOID FEVER, PER 10,000 INHABITANTS 
Averages for Periods of Five Years. 
(Compiled by Dr. E. F. Smith from official sources.) 
. 
1846 
to 
1849 
1850 
to 
1854 
1855 
to 
1859 
i860 
to 
1864 
1865 
to 
1869 
187O 
to 
1874 
187s 
to 
1879 
1880 
to 
1884 
4.5 
2.7 
3-2 
8.8 
8.7 
C.O 
Boston, Mass 
17.4 
8.2 
5-o 
5.7 
5-6 
7.6 
4.2 
4.9 
New York, N. Y 
6.7 
2.6 
2.5 
5-o 
4.8 
3-3 
2.5 
3-o 
Brooklyn, N. Y 
6.1 
2.8 
1.9 
4.6 
4.8 
2-5 
1-5 
i-5 
7-4 
7.8 
8.0 
6.1 
4.8 
7.6 
S *9 
5.8 
7.3 
10.2 
6.8 
6 . Q 
7.9 
§.4 
4.1 
6.8 
10.4 
7 • 2 
3.5 
4.3 
New Orleans, La 
13-8 
8.3 
9.6 
II.5 
5-7 
3.8 
2 5 
2.7 
IO.O 
9.0 
8-5 
Q. 3 
6.6 
4.3 
3-0 
London, Eng 
11.5 
9.9 
8.5 
9-5 
8.4 
4.9 
3-3 
2-7 
5 • 5 
10.8 
Q.Q 
Frankfort, Ger 
8.1 
9.1 
5.0 
6.1 
7. I 
2.6 
1.4 
Munich, Bav 
12.5 
25.4 
16.2 
13.0 
l<t.3 
8.6 
2.7 
10.4 
8.0 
8.8 
Q. 7 
5.4 
2.9 
Breslau, Ger 
II . 3 
6.4 
4.3 
3.3 
10.6 
7.0 
2.5 
1.5 
Brussels, Bel 
10.0 
8.6 
4.0 
3-3 APPENDIX. 
467 
APPENDIX C. 
Mr. J. W. Hill has collected the following statistics, 
showing deaths from typhoid fever, per 100,000 inhabitants: 
AMERICA, 1894. 
New York. 17 
Brooklyn 15 
Newark, N. J 15 
Detroit, Mich 26 
Cleveland, O 27 
Boston, Mass 28 
Dayton, O 20 
Milwaukee, Wis 26 
New Orleans, La 28 
Toronto, Can 17 
Lawrence, Mass 30 
St. Louis, Mo 31 
Philadelphia, Pa 32 
Chicago, 111 31 
Baltimore, Md 48 
Washington, D. C 71 
Pittsburg, Pa 56 
Buffalo, N. Y 36 
San Francisco, Cal 35 
Cincinnati, 0 50 
Louisville, Ky 72 
Providence, R. 1 47 
Jersey City, N. J 76 
Lowell, Mass 55 
EUROPE, 1893. 
London, Eng 16 
Manchester, Eng 25 
Edinburgh, Scot 14 
Glasgow, Scot 20 
Paris, France 25 
Amsterdam, Hoi 16 
Rotterdam, Hoi 5 
Hague, Hoi 2 
Copenhagen, Den 9 
Stockholm, Swe 8 
Christiania, Nor. 6 
Berlin, Ger 9 
Hamburg, Ger 18 
Dresden, Ger 4^ 
Breslau, Ger 10 
Munich 15 
Trieste 17 
Vienna, Aus 7 
Budapest, Hun 15 
Brussels, Bei 27 
Venice, It 26 
Rome, It 34 
Turin, It 29 
Liverpool, Eng 53 
Dublin, Ire 87 
St. Petersburg, Rus 51 
Moscow, Rus 40 
Prague, Boh 36 
Milan, It 62 468 
WA 'J EP-S UPPL y. 
APPENDIX D. 
ABSTRACT OF A MEMORIAL TO CONGRESS, PRESENTED BY 
THE “AMERICAN WATER-WORKS ASSOCIATION,” PRAY- 
ING FOR A NATIONAL LAW TO RESTRICT POLLUTION 
OF STREAMS FROM WHICH WATER-SUPPLIES OF CITIES 
ARE DRAWN. 
Whereas, It is universally conceded that “ public health 
is public wealth,” and hence it appears your bounden duty 
to carefully protect it; and, 
Whereas, Pure water, on the one hand, is known to be 
the prime essential of sound individual and public health, 
while polluted water, on the other hand, is likewise known 
to be the cause, direct or indirect, of over one half the ail- 
ments that afflict, weaken, or totally destroy human life; and, 
Whereas, It appears from the last census that not less 
than one hundred thousand (100,000) human lives are lost 
annually in these United States by death resulting from 
preventable diseases—diseases caused more or less directly 
by the use of polluted water, or, more strictly speaking, 
diluted sewage—one hundred thousand (100,000) souls each 
year, especially from among the young and more active of the 
population—equal in wage-earning capacity, at the very low 
estimate of one dollar each per day, to $100,000 per day, 
$700,000 per week, $36,400,000 per year, a net loss of 
active, intelligent, and self-investing wealth, to say nothing 
of interested and useful citizenship and other inherent virtues 
and qualities which raise this class of wealth incalculably 
above gold, silver, bonds, and brutes; nothing of the cost of 
rearing and educating infants and children to the age of 
useful activity; nothing about the cost of medical and other 
attendance on the victims of death during their sickness; APPENDIX. 
469 
nothing of the cost of their burial, and of the sorrows and 
disappointments inflicted upon those who survive; and, 
Whereas, Said preventable diseases—most of which are 
epidemic—are spread and sustained in their virulence and 
destructive energy by the general practice of carelessly and 
selfishly sewering excrements and other disease-breeding 
refuse into the ground-water courses, and into the streams 
and lakes which constitute the natural sources of water- 
supply for the people; and, 
Whereas, It is the general practice to dump street sweep- 
ings, backyard rubbish, manure, all kinds of household and 
barn refuse, poisoned and other dead animals on the banks 
of streams for the “ high waters to wash away,” and the un- 
sanitary and dangerous results prove such that, even in the 
state of Massachusetts (which has always been far in advance 
of any other state of the Union in its sanitary regulations of 
sources of water-supply and of sewer systems), the Board of 
Health and the Boston Water Board felt constrained to 
obtain the passage, by the legislature of 1890, of a bill whereby 
the Board of Health has been granted authority to prohibit 
the depositing of manure, excrements, garbage, sewage, or 
any other polluting matter within one hundred feet of the 
high-water mark of any stream or body of water used as a 
source of water-supply; and 
Whereas, But few of the rivers and lakes thus polluted 
and made sources of discomfort, disease, and death to the 
people, instead of means of comfort and health—are wholly 
within the limits of any individual State, and as most all our 
rivers run into, along, or through from two to ten of the 
States, and thus render it impracticable for the States indi- 
vidually to bring relief, while it is perfectly practicable and 
constitutional for, and most needful that, the Federal Gov- 
ernment should, with the help and co-operation of the States, 
bring due relief; and 470 
IV A TER-S UPPL V. 
Whereas, It plainly appears that just and equitable gen- 
eral laws governing these important relations, with a com- 
petent Board of National Water-Supply and Sewerage 
Commissioners, separate from party political influences and 
empowered and provided with sufficient authority and ample 
discretionary powers, as well as the means necessary to faith- 
fully administer them—are urgently needed ; and 
Whereas, Our national attractions and resources are so 
great, numerous, and widespread, and our commerce with 
other nations so vast and varied, and our means of inter- 
course with the whole world so rapid and extended, as to 
seriously and constantly expose our ever-busy people to 
epidemic diseases of foreign origin, such as Asiatic cholera, 
which has cost the Old World more human lives than all the 
wars from the siege of Jerusalem to the fall of Paris, and which 
propagates itself by means of germs that breed or split and 
develop to full energy with the exceeding rapidity of scores 
per minute, and trillions per hour, and spreads mainly 
through the water that people drink, and ravages most 
fiercely where filth in drinking-water most abounds; and 
Whereas, All our streams, lakes, and underground water- 
beds, which are the natural sources of water-supply for the 
people, are utilized throughout the land more or less as 
common sewers by cities, towns, villages, isolated households, 
and various industries, thus rendering such streams, lakes, 
and ground water beds—by the presence of excrements, 
putrefying animal and vegetable matter, and other filth they 
contain—most effective breeding and spreading means, not 
alone of Asiatic cholera, but also of typhoid fever, diphtheria, 
cholera morbus, and various other diseases no less destructive 
of human comfort; health, strength, and life, and, likewise, 
paralyzing to education, industry, and commerce; therefore, 
Resolved, That we, the American Water-works Associa- 
tion, a body composed of, etc., etc., most earnestly pray APPENDIX. 
471 
that you will grant this deeply important matter the prompt 
and careful consideration and attention it requires, and that 
you will be pleased to speedily devise the ways and means 
by which the people may soon be saved from such unneces- 
sary and oppressive burdens and sorrows, and the nation 
from such enormous loss. 472 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
APPENDIX E. 
WEIGELT records the following observations of the effects 
upon fish of waters contaminated with products of industrial 
waste: * 
Contained in One Million Parts of Water. 
Kind of 
Fish Used. 
Observations. 
70 slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 
Trout. 
Dead in 26 minutes. 
1000 soda, Na2C03 . ioH20 
a 
After 3 minutes, restless. 
0.5 chloride of lime, CaCl20 
tt 
Dead in 3 hours. 
100 hydrochloric acid, HC1... ... 
tt 
On its side in 4 minutes. 
100 sulphuric acid, H2S04 
tt 
On its side at once. 
50 ammonia, NHa 
a 
Dead in 47 minutes. 
100 sodic arsenate Na2As04. i2HaO 
i t 
Strong effect. 
50 mercuric chloride, HgCl2 
tt 
Dead in 54 minutes. 
1000 calcium chloride, CaCl2.. ... 
it 
An effect in 2 hours. 
100 green vitriol, FeS04 .7H20... 
a 
Dead in 5 hours. 
50 “ “ “ 
it 
No effect in 16 hours. 
1000 iron chloride, Fe2Cl« 
a 
On its side in 3 minutes. 
1000 manganese chloride, MnCla.. 
it 
Speedy restlessness. 
5 carbolic acid, C6H6OH... 
it 
Restless in 15 minutes. 
1000 soap (unfiltered) 
Salmon. 
Dead in hours. 
1000 soap (filtered) 
tt 
No effect. 
*“Das Wasser,” Fischer, 52. APPENDIX. 
473 
APPENDIX F. 
WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES. 
BREWING.—The water should be very free from all de- 
composable organic matter; and from tannic acid infusions, 
such as might be obtained from a forest floor. 
A good deep-seated water will serve the best. Although 
a soft water does well for porter and dark beers, because 
of its being a better solvent for coloring matter, yet for 
general purposes a certain amount of “ permanent ” hardness 
is preferable. “ For pale ale there must be not less than 300 
to 400 parts of Ca S04 per million.” 
Those ingredients to be especially avoided are: Iron salts, 
sulphides, and high chlorides, especially magnesium chloride. 
The following analysis, by Stolba, is of the water used 
for the celebrated Pilsner beer: * 
Calcium sulphate 67 per million 
Calcium carbonate 40 “ “ 
Magnesium carbonate 33 “ “ 
Iron carbonate trace “ ** 
Magnesium chloride o “ “ 
Silica 22 “ “ 
Organic material trace “ “ 
Sodium chloride 10 “ “ 
Potassium chloride trace “ “ 
172 “ “ 
Dyeing and Bleaching.—The water should be clear 
and soft. For the few dyes which are found to act better 
with a somewhat hard water, the hardness may be artificially 
created as required. Iron salts are especially objectionable. 
* “ Das Wasser,” Fischer, 45. 474 
VTA TER-SUPPL Y. 
They modify some colors, and leave stains upon light goods, 
particularly after contact with alkaline compounds. 
The same objections hold good for salts of manganese. 
Hard waters decompose soap (page 365), often modify colors, 
and deposit insoluble calcium salts in the fibre. 
A uniform water, distinguished from one of seasonal vari- 
ation, is especially desirable, to permit of matching shades 
of color. 
