HW?S ,. teg IS Hj Wi f*,':". 1 '■ ARMY MEDICAL. LIBRARY WASHINGTON Pounded X836 Section ... Number'5.2.D..S..rA.r!l- Form 113c, W. D.. S. G. O. (Revised June 13. 1936) MEDICAL BOTANY. MEDICAL BOTANY: DESCRIPTIONS MORE IMPORTANT PLANTS USED IN MEDICINE, THEIR HISTORY, PROPERTIES, MODE OF ADMINISTRATION. BY R. EGLESFELD GRIFFITH, M.D., MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; OF THE ACADEMY OF STATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, ETC. ETC. Scire potestates herbariam usumque medendi.—^Cneid. xii. 396. WITH UPWARDS OF THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. PHILADELPHIA: LEA AND BLANCHARD. 1847. mi -T Entered, according to ihe Act of Congress, in the year 1847, By Lea & Blanchard, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. C. SHERMAN, PRINTER, 19 St. James Street. TO JOHN TORREY, M.D. F.L.S., ETC. PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND BOTANY, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, AND ASA GRAY, M.D. ETC., PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY, WHOSE NAMES ARE IDENTIFIED WITH NORTH AMERICAN BOTANY. THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THEIR FRIEND THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. The work now offered to the Profession it is hoped may supply a defi- ciency that has long existed in our medical literature. In Europe many able treatises on this subject have appeared, but none have issued from the Ame- rican press. It is true, we have some excellent publications on the Vegetable Materia Medica of the United States; one by Dr. Bigelow, and a second by Dr. W. P. C. Barton, both deserving of the highest praise, but both are now out of print, and are likewise too expensive for general use. To these may be added the " Medical Flora" of Rafinesque, which contains some important notices and facts as regards our native plants, but mingled with much that is incorrect and futile. The student who wishes to obtain correct systematical descriptions of the various plants employed in medicine, must either consult a long series of ex- pensive books, or be content with the short notices to be met with in the usual treatises on the Materia Medica, and hence the important subject of Medical Botany has been almost wholly neglected in this country. To supply this want, has been the aim of the author in the present publication, which, whilst it gives a general view of the Vegetable Materia Medica, is still sufficiently cheap to be within the reach of all. It may be asked, will not the excellent works of Pereira, Royle, Ballard and Garrod, and Drs. Wood and Bache, supply all the botanical knowledge that is required by the student ? We think not; the intention of the authors of these treatises is rather to present to their readers an account of medicinal articles, and of their composition and uses, than to dwell on the characters and history of those derived from the vegetable kingdom ; at the same time, they all contain much that is interesting and important on these topics. The Viii PREFACE. work now offered to the Profession is intended as a companion to the more practical treatises, and also to convey such information on the systematic classification, characters, and history of Medical Plants as has been necessarily omitted in the publications alluded to. In the execution of the plan, the author has experienced some difficulty in determining the limits of the work. To notice all the plants which have at different times been employed in medicine, or have had remedial properties assigned to them, would have been impossible in the compass of a single volume, and merely to describe those recognised in the Pharmacopoeia would have militated against the object of the work. It was thought that the end would be best attained by dwelling at some length on the most important articles of the Vegetable Materia Medica, or on such as are involved in some obscurity as regards their botanical characters and history, and by noticing the others in a brief manner. In doing this, they have been arranged according to the natural orders, and it will be seen that the technical descriptions have been drawn up in strict accordance with the present improved state of botani- cal knowledge. These descriptions are selected from the best authorities ; in some cases without alterations, but in others altered, corrected, or con- densed, so as to present as great a uniformity of phraseology as possible. As the work is, from its very nature, a compilation, the only originality that can be claimed by the author is in the selection and arrangement of his materials. To render the publication more generally useful, especially to those readers who are not conversant with Botany, a short Introduction on the Structure and Composition of Plants has been prefixed, with a copious. Glossary of terms, and a Conspectus of the Natural Orders of Plants containing remedial substances; these it is hoped will add to the value of the work, whilst they do not materially swell its bulk. In the present state of Botanical Science, the most eminent authorities dis- agree as regards the best mode of arranging the natural orders, and their exact relations with each other. In this country, the classification of De Can- dolle is best known, more especially as modified by Drs. Torrey and G By some, however, that of Lindley is preferred, whilst others prefer the sys- PREFACE. 1X tern of Jussieu, &c. That adopted is founded on the views of De Candolle, but modified by those of Lindley, Gray, and others. The groups into which the orders have been divided, are mainly those suggested by the two latter au- thorities, but altered in some respects according to the views of the author. It only remains to notice the sources from which the information con- tained in this work has been obtained. In the Introduction, much has been derived from Gray's " Botanical Text-Book," Reid's " Medical Botany," and Carpenter's " Vegetable Physiology." The Conspectus is principally founded on the views of Lindley and Gray, from whom the characters of the groups and orders have been adopted with certain modifications. In the main body of the work, information has been gleaned from every available source, but more especially from Lindley's " Medical Flora," and " Vegetable Kingdom," Merat and De Lens's " Dictionnaire de Matiere Medicale," and also from the " American Dispensatory," and the respective treatises of Ainslie, Royle, Pereira, Dunglison, &c. As regards American Plants, the principal authorities have been Bigelow, W. P. C. Barton, Rafinesque, &c. Much has also been derived from the journals, and especially from the " American Journal of Pharmacy," and the " American Journal of Medical Sciences." In most cases it will be found that the authorities for the medical qualities ascribed to. the species are those of the writers quoted in the Botanical references ; where this is not the case, the exact authority for a statement is expressly mentioned. The illustrations have been taken from the various works of Royle, Pereira, Rafinesque, &c, with the addition of numerous others from the masterly graver of Mr Gilbert. Philadelphia, May 1st, 1847. CONTENTS. Preface, vii Paeonia, Introduction, . 17 Gimicifuga, Anatomy of Plants, 17 Actaea, . Vegetable tissues, 17 Zanthoriza, Organs of nutrition, 20 Magnoliaceag, Organs of reproduction, 26 Magnolia, . Inflorescence, 26 Liriodendron, . Flower, 27 Drimys, Fruit, 32 Anonaceae, Vegetable Physiology, 34 Menispermales, Propagation of Plants, 34 Menispermaceae, . Nutrition of Plants, . 36 Cocculus, Fecundation of Plants, 37 Anamirta, . Vegetable Chemistry, 39 Cissampelos, Compounds not containing Nitrogen , 40 Myristicaceae, Oxygen and Hydrogen in same pro- Myristica, . portions as in water, 40 Berberales, . Hydrogen in greater excess than in Berberidaceae, water, 43 Berberis, Oxygen in greater excess than in Leontice, . water, . 44 Podophyllum, . Classification of Plants, 44 Fumariaceae, . Artificial system, 45 Nymphaeaceae, Natural system, 47 Papaverales, Pharmaceutic Botany, 49 Papaveraceae, Collection and Preservation of Plants, 49 Papaver, Botanical Terminology, . 52 Sanguinaria, Conspectus of Natural Orders, 67 Argemone, Description of Plants used in Medicine, 79 Chelidonium, . Phaenogamous or Flowering Plants, 67,79 Cruciferales, Exogens or Exogenous Plants, 67,79 Brassicaceas, Polypetalous Exogenous Plants, 67,79 Cochlearia, Polycarpales, 67,79 Sinapis, Ranunculaceae, 67,79 Capparidaceae, Clematis, 80 Resedaceae, Anemone, . 80 Cistaceae, Hepatica, . 81 Cistus, . Hydrastis, . 82 Violates, . Ranunculus, 83 Violaceae, . Helleborus, 84 Viola, Coptis, 87 Ionidium, Nigella, 88 Flacourtiaceae, Delphinium, 88 Passifloraceae, Aconitum, 89 Samydaceae, . Xll CONTENTS. Guttiferales, Dipteraceae, Dryobalanops, Ternstromiaceae, Thea, . Clusiacese, Hebradendron, Hypericaceae, Hypericum, Silenales, Caryophyllaceae, Malvales, Sterculiaceae,. Byttneriaceae, Malvaceae, Althaea, Gossypium, Aurantiacales, Aurantiaceae,. Citrus, . Amyridaceae, Balsamodendron Boswellia, Cedrelaceae, . Soymida, Meliaceae, Melia, . Canella, Rutales, Anacardiaceae, Rhus, . Pistacia, Rutaceae, . Ruta, Barosma, Galipea, Xanthoxylaceae, . Xanthoxylon, Ptelea, . Simarubaceae, Simaruba, Picraena, Quassia, Zygophyllaceae, Guaiacum, Geraniales, Linaceae, . Linum, Oxalidaceae, Oxalis, Geraniaceae, Geranium, . Sapindales, Sapindaceae, iEsculus, . Erythroxylaceae, . Rhamnales, Rhamnaceae, Rhamnus, . Ceanothus, . 69, 146 Celastraceoe, . 69, 146 Vitaceae, . 146 Vitis, 69, 148 Polygalales, 148 Polygalaceae, . 69, 152 Polygala, 152 Krameria, . . 69, 156 Monnina, . 156 Leguminales, . 69, 158 Fabaceae, . 69, 158 Baptisia, . 69, 158 Cytisus, 69, 158 Indigofera, . 69, 159 Glycirrhiza, 69, 161 Tephrosia, . 161 Robinia, 162 Astragalus, . 69, 164 Mucuna, 69, 164 Pterocarpus, 165 Piscidia, 69, 170 Andira, . 170 Myrospermum, . 174 Haematoxylon, 69,176 Cassia, . 177 Tamarindus, 69, 178 Copaifera, 179 Acacia, . 181 Rosales, 69, 183 Rosaceae, 70, 183 Rosa, 184 Rubus, . 186 Fragaria, 70, 189 Potentilla, . . 189 Geum, . 191 Spirasa, . 192 Gillenia, 70, 195 Drupaceae, . 195 Amygdalus, 197 Prunus, 70, 197 Cerasus, 198 Pomaceae, . 200 Cydonia, 202 Pyrus, 70, 203 Myrtales, 203 Myrtaceae, 70, 206 Punica, 70, 206 Melaleuca, . 206 Caryophyllus, 70, 208 Eugenia, . 208 Eucalyptus, 70, 209 Lythraceae, . 209 Lythrum, 70, 211 Onagraceae, . 70, 211 Oenothera, . 212 Cucurbitales, . 70, 215 Cucurbitaceae, 70, 216 Momordica, 70, 216 Citrullus, . 216 Ecbalium, 218 Luffa, . CONTENTS. XI11 Bryonia, . 311 Asterales, Saxifragales, 71,312 Asteraceae, Saxifragaceae, 71,312 Liatris, Heuchera, 312 Eupatorium, Umbellales, 72, 314 Mikania, Apiaceae, . . 72,314 Tussilago, Eryngium, . 314 Erigeron, Cicuta, 316 Solidago, Petroselinum, . 317 Inula, Carum, 318 Helenium, Pimpinella, . 319 Maruta, Fo3niculum, 321 Anthemis, Archangelica, . 321 Anacyclus, . Opoponax, 323 Achillea, Ferula, . 324 Ptarmica, . Narthex, 326 Artemisia, Dorema, . 331 Tanacetum, Galbanum, 333 Antennaria, Anethum, . . 334 Arnica, Heracleum, 335 Cnicus, . Cuminum, . 336 Carthamus, Thapsia, 336 Lappa, . Daucus, . 337 Hieracium, Prangos, 338 Taraxacum, Conium, . 839 Lactuca, Coriandrum, 341 Campanales, . . 7 Araliaceae, 72, 342 Campanulaceae, . ' Panax, . 342 Lobeliaceae, . . 7 Aralia, . 344 Lobelia, Hedera, 346 Ericales, . . .7 Cornaceae, 72, 347 Pyrolaceae, . . ' Cornus, 347 Chimaphila, Hamamelidaceae, 72, 350 Ericaceae, . . 7 Hamamelis, 350 Gaultheria, Monopetalous Exogenous Plants, Arctostaphylos, 72, 351 Rhododendron, Cinchonales, . 72, 351 Kalmia, . Caprifoliaceaa, 72, 351 Ebenales, . . * Triosteum, 352 Aquifoliaceae, Sambucus, . 353 Ilex, Cinchonaceae, . 72,354 Prinos, . Richardsonia, . 354 Ebenaceae, . . " Cephalanthus, 356 Diospyros, Cephaelis, . 357 Styraceae, Psychotria, 360 Styrax, . Coffea, . 361 Sapotaceae, . . 7 Chiococca, 366 Oleales, . . . ' Pinckneya, . 365 Oleaceae, . . " Exostemma, 366 Olea, . Remija, . 367 Fraxinus, . Cosmibuena, 367 Gentianales, . . ' Coutarea, . 367 Apocynaceae,. Hymenodictyon, 368 Apocynum, Cinchona, . 368 Nerium, Uncaria, 380 Asclepiadaceae, . . " Rubiaceae, 72, 382 Hemidesmus, Rubia, 382 Asclepias, Valerianates, 72,384 Calotropis, . Valerianaceae, . 72,384 Cynanchum, Valeriana, . 384 Gentianaceae, CONTENTS. Sabbatia, 458 Polygonum, Erythraea, . Gentiana, . 459 460 Coccoloba, . Daphnales, . Frasera, . 462 Lauraceae, Menyanthes, 464 73, 466 Laurus, Sassafras, . Loganiaceas, . . Spigelia, Strychnos, . 466 . 468 Benzoin, Camphora, . Ignatia, Convolvulaceae, 471 Cinnamomum, . 73, 472 Thymelaceae, . Batatas, 472 Daphne, . Ipomaea, . 473 Dirca, Convolvulus, 477 Ulmaceae, . Solanaceae, 73, 479 Piperales, Solanum, 480 Piperaceae, Hyoscyamus, . 485 Piper, Atropa, . 486 Chavica, Datura, . 490 Cubeba, Nicotiana, 493 Urticales, Capsicum, . . 497 Urticaceae, Echiales, . 73, 499 Cannabinaceae, Boraginaceae, . 75, 499 Cannabis, . Lamiaceae, 501 Humulus, Lavandula, . 501 Moraceze, Mentha, 502 Ficus, . Lycopus, 1. 504 Dorstenia, . Salvia, . 505 Artocarpaceae, Rosmarinus, . 507 Amentales, Hedeoma, 508 Altingiaceae, Cunila, . 509 Salicaceae, Monarda, 510 Salix, . Origanum, . 511 Populus, Nepeta, 512 Myricaceae, Marrubium, . 512 Myrica, Collinsonia, 513 Comptonia, Bignoniales, 74, 515 Quernales, Pedaliaceae, . 74, 515 Corylaceae, Sesamum, . . 515 Quercus, Bignoniaceae, . 74, 516 Juglandaceae, Scrophulariaceae, 74, 517 Juglans, Scrophularia, . 518 Euphorbiales, Gratiola, . 518 Euphorbiaceae, Chelone, 519 Euphorbia, Digitalis, . 520 Croton, Plumbaginaceae, . . 74, 524 Ricinus, Statice, . 525 Gymnogens or Gymnospermous P talous Exogenous Plants, . 74, 526 Asarales, 74, 526 Cycadeaceae, Aristolochiaceae, . . 74, 526 Pinaceae, Asarum, . 527 Pinus, Aristolochia, 529 Abies, Santalaceas, 74, 534 Juniperus, Chenopodales, Phytolaccaceae, . 74,534 74, 534 Endogens or Monocotyledonous P Phytolacca, 535 Palmales, Chenopodiaceae, 74, 537 Palmaceae, Chenopodium, . 537 Areca, Polygonaceae, 74, 539 Sagus, Rheum, . 539 Arales, Rumex, . 545 Araeeap. CONTENTS. XV Alismales, . . 76,617 Erythronium, . 647 Alismaceae, 76, 617 Aloe, . 649 Juncales, . 76,618 Squilla, 652 Orontiaceae, . 76, 618 Allium, . 653 Symplocarpus, 619 Smilicales, . 77, 655 Acorus, . 620 Smilacese, 77, 655 Narcissales, . 76,622 Dioscoraceae, 77, 659 Haemodoraceae, 76, 622 Glumales, 77, 659 Aletris, 623 Graminaceae, 77, 659 Iridaceae, 76, 624 Oryza, . 660 Iris, 624 Zea, 660 Crocus, . 626 Avena, . 662 Amomales, . 76,627 Triticum, 663 Musaceae, 77, 627 Hordeum, . . 664 Zingiberaceae, . 77, 628 Secale, . 665 Zinziber, . 628 Saccharum, . 666 Curcuma, 630 Sporogens or Rhizanthous Plants, 77, 667 Amomum, . . 631 Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants, 77, 668 Elettaria, 633 Acrogens or Acrogenous Plants, 78, 669 Alpinia, . 635 Filicales, .... 78, 669 Kaempferia, 636 Polypodiaceae, 78, 669 Marantaceae, . 77, 636 Nephrodium, 670 Maranta, 637 Lycopodales, 78, 671 Canna, . 637 Lycopodiaceae, 78, 671 Orchidales, . . 77,638 Lycopodium, . 671 Orchidacese, . 77, 638 Thallogens or Thallogenous Plants 78, 672 Cypripedium, . 640 Algales, . 672 Liliales, . 77, 641 Fucaceae, 78, 672 Melanthaceae, . 77, 641 Ceramiaceae, 78, 673 Asagraea, . 641 Fungales, 674 Veratrum, 642 Lichenales, . 78, 679 Colchicum, . 644 Index of English and Foreign names, &c. 683 Trillium, 646 Index of orders, genera and species, 692 Liliaceoo, 77, 647 INTRODUCTION. ANATOMY OF PLANTS. VEGETABLE TISSUES. Fig. 1. On a microscopical examination of the organs, or parts of plants, they will be found to consist of vesicles, tubes, and fibres, constituting what is termed cellular, vascular, and woody tissues. Cellular Tissue is of universal occurrence, no part being destitute of it, in some form, and many wholly composed of it. It consists of membranous vesicles or cells, cohering together. They are of various forms, depending on the circumstances under which they are placed. When first formed they are nearly globular or ovate, but when pressed together from any cause, they assume other shapes, and their sides become flattened ; when the pressure is uniform, they become twelve-sided, or else cubical; when the pressure is lateral they assume a prismatical or cylindrical form. In general, this elongation takes place in the direc- tion of the growth, but in the stems of many trees, there is a peculiar set of cells extending from the cen- tre to the circumference, which are longest horizontally; the cells being of an oblong, flattened shape, and ar- ranged like bricks in a wall. The cells contain fluid, and often solid matter. This tissue or parenchyma constitutes the pulpy and succulent parts of plants, the pith, the leaves, with the exception of the veins, a part of the bark, &c. It sometimes is so compressed as to be very hard, as in the stone of a peach. Woody Tissue has received the name of fibre from its always existing in an elongated thread-like form. It consists of vesicles of cellular tissue drawn out into tubes of great tenuity and toughness, each end tapering to a fine point. These tubes are closely applied to each other by their sides, so as to form cords or bundles of fibres. Woody fibre is designed to convey fluid in the direction of its length, and is readily permeated by it. This tissue is 2 Cellular tissue, a Separate vesicles, b Section of cubical vesicles of pith, c Section of flattened vesicles. 18 INTRODUCTION. not confined to the wood, but forms part of the bark, the veins of leaves, &c. In coniferous trees, the fibres or tubes are not only larger than in Bundle of Woody Fibre. Fig. 3. Woody Fibre of Pine. Fig. 4. Section of Dotted Duct. Fig. 5. other plants, but are also marked on their sides with circular dots or disks, the true office of which is not fully understood. Vasiform Tissue consists of large tubes which are formed of cylindrical cells placed end to end, and opening into each other ; the sides are marked with dots or pits. They have been termed dotted ducts, and were thought to be true vessels; these dots are caused by the unequal deposit of solid matter on their interior. They are the largest tubes in plants, and their orifices are conspicuous on the cross section of most kinds of wood. Vascular Tissue consists of membranous tubes marked with transverse rings, or with a spiral fibre attached to their interior surface. This spiral fibre is the real type of the vascular tissue; the thin and deli- cate membrane covering the fibre being trans- parent the latter only is visible, and resembles a coil of slender wire. The spiral fibre is usually single, but is sometimes double, or even triple or quadruple. In their perfect state they contain air only. They may readi- ly be seen in their unrolled form, by breaking almost any leafstalk, and pulling the extremi- ties gently asunder. In plants having pith, they are found in a circle around it. Where the spiral fibre cannot be unrolled, the vessels are called ducts. Sometimes the turns of the coil are in contact, forming closed ducts, which so closely resemble spiral vessels as only to be distinguished from them, by their not being capable of being unrolled. There are others in which the turns are distant, or broken into separate rings placed at regular intervals; these are called annular ducts Sometimes the coil terminates in a rino- and then commences again, with the intervention of two or three rin^s So' times they cross each other, when they are termed reticulated ducts or are broken into short, irregular bands. In some ducts again, no traces of spiral fibre are to be seen. Ducts of all these kinds occur abundantly in the woodv tissue of most plants. ^ Lactiferous Tissue consists of a series of branching vessels which fre 1 Spiral Vessels. a Single, b Quad- ruple. INTRODUCTION. 19 Lactiferous Vessels. Fig. 8. Stomata. a Cells of Stoma. 6 Cells of Parenchyma. c Opening of Stoma. anastomose with each other, and are remarkable for their irregular con- tractions and expansions. Their sides are very delicate, and their average diameter is not more than one fourteen-hundredth of an inch. These vessels serve for the passage of the nutritious sap or proper juice of the plant; they are found in the under surface of leaves, and in the bark. Every portion of the external sur- face of a plant is covered by a cuti- cle or epidermis, which consists of layers of cellular tissue, in which the cells are much flattened, and in close contact with each other. Their form is various, sometimes they are oblong and regular, whilst at others they are very dissimilar, and appear to interlock with each other. This cuticle is provided with small apertures, usually of an oval form, and bounded by two or more oblong or reniform cells placed side by side; and by their expansion or contraction, the open- ing is increased or diminished. These apertures are called stomata, and ap- pear to subserve the functions of respiration and evaporation. They are chiefly found in the soft green tissue of leaves and young shoots, but may also be detected in the flowers. Glands are organs designed to elaborate peculiar secretions from the vege- table fluids. They are found on all parts of plants, Flg- • and are of various forms and composition; some be- ing composed merely of cellular tissue, whilst others contain in addition, a large number of vessels of different kinds. They have received various names, according to their form, but are not fully understood. Sometimes they are combined with hairs, which are expan- sions of the cellular tissue of the cuticle, consisting either of single elongated cells; of several cells placed end to end; or of cells branching from each other. These hairs may arise from a gland, or bear one at their apex. Hairs and Glands of various kinds. 20 INTRODUCTION. Prickles are also appendages of the cuticle, composed of indurated cellular tissue, and differ from thorns which proceed from the wood. Organs of Nutrition. The trunk or axis of a plant consists of two parts, growing in opposite directions; one, ascending or the stem ; one, descending, or the root. The point of junction of these is called the crown, neck, or collar. The Root is that part which descends into the earth, acts as a support to the plant, and absorbs nourishment from the soil for its sustenance. It dif- fers from the stem, not only in its mode of growth, but also in being destitute of leaves and other appendages; in its epidermis being destitute of stomata and in not producing buds, except under peculiar circumstances. Roots, however, are not always produced under ground ; they sometimes arise from any portion of the stem. Thus the branches of most woody plants, when bent down and covered with earth, will put forth roots. This takes place na- turally in many trees in Fis-10- tropical climates, which give off roots from their trunk or branches, high above the earth. This phenomenon is very striking in the Ficus re- ligiosa or Banian tree, and in the Pandanus or Screw pine. Roots also attach themselves to the surface of other vegeta- bles, and thence draw their nourishment; plants of this character are called parasitic. Roots increase in length chiefly by the addition of new matter to their extremities. It is by these extremities, called spongioles, that absorption takes place. They are of various forms, the principal of which are, 1, Conical or tap root, which is un- branched, and tapers regularly from the crown to the apex, as in the carrot. 2. Fusiform or spindle-shaped resembles the first, except that it tapers up- wards as well as downwards. 3. Napiform or turnip-shaped is much" broader than long. The small branches of roots are called fibrils or rootlets If the root divides immediately into fibrils, it is said to be fibrous When these are thickened and dilated, it is fasciculated, as in the dahlia Where 't is furnished with knobs it is called tuberous, but it should be noticed that ' some cases, what are called tuberous roots are in fact altered stems as in the potato. Bulbs also, which are usually termed roots, are merely subterranean buds; so also, many creeping roots are really underground stems The Stem is that portion of the plant which grows in an opposite direction to the root, and gives support to the leaves and organs of reproduction. All flowering Pandanus with Aerial Roots. INTRODUCTION. 21 plants have stems, but in some cases they are so short and concealed beneath the earth, as to be called stemless. Stems do not always ascend; sometimes they trail on the ground, or burrow beneath its surface. From the size and duration of the stem, plants are divided into herbs in which the stem is not woody, and dies after flowering; under shrubs, which are woody plants of small size, branched from the base; shrubs, which are similar, but of greater height; and trees, which attain a still greater altitude, and seldom bear branches near the ground. When stems are too weak to stand erect, they are said to be decumbent, procumbent, or prostrate, and when they strike root at certain intervals, they are called creeping. When they cling to surrounding objects for support, they are climbers; if they coil themselves around these objects, they are twiners. When the base of the stem sends off a prostrate, slender branch, which takes root and pro- duces a new plant at its extremity, it is called a runner. An erect branch from the underground part of the stem, capable of producing leaves, and taking root, is termed a sucker. When the branch is from an aerial part of the trunk, and descends and takes root, it is a stolon. A spine is a short branch of a woody plant, arising from a bud; they sometimes bear leaves. A ten- dril js often a slender, leafless branch, capable of coiling round contiguous objects, so as to afford support to the stem; sometimes it is a modification of a leaf. The forms of the stem when it is subterranean are fully as various, but may always be distinguished from roots by having regular buds, by scars in- dicating the insertion of former leaves, or by scales which are the rudiments of those organs. Where the stem is prostrate, lying either on, or beneath the surface of the ground and giving out roots from its under surface, it is called a Rhizome, as in the calamus. All the scaly and creeping roots of the older botanists belong to this class. A Tuber is a much thickened portion of an underground stem, furnished with eyes or latent buds, as in the potato. A Cormus is a dilated subterranean base to a stem, usually round or oval, and of a uniform texture, as in the Indian Turnip. A Bulb is an under- ground bud, mostly furnished with fleshy scales, producing roots from its base and a stem from its centre. Bulbs may be tunicated or composed of concentric layers, as in the onion, or scaly, formed of scales overlaying each other, as in the lily. The structure of stems offers great differences in plants ; it essentially con- sists of cellular and woody fibres embedded in cellular tissue, the whole co- vered by a skin or epidermis, but these fibres may be arranged in a dissimilar manner, principally, however, in two. In one called exogenous, the plant in- creases in diameter by successive additions of new layers to the circumfer- ence ; in the other or endogenous by the deposit of new woody matter towards the centre, within or among the older tissue. The stem of an Exogen is composed of three separate parts arranged concentrically; viz. bark, wood, and pith. The bark consists of an outer portion, or cellular integument, composed of cellular tissue, and covered by an epidermis; and an inner part or liber, in contact with the wood, and formed both of cellular and fibro-vascular tissue. At certain periods, a mucilaginous product is interposed between the bark and wood, which is called cambium., and is supposed to be the material from which new cells and vessels are formed. The wood consists of woody fibre, ducts, and vasiform, tissue arranged in zones. The pith consists of soft cellular tissue, at first abounding with nutritive matter, for the nourishment of the terminating buds, but afterwards becoming effete and dying. It is surrounded by a narrow zone of 22 INTRODUCTION. Tj o & c & c &e vascular tissue, which is called the medullary sheath ; it is composed of woody fibre and spiral vessels, and is the Fig. n. only part of the stem in which these latter occur. Both this sheath and the wood are traversed by narrow plates of condensed cellular tissue passing from the pith to the bark, and denominated medullary rays. The number of zones or layers in a stem is in proportion to its age, each layer being the product of a single year's growth, hence the exact pe- riod of existence of the tree can be correctly ascertained from them.* The woody portion is also divided into two parts ; one, exterior, new, colourless, and permeable to the cir- culating fluids, called Alburnum or B. Sap wood; the other central, denser, dullary sheath, exterior to which are 3 layers of charged with certain Secretions, and wood, each formed of c dotted ducts and d woody . ° ,, ,. . it, fibre, e bark. impermeable ; this is termed JJura- meu or Heart wood. It is generally of a darker colour, and as it does not assist in maintaining the functions of the tree, it may decay, without any injury to the vitality of the plant. Each layer of wood consists of vessels or ducts and woody fibre. The first of these is the earliest formed, and therefore nearest the centre : the latter is not produced till a later period. Their relative arrangement, however, is not the same in different trees, and occasions the numerous varieties in the texture met with in woods. In the pine and fir tribe the structure is so dissimilar from that of other exogens that some botanists have thought that they constituted another class to which the name of Gymnogens has been given. There are no ducts in their wood, whilst the diameter of the tubes of the wood is greater than usual. Other remarkable devia- tions also occur; thus in Cahjcanthus the old Exogenous stem, a Pith. 6 Bark, stems have fou r distinct axes of growth between wo^dy'C rays" dBundles ofthe regular wood and the bark.*" In the woody Aristolochias there are no regular zones or layers, the wood consisting of wedges separated by large medullary rays and ar- ranged around the central pith. The stem of an Endogen presents no distinct separation into pith, wood, and bark. The woody portion consists of bundles of fibres distributed throughout a cellular tissue, and not presenting any appearance of zones These fibrous bundles arise from the leaves and pass downwards towards the interior part of the stem, and afterwards turn outwards and mingle * This is strictly applicable only to trees in temperate and cold climates, which change their leaves but once every year. In tropical regions, there is reason to believe that more than one layer is deposited annually. From some observations made in the West Indies several years since, we were led to this view ofthe subject, and are glad to find that Dr Carpenter entertains the same views. (See Veg. Physiology, 98.) Fig. 12. INTRODUCTION. 23 Fig. 13. themselves with those of previous for- mation. In this way the external part of the stem becomes very hard, both by this interlacement and from the pressure from within. The whole is enclosed in an integument, which is unlike the bark of an exogen, in not increasing by layers and in not being separable from the tissue beneath. In this stem, although containing the same elements as in that of an exo- gen, the arrangement is widely dif- ferent, the cellular tissue and woody t fibre being intermingled throughout l the whole diameter. In many cases the stem of an endogen grows by a terminal bud only, as in the palms, anrl hpnr-p is nparlv pvlinHripal Wbpn Sections of stem of Endogen. a Cellular tissue. ana nence is nearly cylindrical, vvnen Spiral vessels. c Dotted ducts, d Woody fibre. lateral buds are developed, it is coni- cal, as in Asparagus, &c. Buds are undeveloped branches or terminations of stems, covered with the rudiments of leaves. The stem commences from a bud, and is always ter- minated by one. In cold or temperate climates, during the winter, the buds are covered close by overlapping scales as a protection from the severity of the weather. These scales are merely rudimentary leaves. In warm climates, buds are not provided with this defence. All buds are terminal or axillary, Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Bryophyllum Calycinum. Leaf bud. a a Marks of attachment of former leaves. and hence the arrangement of branches depends upon their peculiar disposi- tion. If the buds are alternate, the branches will likewise be so; if they be opposite, the branches will also be opposite. Irregular or adventitious buds are sometimes produced from the root or from the stem, especially if the bark be wounded—or they may even arise from the surface or margins of leaves, as in the Bryophyllum. 24 INTRODUCTION. Different ascidia. a Sarracenia. b Nepenthes. Leaves are membranous organs of various forms growing from the stem or branches, and situated imme- Fig. m diately below the buds. They may be considered to consist of an extension of the skin or cuticle of the plant into a flat expanded surface, which is sup- ported by a network of fibres and vessels derived from the medullary sheath. Leaves, ac- cording to arrangement, are alternate, opposite, or verticil- late, the first distribution being considered the most normal. When leaves arise immediately from the stem they are called sessile, and when the fibres are clustered together for a certain distance before they expand, this is termed & petiole. The leaf therefore consists of two parts, Cephaiotus. the stalk or petiole and the ex- pansion or lamina, blade or disc. Sometimes, as in the Australian Mimosse, the lamina is wanting, and the petiole is dilated into a kind of nerved leaf called a phyllodium. Other plants, instead of leaves, have ascidia or pitchers, and these also are usually altered petioles. These ascidia are of various forms, and their true functions are not under- stood. The projecting lines on the under surface of a leaf are termed veins or nerves, and their distribution venation, and the form of the leaf depends, in a great measure, on the distribution of these veins. The general outline is re- gulated by their division and direction ; but the form ofthe margin is dependent on the greater or less quantity of pa- renchyma in which the veins are distri- buted ; hence with the same venation, there may be several different forms of leaves. Most leaves are divided into two lateral halves by a prominent vein extending from the base to the summit, called the midrib; from it the other veins proceed and ramify in all direc- tions. In Exogens these veins form a kind of network, frequently anasto- mosing with each other ; these are re- ticulated leaves. In Endogens the veins or nerves proceed directly from the base to the apex, or diverge regularly from a Ranunculus aquitiiis. b Jatropha. c Passi- *ne mldnb, are parallel to each other A°saarum StercuUa planif°'ia- f Dichondra- 'and have few ramifications ; these are parallel veined leaves. Fig. 17. INTRODUCTION. 25 Fig. 18. Leaves may be simple or compound. In the first, the petiole is undivided, and the lamina consists of a single piece. A compound leaf consists of seve- ral leaves or leaflets attached to a common petiole or rachis, quite distinct and separate from each other. The forms of simple leaves are exceedingly numerous and diversified, and should be attentively studied by the botanist, as regards their contour, insertion, superficies and texture. A compound leaf may be pinnate, or where a single series of leaflets arises from the petiole; bipinnate where a secondary series of petioles arises from it, also bearing a second series of leaves; this division may go farther, and hence tripinnate, &c. In the disposition of the leaflets a leaf is said to be abruptly pinnate, where the leaflets are even, and there is no odd terminating one ; impari- pinnate where this terminating leaf- let is present. The number of leaflets varies from very few to many, and they may present all the diversities of form exhibited in simple leaves. Sometimes these forms are strangely intermixed on the same plant, a striking example of which often occurs in the honey locust. According to their duration, leaves may be caducous, when they fall early ; deciduous when they are shed before the appearance of the new leaf; marcescent when they wither before being detached ; and persistent when they remain attached one or more seasons. In general, they are annually produced in the spring, and fall off in the autumn. Plants which are desti- tute of these organs are called aphyllous. As regards their position on the stem, leaves are said to be radical when they are inserted into it, at or below the surface of the ground; and cauline when they arise from the stem at a higher point. The internal structure of a leaf consists of two sets of veins or vessels, one belonging to the upper surface, and conveying the sap ofthe plant to the ex- pansion ; the other belonging to the under surface, and returning the elabo- rated juices to the bark. These ramify through a cellular tissue called parenchyma, and con- taining numerous green globules termed chromule or chlorophyl- lin, to which the colour of the leaf is owing. These globules are differently arranged in the two strata of vessels; in the upper one there are usually two or more layers of compact oblong vesicles, having their chym'a of'uppersur'face. e,}. Parenchyma of lower surface long diameter perpendicular to the surface; in the lower surface, these vesicles are very loosely arranged? having numerous vacant spaces between them, communicating with the ex- ternal air by means of stomata. In aquatic plants whose leaves float on the Leaf of Gleditsia. Fig. 19. Section of lily leaf. a. Cells of cuticle of upper surface. Cells of cuticle of lower surface, c. Stomata. d. Paren. 26 INTRODUCTION. water, the upper surface is provided with these stomata. The leaves of suc- culent plants, as the Cactus, have but kw stomata, and hence have great power in retaining the fluids absorbed by their roots. Stipules are small leafy appendages at the base of a petiole or sessile leaf, of the same structure as the leaf. They do not occur in the larger propor- tion of plants, and are always wanting in Exogens ; where their margins unite so as to form a sheath round the stem, they are called ochrece. Leaves having stipules are said to be stipulate, and when wanting these appendages to be exstipulate. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. The organs of reproduction are those designed for the continuation of the species. Every plant possesses some means of reproducing its kind, but these differ exceedingly in the various tribes, from the simple evolution of new cells in the lowest classes, to the complicated apparatus in the higher orders, of which latter only, we shall speak at present. THE INFLORESCENCE. This term is used to express the manner in which flowers are arranged on the plant. Flowers are called solitary when a terminal or axillary bud is transformed directly into a flower. Opposite the leaves when the flower is at the same height on the stem, and opposed to a leaf. Axillary when in the axilla of a leaf. Extra-axillary when the flower grows from the side of the origin of a leaf. Epiphyllous when arising from a leaf, and Terminal when borne at the extremity of a stem or branch. When a flower is attached to a stem or branch by means of a stalk, this organ is called a peduncle ; when there is no peduncle, the flower is sessile. The peduncle is called a scape when it grows from the root. When it is branched, each ofthe divisions is called a.pedicel. Flowers are said to be in the form of a spike when they are sessile, and placed simply along a common axis. A raceme is the same, except that the flowers have pedicels. A spadix is a spike in which the flowers are close set and enclosed in a spathe. A panicle is like a raceme, but the pedicels are branched, long and distant. A corymb is the same as a raceme, with the lower pedicels elongated so as to bring all the flowers on the same level. In an umbel the pedicels arise from the same point, and diverge like rays. In a cyme the pedicels do not proceed from one central point. A thyrsus is a panicle in which the pedicels are irregularly divided, the middle ones often longer than the rest. A whorl is where the flowers are arranged in a ring round the stem or branch. A catkin or ament is a spike with scaly bracts crowded together and usually falling off in a single piece. A head or capi- tulum is formed of sessile or nearly sessile flowers, arranged in globular form, its axis or rachis is called the receptacle. When the leaves which have flowers developed in their axils are smaller or different from the common leaves of the plant, they are called bracts those of a very small size and near the calyx, are termed bracteoles. When they are set in a whorl at the base of the flower, it is called an involucre and if round a pedicel it is an involucel or partial involucre. A spathe is a large bract or modified leaf enclosing flowers, before their expansion, and opening; longitudmally to make way for them. A glume or husk, peculiar to the grasses, is something between a bract and a calyx; within these are often more delicate leaves or scales, which are called palece by some botanists • this INTRODUCTION. 27 Fig. 20. term is also applied to the small bracts surrounding the separate florets in compound flowers. Flower buds open in a definite order; in some plants the upper and central flowers expand first, and then the lower or outer ones in regular succession. This is termed centrifugal. In cases where the lower and outer buds open first, and afterwards the upper and central, it is termed centripetal. The Flower. A complete flower consists of two series of leaves of a peculiar character, called floral envelopes; of stamens, or fertilising organs; and one or more pistils or seed-bearing organs. The outer envelope is called the calyx, and its leaves are termed sepals. The inner is called corolla, and its leaves petals. These two envelopes collectively are called a perianth ; when both are present, the plant is said to be dichlamydeous; where only one, what- ever may be its form or appearance, it receives the name of calyx, and the plant is said to be monochlamydeous ; when neither are present, the plant is called achlamydeous. Calyx. When the sepals are united so as to form a more or less perfect tube, it is said to be monosepalous or gamosepalous. The lower part is called the tube, and upper and expanded portions, the limb. When the sepals are separate and distinct, it is polysepalous. When it adheres to the ovary and invests it, it is said to be superior, and when no such combination takes place, to be inferior. Corolla. When the petals unite at base into a tube, it is said to be mo- nopetalous or gamopetalous ; when not united to be polypetalous. A mono- petalous corolla may be regular or irre- gular. It is regular when its figure is uniform, and its incisions equal. The regular monopetalous corolla may be campanulate or bell-shaped; tubular, having the tube long and cylindrical ; funnel-shaped, having the tube narrow below and widening towards the limb; salver-shaped, with the tube long and narrow, and suddenly dilating into a broad horizontal last, but with a short tube; ventricose or urceolate or pitcher-shaped, contracted at the orifice. It is irregular when the incisions are not uniform, and the opposite sides are not arranged on the same axis. It may be ringent or bilabiate, gaping like the mouth of an ani- mal, the tube widening above, and the limb divided transversely into two unequal parts; personate, when the tube is expanded, and the orifice nar- rowed by the approximation of the two lips. A polypetalous corolla also may be regular or irregular. The lower part ofthe petals is called the claw, and where this is well marked, they are said to be un- guiculate ; the upper and spreading por- tion is termed the lamina or border. The regular polypetalous corolla is cru- ciform, when there are four petals ar- ranged in the form of a cross ; rosaceous when the petals, with little or no claw, spread out as in the rose; caryophyllaceous when the petals have long claws, limb; rotate, like the Monopetalous corolla.^ Regular. 6 Mon- Papilionaceous flowers. 28 INTRODUCTION. as in the pink. The irregular polypetalous corolla is papilionaceous when there are five petals, the upper and posterior of which is broad and dilated {vexillum or standard) ; the two middle and lateral parallel to each other (alee or wings) ; and the two lower also parallel and united below (carina or keel). There are many other irregular forms, but it is impossible to class them. Stamens are the male organs of a plant, and are situated within the floral envelopes. They vary in number in different flowers. A stamen consists of two parts, the filament and anther; the former supports the latter, and is a long slender body, containing numerous spiral vessels; it is said to be pro- minent when it projects beyond the anther, petaloid when it is broad and thin. They vary in number and position in different plants, but are usually more numerous than the pistils. Where there is one stamen the plant is said to be monandrous, where two, diandrous (see classification) ; when four, of which two are longer than the others, it is called didynamous ; when six, of which four are longer, tetradynamous; when united by their filaments, they are called monadelphous, diadelphous, &c, according to the number of bun- dles into which they are formed; when they are united by their anthers, they are called syngenesious; when seated on the pistil, they are gynan- drous. When stamens are longer than the corolla, they are termed exserted ; when shorter included. The anther is the essential part of the stamen, and Fi 22 contains the pollen. It is of a cellular tex- ture, and usually consists of two cells or lobes, attached to a prolongation of the fila- ment called the connectivum. Its attach- ment may be in one of three modes; by its back, when it is adnate ; by its base, when Various forms of stamens and anthers. U is innate ; OX by a single point, SO as to sLiiium. j Lemma, c Soianum. d Berbe- hang loosely, when it is versatile: when ns. e Zingiber. /Salvia. *i 5i • ., -i r. . the filament is on the outside of the anther, so that this latter faces the pistil, it is termed introrse; when it looks away from the pistil and towards the petals, it is called extrorse. Each lobe is commonly marked with a furrow ; this is the suture or line of dehiscence, by which the anther opens ; but anthers may dehisce in other modes ; some open by a transverse slip, some by pores or chinks at the apex; or by valves, as in the Barberry, when the whole side of the cell is detached, and turns back as on a hinge. Sometimes anthers are one-celled by the suppression of one lobe, or by the disappearance ofthe partition. The pollen is a very fine powder, contained in the cells of the anther. It consists of small vesicles containing a mucous fluid (fovilla); it is usually of a yellow colour. The form ofthe vesicle or grains is usually spheroidal but occasionally cylindrical, many-sided, &c. They have two coats, the outer, called extine, and the inner, inline. The grains are generally distinct from each other, but in Oenothera they are connected by cellular threads and in Mimosa are coherent in small masses, and in the Orchidaceasand Asclepiadaces are united in one or more groups, called pollinia. These, in the former class, have an elastic stalk or caudicle. When ripe, the pollen o-rains burst and the inner membrane protrudes, constituting a channel for the transmis' sion of the fovillce to the ovule. The disk is a ring, either entire or lobed, or a row of fleshy bodies some times intervening between the stamens and pistils, around the base'of the latter, when it is hypogynous; or partly covering the ovary, with the sta mens arising from it; or adhering to and lining the tube of the calyx when INTRODUCTION. 29 Fig. 23. it is perigynous ; or when the calyx adheres to the ovary, it appears on the summit of the latter, and is epigynous. In such case, when confluent with the base of the style, it is called a stylopodium. The insertion of the sta- mens and position of the disk always correspond, hence the same terms are employed to designate the origin ofthe former as are employed to denote the situation of the latter. Pistil. This consists of three parts; the ovary or germ, the style, and the stigma. The number of pistils is very various in different plants ; where there is one, the flower is said to be monogynous, where two, digynous, &c. (see Linnrean classification.) The pistil is sometimes at- tached to the receptacle by a prolongation of the sub- stance of the latter, called a gynophore, as in the Strawberry where the eatable part is the gynophore. The stigma is of a glandular nature, and is usually covered with a viscid fluid; it is destitute of a cuticle, and is essential, as it receives and exercises a peculiar action on the fecundatory pollen. It is called sessile when the style is wanting, being then placed imme- diately on the ovary. The style is the long cylindrical column arising from the ovary and terminated by the stigma. It is some- times articulated with the ovary, in which case it falls off when it has performed its function; and sometimes is continuous with it, when it is persistent. It is not essential, and is frequently absent. Usually it arises from the summit of the ovary, but sometimes from the side of it, when it is termed lateral. The ovary is the lower and thicker part of the pistil, and contains the d placenta, e Ovules ovules. A single pistil consists of a transformed leaf y e" g lgm folded inwards, with the margin united. The line formed by the union of these margins is called the ventral suture ; the opposite line, representing the midrib, is termed the dorsal suture. The surface of the pistil, of course, corresponds to the lower, and its interior to the upper surface of the leaf. The stalk of the pistil, if present, answers to the petiole; and a prolongation of the apex of the changed leaf, forms the style. The leaf, in this modified state, is called a carpel. When there is only one cell in an ovary, it has been formed of a single carpel, or of several with the divi- sions obliterated. In a many-celled ovary each cell is formed of a single carpel, and the divisions or parti- tions are called disse- piments. They are Change of leaf into pistil, a Carpel- Pistil of Coriaria myrtifolia, /v___„j _f 4,.,_ iOT,0.0 lary leaf, b Pistil, c Double leaf, d showing distinct carpels and formed ot two layers, Double pistjI sty]es and are vertical; and Pistil of Vaccinium amce- num. a Ovarium, ft Calyx. / Fig. 24. Fig. 25. 30 INTRODUCTION. Fig. 26. an ovary is unilocular, bilocular, &c, according to the number of the cells. When the margins of the carpel unite, there is a ridge or suture, called the placenta ; this is central when the carpels are developed round a central axis; parietal when, from the contraction of the dissepiments, projecting from the inner surface of the ovary, but not dividing it into cells, the ovules are placed near or on the walls of it. When there are several carpels united in one mass, the pistil is said to be syncarpous ; where they are more or less separated, it is called apocarpous. When an ovary forms no adhesion to the sides ofthe calyx, its base and that ofthe stamens being inserted into the top of the receptacle, it is said to be superior, and they are inferior or hypogy- nous ; when it adheres to the side of the calyx, and the stamens and corolla are inserted into the latter, or into a disk above the ovary, it is termed in- ferior, and the other organs superior or epigynous. A flower being a transformed branch, each row or set of organs is a whorl of leaves which has undergone a peculiar change, and hence there is a gradual transition of ordinary leaves into those of the calyx, of the latter into petals and of these into stamens, and vice versa. In some plants the transition from the form of petal to that of stamen is very marked; this is the case in the water lily, in which there are several rows of petals, the outermost of which are scarcely different from the calyx, whilst the innermost are neither petals nor stamens, but appear intermediate between the two,—being petals bearing Transformation of petals of Nymphaea into stamens, an imperfect anther; the next series are more reduced in size and have perfect anthers, until finally perfect stamens make their appearance. In what are called double flowers, the reverse takes place and the stamens are converted into petals. A complete and regular flower should consist of four whorls of an equal number of parts, alternate with each other. Thus if the calyx have five sepals, the corolla should consist of five petals, alternate with the sepals, the stamens be five, alternate with the petals, and the pistils five, alternate with the stamens. This typical condition is, however, by no means constant, being altered by a variety of causes ; as the production of one or more additional whorls of some of the floral organs; by the union of the parts of the same whorl; by a cohesion of their contiguous margins; by a cohesion of adjacent parts of different whorls ; by the suppression or abortion of some of Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Plan of flowers, a Cherry, b Squill. Plans of flowers, a Pri mrose. 6 Samolus. the parts of a whorl, or of one or more of the whorls ; by an unequal develone ment or unequal union of different parts of a whorl; by changes in the f INTRODUCTION. 31 Fig. 29. !L-i Disk, d Ascending ovules. Fig. 30. of the receptacle or axis of a flower, &c. For example, in the cherry there are five sepals, five petals alternate with them, but the stamens are twenfy, but these may be viewed as forming four whorls with five stamens in each. In the Squill the parts are disposed in threes, here the sepals and petals are normal, but the stamens are six in two rows, the outer one alternate with the petals and the inner alternate with the outer. So, also, by irregularity from abortion, in the Primrose the sepals, petals and stamens are normal as to number, but the latter are opposite the petals instead of being alternate with them; to account for this, we must suppose a row of undeveloped stamens between those present and the petals ; this is the case in Samolus, which has five small scales or aborted stamens in such a situation. A multitude of other examples might be adduced, but these are sufficient to explain the theory. The Ovule is the rudiment of the future seed. Ovules are attached to the placenta, either immediately or by a short stalk, called funiculus or podosperm. They vary in number; where there is one, it is said to be solitary, where their number is uniform and not numerous, they are said to be definite, where they are very numerous, to be inde- finite. They also vary as to situation and direction with respect to the cavity in which they are contained; thus they are ascending when they are fixed to the placenta above ovary of Thamnia. a calyx, & Ovary. the base, and directed upwards ; horizontal when they project from the side of the cell; pendulous when their direction is downwards; and suspended when they are affixed to the top of the ovary,and hang perpendicularly. The ovule consists of a nucleus, enclosed within two &.. sacs called the primine and secundine. Each of these sacs have open mouths; that of the first termed exos- tome, that of the latter endostome; these contract as the ovule changes to a seed, and become connected ; the ^lVhori'zontai^vutes." a small aperture, or the scar indicating its position, is termed foramen or micropyle. The sacs and nucleus are distinct and uncon- nected, except at base, where they are confluent, and the point of union is the chalaza. In what may be considered as the typical condition, the two coats and nucleus are connected to each other at the base of the ovule, that is, next the placenta, and the axis is rectilinear, the foramen being opposite the chalaza; such an ovule is called orthotropous; but it often happens that a change takes place during its growth, consisting either in its complete inversion upon the funiculus, so that the apex is brought down by the side of the stalk and points towards the placenta, when it is termed anatropous ; or the ovule curves upon itself and thus brings the apex near the stalk, in which case it is campylotropous. In anatropous ovules the stalk adheres strongly to the part of the surface to which it is applied, and the ripe seed breaks away at the point where it is free from the coats or skin, to which the adherent portion remains attached. This receives the name of Raphe, and appears in the form of a ridge, passing from the Hilum or scar left by the detachment of the stalk from the seed, to the chalaza. The raphe is only found in ana- tropous seeds, in all others the hilum corresponds to the chalaza, whilst in these they occupy opposite extremities of the seed. 32 INTRODUCTION. The Fruit. The fruit is composed of the ovary and its contents, arrived at maturity and usually changed in texture. It consists of two parts, the covering peri- carp or seed vessel, and the seeds. When the floral envelopes are not adherent to the ovary, they usually wither or fall off soon after fecundation; but when coherent they become a part of the fruit. Thus in the apple and pear, the most of the bulk consists of a thickened and fleshy calyx ; but the mass is sometimes made up from other organs as in the strawberry, in which the pulp is an enlarged and fleshy receptacle, &c. A Pericarp is almost always.present, though sometimes very thin, as in the umbelliferous plants, but may be wholly wanting as in the Pine Tribe. The part by which it is attached is called the base, and the other extremity the apex; the imaginary line passing from one of these points to the other is called the axis. When there is a real axis it is called a cotumella. This is formed by the extension of the peduncle or by a cohering placenta. When the pericarp consists of two parts, the outer is called the epicarp, and the inner the endo carp or putamen ; when it consists of three portions, the intermediate is usually pulpy or fleshy and is termed sarcocarp or meso carp ; thus in the cherry the skin is the epicarp, the flesh the sarcocarp, and the hard shell con- taining the seed the endocarp. A pericarp consisting of one cell is called unilocular ; of two cells, bilocu- lar, &c. The cells are separated by partitions called dissepiments. As the fruit is only a matured pistil, it should agree in structure with it, but some alterations occasionally occur in consequence of the abortion or obliteration of parts, or of the irregular growth of others. Thus a many-celled ovary may afford a one-celled pericarp ; as in the oak, where the ovary is three-celled with a pair of ovules in each, whilst in the acorn there is but one cell and a single seed. On the other hand, the fruit sometimes has more cells than existed in the ovary, as in the Stramonium in which a two-celled ovary be- comes a four-celled pericarp, caused by the growth of the placenta on each side, so as to reach and connect with the dorsal suture. When the mature fruit does not open spontaneously to permit the escape of the seed, it is called indehiscent; when it opens to discharge its contents it is termed dehiscent, and the pieces into which it divides are denominated valves. Pericarps formed of a single carpel, have two marked lines on their surface, by which they readily dehisce; one is called dorsal, and occupies the place of the midrib of the leaf become a carpel; the other is termed ventral, and answers to the lines of union of the margins of the leaf. In a many-celled pericarp, each cell or carpel has these sutures more or less distinctly marked. The dehiscence is locidicidal when the pericarp bursts vertically at the back ofthe cells or by the dorsal suture; it is septicidal when it bursts longi- tudinally through the dissepiments, and usually by the ventral suture. Some- times the dissepiments remaining coherent in the axis separate from the valves- this form is called septifragal. Occasionally the dehiscence is transverse' taking place across the sutures, the upper part falling off like a lid; this is called circumscissile. The pericarp may also open by pores, or irregular openings at or near the apex. There are several other irregular varieties of dehiscence, but they do not require particular notice. When the pericarp has lateral appendages like wings, it is said to be dipterous, tripterous, &c, ac- cording to their number; where there are none, it is apterous. The pericarp is of various forms, and these have been named as follows : INTRODUCTION. 33 Follicle, a fruit of a single carpel, dehiscing by the ventral, suture, as in the larkspur.. Legume or pod, a fruit of a single carpel, opening by both the ventral and dorsal sutures, so as to separate into two valves. When a legume is divided into joints it is called a Loment; these joints are sometimes inde- hiscent, and sometimes dehiscent. A Drupe is a more or less fleshy fruit, con- taining an indehiscent stony one-celled nut; where there is more than one cell, it is called drupaceous. An Achenium is a dry, indistinct, one-seeded pericarp, often terminated by the persistent and plumose style, called pappus; in the Rose the achenia are seated on the hollow expansion of the receptacle ; in the Strawberry they are on the surface ofthe pulpy receptacle. A Cremo- ' carp is a pair of achenia placed face to face, and covered by the calyx tube, and when ripe separate from each other, or from a central axis, called carpo- phore, as in the umbelliferous plants. Each half fruit is called a Hemicarp or Mericarp. A Caryopsis is a dry one-seeded pericarp, closely adhering to the integument of the seed, so as not to be separated from it, as in Indian corn, wheat, &c. A Utricle is like a caryopsis, but the pericarp is separable from the seed as in Chenopodium. A Nut is a one-celled, one-seeded, inde- hiscent fruit like an achenium, but produced by an ovary of two or more cells, with one or more ovules in each ; all but a single ovule and cell disap- pearing at maturity; the nut is sometimes enclosed or surrounded by a kind of involucre called a cupide, as the cup in the acorn, and bur in the chestnut. A Capsule is a dry, many-celled pericarp, resulting from a compound ovary, and opening by valves or pores. A Siliqua or pod isa two-valved oblong pericarp, rendered two-celled by a spurious dissepiment, formed by an exten- sion of the placenta ; when it is broad and short it is called a Silicula or pouch. A Pyxidium or Pyxis is a capsule which dehisces transversely. A Samara is a nut or achenium with a winged apex or margin. A Pome is a fruit com- posed of a fleshy or juicy calyx, enclosing two or more cartilaginous or bony carpels. A Pepo is an indehiscent, fleshy, or internally pulpy fruit, usually formed of three carpels, invested by the calyx, and with a firm rind. A Berry is an indehiscent fruit, fleshy or pulpy throughout; a Hesperidium or orange is merely a berry with a coriaceous rind. A Strobile or cone is the collective fruit ofthe fir tribe ; each scale represents an open carpel, bearing one or more naked seeds. Seed. The seed like the ovule, consists of a nucleus usually enclosed in two integuments. The outer of these is called testa or episperm, and varies much in texture and form. It is sometimes furnished with a tuft of hairs at one end called a coma; or is wholly covered with a long wool. The inner integument, corresponding to the secundine of the ovule is termed tegmen. Where the proper coat of the nucleus is visible, it is denominated endo- pleura. Seeds are sometimes furnished with a complete or partial covering, exterior to their proper coats, from an expansion ofthe placenta, or of the apex of the funiculus; this is called arillus or aril, as the mace of the nutmeg. The scar left by the separation ofthe seed from its stalk is termed the hilum. The nucleus or kernel consists of the albumen, and the embryo. The albumen is a mucilaginous or amylaceous substance contained in the cellular tissue of the nucleus, for the protection and nourishment of the embryo. It is mealy in the grasses, horny in the coffee, &c, oily in the poppy, &c, and fleshy in most seeds. Where it has a wrinkled or folded appearance, from not being deposited uniformly, it is said to be ruminated. The albumen is not essential, and therefore is wanting in many seeds, as in all the cruci- ferous plants, the pea tribe, &c. Where it is present, seeds are said to be albuminous; where it is wanting, to be exalbuminous. 3 34 INTRODUCTION. Fig. 31. The embryo or rudiment of the new plant is produced within the sac of the amnios, which is mostly absorbed during its growth, but sometimes remains in the form of a bag, called the vitellus. Where no albumen is pre- sent, the whole substance of the nucleus is absorbed, and the embryo occupies its place. The embryo consists of one or more lobes, called cotyledons, which surround the ter- minal bud called the plumule, and the por- tion which becomes the root, termed the radicle. In some rare cases the embryo is destitute of cotyledons; these plants are called acotyledonous ; where there are two cotyledons they are dicotyledonous; this is the case in all the exogenous plants ; where there is but one cotyledon, they are mono- cotyledonous, as occurs in the endogenous plants. The embryo is either straight, or curved, or spiral. Its position as regards the albumen, when this is present, is usually in its axis ; but it is some- times eccentric, as in the palms ; or external, as in Indian corn, &c.; where it is external, or nearly so, and curved round the albumen, it is peripheric. When it is so bent that the radicle is placed against the edges of the cotyle- dons, the latter are said to be accumbent, and when the radicle rests against the back of one of them, they are termed incumbent. The radicle always points to the micropyle; and the apex of the cotyledons, except when spiral, to the chalaza. Seed of onion, a a Albumen. 6 Embryo. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Propagation of Plants. Germination. A perfect seed may be considered as a plant, whose vital energies are in a dormant or latent state, requiring the concurrence of cer- tain circumstances, to call them forth and to produce such a condition as to fit it for an independent existence. Seeds retain this latent vitality for periods varying much in different plants; some losing it in a few months, whilst others retain it for an indefinite period. The conditions requisite for germi- nation, are, moisture, the presence of air, the absence of direct light, and warmth. Moisture probably acts in several ways ; it softens the integuments, pervades and softens the nutritive matters, and thus brings them to a fit state to be absorbed by the embryo; conveys in solution nutritive particles from other sources; and by its own decomposition affords two of the most impor- tant ingredients of vegetable bodies. The presence of air is necessary, be- cause the oxygen contained in it causes a change in the starch contained in the albumen or cotyledons, and converts it into a semi-fluid substance consist- ing of sugar and gum, and combines with some of the carbon, forming car- bonic acid which escapes, whilst the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen are augmented. The absence of light is favourable, as its presence has a ten- dency to produce an opposite change, the accumulation of carbon. Heat promotes the necessary chemical changes, and assists the moisture in acting on the hard parts ofthe seed ; and also probably acts as a stimulus to the absorbents of the embryo. The degree of heat required is much the same in similar species, but varies greatly in different plants ; thus the seeds of some plants will germinate at a temperature near that of 32°, whilst those of others require a heat of 90° to 110°. Seeds germinate most freely in spring and INTRODUCTION. 35 Fig. 32. summer, as at these periods, the requisites for this process are all afforded to the fullest extent; this is also favoured by covering them loosely with soil, so that whilst the light is excluded, they may experience the vivifying influ- ence ofthe sun's rays, and at the same time be kept in a moist state. When planted at too great a depth, they remain torpid, from not receiving the sti- mulus of air; and when they have not a proper covering of earth, they do not germinate, from not obtaining sufficient moisture. When germination commences, the moisture absorbed softens all parts of the seed, a chemical change takes place in the starch of the embryo or cotyledons; the c4 embryo enlarges and bursts the integuments; the radicle protrudes and descends, often attaining some length before the plumule appears ; the albumen is gradually absorbed ; the cotyledons expand and become seminal leaves, which afford nourishment to the young plant, by elaborating sap, and wither when the true leaves appear or remain under the surface, and are gradually absorbed and disappear. As soon as the root and leaves are developed, in opposite directions, the process of germination is perfected, and the new plant is formed. Propagation by buds. This takes place in several ways: by means of the bulbs which grow at the base of the scales in what is called a bulbous root; these bulbs are soon de- tached and become independent plants ; by means of bulb- lets growing in the axil of leaves, as in some species of lily, or in the place of flowers, as in the tree onion ; by means of buds growing at the margins of leaves, as in Bryophyllum (fig. 15); by means of buds or eyes in the subterranean stems of plants, as in the potato. All these resemble seeds in producing new plants, when placed in proper situations, but differ from them in not being the product of fecundation, but being exten- sions of the parent plant. Propagation by layers or slips. The first of these is accomplished by surrounding a branch with moist earth, in which case it often throws out roots and becomes an independent plant, more especially if the bark be wounded, or a ligature be passed round it at the part placed in the earth. Sometimes this process takes place naturally, the branches bending over so as to touch the ground, and then throwing out roots at their point of contact, as in the Raspberry. Propagation by runners is somewhat analogous. That by slips is essentially the same as the foregoing, the only difference being that the branch or slip is wholly detached from the parent stem. There is one fact connected with this mode of propagation deserving of notice, that the number of seeds in the fruit produced by the new plant, is always less than in one arising from seed. Propagation by grafting and inoculating is somewhat analogous. This operation consists in uniting a part of one plant to another ; this union is effected by the cambium, and hence it is requisite that the barks of the graft and stalk should be placed in apposition. The cambium exudes from each ; becomes organized and produces a union. The operation of inoculating, or budding, is essentially the same, but in this case a bud and a slip of the environing bark only are used, and not a slip or cutting, as in grafting. In both cases they only succeed when the stalk, and the cutting or bud belong to the same natural family. A graft is merely an extension of the parent stem from which the scion was derived, and not a new individual. o Plumule, ft Radicle. Cotyledons. 36 INTRODUCTION. Nutrition of Plants. The essential constituents of plants are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; nitrogen, though not forming a component part of their tissues, is always pre- sent in growing organs, and is found in numerous products of vegetation. Various mineral substances also enter into the composition of different plants and their secretions. All these constituents must be introduced into the plant by absorption, without it be admitted that vegetables possess the power of transforming one simple substance into another, which, although asserted, has not been proved. The food of vegetables must always be taken in a fluid form, as the spongioles of the roots, the principal avenues by which it is in- troduced, can only absorb matters presented to them in a liquid state. The hydrogen contained in plants is principally derived from the decomposition of water, as this element does not exist in the soil in any appreciable quantity ; but some is also derived from the atmosphere. Their oxygen is supplied from the same sources. Their carbon enters them in the form of car- bonic acid, either through the roots, or is absorbed in a gaseous state by the leaves. Their nitrogen, which is always small in quantity, is derived from the atmosphere; a minute portion, perhaps, enters the plant in an uncom- bined state, but the larger part is introduced in the form of ammonia. The alkaline and earthy matters are furnished by the soil, from which each spe- cies takes up various materials in different proportions, according to its nature and wants. It has been thought that the spongioles of roots have no power of selection, but absorb any thing presented to them in a liquid form, but this does not ap- pear to be the case to the extent supposed ; and it seems probable that these parts are endowed with a power of discrimination to a certain extent, and are capable of selecting the substances best fitted to promote the growth of the plant. It has been observed that roots excrete a peculiar matter, varying in different species of plants. This has been supposed to be injurious, or at least of no benefit to the plant, though it is nutritive to a vegetable of another kind. These suppositions do not appear to be supported by facts, and the attempt to explain the benefit of a rotation of crops by them, is erroneous. It has been satisfactorily shown, that the cause of sterility in a soil is owing to the ab- sorption of all principles from it by the growing crop, and that if a supply of them be artificially kept up, that the same species of plants mav be advanta- geously grown in the same spot, for an indefinite period. The fluid absorbed by the roots is carried into the stem, probably undergo- ing some modification in its passage. It is now termed sap, and in its pro- gress to the leaves, or its ascent, is still more altered by dissolvino- some of the soluble matters with which it comes in contact, and by undergoing cer- tain chemical changes. In a newly developed herbaceous stem, the sap mainly ascends through the pith ; but in woody exogenous stems, it rises through the alburnum, and in endogenous trunks through the whole wood. When it reaches the leaves, it is widely diffused through them, and undergoes its principal transformations. These are effected in the green cellular tissue or that containing the coloured particles, called chromule ; but all green parts of vegetables act on the sap, as the outer bark of herbaceous plants, &c. These changes do not take place when the direct action of lio-ht and air is 'with- held. They are a concentration of the sap ; a decomposition ofthe carbonic acid contained in it, and of that absorbed by the leaves; the carbon and hy- drogen being retained for the nourishment of the plant, whilst the oxyo-en is set free. During vegetation, leaves exhale much water; but the amount va- ries with the degree of warmth and dryness of the air, and the exposure to INTRODUCTION. 37 light; the exhalation being very slight during the night. When the fluid thus escaping is greater than that absorbed by the roots, the leaves droop and wither; in general, however, these two functions of exhalation and absorp- tion are in direct proportion to each other, and hence the sap ascends with a rapidity corresponding to the activity ofthe exhalation. The immediate cause of this ascent has not been fully ascertained, and many theories have been devised to account for it; as the action of heat, capillary attraction, vital contractility of the vessels and cells, electric power and endosmosis; all these probably have their influence, though the latter process combined with capillary attraction and the exhalation from the leaves will explain most of the facts. When the sap is consumed in a proportion equivalent to the absorption of fluids, no accumulation of it, to any extent, can occur; but when the leaves fall off, the roots still absorb to a certain degree, and hence the stem becomes gorged with fluid ; this gradually undergoes a change, and forms deposits in the cells and tubes ofthe wood. In the spring, also, absorption commencing before the formation of leaves permits a due exhalation, the trunk again is loaded with a superabundance of sap. When the sap is thus concentrated by evaporation, and exposed to the action of the air in the tissues of the leaf, it undergoes certain changes, and forms new and peculiar products, when it is called the proper juice. This is collected by a system of vessels on the under surface of the leaves, which communicate with the bark; these are principally of the kind previously spoken of, as vessels of the latex. Hence the peculiar products of woody exogenous plants are found in the bark or wood, where they accumulate from year to year. In perennial herbs they are found in the root or sub- terranean modifications of the stem; whilst in annuals they are diffused through all parts of the plant. The roots have hitherto been spokt n of as the sole organs of absorption ; but this process is likewise carried on by the leaves, and in some tribes of plants they are the principal organs of nutrition, as in the Cacti, and in many ofthe parasitic Orchidese. This absorption of fluid by the leaves takes place mainly through the cuticle, and especially by means of the downy hairs which act like root fibres. Fecundation of Plants. In flowering plants, fecundation takes place by the ac- tion of the pollen ofthe anthers on the pistil. These mi- nute cells or grains, when from any cause they come in contact with the stigma ofthe pistil, adhere to it by the glu- tinous secretion it exudes, and in a short time change in a remarkable manner ; the outer coat of the pollen-cell open- ing and allowing the inner coat to protrude in the form of a tube of extreme tenuity, filled with the fluid and granular matter already spoken of; this passes between the cells of the stigma, and passes down through the loose texture of the style, until it reaches the ovary ; whilst this is going on, a cavity or sac, called the sac of the amnios, filled with fluid, makes its appearance in the nucleus of the ovule; and the foramen being brought in contact with the pla- centa, or in orthotropous ovules, carried up to the summit ofthe cell, a pollen-tube enters the orifice and the granules thus reach the nucleus. What further occurs is not known, but it is ascertained that in a short time the embryo ap- pears in the amniotic sac. 38 INTRODUCTION. In the lowest orders of plants reproduction takes place by the developement of cells, which being set free by the bursting of the parent cell, enclosing Fig. 34. Fjg-36- Protococcus nivalis, show- ing cells and vesicles, partly embedded in a slimy jelly. Fig. 35. Fig. 37. Hydnum castrensis. Feather moss. Marchantia polymorpha. them, become independent beings, capable of producing others in the same manner. In somewhat higher tribes, only a small portion of the cells of which they are formed, have this reproductive power, and they are always found in certain and definite parts of the plant; these cells are called spores, and this form of reproduction occurs in the sea weeds, lichens, and fungi, &c. In some of the liverworts there is a distinct set of organs of fructification. The little bodies forming radii on them are spore cases ; these when mature, burst and scatter their contents or spores, which originate new plants, their outer coat rupturing, and the inner projecting in a long tube filled with new cells ; these increase into a leafy projection, from the lower part of which, root fibres proceed. In mosses the organs of reproduction are more com- plex. There are small capsules or urns on long stalks, furnished with lids which fall off when the spores con- tained in them are mature ; these spores are developed round a columella. After being scattered on the earth, the outer coat of these spores ruptures, and several mi- nute tubes are projected, each of which contains gra- nules, each capable of forming a new plant. In the ferns the spore cases are found on the backs or edges of the leaves, disposed in various forms, these cases are filled with a fine brown dust, which is scattered on their burst- ing. This dust is composed of spores which vegetate in a peculiar manner; at first the outer coat is ruptured, and the inner one projects in a long tube, within which, as well as in the original cavity, new cells are formed from the included germs. These cells at first coalesce and form Polypodium vulgare, or Wall Fern. INTRODUCTION. 39 a foliated expansion, as in liverworts; in the centre of this a protuberance makes its appearance, which is finally prolonged above into a sort of stem, and below into a root; from this stem the true leaves are afterwards deve- loped, when the primary one decays. VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY. It has already been stated that vegetables consist chiefly of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, with some nitrogen, especially in their products; to these are added minute portions of potash, soda, sulphur, silica, &c.; these, however, bear but a small proportion to the three first, which make up the greater part of all vegetables and their products. These ultimate principles are variously combined, and thus form certain compounds, some of which are common to all vegetable bodies, whilst others are peculiar to certain orders or genera. Those which are common, either contain nitrogen, or are devoid of that element. Those into which nitrogen enters as a component part, are, fibrin, albumen, legumin or casein, and the vegetable alkaloids, &c. Fibrin. Is found in vegetable juices, and separates from them, when at rest, in the form of a slight coagulum. It is contained largely in gluten, or that substance remaining after wheat flour has been well washed with water. It is insoluble in that fluid, but when long boiled in it, is altered in composi- tion. By the aid of heat it is partially soluble in acetic acid. It is dissolved by the alkalies, and when heated with them is decomposed, and gives out ammonia. Albumen. Also found in vegetable fluids, and in the seeds and other parts of plants. It is present in two forms, either fluid or coagulated. All vege- table juices when heated, become turbid, from the albumen they contain be- coming coagulated. Its properties and composition are nearly the same as those of fibrin. Legumin or Casein. This is found in abundance in the seeds of the le- guminosee. It is not coagulated by heat, but readily so by the weak acids. The scum formed on the surface of water in which peas or beans are boiled, is principally composed of this substance. Its properties are similar to other articles of its class. Vegetable Alkaloids. These substances are very remarkable, and may be considered as the most active class of vegetable principles. They all contain nitrogen, and, as a consequence, when subjected to a high temperature, give off ammonia, from the nitrogen uniting with a portion ofthe hydrogen. They restore a blue reddened by an acid, and usually have an extremely bitter taste. Most of them are solid and fixed, and when pure, are crystallizable ; are usually soluble in alcohol, but sparingly so in water. They form salts with the acids, which are in most cases more soluble in water, than the bases from which they are made. In plants they usually exist in the state of a salt, being united to one or other of the vegetable acids. Vegetable Neutral Principles. These may all be said to contain nitrogen; as it is probable that those in which this element does not exist, may be con- sidered as belonging to extractive. They unite with acids, and form crystal- lizable compounds, but their solutions do not exhibit alkaline reactions, and the salts they form are acid. In some plants, a substance of this class occurs, called amygdaline, which is very interesting, from the fact that on its admixture with emulsinc (a kind of albumen), a decomposition takes 40 INTRODUCTION. place, and there is a formation of volatile oil of bitter almonds, hydrocyanic acid, &c. Compounds not containing Nitrogen. Many of these compounds have their oxygen and hydrogen in the same proportions as those of water, and most of them can be converted into sugar when boiled a long time with an acid or alkali. In others of them, their hy- drogen or oxygen is in much greater proportion than in water. Oxygen and Hydrogen in same proportions as Water. Fig. 38. Lignin. Is a fibrous substance, destitute of taste or smell, and when per- fectly dry, not alterable by the action of the air, but when moist, becoming decomposed, furnishing carbonic acid and water. When boiled with sulphu- ric acid, it is changed into dextrine, and afterwards into sugar. It constitutes about l-100th of dried wood. Comp. C12 H10 O10. Starch. Is contained in vegetable cells, in the form of granules, covered with an envelope not soluble in cold water. The granules vary much in size and appearance in different plants. It is changed by heat into dextrine, a soluble starch having the same composition ; by boiling with dilute sulphu- ric acid, it is converted into sugar. It is coloured blue by free iodine, which is the best test for it. Comp. Cia H10 O10. Many kinds of starch are employed as dietetic articles, under the names of sago, tapioca, arrow-root, &c.; these, though possessing the same general pro- perties, differ much in flavour, and in the form and appearance of their granules. Wheat Starch, when pure, is white, and almost tasteless, and without odour. Under the microscope, it appears to con- sist of particles varying much in size, of which the largest and smallest are the most frequent, the intermediate ones being scarcer. Their shape is usually rounded, and their surface uneven. The hilum is surrounded by concentric rings, but is by no means evident, until a gentle heat is applied to the water in which the particles are sus- pended. Sometimes it is indicated by a line or rounded spot; the rings are traceable to the edge of the granule. When made to roll over in the fluid, they appear like oblate spheroids, one of the faces being rather more convex than the other. Arrow-Root, West Indian, is white, without taste or smell. When pressed between the fingers, it feels firm, and on being rubbed, produces a faint, crackling sound. Under the microscope it appears to consist of oblong, or ovate-oblong, or irregularly-shaped granules, hav- ing, occasionally, small mammillary points projecting from the surface, which are more evident after the particles have been in water for a short time. The rings are very delicate, and the hilum is circular, and has linear or stellate cracks. Procured from Maran- ta arundinacea. Wheat Starch. a A particle seen edgeways. Fig. 39. West Indian Arrow-Root. INTRODUCTION. 41 Fig. 41. Tahiti Arrow-Root. Fig. 42. <%©!© Portland Ar- row-Root. Arrow-Root, East Indian. A fine white powder. pjg. 4o. It looks like a finely powdered salt, it has not the firmness ofthe West Indian, nor like that, does it crackle on being rubbed between the fingers. Under the microscope it appears to consist of ovate or oblong- ovate, flattened granules, usually with a short neck or nipple-like projection. The hilum is at the small extremity; it is very small, circular and indistinct. The rings are numerous, closely set together and whiteEast Indian Arrow Root. delicate. The product of Curcuma angustifolia, Src Arrow-Root, Tahiti. A fine white powder, often with a slight musty smell. Under the microscope it appears to consist of circular, mullar-shaped or poly- hedral particles. The mullar-shaped particles are often narrowed at base, and seem to be hollowed out. The hilum is small and circular, and cracks in a linear or stellate manner. The rings are few and somewhat indistinct. Produced by Tacca pinnati- fida. Arrow-Root, Portland. A white powder. Under the micro- scope the particles appear very minute. They are circular, mullar-shaped or polygonal. The hilum is circular, and seems to be at the bottom of a slight depression; it cracks in a linear or stellate manner. It is obtained from Arum maculatum, and is probably identical with the starch afforded by A. triphyllum. Tons les mois, is an arrow-root with a satiny appearance, and looks more like potato starch than the above mentioned feculas. Under the mi- croscope it is found to consist of larger particles than any other known starch. They are oval or oblong, usually more or less ovate. The hilum is circular, and usually at the smaller extremity ; occasionally it is double. The rings are numerous, regular, and close set. They and the hilum are often cracked. It is procured from a species ofCanna. Potato Starch. A white powder. Under the microscope it appears to consist of particles of various shapes and sizes, the regular form probably being ovate; they have concentric rings on their surface. The hilum is cir- cular, and is often double. The cracks observable in some of the particles usually commence at the hilum. The size of the particles is greater than those of the other feculas, with the exception of the last mentioned. Potato Sago. An article is manufactured from potato starch in imitation of pearl sago, and is often sold for it. Under the microscope it is found that the particles of the artificial are larger than those of the true sago, and that they are more regularly oval and ovate, more distinctly annulated, smoother and less broken. When cracks occur at the hilum, they are usually in two diverging fissures. Sago. There are two forms of sago; one pulverulent or sago flour, the Fig. 43. Tous les mois. 42 INTRODUCTION. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Fig. 46. Potato Starch. a Normal particle. 6 Irregular do. c d Particles with two hila. efg Particles broken by pressure and water. other granulated, which is either white or brown. The first is whitish, with a somewhat reddish tint; it has a faint odour. Under the microscope it is found to consist of oval or ovate particles, many of which appear as if trun- cated, so as to be more or less mullar-shaped. They are usually more or less broken, and most of them have an irregular or tuberculated surface. The hilum, when perfect, is circular, and cracks either with a simple slit, or in a cruciform or stellate manner. The surface is annulated, but less distinct than in potato starch. The granular sago consists of the same kind of particles, but larger, more broken, and less regular in their form. Sago is obtained from several species of Sagus. Tapioca. Is in small irregular lumps or grains, partially soluble in cold water. When examined under the microscope, they are found to consist of entire and broken particles ; the first of which appear circular or mullar-shaped, with a H distinct and marked hilum. Sometimes the mullar- formed ones have a contracted base; at others, instead of the flat end, there are two faces meeting at an obtuse angle. The hilum is surrounded by rings and cracks in a stellate form. Sugar. There are several kinds of sugar, some capable of undergoing fermentation, the others not. To the first class belong cane, grape, or starch sugar, and to the latter liquorice sugar, mannite, &c. Cane Sugar. This is found principally in the sugar cane, but also exists in some quantity in the root ofthe beet, in the sap of the maple, &c. It crys- tallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, and requires one-third its weight of cold water to dissolve it. When acted on by dilute acids, it is converted into grape sugar. Its composition is Cia H11 O11. Grape Sugar. This exists in grapes, honey, figs, &c, and can also be obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on starch, lignin, &c, and even by the same means from cane sugar. Much of it exists in molasses. It is less soluble than cane sugar. Its composition is C13 H14 014. Mannite. Forms the greater portion of pure manna, and is also found in the celery and other plants. It is not capable of fermentation Its composi- tion is C6 H? O6. v Liquorice Sugar. This is very soluble in water, but cannot be made to crystallize ; with acids it forms compounds which are very sparingly soluble. It is incapable of fermentation. Gum. This substance exudes in a fluid form from many plants, and be- comes hard by an evaporation of its watery particles. When pure, it is co- Tapioca. INTRODUCTION. 43 lourless or straw-coloured, but is often tinged by some colouring principle of the plant; it is transparent and brittle, very soluble in water, forming muci- lage, but insoluble in alcohol. It is principally obtained from different species of Acacia, but is plentiful in the plum, peach, and cherry. There are several kinds of gum, differing from each other in the relative proportions of Arabine or Bassorine they contain. Mucilage is a modification of gum, differing from it in being precipitated by neutral acetate of lead. It abounds in the roots of many plants, as the mallow, &c.; in the leaves of others, as the benne; in the pith of some, as the sassafras ; and in the testa ofthe seeds of others, as in flaxseed. Pectin, or Pectic acid. Is a compound found in many vegetable juices. When moist, it forms a transparent jelly, tasteless and imperfectly insoluble in water; when dry, it is in the form of a translucent mass. To the presence of this substance, the consistence of fruit jellies is owing. Its composition is Cia H8 O10. Extractive. Under this name certain matters found in the juices of vegetables, and apparently similar in properties, have been designated. They are, however, almost always impure, being modified by other vegetable com- pounds. Many of what have been called the neutral principles of vegetables, belong to this class. Hydrogen in greater excess than in Water. Fixed Oils. These substances are very similar in composition to those obtained from the animal kingdom, and like them, are usually composed of oleine, stearine, and margarine. They are principally obtained by expres- sion from the fruit, and are mostly combined with a certain portion of muci- lage and colouring matter, and hence acquire different colours and flavours. When perfectly pure, they are colourless, and almost tasteless and odourless. Many of them are highly esteemed as remedial agents. Their consistence is various, from that of a thin fluid, to that of compact fat. Almost all of them contain a peculiar acid, or are capable of acidifying. Volatile Oils. These are exceedingly numerous in the vegetable king- dom, and are not confined to any particular part of the plant, but may occur in all portions of them. They are characterized by possessing some strong and peculiar odour, and are obtained by distilling the plant with water. When perfectly pure, they are colourless, but in general, are coloured from the presence of some impurity. Their odour is powerful, and their taste pungent and burning. Many of them consist only of carbon and hydrogen, whilst others contain some oxygen, and some are also combined with sul- phur. To the first of these belong oil of turpentine, whose formula is C5 H4; to the second, camphor, C10 Hs O ; to the third, oil of mustard, C33 H20 Ss O5. Resins and Balsams. Resins exude spontaneously from many trees, and are very various in composition. They are all insoluble in water, but solu- ble in alcohol. Balsams consist of resin, volatile oil, and sometimes contain benzoic acid. What are termed gum-resins, are composed of resin, volatile oil, and gum. Caoutchouc. This substance when pure, is nearly white. It is softened, but not dissolved by boiling water, nor is it soluble in alcohol, but it is so by ether, naphtha, and some ofthe volatile oils. It is found in larger or smaller proportions in most plants having milky juices. 44 INTRODUCTION. Oxygen in greater excess than in Water. Vegetable Acids. These possess the usual properties of the mineral acids, being sour, reddening vegetable blues, and forming salts with bases. Some of them, however, have the power of uniting with more than one atom of base, and hence are called poly basic; by heat, they are frequently resolved into more simple acids. Some of them are very generally diffused through the vegetable kingdom, whilst others are confined to one or more orders. In general they contain no nitrogen. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. Systematic Botany has been defined by Dr. Lindley, to be " the science of arranging plants in such a manner that their names may be ascertained, their affinities determined, their true place in a natural system fixed, their sensible properties judged of, and their whole history elucidated with certainty and' accuracy." To accomplish this, all botanists, whatever might be their views as to the mode and order in which the members of the vegetable kingdom were to be arranged, have felt the necessity of separating them into groups, which they divide and subdivide in various ways, in accordance with their respective views. At the present day, the following divisions are universally adopted, though there is some difference of opinion as to the exact limits of some of them. A Species includes all individuals which, although they may differ in un- important particulars, are identical in their real characteristics, and produce, from their seeds, other plants wholly resembling the parent. When slight differences occur in these offspring, as a variance in the colour, &c.; they are called varieties. A Genus is a group of closely-related species, agreeing more with each other in their characters than with plants of another group. When some of these are more closely allied together, than with others of the genus, they have been erected into a sub-genus. An Order, or Family, is a group of nearly-connected genera, and where certain minor groups exist in it, they are said to constitute a sub-order. Some botanists are of opinion that it is advantageous to consider the different groups into which a sub-order may be divided, under the name of Tribes, which they again separate into sub-tribes. A Class, is a group of orders having certain marked characters in common. This, in like manner with the other divisions, is separated into sub-classes. An enumeration of the points of difference or distinguishing marks of any one of these groups, whether of higher or lower order, is denominated its character. Thus the character of a class points out only those important points of structure on which it is founded; that of orders, notices the general structure of the plants embraced in it, especially of their fruit and flowers ■ the generic character, the particular modifications of the ordinal character in a given genus ; and lastly, the specific character gives those less important of form, colour, &c, which mark it as distinct from its kindred. Two methods of arranging plants have been followed ; one the Artificial founded by Linnreus, and at one time almost universally followed by botanists' the other, the Natural, originally sketched out by Jussieu, and since improved and augmented by the researches of many eminent botanists. The first of these has no other merit, nor was any other proposed by its author than that of furnishing a ready mode of ascertaining the name of a plant,' its rela- INTRODUCTION. 45 tionship being kept out of view, except that the species of a genus are kept to- gether, even when they do not possess the artificial character of the order in which they are placed. Number of Stamens. Artificial System. As this system is still followed by many, and especially by those who are commencing the study of botany, and as most systematic works, until within a recent period, are arranged according to it, it is essential that it should be understood, and .hence the following brief sketch of it has been introduced. The classes and orders, it will be seen, are wholly founded on the num- ber, position, and connexion of the stamens and pistils. The classes, which are twenty-four in number, are founded upon modifications of the stamens, and have names derived from the Greek, designating these modifications, as follows : L. Monandria ; one stamen to each flower. I. Diandria ; two stamens. 3. Triandria ; three stamens. 1. Tetrandria; four stamens. 5. Pentandria; five stamens. 3. Hexandria ; six stamens. T. Heptandria ; seven stamens. 3. Octandria ; eight stamens. ). Enneandria ; nine stamens. ). Decandria ; ten stamens. L. Dodecandria ; twelve to nineteen stamens. 2. Icosandria; more than ten stamens, in- serted on calyx ; (usually twenty.) 3. Polyandria ; more than ten stamens ; (usu- ally more than twenty ; variable.) 4. Didynamia; four stamens, two longest. Flowers labiate. 5. Tetradynamia; six stamens, four long, and two short. Flowers cruciform. 6. Monadelphia; filaments united into a sin- gle set, tube, or column. 7. Diadelphia ; filaments united in two sets. Flowers papilionaceous. 8. Polyadelphia; filaments united in more than three sets. 9. Syngenesia ; anthers united into a ring or tube. Flowers compound. 0. Gynandria ; stamens on the pistil or style. 1. Monaxia; stamens and pistils in separate flowers, but on the same plant. 2. Eiazcia; stamens and pistils in separate flowers, and on different plants. 3. Polygamia ; stamens and pistils, in the same or separate flowers, on the same, or on different plants. 1. Cryptogamia; stamens invisible or wanting. Number and Position. Number and relative Length. Connexion of Stamens by Filaments or Anthers. Position of Stamens as respects the Pistils. Invisible, or wanting. 46 INTRODUCTION. The eleventh, eighteenth, and twenty-third classes have generally been omitted since the time of Linnseus, and the genera contained in them distri- buted among the other classes. The orders in the first thirteen of these classes are founded on the number of styles, or where these are wanting, ofthe stigmas, and are : 1. Monogynia; one style to each flower. 2. Digynia; two styles. 3. Trigynia ; three styles. 4. Tetragynia ; four styles. 5. Pentagynia ; five styles. ■ 6. Hexagynia; six styles. 7. Heptagynia; seven styles. 8. Octagynia ; eight styles. 9. Enneagynia; nine styles. 10. Decagynia; ten styles. 11. Dodecagynia ; eleven or twelve styles. 12. Polygynia; more than twelve styles. The orders of the fourteenth class are only two: C Gymnospermia; having naked seeds. Seeds naked or covered. < Angiospermia ; having the seeds covered or in ( a pericarp. The orders of the fifteenth class are also two: Number of Styles or Stigmas. Form of fruit. Siliculosa; fruit a silicle, or short pod. Siliquosa ; fruit a silique, or long pod. The orders of the sixteenth to the eighteenth, and twentieth to twenty- second classes, are founded on the number of stamens, and bear the names of the first thirteen classes, as monandria, &c. The orders of the nineteenth class are founded on the character of the flowers ; they are : Polygamia cequalis ; flowers in heads, and all perfect. Polygamia superfiua ; rays or marginal flowers, pistillate only. Polygayniafrustranea ; marginal flowers neutral, the others perfect. Polygamia necessaria; marginal flowers pistil- late and fertile, disk flowers staminate and sterile. Polygamia segregate,; each flower with its pro- per involucre. Monogamia; flowers solitary, but with united anthers. The orders of the twenty-third class are founded on the characters of the two preceding classes. Moncecia ; unisexual and perfect flowers on the same plant. Dicccia ; the different flowers on different individuals. Tricecia ; perfect flowers on one plant, staminate on a second, and pistil- late on a third plant. ^ Character of flowers. INTRODUCTION. 47 The orders of the twenty-fourth class are natural, and therefore not to be defined by an artificial character. They are : Filices; or Ferns. Musci ; or Mosses. Algce ; or Lichens, Sea Weeds, &c. Fungi ; or Mushrooms, &c. The method by which the name of a plant can be discovered is very simple. The student first examines it to ascertain to what class it belongs; this being accomplished, he next ascertains to what order it appertains; when this is satisfactorily done, by a reference to a botanical work or works, he will find that the order in question is probably subdivided into sec- tions, and by comparing his plant with the characters of these subdivisions, he will find that it corresponds to one of them; by then examining it, in reference to the characters of the genera composing this subdivision, he will discover to what genus it belongs; and by a comparison of it with the description of the species of that genus he will finally identify it. This system, however, beautiful and simple as it is, has gradually been abandoned from its only being fitted for this identification of a species, and not at the same time conveying any information as regards the structure, natural alli- ances or properties of plants. Natural System. The great object proposed to be attained by a natural system of arranging plants, is to group together such species as most closely resemble each other, not in one point only, but in all important characters, and hence all points of resemblance or dissimilarity are allowed due weight. By pursuing this plan, it must be evident that the essential characters of the various groups, when fully detailed, actually show in what particulars the plants composing it agree among themselves, and differ from those of other groups. This plan being pursued from the highest classes down to the species, will enable the student not only to ascertain the name of an individual plant, but also will give him a tolerably correct idea ofthe structure, habits, and even, in many cases, sensible properties ofthe group to which it belongs. Although this is called a natural system, no one that has been proposed is truly so, for whilst they all express the natural affinities of plants in a greater or less degree, they are all artificial to a certain extent, as every classification of the objects of nature must be, which is devised by the finite mind of man. Numerous systems have been proposed, founded on the peculiar views of the devisers of them. Some writers, as Jussieu, &c, commence their expo- sition with the lowest order, and gradually ascend to the highest; whilst others, as Decandolle, &c, begin with the most perfect, and conclude with the least organized. In the succeeding pages the system of Decandolle, with some slight modifications, has been adopted as that most generally known and followed. The vegetable kingdom may be divided into two great series, the Flower- ing and the Flowerless plants, answering to the old divisions of Phazno- gamia and Cryptogamia. The flowerless series may naturally be separated into two classes. The first, or Acrogens, including those having a stem, or decided axis of growth, and usually furnished with leaves ; their stems in- crease from the apex only, and scarcely at all in diameter. The second, or Thallogens, have no such division of parts, being stemless, leafless, and flowerless. 48 INTRODUCTION. The flowering plants are also divisible into two classes, founded on dis- tinct kinds of structure and growth. One the Exogens, increasing from the periphery; and the other the Endogens, increasing from the interior. The embryo of the first having two cotyledons, it has also been called Dicotyle- donous, and that of the second having but a single one, it has received the name of Monocotyledonous. These characters have already been spoken of, as well as the distinction between them in the venation of their leaves. But there is a group of Exogenous plants, in which the ovules and seeds are naked, instead of being contained in an ovary or pericarp ; there is also a group of spurious Exogens, which have the same peculiarity, and the two have therefore been formed into a separate class, under the name of Gymno- gens or Gymnospermous (naked-seeded) plants. A fourth class, containing a few but most extraordinary plants, appears to form a passage from the Endogens to the Thallogeiis. They are composed of cellular tissue, and bear flowers, and yet are propagated by spores and not by seeds. This class has received the name of Sporogens or Rhizaniheaz, (root flowering). The six classes of plants may be thus characterized : Exogens or Dicotyledons. Structure of stem exogenous. Seeds in a pericarp. Em- bryo with two cotyledons. Leaves reti- culated. Gymnogens or Gymnosperms. Seeds naked. _ . , , • , t-«, ) Embryo with two or more cotyledons. 1 * Emhgens or Monocotyledons. Structure of stems endogenous. Seeds in a pericarp. Embryo with one cotyledon. Leaves pa- rallel, veined. Sporogens or Rhizanths. Structure mainly cellular. Pericarp containing spores in- stead of seeds. Embryo none. Acrogens having a regular stem growing from Destitute of Flowers. -^ the apex, and clothed with leaves. Thallogens. Stemless, rootless, and leafless. These classes are of very different extent, as regards the number of spe- cies contained in them ; the exogens having more than all the other flowering plants together; the endogens are also very rich in species, as are also both the acrogens and thallogens, whilst the two o'thers possess but few. Many divisions or sub-classes have been proposed in these classes almost all of which are exceedingly artificial, but are convenient for practical pur- poses. Jussieu has split the exogens into three divisions founded on the pre- sence, union, or absence of the petals ; these have been generally adopted: they are: Pohjpetalce. Calyx and,corolla both present, the latter having distinct petals. Monopetalce. Petals united. Apetalce. Petals wanting. These divisions, as well as the other classes, have been variously subdi- vided by different authors, but it would be a useless task to attempt to notice i: INTRODUCTION. 49 them; enough has been said to explain the plan to be carried out, and more fully elucidated, in the progress ofthe work. Pharmaceutic Botany. The relations existing between the medical properties of vegetables and their structure, have long attracted the notice ofthe learned, and it was early declared, that plants closely resembling each other in their external appear- ance, were possessed of analogous qualities. The first to promulgate this doctrine was Camerarius, according to Decandolle, and Csesalpinus, accord- ing to Dierbach. Linnseus expressly says on this subject: " Plants that agree in genus, agree in quality ; those ofthe same natural order have nearly similar properties; and those ofthe same natural class are somewhat similar in their powers." Decandolle and Lindley hold much the same sentiments, in which they are supported by numerous other and esteemed writers. That these opinions are correct to a great extent, must be admitted ; but on the other hand, the exceptions are both numerous and important, for whilst in some orders there is found the most striking consonance between the external form and .the remedial qualities of the species composing it, in others, it has been shown, that the most dissimilar properties occur. Thus, in the.Solance, the fruit of Capsicum is pungent and stimulant, and that of Atropa, narcotic and poisonous. This dissimilarity extends even to genera, though less fre- quently. So, also, plants differing widely in their external appearance and structure, furnish products of analogous medical qualities. Thus, turpentines are furnished by trees of very distinct orders, and even classes, and manna is equally a secretion of a Fraxinus and a Eucalyptus. It cannot be admitted, as is asserted by Lindley, that " a knowledge of one plant is a guide to the practitioner, which enables him to substitute with con- fidence, some other plant that is naturally allied to it." All, that in the pre- sent state of our knowledge can be conceded, is, that as a general rule, plants of the same order agree in their remedial qualities, though this is not univer- sally the case. Many attempts have been made to classify medicinal plants and their pro- ducts, by their sensible properties; namely, their colour, taste, and odour, but none of these have been successful, as it has been found that in all cases, the exceptions are so numerous as to render such arrangements of little prac- tical benefit. This has arisen not only from the difficulty of describing and defining sensations, but also from the fact that two or more articles having the same sensible property, may differ widely from each other in action on the system. Thus, for instance, morphia, quinia, and aloes, are all bitter, and yet the first is a powerful narcotic, the second an efficacious tonic, and the third an active purgative. The best examples of this method of arranging plants, are found in a paper by Dr. Osborne, (Trans. Assoc, fyc. King Sf Queerts College, V.) and an Essay on the subject by Dr. Graves, (Supp. Edin. Dispen.) Collection and Preservation of Plants. Vegetables used as medicinal agents, should, as far as possible, be collected every year, and those previously obtained, rejected, as many vegetable sub- stances are altered and deteriorated by keeping. A variety of circumstances exercise an influence on the activity of a plant, as the locality in which it 4 50 INTRODUCTION. grows, the season of the year, and its dryness or wetness, its natural or cul- tivated state, &c. As a general rule, the time for collecting a vegetable sub- stance depends on the part of it required for use. Plants should never be gathered for medicinal purposes whilst very young, as their peculiar principles have not had time to become developed, and hence they are in most cases inert; thus the young shoots of the Poke, or of the Asclepias, are used as substitutes for Asparagus, and can be eaten with impu- nity, whilst at a later period, they are possessed of acrid and purgative powers. The influence of soil is very remarkable. Most of the Umbelliferae growing in a dry soil are aromatic, whilst those peculiar to wet places, are narcotic and poisonous. The Cruciferas thrive best in damp places, but the Labiatcc are principally found in dry situations. The same plant is much in- fluenced by a difference of locality; thus it is stated, that Cinchona obtained from trees growing in low situations, is always of inferior quality, whilst the bark from the same species, but inhabiting a high and airy spot, is possessed in the fullest degree of those properties for which this article is esteemed. Cultivation also exerts the greatest influence on the constitution of vege- tables, and in almost every instance deteriorates their active, but increases their nutritive qualities. Thus, it is found that by cultivation, the dry and tasteless sarcocarp of many of the Pomacese and Drupacese, becomes pulpy and grateful to the palate, and the unpleasant and narcotic juices ofthe Celery, become bland, aromatic, and mucilaginous. Hence, as a general rule, plants should be collected where they naturally grow, as their active virtues are there most strongly developed. There is one striking exception to this, in the Labiatse, their aromatic flavour being much enhanced by cultivation. Roots. The roots of annual and biennial plants should be collected in the autumn ; the first before the decay of their stem, and the latter on the dis- appearance ofthe leaves ofthe first year. Those of perennial vegetables are best collected in the winter, or early in the spring. All intended to be kept, must be carefully washed and dried ; where the root is large and succulent, it must be cut into slices. The aromatic roots should not be scraped, as much of their odorous and active qualities reside in the epidermis. Stems. These are either herbaceous or ligneous; the former are to be gathered after the formation of the leaves, and before the appearance of the flowers. The latter should be procured in the winter, as at this time the wood furnishes a greater quantity of extract. Barks. They are to be collected at the season when they can be most easily separated from the wood. They should, in all cases, be procured be- fore the flowers are produced, or after the reproductive process is terminated, as during the time the plant is elaborating the organs necessary to that func- tion, all its powers are directed to that purpose, and other portions of its structure are deprived of their usual proportion of proper juices. Barks should not be taken from very young or very old plants; in the first case they have not attained their full powers, and in the second, they have lost them ; and the quantity of soluble matter in them becomes diminished. The desiccation of stems and barks requires no remark. Leaves are to be collected after the flowers are expanded, and before the seeds ripen. An important remark on the collection of the leaves of the biennial narcotic plants has been made by Mr. Houlton. He states that they do not attain to their full powers, until their second year and that those of the first year's growth are mucilaginous and inert {Jour. Roy. Inst, i \QQ\ The drying of leaves must be so conducted as to preserve their natural colour and therefore they should never be exposed to the direct action of tbf» ' INTRODUCTION. 51 Mr. Battley, who has paid much attention to this subject, gives the following directions. " The leaves being in a high state of preservation, and entirely freed from the stalks, and as much as possible from external moisture, must be laid in thin layers in baskets of willow stripped of its bark, in a drying room, from which light is to be excluded. They should then be exposed to a temperature of not less than 130° to 140° F. for three or four hours, or until they begin to shrivel. They are then to be turned, in the same tempe- rature, and the heat kept up for six or eight hours longer, when the operation is generally finished, which is known by the leaves crumbling without much difficulty in the hand. If the process has been in all its parts properly ma- naged, the result will be, that the leaves retain a beautiful green colour, and also, in a high degree, the medical properties of the plant to which they be- long." (Lond. Med. Repos. xiv. 429.) They are to be kept in proper ves- sels, and carefully excluded from light and moisture. If they are to be used in the form of powder, it is better to powder them as soon as they are pro- perly dried, and to preserve the powder in well-closed opaque bottles. Flowers. It is very difficult to dry flowers so as to keep both their colour and odour. Some are incapable of complete desiccation, without at the same time destroying their active qualities. Others may be dried with fa- cility and without deterioration, in the manner directed for leaves. To pre- serve both flowers and leaves, the plan of compressing them, as practised by the Shakers, answers a very good purpose; by this mode many leaves and flowers are kept in a very efficient condition; but it is essential that they be deprived of moisture before they are subjected to the pressure, otherwise they become mouldy and deteriorated. An excellent paper on the preservation of plants and their preparations will be found in the American Journal of Pharmacy, i. 268, by the late Mr. Duhamel, to which we would refer, as containing ample information on the subject. BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. Abnormal. A departure from the or- dinary structure. Abortive. Not arriving at perfection. Abrupt Leaf. A pinnate leaf, with no terminal leaflet. Abrupt Root. Where the end appears broken or bitten off. Acaulescent. Stemless. Acerose. Needle-formed. Achenium. A one-celled carpel, with a dry, indehiscent pericarp. Achlamydeous. Wanting floral en- velopes. Acine. A grain or globule of a com- pound fruit. Acotyledonous. Without cotyledons. Acrogens. Flowerless plants, with stems growing from the apex, and having leaves. Aculeate. Armed with prickles. Acuminate. Sharp-pointed. Acute. Terminating in an angle; not rounded. Adnate. Adherent; growing toge- ther. JEstivation. The manner in which the floral envelopes are folded in the bud. Aigret. A pappus or coma. Albumen. The farinaceous, fleshy, or horny deposit around the em- bryo. Albuminous. Furnished with albu- men. Alburnum. Sap wood. Alternate. Placed oppositely, but at different heights. Alveolate. Deeply pitted, like a ho- ney.comb. Ament. Catkin, a spike with scaly bracts crowded together on a ra- chis. Amphitropous. Straight ovules, with the chalaza at one end, the apex at the other, and the hilum between. Amplexicaul. Embracing the stem. Anatropous. An inverted ovule. Anastomosing. The joining of ves- sels and fibres, so as to form a net- work. Ancipital. Two-edged. Andrcecium. The staminate system of a flower. Androgynous. See Monoecious. Angular. Having angles. Annual. Lasting one year. Annulated. Ringed. Anterior. The side of a flower next the leaf or bract from which it springs. Anther. The case or cell containing the pollen. Antheridium. Organ of fructifica- tion in mosses. Anthocarpus. Collective or com- pound fruit. Apelalous. A flower without petals. Apex. The summit, or upper end. Aphyllous. Without leaves. Apophysis. A process from the base of the theca in mosses. Apothecium. The shield in lichens containing the sporules. Appendages. As thorns, tendrils, &c. Appressed. Closely applied. Approximate. Growing near. Apterous. Without wings. Aquatic. Belonging to the water Arachnoid Having interwoven hairs, like a cobweb. Arborescent. Becoming woody ; tree- like. J Areolate. Divided spaces. into angular BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. 53 Aril. An expansion of the placenta or funiculus round a seed. Aristate. Bearded ; awned. Aromatic. Sweet-scented. Articulated. Jointed. Ascending. Rising or directed up- wards. Ascidium. A kind of hollow leaf. Assurgent. Ascending obliquely. Atropous. See Orthotropous. Attenuated. Tapering gradually till it becomes slender. Auriculate. Having ear-like pro- cesses. Awl-shaped. Slender; becoming sharp and curved at apex. Awn. A bristle-like appendage. Awned. Furnished with awns. Axil. The angle formed at the junc- tion of a leaf or petiole, with the stem. » Axillary. Growing in an axil. Baccate. Berry-like. Banner. The upper petal of a papi- lionaceous flower. Bark. The outer covering of vege- tables. Barren. Producing no perfect seed. Bearded. Having tufts of hair. Bell-shaped. Swelling at base, and with no tube. Berry. A pulpy or fleshy indehis- cent fruit. Bicuspidate. Having two points, each with a sharp apex. Biennial. Living during two years. Biferous. Bearing twice a year. Bifid. Divided into two, two-cleft. Bifoliate. Two-leafed. Bifoliolate. With two leaflets. Bifurcate. Two-forked. Bijugous. A pinnate leaf, with two pairs of leaves on each part. Bilabiate. A corolla, with two lips or segments. Bilamellate. Having two laminae. Bilocular. Two-celled. Binate. Of two parts. Bipartite. Divided into two parts. Bipinnate. Doubly pinnate. Bipinnatifid. Doubly pinnatifid. Biternate. Doubly ternate. Bivalve. Having two valves. Blade. Lamina. Expansion of leaf. Blunt. Obtuse, rounded. Brachiate. Having opposite spread- ing branches. Bract. Floral leaf. Bractlet, Bracteole. A bract on a branch of inflorescence. Branch. A division of a stem or root. Bristles. Stiff hairs, either simple or curved. Bud. The winter residence of a leaf or flower. Bulb. A subterranean bud. Bullate. Raised in blister-like eleva- tions. Caducous. Falling off early. Ccespitose. Forming a tuft. Turfy. Calcarate. Spurred. Calyciform. Cup-like. Calycine. Belonging to the calyx. Calyculate. Having an outer calyx. Calyptra. The cap or hood of the sporangia in mosses. Calyx. The outer floral envelope. Cambium. The soft layer between the bark and the wood. Campanulate. Bell-shaped. Campylotropous. A curved ovule. Canaliculate. Channelled. Canescent. Becoming white or hoary. Capillary. Hair-like. Capitate. In heads, head-shaped. Capitulum. A head. Caprification. Artificial fertilization of pistillate flowers. Capsule. A dry and dehiscent peri- carp, usually opening by valves. Carinale. Keeled. Carneous. Flesh-coloured, or fleshy. Carpel. A simple pistil, or element of a compound pistil. Carpophore. The central axis sup- porting the fruit in the umbelliferae. Cartilaginous. Hard and tough. Caryophyllaceous. Like a pink, having five petals with long claws, all regular. Caryopsis. A thin pericarp adhering to the seed so firmly as not to be detached. Catkin. See Ament. Caudate. Having a tail-like appendage. 54 BOTANICAL T E R MIN O L O G Y. Caudex. A stem, or trunk. Caulescent. Having a stem. Cauline. Attached to the stem. Caulis. The stem, or trunk. Cell. A hollow cavity. • The cavity of an ovary or pericarp. Cellular tissue. A tissue composed of small bladders or vesicles. Cellular plants. Those composed of cellular tissue, always flowerless. Centrifugal Inflorescence. The flow- ering of a cyme. Centripetal Inflorescence. The flow- ering of a corymb. Cernuous. Drooping or bending down. Chaff. The thin covering of the seeds of grasses, &c. or the flower bracts in compound flowers. Chalaza. The point of union of the coats and nucleus of a seed. Chrorophylle. \ The coloured paren- Chromule. \ chyma of leaves. Cicatrix. The mark or scar left by a leaf when it falls off. Ciliate. Edged with hairs, like eye- lashes. Circinate. Coiled or rolled into a ring. Circumscissile transversely Circumscription line. Cirrhous. Having tendrils. Clasping. Where the base of a leaf partly surrounds the stem. Class. The highest division of plants in a system. Clavate. Club-shaped; larger at one end. Claw. The lower narrow end of a petal, by which it is affixed. Cleft. Partially split or divided. Climbing. Ascending by means of tendrils, leaves, or> spurious roots. Coadunate. Having united bases. Coarctate. Pressed together. Coccus. A grain or carpel of a com- pound carpel. Cochleate. Coiled spirally, like a snail-shell. Coleorhiza. Sheath of radicle in endogens. Coloured. Any hue except green. Cut round; opening The general out- Columella. A permanent axile pla- centa. Columnar. Having the form of a co- lumn. Coma. A tuft of hairs at the apex of a seed. Commissure. The inner face of a mericarp; the joining of one part with another. Common. That which sustains or- gans or parts similar to each other. Co/nose. Having a coma. Complete. Having both floral enve- lopes. Complicate. Folded together. Compound. A whole, formed of simi- lar parts. Compressed. Flattened laterally. Conduplicate. Folded longitudinally on itself. Cone. A collective fruit. See Strobile. Confluent. Running together. Conjugate. In pairs. Connate. Growing together at base. Connectivum. The prolongation of a filament supporting the lobes of an anther. Connivcnt. Convergent. Contorted. Twisted. Convolute. Rolled up into a cylinder. Cordate. Heart-shaped. Coriaceous. Leathery or parchment- like. Cormophytes. Stem-growing plants. Cormus. An enlarged subterranean base of a stem; a solid bulb. Corolla. The inner floral envelope. Corrugated. Wrinkled. Cortex. The bark. Cortical. Having bark, or arising from the bark. Corymb. An umbel-shaped raceme. Corymbose. Bearing corymbs. Costate. Ribbed. Cotyledons. Seed leaves. Cotyliform. A rotate corolla with an erect limb. Creeping. Running along the sur- face, or just under the surface of the ground. Cremocarp. The fruit of umbellife- rous plants. Crenate. Having rounded notches or teeth. BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. 55 Crenulate. Finely crenate. Crested or Cristate. Having an ap- pendage like the comb of a cock. Crown. The pappus or coma on seeds. Cruciate or Cruciform. In the shape of a cross. Cryptogamia. Flowerless plants. Cucullate. Hooded. Cucurbitaceous. Gourd or melon-like. Culm. The stem of the graminos. Cuneiform. Wedge-shaped. Cupule. A cup-shaped involucre of imbricated bracts, as the cup ofthe acorn. Curled. Where the periphery of a leaf is too large for the disk, it be- comes waved or curled. Curvinerved. Leaf nerves arising from a prolongation of the petiole, instead ofthe base. Cuspidate. With a sharp rigid point. Cuticle. The epidermis or outer skin of a plant. Cyathiform. Goblet-shaped. Cylindric. A roll or shaft of equal diameter throughout. Cyme. An umbel-like inflorescence, but the pedicels are variously sub- divided. Cymose. Being in cymes. Centrifugal. Cymules. The floral whorls in the Labiatse. Deciduous. Falling off at a stated period. Declinate. Turned to one side. Decompound. Several times divided. Decumbent. Lying on the ground. Decurrent. When the margin of a leaf, &c, is prolonged down a pe- tiole or stem. Decussate. Crossed ; in pairs alter- nately crossing. Deflected. Bent back. Dehiscence. Natural opening of cap- sules. Deltoid. Having a triangular outline. Demersed. Submerged; under water. Dentate. Toothed. Denticulate. With small teeth. Depressed. Flattened from above. Descending axis. The root. Dextrine. A soluble form of starch. Diadelphous. Having the filaments in two parcels. Diandrous. Having two stamens. Diastase. A product of germination in a seed. Dichotomous. Successively forked. Diclinous. When the stamens and pistils are in different flowers. Dicoccous. Two grained, or with two cocci. Dicotyledonous. Having two cotyle- dons. Didymous. Twinned. Didynamous. Belonging to didy- namia. Diffuse. Loosely spreading. Digitate. Fingered ; five leaves in- serted in a spreading form, at the end of a petiole. Digynous. Having two styles. Dimidiate. Halved. Dimerous. A whorl of two parts. Diazcious. Having the stamens on one plant, and the pistils on an- other. Discoid. Resembling a disk. Disk. The whole surface of a leaf, or centre of compound flower. Dissected. Deeply gashed. Dissepiment. A partition. Distant. Situated at a distance from ; remote. Distichous. In two opposite rows. Distinct. Separate, reverse of con- nate or confluent. Divaricate. Widely spreading. Diverging. Spreading out. Divided. Severed into two or more parts. Dodecandrous. Having more than ten and less than twenty stamens. Dolabriform. Axe-shaped. Dorsal. Fixed to the back. Dorsad suture. Outer suture of a carpel. Dotted. Marked with dots. Downy. Having short, soft hairs. Drupe. A pericarp, with a hard nut or stone covered by a sarcocarp. Drupaceous. Bearing drupes or drupe-like. Ducts. Membranous vessels or tubes, which do not unroll spirally. Dumose. Bushy. 56 BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. Duplicate. Doubly. Duramen. Heart wood. Dwarf. Small, as compared to the other species. Eared. Having lobe-like appendages. Ebracteate. Destitute of bracts. Ecalcarate. Destitute of a spur. Echinate. Beset with prickles. Effuse. Open, dilated at the end. Eglandular. Glandless. Elalers. Spiral threads in the thecse of Liverworts. Elliptical. Longer than wide, rounded at each end. Elongated. Longer than usual. Emarginate. Notched, but wider than deep. Embryo. The future plant, contained in the seed. Emersed. Raised out of the water. Endocarp. The inner coat of a fruit. E?idogens. Monocotyledonous plants. Endopleura. The proper coat of the nucleus. Endorhizce. Monocotyledonous plants. Endostome. Orifice of the outer coat of nucleus. Enneandrous. Having nine stamens. Ensiform. Sword-shaped. Entire. Having au uninterrupted margin. Epicarp. The outer skin of a fruit. Epidermis. Cuticle; outer skin. Epigynous. Growing on apex of ovary. Epiphytes. Plants growing on other plants. Episperm. Testa; outer coat of seed. Equitant. Opposite leaves infolding each other,so as to alternately over- lap each other's edges. Erect. Upright. Erose. Unequally sinuate, as if gnawed. Etiolated. Blanched. Evergreens. Plants retaining their leaves the whole year. Exalbuminous. Seed withoutalbumen. Exogens. Dicotyledonous plants. Exorhizce. Dicotyledonous plants. Exotic. Plants belonging to a foreign country. Exserted. Projecting; protruded. Exstipulate. Destitute of stipules. Extine. Outer coat of pollen grains. Extrorse. Turned outwards. Falcate. Scythe-shaped ; bent to one side. Fascicle. Inflorescence, like that of most grasses. Fasciculated. In bundles or fascicles. Feather. The plumose crown of seeds. Fertile. Applied to pistillate flowers. Fibre. Any thread-like part. Fibrous. Composed of fibres. Fiddle-shaped. Oblong, but con- tracted laterally. Filament. That part of a stamen supporting the anther. Filiform. Thread-like. Fimbriate. Fringed. Fissure. A cleft, or split. Fistulous. Hollow, like a reed. Flabelliform. Fan-shaped. Flaccid. Lax, or limber. Flagelliform. Whip-like. Fleshy. Thick, and containing a firm pulp. Flexible. Easily bent. Flexuous. Bending in various direc- tions. Floral. Relating to a flower. Floret. One flower of an aggregate, or compound. Floriferous. Bearing flowers. Flower. The stamens and pistils, and their envelopes. Foliaceous. Leafv. Foliation. The arrangement of an unopened leaf in the bud. Foliole. A leaflet. Follicle. A one-valved pericarp, de- hiscing longitudinally. Foramen. Small aperture in the coats of a seed. Fornicated. Arched ; vaulted. Foveate. Honeycomb-like Fovilla. The fine dust in the pollen grains. Free Not attached or connected. Frond. A peculiar leaf, belonging to cryptogamic plants and palms. Ftondose. Having or resembling fronds. ° BOTANICAL T Fruit. The seed with its enclosing pericarp. Frutescent. Woody, or becoming woody. Fugacious. Soon disappearing, or escaping. Fulcrum. Various appendages of plants. Funiculus. Footstalk of the ovary or seed. Funnel-shaped. A corolla with a tube, and the limb expanding gra- dually into a conical shape. Furcate. Forked. Furrowed. Marked with longitudinal channels. Fusiform. Spindle-shaped; tapering above and below. Galea. A helmet; the upper lip of a labiate corolla. Gamopetalous. Monopetalous; hav- ing one petal. Gamosepalous. Monosepalous; hav- ing one sepal. Gape. The opening between the lips of a labiate or personate corolla. Gelatinous. Resembling jelly. Geminate. Paired, double. Gemmiparous. Bearing buds in the axils. Geniculate. Bent at a very obtuse angle. Germ. The growing point of a bud; the ovary. Germination. The swelling of a seed and the evolution of its em- bryo. Gibbous. Swollen or enlarged at one side. Glabrous. Smooth ; destitute of pu- bescence. Gland. A small collection of tissue producing a secretion. Glandular. Furnished with glands. Glaucous. Covered with a greenish- gray powder. Globose. Globular; round like a ball. Glomerate. Consisting of small heads. Glomerule. Small heads forming a glume. Glume. The scales or bracts sur- rounding the stamens and pistils fn the grasses. ERMINOLOGY. 57 Gluten. A tenacious principle found in some seeds. Glutinous. Furnished with a co- hesive matter. Granulate. In the form of grains. Gymnosperms. Naked-seeded plants. Gymnospermia. An order of Didv- namia; having naked seeds. Gynandrous. When stamens are seated on the pistil. Gynobase. The supporting disk or axis of the ovary. Gyncecium. The pistillate system of a flower. Habitat. The natural place of growth of a plant. Hairs. Hair-like appendages to plants. Halbert-shaped. Hastate. Hastate. Shaped like a halbert. Head. Flowers collected in a rounded form. Heart-shaped. Cordate. Heart-wood. Duramen; the inner layers of a stem. Helmet. The upper lip of a labiate flower. Hemicarp. Haifa cremocarp. Heptandrous. Having seven stamens. Heptagynous. Having seven styles. Herb. Any plant not having a woody stem. Herbaceous. Not woody. Herbarium. A collection of dried plants. Herperidium. An orange, or similar fruit. Heterogamous. A compound flower, with the disk flowers perfect, and the rays ligulate and pistillate, or neutral. Heterotropous. See Amphitropous. Hexamerous. A whorl of six parts. Hexandrous. Having six stamens. Hexagynous. Having six styles. Hilum. The scar or mark on a seed, left by detachment of the funiculus. Hirsute. Clothed with coarse hairs. Hispid. Bristly; beset with stiff hairs. Hoary. Whitish; from a scaly mealiness. 58 BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. Homotropous. Having the same di- rection as the body to which it is attached. Hooked. Curved suddenly at the point. Horizontal. Parallel to the horizon. Hypocrateriform. Salver-shaped. Hypogynous. Stamens arising from below the ovary. Icosandrous. Having more than ten stamens inserted on the calyx. Imbricated. Lying over each other with regularity. Impari-pinnate. Unequally pinnate. Imperfect. Wanting stamen or pistil. Incequivalve. Valves unequal. Incised. Irregularly and sharply cut. Inclined. Bent towards another body. Included. Contained within another body. Inconspicuous. Not apparent. Incrassated. Being thickened. Incumbent. Leaning upon ; the ra- dicle resting against the back of one cotyledon. Incurved. Bent inwards. Indefinite. Too numerous to be counted. Indehiscent. Not opening naturally. Indigenous. Being a native. Induplicatc. Having the edges bent or rolled inwards. Indusium. Thin membranous co- vering, or scale to the thecas in ferns. Inferior. Towards the base or root. Inflated. Enlarged, as if dilated by air. Inflexed. Incurved. Inflorescence. The mode in which flowers are arranged on a branch. Infracted. Bent at so acute an angle as to appear broken. Infundibuliform. Funnel-shaped. Innate. When an anther is firmly attached to the apex of the filament. Inodorous. Without smell. Insertion. The point of attachment or union. InterfoUaceous. Between the inser- tion of leaves. Internode. The space between nodes or joints. Interrupted. When organs of a dif- ferent size or kind are interposed in a series. Interval. A channel on the seeds of umbelliferous plants, between the ridges. Intine. Inner coat of ovule. Intrafoliaceous. Within a leaf. Introduced. Not originally a native. Introrse. Turned inwards. Inverted. Where a part is in an op- posite direction to that of other similar parts. Involucel. A partial involucre, an involucre to pedicels. Involucre. A whorl of bracts to an umbel or head. Involute. Rolled inwards. Juga. Pairs. Keel. The lower petal of a papilio- naceous corolla. Kidney-shaped. Much hollowed at one side, and rounded at the ends; reniform. Knot. A node or swelling joint. Labellum. A peculiar-formed petal in orchideous flowers. Labiate. Having lips. Lacerated. Torn ; cut into irregular segments. Laciniated. Jagged; irregularly divided. Lactescence. Milkiness. Lacunose. Pitted. Lacustrine. Peculiar to lakes. Lamella. A thin plate. Lamina. A broad plate or expan- sion. Lanate. Woolly. Lanceolate. Shaped like the head of a spear. Latex The proper juices of plants. Laticiferous tissue. The series of vessels carrying the latex. Leaf The organs of transpiration and respiration in plants. Leaflet. One of the small leaves of a compound one. Leafstalk. Petiole Legume A pod; a bivalve peri- carp, denying by both sutures BOTANICAL T ERMINOLOGY. 59 Legumin. A vegetable principle analogous to the casein of milk. Lenticular. Shaped like a lentil. Liber. The innermost layer of bark. Lignin. A vegetable principle found in woody fibre. Ligule. An appendage shaped like a strap. Ligidate. Strap-shaped ; usually ap- plied to one of the kinds of florets of compound flowers. Liliaceous. Having a corolla like a lily. Limb. The spreading part of the petal of a monopetalous corolla. Linear. Narrow and long. Lineate. Marked with lines. Linguiform. Tongue-shaped. Lobes. Rounded divisions. Loculicidal. The dehiscence of the component carpels of a compound fruit, by the dorsal suture. Lodiculce. Small scales around the flower in the grasses. Loment. A jointed legume. Loose. Open ; not compact. Lunate. Crescent-shaped. Lunulate. A diminutive of lunate. Lurid. Of a dull, deathly hue. Lyrate. Pinnatifid, having the upper segments largest. Marcescent. Persistent, but withering. Marginated. Where the margin is marked and distinct. Margin. The circumference or edge. Mealy. Covered with a white powder. Medullary. Relating to the pith. Membranaceous or Membranous. Of the texture of membrane. Mericarp. Haifa cremocarp, a fruit of an umbelliferous plant. Micropyle. Foramen or scar of an ovule. Midrib. The main rib of a leaf, ex- tending from the base to the apex. Mitriform. Having two terminal di- visions, like a mitre. Monadelphous. Stamens united in one set. Monandrous. Having one stamen. Moniliform. Necklace-shaped. Monocarpous. Bearing but one fruit, or bearing but once. Monochlamydeous. When calyx only is present. Monocotyledonous. Having but one cotyledon. Monoecious. Having stamens and pistils in different flowers, but on the same plant. Monogynous. Having but one style. Monopetalous. Where the corolla is of one piece. Monophyllous. One-leafed. Monoscpalous. Calyx in one piece. Monospermous. One-seeded. Mucronate. Having a rounded end, tipped with a prickle. Multifid. Many-cleft. Muricate. Having short rigid ex- crescences. Muticous or Mutic. Pointless ; awn- less. Mutilated. Not produced in a perfect form. Naked. Wanting a covering analo- gous to that of other species. Napiform. Turnip-shaped. Natant. Swimming ; floating. Navicular. Boat-shaped. Neck. The crown of a root. The upper part of the tube of a co- rolla. Nectary. The part of a flower secre- ting honey. Needle-shaped. Linear, rigid, taper- ing to a point. Nerved. Having rib-like fibres. Netted. Having reticulated fibres. Neutral. Having neither stamens nor pistils. Node. A knot; the projection from which leaves arise. Normal. Regular in structure. Nucleus. Kernel; the substance of a seed or ovule. Nut. A one-celled, and one-seeded fruit, arising from a two or more celled and seeded ovule. Nutant. Nodding; partially droop- ing. Obcordate. Reversed heart-shaped. Oblique. Not symmetrical, one side as it were cut off obliquely. Oblong. Much longer than broad. 60 BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. Obovate. Ovate, with the narrowest portion at base. Obsolete. When a part is obscure, and as if worn away. Obtuse. Blunt, rounded. Obvolute. Where one margin of a leaf in the bud is exterior, the other interior. Ochrea. A cylindrical stipule. Octandrous. Having eight stamens. Octogynous. Having eight styles. Offset. A lateral branch, terminated by a cluster of leaves, and capable of taking root. Oleaginous. Oily, affording oil. Operculum. The lid or covering of the theca in mosses. Opposite. Being on the same level, and base to base. Orbicular. Having a circular outline. Orthotropous. Where an ovule is turned from its original direction. Oval. Longer than broad, the sides curving regularly from end to end. Ovary. The germ or base of the pistil. The young state of a peri- carp. Ovate. Egg-shaped. Ovule. The incipient form of a seed ; contained in an ovary. Paleaceous. Chaffy. Palea. A chaffy bract to a floret in some compound flowers. Palmate. Divided so as to resemble the hand and fingers. Panduriform. Fiddle-shaped. Panicle. An irregularly-branched raceme. Paniculate. Disposed in panicles. Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped; a form of irregular polypetalous co- rolla. Papillose. Pimpled ; having fleshy protuberances. Pappus. The seed-down in com- pound flowers. Parasitic. Drawing support from another plant. Parenchyma. Common cellular tis- sue in a soft state. Parietal. Arising from the inner wall of an organ. Parted. Divided almost to the base. Where a stem perforates Having holes or dots, as Partial. Particular, not general. Partition. A dissepiment. Pectinate. Divided like the teeth of a comb. Pedate. Finely palmate, like the foot of a bird. Pedicel. A partial or secondary flower-stalk. Peduncle. A flower-stalk. Peltate. Shield-like ; having a stalk or support in the centre. Pendulous. Hanging down. Pentagynous. Having five styles. Pentandrous. Having five stamens. Pentamerous. A whorl of five parts. Pepo. An indehiscent fleshy, or in- ternally pulpy fruit, formed of three united carpels. Perennial. Lasting from year to year. Perfoliate a leaf. Perforate. if pricked Perianth. Floral envelopes. Pericarp. The fruit; seed-case Peridium. A spore-case. Perigonium. A perianth. Perigynium. A sac enclosing ovary. Perigynous. Inserted around ovary. Perispcrm. The albumen. Peristome. The fringed border the theca in mosses. Permanent. ) Remaining for a long Persistent. $ time. Personate. Masked; a form of a labiate flower. Petal. The coloured leaf of a flower. Petaloid. Resembling a petal. Petiole. The footstalk of a leaf. Petiolule. The footstalk of a leaflet. Phanogamous or Phanerogamous. Having visible stamens and pistils. Phyllodium. A leaf formed of a di- lated petiole. Pilose. Hairy; having slender hairs. Pinnate: Winged; where leaflets are arranged on each side of a sim- pie petiole. Pinnatifid. Cut-winged; where the lamina on each side of a petiole is deeply cleft. the the of BOTANICAL 1 Pistillate. Having pistils only. Pistil. The central organ of flowers composed of style, stigma, and ovary. Pith. The central spongy substance in the centre of plants, composed of cellular tissue. Placenta. The line or body to which the ovules are attached. Plaited. Folded in regular layers. Plicate. Folded like a fan. Plumose. Resembling a feather; fringed with hairs. Plumule. The incipient ascending axis. Poculiform. Cup-shaped. Pod. A pericarp of two valves; it may be a Legume or Silique. Podosperm. Funiculus ; footstalk of an ovary. Pollen. The granules or dust con- tained in anthers. Pollen Tube. A minute tube pro- jected from a pollen grain. Pollinia. Masses of pollen. Polyadelphous. Having stamens united in more than two sets. Polyandrous. Having many stamens attached to receptacle. Polygamous. Having perfect, or staminate and pistillate flowers, or all these kinds. Polygynous. Having many styles. Polypetalous. Having many petals. Polysepalous. Having many sepals. Pome. A pulpy or juicy fruit, formed of a juicy or fleshy calyx; enclo- sing the carpels. Prcefoliation. Vernation; the ar- rangement of a leaf in a bud. Prcefloralion. ^Estivation; the ar- rangement of the floral envelopes in a bud. Prcemorse. As if bitten off. Prickle. A sharp appendage of the bark not connected with the wood. Primine. Outer coat of ovule. Procumbent. Lying on the ground. Proliferous. Where leaves orflowers arise from others. Prostrate. Lying on the ground. Protruded. Projecting out; exserted. Pruinose. Covered with a frost-like meal. ERMINOLOGY. 6j Pubescent. Hairy; having hairs of any kind. Pulverulent. Powdery. Pulvinate. Cushion-like. Punctate. Dotted. Puncticulate. Having minute dots. Putamen. A nutshell. Pyriform. Pear-shaped. Pyxidium. A capsule with a trans- verse dehiscence. Quadrangular. Four-cornered. Quinate. Arranged in fives. Raceme. An inflorescence having the flowers supported on pedicels along a rachis. Rachis. The axis of inflorescence; or the general petiole in pinnate leaves. Radiate. Diverging from a common centre, furnished with rays. Radical. Proceeding directly from the root. Radicle. Secondary roots ; rootlets. Rameal. Belonging to the branches. Ramose. Branched. Raphe. The ridge, or part con- necting the hilum and chalaza. Raphides. Minute crystals in the cellular tissue. Ray. The outer florets of a com- pound flower. Receptacle. The base on which the parts of fructification are seated. Reclined. Inclined downwards. Recurved. Bent downwards. Reflexed. Bent backwards. Remote. Distant. Reniform. Kidney-shaped. Repand. Spread ; having a curved or sinuous margin. Replicate. Bent back on itself. Replum. A persistent placenta, or margin in certain seeds. Resupinate. Inverted. Reticulate. Netted. Retroflex. Bending in various direc- tions. Retrorse. Turned backwards. Retuse. When an apex is slightly indented or hollowed out. Reversed. Bent back towards the base. 62 BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. Rcvolute. Rolled backwards. Rhizome. A horizontal subterranean stem. Rhomboidal. Oval, but somewhat angular at the middle. Ribbed. Where the midrib of a leaf sends off marked lateral ones. Rigid. Stiff; inflexible. Rimose. Full of chinks or clefts. Ringent. Grinning; applied to a form of labiate flowers. Root. The descending axis of a plant. Rootlet. A secondary root or fibre. Rosaceous. Having a corolla like a rose. Rostrate. Beaked. Rostellate. With a small beak. Rotate. Wheel-shaped. Rugged. Covered with small asperi- ties. Rugose. Wrinkled; having small folds or elevations. Ruminated. When the albumen has a wrinkled or folded appearance. Runcinated. Pinnatifid, with the divi- sions pointing backwards. Runner. A shoot producing leaves and roots at the end. Saccate. Having or resembling a small sac. Sagittate., Arrow-headed. Salver-shaped. A monopetalous co- rolla, with a flat spreading limb. Samara. An indehiscent, winged pericarp. Sap. The watery fluid absorbed by the spongioles of a plant, and afford- ing it nourishment. Sapivood. Alburnum ; the outer layer. Sarcocarp. The fleshy or pulpy coat of a pericarp, between the epicarp and exocarp. Sarmentose. A running shoot, root- ing at its joints. Scabrous. Rough. Scales. Thin membranous processes, attached to the cuticle, &c. Scape. A radical peduncle, or flower stem. Scarious. Dry and membranous. Scorpoid. A unilateral raceme, which is revolute before expansion. Scrobiculate. Pitted. Secund. Turned to one side; one- sided. Secundine. The second coat of the ovule. Seed. The matured result of fecun- dation, and designed to reproduce the species. Segments. The parts into which a corolla, calyx, &c, are divided. Sepals. The leaves of a calyx. Septicidal. When a pericarp opens by the opening of the ventral su- tures, and a division of the dissepi- ments. Septifragal. When the dissepiments remain attached to the axis, sepa- rated from the valves, as in the loculicidal dehiscence. Septum. A partition. Sericeous. Silky; covered with soft short hairs. Serrate. Having teeth like those of a saw. Serrulate. When serrate teeth are again serrated ; it also means finely serrate. Sessile. Where any organ is destitute of a stalk or support. Seta. A bristle. Setose. Bristly ; having bristles or stiff hair. Sheath. The prolongation of a leaf, bract, &c, down a stem, so as to enclose it. Sheathing. Surrounding by a convo- lute base. Shield-shaped. Shaped like an ancient shield. Shrub. A small plant with a woody stem. Sickle-formed. Much curved, with sharp edge. Silicle. The pod of a plant of the order Siliculosa. Siliculosa. An order of Tetradyna- mia, having pods almost as broad as long. Silique. The pod of a plant of the order Siliquosa. Siliquosa. An order of Tetradyna- mia, having the pods much longer than broad. Silky. Covered with shining ap- pressed hairs. BOTANICAL TERMINOLOGY. 63 Simple. Undivided. Sinuate. Having rounded shallow incisions. Sinus. A rounded incision in the margin. Smooth. Having an even surface. Sorus. A cluster of sporangia in ferns. Spadix. An elongated spike, covered by a spathe or modified bract. Sparse. Scattered. Spathe. A kind of sheathing bract, covering a spadix or single flower. Spatulate. Oblong or obovate, with the lower end much narrowed. Species. The lowest division of plants. Sphacelated. Withering; becoming blackened. Spermoderm. Testa, outer coat of seed. Spike. Florets arranged on an elon- gated rachis, with no or very short pedicels. Spikelet. A division of a spike. Spindle-shaped. Fusiform. Spine. A thorn ; connected with the wood. Spinose. Thorny. Spiral vessels. Membranous tubes, having internally a spiral fibre or fibres. Spongioles. The extremities of root fibres. Sporangium. The case containing spores. Spores. The organs serving as seeds in Cryptogamous plants. Sporidia. Membranous cases con- taining spores in the fungi. Sporogens. Parasitic plants, having flowers, but propagated by spores. Sporules. The spores of lichens. Spur. A process from the calyx or corolla, resembling a cock's spur. Squamose. Scaly. Squamulce. Small scales, serving as perianth in the grasses. Squarrose. Ragged ; scales or leaves standing out from a common axis. . Stamens. The fecundating organs of plants. Staminate. Having stamens only. Standard. The upper petal of a pa- pilionaceous flower; banner. Stellate. Spreading out in a radiate manner. Stem. The ascending axis of a plan Stemless. Unprovided with a stem. Sterile. A staminate flower. Stigma. The terminating organ on a pistil, receiving pollen from the stamens. Stipe. The stalk of a fern, or of a fungus, &c. Stipellate. Having stipelles. Stipelle. A stipule of a leaflet. Stipitate. Having a stipe. Stipulate. Furnished with stipules. Stipule. A leafy appendage or leaf- let, at or near the insertion of a petiole. Stolon. A rooting branch or shoot. Stomata. Pores in the epidermis. Striate. Marked with longitudinal lines. Strigose. Clothed with short, rigid, appressed hairs. Strobile. A kind of ament with woody scales ; each of which is an open carpel; a cone. Strophiole. An appendage at the hilum. Style. That part of a pistil between the ovary and stigma; it is often wanting. Stylopodium. An epigynous disk bearing the styles. Suberose. Cork-like. Submersed. Under water. Subterraneous. Growing beneath the earth. Subulate. Awl-shaped ; tapering to a sharp point. Succulent. Juicy; pulpy. Sucker. A shoot by which a plant may be propagated. Suffruticose. Smaller than a shrub. Sulcate. Grooved ; marked with deep lines. Superior. A calyx or corolla is su- perior when it is inserted on the upper part of an ovary. Surculose. Producing suckers. Suspended. An ovule hanging di- rectly downwards. Suture. A seam at the meeting of two parts; the line of dehiscence in a carpel. 64 BOTANICAL T ERMINOLOGY. Symmetrical. When parts are in their normal proportions. Syncarpous. Several carpels uniting in one ovary. Syngenesious. Anthers united in a tube. Tail. A filiform process affixed to a seed. Tap root. A conical root. Tegmen. The inner covering of a seed. Tendril. An appendage by which a climbing plant supports itself. Terete. Columnar and tapering. Terminal. Proceeding from, or borne on the summit. Ternate. In threes ; threefold. Testa. The outer coat of a seed. Tetradynamous. Having six stamens, four of which are longer than the others. Tetragynous. Having four styles. Tetramerous. A whorl of four parts. Tetrandria. Having four stamens. Thallogens. Stemless, leafless, flow- erless plants. Thallus. The frond in Hepaticre. Theca. The capsules or spore-cases in Acrogens. Thorn. A spine or short process from the woody part of a plant. Throat. The orifice of a calyx tube. Thyrsus. A condensed panicle. Tomentose. Covered with fine dense coat of wool or down. Toothed. Having salient points not directed to the apex of the leaf, &c. Tortuous. Irregularly bent or twisted. Torus. A receptacle; properly a fleshy one. Transverse. Crosswise. Tree. A large woody plant. Triadelphous. Having stamens in three sets. Triandrous. Having three stamens. Tribracteate. With three bracts. Trichotomous. Three-forked. Tricoccous. Having three cocci. Iridentate. Three-toothed. Trifid. Three-cleft. Trifoliolate. Having three folioles. Trigynous. Having three styles. Trimerous. A whorl of three parts. Tripinnate. Three times pinnate. Tripinnatifid. A leaf with tertiary divisions. Triternate. Three times ternate. Truncate. As if cut off at the end. Tube. The hollow cylinder of a mo- nopetalous corolla. Tuber. Thick and fleshy roots, of no regular form. Tubercles. Small knobs or tubers. Tuberculate. Warty. Tunicated. Coated. Turbinate. Top-shaped or inversely conical. Turgid. Swollen ; thick. Turion. An immature scaly shoot. Twining. Ascending spirally. Two-edged. Compressed with sharp edges. Two-ranked. Rows on opposite sides. Umbel. An inflorescence, where the flower-stalks diverge from the same point in a radiated manner. Umbellate. Bearing umbels. Umbilicate. Having a depression at one or both ends. Unarmed. Destitute of thorns or prickles. Uncinate. Hooked. Under-shrubs. Small plants with woody stems. Undulate. Wavy. Unguis. The claw of a petal. Unguiculate. Claw-like; having a claw. Unilateral. One-sided. Urceolate. Dilated like the body of a pitcher. Utricle. A small bag or sac ; a ca- ryopsis which does not adhere to the seed. Valvate. Having valves. Valves. The pieces of a pericarp, which separate naturally on ripen- ing. Variety. A plant differing from the type of the species in minor parti- culars. Vascular plants. Plants with spiral vessels. Vaulted. Arched, as the upper lip in some labiate plants. BOTANICAL T ERMINOLOGY. 65 Veins. The ribs of leaves. Velvety. Clothed with a close, soft, and dense pubescence. Venation. Distribution of veins in a leaf. Ventral suture. The suture looking to the axis of the flower. Ventricose. Inflated ; swelling out. Vernation. The arrangement of leaves in buds. Verrucose. Warty. Versatile. Lying horizontally, and moving freely on a point. Vertical. At right angles with the earth. Verticel. A whorl. Verticillaster. A whorled cyme. Verticilkite. In whorls; bearing whorls. Vesicular. Bladdery ; having blad- der-like cavities. Vexillum. Banner of a papilionaceous flower. Villous. Having a covering of shaggy hairs. Virgate. Wand-like. Viscid. Clammy, glutinous. Vitta. Canals filled with volatile oil on the commissure and in the in- tervals of the seeds of the umbelli- ferse. Voluble. Twining. Wedge-shaped. Cuneiform; obo- vate, with straightish sides. Whorl. Flowers or leaves surround- ing the stem in numbers. Wings. Lateral appendages to leaves, &c.; also the two side petals in a papilionaceous flower. Withering. Shrivelling or decaying; marcescent. Wood. The solid part of plants, com- posed of cellular tissue, woody fibre, spiral vessels, &c. MEDICAL BOTANY, A BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS USED IN MEDICINE. CONSPECTUS OF NATURAL ORDERS CONTAINING MEDICINAL PLANTS. Series I.—PhaBnogamous or Flowering Plants. Plants furnished with flowers and producing seeds. Structure of the stem exogynous. Embryo with two or more cotyledons. Leaves usually netted- veined. Class I.—Exogens or Dicotyledonous Plants. Stem with a distinct pith and bark, between which are layers of woody fibre and vessels ; the increase in size by the deposition of new layers beneath the bark, forming concentric zones and traversed by rays. Leaves usually articulated with the branches, and having diverging and reticulated veins. Seeds in a pericarp. Embryo with two cotyledons. Sub-Class I»—Polypetalous Exogenous Plants. Floral envelopes, consisting of both calyx and corolla; the petals being distinct. Group I.—Polycarpicales. Ovaries several or numerous, distinct; when in several rows sometimes coherent, but not united into a compound pistil. Stamens and petals inserted on the receptacle. Order 1.—Ranunculace^e.—Carpels distinct. Stipules 0. Corolla im- bricated. Albumen homogeneous. Seeds exarillate. Order 2.—Magnoliace^e.—Carpels distinct. Stipules large; convolute. Corolla imbricated. Albumen homogeneous. Order 3.—ANONACEiE.—Carpels distinct. Stipules 0, Corolla valvate. Albumen ruminate. Group II.—Menispermales. Ovaries several, disunited. Flowers diclinous. Stamens few or definite. Pistils few or solitary. Embryo surrounded by an abundant albumen. 68 MEDICAL BOTANY. Order 4.—Menispermace^e.—Albumen sparing, solid. Seeds amphitro- pous. Embryo large. Order 5.—Myristicace^e.—Albumen copious, ruminated. Sepals united into a valvate cup. Group III.—Berberales. Flowers unsymmetrical in the ovary. Placenta? sutural, parietal or axile. Stamens definite. Embryo enclosed in a large quantity of fleshy albumen. Order 6.—BerbertcacejE.—Flowers regular, symmetrical. Placentas sutural. Stamens opposite the petals. Anthers usually with recurved valves. Order 7.—Fumariace^.—Flowers unsymmetrical and irregular. Pla- centae parietal. Stamens opposite the petals. Group IV.—Nymphales. Ovaries several; either distinct or united into a compound pistil. Stamens indefinite, inserted on the receptacle. Embryo on the outside of a large quantity of albumen, or if the latter be wanting, seeds with a large plumule. Order 8.—Nymph.eace^e.—Carpels united into a many-celled fruit, with dissepimental placenta. Group V.—Papaverales. Ovary compound, parietal placentas. Calyx free from the ovary. Stamens and petals inserted on the receptacle. Sepals deciduous. • Styles or stigma united. Order 9.—Papaverace.e.—Carpels consolidated. Calyx deciduous. Placentas usually parietal. Group VI.—Cruciferales. Ovary compound with parietal or sutural placentas. Embryo spiral or curved, with little or no albumen. Order 10.—Brassicace^:.—Stamens tetradynamous. Flowers tetrame- rous. Seeds exalbuminous. Order 11.—Capparidace.e.—Stamens not tetradynamous. Flowers te- tramerous. Seeds exalbuminous. Fruit closed. Order 12.—Resedace^e.—Stamens not tetradynamous, definite. Flowers not tetramerous. Seeds exalbuminous. Fruit usually open at tip. Order 13.—Cistace^e.—Stamens generally indefinite. Flowers tri or quinquepetalous. Seeds with albumen. Fruit closed. Group VII.—Violales. Ovary compound with parietal or sutural placentas. Calyx free from the ovary. Embryo straight, with little or no albumen. Order 14.—Violace^e.—Flowers polypetalous. Calyx many-leaved. Petals hypogynous. Stamens all perfect; anthers crested and turned in- wards. Fruit consolidated. Seeds albuminous. Order 15.—Flacourtiace^e.—Flowers scattered, mostly polypetalous. Petals and stamens hypogynous. Leaves dotless, or with round ones only.' Order 16.—Passifloraceje— Flowers polypetalous or apetalous, coro- neted. Petals perigynous, imbricated. Stamens on the stalk of the ovary. Styles simple, terminal. Seed arillate. Leaves stipulate. Order 17.—Samydacejs.—Flowers scattered, apetalous, tubular, herma- phrodite. Leaves dotted. Stamens perigynous. CONSPECTUS. 69 Group VIII.—Guttiferales. Ovary compound, with two or more cells, and the placentas axile. Calyx free, imbricated. Corolla imbricated or twisted. Stamens indefinite, usually monadelphous or polyadelphous. Embryo with little or no albumen. Order 18.—Dipteraceje.—Leaves simple, with large convolute stipules. Flowers symmetrical. Petals equilateral. Calyx unequal, permanent, winged. Anthers beaked. Fruit one-celled, one-seeded. Order 19.—Ternstromiace^e.—Leaves simple, alternate, no stipules or very small ones. Flowers symmetrical. Petals equilateral. Anthers ver- satile. Seeds few or single. Stigmas on a long style. Order 20.—Clusiace.e.—Leaves simple, opposite, exstipulate. Flowers symmetrical. Petals equilateral. Anthers adnate, beakless. Seeds few or single. Stigmas sessile, radiating. Order 21.—Hypericace e.—Petals oblique, glandular. Seeds numerous, naked. Styles long, distinct. Group IX.—Silenales. Ovary compound, one-celled, with a free central placenta. Calyx free or nearly so. Embryo coiled round a little mealy albumen, and more than one carpel combined into a compound fruit. Order 22.—Caryophyllace.e.—Calyx and corolla usually present, sym- metrical. Ovules amphitropal. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Group X.—Malvales. Ovary compound and many-celled, with the placentas axile. Calyx free, with a valvate asstivation. Corolla imbricated or twisted. Stamens indefi- nite, monadelphous, or polyadelphous. Embryo with little or no albumen. Order 23.—Sterculiacete.—Stamens columnar, all perfect. Anthers 2-celled, turned outwards. Order 24.—Byttnerace^e.—Stamens monadelphous, usually sterile. An- thers 2-celled, turned inwards. Order 25.—Malvace^:.— Stamens columnar, all perfect. Anthers 1-celled, turned inwards. Group XI.—Aurantiacales. Ovary compound, with two or more cells, and the placentas axile. Calyx free, imbricate in asstivation. Stamens indefinite, or twice as many as the petals, mostly monadelphous. Embryo with little albumen. Order 26.—Aurantiace.e.—Fruit consolidated, succulent, indehiscent. Petals imbricated. Stamens free, or nearly so. Leaves dotted. Order 27.—Amyridace.e.—Fruit consolidated, dry, hard, somewhat val- vular. Petals valvate. Stamens free. Leaves usually dotted. Order 28.—CEDRELACEiE.—Fruit consolidated, valvular. Stamens mona- delphous or free. Seeds numerous-winged. Order 29.—Meliace^e.—Fruit consolidated, berried, or capsular. Sta- mens monadelphous. Seeds few, not winged. Leaves not dotted. Group XII.—Rutales. Ovary compound, with two or more cells; or carpels several, and more or 70 MEDICAL BOTANY. less united by their styles. Calyx free. Petals as many as sepals, or rarely wanting. Stamens as many or twice as many as sepals, distinct. Flowers often diclinous or polygamous. Order 30.—Anacardiace^e.—Fruit apocarpous. Ovule single, suspended by a cord rising from the base of the carpel. Order 31.—Rutace^e.—Fruit finally apocarpous, few-seeded, with the pericarp separating into two layers. Flowers bisexual. Order 32.—XanthoxylacejE.—Fruit finally apocarpous, few-seeded, with the pericarp separating into two layers. Flowers bisexual or diclinous. Order 33.—Simarubace^e.—Fruit finally apocarpous, one-seeded, with the pericarp not laminated, and a small dry torus. Exalbuminous. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Order 34.—Zygophyllace^e.—Fruit finally apocarpous, few-seeded; pe- ricarp not laminated, and a small dry torus. Albuminous. Leaves oppo- site, stipulate. Group XIII.—Geraniales. Ovary compound, or of several carpels adhering to a central axis. Calyx free, usually imbricated. Stamens definite, usually monadelphous at base. Flowers regular or irregular. Order 35.—Linace^e.—Flowers symmetrical. Styles distinct. Carpels longer than the torus. Seeds with little or no albumen. Order 36.—Oxalidace^e.—Flowers symmetrical. Styles distinct. Car- pels longer than the torus. Seeds with albumen. Order 37.—GeraniacejE.—Flowers usually symmetrical. Styles and carpels combined round a long-beaked torus. Group XIV.—Sapindales. Ovary compound, 2-3-lobed, 2-3-celled, with the placentas axile. Calyx free, imbricated. Stamens definite. Petals irregular. Albumen wanting, or in small quantity. Order 38.—Sapindace,e.—Flowers complete, unsymmetrical. Petals usually with an appendage, or 0. Anthers opening longitudinally. Carpels 3. Seeds wingless, arillate. Order 39.—Erythroxylace^e.—Flowers complete, partially symmetrical. Calyx imbricated. Petals with an appendage. Ovules sessile, pendulous.' Stigmas capitate. Embryo straight. Group XV.—Rhamnales. Ovary compound; 2-6-celled. Calyx free or adherent to base of ovary Petals and stamens equal to lobes of calyx, and opposite to each other or alternate. Order 40.—Rhamnace*:.— Flowers polypetalous. Calyx valvate. Seeds erect. Order 41.—Celastraceje.—Flowers polypetalous. Calyx imbricated Stamens five, distinct. J ,,,u™-*«ea. Order 42.—Vitace*:.—Flowers regular, symmetrical. Placentas axile Anthers opening longitudinally. e> CONSPECTUS. 71 Group XVI.—Polygalales. Ovary compound, 2-celled. Calyx free. Sepals and petals irregular. Stamens monadelphous; the tube of filaments open on one side, and more or less united with the claws of the petals. Seeds albuminous. Order 43.—Polygalace^e.—Flowers unsymmetrical. Petals naked. Anthers one-celled, opening by pores. Seeds carunculate. Group XVII.—Leguminales. Ovary simple or solitary. Calyx free; fruit a legume. Corolla papili- onaceous or regular. Stamens diadelphous, monadelphous or distinct. Seeds exalbuminous. Order 44.—Fabace^:.—Flowers polypetalous, (or apetalous.) Carpel solitary, with the style proceeding from the apex of the ovary. Group XVIII. Rosales. Ovaries one or many, simple and distinct, or forming a compound ovary, with two or more cells and the placentas axile. Petals and stamens inserted on the calyx. Seeds exalbuminous. Order 45.—Rosacea.—Flowers polypetalous. Carpels free from the calyx, and quite or almost so from each other. Order 46.—Drupace^e. — Flowers polypetalous, regular, drupaceous. Carpel solitary, with the style proceeding from the apex of the ovary. Order 47.—Pomaces.—Flowers polypetalous, regular. Carpels adher- ing to the calyx by their back. Group XIX.—Myrtales. Ovary compound, with two or more cells, placenta axile. Stamens definite or indefinite. Calyx free or adherent. Embryo with little or no albumen. Order 48.—Myrtace^e.—Ovary with more than one cell. Flowers poly- petalous or apetalous. Calyx imbricated. Stamens indefinite. Anthers oblong. Leaves usually dotted. Order 49.—Lythrace^e.—Calyx free, tubular, permanent, with the petals on the margin. Exalbuminous. Leaves opposite. Stamens definite. Order 50.—Onagrace^e.—Ovaries several. Flowers polypetalous orapeta- lous. Calyx valvate. Stamens definite. Cotyledons flat, much larger than the radicle. Group XX.—Cucurbita'les. Ovary compound, 2 to several celled (or one-celled by abortion); placentas parietal. Calyx adherent. Corolla frequently monopetalous. Stamens united either by their filaments or their anthers. Flowers monoecious or dioecious. Order 51.—Cucurbitace^e.—Fruit pulpy. Placentas parietal; mostly monopetalous. Group XXI.—Saxifragales. Ovaries two or more, many-ovuled, distinct, or partly united; sutural or axile placentas. Seeds indefinite, with a little albumen. Petals and stamens inserted on the calyx. Order 52.—Saxifragace^:.—Styles distinct. Leaves alternate. 72 MEDICAL BOTANY. Group XXII.—Umbellales. Ovary compound, 2 (sometimes 3-5) celled, with a solitary ovule suspended from the top of each cell. Stamens usually as many as petals or lobes of adherent calyx. Embryo in a large quantity of albumen. Order 53.—Apiace^e.—Fruit didymous, with a double epigynous disk. Order 54.—Araliaceje.—Fruit not didymous, nor with a double epigy- nous disk. Flowers pentamerous. Corolla valvate. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Order 55.—Cornaceje.—Fruit not didymous, no double epigynous disk, 2 to more celled. Flowers tetramerous. Corolla valvate. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Order 56.—Hamamelidace^e.—Fruit not didymous, no double epigynous disk, 2-celled. Corolla imbricated. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Sub-Class II.—Monopetalous Exogenous Plants. Floral envelopes consisting of both calyx and corolla ; the petals more or less united. Group XXIII.—Cinchoxales. Ovary coherent with the calyx, 2 to several celled, with one or more ovules in each cell. Seeds albuminous. Stamens inserted on the corolla. Order 57.—Caprifoliacej3.—Stamens epipetalous ; anthers straight, bursting longitudinally. Fruit consolidated. Leaves exstipulate. Order 58.—Cinchonace.e.—Stamens epipetalous ; anthers straight, burst- ing longitudinally. Leaves stipulate. Order 59.—Rubiace^:.—Stamens epipetalous ; anthers straight, burstino longitudinally. Fruit didymous. Leaves verticillate ; exstipulate. Group XXIV.—Valerianales. Ovary coherent to the calyx, with one cell and one ovule, sometimes with 3 cells, two of which are abortive. Seeds suspended. Embryo with little or no albumen. Stamens distinct, inserted on the corolla. Order 60.—Valerianace;e.—Corolla imbricated. Anthers free. Ovary one-celled. Ovule pendulous. Exalbuminous. Group XXV.—Asterales. Ovary coherent to the calyx ; one-celled. Seeds erect. Stamens synwene- sious. Exalbuminous. Order 01.—Asterace.e.—Corolla valvate. Anthers syngenesious. Ovule erect. Exalbuminous. Group XXVI.—Campanales. Ovary coherent to the calyx, with two or more cells and numerous ovules Stamens inserted with the corolla. Anthers not opening by pores Order 62.—Campanulace*:.—Ovary 2 or more celled. Anthers free or half united. Stigma naked. Corolla regular; valvate. Order 63.-LoBELiACE,E.-Ovary 2 or more celled. Anthers coherent. Stigma surrounded by hairs, borolla irregular; valvate. Group XXVII.—Ericales. Ovary free from the calyx, superior, or sometimes coherent with it • w'th CONSPECTUS. 73 two or more cells, and numerous ovules. Albuminous. Placentas axile. Stamens definite ; anthers usually opening by pores or chinks. Order 64.—Pyrolace^e.—Flowers half monopetalous. Stamens all per- fect, free. Seeds with a loose skin. Embryo at the base ofthe albumen. Order 65.—Ericaceae.—Flowers monopetalous. Stamens all perfect, free. Seeds with a firm or loose skin. Anthers 2-celled, opening by pores. Group XXVIII.—Ebenales. Ovary free, or rarely coherent to the calyx. Several-celled, but all abor- tive except one. Stamens definite; rarely indefinite ; anthers not opening by pores. Order 66.—Aquifoliacej:.—Stigmas simple at the end of a manifest style. Placentas axile. Order 67.—Ebenace^e.—Stigmas simple, sessile, radiating. Stamens epi- petalous or hypogynous. Order 68.—Styracace^e.—Stamens epipetalous. Ovules ascending or descending. Cotyledons leafy. Order 69.—Sapotace.e.—Seeds definite; pendulous. Corolla imbri- cated. Group XXIX.—Oleales. Ovary free, 2-celled, few-ovuled ; the cells 1-seeded ; corolla regular; (sometimes polypetalous or apetalous.) Stamens fewer than its lobes. Order 70.—Oleace^e.—Stamens free, two; (rarely four.) Group XXX.—Gentianales. Ovary free, compound, or the carpels 2 or more, and distinct; the ovules usually several, or numerous. Corolla regular. Stamens as many as lobes, and alternate with them. Order 71.—Apocynace^e.—Stigmas collected into a massive head, ex- panded at the base in the form of a ring or membrane, and contracted in the middle. Order 72.—Asclepiadace^e.—Anthers and stigmas consolidated into a column. Order 73.—Gentianace^e.—Stigmas simple, at the end of a manifest style. Placentas parietal. Flowers regular. Order 74.—Loganiace/E.—Leaves opposite, with intervening stipules. Order 75. — Convolvulaceje.—Placentas basal. Cotyledons leafy ; doubled up. Leaves alternate. Order 76.—Solanaceje.—Stamens five, free. Placentas axile. Embryo terete. Group XXXI.—Echiales. Ovary free, 2-4-lobed, and separating or splitting into as many 1-seeded nuts or achenia. Corolla regular or irregular. Stamens inserted on the tube, equal in number, or fewer than the lobes. Order 11.—Boraginace^e.—Flowers regular, symmetrical. Stamens 5, nuts 2 or 4 ; stigma naked. Inflorescence circinate. Order 78.—Lamiace^e.—Flowers irregular ; unsymmetrical. Nuts 4. Ovule erect. 74 MEDICAL BOTANY. Group XXXII.—Bignoniales. Ovary free, 1-2 (or spuriously 4) celled, with numerous ovules. Corolla irregular, the stamens inserted on the tube, usually fewer than its lobes. Fruit capsular or berried. Embryo with little or no albumen. Order 79.—Pedaliace*:.— Placentas parietal. Fruit bony or capsular. Embryo amygdaloid. Radicle short. Order 80.—Bignoniace*:.—Placentas axile. Seeds winged, sessile, ex- albuminous. Cotyledons large and leafy. Order 81.—Scrophulariace^e.—Placentas axile. Seeds albuminous. Cotyledons scarcely larger than, or not as large as the radicle. Group XXXIII.—Cortusales. Ovary free, (or with the base merely coherent,) 1-celled, with a free, cen- tral placenta. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla. Embryo in a large deposit of albumen. Order 82.—tPlumbaginace^e.—Stamens opposite the petals. Fruit mem- branous; 1-seeded. Styles 5. Stem herbaceous. Sub-Class III.—Apetalous Exogenous Plants. Corolla none; the floral envelopes consisting of a single series, (calyx,) or sometimes wholly wanting. Group XXXIV.—Asarales. . Flowers perfect, with a conspicuous or coloured calyx. Ovary several- celled, many-ovuled. Fruit a capsule or berry. Embryo small, in a large quantity of albumen. Order 83.—Aristolochiaceje.—Ovules indefinite. Order 84.—Santalace^e.—Ovules definite, with a coated nucleus. Group XXXV.—Chenopouales. Flowers perfect, or rarely polygamous, with a regular and often petaloid calyx. Ovary 1 or several-celled, with a solitary ovule in each. Embryo curved, round, or applied to the surface of a mealy or horny albumen. Order 85.—PhytolaccacejE.—Sepals separate, flat. Stamens alternate with the sepals, or indefinite. Carpels several. Order 86.—Chenopodiace^e.—Sepals separate, or nearly so flat Sta- mens opposite the sepals. Anthers 2-celled. Ovary 1. One-seeded" Flowers naked. Order 87.—Polygonace^.—Calyx coloured. Ovules orthotrooal Nut usually triangular. r ' Group XXXVI.—Daphnales. Flowers perfect, sometimes polygamous or dioecious, not disnn«>d in aments, with a regular and more or less petaloid calyx. Ovarv 1 r\r\ rarely 2-celled, with one or few ovules in each. Fruit 1 ™n^ V, 2 or Embryo not coiled round albumen. Ued and J-seeded. Order SS.-LAURACE^.-Anthers bursting by recurved valves Leaves perfect. Fruit naked. weaves CONSPECTUS. 75 Oi'der 89.—Thymelace^e.—Anthers bursting longitudinally. Apetalous or polypetalous. Ovule solitary ; suspended. Calyx imbricated. Order 90.—Ulmace^e.—Ovary of two carpels. Calyx imperfect; divided at the edge. Cotyledons thin and leafy. Group XXXVII.—Piperales. Flowers perfect, destitute of both calyx and corolla. Embryo minute, at or near the outside of a large quantity of mealy albumen. Order 91.—Piperaceje.—Carpel solitary. Ovule erect. Embryo lying in a vitellus. Leaves opposite or alternate, with or without stipules. Group XXXVIII.—Urticales. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, various ; sometimes in fleshy heads, but seldom arranged in aments. Fruit an achenium, often enclosed in a baccate calyx. Embryo large, in a small quantity of albumen. Order 92.—Urticacete.—Radicle superior. Ovules solitary, erect. Embryo straight, albuminous. Juice limpid. Stipules small, flat. Order 93.—Cannabinace.e.—Radicle superior. Ovule solitary, sus- pended. Embryo hooked. Exalbuminous. Order 94.—Morace^e.—Radicle superior. Ovule solitary, suspended. Embryo hooked. Albuminous. Order 95.—Artocarpace^e.—Radicle superior. Ovule solitary, erect or suspended. Embryo straight. Exalbuminous. Juice milky. Stamens large, convolute. Group XXXIX.—Amentales. Flowers monoecious or dioecious; the flowers in aments, or in heads or spikes. Carpels superior. Embryo small, with little or no albumen. Order 96.—Altingiace;e.—Ovules indefinite. Seeds winged. Order 97.—SalicacejE.—Ovules indefinite. Seeds cottony. Order 98.—Myricace^e.—Ovule 1, erect. Radicle superior. Group XL.—Quernales. Flowers dioecious, amentaceous. Fruit inferior. Embryo amygdaloid, without albumen. Order 99.—Corylace^e.—Ovary one or more celled. Ovules pendulous or peltate. Order 100.—Juglandace^e.—Ovule solitary, erect. Group XLI.—Euphorbiales. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, not amentaceous. Fruit capsular or dru- paceous, with 2 or more cells, and one (rarely two) seed in each. Embryo large in an abundant albumen. Order 101.—Euphorbiaceje.—Ovules definite, suspended, anatropal. Radicle superior. Class II.—Gymnogens or Gymnospermous Plants. Stems increasing by concentric layers, and with a structure as in the Exo- gens. Embryo, with two opposite, or several whorled cotyledons. Ovules naked, or not enclosed in an ovary, the carpel being absent or replaced by a flat scale. 76 MEDIC A L BOTANY.] Order 102.—Cycadace*:.—Stem simple, continuous. Leaves parallel- veined, pinnate. Scales of the cone antheriferous. Order 103.—Pinace^e.—Stem repeatedly branched, continuous. Leaves simple, acerose. Females in cones. Class III.—Endogens or Monocotyledonous Plants. Stem without distinct bark or pith ; the wood formed of bundles of fibres and vessels, irregularly dispersed through a cellular tissue ; the rind closely adherent; no medullary rays or concentric layers ; increase in size by the deposition of new fibrous bundles in the central part of the stem, within the old. Leaves seldom articulated, usually sheathing at base, with simple parallel veins. Embryo with a single cotyledon, or if a second be present, it is much smaller than the other. Group XLII.—Palmales. Flowers on a branched, scaly spadix, with a double perianth. Ovary 3- celled, with a single ovule in each cell. Embryo minute, below the surface of a horny or fleshy albumen. Order 104.—Palmace^e.—Unisexual. Flowers perfect. Fruit a drupe or berry. Group XLIII.—Arales. Flowers on a spadix, with a simple or scale-like perianth, or wholly want- ing, Embryo in the axis of a mealy or fleshy albumen. Order 105.—Arace^e.—Flowers indefinite, naked, on a solitary spadix, with a single-hooded spathe. Anthers sessile. Seed loose. Embryo slit, axile. Group XLIV.—Alismales. Flowers not spadiceous, hypogynous, bisexual, with a double perianth. Ovaries several, distinct or united. Seeds exalbuminous. Order 106.—AlismacetE.—Flowers tri-petaloid. Placentas simple, axile, or basal. Few-seeded. Embryo solid. Group XLV.—Juncales. Flowers hypogynous, bisexual, herbaceous flowered, hexapetaloid, with an abundant albumen. Order 107.—Orontiace^e.—Flowers on spadix. Embryo axile, with a cleft on one side. Group XLVI.—Narcissales. Flowers with a regular perianth. Ovary 3-celled, many-ovuled. Stamens 3 or 6. Seeds albuminous. Order 108.—Hjemodorace^:.—Flowers hcxapetalous, tubular, scarcely imbricated. Stamens 3 or 6 ; anthers turned inwards. Radicle remote from the naked hilum. Order 109.—Iridace^.—Flowers hexapetnlous. Stamens 3. Anthers turned outwards. Group XLVII.—Amomales. Flowers with an irregular perianth. Ovary 3-celled. Stamens 1—6 some of which are abortive. Seeds albuminous. CONSPECTUS. 77 Order 110.—Musace^e.—Stamens more than 1. Anthers 2-celled. No vitellus. Order 111.—Zingiberacejs.—Stamen 1. Anther 2-celled. Embryo in a vitellus. Order 112.—Marantace^e.—Stamen 1. Anther 1-celled. No vitellus. Group XLVIII.—Orchidales. Flowers with irregular perianth. Ovary 1-celled, with parietal placentas. Stamens 1—3. Seeds without albumen. Order 113.—Orchidace^e.—Flowers irregular, gynandrous. Placentas parietal. Group XLIX.—Liliales. Flowers with a regular hexapetaloid perianth, or rarely glumaceous. Seeds with a copious albumen. Order 114.—MelanthacejE.—Perianth naked, flat when withering. An- thers turned outwards ; styles distinct; albumen fleshy. Order 115.—Liliace^:.—Perianth naked, flat when withering. Anthers turned inwards ; styles consolidated ; albumen fleshy. Group L.—Smixicales. Flowers perfect, diclinous or polygamous. Leaves reticulated. Carpels consolidated. Seeds albuminous.* Order 116.—Smilace^:.—Flowers unisexual, hexapetalous. Carpels seve- ral, consolidated. Placentas axile. Order 117.—Dioscoreaceje.—Flowers unisexual. Perianth adherent. Carpels consolidated, several-seeded. Group LI.—Glumales. Flowers imbricated with bracts, and in spikelets; no proper perianth. Ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled. Embryo at end of albumen, next the hilum. Order 118.—Graminace.e.—Styles 2 or more, distinct or united. Ovule ascending. Embryo lateral, naked. Class IV.—Sporogens or Rhizanthous Plants. Parasitic, leafless plants, with homogeneous stems, and a scarcely-developed vascular system, furnished with true flowers, but propagated by spores. Order 119.—Rafflesiace^e.—Ovules indefinite, parietal. Fruit many- seeded. Calyx 5-parted. Anthers opening by pores. Series II.—Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants. Plants destitute of true flowers, and consequently of seeds. Reproduction by means of minute bodies called spores, mostly enclosed in cases, and with- out radicle or cotyledon. * This group forms part of a new class which Lindley has proposed under the name of Dictyogens, including in it a few orders which appear to form a link between the Exo- gens and Endogens, having some ofthe characters of each; but further observations are needed on the subject before this change can be adopted. 78 MEDICAL BOTANY. Class V.—Acrogens or Acrogenous Plants. Flowerless plants with a regular stem or axis growing from the apex, com- posed of cellular tissue and vessels ; usually furnished with leaves. Spores contained in a theca or case. Group LII.—Filicales. Vascular. Spore cases marginal, or dorsal. 1-celled. Usually sur- rounded by an elastic ring. Spores of one kind only. Order 120.—Polypodiace^e.—Spore cases ringed, dorsal or marginal, splitting irregularly. Group LIU.—Lycopodales. Vascular. Spore cases axillary or radical, 1 or many-celled. Spores of two sorts. Order 121.—Lycopodiace^e.—Spore cases 1-3 celled, axillary; repro- ductive bodies similar. Class VI.—Thallogens or Thallogenons Plants. Plants wholly formed of cellular tissue, with no distinction of stem or leaves. Not reproduced by buds, or by organs analogous to flowers. Group LIV.—Algales. Cellular, flowerless plants, nourished through their whole surface; living in water; propagated by zoospores, coloured spores, or tetraspores. Order 122.—FucACEiE.—Cellular or tubular, unsymmetrical bodies, mul- tiplied by simple spores formed externally. Order 123.—Ceramiace^e.—Cellular or tubular unsymmetrical bodies, multiplied by tetraspores. Group LV.—Fungales. Cellular, flowerless plants, nourished through their thallus; living in air; propagated by colourless or brown spores, and destitute of green go- nidia. Group LVI.—Lichenales. Cellular, flowerless plants, nourished through their whole surface ; living in air; propagated by spores usually enclosed in theca, and always having green gonidia. DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS USED IN MEDICINE. Series I.— Phaenogamous or Flowering Plants. Substance ofthe plant composed of cellular tissue, woody fibre, ducts and spiral vessels. Leaves usually present; cuticle with stomata. Sexual organs always present, and usually surrounded by a floral envelope. Reproduced by means of seeds, having distinct coverings, cotyledons, and a radicle and embryo. Class I.—Exogena.—De Candolle.—Dicotyledonous Plants. Trunk, consisting of concentric layers, surrounding a central column of pith, and composed of two parts, wood and bark ; wood consisting of ligneous strata, traversed by medullary rays, and increasing by the deposit of new matter on the outside, (the older and inner layers called duramen or heart- wood, and the newer and outer, termed alburnum or sapwood.) Bark formed of strata, increasing by the deposit of new matter on its inner side. Leaves jointed at their union with the stem, and having their veins and nerves much and irregularly ramified {reticulated). Flowers usually with a distinct ca- lyx and corolla {double perianth); frequently having a quinary arrange- ment, or occasionally binary, or of some of the multiples of two. Embryo with two opposite cotyledons. Radicle naked. Sub-Class I.—Polypetalous Exogenous Plants. Floral envelopes, consisting of both calyx and corolla; the petals being distinct. Group I.—Polycarpicales. Ovaries several, or numerous, distinct; when in several rows, sometimes coherent, but not united into a compound pistil. Stamens and pistils inserted on the receptacle. Embryo small, in a large quantity of horny or fleshy al- bumen. Order 1.—RANUNCULACEjE.—De Candolle. Herbaceous (seldom shrubby). Leaves alternate (rarely opposite), variously divided and having the petiole dilated at base, and partly clasping the stem. Sepals 3—6 or more, usually 5, seldom persistent. Petals 3 or many, hypogynous, occasionally wanting. Stamens many, hypogynous, anthers adnate or innate. Ovaries many (sometimes few or solitary), distinct; ovules solitary or many. Pericarps dry nuts, or achenia, or bac- cate, or follicular. Seeds with a horny or. fleshy albumen. 80 MEDICAL botany. The greatest number of species appertaining to this order are found in Europe, amounting to one-fifth. North America contains about one-seventh. They being characteristic of a cool climate, all those met with in tropical countries inhabit mountains. Many of them were at one time employed in medi- cine, but with a few exceptions, have fallen into disuse. They are in gene- ral acrid and caustic, but are very various in their physical properties. Thus, in many of them, there is a volatile acrid principle of a very peculiar nature, destructible by heat, or even by simple drying, but neither acid nor alkaline; in others, as in Aconitum and Delphinium, the active ingredient is an alkaloid, highly deleterious even in minute doses ; in some again, the only marked properties are those of the pure bitters, as in Coptis and Hydrastis. Tribe 1.—Anemones.—Petals wanting, or plane. Anthers generally ex- trorse. Achenia numerous, caudate. Seed suspended. Clematis.—Linn. Involucre wanting, or resembling a calyx below the flower. Sepals 4—8, coloured, valvate. Petals wanting, or shorter than the sepals. Anthers extrorse. Achenia numer- ous, terminating in a long feather-like tail. The species of this genus are perennial herbaceous, or half shrubby plants, often sarmentose; with opposite leaves. They are in most cases so acrid as to blister the skin if applied to it in a fresh state, but their activity is destroyed by drying or exposure to heat. The C. erecta, C. flammula, and C. vitalba of Europe, were at one time employed as rubefacients and vesicants, but are now seldom used in regular practice. Wendt, however, has spoken of the last-mentioned species as useful in scrofula, itch, and many cutaneous diseases. The young shoots are used in some parts of Italy as a substitute for Asparagus. Some of our native species, as C. viorna, and C. virginica, have also been employed, both externally in the treatment of eruptions and as vesicants, and also internally as diuretics and sudorifics in chronic rheuma- tism, &c. The C. dioica, a native of Jamaica, is said by Dr. Macfadyen {Flor. Jam. 1, 2,) to be active ; a decoction ofthe root in sea-water acting as a powerful hydragogue purgative in dropsy.; and an infusion of the leaves and flowers removing spots and freckles from the skin. The C. mauritiana is stated by Commerson, to be used in the Isle of France as a revulsive in cases of toothache, neuralgia of the face, &c. {Encyclop. Meth. ii. 42.) Anemone.—Linn. Involucre 3-leaved, distant from the flower, its leaflets incised. Sepals 8-15, petaloid. Petals none. Achenia mucronate or caudate. These are perennial herbs with radical leaves. The medical properties are very similar to those of Clematis, but more active. The A. Pulsatilla and A. pratensis had some reputation in the treatment of cutaneous disorders, and in amaurosis, in consequence of the experiments of Storck; he used an extract, at first in small doses, but gradually increasing the quantity till some marked effect was produced. Bonnet, {An. Jour, de Med. 1783,) also speaks highly of this extract in obstinate cutaneous affections; and Dr. Ramm, {Arch. Gen. de. Med. 1828,) states that in small doses it is eminently suc- cessful in hooping cough. It is probable that the A. patens, a native both of Europe and North America, is analogous in its properties to the above. The root of A. cernua, a native of Japan and China, is in high repute in those countries as a bitter tonic. RANUNCULACEjE. 81 Hepatica.—Dillenius. Involucre caliciform, 3-parted, very Fig. 48. near the flower, persistent. Sepals peta- loid, 6—9. Petals none. Stamina many, short. Achenia awnless. This genus, which consists of but a single species, is found in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, occurring in the latter from Canada to South Caro- lina and to the Pacific. It was first recognised by Tournefort, but placed in Anemone by Linnaeus, and again separated by Dillenius, in which he has been followed by all modern botanists. H. triloba.—Chaix. Leaves broadly cordate, 3—5-lobed, lobes entire. Chaix, Vill. Delph., i. 336. Pursh, Fl. ii. 391. Torrey and Gray, Flor. N. A. i. 14. Rafi- nesque, Med. Flor., i. 238. Common names. Liverwort, Liverweed, Trefoil, &c. Description. Root perennial, fibrous. Leaves radical, on long hairy petioles, somewhat coriaceous, cordate at base, and divided into three equal lobes, which are either rounded, obtuse, or acute, purplish beneath and green, mottled with purple, above. Scapes several, the length of the petiole, round, hirsute, single- H. triloba. flowered, and invested at base with membranous sheaths. Flowers terminal, at first drooping, afterwards erect. Involucre resembling a calyx, very hirsute, with deep ovate, entire segments. Sepals in two or three series, purplish or white, equal, ovate, obtuse. Stamens subulate, anthers elliptic. Seeds ovate, acute, awnless. There are two marked varieties of this plant, which have been considered as species by some writers; one having the lobes of the leaves rounded {H. obtusa) and the other with them spreading, and acute. {H. acuta.) Both these are found in abundance in the Northern and Middle States, but the first is the most common. Their usual place of growth is the sides of wooded hills and mountains, where their delicate purplish flowers may be seen among the earliest of the harbingers of spring ; the leaves are persistent until after the flowers appear, when they decay and fall off, and are suc- ceeded by another crop. The Liverwort is scentless and nearly insipid, though a little astringent and mucilaginous. Medical uses. The whole plant is used, and was long esteemed as a pec- toral and deobstruent, but probably possesses very slight powers. The earlier writers describe it as " a noble vulnerary, used either inwardly or out- wardly ;" and as capable of curing hernia, all diseases ofthe liver, and even palsy. It, however, fell into deserved disrepute, and only requires notice 6 82 MEDICAL BOTANY. from the fact of its having been lauded in this country some years since, as a remedy in haemoptysis and other pectoral affections, in the treatment of which it still enjoys much popular confidence. It is used as a tea, either warm or cold, and may be taken in large quantities ; it has no effect on the lungs, other than that of a mild astringent and demulcent. Hydrastis.—Linn. Sepals 3, petaloid, deciduous. Petals none. Stamens many, with innate anthers. Styles numerous, short, with dilated anthers. Carpels baccate, compound; granulations 1-2- seeded. This genus of a single species is peculiar to North America. It was first included by Linnaeus in Hydrophyllum, but afterwards separated under its present name at the suggestion of his industrious correspondent Mr. John Ellis, and has been adopted by all botanists except Miller, who, in his Gar- dener's Dictionary, terms it Warnera. Walter has noticed another species, which is also included by Muhlenberg in his catalogue, though as doubtful; it has not since been detected, and is most likely a mere local variety. Fig. 49. H. canadensis.—Linn. Stem alter- nately 2-leaved. Flower solitary, ter- minal. Linn. Sp. PI. 784; Torrey & Gray, Flor. N. A. i. 40; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. ii. 17; Rafi- nesque, Med. Flor. i. 251. Common names. — Yellow- Root, Yellow Puccoon, Ground Raspberry, &c. Description.—Root perennial, of a bright yellow colour, tortuous, rugged, with numerous long fibres. Stem simple, upright, pubescent, about a foot in height, with two unequal termi- nal leaves, from the base of the smaller of which proceeds a peduncle bearing a single white or rose-co- loured flower. This appears whilst the leaves are small, but these organs increase rapidly in size as the plant advances to maturity. The fruit is a berry of a red colour, formed of many oblong granulations, each of which contains one or two obovate seeds of a black colour, having a minute embryo at the base of a fleshy and oily al- bumen. The Hydrastis is found in most parts of the United States, being most common to the west of the mountains ; near Philadelphia it is very rare. The flowers are exceedingly fugacious, the peta- h. canadensis. '°'d sepals falling off soon after they expand ; they appear in April RANUNCULACE^E. 83 and May, and are succeeded by the bright red fruit which closely resembles a raspberry, but is not edible. It was well known to, and used by the Indians both as a dye, and for me- dicinal purposes, the root yielding a brilliant yellow colour which appears to be permanent, and might be advantageously employed in the arts. In an account of the principal dyes used by the Indians by Hugh Martin, in the third volume of the Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1783, he states that from expe- riments made with this article by himself and others, it was found to succeed perfectly with silk, wool, and linen, and by the addition of indigo, to furnish a rich green. Medical Uses, SfC.—The Hydrastis is a powerful tonic bitter, and may be used wherever such remedies are required. It is much employed in some of the Western States as a wash in chronic ophthalmia and other diseases ofthe eyes, and there is some evidence of its efficacy in these complaints. It also enters into the composition of some cancer powders, but there is no reason to believe, that it can exercise any influence on this formidable dis- ease, more than any other mild tonic detergent. No analysis has been made of it, nor are its medicinal properties fully known ; there is some evi- dence that besides its tonic qualities, it is also slightly narcotic, at least in a fresh stale. It is given in tincture, decoction, and powder. Tribe 2.—Ranuncule.e.—Calyx with a valvate aestivation. Petals fur- nished with a nectariferous scale at the inner base. Achenia without tails. Seed erect, sometimes suspended. Ranunculus.—Linn. Sepals 5. Petals 5 or many, with a glandular scale or spot at base. Stamens nume- rous. Achenia ovate, pointed, compressed, disposed in cylindrical or rounded heads. Seed erect. Herbaceous, annual or perennial. Leaves mostly radical, though cauline at the base ofthe branches and peduncles. This is a very extensive genus, and the species, with few exceptions, are all acrid and caustic when fresh, but are inert or nearly so when dried. They are all herbaceous, and are natives of temperate or cold climates, where they are found in great abundance. De Candolle enumerates 159 species, of which upwards of forty are indigenous to North America. R. acris.—Linn.—Calyx spreading, villous. Carpels roundish, compressed, terminated by a short recurved style. Leaves 3-5 parted, segments laciniately trifid, uppermost linear. Linn. Sp. PI. 779; Tor. & Gray, Fl. i. 21 ; Stokes, Bot. Mat. Med. iii. 266 ; Steph. & Church. Med. Bot. ii. 82; Rafin. Med. Flor. ii. 72; Lind- ley, Flor. Med. 5. Common ■names.—Buttercup, Meadow-bloom, Blister-weed, &c. Description.—Root perennial, somewhat bulbous, with long simple fibres. Stem high, erect, round, hollow, leafy, with minute hairs, branched, many-flowered. Radical leaves oblong, hairy, with three to five lobes, which are variously subdivided and toothed. The leaves of the stem are divided into fewer and narrower segments, sometimes entire and linear. The flowers are terminal, of a bright yellow colour, and succeeded by ovate pericarps consisting of many achenia, each of which is lenticular, smooth, and ter- minated by a slightly-curved point. Linnaeus gave this species the name of acris on account of its highly acrid and caustic properties, though it does not appear to possess these qualities in 84 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 50. mea- plant any higher degree than many of the others. It is probable that it is not a native of the United States, but like se- veral others of the genus, has been introduced from Europe. It is now, however,- extremely abundant in dows and other damp spots. This and the R. bulbosus, the R. flammula, and the R. sceleratus are so identical in their properties, that they may be indis- criminately employed. They are all per- vaded by an acrid, volatile principle, which is destroyed by the action of heat or even by drying. It may, however, be collected by distillation. Dr. Bigelow, in his experi- ments on several species of the genus, found, that whilst the distilled product was very acrid, the residuum was inert and tasteless. This distilled water when first tasted, excited no peculiar sensation, but in a short time a sharp, burning effect was produced ; when swallowed, it caused a great sense of heat in the stomach. It may be kept in closely-stopped bottles for a length of time, without losing these pro- perties. Tilebein states that the distilled water of the R. sceleratus is excessively acrid, and on cooling, deposits crystals, which are almost insoluble in any men- struum. Precipitates are caused by mu- riate of tin and acetate of lead. Medical Uses.—From the caustic or acrid character of these plants, they were used as vesicatories, before the introduction of cantharides, and are still employed for the same purpose, where the Spanish-fly is not to be had, or where its use is contra-indicated. In most persons, they act promptly, when applied to the skin, exciting redness and even vesication in half an hour, but in consequence of their acting differently on different individuals, they should always be used with much caution. In some persons scarcely any effect is produced, whilst in others, on the contrary, their action is like that of a poison, causing deep and extensive ulcerations, which are very difficult to heal. At the same time, from their prompt powers, they have been found of much benefit as counter-irritants in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c or wherever a powerful impression is wished to be made on the surface R. acris. Tribe 3. Hellebores—Calyx petaloid, with an imbricate aestivation Petals irregular, sometimes wanting. Carpels follicular, many-seeded. Helleborus.—Linn. Sepals, 5, persistent. Petals 8 or many, bilabiate, tubular. Carpels many-seeded coria- ceous, nearly erect. ' This genus of plants is principally European, and has long been celebrated RANUNCULACE^E. 85 for the active properties of some of its species. These differ from those of most of the Ranunculaceae, in not being dependent on an acrid, volatile prin- ciple, which is most powerful when the plants are in a fresh state. In the Helleborus they depend on a permanent resinous substance, which although somewhat impaired in energy by drying, is not destroyed. None of these plants are indigenous to North America, but are to be met with in gardens; being cultivated on account of the beauty and early appearance of their flowers. Two species are officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, the H. niger and H.fcetidus. H. niger.—Linn.—Leaves radical, pedate. Scapes radical, one or two-flowered. Bracts ovate. Linn. Sp. PI. 783 ; Woodville, Med. Bot. t. 169 ; Steph. & Church. Med. Bot. i. 11; Lindley, Flor. Med. 6. Common names.—Hellebore, Black Hellebore, Christmas rose. Foreign names.—H. a fleurs roses, Rose de Fig. 51. Noel, Fr. Schwartze Neiswurz, Gr. Elle- boro nero, Erba nocca. It. Description.—Root hori- zontal, externally blackish, rough, with numerous fleshy fibres about the size of a quill. Leaves large, radical, on long petioles, variously divided into leaf- lets which are coriaceous, shining and serrate at their upper extremity. Flowers on scapes having bracts near the flowers. The pe- taloid calyx consists of five large, concave sepals, at first of a white colour, then becoming of a rose red, and finally changing to a green. The petals are tu- bular and two-lipped, of greenish-yellow colour. The stamens are very nu- merous and support yellow anthers. The ovaries are from six to eight in num- ber, surmounted by a some- what curved pistil. The capsules contain many black, shining seeds. The Black Hellebore, so called from the co- lour of its roots, is a native of mountain H. niger. woods in many parts of Europe, and is cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant. In France 86 MEDICAL BOTANY. and England in mild seasons it flowers in the winter, whence its name of Christmas rose. It is described by the earlier writers on drugs, under the name of Melampodium, from an idea that it was identical with the cele- brated remedy in mental affections, so highly praised by the Greek phy- sicians; the observations of Tournefort and Sibthorp, however, have clearly demonstrated that the Melampodium of the ancients is a distinct species, the H. orientalis. The fibres ofthe root, which are the parts employed in medicine, as found in'the shops, are of a black colour, with a disagreeable smell, and a bitterish, nauseous, acrid taste. When fresh they are extremely powerful. Grew says of them : "The root being chewed, and for some time retained upon the tongue, after a few minutes it seemeth to be benumbed and affected with a kind of paralytic stupour; or as when it hath been a little.burnt with eating and supping any thing too hot." This acrimony is much diminished by drying. From the analysis of MM. Fenuelle and Capron, it would appear that these roots contain no alkaloid, but that their powers depend on a re- sinous matter and volatile acid somewhat like the cevadic; to the latter is probably owing the acrid properties of the fresh root, whilst its purga- tive qualities may be attributable to the resin, as it has been found that alcohol extracts its virtues most effectually. Medical Uses.—At one period, no medicine enjoyed a higher reputation than the Black Hellebore as a hydra- Fig- 52. gogue purgative and emmenagogue. It was highly extolled by all the early writers on medicine, in mania, dropsy, cutaneous affections and worms, and was supposed to exercise a peculiar influence on the uterus. It formed the basis of Bacher's pills, so celebrated in the treatment of dropsy, the receipt for which was purchased at a high price by the French government, but like many other nostrums have been forgotten and despised, in the rage for others of quite as doubtful efficacy. The use of the Hellebore is now very limited, being seldom given except as an emmenagogue by some practitioners, who still place much faith in its powers. The dose of the powdered root is from 10 to 20 grains as a purgative; of the decoction a fluid ounce three or four times a day till it operates ; ofthe extract from 3 to 10 grains; and ofthe tincture twenty to sixty drops. Several other species of Hellebore are considered as officinal, among which may be noticed the H. fietidus, included in the secondary list of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. This is a perennial species indigenous in most parts of Europe, in pastures and thickets, most plentifully in a calcareous soil. It has an offensive odour, and is possessed of highly energetic and poisonous quali- ties, being even more powerful than the last-mentioned species. It has long been used in England as a popular remedy for worms, but some years since was brought to the notice of the profession by Dr. Bisset, as an almost in- H. orientalis. 1. Sepal with attached petals. 2. Pistils with stamen and petal. RANUNCULACE^E. 87 fallible vermifuge, and likewise beneficial in some asthmatic and mental affections. From its violent action, it is however but seldom used, and might with great propriety be discarded from the officinal lists. The H. orientalis, Lam., as has been stated, is the celebrated Melam- podium of the ancients, and is still employed by Turkish physicians as a drastic purgative, and is highly prized by them in the treatment of many diseases. It is said by Allioni and others that the H. viridis is almost iden- tical in its effects with the orientalis, and should be employed in preference to the Black Hellebore, as more certain and energetic. Coptis.—Salisbury. Sepals 5—6 petaloid, caducous. Petals 5—6 cucullate. Stamens many, hypogynous. Capsules many, stipitate, oblong, stellately diverging, 1-celled, 4—8-seeded. These plants were included by Linnaeus in the genus Helleborus, but were separated by Salisbury on account of the stipitate capsules and difference of petals. They are herbaceous, with radical and somewhat coriaceous leaves, and very slender, wide-spread roots. They are peculiar to the northern parts of Asia and America. C. trifolia.—Linn. Leaves 3-foliolate; leaflets broadly ovate, dentate. Scape shorti one-flowered. Roots filiform, creeping. Salisbury, Linn, trans., viii. 305 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot., i. 60 ; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med., ii. 97 ; Rafinesque, Med. flor., i. 127. Common names. Gold-thread, Mouth-root, &c. Description.—Roots perennial, of a bright yellow colour, small Fig. 53. and creeping. Stems slen- der, round, and furnished at base with imbricate yellowish sheaths. The leaves are ever- green, on long slender petioles, ternate and much veined. The scapes are as long as the leaves, slender, one-flowered, with a small mucronate bract, below the flower. The corolla has from five to seven oblong, con- cave, nectariform petals. The calyx is from five to seven-se- palled. The stamens are nume- rous, with adnate globose an- thers. The styles are short and curved, with acute stigmas. Capsules are oblong, rostrate, on long divaricate pedicels, and con- taining many small seeds at- tached to one side. This species is found from New York to Greenland, and also in Siberia and Ice- land. It grows in sphag- c. trifolia. nous swamps and boggy -ex. woods. There are two other species which differ in many points from the present, and have been considered as distinct genera by some botanists It 88 MEDICAL BOTANY. blossoms early in the spring, but continues in flower until July. The parts used are the roots ; these should be gathered in the autumn, and carefully dried. They are of a bright golden colour, whence the common name of the plant. Medical Uses.—The Coptis is a pure and powerful bitter, without the least astringency," somewhat resembling that of Quassia, but not as powerful, and far more palatable. It imparts its virtues to water as well as to alcohol. It may be used in all cases where a bitter tonic is admissible. It has been much employed in the Eastern States as a local application in aphthous and other ulcerations ofthe mouth. Dr. Bigelow, however, is of opinion that its efficacy in these complaints has been overrated, but the concurrent testimony of other writers is in its favour. It is also used as a stomachic in dyspepsia and loss of appetite; in such cases it is given in the form of tincture. Another spe- cies, the C. teeta, peculiar to India, is much esteemed among the natives as a tonic and stomachic, and from the experiments made with it by Mr. Twining, it would appear to justify the high character that has been bestowed upon it; it very closely resembles the C. trifolia in its sensible qualities and medicinal properties. ( Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc. Calcutta, viii.) Nigella.— Tournefort. Sepals 5, petaloid, coloured, deciduous. Petals small, 5—10, bilabiate, with a nectari- ferous claw. Stamens many. Ovaries 5—10, united at base, with long simple styles. Carpels more or less united, opening by the ventral suture, many-seeded. A small genus, with multifid, capillary leaves often surrounding the flowers like an involucre. The seeds of some of the species are aromatic and sub- acrid, and were formerly used as a substitute for pepper, and also as a car- minative. It is supposed by Royle that a pungent seed employed by the Affghans in their curries is derived from a plant of this genus, and that it is the Black Cummin spoken of in the Scriptures. Delphinium .—Linn. Sepals 5, caducous, petaloid; the upper one with a spur at base. Petals 4, irregular, the two upper with a spur-like appendage at base, contained in the spur of the calyx. Ovaries 1-5. Pericarps follicular, many-seeded. This beautiful and extensive genus consists of herbaceous annual, or peren- nial plants with erect branched stems, and much-divided leaves. The flowers, which are generally showy, are in terminal racemes and mostly of a blue colour. Many species are natives of North America, and are known under the name of Lark-spur. D. consolida, Linn.—Stem erect, almost glabrous, flowers few in a loose raceme; bracts shorter than the pedicels; carpels smooth. Linn. Sp. PI. 748; Eng. Bot. 1839 ; Torrey and Gray Flor. N. A. i. 30 ; Pursh. Flor. ii. 372. Common names.—Lark-spur, Stagger-weed, &c. Description.—Stem erect, cylindrical, divaricate. Leaves sessile, divided into linear segments, usually bifurcate at top. The flowers are blue, forming loose, few-flowered terminal racemes, on rigid peduncles which are furnished with two small alternate bracts. Nectaries one-leaved, with an ascending anterior spur, about the length of the corolla. Carpels follicular, smooth, containing numerous black or blackish-brown seeds which are hirsute. Annual, herbaceous. RANUNCULACE^E. 89 This species is not a native of the United States, but having been intro- duced from Europe as an ornamental plant, it has become naturalised in some places, especially in Virginia, where it was first noticed by Pursh. In a wild state, the flowers are blue, but when cultivated, they are found of various colours, usually, however, white, red, or blue. Although an annual, the finest flowers are obtained from seed sown late in the summer or com- mencement of autumn ; the young plants are not affected by the winter frosts, and flower earlier and more vigorously than when wholly annual. All parts of the Lark-spur are endowed with an acrid and bitter principle, which is most strongly developed in the seeds, which also contain much oil. The flowers, by expression, furnish a blue pigment, which is permanent if alum be used as a mordant. Medical Uses.—The Lark-spur was formerly in some repute as a medi- cinal agent in a variety of diseases. The decoction of the flowers was con- sidered as efficacious in affections of the eyes. A tincture of the seeds has also been recommended, in calculus, and as a vermifuge, and for the purpose of destroying lice in the hair. It owes its active powers to the presence of a peculiar principle, Delphinia, first detected by MM. Lassaigne and Fenuelle in the D. staphisagria, and lately shown to exist in the present species by Mr. T. C. Hopkins {Amer. Jour. Pharm. v. 1). The root is the only part recognised as officinal by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, but is seldom or never used. The D. staphisagria, the officinal species of the foreign Colleges, is a native of the south of Europe, and is very showy and ornamental, but is seldom cultivated in this country. It is possessed of the same properties as the last, and in a higher degree. The seeds, under the name of Stavesacre, have been long in use as a popular remedy against vermin in the hair, and for the purpose of intoxicating fish. They were also recommended by the earlier physicians as emetics, cathartics and diuretics, but from the occa- sional violence of their action are now seldom prescribed. Their principal use is in veterinary practice, to destroy vermin on horses and other animals. , Aconitum.