Paper.—Clear, clean water is required, free from iron, 
which causes rust spots. 
Sugar.—Nitrates are especially objectionable, as they 
interfere with the crystallization of the sugar. APPENDIX. 
475 
APPENDIX G. 
The following definition of liquids which should be deemed 
polluting and inadmissible into a stream was formulated by 
the Rivers Pollution Commission of Great Britain (1886): 
(a) Any liquid which has not been subjected to perfect 
quiet in subsidence ponds of sufficient size for a period of at 
least six hours, or which, having been so subjected to subsi- 
dence, contains in suspension more than one part by weight 
of dry organic matter in 100,000 parts by weight of the 
liquid, or which, not having been so subjected to subsidence, 
contains in suspension more than three parts by weight of dry 
mineral matter, or one part by weight of dry organic matter 
in 100,000 parts by weight of the liquid. 
(b) Any liquid containing, in solution, more than two 
parts by weight of organic carbon or 0.3 part by weight of 
organic nitrogen in 100,000 parts by weight. 
(c) Any liquid which shall exhibit by daylight a distinct 
color when a stratum of it one inch deep is placed in a white 
porcelain or earthenware vessel. 
(d) Any liquid which contains in solution, in 100,000 
parts, by weight, more than two parts by weight of any 
metal except calcium, magnesium, potassium, or sodium. 
(e) Any liquid which in 100,000 parts by weight con- 
tains, whether in solution of suspension, in chemical com- 
bination or otherwise, more than 0.05 part by weight of 
metallic arsenic. 
(f) Any liquid which, after acidification with sulphuric 
acid, contains, in 100,000 parts, by weight, more than one 
part by weight of free chlorine. 
(g) Any liquid which contains, in 100,000 parts by weight, 
more than one part by weight of sulphur, in the condition 
of either sulphuretted hydrogen or a soluble sulphuret. 476 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
(/i) Any liquid possessing an acidity greater than that 
which is produced by adding two parts by weight of real 
muriatic acid to 1000 parts by weight of distilled water. 
(i) Any liquid possessing an alkalinity greater than that 
which is produced by adding one part by weight of dry 
caustic soda to 1000 parts by weight of distilled water. 
{k) Any liquid exhibiting a film of petroleum or hydro- 
carbon upon its surface, or containing in suspension, in 
100,000 parts, more than 0.5 part of such oil. 
To these standards was attached the proviso, that “ no 
effluent water shall be deemed polluting if it be not more 
contaminated with any of the above-named polluting in- 
gredients than the stream or river into which it is discharged.” APPENDIX. 
477 
APPENDIX H. 
THE USE OF SEA-WATER FOR STREET-WATERING, SEWER- 
FLUSHING, AND OTHER PURPOSES. 
Sundry theoretical objections having been raised to the 
use of sea-water for such purposes, the following letters were 
obtained from officials of English sea-coast towns, and were 
embodied in a paper, by J. W. Cockrill, abstracted in En- 
gineering News, Nov. 17, 1892. 
Birkenhead.—“ One spread of salt water on the surface 
of a street or road is equal to about three spreads of fresh 
water, as the latter under the heat of the sun evaporates, 
whereas the salt water leaves a crust on the surface and keeps 
down the dust for a considerable time. We have not yet 
flushed our sewers with salt water.” 
Hastings.—“ Sea-water has been used in this town for 
some years for street-watering and sewer-flushing, and no in- 
convenience has been found to arise. There is, perhaps, 
rather more mud on the roads during the autumn, but, on 
the whole, I believe that sea-water has a good sanitary effect 
on both roads and sewers.” 
Worthing.—“ Many of our streets are watered with sea- 
water, and have been for years. The effect upon roads is 
to bind them together almost like cement; dust is never 
seen on these roads when dry, and sea-water keeps damp at 
least as long again as fresh water. Such an argument as sea- 
water acting upon sewage so as to make it offensive is simply 
absurd.” 
Eastbourne.—“ We thought of using sea-water some years 
ago, but as there was a general objection to it we gave it up. 
From what I have seen of its use, my opinion is that it ma- 
terially assists the solidifying of a road.” 478 
WA TER-SUPPL Y. 
Brighton.—“ We do not use sea-water for street-watering, 
but we use it for flushing our main intersecting sewer, and 
if used in sufficient volume it is not offensive.” 
Blackpool.—“This corporation has used sea-water for 
street-watering and sewer-flushing for some time, and I find 
no complaints arise whatever, but sea-water makes sett-paving 
slippery.” 
Ryde.—“ I can state confidently, after thirty years’ ex 
perience in the use of salt water for watering roads, that 
so far from deteriorating macadamized roads, it hardens the 
surface; so much so, that during the recent dry summer we 
found that in streets with a gradient of i in 12, when it was 
necessary to water a second time in the day, we were com- 
pelled to use fresh water, otherwise the streets would have 
become too slippery. Doubtless, after a long course of salt 
water on a level road, when rain first comes, the surface will 
be a little dirtier than if fresh water had been used. We 
find it pays to use salt water when a load of water costs 
twice as much as fresh. With reference to flushing sewers, 
I have had very little experience.” 
Rhyl.—“ Sea-water will not injuriously affect macadam- 
ized roads, but have a good effect.” 
Torquay.—“ I have used sea-water for street-watering 
upon macadamized roads for several years, and do not find 
any inconvenience; but if there is any difference between salt 
and fresh water, I think the salt water is preferable. I do 
not use salt water for flushing, except very rarely in the low 
level, and then I do not find any smell more offensive than 
at other times.” 
Margate.—“ Had no special means of raising salt water, 
and so gave it up; when used, one load went as far as three 
loads of fresh water.” 
Plymouth.—All the low levels are watered with it; con- APPENDIX. 
479 
sider that two loads of fresh water are not equal to one of 
salt. 
South Shields.—“ One load of salt water equals four loads 
of fresh.” 
Tynemouth.—“ Has a very good effect upon street surface, 
as it hardens the surface of macadamized roads; we use it 
for watering, flushing, and baths.” 
Barrow-in-Furness.—“ Use salt water for street-watering; 
when fresh water used it took twice the quantity.” 
Ilfracombe.—“ Used sea-water formerly, and contemplate 
doing so again. It retains its effect twice as long as fresh 
water, and it is very binding.” 
In addition to the foregoing, the following opinion of 
Mr. H. P. Boulnois may be quoted: “ Watering the streets 
with sea-water should be adopted wherever it is feasible, 
as it not only gives a delightful freshness to the air, but 
it also causes the surface of the street to maintain its hu- 
midity for a longer period than when fresh water is used.” 
“ The general results may be stated as follows: Since the 
construction of the works the consumption of water for 
street-watering has been annually less than 5,000,000 gallons 
at 5 cents per 1000 gallons, instead of 7,000,000 gallons at 
24 cents per 1000 gallons, as before.” 
“ Used in sewer-flushing, salt water has cleaned them 
thoroughly, and after five years’ experience no nuisance of 
any kind has followed. Its effect in the Yarmouth sewers has 
been to reduce and almost prevent the generation and accu- 
mulation of sewer-gas. Sewers can now be entered at once 
on the removal of the manhole cover; which was not the 
case before. An 18-inch pipe sewer on a gradient of i in 
300 was formerly constantly clogged by deposits; it is now 
kept thoroughly clean by two flushes per day from a 3000- 
gallon tank, which fills the sewer two thirds full. There are 
no deposits of any sort in the sewers, except in several of 480 
WA TER-SUPPL V. 
the larger ones, and there it has been reduced one half since 
salt water has been used. As to the effect of salt water on 
iron, the author says that the siphons are of galvanized sheet- 
iron only, but they have required no repairs since they were 
put in. As to the sulphates in sea-water, no evil effects are 
traceable; the town possesses no manufactories and no acids 
are discharged into the’sewers.” 
“ The salt water has never been used for extinguishing 
fires, though it is available if needed. The author does not 
recommend it for this purpose, as he considers that a dwelling 
would not be habitable after its walls had been saturated 
with sea-water. It is used for private baths with satisfaction 
to the users.” INDEX. 
Acid, amount of free, in Rio Vinagre 219 
Action of water upon metals 447 
Aeration of value in iron waters 160 
Aeration secured at Lawrence, Mass 112 
Aeration and agitation 158 
Aeration of public water, value of 177 
Air of Cleveland, analysis of 202 
Air, country and city 203 
Air dissolved in water under varying pressure 339 
Air of Paris sewers and streets 203 
Albany, typhoid epidemic at 32 
Albany, map illustrating typhoid epidemic at 30 
Albany, N. Y., annual deaths due to typhoid 94 
Albert Levy, determination of total solids 361 
Albuminoid ammonia, average figures for 394 
Albuminoid ammonia, determination of 391 
Albuminoid ammonia process 386 
Algae, relation to health 18 
Algae require nitrogenous food 261 
Alkali Act, English 201 
Alkaline water, purification of 458 
Alkaline water from Bitter Creek, Wyoming 458 
Alkaline waters corrode boilers 457, 
Altona, efficiency of filters at 125 
Altona filter, cleaning influence of 13? 
Alum, quantity required per million gallons of water 146 
Alum, average dose of, required 137 
Aluminum hydrate, action of 137 
Amazon, black waters of 9 
Am. Asso. Adv. Sci., report of 355 
American filter system 137 
American Public Health Association, resolutions by 198 
Ammonia, low in ground-water 393. 
Ammonia, rate of evolution of 395 
PAGE 482 
INDEX. 
Ammonia, albuminoid, determination of • 391 
Ammonia high in water from ferruginous soil 393 
Ammonia solution standard 388 
Ammonia, free, determination of 399 
Ammonia, free, tends to disappear 404 
Ammonia, free, influence of plants upon 393 
Ammonia in river-water 395 
Amphoteric action 358 
Analisis, chemical, of water 348 
Analysis of water, statement of results 354 
Analysis of water, separate room required for 355 
Analyses of contaminated waters. 397 
Analyses of pure water 397 
Analyses of city water-supplies 465 
Analytical report, form used in Arizona 418 
Anderson process 149 
Antwerp, Anderson plant at 153 
Appearance of a water 356 
Argo, case of the use of swamp-water on board the n 
Arizona, ancient irrigation works in 3 
Arizona, form of analytical report used in 418 
Arsenic in spring-water 297 
Arsenic, determination of 411 
Artesian waters, hardness of, in England 344 
Artesian wells 326 
Artificial ice 212 
Artificial lakes of ancient Assyria 2 
Ascension Island, curious water-supply of 290 
Askern, mineral waters of 8 
Asni&res, sewage farm at 173 
Asphaltum for reservoir lining 282 
Auto-infection of water 435 
Automatic pressure filter 139, 140 
Bacteria removed by Lawrence bed 126 
Bacteria in the air of Paris sewers 302 
Bacteria, effect of freezing upon 209 
Bacteria in river-water less in summer than in winter 68 
Bacteria shot upon a cannon-ball 70 
Bacteria removed by Altona filter 132 
Bacteria in Seine water, influence of flow upon 220 
Bacteria, decrease during nitrification 128 
Bacteria in Croton water increased by storm 220 
Bacteria, influence of city mains upon 285 
Bacteria, reduction of, by sedimentation 274 
Bacteria, destruction of, by storage 274 
Bacteria, changes in number of, in the Isar River 186 
Bacteria colonies, formation of 426, 427 
PAGE INDEX. 
483 
PAGE 
Bacteria killed by nitrification 172 
Bacteria low in number during severe frost 431 
Bacteria low in number during hot months 431 
Bacteria in deep wells 346 
Bacteria, monthly count of, in Thames water 194 
Bacteria, multiplication of, in water-samples 430 
Bacteria, number of, increased by melting snow 431 
Bacteria, precipitating mud hastens fall of 276 
Bacteria in Seine water, monthly variation in 431 
Bacteria, seasonal variation in number of 430 
Bacteria, variation in number of, in Seine water 193 
Bacterial colonies, development of, upon successive days 433 
Bacterial growth, rapidity of, in pure and impure water 436 
Bacterial toxins cause decrease in germ-life 437 
Bacteriological analysis of water, time required for 343 
Bacteriological examination, method of conducting 421, 423 
Bacteriological samples quickly damaged 429 
Bacteriology of value for testing filters 423 
Bacterium prodigiosus removed by filter 129 
Battles, relation between rain and great 224 
Baird apparatus for distilled water 156, 157 
Beebe, bacteria in Croton water 220 
Beebe, preparation of culture-jelly 424 
Berlin filter-beds 109 
Berlin, hourly consumption at 115 
Bischof, iron process of 149 
Bitter Creek, Wy., alkaline water from 458 
Black waters of Orinoco and Amazon 9 
Bleaching, water for 473 
Bog-waters in Ireland 8 
Boiling, advised by Hippocrates 1 
Boilers, corrosive action of water upon 457 
Boilers corroded by fatty acids 457 
Boilers corroded by alkaline waters 457 
Boiler-scale 458 
Boiler-scale preventives 462 
Boiler-scale from sea-water 462 
Boiler-water, magnesium chloride objectionable in 457 
Boston, typhoid statistics for 43 
Bordoni Uffreduzzi, ice from the river Dora 210 
Boulogne-sur-Seine, Anderson plant at 151 
Bower-Barff process 456 
Bowman, free ammonia determinations 400 
Breathing wells 334 
Brooklyn, driven well-plant 299 
Brown water from deep well 341 
Brackett, analysis of daily uses of water 440 484 
INDEX. 
Brewing, water for 473 
Brooklyn, N. Y., ordinance regulating rates for water 446 
Brown water of Acushnet River. 10 
Brown water-supply of Portsmouth and Norfolk, Va 10 
Buffalo, N. Y., great waste of water at 96 
Calcium bicarbonate 365 
Calcium carbonate protects lead from attack 450 
Calcium carbonate, action of, on alum 137 
Calcium silicate protects lead from attack 450 
Calcium sulphate, curve of solubility of 459 
Calculi and Goitre, produced by magnesian waters 20 
Calculi, relation to hard waters 19 
Canton, China, data as to water of 314 
Carbolic acid in Passaic River 194 
Carbon dioxide, determination of 415 
Carbon dioxide, solubility of, in water 417 
Carbonates, cause of deposit of 460 
Carthage, ancient water-supply of 3 
Castellum, ancient Roman 6 
Catskill Mountains spring-water 296 
Cement linings for cistern 206 
Cereals, consumption of water by 235 
Ceylon, ancient colossal reservoirs in 4 
Circulation of water in soil 287 
Cisterns, filtering condemned 207 
Cistern, material for walls of 206 
Cisterns of metal 206 
Cisterns should be frequently inspected 207 
Cistern, suitable location for 207 
Cistern-water from foul cistern 205 
Cisterns of wood 206 
City mains, influence of, upon bacteria 285 
City sewage, composition of 174. 
City water-supplies, analyses of 465 
Changes in water during laboratory storage - 353, 404 
Charleston, S. C., Artesian supply for 330 
Charcoal, animal, filters of 169 
Chemical examination of water 348 
Chemical vs. Bacteriological examination of water 421 
Chicago, map showing typhoid deaths by wards 37 
Chicago, pollution of Lake Michigan by sewage of 257 
Chicago River, subaqueous putrefaction in 193 
Chicago, typhoid statistics for 36, 38 
China, relation of drinking-water to cholera 52 
Chloride of sodium solution 381 
Chlorine, determination of 370 
Chlorine in city snow 213, 
PAGE INDEX. 
485 
Chlorine, loss of, during evaporation 373 
Chlorine, monthly, in Troy rain-water 204 
Chlorine, normal, for Massachusetts 370 
Choisy-le-Roi, Anderson plant at 151 
Cholera, always carried 62 
Cholera, distributed by common flies 63 
Cholera epidemic at Cuneo 25 
Cholera epidemic at Genoa, i 25 
Cholera epidemic at Messina 25 
Cholera germ, description of 57 
Cholera germ, destroyed by peat 13 
Cholera germ, evidence of its relation to the disease 61 
Cholera germ, influence of soil upon 307 
Cholera, not infectious 63 
Cholera outbreak at Hamburg 53 
Cholera, relation of, to drinking-water in China 52 
Cholera, relation of, to water-supply in India 48 
Chromium, determination of 411 
Clark’s process 460 
Clark scale of hardness 363 
Classification of water based upon bacteria present 434 
Claudian aqueduct 5 
Cleaned filter, method of filling 133 
Cleaning Altona filter, influence of 132 
Cleaning an English filter 118 
Cleaning London filter-bed (illustration) 120 
Cleaning filter, cost of 121 
Cleaning sand, methods of, at Liverpool 119 
Clouds, composition of 201 
Coating of water-mains 455-6 
Coefficient of alterability 415 
Cohoes, typhoid fever at 30 
Cold not fatal to germ-life 430 
Colombo, water-supply sterilized by light 67 
Colonies of bacteria, apparatus for counting 427 
Color, action of light in reduction of 267 
Color, determination of 359 
Color, improvement in, from storage 266 
Color, seasonal changes in 266 
Coloring matter removed by alum 138 
Coloring matter of stagnant layer 265 
Combustion process of Frankland 385 
Composition of German filter-beds 114 
Condensers, special for water-analysis 399, 401 
Conditions favorable for flowing wells 327 
Connecticut River, rainfall and river-flow 243 
Connecticut, typhoid statistics, 1855-93 43 
PAGE 486 
INDEX. 
Contamination of deep well-water 344 
Contaminated waters, analyses of 397 
Contaminated wells, desirable appearance of water from 313 
Continuous filtration as effective as intermittent 131 
Copper, determination of. 409 
Corrosive action of water upon boilers 457 
Corthell, growth of population of great cities 445 
Cost of Anderson process 153 
Cost of Artesian borings 324 
Cost of cleaning filter 121 
Cost of constructing filter-bed no 
Cost of filtering Washington supply 144 
Cost of Lawrence bed 112 
Cost of running filters at Hamburg 122 
Cost of running filters at Zurich 122 
Counting colonies of bacteria 427 
Covered filter-beds, when preferable to open 103 
Covered filter, Warsaw 107 
Covered filters, Zurich 108 
Crookes, mixture to improve bad water 170 
Crops, consumption of water by 235 
Crosby upon waste of water 443 
Croton River, rainfall and river-flow 246 
Croton water, variation of temperature 357 
Culture-jelly, preparation of 424 
Culture-flasks, Miquel 429 
Cuneo, cholera epidemic at 2S 
Cushing, F. H., discovery of ancient reservoirs in Arizona 3 
Danube, seasonal variations for the water of 217 
Death-rate in sewered and unsewered cities. 268 
Deep seated water 322 
Deep wells, bacteria in 346 
Deep well waters, ammonia in 392 
Deep well water, change in composition of 340 
Deep well water contamination of. 344 
Depth, influence of, upon character of water in lakes 259 
Depth of water permitted upon filters 113 
Devonshire, estimated expense of iron process 151 
Dewar, effect of low temperature upon bacteria 209 
Diatoms flourish in ponds with muddy bottoms 269 
Diatom growths and stagnation. 268 
Directions for taking a water-sample 352 
Discharge and sediment of large rivers 218 
Disease, drinking-water and 8 
Disinfecting reservoir at Buffalo.. 283 
Dismal Swamp, water of. g 
Dissolved gases, determination of 4!3 
PAGE 487 
INDEX. 
Dissolved oxygen, determination of 413 
Dissolved oxygen in Seine water 416 
Distillation advocated by Mr. Hill 156 
Distillation of ammonia, time required for 400, 402 
Distilled water used in U. S. Navy 156 
District of Columbia, typhoid fever and use of well-water in 316 
Domestic use, quantity required for 440 
Domestic wells 296 
Doremus, sodium fluoride as a boiler-scale preventive 463 
Driven wells 297 
Driven wells, distance apart of 303 
Driven well plant, Brooklyn - 299 
Drown, low ammonia in ground-water 393 
Drown, progressive improvement in quality of ice 211 
Droughts, historic 232 
Droughts in the Middle States 231 
Duane, conclusions concerning the coating of water-mains 455 
Dupre, standards for water-analysis 397 
Dust of atmosphere washed out by rain 201 
Dutch filter-beds, sections of 101 
Dutch filters, thinness of 98 
Dyeing and bleaching, water for 473 
Efficiency of the Boulogne plant 153 
Efficiency of filters at Altona 125 
Efficiency of filters at Hudson 123 
Efficiency of London filters 124 
Efficiency of Pasteur filter 165 
Efficiency of Stuttgart filters 124 
Effluent regulator, Lindley 115 
Electro-aluminum apparatus 164 
Electrolytic purification, Leeds process 162 
Electrolytic purification, Woolf’s process 162 
Electrozone 162: 
English Alkali Act 201 
Enteric diseases, deaths from, in New Jersey 91 
Epidemic intense when transmitted by new water 435 
Eskimo, use of melted ice or snow by 215 
Estimated cost of distillation 156' 
Euphrates, ancient condition of the valley of 2 
European sewage, composition of 174 
Evaporation daily from surface of the United States 236 
Evaporation, depth of, at U. S. Signal Stations 237 
Evaporation from leaves on trees 235, 
Evaporation from woodland soil 234 
Evaporation increased by deforestation 252 
Evaporation in woods vs. evaporation in the open 25a- 
Evaporation measurements 232 
PAGE 488 
INDEX. 
Evaporation, raintau, and flow of streams.. 222 
Evaporation, relation of, to rainfall 233 
Expense, annual of typhoid fever to Albany 95 
Experience, uselessness of, the test of 96 
Explosives as rain-producers 224 
Fanning, coating of water-mains 456 
Fatty acids cause corrosion of boilers 457 
Ferruginous soil, high ammonia in water from 393 
Filtering, advised by Hippocrates 1 
Filter, automatic pressure 139, 140 
Filters of animal charcoal 169 
Filters, mechanical, efficiency of 147 
Filters, mechanical, gang of 141 
Filters, mechanical, high delivery of 146 
Filters, mechanical, sundry data regarding 146 
Filters, open... 142 
Filters, open battery of 143 
Filter, Pasteur, efficiency of 165 
Filters, report of Minister of War of France upon value of. 166 
Filters, sponge 168 
Filters, stone 168 
Filter-bed, analyses of sand at different depths in 102 
Filter-beds, Berlin , 109 
Filter-beds, composition of various.. 99, 100 
Filter-bed, cost of cleaning 121 
Filter-bed, cost of constructing at London no 
Filter-beds, cost of running at Hamburg 122 
Filter-beds, depths of water permitted upon 113 
Filter-beds, drain-pipe for bottom layer 103 
Filter-beds, deep safer than shallow 131 
Filter-beds, Dutch, thinness of - 98 
Filter-bed, efficiency of lower levels of 100 
Filter-beds, efficiency of, at Altona 125 
Filter-beds, efficiency of, at Hudson 123 
Filter-beds, efficiency of, at Stuttgart 124 
Filter-bed, English system 97 
Filter-beds, frequency of cleaning 118 
Filter-bed layers, relative thickness of 98 
Filter-bed, London experience as to best area of 102 
Filter-beds, London, efficiency of 124 
Filter-bed, method of filling cleaned 133 
Filter-bed of mixed sand and marble 147 
Filter-bed, open Lawrence, Mass 112 
Filter-bed, portions of doing greatest duty 130 
Filter-beds, proper management of 134 
Filter-bed, section of an English 98 
Filter-beds, sections of Dutch iox 
PACK 489 
INDEX. 