—Linn. Sepals petaloid, irregular, deciduous, the upper one helmet-shaped. Petals five, the three lower minute, often converted into stamens; the upper pedunculate, recurved. Carpels 3-5, many-seeded. The meaning of the generic name is by no means clear; some writers derive it from Acone, a town of Bithynia; whilst others deduce it from a Greek word, signifying without dust; but the most probable idea is, that it comes from axwt\, a rock, the plant growing in rocky places. The species are all perennial and herbaceous, and are natives of many parts of the world ; four of them are indigenous to North America. They are all acrid and poi- sonous ; but several of them are cultivated on account of the beauty of their flowers. Much difference of opinion has prevailed among botanists respect- ing many of the species, rendering it very difficult to ascertain to what plant their descriptions refer. This is more particularly the case with those used for medical purposes, and hence we find different species recognised as offi- cinal by the pharmaceutical authorities of Europe and this country. But as most, if not all, the species, are possessed of similar properties, and are in- discriminately collected and employed, this uncertainty is not attended with any real disadvantage. As the A. napellus is most generally recognised as the officinal species, and was the first known, this only will be particularly 90 MEDICAL BOTANY. noticed. In a late work on the subject by Dr. Fleming, he attempts to show that this is the only species possessing active properties, with the exception of the A.ferox; and that the A. cammarum and others, recognised as offi- cinal by the various colleges of pharmacy, &c, are feeble and unimportant in their action. In this view of the subject, he is in some degree supported by Gieger ; but the evidence of other experimenters goes to prove that most of the species, in their wild state, are possessed of extremely active and poi- sonous properties. Dr. Fleming appears to have employed cultivated plants in his experiments, and hence may have been led into error as to the real powers of the different species. A. napellus, Linn.—Upper sepal arched behind; spur of upper petals nearly conical and deflexed, leaves palmate, segments cuneate. Linn. Sp. PI. 751 ; Stephenson and Churchill, Med. Bot. i. 28; Wood- ville, Med. Bot. t. 165 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 11. Common Names.—Wolfsbane, Monkshood, &c. Fig- 54. Description.—Root simple or fusi- form, woody. Stem erect, simple. Leaves palmate, deeply cleft, alternate. Flowers of a dark violet, or blue colour, in a terminal raceme, pedicels short. The petaloid sepals are five; the upper being helmet - shaped and concealing the petals, the lateral broad, rounded, the lower oblong and deflexed. The pe- tals are usually not more than two; and are supported on a peduncle or claw, and have a hooked spur, and a bifid, revolute lip. The stamens are filiform, converging, with whitish anthers. The ovaries are from 3 to 5, with simple reflected stigmas. The capsules, which answer in number to the ovaries, con- tain many wrinkled, angular seeds. This species varies much in the colour and size of its flowers, especially in a cultivated state, and is much prized as an orna- ment to the garden. It is a na- tive of most parts of Europe, in mountain forests and plains, flow- ering in May and June. It was well known to the ancients, being mentioned by Ovid and Pliny. It was considered as the most A. napellus. ^^ ,°f &U P°is°nS> ™* W*S ., j 4 j , m, • , employed to destroy criminals condemned to death. The root is the most powerful; but every portion of the plant is possessed of liighly deleterious properties. It has been asserted that the mere smell of the herb in full flower is capable of affecting some persons with untoward symptoms. It loses much of its poison by Irving ■ thus Linnaeus states that it is fatal to cattle browsing upon it, but is innocuous to them when mixed with hay in a dry state. Many accidents have been re corded, where persons have died from using it in mistake for some other RANUNCULACEjE. 91 plant. It is used in some parts of Europe to destroy wolves, whence one of its common names. Medical Uses.—Although, as before mentioned, this plant was known to the ancients, it was introduced into regular medical practice by Storck, as a remedy in chronic rheumatism and various other disorders. He found it to act as a diuretic, diaphoretic, and narcotic. His observations led to its em- ployment in other diseases; and it is now universally ranked among the most potent of therapeutic agents. In consequence, however, of its uncer- tain action, and its occasional production of alarming symptoms, it is not in general use. Its powers depend on an alkaloid principle, first noticed by Pallas, and subsequently by Brandes, who named it aconita. This principle is soluble in cold water, scarcely so in cold alcohol, but freely if heat be ap- plied. The usual preparations in which Aconite is given are, the powder, extract, and tincture; the dose of the first is from one to three grains, two or three times a day, gradually increasing it if required. The extract varies much in strength, but its use should always be commenced in doses not ex- ceeding half a grain. The tincture may be administered in doses of ten or fifteen drops. (See Fleming on Aconitum.) The other species of Aconite are possessed of the same properties, some of them even in a greater degree, especially the A.ferox, a native of Nepaul, and described by Dr. Wallich as highly deleterious. Under the name of Bish or Vish it has long been known to the inhabitants of that country, and is used by them in time of war to poison their weapons, and even the water springs, when invaded by an enemy. The A. neomontanum and A. camma- rum, as well as the A. anthora, appear to be equivalent to the A. napellus, and to be used for it. At one time it was supposed that the A. anthora was an antidote to the thora or common Aconite, as its name signifies; but the experiments of Hoffmann and others prove that it is full as dangerous a poison as the one it was thought to control. The A. lycoctonum, a native of the north of Europe, is much used for the purpose of poisoning wolves. It has also attained some celebrity, according to Martius, as a remedy in hy- drophobia; the powdered root being applied to the wound until cicatrization has taken place. Like other vaunted specifics in this terrible malady, it is to be feared that its powers have been over-estimated, though, from the powerful influence of Aconite on the nervous system, far more reliance may be placed on it than in the powers of such worthless articles as Skull-cap, Pimpernel, and Water-plantain. P^eonia.—Linn. Sepals 5, unequal, leafy. Petals 5-10, roundish. Stamens many. Disk surrounding the ovaries, fleshy. Carpels 2-5, follicular, with double, persistent, sessile stigmas; many- Beeded. Seeds dry, round. These are herbaceous, sometimes shrubby, plants, with thick, fasciculate roots, and biternately-divided leaves. The flowers are terminal, solitary, and large. One species, the P. officinalis, a native of various parts of Europe, was at one time in high repute as a remedial agent; the seeds were con- sidered to be eminently cathartic and emetic, and the root a powerful anti- spasmodic. The ancient writers, as Dioscorides (lib. iii. c. 127) and Pliny (1. xxv. c. 15), give particular directions in what manner the root was to be collected, considering it as an emanation from the gods, and capable of ap- peasing tempests, protecting from evil spirits, curing the most severe wounds, 92 MEDICAL BOTANY. &c. At a much later period, it is spoken of by eminent writers as highly valuable in all cases where a powerful antispasmodic is required; and hence it will be found to constitute an ingredient in all remedies for such cases, m the pharmacopoeias of the last century. Modern experience, however, has shown that, although this root is possessed of some power in a recent state, still that it is far inferior to many other articles of the class, and that when dried, it is almost inert. The roots of some of the species are edible; thus Pallas states, that in Siberia, those of P. albiflora and P. anomala are a favourite food ofthe natives. Tribe 4.—Act^ee^e.—Calyx coloured, imbricated. Fruit succulent, inde- hiscent, or follicular, one or many-seeded. Flowers sometimes unisexual by abortion. Cimicifuga.—Linn. Sepals 4—5. Petals 3—5, concave or unguiculate, sometimes wanting. Stamens many, anthers introrse. Style short; stigma simple. Carpels 1—8, follicular, many. seeded. Much difference of opinion exists among botanists with regard to the true limits of this genus, some rejecting from it all the monogynous species, whilst others include them, merely making of them a separate section. The genus Botrophis of Rafinesque founded on the single pistil and single dehiscent cap- sule would now be adopted, were it not that the officinal species is still recog- nised in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, as Cimicifuga, as well as by our highest botanical authorities, Drs. Torrey and Gray. C. racemosa.—Elliot. Racemes very long, leaflets ovate, oblong, incisely toothed. Petals slender, 2-forked. Elliot, Sket. ii. 16; Torrey and Gray, Fl. N. A. i. 36; C. serpentaria. Pursh, Flor. ii. 372; Actcea racemosa, Linn; Botrophis serpentaria. Rafinesque, Med. Flor. i. 85. Common Names.—Black Snakeroot, Black Cohosh, Squaw-root, &c. Description.—Root perennial, blackish, large, with numerous long fibres. Stem simple, smooth, furrowed, from three to six feet high. Leaves few, alternate, one nearly radical, large, decompound, and tri-pinnate; upper one bipinnate. Leaflets sessile, opposite, three to seven, dentate or incised. Flowers in a long terminal raceme, with oftentimes one or more shorter ones at base ; this raceme is at first bent, but gradually becomes erect. The flowers are white and are supported on short pedicels, with a small subulate bract; the calyx is white and has four rounded sepals; the petals are very small, and shorter than the sepals, and cleft at their apex; the stamens are numerous, with yellow anthers; the pistil is oval, with a lateral, sessile stigma; the capsule is ovoid, dry, with one cell, containing many small flat seeds. The Black Snakeroot is common in most parts of the United States, in open woods and hill sides, flowering in June and July, when its long white ra- cemes are very conspicuous. The whole plant has a heavy, unpleasant smell when handled, and a disagreeable nauseous taste. There are several varieties, but they are not sufficiently distinct to require notice. This plant was placed in the genus Actcza by Linnaeus, but removed by Pursh to Cimici- fuga, also a Linnaean genus; in this as before said, he has been followed by many modern botanists, although it does not agree with the characters of the latter better than with those of the former. In 1808, Rafinesque made it the RANUNCULACE^E. 93 type of his genus Macrotys, and altered the specific name to actceoides; this generic change was approved in part by De Candolle, who recognised it as a sub-genus of Actcea. In 1828, Rafinesque bestowed an entire new appellation on it, describing it in the Medical Flora as Botrophis serpentaria. Drs. Torrey and Gray consider it as a sub-genus or section of Ci- Fig"55, micifuga. The portion of this «a*w'* plant employed in medicine is the root, which should be gath- ered early in the autumn, and dried in the shade. As found in the shops, it is in the form of a short, rugged, blackish- brown caudex, furnished with numerous long slender radicles, much wrinkled. It has, when fresh, a bitter, nauseous, and astringent taste, but in the dried state the first impression on the palate is mucilaginous and earthy, but in a short time succeeded by a disagreeable ac- rimony. From a want of due care in collecting and drying, it varies much in different samples. It has long been used in domestic practice in this country, and was one of the medical agents of the abori- gines, being in high repute among them in the treatment of rheumatism, and as an em- menagogue. It is recognised by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia in the secondary list, and although not generally used by the pro- fession, is highly esteemed by some, in a variety of com- plaints. Medical uses, fyc. The Black c. racemosa. Snakeroot is a stimulating tonic, and is capable of increasing the secretions from the skin, kidneys, and lungs ; as to its power over the uterus, no satisfactory evidence has been adduced. Its principal celebrity has arisen from its efficacy in rheumatism and affections of the lungs ; in the first of these complaints, there is every reason to believe that it has proved highly beneficial, and it deserves a more extended trial. It has been found very useful in phthisis, in combination with iodine, by Dr. Hildreth of Ohio. {Am. Journ. Med. Sci. Oct. 1842.) It was much used by the Indians as an antidote against the bites of venemous snakes, and from its stimulating diaphoretic properties it is likely that it may be useful for this purpose. The first attempt at analysis of it was by Dr. Mears in 1827, since which it has been examined by Mr. J. H. Tilghman in 1834 {Journ. Phil. Coll. Pharm. vi. 14), and by Mr. J. S. Jones in 1843 {Am. Journ. Pharm. 94 MEDICAL BOTANY. ix. 1) but with no very definite results ; no peculiar principle was detected, the powers ofthe root appearing to depend on a somewhat volatile oil and a bitter resin, both soluble in alcohol, and partially so in water. The Cimicifuga is generally given in a decoction made with an ounce of the root to a pint of water, the dose being one or more fluid ounces several times a day. Act^a.—Linns Sepals 4-5. Petals 4-8, spatulate. Stamens indefinite; anthers introrse. Stigma sessile. Carpels solitary, baccate, many-celled. Seeds compressed, smooth, horizontal. A small genus of perennial herbs, with leaves 2-3-ternately divided, and flowers in simple, white racemes. The species are found in the temperate regions of both hemispheres, and appear to be very analogous in their pro- perties. As established by Linnaeus, this genus contained several plants differing materially in essential characters, but has since been modified by more modern botanists. A. spicata.—Linn.—Berries roundish. Petals as long as the stamens. Raceme ovate. Leaves 2-3 ternate. Linn. Sp. PL 722 ; Eng. Bot. 918; Lindley, Fl. Med. 12. Common names.—Bane-berry, Herb Christopher. Foreign names.—Herbe St. Christophe, Fr; Achentragendes Schwaz- kraut, Ger.; Barba di Capra, It. Description.—Root creeping and perennial. Whole plant smooth or slightly pubescent, about a foot and a half high. Stem triangular, leafy, but little branched. Leaves petio- lated, twice or thrice ternate ; leaflets ovate, lobed, unequally serrate. Flowers white in a terminal, solitary ovate spike; pedicels simple, downy, bracteate at base. Sepals four, deciduous. Petals spatulate. Stamens subulate. Ovary ovate with a round sessile stigma. Berries purplish-black, succulent. This plant is found in many parts of Europe, most frequently in mountain- ous woods. The whole plant is nauseous and foetid. The root is a violent purgative, somewhat analogous in its effects to hellebore. The berries are poisonous, as is indicated by one of the common names of the plant. Lin- naeus states {Flor. Lappon,) that they cause violent delirium and death, and Dr. Lemercier, of Rochefort, found that they induced a species of intoxica- tion followed by much disturbance of the cerebral functions, and irritation of the digestive organs. {Merat Sr De Lens.) These effects appear to depend on a volatile principle which is soon dissipated, as the dried plant may be ad- ministered in large doses without any ill consequences. Medical uses, 8rc.—\t is seldom employed internally, but a decoction of it is said to cure itch when applied externally, and also to destroy lice with as much certainty as the stavesacre. There are two species, natives of the United States, the A rubra and A alba, the latter of which is very similar to the A. spicata. They are readily distinguished by the colour of their berries ; their physical qualities however are identical, and both possess the deleterious qualities of the foreign plant They are seldom used except in mistake for the Cimicifuga, with which thev have been confounded by many writers; thus Merat & De Lens attribute all the properties of the Cimicifuga to the Actxea, mistaking one plant for the other, and state that they are indiscriminately employed by American physi- RANUNCULACEiE. 95 cians; this is not the case, and as is observed by Dr. Tully, it is perhaps owing to an adulteration of the former with the latter, that it sometimes causes un- pleasant effects. {Bost. Med. §• Surg. Jour. viii. 133.) The A. cimicifuga, a native of Siberia, is exceedingly foetid, and is em- ployed in that country as a remedy against fleas, and according to Gmelin is also considered as efficacious in dropsy. {Flor. Sibir. iv. 183.) Za nth or i z a .—Marshall. Sepals 5. Petals 5 bilobate, pedicellate. Stamens 5-10. Pistils 5-10. Follicles small, mostly 1-seeded; seed suspended. This genus contains but one species and is peculiar to North America. It was first described by Marshall, and has been recognised by all modern bo- tanists. Z. apiifolia, UHeritier.—Leaves alternate, pinnate; flowers in a terminal lax panicle. L'Heritier. Stirp. i.79 ; Stokes, Med. Bot. ii. 194 ; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. ii. 203 ; Torrey & Gray, Fl. i. 40. Common names.—Yellow-root, Yellow-wort, &c. Description.—A small shrub from two to three feet in height, with a horizontal root. The stem is simple and the bark smooth, enclosing a bright yellow wood. The leaves are pinnate, with incised leaflets, supported on long petioles which are somewhat amplex- icaule at base. The flowers are in pendulous racemes, of a dark purple colour, and are succeeded by compressed semi-bivalve capsules, containing oval flattened seeds. The Yellow-root is a native of the Southern States, principally restricted to the mountains ; it is abundant along the lower parts ofthe Ohio, and in Ten- nessee, and North Carolina. It flowers in April. It first attracted attention on account of its tinctorial properties, which were well known to the Indians. It imparts a drab colour to wool, and a rich yellow to silk, but is said to have no effect on cotton or linen, though it is probable that with a proper mordant that it could be fixed on these articles also. With Prussian blue it affords a dull olive green. Medical uses, SfC.—The properties of this shrub are those of a pure bitter, which is most marked in the bark. " From the experiments of Dr. Wood- house, {N. Y. Med. Repos. ix. 291,) these qualities appear to depend on a bitter gum and resin, of which the latter is most abundant; no exact analysis of it has, however, been made. Dr. B. S. Barton was of opinion that the Zanthoriza is a more powerful bitter thanColomba, and it is probable that it is a good substitute for it or any other ofthe foreign simple tonic bitters. It may be given in decoction, tincture or powder; the latter in doses of two scruples agrees well with the stomach. From the intensely bitter character of the resin, alcohol would appear to be the best menstruum. Many other plants of this extensive order have been employed as medicinal agents indifferent countries. Thus the leaves of Knowltonia vesicatoriaare used as vesicants in South Africa, and those of several species of Adonis are very active, as Pallas states that those of A. vernalis are used ins Siberia to procure abortion, and Clusius says that the roots were used as a substitute for Hellebore, and even considered to be the plant mentioned by Hippocrates under that name. In Africa the leaves of A. capensis and A. gracilis are employed as epispastics, in fact, they are all caustic, vesicant and dangerous. Rafinesque states that the roots of some of the native species of Thalictrum 96 MEDICAL BOTANY. are deemed efficacious in Canada, in bites of venemous snakes, and as a resolvent in contusions. The root of T.flavum is purgative, and according to Martius, is considered as beneficial in Russia, in cases of hydrophobia. A peculiar principle called Thalictrine has been obtained from it by Mr. Lesson, which, he says, is useful in intermittent fevers, in doses of 10 of 15 grains. The roots of T. sinense are said by Loureiro, {Fl. Cochin, i. 143,) to be laxa- tive and demulcent, and to be used in China in pectoral complaints. The several species of Trollius and Ficaria have the same properties as those of Ranunculus, and were considered at one time as beneficial in scorbutic dis- eases, but are now gone out of use. Order 2.—MAGNOLIACE^.—De Candolle. Trees or shrubs with alternate, entire leaves, mostly coriaceous and minutely punctate, with convolute deciduous stipules. Flowers solitary, usually large, fragrant. Calyx ca- ducous, of 3-6 sepals. Corolla of 3—30 petals in several rows. Stamens numerous, with adnate anthers. Ovaries several, distinct, superior, 1-celled; style short, with a simple stigma. Fruit various, of numerous 1—2-seeded carpels follicular or baccate, or woody, or fleshy; aggregated in a cone-like form on an elongated torus. Seeds anatropous, sus- pended or ascending, with a fleshy albumen containing a small embryo at base. The plants of this order are remarkable for the elegance of their foliage, the size and fragrance of their flowers, and for their medicinal properties, which are those of aromatic, bitter tonics. They are natives of America and Asia, and are all trees or shrubs; no species are found in Africa or the ad- jacent islands. Magnolia.—Linn. Calyx with 3 sepals. Corolla of 6-12 petals. Carpels 1-2 seeded, persistent, forming a cone-like fruit; opening by a dorsal suture. Seeds fleshy, suspended when ripe by a thread. This genus was dedicated by Linnaeus to Magnol, Professor of Botany at Montpellier in the 17th century. It contains above seven or eight American species, and about as many Asiatic. Those peculiar to the United States are all trees, with fragrant flowers, and an aromatic, bitter bark. The medical qualities of all of them appear to be identical, and they may therefore be em- ployed indifferently. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia recognises three species in the secondary list, M. glauca, M. acuminata, and M. tripetala. M. glauca.—Linn.—Leaves oblong or oval, obtuse, white beneath ; petals 9-12 ovate, narrowed at base, erect. Mich. Arb. Fores, iii. 77 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 67 ; Barton Ves Mat. Med. ii. 77 ; Rafin. Med. Flor. ii. 31 ; Torrey & Grav Flor N A i 32 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 23. J y, *•««. m. -a. i. Common names.—White Bay, Beaver-tree, Sweet Magnolia, Small Mag- nolia, Swamp Sassafras. ° Description.-Trnnk with a smooth grayish bark, the branches crooked, and much divaricated. The leaves are alternate, of a long, oval shape, very entire, coriaceous, of a yellowish-green above, and glaucous beneath. The flowers are terminal and solitarv composed of many oval, concave, cream-coloured oetak anj „„ ,, , . ,. • rf. j j . i, Peid»s, and possess a bland and delicious odour. They are succeeded by small, squarrose, fleshy cones, of about an MAGNOLIACEiE. 97 inch in length, of a green co- lour tinged with red. These cones are formed of numerous cells, each containing a bright- red seed, which on the opening ofthe capsule at maturity, is for some time suspended by a deli- cate white thread, formed of spiral vessels. This species is found in most parts of the United States, but is principally confined to the maritime districts, being seldom met with at any great distance from the sea-board. It is most frequent in marshy places, but will flourish on dry soils. There are two marked varieties, one with broad, deciduous leaves, the other with the foliage per- sistent, narrow, and ellipti- cal ; the former is found principally to the North, as far as Cape Anne, and is very common in New Jersey and Delaware, whilst the latter is entirely confined to m. glauca. the South. The fragrance of the flowers is to most persons highly agreeable, but to others it is not only unpleasant, but absolutely deleterious, causing much oppression in the breath- ing, and faintness. Medical uses, SfC—The magnolia is a tonic bitter of considerable power. The part used is the bark of the root, though that of the trunk and branches is fully as powerful. It was in use among the Indians as a remedy for au- tumnal fever and rheumatism, to fulfil a variety of indications, as a warm de- coction acts as a gentle laxative, and then a sudorific, whilst in cold decoc- tion, powder or tincture, it is tonic, and capable of arresting the paroxysms of intermittent fever. It is in great request for these purposes in many parts of the country, and much reliance is placed upon it in domestic practice; it has also proved highly beneficial in the hands of regular practitioners, in the treatment of remittents having a typhoid character. The cones and seeds are likewise employed to make a tincture, which is a popular remedy in the treatment of chronic rheumatism, and as a prophylactic against intermittent fever. The dose of the powdered bark is from half a drachm to a drachm; the decoction or infusion may be taken to any extent the stomach will bear. An extract has been made from it, but has not been sufficiently tested to judge of its powers. No correct analysis has been made of it, but it is pro- bable that its constituents will be found the same as those of the M. grandi- flora, which has lately been examined by Dr. Procter {Amer. Journ. Pharm. viii. 89); he found that the bark of this species afforded a green resin, a vo- latile oil, and a peculiar crystallizable principle analogous to Liriodendrin. Fig. 56. 7 M. macrophylla. Liriodendron.—Linn. Calyx 3-s2palled, caducous. Petals 6, spreading. Carpels closely imbricated. Samara 1—2-seeded, indehiscent, deciduous. This genus derives its name from the resemblance of its flowers to those of a lily. It consists of but few species, one of which is peculiar to North Ame- rica, and the others to the eastern parts of Asia. They are all trees, some- times attaining an enormous size. L. tulipifera.—Linn. Leaves truncate, 3—4-lobed. Mich. Arb. Fores, iii. 202. Torrey and Gray, Flor. i. 43. Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. i. 91. Bigelow, Med. Bot. ii. 107. Rafinesque, Med. Fl. ii. 229. Lindley, Flor. Med. 23. Common names.—Tulip tree, Poplar, American Poplar, White and Yellow Poplar, &c. Foreign names.—Tulipier, Fr. Virginisher tulpenbaum, Gr. Tulipi- fero, It. Description.—A very large tree, sometimes attaining a height of 100 to 120 feet, with a diameter of 6 to 10 feet. Bark much furrowed and rugged when old, but smooth when young. Leaves large, of a glossy green colour, trilobate, the middle lobe truncate, on long petioles. Flowers tulip-shaped, variegated, greenish-yellow externally, orange with- in. The petals are oblong and spathulate, nectariferous at base. The calyx is duplicate, having a two-leaved involucrum, and a proper tri-sepalled perianth, which becomes re- MAGNOLIACE.E. 99 volute as the flower expands. The stamens are numerous, with linear adnate anthers. The fruit consists of numerous long, narrow scales, attached at base to a common receptacle, so as to form an imbricated cone. The upper portion of each scale is winged. This magnificent tree is the pride of the American forest, and is remarkable for its great size, its striking foliage, its beautiful flowers, its useful wood, and its medicinal properties. It is found in most parts of the United States, from Canada to Florida, but is most common in Kentucky and Tennessee, sometimes form- ing extensive woods. There are two varieties, one having the side lobes ofthe leaves acute, and the other obtuse, as well as two varieties in the colour of the wood, one being white, and the other yellow, but it has not been clearly ascertained that the difference in the form of the leaf is at- tended with a change in the colour ofthe wood. Rafinesque in his Medical Flora attributes the white wood to the acute-lobed variety, and the yellow wood to the obtuse-Iobed ; but this opinion is not confirmed by any other writer. The general opinion is, that there is no mode of ascertaining what the colour of the wood is, except by inspection. This wood is much used in the United States for a variety of purposes, as it is light, easily worked, and fine-grained ; when not exposed to the weather, it is very durable. Medical uses, 6,-c.—The bark of the Tulip tree closely resembles that of the Magnolia in its medical properties, but is less aromatic, and more stimu- lant. In warm decoction, it acts as a sudorific, and sometimes as a diuretic. It has been most generally employed in the form of powder; this has been found highly useful as a tonic febrifuge in paroxysmal fevers. It has also been employed with some success in chronic diseases of the stomach and bowels. Dr. Young, in a letter addressed to Governor Clayton of Delaware, in 1792 {Amer. Mus. xii.), states in addition, that he has found it a most effec- tual remedy in hysteria, especially given in combination with a little lauda- num, and also that he has never known it to fail in a single case of worms. The best mode of administration, when the stomach will bear it, is in sub- stance in doses of a scruple to two drachms; it may also be administered in extract, tincture, or decoction. The proper time for collecting the bark is during the winter. Rafinesque states that the seeds are laxative, but this is noticed by no other writer, and requires to be confirmed. The leaves are used as external ap- plications for headache, and an ointment prepared from them has obtained some celebrity in ulcers. As found in the shops, the bark is a mixture of that ofthe trunk, branches, and root. The taste is pungent and aromatic, with some bitterness ; that of the root, which should always be preferred, is more powerful than from any other part. Several analyses have been made of the bark, the first of which was by Dr. Rogers in 1802 ; this, from the state of organic chemistry at that day, is of little interest, except that he found an acid, which he supposed to be hydro- chloric, but.which has not been detected by more recent experimenters. In 1832, Dr. J. P. Emmet published the results of his analysis {Phil. Journ. Pharm. iii. 5), and announced the discovery of a new principle, which he terms Liriodendrine. This is solid, brittle, and inodorous at 40°, fusible at 180°, and volatile at 270° F.; it can be partially sublimed, but never wholly so; it is soluble in alcohol, and is thought by the discoverer to be analogous Fig. 58. L.tulipifera. 100 MEDICAL BOTANY. to camphor. It is obtained by treating the powdered bark with boiling alco- hol of 89°, evaporating, and treating the soft residue with a weak solution of potassa. After several washings, the impure Liriodendrine is to be dissolved in alcohol, water added until an opalescent appearance takes place, on spon- taneous evaporation, crystallization will ensue. This product is very analo- gous to that obtained by Dr. Procter from the Magnolia grandiflora, and can scarcely be considered as a peculiar principle, but is rather a compound body, consisting of a resin and a volatile oil. If the virtues of the Tulip tree bark depend on this substance, it is evident that it should be given in infusion rather than in decoction, but alcohol appears to be the most effectual men- struum. Drymis.—Forster. Calyx 2—3 cleft. Corolla 2—3 petals, (sometimes more.) Stamens numerous, cla- vate. Anthers 2-celled. Ovaries 4—8. Carpels congested, baccate, many-seeded. This genus, which consists of several species of trees, all natives of South America, has been made the type of a natural order by some writers, on ac- count of the pellucid dots in the leaves, and their presumed absence in the Magnolias, but as this character is present in Magnolia, it is evident that such a separation of closely-allied genera is not required. D. winteri.—Forst, Leaves alternate, obtuse, oblong, glaucous beneath. Peduncles simple, approximated or very short, divided into elongated pedicels. Forster, Gen. 84. Stevenson and Churchill, iii. 178. Winterana aroma- tica. Solander, Med. Obs. v. 46. Wintera aromatica. Murray, Syst. 507. Lindley, Flor. Med. 26. Common name.—Winter's Bark tree. Foreign names.—Canelle de Magellan, Fr. Corteccia Winteriana, It. Description.—A very large tree, with a gray wrinkled bark on the trunk, but smooth and green on the branch- es. The branches are somewhat erect, and are furnished with obtuse,ob- long, entire leaves, quite smooth, shining, and of a deep green colour above, and glaucous be- neath ; towards the base, the margins are some- w! at revolute. The pe- tioles are very short, and leave scars on falling off, giving the branches a tu- berculated appearance. The flowers are axillary, and supported on a single short peduncle, or on elongated pedicels; they are provided with thick, oblong, pointed bracts. The sepals are two or three, of a green colour, thick, coriaceous, and persistent The corolla consists of seven white, obtuse, concave, erect petals, very caducous The fila ments are numerous, shorter than the petals, and supporting large oval anthers' longitudinally divided by a deep fissure. The ovary is formed of 4—8 carpels which is surmounted by a sessile stigma. The fruit is ovate, a thick fleshy berry, which is many- Fig. 59. D. winteri. 1. Sepals. 2. Anther. 3. Carpels. 4. A section of a carpel. ANONACE^E. 101 This tree is a native of Terra del Fuego and the southern parts of South America. It was discovered in 1579 by Capt. Winter, who commanded a vessel in the squadron under Sir Francis Drake, and from specimens of the bark he brought home, it was described by Clusius {Exot. lib. iv. ch. 4), and named in honour of its discoverer. Some years afterwards the same writer also noticed the Canella alba, but notwithstanding the differences he points out between them, they were confounded together by almost every writer, until Dr. Solander again described it, as well as the tree from which it is de- rived, in the fifth volume of Medical Inquiries and Observations, though Sir Hans Sloane had previously given separate accounts ofthe two in the Trans- actions ofthe Royal Society; even Linnaeus was led into error, and combined them under the name of Laurus Winterana, but afterwards recognised his error, and adopted the genus Drimys of Forster, in which he included the Winter's bark tree and other species. The bark is in quills or rolled pieces of some length, of different widths and thickness, of a pale-yellowish, or dull reddish-gray, with darker spots ex- ternally, and of a dark cinnamon colour internally. It has an aromatic smell, especially when bruised, and a warm, pungent, spicy taste, which is very permanent. It has been found to contain resin, volatile oil, tannin, a colouring matter, and several salts. (Henry, Journ. de Pharm. v. 489.) Medical Properties, fy-c.—This bark is stimulant, aromatic, and tonic, and may be employed in all cases in which the Canella and Cinnamon are indi- cated. It was much praised by the discoverer as an antiscorbutic. Ferrein states that the natives employ it to prevent a cutaneous disease to which they are subject, from eating seal's flesh. It is now but seldom employed, and has become very scarce in commerce. There are several other species, as the D. granatensis and D. punctata, which possess similar qualities, and are used in South America as condi- ments.____________________ Many other species of this order are endowed with marked properties. The whole plant of Illicium anisatum, but especially the fruit, has the aro- matic smell and qualities of the anise, for which the oil of the seeds is often substituted in the fabrication of liqueurs. Those of the I. religiosum are used as incense in the Chinese temples; our native species, the I. floridanum, has similar properties, and the bark may be used as a substitute for cascarilla. That of the Michelia montana, although less bitter, is possessed of the same remedial powers, whilst that of the M. gracilis contains camphor ; the wood of another species ofthe same genus, the M. dollsopa, is much esteemed in Nepaul for house-building {Don. Prod. 226). The bark of the Aromaden- dron elegans has great reputation in Java as an antihysteric, carminative, and stomachic, the wood also is valuable for a variety of purposes, and that of the Manglietia glauca, a native of the same island, is highly esteemed for coffins, as it is supposed to prevent any decay of the bodies put in them. The bark described by Cadet {Journ. de Pharm. 1815), under the name of Melambo, as similar to that of the Drimys, was supposed to be derived from a plant of this order, but on insufficient grounds. Order 3.—ANONACEjE.—Richard. Flowers large, of a dull brown or greenish colour. Calyx of 3 persistent sepals. Co- rolla of 6 petals in two rows, coriaceous, with a valvate testivation. Stamens numerous, rarely definite, with extrorse anthers. Carpels few or numerous, closely united, some- times cohering, so as to form a fleshy, concrete fruit. Seeds one or more in each carpel, with a brittle testa, attached to the suture ; embryo minute, at the base of a hard, ruminate albumen. 102 MEDICAL BOTANY. This order consists of trees or shrubs, with alternate, entire leaves, with- out stipules. They are principally found in the tropics, but a few are native more to the northward and southward. The general character ofthe species is that of being powerfully aromatic and stimulant. None of them are re- cognised as medicinal, though it is probable from the marked qualities of some of them, that they might be advantageously employed in regular prac- tice, as Blume states that the seeds of some of the species of Xylopia must be used with caution, as when employed freely, they cause vertigo, haemor- rhage, and even abortion ; and Martius says that the seeds of the Uvaria febrifugaor Fruttadeburro ofthe Indians on the Orinoco, form an excellent febrifuge. The fruit ofthe Monodora myristica is similar to that ofthe nut- meg, and may be used as a substitute for it, but is less pungent. The berries of Habzelia cethioptica and H. aromatica are aromatic and pungent, and are employed in place of other spices. That of the first is the Ethiopian pepper of commerce. The succulent fruit of some of the species of Anona, Uvaria, &c, are edible and agreeable, containing a sugary mucilage; among these are the Custard apples, the Papaw of the United States, and the Cherimoyer of Peru. In some of these plants the wood is very bitter, especially in the Xylopia glabra, in which this quality is so marked as to render it unfit for most pur- poses, and it is said that sugar hogsheads made of it, render the contents un- eatable even by cockroaches. The wood of the Dignetia quitarensis is much employed by coachmakers, on account of its strength and elasticity, and is well known under the name of Lancewood; and that of another spe- cies of the same genus, is stated by Martius to be one of the heaviest yet discovered. Glroup II.— Menispermales. Order 4.—MENISPERMACE^E.—Jussieu. Flowers dioecious. Sepals mostly in two rows, deciduous. Petals usually equal in number to the sepals, hypogynous. Stamens often monadelphous, sometimes distinct; in number equal to the petals, or 2-4 times as numerous. Anthers adnate. Ovaries many, 1-celled, and with 1 style, distinct or rarely united. Pericarp, a 1-seeded drupe, lunate or incurved. Seed of the same form, with a thin fleshy albumen, and a curved embryo. The plants of this order are flexible or twining, with alternate leaves, not furnished with stipules, and in most cases small flowers, disposed in racemes or panicles. They are common in the tropical parts of Asia and America, but are seldom found out of these regions; North America contains but six Their general character is either narcotic or bitter, or both combined Thus the bark of the Chondrodendron convolvulaceum is esteemed as a febrifuge in Peru; whilst the berries of the Anamirta cocculus furnish the poisonous principles picrotoxine and menispermine. The roots and bark of mo<=t of the Coccul. are bitter and tonic; and those of the Cissampeli are stimulating diuretics The root of Memspermum canadense is said to be tonic, altera live, and diuretic.—{Riddell.) Cocculus.—Bauhin. Flowers dioecious. Sepals 6, in two rows. Petals 6 distinrt <5tHm„„ c free. Ovaries 3-6. Drupes 1-6. Racemes axillary. mCnS 6' °PP°6lte' This genus, adopted by De Candolle from Bauhin, is verV closelv allied to Memspermum, differing from it chiefly in the equality in number's of the sta- mens and sepals, instead of the former being twice or more than twice as MENlSPERMACEiE. 103 numerous. The species are found in most of the great divisions of the earth, except Europe, but are most numerous in Asia. C. palmatus, Lam.—Leaves cordate, 5—7 lobed; lobes entire, acuminate, somewhat hairy on both sides. Stem and germ, with glandular hairs. Hooker, Bot. Mag. 2970-71. Lindley, Flor. Med. 369. Stephenson and Churchill, Med. Bot., iii. 160. Menispermum palmatum, Berry, Asiat. Research., x. 385. Common Names.—Colomba, Columbo, Calumba. Foreign Names.—Calombo, Fr. Calumba, It. Kalumb, Mozamb. Fig. 60. Description.—Root perennial, formed of many fleshy, descend- ing tubers, covered with a brown skin, and somewhat rugged at the upper part, internally yel- low. Stems annual, twining, simple in male plant, branched in female, with glandular hairs. Leaves alternate, large, deeply cordate, 5 to 7-lobed, dark green above, paler beneath, hirsute. Racemes of flowers in male plants axillary, compound, with small caducous bracts at base; in the female plant, also axilla- ry, simple, shorter than in the male. The calyx is glabrous, of 6 sepals, arranged in a double series. The corolla consists of 6 pale-green petals in a single row. The stamens are 6, with terminal, truncate, 4-celled an- thers. The pistils are 3, of which two are often abortive; stigma spreading. The fruit is a berry, about the size of a hazel-nut, covered with long glandular hairs. The seed is somewhat reniform, of a black colour, and transversely stri- ated. The root of this plant has long been known under the name of Columbo, and it was early ascertained that it was derived from some part ofthe East Indies, supposed most generally from Ceylon, from the coin- cidence of its name with that of one of the principal towns in that island. Thunberg, in his travels, first asserted that this was not the case, but that it came from the coast of Malabar. Commerson, during a residence in the Isle of France, gathered some specimens of a plant, which he designated as " Co- lumbo in Indiis vocatum." These were described by Lamarck under the name of Menispermum palmatum, and he further suggested that it might be the true Columbo. There the matter rested until 1805, when a M. Fortin brought from Mozambique to Madras a fresh root, which being planted, pro- duced a male plant, from which the description of Dr. Berry was made. C. palmatus. a Male flowers, b Calyx, c Stamen, d Petal, e Bract. 104 MEDICAL BOTANY. Still the female flower and fruit were unknown until 1820, when Dr. Hooker was enabled to describe both sexes, from information and drawings received from Mr. Telfair, of the Mauritius. From the accounts of this gentleman, and of M. Fortin, it appears that it grows abundantly in the forests of Mozambique, where it is known under the name of Kalumb. The roots are dug during the dry season, and only the offsets taken, as the main root is too fibrous ; they are sliced, strung on cords, and dried in the sun. It is deemed good when it breaks short, and of a bad quality when it is soft and dark-coloured. The plant has been suc- cessfully cultivated in the Mauritius and Isle of Bourbon, as well as in other parts ofthe East. Medical Uses, fyc.—Columbo, as found in the shops, is in round pieces, about a quarter of an inch thick, externally of a brown, wrinkled appear- ance, and internally yellow. When good, it breaks with a starchy fracture, is bright and solid, somewhat aromatic, and very bitter. It is very liable to decay and to attacks of worms. It is said to be adulterated in the European markets with roots of some species of Bryony from Barbary, and also with those of the Frasera from the United States. Both falsifications are readily to be detected; the first, by not striking a blue colour with iodine, and the latter by giving no precipitate with the infusion of galls. Columbo is an excellent bitter tonic, as it is free from any unpleasant taste, and generally agrees well with the stomach. It may be employed with ad- vantage where the digestive functions are weakened, and in the convalescent stages of most ofthe acute disorders of the bowels. From its slight exciting powers, it has been found useful in hectic fever, and Denman recommends it as preferable to Cinchona in the low stage of puerperal fever. In its native country it is much employed in the treatment of dysentery. It is usually given in the form of infusion, which should be used at once, as it is very liable to spoil. It may be combined with the aromatics, or with iron and the alkalies. The officinal preparations of the United States Pharmacopoeia are the infusion and tincture. From the analysis of M. Planche, this root is found to contain a peculiar azotized substance in large quantities, a bitter yellow substance, and much starch. This bitter yellow substance is considered by Wittstock, of Berlin, to be a peculiar principle, which he terms Colombin. It exists, how- ever, in too small proportions to be the sole medicinal principle in the root, as but one drachm was furnished by sixteen ounces of the root. {Journ. Phil. Coll. Pharm., iii. 173.) Some other species of Coceulus possess analogous properties to the Co- lumbo, though it is difficult, in the present state of confusion that exists in the species of this genus and that of Menispermum, to speak with absolute confidence, or to say to which they absolutely belong. Among these may be noticed the C. crispus, De C, (ill tuberculatum, Lam., and M. verruco- sum, Rox.) The extract from the root is employed in India as a tonic in intermittent fevers and in the convalescent stage of dysentery and other dis- eases of the bowels, in doses of five or ten grains. Ainslie, in his Materia Indica, states that every part of this plant is extremely bitter, but particularly the stalk, and is much used among the Malays in the treatment of intermit- tent fever, and is esteemed as powerful as Peruvian Bark. Wight states that the C. cordifolius, De C, is equally active, and that its young shoots are powerfully emetic. Under the name of Gulancha, it is much used in Bengal, in febrile disorders, especially of a low type. C. bakis has a bitter and diu' retic root, which is used by the negroes of Senegal in diseases ofthe urinary passages, and also in the treatment of intermittent fever. {Guillem and MENISPERMACE^E. 105 Perrot, Fl. Sen., i. 12.) The root of C. fibraurea, De C, has the same properties, and, according to Loureiro, is used in fevers and liver complaints {Fl. Cochin. 769). Those of C. cinerascens and C. platyphyllus are known in Brazil, under the name of" Butua," and are much esteemed in fevers and chronic affections ofthe digestive organs. {Chernoviz. Formul., 74.) Anamirta.—Colebrooke. Flowers dioecious. Sepals in two series. Corolla none. Stamens of male plant united; anthers numerous. Female flowers unknown. Drupes 1—3, one-celled, 1-seeded. Much uncertainty and doubt has existed as regards this genus. Linnaeus referred the only species known, to Menispermum; this, with others, was separated by De Candolle, and erected into that of Cocculus, and finally it has been made by Colebrooke the type of Anamirta. A. cocculus, Wight and Arnott.—The only species. Wight & Arnott, i. 446; Menispermum cocculus, Linn. Sp. PI. i. 468; Willdenow, Sp. PI. iv. 829; A. paniculata, Colebrooke. Linn. Trans. xiii. 52. Common name.—Cocculus Indicus. Foreign names.—Coque du Levant, Fr.; Galli di Levante, It.; Fisch- korner, Ger. Description.—A very large climbing shrub, with stems as thick as the human arm, covered with a scabrous, wrinkled, corky bark. The leaves are cordate, retuse, mucronate, with a jagged petiole, shorter than the leaves. The flowers are in lateral compound, racemes, and have an unpleasant smell. They are dioecious, and only the male is known; this consists of six sepals in a double row, with two appressed bracts. The corolla is wanting. The stamens are united in a central column, dilated at the apex; the anthers are numerous, covering the top of the column. The fruit is a drupe, which is one-celled and one-seeded, of a blackish-purple colour, with a soft pulp, and a round seed or nut. This plant is found in various parts of Asia, and has long been known for the narcotic properties of its berries, which, besides being used for medicinal purposes, are employed to intoxicate fish. It was probably introduced into the Materia Medica by the Arabians, but there is no certainty on the subject, though the fact of its having been in use for ages in India and other Eastern countries for the above purposes, renders the supposition that we are indebted to this source for a knowledge of it, highly probable. The parts used are the berries; these are round, somewhat subrenifbrm, inodorous, of a grayish-black colour, about as large as a pea, and composed of an external, thin, hard, brittle shell, covering another which is white and still denser, and contains a white nucleus divided by a central placenta. They are very bitter to the taste. Many analyses have been made of them, the last of which was by Pelletier and Couerbe. {Ann. de Chimie, Src.) These chemists found in the shell, Menispermin, Paramenispermin, Hypopicrotoxic acid and various vegetable matters; in the nucleus Picrotoxin, Resin, Gum, a fatty acid substance, an odorous matter, &c. The most important of these is the Picrotoxin, on which the activity of the seeds depends. Medical properties, SfC—Cocculus Indicus is poisonous to all animals, acting on the cerebro-spinal system and causing nervous tremors, convulsions and tetanus; it also acts on the stomach as a local irritant. It is rarely em- ployed as a remedial agent, but has been used externally in form of powder or ointment, in some obstinate cutaneous affections, and for the destruction of 106 MEDICAL BOTANY. vermin. The principal consumption of these seeds is for the purpose of adul- teratingmalt liquors to make them more inebriating; whether this dangerous fraud is practised in this country there is no direct evidence, but that it is common in England, and to a very great extent, is generally admitted. In a treatise on brewing, by Morrice, he states that it gives an inebriating quality which passes for strength of liquor, and prevents a second fermentation in bottled beer, and consequently the bursting of bottles in a warm climate. The root is used in India in many diseases of the bowels, and is highly esteemed, the branches are said to afford a rich yellow dye. Several other plants are said to furnish seeds possessed of much the same qualities as those of the Anamirta ; among these the Cocculus lacunosus and C. plukenetii are noticed by Merat and De Lens, but whether they belong to Anamirta or Cocculus has not been determined. Cissampelos.—Linn. Flowers dioecious. Sterile flowers, sepals 4 in a double series; petals 4, united into a cup-shaped corolla. Stamens 5, anthers connate. Fertile flowers. Sepal 1, rounded; petal 1. Fruit a 1-seeded berry. This genus as instituted by Linnaeus, contained a number of species pos- sessed of very dissimilar characters, but is now very greatly restricted, though it still requires much investigation, as the limits of the several species are by no means settled in a satisfactory manner. They are all natives of tropical climates, and are found both in Asia and South America, but principally in the latter. C. pareira, Linn.—Leaves peltate, orbicular, cordate, villous; sterile flowers racemose; fertile flowers spicate longer than the leaves. Linn., Sp. PI. 1473 ; De Candolle, Prod. i. 533 ; Flor. Medicate, v. 262 ; Woodville, t. 82 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 372. Common names.—Velvet leaf, Ice vine. Foreign names.—Pareira brava, Fr. Sp.; Grieswurzel, Ger. .,__. FlS-61, Description.—The velvet- leaf is a climbing shrub, attain- lnS a great size and covering even the tallest trees with its foliage. The root is woody and branching. The stem is round, smooth, or with a closely-ap- pressed tomentum. The leaves are large, peltate, subcordate, ovate articulate, of a dark green, and smooth above and silky pubescent beneath. The flowers are unisexual; the males with four sepals in a double range, and four petals forming a cup-like corolla, with an entire margin. The sta- mens are united, bearing con- tally. The female flowers have but a single sepal and peta^ ^^^^^ three .a™... The fruit is a round, 0r reniform, hispid/scarlet berry , Separate flowers mounted with three stigmas. Calyx. MENISPERMACE^E. 107 C pareira. It is known in Jamaica, where Fi§- 62- it grows in abundance in the mountainous districts, by the name of Velvet-leaf. It also occurs in several other of the West India islands, and in South America. It is also spoken of by Ainslie as a native of the East Indies, but it appears that the plant to which he refers is C. mauri- tiana, which is closely allied both in botanical characters and in medicinal qualities. The part used in medicine is the root, which, as found in i. Raceme of flowers. 2. Separate raceme. 3. Section of ovary. commerce, is generally in large billets, very tortuous, of a dark colour externally, and of a yellowish hue within. The axis is not central, and a section displays a number of concentric layers, traversed by many radiating lines, between which are triangular bundles of woody fibres and ducts. The taste is sweetish, somewhat aromatic, but leaving a bitter and unpleasant impression in the mouth. The smell is very faint. The first notice given of this root was by Piso, who mentions that a root was employed by the natives of Brazil, under the name of Caapeba, in cer- tain diseases of the bowels and urinary organs; this plant was erected into a species by Linnaeus with the appellation of Cissampelos Caapeba, and may be distinct from the C. pareira, though it appears probable that it is at most a mere variety of it. In fact, Merat and De Lens state that there is every rea- son to believe that the C. guayaquilensis and C. argentea, Humboldt, as well as the C. microcarpa, De Candolle, are identical with it; as before mentioned, the Pareira of Ainslie is the product of another species, and that of Anblet, is said to belong to another genus, Abuta, but nothing is known with certainty with regard to it. The genuine article is the product of the C. pareira, as this is certainly the root spoken of by Sloane and others. Pareira has been analyzed by Fenuelle, and more recently by Wiggers. The first found a soft resin, a yellow bitter principle, which is the active in- gredient, a brown colouring principle, vegeto-animal matter, fecula, some salts, &c. Wiggers states that he has detected a new vegetable alkaloid in it, which he calls Cissampelin, but its properties have not been described. Medical Properties, SfC—Pareira was introduced into medical practice by the Portuguese, and at one time was much employed in diseases of the blad- der and kidneys, and even considered as a powerful lithontriptic; its virtues were at one time so highly thought of, that Helvetius declares that calculi of a large size had completely disappeared under its use, and that the operation of lithotomy was no longer required ; but from one of those unaccountable changes in the opinions of the medical world, which have so often occurred without any adequate reason for them, it rapidly sunk into almost perfect ob- livion, till within a few years since it again began to attract the attention of the profession, and it has been shown to possess most unequivocal powers in certain affections of the bladder. Sir B. Brodie, who was one of the first to resume its use, states that he has seen more good effected by this root in dis- charges from the urino-genital organs, than by uva ursi. In chronic inflamma- tions ofthe bladder, he says, " I am satisfied that it has great influence, lessen- ing very materially the secretion of the ropy mucus, which is itself a very great 108 MEDICAL BOTANY. evil, and I believe, diminishing the inflammation and irritability of the blad- der itself." He recommends it to be given in decoction, to which some tinc- ture of hyoscyamus may be added. It is given in powder, in doses of from half a drachm to a drachm, but the infusion or decoction is a far more eligible mode of administration. An extract and a tincture have also been prepared from it. The leaves of the C. mauritiana are used in India as being very cooling, and the root, in diseases of the bowels, in combination with aromatics; and those of the C. tomentosa are employed in Venezuela as a poultice to matu- rate abscesses. The Brazilians use the roets of the C. glaberrima as a reme- dy for snake-bites, and Royle states that in India, an intoxicating liquor is distilled from the roots of the C. obtecta; that of C. glabra is extremely acrid. {Roxb.) Besides these, other plants of the order are medicinal, thus, Pereiria me- dica {Lindl.), a climbing shrub found in Ceylon, furnishes a large bitter root, which is considered by the Cingalese to ba an excellent stomachic; it is used in infusion {Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. iii. 809). The root of Clypea bur- manni is employed in Malabar in fevers, bowel diseases, and haemorrhoids. As before stated, one kind of Pareira bravais the product of Abuta rufescens; this is similar in its effects to the genuine. Order 5.—MYRISTICACE^.—Lindley. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, not dotted, entire, petiolate, coriaceous. Flowers in axil- lary or terminal racemes or panicles; very small, often each with one short, cucullate bract. Calyx coriaceous, usually tomentose outside; trifid or rarely quadrifid, with a valvate aestivation. Unisexual; male flowers with the filaments separate or united in a cylinder. Anthers 3-12 or more, extrorse, with a longitudinal dehiscence; connate or distinct. Female; calyx deciduous; carpels solitary or many, with a single erect ana- tropal ovule; style very short; stigma somewhat lobed. Fruit baccate. Albumen ru- minate, between fatty and fleshy. Embryo small, cotyledons diverging. Radicle infe- rior. A small order of tropical trees often furnishing a red juice; most common to Asia. The bark abounds in an acrid, viscid juice, and the rind of the fruit is caustic. The fruit of most of the species of Myristica are aromatic, and yield a fatty oil on expression, which is also the case with that of Virola. The red juice of some of them is used as a substitute for dragon's blood, and that afforded by the mace of Pyrrhosa tingens is used in Amboy- na in union with lime, to stain the teeth. {Blume.) Much difference of opinion exists respecting the station this order should occupy ; in general it is placed near the Lauracea?, on account of its apeta- lous flowers, but it differs from them in many important particulars. From its alliance with the Anonaceae through Hyalostemma and Bocagea, in its trimerous flowers, ruminate albumen, and arillate seed, it may be placed near that order with more propriety. I have, however, followed Lindley in ar- ranging it in the same group as the Menispermaceae, on account of its uni- sexual flowers, more especially as it agrees with the Monimiacece in its di- verging cotyledons, and is connected with Menispermaceae through Anomo- spermum, which has a ruminated albumen. Myristica.—Linn. Flowers dioecious. Calyx urceolate, three-toothed. Male, stamens united into a co- lumnar tube; anthers 6-10, cohering. Female, ovary simple, style none, stigma two-lobed. Pericarp fleshy, two-valved, 1-seeded. Seed enclosed in a coriaceous, many-cleft arillus. This genus, of about eight species, was established by Linnaeus on the im- MYRISTICACEjE. 109 perfect figure and confused description of Rumphius {Herb. Amb. ii. 14, t. 4), and he was unable to assign it its proper characters; these were first given in a satisfactory manner by Lamarck {Act. Par. 1788). It is princi- pally Asiatic, though some species also occur in tropical America, and in Africa ; they all are aromatic and stimulant, though one only is in general use. M. moschata, Thunberg.—Leaves elliptic-oblong, acuminate, smooth, paler beneath, with simple veins. Peduncles few-flowered. Thunberg, Act. Holm. 1782 ; Woodville, iv. t. 238 ; Bot. Mag. t. 2756, 2757 ; Stephenson & Churchill, ii. 104 ; M. officinalis, Linn. Suppl. 265 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 21; M. aromatica, Lam. lllus. t. 832. Common name.—Nutmeg tree. Foreign names.—Muscadier, Fr. Moscato, It. Muskatbaum, Ger. Pela, Malay. Description.—A tree from twenty to twenty-five feet high, having a grayish-brown, and somewhat smooth bark, abounding in a yellow juice, and furnished with many whorls of spreading branches. The leaves, which are alternate, on short petioles, are oblong, pointed, smooth, entire, of a dark-green, and somewhat shining above, and paler beneath, with simple parallel veins, and when bruised, are aromatic. The flowers are in axillary racemes, and are supported on glabrous peduncles, each Fig. 63. pedicel having-a deciduous bract at the summit. The male flowers are from three to five on a peduncle. The calyx is urceolate and peta- loid, of a fleshy texture, and somewhat tomentose external- ly, of a pale-yellowish colour, and three-cleft. The stamens are united into a cylindrical column, bearing six to ten connate, linear-oblong, two- celled anthers, with a longitu- dinal dehiscence. The female flowers are frequently solitary, having a short style, borne on a broadly-ovate germ, and ter- minating in a two-lobed per- sistent stigma. The fruit is pyriform, pendent, having a fleshy pericarp opening by two nearly longitudinal valves, and abounding in an astrin- gent juice. The arillus (mace) is fleshy, much laciniated, al- most enveloping the nut, of a brilliant scarlet colour when fresh, but of a yellow-brown and brittle when dry. The nut is oval, with a hard, rugged, dark-brown, shining shell, marked by the mace. It closely envelopes the seed, and its inner coat dips down into the substance of its albumen, giving it a marbled {ruminated) appearance. The seed when fresh is quite smooth, but shrivels on drying; its substance or albumen is fleshy M. moschata, 1. Calyx and stamens. 2. Stamens. 3. Anthers. 4. Female flower. 5. Nut. 6. Seed divided. 7. Embryo. 110 MEDICAL BOTANY. and whitish, but traversed by veins of a red-brown colour, abounding in oil. Near its base is the large, fleshy embryo, and the hemispherical radicle. The nutmeg-tree is said by Rumphius to resemble the pear-tree in size and appearance, and to bear fruit at the age of ten years, and to become more prolific as it increases in growth, until it has attained a longevity of a hun- dred years. It is principally found in the Moluccas, and especially in the Banda Isles, to which the Dutch have endeavoured to restrain its growth. Of late years according to Ainslie it has been cultivated in Java, Sumatra; and has also been introduced into the West Indies. The nutmeg does not appear to have been known to the Greeks or Ro- mans, though some writers have supposed it to be the xwu,axov of Theophras- tus, the cinnamum, quod comacum appellant of Pliny. {Lib. xii. c. 63.) It was, however, in use in Egypt, since fragments of the nut have been found in mummies. The first definite notice of it is by Avicenna {lib. ii. c. 503), who terms it Jiansiban, and it is also mentioned by Serapion under the name of Jusbagme. It was brought in small quantities to Europe by the caravans, but was not in general use as a condiment until after the discovery of the passage to India, round the Cape of Good Hope, and especially since the con- quest of the Banda Isles by the Dutch in 1612, since which the consumption has been immense. In the year 1746 the annual produce was 163,0001bs. of nutmegs, and 46,000lbs. of mace; between the years 1796 and 1798, the imports into England by the East India Company was 93,7321bs. of nut- megs, and 46,7301bs. of mace, and about a third more by private individuals. In 1840, it is stated by Pereira (ii. 266), that 114,160lbs. of nutmegs and 16,3331bs. of mace were entered at the English custom-houses. The average crop is considered to be 350,5001 bs. of nutmegs, of which 250,0001bs. are exported; and 100,000lbs. of mace, 90,000 of which are sent abroad. Craw- ford states if a fruit weigh 15, the mace will be 2, the shell 5, and the nut- meg 8. In the East Indies the trees are almost always loaded with both fruit and flowers, and three gatherings are made: in July and August, when the fruit is most abundant, but the mace is thinner than in November, when the second collection is made ; the third and principal harvest is in March, when the nuts, as well as the mace, are in the greatest perfection. The fruit is ga- thered by hand, and is never used in its entire form, on account of its acridity, except in its young state, when by boiling it with brandy and sugar, it forms a pleasant sweetmeat. The outer pulpy coat is removed with a knife, and thrown away; the mace is then carefully separated and dried in the sun, sprinkled with sea-water and again partially dried; in this process it changes from its original crimson colour to a brownish yellow. The nutmegs require more attention, as they are liable to the attacks of an insect ; they are first exposed to the sun for a few days, and then slowly dried by a slow fire for a length of time, until the seed becomes perfectly detached from the shell, this is then broken and the seeds soaked in lime-water, which not only protects them from the insect, but also prevents the volatilization of the aroma. Nutmegs should be chosen heavy, firm, of the shape of an olive, of a lightish-brown on the outside, and of a reddish-gray with red veins internally, of an agreeable fragrant odour, warm aromatic taste, and unctuous feel! The round nutmeg is preferred to the oblong. When distilled with water, they furnish an essential oil of a viscid consistence, of a pale straw-colour, with the odour and taste of the seed. By expression, a fatty substance is obtained, known as "butter of nutmegs," of about the consistence of sperma- ceti, of a yellowish-brown colour, and having an agreeable smell, and a fatty, pungent, bitterish taste. Bonastre {Jour, de Pharm. ix. 281) found that MYRISTICACEjE. Ill 500 parts of nutmegs consisted of: stearine 120, elaine 38, volatile oil 30, acid 4, starch 12, woody fibre, gum, &c, 296. Mace, as found in commerce, when fresh and good, is of a reddish-brown or saffron colour, of a pleasant aromatic smell, of a warm, bitterish, pungent taste, and a tough oleaginous texture. On distillation, it affords an essen- tial oil, having the odour and flavour of the mace. According to an analysis by Henry, {Jour, de Pharm. x. 281,) mace contains a small quantity of volatile oil, much odorous, fixed oil of a yellow colour, about an equal portion of a red, fixed, fragrant oil, a peculiar extractive, and a small proportion of woody fibre. Medical Uses, SfC—The great employment ofthe nutmeg and mace is for cu- linary purposes, as condiments, for which purpose they are admirably adapted from their agreeable taste and their stimulating properties. In the East, they are in general use both by the natives and Europeans, as the most energetic of the digestive excitants, as well as to impart a flavour to insipid articles of food. As remedial agents, they owe their activity to the volatile oil they contain, and when administered in moderate quantities, produce the usual effect ofthe other spices, but in large doses they cause an unpleasant train of narcotic symptoms, not unlike those induced by an undue use of camphor; instances of this are noticed by Bontius, Lobel, Etmuller, Ainslie, Cullen, Pereira, and others, and hence they should be avoided in cerebral affections. In India they are considered among their most valuable remedies in dyspeptic complaints, and in all cases requiring cardiacs and corroborants, and are also prescribed to children suffering much in weaning : they are likewise given in low fevers, consumptive complaints, and asthma, generally in combination with other aromatics. In Europe and the United States they are seldom employed except as con- diments, their principal use in medicine being as a flavouring ingredient, or to obviate the drastic effects of certain purgatives, though from their cordial, carminative and narcotic powers they have produced good effects in bowel complaints. Nutmeg forms an important ingredient in the aromatic confec- tion so frequently used in these diseases, and also entered into the composi- tion of numerous electuaries at onetime so much prized, as the theriac, orvie- tan, &c. The volatile and expressed oils are occasionally resorted to as external sti- mulants in rheumatism and palsy, but are inferior to many other articles of the same character. The dose of either nutmeg or mace is from a few grains to a scruple, or even more, according to circumstances ; habit reconciles the constitution to much larger doses than can be borne by persons unaccustomed to the use of these articles. The volatile oil may be administered either on sugar, or dissolved in spirit, in doses of two to ten drops. Several other species of Myristica furnish analogous products, though none of them are equal to those of the moschata. The M. tomentosa of southern India is said to afford what are called long or male nutmegs, which, although possessing the same qualities as the genuine article, are much inferior to them in flavour; the fruit ofthe M. officinalis Spix is considered in Brazil as an energetic tonic ; and in the East Indies the fruit of the M. spuria and M. acu- minata are used as substitutes for the true nutmeg. The coarse, unpleasant- smelling nutmegs of Santa Fe are the produce ofthe M. otoba ; the mace of this is the basis of an ointment used in Colombia as a remedy in the itch. Some ofthe species have insipid nuts; thus in the M.fatua, the fragrance is very slight and soon disappears, whilst in others it is scarcely perceptible; but at the same time the nuts are still active, as Mr. Hinds {Lond. Jour. Bot. 112 MEDICAL BOTANY. i. 675) states that a single one is capable of causing nausea and disturbance ofthe bowels. G-roup III. — Berberales. Order 6.—BERBERIDACE^.—Brown. Sepals deciduous, 3—6 in two rows. Petals hypogynous, equal in number to the sepals, or twice as many, glandular at base. Stamens as many or twice as many as the petals, and opposite to them. Filaments short. Anthers adnate, opening by recurved valves. Ovary solitary, simple. Style sometimes lateral or oblique, sometimes wanting. Stigma orbicular or peltate. Fruit baccate or capsular. Seeds 1 or few. Embryo in the axis or near the base ofthe fleshy or horny albumen. The species of this order are natives ofthe temperate parts ofthe northern hemisphere, and ofthe mountainous parts of South America; none are found in Africa, Australasia, or the South Sea islands. The physical properties of them are various, though it may be said that their fruit is generally acid, and somewhat astringent, and their bark astringent and tinctorial. The roots of some of them are edible, whilst in others they are cathartic. The seeds of Leontice thalictroides have been used as a substitute for coffee, whilst the root of the L. leontopetalum is employed at Aleppo instead of soap, and is regarded by the Turks as an antidote against over-doses of opium. Berberis.—Linn. Sepals 6, with 3 bracts. Petals 6, bi-glandular at base. Stamens 6. Stigma nearly sessile, orbicular. Fruit a 1-celled, 1—9-seeded berry. The genus Berberis is composed of shrubs, with alternate, petiolate leaves, having spines at their base, formed of the remains of the primary foliage. Many ofthe species, especially those belonging to the sub-genus or section Mahonia are evergreen. They are mostly natives of cold or temperate climates. B. vulgaris.—Linn. Branches dotted, with triple spines. Leaves obovate-oval, closely serrulate. Racemes nodding, many-flowered. Berries oblong. Linn. Sp. PI. 472 ; Torrey and Gray, Fl. i. 49 ; Richard, ii. 617 ; Ra- finesque, Med. Fl. i. 82; Lindley, Veg. King. 437 f. 305 ; Flor. Med. 63. Common name.—Barberry. Foreign names.—Epine Vinette, Fr.; Berberitze, Gr.; Berberi, It. Description.—A shrub from four to eight feet high, with long bending branches, which are dotted. The leaves are crowded, and form fan-like groups; they are alternate, petio- late, and closely serrate ; at their base are small thorns, which are a transformation of the primary leaves. The flowers are on slender and pendulous racemes; they arc yellow and small; they are succeeded by loose bunches of berries, of an oblong form and red colour, of a pleasant acid taste. The Barberry is a native of Europe, but is naturalized in many parts of the United States, especially in New England. Some confusion has exist- ed among botanists, respecting the American plant, some considering it as a variety of, or even distinct from, the European, mistaking it for the plant originally indicated by Marshall as found in Virginia, and described by Pursh under the erroneous name of Canadensis, as it has not been found in that country, being confined to the Southern States. In consequence however of the habitat he assigned to it, most of our botanists have considered that he had in view the naturalized plant, and hence this is generally separated from the BERBERIDACEiE. 113 Rafinesque, in his Medical Flora, has fallen Fig. 64. vulgaris under Pursh's name into this error, and has described and figured the foreign species as the true Canadensis. The distinctions be- tween the two are ably pointed out by Torrey and Gray, founded on original specimens col- lected by Pursh. The stamina are ex- ceedingly irritable, and like those of the Kal- mia suddenly spring towards the pistil on being touched. The smell of the flowers is unpleasant and nause- ous, and it is a com- mon belief that the dust or pollen from them is injurious to wheat, causing rust; this opi- nion has been de- fended in an able me- moir by Mr. Yvart, but notwithstanding the ingenuity of his arguments, nothing can be more unfound- ed, as the most ample and well-conducted experiments have shown. Medical uses, SfC—The berries are used in Europe in the preparation of acidulated drinks in febrile affections, as a substitute for Tamarinds and other acid fruits. The bark, especially ofthe root, is bitter and astringent, and has been used with some success in the treatment of aphthous sore mouth, and at one time was much employed in the treatment of jaundice. It has also been substituted for the bark of the Pomegranate, with which it has scarcely a property in common. From an analysis by MM. Buchner and Herberger, it is shown that this root contains a new principle, which they call Berberine, of a yellow or brownish colour, and very bitter taste. This article acts like Rhubarb, and with equal promptness and activity. Another species, B. lycium, a native of India, is stated by Royle {Illustr. 64), to be useful in ophthalmia. An extract is made from the root and branches, and is called " rusot." It is most beneficial when the acute symp- toms have been removed. Leontice.—Linn. Sepals 3-6. Petals 6, furnished with a small scale or nectary at the inner base. Carpel membranaceous, caducous or inflated, 2-4 seeded. Seeds erect, globose. Albumen horny. 8 1. Flower. 2. Calyx. 5. Section of ovary, bryo. B. Vulgaris. 3. Petal and stamen. 4. A single stamen. 6. A ripe seed. 7. Section of do. 8. Em- 114 MEDICAL BOTANY. A small genus which has been variously divided, the American species having been separated by Michaux under the name of Caulophyllum, in which he is followed by many botanists, but it may without confusion be con- sidered merely as a section, which is the view taken of it by Torrey and Gray. L. thalictroides, Linn.—Leaves triternate ; leaflets incisely 2-3 lobed. Panicle small, shorter than the leaves. Brown, Linn. Trans, xii. 145, t. 7 ; Mich. Fl. i. 305, t. 21; Torrey & Gray, Fl. i. 52 ; Rafinesque, Med. Fl. i. 97, t. 19. Common names.—Blue cohosh, Papoose-root, Squaw-root, &c. This plant is a Fis-6S- native of most hilly woods of the United States, flowering in May and June, and ripens its seeds the latter part of the summer. The fruit ■ is dry, sweetish, in- sipid, and resembles that of the Vacci- nium. The seeds when roasted, are said to form an ex- cellent substitute for coffee. The part used in medicine is the root. This is sweetish, somewhat pungent and aroma- tic, affording a yel- low infusion or tinc- ture. No chemical investigation of it has been made. Medical uses, SfC —It is unknown in regular practice, but has been much used by empirics, who are said to have derived a know- ledge of its powers from the Indians. It is stated to be ,. , , . demulcent, anti- spasmodic, and emmenagogue, and has been administered in rheumatism dropsy, nervous disorders, &c. Rafinesque states that it is particularly adapted for female disorders and that the Indian women make use of a tea of the root for some time before their confinement, asserting that it facilitates parturition. It is likewise said to be an active emmenao-oaue RirMpll (Sv ^ 14) also says that it is « bitter, diuretic, and a preparatory partur ent »" Although our information respecting it is very imperfect, it was thought L. thalictroides. BERBERIDACE^E. 115 best to notice it, in the hope that a fair trial may be made of its powers, and whether it deserves the popular reputation it has acquired. Podophyllum.—Linn. Sepals 3, deciduous. Petals 6-9, obovate. Stamens 6-18, with linear anthers. Ovary ovate, subsessile, peltate. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, containing numerous seeds in seve- ral rows, in a pulpy placenta. Although this genus differs from the Berberidaceae in having more nume- rous stamens, and in the absence of the peculiar dehiscence of the anthers, still it is so closely allied in other respects, that it seems advisable to leave it in this order, rather than to consider it as the type of a new one, though this has been done by several very eminent botanists. Lindley, who places it in the Ranunculaceae, is of opinion that it forms a link between that order and the present. It is mainly North American, and was thought to consist of but one species, though Rafinesque recognises three, the P. peltatum, mon- tanum, and callicarpum ; the latter is considered by Torrey and Gray to be a mere variety of the first, and this is probably the case; the montanum, however, judging from Rafinesque's description and plate, presents many dif- ferential characters, especially in having palmate but not peltate leaves. Other species have lately been found in Northern India, one of which has but six stamens. P. peltatum, Linn.—Stem 1-flowered ; leaves peltate-palmate; lobes cuneate, incised. Stamens 12-18. Linn. Sp. PI. 722 ; Torrey & Gray, Flor. i. 54 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. i. 35; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. ii. 9 ; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. ii. 59. Common names.—May-apple, Wild Lemon, Mandrake, Raccoon berry, &c. Description.—The root is creeping, long, of a brown colour externally, and yellowish within ; the stem is simple, upright, and smooth, about a foot in height, two-leaved, and bearing a single flower at the insertion of the petioles. The leaves are large, peltate, and divided into five or six lobes, which are incised at top; they are of a yellowish- green above, and somewhat glaucous beneath. The flower is nodding, large, white, and somewhat fragrant, and is succeeded by an oval fruit, of a lemon-yellow colour, contain- ing a thick, somewhat mucilaginous pulp, in which the seeds are immersed, all connected to the lateral receptacle by fibres. The May apple is found in great plenty in almost all parts of the United States, in damp and shady woods, though occasionally to be met with in dry and exposed situations. It flowers in May and June, and ripens its fruit in September, at which time the leaves wither and fall off. The fruit is edible, and is very agreeable to some persons, whilst to others it is extremely unpleasant; it very closely resembles in taste and even appearance, the fruit ofthe Passiflora edulis ofthe West Indies. It is slightly aperient, and may be partaken of in large quantities, without any unpleasant effect. The In- dians are very fond of it, and consider it medicinal. The leaves are said to be narcotic and poisonous, but no experiments have been made to ascertain their true qualities. The root has long been known and celebrated as a cathartic of considerable activity. Medical uses, fyc.—The root of this plant was in common use among the Indians, before the settlement of the country by the whites, and was considered by them as one of their most powerful purgatives. The first writers on the Materia Medica that noticed it, as Schoepf and Puihn, speak of it as an emetic, but except used in too fresh a state or in large 116 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 6C. doses, it will not affect the stomach more than any other active purgative. The concurrent testi- mony of all practition- ers who have given a fair trial to the Podo- phyllum, is in its favour, as a certain and active purgative, closely re- sembling jalap in its action upon the bowels, but rather more drastic. It induces watery stools, more especially when given in conjunction with cremor tartar. It is also said to be an anthelmintic, and to be used for that purpose among the southern In- dians, but this power, is probably owing merely to its purgative quali- ties, and not to any peculiar action on the worms. The dose of the powdered root is from ten grains to a scruple. An extract which is officinal in the U.S.Pharmacopoeia may be prepared from it, the dose of which is from five to fifteen P. peltatum. grains. As found in the shops, the root is in pieces of various lengths, about the thickness of quills, of a blackish-brown colour externally, and somewhat cor- rugated, with occasional knots; internally it is of a dirty white. It has a faint, unpleasant odour, somewhat resembling that of ipecacuanha, and a bit- terish, and at the same time sweetish taste. This root has been examined by Dr. Staples, and also by Mr. Hodgson; the first detected in it, besides the usual constituents, a peculiar substance which crystallized in white silky tufts; this was not found by Mr. Hodgson, and was probably a salt of lime. The latter pharmaceutist obtained a pecu- liar principle which he terms Podophylline, which evidently belongs to the same group as Salicine and Populine. When dry, it is in pale brown scales of considerable lustre, is unalterable in the air, and has a permanent, bitter taste. The peculiar properties of the root are probably due both to this prin- ciple and to the resin. The P. montanum described and figured by Rafinesque {Med. Flor. ii. 59, f. 73), seems to differ from the above in having a slender, furrowed stem, the leaves with sharp, bifid segments, and not peltate. Torrey and Gray do not notice this species in their " Flora of North America," in any way. As Rafinesque states that it is equally possessed of medical qualities with the P. peltatum, I have added a copy of his description and figure. FUMARIACE.E. 117 " P. montanum, Raf. Stem elongated, deeply furrowed ; leaves palmate, not peltate, sinuses narrow, segments unequal, ends acutely bifid, with many unequal teeth ; petals oblong, obtuse, six to seven; stamens seven to nine, berry oblong, yellowish. In the Alleghany mountains, from New York to Virginia ; variety, 1. acuminatum ; 2. parviflorum? Fig. 67. P. montanum. Order 7.—FUMARIACE^E.—Decandolle. Leaves generally alternate, multifid, often with tendrils. Flowers purple, white, or yellow. Sepals 2, caducous. Petals 4, cristate, very irregular. Stamens 4, distinct, hypogynous, or 6, in 2 parcels, opposite the outer petals, very seldom all separate; anthers membranous, the outer of each parcel 1-celled, the middle one 2-celled. Ovary free, 1-celled; ovules horizontal, amphitropal; style filiform ; stigma with two or more points. Fruit various; either an indehiscent 1 or 2-seeded nut, or a 2-valved or succulent inde- hiscent, polyspermous pod. Seeds horizontal, shining, crested. Albumen fleshy. Em- bryo minute, out of the axis ; where the fruit is indehiscent straight, where it dehisces, somewhat curved. A somewhat extensive order of herbaceous plants, with bitter stems and a watery juice, principally occurring in the temperate latitudes of northern cli- mates. It has usually been placed in the vicinity of Papaveraceae, and by 118 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 68. some writers considered as forming part of that order ; but as is observed by De Candolle, it differs in the juice being watery instead of milky, in the irre- gularity and coherence of the petals, and in its diadelphous stamens. It is certainly closely allied to the Berberidaceae, and its place seems to be inter- mediate between these two orders. Many of the species have attained some celebrity as medicinal agents, but are seldom employed in regular practice in this country. The Fumaria officinalis, F. capreolata and others were at one time in high repute as altera- tive bitters, especially in cutaneous af- fections, and they still are employed in Europe, particularly in France and Ger- many, by many eminent practitioners, both in these cases and in derangements of the liver. They are given either in decoction, extract, syrup, or the ex- pressed juice. The tuberous root of Corydallis bulbosa has been employed as a substitute for the Aristolochia clematitis as a vermifuge and emme- nagogue, but its remedial powers can- not be of a high order, since it is used in Siberia as an article of food. The root of C. tuberosa has been found to contain a peculiar alkaloid, to which the name of Corydalin has been given. Those of Diclylra canadensis and D. cucullaria found in many parts of the United States, are stated to be diuretic, diaphoretic, and alterative. Riddell states {Synop. 13) that Dr. Jones con- siders them " to be a substitute for mercury in venereal complaints." They are given in infusion, the dose of which is 3j. three times a day, and also used as a lotion to the diseased parts. D. cucullaria. Group IV. — Nymphales. Order 8.—NYMPHiEACEA^.—Salisbury. Sepals and Fig. 69. petals numerous, gradually passing into each other; the former persistent, the latter deciduous, and inserted upon the disk; stamens numerous, with petaloid fila- ments inserted on the disk; anthers adnate, introrse. Ovary polyspermous;- many-celled, with radiating stigmas, alternate with the dissepiments, more or less surrounded by a large fleShy disk; ovules numerous, anatro- pal. Fruit many-celled, indehiscent. Seeds very numerous, attached to spongy dissepi- ments. Albumen farinaceous. Embryo small, enclosed in a fleshy vitellus, cotyledons foli- aceous. Nymphea. ■ Aquatic herbs, with peltate or cor- date fleshy leaves arising from a pros- trate trunk, and having large, showy, NYMPHiEACE^E. 119 and oftentimes fragrant flowers. They are principally found in the northern hemisphere, but also in South Africa, and one genus in South America. The various species of Nymphcea, have been considered, from the earliest ages to be anaphrodisiac, sedative, and even narcotic, and their virtues have been celebrated by poets and naturalists, but more modern experience has shown that instead of being endowed with these properties, the roots of these plants are nutritious and even stimulating. According to Pallas, they are used as food by the Tartars; and analysis has proved that their principal consti- tuents are fecula, tannin, gallic acid, &c. Nor are their hypnotic qualities better established, and their supposed good effects in affections of the genital organs, dysentery, &c, may be attributed to their styptic and astringent properties. In this country the roots of the N. vdorala are sometimes used in emollient cataplasms, and in South America, the seeds of the Victoria form a favourite article of diet, as do those of the Euryale in China. Fee states that the roots of the N. alba may be used for tanning, and for dyeing a gray colour. The leaves of the Nuphar are said to be styptic ; but in a dried state are used in Sweden to feed cattle. Belonging to this group are the orders Fig. 70. Cabombacece and Ne- lumbiacece. The first of these contains the Brasenia purpurea, a native of the United States, and used as an astringent demulcent in pectoral and bowel dis- eases. The plant is scentless but somewhat bitter, and abounds in mucilage. It appears to possess much the same properties as the Iceland moss, and might be used as a substitute for it. The order Nelum- biacece has. been cele- brated from the most remote antiquity. The Asiatic species were considered as holy, and by the Hindoos were supposed to be the first plants that appeared. They were equally ve- nerated in Egypt, their flowers being the my- thic lotus so frequently represented on the monuments of India and Egypt, and the fruit believed to have been the sacred bean of Pythagoras. The roots of all the species are edible ; and are much used in China, for although they are somewhat acrid when raw, they become bland and nutri- tious when cooked. Those ofthe N. luteum are said by Nuttall to resemble he sweet potato in taste, and are a favourite article of food among some B. purpurea. 120 MEDICAL BOTANY. of the Indian tribes. The petioles and leaves may be eaten as greens, and the nuts are very analogous to chestnuts in taste, but if partaken of too freely, are apt to affect the bowels. The leaves are cooling and emollient, and form a good dressing for blistered surfaces. Endlicher states that the viscid juice of the stalks may be employed as a remedy against nausea and diarrhoea, and according to Ainslie, the petals were shown to Dr. Hamilton in Behar as a remedy in cases of dysuria. Loureiro {Flor. Coch. Chin. 1. 340) says of it, " Radix seminaque esculenta sunt, sapida et salubria ; in re medica virtu- tem habent refrigirantem et roborantem." Group V. —Papave rales. Order 9.—PAPAVERACEAE.—Jussieu. Herbs, rarely shrubs, with alternate, often divided leaves. Flowers in general, large and solitary. Sepals 2, caducous. Petals 4, caducous, arranged in a cruciate form, hypo- gynous. Stamens numerous, but always in some multiple of the petals, sometimes in 4 parcels, one of which adheres to the base of each petal; anthers innate. Ovary of one or more united carpels; style very short or none; stigmas stellate or radiate. Pericarp a one-celled, many-seeded capsule, opening by valves, holes, or pores under the permanent stigma ; sometimes pod-shaped, with two placentae. Seed with an oily or fleshy albumen and embryo. The principal portion of this order are natives of Europe, fully two-thirds of the species being found there. Several are indigenous to North America, and it appears probable that many more will be discovered. They are un- known in a wild state within the tropics. They are for the most part annuals, the few perennials among them inhabit mountainous regions. The plants of this order abound in an acrid milky juice, which is often narcotic, and in many cases highly poisonous. This pervades the whole plant with the exception of the seeds, which are in most cases oily and nutri- tive, though this is not invariably the case, as those of Argemone Mexicana are said to be narcotic and purgative, especially if smoked; they are also emetic, and are used as such in the West Indies; and Ainslie states that the juice is considered by the Hindoo physicians as a beneficial application in cases of ophthalmia, and also as a good application in chancre. The juice of the Chelidonium majus is extremely acrid, and was at one time esteemed as a powerful deobstruent and sudorific; it is a popular remedy against warts, and has been used with some success in piles. The root of Sanguinaria is aero- narcotic, and emetic, and that of Meconopsis Nepalensis is said to be an active poison. The juice of Bocconia frutescens is acrid, and has been found useful in destroying warts, and as an application to obstinate cutaneous eruptions and foul ulcers. {Macfadyen, Flor. Jam. 23.) Papaver.—Linn. Sepals 2. Petals 4. Stamens numerous. Style wanting; stigmas numerous, sessile, stellately arranged on the summit of the ovary. Capsule superior, with many-seeded placentas, forming incomplete septa, opening by many pores under the stigma. This genus consists of herbaceous, generally annual plants, with large flowers of various shades of colour, especially of red and white, rarely yel- low, never blue. It is almost European; with the exception of three or four species, they are all natives of that continent. A few have become natu- ralized in the United States, but are not common. P. somniferum, Linn.—Caulescent, glabrous, glaucous. Leaves amplexicaul, ovate- oblong, incised-dentate, glabrous. Sepals glabrous. Capsules obovate or globose gla- brous. ' s PAPAVERACEAE. 121 Linn. Sp. PI. 726 ; De Candolle, Prod. i. 119 ; Torrey & Gray, Flor. i. 60 ; Woodville, 185 ; Stephenson & Churchill, iii. 15£; Lindley, Flor. Med. 15. Common names.—Poppy ; Garden Poppy ; White Poppy. Foreign names.—Pavot des Jardins, Fr.; Adormidera, Sp.; Gartenmohu, Gr. ; Papavero, Pappardolo, It. Description.—The root is tapering and Fig. 71. white : the whole plant is generally smooth, though sometimes there are a few rigid hairs o:\ the upper part ofthe stem ; it is of a glau- cous colour, and of an unpleasant smell. The stem is round, erect, somewhat branched, leafy, and from two to four feet In height. The leaves are large, alternate, incised and den- tate, clasping the stem at their base. The flowers are large, various in colour, and sup- ported on long terminal footstalks. The calyx is smooth and consists of two ovate, concave, obtuse sepals which fall off on the expanding ofthe flower; this is of four petals, which are roundish, spreading, undulated, and as it were, plaited, white, with a violet spot at base. The stamens are very numerous, much shorter than the corolla, and terminated by oblong, compressed anthers. The ovary is nearly globular, smooth, crowned with a flat, stellate stigma. The capsule is large,, smooth, one- celled, but with partial dissepiments. The seeds are very numerous, small, of a whitish or gray colour, somewhat kidney-shaped, at maturity escaping by openings under the stigma; they are oily and destitute of any narcotic power. There are two varieties said to exist ; the nigrum, with coloured flowers, dark seeds and large globular capsules, with openings for discharge of the seeds under the stigma; and the album with white flowers and seeds, and ovate capsules with no seed openings. These have been considered as species by some botanists ; thus the first is the P. somniferum, Gmelin, and the other P. officinale ; however distinct they may be in a state of nature, under cultivation these run into each other, and seeds from the same capsule will furnish plants bearing flowers of different colours. The black-seeded variety is the P. cceruleum of the older writers on the Materia Medica. The Opium Poppy is a native of Persia, but has become naturalized in Europe and even in the United States. In Persia, according to Chardin, it attains a prodigious size, and the capsules are of great bulk; in Europe and the United States it is seldom more than from three to four feet in height, and the capsules are of moderate proportions. It was well known to the ancients, and is spoken of by Homer as then cul- tivated in gardens, and even the two varieties are noticed by Hippocrates, as not possessing identical properties. It is now largely cultivated in many parts of Asia, for the purpose of procuring opium from it, and in Europe to obtain opium, but principally for the heads and seeds. In the United States it has seldom been grown except as an ornamental flower, but there is every reason to believe that it would prove a very lucrative branch of industry, not only from the opium that might be obtained, but also from the oil to be procured P. somniferum. 1. Capsule of P. officinale. 2. do. of P. som- niferum. 3, 4. Seeds. 122 MEDICAL BOTANY. from the seeds, which is an excellent substitute for that of the olive, and is much employed to adulterate it. Medical uses, Src.—Poppy-heads. These are recognised in most Phar- macopceias as officinal, but are not ordered to be gathered at the same stage of growth, and as this influences their medicinal powers in no slight degree, it is of some importance that the directions should be uniform : when collected in an immature state, they contain much opium, but this in a great measure disappears on the ripening of the capsule, as is evident by merely tasting them ; where they have been gathered unripe, and then dried, there is a marked bit- terness, which is scarcely perceptible in those that have been suffered to come to maturity. As found in the shops, they are of various sizes and of either an ovate or globular form. They are much used, and more especially on the continent of Europe, as a mild substitute for opium, particularly in cases of children, and also in the form of decoction as an external anodyne emollient. Poppy Seeds and Oil.—The seeds are extremely numerous, a single cap- sule containing from 10,000 to 30,000. They are bland and oleaginous, and were formerly employed as an article of food, and Hippocrates classes the poppy among the alimentary plants; their use, however, was much more limited among the Greeks than among the Persians and other Asiatic na- tions. They still form an habitual article of diet in some parts of Europe. As they possess no narcotic quality whatever, they may be freely eaten. Their principal consumption is for the purpose of procuring an oil from them; with this intent they are extensively cultivated in the north of France and in Flanders, where the oil is known under the name of huile (Fazillette, a cor- ruption, according to De Candolle, of olivetto. The seeds furnish from one- quarter to one-half their weight of oil; this is transparent, light, and of a pale colour; it is inodorous, and has a bland and pleasant taste. It is used for painting, for burning, and very largely to mix with olive oil. According to Mr. Allen {Practical Tourist, ii. 161), large quantities are shipped to the south of France, and even to Italy, to be there mixed with olive oil, or else it is exported under the name of olive oil, without any of this latter product en- tering into its composition. Fortunately the fraud is an innocent one, as the Poppy oil is fully equal in taste and properties to most of the olive oil that comes to the United States, though somewhat inferior to the finest qualities. Opium.—The most general use made of the Poppy, is the extraction of Opium from it, for which purpose it is extensively cultivated in various parts of Asia. The best account of this culture, and of the preparation of the Opium in Turkey, from whence the best qualities of the drug are obtained, is given by M. C. Texier {Am. Journ. Pharm., i. 253). He states that " the seeds are sold by measure of 60 ocques, at 20 paras the ocque; that is 30 piastres (about a dollar and a half). The ocque is equal to 2| pounds. They begin to work the earth in December, by means of a hoe, or some- times of a plough. The furrows are sufficiently large to permit persons to pass without injuring the stems of the plants; the seeds are sown broadcast in beds three and a half feet wide; the plants are thinned, and great care taken to prevent the growth of weeds." A few days after the flowers have fallen, the heads are slit horizontally, taking care that the incision does not penetrate into the interior; a white, milky fluid exudes, which is left for twenty-four hours, and then scraped off with large dull knives Each head furnishes but a few grains of opium. The drug is sophisticated, by portions of the epidermis being mixed with it, thus increasing the weight about a twelfth. The opium is now in the form of a glutinous but granular jelly It is placed in small earthen vessels and pounded, the operator spitting into it from time to time. When they are asked why they do not employ water PAPAVERACEaE. 123 instead of saliva, they reply that water would injure the opium. The opium is then wrapped in dry leaves, and is fit for sale. The seed is not injured by the extraction ofthe opium from the capsules. It appears, from the accounts of other travellers, that the process of ex- traction varies in different countries; thus, in Persia, Kcempfer states that the incisions are made transversely, with a many-bladed knife. In India, according to Mr. Royle {Productive Resources of India), the Poppy not being a native of tropical climates, is not cultivated during the hot months, but from October to March. He further states, that the plant requires good soil, and above all a careful management of the irrigation, as the strength of the juice depends upon the quantity of moisture, and even that of the dew which collects upon the capsule,—a deficiency of it preventing the proper flow of the milky juice, whilst an excess, besides washing off the milk, sepa- rates the soluble from the insoluble portions of the Opium. This is con- firmed by Mr. Texier, who says that, in Turkey, a few days' rain in May and June, when the capsules are formed, causes a great loss of Opium. An inspection of different kinds of Opium also shows that the modes of ex- tracting it, and the subsequent manipulations it undergoes, vary according to the place in which it is grown; thus some of the Turkey Opiums have evi- dently undergone no other preparation than that of agglutination, as they are formed of small tears or drops, which would not be the case if prepared as noticed by Mr. Texier. In Persia, according to Kcempfer, it is pounded in a mortar with water, and is well worked with a wooden spatula, and hence the masses present no appearance of drops or tears, but are of a uniform texture. This is also the case with the Indian, which is subjected to additional mani- pulations before it is exposed for sale, which are thus described by Dr. O'Shaughnessy {Manual of Chemistry), as practised at the government fac- tory at Behar: " The reception of Opium at the government factories com- mences with the hot season and terminates late in the rains. The drug generally arrives in batches or chelans of several jars, the production of one zillah, or its subordinate kotes or districts. The jars contain from twenty seers to one maund, and it is no uncommon event to have five hundred of these paraded in the morning for the inspection of the Opium agent and his assistants. The first examination, and the resulting classification, are ex- tremely simple; the examiners thrust a slit bamboo into the contents of the jar, and judge from experience ofthe state of consistence, flavour, and colour of the specimen. Marks are chalked on the jar, according to the degree of each of these qualities, from 1. 1. 1. to 4. 4. 4. inclusive. Opium of the first class is of a fine chestnut colour, aromatic smell, and dense consistence; it is moderately ductile, and, when the mass is torn, breaks with a deeply-notched fracture, with sharp, needle-like fibres, translu- cent, and ruby red at the edges. 100 grains of this opium will yield to cold distilled water an extract of from 35 to 45. If 100 grains be evaporated at 212°, it loses from 20 to 28 per cent, of water, giving a consistence of from 72 to 80, the standard ofthe factory. The second class is of a darker colour, less agreeable smell, softer texture, and often shows black specks on its surface and texture; it is more ductile, but breaks with a more even fracture. Its consistence ranges from 65 to 70, and yields an extract averaging from 27 to 35 per cent. The third class is black, pasty, of a very heavy smell, drops from the' examining rod, gives off from 40 to 50 per cent, of moisture on evaporation; the extract is very dark and deliquesces rapidly. The last class comprises all that is too bad to be used in the manufacture of balls; it is of all colours, from deep black to 124 MEDICAL BOTANY. bright brown, and of all degrees of consistence, from fluidity to a solid tex- ture. After this examination, a portion is taken from each parcel and mixed to- gether, and from this, three samples, of 100 grains each, are weighed and evaporated to dryness; if the residue is above 70, a corresponding price is paid, and vice versa. The amount of extract is taken at the same time. On these data, the contents of the jars are sorted for mixture in great tanks; the jars afe then washed, and the washings, with the opium of the last class, is used as paste to agglutinate the covering of the petals in making up the balls or cakes. When all the opium has been received, the tanks are gradually cleared of their contents, and the soft mass exposed to the action ofthe air, until it dries to a consistence of 69 or 70. It is then made up into cakes, of a certain weight, each covered with a layer of the petals of the plant. These are care- fully dried. Some of the best opium is prepared with more care for the medical service. But it is not in Asia alone that opium has been collected ; many successful attempts have been made in England and other parts of Europe, but the cul- ture of the poppy for this purpose has been very limited, and rather for the purposes of experiment than for sale. These trials have shown that an article fully equal to Turkey opium can be prepared, and at a lower price. There are many varieties of opium known in commerce, the principal of which are the Smyrna or Turkey, the Egyptian, and the East Indian, the two first of which alone come to the United States. The first is in irregular, rounded, or flattened cakes, enveloped in the petals of the plant, and covered with the capsules of a Rumex. The fracture is waxy, the odour strong, and the taste bitter and nauseous. The Egyptian is in round flattened cakes, of a more regular form than the last, covered with a leaf, but not with the seed- vessels of a Rumex. This is inferior to the Turkey, though sometimes par- cels are met with as rich in Morphia, but the quality is by no means uniform. No plant has more engaged the attention of chemists than the Poppy and its products ; but notwithstanding the numerous examinations made, nothing of importance was developed until 1803, when the investigations of Derosne, Seguin, Sertuerner, and others, showed that opium owed its powers to the presence of certain peculiar principles; and later experimenters, in following up the path thus opened to them, have demonstrated that this drug is extremely complex in its composition, containing no less than 17 or 18 constituents, of which Morphia is the most important. These are morphia, narcotina, codeia, narceia, meconine, paramorphia, pseudomorphia, meconic acid, brown ex- tractive, resin, fatty oil, gummy matter, caoutchouc, albumen, volatile oil, lignin, &c. It does not comport with the character of this work to enter into an examination of the methods of separating these various substances, nor their respective action on the human system ; an able abstract on this subject will be found in Pereira's Elements of Materia Medica. Effects of Opium.