Filter-beds, statistics of London 106 
Filter-beds, trouble from ice upon 103 
Filter-beds, when they should be covered 103 
Filter-crib 154 
Filter-crib, specifications for 155 
Filtering cisterns condemned 207 
Filter-galleries 154 
Filter-gallery, silting up of, at Florence 155, 306 
Filter-reservoirs, paving of inside slope 103 
Filtration, ancient methods of 97 
Filtration, continuous as effective as intermittent 131 
Filtration, household 163 
Filtration, mechanical 137 
Filtration, mechanical, cost of 139 
Filtration, rates of, in Europe 116 
Filtration, upward, proposed for Philadelphia 136 
Fires, relation of, to rainfall 224 
Fish, effect of contaminated waters upon 472 
Fish in Artesian wells .' 344 
Fish-spawn, difficulty from 118 
Florence, failure of filter gallery at 153 
Flow of streams 236 
Flow of streams, rainfall and evaporation 222 
Flowing wells caused by rock-pressure 334 
Flowing wells due to gas-expansion 334 
Flowing wells, conditions favorable for 328 
Fluctuations in Charleston wells 331 
Forest commission on influence of forest upon floods 251 
Forests, influence of, upon floods 251 
Forests, iufluence of, upon flow of springs... 252 
Forests, influence of, upon water-supply 247 
Forest, snow held longer in 252 
Forschammer proeess 385 
Forschammer process, Kubel’s modification of. 406 
Fountain in reservoir at Rochester, N. Y 159 
Frankfort, unusual form of well-plant at 301 
Frankland, combustion process of 385 
Free ammonia, determination of 389 
Freezing of sand-bed, avoid 135 
Freezing, purification of water by 180 
Frontinus, reference to Castellum 7 
Freezing weather, influence of, upon peaty water.: 399 
Fuller, G. W., removal of bacteria by filter 128 
Galvanized iron, action of water upon 451 
Galvanized iron attacked by rain-water 451 
Galvanized pipe, action of water upon 411 
Gas expansion causing flowing wells. 334 
PAGE 490 
INDEX. 
Gases dissolved 413 
Genoa, cholera epidemic at 25 
German cities, per capita supply of 440 
German filter-beds, composition of 114 
German law, concerning thickness of sand-layer 100 
Germany, legal rate of filtration in 117 
Glass-ware sterilizing 425 
Grand Haven, Mich., water of 17 
Grains per gallon converted to parts per million 420 
Great Lakes, effect of, upon rainfall 227 
Grenelle well at Paris 339 
Griess, determination of nitrites 375 
Ground-water 287 
Ground-water, ammonia low in 393 
Ground-water, changes in, during storage 262 
Ground-water, lowering of, by pumping 300 
Ground-water, origin of 289 
Ground-water, pollution of 307 
Haines, brown Artesian water reported by 341 
Haines, normal standards for Philadelphia 360 
Haines, zinc in water from a deep well 451 
Hamburg and Altona map 54 
Hamburg, analysis of city water supply of 57 
Hamburg, cholera outbreak at 53 
Hamburg, cost of constructing filter-bed no 
Hamburg, cost of running filters at 122 
Hamburg, size of filtering sand at 136 
Hardness of Artesian waters in England 344 
Hardness, Clark scale 368 
Hardness, determination of. 365 
Hard water, expense caused by the use of 366 
Hard water, mortality in towns using 20 
Hard waters, relation to health 19 
Hard water, rocks yielding 343 
Hard water, softening of, permanently 461 
Hazen Allen, recommendation for covering filters 103 
Hazen, color determination 359 
Heaton, zinc-bearing spring-water— 45i 
Hippocrates advises boiling and filtering 1 
Hourly consumption at Berlin 1x5 
Household filtration 163 
Howe, action of water and sewage upon iron 454 
Hudson, cost of constructing filter-bed 243 
Hudson, efficiency of filters at 123 
Hudson upward washing at 121 
Hudson River, variations in water of 216 
Hudson River water, variation of, in amount of suspended material... 218. 
PAGET INDEX. 
491 
Hudson, varying head upon bed at... 113 
Hydrogen sulphide, odor of, in water 415 
Ice as an article of food 208 
Ice, bacteria living in 209 
Ice from shallow ponds 211 
Ice from sea-water 181 
Ice-houses of the Hudson River 208 
Ice, illness produced by, at Rye Beach .... 211 
Ice, impossible to clean filter in presence of 103 
Ice, impure, law of Massachusetts regarding 208 
Ice, progressive improvement in quality of 211 
Ice, rain, and snow 201 
Ice, relative purity of water and 1S1 
Ice, relative merits of transparent, and snow 210 
Ice, removal of, from London filters 105 
Ilion, cost of constructing filter-bed hi 
Immunity from typhoid fever 76 
Incubation period of typhoid fever 75 
India, relation of cholera to water-supply 48 
India, ancient tanks of 3 
Industrial purposes, water for 473 
Infiltration galleries 3°4 
Intermittent filtration, Lawrence, Mass 112 
Interpretations of results, standards for 360 
Iron, action of water upon 453 
Iron, action of sea-water upon 454 
Iron, action of water and sewage upon 454 
Iron and manganese in stagnant layer 266 
Iron, determination of 410 
Iron in vegetable material 359 
Iron methods of purification T49 
Iron pipes corrode quickly in water containing salt 454 
Iron process of Medlock 149 
Iron, quantity required to give water taste 453 
Iron waters, aeration of value in • 160 
Irrigation, ancient systems of 2 
Jessenitz, typhoid fever at. 26 
Juggernaut, festival of 49 
Kalawewa, great tank of 4 
Kennish, Ponce De Leon well 32& 
Kensington, specifications of filtering-crib at 155 
Koch, description of Hamburg outbreak of cholera. 55 
Kubel’s modification of the Forschammer process 406 
Labor, price of, for cleaning filter 122 
Lakes, constant composition of the water of the Great 257 
Lake Maeris 2> 3 
Lakes, natural purification of large 258 
PAGE 492 
INDEX, 
Lamps convenient for water analysis 400 
Lascaris, germ theory taught by 2 
Latham, relation between health and height of ground-water 79 
Lausen, celebrated typhoid epidemic at 35 
Laveran, conclusions as to malaria and water-supply 15 
Law proposed in Pennsylvania to prevent river contamination 198 
Laws for prevention of river contamination 197 
Lawrence bed, cost of 112 
Lawrence bed, bacteria removed by 126 
Lawrence, efficiency of filter at 125 
Lawrence, Mass., open filter-bed 127 
Lawrence, typhoid fever reduced by filtration 127 
Lead, action of peaty water upon 448 
Lead, action of water upon 447 
Lead, determination of 409 
Lead, difference between action of water upon old and new 449 
Lead-dissolving powers of a water, checking the 450 
Lead pipe, action of water upon 409 
Lead pipe, incrustation upon ancient 449 
Lead-poisoning observed in Middle Ages 2 
Lead protected from attack by calcium carbonate 450 
Lead protected from attack by calcium silicate 450 
Lead-solvency removed by carbonate of soda 448 
Leaves, transpiration through 249 
Leeds, ammonia in river-water ....' 395 
Leeds, analysis of Long Branch water 12 
Leeds, analysis of Mt. Holly water by 8 
Leeds, bad taste and smell of Philadelphia water 192 
Leeds, determination of color..... 359 
Leeds, process for electrolytic purification 162 
Libavius, weight of water and its potability 2 
Life, value of a human g3 
Light, sterilizing action of 66 
Lindley, effluent regulator ug 
Liverpool filter-bed, cost of constructing no 
Loch Katrine, soft water of 364 
London, cleaning filter-beds 120 
London, composition of rain water near 204 
London, cost of constructing filter-bed no 
London, daily supply for 43g 
London death-rates, 1660-1871 45 
London deep wells, serious effect of heavy pumping 336 
London, efficiency of filters 124 
London, experience as to best area of filter-bed 102 
London filters, removal of ice from 105 
London, influence of crowding on death-rate 92 
London Local Government Board, trials by 421 
PAGE INDEX. 
493 
PAGE 
London snow, composition of 213 
London, statistics of filtration 106 
Long Branch, N. J., experience in the use of swamp-water 11 
Long, investigations concerning Illinois and Michigan Canal 186 
Long Island, water-table of 292 
Mabery, analysis of Cleveland air 202 
Mains, disinfection of water 60 
Magnesium chloride objectionable in boiler water 457 
Magnesian waters, production of calculi 20 
Mallet, average figures for albuminoid ammonia 394 
Mallett, views concerning peaty water 12 
Malaria and water supply, Laveran’s conclusions 15 
Malaria and water-supply, observations of Drs. Clark and Daly 15 
Malaria caused by sawdust 17 
Malaria caused by water at Pensacola 14 
Management of a Pasteur filter 166 
Management, proper, of filter 134 
Manganese and iron in spring-water 297 
Massachusetts law regarding impure ice 20S 
Massachusetts typhoid death-rates, 1873-92 44 
Matanzas Inlet sea-spring 323 
McPherson, improved counting apparatus 428 
Mechanical filters, efficiency of 147 
Mechanical filtration 137 
Medlock, patent for purification 149 
Memorial to Congress by American Water-works Association 468 
Metal cisterns 206 
Metals, action of water upon 447 
Meter system, effect upon public health 443 
Messina, cholera epidemic at 24 
Michigan standard of purity of water 417 
Michigan, average of rainfall 82 
Miller, improved circle rule counting-plate 42S 
Mills, H. F., efficiency of Lawrence filter 125 
Michigan, circular of warning because of drought 80 
Mills, H. F., designer of Lawrence bed 125 
Mine-water, sulphuric acid in 437 
Miquel, auto-infection of water 435 
Miquel, development of colonies upon successive days 433 
Miquel, method of counting colonies 429 
Miquel, efficiency of Boulogne plant 153 
Miquel, conical culture-flasks used by 428 
Mississippi river-water, amount of sediment in 21 
Mohawk Hudson system, self-purification of 221 
Mountain ranges and rainfall 225 
Mount Holly, N. J., peaty water from 8 
Munich, typhoid fever and sewerage 32° 494 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Muskeget, water-supply of the island of 290 
Nahrawan Canal, former importance of 3 
Naphthylamine hydrochloride solution 376 
Naples, underground reservoirs at 280 
Natural purification of water 171 
Neckar, seasonal variations for the water of 217 
Neshaminy river, rainfall, and river-flow 245 
Nesslerizing '.... 390 
Nesslerizing, temperature important during 400 
Nessler jars, dimensions of 399 
Nessler solution, preparation of 386 
Nessler standards, preparation of 403 
Nessler standards, changes in, upon keeping 404 
New Jersey, per capita supply for cities of 439 
New Mexico, ancient irrigation works in 3 
New Orleans, report upon water-supply of. 207 
New York State typhoid death-rate 71 
New York, typhoid statistics for 38 
New water, epidemic intense when transmitted by 435 
Niagara Falls, oxidation at 176 
Nitrates, determination of 379 
Nitrates in rain-waters 379 
Nitrate of potassium solution 381 
Nitrites, determination of 375 
Nitrite of sodium, standard solution of 376 
Nitrogen as nitrites 375 
Nitrogen, solubility of, in water 4*7 
Nitrogen in soil 380 
Nitrogen as nitrates, determination of 379 
Nitrification begins at 390 F 127 
Nitrification, best temperature for 172 
Nitrification decreases bacteria 128 
Nitrification confined to the upper soil 171 
Nitrification, amount of oxygen required 128 
Norfolk, Va., use of brown water by 10 
Normal and polluted waters, definition of 8 
Normal chlorine for Massachusetts 370 
Odor and taste 35b 
Odor caused by oils in micro-organisms 267 
Odors, various occurring in water 18 
Ohio regulations as to distance between well and cesspools 313 
Oils in micro-organisms cause taste and odor 267 
Organic matter, determination of 385 
Orinoco, black waters of... 9 
Oxalic acid solution, standard 4°b 
Oxidation at Niagara Falls. 17b 
Oxidation, direct, of sewage 175 INDEX. 
495 
PAG IE 
Oxygen-consuming capacity 406 
Oxygen, amount required for nitrification 128 
Oxygen dissolved 413 
Oxygen, solubility of, in water 417 
Oxygen, dissolved, variation in Seine water 432 
Oxygen, dissolved, small quantity of, in deep water 339 
Oxygen, dissolved, during winter 265 
Oxygen, dissolved, in stagnant layer 260 
Oxygen, dissolved, at different depths 260 
Ozone, value as a germicide '. 162 
Paludal poisoning, views of Dr. Bartley 13 
Paludism, Dr. Charles Smart’s observations of 16 
Paper-making, water for 474 
Paris, reservoirs at 280 
Paris, rates charged for water 446 
Paris, sewers of 170 
Paris, total death-rate before and after change of water-supply 89 
Parts per million converted to grains per gallon 420 
Pasteur filter, efficiency of 165 
Pasteur filter, management of 166 
Peat, destruction of the cholera germ by 13 
Peat, indications of presence of 396 
Peaty water, action of, upon lead 448 
Peaty water, from Mount Holly, N. J 8 
Peaty water, influence of freezing weather upon 399 
Peaty water, views of Tidy, Richards, and Mallett 12 
Peaty water questionable for a town-supply 13 
Pennell, purification of alkaline water 458 
Pensacola, case of malaria caused by water 14 
Percolation of water through soil 235 
Permanganate solution standard 406 
Permanganate, alkaline potassic 388 
Permanent hardness 365 
Petri dishes 426 
Petroleum taste in Cleveland supply 195 
Pettenkoffer, opinion as to self-purification of stream. 184 
Pettenkoffer, relations between typhoid and ground-water 78 
Phenol-sulphonic acid, solution of 380 
Philadelphia, normal standard for 360 
Philadelphia, typhoid statistics for 38 
Philadelphia, upward filtration proposed for 136 
Phosphates, determination of 412 
Piefke, recommendations as to management 134 
Pipettes, sterilizing 425 
Pittsburg, plan for the supply of « 305 
Plants, influence of, upon free ammonia 393 
Pliny, reference to Marcia water I 496 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Plymouth, Pa., typhoid-fever epidemic 33 
Plymouth, Pa., cost of the typhoid-fever epidemic at. 35 
Polluting liquids defined by Rivers Pollution Commission 475 
Ponce de Leon Artesian well 329 
Ponce de Leon well, analysis of water of 34a 
Population of great cities, growth of 445 
Portsmouth, Va., use of swamp-water by 10 
Potassium nitrate solution 3S1 
Potassium chromate indicator 372 
Potomac River, rainfall and river-flow 245 
Poughkeepsie, cost of constructing filter-bed no 
Price of labor for cleaning filter 122 
Prudden, condition of public ice supply 180 
Prudden, experiments with typhoid bacillus in ice 69 
Prudden, finds typhoid germs in private filters 169 
Prudden, relative merits of transparent and snow-ice 210 
Public use, quantity of water required for 441 
Pure water, does it pay ? 93 
Pure water, preparation of 387 
Pure water reservoir, size of 1x6 
Pumping, result of heavy, at Liverpool 302 
Purification, natural, of water 171 
Purification of water, artificial 97 
Purification of water by freezing 180 
Purifying action of sunlight 182 
Quantity of per capita daily supply 438 
Quantity of water required for public use 441 
Quantity of water required for domestic use 440 
Rafter, method of counting organisms 437 
Rainsch, observations of the Altona filters 100 
Rain, ice, and snow 201 
Rain, city and country, difference between 204 
Rain of temperate climates, ammonia in 204 
Rain-making by use of explosives 224 
Rain and great battles, relation between 224 
Rain caused by dynamic cooling 225 
Rain-water, composition of, near London 204 
Rain-water, impurities from roof 205 
Rain-water, monthly chlorine in Troy 204 
Rain-waters, nitrates in 379 
Rain-water supply of New Orleans, report upon 207 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Minnesota 85 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Wisconsin ; 87 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Indiana 88 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Iowa 86 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Massachusetts 88 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Connecticut 8 c INDEX. 
497 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Maryland 87 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Pennsylvania 87 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, Ohio 86 
Rainfall and typhoid fever, New York 84 
Rainfall, relation of, to typhoid fever in the Tees Valley 28 
Rainfall, average of, Michigan 82 
Rainfall, average for the United States 228 
Rainfall, normal, for the United States 226 
Rainfall and mountain ranges 225 
Rainfall at different elevations above the ground 230 
Rainfall, relation of, to great fires 224 
Rainfall, effect of Great Lakes upon 227 
Rainfall evaporated from leaves of trees 235 
Rainfall, relation of evaporation to... 233 
Rainfall, evaporation, and flow of streams . 222 
Rainfall and river-flow for Sudbury River 244 
Rainfall and river-flow for Connecticut River. 243 
Rainfall and river-flow for Potomac River 245 
Rainfall and river-flow for Savannah River 244 
Rainfall and river-flow for Croton River 246 
Rainfall and river flow for Neshaminy River 245 
Rainfalls, exceptionally heavy 223 
Rates charged for water 443 
Rates of filtration in Europe 115 
Rate of filtration, best practice 117 
Rates of filtration, low, safer than high 131 
Rate of purification and amount of sewage contamination 187 
Rate of water-flow in soil 287 
Reaction of water, determination of 358 
Regnard, cost of Anderson process 153 
Required oxygen 406 
Reservoir, pure-water, size of 116 
Reservoir bottoms, stripping of 269 
Reservoir, disinfecting of, at Buffalo 283 
Reservoirs, economic size for sedimentation 277 
Reservoirs, lining of service 282 
Reservoirs at Paris 28a 
Reservoirs, underground, at Naples 280 
Rhine, seasonal variations for the water of 217 
Richards, Mrs. E. H., coloring matter of water 359- 
Richards, Mrs. E. H., views concerning peaty water 12 
Rio Vinagre, amount of free acid in 219 
Riparian rights 254 
River-flow, variation in rate 246 
River and stream water 216 
River-water, changes in character of. 216 
River-water, influence of sewerage systems upon ; 216 
PAGE 498 
INDEX. 
Rivers considered as sewers 200 
Rivers, discharge and sediment of large 218 
Rivers Pollution Commission, opinion as to self-purification of streams.... 185 
Rochester, N. Y., fountain in reservoir at 159 
Rock, water-absorbing qualities of 335 
Rock-pressure causing flowing wells 334 
Rocks yielding hard water 343 
Roman aqueducts 4 
Rome, per capita supply for ancient 5, 439 
Rome, present supply of 5 
Roof, impurities from, in rain-water 206 
“ Run off” per square mile 236 
Rye Beach, illness produced by ice at 211 
Sample of water, directions for taking 352 
Samples, water, do not keep 404 
Samples, water, collections of, for bacteriological examination 426 
Sand, analysis of different depths in filters 102 
Sand-layer, action of extreme top. . 100 
Sand, effective size for filtering 136 
Sand-layer should be thick 119 
Sand-layer, proper thickness of fine .... 100 
Sand-layer, German law concerning thickness of 100 
Sand, salt not removed by percolation through 290 
Sand, uniformity in size important 136 
Sanarelli, experiments upon artificial typhoid 72 
Sanarelli, investigations upon typhoid fever 64, 66 317 
San Remo, total death-rate before and after change of water-supply 90 
Saratoga Lake, evidence of sedimentation in 258 
Savannah River, rainfall and river flow 244 
Saw-dust as a cause of malaria X7 
Saw-dust cities X7 
Scattery, action of peaty water upon lead 448 
Schmutzdecke, composition of 1x8 
Schenectady, typhoid fever at 29 
Sea-spring near Matanzas Inlet 323 
Sea-water, use of, for street-washing, sewer-flushing, etc 477 
Sedgwick, carriage of typhoid fever by river-water 184 
Sedgwick, cholera at Genoa 25 
Sedgwick, method of counting organisms 437 
Sedimentation, evidence of, in Saratoga Lake 258 
Sedimentation, reduction of bacteria by 274 
Sedimentation, effect of convection currents upon 279 
Sedimentation, effect of wind upon 278 
Sedimentation in Hudson River 177 
Sedimentation, value of 177 
Seine water, dissolved oxygen in 416 
Self-purification of streams 184 
PAGB INDEX. 
499 
PAGE 
Self-purification of Mohawk Hudson system 221 
Self-purification in Illinois and Michigan Canal 189, 190, 191 
Separate beds of battery should permit of being watched individually 112 
Settlement, theory of clearing by 277 
Settlement required before filtration 111 
Sewage, composition of city 174 
Sewage, changes occurring in 192 
Sewage, direct oxidation of 175 
Sewage of Troy, analysis of 3$4 
Sewage farm at Asnieres J73 
Sewers of Paris J72 
Sewered and unsewered cities, death-rate in 319 
Silting, danger of 3°6 
Silver solution, standard 371 
Slime coating on sand, value of 125 
Smart, remarks on peaty waters 10 
Smart, observations upon paludism 16 
Smart, report on rain-water of New Orleans 207 
Smart, indications of peat 396 
Smart, rate of evolution of ammonia 395 
Smith, relation between turbidity and bacteria .... 23 
Smith, disease-germs rarely increase in water 70 
Snow, ice, and rain 201 
Snow as a source of water-supply 212 
Snow, cosmic dust in 214 
Snow, influence of, upon spring-water. 214 
Snow, number of bacteria increased by melting 43 r 
Snow, soot in 214 
Snow held longer in the forest 252 
Snow, composition of city and country 213 
Snow, chlorine in city 213 
Snow-water used by Eskimo 213 
Snow-water, mountain-fever ascribed to use of 215 
Snow-water, wholesomeness of. 214 
Soap, action of, upon hard water 365 
Soap solution, standard 366 
Sodium-carbonate solution 372 
Sodium carbonate as a boiler-scale preventive . 4f>3 
Sodium-chloride solution 38r 
Sodium-nitrite standard 37^ 
Sodium-fluoride, as a boiler-scale preventive 463 
Softening of permanently hard water .. 4f>r 
Soft water, rocks yielding 343 
Soft water, mortality in towns using 20 
Soil, nitrogen in 380 
Soil, rate of water-flow in 287 
Soil, circulation of water in 287 500 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Soil, percolation of water through 235 
Soil, voids in 287 
Soil, influence of, upon cholera and typhoid germs 307 
Soil, purifying action of 172 
Soil unnecessary to a filter 128 
Soils, physical properties of 287 
Soils, water-holding powers of _ 288 
Soot in the air, influence of 201 
Soot in Catskill rain-water 202 
Soot in snow 214 
South Hampton, softening of water for the city of 460 
Spencer, magnetic carbide process 149 
Sponge-filters 168 
Springs, influence of forests upon flow of ' 252 
Spring-water, arsenic in 297 
Spring-water, Catskill Mountain - 296 
Spring-water, influence of melting snow upon 214 
Spring-water, sulphuric acid in 297 
Spring-water, zinc-bearing ...... . 297 
Stagnant layer in lakes 259 
Statement of analytical results 354 
Standards for interpretation of results 360 
Steam, sinking wells by 297 
Sterilizing glassware. 425 
Sterilized sand useless for filtration . 125 
Sterilizing water by heat 434 
Sterilization of water for bathing 161 
Sterilizing water under pressure 157 
Sternberg, views as to immunity 76 
Stoller, bacteriological examination of Hudson water 221 
Stone filters 168 
Storage of surface-waters 262 
Storage of ground-water 262 
Storage, destruction of bacteria by 274 
Stored water 257 
Streams, the flow of 236 
Streams, self-purification of 184 
Stripping of reservoir bottoms 269 
Stuttgart, filters at 103, 104 
Stuttgart filters, efficiency of 124 
Sudbury River, rainfall and river-flow 244 
Sugar-refineries, water for 474 
Sulphanilic-acid solution 376 
Sulphuric acid in mine-water 457 
Sulphuric acid in spring-water 297 
Sulphuric acid, prolonged presence of, in water 196 
Sulphuric acid, danger of, in Boston supply igj INDEX. 
501 
Sunk wells 29; 
Sunlight, purifying action of 182 
Sunlight, action of, upon typhoid ge*-m 183 
Sunlight, influence of, upon self-purification of stream 183 
Surface washing increases bacteria 
Surface-waters, storage of 262 
Swamp-water causes disease at Long Branch, N. J n 
Swamp-water, case of the ship Argo u 
Swamp-water produces an enlargement of the spleen 1 
Taste artd odor of water 356 
Taste caused by oils in micro-organisms 267 
Tees River Valley, typhoid fever in 27 
Temperature, best, for nitrification 172 
Temperature important during Nesslerizing 400 
Temperature, determination of 357 
Temperature of Croton water, variation in 357 
Temperature in Lake Cochituate 264 
Temperature, high, a characteristic of deep water 338 
Temporary hardness 365 
Teneriffe, ice supply of 212 
Thames water, monthly count of bacteria in 194 
Thermophone 357 
Thorne, description of Hamburg outbreak of cholera 55 
Tidal action, influence upon character of river-water 220 
Tidy, views concerning peaty water 12 
Tigris, ancient condition of the valley of 2 
Total solids, determination of 361 
Transpiration through leaves 249 
Trautwine, action of sea-water upon iron 454 
Trees as condensers 290 
Trees as pumping engines 235 
Troy, analysis of sewage of 384 
Troy, N. Y., composition of snow at 213 
Troy, monthly rain-water, chlorine in 204 
Tryon, J. R., analysis of Dismal Swamp water 9 
Turbidity, amount of, in Mississippi River 21 
Turbidity, influence of, in causing settlement of bacteria 22 
Turbidity, relation of, to health 21 
Typhoid fever, average period of convalescence 94 
Typhoid fever, a measure of the wholesomeness of a city water 93 
Typhoid fever, great reduction at San Remo 91 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Indiana 88 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Massachusetts 88 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Wisconsin 87 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Maryland 87 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Pennsylvania 87 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Ohio 86 
PAG! 502 
INDEX. 