—The precise action of opium on the system has been the subject of much controversy, and the most opposite opinions have been pro- mulgated respecting it; some regarding it as a direct sedative, while others have asserted that it was a powerful stimulant; but it is now generally ad- mitted that it may be so given as to obtain from it both these effects, and that whilst the former are primary, and the result of a moderate dose, the latter are secondary, and caused by a larger quantity. When given in a moderate dose to a person not habituated to its use, it first produces excitement of the pulse, with a pleasant exhilaration of mind ; this is followed by a diminution of muscular power and a lessened susceptibility to external impressions, with PAPAVERACEaE. 125 an irresistible tendency to sleep ; all the secretions are diminished except that of perspiration, and there is often nausea and vomiting. The stimulant ope- ration seldom lasts more than one hour, but the sedative effects persist for several. When an excessive dose is taken, the sedative influence is almost imme- diate, there being no stimulant stage : there is giddiness and stupor, which rapidly increase, and the person becomes insensible to all external impres- sions, with heavy and stertorous breathing, a slow and oppressed pulse, and contracted pupils. This state continues some time, when the pulse sinks, re- laxation ofthe muscles comes on, and death ensues, or else violent convul- sions come on, which cease a short time previous to the final event. The quantity requisite to produce these phenomena, varies with almost every individual. To some constitutions opium is injurious in very small doses, whilst on others, again, it acts with very diminished powers ; this may arise from the effects of habit or the presence of pain, both of which modify the action of this drug in an astonishing manner. The effects of habit in diminishing the powers of opium on the system are fully exemplified in the large quantities which are daily used with impunity by confirmed opium eaters ; thus, De Quincy, in his extraordinary work, the " Confessions of an English Opium Eater," acknowledges to have taken 8000 drops of laudanum or 210 grains of opium per diem ; and in Pereira's Materia Medica a case is recorded, where an opium eater was in the habit of taking from 120 to 150 grains of solid opium in the same space of time. In Turkey, in consequence ofthe prohibition of wine and spirituous liquors, the consumption of opium as a stimulant was at one time very great, but of late years has much declined, from a relaxation of the laws respecting the sale of alcoholic drinks, though great numbers of teriakis, or opium eaters, are still to be met with who take this narcotic in large quantities. At the opium shops, where it is sold, it is mixed with a rich syrup, or made up into small lozenges with spices. Notwithstanding the morbid effects produced by the use of opium, it has been disputed whether its habitual employment tends to shorten life, and Dr. Christison has given many cases, which serve to prove that it does not; but it is evident that these and other instances which have been adduced are merely exceptions to the general rule, and cannot be considered as establish- ing that the habitual use of a deleterious article is innocuous, for nothing can be more distressing than the condition of those who indulge in this species of intoxication, when they are not under the influence ofthe drug. Another mode in which opium is largely used, especially in China and the Malayan Archipelago, is that of smoking it; this appears even more injurious than taking it in substance. We are told that it occasions stupor, forgetful- ness, deterioration of the mental faculties, emaciation, debility, and loss of appetite; and if the stimulus be withheld, a-train of still more distressing symptoms, and even death, ensue. The action of opium is also greatly diminished where violent, pain exists at the time of taking it, or in peculiar conditions ofthe system, as tetanus or mania a potu; in such cases, immense doses of opium have been adminis- tered with scarcely a sensible result, the disease appearing to overcome the powerful properties ofthe drug. Opium diminishes all the secretions, except that from the skin, which it generally promotes, more especially if given in combination with a small portion of ipecacuanha. It is also said not to arrest the secretion of milk or the catamenial discharge in females. In some cases, on the other hand, in- stead of arresting secretions and discharges, it promotes them, and will act 126 MEDICAL BOTANY. as a purgative or diuretic, according to the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the indi- vidual. When opium or any of its preparations have been taken in poisonous doses, the great object is to evacuate the contents of the stomach. This may be done either by means of emetics or the stomach-pump. The best emetic in these cases is the sulphate of zinc in large doses; when not to be procured, the sulphate of copper. Tartar emetic or ipecacuanha may be resorted to, or if not at hand, a spoonful of mustard or common salt mixed in a tumbler of warm water, will often prove effectual. Where it can be procured, the sto- mach-pump is the most effectual mode of thoroughly removing the poison ; after it has been thoroughly evacuated, the administration of coffee, and of some of the milder stimuli, has been found useful, and every means must be resorted to to prevent the patient from falling into a lethargy, by keeping him in continual motion ; in extreme cases, flagellation to the palms of the hands and soles of the feet has been found very successful. The affusion of cold water has also been used in some cases with decided benefit, even where other means had failed. When the respiratory function is imperfectly per- formed, artificial inflation of the lungs must be practised. General bleeding in these cases, more especially whilst any of the poison remains in the sto- mach, is decidedly injurious, as the abstraction of blood favours absorption. Topical bloodletting by means of cups to the head, is, however, requisite in some cases; where a poisonous dose of opium has been taken, it generally proves fatal within twelve hours; those who survive longer, usually recover, though cases have occurred where there was a partial recovery, followed by a fatal termination. The appearances after death in cases of poisoning by opium, are by no means marked, or indicative ofthe cause, being principally confined to a tur- gescence of the vessels of the brain, and even this is not always present. Where there are marks of inflammation in the alimentary canal, these are to be attributed to the vehicle in which the narcotic has been taken, and not to the poison itself. Opium is given in a vast variety of forms ; in substance as powder, pill, or electuary, in solution, in tincture, and in combination with the vegetable acids, and in these various forms, either alone or in combination with other articles. Of late years, morphia and its salts have been much employed in- stead of opium or its preparations. The forms recognised by the U. S. Phar- macopoeia are pilulae opii, confectio opii, puIV. ipecac, et opii, tinctura opii, tinc- tura opii camphorata, vinum opii, morphia, morphiae acetas, morphiae sulphas, The medium dose of opium is one grain ; ofthe tincture, twenty-five drops, and of morphia and its salts, one-sixth of a grain. For full information on the subject of the preparations, reference may be had to Pereira's Elements of Mat. Med. vol. ii. Several other species of poppy have been used in medicine, but none of them have attained any celebrity except the P. rhceasov corn-poppy of Europe, now naturalized in some parts of the United States. This beautiful flower is exceedingly common in the grain fields of Europe, and proves very detri- mental to the agriculturist. It flowers in June and July, when its brilliant red petals render it a conspicuous object. Its capsules contain a milky juice in small quantities, similar to that of the P. somniferum, but it is the petals only that are employed medicinally. These form the basis of a syrup which is'recognised as officinal in some of the Pharmacopoeias, but is possessed of very feeble powers, and is seldom prescribed in this country. It is of a beau- tiful red colour, and has the power of tinging the mucous membrane of the stomach of a bluish-red, resembling that caused by inflammation. The dose of the syrup of poppies is from half an ounce to an ounce. PAPAVERACEaE. 127 Sangtjinaria.—Linn. Sepals 2. Petals 8.12. Stamens 24. Stigmas 2, connate. Pericarps oblong, pod-like, acute at each extremity, 2-valved. Seeds numerous, obovate. A genus named from the circumstance ofthe root containing a large quan- tity of a blood or rather orange-red juice; it consists of but one species, pe- culiar to North America. S. canadensis, Linn.—Leaves radical, solitary, cordate, lobed; scape sheathed at base, 1-flowered; petals oblong, obtuse. Linn. Sp. PI. 723 ; Torrey & Gray, Fl. i. 62; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. i. 31 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. i. 75; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. ii. 78; Lindley, Med. Flor. 16. Common names.—Blood root, Puccoon, Turmeric, &c. Description. — Root a horizontal, fleshy rhizome, truncate or praemorse, Fig. 72. giving off" a few fibres, and abounding in a bright orange juice. The leaf and flower spring up together, the scape and flower-bud being enveloped in the young leaf, which unfolds as the flower expands. The leaf is erect, supported on a long petiole, cordate or subreni- form, smooth, of a green colour above, and glaucous beneath. The scape is 1-flowered, erect. The calyx is formed of two ovate, obtuse sepals, which fall off as soon as the corolla expands; this is composed of eight or more spreading, oblong, obtuse petals, of a white Golour. The stamens are nume- rous, short, with orange-coloured, ob- long anthers. The ovary is oblong and compressed, and crowned with two connate stigmas. The capsule is oblong, narrowed at each end, 2-valved, and containing numerous, obovate red seeds, with a white arillus. This beautiful plant is one of the first harbingers of spring, ex- panding its delicate white petals in March and April. It is found in most parts of the United States, in rich, light soil, on shaded banks, or at the edge of woods. The flowers are devoid of smell, and the petals are very caducous. The leaf is small whilst the plant is in blossom, but rapidly in- creases in size afterwards. The whole plant is pervaded with an acrid orange-coloured juice,which is in greatest abundance in the s. canadensis. root. There are several varieties differing in the number and form of the petals, but none of them are perma- mm 128 MEDICAL BOTANY. nent. It has a marked tendency when in a wild state, to multiply its petals, and under cultivation often produces double flowers. It bears transplanta- tion very well, and thrives luxuriantly in a garden. This plant was well known to the Indians, who employed it to paint them- selves with, and as a dye for a variety of articles. It has not been used to any extent in the arts, as the colour is apt to fade; if means could be found to render it permanent, it would become an important article to the manufac- turer. From experiments made by Dr. Downey, it appears that the sulphate of alumine will partially fix the colour on woollen stuffs, and the murio-sul- phate of lead on cotton and linen. Medical Uses. — The medicinal powers of Sanguinaria have been in- vestigated -by Dr. Downey, who made it the subject of an inaugural disser- tation in 1803, and at a later period, in the fullest manner, by Dr. Tully, who considered it one of the most valuable of our native remedies. He attri- butes to it the action of squill, seneka, digitalis, guaiacum, and ammoniacum. This is evidently going too far, and has not been corroborated by the expe- rience of other practitioners, though there is no doubt of its active properties, which are those of an acrid narcotic, acting, in doses of ten grains to a scruple, as a powerful emetic, and often occasioning a sense of burning heat in the stomach, with vertigo, prostration of strength, and other untoward symptoms. The root is generally used, but every portion of the plant is endowed with active qualities; the seeds are apparently more narcotic than the root, and cause symptoms resembling those produced by stramonium. From the experiments of Dr. Dana, in 1824, it is shown that Sanguinaria owes its powers to the presence of an alkaloid principle, which he has called Sanguinarina. His analysis has been confirmed by that of Mr. C. J. Lee {Am. Jour. Pharm., i. 32). It is obtained by digesting the powdered root in alcohol, precipitating with ammonia, decolorizing by means of animal char- coal, redissolving in alcohol, and evaporating to dryness. The principle thus separated is of a white colour, changing, on exposure to the air, to a light yellow ; it is extremely acrid, and possesses the properties of an alkali. The salts it forms with the acids are various rich shades of red, crimson, or scarlet, It has not as yet been employed in medicine. Sanguinaria has been successfully administered in many diseases of the lungs, and has been recommended in rheumatism and diseases of the liver. The powder and decoction have also been found useful in the treatment of ill-conditioned ulcers, as an escharotic or wash. Dr. Shanks, of Tennessee, cured a case of gelatinous polypus with Sanguinaria, after extraction had twice failed. {Am. Jour. Med. Sci., Oct. 1842.) Its exact powers in these and other complaints require further investigation, and deserve the attention of the profession. It may be given in powder, of which the dose, as an emetic, is from 10 to 20 grains; a:? a stimulant or expectorant, 3 to 5 grains several times a day. It may also be given in infusion, made with half an ounce of the root to a pint of water, the dose being a tablespoonful. The tincture, which is officinal, may be administered in doses of half a drachm to half an ounce, according to the indications to be fulfilled. Dr. Downey states that the leaves are used in veterinary practice in Mary- land, to produce sweating, and thus facilitate the shedding of their hair in the spring; and from our own experience with it for this purpose, we are con- vinced of its efficacy, and also ofthe powers of the fresh root, given at inter- vals, mixed with the usual food, in the destruction of bots in these animals. One or two roots, chopped fine and mixed with oats or in a mash, will be generally found sufficient. PAPAVERACEaE. 129 Argemone.—Linn. Sepals 2. Petals 4-8. Stamens indefinite. Stigmas 4—7, nearly sessile, radiating, concave, free. Capsule obovate,- opening at the apex by valves. Seeds globose, pitted, and reticulated. A small genus of annual glaucous plants, having sessile leaves, which are repand-sinuate or pinnatifid, with prickly teeth. They abound in an acrid yellow juice. They are principally found in warm climates, but have become naturalized in the more temperate regions. A. mexicana, Linn.—Leaves usually mottled with white; flowers solitary; calyx gla- brous, prickly; petals yellow or white; capsules prickly. Linn., Sp. PI. 121; Torrey and Gray, Fl. i. 61 ; Botan. Mag. t. 243. Common Names.—Prickly Poppy, Yellow Thistle, Thorn Poppy. The Thorn Poppy is a native of Mexico, the West Indies, and the southern and western parts of the United States, and has become naturalized in many parts of the world, especially in India. The whole plant abounds with a milky, viscid juice, which, on exposure to the action ofthe air, becomes of a bright yellow colour, resembling gamboge. This juice has an acrid, un- pleasant taste, but is almost inodorous. Medical Uses.—The inspissated juice, according to Long {Hist. Ja- maic, iii. 845), has been found useful as a hydragogue purgative in dropsies and jaundice. In Java, the fresh juice is administered internally in obstinate cutaneous affections, and applied externally to warts, chancres, and ill-con- ditioned ulcers; and Ainslie {Mat. Ind., ii. 43) states that it is considered by the Hindoos as a valuable remedy in ophthalmia, rubbed on the tarsus, or even dropped into the eye. The seeds are employed, in the West Indies, as a substitute for ipecacu- anha, in doses of two drachms infused in a pint of water {Wright, Med. Plants W. Ind.) They also act on the bowels, and are used as a purgative in many parts of South America {Aublet. Hist. Guiane). An oil prepared from them has much reputation in India as an application to tinea capitis, and is also considered beneficial as an external application in cases of head- ache occasioned by exposure to the heat of the sun. It is likewise used as a purgative and deobstruent, and also for the domestic purpose of burning in lamps. It is asserted {Journ. de Pharm., xiv. 73) that this oil is as active as that of the Croton tiglium ; but this is erroneous, as is the statement of Long, that the seeds are a more powerful narcotic than opium. The flowers are said by De Candolle {Essai, iii.) to be administered in Mexico as a hypnotic. Chelidonium.—Linn. Sepals 2. Petals 4. Stamens somewhat numerous. Capsule pod-shaped, narrow, 2-valved; valves dehiscing from base to apex. Seeds numerous, with a glandular cristate raphe. A genus of perennial herbs, furnished with a yellowish acrid juice, and containing probably but a single species, which is a native of Europe, but has become extensively naturalized in the United States and elsewhere. C. majus, Linn.—Peduncles many-flowered. Pedicels somewhat umbellate. Leaves pinnately divided, glaucous. Segments ovate, cuneately-incised or lobed, terminal one cu- neiform-obovate. Capsules torulose. 9 130 MEDICAL BOTANY. Linn. Sp. PI. 723 ; Eng. Bot. i. 1581 ; Woodville, i. 140 ; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 86 ; Torrey and Gray, Fl. i. 62. Common names.—Celandine, Tetterwort. Celandine is a native of most parts of Europe, and is extensively natural- ized in the United States, growing in waste places, and flowering throughout the summer. The whole plant is very brittle, and exudes when broken, an orange-coloured, fetid juice. Its taste is intensely bitter and acrid, occasion- ing a sense of burning in the mouth and fauces, which lasts for some time. The root is more powerful than the stems, and is the part generally used. The active principle is soluble both in water and alcohol, and although not volatile, is somewhat diminished by drying. According to an analysis by Chevallier and Lassaigne {Jour, de Pharm. iii. 451), the juice of this plant contains—a bitter resinous substance, of a deep yellow colour; a gum-resin of an orange colour, having a bitter and nauseous taste; albumen ; some salts, &c. Thomson is of opinion that it is very analogous to gamboge both in composition and properties. Medical uses.—Although Celandine is now but seldom employed in regular practice, it at one time enjoyed a very high reputation as a stimulating aperient, diuretic, deobstruent, and sudorific, and was thought to be particu- larly efficacious in the removal of obstructions of the liver, in promoting ex- pectoration, and in the cure of chronic cutaneous affections ; thus Miller {Compend. Herb.) says, " it is aperitive and cleansing, opening obstructions of the liver and spleen, and of great use in curing the jaundice and scurvy. Some reckon it cordial and a good antidote against the plague. It is put into aqua mirabilis. Outwardly it is used for sore eyes, to dry up rheum, and to take away specks and films, and also against tetters and ringworms, and scurfy breakings out." It may not be as effectual in the treatment of these various affections as is stated, but is certainly possessed of much activity, and is one of those remedies that has been unduly neglected in our rage for new and foreign drugs. According to the observations of numerous German practitioners, its bene- ficial results in scrofula are unequivocal ; Wendt andKuntzmann have given cases where it proved completely successful in this disease {Jour. Hufland, 1813). As a drastic and hydragogue purgative it appears fully equal to gamboge, and might replace it in all cases in which the foreign article is used. It has also been recommended as an external application to the feet, in those oedematous swellings succeeding fevers. Recamier is of opinion that it has a peculiar elective action on the spleen, and hence is very effectual in removing engorgements of that viscus. Externally the juice has long been known as a caustic for the removal of warts, and is said to be very efficacious in stimulating and healing old and indolent ulcers, speedily removing fungous flesh, and giving a healthy action to the torpid and indolent granulations. Hildanus, Ettmuller, Geoffroy, and others attest the powers of the juice, when diluted with some bland liquid, in specks and opacities of the cornea. A cataplasm of the bruised leaves has also been successfully used in herpes and obstinate psora. The dose ofthe dried root is from 3ss. to 3j.; of the fresh juice from 30 to 40 drops, mixed with some bland liquid ; of the watery extract 5 to 10 grains ; and ofthe vinous tincture about 3j. to 3ij. brassicace^:. 131 Group VI. — Crnciferales. Order 10.—BRASSICACEaE.—Lindley. Herbaceous, rarely shrubby plants, with alternate leaves, and small white, yellow, or whitish-purple flowers. Sepals 4, deciduous. Petals 4, hypogynous, alternate with the sepals, cruciate, regular, nearly equal. Stamens 6, two of which are shorter, and usually inserted rather lower than the others; the other four in pairs. Anthers introrse. Torus with 2 or more glands, between the stamens and the ovary. Ovary generally of 2 cells, with a membranaceous (spurious) partition. Style short or none, with a two-lobed or double stigma. Pericarp a silique or silicle, opening by the two valves separating from the permanent placenta, usually 2-celled, many-seeded (rarely 1-celled, and indehiscent.) Seeds mostly pendulous, attached in single rows to each edge of the placenta, with no albumen. Embryo with the cotyledons variously folded on the radicle. This is a very extended and, at the same time, very natural family of plants, all the species composing it being closely allied in structure and pro- perties. It is divided into two great sections, founded on the structure of the fruit, the Siliquosce and the Siliculosce. It is equivalent to the 15th class of the sexual system, or Tetradynamia, a striking instance of a perfectly natural group in a purely artificial arrangement. It has been divided by botanists into many tribes, founded on the number and character of the cotyledons, which tribes are again subdivided, according to the structure ofthe pericarp. The Brassicaceae are all more or less acrid and pungent. In some of them, this acrid principle is in union with a considerable quantity of muci- lage, when they become useful articles of food. The acridity in all of them appears to depend on a volatile oil, which is dissipated by heat. A very large number of culinary vegetables and condiments are derived from this class, as all the varieties of Cabbage, the Turnip, Mustard, Horse Radish, Cress, &c. As medicinal agents they are of little importance, though from the pun- gency ofthe volatile oil contained in some of them, they are frequently em- ployed as external stimulants, and sometimes administered internally to excite the intestinal canal. They are, however, all useful as antiscorbutics. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia recognises but two of them as officinal, the Horse Radish and Mustard. Cochlearia.—Linn. Silicle ovate, globose, or oblong; valves ventricose. Seeds many,not bordered. Calyx equal, spreading. Petals 2-parted. Stamens not toothed. Style short or none. Flowers white. Leaves usually fleshy. C. armoracia, Linn. — Radical leaves, oblong, crenate; cauline leaves lanceolate, dentate, or incised. Silicle ellipsoid. Linn. Sp. PI. 904 ; Eng. Bot. xxxiii. t. 2323 ; Woodville, Med. Bot. t. 150 ; Stephenson and Churchill, Med. Bot. ii. 114 ; Lindley, Med. Flor. Common Name.—Horse Radish. Foreign Names.—Grand Raifort, Moutarde des allemands, Fr. ; Meerettig, Gr. ; Barba forte, Rafano, It. 132 MEDICAL botany. Fig. 73. C. armoracia. 1. Radical leaf. 2. Raceme. 3 Stamens and pistils. 4. Pistil. 5. Silicle. Description.—The root is long, white, cylindrical, striking deep into the earth. The stem is round, erect, branched, and about two feet high. The radical leaves are large, petiolated,of a dark green colour, crenate, waved, and sometimes lobed; those ofthe stem are few, scattered, smaller, ses- sile, lanceolate, sometimes entire, but gene. rally more or less toothed. The flowers are numerous, white, and in terminal clusters. The sepals are ovate, concave, and deciduous. The petals are obovate, twice as long as the sepals, and ungui- culate. The stamens are as long as the calyx, incurved and supporting heart- shaped anthers. The ovary is oblong, with a short style, bearing a short capitate stigma, and changing into an elliptical, compressed, bilocular pod, containing about four seeds in each cell, many of which are abortive. The Horse Radish is a native of many parts of Europe, growing na- turally in moist and rich soils, and has long been cultivated for the sake of its roots, which are exten- sively used as a condiment. When planted in gardens it is extremely difficult to be eradicated, as the roots are furnished with many buds or eyes, each of which will give rise to a plant. They should always be grown in a rich and somewhat moist soil, otherwise they will be small and stringy. This plant is said to have been known to Dioscorides and Hippocrates; but this is extremely doubtful, though it was in use in the time of Pliny. The root, which is the only part used, has a pungent odour, and a warm acrid taste with a slight sweetness. It imparts its properties to water and alcohol, and in a still greater degree to vinegar. These qualities depend on the presence of a volatile oil which is dissipated by heat or desiccation ; on drying, the root first becomes sweetish, and afterwards nearly insipid ; it may be kept for a long lime uninjured if covered with sand in a cool place. Its principal use is for a condiment to various kinds of animal food and more espe- cially to beef, for which purpose it is grated or scraped and mixed with vinegar, if this preparation is kept in well-closed jars, it retains its pungency for a long time. Medical Properties, §~c.—As a remedial agent it acts very much like mus- tard, but promotes the secretions, especially that of urine, in a more marked manner. When taken into the stomach in any quantity, it excites that oro-an powerfully, and also operates as a sudorific and diuretic. It was at one time considered useful in paralysis and chronic rheumatism, and was used with success by Sydenham in dropsy supervening on intermittent fever. The infusion acts as an emetic, and like mustard, may be employed where there is torpidity ofthe stomach, either alone, or to aid the operation of other emetics. It has also been prescribed as a masticatory in paralysis of the tongue. Dr. Cullen states that a drachm of the root infused in four ounces of boilinc water in a close vessel, and made into a syrup with double its weight of sugar, acts very beneficially in the removal of hoarseness arising from re- BRASSICACEaE. 133 laxation or a deficiency of secretion ; a teaspoonful is to be taken at a time and swallowed very leisurely, repeating the dose from time to time. Dr. Withering also says that an infusion of this root in milk forms an excellent and safe cosmetic. Horse Radish has likewise been used as an external irritant, for which purpose it should be grated fine and mixed with vinegar ; it acts promptly and energetically on the skin, and is a far neater application than a sinapism and in most cases quite as effectual. The dose of the root is one or two drachms cut into small pieces or grated. Another species of this genus, C. officinalis, or Scurvy grass, is admitted into many Pharmacopoeias, but is more generally used as a salad, than as a remedial agent. It possesses the sensible qualities of the order in a marked degree, and hence has been found very useful in scurvy, as its common name indicates. It has also been recommended in various other diseases, but is now deservedly abandoned and forgotten, except as a culinary vegetable. Sinapis.—Linn. Silique somewhat terete, valves ribbed. Styles short, acute. Seeds in a single row, subglobose. Calyx spreading. The genus Sinapis is composed of numerous species of herbaceous plants, with yellow flowers, and lyrate, incised or pinnatifid leaves. They are almost all annual or biennial, and are found in all parts ofthe world. Two of them are recognised as officinal in most Pharmacopoeias. The general name is that by which it is spoken of by Pliny and others; it was also noticed by Theophrastus and Dioscorides, and its properties fully known to them. De Theis is of opinion that the Romans derived their name for it from the Celtic, as Nap in that language is used for most of the cruciferous plants. The common name is supposed to be derived from mustum aniens, hot must, as the must of wine was formerly employed to prepare it for use. 1. S. nigra, Linn.—Siliques somewhat quadrangular, smooth, appressed to the stem; lower leaves lyrate, upper leaves linear, lanceolate, entire. Linn. Sp. PI. 933; Torrey and Gray, Fl. i. 99 ; Stokes, Med. Bot. iii. 475; Woodville, Med. Bot. t. 151 ; Stephenson and Churchill, Med. Bot. i. 42 ; Lindley, Med. Flor. 92. Common Names.—Black Mustard ; Mustard. Foreign Names.—Moutarde, Fr.; Schwartzer Senfe, Gr.; Senape, It. The Black Mustard is a native of the temperate regions of Europe, and is a troublesome weed in the grain fields; it has become naturalized in many parts of the United States, but is not very common in a wild state ; it is, however, grown to some extent in many parts of the country, both for do- mestic use and as an article of commerce. The only parts used are the seeds; these are small and round, of a dark colour externally and yellowish within. They have little or no smell when entire, but when bruised exhale a peculiar odour, which becomes pungent on the addition of water or vinegar. The principal use ofthe Black Mustard seed is as a condiment, for which purpose it is prepared in several modes. In England, and most gene- rally in this country, after being ground, the bran or husk is separated from the flour, which is then of a dark lemon colour. In France, the ground seed is used without sifting ; this affords a brownish-yellow flour, which, although not as sightly, is far more powerful than when it is prepared in the English method. No article in common use is more often adulterated than flour of mustard; in some cases, what is sold as such, does not contain a particle of it, being composed of wheat flour, coloured with turmeric and rendered pun- 134 MEDICAL BOTANY. gent by red pepper. The seeds of many of the other Cruciferae are also used as substitutes for, or adulterations of, the mustard ; of these the wild Radish is the best, as with the exception of colour, it affords a flour in every respect similar to the Sinapis. In the East Indies, the seeds of several other species of Sinapis, as the orientalis and chinensis are used both in domestic economy and in medicine, instead of those of the nigra. Medical Properties, Sj-c.—The qualities of mustard are those of a volatile acrid stimulant; in small quantities it excites the stomach and promotes diges- tion, in larger doses it acts as an emetic, and in undue quantity causes all the phenomena of gastro-enteritis. When applied to the skin, it acts promptly and powerfully as a local excitant, producing redness, burning pain, and if long continued even vesication and ulceration. The dose, as an emetic, is from a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful in a glass of water, and it is preferable to most other evacuants of the stomach, when this viscus is in an atonic condition, as it will often act when tartar-emetic or ipecacuanha wholly fail in producing emesis. In some cases it is given as a diuretic; for this purpose the best form of exhibition is mustard whey. The most general use of this article is for the purpose of stimulating the sur- face, in the form of a cataplasm. In making a mustard poultice, the best mode is to mix it with equal parts of rye or linseed flour and moisten to the proper consistence with warm but not boiling water, as the latter coagulates the albuminous or gummy constituents, and prevents the extrication of the volatile oil on which the irritating properties depend. Boiling vinegar has been recommended, but the experiments of Trousseau and others, show that the acetic or any other acid deprives the mustard of much of its activity. The analyses of mustard, by Pelouze, Robiquet, Bussy, and many other chemists, show that its constituents are numerous and many of them very peculiar; the most important of these are myronic acid, myrosyne, and sina- pisin, and it is to the mutual action of these on each other when water is added to the powdered seeds, that the volatile oil is owing, this principle not existing in a formed state in them ; this is shown by alcohol extracting no volatile oil from the powder, but after the generation of this by a mixture of the farina with water, the alcohol takes it up readily. 2. S. alba, Linn.—Siliques hispid, not appressed to stem, shorter than the beak. Leaves byrate. Linn. Sp. PI. 923 ; Stokes, Med. Bot. iii. 474 ; Stephenson and Churchill, Med. Bot. i. 42; Lindley, Med. Flor. 92. Common name.— White Mustard. Foreign names.—Moutarde Blanche, Fr. ; Luchettone, It. ; Senfsamen, Gr. Like the last-mentioned species the White Mustard is a native of Europe, but is also cultivated for the sake of its seeds. These, although resembling those of the Black Mustard in their qualities, are much milder, though they are frequently employed in the manufacture of mustard for table use. They attained great celebrity at one time in the treatment of dyspepsia and othe'r atonic conditions of the stomach and bowels, and were considered as a panacea in all complaints of the digestive organs, but as with all other popu- lar remedies, their injudicious use often produced a far worse train of evils than those they were intended to remedy. Given in doses of a spoonful once or twice a day, they sometimes prove beneficial by stimulating the digestive organs to a regular performance of their functions, but on the othe? hand CAPPARIDACEaE. 135 they have caused great irritation of the stomach and bowels, and in some cases fatal results have ensued. The analysis of the white mustard seed would seem to prove that it differed much in composition from the black, as besides the common constituents of oily seeds, it is said to contain two peculiar principles, sulphosina- pisin and erucin, and a non-vola- tile acrid principle is developed by the action of water on the farina, precisely as the acrid volatile oil is developed in the black mustard. (See Pereira, Elem. Mat. Med. ii. 686.) It is extraordinary that two seeds so analogous in their physical proper- ties and derived from closely allied plants, should present such different constituents on analysis. Many other plants of this order have been and are still used as re- medial agents, though their efficacy is extremely problematical. Thus the Cardamine pratensis, is said to be diuretic, sudorific and anti- spasmodic, and the flowers Were Fig. 73. S. alba. Fig. 74. S. nigra. once employed in epilepsy in chil- dren, and. were recommended by Sir George Baker in cholera and spas- modic asthma. {Med. Trans, i. 442.) Several species of Sisymbrium, Erysimum and Nasturtium have likewise been celebrated as anti-scorbutics, and as remedies against hoarseness. The seeds of several of them, espe- cially ofthe genus Brassica, furnish large quantities of oil, much used in the arts, under the name of rapeseed oil. Those of Arabis chinensis are pre- scribed by Hindoo practitioners as stomachic and gently stimulant, but are said to produce abortion in pregnant females, if imprudently given. The root of one species, Isatis tinctoria, yields a blue colouring matter, called woad, formerly a favourite dye, until superseded by Indigo. Numerous species are cultivated as ornamental plants, as the wall flower, stock, rocket, &c. Order 11.—CAPPARIDACEaE.—Lindley. Sepals 4, either distinct, imbricated or valvate, equal or unequal, or cohering in a tube, the limb of which is variable in form. Petals 4, hypogynous, cruciate or irregular, usually unguiculate and more or less unequal, sometimes wanting. Stamens seldom tetradynamous, usually 6-12 or a high multiple of 4, definite or indefinite, inserted on a short or sometimes elongated torus; anthers innate or introrse, with a longitudinal de- hiscence. Ovary stipitate or sessile, 1-celled, with two or more parietal placentae ; style none or filiform ; stigma generally roundish. Fruit either pod-shaped and dehiscent, or baccate, rarely 1-2, mostly many-seeded. Seeds generally uniform, exalbuminous, but with the lining ofthe testa tumid. Embryo curved; cotyledons flattish, foliaceous: radicle taper, turned to the hilum. A somewhat extensive order of herbs, shrubs, or rarely small trees, with alternate, petiolated, undivided or palmate leaves, without true stipules, but sometimes with spines in their places. The species are chiefly natives of the 136 MEDICAL BOTANY. tropics, a few, however, are found in more northern regions, especially in North America. The physical properties of the order are somewhat analo- gous to those of the cruciferous plants, but there is also conjoined in many of them an acrid and poisonous principle, rendering them suspicious and even dangerous. Thus the bark of the root of Cratceva gynandra blisters like cantharides ; this is the case also with several species of Capparis, Polanisia and Cleome. Many have been employed medicinally, among which may be noticed the Polanisia graveolens, a native of the United States, which is an active anthelmintic, much resembling in its effects Chenopodium anthelmin- ticum ; the whole plant is used either in powder, decoction, or syrup. It was first noticed by Schoepf, and is a popular remedy in some parts of the country. The Cleome felina is stated by Dr. Hamilton to be used in India, bruised with milk and sugar, against epistaxis. (Ainslie, Mat. Ind. ii. 360.) The C. icosandra is employed in Cochin-China, as a rubefacient (De Candolle, Essai, iii.) The C. triphylla has some reputation in Haytias an anti-scor- butic. {Flor. Med. des Antill. i. 202.) The C. viscosa is said to be used in India in cases of deafness. (Rheede, Malabar, ix. 23.) The Gynandropsis pentaphylla, a na- tive of Asia and the United States, is considered in the former as a power- ful sudorific, and is used externally in headache and other cephalic affec- tions ; a decoction of the seeds also is employed in convulsive attacks and typhus, {Ainslie, ii. 452.) Dr. Macfadyen also states that the juice, either alone or mixed with oil, is an excellent remedy in ear-ache, as a topical application, {Flor. Jam.) The best known plants of this order are those species of Capparis, as the spinosa, rupestris, Sfc, which furnish the flower buds used to make the celebrated pickle and con- diment called Capers. These are stimulating, anti-scorbutic, and even aperient. Another species, the C. sodada, has a narcotic odour, and its acrid stimulating fruit is em- ployed to promote fecundity; and the roots of the C. siliquosa are re- puted to be anthelmintic, aperient and stimulant. {Flor. des Antill. i. 141.) The same properties are attributed to the Cadaba indica An in- fusion of C. cynophallophora has been found useful in dropsy. {Flor Jam ) It is evident that this order is endowed with active qualities, and is de- serving of attention in a pharmacological point of view, but our information on the subject is extremely vague, and will require much investigation of the real properties of the several species, to ascertain their value as therapeutic agents, or to admit them into the already overcrowded lists of the Materia Medica. C.spinosa. 1. Flower. 2. A petal. 3. Calyx and ovary 4. Sec- tion of fruit. 5. Section of seed. 6. Embryo. CISTACEaE. 137 Order 12.—RESEDACEaE.—De Candolle. Sepals 4-6, somewhat connected at base, persistent. Petals 4-6, or by abortion fewer, broad, fleshy, having lacerated appendages at the back, unequal. Stamens definite, in- serted on a flat, rounded, hypogynous disk; filaments erect; anthers 2-celled, opening longitudinally. Ovary sessile, 1-celled, 3-4 lobed, usually with 3-6 parietal placenta; stigmas 3, glandular, sessile. Fruit dry and membranous, rarely succulent, opening at the apex; or apocarpous, with empty carpels round a central placenta. Seeds numerous, reniform, smooth or pitted ; embryo taper, arcuate; albumen none, or scarcely any. Herbaceous plants or rarely small shrubs, with alternate, entire or pin- nately-divided leaves, and small, gland-like stipules. They are all natives ofthe countries surrounding the Mediterranean, with the exception of a very few species, one of which is peculiar to California. It is difficult to ascertain the exact station of this order, but as it agrees with the Capparidaceae in its seeds, hypogynous disk, parietal placentae and curved embryo, I have fol- lowed Lindley in placing it in the present group instead ofthe following. The species are unimportant in a medicinal point of view, though some of them were formerly esteemed as endowed with considerable powers. The genus Reseda derives its name from a plant noticed by Pliny (lib. xxvii. c. 12), which was used as a topical calmant to abscesses, pronouncing at the same time the words reseda morbus. The R. luteola or Weld, a native of Europe and naturalized in some parts ofthe United States, affords a yellow dye for wool- len stuffs, and has been known for a long time, being noticed by Virgil under the name of Croceum luteum. It was formerly considered to be diaphoretic and alexipharmic, and was employed as an antidote in snake-bites, and is also stated to be a powerful vermifuge, and to be the basis of Darbon's reme- dy against the taenia. The R. phyteuma is said by the old writers to be aphrodisiac, but is used as a garden vegetable by the modern Greeks. Le- mery {Diet. 715), speaks of the R. sesamoides as a good vulnerary and detersive. The most celebrated of these plants is the R. odorata, so familiar under the name of Mignonette, for its fragrancy. The properties of the other species of this order have not been ascertained, but it is probable that they are inert, and of little value. Order 13.—CISTACEaE.—Lindley. Sepals 5, persistent; two outer, small or wanting; three inner, imbricated. Petals 5, or by abortion 3 or more, caducous, hypogynous. Stamens indefinite, seldom few, dis- tinct, hypogynous; anthers short, innate. Ovary of 3-5 connected carpels ; styles and stigmas generally united. Pericarp 3-5 valved, 1-celled, with parietal placentae, or 3-5 celled, with dissepiments arising from the centre of the valves. Seeds few or numerous. Embryo nearly straight or spirally convolute. The Cistaceae are herbaceous or small shrubs with simple, and generally entire leaves, which are opposite or alternate, the lowest always opposite, and in many cases having stipules. The flowers are red, white, and yellow, and are in some cases large and showy, but at others, very small and inconspi- cuous. They are found in most parts ofthe world, but the larger proportion ofthe species are natives of temperate climates. The medical properties of the order are slight and unimportant; some of the species, however, furnish a resinous, somewhat balsamic product, parti- cularly the Cislus creticus, from which the Ladanum is obtained. The Cochlospermum gossypium of India affords a gum called Kuteera, used as a substitute for Tragacanth. A decoction of the roots of C. insigne is 138 MEDICAL BOTANY. employed in Brazil in internal pains, and that of C. tinctoria in amenorrhoea, and as a yellow dye. The Helianthemum vulgare was at one time used as a vulnerary, and in the treatment of phthisis, and Kramer states that he has seen cures effected by it. The H. canadense is also employed by empirics in this country in scrofulous complaints, both internally in decoction, and ex- ternally as cataplasms. Cistus.—Linn. Calyx regular. Corolla with 5 equal petals. Stamens numerous. Style simple. Cap- sule 5-celled, many-seeded. C. creticus, Linn.—Sepals lanceolate; leaves ovate, spathulate, rugose, without sti- pules. Linn. Syst. Veg. 497 ; Richard, Elem. d'Hist. Mat. Med. ii. 743 ; De Can- dolle, Prod. i. 264 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 131. Common names.—Rock rose; Rose of Crete. Foreign names.—Ciste de Crete, Fr. Cisto, Ladano, It. Cisten, Ger. Description.—A small shrub, with di- FiS 77- varicate, pubescent branches, furnished with ovate, somewhat spathulate leaves, which are waved at their edges, and pu- bescent on both surfaces; they are sup- ported on a broad and membranaceous petiole. The flowers are pedunculate, large, of a beautiful rose colour, and are generally in threes at the end of the branches. As in all the other species, they last but one day. The calyx has five ovate-lanceolate, pubescent sepals much smaller than the petals, and per- sistent. The stamens are numerous, of a golden colour. The pericarp is a globose, pubescent capsule, almost co. vered by the calyx, and opening by five valves. It is a native of Syria, and of many of the islands of the Medi- terranean Archipelago, growing in dry and stony situations, and cul- tivated elsewhere for the beauty of its flowers. From it and other species of the genus, a resinous substance is collected, known un- der the name of Ladanum. This is a natural exudation from the plant, and is obtained for use in a variety of modes. In former times, it is stated by Dioscorides, it was collected by combing the beards of goats which had browsed upon the plant. At present, the usual plan is to beat or brush the bushes by means of a kind of rake, formed of a double row of leathern thongs ; to these the resin adheres, and is after- VI 0 L A C E aE. 139 wards removed by scraping them with knives. As found in commerce, it is very impure, containing a very large propor- tion of dirt and sand. When pure, the smell is balsamic and agreeable, and the taste some- what bitter and aromatic. It is insoluble in water, but is almost wholly dissolved by alco- hol. According to Guibourt, it consists of re- sin and volatile oil, 86 ; wax, 7 ; aqueous ex- tract, 1 ; impurities, 6. This analysis being of the pure article, differs widely from that of Pel- Ietier, who examined this substance as usually found in the shops, which afforded him but 20 Ladanum Rake. of resin, whilst there was 72 of sand and impu- rities. Ladanum is now but seldom used as a medicinal agent, though it was for- merly in some repute as an ingredient in several stimulating plasters, oint- ments, and theriacs. Its principal employment is in perfumes, and as a con- stituent in aromatic pastilles. Group VII.—Violates. Order 14.—VIOLACEaE.—De Candolle. Sepals 5, persistent, produced at base. Petals 5, alternate with the sepals, hypogy- nous, usually unequal, the upper one generally spurred or saccate at base. Stamens 5, alternate with the petals, inserted on the hypogynous disk, filaments dilated and project- ing beyond the anthers, two of them usually with a gland at base. Anthers 2-celled, innate, introrse, opening longitudinally. Ovary 1-celled, of 3 united carpels, with 3 pari- etal placentae. Style sometimes declined or curved, with an oblique cucullate stigma. Pericarp a 1-celled, 3-valved, many-seeded capsule. Seeds often with a tumour at base, and a horny testa. Embryo straight in the axis of a fleshy albumen. The Violaceae consist of herbs or shrubs, with simple, petiolate, generally alternate leaves, having two stipules. The roots of almost all of them are nauseous and emetic. The species of Viola are most numerous in temperate climates, whilst those of Ionidium are almost peculiar to South America, where many of them are known under the name of Ipecacuanha. Viola.—Linn. Sepals 5, unequal, more or less appendaged at base. Petals 5, unequal, the upper (by re-supination the lower) calcarate at base. Stamens approximate, filaments distinct. Anthers connate. Capsule bursting elastically. This extremely numerous genus is composed of small herbaceous plants, which are mostly perennial, having a fleshy rhizome or subterraneous stem, or a visible stem and fibrous roots. The leaves are alternate. The flowers are solitary on angular peduncles, and generally blue, yellow, or white. De Candolle enumerates many species, of which over 30 are natives or have become naturalized in North America. The derivation of the name is not known, but many conjectures have been hazarded by etymologists, all of which are rather fanciful than just; thus one says it is indicative of the powerful scent of the plant, " a vi olendi;" another insists that it is a dimi- nutive of via, because " quod juxta vias nasci amat." Whatever may be its derivation, the plant has been known from the earliest ages, both as a theme for the poet and as a medicinal agent. V. odorata, Linn.—Stemless. Leaves cordate, smooth as well as the footstalks. Sepals obtuse. Lateral petals with a hairy line in the centre. 140 MEDICAL BOTANY. Linn., Sp. PL, 1324; Engl. Bot., ii. 619; Stokes, Bot. Mat. Med., n. 440 ; Stephenson and Churchill, i. 29 ; Lindley, Flor. Med., 97. Common Names.—Violet, Sweet Violet, Garden Violet. Foreign Names. — Violette odorante, Fr.; Viola mammola, It.; Blaue veilchen, Gr. . This Violet is a native of every part of Europe, and is also found in many parts of Asia; it is not indigenous to the United States, but has become natu- ralized in some places. It is well known as occupying a place in every gar- den, on account ofthe early appearance and fragrance of its flowers. There are numerous varieties, both as regards colour and the multiplication of the petals. The Violet is mentioned by Homer, Theophrastus, and most of the ancient writers ; but it has been stated by Lord Mahon {Letter to the Anti- quarian Soc.) that the Violet of these authors was a species of Iris, and that this latter plant is still called viola in Sicily. His arguments, however, are far from satisfactory, and any evidence drawn from the name is applicable to numerous other plants besides the Iris, as the Italians term a variety of sweet-smelling plants viola. The odour ofthe Violet is extremely pleasant and grateful to most persons, but is repugnant and even injurious to some individuals, causing headache and vertigo; and Triller reports a case where it caused apoplexy in an old lady. The Violet at one time enjoyed a high reputation as a remedial agent, but is now only used in the preparation of a syrup from the flowers, which is a mild laxative and demulcent; but is still more employed by chemists as a reagent in the detection of acids and alkalies. The seeds are also somewhat purgative; and Bichat states that three or four drachms of them, made into an emulsion with sugar and water, acts as a mild and pleasant purgative. The roots are possessed of fa'r more energetic properties, being emetic and purgative, in about the same doses as ipecacuanha, for which they have been proposed as a substitute; but they have the disadvantage of being uncertain in their effects, sometimes acting very powerfully, and at others producing little or no impression. They owe this power to the presence of a peculiar principle, discovered by Boullay in every part ofthe plant, but principally in the roots and seeds, and which he calls violine. This is closely allied to emetine in composition and action, and was at one time considered as identi- cal with it. Several other species of violet have been used in medicine, and have been spoken of in high terms by different writers. One only is officinal in our national Pharmacopoeia, the V. pedata, a native of the United States, and re- markable for the size and beauty of its flowers and its many-parted leaves. It has been successfully employed as an expectorant and demulcent, and may be considered an equivalent to the V. odorata of Europe. Much stronger testimony has been adduced of the powers of two of the caulescent species, the V. arvensis and V. tricolor, more especially by German writers. These two plants long enjoyed the reputation of being excellent depuratives, but were not fully experimented with until Strack made them the subject of a dis- sertation in 1776. Since then the observations of Metzer, Ploucquet, and others have shown that they are possessed of much efficacy in the treatment of cutaneous diseases, and especially of that obstinate and unpleasant erup- tion, crustea lactea. On the other hand Alibert denies their powers ; but it does not appear that his opinion is founded on actual experiment. The fresh plant, or its juice, is to be used, as drying destroys its active qualities. Strack states that when this remedy has been taken for some time the urine becomes extremely foetid, smelling like that of the cat. According to Ber- gius, these plants are extremely mucilaginous, an ounce and a half in twelve VIOLACEaE. J41 of water producing a consistent jelly. From the strong proofs brought for- ward ofthe efficacy of these plants in the treatment of chronic diseases ofthe skin, they well deserve a further trial, and as the V. tricolor is to be found in every garden, the fresh herb can always be procured. Ionidium.—Ventenat. Sepals small, membranaceous at margin, unequal. Petals unequal, marcescent. Sta- mens five, approximate. Filaments short, dilated, bearing the anthers near the base. Ovary sessile, 1-eelled, 6-seeded. Style declined. Pericarp 3-valved, with a loculicidous suture. Seeds shining, truncate at apex. The species composing this genus was formerly included in Viola, until separated by Ventenat. They are herbaceous or suffruticose plants, mostly peculiar to South America, two species only occurring in the United States. It was at one time supposed that the Ipecacuanha was the product of one or more plants of this genus, as the roots of the whole or of the greater number of them are endowed with analogous properties, and are much used as substi- tutes in Brazil. The most prominent of them are the I. ipecacuanha, I. par- viflorum, and I. microphyllum. I. ipecacuanha, Linn.—Hirsute. Stem erect, herbaceous. Leaves alternate, lanceo- late, acutely serrate. Peduncles bibracteate, axillary, solitary. Calyx glandular, dentate. Aublet, Guian. 313; Ventenat, Malm. 23; Martius, Spec. Mat. Med. Bras. 14 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 93. Description.—Root perennial, ligneous, perpendicular, four to six inches in length; the old roots about the size ofthe little finger, the younger about that of a goose-quill. Stem cylindrical, branching, somewhat pilose. Leaves alternate, obovate, acute, dentate, on a short petiole, and having two linear stipules at base. Flowers pedicellate, solitary, with two or three small, linear bracts. Calyx hairy, glandular. Corolla irregular, two upper petals narrow, and not longer than the sepals, the two lateral broad and twice the length, the inferior still longer. Stamens distinct. Anthers not connate, having a mem- branaceous appendage at their apex. Pericarp almost triangular, 1-celled, 3-valved. This species occurs very plentifully in sandy soils in Brazil, Colombia, and some ofthe West Indian islands, flowering in July and September. It is known in Brazil under the name of Ipecacuanha branca, or white vomiting root, and is much prized by the inhabitants as an emetic. Martius states that he often observed large parcels of it dried and kept for use. The mode of preparation is to shave the cortical portion from the root, and infuse it in water for twelve hours; the dose of the infusion is from half a drachm to a drachm, in which quantities it acts mildly, but with much certainty. This.root has been known in commerce under the name of white Ipecacuanha, and is sometimes to be found mixed with the true article, but may always be distinguished from it, by its want of the rings so characteristic of the genuine drug. Its properties, however, seem almost identical with the real Ipecacuanha, and the analysis of it by Richard shows that its chemical composition is very analogous to it. A sufficient number of expe- riments have not been made with it to establish its exact value, but it would appear from all that is known re- specting it, that it might be used instead of the true Ipecacuanha, without inconvenience. Root of I. ipecacuanha. 142 MEDICAL BOTANY. 2. I. microphyllum, Humb.—Stem procumbent, shrubby. Leaves ovate. Stipules longer than the petioles. Peduncles with a hairy line on one side, longer than the leaves. Lindley, Flor. Med. 98 ; Bancroft, Comp. to Bot. Mag. i. 278 ; Amer. Jour. Pharm. vii. 186, viii. 125. Description.—Root ligneous, round, tortuous, much-branched. Stem somewhat shrubby, procumbent, round, tubular, the branches pubescent on two of their sides. Leaves alter- nate, oval, cuneate at base, serrate, with the apex of the teeth glandular. Petioles short. Stipules longer than the petioles, ovate, lanceolate. Flowers on solitary, axillary pedun- cles, which are longer than the leaves, with a single line of pubescence. Calyx persist. ent; the sepals smooth, ovate, acute. Corolla very unequal, marcescent, the lower petal much longer than the others. Stamens distinct, with the anthers near the base, and ex- panding above into an ovate membrane, which surrounds the style. Anthers destitute of glands. Capsule somewhat trigonal, 1-celled and 3-valved, few-seeded. Seeds globose- ovate, dark-brown, shining. Some years since the attention ofthe profession was excited by statements that a discovery had been made in South America of a plant which had proved eminently beneficial in the treatment of elephantiasis and leprosy, and a long essay on the subject was published by Dr. Bancroft in the Jamaica Physical Journal, in which he cites numerous cases in corroboration of its powers, and describes it as a species of lonidium, under the specific name of Marcucci, deeming it to be new ; from specimens sent to Dr. Lindley, how- ever, it appears that it had previously been noticed by Humboldt under the name of microphyllum, whilst Sir Wm. Hooker received specimens which proved to be I. parviflorum. About the same time Professor Mutter, of this city, obtained specimens, and shortly afterwards we were favoured by the late Dr. Hulings with dried specimens, a drawing ofthe plant, a report made to the Colombian government on the subject, and directions to aid in the search for it. From all these sources, it appears evident that more than one plant is known in South America, under the local name of Cuichunchulli. The drawing represents the /. microphyllum of Humboldt; and the specimens received by Dr. Mutter were the same, as were also those sent to Dr. Lind- ley; those we obtained were principally of I. parviflorum, with a few of the other, and the official description alluded to clearly points out that species. As the virtues of both appear to be identical, and as they are indiscriminately used for the same purposes, this discrepancy of opinion is of little consequence in a practical point of view, however interesting a proper discrimination ofthe respective species may be to the botanist. From Dr. Bancroft's essay and the official report, it appears that the reme- dial properties of a certain root, known by the natives under the name of Cuichunchulli, in the cure of elephantiasis, were well ascertained but were not communicated to the Spaniards until about the middle of the last century, when they were made known to a Jesuit in Cuenca, but attracted no attention until 1829, when an account was published in a newspaper published at Bogota ; this induced a trial of its powers in several cases of elephantiasis and other cutaneous disorders, which was attended with the most marked be- nefit to the patients. It is given in doses of half a drachm, in substance or infusion, every two or three hours; this causes a copious flow of urine and nu- merous alvine evacuations, and by a continuance ofthe medicine, the natural functions of the skin are gradually restored. Although its full powers and real efficacy have not been sufficiently tested, it is evident that it closelv re- sembles the Madur {Culotropis) ofthe East Indies in its properties as well as those of the Apocynum ; they all act as emeto-purgatives in the firs't instance and afterwards display strong diuretic qualities. FLACOURTIACEaE. 143 The analysis ofthe I. ipecacuanha by Richard, already alluded to, shows that these plants owe their emetic property to the presence of Emetine; their other qualities are probably to be attributed to a peculiar extractive matter, soluble in water, and which exists in large proportion in the root. Several other species of lonidium are used medicinally by the natives of South America, the principal of these are: the white Ipecacuanha of China, /. heterophyllum, Vent. ; this has slender, white, tortuous, nauseous roots: white Ipecacuanha of the Galipous, I. hybanthus, Vent. ; this is generally known in Brazil by the name of Poaya. The roots are white, slender, twisted and interlaced, and of a disagreeable taste and smell. White Ipeca- cuanha of Guiana, I. calceolaria, Vent. ; in this the roots are slender, no- dose, tortuous, striated longitudinally, yellowish-gray; the taste is at first mucous, and afterwards somewhat acrid and bitter ; it is emetic in doses of 30 grs., and purgative in those of 40. Ipecacuanha of St. Thomas, I. stric- turn, Vent. ; the roots somewhat resemble those of the true Ipecacuanha, I. polygafolium, Vent. I. poaya, St. Hilaire, called in Brazil Poaya do campo; the root is tortuous and annulated : emetic in doses of 25 to 30 grs. /. brevicaule, Martius. I. urticcefolium, Martius. All these and many others are employed as substitutes for the genuine Ipecacuanha, and act in a similar manner, except that they are more apt to affect the bowels. Order 15.—FLACOURTIACEaE.—Lindley. Sepals 4-7, slightly cohering at base. Petals equal in number to the sepals, and alter- nate with them or wanting. Stamens hypogynous, equal in number to the petals or some multiple of them. Ovary roundish, sessile or slightly stipulate, free, 1 or more celled, with 2 or more parietal placentae; style filiform or wanting ; stigmas several, more or less distinct; ovules attached to the surface or sides of the placentae. Fruit 1-celled, either fleshy and indehiscent, or capsular, with 4 or 5 valves, the centre filled with a thin pulp. Seeds indefinite, usually enveloped in a pellicle formed by the withered pulp. Albumen fleshy, somewhat oily; embryo straight, with the radicle turned to the hilum ; cotyledons foliaceous, flat. The species of this order are shrubs or small trees, with alternate simple leaves on short petioles, with no stipules, of a coriaceous texture and often marked with transparent dots. They are natives of tropical climates with the exception of a few occurring in New Zealand, &c. The fruits of several ofthe Flacourtias are edible, having a pleasant sub- acid taste. According to Ainslie {Mat. Med. ii. 407), the leaves and shoots of the F. cataphracta have a taste not unlike that of rhubarb, but without bitterness ; they are considered as stomachic, and in a slight degree astringent, and are prescribed in India in diarrhoea, general weakness, and phthisis ; and in Behar an infusion is given in cases of hoarseness. An infusion of F. sepiaria is said by Dr. Wight to be useful in bites of snakes, and the bark infused in oil so as to form a liniment, is employed on the Malabar coast as a remedy in gout. Several other plants of the order are possessed of active properties, but no definite account has been given of their application or uses. The most important of the species is the Bixa orellana, the angular seeds of which are covered with an orange-red pulp or pellicle; this, when sepa- rated and prepared, is the Arnotto of the shops, so much used in the arts. It is a native of South America and the West Indies, and is cultivated in India. Arnotto is prepared by rubbing the seeds in water, and then strain* 144 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 80. ing; the pulpy mass is then worked well with the hands and dred. When of good quality it is dry, easily bro- ken, of an unpleasant smell, and of a red- dish colour. It is used in dyeing, but its tints are very fugitive, and are destroyed by acids and alkalies. It is also added to several preparations of cho- colate and is constant- ly employed to colour cheese, and in Java it forms the basis of a drink. It was at one time used in medicine as a stomachic and mild purgative, and is still in some estimation in South America as a cordial, astringent and febrifugal remedy in dysentery. Bomare observes, but without citing any authority for the assertion, that it is an antidote to the poison of the manioc. It has been analyzed by John {Ann. de Chim. lxxxviii. 99) and by Bousingault (Ibid, xxviii. 440). In corroboration of these statements, there is the authority of Dr. Macfadyen, who says that the seeds are a gentle purgative, and have been used with advantage in dysentery, and also that it is thought to be an antidote to the poison cassava. {Flor. Jam. 42.) 1. Flower. 2. Petal. B. orellana. 3. Pistil. 4. Section of seed. 5. Fruit. Order 16.—PASSIFLORACEaE.—Lindley. Sepals mostly 5, sometimes irregular, combined into a tube of variable length, the sides and throat being lined with filamentous or annular processes. Petals 5 arising from the throat of the calyx, sometimes wanting, or irregular. Stamens 5, monadel- phous, rarely indefinite, and adhering to the stalk of the ovary ; anthers extrorse, linear, 2-celled, with a longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary on a long pedicel, superior 1-celled; styles 3, arising from the same point, clavate; stigmas dilated; ovules indefinite, ana- tropal, parietal. Fruit stalked, 1-celled, with 3 parietal polyspermous placentae, some- times 3-valved. Seeds attached in several rows to the placentae, with a brittle sculptured testa surrounded by a pulpy aril; embryo straight, in the midst of a fleshy thin albu- men ; cotyledons foliaceous, flat. PASSIFLORACEaE. 145 This order consists of her- baceous or shrubby plants, usually climbing by tendrils, and having alternate, entire or palmately-lobed leaves, mostly furnished with stipules, and often glandular. The flowers are axillary or terminal, often with a 2-leaved involucre. The species are most abun- dant in the warm regions of America, but are also found in Asia and Africa, and one or two in the United States as far Fig. 81. Different species of Passiflora. north as Virginia. The fruits of many of them are eatable, especially those of Uie P. quadrangulans or Granadilla, the P. laurifolia, ccerulea, coccinea, i the bite of a venomous reptile. 164 MEDICA L BOTANY. Group XI. — Aur an t i a cal e s. Order 26.—AURANTIACEaE.—Correct. Calyx urceolate or campanulate, 3-5 toothed, marcescent. Fig. 91. C. Limonum From a wild specimen from the Himalayan mountains. 1. Stamens. 2. Bundle of Filaments and Petals, &.c. 3. Cotyledon and Radicle. 4. Disk. Petals 3-5, broad at base, slightly imbricated in aes- tivation, inserted on the outside of a hypogynous disk. Stamens equal in number to or some mul- tiple of the petals, inserted on a hypogynous disk; fil- aments flattened below, sometimes distinct, some- times combined; anthers terminal innate. Ovary many-celled; style 1, cylin- drical ; stigma slightly di- vided, somewhat lobed. Fruit pulpy, many-celled, with a leathery indehis- cent rind, abounding with vesicles of volatile oil. Seeds solitary or many, attached to the inner angle of each cell, usually pendu- lous; raphe and chalaza usually very distinctly marked, exalbuminous. Embryo straight; cotyle- dons thick and fleshy. This well-marked order is composed of trees and shrubs, with alternate, often compound leaves, always articulated to the petiole, which is frequently winged ; they are smooth and are filled with pellucid glands containing a vola- tile oil. They are almost exclusively natives of the East Indies, but have been spread over most tropical countries by cultivation. The Prince of Neu- wied, however, speaks of a wild orange in Brazil, and Bartram makes frequent allusions to groves of oranges in Florida, supposed to be indi- genous. ( Travels, 244, 253, &c.) A few species have also been found in Madagascar. They all occur within the tropics, with the exception of a spe- cies of Limonia, which is found on the tops of lofty mountains, where it is for months enveloped in snow. {Royle.) All the species have a hard and compact wood, and a more or less acid fruit. Besides the orange, lemon, &c, many other plants of this order are deserving of notice. The JEgle marmelos, of India, is much prized in India. From the rind the Dutch in Ceylon prepare a perfume. A decoction ofthe bark of the root is considered on the Malabar coast as very efficacious in hypochon- driasis and palpitation of the heart; a decoction of the leaves is employed in asthma, and the unripe fruit in diarrhoea, whilst the mucus surrounding the seeds is a good cement. {Ainslie, ii. 188.) The fruit of the Cookia punc- tata, the Wampee of China, is much esteemed, and the berries ofthe Glycosmis citrifolia are said to be delicious. The leaves of Feronia elephantum are considered in India as stomachic and carminative, and are given in the bowel complaints of children ; when bruised they have a very fragrant smell, resem- bling anise. A variety of this plant furnishes a gum very analogous to gum Arabic, and used as a substitute for it. {Ainslie, ii. 82.) The author just cited also states that the leaves of the Bergera Kaznigii are stomachic and tonic, an infusion of them toasted, allays vomiting, whilst the bark and root are used as stimulants. {Ibid. 139.) AURANTIACEaE. 165 Citrus.—Linn. Fig. At one time it was generally supposed, on the authority of Linnaeus, that Olibanum was obtained from the Juniperus lycia, a native of the south of Europe; but this was found to be erroneous, and it was then attributed to several different plants. Mr. Colebrooke has, however, satisfactorily shown that what comes from India, is afforded by the Boswellia under consideration, but it is very likely that the variety from Africa is derived from other plants. That from India is esteemed the best, and is by far the most common in com- merce. Olibanum, or Frankincense, was well known to the ancients, and was used by them as now by Roman Catholics, in their religious ceremonies. It is the Lebonah of the Hebrews, and is noticed by Moses in Exodus (xxx.); their knowledge of it was most probably derived from the Egyptians, who, like all the pagan nations of antiquity, used it largely as an incense to mask the un- pleasant emanations arising from the sacrifices offered in their temples. The article then used, was all mostly derived from Abyssinia and Ethiopia, as the communication with India at that time, especially by the Greeks and Romans, was very uncertain, though the more eastern nations of Egyptians and He- brews had a large commerce with that distant land. Olibanum is now rarely used in medicine, though formerly it was em- ployed in chronic discharges from the mucous membranes, and formed an in- gredient in several stimulating plasters. An analysis of it by Braconnot, shows that it is composed of about one half of a resin soluble in alcohol, of a gum soluble in water, of a resin insoluble in either, and of some volatile oil. It is in the form of semi-transparent masses or tears, of a pale yellowish or pink colour, solid, hard and brittle. It has a bitterish acrid taste, and when chewed, sticks to the teeth and renders the saliva milky. Order 28.—CEDRELACEaE.—R. Brown. Sepals 4-5, united or distinct. Petals as many as the sepals, distinct, sometimes un- guiculate; aestivation twisted. Stamens twice as many as the petals, unequal, some abortive ; filaments united in a tube, or distinct, inserted on a hypqgynous disk; anthers introrse. Ovary with as many cells as petals, surrounded by the discoid torus; styles and stigmas united into one, the latter 3-5-angled, discoid. Fruit, a woody 2-5-celled, 3-5-valved capsule with septicidal dehiscence. Seeds anatropous, many or few in a cell, imbricated in two rows, flat and winged, not arilled; albumen thin and fleshy or none. Embryo with thick foliaceous cotyledons and a very small radicle. This order is very closely allied to the next in many particulars, but differs in the aestivation and in the seeds. It consists of trees with a very hard and durable wood, which is often fragrant and resinous. The leaves are alter- nate, pinnate, and exstipulate. The flowers are in terminal panicles, perfect, or sometimes diclinous by the abortion of the ovary or stamens They are natives of warm climates, and many of the species are of great importance in the arts: thus, the wood of the Swietenia mahogoni, and perhaps other species affords the Mahogany so much used in furniture; the Cedrelaodorata, that employed for the boxes in which segars are packed. Others again as CEDRELACEaE. 177 the Soymida febrifuga, the Cedrela toona, &c, are possessed of remedial powers. The whole of the species in fact are more or less tonic and astrin- gent. Soymida.—Jussieu. Sepals 5. Petals spreading, unguiculate. Stamen tube cup-shaped, 10-lobed, each lobe 2-toothed, with an anther between the teeth below. Ovary on a disk covering the bottom of the tube, 5-celled; ovules 12 in each cell. Style short, equal, 5-angled; stigma pel- tate, 5-angled. Capsule, oblong obovate, 5-celled, 5-valved, dehiscing from the apex, with a thin woody sarcocarp becoming detached from the endocarp, and both from a large permanent 5-angled axis. Seeds pendulous, winged. This genus, which is very closely allied to Swietenia, and is included in it by many eminent botanists, consists of trees with abruptly pinnate leaves, having 3-6 pair of opposite leaflets. It is peculiar to the East Indies. S. febrifuga, Jussieu.—Leaves alternate ; leaflets 3-4 pair, elliptical, obtuse or emar- ginate, unequal at base. Panicles terminal, divaricate. A. Jussieu, Meliac. 98 t. 26 ; Wight and Arnott, i. 122 ; Lindley, FL Med. 155; Steph. and Church, ii. 81. Description.—A lofty tree with a straight trunk of great thickness, and covered with a gray, rugose, cracked bark. The branches are numerous, the lower ones spreading, the upper ascending, forming a large head. The leaves are alternate and abruptly pin- nate, large and composed of three or four pairs of opposite, petiolate, oval, obtuse or emarginated leaflets, which are smooth and shining, of a bright-green colour. The flowers are very numerous, middle-sized, white and inodorous, disposed in panicles aris- ing from the axils of the upper aborted leaves, and hence appear terminal with small bracts. The calyx is inferior, five cleft, oval and deciduous. The petals are five, obovate, obtuse, concave and spreading. The stamens are ten, united into a tube with the anthers at the mouth within. The ovary is conical, surmounted by a thick tapering style, crowned with a large discoid stigma. The capsule is large, ovate and 5-valved, the valves gaping at top. The seeds are numerous, imbricated, obliquely cuneate, and furnished with a large membranous wing. This tree is a native of many parts of the East Indies, where it is called Soymida by the Telingas, and Shemmarum or red-wood tree, on the Coro- mandel coast. It flowers about the end of the cold, and beginning of the hot season, and ripens its seeds in three or four months. The wood is of a dull red colour, very hard and heavy, and is esteemed by the natives as the most durable the country affords. The bark, which is the part used in medi- cine, is of a dingy red colour, and has a rather pleasant bitter taste, with a slight degree of astringency ; it is brittle, and is covered externally with a rough, gray epidermis. It was firs,t brought to the notice of the profession by Dr. Roxburgh, who found it in use among the Hindoo practitioners. It has attracted, however, but little attention in this country or Europe, but is said to be extensively used by the army surgeons in India in all cases in which cinchona is indi- cated. Medical Properties, §-c.—This bark is tonic and astringent, and has been found efficacious as a febrifuge in intermittent and remittent fevers. Mr. Breton, who published a paper on it in the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions (v. ii.), states that in these diseases he has put the bark to the fairest possible test, and with uniform success, and is of opinion that it answers every pur- pose of the Peruvian, in allaying irritability and restoring strength. This is confirmed by the testimony of many practitioners, who all agree in support of the observations of Mr. Breton, and add that it is better retained on the sto- mach when in substance and in greater quantities than cinchona. Dr. Ainslie {Mat. Ind. i. 124) also recommends it, but says that if the doses 12 178 MEDICAL BOTANY. exceeded four or five drachma in the twenty-four hours, there was a derange- ment of the nervous system with vertigo and subsequent stupor. Dr. Roxburgh is of opinion that the bark should be collected when the sap begins to ascend, and that the small or middle-sized branches furnish the best. The dose in substance is from one to five drachms a day; it may also be given in infusion and tincture. t The barks ofthe other species of this order are possessed of much the same powers : thus, that of the Swietenia mahogoni is used in the West Indies as a tonic and febrifuge, but is far inferior to cinchona. It may be mentioned that Blume describes a species of C. edrela which he calls febrifuga, occurring in the island of Java, where it is known by the natives under the name of Suren, which is highly esteemed in the treatment of the malignant intermit- tents of that island. This tree has been thought to be the same as the C. toona of Roxburgh, but it is more than probable that it is identical with the Soymida febrifuga, with the characters of which it agrees in all respects. Horsefield used it in the latter stages of dysentery with much benefit, and Forsten {Diss, de Cedrel.) is of opinion that it is very beneficial in bilious fevers and in protracted diarrhoea kept up by atony of the muscular fibres. KJiaya Senegalensis is a native of Senegal, noticed by Batka under the name of " Quinquina de Senegal," as having very bitter bark, found useful in the fevers of the country; it is always given in infusion or decoction, never in substance; it is considered by De Candolle and others to belong to Swie- tenia. The tree noticed by Dr. Hancock {Trans. Med. Bot. Soc. 1834) under the name of Juribali or Euribali, a native of Pomeroon, probably belongs to this order or the next, though his description is too imperfect, to be even cer- tain of this. The bark is a powerful bitter and astringent, and is stated to be more effectual than cinchona in fevers of a malignant or typhoid type. It does not constipate the bowels or affect the head, but generally opens the pores and promotes perspiration. To render it more active, it should be given in a warm decoction. Dr. Hancock observes in addition, that another tree, the Idea altissima, is often known under the name of Juribali, and is also febrifuge {Journ. Phil. Coll. Pharm. v. 144). Order 29.—MELIACEaE.—Jussieu. Sepals 3-5, somewhat united at base. Petals 3-5, hypogynous, cohering at base, sometimes unequal, aestivation imbricated. Stamens of the same number as, or double the number of the petals, monadelphous at base, inserted on the outside of the torus. Anthers sessile, within the ring of filaments. Ovary 3-5-celled, each cell containing 1-2 ovules. Styles and stigmas usually united into one, 3-5-lobed. Fruit drupaceous, bac- cate, or capsular, 3-5 celled, each 1-2 seeded, when dehiscent, loculicidal. Seeds never winged or flat, albumen scanty or none. The Meliaceae consist of trees and shrubs, with alternate or occasionally somewhat opposite leaves, which are simple or pinnate and exstipulate. They are found in most parts ofthe world, but principally in warm climates, the extra-tropical species being few. Their usual qualities are those of the bitters and astringents; but in some of them other and more powerful pro- perties are present. Several species of Trichilia are very active; the T. cathartica is a violent purgative, and at the same time is excessively bitter. According to Martius, it is given in fevers, dropsies, &c. {Jour. Chim. Med., iii. 498). The T. emetica has emetic roots, but its fruit is eatable, though its seeds are acrid, and are used to cure the itch. T. glabra is a powerful pur- M E LIA C E aE. 179 gative. The juice of the bark of Guarea trichiloides is also an active pur- gative and emetic {Aublet. Guy, iii. 437). The bark of T. moschata has the odour of musk, and is said by Hancock to be eminently febrifuge; it is very bitter, and tinges the saliva of a red colour. The berry of T. spinosa affords a stimulating, fragrant oil, employed in India in chronic rheumatism and paralytic affections {Ainslie, ii. 71). The plant called jito, in Brazil, which operates so violently upon the bowels as to be, in the opinion of Piso, rather a poison than a medicine, is supposed by Lindley to be a species of Guarea, perhaps the G. purgans, which Martius says acts powerfully on the uterus, and in an over-dose will cause abortion. The root of Sandoricum indicum is aromatic, and is used in cases of leu- corrhoea, combined with the bark of the root of Carapa obovata, which is bitter and astringent. The bark of C. guianensis is eminently febrifuge, and contains a peculiar bitter principle {Jour, de Pharm., vii. 348); the oil of its seeds is bitter and anthelmintic, and is poisonous to insects {Perrotet, Ann. Soc. Lin., 1824). An alliaceous odour is so marked in the fruits of some species {Dysoxylon, Epicharis, &c), that they are used in some parts of Java as a substitute for garlic. Some of these plants furnish edible and plea- sant fruits, especially those ofthe genus Lansium and Milnea {Royle, Illus. 141). Melia.—Linn. Calyx small. Sepals united below. Petals oblong, spreading. Stamens 10, united into a tube, bearing the anthers in the orifice. Ovary on a short disk, 5-celled. Style with a 5-lobed stigma. Drupe ovate, with a 5-celled bony nut. Cotyledons foliaceous. This genus derives its name from the resemblance of its principal species to those of the ash, Melia of the Greeks. The species closely resemble each other in their appearance and properties, and are all natives of Asia. They have long been known, and were described by the earlier writers, under the name of Azedarach, which was unnecessarily changed by Linnaeus to that it at present bears. M. azedarach, Linn.—Leaves deciduous, bipinnate; leaflets smooth, obliquely ovate- lanceolate, dentate, acuminate. Petals nearly glabrous. Linn., Sp. PL, 550; De Candolle, Prod., i. 621 ; Lindley, Fl. Med., 151. Common Names.—Pride of India, Pride of China, Bead-tree, &c. Foreign Names.—Azedarach commun, Fr.; Pater Nostri di S. Dome- nico, It. Description.—A tree thirty to forty feet high, with spreading branches. The bark is scabrous on the trunk and large branches. The roots are horizontal, rather superficial, extending to a considerable distance. The leaves are large, alternate, bipinnate, each pinnule with five opposite, ovate-lanceolate, acute, dentate leaflets. The flowers are odorous, of a light violet colour, forming a drooping panicle, arising from the axil ofthe upper leaves. The calyx is very small, and is formed of five obtuse, slightly-pubescent sepals, united at base. The petals are much longer than the calyx, spreading, oboval, and obtuse. The stamens are united into a tube, which is rather shorter than the petals, dilated at base, of a dark violet colour, and 10-toothed; each tooth being bifid, it appears 20-toothed, except on close inspection. The anthers are bilocular, alternate with the dentures ofthe tube, and attached to its inner surface. The ovary is globular, surmounted by a thick style, which is terminated Fig. 97. M. azedarach. 180 MEDICAL BOTANY. by a small 5-lobed stigma. The fruit is a fleshy berry, of an ovoid shape, about the size of a cherry, and containing an elongated nut, which is 5-celled and 5-seeded. The Pride of India is a native of many parts of Asia, but has long been naturalized in the southern parts of Europe, where it was probably intro- duced from Syria, after the conquest of that country by the Romans. Pliny speaks of it as not being uncommon, and was apparently acquainted with its properties. It is also naturalized in the warmer parts of the United States; it is said to have been introduced into Georgia and Carolina soon after the settlement, and has now become as common as if originally a native. It succeeds perfectly well as far north as Virginia, and will sometimes survive for a few years in Pennsylvania ; but is most generally destroyed by the severity of the winters, even when, by care and attention, it may have attained some size. Rafinesque states that it is a native of Arkansas and Texas, but does not give any authority for the assertion ; and Dr. James found it on the Canadian apparently in a wild state. All other writers on American plants unite in declaring it to be of foreign origin ; and it is probable that the plants found in a wild state owe their origin to the seeds having been dispersed by birds, as some species feed eagerly on the berries. The early medical history of this plant is involved in much uncertainty; for although it appears to have been used in India for a long time, the first certain account of it is given by Avicenna, who notices its narcotic proper- ties. It does not seem, however, to have attracted much attention in Europe, being only valued for the hard nuts contained in its berries, for the purpose of making rosaries, for which they are extensively used in Roman Catholic countries ; hence its name of Bead-tree, &c. The writers of the middle ages allude to it very briefly, and chiefly on account ofthe pulp of its fruit, as the basis of an ointment for the destruction of lice and other parasitic insects. In this country it appears to have been used as an anthelmintic very soon after the settlement, and was at one time in considerable repute, though at present but seldom employed. Medical Properties, fyc.—The most efficient part is the bark of the root, which has a bitter, nauseous taste, and an unpleasant, virose smell. Its active principle appears to be volatile, as it is much more efficient in a fresh than in the dried state. It is endowed with marked anthelmintic powers, and in large doses is narcotic and emetic. Dr. B. S. Barton says that it is one of the most valuable articles of its class ever discovered; and Dr. Kollock, of Georgia, uses the following language with regard to it. " It is a vermifuge of efficacy. Its use is, in some measure, general among the planters, and with many supersedes the use of all others. I have given it with success, where all others in common use have failed of relieving. But when given in the months of March and April, when the sap is mounting into the tree, it has been followed by stupor, dilatation ofthe pupil, stertorous breathing,' &c.; but these symptoms, like those sometimes produced by spigelia, pass off, without any perceptible injury to the system." Other writers speak in the same high terms of it. Ainslie {Mat. Ind., ii. 453) says, that in Cochin China it is well known to native practitioners, and used as an anthelmintic, but given with great caution, from its liability to induce vertigo and con- vulsions. This bark is given in substance, in doses of twenty grains; but the usual form is in decoction, made with two ounces of the root to a pint of water, boiled down to a half. Of this a tablespoonful is given every few hours, till it produces the desired effect, to be followed by an active cathartic. The leaves are also endowed with some activity. Merat and De Lens MELIACEaE. 181 state that a decoction of them is purgative; but they appear rather to be analogous to those of the other species in their properties, tonic and astrin- gent. They are eaten by cattle with perfect impunity. The berries, which have a sweetish pulp, are also said to be anthelmintic, but only in large doses. Sometimes, however, they cause unpleasant effects ; thus M. Tournon gives a case in which convulsions, and the most copious vomiting and purging were induced by the ingestion of a few of them {Jour. Gen. de Med.) The nuts furnish much oil on expression, which is used as a vermifuge by the Javanese, and is also esteemed as an application to foul ulcers, and as a liniment in rheumatic and spasmodic disorders. Michaux states, that an ointment prepared from the pulp, is employed in Persia, in cases of tinea capitis and other obstinate cutaneous affections. All the other species of Melia are possessed of active qualities; but the most important is the M. azederachta, which differs from the last-mentioned species mainly in having simple pinnate leaves. The medical properties of this are, however, very different; as Ainslie states that the bark is bitter and astringent, and is considered by the Hindoo practitioners as amongst their most valuable tonics, and they employ it for every purpose to which cinchona is applicable, and with fully equal success. He is also of opinion that it con- tains a principle analogous to quinine. A sort of toddy is also obtained from this tree, and the M. sempervirens, which is prescribed in India as a stomachic. Canella.—Swartz. Sepals 5. Petals 5, somewhat coriaceous, aestivation contorted. Stamens 15, con- nected, with 15 furrowed anthers. Stigmas 3. Berry 3-celled (or by abortion 1); cells 1—2-seeded. A genus of a single species, respecting which much confusion formerly existed among botanists, from its being confounded with the Drymis winteri. This latter, as mentioned when treating of it, was discovered by Captain Winter, in 1579; and, in honour of him, was called Cortex winterana by Clusius. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the present bark was introduced, and noticed by the same writer under the name of Canella ; this, Parkinson, in his Theatrum, has mistaken for the Winter's bark ; but Bauhin was the first who confounded the names, by styling the Cortex winteranus, Canella alba; and although Sir Hans Sloane gave separate descriptions of them in the Transactions of the Royal Society, these were so little attended to, that not only Lemery, Pomet, and other writers on the Materia Medica, considered them as identical, but even Linnaeus included them both under the name of Laurus winterana, but afterwards established the Canella as a dis- tinct genus, calling it Wintera, thinking that it was the tree furnishing the bark discovered by Captain Winter. Of late years this having been again found, and the tree described, no further mistake can arise. The two plants grow in different parts, and belong to very different natural orders. C. alba, Murray.—Flowers in terminal corymbs; leaves coriaceous, spathulate, and obtuse. Common Names.—White canella, Wild cinnamon. Foreign Names.—Canelle blanche, Fr.; Canella bianca, It.; Wiesser zimmet, Ger. Swartz, Trans. Lin. Soc, i. 96; Woodville, ii. 318; Stokes, Med. Bot., iii. 12; Stephenson & Churchill, ii. 66; Winterana canella, Linn.; Sp. PL, 636. 182 MEDICAL BOTANY. C. alba. 1. Petals and stamens. 2. Style. 3. Seed. 4. Berry. Description.—A tree of considerable size, with a stem of from 10 to 50 feet in height, very straight and upright, and branched only near the top. The branches are erect, not spreading, and furnished Fig. 98. with petiolated leaves, which are irregularly alternate, ob- long, obtuse, entire, of a dark-green colour, coriace- ous, and shining. The bark is whitish. The flowers, which grow at the extremi- ties ofthe branches in clus- ters, are of a violet colour, and are seldom fully ex- panded. The calyx is 5- leaved, and persistent; the sepals are roundish, con- cave, smooth, and membra- nous. The petals are much longer than the sepals, ob- long, concave, erect, two somewhat narrower than the others. The stamens are monadelphous, forming an urceolate tube, to the outer side of which the anthers adhere. The ovary is superior, ovate, 3-celled, bearing a cylindrical style, with three convex, blunt stigmas. The fruit is an oblong, fleshy, smooth, black berry, which is 3, or by abortion, 1-celled, and 1—2-seeded. The seeds are exalbuminous, with linear cotyledons. The Canella is common in most of the West India Islands, and in South America. Every part of it is aromatic; and when it is in flower, the per- fume is perceived at a considerable distance. The flowers retain much of their odour when dried ; and if they be moistened with warm water, the scent becomes very powerful, approaching that of musk. The leaves have some- what the smell of those of the bay. The fruit, which is not unlike, both in taste and odour, that of the sassafras, is a favourite food of the wild pigeons in Jamaica, and imparts a peculiar taste to their flesh, which is much admired by epicures. The bark of the Canella, as found in the shops, is partly in quilled pieces, which are of a whitish-yellow colour, or in flat fragments, which are thicker, and rather darker. The smell is very aromatic, the taste also aromatic, more like that of the clove than the cinnamon, warm, pungent, and some- what bitter. It gives out its virtues to alcohol, and partly to water; but the infusion, though bitter, has very little aroma. An analysis of it by Petroz and Robinet, show3 that it contains volatile oil, resin, bitter extractive, ca- nellin, gum, &c. It owes its properties to the three first of these constituents, principally to the oil, which is often used to adulterate oil of cloves. The canellin is a saccharine substance, which is very analogous to, if not iden- tical with mannite. Medical Properties, $-c.—On account of its aromatic qualities, Canella is employed to cover the taste of several disagreeable-tasted articles of the Ma- teria Medica, and enters into the composition of a well-known and popular purgative, the Hierapicra (Pulvis aloes cum canella); added to the tincture or infusion of senna, it covers the nauseous taste of those articles renders them more grateful to the stomach, and prevents them from griping. It is seldom used alone; though from its stimulating and aromatic properties it might be useful where remedies of this character were indicated. It appears more useful as a condiment than as a medicine; for Swartz states that it ANACARDIACEaE. 183 was constantly employed for this purpose by the Caribs, and still forms an ingredient of many dishes among the negroes. In Martinique the berries constitute the basis of a much-esteemed cordial. Group XII. —Ru tales. Order 30.—ANACARDIACEaE.—R. Brown. Flowers perfect or diclinous, regular. Sepals 5, or 3—4—7, usually persistent. Petals as many as sepals, or wanting ; aestivation imbricated. Stamens as many as petals, or sometimes more, distinct, with introrse anthers. Ovary solitary, free, 1-celled, with a solitary ovule; styles 3 or 4—5. Fruit indehiscent, commonly drupaceous, 1-seeded. Seed erect or suspended, exalbuminous, with a more or less curved embryo, and very thick and fleshy, sometimes foliaceous cotyledons. This order is composed of trees or shrubs having a resinous, gummy, or milky caustic juice. The leaves are alternate, simple or ternate, or unequally pinnate, without any pellucid dots. It formerly was included in the Terebin- thaceae, but was separated by Brown; as now constituted, it may be distin- guished by the seeds hanging from a thread, which rises from the base ofthe carpels, which are usually solitary or distinct, and sometimes, when mature, on a very large disk. The species are principally natives of tropical cli- mates, but some are found beyond these limits, especially those belonging to Rhus. The general characters of these plants are acridity and causticity in the bark and leaves, though the fruit is often edible and delicious. That of the Mango {Mangifera) is deservedly esteemed, and is considered one of the finest ofthe tropical productions ; and those of several species of Spondias are also in much repute ; the best is that of the S. dulcis, which has been compared to the Pine apple in flavour and aroma ; the juice of the 5. tuberosa is used in Brazil in fevers, and the bark of the S. venulosa as an aromatic astrin- gent, in diarrhoea, gonorrhoea. The fruits of Anacardium occidentale and Semecarpus anacardium, are enlarged and fleshy receptacles, supporting a reniform seed. This receptacle is edible and cooling, but is not much used, except for sweetmeats. The nut has an exterior covering, formed of two laminae, between which is a caustic, bitter juice, which stains an indelible black, and is capable of causing, in most persons, an erysipelatous eruption, resembling that produced by the Poison Vine, but even more severe; it is sufficiently acrid to destroy warts, corns, &c, and is sometimes used for such purposes. The almond is white, of an agreeable taste, and furnishes an oil which is said to be anthelmintic. The nut is roasted, to drive off the acrid juice ofthe shell, before it is eaten. Many of these plants abound in a viscid juice, which soon turns black, and is much used for varnishes. That most generally employed is from the Semecarpus anacardium and Melanorrhcea usissatissima. These varnishes are very poisonous to most persons, affecting them like the Cashew nut above spoken of. The black varnish of Japan is from the Stagmaria verniciflua. Several others of these plants furnish an analogous product, as the Augia chinensis, Odina wodin, Buchanania latifolia, &c. The Schinus mode is so replete with a resinous juice, that if its leaves are broken and thrown into water, the resin escapes so rapidly as to give them the appearance of spontaneous motion. The resin of the bark is used in Peru, and said to be purgative, and also to strengthen the gums. The fruits are made into an intoxicating liquor by fermentation. {Feuillee Plant. Med. 184 MEDICAL BOTANY. iii. 43.) The S. arroeira is said to poison those who sleep beneath it; but a fragrant oil is obtained by distillation from its leaves, and its bark is employed as a febrifuge in Brazil, according to Buchner {Jour. Chim. Med. vi. 204); it contains a large proportion of tannin, and the extract forms a good substi- tute for catechu. Rhus.—Linn. Sepals 5, united at base, persistent. Petals 5, ovate, spreading. Stamens 5 (rarely 10), equal. Styles three, short, distinct, or united. Stigmas 3. Fruit drupaceous, almost dry. Root bony, 1-celled. Seed solitary, suspended on a funiculus, arising from the base ofthe nut. This genus is extensive, and the species are found in all parts of the world, but are most numerous in Southern Africa. In North America there are about ten or twelve, belonging to different sections or sub-genera, which might with advantage be considered as genera. They are shrubs or very small trees, with simple or unequally-pinnate leaves. Their medical properties vary much, some of the species being extremely poisonous, whilst others are innocuous, and afford agreeably acid berries. Several species are officinal in the U. S. and other Pharmacopoeias. R. toxicodendron, Linn.—Stem erect, decumbent, or climbing. Leaves trifoliate, somewhat pubescent. Leaflets angularly incised, or entire, the lateral ones inequilateral. Flowers in axillary, sub-sessile racemes. Fruit sub-globose, smooth. Linn., Sp. PL 381 ; Torrey and Gray, FL i. 218 ; Stokes, ii. 160 ; Ste- phenson and Churchill, iii. 167 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. iii. 17. Common Names.—Poison Oak ; Poison Ivy ; Poison Vine, &c. Foreign Names.—Sumac venemeux, Herbe a la puce, Fr. ; Geft-Su- mach, Gr.; Albero del veleno, It. Description.—The root sends up many stems, which are either erect, decumbent, or when they meet support, ascend a wall, fence, or tree, in the same manner as ivy, by ra- dicles thrown out at intervals. The bark is a brownish-gray colour. The leaves vary much, in the erect varieties being usually entire, or variously and irregularly sinuate- toothed or lobed, whilst in the climbing kinds they are almost entire or nearly so; in all cases they are smooth on the upper surface, but more or less pubescent beneath. The lateral leaflets are always inequilateral, nearly sessile, and smaller than the middle ones. The flowers are in simple, axillary racemes, on very short peduncles, of a whitish-green colour. The calyx is small, permanent, and divided into five segments. The petals are also five, ovate, acuminate, and spreading. The stamens are shorter than the corolla, and support small roundish anthers. The ovary is superior, roundish, and is crowned by a short style, bearing three small, cordate stigmas. The fruit is a globular, smooth, dry berry, containing a single bony seed. Many botanists have considered the varieties of this plant as distinct spe- cies, under the names of toxicodendron and radicans, but it is now well ascertained that they are not entitled to this rank. Dr. Bigelow observes, "Among the plants which grow abundantly round Boston, I have frequently observed individual shoots from the same stock having the characters of both varieties. I have also observed that young plants of R. radicans frequently do not put out rooting fibres, until they are several years old; and that they seem in this respect to be considerably influenced by the contiguity of sup- porting objects." This agrees with my own observations ofthe plant, and is the opinion of our best authority on such subjects, Drs. Torrey and Gray as well as that of Michaux and Pursh. The Poison Oak was early noticed, and was described in 1635 by Cornu- ANACARDIACEaE. 185 tus in his work on the plants of Canada, as a species of Ivy. It was known to the Indians both as a poison and as a medicinal agent, and the effects of emanations from it were mentioned by Kalm and other travellers in North America, but it does not appear to have been introduced into medical practice until about 1788, when Du Fresnoy, a French physician, made some trials with it, in the treatment of obstinate cutaneous affections, which were suc- cessful ; he also administered the extract in several cases of paralysis, four of which he states were cured by it. Some years afterwards it was experi- mented upon by Dr. Horsefield, who found that it possessed the properties of an acro-narcotic, and when given in small doses, that it acted upon the sto- mach as an immediate stimulant, causing heat and uneasiness, and afterwards promoting perspiration and diuresis. It has subsequently been tried by a great number of practitioners, both in Europe and this country, in a variety of complaints, but with limited success. The poisonous effects of this plant on certain persons, and the exemption of others from its influence, are universally known. Those, who by a pecu- liar idiosyncrasy are obnoxious to its power, experience its ill effects merely by approaching the plant, whilst in others it requires a direct application of the juice to produce such a result, but fortunately the great majority of per- sons are wholly unsusceptible, and may handle it with impunity; were this not the case a large proportion of our agricultural population would be per- petually sufferers from it, as it is so commonly diffused as to render it almost impossible to avoid it. The symptoms caused by it, are violent itching, red- ness, and tumefaction of the affected parts, especially of the face, succeeded by heat, pain, vesication and fever. In some cases the skin becomes covered with a crust, and the swelling is so great as to obliterate the features. These symptoms begin in a few hours after exposure to the poison, and are usually at their height on the fourth or fifth day; after which desquamation begins, and the distress diminishes. In some instances the eruption is less general, and is confined to the part exposed to actual contact with the poison ; in others, again, the eruption continues a long time, one set of vesications succeeding another, so as to protract the disease for an indefinite period. The juice of the Poison Vine, is yellowish and milky, but on exposure to the air, becomes of a permanent black colour, and when applied to linen or cotton, forms an indelible dye, not being subject to fade from age, washing, or the application of the usual chemical agents. This quality of the juice is probably attributable to a peculiar principle which exists in almost all vege- tables which possess the power of poisoning, when applied to the surface or by emanation ; as it is found in the Upas, the Manchineel, the Cashew apple, &c. Medical Properties, fyc.—It has been most successfully employed in para- lysis, in which it appears to act somewhat like Nux vomica, but not with equal power. It has also been used in chronic rheumatism, diseases of the skin, and some affections ofthe eyes, but the success hitherto attendant on its em- ployment, do not counterbalance the risk of producing its poisonous conse- quences, and it is at present seldom or never resorted to by practitioners. It is given in powder, in doses of half a grain, gradually increased until some effect is produced; it has also been advised in decoction, infusion and extract, but as it appears that the active principle is very volatile, it is less efficient in these forms than in substance. Many other species of Rhus possess the same properties, in a greater or less degree, among which R. vencnatum and R.pumilum, both natives of this coun- try, are exceedingly active, and have a powerful influence on persons unsuscepti- ble to the action of the R. toxicodendron. The first of these affords a bril- liant black varnish, very analogous to that obtained in Japan from the R. ver- 186 MEDICAL BOTANY. nix, with which it was at one time confounded ; this varnish is also procured from the R. sinense, and R. succedaneum, both natives of China and Japan. Another group of the genus possesses wholly different properties, the species comprising it being astringent and tonic, and wholly destitute of poisonous qualities. Thus the R. coriaria and R. cotinus, have been used as substi- tutes for Cinchona, and as astringents in bowel complaints, whilst their leaves, especially those of the first, are largely employed in the tanning of Morocco leather, as are also those of our native species, the R. copallinum, glabrum and typhinum. The R. glabrum is recognised as officinal in the secondary list of the United States Pharmacopoeia. It is a shrub from four to twelve feet in height, with large pinnate leaves, and large, erect, terminal thyrses of greenish-red flowers, succeeded by clusters of crimson berries, covered, when mature, with an acid efflorescence. These berries have a sour, astringent taste, and are often used for the purpose of making a kind of vinegar. , They owe their acidity to the presence of malic acid, and an infusion of them has been re- commended as a cooling drink in febrile complaints, and a gargle in affections of the throat; but from the observations of Dr. Fahnestock, it appears that the inner bark ofthe root is possessed of much higher powers; he states that an infusion of it is almost a specific in the sore mouth resulting from mercu- rial salivation. The R. copallinum was at one time supposed to afford one of the resins known under the name of Copal, but this idea is erroneous as far as regards the species as existing in the United States, for although it certainly exudes a resinous juice, this is in very small quantity, nor does it harden like the true copal; in Mexico, where it is said to be procured, the case may be dif- ferent, as it is well known that the same plant may furnish a large quantity of resinous juice in one climate and be almost destitute of it in another; thus the Liquidambar abounds in the balsam of that name in Louisiana, but is very deficient in it in Maryland and Pennsylvania. The leaves and berries of these species are much used by the Indians to mix with, and as a substitute for tobacco for smoking. The R.metopium, a West India species, furnishes a gum known as "Doc- tor's gum," which, in large doses, is emeto-cathartic, and is said in smaller ones, to be a useful remedy in disorders ofthe bowels and respiratory organs. The mode in which it is given is to mix a spoonful ofthe fresh juice with two ounces of boiling water; the dose is a teaspoonful occasionally. {Jam. Phys. Jour.) Descourtilz {Flor. Med. Antill. ii. 49) states that the bark is an ex- cellent astringent. The R. coriaria is also a powerful astringent, and is used in tanning leather; its acid fruits are employed in Turkey to form vinegar. The R. cotinus furnishes most of the Sumach of commerce, and its wood is the basis of a bright-yellow dye. Pistacia.—Linn. Flowers dioecious, apetalous. Males, calyx 5-cleft; stamens five ; anthers almost ses- sile. Females, calyx 3-4-cleft; styles three. Drupe 1-seeded. This genus contains about a dozen species, all of which are trees or shrubs, affording a resinous juice, and having alternate, winged, or trifoliate leaves. They are principally natives of countries bordering on the Mediterranean, where some of them are cultivated for the sake of the nut, which is edible, and affords a bland oil. 1. P. lentiscus, Linn.—Leaves abruptly pinnate; leaflets ovate lanceolate. Petiole winged. Flowers racemose. Segments of the calyx ovate, shorter than the stamens. ANACARDIACEaE. 187 Linn., Sp. PL 1455; Woodville, Med. Bot., t. 412; Stephenson and Churchill, Med. Bot., iii. 130. Common Name.—Mastic tree. Foreign Names.—Lentisque, Fr.; Lentisco, It. ; Mastixbaum, Ger. Description.—The Mastic tree, or rather shrub, sel- Fig. 99. dom is more than about twelve feet in height, and eight or ten inches in diameter. It is covered with a smooth, brown bark, and, towards the top, sends off numerous branches. The leaves are abruptly pinnate, consisting of five or six opposite, narrow, ovate leaflets, which are dark green above, and pale beneath; they are smooth, acuminate at each end, and terminated by a small curved spine; they are sessile. The common petiole is winged. The flowers are in single axillary racemes, and very small. In the males, the calyx is divided into five minute, ovate segments, the stamens five in number, very short, and the anthers large, brown, and quadran- gular. The females are placed alternately on the pe- duncle, and their calyx consists of three small scale-like segments. The ovary is ovate, and supports three P. lentiscus. styles, with reflexed, clavate stigmas. The fruit is a drupe, which is obovate, smooth, and reddish; it contains a smooth nut. It is a native of the south of Europe and the Levant. It flowers in April and May, and presents several varieties; but is distinguished from all the other species of the genus in having no odd leaflet. It is principally culti- vated for its resinous juice, which is well known under the name of Mastic. The greater proportion of this resin is derived from the island of Scio, where its extraction and preparation form an important branch of industry. It is obtained by making transverse incisions in the bark in August; from these the juice exudes in drops, and gradually concretes, and is collected for use. Under the Turkish laws, it was forbidden to make any attempt to collect Mastic before the 27th of August. This harvest lasts for eight days, and fur- nishes the best article; fresh incisions are made in the trees until the 25th of September, after which no more were allowed to be performed ; but the pro- duct was permitted to be collected until some time in November, when a total stop was put to the business. The finest quality was sent to Constanti- nople, the second principally to Egypt, whilst a portion of this, and the third quality, were disposed of to the merchants. What the regulations are since the change of government, we are ignorant of. This tree is also raised in various parts of southern Europe, but does not afford a sufficient quantity of resin to render its extraction profitable. The kernels of the nut are eatable, and furnish an oil which is used for burning in Spain and the Levant. The wood is hard and yellowish, and is some- times used in the arts. Mastic, as found in the shops, is in yellowish, semi-transparent, brittle grains or tears, with a mild, agreeable smell, and a resinous but not unplea- sant taste. When chewed, it becomes soft and tough, but afterwards white, opaque, and hard. It is much used among the Turks as a masticatory, to sweeten the breath and strengthen the gums. It is also said by travellers, that they esteem it so highly as even to mix it in their bread, and in fact to use it in every possible way. The principal consumption of it in this coun- try, is as a varnish, for which purpose it is dissolved in spirits of turpentine or alcohol. Mastic is composed of a small portion of volatile oil, and of two resins; one, consisting of about three-fourths ofthe whole, soluble in alcohol, 188 MEDICAL BOTANY. and the other, which has received the name of Masticine, not acted upon by that fluid, and somewhat resembling caoutchouc in its properties. Medical Properties, fyc.—Mastic is rarely employed in medicine. It was at one time in some repute as an astringent and diuretic, in chronic catarrhs, dysentery, mucous discharges, and cutaneous disorders, given in the form of an emulsion, but is now seldom or ever prescribed. Dentists use it for the purpose of filling the cavities of carious teeth; but it may be considered as rather belonging to the domain of the industrial arts than to medicine. The wood has also been employed, and is recognised by some of the foreign pharmacopoeias. It is well spoken of by some German writers, in gout and in some affections of the stomach. 2. P. terebinthus, Linn.—Leaves pinnate, with an odd leaflet; leaflets about seven, ovate-lanceolate, rounded at base. Segments of calyx subulate. Linn., Sp. PL, 1455; Woodville, t. 153; Stokes, Med. Bot., iv. 531; Stephenson and Churchill, iii. 129. Common Names.—Turpentine tree, Turpentine Pistacia. Foreign Names.—Pistachier sauvage, Fr.; Terebinto, It.; Terpantin- baum, Ger. Description.—A small tree, seldom more than thirty feet high. The trunk and branches are covered with a dark gray or blackish bark. The leaves are pinnate, and consist of three pairs of ovate-oblong, entire, smooth leaflets, with an odd one, all of a dark-green colour, when old, but red- dish in their young state. The flowers are in large, com- pound racemes. The males have a 5-clefl calyx. The sta- mens are five in number, very short, with large, brown anthers. The females have a trifid calyx, and a roundish, somewhat triangular ovary, supporting three styles, with obovate, clavate stigmas. The fruit is about the size of a large pea, ovate, smooth, somewhat compressed, and of a reddish or purplish colour. It is a native ofthe south of Europe, Syria, and p. terebinthus. the north of Africa, flowering in May and June. It is cultivated for the resinous juice it affords, known under the name of Cyprus or Chian Turpentine. This is procured by making incisions in the tree, from July to October, leaving a space of about three inches between the wounds; from these the turpentine exudes, and runs down on flat stones placed beneath, where it hardens during the night. To purify it, it is again liquefied and strained. The product ofeach tree is very small, the largest not yielding more than about two pounds and a half. This article is about the consistence of honey; it is very tenacious, clear, and almost transparent, of a whitish-yellow colour, and' a fragrant smell; its taste is mild and free from any acrimony or bitterness ; it has an agreeable terebinthinate odour, combined with that of citron. The nuts are edible, and are much used as an article of food, more especially in Persia. Medical Properties, Src—The medical properties of this turpentine are the same as those other substances bearing the same name; and, as it is very scarce, and always commands a high price, it is seldom employed. Several other species of Pistacia are useful; thus the P. vera affords the Pistachio nuts so much used, in the south of Europe and Turkey, in the pre- paration of certain kinds of confectionary, sorbets, &c. The P. oleosa, a native of Cochin-China, also furnishes nuts from which an oil is made, Which RUTACEaE. 189 is much used by the natives ; and the fruit of the P. atlantica, found in Africa, is in general request among the Arabs as an article of food. Order 31.—RUTACEaE.—De Candolle. Calyx in 4-5 divisions. Petals sometimes wanting, or as many as divisions of the calyx, or combined into a monopetalous corolla; aestivation usually twisted, sometimes a little valvular. Stamens equal in number to the petals, or twice or thrice as many, or fewer by abortion, hypogynous, on the outside of a disk surrounding the ovary, and free or combined with the base of the corolla. Ovary sessile or stipulate, its lobes equal in number to the petals, or fewer; style single, sometimes divided at base into as many parts as there are lobes; stigma simple or dilated. Fruit of several capsules, either firmly united or more or less distinct. Seeds 2 or solitary, with a testaceous integument; embryo with or without albumen; cotyledons variable. The Rutaceae are trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs, with exstipulate, opposite or alternate simple or pinnate leaves, covered with pellucid, resinous dots. They are found in most parts of the world, but are most common in Austra- lia, South America, and Southern Africa. They are characterized by great bitterness, and furnish many articles of much importance as remedial agents. Besides those to be noticed particu- larly, the following have been employed in medicine. Dictamnus albus was at one time in much repute in the treatment of fevers, the nervous affections, scrofula, &c. Storck speaks of it in the highest terms as a stomachic and febrifuge. It was also employed as an anthelmintic. It abounds so much in volatile oil, that in warm evenings the emanations from it can be set on fire. The barks of several of the South American Rutaceae are known under the name of Quina, and are used as substitutes for cinchona. Among these is that of the Esenbeckia febrifuga, employed in Brazil and thought as powerful as cinchona. Another bark of the same country is that nf the Ticorea febri- fuga, which is said by St. Hilaire {PL usuel. Bras., lib. 4), to be a very active antiperiodic. The same writer also says that the Hortia brasiliensis is employed for the same purpose, but is not as powerful. Ruta.—Linn. Sepals 3-5 persistent. Petals equal in number to sepals, unguiculate. Stamens twice as many as petals, with an equal number of glands at base. Pericarp somewhat globose lobed. The genus Ruta contains several herbaceous and somewhat shrubby spe- cies, which are very closely allied to each other, and probably are possessed of the same physical qualities. None of them are natives of the American continent. R. graveolens, Linn.—Leaves supra-decompound; leaflets oblong, the terminal one obovate. Petals entire, or a little toothed. Linn., Sp. PL 523; Woodville ii. 483; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 71 ; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. ii. 75. Common Names.—Rue ; Common Rue. Foreign Names.—Rue, Fr.; Ruta, It.; Raute, Ger. 190 MEDICAL BOTANY. Description.—Root perennial. Stem bushy, two or three feet high, much branched, woody at the lower part, covered with a rough, gray bark, the upper part and branches smooth and of a yellowish-green colour. The leaves are alternate, smooth, glaucous, a little tomentose and dotted, and doubly pinnated; the leaflets are sessile, unequal and oblong, the terminal one larger and obovate. The flowers are of a pale greenish-yellow colour, in terminal corymbose panicles, the terminal, or first unfolded, only having the full number ofthe parts of fructification; the others having eight stamens and four sepals and petals. The petals are large, rounded a little, toothed at the extremity, and con- cave, attached by narrow claws. The stamens are equal and bear small yellow anthers. The ovary is oval, with crucial furrows, and is surmounted by a short style. The capsule is gibbous, 4-lobed, and bursts at the summit of each lobe, for the passage of numerous, angular, blackish seeds. The process of impregnation is curious, each anther in turn approaching the style, and after shedding its pollen, retiring. Rue is a hardy evergreen under-shrub, a native ofthe south of Europe and north of Africa. It is cultivated in our gardens and has even become naturalized in some parts ofthe United States. It flowers during the whole summer, and is well known by its strong, peculiar, and even foetid smell. It was well known to the ancients, and is frequently noticed in the writings of Hippocrates and Galen, by whom it was lauded as an altera- tive and alexiteric ; it formed one of the ingredients of the famous antidote of Mithridates against poisons. Pliny states that it was eaten by painters and engravers to benefit their eyesight, and notwithstanding its nauseous taste and smell it is still used in salads in Germany; whilst in Italy, we are told by Bodard, it is prized by the Roman ladies to counteract the perfume of flowers, which they dread. At one time it was used in Roman Catholic churches, to sprinkle the holy water, and hence was called Herbe de Grace. Medical Properties, §-c.—Rue is an active stimulant, even acting on the skin like an acrid, but much more so on some persons than others. Its pow- ers are owing to the presence of an oil principally contained in the leaves. It is but little employed by regular practitioners, but is in much repute among empirics and in domestic practice as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue. It is a very powerful remedy, and deserves more attention from the profession than is now awarded to it. It has proved highly useful in flatulent colic and in some nervous complaints, as hysteria, and even in epilepsy. As a vermi- fuge, also, it has displayed no inconsiderable powers, and as an emmenagogue it has unfortunately been too well known, the records of our criminal courts showing that no article is so commonly resorted to to procure abortion as the oil of Rue; in some cases at the expense of the life of the mother. Where it has been employed as an abortive, the oil has, in almost every case, been the preparation employed. This powerful article in overdoses acts like an acro-narcotic, and should never be administered in any case without extreme caution. From an analysis of this plant by Mahl, it is shown to contain volatile oil, bitter extractive, a peculiar vegeto-animal matter, malic acid, and other sub- stances common to vegetable substances. It owes its activity to the volatile oil; this is of a yellowish-green colour, of a sp. gr. of 0-837, has a bitter acrid RUTACEaE. 191 taste, is somewhat soluble in water, and is not acted upon by hydrochloric acid. There are several other species of Rue, closely resembling the R. graveo- lens, and which are often cultivated instead of it, the R. chalapensis is only distinguishable by its ciliate petals, and the R. sylvestris is principally recog- nised by the follicles being narrower; both these species are identical with the officinal one in properties, and may without inconvenience be substituted for it. It is stated by Forskal that the R. tuberculata is used by the Arabs to increase the growth of hair on the head and chin. Barosma.—Willdenow. Sepals 5, united at base, dotted. Disk at base of calyx with a small rim. Petals 5, unguiculate. Stamens 10, five opposite the petals sterile, petaloid, sessile; the other five longer, subulate; anthers with a gland at apex. Capsules 5, glandular. This genus is formed of species formerly belonging to Diosma, and might without impropriety have been retained as a division of it, as the differences are scarcely sufficient to authorize their separation. It is composed of small shrubs, all natives of Southern Africa, where their leaves are used by the Hottentots in the form of powder to sprinkle on their bodies ; they term this powder Bookoo or Buchu. Although all the species possess similar physical properties, only one of them has been recognised as officinal. B. crenata, Linn.—Leaves ovate, lanceolate, or obovate, dotted, crenate. Flowers soli- tary, terminal. Linn., Sp. PL 287; Loddiges, Bot. Col. n. 404; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 121 ; Lindley, Fl. Med. 213. Common Names.—Buchu ; Diosma. Fig. 102. Description.—The plant is perennial, erect, smooth and about two feet in height; the branches are round or somewhat terete and of a purplish colour. The leaves are opposite, scattered, ovate, acute, of a dark-green colour above, paler beneath, crenated and beset with small transpa-'' rent punctures, which are most marked near the cre- nations. The flowers are whitish, or of a pale-reddish colour, solitary on short pe- dicels at the ends of short lateral shoots. The calyx has five ovate, acute, per- sistent sepals, and the co- rolla an equal number of elliptic, oblong, bluntish petals, which are somewhat spreading. At the base of the co- rolla is a disk or nectary furnished with petaloid processes. The stamens are five, subulate, bearing ovate, incumbent, anthers. The ovary is superior, turbinate, supporting an erect style crowned with a simple stigma. The capsule is ovate, containing a single, oblong black shining seed, with an elastic testa. 1. Calyx. 2. Styles and stigma. 3. Fruit. 4. Seeds. 5. Dots on leaf. Like the rest of the species it is a native of Southern Africa, where it was 192 MEDICAL BOTANY. known to the natives both as a perfume and a sudorific medicine. The Hot- tentots, from whom the Dutch derived their knowledge of the plant, also distil the leaves with wine, making what they term Buchu brandy; this they consider as a sovereign remedy in all complaints ofthe stomach, bowels, and bladder. Burchell and other travellers state that they likewise apply a de- coction of the leaves to wounds. It was not, however, until 1821 that it attracted the attention of the medical profession, when Dr. Reece published some papers on the subject, which induced a trial of its powers by other practitioners, who having given a favourable account of it, it became gene- rally used and was recognised as officinal. Medical Properties, g- 145- Description.—A small tree covered with a brownish bark, with many slender branches, which are more or less spiny. The leaves are opposite or ternate, sessile, waved, entire, lan- ceolate, of a bright-green colour. The flowers are large, of a rich scar- let colour, solitary, or two or three together, terminal. The calyx is turbinate, thick, fleshy, of a red co- lour, and divided into five acute seg- ments which are valvate in sestiva- tion. The corolla is formed of five large, wrinkled petals, somewhat spreading. The stamens are indefi- nite, with capillary filaments, and oblong, two-celled anthers, bursting in front by two chinks. The ovary is inferior, with a simple style, crowned by a papulose stigma. The fruit is the size of an orange, globu- lar, somewhat compressed, and inde. hiscent; it is filled with numerous, , , . . . , , , . . angular, exalbuminous seeds, each enveloped in a juicy rose-coloured pulp, and is crowned with the limb of the calyx and covered with a thick, tawny, coriaceous rind, which is the dilated calycine tube This balaust,™ it is termed, is divided into two chambers by a transverse diaphragm The upper chamber is five to nine-celled, and the lower three-celled. The placentae of the P. granatum. 1. Calyx and stamens. 2. Stamen. 3. Fruit. MYRTACEjE. 295 upper division extend from the parietesto the centre, whilst those ofthe lower proceed ir- regularly from the bottom. The Pomegranate is a native of Northern Africa, Syria, and Persia, and is now naturalized in the warmer portions of Europe, the West Indies, &c. It was very early known, being constantly referred to in the Bible, and is noticed by Homer. The Romans became acquainted with it during their con- tests with the Carthaginians, and hence called it Malum Punicum. The flowers, which were termed Balaustra by the ancients, are nearly inodorous, but somewhat of a styptic taste. The juice, which is contained in the mem- branous cells, exhales a vinous smell when fresh, is of an agreeable subacid taste; it is very refreshing ; it contains much mucilage united to a little tan- nin ; it is much used in the East for making sherbets, and is highly esteemed. The flowers, rind ofthe fruit, and the bark ofthe root, are all officinal, but the two letter only are recognised in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The flowers are mild astringents, but never used in this country. The rind of the fruit, when dry, is in irregular, convex, brittle, brownish fragments, with no smell, but a bitter astringent taste. The bark of the root is in small pieces, of an ash gray or yellowish colour externally, yellow within, brittle, not fibrous, of an astringent but not bitter taste. These substances have been several times analyzed; Reuss (Hanb. d. Chim.) found in the rind of the fruit, tannin, extractive, gum and a little resin; and Latour de Trie in the bark ofthe root, tannin, gallic acid, resin, mannite, &c. This analysis, however, is not satis- factory, as it does not show the existence of any principle in the bark, which will produce the symptoms which ensue on an administration of a large dose of it. Medical Properties.—The pulp of the fruit is refreshing to persons suffering from fever, and is said to be somewhat diuretic. It is much used by Hindoo practitioners to allay unnatural heat of the system. The rind ofthe fruit is a powerful astringent, and as it gives out its properties to water has been recommended by Dr. Cullen, and others in relaxation of the uvula and in aphthous disorders of the mouth, and also in chronic diarrhoea, prolapsus uteri, &c. It has also been beneficially employed in the perspirations atten- dant on phthisis, and in the colliquative diarrhoea so frequent in the last stages of that complaint. This substance is but little used, as it is far less agreeable and not more efficient than many others of its class, and has been found in many cases to cause nausea and uneasiness of the stomach. The bark of the root has long been used in India as a specific in cases of tape-worm, and in consequence of the recommendations of Drs. Fleming, Buchanan, and Ainslie, it was extensively experimented with in Europe, and with almost universal success. In this country, from the comparative rarity of the disease, it has been but little used, added to which it has been found that the oil of turpentine, in large doses, is perfectly effectual. Another cause will always prevent its general employment in cold climates, which is, that the bark must be used in-a recently dried state. The mode of administration is in decoction made with two ounces of the freshly dried bark to two pints of water, boiled down to a pint, of which a wineglassful is to be taken every half hour till the whole is consumed. It generally creates nausea, and sometimes vomiting, purging, and even vertigo and syncope. M. Bourgeoise (Bib. Med. 1824), who gave it in a great number of cases, advises that before com- mencing with its administration, the patient be kept on a strict and spare diet for some days, and the evening before the medicine is taken, to have his bowels well opened by means of a full dose of castor oil. Melaleuca.—Linn. / Calyx 5-parted. Petals 5. Stamens numerous, very long, in five bundles. Styles fili- orm. Capsule 3-celled, many-seeded. 296 MEDICAL BOTANY. An East Indian genus containing a few species of trees which abound in an aromatic volatile oil; they principally grow in Amboyna, Java, and Borneo, and are used for various purposes. Crawford (Hist. Ind. Archipel.) says that the bark of one furnishes the material with which the native vessels are caulked, and the wood is employed for a variety of purposes. M. cajuputi, Maton.—Leaves alternate, elliptical, lanceolate, somewhat acute, slightly falcate, 3—5-nerved. Flowers spiked, rather distant. Rachis, calyx and young branches tomentose. Maton, Lond. Pharm. 1800; Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. iii. 394; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 84; Lindley, FL Med. 73; Colebrooke, Trans. Med. Bot. Soc. i. 27 ; Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. i. 193 ; M. minor, Smith, Bees' Cy- clop.; De Candolle, Prod. iii. 212 ; M. leucadendron, Lamarck, Illus. t. 441, fig. 4. . Common Names.—Cajeput-tree ; Lesser Cajeput. Foreign Names.—Cajeput, Fr.; Melaleuca orientale, It.; Kaya-puti, Malay. Description.—Trunk erect, but crooked, covered with a very light or ash-coloured, soft, thick, smooth, spongy Fig. 146. bark, the outer lamina of which peels off from time to time, like the But- tonwood or Birch. The branches bear scattered, slender twigs often droop- ing, they are round and smooth, the young shoots sericeous. The leaves are alternate, on short petioles not unlike those of the willow, lanceolate, and whilst young, sericeous; when full grown, smooth, deep-green, three to five- nerved, and sometimes a little falcate. When bruis- ed, they have an aromatic M. cajuputi. odour ; but the cells con- 1. 2. Ovary. 3. Calyx and stamens. taining the oil are barely visible. The spikes are terminal, and from the extreme axils, downy. The flowers are small, white, sessile, and inodorous, accompanied by solitary, lanceolate, sericeous bracts. The calyx is urceolate, sericeous, and divided "at the margin into five deciduous segments. The petals are five, rounded with short claws and longer than the calyx. The stamens are numerous, united in five bundles at base, much longer than the petals and with them inserted on the calyx; anthers ovate-cordate, with a yellow gland at their apex. The ovary is ovate, crowned with a slender style longer than the stamens, and having an obscurely three-lobed stigma. The capsule is three-valved, covered by the thick permanent tube of the calyx, many- seeded. This tree is a native of the Moluccas, and was first described by Rum- phius (Amboina, ii. 76) as Arbor alba minor, afterwards by Sir J. E. Smith (Rees' Cycloped.) as M. minor, and some years subsequently by Dr. Rox- burgh (Cat. 59) as M. cajuputi. It is the species furnishing most ofthe cajeput oil of commerce, which at one time was supposed to be exclusively derived from the M. leucadendron, but specimens of the tree, affording this product, having been obtained in the Moluccas by Mr. C. Smith and sent to England, they were found to belong to the M. minor, and young trees trans- mitted by the same collector to the Botanic Garden at Calcutta,"all proved to MYRTACE^E. 297 be of that species, and not of the M. leucadendron. Rumphius states ex- plicitly that the oil is obtained from the small species, and makes no mention of any from the larger one; and Dr. Roxburgh, whilst admitting that the two resemble each other very much, says the leaves of the larger kind pos- sess little or no fragrance when bruised. On these grounds it is 'now assumed that the Cajeput oil of commerce is exclusively derived from the M. minor. I may mention, however, that having had an opportunity of exa- mining a quantity of Cajeput oil direct from the Moluccas, and in the original packages, I found the bottles packed in leaves of both species, and that these leaves had evidently been subjected to distillation ; and when it is considered that the two species are so closely allied to each other as to render it difficult to discriminate between them, that they grow in the same regions and are exposed to the same circumstances of soil and climate, it would be an ano- maly that one of them should furnish an oil, and the other be destitute of it. The oil, which is the officinal portion, is obtained from leaves gathered during warm, dry weather, and placed in a sack, where they become heated in a short time; they are macerated in water and fermentation permitted for one night, and afterwards distilled. The product is very small; and is of a grass-green colour. When pure, it is of different shades of green, which at one time was thought to be owing to the presence of copper, but careful investigation has shown that this tint is dependent on chlorophylline or some analogous resinous principle. Sometimes the oil is nearly white, clear, and very limpid. It has a.strong aroma resembling a mixture of camphor, rosemary and cardamoms ; the taste is pungent, with an after-sensation of coolness like that produced by the oil of peppermint. No oil is more often adulterated, and when of a dark colour and not wholly soluble in alcohol, should always be rejected. Levekohn says that this oil is a compound fluid, consisting of two distinct oils, one of a green colour, heavier than the ordinary fixed oils, the other, which constitutes seven-eighths of the whole, being light and colourless. Medical Properties.—Cajeput oil is a powerful diffusible stimulant and antispasmodic, with some diaphoretic powers; it is somewhat allied both to valerian and camphor in its action, but does not affect the mental faculties when given in large doses, as is the case with these two articles. It is much used among the Malays and on the continent of Europe, but is seldom pre- scribed in England or this country. It is employed in much the same cir- cumstances in which the others have been found beneficial, as in convulsive and spasmodic affections. In flatulent colic and some forms of gastralgia, a few drops taken on sugar, it has procured much relief, and it is said by Ru- dolphi to be a good anthelmintic. During the prevalence of the Asiatic Cholera in Europe it was confidently recommended, and in consequence rose enormously in price, but a short trial with it proved that it possessed no power over the disease, beyond that of any other stimulant. As a stimulating em- brocation in chronic rheumatism, it has attained much celebrity, and has certainly proved more beneficial than most of the external means ofthe same character, but is not equal to the 01. monardce. It is sometimes effectual in removing toothache, by application to the carious tooth. It has also been used with some success to protect woollen articles and specimens in natural history from the attacks of insects ; and it is the best solvent for Caoutchouc. Another species, the M. myrtifolia or tea-tree, is abundant in New Holland, where the leaves were formerly used by the colo- nists as a substitute for the Chinese tea (Bennet, Wanderings, i. 95). 298 MEDICAL BOTANY. Caryophyllus.—Linn. Calyx with the tube cylindrical, and the limb 4-partite. Petals 4. Stamens distinct, arranged in four parcels, inserted in a quadrangular hollow near the calycine teeth. Berry 1—2-celled; 1—2-seeded. A tropical genus composed of trees with opposite, rigid, dotted leaves, and cy- mose, somewhat corymbose, terminal and axillary flowers. It was first esta- blished by Tournefort, and adopted by Linnseus, but afterwards included in that of Eugenia by Thunberg, in which he was followed by Willdenow and others; Persoon restored it to its original rank and name, as he found it differed from Eugenia in the fruit, which is dry and 1—2-celled in Caryophyllus, and fleshy and many-seeded in the former. C. aromaticus, Linn.—Leaves obovate, oblong, acuminate at both ends. Cymes axil- lary and terminal, many-flowered. Linn, Sp. PL 735; Woodville, t. 135; Stokes, Mat. Med. iii. 73; Ste- phenson and Churchill, ii. 95 ; Bot. Mag. 2749. • Common Names.—Clove tree; Clove spike-tree. Foreign Names.—Giroflier, Fr.; Garfano aromatico, It. ; Gewiirznaglen. Ger. Description.—A handsome tree Fig. 147. with a trunk from fifteen to thirty feet high, with many slender, op- posite branches, forming a dense, pyramidal head. The leaves are opposite, persistent, rigid, with a strong midrib and parallel lateral nerves; ovate, lanceolate, entire, smooth on both sides, with nume- rous pellucid dots, and supported on long, slender footstalks, which are extremely aromatic. The flowers are odorous, in short, ter- minal cymes, trichotomously di- vided, and jointed at every divi- sion. The calyx is superior, and consists of a cylindrical tube, and four concave, spreading segments; it is first green, but afterwards red. The petals are four, ovate, con- cave, yellowish-red, larger than the calyx, coherent by their edges, and forming a calyptra which is cadu- cous. In the centre of the calyx, and at the top of the ovary, is a quadrangular, elevated line, into which the stamens are inserted; these are longer than the petals, and bear small, yellow, ovate-cor- date anthers. The ovary is oblong, crowned by a short, subulate style. The berry is purplish, elliptical, 1—2-seeded. Seed covered with C. aromaticus. a soft, thin integument. The Clove tree is a native of the Moluccas, where it was abundant pre- vious to their conquest by the Dutch, who, in a spirit of selfish monopoly, MYRTACE^E. 299 destroyed them, except in the island of Amboyna, over which they had full control, and this is still the principal source of them, as they grow to full perfection in that group of islands alone. In 1770 the French obtained plants, which were disseminated to other parts of the East Indies, to their possessions in America, &c, where the tree is now extensively cultivated, but the best cloves still come from the Moluccas, those from other places being smaller, and containing less oil. It is stated that just before the Portuguese took possession of Amboyna, the seeds of the tree were secretly carried to Amboyna, Ceram, &c, from Machian, and in fifty or sixty years these islands were covered with young plants. On the conquest of these places by the Dutch, they extirpated them with the exception of those in Amboyna, Ternate, and two or three other neighbouring islands, in order that the product might not be too plentiful. In 1769, they ordered that the number of trees should not exceed 500,000, and a few years afterwards, one-tenth of these were ordered to be destroyed. This narrow policy caused constant insurrections on the part of the natives, so that Valentyn observes, " It would have been better, if, instead of extir- pating their trees alone, we had at the same time exterminated this revenge- ful and sanguinary nation." In an extremely interesting account of this tree by Sir W. Hooker (Bot. Mag.), he says, that it is difficult to ascertain when the clove first became known to Europeans. It most certainly is not the caryophyllum of Pliny ; and the first distinct notice of it is by Paulus iEginetus, a Greek physician of the seventh century ; Sprengel is of opinion that Simeon Seth was the first who mentioned them, whilst Sir J. E. Smith supposes that they are the Ca- runfel of Serapion, and the Carunfel bellum of Avicenna. J. Bauhin asserts the inhabitants of the Moluccas were unacquainted with the value of this spice, until some Chinese vessels visited them. Be these statements true or not, cloves were scarcely known or used in Europe until after the conquest ofthe East Indies by the Portuguese, Dutch, &c. The Clove is the unexpanded flower, the corolla forming a ball or sphere at the top; and the calyx, the tapering somewhat quadrangular base, resembling a nail, whence the common name from the French clou, and it may be noticed that the same designation is given to it in most European languages, it being called Naghel by the Dutch, Clavo, by the Spaniards, and Chiodo by the Italians. Cloves are gathered by hand, or beaten from the trees by slender rods, and dried in the sun, or by means of a fire, which latter plan always gives an inferior article. The clove is from five to ten lines long, and from one to one and a half thick; they are of a dark-brown colour, with a yellow- ish-red tint. When good, they are dark, heavy, perfect, of a strong, fra- grant odour, hot, acrid taste, and when pressed with the nail, should give out oil. When fresh gathered, they yield on simple pressure a fragrant, thick, reddish oil. Sometimes they have a considerable portion of this oil drawn from them, and are then mixed with those that retain it. When they have been thus treated, they are paler, look shrivelled, and the ball at top is broken. Another mode of deceiving purchasers is to place the cloves near a vessel of water, by which they not only become plumper, but gain considerably in weight. The oil of cloves is pale, reddish-brown, becoming darker by age, ex- tremely pungent and acrid, and is heavier than water. Much of that imported from the East Indies is adulterated with other oils. Cloves contain volatile oil, resin, tannin, &c. ; the oil, which is the active principle, consists of two oils, a heavy and a light, and on being kept for some time, furnishes a pecu- 300 MEDICAL BOTANY. liar deposit, which has been termed Eugenin; this is a fatty body, resem- bling Stearoptene. Medical Properties.—Cloves are the most stimulating of the aromatics, but are principally employed for culinary purposes, as a flavouring ingre- dient. In medicine their main use is as an addition to other remedies, either to disguise their nauseous taste, or to correct their operation. The essential oil is added to some extracts for the same purposes, and is a popular remedy for toothache. The infusion of cloves is a warm and grateful stomachic, and has been advantageously used to relieve nausea, flatulence, and other dyspep- tic symptoms. An aromatic syrup or liqueur is also prepared from them, and they are used in some articles of perfumery. The ripe fruits are preserved with sugar, and are much esteemed as an aid to digestion ; in a dried state they have been imported under the name of Mother of cloves ; they are much less aromatic than the unripe clove. Gui- bourt states that the peduncles are also imported into France, and used by the distillers. Lesson (Voy. Med.), says that he saw at Amboyna what is called the Royal clove, which has a double calyx, is smaller than the ordinary clove, much more aromatic, and bears a very high price. This must, of course, be the product of a tree belonging to another genus. Eugenia.—Linn. Tube of the calyx roundish, limb 4-cleft. Petals 4. Stamens indefinite, distinct. Berry nearly globular, crowned by the persistent calyx; 1—2-celled, 1—2-seeded. This genus is very closely allied to Myrtus; and the species to be noticed was included in it by Linnseus, but has been removed to Eugenia by De Candolle and others. Lindley, in the Encyclopaedia of Botany, made it the type of Pimenta, attributing a 5-cleft calyx and 5 petals, which are not no- ticed by other writers, who invariably speak of these parts as quadripartite. All the species are trees and shrubs, and are inhabitants of warm climates. E. pimenta, De Candolle.—Leaves oblong-lanceolate, pellucid, dotted. Flowers in trichotomous panicles. Myrtus pimenta, Linn., Sp. PL 576; Woodville, i. 26; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 124; E. pimenta, Lindley, Fl. Med. 76. Common Names.—Pimento ; Allspice ; Jamaica Pepper ; Bayberry Tree. Foreign Names.—Pimente, Fr.; Pepe dell Giamaica, It.; Gewiirzmyrte, Ger. Description.—A handsome evergreen tree, with a straight trunk about thirty feet high, much branched towards the top, and covered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are opposite, on short footstalks, oblong-lanceolate, smooth, shining, pointed, of a deep-green colour. When recent they have an aromatic taste, and abound in an essential oil. The flowers are small but numerous, and are produced in trichotomous panicles at the extre- mity ofthe branches. The calyx is formed of 4 roundish sepals. The petals are 4, re- flected, of a greenish-white colour. The stamens are numerous, longer than the corolla, ofthe same colour as the petals, with rounded, white anthers. The style is simple, with an obtuse stigma. The fruit is a smooth, shining, succulent berry, crowned with the persistent calyx, of a black or purplish colour when ripe, and containing two reniform, flattish seeds. The Allspice-tree is a native of the West Indies and South America; it grows abundantly in the hilly parts of Jamaica, and is also cultivated largely in that island. It begins to bear fruit when three years old, and arrives at maturity at seven, and grows best in a calcareous soil, covered with a light mould. The berries are collected before they are ripe, and dried on clodis MYRTACEyE. 301 spread on terraces. The first day or two they are often turned, so as to be fully exposed to the sun. When they begin to dry, they are frequently winnowed, and are removed under cover at night. In about two weeks they become dark, dry, and wrinkled, and are then packed. Some planters kiln-dry them, which expedites the process very much. It is said that nothing can be more fragrant than the odour exhaled from these trees, especially when in blossom. Pimento is in round, brown, dull, roughish berries, rather larger than a corn of black pepper; they consist of an external, hard, brittle shell, which is paler within, and encloses two dark-brown seeds. They have an aromatic, agreeable smell, and a strong, clove-like taste. On analysis they have been found to contain volatile oil, a green oil, astringent extract, a gummy extract, &c. &c. The kernels contain less volatile oil, and more astringent extract, than the shell. The volatile oil is of a greenish-yellow colour, and is very pungent. Medical Properties, fyc.—Pimento is but little used in medicine, being only employed to correct the operation of other medicines, especially some ofthe drastic purgatives, and to stimulate the stomach in some forms of dyspepsia. The oil, like that of cloves, is used to cure the toothache. As a condiment, however, its use is very general, and the consumption of it very great. Eucalyptus.—Heretier. Tube of calyx obovate or globose, cup-shaped, permanent, limb entire, deciduous. Pe- tals none. Stamens distinct, numerous. Capsule 4-celled, or by abortion 3-celled, many- seeded, opening at the apex. This genus is peculiar to Australia, and contains numerous species, having simple, entire, glaucous leaves, with numerous apetalous flowers. The leaves are dotted with numerous vesicles of oil, and it is probable that on distillation they would afford a product analogous to cajeput. The species differ much from each other in their physical qualities. From one, E. resinifera, is ob- tained a concrete juice, soluble in warm water and known as Botany Bay Kino. It is in irregular, odourless fragments of a dark-red colour in the mass, but of a transparent, ruby-red in small pieces. When chewed it sticks to the teeth, and has an astringent taste. Pereira (ii. 531) is of opinion that it is composed of a peculiar substance, Eucalyptin, somewhat analogous to pectin and tannin. White (Jour. Voy. to New S. Wales, 231) employed it with some success in bowel complaints, and its powers in these affections have been con- firmed by Alibert (Mat. Med. i. 7, 8). Ainslie states that it is the only kind to be found in the Indian bazaars (Mat. Ind. i. 186). See Bennet, Wander- ings, i. 142. E. robusta secretes a sweet gum, which is found in cavities in its stem between the annual layers of wood; it is of a rich vermilion or red colour. E. mannifera exudes a manna-like substance, which has analogous proper- ties with that article, but is not as nauseous. It is not produced by insects, and only appears in the dry season, when it coagulates and drops from the leaves in large particles; some other species afford a similar product. It is sweet and mucilaginous; and, though generally aperient, does not act on some persons (Bennet, Wanderings, i. 319). Other species yield large quantities of tannin, which has become an article of export to England. The E. Gunnii, on being wounded, exudes a large quantity of a cool, refreshing, and somewhat aperient fluid, which is used as a beverage in Tasmannia; when kept any time, it ferments and acquires the properties of beer. The E. globulus has an aromatic bark, leaves, and fruit, which are used as substitutes for spices. 302 MEDICAL BOTANY. Mr. Bennet (Wanderings, i. 165) states that several species of Eucalyptus afford a camphorated oil, closely resembling the cajeput. Some contain it in such abundance as to cover the hand with oil if one of the leaves be gently rubbed against it. This oil has been used in medicine. Order 49.—LYTHRACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx tubular and persistent, enclosing the 2—4-celled ovary, but free from it. Petals deciduous, sometimes wanting, inserted between the lobes of the calyx. Stamens defi. nite, inserted below the petals. Styles perfectly united into one. Capsule membrana- ceous, often 1-celled by the obliteration ofthe dissepiments. This order is composed principally of herbs with angled or four-sided branches, and opposite, verticillate, or alternate, entire, not dotted leaves, not furnished with stipules. The species are mostly tropical, and inhabitants of wet, marshy places ; some few are indigenous to temperate regions. The general character of the species is astringency, a few are somewhat acrid ; but their medical properties are not well known. Some, however, have been employed for various purposes; and one has been long Fig. 148. celebrated for its tinctorial qualities; this is the Law- sonia inermis, from which the Henne of Egypt is ob- tained, and has been in use for staining the nails ofthe hands and feet from the earliest ages, as traces of it are found on mummies. It is also used in many parts of Asia for the same purpose. The flowers are very fragrant, and much esteemed. In India an extract is in much repute in cases of lepra and obstinate cuta- neous affections. The bark and leaves of Lagerstro- mia regince are said to be purgative and hydragogue, and the seeds purgative. The flowers of Heimia solid- folia are employed in Mexico to excite copious perspi- ration in venereal complaints. In Brazil a decoction Lawsonia inermis. of Cuphea balsamora has been found useful in inter- mittent fevers. In India, according to Ainslie (Mat. Ind., ii. 92), the leaves of Ammania vesicatoria, which have a strong mu- riatic smell, are used to raise blisters in rheumatism. Lythrum.—Linn. Calyx cylindrical, striate. Teeth short, 4—6, usually with as many minute interme- diate teeth or processes. Petals 4—6. Stamens as many or twice as many as the petals, inserted above the middle or near the base of the calyx, nearly equal. Style filiform. Stigma capitate. " Capsule oblong, 2-celled, many-seeded, enclosed in the calyx. The species of this genus are mostly herbaceous, in some few cases assum- ing a shrubby appearance. They all have entire leaves, and axillary flowers, of a purple or white colour. One species only, deserves notice, and that rather from its former reputation than from any marked remedial qualities it pos- sesses. L. salicaria, Linn.—Leaves lanceolate, cordate at base. Flowers sessile in a long spike. Petals 6—7. Linn., Sp. PL 640; Torrey and Gray, Fl. i. 482; Stephenson and Churchill, iii. 146; Woodville, v. 65. ONAGRACE^E. 303 Common Names.—Loosestrife, Purple Willow Herb. Foreign Names.—Lisimaque rouge, Fr.; Salicaria, It.; Braune Weide- rich, Ger. Description.—Root perennial, woody, sending up several erect, leafy, slender, reddish stems, three or four feet high, quadrangular or even hexangular near the root. The leaves are mostly opposite, sessile, lanceolate, pointed, entire, the upper ones resembling bracts. The flowers are in terminal spikes, in numerous axillary whorls, six in each, of a purplish colour, inodorous. The calyx is inferior, cylindrical, striated, downy or hairy, with twelve marginal teeth, six of which are long, subulate, erect, and reddish ; the others minute, ovate, concave, and inflected. The petals are six, elliptic-oblong, equal, waved. The stamens are twelve, filiform, the six alternate ones shorter, bearing roundish anthers. The ovary is ovate-oblong, with a simple style and capitate stigma. The capsule is small, elliptical, 2-celled, and enclosed in the tube of the calyx. This plant is found in various parts of the world, being an inhabitant of Europe, Asia, North America, and New Holland, growing in wet situations. It is inodorous, but has a herbaceous, mucilaginous, somewhat astringent taste. It has not been analyzed, but probably contains tannin and much mucilage. Medical Properties.—It is a demulcent and astringent, and was at one time much celebrated as a remedy in diarrhoea and dysentery, for which it is even now a highly popular domestic medicine in Ireland. Many German practi- tioners likewise speak of it in high terms in bowel diseases, but of late -years it is seldom prescribed; and in this country it is never administered in regu- lar practice, though sometimes employed as a domestic remedy, especially among our German population. It is given in powder, in drachm doses, twice or three times a day ; but more generally in decoction, made by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint of water, of which the dose is a fluid ounce to twice that quantity, to be repeated as occasion may require. Order 50.—ONAGRACE.E.—Jussieu. Calyx adherent to the ovary, and usually produced beyond it into a tube. Petals usu- ally 4, and the stamens as many or twice as many, inserted into the throat of the calyx. Ovary commonly 4-celled. Styles united. Stigmas 4, or united into one. Fruit gene- rally capsular. An order of herbaceous, rarely shrubby plants, with alternate or opposite leaves, not dotted nor furnished with stipules; the flowers are generally showy. The larger number of the species are peculiar to the American continent, especially on the western side of it. They afford many ornamen- tal plants much prized by horticulturists. Their medical properties are very little known, but, as far as ascertained, are demulcent and emollient. 03nothera.—Linn. Tube of the calyx prolonged beyond the ovary, deciduous. Segments 4, reflexed. Petals 4, equal, mostly obcordate, obovate. Stamens 8, nearly equal or unequal. Ovary 4.celled, with numerous horizontal or ascending ovules. Stigma 4-lobed or capitate. Capsule various in form, 4-valved, many-seeded. A very extensive genus, of which upwards of sixty species are indigenous to North America. They are sometimes suffrutescent, with axillary or ter- minal flowers, which in some species open only in the evening or at night. The roots of some of them are edible, and resemble in taste the Salsafy. 304 MEDICAL BOTANY. (E. biennis, Linn.—Stem erect, mostly villous, or hirsute. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, flat. Flowers terminal, sub-spicate, sessile, with the stamens shorter than the corolla. Linn., Sp. PL 346; Torrey and Gray, FL i. 492; Griffith, Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. Common Names.—Evening Primrose, Cure-all, &c. Description.—Stem from three to five feet high, rough, hairy, and branching. Radical leaves petiolated, cauline leaves sessile; both pubescent and more or less dentate. Flowers in a terminal, somewhat leafy spike, of a pale-yellow colour. Tube of the calyx much longer than the ovary, and from one-half to two or three times longer than the segments. Stamens obliquely declined, a little shorter than the somewhat obcordate petals. Ovary sessile, 4-grooved. Capsule oblong, somewhat tapering above, four-sided or terete, valves 1-ribbed. Seeds numerous, arranged in two rows in each cell. This species is very common in this country, and is naturalized in Europe. It is exceedingly variable, and numerous species have been indicated on its varieties which do not appear entitled to that rank. When it grows in secluded situations, the leaves become covered with a white mucor, giving them a highly pubescent appearance; and by cultivation the flowers become of a much deeper colour and of a larger size. They expand in the evening, just at the commencement of twilight, and continue open till the sun begins to exert some power the succeeding morning. The same flower does not expand a second time. Pursh states that he has " frequently observed a singularity in this plant, and it might be interesting to make further inquiry into its cause; it is that in a dark night, when no objects can be distin- guished at an inconsiderable distance, this plant, when in full flower, can be seen at a great distance, having a bright white appearance, which probably may arise from some phosphoric properties ofthe flowers." Medical Properties.—The bark and leaves in a recent state are mucilagi- nous, and leave a slight sensation of acridity, after being chewed. This latter is not so marked after they have been dried, though the mucilage does not appear to be diminished. Some years since, hearing of the efficacy of a decoction of the plant in infantile eruptions, I made a trial with it in seve- ral cases of an obstinate character, which had resisted other modes of treat- ment, and became satisfied that it was highly beneficial; and this opinion has been confirmed by subsequent experience with it. The plant is to be gathered about the flowering season, and the small twigs with the bark ofthe large branches and stem, retaining the leaves with them, to be dried in the shade. Of these a strong decoction is to be made, with which the eruption is to be bathed several times a day. Schoef states that the 0. mollissima, which is probably the lanescent variety of this plant, is a vulnerary, and in domestic practice, in many parts of the country; the Evening Primrose is a favourite emollient in ulcers. From some experiments, it appears to possess the abstergent qualities of the Quillaja saponaria, though not in an equal degree, but fully as much so as the Saponaria officinalis. Group XX.— Cucurbitales. Order 51.—CUCURBITACEiE.—Jwmwjm. Calyx 4—5 (rarely 6) sepals, united in a tube, and in the fertile flowers adherent to the ovary. Petals as many as sepals, usually more or less united into a monopetalous corolla, which coheres to the calyx. Stamens 5 or 3, inserted into the base of the corolla or calyx, either distinct or variously united by their filaments and contorted anthers. Ovary CUCURBITACEiE. 305 2—5-celled, the thick and fleshy placenta often filling the cells, or carried back so as to reach the walls of the pericarp, the dissepiments often disappearing during its growth. Stigmas thick, dilated, or fringed. Fruit (a pepo) usually fleshy, with a hard rind, some- times membranous. Seeds flat, often arilled, exalbuminous. Cotyledons foliaceous. A very extensive order of tropical and sub-tropical plants, with a few extra- tropical species. They are all succulent herbs, climbing by tendrils, with alter- nate, and palmately-veined or lobed, rough leaves. The general character ofthe order is acridity and a drastic purgative power, which is found in some part of the plant; Fis-149- for, although the fruits of many of them are edible and bland, the roots and leaves are usually active and dangerous. In some cases, the fruit or its pulp is eminently powerful, as in the Elaterium and Colocynth, and there is reason to believe that the edible kinds owe their freedom from acrimony to cultivation, for some of them in a wild state are active and poisonous. The seeds are usually mild and oleaginous, and in one species, the Telfairia pedata, are very large, and are used as an article of food in Africa ; they are said to be very agreeable, and when pressed to yield an abundance of oil, equal in flavour to that of the olive. De Candolle states that none of the seeds of this order are y. pedata. active or poisonous, but in this he was mistaken, as those of several species of Feuillcea are intensely bitter and violent emetics and cathartics, and those of Anisospermwm passifiora and Hypanthera gua- peva are stomachic in small doses, but purge in large ones, A decoction of those ofthe Watermelon acts as a mild diuretic. Momordica.-— Linn. Petals 5, adnate to the base of the calyx, deciduous. Anthers all cohering. Ovules in a single row in each cell. Stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a capsular, elastically-bursting three- valved pepo. The species of this genus are principally natives of India, but one is com- mon to that country and Florida; though it is doubtful whether it has not been introduced into the latter. Most of the fruits are mild, and are esteemed as vulneraries. M. balsamina, Linn.—Leaves smooth, widely-palmate. Linn., Sp. PL, 1453; Descourtilz, Flor. Med. Antill. iii. 62. Common Name.—Balsam Apple. Foreign Names.—Pomme de Mervielle, Fr. ; Balsamina, It. Description.—Stem climbing, slender, angular, furrowed. Leaves lobed, smooth, of a bright-green colour, petiolated. Flowers axillary, of a whitish-yellow colour. Fruit tu- berculated, oblong, somewhat resembling a cucumber, but more pointed at the ends, of a yellowish-red colour when mature, bursting elastically, and discovering the seeds, which are reddish, crenulated, and marked with waved elevations. It is a native of India, but is now naturalized in the West Indies, and ac- cording to Rafinesque, if it is his Neurosperma balsamina, as is supposed by Seringe, is also found in Florida. It is frequently cultivated in gardens, on account ofthe beauty of its fruit. This fruit has long been used in Syria and other Eastern countries as a vulnerary, for which purpose, Hasselquist (Iter. Palest.) informs us, it is cut 20 306 MEDICAL BOTANY. open and infused in sweet oil, which is exposed to the sun for a few days, until it becomes red, and then preserved for use ; dropped on cotton, and ap- plied to a wound, it is considered as a vulnerary almost equal to the balsam of Mecca. It is used in the same way in Europe and this country. Dr. Des- courtilz (Flor. Med. Antill. iii. 62) states that it is acrid and poisonous, but that an extract from it has been found of benefit in dropsies as a hydragogue purgative. In Manilla a decoction of the plant is used as an emetic. Rati. nesque (Med. Flor. ii. 245) says that the root is useful in jaundice and liver complaints, and that the powder is emetic. Several other species are also active. The leaves of M. charantia, which are bitter, and of a strong odour, are vermifuge, and are also employed in decoction in Jamaica to promote the lochial discharge. (Browne, Jam.) The root of M. dioica is recommended by Hindoo physicians in the form of an electuary, in bleeding piles, and bowel complaints. (Ainslie, ii. 274.) Citrullus.—Necker. Corolla persistent, 5-parted, sub-rotate. Anthers tridelphous, bilocular. Style trifid. Stigma obcordate, convex. Fruit a fleshy or dry and fibrous, many-seeded peponida. This genus is very variable in its properties, especially as regards the fruit, in some species being edible, as in the Watermelon, whilst in others it is acrid, poisonous, and purgative, as in the Colocynth, &c. It is probable that the roots and stems of all the species are endowed with active properties. C. colocynthis, Linn.—Leaves many-lobed; petioles as long as the lamina. Fruit globose, smooth, bitter. Cucumis colocynthis, Linn., Sp. PL 1092 ; Woodville, iii. 175 ; Stephen- son and Churchill, iii. 138 ; Citrullus colocynthis, Royle, 396. Common Names.—Colocynth ; Bitter Cucumber. Foreign Names.—Coloquinte, Fr.; Coloquintida, It.; Koloquinthen, Ger. Description.—Root annual, whitish. Stems herbaceous, trailing, angular, branched, rough with short hairs. The leaves are on long pe- tioles of a triangular form, deeply and ob- tusely sinuated, of a bright green on the upper surface, paler, and clothed with whitish hairs beneath. The flowers are solitary, axillary, and of a yellow colour. The calyx of the male flower is bell-shaped. The corolla is monope- talous, campanulate, divided at the margin into five pointed segments. The stamens are three, short, distinct; two are bifid at the apex, or rather have two anthers. The female flower is like the male, but the filaments are destitute of anthers. The ovary is inferior, large, with a very short cylindrical style, furnished with three thick stigmas. The fruit is a round pepo, the size and colour of an orange, and smooth on the outside when ripe; the rind is thin but solid; internally it is trilocular, each cell containing numerous ovate acute, compressed seeds, enveloped by a white spongy pulp. This plant is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, Japan, India, Nubia, Syria, &c, and is cultivated in Spain and c. colocynthis. Italy. It is supposed to be the gourd alluded to in the Old Testament (2 Fig. 150. <■*4. of Aiton, appears to be endowed with still more powerful properties. This is a na- tive of the most Southern parts of the country, where it was held in high esti- mation among the Indians, who consid- ered it as a holy plant, and employed it in their religious ceremonies and great councils to purge their bodies from all impurities. They called both this and the I. dahoon by the name of Cassena. The leaves, which were the part employed, were collected with great care, and formed an article of trade among the tribes. Dr. B. S. Barton (Collections, 38) says of it, " It is thought to be one of the most power- ful diuretics hitherto discovered. It is held in great esteem among the Southern Indians ; they toast the leaves and make a decoction of them. It is the men alone that are permitted to drink this decoction, which is called Black drink." These leaves are inodorous, and have a some- what aromatic, acrid taste. In small doses the decoction acts as a powerful diuretic, and in large ones produces copious discharges from the stomach, bowels, and bladder. In North Carolina, on the seacoast, the inhabitants modify the deleterious action of their brackish water, by boiling a few leaves of Cassena with it. careful examination as regards their true properties. The most celebrated of all the species is the I. paraguayensis, which furnishes the Mate or Para- guay tea, so extensively employed in South America, and forming so important an article of the internal commerce of that country. Its use there is as com- mon as that ofthe China tea in this country, and it appears to possess almost the same properties, being slightly stimulating and tonic, these qualities de- pending on the presence of the same active princi- ple in both plants. It is a small tree or shrub, with oval, cuneiform, or oblong and lanceolate, dentate glabrous leaves, somewhat resembling those of the orange. The smaller the plant, the better is the tea taken from it supposed to be. When gathered in the places of its growth, which are confined to Paraguay, it is torrefied by means of a peculiar kind of oven, and then packed in hides. (Robertson, Four Years in Paraguay.) As found in commerce, it is in the form of a greenish-yellow dust, mixed with broken leaves and stems. This infused in boiling water forms the maU, which is drank or rather sucked up by means of a tube. The herb is often mixed with some aromatic, as orange, or lemon peel, or cinnamon, to give it additional flavour. It is usually disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but ataste for it is soon acquired. (Ruschenberger, Three Years in the Pacific, 92.) 28 I. opaca. These plants require a paraguayensis. 434 MEDICAL BOTANY. A full account of it is given in London Journ. Bot. i. 39. It is said that Theine has been detected in the leaves by Mr. Stenhouse. The I. gongonha is employed in Brazil in the same way. The fruit of I. macoucoua, in an unripe state, abound in tannin, and are used as a substitute for galls. (Martius, Mat. Med. Bras. 126.) Prinos.—Linn. Calyx 6-cleft, small, persistent. Corolla deeply 6-cleft, rotate. Stamens 6, filaments subulate, erect, shorter than the corolla. Anthers oblong, obtuse. Ovary superior, ovate, bearing a single style with an obtuse stigma. Fruit a berry. An American genus, closely allied to Ilex, consisting of small trees or shrubs, with alternate, deciduous, or persistent leaves, and axillary or termi- nal flowers, which are small, and sometimes 5 to 8-cleft, with a similar number of stamina and seeds. P. verticillatcs, Linn.—Leaves deciduous, ovate, serrate, acuminate, pubescent be- neath. Flowers often dioecious, 6-parted. Fertile flowers aggregated; sterile ones axil- lary, subumbellate. Linn., Sp. PL 471 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot., iii. 141 ; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med., i. 203. Common Names.—Winter-berry ; Black Alder, &c. Foreign Names.—Apalachine a feuilles de prunier, Fr.; Virginische Winterbeere, Ger. Description.—A shrub from eight to fifteen feet high, with a bluish-gray or ash-coloured bark. The branches are alternate, horizontal, and spreading, furnished with ovate-acu- minate leaves, dentate on their edges, of an olive-green, and smooth above, but pubescent beneath, especially on the ribs; they are alternate and petiolate. The flowers are small and white, and are clustered in axillary and lateral groups; rarely solitary. The calyx is small and persistent, and the corolla rotate, 6 and sometimes 7-cleft. The stamens are equal in number to the divisions of the corolla. The berries are globular, and of a bright-red colour, persistent after the fall ofthe leaves. The Winter-berry is found in most parts of the United States, in damp situations and on the borders of water-courses, flowering in June, and ripening its berries late in the autumn. The officinal portion is the bark, which, when dried, is in slender pieces, more or less rolled, of a greenish-white colour in- ternally, and of an ash-gray mixed with brown externally, brittle, and with- out odour; the taste is bitter and astringent, which is imparted to water. The berries have a sweetish, bitter taste, and are sometimes used. No chemical examination has been made of either of them. Medical Properties.—The bark is tonic and astringent, and is much used in domestic practice. It was known to the Indians, and was first noticed by Schoepf, who says that " it is an antiseptic, and is used in gangrene and jaundice;" and it still enjoys much popular reputation as a local application to ill-conditioned ulcers and chronic cutaneous eruptions. It is also much employed in the treatment of intermittent fevers, but is far inferior in power to a number of other indigenous tonics. There is more evidence of its good effects in diarrhoea, in which it is extensively prescribed in some parts of the country ; and also as a corroborant in dropsy, &c. Dr. Wm. P. C. Barton states that he " used both bark and berries on several occasions ; and it is with no little satisfaction I bear testimony to its> deserved claim to those com- mendations that have been bestowed upon it." It is administered either in substance or decoction. The dose of the first is from thirty grains to a drachm, several times a day. The decoction, which is the preferable form, is made with two ounces of the bark to three EBENACE^E. .„„ 435 pints of water, boiled down to a quart, of which a gill is to be taken every two hours. It has also been employed in a saturated tincture, made from the bark or berries, or both combined. Order 61 .—EBENACEM.—Ventenat. Flowers often dioecious, rarely sub-hermaphrodite. Calyx monopetalous, 3-7-lobed, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, 3-7-lobed, deciduous, regular, sericeous: Stamens variously inserted, twice to four times as many as the lobes of the corolla, unequal Fi- laments short. Anthers free, introrse, 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary free, 3-12-celled usually hispid. Styles usually with as many divisions as cells in ovary. Stigmas small terminating the styles or the divisions of style. Fruit a berry, 3 to many- eel ed and seeded; or, by abortion, 1-celled and 1-seeded. Seed usually compressed late- rally, with a coriaceous testa. A small order, consisting of trees and shrubs, often with a dark-coloured wood, most common to tropical regions, but not wholly wanting in cold cli- mates. The leaves are alternate, entire, exstipulate, and on short petioles. The flowers are in axillary, rarely terminal cymes. Juice not lactescent. The species are principally remarkable for the hardness of their wood, and for the edible character of their fruit. The Euclea undulata affords a sac- charine berry, which is eaten by the natives of South Africa, and a kind of wine made from its juice (Thunberg, Voy., i. 253). Diospyros.—Linn. Dioecious. Sterile flowers. Calyx 4—6-cleft. Corolla urceolate, 4—6-cleft. Stamens 8—16. Filaments often with 2 anthers. Fertile flowers, calyx and corolla as in male. Stigmas 4—5. Fruit 8—12-seeded. A large genus, most of the species which are peculiar to the East Indies, consisting of trees and shrubs, with alternate, very entire leaves, and axillary, subsessile flowers; the female furnished with sterile stamens. Their general medicinal quality, as far as known, is astringency, which is very strongly marked in the species found in this country. D. virginiana, Linn.—Leaves elliptical, obtusely-acuminate. Petiole and nervures pubescent. Racemes axillary, 1—3-flowered. Pedicels short, and with the calyx pu- bescent. Calyx 4-parted, lobes lanceolate. Corolla campanulate, glabrous, 4-cleft, lobes rounded. Linnaeus, Sp. PL 1510; Torrev, Compend. 375; Rafinesque, Med. FL, i. 153 ; Michaux, N. A. Syl, ii. 219. Common Names.—Persimmon ; Yellow Plum ; Date Plum. Foreign Name.—Plaqueminier, Fr. Description.—A tree from 20 to 60 feet in height, with a rugged, blackish bark, and alternate, spreading branches. . The leaves are oval or oblong, acuminate, with an entire margin, smooth and shining above, and whitish or paler and reticulated beneath, sup. ported on short, pubescent petioles. The flowers are lateral, axillary, mostly solitary, nearly sessile, or on a very short peduncle. The calyx is spreading, persistent, usually 4, but sometimes 5 or 6-parted. Segments lanceolate, shorter than the corolla, which is yellowish, and has as many segments as the calyx. Sterile and fertile flowers usually on different trees, but sometimes a perfect flower occurs, in which the stamina are double the number of the segments ofthe calyx, and the stigmas equal to these segments. The filaments are short, free, or inserted on the calyx, with bilobate anthers. The ovary is globular, supporting a very short style, with obtuse, spreading stigmas. The fruit is a round, dark-yellow, or orange berry, containing a fleshy, eatable pulp, and many com pressed, hard seeds. 436 MEDICAL BOTANY. The Persimmon is, found from New York to Louisiana, rarely above the 42° of latitude, but exceeding- Fi?-190. ]y common to the South and West. It flowers in May and June, but does not ripen its fruit until the first frosts in the autumn. Before this it is very astringent, but when fully ripe is sweet and plea- sant-flavoured. This fruit, in several stages of growth, has been examined by .Mr. B. R. Smith, who found that in a green state it contained Tan- nin, Sugar, a little Malic acid, and Woody fibre, &c.; that when ripe, the sugar has in- creased in quantity, as has also the malic acid, and the tannin has almost disappeared (Am. Jour. Pharm., xii. 161). The wood is white and hard, and is used for a variety of purposes. A gum exudes from the bark in small quan- tity. The officinal part is the bark ; this is very bitter and astringent; it has never been analyzed, but evidently con- tains much Tannin and Gallic acid (Woodhouse, Inaug. Diss.) Medical Properties.—This bark is tonic and astringent, and is much em- ployed in some parts of the country in the treatment of intermittent fevers, and as an astringent in complaints of the bowels. Dr. B. S. Barton (Collec- tions, 11) says, " I used the bark in ulcerated sore throat;" and it has since been employed for the same 'disease with much benefit. I am inclined to believe that it is the most powerful of our native astringents. The unripe fruits have also been highly recommended by Dr. Mattauer (Am. Jour. Med. Sci., Oct. 1842) as an astringent, in the form of infusion, syrup, and tincture, in various forms of bowel disease and hemorrhage. The ripe fruits are very grateful, and are said to possess some anthelmintic properties. They afford an alcoholic liquor on distillation, somewhat resem- bling brandy, and a kind of beer is prepared from them by forming the pulp into cakes with bran, drying them in an oven, and bruising them afterwards in water. The fruit varies much both in size and flavour ; in some localities it is very large and delicious, whilst in others it is small and astringent even when fully ripe. This tree has never been cultivated, though it fully deserves it, for if it should improve in the same ratio as. the plum, peach, &c, it would be a great addition to our autumn fruits, as it ripens at a time when most others have disappeared. The other species of Diospyros are principally noted for the value of their wood. Ebony is the product of D. ebenus, D. tessellaria, D. ebenaster, D. Roylei, &c. Some of them also afford edible fruits, as the D. chloroxybn and D. amara ; this latter bears berries as large as an orange, and are much used in China (Annal. Soc Linn. Par. 1824). The D. kaki, of Japan, also D. virginiana. STYRACACE^E. 437 yields a fruit much esteemed in that country and China, but is said to be apt to cause dysentery (Kcempfer, Amazn. Acad. 85). That of the D. nigra is very large, and is eaten in the Philippine Islands. The Embryoteris glutinosa, a native of India, has a fruit of a rusty yellow colour, as large as an apple, affording a very astringent juice, which is so glutinous that it is used in Bengal to pay the bottoms of boats; it is also employed as an application to wounds. Order 68.—STYRACACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx inferior or superior, 5-parted, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, often differing in the number of its divisions from those ofthe calyx; aestivation imbricated. Stamens unequal, more or less coherent; anthers innate, two-celled. Ovary superior or adhering to the calyx; three to five-celled ; style simple; somewhat capitate. Fruit drupaceous, surmounted by or enclosed in the calyx, with one to five cells. A small order, closely allied to Ebenacece, and by some botanists deemed a section of it, but differing in many important points, and especially in its gefieral properties. It consists of trees and shrubs with alternate exstipulate leaves, generally dentate, and becoming yellow on drying. The flowers are axillary, either solitary or clustered, with scale-like bracts. The species are generally inhabitants of warm climates, a few only occurring in the cold lati- tudes. ■"■''' The properties of the species are various. Some afford a balsamic resin- ous juice, as in Styrax ; others have tinctorial properties and some degree of astringency, thus the Hopea tinctoria of the Southern States has a bitter and aromatic root, which is esteemed as a valuable stomachic, and the leaves, which have a sweet taste, dye wool and silk of a bright-yellow colour. The Bobna laurina is celebrated in Bengal for its bark, which forms a mordant for red dyes. The leaves of Alstonia lhecefor?nis of South America, are used in Santa Fe as a substitute for the Chinese article, and are said to be sudorific and stomachic. (Plant. JEquin. i. t. 51.) Styrax.—Linn. Calyx somewhat campanulate, entire or five-toothed. Corolla campanulate, three to seven-cleft. Stamens six to sixteen, exserted; filaments united to tube of corolla; an- thers linear, two-celled, dehiscing internally. Style simple, with an obtuse, somewhat lobed stigma. Fruit dry, splitting imperfectly into two or three valves, with one to three stones. Seeds solitary, erect. A genus of a few species of which one half are natives of North America. They all abound in a fragrant juice, which in two ofthe foreign species when in an inspissated state is officinal under the names of Storax and Benzoin. S. officinaue, Linn.—Leaves ovate, villous beneath. Racemes simple, shorter than the leaf. Linn., Sp. PL 635 ; Woodville, t. 71 ; Stokes, Bot. Mat. Med. ii. 516 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 390. Common Name.—Storax tree. Foreign Names.—Storax, Fr.; Storaco, It.; Storax, Ger. 438 MEDICAL BOTANY. Description.—A tree of medium size, with Fig. 197. irregular, alternate, round branches, which are tomentose when young. The leaves are deciduous, elliptical, entire, somewhat pointed, and resembling those of the quince; they are alternate, petiolated, smooth, of a bright-green colour above, and downy be- neath. The flowers are in clusters at the ends of the young lateral shoots, of a white colour. The calyx and corolla are both downy, the latter is somewhat funnel- shaped, and divided into five deep, ellipti- cal, obtuse, spreading segments; the sta- mens are ten, placed in a ring; the fila- ments subulate and inserted into the corolla, with yellow, erect, oblong anthers. The ovary is ovate, with a slender style and simple stigma. The fruit is a drupe of a globose form containing one or two angular nuts, convex on one side and concave on the other. The Storax is a native of Syria and the Levant, and is naturalized in some parts of Italy, especially about Tivoli. It was known to the ancients, and is noticed by all their writers S. officinale. j- • i 1 t~v- -j 1. Style. 2. Stamens and ovary. 3. Fruit. on ™ed.Cinal plants; Dioscorides speaks of several kinds of it, and Pliny says that the Arabians used it as a perfume. The best now comes from Asiatic Turkey, and is obtained in a fluid state from incisions made in the bark ; trees under six years old are never tapped, nor do they afford a product for more than twelve years. There are several varieties of Storax found in commerce, though not more than two are met with in our shops. The most esteemed is of a light colour, either in tears or amygdaloidal masses, and free from saw-dust or other impurities. The common Storax of the shops is in cakes, masses, or powder of a brown or reddish-brown colour, light and friable, and softening under the teeth ; it appears to consist of saw- dust united by a liquid resin. The article called liquid storax is a semi-fluid, brown substance, with a smell resembling that of Balsam Peru. It is uncer- tain from what tree it is derived, but it certainly is not derived from our na- tive Liquidambar styraciflua as has been stated. Dr. Wood (Dispensatory) was one of the first to point out that it differed from this balsam, and I can confirm his statement of the dissimilarity, from several times having had an opportunity of collecting the latter product, which is widely different from any liquid storax I have ever seen. It may be obtained from the L. orientak of Lamarck, which Jussieu thought was the source ofthe Storax. Landerer, as quoted by Pereira, however, affirms that it is derived from the Styrax by pressing the bark. Storax has a fragrant odour and aromatic taste, and im- parts its odour to water, whilst, with the exception of the impurities, it is wholly soluble in alcohol and ether. It has been analyzed, and, according to its quality, contains different proportions of Woody fibre, Gummy extractive, Resin, Benzoic acid, Volatile oil, &c. Medical Properties.—Storax is a stimulating expectorant, and was for- merly much employed in asthma, chronic catarrhs, and affections of the wind- pipe ; it has also been prescribed in amenorrhoea and mucous discharges from the genito-urinary organs. It is now seldom or never used except to STYRACACE./E. 439 disguise the taste and smell of opium in certain compounds, and in the com- pound tincture of benzoin. From its fragrant odour when burning, it forms an ingredient of many fumigating pastilles. 2. S. benzoin, Dryander.—Leaves ovate, pointed, entire, downy beneath. Branches tomentose. Flowers in axillary, compound racemes. Dryander, Phil. Trans, lxxvii. 308; Woodville, t. 72; Stephenson and Churchill, iii. 112; Lindley, Flor. Med. 390; Benzoin officinale, Hayne. Common Names.—Benjoin tree; Benjamin tree. Description.—A tree of some size and quick growth, with many strong, round branches, covered with a hoary and fine downy bark. The leaves are alternate on short petioles, ovate-acuminate, entire, smooth above and tomentose beneath. The flowers are in com- pound axillary racemes, shorter than the leaves, with angular downy peduncles and a few tomentose, oblong, deciduous bracts. The calyx is campanulate, downy, and mi- nutely-toothed ; the corolla is longer than the calyx and is 5-cleft, the segments are linear and obtuse, somewhat silky rather than tomentose. The stamens are ten ; filaments con- nected below into a tube almost as long as the calyx and bearing linear, erect anthers. The ovary is superior, ovate-tomentose, with a slender style and simple stigma. The fruit resembles that of the last species. The Benzoin tree is a native of Sumatra, Borneo, Siam, Java, &c, where it is also cultivated. Much confusion at one time existed as to the tree affording the Benzoin of commerce, for although it was known to Gar- cias, Sylvius, and others of the older botanists, they were unacquainted with its botanical characters, and subsequent writers were led into very glaring errors; thus Ray attributed this gum-resin to the Laurus benzoin, a North American shrub, and Linnaeus, first to a species of Croton, and finally to a Terminalia, and it was not until about 1787 that Dryander ascertained its true origin. It has been considered as a true Styrax by most botanists, but is erected into a separate genus by Hayne (Arzn. Gen. ii.), under the name of Benzoin officinale; but there is nothing in its characters that authorizes this change, which is not admitted by De Candolle and other distinguished au- thorities. The resinous balsam, known as Benzoin, is obtained from this tree in the following manner. When the trees are six or seven years old, incisions are made in the bark, from which the balsam exudes in the form of a thick, white, resinous juice. By exposure to the air it soon hardens, and is then separated from the bark by means of a knife or chisel. For the first three years the trees yield the purest product; this is of a white colour, inclining to yellow, soft and fragrant. Afterwards, for the next seven or eight years, an inferior kind is furnished ; this is of a reddish-yellow colour, inclining to brown. The trees are then cut down and split into logs; from these a still worse sort is procured by scraping them; this is dark-coloured, hard, and mixed with parings ofthe wood and other impurities. The Benzoin is carried to the ports ofthe island in large cakes covered with mats. In order to pack it in chests for exportation, these cakes are softened by heat, and then broken into the fragments in which it is found in commerce. (Marsden, Hist. Su- matra, 134.) There are several kinds of Benzoin ; the best is in tears of a whitish colour, united by a reddish-brown connecting medium, but that generally met. with is in brown or blackish masses. Good Benzoin has an agreeable and fra- grant odour, and a somewhat acrid taste. When heated it gives out thick, white, pungent fumes, consisting mainly of benzoic acid. It is wholly solu- ble, when pure, in alcohol or ether, and imparts some of its properties to water. It has been often analyzed and found to consist of Volatile oil, Ben- 440 MEDICAL BOTANY. zoic acid, Resin, a Balsamic matter, Aromatic extractive, &c, in proportions varying according to the quality ofthe Benzoin experimented upon. Medical Properties.—Benzoin, like the other balsams, is stimulant and expectorant, and also appears' to have some influence on the sexual organs. It was formerly much employed in pulmonary diseases, but is now seldom prescribed except in chronic affections of the air passages, either in combi- nation, or in the form of fumigation, being scarcely ever administered alone. It forms a constituent of several officinal preparations, and enters largely into the composition of numerous quack remedies for coughs, and as cosmetics, or vulneraries. Its principal employment is as a fumigating perfume, and for the manufacture of Benzoic acid. A fragrant juice of a similar character is produced by other species, as S. ferruginea, aurea, and reticulata, and is used in Brazil as frankincense. (Martius, Jour. Chim. Med., iii. 546.) It is probable that the article ex- amined by M. Bonastre, under the name of Storax de Bogota, was the product of one of these species. (Jour, de Pharm., xvi. 88.) Order 69.—SAPOTACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx regular, persistent, 5 or 4—8-lobed, valvate or imbricate in aestivation. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, regular, deciduous; segments usually equal in number to those of the calyx, sometimes twice or thrice as many ; aestivation imbricated. Stamens arising from the corolla definite, distinct; fertile ones equal in number to segments of calyx; anthers usually extrorse; sterile stamens as numerous as, and alternate with, the fertile. Ovary superior, many-celled, each containing a single ascending or pendulous ovule; style 1; stigma undivided, or sometimes lobed. Fruit fleshy, with several 1- seeded cells, or by abortion with one cell only. Seeds nut-like; with a bony shining testa, having a large hilum ; embryo erect, large, in a fleshy albumen. Trees or shrubs, often abounding in a milky juice, and having alternate, or sometimes almost verticillate leaves, entire, coriaceous, and exstipulate. They are principally natives of the tropics, very few being found in extra- tropical regions. They are more celebrated for their fruit, than for their medicinal or other properties. The Chrysophylluvi cainito bears the Star Apple, which is much esteemed in the West Indies, and the fruits of C. macrophyllum, C. macoucou, and C. philippense, are also used as food in their native countries. Those of several species of Achras are in still higher repute; the A. sapota furnishes a deli- cious product, the Sappodilla Plum, of which there are many varieties ; these, besides their edible qualities, are in some estimation in the treatment of stran- gury. The seeds, pounded and made into an emulsion, are diuretic and pur- gative, and have been recommended in gravel and nephritic colic, but in over- doses cause much pain and even dangerous symptoms. The bark, as well as that of some other species, is tonic and febrifuge, and has been used as a substitute for Cinchona. The Lucuma mammosa bears the fruit called Mar- malade, which resembles the last, but is not so much esteemed. The tree affords a milky juice, which Dr. Descourtilz (Flor. Med. Antill., ii. 144) says is emetic, and caustic, and is used to destroy warts. The leaves of A. dissecta are employed in China, pounded with ginger, as an external appli- cation in paralysis. Mimusops elengi, and M. kaki, yield somewhat astringent fruits, but are much used by the natives of the East Indies ; the bark affords a gum; the seeds ofthe first afford an abundance of oil, which is used in painting, and is said to be useful in facilitating parturition. Various species of Bassia are O L E A C E M. 441 of much importance ; the fruit of B. longifolia or Illupic tree, when pressed, gives out an abundance of oil, which is employed in India for food, soap- making, and burning; it is also thought beneficial as an external application in cutaneous disorders, and a decoction ofthe leaves and the milky juice, are used in rheumatic affections. The vegetable butter of India, called Ghee, is obtained front B. butyracea. .(Royle, Illus., 263.) The Butter Tree of Mungo Park is also supposed to be B. Parkii ; the seeds of this produce, on expression, a solid oil, which is in general use in some parts of Africa, both for food and as an external application in cases of rheumatism, cutaneous eruptions, &c. ; the flowers are also employed as food and to flavour spi- rituous liquors, which use is likewise made of those of B. latifolia in India. The bark of several species of Bumelia is tonic and febrifugal ; this is very marked in B. nigra; the fruit of B. retusa is milky, that of B. lyci- oides, a native of the Southern States, is austere, and is said to be useful in bowel complaints. The bark called Monesia, which is derived from South America, is said to be the product of a plant of this order ; MM. Derosne, Henry, and Payen, who made a chemical examination of it, think it is a Chrysophyllum, but other naturalists suppose it is obtained from a Rhizo- phora, or an Acacia. It is certainly produced by a large-sized tree, and re- sembles the bark of one of the Sapotacece, more than that of any of the orders. It is of a dark-brown colour within, and of a grayish tint externally; having a short fracture. Its taste is at first saccharine, but soon becomes acrid and irritating. It has been found useful in diarrhoea, menorrhagia, leucor- rhoea, and haemoptysis, and has been tried with various success, in debility of the stomach, bronchitis, &c. It has also been applied topically in ulcers, haemorrhoids, ophthalmia, &c. It is given in extract, in doses of sixteen to twenty-four grains, which are increased as occasion may require. (Am. Jour. Pharm., xiii. 151 ; Dunglison, New Remedies, 438.) Group XXIX.—Oleales. Order lO.—OLEACEM.—De Candolle. Flowers perfect, rarely dioecious. Calyx monosepalous, persistent, generally 4-part- ed. Corolla hypogynous, monopetalous, 4-cleft, sometimes apetalous, aestivation valvate. Stamens 2, alternate with the segments ofthe corolla; anthers 2-celled, dehiscing longi- tudinally, ovary simple, 2-celled, cells 2-seeded; style 1 or 0; stigma undivided or bifid. Fruit drupaceous, berried or capsular, often by abortion 1-seeded. Seeds with dense* fleshy, abundant albumen, embryo straight. This order is a small but important one; it consists of trees and shrubs with usually dichotomous branches, terminating by a conspicuous bud; the leaves are simple or sometimes pinnated, and alternate. The flowers are in racemes or panicles, either terminal or axillary, the pedicels opposite, with single bracts. It has been divided into several tribes from the difference of fruit; as Fraxinece, where it is dry and samaroid ; Syringce, where it is dry and capsular ; Oleinece, where it is drupaceous and fleshy. The species are principally natives of temperate climates. Besides Manna and Olive Oil obtained from Fraxinus and% Olea, several other products of this order require notice. The bark of the root of Chionanthus virginica, a native shrub, is tonic and febrifuge with some acro-narcotic properties, whence it is called Poison ash; this bark is also used in a cataplasm as an application to wounds and ulcers. The fruit of Noronhia emarginata is eaten in the Isles of France and Madagascar. The leaves of Phillyrea latifolia are used in 442 MEDICAL BOTANY. the South of Europe as astringent in ulcers of the throat and mouth ; Lemery states that a cataplasm of the flowers made with vinegar is beneficial in headache (Diet. 678); the other species appear to have the same properties. The leaves and bark of Ligustrum vulgare or Privet are also astringent, and have been employed with success in the same cases as the above. All parts of Syringa vulgar is are very bitter, but the fruit and seeds are the most so ; these have been given with benefit as a febrifuge, and Cruveilhier states that he obtained excellent results in intermittent fevers from the extract (Med. eclairee. par Vanat). In the hands of other practitioners this article has failed, and is now never given. Olea.—Linn. Fig. 198. Calyx small, 4-toothed. Corolla with a short tube, and 4-cleft limb. Stamens 2. Ovary bilocular i style short, stigma bifid or sub-capitate. Drupe baccate, oleo.carneous, by abortion with a single nut. A genus of about twenty-five species, peculiar to warm and temperate climates, with opposite entire, rarely dentate, coriaceous leaves. The flowers are generally fragrant, white, racemose or paniculate. One species only affords a useful product, but it is probable that many of the others by culti- vation would be equally important.' O. europ.ea, Linn.—Leaves lanceolate, entire, hoary beneath. Racemes axillary, dense. Branches angular, not spiny. Linn., Sp. PL 11 ; Woodville, ii. 280; Stephenson and Churchill, i. 15; Lindley, Flor. Med. 547. Common Name.—Olive tree. Foreign Names.—Olivier, Fr.; Ulivo, It.; Oelbaum, Ger. Description.—A small tree, much branch- ed, covered with a grayish bark. The wood is hard and compact, of a dark-yellowish co- lour, susceptible of a high polish. The leaves are opposite, nearly sessile, lanceolate, of a whitish-green colour, smooth on the upper surface and downy beneath. The flowers are in small clusters in the axilla of the leaves, on short peduncles, and furnished with small, obtuse bracts; the calyx is obtuse and 4-cleft; the corolla is white, monopetalous, spreading, divided into 4 ovate, obtuse segments. The stamens are two, shorter than the corolla, sup- porting large elliptical anthers, and a single, slender, erect style, with a bipartite stigma. The fruit is a smooth drupe, of a violet colour when ripe, of an unpleasant bitter taste, but abounding in a bland oil, and enclosing an ovate, oblong, rugose nut or stone. There are several varieties of this tree, differing in the size and form of the leaves, and in the magnitude, co- lour and taste of the fruit. It is gene- rally supposed that the olive is a native of Asia, but its cultivation having com- menced before the existence of any de- O. europsea. 1. Corolla. 2. Calyx. 1 Drupe. OLEACE^E. 443 finite records, and having been introduced into Europe and there naturalized at a very early period, it is impossible to come to any exact conclusion as to the locality whence it was originally derived. According to Gibbon (Decline and Fall), " the Olive in the western world followed the progress of peace, of which it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the founda- tion of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful plant; it was naturalized in those countries, and at length carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul." It is constantly spoken of in the Bible, and frequent re- ferences are made to it by Homer, in both cases as a tree in general.cultiva- tion : and the varieties now known were equally common in former times, as Virgil enumerates three kinds, Cato eight, and Columella ten. No plant is of more easy cultivation, and it has the additional advantage that it flourishes in the most barren soils. The suckers are removed from the trees in the spring and autumn, when the ground is ploughed, or it is merely loosened round the trees. The plant begins to bear at two years of age, and at six is productive, and is almost of endless duration, as a plantation is still in bear- ing near Terni, in Italy, which is supposed to be the same trees spoken of by Pliny as growing there in the first century. The Olive is cultivated with success in the old world, where the tempera- ture ofthe coldest month is not under 42°, and that, ofthe summer not below 72°. Thus in Europe it extends as high as latitude 44|°, whilst in America it would not flourish above 34°. There are three products of this tree that require notice, its gum, leaves, and fruit. Olive Gum.—This is, properly speaking, a resinoid substance, exuding naturally from the bark, consisting of a peculiar matter, called Olivine, resin and benzoic acid ; it was formerly used in medicine, but is now considered as of no particular virtue. Leaves.—These contain tannin and gallic acids, and have been employed with some success as astringents and tonics, but are seldom prescribed in re- gular practice, but form a domestic remedy in much repute in some parts of Europe. Fruit.—This is employed for two purposes, the first and most important for the expression of the oil contained in them, and secondly as an article of food ; in the latter case they are prepared by pickling, and are used in an unripe state, being steeped in a weak solution of soda or lime, to deprive them of their bitterness, then washing them repeatedly in water, and finally preserving them in a strong solution of common salt, aromatized with bay leaves. Large quantities are imported into this country from Italy and France; these are made from the small variety (longifolia); those from Spain being prepared when the fruit is almost mature are oily and strong, and are not as much esteemed ; they are from the large variety (latifolia). Olive Oil.—The time for gathering olives for the purpose of extracting their oil, is just before they are fully ripe. If this be delayed until they are mature, the tree will bear only in alternate years. The quality also de- pends on the time of gathering; they should be carefully picked by hand, and the harvest completed, if possible, in one day. In France and Italy the oil is drawn from the fruit by presses and mills. The fruit is gathered just as it attains maturity, or when it begins to redden, and immediately carried to the mill, and care taken that the mill-stones are set at such a distance from each other as not to crush the nut ofthe fruit. The pulp is put in bags and moderately pressed ; the product obtained is of the first quality, and called Virgin oil. The marc remaining is broken in pieces, moistened with water and again pressed; the oil from this second operation is of an inferior quality, but still fit for table use. The marc is again broken up, well soaked in water, 444 MEDICAL BOTANY. or somewhat fermented, and then re-pressed, by which is obtained a coarse oil, fit only for soap-making or for burning. At Gallipoli, where a large quan- tity of oil is made, principally for manufacturing purposes, the several opera- tions are conducted in a very rude manner, and the oil obtained is of the coarsest kind, and is kept in large cisterns dug out ofthe rocks, until wanted for exportations ( Ulysses'' Travels). This is also generally the case in Spain, where the olives are beaten from the trees, and the ripe and unripe, sound and decayed, thrown together into a heap to ferment, then ground and press- ed; by these means a large product is obtained, but it is rank and disagree- able. According to De Candolle, one hundred pounds of olives afford about thirty. two pounds of oil, of which twenty-one is from the pulp, the remainder from the seed and woody portion ofthe nut. When first made, it deposits a white fibrous matter, formerly employed in medicine under the name of amurca. The best table oil comes from the South of France and Tuscany. When good, it is an unctuous fluid, of a pale yellow or greenish-yellow colour, with scarcely any odour, and a bland and almost mucilaginous taste. When ex- posed to a temperature of 32°, it congeals and separates into two portions, one solid, called Margarine by Lecanu, and Stearine by Chevreul, and the other fluid, called Elaine or Oleine. It is composed of about 72 parts ofthe latter and 28 of the former. Olive oil is often adulterated, especially with that from the poppy, and of late years, it is said, very largely with lard oil; several plans have been proposed to detect these adulterations, the most simple of which is the exposure to cold, as the pure oil will solidify when cooled with ice, which neither of the adulterating oils will do. If the oil be adulterated with lead, which is sometimes the case, to obviate its rancidity, it may be de- tected by shaking one part of it with three parts of water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, when a precipitate ofthe lead will ensue. Medical Properties.—The medicinal qualities of olive oil are those of a nutrient, demulcent, emollient, and laxative. In catarrh and other pulmonary affections, it has been used as a demulcent in the form of an emulsion, but the oil of almonds is "more generally employed in such cases. It is also oc- casionally recommended as a mild laxative, where there is much irritation of the intestinal mucous membranes; and as an antidote against certain poisons, among the rest where cantharides had been taken; but as it is an excellent solvent ofthe active principle of this drug, it augments the danger instead of mitigating it. Nor is it proper incases of poisoning with opium or its salts, with arsenic, copper, &c, in which it has been recommended, but is highly beneficial where poisonous doses of the alkalies have been taken, as it forms a soap with them. Olive oil has enjoyed much reputation as an external remedy in the plague, and according to Mr. Jackson (Hist. Morocco), is of the greatest benefit, not only as a preventive but as a curative means, after the accession of the dis- ease ; but the trials made with it by several practitioners do not confirm his statement of its powers. It was also considered as an antidote against the bites of venomous serpents, but there are no just grounds for supposing that any reliance is to be placed upon it. It is principally employed in the composition of liniments, ointments, ce- rates, and plasters, and is also frequently prescribed as a constituent of laxa- tive enemata, where there is irritation of the lower bowels or adjoining parts. Its use as an article of food, or in the arts, is too well known to require com- ment, except to state that it is always improper for persons suffering from dyspepsia. The dose, when it is intended as a laxative, is from a drachm to an ounce or more. O L E A C E M. 445 Fraxinus.—Linn. Flowers polygamous or dioecious. Calyx 4-cleft or wanting. Petals either 4, cohering at base, oblong or linear, or wanting. Stamina 2. Stigma bifid. Fruit orbicular, com- pressed, winged above, 1-seeded by abortion, not dehiscing. A large genus, including both Fraxinus and Ornus of most authors, but which are considered by the best authorities as merely forming sections. The species are trees and shrubs confined to the northern hemisphere. They have terete and sometimes tetragonal branches, and opposite, petiolate, pinnate leaves, with 2—7 pairs of leaflets, which are either petiolate or sessile, gene- rally dentate, rarely entire. The flowers are racemose or paniculate. F. ornus, Linn.—Leaves opposite, large ^leaflets 3—4 pairs, ovate-oblong, acuminate, irregularly dentate. Panicles large and many-flowered. Flowers small and polygamous. furnished with a corolla. Fruit wedge-shaped, smooth and winged. Linn., Sp. PL 1510 ; Woodville, i. 104, t. 36 ; Ornus europcea, Stephen- son and Churchill, i. 53 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 547. Common Names.—Flowering Ash ; Manna Tree. Foreign Names.—Frene a fleurs, Fr.; Avornello, Orniello, It. Description.—A small tree, much branched, and covered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are oblong, on channelled footstalks, and are pinnate and opposite ; the leaflets are in three or four pairs, with a terminal one, opposite, acuminate, unequally serrate, smooth, and of a bright green colour. The flowers are produced in loose panicles at the extremities ofthe branches, on supra-decompound peduncles. The segments ofthe calyx are ovate ; and the corolla consists of four, linear, pointed petals; the stamens are two, supporting long, yellow, incumbent anthers. The ovary is oval, with a very short style, and a notched stigma. The fruit is a pendulous, compressed samara, containing a single lanceolate, cylindrical, brown seed. This tree is found in the South of Europe, especially in Calabria and Sicily. It is probable that it is the Melia of Theophrastus, and is the true Fraxinus of the Roman writers. It is from this tree that a portion of the Manna of commerce is obtained, but the largest portion is said to be the product ofthe F. rotundifolia, and to be also procured from the F. excelsior, and F.parvifolia. Cirillo (Philos. Trans, lxiii. 