PAGET 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Iowa 86 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Minnesota 85 
Typhoid fever and rainfall, Connecticut 85 
Typhoid fever and rainfall in New York 84 
Typhoid fever at West Troy 31 
Typhoid fever at Schenectady 29 
Typhoid fever at Jessenitz 26 
Typhoid fever at Albany, N. Y 32 
Typhoid fever at Cohoes 30 
Typhoid fever at Plymouth, Pa 33 
Typhoid fever and sewerage at Munich 320 
Typhoid-fever outbreak at Windsor, Vt 68 
Typhoid-fever epidemic at Lausen 35 
Typhoid-fever epidemic in the valley of the upper Hudson 29 
Typhoid fever and lowness of water in wells 83 
Typhoid fever, artificial. 64 
Typhoid fever, a country disease ... 71 
Typhoid fever, an autumn disease 78 
Typhoid fever and ground-water, relations between 78 
Typhoid fever, carried by river-water i 184 
Typhoid fever, traceable to polluted milk supply 65 
Typhoid fever, source of contagium of. 206 
Tvphoid-fever death-rates, American and foreign 466-7 
Typhoid-fever death-rate improved by betterment of water-supply 44 
Typhoid-fever deaths in Chicago, by ward map 37 
Typhoid-fever deaths in Massachusetts, 1873-92 44 
Typhoid-fever death-rate for New York State 71 
Typhoidfever statistics for Boston, 1846-92 43 
Typhoid-fever statistics for 65 cities 41 
Typhoid-fever statistics, Connecticut, 1855-93 43 
Typhoid-fever statistics for foreign cities 40 
Typhoid-fever statistics for Chicago, Philadelphia, and New York 38 
Typhoid fever, sewerage and water-supply, chart showing relation between 319 
Typhoid fever, reduction at Lawrence 127 
Typhoid fever, influence of filth upon spread of 318 
Typhoid fever, investigations concerning, by Sanarelli 317 
Typhoid fever, incubation period of 75 
Typhoid bacillus, description of 63 
Typhoid bacillus, influence of light upon 66, 183 
Typhoid bacillus, cases of discovery in water 63 
Typhoid bacillus as an evolution from the bacillus Coli communis 66 
Typhoid bacillus, a saprophyte 65 
Typhoid bacillus, viability of, in water near the freezing-point 70 
Typhoid bacillus, thermal death-point 68 
Typhoid bacillus, not destroyed by cold 68 
Typhoid bacillus, influence of soil upon 307 
Typhoid bacillus, removed by experimental filter 12S INDEX. 
503 
PAGE 
Underdraining of Ilion beds in 
Underdrains of Lawrence bed 112 
Underflow, conclusions regarding 295 
Underflow of Western Plains 293 
Underground streams not common 291 
United States, average rainfall of 228 
United States, daily evaporation from surface of 236 
United States, per capita supply of cities of 442 
Uses of water, analysis of daily 440 
Upward filtration proposed for Philadelphia 136 
Upward washing of Hudson filter 121 
Variation in number of bacteria in Seine water 193 
Variation, monthly, in purity of stream 193 
Varona, coating of water-mains 456 
Vegetation, influence of, in small lakes and ponds 258 
Vegetation in filters 119 
Vertical circulation in lakes 260 
Viability of cholera germ in water 59 
Vienna, modern aqueduct 7 
Voids in soil 287 
Wall, objection to vertical wall of filter 102 
Wanklyn albuminoid ammonia process 386 
Wanklyn, interpretations of analytical results 393 
Warsaw, covered filter 107 
Washerwomen, cause cholera at Cuneo 25 
Washerwomen, cause cholera at Messina.. 25 
Washing, mechanical filter, water required for 138 
Washington, cost of filtration for 144 
Waste of water 442 
Waste of water, great, at Buffalo, N. Y 96 
Waste of water, minimum allowance for 444 
Wasting filtrate after cleaning 132 
Water analysis, separate room required for 355 
Water and gas review, per capita table 43^ 
Water from deep sources, characteristics of 33^ 
Water, pure, preparation of 3^7 
Water shed, protection of 254 
Water-table of Long Island 292 
Water-table, definition of 291 
Weigelt, effects of contaminated waters upon fish 472 
Weight of water and portability, relation between 2 
Well-water, irregular variation in bacteria of 432 
Well-water of District of Columbia and typhoid fever 3r6 
Well-water, case of excessive pollution of 3r3 
Well-water and filtered sewage, comparison between 131 
Well-water, contamination of 3IQ 
Wells, Artesian 326 504 
IND LX. 
Wells, domestic 296 
Wells, driven 297 
Wells, typhoid fever and lowness of water in 83 
Wells with contaminated surroundings 3x2 
Wells, horizontal, at South Haven 301 
Wells, testing of, for pollution * 321 
West Troy, typhoid epidemic at.... 3X 
Wind, effect of, upon sedimentation 278 
Windsor, Vt., typhoid outbreak at 68 
Woodland soil, evaporation from 234 
Woody material, infusion of, in river water 219 
Wooden cisterns ... .... 206 
Woolf process, electrolytic purification 162 
Worms, method of filtration at 166 
Zinc, action of water upon 451 
Zinc, action of, upon health 452 
Zinc-bearing spring-water 297, 411, 451 
Zinc-chloride, recovery from large dose of 453 
Zinc, determination of 411 
Zinc in water from a galvanized-iron tank. 451 
Zinc in water from a deep well 451 
Zinc-plates as protection to boiler-iron 463 
Zinc, polluted waters act quickly upon 452 
Zurich, cost of running filters at 122 
Zurich, cost of constructing filter-bed.. no 
Zurich covered filters 108 
Zurich, rate of filtration in 117 
PAGE ERRATA. 
Page 179. Free Am. (Albany). For 0.6000 read 0.0600 
193, second line below dash: for seasonable read 
seasonal 
194, last line: omit Hoboken 
207, sixth line from bottom : for inclined read unlined 
217, tenth line from top: for seasonable read seasonal 
371, fifteenth line: for page 206 read page 205 
390, fifth line from bottom: for 1.3 m.g. read .13 m.g. 
415, footnote: for 195 read 194 SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE 
OF THE 
PUBLICATIONS 
JOHN WILEY & SONS, 
OF 
New York. 
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 
ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS. 
Descriptive circulars sent on application. 
Books marked with an asterisk are sold at net prices only. 
All books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated. 
Cattle Feeding—Diseases of Animals—Gardening, Etc. 
AGRICULTURE. 
Armsby’s Manual of Cattle Feeding 12mo, $1 75 
Downing’s Fruit and Fruit Trees 8vo, 5 00 
Kemp’s Landscape Gardening 12mo, 2 50 
Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50 
Lloyd’s Science of Agriculture 8vo, 4 00 
Loudon’s Gardening for Ladies. (Downing.) ■. ...12mo, 1 50 
Steel’s Treatise on tbe Diseases of the Ox 8vo, 6 00 
“ Treatise on tbe Diseases of tbe Dog 8vo, 3 50 
Grotenfelt’s Tbe Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) 
12mo, 2 00 
ARCHITECTURE. 
Berg’s Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 7 50 
Birkmire’s Architectural Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 
Skeleton Construction in Buildings 8vo, 3 00 
Building—Carpentry—Staiks, Etc Birkmire’s Compound Riveted Girders 8vo, $2 00 
American Theatres—Planning and Construction. 8vo, 3 00 
Carpenter’s Heating and Ventilating of Buildings .8vo, 3 00 
Freitag’s Architectural Engineering 8vo, 2 50 
Kidder’s Architect and Builder’s Pocket-book Morocco flap, 4 00 
Hatfield’s American House Carpenter 8vo, 5 00 
“ Transverse Strains 8vo, 5 00 
Monckton’s Stair Building—Wood, Iron, and Stone 4to, 4 00 
Gerhard’s Sanitary House Inspection 16mo, 1 00 
Downing and Wightwick’s Hints to Architects . .8vo, 2 00 
“ Cottages 8vo, 2 50 
Holly’s Carpenter and Joiner 18mo, 75 
Worcester’s Small Hospitals- -Establishment and Maintenance, 
including Atkinson’s Suggestions for Hospital Archi- 
tecture 12mo, 1 25 
The World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to, 2 50 
ARMY, NAVY, Etc. 
Military Engineering—Ordnance—Port Charges, Etc. 
Cooke’s Naval Orduance 8vo, $12 50 
Metcalfe’s Ordnance and Gunnery 12mo, with Atlas, 5 00 
Ingalls’s Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire 8vo, 4 00 
“ Ballistic Tables 8vo, 1 50 
Bucknill’s Submarine Mines and Torpedoes 8vo, 4 00 
Todd and Whall’s Practical Seamanship 8vo, 7 50 
Mahan’s Advanced Guard 18mo, 1 50 
“ Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.).8vo, half morocco, 7 50 
Wheeler’s Siege Operations 8vo, 2 00 
Woodhull’s Notes on Military Hygiene 12mo, morocco, 2 50 
Dietz’s Soldier’s First Aid 12mo, morocco, 1 25 
Young’s Simple Elements of Navigation.. 12mo, morocco flaps, 2 50 
Reed’s Signal Service 50 
Phelps’s Practical Marine Surveying 8vo, 2 50 
Very’s Navies of the World 8vo, half morocco, 3 50 
Bourne’s Screw Propellers .4to, 5 00 Hunter’s Port Charges 8vo, half morocco, $13 00 
* Dredge’s Modern French Artillery 4to, half morocco, 20 00 
“ Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building, 
World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893..4to, half morocco, 15 00 
Mercur’s Elements of the Art of War 8vo, 4 00 
“ Attack of Fortified Places 12mo, 2 00 
Chase’s Screw Propellers ,8vo, 3 00 
Wiuthrop’s Abridgment of Military Law 12mo, 2 50 
De Brack’s Cavalry Outpost Duties. (Carr.)... ,18mo, morocco, 2 00 
Cronkhite’s Gunnery for Non-com. Officers 18mo, morocco, 2 00 
Dyer’s Light Artillery 12mo, 3 00 
Sharpe’s Subsisting Armies 18mo, 1 25 
“ “ “ 18mo, morocco, 1 50 
Powell’s Army Officer’s Examiner 12mo, 4 00 
Hoff’s Naval Tactics 8vo, 1 50 
Bruff’s Ordnance and Gunnery 8vo, 6 00 
ASSAYING 
Smelting—Ore Dressing—Alloys, Etc 
Purman’s Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 00 
Wilson’s Cyanide Processes 12mo, 1 50 
Eletcher’s Quant. Assaying with the Blowpipe.. 12mo, morocco, 1 50 
Ricketts’s Assaying and Assay Schemes 8vo, 3 00 
* Mitchell’s Practical Assaying. (Crookes.) 8vo, 10 00 
Thurston’s Alloys, Brasses, and Bronzes 8vo, 2 50 
Kunhardt’s Ore Dressing 8vo, 1 50 
O’Driscoll’s Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 00 
ASTRONOMY. 
Practical, Theoretical, and Descriptive. 
Michie and Harlow’s Practical Astronomy Bvo, 3 00 
White’s Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy 12mo, 2 00 
Doolittle’s Practical Astronomy 8vo, 4 00 
Craig’s Azimuth 4to, 3 50 
Gore’s Elements of Geodesy 8vr» 2 50 
3 BOTANY. 
Gardening for Ladies, Etc. 
Westermaier’s General Botany. (Schneider.) 8vo, $2 00' 
Thome’s Structural Botany 18mo, 2 25 
Baldwin’s Orchids of New England 8vo, 1 50 
Loudon’s Gardening for Ladies. (Downing.) 12mo, 1 50 
BRIDGES, ROOFS, Etc. 