234) gives the following account of the mode of collecting it in Calabria. " In order to obtain the manna, those who have the management, in the months of July and August, when the weather is dry and warm, make an oblong incision, and take a piece off from the bark ofthe tree, about three inches in length and two in breadth ; they leave the wound open, and by degrees the manna runs out, and is almost suddenly thickened to its proper consistence, and is found adhering to the bark. This manna, which is collected into baskets, and goes under the name of manna grassa, (manna in sorts,) is put in a dry place, because moisture and a damp atmo- sphere will soon dissolve it again. This kind is often in large, irregular pieces of a brownish colour, and frequently full of dust and other impurities. But when the people want to have a fine manna, they apply to the incision in the bark, thin straw or bits of shrubs, so that the manna, in coming out, runs upon these bodies, and is collected in a sort of regular tubes, and is called manna in cannoli (flake manna). When the summer is rainy the manna is always scarce and bad." Houel (Voy. Pittor. de Sicile), gives much the same account of the mode of obtaining it in Sicily. No manna is produced in countries to the north of Calabria, though the tree will bear the climate of England. Some writers suppose the manna a natural product, but others insist that it never takes place except the tree be wounded by an incision, or punctured by insects. 446 MEDICAL BOTANY. Several kinds of manna are described, but the only varieties that come to this country, are the flake, and manna in sorts, the first of which is the purest, though by no means the most purgative ; it is in irregular, unequal pieces, rough, light, and porous, of a yellowish-white colour, with a crystal- line or granular fracture, of a slight peculiar odour, and sweet taste. The common or manna in sorts is in masses composed of whitish or yellowish fragments, united together by a soft, tenacious, brownish matter ; this variety has a nauseous taste, which is the greater, according to the preponderance of the brown substance; where this latter forms the greatest portion, it has re- ceived the name of fat manna. Manna has been often analyzed ; it consists of a peculiar sugar called Mannite, which is incapable of undergoing vinous fermentation, Sugar, Purgative colouring matter, Gum, &c. The trees above noticed are not the only vegetables that furnish manna,or a product analogous to it. Thus, according to Burckhardt and other travel- lers in Arabia, the Bedouins make use of an exudation from the Tamarisk tree, resembling this substance; and that used in India is derived from a thorny shrub, found in abundance in the Arabian and Persian deserts: it is the Al- hagi maurorum ; a third kind is obtained from a species of Eucalyptus, growing in Australia; it is also furnished by the Larix europcea, the Salix chilensis, &c.; but none of these are equal to that from the Fraxinus. Man- nite also exists in many vegetables, as in the celery, asparagus, melon, &c.; Ainslie (Mat. Ind. i.), after speaking ofthe various kinds of manna, observes, " whether any of these mannas may be the product of the insect called Kermes mannifera, I know not, but the inquiry might be interesting. Major Macdonald Kinneir mentions, in his Geographical Memoir on Persia, a sort of manna which the Persians call guz, and which may be procured in great quantities in Louristan; he adds, that it is obtained from a shrub, in appearance like a fennel, about four feet high, and is supposed to be produced by small red insects. These are seen in great quantities on the leaves." Medical Properties.—In small doses, manna is nutritive, and in large ones laxative, and appears to increase in power with age; at least when first ga- thered, it is said to be eaten in some quantity, without affecting the bowels. The purest manna is not as purgative as the more inferior, for although man- nite is laxative, the principal purgative principle resides in the brown viscous matter. It is now seldom administered to adults, except in combination with other substances, to disguise their taste, and also from the fact that when given in any quantity, it is apt to cause flatulence and griping. It is, however, much employed, especially in domestic practice, as a laxative for children. It is given either in substance, or dissolved in warm milk or water. The dose for an adult is from an ounce to two ounces, and for children, a drachm to two or three. The bark of most of the species is bitter and astringent, and before the in- troduction of Peruvian bark, was much employed in the treatment of inter- mittent fevers; that most generally used was obtained from the F. excelsior, and the evidence in favour of its curative powers is very great. It was also recommended by Bergius as a febrifuge. The leaves are purgative, and are spoken of by Coste and Willemet as nearly equal to Senna (Mat. Med. In- digen. 36). The seeds, which are acrid and bitter, are said to be hydragogue and diuretic. APOCYNACE^E. 447 G-roup XXX. —Gentianales. Order 71.—APOCYNACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx free, persistent, 5-parted. Corolla monopetalous. hypogynous, regular, 5-lobed, often with scales at the mouth, deciduous; aestivation contorted. Stamens five, inserted on the corolla, with the segments of which they are alternate. Filaments distinct. An- thers cohering firmly to the stigma, 2-celled, with a longitudinal dehiscence. Pollen granular. Ovaries 2 or 1—2-celled, polyspermous. Styles 2 or 1. Stigma single, con- tracted in the middle. Fruit a follicle, capsule, or drupe, double or single. Seeds with fleshy or cartilaginous albumen. Testa simple. Embryo foliaceous. A very large order, composed of trees, shrubs, or herbs, abounding in a milky juice, and having opposite, sometimes verticillate, entire leaves, often with glands on or between the petioles, but no proper stipules. The species are principally tropical, most common in Asia ; a few only are found in northern countries. _ They are generally fine and showy plants. The whole order is suspicious, for although a few yield edible fruits, and some a nutritive and innoxious milk, the greater proportion are acrid and poisonous. Among the latter class, Tanghi- nia venenifera stands prominent; the kernel ' Fig. 199. of the fruit, although not larger than an almond, being sufficient to destroy twenty men. It is a native of Madagascar. It was formerly used as an ordeal to ascertain the guilt of suspected persons, but the custom is now discontinued. (Hooker, Bot. Mag. t. 2968.) It has been analyzed by O. Henry, who found its active principle to bean alkaloid, which he calls tanghinin (Jour, de Pharm. x. 49). Dr. Ollivier made numerous experi- ments with the seeds, and ascertained that the tanghinin was narcotic, and that another white, crystalline substance, contained in them, was acrid and stimulating. It acts on the cerebro-spinal system. The different species of Thevetia are also very active. T. neriifolia, a native of the West Indies, has very poisonous seeds; these have been examined by Dr. Madianna, and found to be violently acro-narcotic, even in small doses. (Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. i. 86.) Descour- tilz states that the bark is eminently febrifuge, two grains being equivalent to a full dose of Cinchona. (Flor. Med. Antill. iii. 40.) The seeds of C. ahouai have much the same properties, and its bark is narcotic and purgative. A poison in use among the ancient Mexicans, was probably derived from the T. icotli. Many of the Cerbera are very analogous in their action to the above ; the C. manghas, a native of India, has emetic and poisonous seeds; in small doses even, they cause delirium (Horsefield, Asiatic Jour. 1819) ; the leaves and bark are considered as purgative, and the pounded fruit is ap- plied externally in diseases of the skin (Ainslie, ii. 260) ; the other species partake ofthe same qualities. The Allamanda cathartica, found in Surinam, is a violent emeto-purgative, and was prescribed with success in colica pictonum,in small doses. An infu- sion of the leaves also acts as a cathartic. (Ainslie, ii. 9.) Couma guia.ucnsis, a native of Guiana, affords an odoriferous resin, and the fruits are edible. The 448 MEDICAL BOTANY. wood of Hancornia, and several others ofthe genera is as bitter as quassia. The root of Rauicolfia nitida is emeto-purgative, and the juice of R. canescens, mixed with castor oil, is employed as an external application in diseases ofthe skin, (Flor. Med. Antill. iii. 151.) The milky juice of Hasseltia arborea is used in Java as a violent purgative to destroy tape-worms, but is apt to cause in- flammation ofthe bowels. The milk of Plumiera alba and others is used as a purgative, usually mixed with a vegetable acid, to mitigate its too powerful action ; that of P. drastica, mixed with the milk of almonds, is given in Brazil in jaundice and chronic obstructions ; and that of P. phagedenica is in repute in the same country as a vermifuge. (Bull. Sci. Nat. xxxiv. 64.) The exudation from Cameraria latifolia is so virulent, that it is used by the South American Indians to poison their arrows. (Flor. Med. Antill. ill. 187.) Numerous others of these plants are endowed with similar qualities. In some species the poisonous properties are much diminished or disap- pear, and they become valuable as febrifuges and aromatics; this is the case with the Ophioxylon serpentinum of India, which is used by the Tellingoos as a febrifuge, and for the bites of venomous animals, and to promote deli- very in tedious cases (Roxburgh, Flor. Ind., ii. 530); it is also spoken of with praise by Rumphius, Burman, and others. The bark of Alyxia stellata resembles Canella alba, and may be used for the same purposes; it was experimented with by Blume at Batavia, and found beneficial as a stimulating tonic (Nees, Archiv. apot.); it is given in doses of half an ounce. The Conessi or Malabar bark is the product of the Wrightia antidysenlerica; (his is a valuable febrifuge and astringent; it is much used in India in dys- entery (Ainslie, ii. 462)'. Alibert (Now. Elem. Therap., i. 108) notices it, and states that the best mode of administration is in the form of an electuary; Virey (Hist. Mat. Med. 188) observes that it is eminently antidysenteiic and febrifuge; it is usually given in decoction. The milk of some of these plants, instead of being poisonous, is inert and potable; this is the case with that of the Taberncemontana utilis, one of the cow-trees of South America, and is thick, sweet, and nutritious. Some of them produce caoutchouc, as the Callophora utilis and Cameraria latifolia, in South America; Urceola clastica< in India; and Vahea gummifera, in Madagascar. As before mentioned, the fruits of some species are edible ; besides those already noticed, these are, Carissa carandas, which furnishes a substitute for currants; Hancornia, the fruits of which are sweet, sub-acid, and vinous; to which may be added those of Caipodinus, Melodinus, &c. In Ceylon, where the natives suppose the Garden of Eden was situated, they point out the forbidden fruit, which is borne by a species of this order, Taberncemontana dichotoma, in proof of which, the fragrance ofthe flowers, the beauty of the fruit, and it still bearing the marks of teeth; and although now poisonous, it only became so when Eve was tempted. (Bot. Reg. t. 53.) Arocynum.—Linn. Calyx 5-parted, lobes acute. Corolla campanulate, 5-cleft, lobes revolute, furnished at base with 5 glandular appendages, alternating with the stamina. Stamens inserted at the base of the corolla; filaments ligulate ; anthers longer than the filaments, sagittate, somewhat connivent. Ovaries 2; style obsolete, stigma thick, acute and bilobate at the apex. Follicles long and linear. Seed comose. All the species are herbaceous or suffruticose, and erect, with opposite mem- branaceous, entire leaves; the flowers are in terminal or axillary cymes. They are mostly natives ofthe northern hemisphere, and especially of North APOCYN ACE^E. 449 America; they abound in a lactescent fluid, which, when dried, has the pro- perties of caoutchouc. 1. A. andros^mifolium, Linn.—Leaves ovate-acute, above glabrous, beneath very slightly pilose; cymes lateral and terminal, smooth; tube of the corolla longer than the calyx. Linn., Sp. PL 311 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot., ii. 148; Rafinesque, Med. FL, l. 49 ; Zolhckoffer, Am. Jour. Med. Sci., xii. 378. Common Names.—Dog's-bane ; Bitter-root; Milk-weed. long, downy, pappus. It is found in some plenty in most parts of the United States, growing in dry, sandy soil, on hill-sides or in woods, flowering in June and July. The part that is officinal is the root, which is large, lactescent, and of a disagree- ably bitter taste; the active portion is the cortical, which forms nearly two-thirds of it. It has never been fully examined, but from some experi- ments by Dr. Bigelow, it appears to contain a Bitter extractive principle, a Colouring matter, soluble in water but not in alcohol, Caoutchouc, and Vola- tile oil. It yields its properties to water and alcohol. Dr. Zollickoffer ob- tained 178 grains of alcoholic and 28 grainsof watery extract from 3240 grains of the cortical part ofthe root, and inversely 160 of watery and 104 of alcoholic. (Am. Jour. Med. Sci.) Medical Properties.—This root is emetic and diaphoretic. In full doses, it promptly induces emesis, causing scarcely any previous nausea, and hence is well calculated for those cases where it is wished to evacuate the contents of the stomach, without producing that relaxation of the muscular system, incident to a long-continued nausea. As a diaphoretic, it is much inferior to several others of the vegetable emetics, as it requires large doses in combina- ■ 29 450 MEDICAL BOTANY. tion with opium to produce this effect. Like Ipecacuanha, when given in small doses, it gently stimulates the digestive apparatus, and thus effects a corresponding impression on the general system. _ Dose as an emetic, forty grains; as a diaphoretic, the same quantity with one grain of opium; as a tonic or alterant, from ten to twenty grains. 2. A. cannabinum, Linn.—Stem upright, herbaceous. Leaves oblong, tomentose be- neath ; cymes lateral, longer than the leaves. Linn., Sp. PL 311; Torrey, Compend., 124; Griscom, Am. Jour. Med. Sci., xii. 55. Common Names.—Indian Hemp ; Ddg's-bane, &c. Description.—Root perennial, creeping. Fig. 201. Stems brown, from two to three feet high, with oblong, ovate, somewhat pubescent leaves. The cymes are many-flowered, paniculate, smooth. Calyx with subulate segments, about as long as the corolla. Corolla small, campanulate, of a greenish or yellowish-white externally, with a tinge of pinkish within. Follicles long and slender. This species is found in most parts of the United States, grow- ing in waste lands and neglected situations. It flowers from July to September. There are two marked varieties, which some botanists have considered to be distinct species, one with almost smooth leaves, the other with the under surface of these organs and the cymes pubescent. The officinal portion is the root. This is of a reddish-brown colour when young, and of a dark-chest- nut when old; on being wounded, it pours out a milky juice. In the fresh state, it has a nauseous, somewhat acrid, and permanently bitter taste, and a strong and unpleasant odour. When dried, it is brittle and readily pulverized, affording a powder re- sembling that of Ipecacuanha. The ligneous portion is yellowish- white, with some odour and a decided bitter taste. The cortical part is brown externally, and white within, According to Drs. Knapp and Griscom, who each analyzed it, it contains Tannin, Gallic acid, Gum, Resin, Wax, Fecula, Colouring matter, a Bitter principle, for which they both propose the name of Apocynin, &c. Medical Properties.—Indian hemp is an emeto-cathartic, diuretic and dia- phoretic. Its first operation, in a full dose, is to cause much nausea, dimi- nishing the frequency of the pulse, and occasioning a tendency to sleep, independent ofthe exhaustion usually consequent on vomiting; this latter soon ensues, and is copious, followed by large and feculent watery alvine evacuations. A general perspiration almost invariably succeeds. Its diure- A. cannabinum. of a very bitter, nauseous taste. APOCYNACEiE. 451 tic properties are not so generally displayed, being very manifest in some cases, but not so marked in others. It also acts as a sternutatory, excitino- much irritation of the nasal membrane. The fresh juice has likewise been employed as an external application in some cutaneous affections. The disease in which it has been found most useful is dropsy; in this, from the concurrent testimony of several eminent practitioners, its remedial powers are decided, sometimes operating as a hydragogue purgative, and at others causing the most profuse discharges of urine, and thus°relieving the tissues from their morbid burden. Dr. Knapp gives the details of some cases of intermittent fever and pneumonic affections, in which he derived much benefit from this remedy, employed as a diaphoretic. (Am. Med. Rev. if Jour.) When given as an emetic, the powder is to be preferred, in doses of fifteen to thirty grains; where its hydragogue or diuretic effects are desired, the best form is in decoction, made by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint of water; the dose is about a wineglassful, two or three times a day. The wa- tery extract will act on the bowels in doses of from three to five grains, but is not as efficient as the decoction. (Amer. Jour. Med. Sci. 1836.) Besides the value of this plant as a therapeutic agent, it is entitled to notice for its use in the arts. The bark furnishes a fibre resembling hemp, but of a whiter colour, and superior in strength and durability; and a decoc- tion of the plant affords a permanent brown or black dye, according to the mordant used. Nerium.—Linn. Calyx 5-cleft. Lobes lanceolate, base within multiglandular. Corolla 5-cleft, throat of tube crowned with 5 appendages. Lobes obovate ; aestivation sinistro-convolute. Stamens inserted on the middle of the tube. Filaments ligulate. Anthers longer than the fila- ments, bicaudate at base, and adhering to the stigma. Ovaries 2; style filiform, dilated at tip with a membranous indusium; stigma short, with 5 glands at base. Follicles long, straight. Seeds numerous, oblong, pubescent, with a large coma; albumen co- pious. This small genus of ornamental shrubs is principally confined to Asia; but one species is found in the south of Europe, and is generally cultivated under the name of Oleander. N. oleander, Linn.—Leaves opposite or ternate, lanceolate, acute; appendages of co- rolla 3—4-toothed. Linn., Sp. PL 305; Lamarck, Must. t. 174; De Candolle, Prod. viii. 420. Common Name.—Oleander. Foreign Names.—Laurier Rose, Fr.; Alloro Indiano, It. The Oleander is originally a native of Asia, but is now naturalized in the south of Europe, where it grows in fissures of rocks by the sides of streams. It differs from the other plants of the order in having a transparent, and not a milky juice, which Fig. 202. is stated by Gray (Supp. Pharm. 65) to clear muddy water. It is probably the Rhododendron of Pliny, who says that although its leaves are a poison to all quadrupeds, that they are a counter- poison to the venom of serpents (lib. xxiv. c. xi.) This plant is an active poison, and is used at Nice to destroy rats. The leaves have been analyzed (Bull, de Pharm.), but the results are far from satisfactory. Medical Uses, fy-c—An ointment made by boil- ing the leaves in oil or lard, is in much repute in N oleander. the south of France in cutaneous eruptions, and to 452 MEDICAL BOTANY. destroy vermin infesting the hair or skin. Merat and De Lens state that they have used a solution of an extract from the leaves in the treatment of itch with much success (Diet. iv. 599). Dr. Deslongchamps has administered the bark internally in small doses in lepra and syphilitic eruptions with bene- fit, but states that its use demands great caution, as an overdose will cause the most unpleasant symptoms (Diet. Sci. Med. xxvii. 338). Dr. Tarbes of Montpelier records two cases in which the leaves were given in intermittent fever, and caused the death of the patients. The powder of the leaves has also been used as a sternutatory; it acts slowly but violently (Ferrein, Mat. Med. i. 242). According to Orfila (Toxicol, ii. 301), this plant is an active acro-narcotic, and the experiments of Dr. Grognier show that the wild plant is much more potent than the cultivated. Even the wood is highly deleterious. In 1809, when the French troops were near Madrid, some of the soldiers used branches ofthe Oleander, deprived of their bark, as spits on which to roast their meat; this caused the death of twelve of them (Lindley, 600). M. Robert, director of the botanic garden at Toulon, mentions a similar circumstance that took place in Corsica. The N. odorum, of India, has much the same qualities. Ainslie (Mat. Ind. ii. 23), says it is considered as a powerful repellent applied externally, and that the root taken internally is poisonous, and is resorted to by the Hindoo women for the purpose of self-destruction. The flowers, which are odorous, are said to have caused dangerous symptoms in persons who slept with them in their chambers (Richard, Elem. Hist. Mat. ii. 143). Order 72.—ASCLEPIADACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx 5-cleft, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, 5-lobed, regular; asstiva- tion usually imbricated, seldom valvular. Stamens 5, inserted on the base of the corolla, alternate with the segments. Filaments commonly connate. Anthers 2-celled, some- times almost 4-celled, from the dissepiments being nearly complete. Pollen cohering in masses, or in pairs, and adhering to the five lobes of the stigma. Ovaries 2. Styles 2, often short, closely approximating. Stigma common to both styles, 5-angled, with corpus- culiferous corners. Follicles 2, one often abortive. Placenta attached to the sutures, but afterwards separating. Seeds numerous, imbricated, pendulous, almost always with a coma. Embryo straight. Albumen thin. This extensive order is composed of shrubs and herbs, in most cases abounding in a milky juice, sometimes twining, with entire, opposite, some- times alternate or verticillate leaves, having cilise between the petioles instead of stipules. The greatest number of them are natives of South Africa, but they also abound in all tropical climates. A few of the genera only are found in extra-tropical regions. The plants, but more especially their roots, are acrid and stimulating, and operate as emetics, purgatives, and diaphoretics. Periploca grceca, a native of Europe, and cultivated in the United States, furnishes a very acrid juice, which is used in Greece as a wolf-poison, and the leaves to dress ulcers. Va- rious species of Secamone are used ; thus S. emetica has vomitive roots, and those of S. thunbergii are said to be actively purgative. In Tylophora asth- rnatica the root is emetic, and is used in India as a substitute for ipecacuanha; Roxburghspeaks of it highly; and Dr. Anderson, of Madras, states that it was employed very beneficially in dysentery ; in large doses it is emetic, and in small ones frequently repeated, it purges; Burnett also says that it is effi- cacious as a diaphoretic in humoral asthma (Lindley, 626). Several native species of Gonolobus afford a very acrid juice, which it is said was used by ASCLEPIADACE^E. 453 the aborigines to poison their arrows; taken internally, in smaJJ* doses, it operates as a drastic purge. The Vincetoxicum officinale was at one time much used in Europe as a hydragogue, and thought beneficial in cutaneous eruptions and scrofula. The roots of Sarcostemma glauca are employed in Venezuela as a substitute for ipecacuanha. Those of Gymnema sylvestre are supposed in India to possess virtues in snake-bites; they are used both externally and internally (Ainslie, ii. 340). The leaves of Solenostemma argel, as before observed, are used in Egypt to mix with senna, and sometimes form a large proportion in some samples of the Alexandrian ; it is stated that the leaves of Gomphocarpus fruticosus are employed for the same purpose. The young stalks of Hoyea viridiflora are said in India to possess virtues in dropsical cases, and also as an expecto- rant. In short, almost all the plants of this order have much the same pro- perties to a greater or less extent. Some of them, it is said, are so mild as to be used as food ; but, as a general rule, they are deleterious; a few ofthe species yield caoutchouc, and many of them afford a very tenacious fibre, that may be employed for all the purposes of hemp ; that of Asclepias syriaca has been manufactured into ropes, and found fully equal to the best Russian. Royle states that from some species a very good indigo can be made, par- ticularly from Marsdenia tinctoria (Illus. 274). Hemidesmus.—R. Brown. Calyx 5-parted. Corolla rotate, with coriaceous segments, and five rounded, thick scales in the throat ofthe tube. Filaments connate at base, inserted in the tube, above dis- tinct. Anthers free from stigma, cohering at tip, smooth. Pollen masses 20, granular, hav- ing a quaternary arrangement. Stigma pentagonal, stellate. Follicles cylindrical, smooth. A small East Indian genus, including a few species formerly arranged in Periploca, and consisting of twining plants, with opposite or somewhat irre- gular leaves, and flowers in interpetiolary cymes. H. indicus, Brown.—Smooth, leaves ovate, subcordate or oblong, with the ends obtuse, or linear and cuspidate. Cymes subsessile. Peduncles bracteolate. Scales of corolla obtuse, adhering to whole length of tube. Follicles slender, erect. Common Names.w— Country Sarsaparilla ; Indian Sarsaparilla. It is a native of Lower India and Ceylon, and other parts of the East Indies. It was first described by Bergius (Zeylan., 187), as a species of Periploca, and was considered as such until made the type of the present genus by Brown. It has been in use as a medicinal agent in India for a long time, but was almost unknown in Europe until the attention of the pro- fession was called to it in 1819, by Dr. Ashburner (Lond. Med. and Phijs. Jour.) The root is the part used ; this is brownish externally, and is long, tortuous, round, rugose, and furrowed longitudinally. The cortical portion has a cork-like consistence, and the ligneous portion is yellowish. The odour is peculiar and somewhat aromatic, resembling that of orris root, and the taste bitterish. It has been analyzed by Mr. Garden (Lond. Med. Gaz.), who found in it a peculiar Volatile, crystallizable substance, on which the properties of the root depended ; he, from supposing the root to be that of a Smilax, called it Smilasperic acid. Medical Properties.—The properties of the Hemidesmus are much the same as those of sarsaparilla, for which it has been employed as a substitute. Ainslie (Mat. Ind. i. 382) states that it is " recommended by the Tamool doctors in cases of gravel, given in powder, mixed with cow's milk; they also give it in decoction, in conjunction with cummin seeds, to purify the blood and correct the acrimony of the bile." Dr. Ashburner, who employed it in many cases, speaks in the highest terms of it as an alterative; he says it in- 454 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 203. creases tfce appetite, acts as a diuretic, and improves the general health. It has also been administered with advantage in venereal complaints, and in fact in all those disordered conditions of the system in which sarsaparilla has been found beneficial. It is given in infusion, decoction, or extract, both of which forms are objectionable, as the volatile active principle is partly driven off. The syrup has been found advantageous, the best method of making which has been given by Mr. Bell, in the Lond. Pharm. Journ. (Am. Journ. Pharm., ix. 298.) Asclepias.—Linn. Calyx 5-parted. Segments small, ovate, spreading. Corolla deeply 5-cleft, mostly re- flected. Stamineal crown 5-leaved, leaflets cucullate, opposite the anthers, with a subu- late everted process at base. Pollen masses compressed, attached by a narrow apex, and pendulous. Stigma depressed, mutic. Follicles ventricose, acuminate, smooth or muri- cate. Seeds comose. A genus of about fifty species, principally of North American herbaceous perennials, with opposite, verticillate, rarely alternate leaves. All the species afford a silky flax, and most generally abound in a lactescent juice. A. tuberosa, Linn,—Stem erect, hairy, with spreading branches. Leaves oblong, lan- ceolate, sessile. Umbels numerous, terminal. Linn., Sp. PL, 316; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot., ii. 59; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med., i. 239 ; Rafinesque, Med. FL, i. 74 ; Lindley, Med. Flor. 529. Common Names.—Butterfly Weed ; Pleurisy Root; Wind Root, &c. Description.—Root peren- nial, large, fleshy, white. Stems many, either erect, or more or less procumbent, round, hairy, green or red. Leaves scattered, sessile, en- tire or undulated, oblong or lanceolate, sometimes nearly linear, very hairy, dark-green above, paler beneath. The flowers are in terminal, rarely lateral, corymbose umbels, with an involucre of nume- rous, linear, subulate bracts. The calyx is small, 5-parted, reflexed. The corolla is of a bright orange colour, 5- parted, reflexed. The sta- mineal crown has five erect, cucullate segments or leaves, with an incurved appendage or horn at the base of each. The follicles are two, often one or both abortive, long, narrow, and acuminated. The seeds are furnished with a long silky appendage. This species is found in most parts of the United States, but is most abundant to the Souih, growing in open situa- tions, in gravelly and sandy soils. It flowers A. tuberosa. ASCLEPIADACE^E. 455 in July and August, and may readily be distinguished by its bright orange flowers, which, contrasting with its dark-green leaves, give it a very orna- mental appearance. The root is the officinal part; this when fresh has an unpleasant, subacrid taste. When dried it is brittle and readily pulverised, and is bitter but not nauseous. It yields its properties to boiling water. No analysis has been made of it, but it is known to contain a bitter extractive, fecula, &c. Medical Properties.—This root is diaphoretic and expectorant, and also acts as a mild tonic. It-is valuable, as it does not appear to exercise any stimulating powers. Schoepf was the first to notice its medical properties. He says that it is diaphoretic, and somewhat astringent, and adds in another place, that it was found a certain remedy in pleurisy. Dr. B. S. Barton was the next writer that noticed it, he states (Collections): " It is said to possess a remarkable power of affecting the skin, inducing general and plentiful per- spiration, without greatly increasing the heat of the body," and also, that " it is much employed by practitioners of medicine in some parts of the United States, particularly, I believe, in Virginia, as a remedy in certain forms of fever, in pleurisy, and other affections." He esteemed it as one of the most important of our indigenous medicines. It has since been a popular remedy in a variety of diseases, and has been employed with much benefit in those of the respiratory organs, and there is most ample testimony of its curative powers when judiciously administered. Dr. Chapman (Elem. Therap. i. 351), states that it is distinguished by great certainty and permanency of operation, and is well suited to excite perspiration in the forming stages of most of the inflammatory diseases of winter; and is not less useful in the same cases at a more advanced period, after the re- duction of action by antiphlogistic remedies. It has also been advantageously employed in acute rheumatism, and in the low state of typhus fever, when other diaphoretics were insufficient or contra- indicated. Some evidence has likewise been adduced of its power in bowel affections. Dr. Eberle found it useful in dysentery (Prac. Med. i. 216), and Dr. Parker of Massachusetts, who employed it for twenty-five years, had the greatest confidence in its powers. (Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. X!6.) It is also said to be gently tonic, and has been popularly used in indigestion accompanied with flatulence and pain, whence one of its common names, wind root. From all that can be gathered on the subject, it may be deemed one of the most useful of our native articles,, and deserves a full and un- biassed trial. It is administered either in powder, in doses of twenty grains to a drachm several times a day, or preferably in infusion or decoction, made with an ounce to a quart of water, of which a teacupful is to be taken every two or three hours, until the desired effect is produced. Two other native species, A. Syriaca, (Cornuti, D. C.,) and A. incar- nata, are also recognised in the Pharmacopoeia ; they are said to possess analogous properties with the A. tuberosa, and to have been successfully used in asthmatic, catarrhal, and rheumatic affections. Dr. Richardson of Med- vvay employed the first in these complaints, to the amount of a drachm a day, but in divided doses, with the best results. In all instances, it acted as an anodyne, relieving pain and inducing sleep (Coxe, Am. Dispen.). Dr. Tully, whose experience with our native remedies has been greater than that of any other practitioner, states that the A. incarnata may be advantageously given in catarrh, asthma, syphilis, &c. (Bigelow, Med. Bot.) Some other species have also been resorted to, as emetics, sudorifics, and antispasmodics ; in fact, the whole genus appears to be endowed with much the same properties. 456 MEDICAL BOTANY. Calotr opis .—Brown. Calyx 5-parted. Corolla subcampanulatc, tube angular, limb deeply 5-cleft. Stamineal crown 5-leaved, lobes linear-oblong, sub-compressed, keel-like, vertically adnate to the gynascium ; below free, recurved, and involute. Pollen masses sickle-shaped, compressed, transverse, connected by their slender apex. Stigma five-angled, depressed. Follicles ventricose, smooth, base and apex umbilicate. Seeds comose. A small genus, formed from some species of- Asclepias, consisting of shrubby African, and Asiatic plants, with a corky bark, broad leaves, gland- ular petioles, and large, handsome flowers. C. gigantea, Broion.—Leaves opposite, nearly sessile, acute, entire, somewhat cordate at base. Segments of corolla spreading, or reflexed. Brown, Tr. Wern. Soc. i. 29; Hamilton, Tr. Linn. Soc. xiv. 248 ; Ains- lie, Mat. Ind. i. 486. Common Names.—Mudar; Madar, &c. The Mudar, as this plant is called, is a native of various parts of the East Indies, and is naturalized in the West Indies ; it is noticed by Browne as com- mon in Jamaica, where it is known as the French Jasmin. I have also met with it in abundance in St. Croix. The part used in medicine is the root; this is fusiform, branched, of a pale fawn-colour externally, covered with a brown- ish powder, which adheres to the fingers, and wrinkled longitudinally; within it is whitish; it has little or no odour, but a bitter, and somewhat nauseous taste. It is prepared by digging up the roots in the spring, washing them, and drying them in the open air until the milky juice is inspissated ; the epidermis is then scraped off, and the cortical portion kept for use in well-closed bottles. The powder is pale fawn-colour. It has been analyzed by Cassanova, and found to contain an Extractive'substance (Madarine), soluble both in alcohol and water, an almost insoluble Resin, Gum, Starch, Albumen, and a little Fixed oil, &c. Medical Properties.—It is purgative, alterative, and diaphoretic, and is spoken of by a number of eminent practitioners as eminently successful in the obstinate cutaneous affections so common in tropical climates. Robinson praises it highly in elephantiasis and lepra (Med. Chir. Trans, x. 31); and Playfair states, that he has found it ofthe greatest utility in lepra, hectic fever, rheumatism, &c. (Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc. Calcutta, i. 77). He gave it in doses of grs. iij.—xij., three times a day. Cassanova, who experimented largely with it, confirms these statements; he says that its action is more particularly directed to the skin, increasing the action of the capillaries and absorbents of that tissue (Essai sur le Madar). When combined with opium it acts as a diaphoretic, and in small doses is expectorant and tonic, whilst in large ones it causes emesis. Dr. Duncan, who made many trials of i', states that he is satisfied that in every respect its action is so similar to that of ipecacuanha that it may always be substituted for it. He was not successful with it in elephantiasis, but found it beneficial in psoriasis and lepra (Edin. Med. and Surg. Jour, xxxii. 62). Dr. A. T. Thomson is of opinion that in some of its alterative effects it resembles mercury, and that it is most useful in low conditions ofthe system, and also, that during its administration, the diet should be. mild and vegetable (Elem. Mat. Med. ii. 492). Ainslie, from his own observations in India, pre- fers the dried, milky juice to the root, and if the principle described by Dun- can and Cassanova be the active ingredient, this opinion is probably correct. The dose of the powder is from three grains to thirty, in which latter quantity GENTIANACE^E. 457 it is emetic, in the smaller, alterative and expectorant. It is also given in in- fusion, made with three drachms ofthe root to eight ounces of boiling water; this is emetic in doses of two ounces. Although it is generally conceded that the Madar is furnished by the species under consideration, it is also certain that the roots of a number of the As- clepiadaceoe are known under this name in India, and all possess analogous properties;.these are very similar to those of our native Apocynums, hereto- fore noticed. Cynanciium.—Linn. Calyx 5-parted, segments ovate. Corolla rotate, deeply 5-cleft, segments linear-oblong, or ovate, obtuse. Stamineal crown monophyllous, 10-lobed; anthers membranous at apex; pollen in round masses, pendulous. Stigma pentagonal, with twin tubercles. Fol- licles oblong, smooth, usually one by abortion. Seeds with a coma. This genus, as now restricted, contains but few species, which are mostly sarmentose or climbing plants, with cordate leaves. The flowers are in small, axillary umbels. They are found in various parts of the world, and all con- tain an active, milky juice. C. acutum, Linn.—Stem twining;-leaves oblong-ovate, cordate, smooth; peduncles shorter than the leaves; follicles oblong, acuminate, smooth. Linn., Sp. PL 310 ; Richard, Elem. Hist. Mat. Med. ii. 138 ; De Candolle, Prod. viii. 547; Jacquin, Miss. i. f. 4. It is a native of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, where its juice, in an inspissated state, is used as a drastic purgative, under the name of Montpelier scammpny. This is black, hard, compact, and when moistened, becomes dark-gray, unctuous and viscid. It has a faint but disagreeable smell, and-a nauseous taste. It acts violently on the bowels, and causes much pain. It is now seldom employed in practice, but is said to be used to adulterate the Aleppo scammony. Some other species of Cynanchum (Linn.), are in use in different countries. C. (Dimia) externum, a native of India, is employed in that country as an anthelmintic, for which purpose a decoction of the leaves is preferred; the juice is ordered in asthma. The root of C. (Marsdenia) erectum is eminently poisonous, and'is said to have been formerly in use in Syria as a means of self-destruction, or murder. The leaves of C. (Sole- fwstoma) argel are very purgative, and are used largely to adulterate Alexandrian Senna; and it is pro- bable that some of the griping and unpleasant effects of this purgative are, in a great measure, owing to the presence of Argel. Besides the leaves, which may be known from those of Senna by being more coriaceous, and wrinkled and equilateral, the flowers and fruit are also found in some parcels in abundance. Order 73.—GENTIANACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx of usually 4—5 persistent, more or less united sepals. Corolla usually regular and persistent, divisions equal in number to those ofthe calyx, mostly twisted in aestiva- tion. Stamens inserted on the tube of corolla, alternate with the segments, and equal in 458 MEDICAL BOTANY. number to ithem. Ovary 1-celled, styles united or none; stigmas 2. Capsule many- seeded, with 1 or 2 cells, usually 2-valved. Seeds small, with a fleshy albumen, and a minute embryo. A somewhat extensive order, consisting of herbs with a watery juice, and in almost all cases, opposite and entire leaves. The flowers are generally handsome. The species are found in all parts of the world, from the frigid zones to the tropics. They all are pervaded by a bitter principle, which is most developed in the roots in some genera, and in the leaves and stalk in others. From this identity of properties, except that in some, especially in a fresh state, a slight narcotic power exists, they may be employed indifferently. Sabbatia.—Adanson. Calyx 5—12-parted, rarely 5-cleft, segments acute. Corolla rotate, regular, 5—12- parted. Stamens 5—12, inserted in the throat of the tube ; anthers erect, spirally twisted after shedding the pollen. Ovary superior, ovate; style distinct, declining, bifid; stigmas capitate, ascending. Capsule bivalve, septicidal, somewhat 2-celled, valves inflexed. Seeds numerous, small. This small genus of North American plapts consists of biennial species; mostly with rose-coloured flowers of much beauty, and possessed of very bitter properties. It was established by Adanson, and named in honour of a Roman botanist, but was united to Chironia by Linnaeus, to which, in fact, it is closely allied, but has again been separated under its former name by more modern botanists. All the species are bitter and tonic, but only one is officinal. 6. angularis, Pursh.—Stem erect, angular, and winged; leaves amplexicaul, ovate, acute; segments of the calyx lanceolate, shorter than Fig. 205. the corolla; stamens five. 0C&W. Linn#> (Chironia,) 272 ; Pursh, i. 137 ; Bar- ton, Veg. Mat. Med. i. 255 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 147 ; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. ii. 76 ; D. B. Smith, Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. ii. 213; Lindley, Flor. Med. 522. Common Names.—Centaury ; American Cen- taury ; Rose Pink. Description. — Root annual ? or biennial, fibrous, yellow. Stem one to two feet high, with opposite branches, forming a corymb, smooth, angular, with membranous wings at the angles. Leaves opposite, sessile, subcordate and clasping, smooth, very entire. Flowers terminal, numerous, of a rich rose colour, nearly white in the centre. Calyx of five narrow, lanceolate, almost subulate segments, about half the length of the corolla. Corolla with five obovate seg- ments. Stamens five, erect, with short slender fila- ments, and oblong anthers of a yellow colour, which are spirally twisted after fecundation. Ovary ovate, with a terete style, bifid, and the stigmas twisted together. Capsule many-seeded. Very common in low meadow grounds or ne- glected fields in most parts ofthe United States; flowering in August and September. The whole plant is very bitter, and is officinal, and yields its virtues to alcohol and water, and also affords an efficient extract. It is to be preferred to the S. angularis. GENTIANACEiE. 459 European Centaury, as the flowers as well as the leaves are active. It has long been known and employed as a domestic remedy, and is also generally admitted in regular practice where a pure and simple bitter is required. Medical Properties.—A pure bitter and tonic, with no astringency and very little aroma. It is much used as a stomachic, and has been found bene- ficial in intermittents, especially if the intervals between the paroxysms are sufficient to require tonics, but not such as would warrant the employment of Quinia. It is also said to act as an emmenagogue and vermifuge when given in warm infusion. The usual mode of administration is in cold in- fusion, made with an ounce of the herb to a pint of boiling water, and al- lowed to cool; the dose is a wineglassful every two hours. The dose of the powder is from thirty grains to a drachm. (Chapman, Therap. ii. 425.) Erythraea.—Persoon. Calyx 5-parted, equal. Corolla infundibuliform, with a cylindrical tube, marcescent. Stamens 5; anthers becoming spiral. Stigmas bi-lamellate. Capsule one-celled, or half two-celled. This genus also formed part of Chironia of Linnmus, and is closely allied to the foregoing. It consists of annual herbs, with subangular branches, fur- nished with connate leaves, and white or rose-coloured flowers. They are all bitter and tonic. E. centaurium, Persoon.—Stem nearly simple. Panicle forked, corymbose. Leaves ovate-lanceolate. Calyx half as long as corolla, segments partly connected by a mem- brane. Linn., (Chironia,) Sp. PL 332; Woodville, t. 157; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 118; Persoon, Synop. i. 283 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 521.' Common Names.—Common Centaury ; Lesser Centaury. Foreign Names.—Petite Centauree, Fr.; Centaurea Minore, It.; Tau- sendgiildenkraut, Ger. Description.—Root small, woody, and fibrous. Stem slender, erect, angular, about ten or twelve inches high, branched above. The cauline leaves are opposite, connate, ovate, or elliptic-ovate; the radical leaves are numerous and obovate, forming a tuft. The flowers are pink or rose-coloured, with opposite subulate bracts. The calyx is slender, striated, and five-cleft. The corolla is divided above into five elliptical spreading seg- ments. The stamens are five, with slender filaments, and oblong, yellow anthers, which finally become spirally twisted. The ovary is oblong, and supports a straight style, with a roundish bifid stigma. The capsule is oblong and cylindrical, two-valved, with nume- rous seeds. It is a native of Europe, in dry gravelly situations, flowering in July and August. Its specific name is from Chiron the Centaur, but is not the plant noticed by Pliny as curing him of a poisoned wound; this is supposed to be a Centaurea. The officinal portion is the tops, though the whole plant is used. It is bitter, and contains a Bitter extractive, a free Acid, &c. The bitter mat- ter is considered peculiar, and has been called Centanrin. Medical Properties.—Similar to those of the Sabbatia, and appropriate to the same cases. Another species, the E. chilensis, a native of Chili and Peru, has been highly spoken of by many writers, as of very decided tonic powers (Lesson, Voy. Med. 15), and was employed with much success by Dr. Ruschenberger, in all cases where mild tonics were indicated. (Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. vi. 276.) The E. linarifolia of Europe is also much praised by Alibert. 460 MEDICAL BOTANY. Gentiana.—Linn. Calyx 4—5-parted or cleft. Corolla marcescent, funnel-shaped, or campanulate, 4—5 or 6—8-cleft, sometimes with interposed spurious segments; segments entire or ciliated. Stamens five, inserted oh the tube ofthe corolla ; anthers sometimes connate. Style two- parted, each bearing a stigma. Capsule one-celled. An extensive genus, containing about 150 species, according to Grisebach, divided into numerous sections, but all plants mostly perennial, with opposite leaves, though varying much in habit. They are found in all parts of the world, but are most numerous in temperate and cold regious. Their general properties are those of the pure and simple bitters. Several of them are officinal. G. lutea, Linn.—Leaves broad, ovate. Flowers whorled, yellow. Calyx membrana- ceous, unilateral. Linn. Sp. PL 329; Woodville, ii. 273; Stephenson and Churchill, iii. 132 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 519. Common Names.—Common Gentian ; Yellow Gentian ; Gall wort. Foreign Names.—Grande Gentiane, Fr.; Gentiana gialla, It.; Bitter- wurzel, Ger. Description.—Root perennial, long, roundish, with numerous thick, contorted branches, of a brown colour ex- Fig. 206. ternally, and yellowish within. The stem is sim- ple, erect, hollow, round- ish, somewhat annulated at base, from three to four feet high. The lower leaves are petiolate, large, spear-shaped, entire, rib- bed, and plaited; the cau- line are ovate, concave, smooth, sessile, and of a yellowish-green colour, pe- dunculate, in dense whorls. The calyx is membrana- ceous, and opens laterally. The corolla is rotate, and divided into five or more long, narrow, spreading segments. The filaments vary from five to eight, are shorter than the corolla, G. lutea. and alternate with its seg- ments, furnished with long, erect, anthers. The ovary is conical, supporting two sessile, reflected stigmas. The capsule is conical, divided into two valves, and contains numerous, small, compressed seeds, with membranous edges. It is a native of the mountains of Europe, but thrives well under cultiva- tion. It is said to owe its name to Gentius, a king of Illyria, and is first mentioned by Dioscorides, and also noticed by Pliny. The officinal part is the root; this, as found in commerce, is in cylindrical, more or less branched pieces, of various sizes, marked with annular wrinkles, and longitudinal fur- rows. The exterior is yellowish-brown, internally spongy, and of a deep yellow. The odour in the fresh state is peculiar and disagreeable, when dried very feeble; the taste is very bitter. The roots of other species, as the G. purpurea, punctata, and pannonica, are said to be often mixed with the officinal, but as they possess much the same properties, this is of little con GENTIANACE^E. 461 sequence ; but it is also stated that those of the Ranunculus thora are likewise mingled with them ; this fraud is of some moment, as the qualities of the roots are widely different. The spurious root may be known by being paler exter- nally and whitish within, and having a mucilaginous, acrid taste. Gentian yields its virtues both to alcohol and water. It has often been analyzed, and the discovery of a peculiar principle was announced about the same time by Henry and Caventou ; but more recently Tromsdorff asserts that two distinct, substances have been confounded under the name of gentianin ; one crys- talline and tasteless, the other Flg- 207, bitter; and Leconte states the same. From the various exa- minations, the root appears to contain a peculiar Oil, Gentisin, or Gentsicic Acid, Gentianite or the bitter principle, Pectin, Su- gar, &c. Medical Properties.—Gentian is a pure or simple bitter, and is applicable to all cases where such medication is required. It at one time occupied a high place as a febrifuge in intermittent fe- vers, but has been superseded by the Peruvian bark and its pre- parations. In large doses it is sometimes aperient, but in small ones is beneficial in certain forms of dyspepsia, chlorosis, &c, either alone, or in combination with chalybeates or the alkalies. It is usually given in infusion with orange and lemon-peel; the dose is an ounce to two ounces. The tincture is also used as a tonic and stomachic, in doses of a half to two drachms. Many other foreign species are employed as substitutes for the yellow Gentian ; besides those mentioned above, the G. amarella, the campestris, and pneumonanthe are used in Eu- g. catesbaei. rope. In this country several indigenous kinds are much given in domestic practice, and appear to be fully equal to the foreign. Among these the G. saponaria, catcsbcei, and qum- queflora are the best known and most esteemed. In a fresh state they all prove cathartic in large doses. They are seldom employed in regular prac- tice, from the foreign root being readily procurable, but may always be used as a substitute for it. Ophelia.—Don. Calyx 4—5 parted. Corolla marcescent, rotate, 4—5-parted ; in aestivation twisted to the right, with glandular hollows, either protected by a fringed scale or naked. Stamens 462 MEDICAL BOTANY. 4—5, inserted on the throat of the corolla. Filaments either dilated and monadelphous at base or free. Anthers incumbent. Ovary 1-celled. Style wanting or very short. Stigmas two, sessile. Capsule 1-celled, 2-valved, septicidal, with a spongy placenta at the sutures. Seeds small, very numerous. A small genus formed by Don (Phil. Mag.) for the reception of certain species of Gentiana and Swertia, and as now recognised by De Can- dolle, including also Agathotes of Don. The species are all East Indian, and are mostly annual, rarely perennial, erect, branched, paniculate, with subequal internodes, and opposite leaves. They possess the same general properties as the Gentians. O. chirayta, Grisebach.—Stem round. Leaves ovate-lanceolate. Hollows of the corolla nectariferous, oblong, distinct. Scales capillo-fimbricate at the margin. Grisebach, Gent. 320; Roxburgh (Gentiana), Asiat. Research., xi. 167; Don (Agathotes), Phil. Mag. 1836. Common Names.—Chirayta; Chiretta ; Wormseed Plant. Foreign Names.—Chiraeta, Hind. ; Kiralaticta, Sansc. Description. — Annual root branching. Stem terete, smooth, jointed, branched. Branches long, erect, spreading. Leaves cordate-ovate, acuminate, sessile, smooth, 5 to 7-nerved. Flowers numerous, in cymose, few-flowered umbels. Calyx 4-cleft; segments shorter than the corolla, linear, acute. Corolla yellow, 4-parted; segments spreading, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, with two oblong, distinct hollows, with fimbriated scales. Stamens 4, with subulate filaments, briefly connected at base. Capsule conical, 1-celled, many-seeded. This plant is a native of the upper part of India, in Nepaul, &c, and is much used and esteemed in that country as a tonic. Roxburgh (Flor. Ind.) states that it is pulled up by the root, when the flowers fade and the capsules are filled. The whole plant is used. The root is fibrous, the stem round, smooth, and jointed; the odour is very feeble, but the taste exceedingly bitter. According to an analysis by Lassaigne and Boissel it contains Resin, a yellow Bitter Extractive, brown Colouring matter, Malic Acid, Gum, some Salts, &c. It yields its virtues to water and alcohol. This is the plant supposed by Guibourt to be Calamus verus of the ancient writers; but, as shown by Fee, this supposition is wholly untenable. Medical Properties.—Like Gentian it is a pure and simple bitter, and is applicable to the same morbid conditions. It is much employed in India in intermittents and in dyspepsia. It appears first to have been introduced into Europe by M. Leschenault, in 1822, and it has since been employed with some success, especially in England. Some practitioners attribute peculiar powers to it; thus Dr. Currie (Orient. Herald) thinks that it has a special action on the liver, and Dr. Sigmond (Lancet) corroborates this opinion, and states further, that its tonic effects are more permanent than those of the other bitters, and also that it is of great benefit where the system has been weakened by the use of mercury. Churchill and Stephenson say that, " from inquiries made of a Hindoo, we ascertained that the infusion, made very strong, is taken in large doses as a tonic, and often induces vomitino- from its intense bitterness. It likewise occasionally acts with freedom on the bowels, producing copious bilious evacuations, on account of which it is highly esteemed in liver complaints." The dose ofthe infusion, made with half an ounce of the plant to a pint of boiling water, is an ounce or two. The tincture is also a good form, where it is used as a stomachic. Frasera.— Walter. Calyx 4-parted; segments connected at base, persistent. Corolla deciduous, rotate, 4- GENTIANACE^E. 463 Fig. 208. parted; segments elliptical, each with a fimbriated hollow, but no scale. Stamens 4, short, the filaments connected at base. Anthers incumbent. Ovary 1-celled, with a single style and two short stigmas. Capsule compressed, bivalved, 1-celled, with several winged seeds. A North American genus of a few species of perennial herbs, with oppo- site and verticillate leaves. It was first described by Walter, who named it in honour of a Mr. Fraser. Linnaeus considered the only species then known to belong to Swertia, in which he was followed by Sir J. E. Smith. F. carolinensis, Walter.—Stem tall, striated, glabrous. Leaves verticillate, lanceo- late-oblong, sessile. Walter, Fl. Carol. 87; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med., ii. 103; Rafinesque, Med. Flor., i. 196 ; Griffith, Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm., iii. 269. Common Names.—American Columbo; Columbia; Indian lettuce, &c. Description. — Root triennial 1 large, yellow, rugose, horizontal. The whole plant smooth, stem from five to ten feet high, cylindrical, erect, solid. Leaves verticillate, ses- sile, entire; the radical elliptical and obtuse, long; cauline ones smaller and narrower. Flowers yellowish- white,, numerous, forming a large pyramidal panicle; peduncles leafy or bracteate. Calyx deeply four-cleft, spreading; segments lanceolate, acute, persistent, nearly as long as the co- rolla. Corolla with four elliptic seg- ments, flat and spreading; margin somewhat inflexed, a fimbriated pit in the centre of each. Stamens four, alternate with the segments; fila- ments short, subulate ; anthers oval, oblong. Ovary compressed, bearing a short style with two short stigmas. Capsule yellowish, oval, acuminate, compressed; margin thin, two-valved, 1-seeded. Seeds flat, elliptical, winged. It occurs to the west of the Alleghany Mountains, from New York to Alabama, in rich woody lands and meadows. It is one of the tallest of our her- baceous plants, sometimes at- taining an elevation of ten feet, with a pyramid of flowers of three or four feet in length. There is some difference of opi- nion as to its duration ; Rafi- nesque stating that it is strictly a triennial, whilst other bota- nists agree in considering it to be a biennial. It was first dis- covered by Wm. Bartram, who speaks of it in his travels under F carolinensis. the name of Indian lettuce. 464 MEDICAL BOTANY. The part that is officinal are the roots; these are large, yellow, rugose, hard, and spindle-shaped ; when in a fresh state, they often weigh several pounds. As found in the shops, they are in slices, somewhat resembling those of the Co- lombo, having a thick yellow bark and a yellowish spongy meditullium. The taste is pure bitter, without any aroma. They may be distinguished from Colombo by their lighter colour, and by affording a dark-green precipi- tate with the salts of iron. A chemical examination has been made of this root by Mr. Douglass, (Am. Jour. Pharm. vi. 177,) and it was found to contain bitter Extractive, Gum, Tannin, Gallic acid, Resin, a Fatty matter, Sugar, &c. Medical Properties.—Frasera is an efficacious bitter tonic, inferior to Co- lombo, but fully equal to most of the other articles of its class. It is much employed in the Western States, both in regular and domestic practice, and is spoken of in high terms by several eminent practitioners. It is only in a dried state that it displays its tonic powers, as, when recent, it proves both emetic and purgative, and is often employed as a substitute for rhubarb. The dose in powder is from thirty grains to a drachm, and of the infusion, made with an ounce of the root to a pint of boiling water, about a wineglass- ful, several times a day. Menyanthes.—Linn. Fig. 209. M. trifoliata. Calyx 5-parted, tubular below. Corolla deciduous, somewhat fun- nel-shaped, fleshy ; limb 5-parted, segments ciliated. Stamens 5, in- serted on the corolla; filaments distinct, anthers erect. Ovary surrounded by 5 hypogynous glands ; style filiform with a bilo- bate stigma. Capsule 1-celled, somewhat 1-valved. Seeds nume- rous, shining. A genus of a single species found in almost all temperate and cold climates, and differ- ing very slightly in any of its numerous localities. M. trifoliata, Linn.—Leaves ternate, oval, glabrous. Linn., Sja. PL 207; Wood- ville, ii. 277 ; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 85; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. iii. 55; Ra- finesque, Med. Flor. ii. 33. Common Names.—Buck- bean ; Bog-bean ; Marsh-tre- folia ; Water Shamrock. Foreign Names. — Trefle d'eau, Fr.; Trifoglio'palustre, It.; Bitterklee, Ger. Description.—Root long and creeping and jointed. Stem smooth, erect, and cylindrical, about a foot in height. Leaves GENTIANACE^E. 465 bright-green, obovate, undulate, smooth, ternate, at the end of a long striated footstalk. Flowers in a loose spike at the extremity of an erect, round, smooth scape, longer than the leaves, sheathed at base. Calyx divided into five, somewhat spreading segments. Corolla somewhat funnel-shaped, deeply cleft into five spreading or recurved, pointed segments, of a white colour tipped with rose, smooth externally and covered with dense white, shaggy fibres on the inner surface. The ovary is conical and supports a long slender style with a bilobate stigma. The capsule is ovate, succulent, 1-celled, containing several small, roundish seeds. It is found in most parts of the world where the climate is temperate or cold, in moist, boggy soils, or even in ponds and ditches, flowering in this country in April and May. Rafinesque is of opinion that the plant of North America is specifically different from that of Europe, and has called it M. verna, but other botanists consider it identical, the only observable difference being, that it is smaller. The whole plant is medicinal, but the root alone is recognised by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. It has no odour, but is intensely bitter. It has been analyzed by Tromsdorff, and found to contain Bitter Ex- tractive, Albumen, Green resin, a peculiar Matter, precipitable by tannin, but soluble in water, Fecula, Malic acid, &c. Medical Properties.—In small doses tonic and astringent; in large ones cathartic and sometimes emetic, especially when given in the fresh state. It is rarely employed in medicine, but is analogous in its action to gentian and centaury, and may be employed in all cases to which they are applicable. At one time it was in high repute in rheumatism, dropsy, scurvy, and worms, and Cullen speaks favourably of it in obstinate cutaneous affections. It is used in some parts of Europe as a substitute for hops in brewing. It may be given in powder, infusion, or extract; the dose of the first is a scruple to half a drachm ; the usual mode is in infusion, made with half an ounce ofthe dried root to a pint of boiling water, the dose of which is an ounce or two. Besides these plants, several others of the order merit a short notice- The Sicertia perennis is used in Siberia as a vulnerary, and it is considered that the Pleurogyne rotata is equally efficacious (Pallas, Voy. iv. 465). Accord- ing to Aublet, Schultesia stenophylla and Apophragma tenuifolia are esteemed as febrifuges ((hiiane, i. 71). Several species of Lisianthus are employed in South America: thus L. purpurascens and L. grandiflorus are noticed by Aublet, and the L. pendulus and L. amplissimus by Martius (Jour. Chim. Med. iii. 448), as powerful tonics and febrifuges. The younger Lin- naeus (Supplem. 134) states, that L. chelonoides acts as a powerful purga- tive, which is also the case with the Eustoma exaltata. The roots of Coutoubea ramosa and C. spicata are said to be febrifuge, deobstruent, and ver- mifuge. (Aublet, Guiane, i. 73.) De Candolle speaks of Villarsia ovata as used as a tonic at the Cape of Good Hope. Limnanthemnm indica is es- teemed a holy plant by the Chinese on account of its many virtues (Mem. Acad. Dijon, 1829, 204), and the L.nymphoides has some reputation as a fe- brifuge in Europe, whilst it congener, L.peltata, is employed in like manner in Japan, where they also use the leaves as a culinary vegetable. (Thunberg, Voy. iv. 76.) Ciccndia hyssopifolia is stated by Wight and Arnott to be bitter, arid useful as a stomachic in decoction or powder. In large doses it is laxative. (Comp. to Bot. Mag. ii. 250.) 30 466 MEDICAL BOTANY. Order 74.—LOG AM ACEM.—Lindley. Calyx inferior, 4—5-parted, valvate or imbricate. Corolla regular or irregular, 4—5 or lO.cleft, with a valvate or convolute aestivation. Stamens inserted on the tube of the corolla, on the same line, not always symmetrical with the lobes. Anthers bilocular, with a longitudinal dehiscence ; pollen with 3 bands. Ovary superior, 2-celled ; style simple; stigma simple qr bilobate. Fruit a capsule and 2-celled, or drupaceous with 1—2-seeded stones, or berried with the seeds immersed in a pulp. Seeds often peltate, sometimes winged; embryo small; albumen fleshy or cartilaginous. These plants are principally tropical or subtropical, very few of them being found in colder latitudes. They are trees, shrubs or herbs, with opposite en- tire leaves, usually having stipules which adhere to the petioles, or are com- bined in the form of interpetiolary sheaths. Most of them are exceedingly poisonous, as is exemplified in various species of Strychnos. Some are ant- helmintic, as Spigelia,'and some are bitter and emetic, as Potalia amara. In P. resinifera, the leaves are mucilaginous and astringent, arid are em- ployed in Brazil in cases of ophthalmia (Martius, Nov. Gen. eye. Bras. ii. 90). Sub-order 1. Spigelie^e.—Flowers isomerous. ^Estivation valvate. Capsule didy- mous, many-seeded. Seed not winged. Generally herbaceous. Stipules sometimes wanting. Spigelia.—Linn. Calyx inferior, deeply 5-cleft, segments small, pointed, permanent. Corolla funnel- shaped, much longer than the calyx, narrowed at base; limb spreading, 5-cleft, segments broad, acuminate. Stamens five, simple ; anthers simple. Ovary superior; style single, subulate, as long as corolla; stigma simple. Capsule didymous, 2-cclled,- 4-valved. Seeds numerous, minute. A genus of about thirty species, principally natives of tropical America, consisting of both suffruticose and herbaceous plants, with opposite and often connate leaves on the lower part of the stem, and quaternate above; flowers mostly sessile and secund, of a blue or red colour; the roots and seeds often anthelmintic. S. marilandica, Linn.—Perennial, stem simple, quadrangular; leaves opposite, sessile, ovate-lanceolate; flowers crimson, in a simple, terminal, secund raceme. Linn., Sp. PL 249; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 146; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. ii. 75; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. ii. 89; Woodville, ii. 28S ; Stephenson and Churchill, i. vii.; Griffith, Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. iv. 1. Common Names.—Pink Root; Carolina Pink ; Indian Pink; Worm Grass, &c. Foreign Names.—Spigelie de Maryland, Fr.; Spigelia, It.; Nordameri- kanische Spigelie, Ger. Description.—Root consisting of a great number of slender fibres, yellow. Stems many, somewhat 4-angled, smooth, annual, of a purplish colour, furnished with sessile, opposite, ovate, entire leaves, glabrous except on the margins and nervures, where they are pubescent. The flowers few in number, are borne in a terminal raceme, which is secund, and are supported on short pedicels. The corolla is funnel-shaped, contracted towards the top, . and divided into five acute segments. It is of a rich carmine colour externally, and LOGANIACE^E. 467 Fig. 210. orange-yellow within. The calyx is per- sistent, of five long finely-serrated leaves/ which are reflected when the fruit is ma- ture. The stamens are shorter than the corolla, with oblong and narrow anthers. The style is about the length ofthe corolla, with a fusiform, acute, pubescent stigma. The capsule is double, and contains many angular small seeds. The Pink root is a native of the Southern and Southwestern States, but has become rare as far north as Virginia. It grows in dry rich soils, on the borders of woods, and flowers from May to July. There are seve- ral varieties, both as respects the form of the leaves and the colour of the flowers. It was known to the natives as a vermifuge, and was in domestic use among the early colo- nists in the Southern States, a long time before it attracted the notice of the medical public. At about the same period, however, it was brought forward as a remedy of much power by Drs. Garden, Lining, and Chal- mers, of Carolina, and from the information they gave, it became generally employed. The officinal portion is the root; this consists of a great number of slender, blackish fibres, forming a dense bunch, aris- ing from a short rhizome. The odour is very feeble and the taste sweetish, bitter and unpleasant. It has been analyzed several times, and found to contain an Oil, Acrid Resin, a Bitter Extractive, on which the vermifuge power depends, Tannin, Gallic Acid, some salts, &c. Medical Properties.—Pink root is a powerful and certain anthelmintic. The whole plant is possessed of this property, but the root being the most active, is generally employed, and this is most striking when in a fresh state, as there is no article that deteriorates more by exposure and keeping. In conjunction with its anthelmintic qualities, it also sometimes displays those of a purgative, and some writers have attributed all its virtues to this action; but this is erroneous, as it manifests its peculiar power on the worms, without exciting an increased action of the intestines, and hence the usual practice of prescribino' a purge after the exhibition of Spigelia. It is far more probable that its vermifuge qualities depend on the same principle that induces the nar- cotic symptoms, to which it occasionally gives rise. These are dimness of sight, giddiness, dilated pupil, spasmodic motions of the muscles of the eyes, and even convulsions. Dr. Chalmers attributes the death of two children with these symptoms, to the use of this article. (His. So. Car.) S. marilandica. 468 MEDICAL BOTANY. Dr. Eberle gives a very full account of its narcotic effects in a child of six years of age ( Treat. Mat. Med.) These symptoms, following the adminis- tration of Spigelia, have been thought by some to depend either on the roots of some other plant gathered with the Pink root, or on some parasitic vine that had attached itself to it. Mr. Elliot has shown that both these sugges- tions are erroneous, and that the root itself is narcotic. Its use has not been confined to the expulsion of worms. As early as 1763, Dr. Garden, in a letter to Dr. Hope, states that he had given it with great success in febrile attacks, apparently arising from a disordered condi- tion ofthe stomach and bowels; this is confirmed by Dr. Ives, and in fact al- most every practitioner must have met with proofs of its efficacy in those febrile complaints in children, arising from irritation ofthe bowels, from any cause. Of this character was the protracted remittent with hydrocephalic symptoms, in which Dr. B. S. Barton found the Pink root of so much service. Rafinesque states that it is used among the Osages, as a sudorific and seda- tive in acute diseases. As an anthelmintic it is more generally prescribed than any other article in this country, and in most cases with unequivocal success, and without the production of any unpleasant symptoms. It may be given in powder or infusion; the dose of the first of which for children is from ten to twenty grains. The infusion, however, is by far the best mode of administration; this is made with an ounce of the root to a pint of water, the dose of which is from an ounce to two ounces for a child. One of the best methods is to give a full dose at bed-time, and to exhibit an active pur- gative in the morning, as in this way any narcotic symptoms it may display do not cause uneasiness. The most general plan is to give it in combination, especially with Senna; this forms a very well known and efficacious nostrum called Worm tea, for which there are several recipes, differing somewhat in the quantities of the ingredients. One of them much used, is, Spigelia, 3ss.; Senna, 3ij.; Savin, 3ss.; and Manna, 3ij., to be infused in a pint of water and strained ; the dose is the same as of the simple infusion ; it usually purges actively, and does not excite narcotic symptoms. The syrup is also said to be an effica- cious form of preparation. Many other species possess the same anthelmintic powers as the above, especially the S. anthelmia or Brinvilliers, as it is called in the French West Indies, where it grows in abundance. From the accounts given of it by Ricord Madiana (Tr.de la Brinvilliers), it appears to be far more active than the S. marilandica, as he states that it is used by the negroes as a poison. It is employed both in the West Indies and in South America as an anthel- mintic, but in much smaller doses than above indicated for the other species, two drachms only being used to the pint of water. Martius speaks of S. glabrata as a poison. Sub-order 2. Strychne*:.—Fruit a bilocular berry or capsule, many-seeded, sometimes by abortion 1-celled, and many-seeded. Seeds peltate, not winged. Strychnos.—Linn. Calyx 4—5-parted. Corolla tubular, with a spreading limb, 4—5-parted, and a valvate aestivation. Stamens 4—5, inserted on the throat of the corolla, which is either naked or bearded. Ovary 2-celled, with a single style, having a capitate stigma. Berry corticated, 1-celled, many-seeded, or by abortion one-seeded. Seeds nidulant, discoidal. Albumen cartilaginous, almost divided into two plates. Embryo with leafy cotyledons. A large genus of trees or shrubs, often scandent and principally peculiar to warm countries, with opposite, entire leaves on short petioles, and white or log aniacea:. 469 greenish-white flowers, in axillary or terminal corymbs, and are often fragrant. It is the most virulently poisonous group of plants known, con- taining besides the Nux Vomica, the Upas and Wourali, two of the most active and rapidly deleterious agents yet discovered. S. nux vomica, Linn.—Stem arborescent, without spines or tendrils. Leaves ovate, petiolate, three or five-nerved, smooth. Corymbs terminal. Calyx with five short teeth- Corolla glabrous within. Fruit a many-seeded berry. Linn., Sp. PL 271 ; Woodville, ii. 222 ; Roxburgh, Command, i. 8 ; Ste- phenson and Churchill, i. 52 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 528. Common Names.—Poison Nut; Nux vomica. Foreign Names.—Noix vomique, Fr.; Noce canina, It.; Krahenaugen, Ger.; Kooc hi a, Hind. ; Luzalke, Arab. Description.—A middle-sized tree, with a short, crooked, thickish trunk, irregularly branched, and covered with a smooth, ash-coloured bark. The leaves are opposite, on short petioles, ovate, shining, smooth on both sides, entire, three to five-nerved. The flowers are small, greenish- white, and collected into small, terminal cymes, with a disagreeable odour. The calyx is 5-toothed and decidu- ous. The corolla is of a greenish-white, and divided into five segments. The stamens are five, very short, with roundish anthers. The ovary is superior, roundish, and crowned with a single style, as long as the corolla. The fruit is a berry, of the size of an orange, globular, covered with a smooth, hard rind, of a deep-yellow, and filled with a pulp, in which are five seeds ; these are flat, round, with a prominence in the centre, of a grayish colour externally, and covered with a woolly matter, but internally hard and tough, like horn. It is a native ofthe East Indies, and is very common on the coast of Coro- mandel, where it flowers in the cold season. It appears to have been intro- duced into practice by the Arabian physicians, who probably obtained their knowledge of it from the Hindoos. The plant spoken of by Dioscorides and Pliny, under the name of Strychnos, was a kind of nightshade. The seeds are the officinal part, but the bark has attracted some attention under the name of false angustura, and was falsely attributed to a species of Brucea. The seeds are round, peltate, less than an inch in diameter, nearly flat, or convex on one side, and concave on the other, and surrounded by narrow annular stria?. They have two coats ; the outer is simple, fibrous, and covered with short, silky hairs, of a gray or yellowish colour; within this is the inner coat, which is very thin. The nucleus is formed of the albumen and embryo; the first is bipartite, cartilaginous, or horny, of a dirty-white colour, and an intensely bitter taste ; the embryo is white, in the centre of the seed. They have been analyzed by several chemists; the most complete examination of them is that by Pelletier and Caventou. (Ann. Chim. et Phys. xii. 142.) They found : Igasuric acid, in combination with Strychnia and Brucia, Wax, Oil, Gum, &c. The two alkaloids are the active and poisonous principles, and are very similar in their effects, but the first is the most energetic. The bark is in quills or flat pieces, more compact and heavy than true an- gustura. The external appearance varies, being sometimes of a fungoid or spongy, rust-coloured appearance, at others, covered with whitish prominences. The taste is intensely bitter, and the colour of the powder of a yellowish- white. It was at first imported into Hamburgh, and sold as angustura bark; but some cases of poisoning resulting from its administration, the sale of it Fig. 211. S. nux vomica. 470 MEDICAL BOTANY. was forbidden. For a long time its origin was unknown, and it was supposed to be derived from the Brucea ferruginea, but this was disproved by Geiger, on a comparison of the two barks. It was then asserted by Batka that it must be the product of a Strychnos, founding his supposition on its composi- tion and properties ; this was confirmed by Div Pereira, and fully established by Dr. O'Shaughnessy. (Mad. Jour, and Am. Jour. Pharm. iv. 144.) An analysis of it by the above-mentioned chemists shows it to contain, Gallate of Brucia, Fatty matter, Gum, Yellow colouring matter, &c. Medical Properties.—Nux vomica and its alkaloids are powerful poisons, its action being principally on the cerebro-spinal system. In small doses, it usu- ally acts as a tonic, and increases the secretion of urine, and sometimes operates somewhat on the bowels, or produces a sudorific effect. When the dose is somewhat larger, the stomach is disordered, and uneasiness and nausea induced ; on increasing the quantity, a new train of phenomena are induced; a sense of weight and weakness in the limbs, and increased sensibility to ex- ternal impressions of all kinds, manifest themselves, soon followed by depres- sion ofthe spirits and anxiety; a trembling of the limbs ensues, with slight convulsive motions of the muscles ; if the medicine be repeated, these symp- toms increase; there is a universal convulsion of all parts of the body, espe- cially when motion is attempted, and erotic symptoms frequently occur. In paralytic patients the convulsive motions are principally confined to the af- fected parts. In still larger doses, tetanus, asphyxia, and death, are the result. The mode in which the medicine causes these effects is not clearly under- stood, especially why it first displays its influence on paralysed limbs. Seve- ral explanations have been attempted by Segulas, Marshall Hall, and others, but none of them are perfectly satisfactorv. (See Pereira, Elem. Mat. Med. ii. 366.) The principal employment of Nux vomica is in the treatment of paralysis, especially when it is of some standing, and where no hypersemic or hcemor- rhagic condition ofthe nervous centres exists, for it is usually inapplicable in the recent forms, or until the removal ofthe primary affection by bleeding or other antiphlogistic measures. Its use is limited to those cases where, all in- flammatory action or congestion being removed, there is no return of power to the paralysed parts. It has been found more useful in paraplegia than in hemiplegia, and has also been found of benefit in some local palsies. It has also been recommended in dysentery, pyrosis, and other disorders of the alimentary canal, and has been found of some utility, though not of such de- cided powers as to supersede other and less dangerous remedies. It has been given in cases of impotence with some benefit, but sufficient trials have not been made to establish its exact operation in these cases. It is used in the form of powder, tincture, and extract; the dose ofthe first is from two to three grains, gradually increased ; of the tincture, five to ten drops ; and ofthe extract, half a grain, to be gradually increased to two or three. Strychnia and Brucia have the same properties as the Nux vomica, and the first is generally substituted for it, from possessing greater certainty and uniformity of action. From its excessively poisonous nature, great care is requisite in administering it, more especially as it appears, like digitalis, to sometj,mes accumulate in the system. This alkaloid is also used externally, either in the form of an ointment, or sprinkled on a blistered surface. The dose of Strychnia or its salts is from a twentieth to a sixteenth of a grain, gradually increasing the dose, until its effects on the muscular system become apparent. Brucia is seldom employed, but from the experiments of Dr. LOGANIACE^E. .~, 471 Bardsley and others, it is shown to be analogous in its effects to Strychnia but less intense. • ' Several other species of Strychnos have attracted much attention for their poisonous properties ; of these the S. tieute, or Upas, and S. toxifera, or Wou- rail, are the most celebrated. The first of these is a large climbing shrub, found in Java where it is used as a poison, generally in combination with another Upas, the Annans. Although extremely powerful, it is not as rapid in its effects as the Wourali, which is a native of South America, and has been fully noticed by Mr. Waterton (Wanderings), and by Schomburgh (Ann. Nat. Hist. vn. 411). b v Among this collection of deadly poisons, there are two species that are endowed with far different powers, S. pseudoquina and the S. potatorum. The former, which is a native of Brazil, and is known under the name of Quina do Campo, is employed as a substitute for Cinchona. It contains neither strychnia nor brucia; the other, found in several parts of the East Indies, produces a fruit, the pulp of which is eaten, and the seeds very ex- tensively used for the purpose of clearing muddy water, and hence they are called "clearing nuts." The Hindoos never drink well-water if they can procure it from a pond or river, and it is, therefore, always more or less im- pure. One of the seeds of this plant rubbed very hard for a short time on the inside of a vessel containing muddy water, will cause a subsidence of the impurities in a few minutes, leaving the fluid pure and wholesome. Strychnos colubrina is stated by Blume to produce the true Lignum colu- brinum, once so much esteemed in paralysis, and still employed in Java in cases of intermittent fever, and as an anthelmintic, and also externally in dis- eases of the skin (Ainslie, ii. 202). Virey slates that an over-dose" excites tremors and vomiting, but in small ones it is a useful vermifuge, and has been given with advantage in intermittents (Hist. Nat. Med. 91). According to Roxburgh and Blume, other species also furnish this wood. The ,S. brachiata bears innoxious fruit, which are eagerly eaten by deer, and those of S. pseudo- quina are esteemed in Brazil. Those of S. innocua, a native of Africa, are said by Caillaud to be acidulous and pleasant, without any dangerous qualities. Ignatia.—Linn. Calyx 5-toothed, campanulate. Corolla infundibuliform, tube narrow, elongated ; limb 5-parted, lobes oblong, obtuse. Stamens 5, inserted at lower part of tube, included; fila- ments filiform ; anthers connivent. Ovary ovoid. Style filiform ; stigma bipartite, lobes filiform. Fruit with a woody rind, 1-celled. Seeds numerous, smooth, with obtuse angles. Embryo straight, in the axis of cartilaginous albumen. • A genus of a single species, with opposite, petiolate, ovate, acute, entire leaves. Flowers in small, axillary panicles, of a white colour, and with the odour ofthe Jasmine. It was included in Strychnos by the elder Linnaeus but sepa- rated by his son under the present name. I. amara, Linn.—The only species. Linn., Suppl. 149; Petiver, Phil. Trans, xxi. t. i. f. 4-6; De Candolle, Prod. ix. 18; Flore. Med. iii. 105. Common Name.—Bean of St. Ignatius, Foreign Names.—Feve St. Ignace, Fr.; Fava di S. Ignazio, It. Description.—A tree with long, cylindrical, glabrous branches, with opposite, almost sessile, ovate, acuminate, entire, glabrous leaves. The flowers are white, odorous, tubular in axillary clusters. The fruit is about the size of an apple, ovoid, and smooth, its rind 472 MEDICAL BOTANY. is dry and brittle ; the seeds, about twenty in number, are immersed in a soft pulp ; they are irregularly angular, about an inch long, of a pale-brown colour, striated and glabrous; internally they are of a greenish tint, and of a horny consistence. This tree is a native of the Philippine Islands, Cochin China, &c. It was first made known by a Jesuit called Camelli, who sent specimens to Ray and Petiver, who published an account in the Philosophical Transactions in 1669. From the Jesuits having first promulgated the properties of this article, the genus was dedicated to the founder of their order, and the seeds, which are the parts used, are named after him in all the languages of Europe. They are extremely bitter, without any smell. Like the Nux vomica they contain strychnia in combination with igasuric acid, but in less proportion. They were analyzed by MM. Pelletier and Caventou (Ann. de Chim. x. 147). They were first brought to Europe by the Portuguese, about the end of the seventeenth century. Father Camelli, who first noticed them in his commu- nication to Ray and Petiver, is of opinion that they were " nuces vomicae, legitimse Serapionis." Medical Uses, can Dispensatory, 1830 ; in Botanical Register, 1839 ; by Nees, Off. Plan., Supp. 3, t. 13. The root, as found in the market, is in pieces of various forms and sizes; when entire, they are more or less oval, but are generally in slices. The epidermis is thin and brown ; and when they are broken, of a deep yellowish- gray colour, with brown, concentric rings. They should be heavy, hard, and difficult to powder, but there is much variation even in the true Jalap; besides which it is adulterated with what is called Male Jalap, first described by M. Ledannois, and supposed to be the product of the /. orizabensis, Stendel. Jalap is also liable to be worm-eaten, but this does not injure its purgative qua- lities. The odour of Jalap is nauseous, and the taste sweetish, sub-acrid, and unpleasant. From the various analyses of it, it is shown to contain Resin, 476 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 213. Extractive, Gum, Starch, &c. The resin consists of two substances, Jalapine composing nine-tenths of it, and Jalapic acid. Medical Properties.—Jalap is an active but safe purgative, producing co- pious liquid stools, often causing nausea and sometimes vomiting, and almost always griping. It is applicable to all cases where it is wished to make a powerful impression on the bowels and to produce copious evacuations, and is to be avoided where there is intestinal inflammation or lesions ofthe conti- guous parts. Its hydragogue effects are much increased by combination with cremor tartar. It is given alone or in combination, as well as in tincture and extract. The dose ofthe powder is from ten to twenty grains, ofthe tincture from a drachm to four drachms, and ofthe extract from ten grains to a scru- ple. A very common combination is with calomel, ten grains of each. 2. I. pandurata, Meyer.—Stem twining, sub-pubescent. Leaves cordate, or panduri- form, acuminate, lobes rounded, peduncles I—5-flowered; bracts small, at the base ofthe peduncles; flowers fasciculate ; corolla tubular, campanulate. Linn., (Convolvulus,) Sp. PL 219; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. i. 249; Ra- finesque, Med. Flor. i. 123 ; Meyer, (Ipomcea,) Prim. Esseq. 100 ; Lindley, Med. Flor. 396. Common Names.—Wild Potato ; Wild Rhubarb; Wild Jalap; Mechameck. Description. — Root perennial, very large, cylindrical or fusiform, sometimes as thick as the arm and several feet in length, yellow- ish outside, whitish and milky within, much fissured, attenuated above. Stem procumbent or climbing, round, purplish. Leaves cordate at base, broad, alternate, petiolate, margin entire or undu- late, sometimes panduriform, smooth, dark-green above, paler beneath. Flowers in fascicles of two to five, on peduncles longer than the petioles, axillary. Calyx 5-parted, unequal, ovate-obtuse, two larger sepals external. Co- rolla large, funnel-shaped, white, with the tube purplish-red. Sta- mens white, anthers oblong. Style white, filiform, with a bilobate stigma. Capsule oblong, 2-celled, 4-seeded. Common in all parts of the United States in sandy or gravelly soils, and also found in Guiana and other places in South America, flowering from June to August. It was known to the Indians, and is noticed by Schoepf as Me- choacana, which he says it resembles in appearance and properties. In the fresh state the root has an unplea- I. pandurata. CONVOLVULACE^E. 477 sant odour, and a bitter and acrid taste. In drying, the root loses about three- fourths its weight. As found in the shops, it is usually in circular pieces of various sizes, being transverse sections, the colour somewhat brown exter- nally and whitish within, with radiating striae. They are powdered with difficulty, the powder is light and gray. According to an analysis by Mr. Shinn (Am. Journ. Pharm. v. 177), this root contains Resin, Bitter extractive, Starch, Gum, Gallic acid, &c. Medical Properties.—The real qualities of this article are not well ascer- tained. Dr. B. S. Barton (Collections), says he knows nothing of it from ex- perience ; but that an extract but little inferior to scammony has been procured from one of the native species of Convolvulus, and further states that it was used with great success by Dr. Harris, of New Jersey, in calculous com- plaints, and also that it had obtained some celebrity in Virginia in the same disease; it was generally given in decoction. It has also a reputation among empirics, and in domestic practice, as a substitute for rhubarb and jalap, but is much feebler in its action than either, as it requires large doses to produce any effect. Elliott observes, that it certainly possesses some cathartic power, but in too slight a degree to bring it into use. The extract may perhaps be found useful, but certainly can never be equal to scammony. The dose of the powder is forty grains to a drachm. Another species of this genus, the I. turpethum, a native of several parts of Asia, was at one time in very general use as a purgative, but is now sel- dom employed, although it certainly possesses active properties; according to Ainslie, it is much esteemed by the native practitioners in India, and even in Europe it is spoken of in high terms by some writers, but is never prescribed in this country. The I. pes capra, corymbosa, discolor, and many others, have likewise been employed in different countries. A purgative resin is also obtained from I. tuberosa ; and it is stated by Mr. Hartweg that what is called Male Jalap is the product ofthe I. batatoides (Lindley, Veg. King. 631). J. operculata yields a purgative drug called Gomma da Batata, which is said to be equal to Jalap (Gomez, Obs. Bot. Med. 23). I. cathartica has also a purgative root, employed as a cathartic in St. Domingo; it is said to often cause superpurgation. Lindley is of opinion that I. oririzabensis is the " Jalapa macho," or male Jalap of Mexico, specimens of which were sent to France by M. Ledannois, and described by M. Pelletan in the Journ. Chim. Med. x. 1. It is the I. mestilantica (Choisy); and M. Ledannois states that the roots are a good pur- gative, without possessing the acridity of the common Jalap, and that he always administered them with success (Journ. Phil. ColL Pharm. iii. 265). Lindley further states that Dr. Schiede had seen the roots, and found them to be very like that of I. purga (Flor. Med. 397). Convolvulus.—Linn. Sepals 5. Corolla campanulate. Style 1; stigmas 2; linear-cylindrical, often revo- lute. Ovary 2-celled, with 4 ovules. Capsule 2-celled. Almost as extensive a genus as Ipomoea, and resembling it in many respects in its botanical as well as its physical characters. C. scammonia, Linn.—Stem smooth; leaves sagittate, posteriorly truncate; lobes entire or elongate-laciniate ; peduncles very long, many-flowered. Linn., Sp. PL 21*; Woodville, ii. 243; Stokes, i. 322; Stephenson and Churchill, i. 60 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 398. 478 MEDICAL BOTANY. Common Names.—Scammony ; Syrian Bind-weed. Foreign Names.—Scammonee, Fr.; Scammonea, It.; Scammonium, Ger. Description.—Root fleshy, fusiform, with a light-gray epidermis, and abounding in a milky juice. Steins several, slender, cylindrical, villous. The leaves are sagittate, alter- nate, smooth, pointed, of a bright-green colour, truncate at base, and supported on long petioles. The flowers are on slender, erect stems, divided above into two or more pedi. eels, each supporting a pale-yellow flower. Calyx with 5 emarginate sepals. Corolla funnel-shaped ; limb entire, somewhat reflexed. Stamens five ; ovary 2-celled, supporting a long slender style, with two linear, cylindrical stigmas. Capsule two-celled, with small pyramidal seeds. It is a native of Turkey, Syria, Greece, Persia, &c. According to Russel, it is found in great abundance on the mountains between Aleppo and Latakia, whence most part ofthe Scammony of commerce is obtained. The time for collecting the milky juice, which, when inspissated, forms the drug known as Scammony, is in the beginning of June; this is done as fol- lows. " Having cleared away the earth from the upper part of the root, the top is cut off in an oblique direction, about two inches below where the stalks spring from it. Under the most depending part of the slope, a shell is fixed, or some other convenient receptacle, into which the milky juice gradually flows. It is then left about twelve hours, which time is sufficient for the drawing off the whole juice; this, however, is in small quantity, each root affording but a few drachms. This milky juice, from the several roots, is put together, often into the leg of an old boot, for want of some more proper vessel, when in a little time it grows hard, and is the genuine scammony. It is the root only that produces this concrete, for the stalks and leaves near the root, even when pressed, afford no signs of a milky juice. Of this en- tirely pure scammony, but very little is ever brought to market, the greatest part of what is to be met with, being adulterated." (Russel, Med. Inquir., i. 18.) This adulteration is principally practised at the ports from whence it is shipped, and consists of various admixtures of sand, ashes, chalk, &c, and probably of an extract of some other vegetable. There are several varieties met with in commerce. The best is light, resinous when broken, and is fri- able, not effervescing on the addition of an acid, nor rendered blue by iodine; the colour varies much, especially in large masses; but when good, it is always of a brownish-gruy colour in powder. Russel states, that those who gather it assert, that the difference of colour depends on the different modes of drying it. Pereira has given a very full description of the varieties of this drug found in London, which applies also to those occurring in the shops in this country. (Elem. Mat. Med., ii. 339.) It has been several times examined, with different results, according to the purity of specimens operated upon. In the first quality, Aleppo, Macquart found Resin, Wax, Extractive, Gum, Albumen, &c. Besides the true Scam- mony, there are a number of other products bearing the same name, either wholly fictitious or derived from other plants, the best known of which is called Smyrna Scammony, and is said, though the fact is not proved, to be obtained from a species of Sccamone, and the French or Montpellier is the product of a Cynanchum. Medical Properties.—Scammony was employed as a drastic purgative by Hippocrates and other Greek physicians, but it has been thought that the article they used was produced by other species of the Convolvulacese. It was also used by the Roman practitioners, and Celsus speaks of it as a good anthelmintic. The Arabian writers, with the exception of Rhazes, thought it too powerful a remedy to be employed, and even he advises it to be used SOLANACE^E. 479 with great caution. It is a powerful and highly drastic purgative, but is highly useful, when not contra-indicated by intestinal inflammation, both as an evacuant and a derivative. Where it is wished to moderate its action, it may be given in combination with some of the Neutral salts, Rhubarb, &c., with the addition of an aromatic. It is very seldom given alone, on account of the harshness of its operation, except when it is intended to establish counter-irritation, as in diseases of the brain. It is much used by empirics, .and forms a part of most of the vegetable pills so numerous in our quack- ridden country. The dose of the powder is from ten to fifteen grains, and it should be powdered very finely. It enters into the composition of a variety of officinal preparations, as powders, confections, mixtures, &c. Several other species have also, at different times, been employed in medi- cine, as the C. arvensis, C. althazoides, ecc The C. dissect us abounds in prussic acid, and is said to be used in the manufacture of Noyau. (Bot. Mag. 3141.) According to Dr. Uslar, the remedy called in Mexico Guaco, is derived from a Convolvulus. (Lindley, Veg. King., 631.) Besides these plants, numerous species of other genera belonging to this order may be cited as having remedial properties. Thus Pharbitis cathartica of St. Domingo, has much the same properties as Jalap; it is the P. pudi- bundus, Bot. Reg. 999; the P. nil is used in Japan (Thunberg, iv. 53). Calystegia soldanella and C. sepium, have been much used in Europe; Dr. Deslongchamps, who examined the first with great care, is of opinion that it is almost equivalent to the Jalap. (Jour. Gen. Med. xlii. 173.) It is spoken of in high terms by Ferrein and others as a hydragogue and vermifuge; the P. sepium, is much less active, but it is said that a decoction of its leaves acts well as a mild purgative. The foliage of I. bracteata is employed in Brazil in a similar manner, and that of Argyreia bracteata and A. speciosa are used in India in preparing emollient poultices; they are also thought to possess virtues in cutaneous complaints, rubbed on the affected parts (Ainslie, ii. 357). Two species of Rhodoriza, theflorida and scoparius, yield an aromatic essential oil, of a bitter balsamic flavour, known as the Oil of Rhodium. The wood itself, when powdered, is used as a sternutatory, and is also employed for fumigation ; the oil is much used by rat-catchers to attract rats and mice, as they appear to be extremely fond of the odour. Even the seeds of some of these plants are active; this is the case with those of Pharbitis ccerulca, which act as a quick, safe, and pleasant purgative, in doses of 30—40 grains. (Lindley, Veg. King. 631.) Order 76.—SOLANACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx of 4—5 more or less united sepals, mostly persistent. Corolla regular, sometimes a little irregular, plaited in aestivation. Stamens inserted upon and as many as the seg- ments of the corolla. Ovary 2-celled, with the placentae in the axis; styles and stigmas united into one. Fruit a many-seeded capsule or berry. Embryo mostly curved, in a fleshy albumen. A very extensive order, consisting of herbs or shrubby plants, with a watery juice, and alternate leaves ; the floral ones sometimes double, placed near each other. The inflorescence is variable, often supra-axillary, the pedicels ebracteate. The species are found in all parts ofthe wdrld, except the frigid zone. The properties of this order are not uniform, though the general cha- racter is that of the acro-narcotics, but the fruit of some species and the roots of others are among the most valuable esculents, and the fruits of others, again, are purely stimulant. 480 MEDICAL BOTANY. Among the poisonous species, one of the most striking is the Acocanthera venenata, a large bush with fragrant flowers, found at the Cape of Good Hope ; a decoction of its bark is said to be a fatal poison, and is used by the Hotten- tots to destroy wild beasts. (Thunberg, ii. 173.) Some of the Cestrums, as the macrophyllum and nocturnum, are also very poisonous ; an extract made from the berries of the latter, has been given in doses of 2—5 grains in chorea with some success. (Flor. Med. Antill., iii. 47.) Others of this genus, as C.parqui, bracteatum, &c, are found to have a diuretic action, and are also emollient, and applied to ulcers and wounds ; the unripe fruits are said to be used in Brazil in affections of the liver and bladder. (Martius.) The ripe berries of C. tinctorium afford an indelible ink ; but other properties belong to species of this genus, as C. hediunda, pseudoquina, and laurifolium, are used as tonics and febrifuges, and also applied externally, in decoction, in oedema and haemorrhoids. (Martius.) The different species of Physalis are of some importance; the root of P. flexuosa, is considered in India as deob- struent and diuretic, and also to possess some alexipharmic powers, and the leaves, dipped in castor oil, are applied to carbuncular swellings. (Ainslie, ii. 14.) The leaves of P. somnifera are thought, in Egypt, to dissipate local pains and inflammations; the roots are narcotic. (Forskal. 99.) The P. alkekengi has been celebrated as a diuretic from the time of Dioscorides, and has been employed in jaundice, retention of urine, &c, and Ray says the berries will prevent an attack of gout. (Murray, Apparat. Med. i. 679.) Our native species have also been prescribed as diuretics and sedatives. The berries of all of them are edible; they are acid with a slight bitterness. The leaves of some species of Saracha, found in Peru, are bitter, and are employed in the form of an ointment as anodyne and emollient. (Ruiz and Pavon.) The Himeranthus uncinatus of South America, is considered, by the natives, as an aphrodisiac, and as inciting to the passion of love. In the genus Lycium, the L. umbrosum is esteemed as a remedy in erysipelas, in New Grenada. (Humboldt, Nov. Gen. iii. 54.) The Lycion of Dioscorides, so lauded as an astringent, and employed in dysentery, ulcers in the mouth, &c, is thought by Linnaeus and Prosper Alpinus to be a plant of this genus; the latter writer figures the L. afrum as best agreeing with the description; other authors, however, state that it was Catechu. Sol a if u m .—Linn. Calyx persistent, 5—10-parted. Corolla rotate, tube very short; limb 4—6-cleft, spread- ing. Anthers 4—6, partly united, oblong, opening at point by two pores. Berry 2—6- celled, many-seeded. Embryo spiral. A very large genus of herbaceous or shrubby plants, naked or aculeate, but seldom spiny, with the leaves simple, but often sinuately lobed, sometimes pseudo-pinnate, or growing in pairs; peduncles several or solitary. Pubes- cence stellate. With a few exceptions the species are indigenous to the warm portions of America, extending also to Asia and Africa. S. dulcamara, Linn.—Stem twining, shrubby, without thorns. Upper leaves hastate. Racemes compound, corymbiform, drooping. Linn., Sp. PL 264; Woodville, t. 33; Stephenson and Churchill, i. 17; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. ii. 86; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 169; Lindley, Flor. Med. 511. Common Names.—Bitter sweet; Woody Nightshade. Foreign Names.—Douce amere, Fr. ; Dulcamara, It.; Bittersuss, Ger. SOLAN ACE^E. 481 Description.—A woody vine, creeping, or climbing, when supported, to the height of eight or ten feet, co- vered with a grayish-green bark on the stem and large branches. Leaves alternate, acute, mostly smooth, though sometimes pubescent, of a dull green colour, and petiolate. They are subcordate towards the base of the plant, but more or less hastate above. The flowers are in branched cymose racemes, opposite the leaves, or terminal, drooping, divaricate, and on alter- nately subdivided peduncles. The calyx is small, acute. The corolla is rotate, five-cleft segments, acute, ovate, violet-coloured, with two whitish spots at base. The filaments are very short, the anthers erect, yellow, somewhat connected into a conical tube. Ovary roundish, bearing a filiform style, longer than the an- thers, with a simple, obtuse stigma. The fruit is a scarlet, oval berry, containing several whitish, plano- convex seeds. The Bilter-sweet is indigenous to Europe, and is naturalized extensively, if it be not a na- tive of this country; it grows in shady, fertile situations, especially where there is some mois- ture; flowering from June to August, and ripen- ing its fruit in the fall, the berries remaining on the vine during most ofthe winter. There are several varieties of it, founded on the form of the leaves, and their smoothness or pubescence. The officinal portion is the small stems. These should be collected in the autumn, after the leaves have fallen. When fresh the smell is heavy and disagreeable, but in a dried state it is inodorous. In both conditions they have a slight- ly bitter taste, followed by a peculiar sweetness. They give out their properties to water, but boiling for any time destroyssome of their powers. On analysis they have been found to contain, a Bitter- sweet extractive (Dtdcarin), Vegeto-animal matter, Gummy extractive, So- lanina, &c. The Dulcarin or picroglycion, Pfaff, is a crystalline substance, having a bitter and sweet taste, and is thought by Soubeiran to be Solanina united to sugar. Solanina was discovered by Desfosses; it exists in other species ofthe genus, and is allied in many respects to the other alkaloids dis- covered in the Solanacese, but is not as powerful in its action on the system. Medical Properties.