Cantilever—Highway—Suspension. 
Boiler’s Highway Bridges 8vo, 2 00 
* “ The Thames River Bridge 4to, paper, 5 00 
Burr’s Stresses in Bridges 8vo, 3 50 
Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 
1., Stresses ... 8vo, 2 50 
Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 
11., Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 
Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 
111., Bridge Design 8vo, 5 00 
Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 
IV., Continuous, Draw, Cantilever, Suspension, and 
Arched Bridges (In preparation). 
Crehore’s Mechanics of the Girder 8vo, 5 00' 
Du Bois’s Strains in Framed Structures 4to, 10 00 
Greene’s Roof Trusses 8vo, 1 25 
“ Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50 
“ Arches in Wood, etc 8vo, 2 50 
Waddell’s Iron Highway Bridges 8vo, 4 00 
Wood’s Construction of Bridges and Roofs 8vo, 2 00 
Foster’s Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 00 
*Morison’s The Memphis Bridge Oblong 4to, 10 00 
Johnson’s Modern Framed Structures .....4to, 10 00 
Qualitative—Quantitative—Organic—Inorganic, Etc, 
CHEMISTRY. 
Fresenius’s Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Johnson.) 8vo, 4 00 
“ Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Allen.) 8vo, 6 00 
“ “ “ “ (Bolton.) 8vo, 1 50 
4 'Crafts’s Qualitative Analysis. (Schaeffer.) 12mo, $1 50 
Perkins’s Qualitative Analysis 12mo, 1 00 
Thorpe’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis 18mo, 1 50 
Classen’s Analysis by Electrolysis. (Herrick.) 8vo, 3 00 
Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50 
O’Brine’s Laboratory Guide to Chemical Analysis 8vo, 2 00 
Mixter’s Elementary Text-book of Chemistry 12mo, 1 50 
Widling’s Inorganic Phar. and Med. Chemistry 12mo, 2 00 
Mandel’s Bio-chemical Laboratory 12mo, 1 50 
Austeu’s Notes for Chemical Students 12mo, 
Schimpf’s Volumetric Analysis 12mo, 2 50 
Hammarsten’s Physiological Chemistry (Mandel.) 8vo, 4 00 
Miller’s Chemical Physics 8vo,. 2 00 
Pinner’s Organic Chemistry. (Austen.) 12mo, 1 50 
Kolbe’s Inorganic Chemistry 12mo, 1 50 
Ricketts and Russell’s Notes on Inorganic Chemistry (Non- 
metallic) . Oblong 8vo, morocco, 75 
Drechsel’s Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.) 12mo, 1 25 
Adriance’s Laboratory Calculations 12mo, 1 25 
Troilius’s Chemistry of Iron 8vo, 2 00 
.Allen’s Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 
Nichols’s Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary) 8vo, 2 50 
Mason's “ ** “ “ “ 8vo, 5 00 
Spencer’s Sugar Manufacturer’s Handbook. 12mo, morocco flaps, 2 00 
Wiechmann’s Sugar Analysis 8vo, 2 50 
“ Chemical Lecture Notes 12mo, 3 00 
DRAWING. 
Hill’s Shades and Shadows and Perspective.. . .{In preparation) 
Elementary—Geometrical—Topographical. 
Mahan’s Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.') 2 vols., 8vo, 3 50 
MacCord’s Kinematics 8vo, 5 00 
“ Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 4 00 
“ Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 3 00 
Reed’s Topographical Drawing. (II. A.) 4to, 5 00 
Smith’s Topographical Drawing. (Macmillan.) 8vo, 2 50 
Warren’s Free-hand Drawing 12mo, 1 00 
5 Warren’s Drafting Instruments 12mo, $1 25 
“ Projection Drawing 12mo, 1 50 
“ Linear Perspective 12mo, 1 00 
“ Plane Problems , 12mo, 1 25 
“ Primary Geometry 12mo, 75 
“ Descriptive Geometry 2 vols., 8vo, 3 50 
“ Problems and Theorems 8vo, 2 50 
e‘ Machine Construction 2 vols., 8vo, 7 50 
“ Stereotomy—Stone Cutting 8vo, 2 50 
“ Higher Linear Perspective 8vo, 3 50 
“ Shades and Shadows 8vo, 3 00 
Whelpley’s Letter Engraving .. ,12mo, 2 00 
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 
Illumination—Batteries—Physics. 
* Dredge’s Electric Illuminations... .2 vols., 4to, half morocco, 25 00 
“ “ “ Yol. II 4to, 7 50 
Niaudet’s Electric Batteries. (Fishback.) 12mo, 2 50 
Anthony and Brackett’s Text-book of Physics 8vo, 4 00 
Cosmic Law of Thermal Repulsion 18mo, 75 
Thurston’s Stationary Steam Engines for Electric Lighting Pur- 
poses 12mo, 1 50 
Michie’s Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light, 8vo, 4 00 
Barker’s Deep-sea Soundings 8vo, 2 00 
Holman’s Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 00 
Tillman’s Heat 8vo, 1 50 
Gilbert’s De-magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, 2 50 
Benjamin’s Voltaic Cell 8vo, 3 00 
Reagan’s Steam and Electrical Locomotives 12mo 2 00 
Civil—Mechanical—Sanitary, Etc. 
ENGINEERING 
* Trautwiue’s Cross-section Sheet, 25 
* “ Civil Engineer’s Pocket-book. ..12mo, mor. flaps, 5 00 
* “ Excavations and Embankments 8vo, 2 00 
* “ Laying Out Curves 12mo, morocco, 2 50 
Hudson’s Excavation Tables. Yol. II 8vo, 1 00 
6 Searles’s Field Engineering 12mo, morocco flaps, $3 00 
“ Railroad Spiral 12mo, morocco flaps, 1 50 
Godwin’s Railroad Engineer’s Field-book. 12mo, pocket-bk. form, 2 50 
Butts’s Engineer’s Field-book 12mo, morocco, 2 50 
Gore’s Elements of Goodesy 8vo, 2 50 
Wellington’s Location of Railways... ... 8vo, 5 00 
* Dredge’s Penn. Railroad Construction, etc. .. Folio, half mor., 20 00 
Smith’s Cable Tramways 4to, 2 50 
“ Wire Manufacture and Uses 4to, 3 00 
Mahan’s Civil Engineering. (Wood.) 8vo, 5 00 
Wheeler's Civil Engineering 8vo, 4 00 
Mosely’s Mechanical Engineering. (Mahan.) 8vo, 5 00 
Johnson’s Theory and Practice of Surveying 8vo, 4 00 
“ Stadia Reduction Diagram. .Sheet, 22£ X 28£ inches, 50 
* Drinker’s Tunnelling 4to, half morocco, 25 00 
Eissler’s Explosives—Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 4 00 
Foster’s Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 00 
Ruffuer’s Non-tidal Rivers 8vo, 1 25 
Greene’s Roof Trusses 8vo, 1 25 
“ Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50 
“ Arches in Wood, etc 8vo, 2 50 
Church’s Mechanics of Engineering—Solids and Fluids 8vo, 6 00 
“ Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 2 00 
Howe's Retaining Walls (New Edition.) 12mo, 1 25 
Wegmann’s Construction of Masonry Dams 4to, 5 00 
Thurston’s Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 00 
Baker’s Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 00 
“ Surveying Instruments 12mo, 3 00 
Warren’s Stereotomy—Stone Cutting 8vo, 2 50 
Nichols’s Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary) 8vo, 2 50 
Mason’s “ “ “ “ “ 8vo, 5 00 
Gerhard’s Sanitary House Inspection 16mo, 1 00 
Kirkwood’s Lead Pipe for Service Pipe 8vo, 1 50 
Wolff’s Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 
Howard’s Transition Curve Field-book 12mo, morocco flap, 1 50 
Crandall’s The Transition Curve 12mo, morocco, 1 50 Crandall’s Earthwork Tables 8vo, $1 50 
Patton’s Civil Engineering 8vo, 7 50 
“ Foundations 8vo, 5 00 
Carpenter’s Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 00 
Webb’s Engineering Instruments 12mo, morocco, 1 00 
Black’s U. S. Public Works 4t.o, 5 00 
Merrirnan and Brook's Handbook for Surveyors. . . .12mo, mor., 2 00 
Merriman’s Retaining Walls and Masonry Dams 8vo, 2 00 
“ Geodetic Surveying 8vo, 2 00 
Kiersted’s Sewage Disposal 12mo, 1 25 
Siebert and Biggin’s Modern Stone Cutting and Masonry.. ,8vo, 1 50 
Kent’s Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket-book 12mo, morocco, 5 00 
HYDRAULICS 
Water-wheels—Windmills—Service Pipe—Drainage, Ere. 
Weisbacli’s Hydraulics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 
Merriman’s Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 4 00 
Ganguillet& Kutter’sFlow of Water. (Hering& Trautwiue ).8vo, 4 00 
Nichols’s Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary) 8vo, 2 50 
Wolff’s Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 
Ferrel’s Treatise on the Winds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes.. .8vo, 4 00 
Kirkwood’s Lead Pipe for Service Pipe. 8vo, 1 50 
Ruffner’s Improvement for Nou-tidal Rivers 8vo, 1 25 
Wilson’s Irrigation Engineering 8vo, 4 00 
Bovey’s Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 4 00 
Wegmann’s Water Supply of the City of New York 4to, 10 00 
Hazeu’s Filtration of Public Water Supply 8vo, 2 00 
Mason’s Water Supply—Chemical and Sanitary 8vo, 5 00 
Wood’s Theory of Turbines 8vo, 2 50 
MANUFACTURES. 
Aniline—Boilers—Explosives—Iron—Sugar—Watches — 
Woollens, Etc. 
Metcalfe’s Cost of Manufactures 8vo, 5 00 
Metcalf’s Steel (Manual for Steel Users) 12mo, 2 00 
Allen’s Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 
8 West’s American Foundry Practice 12mo, $2 50 
“ Moulder's Text-book 12mo, 2 50 
Spencer’s Sugar Manufacturer’s Handbook 12mo, mor. flap, 2 00 
Wieclimann’s Sugar Analysis 8vo, 2 50 
Beaumont’s Woollen and Worsted Manufacture 12mo, 1 50 
* Reisig’s Guide to Piece Dyeiug 8vo, 25 00 
Eissler’s Explosives, Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 4 00 
Reimann’s Aniline Colors. (Crookes.) 8vo, 2 50 
Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers 18mo, 1 00 
Thurston’s Manual of Steam Boilers 8vo, 5 00 
Booth’s Clock and Watch Maker’s Manual 12mo, 2 00 
Holly’s Saw Filing 18mo, 75 
-Svedelius’s Handbook for Charcoal Burners 12mo, 1 50 
The Lathe and Its Uses 8vo, 6 00 
Woodbury’s Fire Protection of Mills 8vo, 2 50 
Lolland’s The Iron Founder 12mo, 2 50 
“ “ “ “ Supplement 12mo, 2 50 
“ Encyclopaedia of Founding Terms 12mo, 3 00 
Bouvier’s Handbook on Oil Painting 12ino, 2 00 
Steven’s House Painting 18mo, 75 
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 
Strength—Elasticity—Resistance, Etc. 
Thurston’s Materials of Engineering 3 vols., 8vo, 8 00 
Yol. I., Non-metallic 8vo, 2 00 
Yol. II., Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 
Vol. III., Alloys, Brasses, and Bronzes 8vo, 2 50 
Thurston's Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 00 
Baker’s Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 00 
Lanza’s Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 
“ Strength of Wooden Columns 8vo, paper, 50 
Wood’s Resistance of Materials 8vo, 2 00 
Weyrauch’s Strength of Iron and Steel. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 1 50 
Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of Materials 8vo, 5 00 
Merriman’s Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 00 
Church’s Mechanic’s of Engineering—Solids and Fluids 8vo, 6 00 
9 Beardslee and Kent’s Strength of Wrought Iron 8vo, $1 50' 
Hatfield’s Transverse Strains 8vo, 5 00 
Du Bois’s Strains in Framed Structures 4to, 10 00 
Merrill’s Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 00 
Bovey’s Strength of Materials 8vo, 7 50 
Spalding’s Roads and Pavements 12mo, 2 00 
Rockwell’s Roads and Pavements in France 12mo, 1 25 
Byrne’s Highway Construction 8vo, 5 00 
Pattqu’s Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 00 
MATHEMATICS. 