—The medical qualities ofthe Bitter-sweet are those of a narcotic, diuretic, and diaphoretic, but its powers are not very great, though in large doses it certainly will induce the effects of the acro-narcotics, cases of poisoning having been recorded from the berries as well as from the de- coction of the twigs. This decoction has attained some note as a remedy in chronic rheumatism, asthma, chronic catarrhs, and in those morbid condi- tions of the system in which sarsaparilla has been found beneficial. Its main reputation, however, has arisen from, the benefit obtained from it in skin diseases of an obstinate character, as lepra and pityriasis ; in these, there is strong evidence that it has proved eminently successful, both administered internally and used as a wash to the affected parts. It is also said that it operates as an anaphrodisiac when given for any length of time. The usual form of administration is in decoction, made with an ounce of the twigs to a pint and a half of water, boiled down to a pint; of this the dose is about a 31 Fig. 214. S. dulcamara. 482 MEDICAL BOTANY. wineglassful, three or four times a day, until the appearance of slight nar- cotic symptoms indicate that the remedy is acting on the system. Many other species of Solanum have been employed medicinally, espe- cially the S. nigrum or common Nightshade, a variety of which, the virgi- nianum, is so abundant in this country. It appears to possess the same properties as the Bitter-sweet, but in a greater degree; this may be accounted for by the fact that Solanina exists in it in a greater proportion. Gataker, who tried it extensively, states that he found it a powerful narcotic, sudorific, cathartic, and diuretic (Obs. on Solanum), and Orfila ( Toxicol. Gen. ii. 190), says he found an extract of it equal in power and energy to lactucarium. It has been employed in the same description of cases as the Bitter-sweet. The leaves are used in Brazil in poultices or decoction to painful wounds. The S. tuberosum or Potato is of more interest as an article of diet than as a medicinal agent, though the stalks possess the narcotic qualities of the other species, and even the tubers contain a certain portion of the alkaloid; this appears to be confined to their epidermis, and is greatly increased in quantity where the Potato is exposed for any time to the action of the light, in which case the epidermis assumes a greenish colour, and the poisonous principle is so much developed as to render the root unfit for food. The water in which potatoes are boiled contains solanina. The Potato contains much starch, which is contained in a cellular tissue; this starch, which is the principal nutritious ingredient of the tuber, is used as a substitute for arrow- root, and is also so manufactured as to resemble and to be sold for sago. The Potato in a raw state eaten as a salad with vinegar has proved of much benefit on shipboard as a preventive of scurvy; it sometimes acts on the bowels, and even induces slight narcotic symptoms. An extract of the leaves is highly spoken of by Mr. Dyer in chronic rheumatism and painful affections ofthe stomach and bowels; he is of opinion that it ranks between Conium and Belladonna (Pharm. Jour. i. 590). Much difference of opinion has existed among naturalists as to the native country of the Potato, and from what place and by whom it was first carried to Europe. Some confusion has arisen from confounding it with the Batatas or sweet potato. The first defi- nite record of it is by P. Cieca (Chronica di Peru) in 1553; he says the na- tives of Peru have, besides maize, a tubercular root, they call Papas. After this it is noticed by Gomara in 1554, and Cardan (De Rerum, var. 16) in 1557. It is usually stated that it was carried to England from Virginia or Carolina by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1586, but this is not satisfactorily ascertained. Two years afterwards, P. de Sivry sent Clusius two tubers, which were planted, and from the plants, Clusius described and gave the first representation of it in 1599. (Plant. Rar. 1. iv. 79.) It has been found wild in Peru by Dr. Baldwin (Reliquice Baldwin), and by Pavon (Jour. Sci. andArts,No. 9, 138). For further information on the subject, the following papers may be con- sulted with advantage : Dunal, Histoire Naturelle et Medicale des Solanum, 1813, most of the historical portions of which are taken from Bauhin (Hist. Plant, iii. 621); and an excellent synopsis by G. Ord, in the Annals of Nat. Hist. xvii. 1846. Besides the uses of the Potato as an article of diet, the stalks furnish a large quantity of potash, and it is said that if the stalks were appropriated to this manufacture, that they would supply most that is required in commerce. They also afford a bright yellow dye, which is obtained by cutting them when in flower, and bruising and pressing them to extract the juice. (Jour. Sci. and Arts, v.) The S. lycopersicon (Lycopersicum esculentum) or Tomato, whose esculent fruit is in such general use in this country, is also a native of South America. The leaves, which have a nauseous and narcotic odour, contain an alkaloid SOLANACEjE. 483 which is very analogous to, if it be not identical with Solanina, a peculiar Oil, and an Animalized extractive; they have not been given remedially, but it is probable that they will be found to possess the properties of those of many others of the genus. The fruit contains a peculiar acid, and a brown, tarry, odorous, resinous matter, with some indications of the presence of an alkaloid. (Jour. Phil. ColL Pharm. iv. 224.) They form a very healthy article of food, and are stated to act on the biliary functions in a very marked manner. Another edible fruit of this genus, is furnished by the S. melongena, or Egg-plant; this is a native of India and Arabia, where it has long been used for food. There are several species known as Egg-plants, besides" the above, the S. ovigerum, S. muricatum, &c. The berries of the following are also eaten: S. album, in China, according to Loureiro (Flor. Coch. i. 159); S. athiopticum, which is a kind of Tomato, is esteemed in Japan (Flor. Jap. 92) ; S. aguivi, in Madagascar, according to Commerson (Encyelop. Bot. iv. 304); S. quitoense: the fruit of this is as large and somewhat resembles an orange in appearance and smell. Those with useful roots besides the Potato, are S. valenzualce, which is a true tuberous root; it never grows large, but is as well-tasted as that of the S. tuberosum; it grows near Bogota, and is used in soup, according to Feuillee (Plant. Med. iii. 62) ; the root and also the leaves of S. trilobatum are considered in India as beneficial in phthisis in the form of an electuary (Ainslie, ii. 427); the root of S. manosum is employed in Jamaica as a diuretic (Barham, Jam. PL 117); Ainslie states that the root and fruit of S.jacquini are prescribed in India as an expectorant (ii. 91); the juice of S. bahamense, Lunan says, is employed in the West Indies in inflammation ofthe throat (Hort. Jam. i. 152); the S. bulbocastanum, a native of Mexico, has a tuberous root, which is a substitute for the potato. (Encyelop. Bot. xi. 749.) Among the other numerous species of this genus may be mentioned & violaceum, the juice of the leaves of which is deemed beneficial in Malabar in diseases of the lungs, and a decoction of them in cutaneous eruptions (Hort. Malabar, ii. 195); S. oleraceum, the leaves of which are eaten in some of the West Indies (Dunal); S. vespertilio, with whose berries the women in the Canary Islands paint their cheeks; those of S. gnaphaloides are used for the same purpose in Peru (Flor. Peruv. ii. 31); S.ftetidum, of which the leaves are employed in Peru to cleanse ulcers (No,v. Gen. &c. iii. 34); S. indicum,—according to Ainslie, the root is thought efficacious in dysuria and retention of urine (Mat. Ind. ii. 207); Fis-215- Woodville, t. 76? SOLANACEjE. 485 numerous, mostly sessile, of a straw-yellow colour, marked with purple veins, and either arise singly from the axilla of the leaves, or from long, nodding, secund spikes, at the end ofthe branches and stem. The corolla is monopetalous, funnel-shaped, and divided above into five obtuse segments. The calyx is tubular, 5-cleft, and persistent. The filaments are inserted into the tube of the corolla, downy at base, inclined, and bearing cordate, purple anthers. The ovary is roundish, with a filiform style, having a blunt, round stigma. The capsule is ovate, bilocular, and opening by a convex lid. It contains numerous small, obovate, unequal, brown seeds. The Henbane is a native of Europe, and is naturalized in the northern parts of the United States, flowering in July and August. There is some difference of opinion among botanists, whether it is annual or biennial; naturally, it is probably the former, but in a state of cultivation, it may be either one or the other. The whole plant has an offensive, nauseous odour, and a forbidding appearance. It was well known to the ancients, but not as much employed by them medicinally as another species, the H. albus, though Dioscorides recommends the oil of the seeds in pains in the ear; this oil was also much employed by the Egyptians for lamps. The present use ofthe plant may be considered as owing to the experiments of Stoerk, in 1762, who found it highly beneficial as a narcotic and sedative in several morbid affections. The whole plant is officinal, and should be gathered at the time of its full inflorescence. It has a strong, fetid, narcotic odour, and abounds in a clammy juice ; thetaste is mucilaginous, unpleasant, and somewhat acrid. By the process of drying, it loses most of these qualities. The seeds are of a yellowish-gray colour, possess in some degree the odour ofthe plant, and have an oleaginous, bitter taste. They both owe their active properties to the presence of a peculiar alkaloid, discovered by Brandes, which he has called Hyoscyamia ; it exists in the plant in the form of a malate; it is almost identical in its action on the system with Atropina, and differs from it mainlyin being more soluble in water. Medical Properties.—Henbane is a valuable sedative and narcotic, when administered in small and repeated doses, and is an admirable substitute for opium, where the latter disagrees, or is contra-indicated. It appears to be free from the constipating effects of opium, and does not, like that drug, lock up, as it were, the secretory and excretory passages. In moderate doses, it acts as a sedative, diminishing irritability, induces sleep, relieves pain, and obviates spasm, and has the advantage, that when conjoined with purgatives, that it does not impede their action. As it has the power of producing dilata- tion of the pupil, it is occasionally used instead of belladonna for that pur- pose, prior to operations for the removal of cataract. Henbane has also been employed as an external application to painful, glandular swellings, irritable ulcers, and other painful diseases ; for this purpose, a cataplasm of the bruised leaves, or fomentations of an infusion of the herb or extract, have sometimes proved beneficial. The seeds appear to have more irritating powers than the leaves, and their administration has in some instances been followed by unpleasant symptoms, analogous to those caused by the irritant poisons. . . The dose of the powdered leaves is from three to ten grains, but in this form it is seldom prescribed ; of the extract, the most usual form of exhibition, it is from five to fifteen grains. It should always be remembered that no pre- paration varies more in strength and efficiency. Henbane is also given in the form of tincture, the dose of which is from half a drachm to a drachm. Several other species are equally endowed with active properties; thus, the H albus is generally employed in the south of Europe, and is said to be more powerful in its effects on the system than the H. niger; in botanical cha- racters it is very closely allied to it. Forskal mentions a species, H. datora, a native of Arabia, the seeds of which he states are used by the natives to 486 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 216. produce intoxication, and supposes it to be the Nepenthes of Homer. (Flor. Egypt. 45.) Atropa.—Linn. Calyx campanulate, 5-cleft. Corolla campanulate, 5-lobed, twice the length of the calyx. Stamens five, filiform, incurved. Berry globular, 2-celled, many-seeded. A small but very narcotic genus, whose name is derived from Atropos, one ofthe destinies, indicating the fate of such as become subject to its influ- ence. The earlier botanical writers included most of the species in Solanum, to which it is closely allied in properties and habits. One species only is officinal, as the A. mandragora now is seldom employed. Descourtilz has described a shrubby species, a native of the West Indies, which is so acrid as to paralyse the tongue, on chewing a portion of it. (Flor. Med. Antill. iii. 119.) A. belladonna, Linn.—Stem herbaceous. Leaves ovate, entire. Flowers solitary. Linn., Sp. PL 260 ; Woodville, t. i.; Stokes, Bot. Mat. Med. i. 394; Ste- phenson and Churchill, i. 1; Lindley, Flor. Med. 508. Common Names.—Deadly Nightshade ; Dwale ; Black Cherry ; Night- shade. Foreign Names.—Belladonne, Fr.; Belladonna, It.; Tollkraut, Ger. Description. — Root thick, fleshy, creeping, much branch- ed. Stem erect, cylindrical, herbaceous, annual, hirsute, about three or four feet high. The branches are dichotomous, of a purplish colour, and fur- nished with ovate, entire, some- what soft leaves, which are acu- minate at both ends, of a dull green colour, growing in pairs, of an unequal size, on short pe- tioles. The flowers are solitary, somewhat drooping, on short, 1-flowered, axillary peduncles. The calyx is green, persistent, and deeply divided into five ovate segments. The corolla is monopetalous, campanulate, with the limb divided into five lobes, of a lurid purple exter- nally, darker on the upper inter- nal surface, yellowish below. The stamens are five, shorter than the corolla, and bearing cordate, 4-lobed anthers. The ovary is spheroidal, with a nee tariferous gland beneath, and supporting a long, simple style, with a 2-lobed stigma. The fruit is a 2-celled berry, about the size of a small cherry, with a transverse furrow, shining, smooth, of a dark violet-black colour, and containing numerous reniform seeds, embedded in a soft pulp. A. belladonna. L Stamens. 2. Style. 3. Stigma. 4. Berry and Seeds. SOLANACEjE. 487 The Belladonna is a native of Europe, and is cultivated in this country; it is also found in some parts of Asia, as Ainslie (Mat. Ind. i. 246) states it is well known to the Arabians and Persians, but adds that he has never met with it in India. It is generally found in places where the soil is rich and moist, especially if it be calcareous. The specific name is said to have been bestowed upon it in consequence of its having been used in Italy in the com- position of cosmetics. The whole plant is officinal in some Pharmacopoeias, but the leaves only are recognised in the United States. These, when fresh, have an unpleasant smell, and a feeble bitterish, sub-acrid taste; when dried they have scarcely any odour, but the taste remains the same. It is difficult to ascertain at what time Belladonna was introduced as a re- medial agent, as the ancient writers seem to have confounded this and the Mandragora. The earliest certain reference to it is by Tragus, in 1532 (Historia), under the name of Solanum hortense nigrum. It is supposed, however, to be the plant referred to by Plutarch as causing the death of so many of Antony's army during the Parthian war, as the symptoms were very analogous to those produced by Belladonna. There can be little doubt that it is the poison alluded to by Buchanan (Rerum, Scot. Hist. 162), as employed by Macbeth during a truce with the Danes, to poison the provisions sent to them, as the description ofthe plant used will apply to no other than the Belladonna. Brandes found the leaves to contain: super-malate of Atropia ; Pseudo- toxin, with malate of Atropia ; Phytocolla; Gum, Starch, &c; besides these, Richter states that they contain an acid, which he calls Atropic, and Lube- kind has announced the existence of a volatile vegetable alkaloid, differing from atropia, which he calls Belladonnin. Atropia when pure is in white prismatic crystals, soluble in absolute alcohol and ether. Water at ordinary temperature dissolves only about -j^o-th, Dut takes up a much larger portion when aided by heat. This solution has a disagreeable bitter taste. This alkaloid is a very powerful poison, acting with energy in doses not exceeding a tenth of a grain, and causing dilatation ofthe pupil when applied to the eye in the minutest quantity. The best and simplest method of separating it is that proposed by Mein (Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. vi. 314). Medical Properties.—Belladonna is a powerful narcotic, having, like many other articles of its class, some diaphoretic and diuretic properties, and in some rare cases has been known to produce salivation (Lancet, i. 403). In small doses it acts as a sedative, and almost invariably causes a peculiar dry- ness ofthe mouth and throat. In increased quantities it manifests a peculiar influence over the cerebro-spinal system, causing dilatation ofthe pupils, dim- ness or loss of vision, disturbance ofthe sense of hearing, vertigo, and mental confusion, accompanied with difficulty of deglutition and articulation, a sense of constriction in the throat, thirst, nausea and sometimes vomiting, and oftentimes the appearance of a red eruption. When the quantity taken is excessive, all these symptoms are greatly aggravated, the brain becomes much affected, and delirium attended with violent gestures and fits of laughter ensues, followed by a state of coma. The pupil becomes much dilated and insensible to light, the face red and tumid, the stomach and bowels insuscep- tible to impressions, and the whole nervous system prostrated ; where the case terminates fatally, convulsions often precede the death. Dissection shows much inflammation ofthe digestive organs, and it is said that the body soon putrefies, it swells, becomes covered with livid spots, blood flows from the natural openings, and the stench is intolerable. Notwithstanding the powerful effects of this article on the system, it is much employed as a remedial agent, and has been recommended and used in almost every form of disease, but more especially where it is wished to allay 488 MEDICAL BOTANY. pain and nervous irritation, and as an antispasmodic. It has also been much praised as a resolvent or discutient, in scirrhus and cancer, but it does not appear to act more favourably than any other powerful narcotic. In dis- eases ofthe eyes it is much employed, from its property of dilating the pupil when locally applied, and hence becomes very useful in the operation for cataract, and where it is wished to examine the condition of the inner por- tions of the visual organs. It has also proved useful where there is a morbid sensibility to light, and also in iritis, to prevent or to destroy adhesions. Some years since it acquired great credit, especially in Germany, as a pro- phylactic in Scarlatina; for this purpose it was introduced by Hahnemann, the founder of the Homoeopathic school, on the ground that as it caused an affection ofthe throat, and an eruption on the skin resembling those of scarlet fever, it would prevent or cure this latter, according to his axiom of" similia similibus curanturT A fair trial was given to it, and the result was a com- plete failure, at least, to use the words of Pereira, " all the facts brought for- ward in favour of the existence of this prophylactic power are only negative, while those that can be adduced against it are positive." Dr. Sigmond gives an instance where eleven persons in one family took the medicine as a preven- tive, and yet every one of them contracted the disease. (Pereira, Elem. ii. 316.) The dose of the powder is one grain, to be gradually increased until the action of the remedy is manifested by dryness ofthe throat, and dilatation ofthe pupil. For children, the dose at first should not exceed an eighth of a grain. It is generally, however, given in extract, in the same way. The strength of this preparation is very variable, and it is safest therefore always to begin its use in small doses. Linn., Sp. PL 249 ; Flor. Med., ii. 62; Woodville, ii. 234, t. 83. Common Name. —Mandrake. Foreign Names. —Mandragore, Fr.; A bra un toll kraut, G.; Mandragora, It. Description. — Root fusiform, very large and long, of a greenish. brown colour, smooth, often bifurcate. Stem- less. Leaves radical, large, sessile, forming a dense tuft. Scapes many, 1-flowered, short. Flowers whitish-green, with a purplish tinge, infundibuliform, some- what tomentose. Fruit large, round, yellowish berries, containing se- veral white, reniform seeds. This plant is a native of the coun- 2. A. mandragora, Linn.—Stemless. Scapes 1-flowered. Fig. 217. A. mandragora. SOLANACEiE. 489 tries bordering on the Mediterranean, where it grows in rich soil. There are two varieties mentioned by old authors, the male and the female; the first having larger leaves and a round berry, whilst in the latter the leaves are narrower and more fetid, and the berries oval. The Man- dragora formerly enjoyed much reputation, and the most wonderful powers were attributed to it. The root was fancied to bear so strong a resemblance to the human form, that it bore the name of Anlromorphon ; and Matthiolus (Comment. Dioscor.) says that it was a kind of profession in Italy to prepare these roots so as to give them the proper figure, or even to imitate them with those of Bryony, &c. It was also named Circcea, from its being supposed to be one of the ingredients of Circe's cup. It was collected with magic rites ; a circle was three times traced round it with a naked sword, and as the per- son who plucked it from the ground was considered to be exposed to many dangers, it was usually torn up by fastening it, by means of a cord, to a dog, who was chastised till, in his efforts to escape, he eradicated it. It is as- serted by Albertus Magnus that the most potent roots grow under a gibbet. It was said to be eminently aphrodisiac, and was much used for the pur- pose of exciting love; hence the name of Mandragontis bestowed on Venus. Some commentators are of opinion that the Mandrake, mentioned in our trans- lation of the Bible, as found by Reuben and carried to his mother Leah, was this plant ; but it was evident, from the account and from the reference made to it in Solomon's song,—" the mandrakes give a smell, and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits,"—it is not probable that reference is had to so nauseous and offensive an article as the Mandragora. The He- brew word Dudaim is said to be derived from Dadim, breasts, or Dodim, friends, twins; and hence must mean something that is double; and as the Mandrake roots are remarkable for their bifurcate form, and are, as stated, considered to promote love, the general idea was that they were alluded to in the various texts of Scripture. But in the Talmud it is also called Siglin, which has been considered to be the jasmine or lily, and hence it must have had a pleasant smell. At present the most generally adopted idea is that it meant the fruit of the plantain or banana. Dr. Milligen (Curios. Med. Ex- perience) seems to think that allusion was had to an orchis, which has twin roots and an agreeable smell. Among its other properties, it had the precious one of doubling the amount of money it was placed with. It was also of great utility in detecting hidden treasures, and had a variety of other miraculous powers. As a remedial agent, it was used by the ancients as a narcotic and stupe- fiant, and is constantly spoken of by Hippocrates, Galen, and Celsus, as proper to lull the pain of surgical operations, and is said to have been the drug which Hannibal infused in the wine left in his camp, when he feigned a retreat, and thus rendered his enemies, who partook of it, unable to withstand his subsequent attack. The use of it now is almost abandoned. Boerhaave, however, recommended it as a cataplasm to scrofulous tumours, and Hoff- mann and Swediaur to scirrhous and syphilitic indurations. It was also pre- scribed, in small doses, in gout, and it is stated with much success. Pallas says that it is much employed in Siberia for a multitude of complaints. Lemery observes that it is good for inflammations of the eyes, erysipelas, scrofula, and tumours generally. Brandt and Ratzeburgh (Pereira, ii. 335) say that when used internally it purges violently. It does not appear to have been analyzed ; but it is clear, from its very active qualities, that it contains some principle analogous to or identical with Atropia, and probably could be used in all cases to which the belladonna is applicable. 490 MEDICAL BOTANY. Datura.—Linn. Calyx large, tubular, ventricose, 5-angled, 5-cleft above; segments caducous; base peltate, persistent. Corolla infundibuliform, plaited, 5-toothed, 5-angled. Stamens 5, equal. Style filiform. Stigma bi-lamellar. Capsule smooth or spinous, ovate, 2-celled; cells 2 or more parted by large dissepiments. Seeds numerous. A small genus of mostly suffruticose or large herbaceous plants, with alternate leaves, and solitary, lateral flowers. They are principally natives of Asia, but one species is now naturalized in Europe and America. There is some confusion in the species, some writers considering as distinct what others regard as mere varieties. They are possessed of active properties, though one only is recognised as officinal. D. stramonium, Linn.—Stem dichotomous. Leaves ovate, sinuate-angular, smooth, acute. Capsules erect, spinous, ovate. Linn., Sp. PL 255; Woodville, ii. 197, t. 74; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot., i. 17; Stephenson and Churchill, i. 6 ; Flor. Med., vi. 332; Lindley, Flor. Med. 510. Common Names.—Thorn-apple ; Jamestown Weed ; Jimson, &c. Foreign Names.—Porarne epineuse, Fr.; Stramonia, It.; Steckapful, Ger. Fig. 218. Description. — Stem erect, smooth, round, of a yellowish-green colour, dichotomous above, cy. lindrical, often hollow. Leaves alternate at the forks, ovate, sinuated and toothed; base decurrent, dark-green above, paler beneath; on long, cylin- drical footstalks. Flow- ers large, erect, of a white or purplish colour, proceeding singly, on short peduncles, from the axils ofthe branches. The calyx is monosepalous, tubular, with 5 angles and 5 teeth, the latter of which are deciduous, but leaving a persistent rim at base. Corolla long, monopetalous; limb 5- plaited and 5-toothed. Stamens 5, the filaments adhering to the tube, and supporting oblong, erect anthers. Ovary free, but coherent at base with the persistent base of the calyx, oval, hairy. Style filiform, bearing an obtuse bi-lamellar stigma. Capsule large, ovate, thorny, 2- celled, with 2 or more large dissepiments. Seeds numerous, reniform. It is very uncertain where the Datura was originally native. It certainly appears indigenous to America, but was first introduced into Europe from Tur- key. It was brought from Constantinople by Lord Zouch, in 1597, and by the writers of that period called " Thorny Apple of Peru ;" yet Garcias says, " nascitur in Malabar," and Thunberg found it in Japan. Dr. Wallich also detected a variety in Nepaul. The native name in India is Dhetoora, so that D. stramonium. SOLANACE^E. 491 there seems but little doubt that it grows naturally in the East Indies. How then is its presence at the time of the discovery to be accounted for in Ame- rica? Rafinesque states positively that it has appeared in North America since the discovery by the whites, and is known among the Indians as the " white man's plant." He further states that its advance through the coun- try can be traced from Virginia and New England, and that in the Western States it is of very recent appearance, and that it is always found near habi- tations ; never, like truly native plants, in woods or on the mountains. Some difference of opinion exists respecting the varieties of this plant, as besides that with green stems and white flowers, two others are found in the United States ; one with purple flowers and a purple stem, dotted with green, and the second with a tall, viscid stem, somewhat pubescent leaves, and white, declining flowers. The first of these has been considered to be the D. tatula, and the other the D. melel; but they neither of them agree with the description of these species, which are of foreign origin. Rafinesque has treated of them as varieties of the D. stramonium, under the names of tatuloides and mete- loides. This appears to be the just view ofthe subject, especially as regards the first, but is liable to some objections in respect to the meteloides, which presents differences that are truly specific. Dr. Riddell (Synop. 11), in speaking of D. rnetel, says that it occurs on the banks of the Ohio, and, on the authority of Dr. Locke, suggests that the seed has been transported by the river from Pittsburg, where the plant was at one time cultivated. The Stramonium is found in most parts of the United States, in Canada, Mexico, and is said to extend to Peru. It flowers from May to September. It has an unpleasant, narcotic smell, and a bitter and nauseous taste. When it is dried, the odour, and much of the taste disappear, but this process does not appear to diminish its active properties. The parts employed in medicine are the leaves and seeds. Several analyses have been made of them, and it has been found that their peculiar properties depend on the presence of a vegetable alkali, which has received the name of daturia, which is very ana- logous in its properties to hyoscyamia, strongly dilating the pupil and exer- cising a poisonous influence. Mr. Morries (Ed. Med. and Surg. Jour, xxxix. 379), has described an empyreumatic oil, closely allied to that from the fox- glove, and capable of inducing very unpleasant symptoms. The effects of Stramonium are those of an acro-narcotic, very similar to those of belladonna, but more marked on the secretory functions. In over- doses it causes intoxication, nausea, delirium, loss of sense, drowsiness, mania, loss of memory, convulsions, paralysis, cold sweats, excessive thirst, dilatation of the pupil, &c.; the pulse is not much affected for some time, and then rather as regards strength than frequency, becoming in some cases almost imper- ceptible, but still retaining its natural beat as to time. In some instances an eruption resembling nettle-rash makes its appearance, either during the con- tinuance of the other symptoms, or after these have been relieved. One of the first and one of the most curious accounts of its effects, is given by Beverly (Hist. Virgin. 121) ; he states, that " it was gathered very young, for a boiled salad, by some soldiers sent thither (Jamestown), to quell the rebellion of Bacon ; and some of them ate plentifully of it; the effect of which was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days. One would blow up a feather in the air, another would dart straws at it with much fury; another, stark-naked, was sitting up in a corner, like a monkey, grin- ning and making mows at them ; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces, with a countenance more antic than any Dutch doll." This lasted eleven days, when they recovered, without any re- collection of what had passed. 492 MEDICAL BOTANY. From the universal occurrence of Stramonium in this country, numerous cases of poisoning with it have occurred, principally among children, who are fond of sucking the sweet secretion from the flowers, and often swallow the seeds. Where these cases take place, the best plan of treatment is to evacu- ate the stomach as speedily as possible, after which, affusion with cold water, and the regulated use of stimulants will usually be successful. Medical Uses, The acrid species are very numerous; but those which have been most generally employed are P. hydropiper and P. persicaria. The leaves of both these are very acrid and pungent, and will even vesicate when applied in a fresh state to the skin. Like most acrid plants, they become inert by desiccation. Many marvellous qualities have been attributed to the last of these species by the writers ofthe middle ages; that it was capable of chang- ing the seat of disease from one part ofthe body to another, &c. At a much more recent period, some of the most eminent writers in the profession polygonacea:. 547 Fig. 235. have considered it to be an admirable astringent, vulnerary, febrifuge, &c, and Baglivi states that it is a specific in diseases of the kidneys and bladder; notwithstanding which, it is now seldom prescribed in regular practice. P. hy- dropiperoides of this country, which is closely allied, if not identical, with the former of these, has been highly spoken of by Dr. Eberle ( The- rapeut.) in obstinate cases of amenorrhoea, and has also proved beneficial in the hands of other practitioners in similar cases. It is given in the form of a saturated tincture. The roots of some of these plants have been thought to possess the qualities of Sarsaparilla, and have been used as a substitute for it; thus P. amphibium is said by Coste and Willemet (Mat. Med. Indig. 116) to be much esteemed in Lorraine as a depurative, and even to be pre- ferred to the foreign article. In Brazil, accord- ing to Martius, P. anti-hcemorrhoidale is in high repute in the treatment of gout, haemorrhoids, &c. It is used in baths, fomentations, and cataplasms (Jour. Chim. Med. iii. 545). Thunberg (Voyage, i. 338) states that P. barbatum is considered at the Cape of Good Hope to be beneficial in dropsy, on account of its diuretic properties; and an in- fusion of its leaves is prescribed in India to re- lieve the pain in colic (Ainslie, ii. 2). Those furnishing nutritive seeds are principally P.fagopyrum and P. ta- taricum, both well known under the name of Buckwheat. These plants, with some others, have been erected into a separate genus, under the name of Fagopyrum. They are principally natives ofthe central and northern parts of Asia. Buckwheat was introduced into Europe about four centuries since, and, according to Gerarde, was cultivated in England in 1597. In some parts of Eu- rope Buckwheat is much used as food; this is the case more particularly in some of the departments of France. In this country, although much esteemed for breakfast-cakes, it is never made into bread. It is likewise employed in some parts of Germany for the making of beer. It is not as nutritive as the cereal grains, containing only one-half its weight of fecula. P. convolvulus, P. scandens, &c, which are climbing species, bear seeds closely resembling those of Buck- wheat, and which might be substituted for them. The seeds of P. emarginatum are eaten in China. The roots of a few of the species are likewise ali- mentary ; thus in Japan those of P. multiflorum are eaten in a raw state, and are considered cordial and strengthening. When cooked they become bitter (Thunberg, iv. 83). According to Pallas, the tubercles of P. sibiricum also form an article of diet. The leaves of almost all these plants furnish a kind of indigo, and some of them have been extensively employed. P. tinctorium is largely cultivated P. persicaria. Fig. 236. P. fagopyrum. 548 MEDICAL BOTANY. for this purpose in some parts of Europe, and is very generally used in China and Japan. Coccoloba.—Linn. Fig. 237. Calyx 5-parted, persistent, finally becoming succulent. Stamens 5, unit- ed below, inserted on the base of the calyx. Styles 3. Stigmas simple. Nut 1-seeded, bony, covered by the enlarged, succulent calyx. Embryo in the middle of the albumen. A genus of shrubs and small trees, peculiar to South America and the West Indies, with entire, large leaves. The calyx in them all, is permanent, and at last be- comes succulent, and envelopes the seed, so as to resemble a small grape. The wood and bark contain an astringent juice. C. UVIFERA. date, smooth. -Leaves roundish-cor- Linn., Sp. PL 523; Bot. Mag. 3130 ; Sloane, Jamaic. ii. 129, t. 220 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 353. A small tree, inhabiting the coast of South America and the West India Islands. In Jamaica, where it is common, it is called " Seaside Grape." The leaves are very large, coriaceous, en- tire, cordate, of a bright and glossy green, with the veins red, especially at their base. The fruit, which is eatable, though not much esteemed, is in long bunches, somewhat like those of the vine. It is acidulous, and somewhat astringent, and is said to be beneficial in bowel complaints. The wood is heavy, of a dark colour, and contains an astringent, reddish juice, which, when evaporated, forms what is termed Jamaica Kino. This is reddish-brown, approaching to black, opaque in the mass, but translucent and of a ruby-red colour when in thin splinters. It has no odour, but an astringent, bitterish taste. The Caraccas Kino is probably the product of some ofthe other species of Coccoloba, all of which are equally astringent. The fruit of C. nivea and C. pubescens are much more agreeable than those of the present plant. C. uvifera. lauracea:. 549 Group XXXVL— Daphnales. Order 88.—LAVRACEM.—Lindley. Calyx 4—6-cleft, with an imbricated aestivation, the limb sometimes wanting. Petals none. Stamens definite, perigynous, opposite the segments of the calyx, and mostly twice as numerous; the innermost sterile or deficient, the six outermost seldom abortive Anthers adnate, 2—4-celled, cells bursting by a longitudinal persistent valve; the outer anthers valved inwards, and the inner valved outwards, or all with the valves on the inner side; inner filaments usually having glands at base. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with 1—2 single, pendulous ovules. Style simple. Stigma obtuse, 2—3-lobed. Fruit baccate or drupaceous, naked or covered, often placed upon or within the enlarged apex of the pe- duncle. Seed exalbuminous. Embryo inverted. Radicle very short, superior. An important order, composed of trees and shrubs, with exstipulate, alter- nate, seldom opposite, entire or rarely lobed leaves. The flowers, which are perfect, unisexual, or polygamous, are in panicles or umbels. They are principally natives of cool situations within the tropics; some few, however, extend beyond these limits. They are all more or less aromatic and fra- grant; some have aromatic fruits, others have fragrant and stimulant or febrifuge bark, whilst others afford Camphor. Besides those to be noticed more particularly, the following deserve men- tion : Persea gratissima bears a large fruit, highly esteemed in the West Indies, under the name of " Avocado pear;" the seeds are very astringent, and have proved beneficial in diseases of the bowels and menorrhagia. The leaves and buds, according to M. Ricord Madiana (Jour. Pharm. xv.), are employed as emmenagogues, carminatives, Vulneraries, antispasmodics, &c. Dr. Lindley is of opinion, that the Laurus caustica of Molina, which is said to be so acrid and poisonous, is a species of this genus. Caryodaphne densiflora, a native of Java, is stated by Blume (Nees, Laurin. 228) to have a brownish, tonic bark, containing much bitter, balsamic extractive. The leaves are aromatic, and used in infusion in spasmodic affections of the bowels, and in convulsive attacks of pregnant women. The inner bark of Mespilodaphne pretiosa has a very agreeable odour and taste, and is known in Brazil as the Casca pretiosa. Several species of Aydendron have aro- matic fruits—thus A. cujumary, a native of Brazil, affords oily seeds, which are said, by Martius, to be used as a substitute for the Pichurim bean, in atony of the stomach and disorders of the bowels. (Ferussac, Bull. xxiv. 62.) A. laurel is thought, by Humboldt, to produce the Pichurim beans, once so celebrated for their febrifuge properties; but Nees is of opinion, that such is not the origin of these seeds, and refers them to Nectandra puchury, on the authority of Martius, who says that they are certainly not the pro- duct ofthe A. laurel. (Laurus pichurim, Rich.) The bark of Nectandra cymbarum is bitter, aromatic, and stomachic; it is called " Orinoko sassafras," from its analogy to the true Sassafras. Mar- tius suspects that it forms one ofthe ingredients ofthe famous Woorali poison. The bark of N. cinnamomoides has the smell and flavour of cinnamon, and is employed as a substitute for it in some parts of South America, and is known as " Santa Fe cinnamon." Pichurim beans, as before stated, are the product of N. puchury ; this fruit, which has the flavour of inferior nut- megs, is esteemed in Brazil as very useful in bowel diseases, colic, stran- 550 MEDICAL BOTANY. gury, &c, but is seldom employed in Europe or this country. The bark of the tree has the smell of fennel and cloves, and an aromatic taste. An- other species, N. puchury minor, yields somewhat similar nuts, which are said, by Humboldt, to be the Sassafras nuts of the London shops. The bark resembles Sassafras when fresh, but is scentless and tasteless when dry. The most important tree of this genus is N. rodiai, which there is reason to believe affords the Bebeeru bark so highly spoken of within a few years* past in the treatment of paroxysmal diseases. It owes its properties to the presence of a peculiar alkaloid, to which its discoverer, Mr. Rodie, gives the name of Bebeeria ; from the trials made with this substance, it promises to be a most valuable addition to the Materia Medica, as it is fully equal to Quinia in its febrifuge powers, and can be sold at a much lower price. (See Dunglison, New Remedies, 117.) The bark of Dicypellium caryophydatum has the odour of cloves, and a hot, clove-like, peppery taste, and is a powerful tonic. The wood is known in Guiana under the name of " Rosewood," and Martius speaks of the tree as the noblest of the American laurels. Several species of Oreodaphne are valuable on account of their wood ; thus the yellow, durable wood called in Jamaica, " Sweet wood," is that of O. exaltata ; that known under the name of " Til" in the Canary Islands, and which has an extremely unpleasant smell, is from O. faztens ; the " Siraballi" of Demarara is also produced by a species of this genus. The bark of O. cupularis resembles cinnamon in its properties, and has been called " Isle of France Cinnamon." Another species, 0. opifera of Brazil, abounds so plentifully in a volatile oil, that several quarts may be speedily obtained from a single incision. This oil is reputed to be an excellent discutient. The fruit also yields a fragrant oil, much used in Brazil in pains in the limbs, contractions of the joints, &c. (Martius.) The fruit of Tetranthera roxburghii contains much fatty matter, which is employed, by the Chinese, as a substitute for tallow in the manufacture of candles. Besides those already noticed, there are several trees of this order that furnish fruits analogous to nutmegs in flavour; thus the Camara or Ackawai nutmeg is the product of Acrodiclidium camara, and is considered in Guiana as a most valuable remedy in bowel diseases. The Clove nut- megs of Madagascar are the fruit of Agathophyllum aromaticum, and the Brazilian of Cryptocarya moschata. The berries of Daphnidium cubeba, originally noticed by Loureiro as a Laurus, and not described since his time, are powerfully aromatic, and are used, according to that author, not only as a condiment, but also as an almost universal remedy. (Flor. Cochin. 310.) V Laurus.—Linn. Flowers unisexual or perfect, involucrated. Calyx 4-parted; segments equal, decidu- ous. Fertile stamens 12, in 3 rows; the outermost alternate with the segments of the calyx,-all with 2 glands; anthers oblong, 2-celled, looking inwards. Female flowers with 2—4 sterile stamens around the ovary. Stigma capitate. Fruit succulent, seated in the irregular base ofthe calyx. Umbels axillary. A small genus of evergreen plants, but which, at one time, included most of the species of the order. As now constituted, it is of little im- portance in a medical point of view, the only plant belonging to it that is deserving of notice being the L. nobilis, or " Sweet Bay." This lauracea:. 551 small tree, so celebrated by the poets, and so much prized by the mo- derns for the fragrance and the beauty of its fo- liage, affords several pro- ducts, which at one time had considerable reputa- tion as medicinal agents, but are now seldom em- ployed, either in England or this country. The leaves, which are fra- grant, and have an aro- matic, bitter taste, owe these properties to the presence of a yellowish volatile oil. The ber- ries, by pressure, like- wise afford a concrete oil, of a greenish colour, containing sufficient of the aromatic volatile oil to give it an agreeable fragrance. All these parts and their products have stimulating and slightly narcotic properties, but have gone out of use. Fig. 238. L. nobilis. 1. Umbel. 2. Single flower. 3. Dehiscence of anther. and Style. 5. Section of Seed. 4. Ovary Sassafras.—Nees. Dioecious, calyx 6-parted, membranous; segments equal, permanent at base. Male: Fertile stamens 9, in 3 rows, the 3 inner with distinct glands at the base ; anthers linear, 4-celled, introrse. Female: stamens as many or fewer than in the male, sterile, the inner often confluent. Fruit succulent, placed on the thick fleshy apex of the peduncle, within the permanent base ofthe calyx. A small genus, separated by Nees from Laurus, and differing from it in many important characters. The flowers are yellow, and precede the leaves, which latter are deciduous. The species are peculiar to America and the East Indies. S. officinale, Nees.—Leaves variable in form, downy beneath. Racemes with subu- late deciduous bracts. Nees, Laurin. 488 ; Nees and Esen., PL Med. t. 131 ; Lindley, Fl. Med. 338 ; Laurus sassafras. Linn., Sp. PL 530 ; Mich., Fl. Am. Bor., i. 244 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 142. Common Name.—Sassafras. Foreign Names.—Sassafras, Fr., Ger.; Sassafrasso, It. Description.__A small tree with a rough, deeply furrowed, grayish bark. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, bright-green, and smooth above, finely downy beneath, especially when young, very variable in form, from ovate and entire to three-lobed, all however, tapering to the base. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are of a pale, greenish. 552 MEDICAL BOTANY. yellow colour, and are in naked, downy racemes, having subulate, deciduous bracts at their base. The calyx is six-parted, permanent at base. The sterile flowers have nine stamens, the fertile only six, with a simple style. The fruit is an oval drupe of a deep Blue colour, supported in the permanent base of the calyx on the thick, red, clavate pe- duncle. The Sassafras is found in most parts ofthe United States, and extends into Mexico. To the north it is a mere shrub, whilst to the south it attains a height of from thirty to fifty feet. Its time of flowering in the Middle States is the end of April or beginning of May. Its flowers have an agreeable, but not a powerful odour, and are much employed in domestic practice, in the form of a decoction, as a " purifier of the blood" in the spring. The officinal por- tions in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia are the bark of the root, and the pith ofthe young branches ; the foreign authorities also recognise the wood. The pith is in slender cylindrical pieces, very spongy and light, with a mucilaginous and somewhat aromatic taste. W~hen placed in water it affords a clear mucilage of a peculiar character, not being affected by alcohol. This mucilage is principally used as an application to inflamed eyes, and is very soothing and effectual in the removal of the irritation so constant in this com- plaint. It may also be advantageously used in disorders of the respiratory organs, bowels, and bladder, as a demulcent drink. In the bowel complaints of children I think it more efficacious than that prepared from the leaves of the Benne. The bark is usually found in the shops, in small fragments, either having or deprived of the epidermis, of a reddish-brown colour, brittle, of a very fra- grant odour, and a sweetish and pleasant aromatic taste. It owes its properties to the presence of a volatile oil, which is of a yellow colour, when first ob- tained, but becomes darker by age. It is one of the heaviest of the volatile oils. Medical Uses, Src—The bark is stimulant and diaphoretic, and is used in combination with other articles as Guaiacum, Sarsaparilla, &c, in cutaneous, rheumatic, and venereal complaints. In the latter class of diseases it was at one time deemed a specific, but is now seldom or never used alone. The oil has been employed in the same maladies, and is a constituent of the com- pound extract of Sarsaparilla. Dr. B. S. Barton states that it has been found an efficacious application to wens. (Collections, i. 19.) Mr. Nuttall (Gen. i. 259), mentions another species under the name of albida, which closely resembles the present, and states that the root is of a white colour and much more powerful, and that its leaf-buds are very mucila- ginous. The species spoken of by Martius ( Travels, ii. 96), as common in the woods of Brazil, is probably a different species, and that noticed by Loureiro (Flor. Coch. i. 254) as employed by the natives as a sudorific and diuretic, would seem to be what has since been described by Jack, under the name of Laurus parthenoxylpn, which is the L. porrecta, Roxburgh, and L. pseudo-sassafras, of Blume, now placed by Nees in the present genus, under the specific name bestowed upon it by Mr. Jack. Benzoin.—Nees. « Flowers polygamous, involucrated. Fertile, with the calyx 6-parted, the segments equal and permanent. Stamens 9, in three rows; anthers ovate, 2-celled, introrse. Glands 6—9, in two or three rows, with a reniform, compressed head. Sterile flowers smaller than the fertile, with 12 sterile stamens, with spathulate bodies dispersed among them. Fruit succulent, seated on the permanent calyx, 1-seeded. lauracea:. 553 This small genus was separated by Nees from Laurus, to which, however, it is very closely allied, and should, perhaps, be only considered as a section of it. The flowers are in sessile umbels, appearing before the leaves, which are membranous and deciduous. B. odoriferum, Nees.—Leaves ovate, lanceolate, somewhat' pubescent beneath ; flowers in clustered umbels; buds and pedicels glabrous. Fruit bright-red, oval, containing an ovate-pointed nut. Nees, Laurin. 497 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 339; Laurus benzoin, Linn., Sp.PL 530; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. ii. 91, t. 33; Nuttall, Gen. i. 259; L. pseudo-benzoin, Michaux, Fl. Bor. Am. i. 243. Common Names.—-Spice-wood ; Fever-bush ; Wild Allspice, &c. This aromatic shrub, which is from 5—10 feet high, is found in most parts of the United States, flowering early in the spring before the appearance of its leaves. They are succeeded in the autumn by oval, shining, scarlet ber- ries, which are ripe in October. These are aromatic and contain much oil. They are said to have been employed during the war of the Revolution as a substitute for allspice. The bark is also highly aromatic, tonic and stimu- lant, and has been employed with much success in the treatment of intermit- tent fevers. It has usually been administered in decoction, but sometimes in powder. Dr. B. S. Barton states, that an infusion of the twigs has been given as a vermifuge, and has been very efficacious in such cases. The oil of the berries is also esteemed, in some parts of the country, as an application to bruises, and in chronic rheumatism, itch, &c, and has some reputation as a carminative. The flowers are sometimes used instead of those of sassafras, and for the same purposes. Camphora.—Nees. Flowers hermaphrodite, panicled, naked. Calyx 6-cleft, with a deciduous limb. Fertile stamens 9, in 3 rows; the inner with 2-stalked, compressed glands at base; anthers 4- celled, the outer introrse, the inner extrorse. Three sterile stamens, formed like the fer- tile, placed in a whorl, and alternating with those of the second row; 3 others stalked, with an ovate head. Fruit placed on the obconical base of the calyx. This genus also formed part of Laurus until separated by Nees, and ap- pears to possess sufficiently distinct characters to warrant the adoption of it. The species are large trees with triple-nerved leaves, having glands in the axils of the principal veins. C. officinarum, Nees.—Leaves persistent, oval, acuminate, alternate at base. Flowers smooth outside. Nees, Laurin. 88; Lindley, Fl. Med. 333; Linn., Mat. Med. 107; Stephen- son and Churchill, 126; L. camphorifera, Kamipfer, Amarn. 770; Cin- namomum camphora, Nees and Eberm., ii. 430. Description.—A large tree, with a fragrant wood. The branches are somewhat droop- ing, smooth, and covered with a greenish bark. The leaves are alternate, on long petioles, ovate-lanceo'late, somewhat coriaceous, smooth, shining, of a bright-green above, paler be- neath, triple-nerved, with a depressed gland, opening by a pore, at the axils of the princi- pal lateral veins beneath. Leaf-buds scaly. Flowers small, smooth externally, in naked, axillary, and terminal corymbose panicles. This tree is a native of Japan, China, and Cochin China, and is cultivated in several places in the East Indies. Every part of it is aromatic, owing to the presence of Camphor, which is obtained, by dividing the wood, 554 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 239. roots, &c, into small pieces, boiling them in water in an iron pot, which is covered by an earthen vessel, con- taining a straw cone. By the heat, the camphor is sublimed, and adheres to the straw. This is the plan, which, according to Ksemp- fer, is used in Japan, but is not adopted in China, where from the accounts of several writers, it ap- pears that the chipped wood is steeped in water, and afterwards boiled, until camphor begins to adhere to the stick used in stirring. The fluid is then strained, and on cooling, the cam- phor concretes. This is placed in alternate layers with finely pulverised dry earth, in a copper basin, on which another is in- verted, and on the appli- cation of heat the cam- phor sublimes and adheres to the upper vessel. Camphor in this state is impure, and of a dirty grayish colour, and forms what is called Cru^de Camphor. This is usually in small, grayish-coloured grains, which combine into crumbling masses. It is refined or separated from its impurities by being mixed with lime, and placed in a peculiar-shaped glass vessel, called a Bombala, and sublimed; when the pure Camphor has concreted at the upper part of the vessel, it is permitted to cool, when the glass is broken, and the cake of Camphor removed. The Crude Japan Camphor is much purer than the Chinese, and can be uomoaia. sublimed at a much lower temperature. * Refined Camphor is solid, colourless, and. translucent, with a crystalline granular texture, a powerful and peculiar aromatic odour, and a bitterish, somewhat pungent taste, succeeded by a sensation of coolness. It is easily broken, but, at the same time, cannot be readily pulverised, except by the addi- tion of a few drops of alcohol. It is lighter than water, and when placed on that fluid keeps up a constantly rotatory motion. It is volatilized at ordinary temperatures, and melts at 288°. It is very slightly soluble in water, but imparts its odour to it; alcohol, ether, and the oils readily dissolve it; and water charged with carbonic acid will take up a considerable portion of it. Camphor is considered to be an oxide of Camphogene (C10 H8), or a solid volatile oil composed of (C10 H8 O). Camphor is found in many plants, but only in two in any quantity; one C. officinarum. Fig. 240. lauracea:. 555 of these, Dryobalanops camphora, which affords the Borneo Camphor, has already been noticed, (p. 146,) the other the tree now under consideration. This article does not appear to have been known to the Greeks and Romans, but is spoken of by the earlier Arabian writers. Sprengel is of opinion that the first description of it was given by Simeon Seth in the 11th century. Medical Uses.—The exact effects produced by Camphor on the system, have not been satisfactorily ascertained. It is known, however, that its local action on tender surfaces is that of an acrid, but it does not appear to produce any marked influence on the surface of the body, when the cuticle is unin- jured. When it is administered internally, it is partially absorbed, as is the case with most of the volatile oils. Its main influence seems to be exer- cised on the nervous system, as in moderate doses it acts as a stimulant, and subsequently as an anodyne; whilst, in larger ones, it causes much disorder ofthe cerebro-spinal system ; and, in over quantities, acts as a powerful acro- narcotic poison. It also operates as an anaphrodisiac; this property of it has long been known, and recent experiments have confirmed the assertions of earlier writers, in a great measure. Camphor has been prescribed in a multitude of diseases ; its employment has been almost entirely empirical. It has been found useful in the low states of fever, where there is singultus, tre- mor , &c.; but its most decided effect is obtained as an anodyne in irritation or pain in the genito-urinary organs: thus it greatly alleviates the pain in dysmenorrhcea, especially when combined with a small quantity of opium; and has often been found of benefit in the strangury caused by blisters. It has also been found of service in pain in the bowels; and, in combination with laudanum, in restraining discharges from these viscera. Externally it is in very general use, in solution, as an embrocation in local pains. It is given in substance, in tincture, and in mixture. The medium dose of the powder is from five to ten grains, given in pill or emulsion ; of the tincture, ten drops to a drachm. It enters into the composition of Paregoric elixir, and although the most active ingredient in this excellent preparation is opium, its efficacy is undoubtedly aided by the camphor. Cinnamomum.—Nees. Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous, in panicles or fascicles, naked. Calyx six-cleft, the limb deciduous. Fertile stamens 9, in 3 rows; the 3 inner with 2 sessile glands at base; anthers 4-celled, the 3 inner extrorse. Three capitate abortive stamens next the centre. Fruit seated in a cup-like calyx. This is a somewhat extensive group of plants, removed from Laurus by Nees, having strongly-ribbed leaves, and the leaf-buds not scaly. It may be observed that many of the genera ofthe Lauracese are very closely allied, and might without confusion be considered rather as sections of Laurus than en- titled to an equal rank ; as they have, however, been considered as distinct by the best authorities, as Nees v. Esenbeck, Blume, Lindley, and others, I have adopted their views. The present genus is important, from affording Cinna- mon and Cassia, but there are many doubts and differences of opinion as to the species furnishing these and some other analogous barks. C. zeylanicum, Nees.—Branches somewhat quadrangular, smooth. Leaves ovate, or ovate-oblong, tapering into an obtuse point, triple-nerved, reticulated on the under side, smooth. Panicles terminal or axillary, stalked. Flowers hoary and silky ; segments ob- long, deciduous in the middle. Nees, Laurin. 45; Nees and Eberm., Handb., ii. 420; Lindley, Fl. Med. 329 ; 6. nitidum, Nees, non Hooker; Laurus cinnamomum, Linn. Sp. PL 556 MEDICAL BOTANY. F'g-2«- 528 ; L. cassia, Bot. Mag. 1636. This is the species furnishing the true Ceylon Cinnamon. It is a native of that island and of Java, and is also cultivated in many tropical countries. There are many varieties of it, one of which, C. zey- lanicum var. cassia, (Laurus cassia, Linn.,) is considered by Nees to be the plant producing Cas- sia ; but it is said by Mr. Marshall that it is only a coarse cin- namon, obtained from the roots or large branches of the true Cinnamon tree. Cinnamon is culti- vated in Ceylon in the southwest parts, where the soil is al- most a pure sand, the climate damp, and the temperature high and equable. It is collected from trees above six years of age, but seldom before they are nine years old. The peeling ofthe branches begins in May, and lasts until September, and merely consists in slitting the bark longitudinally, cut- ting it across at certain intervals, and then turning it back. The epidermis is then removed by scraping, and the bark, as it dries, assumes the form of quills, the smaller of which are introduced into the larger ones. The drying is always performed in the shade at first, and finished in the sun. Ceylon Cinnamon is in long and cylindrical pieces, thin, smooth, breaking readily with a splintery fracture. The colour is a dull yellowish-brown. It has an agreeable grateful odour, and a warm, sweetish, very pleasant aro- matic taste. There are several qualities of it, differing in colour, odour, taste, and thickness. It consists of Volatile oil, Tannin, Mucilage, Cinnamic acid, Resin, &c. It appears to have been known at a very early period, being mentioned in Exodus (xxx. 23); it is also noticed by Herodotus, Hip- pocrates, and Dioscorides. It is an aromatic stimulant, with a slight astringency, and is principally employed as a condiment and flavouring ingredient in culinary preparations. It is only employed in medicine as a carminative, or to check nausea; it how- ever, enters into the composition of various preparations, to disguise the taste of some of their ingredients, or to aid their powers. The oil is of a dark colour and is very heavy ; it has the same properties as the bark. C. zeylanicum. 1. Perfect stamen, with an abortive one at base. 2. Pistil. 3. Fruit. lauracea:. 557 Fig.-242. 2. C. aromaticum, Nees.— A large tree. Branches an- gular, twigs and petioles co- vered with downy patches. Leaves oblong, rather acute at each end, triple-nerved, nerves disappearing at the extremity of the leaf, with curved veinlets on the under side. Panicles narrow and silky. Nees, Laurin. 52; Lindley, Fl. Med. 330; C. cassia, Nees and Eberm., PL Med. 129; Handb. ii. 424 ; Laurus cassia, Hort. Kev. ii. 427; L. cinnamomum, Bot. Repos. 595. A native of China; and according to Nees v. Esenbeck, the species fur- nishing the Cinnamon of China, in which opinion Dr. Royle seems to coin- cide. This is the origin of what is commercially known in this country as Cassia, but is in fact a mixture of a variety of different qualities of Cin- namon. It is difficult to ascertain exactly what is meant by the word Cas- sia, some writers including in it all varieties of inferior Cinnamon, whilst others restrict it to a coarse bark from Ceylon. There are several species which produce very analogous barks; thus Dr. Wight has shown that Lin- naeus included no "less than three different plants, one the C. sulphuretum, Nees, another C. inus, Nees, and the third the Litsaea zeylanica. None of these afford the Chinese bark, but are the origin, as will be hereafter shown, ofthe Malabar and other Cassias. Cassia is, like Cinnamon, mentioned by the earlier writers, as in the Bible (Exodus, xxx. 24), by Dioscorides, and other Greek writers. It bears a great resemblance to Cinnamon, but is in shorter pieces, and usually thicker, rougher, and denser, has a more powerful but not as agreeable a taste or pleasant odour; but in the bundles of Chinese Cinnamon, specimens may be found having all the characteristics of the Ceylon kind. Its medicinal pro- perties are identical with that article. 3. C. ni'tidum, Hooker.—A small tree. Leaves elliptical or ellipticoblong, tapering a little at each end, usually withering at the point, shortly triple-nerved, nearly vemless, smooth ; the nerves nearly reaching the point. Racemes, or terminal compound cymes, branched, about as long as the leaves. Flowers silky; segments of the calyx deciduous in the middle. Hooker, Exot. Flor. 176; Blume, Rumphia, 35, t. 15; Lindley, Fl. Leaves of Cinnamomum. A. C. aromaticum. B, C. C. zeylanicum. 558 MEDICAL BOTANY. Med. 332 ; C. eucalyptoides, Nees, Wallich, PL Asiat. ii. 73; Laurus ma- labathrica, Roxburgh, Hort. Calc. 30. Inhabits India, Ceylon, Java, &c. This is one of the species which pro- bably furnishes part of the Malabar Cassia, and is the principal source of the Folia malabathri of the older Pharmacologists ; these, however, appear to have consisted of the leaves of several species. They were for- merly much used, but are now obsolete. 4. C. tamala, Nees.—Branches nearly round ; younger with a rough down. Leaves ob- long-lanceolate, acuminate, acute at the base, smooth, triple-nerved. Midrib with lateral veins at the apex. Panicle somewhat terminal and axillary, divaricate. Calyx campanu- late. Segments obovate, rather sharp-pointed, silky on either side, deciduous below the middle. Nees, Laurin. 56 ; Nees and Ebermaier, Handbuch, ii. 426 ; Lindley, Fl. Med. 330. Indigenous to many parts of India. The leaves are said by Nees and Esenbeck to form part of the Malabathri leaves, but Blume states that he never was able to detect any in the samples he examined. 5. C. loureirii, Nees.—Branches compressed-quadrangular, smooth. Leaves somewhat oval, tapering to both ends, acuminate or pointed, minutely scaly beneath, triple-nerved. Midrib with lateral veins below the middle. Nees, Laurin, 65 ; Lindley, FL Med. 330 ; Laurus cinnamomum, Lou- reiro, Flor. Cochin, i. 305. A native of Cochin China and Japan. Lindley states that Cassia buds or Flowers of Cassia are the product of this species, but Royle is of opinion that they are derived from the same source as the Chinese Cinnamon. They are now seldom used. Loureiro says that the middle-sized shoots of this tree furnish a bark superior to the Ceylon Cinnamon ; and Poivre, in corrobora- tion, observes, that a Cinnamon is collected in Cochin China of better quality than any other. 6. C. culilawan, Blume.—Leaves ovate or lanceolate-oblong, finely acuminate, rather acute at base, smooth, obscurely reticulated beneath, with the lateral veins vanishing at the point. Racemes compound, or rather trichotomous cymes, terminal or axillary, few- flowered. Segments of calyx deciduous below the middle. Blume, Rumphia, 26, t. 9* f. 1; Lindley, Fl. Med. 330 ; Laurus culi- lawan, Linn. Sp. PL 530 ; L. culiiawang, Nees, Disp. de Cinn. 61. This species is found in Amboyna and some other ^East Indian islands. It affords an aromatic bark, having the odour of cloves, but less pungent and more saccharine, with a bitter and mucilaginous taste. This bark was used in Europe about the close of the 17th century, and was considered to be a useful remedy in cases requiring a carminative and stomachic, as atonic gout, dyspepsia, &c. It was known as " Culilawan Bark," and was at one time much employed, but is now seldom to be met with. Blume states that what is sold as Culilawan consists of a mixture of several different barks, but having the same properties ; he enumerates as their origin, C. sintoc, javanicum, and xanlhoneuron. The bark ofthe first of these has been described under the name of" Sintoc," and Blume states that the second is well deserving of attention, on account of its powerful effects in spasmodic colic and the after-pains of lying-in women. Another bark has been described, of somewhat analogous characters, called " Massoy," and has been attributed to one or more trees of this genus; but Blume states that it is not the product thymelacea:. 559 of a Cinnamomum. It is derived from New Guinea, and from the account given ofthe plant from which it is derived, it appears that this has opposite leaves; the article spoken of by Raffles as furnished by a Java species, is probably the product of C. xanthoneuron, the bark of which, according to Blume, is so like the Massoy, as to be confounded with it. Order 89.—THYMELACEA^.—Lindley. Calyx tubular, coloured; the limb 4- seldom 5-cleft; aestivation imbricate. Corolla none, or of scale-like petals at the opening of the calyx. Stamens inserted in the tube, generally eight, sometimes four, rarely two. Anthers two-celled, with a longitudinal de- hiscence. Ovary single, with one pendulous ovule, and bearing a single style, with an undivided stigma. Fruit hard, dry, and nut-like, or drupaceous. The plants of this order are in most cases shrubby, with a tough, fibrous bark, and exstipulate, entire, opposite or alternate leaves. They are princi- pally natives ofthe cooler parts of India, South America, and also of the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland. Some are found in the northern parts of the world, one of which, Dirca, is a native of the United States. The most striking peculiarity of these plants is the acridity and causticity of their bark, which, especially in a fresh state, acts as a vesicant, when ap- plied to the skin, and creates much pain in the mouth and fauces when chewed. Most ofthe species of Daphne have been used in medicine, though only one, the D. mezereum, is officinal. The seeds of Dais octandra are said by Horsefield (Cat. PL of Java) to be used in Java as a purgative. The bark of D. madagascariensis affords a material for paper. The Passerina tinctoria ofthe south of Europe is employed to dye wool yellow. The bark of Gnidia daphnoides is so fibrous and tough as to be manufactured into ropes in Madagascar. The inner bark of Lagetta lintearia, a native of the West Indies, when macerated and stretched, assumes the appearance of coarse lace, and is so tough as to serve for ropes and whips. Dr. Wright (Med. Plants Jour.) states that it is very caustic, and may be used as a sub- stitute for Mezereon. Several species of Hernandia are possessed of very active properties. H. guianensis has purgative fruits, which are used in Cayenne in emulsion to open the bowels. The H. sonora, found in both the Indies, is also purgative, and Rumphius states that the fibrous root applied either externally or taken internally, is a certain antidote against poison. The juice ofthe leaves is a powerful depilatory, removing the hair without occa- sioning pain. The succulent part ofthe fruit is also used, according to Des- courtilz, in the preparation of a liqueur. (Flor. Med. Antill. ii. 309.) The fruit of Inocarpus edulis is said to resemble the chestnut in taste, and is much eaten in the South Sea islands, Java, &c.; it is extremely abundant in New Guinea. (Lesson.) Daphne.—Linn. Calyx tubular, marcescent. Tube cylindrical, coriaceous. Limb 4-lobed. Stamens short, in two rows, inserted about the middle of the calyx-tube. Anthers roundish, ob- long, 2-celled, included. Ovary ovate. Style short, terminal. Stigma capitate, entire. Berry oval, 1-celled, 1-seeded. A genus of shrubby plants, principally indigenous to Europe and Middle Asia, having a caustic, acrid bark, in some cases possessing tinctorial powers. 560 MEDICAL BOTANY. Fig. 243. Many of the species have been used in medicine, but one only is officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. D. mezereum, Linn.—Flowers ternary, sessile on the stem. Leaves lanceolate, deci- duous. Linn., Sp. PL 509; Woodville, iv. t. 245; Stokes, ii. 372 ; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 65 ; Flor. Med. v. 236 ; Lindley, Fl. Med. 324. Common Names.—Mezereon ; Spurge Olive. Foreign Names.—Bois gentil, Fr. ; Biondella, It. ; Kellerkals, Ger. Description.—Root large. Stem bushy, with many upright, alternate branches, leafy when young, and co- vered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are deci- duous, lanceolate, scattered, petiolated, smooth, appear- ing after the flowers, and accompanied with the flow- er-buds of the next season. The flowers are in clusters, sessile on the naked branch- es, with several smooth, ova^e bracts; they are of a pale rose-colour, very fra- grant, and consist of a peta- loid calyx, which is tubular, with the limb divided into four deep, ovate, spreading segments. The stamens are eight in number, alter- nately longer, inserted into the tube, and furnished with roundish, oblong anthers. The ovary is ovale, supe- The fruit is a pulpy, scarlet 1. Stamens D. mezereum. Pistil. 3. Part of berry and seed. rior, bearing a short style with a flattish, entire stigma. berry, containing a single seed. The Mezereon is a native in many parts of Europe, flowering very early in the season, before the appearance of the leaves. There are several varieties, with different coloured flowers and fruit. It is by no means certain that this plant was known to the ancients, though some ofthe other species were certainly familiar to them. The first definite account of this one is given by Tragus (Hist. Stirp. 1532), under the name of Thymelea, by which appellation it is also noticed by many succeeding writers. The Mezereon of the Arabian writers is stated to be the Cneorum tricoccon by most writers, on the autho- rity of Bauhin ; but both Cordus and Schroder are of opinion that it is the P. cnidium. The genus Daphne has been much divided by modern botanists, and the present plant now forms the type of Mezereum ; but as these changes are not recognised in the officinal lists, I have preferred to consider it under the present head, rather than to adopt the more correct nomenclature. The part directed to be used, is the bark ofthe root; this is tough, pliable, and fibrous, externally corrugated, and of a brown colour, and internally cot- tony and white. Most of that found in the shops comes from Germany, and is derived from the stem and branches ; it is in long strips, folded in bundles, of a grayish or reddish-brown colour externally, under which, on the removal thymelacea:. 561 ofthe epidermis, it is greenish; internally it is white and fibrous. The taste is at first somewhat sweetish, but soon becomes very acrid and unpleasant; in a fresh state, the smell is nauseous ; but when dried, it is inodorous. It yields its properties to water and alcohol. Several analyses have been made of this and other species, and they are shown to owe their active qualities to the presence of an acrid resin and a peculiar crystalline principle, discovered by Vauquelin, to which he gave the name of Daphnin. It is colourless and transparent, crystallizes in aggregated prisms, very soluble in water, alcohol, or ether, is inodorous, and of an acrid taste. Gmelin and Bar consider that it is analogous to asparagin, and that when pure, it has very slight powers. The active principle is evidently, as is stated by Vauquelin, an essential oil, which is either changed into a resin, or is in combination with it. This oil is partially volatile, for Mr. Squire (Pharm. Trans. Lond.) says, that the pungent odour given off by boiling the root, is so powerful as to produce great irritation. Medical Properties.—When applied to the skin, the Mezereon, especially in a fresh state, acts as a topical irritant and vesicant. When taken inter- nally in large doses, it operates as a violent irritant poison, but in moderate doses promotes the action ofthe secernent organs, especially the kidneys and skin. From its irritating powers, it sometimes increases the peristaltic power ofthe intestines, and it is stated by Vogt that it occasionally affects the cere- bro-spinal system. It is seldom administered alone, being generally given in combination with sarsaparilla and other articles, as an alterative and diaphoretic, in chronic cutaneous, venereal, rheumatic, and scrofulous affections. Dr. Russell (Med. Obs. and Inquir. iii. 194) recommended a decoction of this bark in venereal nodes and pains in the bones; and this opinion of its powers as a deobstruent in inveterate syphilitic cases being supported by Drs. Monro, Fothergill, and Home, it was considered as capable of curing that disease, even where mer- cury had failed, until the experiments and observations of Mr. Pearson (Obs. on various articles of the Mat. Med. 1800) demonstrated that it had not the power of removing the venereal affection in any one stage or form. In con- sequence of these remarks, its reputation rapidly declined, and it is now sel- dom employed in these cases, except as a component ofthe compound decoc- tion of sarsaparilla. Cullen prescribed it with some success in chronic cuta- neous diseases, and further experience has shown that it may be beneficially used in these, as well as in some forms of scrofula and chronic rheumatism. Topically, it has been applied with some success as a sialagogue in tooth- ache and in paralysis of the throat. It is also much employed in France and Germany as a vesicatory. Several other species of Daphne are used as substitutes for the Mezereon, or even preferred to it; of these the D. gnidium and D. laureola are the most generally resorted to, as possessing identical properties, but from the experiments of Mr. Squire, it would appear that the mezereum is the most active, both in the degree and duration of its stimulating effects. It may be noticed that where it is necessary to powder these barks, the operator should use some caution, as an inhalation of the dust creates much irritation of the air passages. The general mode of administration is in decoction, but as the active principle is volatile, a maceration with heat in close vessels would be a more effectual mode of preparation. Dirca.—Linn. Calyx simple coloured, corolliform, limb obsoletely 8-toothed. Corolla none. Stamens 8, unequal, exserted. Style filiform, lateral. Berry one-seeded. 36 562 MEDICAL BOTANY. A genus of a single species peculiar to North America, closely allied to Daphne in its physical properties. D. palustris, Linn.—Leaves alternate, subsessile, oval, entire. Linn., Amain, iii. 12 ; Torrey, Man. 170 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 37 ; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. i. 158. Common Names.—Leather-wood ; Moose-wood ; Rope-bark. Fig. 244. Description. — A shrub from three to seven feet high, with spreading, crooked, ar- ticulated branches. The leaves are alternate or scat- tered, nearly sessile, ovate, entire, downy when young, and smooth and membranous when full grown, paler be- neath, not appearing until after the flowers. The flow- ers are in threes, on cohering peduncles; they are yellow, and consist of a tubular eight-toothed calyx, which is drooping, and contracted at the middle and base. The corolla is entirely wanting. The stamens are eight, longer than the corolliform calyx, and alternately longer; with rounded anthers. The ovary is ovate, and supports a long filiform, curved style, which is inserted laterally, and is terminated by an acute stig- ma. The fruit is a small, oval berry, of an orange co- lour, containing a single seed. The Leather-wood is found in most parts of the United States, but is more abundant in the Atlantic than in the Western States; it occurs in shady swamps or on the banks of streams. It flowers very early in the season, when the shrub is wholly destitute of leaves. The bark is very fibrous, and has been used for cordage, and might be ad- vantageously employed in the arts, as by proper preparation it affords a strong fibre from which an excellent paper can be made. No complete ana- lysis has been made of it, but it appears to contain an Acrid resin, a Bitter extractive, Mucilage, &c. Medical Uses.—The berries are emetic and poisonous. The fresh bark applied to the skin causes redness and vesication, but the sores caused by it, as is the case generally with those produced by the vegetable epispas- tics, do not heal readily, and sometimes degenerate into obstinate and ill-con- ditioned ulcers. When chewed it causes much heat and pain in the mouth, followed by salivation, and hence has been found useful in toothache and other complaints where the acrid masticatories have been found serviceable. When administered internally in small doses it induces a sense of heat in the sto- D. palustris. ULMACEiE. 563 mach, followed by vomiting and sometimes catharsis. When given in decoc- tion, it acts as a sudorific and expectorant, and is considered by Bigelow to be a substitute for Senega. It has also been given in the same class°of cases in which Mezereon has been found useful, and it is said with equal benefit. It is, however, a remedy that may be discarded, except in the absence of more efficient and better known articles. Order 90.—ULMACEA^.—Mirbel. Flowers perfect or polygamous. Calyx membranous, campanulate, inferior, 4—5-cleft, the lobes imbricated in aestivation. Stamens definite, as many as the lobes of the calyx and opposite to them, inserted on the base of the calyx. Ovary 1—2-celled, with a single suspended ovule in each cell; styles or stigmas 2. Fruit 1-celled and l-'seeded, either drupaceous or a samara. Seed solitary, pendulous ; exalbuminous. Trees or shrubs, with rough, alternate, generally deciduous leaves, each having a pair of deciduous bracts at base. This order will probably be divided, as the Ulmece or true Elms differ in many respects from the Celtece or Hack-berries; the first having a membranous samara-like fruit, with anatropal ovules, and the latter a hard fleshy berry, and amphitropal ovules. Many species of Ulmus have been employed in medicine, the inner bark of most of them being demulcent and mucilaginous. That of U. campestris, of Europe, is a mild astringent tonic, and is also said to be diuretic; if so, it is a very weak one. It was formerly much praised as an alterative in cuta- neous and venereal affections, as a substitute for Sarsaparilla. The bark of U. effusa has analogous properties. The most important of these barks, and the only one recognised in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, is that of the U. fulva (U. rubra), or Slippery Elm; this tree is indigenous in most parts of the United States, but is most abundant to the west ofthe mountains. The inner bark, as prepared for use, is in long pieces of a fibrous texture, tawny on the outer surface, and reddish on the inner; it has a peculiar but not unpleasant odour, and a very mucilaginous taste. When finely ground it affords a light, grayish-yellow powder. From its abundant mucilage it is an excellent demulcent in all cases requiring this class of remedies, and also forms a good article of diet where it is wished to give nourishment of the blandest kind, being a very good substitute for Gum Arabic. It has also been em- ployed in cutaneous diseases, and from witnessing its effects in some ex- tremely obstinate cases of herpetic and syphilitic symptoms, I am inclined to attribute higher curative powers to it, than are usually admitted. Dr. McDowell has spoken in praise of the good effects obtained from bougies, tents, &c., formed of this bark. Externally, the bark has been found very serviceable as an application to inflamed parts ; it is used in several ways, either in decoction, as a fomentation, in a poultice made with the powder, or the bark itself softened by steeping in hot water. It is usually administered internally in infusion, which may be made more or less mucilaginous, according to circumstances. The berries of some species of Cellis (Hack-berry, Sugar-berry), are sweetish and sub-astringent, and are said to be useful in dysentery. The C. orientalis yields a gum, resembling that of the Cherry; its roots, bark and leaves, are somewhat aromatic, and have been used in the East Indies as a remedv in epilepsy. A decoction of the branches of C. australis is also con- sidered beneficial in gonorrhoea and dysentery. 564 MEDICAL BOTANY. Group XXXVII. — Piperales, Order 91.—PIPERACEM.—Richard. Flowers mostly sessile, sometimes pedicellate, in terminal or axillary spikes or oppo. site the leaves, naked, with a bract outside. Stamens 2 or more, on one side of, or around the ovary. Anthers 1—2-celled. Pollen roundish, smooth. Ovary free, simple, 1-celled, with a solitary, erect, orthotropal ovule. Stigma sessile, simple, rather oblique. Fruit free, somewhat fleshy, indehiscent, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Seed erect, with the embryo in a fleshy sac at the apex, on the outside ofthe albumen. An order peculiar to the hot regions of the world, consisting of trees and shrubs, with articulated stems; opposite, verticillate, or, by abortion, alternate leaves; stipules none, or in pairs, or single and opposite the leaf. Some difference of opinion exists as to their station ; Richard, Blume, and others con- sider them as monocotyledonous ; but they have the medulla rays of the exo- gens. This, and the reticulation of their leaves, &c, has led most botanists to include them among the dicotyledonous plants. Their general character is an aromatic pungency, with, in some cases, astringent and somewhat narcotic properties. The species are very nume- rous, but were all arranged in one genus, that of Piper, by Linnaeus; and few changes were made until the examination of the subject by Miquel. In his " Systema Piperacearum," he proposes to divide the order into two tribes. The first, of Piperomidce, includes the herbaceous species with axillary cat- kins, androgynous flowers, and anthers one-celled in dehiscence; none of these are employed medicinally, and but few are made use of in any way. The second tribe, Piperidce, contains the shrubby and arborescent species, having catkins opposite to the leaves, flowers usually dioecious; the fertile ones with several distinct stigmas, the sterile with two-celled anthers. Each of these tribes contains numerous genera, which appear to be instituted on sound differential characters. Piper.—Linn. Spike wholly covered with flowers. Flowers perfect, rarely dioecious, each supported by a bracteole. Stamens 2 or more. Ovary with a single, erect ovule. Stigma puncti- form, obtuse or cleft. Berry 1-seeded. Embryo inverted. This genus is exclusively East Indian, but some of the species are exten- sively cultivated in the West Indies. It is now very much restricted, by the removal of many ofthe plants, formerly included in it, to other genera. P. nigrum, Linn.—Stem trailing or climbing, shrubby, dichotomously branched, with tumid joints, often throwing out cauline radicles. Leaves alternate, distichous, broad- ovate, acuminate, of a dark-green colour, and shining above, paler beneath, 5—7-nerved, reticulated. Petioles rounded. Spikes opposite the leaves, mostly towards the extremi- ties of the branches, pedunculate, long, slender, drooping. Fruit ripening irregularly throughout the year, round, sessile, at first green, then red, and finally black. Linn., Sp. PL 40; Bot. Mag. 3139 ; Blume, Enum. PL Jav. 64; Lind- ley, FL Med. 310; P. aromaticum, Poiret, Ency. Meth. Suppl. v. 458; Fee, Cours. ii. 618. Common Names.—Pepper ; Black Pepper. Foreign Names.—Poivre, Poivre noir, Fr.; Pepe nero, It.; Schwarzer Pfeffer, Ger. PI P E R A C E JE. Fig. 245. P. nigrum. The Pepper vine is a native of various parts of the East Indies, and is ex- tensively cultivated in Sumatra, Java, Malabar, &c. It is propagated from cuttings, and begins to bear fruit in three or four years from the time of planting. The berries are gathered before they are quite ripe, and dried in the sun. They become wrinkled and black in consequence of the drying of the pulp over the grayish-white seed. In this state they are known as Black Pepper ; if permitted to ripen, and soaked in water so as to permit the outer coat to be removed, they form White Pepper. The principal import of Pepper is from Sumatra and Java. Pepper has an aromatic, peculiar odour, and a hot, spicy, pungent taste, most powerful in the black variety. These properties are taken up by alco- hol and ether, and partially by water. It contains an acrid Resin, Volatile oil, a peculiar neutral principle called Piperin, Gum, &c. Piperin was dis- covered by Oersted in 1819. It is crystalline, of a white colour when per- fectly pure, but is usually of a yellowish tint; is tasteless and inodorous, in- soluble in cold water, but slightly soluble in boiling water, wholly soluble in alcohol. It is also taken up by acetic acid. Medical Uses.—Pepper is principally employed as a condiment; but has also been used in medicine, especially in the treatment of intermittent fevers. It is a warm carminative stimulant, causing, when given in over quantity, great arterial excitement, and is considered, in tropical climates, to be more heating than the hot, pungent Capsicum. It is chiefly used to correct the flatulent or griping qualities of certain articles of diet. It has, however, been 566 MEDICAL BOTANY. employed in gonorrhoea as a substitute for cubebs, and as a masticatory in relaxed uvula, &c. As an external application, in the form of an ointment, it has proved serviceable in tinea capitis. Piperine has been highly recommended by several Italian physicians as a febrifuge, and as being milder in its action, and yet more certain and speedy than bark or its alkaloids; but extended trials with it have shown that it is far inferior to these articles, and that all the virtues it possesses are owing to an admixture with the acrid resin and oil, as when pure it has no influence on the system. The dose of pepper is from five to twenty grains ; of piperin one to ten grains. Another species, the P. trioicum of India, bears an extremely pungent fruit, said to be superior to the best Black Pepper. Roxburgh says that the leaves of this plant are glaucous; but Dr. Heyne, who succeeded him in the superintendence of the Pepper plantations, seems to think that it is only a variety of P. nigrum, produced by defects in the cultivation. Chavica,—Miquel. Flowers dioecious. Bracts ofthe male, like those ofthe female catkins, shortly-stalked, almost quadrangular, peltate. Sterile flowers: stamens 2, anthers 2-celled. Fertile: style very short or wanting; in the latter case the 3—6 thick stigmas are sessile. Fruit unit- ing with the permanent bracts into a fleshy, fusiform fruit. Seeds almost lenticular, with a scaly, finely-pitted testa, and a mealy albumen, often horny at the outer part. This Asiatic genus was separated from Piper by Miquel. The species are much cultivated in many parts of the East Indies, both for their fruit and for the pungent, aromatic leaves of some of the species. The Long Pepper and Cubebs have usually been attributed to two of them ; but it now appears cer- tain that each of these articles are furnished by several closely-allied plants. The following are stated by Miquel to afford Long Pepper. 1. Chavica pepuloides, Miquel.—Young branches, petioles, and peduncles covered with long hairs. Leaves smooth, membranous, with transparent dots; the lower ovate, 7- nerved, rounded at base, attenuate at apex; the upper unequal, lanceolate, 5-nerved, atte- nuate at apex. Male spikes with short peduncles, slender, with circular bracts; the female cylindrical, on short peduncles. Miquel, Syst. Piper ; Piper pepuloides, Roxburgh. 2. C. roxburghii, Miquel.—A trailing shrub with dichotomous branches, but erect during the flowering season ; stems at first finely hairy, afterwards smooth. Leaves thick, membranous, at first with fine hair on the veins, afterwards smooth, covered with fine dots. Lower leaves on long petioles, roundish, broadly cordate at base; upper ones sessile, more or less elongated, unequally cordate at base, embracing the stem. Male catkins filiform, cylindrical, peduncles as long as leaves; female scarcely half as long, but thicker than the male, peduncles as long as the catkins. P. longum, Linn., Sp. PL 41 (in part); Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. i. 154; Nees, PL Med. t. 23; Lindley, FL Med. 311. These two species are found in a wild state in India, and are cultivated in Bengal. They yield the Long Pepper of India, which consists of the fruit catkins, dried in the sun. The root and thicker parts of the stems are cut into small pieces, and much used in India for medical purposes. 3. C. officinarum, Miquel.—A climbing shrub, with coriaceous leaves, covered with fine transparent dots, smooth and paler beneath. Lower leaves on long petioles; 3—5-nerved. and ovate-cordate ; upper ones on shorter footstalks, more elongated, base unequal round- ed or attenuated, apex attenuated. Peduncles of catkins longer than petioles. Female catkins short and cylindrical, slenderer towards the apex. PIPERACE^E. 567 Piper longum, Linn., Sp. PI. 41 (in part); Rumphius, Amboina, v t. 116, f. 1. l This species is a native of the Philippine and Sunda Islands, and is much cultivated in Java. It yields the Long Pepper of Sumatra and Java. The dried catkins are very aromatic, have a pungent aromatic taste, stronger than that of Black Pepper. They are of a grayish-brown or grayish-cinnamon colour, their stalk is roundish, compressed, somewhat woody, curved and almost smooth. They are thick, cylindrical, somewhat narrowed towards the apex, thick at base, and facetted with a sort of network, of the projecting apices of the berries. Besides these, some other species afford analogous products: P. chaba, Hunter (Asiat. Resear., ix. 391); this may possibly be identical with the last, as it grows in the islands, and Lindley speaks of it as furnishing the Island Long Pepper; P. sylvaticum, Roxburgh (FL Ind. i. 156), or Moun- tain Long Pepper, grows on the northern frontiers of Bengal, and is used both in a green and ripe state. Long Pepper is very little employed in this country, either as a condiment or in medicine. It contains Piperine and a pungent concrete oil, similar to those in the Black Pepper. Two other species of this genus are much cultivated in the East Indies, for their pungent, aromatic leaves, which with lime and areca nut, are the mate- Fis-24t5- rials for betel chewing, so universal in many oriental countries. These are C. betle and C. siribosa. Betel produces somewhat intoxicating effects, stimulates the salivary glands to a great degree, acts powerfully on the stomach, and diminishes the perspiratory function (see Hooker, Bot. Mag. 3132). The juice of the leaves is prescribed by Hindoo prac- titioners as a febrifuge, and is also given in the indigestion of children, and in con- c. betle. junction with musk in hysteria (Ainslie, ii. 466). In tropical America the fruits of C. amalago are used as a condi- ment, and Lunan (Hort. Jam. i. 51), says that the leaves and young shoots are discutient, and an infusion of the root, resolutive, sudorific and diapho- retic. The bark of C. majuscida, of Java, is held in esteem in Java as a rubefacient in rheumatism. Cubeba.—Miquel. Flowers dioecious. Male catkins smaller, with sessile bracts, overlaying each other, behind which are 2—5 stamens, with ovate or reniform 2-celled anthers. Female cat- kins with almost sessile bracts, roundly peltate, often hairy beneath and persistent. Ovary sessile, ovate; stigmas 3—5, sessile, short, recurved. Berries pseudo-pedicellate. Seeds roundish, with coriaceous or horny testa and mealy albumen. These are climbing shrubs, peculiar to the East Indies, and hotter parts of Africa. The female° plant is often distinguishable from the male by habit, and the form of the leaf, but always by the catkins being thicker, and pre- senting at maturity an almost clustered appearance. All the species furnish what is called Cubeb Pepper, and were formerly included in Piper cubeba of Linnceus. 568 MEDICAL BOTANY. 1. C. officinalis, Miquel.—A climbing shrub with smooth leaves; the lower, cordate at base, ovate, with a short point; the upper, ovate, more elongated, with a rounded base and smaller. In the male plant 5, female 5—9-nerved. Catkins on peduncles as long as the petioles; in the male slenderer than in the female; bracts coarsely hairy ; berries globular, pedicels longer than themselves. P. cubeba, Linn., Suppl. 90 ; Nees and Eberm, Handbuch, i. 102 ; Lind- ley, FL Med. 313; Blume, Act. Bat. xi. 200, f. 21 ; C. officinalis, Micquel, Syst. Piper. This, according to Lindley, is the P. cubeba of the Linnsean Herbarium, and Miquel states that it is a native of the west part of Java and the adjacent small islands, also cultivated in the lower parts of Java, whence large quan- tities are annually exported. Blume (/. c), states that although of good quality, none are sent to Europe, those exported being from the following species. 2. C. canina, Miquel.— Stem flexible, rooting, climbing. Leaves ovate, or ovate- oblong, sometimes obliquely cordate at base, lower with about 5 nerves; upper 7-nerved and regularly cordate, all downy beneath, especially when young. Peduncles about as long as the petioles. Fruit red, oval, stalked. Blume, Act. Bat. xi. 214, f. 26; Miquel, Syst. Piper.; P. caninum; Rumphius, Amboin., v. t. 28, f. 2 ; Nees, Plant. Med. t. 22, f. 1; Roxburgh, FL Ind. i. 161; Lindley, Fl. Med. 314. A native of Java, Sunda Islands, the Moluccas, &c. Blume says that the Cubebs of commerce are chiefly furnished by this species, which has a smaller and shorter-stalked berry than that of C. officinalis, having a distinct anise flavour and is less pungent, but Dr. Lindley observes that he cannot per- ceive any difference in the taste of the dried fruit of the former, and the cubebs of the shops. Miquel is of opinion that the figures 2, 4, 5, of the 22d plate, in Nees, re- present another species, which he calls C. costulata. Cubebs are also fur- nished by C. borboniensis, of the Isle of Bourbon, and which Fee referred to P. caudatum, but which is a Brazil species. The Cubebs from the Cape of Good Hope, according to Miquel, are from C. capensis, and those from Guinea from C. clusii; this latter is probably Piper afzelii, which is stated by Smith in Rees' Cyclopaedia, and by Nees and others, to furnish Guinea Cubebs, and which Lindley says is very different from the above, and the quality of whose fruit is still to be ascertained. Miquel, in addition, believes that the Cubebs of commerce are also in part from C. sumatrana, C. nessii, and C. wallichii. The Cubebs ofthe shops somewhat resemble Black Pepper, but are lighter coloured, and are all furnished with a short stalk. The sarcocarp is thinner, the shell hard, and the seed spherical, white and oleaginous. The taste is acrid, peppery and camphoraceous; the odour is peculiar, aromatic, and rather agreeable. They contain Volatile Oil, Resin, Extractive, and a pecu- liar neutral principle called Cubebin. Their properties depend principally on the oil, which is transparent, light-coloured, and with the smell and taste of the berries. Cubebs do not appear to have been known to the Greeks, and Royle is of opinion that the Arabs became acquainted with them through the Hindoos. Pereira shows that they were used in England in 1305, where probably they became known on the return of the Crusaders from Syria. Medical Uses.—Cubebs are stimulant, and are employed as carminatives and stomachics in their native countries. From their exercising a special action on the genito-urinary organs, they have been used as diuretics, and some- PIPERACEiE. 569 times have proved of service, but their principal employment is in gonorrhoea. Some difference of opinion exists as to the stage of the complaint in which they should be administered; judging from their stimulating nature, their administration should be withheld, until the active inflammatory symptoms have subsided ; and this is the course advised by many eminent practitioners. Others, again, state that they are of most service in the most inflammatory forms of the disease. It has been said that they are apt to cause swelled testicles, but this does not seem to be the casein a greater proportion of cases than with any other remedy. It is generally admitted that if they do not mitigate the discharge in a few days, any longer use of them is improper. To do good, they must be given in as large doses as the stomach will bear with impunity. They have also been employed in leucorrhoea, and in catarrhal affections of the respiratory mucous membranes, especially when the secretion is copious, and the system relaxed. The dose of the powder is from ten grains to three drachms, according to the nature of the complaint. The oil is an excellent method of administra- tion ; the dose of it is from ten to twelve drops, gradually increasing, as long as the stomach will bear it. Combined with Copaiva, it is sometimes very effectual. Besides these species, a variety of others of this order have attained much reputation. Pothomorpha peltata, the Caapeba of Brazil, is considered as a most effectual diuretic, and has been highly recommended in strangury. (Flor. Med. Antill., iv. 14.) P. umbellata, which is also known in Brazil under the name of Caapeba, is there much esteemed in obstructions ofthe abdominal organs, and is thought to increase the action of the lymphatic system, and to promote all the secretions. A decoction of the leaves is also used in glandular swellings. (Martius, Travels, ii. 93.) The fruits of Peltolrryon longifolium, are substituted for Long Pepper, in some parts of South America ; and the root of P. parthenium is administered in Brazil as a remedy in mucous discharges ofthe genito-urinary organs and in menorrhagia ; whilst those of Serroniajaborandi, Enckea unguiculata, and E. glaucescens, are esteemed to be sialagogue. and diuretic. Peperomia incequifolium is used as a condiment in Peru, and the P. pellucida is so little acrid that its leaves are eaten as a salad. Micropiper methysticum, the Ava root of the South Sea Islands, has nar- cotic properties. When the fresh root is bruised and suffered to macerate with water, it forms an intoxicating drink, which is in universal use among the inhabitants of the Pacific Archipelago. The general mode of prepara- tion is to chew the root, and when a sufficient quantity is collected, to pour water upon it; when it is properly macerated, it is strained off, with certain ceremonies, and drank in large quantities. (See Narr. U. S. Explor. Expedit. iii. 115, 157.) This beverage is considered by them as a cure for syphilis, for which purpose they take sufficient to inebriate themselves ; this lasts for some time, and is succeeded by a most profuse perspiration, which they maintain as long as possible. The tincture of this root has been found beneficial in gout and chronic rheumatism. M. Lesson remarks that it is curious that the species of the Piperacese should be employed as a remedy in venereal affec- tions in so many countries, and among nations having no communication with each other. Thus in India, the Cubeba, in Tahiti the Micropiper, in Amboyna, the Chavica siriboa, in Mexico the C. amalago, and in Brazil one 570 MEDICAL BOTANY. or more species of Pothomorpha, are deemed efficacious in the removal of the various forms of venereal diseases. Another plant of this order has lately attracted much attention for its remedial powers, this is Artanthe elongata, Miquel (Piper angustifolium), a native of Peru, where it has long enjoyed much reputation as a hsemastatic, being called " Yerba del Soldada," or Soldier's Weed, from its reputed effi- cacy in arresting the flow of blood from wounds. It was first brought before the profession by Dr. FiS'247- Ruschenberger of the U. S. Navy, who obtained a know- ledge of it during 1834, whilst on duty on the Pacific coast of South America, and it has more recently been noticed by several practitioners in England and this country. It is generally supposed to be the plant men- tioned above, figured by Ruiz and Pavon, and of whose repre- sentation the accompanying cut is a copy. The first specimens brought by Dr. Ruschenberger were so much broken that it was difficult to ascertain more than the fact of their being fragments of a species of the Pepper tribe. The article at present in our market, being in a more perfect state, permits no doubt of its belonging to this order, at the same time the leaves are much less elongated and proportionally broader than those of the specimen figured by the authors of the Flora Peruviana, and the spikes or catkins are more cylindrical throughout their length. Dr. Scrivener in a letter to Dr. Ruschenberger states, there are three kinds of Matico, distin- guished by the colour of their stems; as red, white and brown, the former of which is esteemed the most efficacious. Dr. Lindley (Veg. King. 518,707) says, "In Peru the plant is called Moho Moho, and is extensively used for the same purposes as Cubebs, which this Pepper much resembles in smell." And in another place, " The famous vulnerary called Matico, and said to be derived from Artanthe elongata, is really, according to Mr. Hartweg, the Eupatorium glutinosum /" to this he subjoins the fol- lowing in a note, as derived from that gentleman. " Matico is the vernacular name applied by the inhabitants of Quito to Eupatorium glutinosum, or the Chussalonga, in the Quichua language. It forms a shrub 3—5 feet high, and is common in the higher parts of the Quitinian Andes, where its pro- perties have been discovered some years back by a soldier named Mateo, A. elongata. URTICACE^E. 571 better known under his nickname of Matico (little Matthew), who, when wounded in action, applied accidentally the leaves of some shrub to his wound, which had the immediate effect of stopping the bleeding. This shrub happened to be the Chussalonga, which has since been called in honour of its discoverer, Matico. That it is the true Matico of the inhabitants of Quito and Riobamba, I have not the slightest doubt." " I have also a small quan- tity of powdered leaves of some shrub possessing the same virtues as the Matico, collected in Bolivia, where it is known under the name of Moxo- Moxo. From bits of square stems which I find in the parcel, I suspect this to belong to some labiate." From this, it appears that more than one plant is known in South America under the name of Matico, and that they are all considered as hsemastatic. But it is equally certain that the specimens obtained by Dr. Ruschenberger, those now in our shops, and those experimented upon by Dr. Jeffreys and others in England, belong to one of the Peppers, and probably to the Artanthe; though, as before stated, some differences are observable between them and the figure in Flora Peruviana. Matico has been chemically examined by Mr. Mason, and found to contain Resin, and Volatile oil, but no Tannin. As a mode of arresting external haemorrhage, experiments show that some reliance can be placed upon it, though as is observed by Dr. Carson (Pereira, ii. 222), the mechanical pro- perties are instrumental in arresting the flow. This is proved by the fact that its under surface, which is covered with hairs, and so much reticulated as to appear spongy, acts more efficaciously than the upper. But it has like- wise been found of benefit in various internal complaints, where there is too copious a discharge, as menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, catarrhus senilis, &c. It is given in infusion, tincture, syrup, &c. See Carson, Pereira, Mat. Med.; Dunglison, New Remedies, 433; Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 385. Group XXXVIII.— Urticales. Order 92.—URTICACEM.