Calculus—Geometry—Trigonometry, Etc. 
Rice and Johnson’s Differential Calculus 8vo, 3 50 
“ Abridgment of Differential Calculus 8vo, 1 50 
. “ Differential and Integral Calculus, 
2 vols. in 1, 12mo, 2 50 
Johnson’s Integral Calculus 12mo, 1 50 
“ Curve Tracing 12mo, 1 00 
“ Differential Equations—Ordinary and Partial 8vo, 3 50 
“ Least Squares 12mo, 1 50 
Craig’s Linear Differential Equations 8vo, 5 00 
Merriman and Woodward’s Higher Mathematics 8vo, 
Bass’s Differential Calculus 12mo, 
Halsted’s Synthetic Geometry 8vo, 1 50’ 
“ Elements of Geometry t..8vo, 1 75 
Chapman’s Theory of Equations 12mo, 1 50 
Merriman’s Method of Least S juares 8vo, 2 00 
Compton’s Logarithmic Computations 12mo, 1 50 
Davis’s Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, 1 50 
Warren’s Primary Geometry 12tno, 75 
“ Plane Problems 12mo, 1 25 
“ Descriptive Geometry 2 vols., 8vo, 3 50 
“ Problems and Theorems 8vo, 2 50 
“ Higher Linear Perspective 8vo, 3 50 
“ Free-hand Drawing 12mo, 1 00 
“ Drafting Instruments 12mo, 1 25 
10 Warren’s Projection Drawing 12mo, $1 50 
“ Linear Perspective 12mo, 1 00 
“ Plane Problems 12mo, 1 25 
Searles’s Elements of Geometry 8vo, 1 50 
Brigg’s Plane Analytical Geometry 12mo, 1 00 
Wood’s Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 00 
“ Trigonometry 12mo, 1 00 
Mahan’s Descriptive Geometry (Stone Cutting) ,8vo, 1 50 
Woolf’s Descriptive Geometry Royal 8vo, 3 00 
Ludlow’s Trigonometry with Tables. (Bass.) 8vo, 3 00 
“ Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.) 8vo, 2 00 
Baker’s Elliptic Functions 8vo, 1 50 
Parker’s Quadrature of the Circle 8vo, 2 50 
Totten’s Metrology 8vo, 2 50 
Ballard’s Pyramid Problem 8vo, 1 50 
Barnard’s Pyramid Problem 8vo, 1 50 
MECHANICS-MACHINERY. 
Text-books and Practical Works. 
Dana’s Elementary Mechanics 12mo, 1 50 
Wood’s “ “ 12mo, 1 25 
“ “ “ Supplement and Key 1 25 
“ Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 8 00 
Michie’s Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 
Merriman’s Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 00 
Church’s Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 
“ Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 2 00 
Mosely’s Mechanical Engineering. (Mahan.) 8vo, 5 00 
Weisbach’s Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. III., Part I., 
Sec. I. (Klein.)... 8vo, 5 00 
Weisbach’s Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. III., Part I. 
Sec. II. .(Klein.) 8vo, 5 00 
Weisbach’s Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.)..8vo, 5 00 
“ Steam Engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 
Lanza’s Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 
11 Crehore’s Mechanics of the Girder 8vo, $5 00 
MacCord’s Kinematics 8vo, 5 00 
Thurston’s Friction and Lost Work 8vo, 3 00 
“ The Animal as a Machine 12mo, 1 00 
Hall’s Car Lubrication 12mo, 1 00 
Warren’s Machine Construction 2 vols., 8vo, 7 50 
Chordal's Letters to Mechanics 12mo, 2 00 
The Lathe and Its Uses 8vo, 6 00 
Cromwell’s Toothed Gearing 12mo, 1 50 
“ Belts and Pulleys 12mo, 1 50 
Du Bois’s Mechanics. Yol. I., Kinematics 8vo, 3 50 
“ “ Yol. II., Statics 8vo, 4 00 
“ “ Yol. III., Kinetics 8vo, 3 50 
Dredge’s Trans. Exhibits Building, World Exposition, 
4to, half morocco, 15 00 
Flather’s Dynamometers 12mo, 2 00 
“ Rope Driving 12mo, 2 00 
Richards’s Compressed Air 12mo, 1 50 
Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 00 
Holly’s Saw Filing 18mo, 75 
Fitzgerald’s Boston Machinist 18mo, 1 00 
Baldwin’s Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo, 2 50 
Metcalfe’s Cost of Manufactures 8vo, 5 00 
Benjamin’s Wrinkles and Recipes 12mo, 2 00 
Dingey’s Machinery Pattern Making 12mo, 2 00 
METALLURGY. 
Iron—Gold—Silver—Alloys, Etc. 
Kgleston’s Metallurgy of Silver 8vo, 7 50 
“ Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50 
“ Weights and Measures, Tables 18mo, 75 
u Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, 2 50 
O’Driscoll’s Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 00 
* Kerl’s Metallurgy—Copper and Iron 8vo, 15 00 
* “ “ Steel, Fuel, etc 8vo, 15 00 
12 Thurston’s Iron and Steel 8vo, $3 50 
“ Alloys 8vo, 2 50 
Troilius’s Chemistry of Iron 8vo, 2 00' 
Kunlmrdt’s Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, 1 50 
Weyrauch’s Strength of Iron and Steel. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 1 50 
Beardslee and Kent’s Strength of Wrought Iron 8vo, 1 50 
Compton’s First Lessons in Metal Working 12mo, 1 50 
West’s American Foundry Practice * 12mo, 2 50 
“ Moulder’s Text-book 12mo, 2 50 
MINERALOGY AND MINING. 
Mine Accidents—Ventilation—Ore Dressing, Etc, 
Dana’s Descriptive Mineralogy. (E. S.) 8vo, half morocco, 12 50 
“ Mineralogy and Petrography. (J. D.) 12mo, 2 00 
“ Text-book of Mineralogy. (E. S.) 8vo, 3 50 
“ Minerals and How to Study Them. (E. S.). 12mo, 1 50 
“ American Localities of Minerals 8vo, 1 00 
Brush and Dana’s Determinative Mineralogy 8vo, 3 50 
Roseubusch’s Microscopical Physiography of Minerals and 
Rocks. (Iddings.) 8vo, 5 00 
Hussak’s Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.) 8vo, 2 00 
Williams’s Lithology 8vo, 3 00 
Chester’s Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, 1 25 
“ Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 3 00 
Egleston’s Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 2 50 
Goodyear’s Coal Mines of the Western Coast 12mo, 2 50 
Kuuhardt’s Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, 1 50 
Sawyer’s Accidents in Mines 8vo, 7 00 
Wilson’s Mine Ventilation 16mo, 1 25 
Boyd’s Resources of South Western Virginia 8vo, 3 00 
“ Map of South Western Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 00 
Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50 
Eissler’s Explosives—Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 4 00 
13 *Drinker’s Tunnelling, Explosives, Compounds, and Rock Drills. 
"4to, half morocco, $25 00 
Beard’s Ventilation of Mines 12mo, 2 50 
Ihlseng’s Manual of Mining 8vo, 4 00 
STEAM AND ELECTRICAL ENGINES, BOILERS, Etc. 
Stationary—Marine—Locomotive—Gas Engines, Etc. 
Weisbaeli’s Steam Engine. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 
Thurston’s Engine and Boiler Trials 8vo, 5 00 
“ Philosophy of the Steam Engine 12mo, 75 
“ Stationary Steam Engines 12mo, 1 50 
“ Boiler Explosion 12mo, 1 50 
“ Steam-boiler Construction and Operation 8vo, 
“ Reflection on the Motive Power of Heat. (Carnot.) 
12mo, 2 00 
Thurston’s Manual of the Steam Engine. Part I., Structure 
and Theory 8vo, 7 50 
Thurston’s Manual of the Steam Engine. Part II., Design, 
Construction, and Operation 8vo, 7 50 
2 parts, 12 00 
Rbntgen’s Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 
Peabody’s Thermodynamics of the Steam Engine 8vo, 5 00 
“ Valve Gears for the Steam-Engine 8vo, 2 50 
“ Tables of Saturated Steam 8vo, 1 00 
Wood’s Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, etc 8vo, 4 00 
Pupiu and Osterberg’s Thermodynamics 12mo, 1 25 
Kneass’s Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo, 1 50 
Reagan’s Steam and Electrical Locomotives 12mo, 2 00 
Meyer’s Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 00 
Whitham’s Steam-engine Design 8vo, G 00 
“ Constructive Steam Engineering 8vo, 10 00 
Hemenway’s Indicator Practice 12mo, 2 00 
Pray’s Twenty Years with the Indicator Royal 8vo, 2 50 
Spangler’s Valve Gears 8vo, 2 50 
* Maw’s Marine Engines Folio, half morocco, 18 00 
Trowbridge’s Stationary Steam Engines 4to, boards, 2 50 
14 Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers 18mo, $1 00 
Wilson’s Steam Boilers. (Flather.) 12mo, 2 50 
Baldwin’s Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo, 2 50 
Hoadley’s Warm-blast Furnace 8vo, 1 50 
Sinclair’s Locomotive Running 12mo, 2 00 
'Clerk’s Gas Engine 12mo, 
TABLES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 
For Engineers, Mechanics, Actuaries—Metric Tables, Etc. 
Crandall’s Railway and Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 50 
Johnson’s Stadia and Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 25 
Bixby’s Graphical Computing Tables Sheet, 25 
Compton’s Logarithms 12mo, 1 50 
Ludlow’s Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.) 12mo, 2 00^ 
Thurston’s Conversion Tables 8vo, 1 00 
Egleston’s Weights and Measures 18mo, 75 
Totten’s Metrology 8vo, 2 50 
Fisher’s Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 
Hudson’s Excavation Tables. Vol. II 8vo, 100 
VENTILATION 
Steam Heating—House Inspection—Mine Ventilation. 
Beard’s Ventilation of Mines 12mo, 2 50 
Baldwin’s Steam Heating 12mo, 2 50 
Reid’s Ventilation of American Dwellings 12mo, 1 50 
Mott’s The Air We Breathe, and Ventilation 16mo, 1 00 
Gerhard’s Sanitary House Inspection Square 16mo, 1 00 
Wilson’s Mine Ventilation 16mo, 1 25 
Carpenter’s Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 8vo, 8 00 
niSCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS 
Alcott’s Gems, Sentiment, Language Gilt edges, 5 00 
Bailey’s The New Tale of a Tub 8vo, 75 
Ballard’s Solution of the Pyramid Problem 8vo, 1 50 
Barnard’s The Metrological System of the Great Pyramid. .8vo, 1 50 
15 * Wiley’s Yosemite, Alaska, and Yellowstone 4to, $3 00 
Emmon’s Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountains. .8vo, 1 50 
Ferrel’s Treatise on the Winds 8vo, 4 00 
Perkins’s Cornell University Oblong 4to, 1 50 
Ricketts’s History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 8vo, 3 00 
Mott’s The Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound. .Sq. 16mo, 1 OO 
Rotherham’s The New Testament Critically Empliathized. 
12mo, 1 50 
Totteu’s An Important Question in Metrology 8vo, 2 50 
Whitehouse’s Lake Moeris Paper, 25 
HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. 
For Schools and Theological Seminaries. 
Gesenius’s Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to Old Testameut. 
(Tregelles.).... Small 4to, half morocco, 5 001 
Green’s Grammar of the Hebrew Language (New Edition).8vo, 3 OO 
“ Elementary Hebrew Grammar 12mo, 1 25 
“ Hebrew Chrestomatky 8vo, 2 OO 
Letteris’s Hebrew Bible (Massoretic Notes in English). 
8vo, arabesque, 2 25 
Luzzato’s Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Language and the 
Talmud Babli Idioms 12mo, 1 50 
MEDICAL. 
Bull’s Maternal Management in Health and Disease 12mo, 1 00 
Mott’s Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. 
Large mounted chart, 1 25 
Steel’s Treatise on the Diseases of the Ox 8vo, 6 00 
“ Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50 
Worcester’s Small Hospitals—Establishment and Maintenance, 
including Atkinson’s Suggestions for Hospital Archi- 
tecture 12mo, 1 25 
Hammarsteu’s Physiological Chemistry. (Maudel.) 8vo, 4 00 
16