—Endlicher. Flowers small, monoecious or polygamous, scattered or collected, in heads or catkins. Calyx membranaceous, lobed, persistent. Male : stamens definite, distinct, inserted cm the base of the calyx, opposite to its lobes; anthers often curved,inwards in asstivation, and turned backwards, elastically, when mature. Female : ovary superior, simple; ovule solitary, erect; stigma simple, fringed. Fruit a simple indehiscent nut, surrounded by the calyx. Embryo straight; radicle superior. An order of trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate leaves, having asperities, or stinging hairs, and membranous stipules. They are found in all parts of the world? Their great characteristic is the extreme causticity of the fluid secreted by the glands at the base of the hairs with which many of them are covered This is a well-known property of the common Nettle, but is far more remarkable in some of the tropical species, as the Urtica crenulata of the East Indies, which acts with almost as much virulence as the bite of a venomous reptile; U. stimulans, of Java, is almost as poisonous, but they are both exceeded by U. urentissa of Timor, the effects of which are said to last for a whole year, and even in some cases to cause death. The medical qualities of these plants are not remarkable, though several of them have been employed. Urtica dioica is esteemed diuretic and astnn- 572 MEDICAL BOTANY. gent, and a decoction of it, with salt, will coagulate milk as readily as rennet. The leaves and seeds of U. membranacea are considered, in Egypt, to be emmenagogue and aphrodisiac. A native species, U. pumila, which is quite smooth, is said to be an excellent application to inflamed parts, and to relieve the eruption caused by the Rhus ; its properties have not been fully investi- gated, and it deserves attention. Martius states (Travels, ii. 94), that several species of Bcehmeria, and more especially B. caudata, are employed in Brazil, with much success, in hsemorrhoidal tumours ; a decoction ofthe leaves is used as a bath or fomentation. In the same country an extract of Pilea muscosa is regarded as an efficacious remedy in dysuria. Several species of Parietaria have attracted notice: the P. officinalis, of Europe, is mentioned by Dioscorides, as beneficial in gout, and has been highly spoken of by many writers as very efficacious in diseases of the uri- nary organs, from its diuretic qualities; these are also to be remarked in P. erecta and P. diffusa ; they are said to contain more sulphur than any other plants. (Planche, Jour, de Pharm. viii. 367.) Order 93.—CANNABINACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers monoecious or dioecious. Male: in racemes or panicles. Calyx herbaceous, scaly, imbricated. Stamens few, opposite the sepals ; filaments filiform ; anthers termi- nal, 2-celled, with a longitudinal dehiscence. Female : in spikes or cones. Sepals single, covering the ovary. Ovary free, 1-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous, campylotropal; stig- mas 2, sessile, subulate. Fruit indehiscent, with a solitary, suspended seed. Exalbumi- nous ; embryo hooked or spirally coiled; radicle superior. A small order of herbaceous, rough-stemmed plants, with a watery juice, furnished with alternate-lobed, stipulate leaves, and small inconspicuous flowers. They were separated from the Urticacea? on account of their sus- pended seeds, coiled embryo, and want of albumen. They are found in the temperate parts of the old hemisphere, and are cultivated in many parts ofthe world. Cannabis.— Tournefort. Flowers dioecious. Male : flowers racemose. Calyx 5-parted, imbricated. Stamens 5, anthers large, pendulous. Female : flowers in spikes. Sepal acuminate, rolled round the ovary. Ovary roundish, with a single pendulous ovule, and 2 long filiform, glandular stigmas. Fruit ovate, 1-seeded; embryo coiled up, with the radicle parallel with the cotyledons. There appears to be but one species of this genus, the sativa, or Common Hemp, the indica differing from it rather in physical qualities than in botani- cal characters. Pereira states that he carefully compared specimens of the latter with those of the former, contained in the Linnasan Herbarium, and found the male plants identical; but that in C. indica the female flowers were more crowded than in those of the common hemp; he says in addition, that Mr. Anderson, of Chelsea Garden, has pointed out a distinguishing character- istic, that the C indica branches from the ground, whilst the C. sativa does not throw out branches for some feet in height; and also that the seed of the former is smaller and rounder. In warm countries, also, there is an exuda- tion of a resin which does not occur in Europe. These differences are evi- dently those of locality, cultivation, &c.,and cannot be considered as specific. CANNABINACEiE. 573 C. sativa, Linn.—Annual, covered with a very fine, rough pubescence, scarcely visible to the naked eye. Stem erect, branched, green, angular. Leaves alternate, or opposite, on long, lax petioles, digitate, scabrous, with linear-lanceolate, serrated segments ; stipules subulate. Flowers in axillary clusters, with subulate bracts ; males lax and drooping, branched, and leafless at base; females erect, simple, and leafy at base. Linn., Sp. PL 1457 ; Woodville, t. 27 ; Pereira, Elem. Mat. Med. ii. 211; Royle, 550; Lindley, FL Med. 299. Common Name.—Hemp. Hemp is a native of Persia and the Northern parts of India, whence it has been introduced into many other countries. It is cultivated in Europe, and this country, on account of the strong fibres of its bark, so extensively employed in the manufac- ture of ropes. The leaves were, at one time, used in cataplasms to indolent tumours, and the oil ofthe seeds has been advised as an injection in colica pictonum, and when made into an emulsion, has been thought to be emmena- gogue. It has been generally stated that the leaves have not the powerful properties of the Asiatic variety, but it does not appear that any fair trial has been instituted with them; if a strong resemblance in appearance, odour, and taste is to be assumed as indicating a similarity of properties, there should be no doubt of their identity of effects, except that in the variety grown in temperate and cold climates, the same intensity of action is not to be looked for, as in that inhabiting tropical regions. The C. sativa var. Indica, appears to have been used as an intoxicating drug in Asia and Egypt from the earliest times, and is at present employed with this view, in India, under the names of Churrus, Ganjah, Bang, or Subjee, according to the preparation; by the Arabs it is called Hashish; by the Turks, Malach, and by the Hottentots, who also are fond of it, it is termed Dachma ; and according to Martius, its narcotic and inebriating qualities are known to the negroes in Brazil. Dr. Royle is of opinion that it may probably be the Nepenthes of Homer, as the intoxicating or rather the soporific and grief-assuaging qualities it possesses, agree very well with those of the drug noticed by the ancient bard. It is employed in India in a variety of forms, the most powerful being Churrus, or the resinous exudation from the leaves, stems and flowers ; Bang is the larger leaves and capsules, and Ganjah is the whole plant in a dried state. The general effects of these, whether smoked, or taken internally in pill, decoction, &c, are alleviation of pain, great increase ofthe appetite, and of mental cheerfulness, aphrodisia, &c. Within a few years, it has been brought into notice as a medicinal agent by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, who attributes to it great powers in the treatment of rheumatism, hydrophobia, cholera, tetanus, &c. In consequence of his ob- servations it has been extensively experimented with in Europe; but the re- sults obtained, although in general favourable to the remedial properties of the drug, are by no means in unison, or entirely satisfactory as to its exact influence' on the system. (See Dunglison, New Remedies, 147 et seq.) It has been principally given in extract and tincture; the dose of the first is half a grain at first, gradually increasing the quantity of the tincture from 5 to 10 drops. Fig. 248. C. sativa. 574 MEDICAL BOTANY. Humulus.—Linn. Dioecious. Sterile flowers : sepals 5, oblong, concave, obtuse. Stamens 5 ; filaments capillary, very short; anthers oblong, vertical, 2-celled, dehiscing by 2 slits. Fertile flowers: catkin of many, imbricated, membranous, 1-flowered bracts. Calyx wanting, except a bracteole, which environs the ovary. Stigmas 2, subulate, spreading, downy. Achenium attached to the base of the enlarged, dry bracteole, roundish; pericarp hard, brittle, covered by roundish aromatic glands. This genus contains but a single species, which is officinal. Fig. 249. H. lupulus. a Male flower, b Femalo do. c Sepal or bracteole. d Bract. e Embryo. /Lupulinic gland. H. lupulus, Linn.—A pe- rennial plant, with annual, twining, angular, scabrous, sparsely hairy stems, twining from right to left. Leaves op- posite, on long petioles, the smaller ones cordate, the lar. ger 3—5-lobed, serrated, and very rough. Flowering branches axillary, angular, and scabrous. Stipules 2—4, between the petioles, ovate, reflexed. Flowers numerous, and of a greenish-yellow co- lour. The sterile ones very numerous and panicled. Se. pals 5, oblong, obtuse, spread- ing, concave. Stamens short; anthers oblong, opening by 2 terminal pores. The fertile flowers, on a separate plant, in the form of an ament, with each pair of flowers support- ed by a bract, which is ovate, acute, tubular at base. Sepals solitary, obtuse, smaller than the bracts, and enveloping the ovary. Ovary roundish, compressed; stigmas 2, su- bulate, tomentose. The bracts enlarge into a persistent cat- kin, each of them covering a nut, enclosed in its perma- nent bracteole, and some grains of a yellow resinous secretion. Linn., Sp. PL 1457; Eng. Bot. 427; Bige- low, Med. Bot. iii. 164, t. 60; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. i. 246; Lindley, Fl. Med., 296. Common Names.—Hop ; Hop-vine. Foreign Names.—Houblon, Fr. ; Luppulo, It. ; Hopfen, Ger. The Hop is a native of Europe, and probably of North America, as it was found by Mr. Nuttall, plentifully, on the banks of the Mississippi and Missouri. It is also indigenous in the Canaries, and is said to occur in China. It was known to the ancients, if it is, as is supposed, the Lupus salictarius of Pliny'. It was cultivated at an early period, for, in the ninth century, Hop grounds are spoken of as existing to some extent in Germany, and in the thirteenth in M O R A C E M. 575 Flanders, whence the plant was carried to England, in the reign of Henry VIII. Dr. Royle notices, as a curious fact, that at this time they were peti- tioned against " in regard they would spoyl the taste of drink, and endanger the people," in consequence of which it was ordered, " not to put any hops or brimstone into the ale." The Hop is extensively cultivated in Europe, and more especially in Eng- land, and also in this country, for its aments or strobiles, which are very largely employed in the preparation of malt liquors, and more sparingly in medicine. The female flowers, when fully ripe, are picked from the vines, dried in kilns, and packed in bags. Hops consist of thin, somewhat translucent, veined, leaf-like bracts or scales, of a greenish-yellow colour, having, near their base, two small, round, dark seeds. Their odour is strong and peculiar, but somewhat narcotic and fragrant; their taste is bitter, aro- matic, and a little astringent. These properties of Hops depend on the pre- sence of a peculiar resinous secretion, contained in the glands, which is called Lupulin, by Dr. A. W. Ives, of New York, who first brought it forward as a medicinal agent, though it appears to have been previously noticed by ob- servers in Europe. Lupulin can be obtained from the Hop by threshing, rubbing, and sifting the strobiles, of which it constitutes from one-tenth to one-sixth, by weight. It is in rounded or reniform grains, of a cellular texture, golden-yellow co- lour, and somewhat transparent; the axis round which the cells are arranged is called the hilum. By analysis Lupulin has been found to consist of: Vo- latile oil, Bitter principle or Lupulite, Resin, &c. The scaly bracts contain a small portion of lupulinic matter, and the usual vegetable constituents. The principal consumption of hops is in the manufacture of malt liquors, to which they communicate the bitter flavour and tonic properties. They have also been employed in a variety of forms in medicine. Medical Uses.—Hops are tonic and slightly narcotic; they sometimes prove diuretic, and are said to be useful in correcting the deposits of lithic acid. They are given internally to induce sleep, to relieve restlessness, and to alle- viate pain ; but frequently fail in fulfilling these indications. They have, like- wise, been employed externally with the same intentions ; thus, a poultice of hops has occasionally been found useful in allaying restlessness and inducing sleep. In the form of a cataplasm or fomentation, they have proved beneficial to painful swellings and tumours. An ointment has been recommended as an application to cancerous sores. When administered internally, all the good effects of hops may be obtained by the use of Lupulin; which is best given in pills, in doses of six to ten grains, or in tincture in those of half a drachm to a drachm. Lupuline may be likewise substituted for the hops in poultices, ointments, &c, with much advantage. Order 94.—MORACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers monoecious, inconspicuous, in heads or catkins. Male: calyx wanting, or 3__^..parted, imbricated. Stamens 3—4, inserted on the base of the calyx, and opposite to its segments; filaments usually shrivelled on the inner face ; anthers 2-celled, with a longitudinal dehiscence. Female: sepals 3—4—5, sometimes in two series. Ovary 1- celled occasionally 2-celled. Ovules solitary, pendulous, or amphitropal, with the fora- men uppermost; style terminal, bifid, with the lobes often unequal. Fruit, small nuts, or utricles 1-seeded, enclosed in a succulent receptacle, or collected in a fleshy head 576 MEDICAL BOTANY. formed by the consolidated succulent calyx. Seed solitary, with a thin, brittle integu- ment. Embryo in a fleshy albumen, curved. This order consists of trees and shrubs, with a milky juice, and furnished with leaves of various forms and texture, but most generally lobed and sca- brous, having large deciduous stipules. It is very closely allied to the next order, from which it mainly differs in the hooked form of the embryo. The species are natives of the temperate and warm latitudes of both hemispheres, except in Europe, where none are found truly indigenous. They are distin- guished for their milky juice, which in many cases contains much caout- chouc. Ficus.—Linn. Fig. 250. Flowers monoecious, placed on the inside of a hollow, fleshy receptacle, the extremity closed by a few scales. Sterile flowers irregular, of several unequal, membranous seg- ments. Stamens 1—5. Fertile flowers : calyx 5-parted, membranous, converging over a simple carpel, containing a solitary suspended ovule, and terminated by a subulate style, having a bifid stigma. Seed lenticular, hard, and dry. Embryo curved in a fleshy albumen. A very extensive genus of tro- pical plants, some species of which attain an enormous size, whilst others are small and insig- nificant. They all abound in a milky, acrid juice, containing caoutchouc; this is perceptible even in the common Fig. Many of them bear edible fruits, as that of the F. carica, or common Fig, so common, in a dried state, as an article of dessert. It is a native of Asia, but is now culti- vated in all temperate climates. The fruit, when ripe, is sweet, high-flavoured, and wholesome; but if eaten to excess, occasions flatulence and diarrhoea. There are numerous varieties, distin- guished by their form, size, and colour. In general, the fruit is solitary, axillary, more or less pear-shaped, of a yellowish co- lour, and a mild, mucilaginous saccharine taste. The larger proportion of them are used in a dried state, in which form they are imported from the Mediterranean, and principally from Smyrna, packed in boxes or drums. They are more or less compressed, and usually covered with a whitish saccharine powder. The dried fig is much more saccharine than the fresh, and consists principally of mucilage and sugar. They are laxa- tive, demulcent, and nutritious, and are mainly employed in medicine to act gently on the bowels in habitual constipation, but also enter into the compo- sition of some confections and electuaries. Roasted and split, they are some- F. carica. Section of fruit, b. Stamens. Styles. MORACE.E. 577 times used as poultices to gum-boils, and other circumscribed maturating tumours. One of the most celebrated species is the F. indica, or Banyan Tree, a native of the East Indies, and considered as sacred by the Brahmins. The branches of this tree spread to a great extent, and send down roots, which, striking root, and enlarging in diameter, become new trunks, so that it may gradually cover a great extent of ground. Roxburgh states, that he has seen them full five hundred yards in extent, the main trunk being twenty-five feet to the first branch, and eight or ten feet in diameter. Gum-lac is ob- tained from it; its white, acrid juice, is considered efficacious in toothache, and the bark is regarded, by the Hindoos, as a powerful tonic, and useful in diabetes. A still more venerated species is F. religiosa, or Pippul tree, the Brahmins fabling that their god Vishnu was born under its branches. F. dcemona of India, is pervaded by an extremely poisonous juice, and the leaves of P. septica are emetic, and its fruit so acrid as to be used to destroy fungous flesh. The bark of F. racemosa is astringent, and has been reputed to be efficacious in hsematuria and menorrhagia. The juice of the root is a powerful tonic (Ainslie, ii. 30). F. elastica furnishes caoutchouc in India, F. radula, elliptica, and prinoides in South America. The juice of some is very bland, and Lindley states, that some of the Cow-trees, as they are called, from their potable juice, are of this genus. The P. sycamorus fur- nished the imperishable wood of which the Egyptian mummy cases were constructed. Dorstenia.—Linn. Monoecious; flowers on a fleshy receptacle, usually flat and expanded, variable in form. Sterile: on the surface ofthe receptacle, 2-lobed, fleshy, diandrous. Fertile : immersed, also mostly 2-lobed. Ovary 1—2-celled, with a solitary suspended ovule in each cell; style 1; stigma 2-lobed. Seeds lenticular, embedded in the receptacle, projected from it elastically, when ripe. A genus of dwarf herbaceous plants, with scaly rhizomes, peculiar to the West Indies and South America. Their rhizomes have long been known under the name of Contrayerva, and attributed, by the various Pharma- copoeias, to one species, but it has been shown by Houston, Martius, and others, that the roots of several kinds are confounded under this appella- tion. 1. D. brasiliensis, Lam.—Root oblong, woody, praemorse, aromatic. Stemless. Leaves cordate, oblong, obtuse, crenulated, serrated or toothed, cucullate at base. Scape as long as the petioles. Receptacle orbicular, somewhat cup-shaped, crenated at the margin. Lamarck, Encyelop. ii. 314; Lindley, FL Med. 300; D. cordifolia, Swartz, Fl. Ind. Occ 21 h ; D. tubicina, Hooker, Bot. Mag. 2804 ; Caa- peba, Marcgrave. A native of Brazil and several ofthe West India Islands. Martius states, that this species is far more efficient than the D. contrayerva, and that it grows on mountains and not in low places, as is the case with the other Plants of the genus. The tuberous root is employed as an antidote against the bites of poisonous snakes, and in nervous fevers and general debility It sometimes acts as a mild emetic. It is much more powerful when fresh than when it has been kept any time. 37 578 MEDICAL BOTANY. 2. D. contrayerva, Linn.—Caulescent; Fig. 251. stem covered with spreading, green, scaly stipules. Leaves palmate; lobes lanceolate, acuminate, coarsely serrate, and gashed, sometimes almost pinnatifid. Receptacle on a long footstalk, quadrangular, waved or plaited. Linn., Mat. Med. 53; Willdenow, Sp. PL i. 683; Jacquin, Amer. iii. 614; Lindley, Fl. Med. 300. Occurs in Mexico, Peru, the West Indies, &c. This is the officinal species. 3. D. drakena, Linn.—Stemless. Leaves cordate, interruptedly pinnatifid, with the segments ovate, entire, acute. Receptacle oval, entire. Willdenow, Sp. PI. i. 683; Miller, Diet. No. 3; Houston, Trans. Roy. Soc; Lindley, Fl. Med. 301. Grows in Mexico, in the vicinity of » Vera Cruz. Lamarck considers it to D.contrayerva. be a mere variety of the last, but it differs in many essential characters from that species. This is much employed in Mexico, and was the source of the roots sent by Drake from Peru, to Clusius, who described them in his Exotica, 311. 4. D. houstoni. Miller.—Stemless. Leaves cordate, entire, or palmately angular, acute. Receptacle quadrangular, undulated. Miller, Diet. No. 2 ; Willdenow, Sp. PL i. 682 ; Houston, o. c.; Lind- ley, FL Med. 301. Found in high rocky ground in Campeachy, and forms part of the Con- trayerva of commerce. The roots of these plants have long been in use in South America and the West Indies under the name of Contrayerva, which means counter-poison. The first account of them is by Clusius from Monardes; in 1581 he de- scribed another root received from Sir Francis Drake, under the name of Drakena radix, which is supposed to be that of D. drakena. As found in the shops, it consists of prcemorse rhizomes of an inch or two long, rough, hard and scaly, with numerous radicles attached to the lower part. It has a somewhat aromatic odour, and a slight bitterish, warm taste. It yields its properties to nlcohol and boiling water. They depend on a Volatile oil, Resin, and Bitter extractive. They evidently are those of D. brasiliensis and not of D. contrayerva, which Pereira says is not met with in commerce. Medical Uses.—Contrayerva is a stimulant tonic and diaphoretic, much resembling Serpentaria in its properties, and by which it has been superseded in practice, being seldom employed in this country. The dose in powder is a scruple to half a drachm. The best form of administration is the infusion. Other species have been noticed: thus, Gomez describes D. arifolia, which has the properties of brasiliensis, but is not as active. Descourtilz (Flor. Med. Antill. iv. 105) speaks of D. caulescens of Haiti as having the qualities of Parietaria. ARTOCARPACEiE. 579 The different species of Morus, as the nigra of Europe, and rubra of this country, bear edible fruits, which are lax- ative and cooling; their bark is said to be cathartic and anthelmintic. M. alba has a vermifuge root, but is most important on account of its leaves being the favourite food of the silk-worm. The wood of M. tinctoria is well known in commerce under the name of Fustic, and is much used as a yellow dye. A native plant, Madura au- rantiaca, has a tinctorial wood, which is very hard and elastic, and is much used by the Indians for bows, whence its common name of Bow-wood. The inner bark of Broussonetia papyrifera, or Paper Mul- berry, is generally employed in the South Sea Islands in the manufacture of clothing. Fig. 252. Morus nigra. Order 95.—ARTOCARPACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers monoecious, in dense heads. Sterile: calyx sometimes wanting, and having the stamens mixed with scales; or of 2—4 sepals, often united in a tube, with only a rudi- ment of a limb. Stamens opposite the sepals, and usually equal in number to them ; filaments sometimes connate; anthers 2-celled, erect or incumbent, rarely peltate. Fer- tile flowers variously arranged on a fleshy receptacle of different forms ; calyx tubular, limb 2—4-cleft or entire. Ovary free, 1-celled; ovule erect and orthotropal, or amphi- tropal and parietal, or pendulous and anatropal; style lateral or terminal, usually bifid, if undivided, with a lateral or radiating stigma. Fruit variable, having a fleshy involucre, or composed of aggregated fleshy calices, containing numerous, huts. Seeds erect, pa- rietal or pendulous. Embryo with albumen, straight. A strictly tropical order containing many important plants, though few have any medicinal properties. They are all trees or shrubs abounding in a milky juice, with alternate, simple, oftentimes lobed leaves, having large deciduous stipules. The most useful spe- cies are those of Artocarpus or Bread- fruit, which furnish so large a proportion of the food of the South Sea Islanders. Although all the species afford an edible fruit, the most esteemed is produced by A. incisa and its numerous varieties. That of A. integrifolia or Jack fruit is much inferior, though also used. The famous Cow Tree or Palo de Vacca of South America, which yields a copious supply of a rich and wholesome, fluid re- sembling milk, is a species of Bromisum ; another plant of this genus, B. alicastrum, abounds in a tenacious, gummy milk. a. incisa. The seeds known under the name of Bread Nuts are much esteemed in Jamaica as an article of food. A decoc- tion of the leaves of Cccropia peltata is said by Dr. Ricord Madiana tc be an antidote to the poison of Passiflora quadrangular is (Ann. Lye. Nat. 580 MEDICAL BOTANY. Hist. i. 131), and Piso (Bras. 72), that it is astringent and useful in diseases of the bowels. A decoction ofthe leaves of Musanga cecropioides is said to be a powerful emmenagogue (Tucker, Expedit.); the seeds are edible. Phy- tocrene gigantea, a large tree of Birmah, is stated by Wallich to discharge a large quantity of a pure and wholesome fluid when an incision is made in the trunk. The fruit of Pourouma bicolor is sub-acid and mucilaginous, and, according to Martius, worthy of cultivation. Castilloa elastica affords caoutchouc, and the beautiful wood known as Snake-wood, is the product of Piratinera guianensis. One of the most virulent plants yet discovered is the Antiaris toxicariaox Upas tree of Java, and although the accounts of its fatal influence have been much exaggerated, it has been fully established that it is extremely poisonous. Mr. Leschenault states that a man he persuaded to ascend one of the trees, suffered severely, not only with an eruption and swelling of the body, but also from vertigo, nausea and vomiting; other persons experience no inconveni- ence from the exhalations. It is stated by Lindley, that the fatal effects of the juice when administered internally, are owing to the presence of Strych- nia, but MM. Pelletier and Caventou (Ann. Chim. xxvi. 44) were unable to detect this alkaloid in it. Cloth manufactured from the tough fibres of its bark,- will excite the most excessive itching and irritation in those that wear shirts made of it. Blume is of opinion that this poison acts principally on the vascular system, but from experiments made with it in Europe, it evidently operates powerfully on the cerebro-spinal apparatus. Notwithstanding its virulence, it has been employed medicinally, but even in very minute doses is apt to produce the most excessive vomiting and purging. From another species of Antiaris, sacks are made in Western India, by detaching the bark in an unbroken piece from a section of a branch or trunk, by beating the latter with clubs until the fibre is loosened, and then stripping it off entire. Group XXXIX. —Amentales. Order 96.—ALTINGIACEA5.—Lindley. Flowers monoecious, in rounded aments or heads. Females on longer peduncles than the males, which are surrounded by a deciduous, 4-leaved involucre. Male: anthers nu- merous, oblong, nearly sessile, destitute of calyx, but having a few minute scales. Fe- male: ovaries 2-celled, collected into a globe, each surrounded by a few scales. Styles two, long. Ovules indefinite, attached to the dissepiment; amphitropal. Fruit a kind of strobile, formed of the indurated capsules and scales. Capsules 2-celled, 2-beaked, opening between the beaks, several-seeded (or 1-seeded by abortion). Seeds compressed, membranous, winged, peltate, with a) little fleshy albumen. Embryo inverted. Radicle short, superior. This small order contains but one genus, Liquidambar, the species of which are tall trees yielding a balsam, and having alternate, simple or lobed leaves, with glandular serratures at the edge, and furnished with deciduous stipules. They are natives of the warmer parts of Asia, the Levant, and North America, in the latter of which one species is found as high north as 42° latitude. It was at one time supposed that these trees furnished the Sty- rax of commerce, but this idea is now shown to be erroneous; they, however, afford a liquid balsam, of a somewhat analogous character, and which appears to have been much more in use formerly than at present. This balsam, SALICACE^E. 581 which is known under the name of Liquidambar, Liquid styrax, Copaline balsam, &c, is derived from three of the species. Most of that used in Europe comes from the Levant by way of Trieste, and is furnished by L. orientate; some is also brought from India, and is produced by L.altingia; and part is sent from Mexico, where it is obtained from the L. styraciflua, or Sweet gum, which species is also found in the United States, but pro- duces scarcely any balsam, except in the most southern parts of the country. By boiling the branches, a smail quantity may be obtained; from some experiments I made a few years since in the vicinity of Baltimore, where this tree abounds, I found that it existed in the largest proportion, just before the appearance of the leaves, and in young trees. Liquidambar, when pure, is .about the consistence of honey, of a yel- lowish colour, of a pleasant balsamic odour, and a bitter, hot, acrid taste. It has the properties.of the other balsams, but is seldom employed in this country. Order 97.—SALICACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers dioecious, amentaceous, naked, or with a membranous, cup-like calyx. Male: stamens distinct or monadelphous. Anthers 2-celled. Female : ovary superior, 1-celled or imperfectly 2-celled. Ovules numerous, erect, anatropal. Styles or stigmas two, often 2-cleft. Fruit a sort of follicle, opening by two valves. Seeds numerous, ascending, co- vered with long, silky hairs, springing from their base, exalbuminous. Embryo erect. Radicle inferior. Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple leaves, frequently with glands at the edge, or on the petioles, furnished with deciduous or persistent stipules. They are natives of the temperate and cold regions both of the northern and southern hemispheres. This order contains many species that are valuable on account both of their medicinal qualities, and of their use in the arts. They all have a more or less bitter bark, which is astringent and tonic, and contains two peculiar principles, termed Salicine and Populine, tannin, &c. Salix.—Linn. Flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious, amentaceous, each with a single flexible bract; a gland around the stamens or ovary. Male: stamens 1—5 or more. Anthers 2-lobed, with a longitudinal dehiscence. Female : ovary ovate, 1-celled, many-seeded. Style ter- minal, permanent. Stigmas two. Capsule ovate, 1-celled, with two revolute, concave valves. Seeds numerous. A large genus, principally peculiar to the temperate and cold regions of both hemispheres. The bark is tonic and astringent, and was employed at a very early period, being spoken of by Dioscorides ; it appears to have been occasionally used, but did not attract much attention from the profession until about 1763, when it was brought forward as a remedy in intermittents, since which time it has been frequently prescribed. The number of species of Wil- low is very great, and as in all of them the bark is analogous, differing only Fig. 254. 582 MEDICAL BOTANY. in some degree in bitterness, they may all be considered as medicinal. The British Colleges recognise as officinal, S. fragilis, S. alba, and S. caprcea, but other European species are fully as efficient, as S. helix, S. russelliana, S. pentandra, and S. purpurea. The United Stales Pharmacopoeia, there- fore, only recognises the genus without designating the particular species. Among our native Willows, S. nigra, S. eriocephala, and S. conifera, are, perhaps, the most efficient. Michaux speaks ofthe first of these as affording a powerful bitter root employed as a preventive and cure in intermittents. Willow bark varies in appearance and qualities, according to the species from which it is obtained, and the age of the plant. When dried, it is usu- ally in rolled pieces, is fibrous, somewhat flexible, and difficult to pulverize. It has a slight aromatic odour, and a bitter, astringent, but peculiar taste. It has been often analyzed, and the honour of having discovered its active principle is claimed by several chemists, as Buchner in Germany, Fontana and Rigatelli in Italy, &c. Salicin is obtained by several processes, one of which, proposed by Messrs. Tyson and Fisher (Jour. Phil. ColL Pharm. iii. 214), is simple, and gives good results. Salicin is in silky or scaly crystals, of a white colour, is soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether. These solutions are neutral, but exceedingly bitter. If sulphuric acid be added to it, a blood-red colour is produced. It possesses tonic properties analogous to the sulphate of quinia, and is said to be less liable to offend the stomach, and affect the nervous system. Notwith- standing the praises bestowed on it by some writers for its febrifuge powers, it is far inferior in this respect to quinia ; and the opinion of it expressed by Ballard and Garrod (Mat. Med. 399) I agree in fully, namely, that it is ineffi- cient as a tonic, when compared to the Cinchona alkaloids ; as a simple bit- ter, however, it appears to rank with Gentian, Calumba, &c, its principal good effect being seen in the improved appetite which sometimes follows its use. It may be mentioned that Quinia is often adulterated with this substance, and that it has been imported for this purpose ; but the fraud may always be de- tected by testing with sulphuric acid. The dose is from ten to thirty grains. Populus.—Linn. Male : ament cylindrical, loosely imbricated. Bract single-flowered, cuneate, lacerated. Calyx turbinate, oblique, entire. Stamens eight or more, very short, capillary. Anthers drooping, large, quadrangular. Female : flower as in male. Ovary ovate, pointed. Style none. Stigmas four or eight, subulate. Capsule 1-celled, with two concave valves. Seeds numerous, small, ovate, beset with long wool. These are trees, with roundish, often cordate leaves; the petiole often bi- glandular ; the buds sometimes balsamiferous, the floral ones appearing earlier than the leaves. The species are most numerous in North America. The bark resembles that of the Willows, and has the same properties ; that of P. tremuloides has been employed in domestic practice with some success as a febrifuge and tonic. In P. balsamifera, it is said to be cathartic, and to be useful in rheumatism and gout. The buds of most ofthe species are aromatic and abound in a balsamic juice, especially in P. balsamifera; this is collected, and has received the name of Tacamahaca, from its resemblance to the resinous product of the Fagara octandra, which bears that appellation. This balsam is said to be diuretic and antiscorbutic. The buds of the European species are used in the preparation of an ointment in France, &c, which has much reputation in the treatment of wounds, bruises, and tumours. MYRlCACEiE. 583 Order 98.—MYRICACEA^—Lindley. Flowers monoecious or dioecious ; both kinds achlamydeous and amentaceous. Sterile flowers: stamens 2—8 in the axil of a scale-like bract, anthers 2—4-celled, with a longi- tudinal dehiscence. Fertile: ovary 1-celled and 1-ovuled, surrounded by several hypogy- nous scales, in the axil of a bract; stigmas 2, subulate or dilated and petaloid. Fruit dry and drupaceous, often covered with a waxy secretion. Seed solitary, erect, exalbu- minous. Radicle short, superior. Small trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple leaves, with or without sti- pules. They, as well as the branches, are covered with resinous glands or dots. The species are found in both Americas, Cape of Good Hope, and India. One species is also a native of Europe. They are all aromatic, and are generally possessed of astringent and tonic properties. Myrica.—Linn. Sterile aments ovate-oblong; bracts loosely imbricated. Calyx of 1—2 subulate scales. Stamens 4, with short, capillary, erect filaments. Anthers vertical, large, with 2 divided lobes. Fertile aments like the sterile, but more compact. Sepals 2, ovate, acute, scale- like. Ovary ovate, flattish, superior. Stigmas 2, filiform, spreading, longer than the calyx. Fruit baccate, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Seed erect. This genus consists of aromatic shrubs and small trees, having alternate, mostly entire leaves, covered with resinous dots. They are natives of North and South America, Cape of Good Hope, and Europe. In some of them the fruit is covered with a wax-like, aromatic coating. M. cerifera, Linn,—Leaves cuneate-lanceolate, with a few acute serratures near the top. Sterile aments loose. Bracts acute. Fruit spherical. Linn., Sp. PL 1453; Torrey, Comp. 372 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. iii. t. 43; Marshall, Arbust. 94 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 305. Common Names.—Wax myrtle ; Wax-berry ; Bayberry, &c. This species is found in damp places in many parts of the United States ; it is very abundant in New Jersey. The hard berries are studded oyer with small, black granulations, and covered by a white, mealy crust, consisting of a kind of wax. This can be separated, by placing the berries in boiling water, when it will melt and collect on the surface of the fluid, and, on be- coming cool, congeal into a concrete substance, of a pale-green colour, agree- able odour, more brittle than wax. This is employed in some parts of the country for candles, and also forms the basis of a fine soap. It appears to have astringent and slightly narcotic properties, and was successfully em- ployed by Dr. Wm. Fahnestock in an epidemic of typhoid dysentery. He gave it in doses of one or two drachms, and is of opinion that its active prin- ciple is the green colouring matter (Am. Jour. Med. Sci. ii. 313). Rafi- nesque states that a tincture of the berries with HeracUum is beneficial in flatulent colic. . The bark of the root is acrid and stimulant, and in doses of a drachm causes a sensation of heat in the stomach, followed by vomiting, and some- times diuresis. When chewed, it acts as a sialagogue, and has proved useful in toothache. The powder is an active errhine. The leaves have some celebrity in domestic practice as antispasmodic, antiscorbutic, and astringent. The other native species, M. pennsylvanica, M. carohnensis, and M. gale, probably are very similar in their properties. The last-named species is 584 MEDICAL BOTANY. also indigenous in Europe, where an infusion of the berries is thought to be efficient in the cure of itch, and as a vermifuge. In Sweden, the leaves are used as a substitute for hops in brewing. The fruit of M. sapida, of Nepaul, is large as a cherry, and is said to be pleasantly acid and edible. M. cor- difolia, of the Cape of Good Hope, furnishes a wax, which Thunberg states is eaten by the natives. Comptonia.—Aiton. Flowers monoecious, amentaceous. Sterile : in long, cylindrical, loosely im- bricated catkins, with deciduous, 1-flow- ered bracts. Stamens 6, adhering in pairs. Fertile : in ovate, densely imbri- cated catkins, with 1-flowered bracts. Sepals 6, larger than the bracts. Styles 2, capillary. Fruit an ovate, 1-seeded nut. The only species of this genus is a native of the United States. It was considered by Linnaeus to be- long to Liquidambar, and was in- cluded in Myrica by Gronovius. C. asplenifolia, Aiton. — Shrubby. Leaves sessile, narrow-lanceolate, some- what pinnatifid, brown and rather downy beneath, and shining above. Aiton, Hort. Kew. iii. 334; Will- denow, Sp. PL iv. 320; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. i. 221, 1.19; Ra- finesque, Med. Flor. i. 115. Common Names.—Sweet Fern; Fern-bush ; Spleenwort Gale, &c. It is a low shrub, which has an aromatic fragrance when rubbed or bruised between the fingers. It is very common throughout the Unit- ed States, and is much employed in domestic practice, though seldom prescribed by physicians. Schoepf, on the authority of Colden, states that masticating the root will check o. asplenifolia. a spitting of blood, and also thatit is useful in rachitis and the debility succeeding to fevers. Its true character seems to be that of a mild astringent tonic, and hence has proved useful in diarrhoea. Dr. W. P. C. Barton says that he found a weak decoction of it, properly sweetened, a grateful drink to children suffering from the summer complaint, and a useful auxiliary in the treatment of this disease. It is used in some parts of the country as a fomen- tation in rheumatism and contusions. CORYLACE^E. 585 Group XL. — Quemales. Order 99.—CORYLACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers generally monoecious; sterile flowers in aments, with a scale-like or regular calyx, and the stamens 1—3, the number of its lobes. Fertile flowers solitary, 2—3 to- gether or in clusters, with an involucre which encloses the fruit, or forms a cup at its base. Ovary crowned by the rudiments of the adherent calyx, 2—6-celled, with 1—2 pendulous ovules. Stigmas several, subsessile, distinct. Fruit a bony or coriaceous 1-celled nut, more or less enclosed in the involucre. Seed solitary, exalbuminous. Em- bryo large, with fleshy cotyledons. Radicle minute, superior. This very important order is composed of trees and shrubs, with alternate, simple, straight-veined leaves, having deciduous stipules. They are found in the temperate regions of both continents. Some are natives of tropical countries, but only on high lands. The main property ofthe order is astrin- gency, depending on the presence of tannin and gallic acid. A narcotic prin- ciple, which has been called Fagine, is found in the husks of the Fagus syl- vatica or Beech. The nuts of most of the species are edible, as those of the Chestnut, Hazel, and some kinds of Oak. In some, again, they are bitter and unpleasant. In a memoir by Mr. Duhamel (Amer. Jour. Pharm.), he states that Dr. Henbener, of Bethlehem, had employed the short, rigid hairs of the involucre of Corylus rostrata as a substitute for those of Mu- cuna, and found them to be equally anthelmintic. Qtjercus.—Linn. Flowers monoecious, amentaceous. Sterile flowers, with membranous bracts. 4—5- or more cleft. Stamens 5—10, short, subulate. Fertile flowers: involucre hemispherical, t imbricated, coriaceous, 1-flowered. Calyx in 6 minute, sharp, downy segments, closely surrounding the base of the style. Ovary globose, 3-celled, with 2 ovules in each. Style solitary, short and conical; stigmas 3, obtuse, recurved. Nut single, oval, coriaceous, indehiscent, 1-celled, attached by a broad scar to the involucre. Embryo solitary ; radi- cle superior. A very large and important genus, principally of trees, rarely shrubs, with evergreen or deciduous leaves, which are entire or sinuately lobed. A large proportion of the species are natives of North America. They are of far greater use in the industrial arts, than as affording medicinal agents, their general character being that of astringents. It would be useless to at- tempt even to enumerate the species, and therefore only such ofthe species as have been employed in medicine, will be noticed. I. Q. alba, Linn.—Leaves oblong, pinnatifid-sinuate, pale or pubescent beneath ; lobes oblong, obtuse, mostly entire; cup deep, tuberculate; gland ovate. Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 448 ; Michaux, N. A. Syl. i. 17; Torrey, Comp. 359; Barton, Comp. FL Phil. ii. 171. Common Names.—White Oak. A large tree, found in all parts of the Union, but most common in the Mid- dle States, and much esteemed for its wood, which is extensively employed in ship building. The bark is officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. When prepared for use it is deprived of its epidermis ; it then presents a coarse fibrous texture, is tough, and separates into short filaments when attempted to be pulverised. It is of a yellowish-brown colour, has but little odour, and 586 MEDICAL BOTANY. an austere bitterish taste. It contains Tannin, Gallic acid, and Extractive, the former of which predominates. A decoction of it is employed as an astrin- gent in diseases of the bowels, in certain hemorrhages, and as a wash in prolapsus ani, haemorrhoids, &c.; as an injection in leucorrhoea and gonor- rhoea ; as a bath in diseases of children, where a tonic impression is wished to be made, and the condition ofthe stomach contra-indicates an internal use of remedies ; it is also beneficial as a gargle in a relaxed condition of the fauces, and in an aphthous state of the mucous membrane. Externally it is useful as an application to flabby and ill-conditioned ulcers; and a poultice ofthe ground bark has proved of service in gangrene and mortification. 2. Q. tinctoria, Michaux.—Leaves ovate-oblong, slightly lobed, pubescent beneath; lobes oblong, obtuse, mucronate; cup flat; gland depressed-globose. Michaux, N. A. Syl. i. 91 ; Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 444 ; Torrey, Comp. 357; Barton, Comp. Fl. Phil. ii. 168. Common Names.—Black Oak, Quercitron, &c. This is one of the largest of our native species, and is of great importance from its bark forming an article much employed for its tinctorial qualities, and largely exported under the name of Quercitron. It should be noticed, however, that the barks of several other species are indiscriminately used for this purpose, as those of Q.falcata, Q. rubra, &c. This is officinal in our Pharmacopoeia, but is not as much employed internally as that of the White Oak, being apt to irritate the bowels. Where an external astringent is re- quired, it is preferable to that species, from containing more tannin and gallic acid. Several other American oaks afford barks of similar properties to the alba, and may be substituted for it, as Q. prinos, Q. palustris, Q. bicolor, Q. montana, &c. Fig. 256. Q. pedunculata. o. Male catkins, b. Stamens, c. Female involucre and stigmas, d. Young fruit, e. The same magnified. /. A cotyledon with the radicle. CORYLACE^E. 587 3. Q pedunculata, Willdenow.—Leaves sessile or on short petioles, obovate-oblong sinuated; lobes entire or nearly blunt; cup hemispherical; gland oblong, obtuse, much longer than the cup. Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 450; Lindley, Fl. Med. 291 ; Q. robur, E?ig. Bot. 1342; Stephenson and Churchill, iii. 151. Common Names.—English Oak ; Common Oak. A large tree, found in most parts of Europe, and remarkable for its Ion* gevity. It was well known to the ancients, and was considered as'sacred by most of them. The medical properties of its bark are noticed by Galen and Dioscorides, the latter of whom speaks ofthe astringent character of its inner bark. This is employed in the same manner and for the same purposes as that of the Q. alba. Another European species, Q. sessiliflora, has similar properties. 4. Q. infectoria, Olivier.—Leaves ovate-oblong, sinuate-dentate, very smooth, deci- duous ; cup hemispherical, scaly ; gland long, obtuse, much longer than the cup. Olivier, Voyage, ii. 64, t. 14, 15; Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 436 ; Stephen- son and Churchill, iii. 152 ; Lindley, Fl. Med. 291. Common Names.—Gall Oak. This is a small tree or shrub peculiar to Asia Minor, and is celebrated from its affording the Gall nuts of commerce. All the oaks bear these ex- crescences, but except in this and a few other species, they are light and spongy, and comparatively of little value. They are produced in the same manner, namely, by the puncture of the buds by a fly to form a nidus for its eggs. In this instance it is a species of Diplolepis that thus wounds the plant. In consequence of the puncture, irritation is induced, the juices of the tree flow to the part, and a semi-organized tumour is formed round the larva, which, when it has attained maturity, perforates the gall and escapes. These excrescences were known to Hippocrates, and are described by Dioscorides but as the fruit of the Oak. Galls are imported from the Medi- terranean ports, but originally are derived from various places in Asia Minor. There are several kinds or qualities recognised in commerce: the dark-co- loured, which are the most valued, consist ofthe gall when it has attained its full growth, but before it is pierced by the insect to escape; these are tumid, and termed green, blue, or black, according to their tint; the light-coloured or white galls are such as have been gathered after their perforation by the fly, and are considered inferior, being less heavy and compact. The best qualities are also known under the name of Aleppo Galls, and a secondary grade under that of Smyrna. Of late years a third kind has appeared for sale, imported from India. These, Dr. Royle states, are derived originally from Bassorah, and further says, that when Dr. Falconer was travelling in the Punjab, he was informed that galls were produced on the Balloot Oak, Q. ballota. Galls are spherical, of various sizes, having numerous small tubercles on their surface. The best are of a bluish or greenish colour externally, and grayish within; hard, solid, with the exception of a small cavity in the centre, formerly occupied by the insect. They are without odour, but have a very astringent, bitter taste. They yield their properties both to water and alcohol, but most readily to the former solvent. They contain much tannin and gallic acid, with the usual constituents of vegetable bodies. Braconnot has discovered another acid, which he calls Ellagic, but it is doubtful whe- ther it is not a product, rather than an educt. From the quantity of Tannin and Gallic acid contained in Galls, they are 588 MEDICAL BOTANY. powerfully astringent, but are seldom administered internally, though some- times given in cases of obstinate chronic diarrhoea. In the form of infusion they are used as a gargle, injection, or wash, and are also frequently em- ployed in the form of an ointment, made with one part of galls very finely powdered, to six or eight parts of lard ; this has been found very beneficial in haBmorrhoidal tumours. The infusion or tincture is a good antidote in cases of poisoning by the vegetable alkaloids. 5. Q. suiter, Linn.—Leaves ovate-oblong, entire, serrate, tomentose beneath; bark fis- sured, spongy. Linn., Sp. PL, 1070. Common Names.—Cork tree; Cork oak. The Cork tree is a native of the southern part of France, Spain, Portugal, and Barbary. Although it can scarcely be said to afford any medicinal sub- stance, the important uses of its bark in pharmacy, renders it proper to no- tice it. This bark consists of several layers, the second of which is com- posed, almost exclusively, of cellular tissue ; this is light, porous, and elas- tic, and is well known under the name of Cork. The bark is naturally de- tached from the tree when it has at- tained a certain age ; but, in such case, is not as well fitted for use, as when artificially removed, which can be done without injury to the tree, as the liber is not separated from the subjacent wood. It would be out of place to ad- vert to the numerous uses of Cork in the arts, in which no good substitute q. suber. for it has yet been discovered. It was at one time employed in medicine, and was thought to act as a styptic when applied in the form of powder. It has also been thought beneficial, when burnt, and formed into an ointment with sugar of lead and lard, as an application to haemorrhoids. Several other species of oak have attracted notice for their properties or products. The acorns of Q. cegilops are used by dyers, under the name Ve- lonia : and those of Q. ilex form an article of food in many parts of southern Europe. Q. mannifera, of Koordistan, secretes, during hot weather, a large quantity of saccharine matter from its leaves, which is made into sweet- meats. (Lindley, Veg. King. 291.) Q. coccifera is infested with an insect belonging to the genus Coccus, from which the Kermes is prepared, so much employed in dyeing scarlet, before the introduction of cochineal. Order 100.—JUGLANDACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers monoecious. Sterile flowers in aments, with membranous, oblique, and irre- gular bracts. Stamens indefinite. Fertile flowers few, clustered with the ovary, adhe- rent to the ovary, the limb small, 3—5-parted, sometimes with as many small petals. Ovary 2—4-celled at base, 1-celled at the apex. Ovule solitary, erect, on the point of a JUGLANDACE^E. 589 central column ; styles 1—2, very short; stigmas 2—4, unequal, fringed, sometimes ses- sile and 4-lobed. Drupe 1-seeded, the sarcocarp fibrous-fleshy and coherent or coriaceous and dehiscent. Nut 2-valved or valveless. Seed erect, exalbuminous, 2—4-lobed at base, and partially divided by dissepiments. Cotyledons oily. Radicle short, superior. These are all trees, with a watery or resinous juice, and furnished with.al- ternate, pinnate, exstipulate leaves. They are principally natives of North America; a few occur in Asia, among which is what is here called the Eng- glish Walnut, so generally cultivated in Europe for the sake of its nuts. The bark of most of them is acrid and purgative, as is also the rind ofthe fruit. Juglans.—Linn. Monoecious. Sterile ament imbricated; bracts usually 5-parted; calyx 5—6-parted ; stamens 18—36. Fertile flowers, with the calyx 4-cleft, superior; corolla of 4 minute petals; styles 1—2. Drupe with a fibrous-fleshy, indehiscent sarcocarp; nut more or less rugose, irregularly furrowed. These are large trees, mostly natives of North America, but the original species, J. regia, on which the genus was founded, is indigenous to the borders of the Caspian Sea. One species is officinal in the U. S. Pharma- copoeia. J. cinerea, Linn.—Leaflets numerous, lanceolate, serrate, rounded at base, soft-pubes- cent beneath; petioles villous. Fruit oblong-ovate, with a terminal projection, viscid and hairy, but oblong, acuminate; deep, and irregularly furrowed. Linn., Sp. PL; Torrey, Comp. 357 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. ii. 115, t. 32 ; Carson, Pereira, Mat. Med. ii. 761 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 307 ; J. cathartica, Michaux, N. A. Sylva, i. 160. Common Names.—Butternut; White Walnut. This tree, which is inferior in size to the Black Walnut, is found much more plentifully in the Northern and Western than in the Middle States. In the spring it abounds in a saccharine juice from which a good sugar can be made. The fruit, when quite young, is made into pickles ; but are not equal for this purpose to those of the English walnut. The kernel of the ripe nut is oily, but pleasant-tasted. The bark is employed for dyeing wool; it is very acrid, and in a fresh state will inflame the skin. The officinal portion is the inner bark, especially of the root, and should be collected in May or June. It has a fibrous texture, a slight odour, and a bitter sub-acrid taste. It yields its properties to boiling water. Dr. Carson states that Mr. S. Wetherill found in it: Fixed oil, Resin, Saccharine matter, Lime, and Potass, a peculiar principle, (extractive?) and Tannin. Dr. Bigelow, in his examination of it, detected neither tannin or r^sin. Medical Uses.—Butternut is a pleasant and mild cathartic, somewhat of the character of Rhubarb, and is well suited to cases of costiveness, and other bowel affections. It has obtained much celebrity in the treatment of dysen- tery. It is always given in extract or decoction, never in substance. The dose of the extract is from five to twenty grains, according to circumstances. Dr. B. S. Barton was of opinion that it possesses somewhat of an anodyne property (Collections). A decoction is said to be efficacious in murrain of cattle, and yellow-water in horses. The J. nigra, or Black Walnut, has a styptic and acrid bark, seldom used except for tinctorial purposes. The rind ofthe unripe fruit is said to remove 590 MEDICAL BOTANY. ringworm and tetter ; and a decoction has been given as a vermifuge with some success. J", regia, or English Walnut, is well known for its edible nuts, and is frequently cultivated on this account. In its native country it is stated by Spencer, ( Trav. in Circassia, ifc.,) to afford a sweet, clear juice, which is consi- dered to be valuable in diseases ofthe lungs and general debility. The very young fruit, bruised, and formed into a conserve, by boil- ing with sugar, forms a mild purgative; in a more advanced stage they are much used for pickling. The rind has been recommended as an anthelmintic. From the kernels much oil is extracted, especially in Cashmere, where, according to Mr. Vigne (Travels in Kashmir), 12,000 ass loads of them are annually employed in this way. The oil is used both for food and for burning. The other plants of this order have little interest in a medical point of view, but the timber ofthe different species of Carya is well known under the name of Hickory, and is much esteemed on account of the hardness and elasticity ofthe wood. Their leaves are usually aromatic, and are stated to possess antispasmodic properties. Their bark is tinctorial, and in those species hav- ing bitter nuts, as C. amara and C. porcina, is somewhat astringent. Some of them bear fruit that is much esteemed, as that of the C. olivceformis or Peccan nut, and C. sulcata or Shellbark. Group XL I. — Euphorbiales. Order 101.—EUPHORBIACE.E.—Ji/Miew. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, arranged in various ways, often in an involucre re- sembling a calyx. Calyx inferior, with various glandular or scaly internal appendages (sometimes wanting). Corolla absent, or consisting of petals or scales equal in number to, or more than the sepals, or monopetalous. Stamens definite or indefinite, distinct or monadelphous; anthers 2-celled, sometimes opening by pores. Ovary of 2__9 more or less united carpels, usually stalked; styles as many as carpels, distinct, coherent or want- ing; stigma compound, or single with many lobes. Fruit usually tricoccous, of 3 carpels, usually opening elastically by one or both sutures, sometimes fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds with a large embryo, in a fleshy albumen, suspended, often with an aril. This very extensive order is most abundant in tropical regions, but species are to be found in all parts of the world, from 50 to 60 being natives of North America. It consists of trees, shrubs, and herbs, some of which are leafless, succulent plants, of a deformed unsightly appearance. A great number of them are poisonous ; the deleterious principle residing in a milky secretion, and in many cases is proportionate to the quantity ofthe fluid; but this is not always the case, as in some instances they yield caoutchouc, and the source whence this article is obtained is principally the Siphonia elastica, but numerous plants, both of this and other orders, likewise afford this substance. The order has been divided into several tribes, most of which include medicinal plants. Fig. 258. J. regia. EUPHORBIACEjE. cqi iTribeu,' ^^"^"^.-Ovule 1. Seeds with an aril; exalbuminous? Involucre globose, bladder-like, opening on one side, deciduous, containing from 3—6 flowers, which are dioecious and apetalous. Little is known respecting the plants of this group. Tribe 2. Euphorbia.—Ovule 1. Seeds albuminous. Flowers monoecious, apetalous, sexes mixed in a cup-like involucre. Euphorbia.—Linn. Flowers in monoecious clusters, contained in an involucre, formed of a 5-cleft leaf, with 5 glands alternating with the divisions. Sterile flowers, monandrous, articulated with their pedicel, surrounding the central fertile flower, which is naked and solitary. The ovary is pedicellate, with 3 forked stigmas. Fruit hanging out of the involucre, formed of 3 cocci, bursting elastically at the back, and each containing a single suspended seed. This very extensive genus contains so many species having active proper- ties, that it would require a volume to notice them at any length. Their general character is that of acridity, in some, to such a degree as to be poi- sonous, whilst in others it is merely sufficient to render them emetic, cathartic, &c.; and in some again it is so diminished, that their juice is mild and nu- tritious, as in the E. balsamifera, which is eaten in the Canary Islands. (Nees and Eberm.) The succulent, leafless, or nearly leafless species, are almost all very active, and afford a resinous juice known as Euphorbium, and em- ployed from a very early period as an emetic and purgative; it is noticed by Dioscorides and Pliny, and appears to have been much in vogue at one time, but is now seldom prescribed on account of its exceedingly irritating powers; it is not known with certainty which species furnished it, but it has been ascribed to the following. 1. E. antiquorum, Linn.—Branches spreading, triangular or quadrangular; angles sinuated and armed with double Fig. 259. spines at the protuberances. Peduncles single or in pairs; 3-flowered. Stamens 5. Linn., Sp. PL 648 ; Rheede, Hort. Malabar., ii. t. 42 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 192. A native of India, Arabia, &c. This species is stated by Rheede to have a purgative bark, and many authors are of opinion that it furnishes some of the Euphorbium, but it is said by Hamilton ( Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv.), and Royle (Mat. Med. 541), to be compa- ratively, inert. J E. antiquorum. 2. E. canariensis, Linn.—Shrubby, erect. Branches with from 3—4 angles, armed with double, hooked, dark, shining spines. Flowers somewhat sessile, below a pair of spines, having an ovate, concave, green bract on each side. Linn., Sp. PL 646 ; Willdenow, Sp. PL ii. 882 ; Lindley, Fl. Med. 192. A native of the Canary Islands, and recognised by the Dublin Pharmaco- poeia as the officinal species, and likewise stated by Martius to be the origin of the gum-resin, but, as is observed by Pereira, this cannot be the case, as this article does not come from these islands, but from Morocco. 3. E. officinarum, Linn.—Stems short, tufted, naked, prickly, with many angles; spines in pairs, short, thick, and strong. Linn., Sp. PL 649; De Candolle, PL Crass. 647; Stephenson and Churchill, hi. 142 ; Lindley, FL Med. 192. 592 MEDICAL BOTANY. A native of Africa and Arabia, recognised by the London and Edinburgh authorities as producing Euphorbium, and may perhaps be the plant spoken of by Jackson (Morocco) under the name of Dergmuse. Whether it is this plant or not, it is certainly very active, as Forskal states 7 or 8 drops of the milk will purge actively. Some other of the succulent species are equally powerful. According to Ainslie (Mat. Ind. ii. 134), the juice of E. tirucalli of India is caustic, and will cause violent vomiting and purging. Sonnerat states that the milk is prescribed mixed with flour as a remedy in syphilis (Ency. Met.) The juice of E. tribuloides is employed in the Canaries as a sudorific. (De Can- dolle, Essai, 260.) That of E. heptagona, a native of Africa, is said by Virey to be so virulent that the milk is used for the purpose of poisoning arrows by the natives. Nor are the species with conspicuous leaves less efficient and dangerous in many instances. Some of them, however, are useful remedial agents, and two of them are recognised as officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 4. E. ipecacuanha, Linn.—Root irregular, succulent, of great length, sometimes ex- tending to a depth of 6—7 feet. Stems numerous, erect or procumbent, dichotomous, white below the surface, red, pale-green, or yellow above. Leaves opposite, sessile, of various forms, but usually oval, entire except at the apex, which is sometimes emargi. nate; stipules small, cordate. Flowers on single 1-flowered peduncles, varying in length. Seeds 3, in as many cocci. Linn., Sp. PL 653 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. iii. 108, t. 52 ; Barton, Veg. Mat. Med. i. 213, t. 18 ; Lindley, Med. Flor. 195. Common Names.—Wild Ipecac ; American Ipecacuanha, &c. Found in many parts of the United States, especially in dry, sandy soil. The root, which is the part employed, is milky when fresh, and in the dried state is light and brittle, of a grayish colour externally, white within, without odour, and of a somewhat sweet, not unpleasant taste. No correct analysis of it has been made; Dr. Bigelow judged from his experiments that it con- tained Resin, Caoutchouc, Gum, and probably Starch; this latter was found in some quantity in it by Mr. Cullen. This root was spoken of as emetic by Schoepf, Puihn, Dr. B. S. Barton, and others, but does not appear to have attracted particular notice until Dr. W. P. C. Barton announced it " as equal in importance, if not, on some accounts, superior to the common Ipecacuanha of the shops." The experience of sub- sequent experimenters with it does not coincide with this; and it is now gene- rally considered as a tolerably certain and energetic emetic, but like all its tribe, apt to operate on the bowels, and in over-doses, to act with extreme violence. The dose is from ten to fifteen grains. Dr. Barton states, that in small quantities it determines to the skin. 5. E. corollata, Linn.—Root large, branching. Stems several, erect, round, some- times simple. Leaves scattered, sessile, oblong, obovate, or linear, somewhat revolute at the edges, either smooth or a little hairy. Umbel 5-rayed, with as many bracteal leaves. Rays repeatedly trifid or dichotomous, each fork with 2 bracts and a flower. Invo- lucre large, rotate, white, with 5 obtuse, petal-like segments, with 5 interior, very small obtuse ones. Many ofthe plants are wholly staminiferous. Linn., Sp. PL 658; Bigelow, Med. Bot. iii. 119, t. 53; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. i. 181; Lindley, FL Med. 196; Zollickoffer, Amer. Jour. Bled. Sci. and Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. v. 163. Common Names.—Milkweed; Ipecac; Bowman's Root, &c. euphorbiacea:. 593 This is also a native of the United States, and in some places is very abundant, usually in a dry sandy soil. The root, which is the officinal part, is inodorous and almost tasteless. Its examina- tion by Dr. Zollickoffer, who introduced it to the notice of the profession, gave the same results as those obtained by Dr. Bigelow in the last-men- tioned species. It has the same pro- perties as the E. ipecacu- anha, but is more active, and is therefore objection- able in many cases, from its tendency to cause hy- percatharsis. It acts as an emetic in doses of fif- teen or twenty grains,and as a diaphoretic in those of three or four grains. The recent root, contused and applied to the skin for a few moments, will create a pustular erup- tion. 6. E. hypericifolia, Linn.—Annual. Stalk somewhat procumbent, smooth, dichoto- mous. Leaves opposite, oblong, somewhat falciform, serrated, often marked with purple spots. Flowers small, terminal, fasciculate. Linn., Sp. PL 652 ; Torrey, Comp. 331 ; Zollickoffer, Am. Jour. Med. Sci. and Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. v. 70; Rafinesque, Med. Flor. i. 183. Common Names.—Milkweed ; Black Purseley, &c. Common in all parts of the United States, in gardens, fields, &c. The whole plant is stated by Dr. Zollickoffer, who first introduced it into the Ma- teria Medica, to be astringent and narcotic. It has a somewhat sweetish taste, followed by a sensation of austereness. It is directed to be given in infusion made with half an ounce of the dried plant to a pint of boiling water. This, Dr. Zollickoffer has found very beneficial in dysentery, in doses of a tablespoon- ful every hour. He also used it in menorrhagia and fluor albus in wineglassful doses twice a day with success. In addition to the above, many other species are deserving of a short notice. The E. lathyris, or Caper Spurge, often found in gardens, but whose native country is unknown, was much employed as a purge in former years; the bark of the root and stems acts both as an emetic and purgative, but the seeds were generally employed, and are said to have been used to procure abortion. In the old Pharmacopoeias it is called Cataputia minor, and is one 38 Fig. 260. E. corollata. 594 MEDICAL BOTANY. of the plants ordered by Charlemagne to be grown in every garden. The seeds afford much oil, which has been highly spoken of by Calderini, and others, as a mild purgative in doses of 6 or 7 drops. In trials made with it in this country, it was found always to induce nausea, and even vomiting. (Scattergood, Jour. Phil. Coll. Pharm. iv. 124.) E. ligularia, of India, is said to be alexipharmic, for which purpose the root is mixed with black pep- per. (Roxburgh.) E. nereifolia, also an East India plant, is spoken of by Ainslie (Mat. Ind. ii. 97), as used by the Hindoo practitioners as a purgative and deobstruent, and also as proving diuretic. Externally it is employed, mixed with Margosa oil, in contracted limbs. Loureiro says it is an unsafe remedy. E. capitata, of Brazil, is praised by Piso (Bras. 102), as very ef- ficacious in the bites of venomous snakes; it is given internally, and also ap- plied to the wound. Ainslie (ii. 14) speaks of it as useful in aphthous affections. The root of E. gerardiana, of Europe, is cathartic and emetic, and is said by Deslongchamps (Man. PL Indig. 2), to be the best and safest of the European species. E. esula, also a native of Europe, is very acrid, and ac- cording to Scopoli (Flor. Cam. 435), has caused death in a dose of thirty grains. E. peplis, E.peplus, E. falcata, &c, of Europe, purge actively, and E. cyparissias is a virulent poison, having in more than one instance de- stroyed life. Hooker (Brit. Fl. 326) says that E. hibernica is used in some parts of Ireland to poison fish, and that it is so powerful that a small basket of it will stupefy these animals for several miles down a river. E. piscatoria is employed in the same way in Asia. E. pityusa, of Southern Europe, is highly spoken of by Deslongchamps, and others, as a purgative. According to Ainslie, E. thymifolia, of India, is a little aromatic and astringent, and is used by Ta- mool physicians as an anthelmintic, and in certain bowel affections of children, and Forskal states, that it is esteemed as a vulnerary among the Arabs. Several ofthe species have been thought beneficial in syphilitic complaints, as E. parviflora and hirta in India, E. linearis, in South America, E. hiber- nica and canescens in Europe. It may, in fact, be stated that no species of this numerous genus is destitute of active properties. Besides Euphorbia, other genera of this tribe are possessed of remedial properties; thus Pedilanthus tithymaloides, of the West Indies and South America, is employed in venereal cases, and is also esteemed as an emmena- gogue. Descourtilz states that it has the properties of Ipecacuanha in doses of 12 to 15 grains. Tribe 3. HippomanEjE.—Ovule single. Flowers apetalous in spikes; bracts 1, many- flowered. Most of the plants of this tribe are active and poisonous, and several have been employed as medicines, though none of them are officinal in the British or U. S. Pharmacopoeias. Hura crepitans, or the Sand Box tree of tropical America, has an exceedingly acrid juice, a drop of it applied to the eye will cause blindness. The seeds are a drastic and dangerous purgative. The Hippomane mancinella, or Manchineel, of the same regions, is still more poisonous. A drop of the juice will almost immediately produce a blister when applied to the skin. The fruit, which resembles a small apple, has a pleasant smell, but is so acrid as to destroy the skin of the lips if attempted to be eaten, and if swallowed, induces violent inflammation of the stomach. The juice of Sapium aucuparium, a native of Colombia, is also venomous, and the emanations from it will induce an erysipelatous inflammation; these properties are common to another species, & indicum, found on the shores of the Ganges. The seeds are employed to intoxicate fish. The juice of Excce- caria agallocha, of the East Indian Archipelago, causes severe inflammation euphorbiacea:. 5o5 and ulceration, and the smoke of it, when burnt, will induce severe ophthalmia. The sap of Commia cochinchinensis is said by Loureiro to be emetic, purga- tive, and deobstruent, and has proved useful in dropsy and visceral obstruct tions. Others of this tribe are possessed of milder qualities. Maprounea brasili- ensis yields a black dye, and a decoction of the root is given in derangement ofthe stomach {St. Hilaire). The juice of Colliguaja odorata is acrid, but the wood exhales a pleasant odour when burnt. Stillingia sylvatica, or Yaw Root, of the Southern States, is stated to be purgative, alterative, and anti-syphihtic, and is employed in obstinate cutaneous affections and lues venerea (Barton, Collections). S. sebiferum, or Tal- low-tree of China, has become naturalized in South Fig.26i. Carolina and Georgia. Its berries are coated with a white, tallow-like substance, which is employed in China to make candles, and is useful instead of lard in ointments; when mixed with oil of mustard, it is prescribed as an external application in India in fevers (Ainslie, ii. 433). S. sebiferum. Tribe 4. Acalyphe^e.—Ovule single. Flowers apetalous, in clustered spikes or racemes. The roots of Tragia involucrata are considered by Hindoo doctors to be an excellent alterative; and Rheede says that a decoction of it is useful in sup- pression of urine. That of T. cannabina is deemed diaphoretic and altera- tive (Ainslie, ii. 367); and T. volubilis, of Jamaica, according to Browne (Jam. 336), is diuretic and aperient. Mercurialis perennis and annua, of Europe, are poisonous, producing the usual symptoms of the acro- narcotics, yet the leaves appear to have formerly been used as a pot-herb. Several species of Acalypha have been deemed medicinal: the root of A. indica gives a cathartic decoction, whilst that of the leaves is gently laxa- tive. A. betulina is much esteemed in India as a stomachic in dyspepsia and cholera, and also as an alterative. A native species, A. virginica, is stated by Elliott (Sketches) to be a good expectorant and diuretic. The juice of Om- phalea triandra turns black in drying, and is used for ink in Guiana; the fruit, as well as that of O. diandra, is edible, and affords an oil, which is said to be of service in parturition; the flowers are astringent (Flor. Antill. ii. 52). Nees and Ebermaier refer the bitter and tonic Alcornoque bark to Al- cornea latifolia, but Humboldt states that it is furnished by Bowdichia. Tribe 5. CrotonEjE.—Ovule single. Flowers usually with petals; in clusters, spikes, racemes, &c. Croton.—Linn. Flowers monoecious, rarely dioecious. Calyx 5-parted. Sterile flowers: Petals 5. Stamens 10 or more, distinct. Fertile: Petals wanting. Styles 3, in 2 or more divi- sions. Capsule tricoccous. This large genus consists of herbaceous and shrubby plants, with stipulate, alternate, or rarely opposite leaves, with a stellate pubescence. They are principally natives of the warmer parts of America and India. Their pro- perties are very various, and many are important as medicinal agents. 1. C. cascarilla, Linn.—Flowers dioecious, in short, dense, terminal, downy spikes. Leaves variable in breadth, linear, entire, obtuse, mucronate at tip, smooth on the upper 596 MEDICAL BOTANY. surface, covered with a scaly down beneath ; 2—3 glands at base, hidden by the yellow- ish tomentum. Linn., Sp. PL 1424; Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 531; Lindley, Fl. Med. 179; C. lineare, Jacquin, Amer. 256, t. 162, f. 4. This species, which is a native of the West Indies, was generally supposed to yield Cascarilla bark; but it has been clearly shown by Dr. Lindley that such is not the case; in this opinion he is supported by Dr. Wright, who states that this species is a native of Jamaica, and that it has none ofthe sen- sible properties of Cascarilla. It may be stated, in addition, that neither Sloane nor Jacquin notices any bitter aromatic qualities in the present plant. My own observations in the West Indies coincide with these. But although Cascarilla is not the product of this species, it is likely, as Guibourt sug- gests, that it may be obtained from more than one of the others; it certainly is by the following. 2. C. eleuteria, Swartz.—A small tree. Branches angular, somewhat compressed, downy, ferruginous, striated. Leaves petiolated, alternate, ovate, with a short, obtuse point, entire, faintly nerved, green above, with a few scattered grayish dots, silvery, and very tomentose beneath; petioles short, scurfy. Racemes axillary and terminal, with numerous subsessile flowers; sterile above, fertile below. Stamens 10—12. Swartz, FL Ind. Occ ii. 1183; Stephenson and Churchill, 150; Lindley, Fl. Med. 180; Pereira, Mat. Med. ii. 229 ; Royle, Mat. Med. 534. A native of many of the West India Islands, and furnishes the Bahama Cascarilla. This bark, according to Pereira, was first mentioned by Stisser in 1686 (De Machin.fumiduct.), it being at that time mixed with tobacco for smoking. Royle states it was made known by Garcias in 1692, since which it has always maintained a place among the legitimate articles ofthe Materia Medica. As found in the shops, it is either in rolled fragments of various sizes, having a whitish or whitish-gray epidermis, beneath which it is of a brown colour, the inner surface being of a chocolate tint; or it may be in very thin fragments, not covered by an epidermis, and often with laminae of wood ad- hering to the inner surface, as if the bark had been removed from the plant by means of a sharp instrument. This variety is probably the product of another species; the first agrees with the bark identified by Dr. Lindley as produced by the C. eleutheria ;* may not the second be obtained from C. micans, which is stated by Nees to yield Cascarilla? This bark has a peculiar aromatic odour, which is much increased by fric- tion, or by the action of heat, and a warm, spicy, bitter taste. From an ana- lysis by Mr. Duval, it appears to contain Albumen, Tannin, a Bitter, crystal- lizable substance, which he terms Cascarilline, Red colouring matter, Volatile oil, Resin, &c. (Royle, Mat. Med. 534). The Cascarilline is white, odour- less, bitter, sparingly soluble in water, but readily so in alcohol and ether. The bark yields its properties to alcohol, and partially so to water. It is a stimulating tonic, and was at one time much employed as a substitute for Cinchona, but is now mainly restricted to cases where a more stimulating article is required, as in dyspepsia, and chronic diseases of the bowels. It is in some instances a useful addition to the more purely tonic bitters. The * Dr. Lindley {Veg. King. 279) says the question is now set at rest, from the receipt of authentic specimens, with the following note from Mr. Lees, Chief Judge in the Ba- hamas : "The plant is scarcely known here by the name of Cascarilla, but is commonly called Sweet-wood Bark, and often Eleuthera Bark, because it is chiefly gathered on the island of Eleuthera. It is the only bark receiving the name of Cascarilla exported from the Bahamas." euphorbiacea:. 597 dose of the powder is from ten grains to half a drachm, but it is more gene- rally prescribed in infusion. 3. C. pseudo-china, Schlecht.—Young shoots covered with a dense, brown scurf. Leaves large, cordate-ovate, obtusely acuminate, 3—5-nerved, nearly or quite entire, green and smooth above, silvery, and scaly beneath; petioles scurfy, silvery, half the length of the leaves. Racemes axillary, simple; flowers monoecious, with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and 1 0—15 stamens. Schlechtendahl, Linn. v. 84; Lindley, Fl. Med. 180 ; C. cascarilla, Don, Edinb. Phil. Journ, xvi. 368. Indigenous to the Terra caliente or warm country of Mexico, and accord- ing to Deppe, furnishes the Quina blanca or Copalchi bark of Xalapa, and in his opinion, the Cascarilla of European commerce. Don also assumed it as certain that it affords this product, and therefore proposed to change the name to C. cascarilla. But it has been satisfactorily shown that Copalchi bark differs in many respects from Cascarilla, though allied to it in its pro- perties. It was supposed at one time, that this bark was derived from- C. suberosum of Humboldt, which is employed in Peru as an aromatic purgative. It should be noticed that another bark is known in South America under the name of Copalchi, and is supposed by Virey and Guibourt to be yielded by Strychnos pseudo-quina. 4. C. tiglium, Lam.—A middle-sized tree. Young branches terete, smooth, shining, somewhat furrowed towards the extremities. Leaves oval-oblong, acute, 3—5-nerved at the base, acuminate at the point, with small glandular serratures, and having 2 glands at base, covered, especially when young, with stellate, sparse hairs. Petioles fur- rowed. Racemes terminal, erect. Flowers downy, ste- rile, with a 5-cleft calyx, 5 lanceolate, woolly petals, and 15 distinct stamens ; fertile, with a 5-cleft, permanent calyx, and long and bifid styles. The capsules are oblong, obtusely triangular, about the size of a hazel-nut; 3-celled, each with a solitary seed. Lamarck, Encyelop. ii. 208 ; Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. iii. 682 ; Stephen- son and Churchill, i. 4 ; Lindley, Fl. Med. 181 ; C. jamalgota, Hamilton, Trans. Linn. Soc xiv. 258. A native of India, and cultivated in some parts of the West Indies. It Fig. 262. C. tiglium. 598 MEDICAL BOTANY. yields some ofthe seeds from which Croton oil is prepared, and is recognised as the officinal species. These seeds are very much the shape of the Castor oil bean, of a dark yellowish-brown, or even blackish ; when the epidermis has not been removed, they are yellowish. The inside is of a whitish-yellow colour, oleaginous, odourless, with at first a mild and oily taste, which soon becomes acrid and burning. They are powerfully cathartic, and are used in India, after having been slightly roasted, and their testse removed ; about a grain, or half a seed will cause full purgation. They owe their powers to the presence of a fixed oil, in combination with a peculiar acid, the Crotonic, and to a brown soft resin. In Europe and this country, the oil only is em- ployed ; this is known under the name of Croton oil, and is a compound of many of the constituents of the seeds. When pure and fresh it is nearly colourless, but by age becomes viscid and yellowish. It has a feeble but un- pleasant odour, and an acrid taste, which is very lasting. Croton oil is a violent drastic purgative, capable, in over-doses, of destroying life. It is applicable to cases where it is of importance to make a speedy and powerful impression on the bowels, and where the patient has difficulty in swallowing. It is also beneficial in obstinate costiveness, or a torpid condition ofthe digestive canal. It has likewise proved of much service as a revulsive, in affections of the head. It has of late been much used as an external counter-irritant, to relieve diseases of internal organs, especially in affections of the respiratory pas- sages. It causes rubefaction, and if continued, or employed in an undiluted form, creates a pustular eruption. When applied in this way it sometimes acts on the bowels, and in children has caused severe purgation. The dose of the oil is from 1 to 3 drops; usually given in the form of a pill, or in emulsion, but the first form is preferable. The oil found in commerce is not solely obtained from the seeds of the C. tiglium, as some of that from India, as well as part of the seeds them- selves, are derived from C. pavana, and perhaps from C. polyandrum. The former of these are, in the opinion of Dr. Hamilton, the original Tiglium or Tilly seeds, the Grana moluccana of Rumphius; the latter are called Jamalgola in India, in common with those ofthe C. tiglium, and C. pavana. (See Dunglison's New Remedies, 481.) Numerous other species of Croton are possessed of active properties: C. draco of Mexico furnishes a red juice, which hardens into a fine variety of Dragon's blood, and is used in its native country as a vulnerary and astrin- gent; the same kind of product is derived from C. sanguifluus and C. hibiscifalius, of South America. C. lacciferum of Ceylon, has an aromatic and purgative bark; its juice is aromatic, and employed as a vulnerary, whilst its branches furnish a small quantity of fine lac. C. balsamiferum also has a resinous juice, which, like that of the last species, is said to be vulnerary, and is used as such in some of the West India Islands. A spirituous liquor, called Petit baume, is distilled from it in Martinique, and is said to be beneficial in irregular menstruation. C. perdicipes of Brazil is there employed in syphilis, and as a diuretic; whilst the C. campestris of the same country is purgative, but likewise deemed remedial in venereal disorders. C. thurifer and C. adipatum of South America yield a resin resembling frankincense; C. humilis is esteemed for its aromatic properties in the West Indies, as is C. gratissimus at the Cape of Good Hope. C. origanifolius affords a balsam somewhat like Copaiva, whilst its leaves and bark are sudorific. C. antisyphiliticum is very stimulating, and even dangerous in over-doses ; according to Martius, the leaves are made into cataplasms and EUPH0RB1ACE.E. 599 applied in cases of bubo, and an infusion of its leaves given internallv in syphilis in Brazil. (Jour. Chim. Med. v. 424.) Ricinus.—Linn. Flowers monoecious. Calyx 3—5-parted, valvate. Sterile: stamens numerous, un- equally polyadelphous. Fertile : style short. Stigmas 3, deeply bipartite, oblong, fringed, coloured. Ovary globose, 3-celled, with an ovule in each cell. Fruit mostly aculeate, capsular, tricoccous. A genus of trees, shrubs, and herbs, with alternate, stipulate, palmate, peltate leaves, having glands at the end of the petiole : the flowers are in terminal panicles; the lower male, the upper female. They are natives of India, Africa, and the West Indies, and one species has become naturalized in most warm climates. R. communis, Linn.—Leaves palmate-peltate. Lobes lanceolate, serrate. Stem herba- ceous, pruinose. Stigmas 3, bifid. Capsule aculeate. Linn., Sp. PL 1430 ; Woodville, t. 61 ; Stephenson and Churchill, i. 50; Lindley, FL Med. 183. Common Names.—Castor-oil bush ; Palma Christi. Description.—Plant glau- cous, very variable in size; in the United States it is an annual of about 5 or 6 feet in height, whereas in tropical countries it attains the size of a small tree, and is perennial. Root long, thick, and fibrous. Stems round, thick-jointed, furrow- ed, of a purplish colour above. Leaves large, deeply divided into seven or nine segments, on long, tapering, purplish footstalks. Flowers in long, green, glaucous spikes, springing from the divisions of the branches. Capsules prickly. Seeds ovate, shining, of a gray colour, marbled with black. This species is a na- tive of India, and has become naturalized in many warm climates ; it is extensively cultivated in many parts of the United States. Willde- now has considered the perennial varieties as specifically different from the annual, but as no other difference than such as are caused by climate are discoverable, he is evidently in error. It is certain that seeds of the R. communis. a Stamens, b Anther, c Stigmas, d Capsule, e Seed. / Embryo. 600 MEDICAL BOTANY. arboreous Palma Christi of the West Indies, will produce herbaceous plants in this country, differing in no respect from those in common cultivation. The Castor oil was known in the earliest ages, since Caillaud found some of the seeds in Egyptian sarcophagi of the most remote antiquity. It is considered, by many eminent writers, to be the plant spoken of in Scripture, and which, in our translation, is called Gourd (Jonah, chap, iv.) It is noticed by Herodotus and Hippocrates, the latter of whom employed the root. By the Romans, it was called Ricinus, from a fancied resemblance of its seeds to the dog-tick. The oil is obtained from the seeds by decoction, by expression, or by alcohol; the former of these modes is pursued in the East and West Indies, and is apt to afford an acrid and irritating product; the second, which is that pursued in this country, when properly conducted, gives a bland and colourless result; the third has been tried in France, and although the oil thus obtained is very pure, it is apt to become speedily rancid. Scarcely any oil is imported; what is used being made in this country, whence large quantities are sent abroad. Castor oil is of a thick, viscid consistence, almost colourless, or of a slight yellow colour, with a faint but unpleasant odour, a mild and nauseous taste, succeeded by a feeble sensation of acrimony. It is heavier than most of the fixed oils. When exposed to the air it gradually thickens. When pure it is soluble in its own volume of alcohol. It consists of Volatile oil, several Fatty acids, Glycerine, &c. Medical Uses.—It is a mild cathartic, operating promptly without gri- ping, and acting rather as a mere evacuant, than in increasing the intestinal secretions. It is admirably calculated for children, delicate or pregnant females, and also for all cases where it is merely wished to open the bowels, or where they are in an irritated condition, precluding the use of other pur- gatives. The only disadvantage attendant on the administration of this re- medy, is the extreme disgust it occasions in a majority of persons, not from its taste, but from the unpleasant and nauseous sensation created in the throat and fauces from its adhering to them. Various modes have been devised to obviate this, by mixing it with hot coffee, milk, &c.; the best plan, where the stimulus is not contra-indicated, is to mix it with the froth of porter. In infants, the best plan is to float it on the surface of hot mint or cinnamon water. The dose, for an adult, is about a fluid ounce; for an infant, from one "to four fluid drachms. It has been stated that its cathartic action is not in a ratio with the dose, and that a teaspoonful or two will often operate as effec- tually as a larger quantity. (Dunglison, Therap. i. 164.) A vast number of species, belonging to this tribe, are possessed of much interest in a medical point of view; but it would be impossible to notice them all, even in the briefest manner, within the limits assigned to this work. The following are, however, of too much importance to be passed over. The seeds of Anda gomesii are employed in Brazil as a purgative, two or three acting safely and speedily; Martius states, that in emulsion they sel- dom create nausea. The oil from them has been tried here, and it was found that 50 drops would open the bowels, and a larger quantity would in- duce several discharges. (Smith, Phil. Jour. Pharm. iv. 27.) The bark is lactescent, and is used to intoxicate fish ; when toasted, it is considered very effectual in diarrhoea. Siphonia and Hevea afford the Brazilian and Suri- nam caoutchouc. The nuts of Aleurites triloba are considered, in Java, to be aphrodisiac when they are roasted; in a fresh state, they are purgative. EUPHORBIACE^E. 601 The oil from them is used in Tahiti for burning. A. laccifera furnishes Gum-lac in Ceylon. The seeds of Elcecocca verrucosa of Japan, and E. ver- nilia of China, afford oil too acrid to be used for food; but that from the first is good for burning, and ofthe latter for painter's work. The different species of Jatropha and Curcas all produce seeds abound- ing in an acrid and purgative oil; that from J. glauca, is stated, by Ainslie, to be much esteemed by Hindoo practitioners as an external application in chronic rheumatism and paralysis. The seeds of C. purgans are very active, and have been called Purging nuts; their oil is sometimes sold as Croton oil, and has been beneficially used as an external irritant. Those of C. mullifida act as an emeto-cathartic, and it is said that their operation is brisk, but without inconvenience; any inordinate action being checked by the administration of a glass of wine. Among the most important plants of this tribe is the Janipha manihot, or Mandioc, so extensively cultivated in all tro- pical countries for the sake of its roots; these sometimes attain an enormous size, and in a recent state are poisonous, being filled with a deleterious juice; this is removed by crushing or grating the roots, and pressing the pulp. As the poisonous principle is volatile, any that remains is driven off in cooking the commi- nuted mass. This juice is, however, used as a condiment, under the name of Cabion. Ac- cording to Martius, an acre of Manioc yields as Janipha manihot. much food as six acres of wheat. The flour obtained from these roots is toasted on iron plates, and in this state is called Cassava, and forms a healthy and nutritious food. The fecula is what is called Tapioca. Another species or variety, Janipha aipi, is said, by Pohl, to have a harmless root, and is probably the sweet Cassava of Lunan, (Hort. Jam.) Tribe 6. Phyllanthe^e.—Ovules in pairs. Stamens in the centre of the flower. The bark of the Briedelias is astringent, especially that of B. spinosa, which, besides its tonic power, is reputed to be anthelmintic (Roxburgh). In Cluytia collina of India, according to the same authority, the rind of the capsule is exceedingly poisonous. The Andrachne cadishaiv is very delete- rious, but its leaves are employed as a caustic to ill-conditioned ulcers, (Ainslie, ii. 487.) Several species of Phyllanthus are likewise made use of in India : P. niruri has a bitter and astringent root, successfully prescribed in jaundice; half an ounce rubbed in milk, given twice a day, is said to effect a cure in a few days; and both it and the young shoots are said to be diuretic; the leaves are very bitter, and are a good stomachic, (Ainslie.) Martius states that they are employed in Brazil as a specific in diabetes. A still more powerful diuretic action is produced by P. urinaria. The leaves, flowers and fruit of P. simplex, made into an electuary, with sugar and cummin seeds, is thought, in India, to be efficacious in gonorrhoea, in doses of a teaspoonful a day. The fresh leaves, bruised with buttermilk, make a wash that will cure itch. The bark of P. virosus is a powerful astringent, and will stupefy fish. The fruit of Emblica officinalis, formed one of the kinds of Myrobolans of the older Physicians; when fresh, they are acid and astringent, and when dry act on the bowels. They are much employed in India, made into 602 MEDICAL BOTANY. a decoction with a solution of salt, in gout, diseases of the liver, and as a vermifuge; the flowers are laxative, (Ainslie, ii. 41.) In Cicca disticha, the leaves are diaphoretic, the seeds cathartic, the fruit subacid, cooling and edible, and the root a violent purgative. Tribe 7. Buxe^e.—Ovules in pairs. Stamens inserted beneath the sessile rudiment of the ovary. The leaves of Buxus sempervirens, or Common Box, are bitter and nau- seous; sudorific and purgative. The wood was, at one time, much used as a substitute for Guaiacum, and a fetid oil obtained from it, enjoyed con- siderable reputation in a variety of diseases. The wood, as is well known, is much prized by wood-engravers for their blocks. The root of Fluggcea leucopyrus is esteemed astringent, but its fruit is edible, (Ainslie, ii. 245.) Class II—Gymnogens or Gymnospermous Plants. Stems increasing by concentric layers, and with a structure as in the Exogens, except that the vessels of their wood have large apparent perforations or disks. Embryo with two opposite or several whorled cotyledons. Ovules naked, or not enclosed in an ovary; the carpel being absent or replaced by a flat scale. Order 1Q2.—CYCADACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers dioecious, with no trace of calyx or corolla. Sterile: collected in terminal cones, consisting of scales, having their lower side covered with 1-celled anthers, which have a longitudinal dehiscence. Pollen hyaline, angular, in masses. Fertile: consisting of naked ovules, beneath peltate scales, or at the base of flat ones, or on the margins of con- tracted leaves. Seeds hard or spongy-coated nuts, with 1 or more embryos suspended by a long funiculus in a central cavity of large fleshy or mealy albumen; cotyledons un- equal, more or less connate; radicle superior. Trees or shrubs somewhat resembling the Palms in aspect. The stems are simple and cylindrical, and marked with lozenge-shaped scars, from the broad, woody leaf-stalks. Internally consisting of a mass of pith, traversed by bundles of woody fibre, and rings of ligneous matter, variously disposed. The leaves are pinnate, hard and woody, perennial, usually circinnate when young; leaflets with delicate simple veins, and are placed obliquely on their petiole, from which they finally disarticulate. They are natives of the tropical and temperate regions of Asia and Ame- rica, but not found in equinoctial Africa, though occurring at the Cape of Good Hope and Madagascar. At a former period they must have existed in Europe and North America, as is attested by the abundance of their fossil remains in the coal measures of these countries. They all abound in a nau- seous, mucilaginous juice, and many of them also in much fecula, which forms articles of food to the inhabitants of their native countries. A kind of Sago, known as Japan Sago, is procured from the cellular sub- stance filling the interior of the stem of Cycas circinalis. This species grows in the Moluccas, Japan, &c. The pith is said to be very nourishing, and is held in great esteem in Japan, and it is contrary to the laws of that country to export any of the plants. The fruits are covered by a sweetish, but very astringent pulp, the nuts are bitter and emetic in their natural state; but are edible when cooked. The stem exudes a whitish, transparent gum, resembling tragacanth. Captain D'Urville states that the terminal shoot is poi- PINACE^E. 603 sonous, and that two of his crew suf- fered from eating it in New Guinea. Fis-265, C. revoluta also affords a kind of Sago, of secondary quality ; which is used in the Molucca islands, &c. The stem, as in the last-mentioned species, furnishes a clear gum. C. inermis has much the same properties. The roots of several species of Zamia, as Z. integrifolia, media, angustifolia,pumila,furfuracea,&cc., also abound in a fecula resembling the best Arrow-root. Dr. Lindley states one of the best varieties of this sub- stance prepared in the Bahamas is from one of these species. What is termed " Florida Arrow Root" is obtained from the first two and perhaps from others. They have large, somewhat spherical roots, which are succulent and fleshy, abounding in a gummy juice. They were much used by the aborigines, by whom they were called Tuckahoe. They now are known under the name of Coonti, and when properly treated afford an excellent fecula, having all the qualities of the best Bermuda Arrow Root. (Carson in Pereira, ii. 169.) The fruit has a coating of an orange-coloured pulp, which Rafinesque states forms a rich edible food. The large seeds of Dion edule are said to furnish a fecula much esteemed as food in Mexico. At the Cape of Good Hope various species of Encepha- lartos are employed by the natives as food, and are known under the name of Caffre bread. Order 103.—PINACEA^.—Lindley. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, usually amentaceous. Sterile flower^: consisting of 1 or more (often monadelphous) stamens, with neither calyx nor corolla, arranged in a de- ciduous catkin around a common rachis; anthers 2 or many-lobed, with a longitudinal dehiscence. Fertile: in cones. Ovary merely a flat scale, without style or stigma, in the axil of a membranous bract. Ovule naked; in pairs or several on the face of the scale, inverted. Fruit varying in the different tribes. These are trees or evergreen shrubs, with a branched trunk, abounding in a resinous juice. Wood with the tissue marked with circular disks. Leaves linear, acerose or lanceolate, entire, scattered, or fascicled. They are found in all parts of the world, but are most abundant in temperate regions. It is one ofthe most important orders, both on account of its wood and its resinous secretions. Tribe 1. Abietin^e.—Fertile aments formed of imbricated scales, having a pair of ovules at base, with the foramen turned downwards. Sterile flowers with the pollen oval- curved. Fruit a strobile. Integument of seed coriaceous and woody; more or less ad- herent to the scale. Embryo in the axis of fleshy and oily albumen, with 2—15 cotyle- dons. This is by far the most useful ofthe tribes, as it contains the greater num- ber ofthe species affording the useful woods and resins. 604 MEDICAL BOTANY. Pinus.—Linn. Flowers monoecious. Sterile flowers: catkins racemose; stamens short; anthers crest- ed, 2-celled, with a longitudinal dehiscence (sometimes 1-celled). Fertile : catkins soli- tary, or from 2—3. Scales imbricated, with membranous bracteoles. Ovules 2, at the base of the scales, collateral, inverted, their points lacerated and turned downwards. Scales of strobile hard, woody, and truncated, hollowed at base for the reception of the seeds. Seeds prolonged into a membranous wing. Mostly tall resiniferous trees, with verticiUated branches, furnished with evergreen, fascicled leaves, surrounded at base with a membranous sheath. The species are very numerous, and all afford turpentine and resin ; but the principal portion of these products is obtained from the following: 1. P. palustris, Willdenow.—Leaves in threes, very long; sheaths pinnatifid, scaly, persistent. Strobiles sub-cylindrical, armed with prickles. Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 499; Nuttall, Gen. 223 ; P. australis, Michaux, N. A. Syl. iii. 133. Common Names.—Yellow Pine; Pitch Pine ; Long-leaved Pine. A very large tree, indigenous to the southern portions ofthe United States. This species furnishes the greatest proportion of Turpentine obtained in this country. 2. P. t.eda, Willdenow.—Leaves in threes, elongated ; sheaths elongated; strobiles ob- long-conical, deflexed, shorter than the leaves; spines inflexed. Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 498 ; Michaux, N. A. Syl. iii. 156 ; Nuttall, Gen. 223. Common Names.—Loblolly Pine; Old-field Pine. This is also a tall tree, and is abundant to the southward. It yields much Turpentine, but not as fluid as that from the preceding species. 3. P. rigida, Michaux.—Leaves in threes; sheath short; strobiles ovate, scattered or clustered; spines ofthe scales reflexed. Common Names.—Black Pine; Pitch Pine. This is a tolerably large tree, found in many parts of the United States ; it also produces much Tur- pentine, and is one of the species used for the extraction of Tar. 4. P. sylvestris, Linn. — Leaves in pairs. Sheaths, spirally disposed, lace- rated. Strobiles ovate-conical, about as long as the leaves. Scales tessellated, unarmed. Linn., Sp. PL 1418 ; Lambert, Pin. t. 1 ; Loudon, Arboret. 2153. Common Names.—Scotch Fir; Red Deal, &c. A native of sandy hills and woods in Europe, north of the Alps. It yields the larger part of " European Common Turpentine." 5. P. pumilis, Willdenow.—Leaves in pairs, short, straight. Strobiles ovate, obtuse, very small. Willdenow, Sip. PI. iv. 495 ; Lambert, Pin. t. 2 ; Loudon, Arboret,2l86 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 553. PIN ACEjE. 605 Fig. 2G7. A small tree, occurring on the mountains in the southeast parts of Europe. This species furnishes what is called " Hungarian Balsam." 6. P. pinaster, Aiton.—Leaves in pairs, long. Strobiles clustered, large, ovate, sessile. Scales with a short spine. Aiton, Hort. Kew. iii. 367 ; Lambert, Pin. t. 4—5; Loudon, Arboret. 2213; Lindley, Fl. Med. 554. Common Names. — Pinaster ; Cluster Pine. A native of the southern parts of Eu- rope, especially in the sandy plains north of the Mediterranean. Furnishes the " Bor- deaux Turpentine." Numerous other species afford ana- logous products; thus, P. cembra, of the mountains of Europe, yields " Carpa- thian Balsam," as does also P. pinea. The seeds of some are eatable, especially those of P. pinea, P. cembra, of Europe, and P. lambertiana and P. gerardiana. P. pinea. Abies.— Tournefort. Characters the same as those of Pinus, except that the leaves are solitary and distinct at base, and the scales ofthe cone even and attenuated, and usually coriaceous and mem- branous. They are also large trees, found in northern Europe and America, and usually yield a very pure tur- pentine. 1. A. balsamea, Marshall.—Leaves solitary, flat, emarginate or entire, glau- cous beneath, somewhat pectinate, re- curved, spreading. Strobiles cylindrical, erect. Bracts short, obovate, pointed, sub-serrulate. Marshall, Arbust. Am. 102; Lindley, FL Med. 554; A. bal- samifera, Mich. Arb. Forest, iii. 191 ; Pinus balsamea, Linn., Sp. PL 1421 ; Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 504; Lambert, Pin. t. 35; Picea balsamea, Loudon, Arboret. 2339. Common Name.—Balm of Gi- lead. A beautiful tree, of moderate size, peculiar to the northern parts of this continent, and also found on the mountain ranges further south. It yields " Canada Balsam." Fig. 268. A. balsamea. 606 MEDICAL BOTANY. 2. A. picea, Lindley.—Leaves numerous, linear, acute or emarginate, spreading, glau- cous beneath. Strobiles long, cylindrical. Bracts much narrower than the scales of the strobiles, with a long, subulate point. Lindley, Pen. Cyclop, i. 29, Fl. Med. 554; A. pectinata, De Candolle, FL Fr. ii. 275 ; Pinus picea, Linn., Sp. PL 1420 ; Lambert, Pin. t. 30; Picea pectinata, Loudon, Arboret. 2339. Common Names.—Silver Pine ; Silver Fir. A native ofthe mountains of the middle and south of Europe. It affords the " Strasburgh turpentine." 3. A. canadensis, Michaux.—Leaves solitary, flat, serrulated, somewhat distichous. Strobiles ovate, terminal, scarcely longer than the leaf. Michaux, N. A. Syl. iii. 185; Pinus canadensis, Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 505 ; Barton, Flor. Phil. Prod. ii.; Lambert, Pin. t. 45; Lindley, Pen. Cyclop, i. 30. Common Name.—Hemlock Spruce. Fig. 269. Abundant in the Northern, and in elevated situations in the Middle States. It is a very large tree, and affords the " Hemlock gum or pitch." The bark is astringent, and used in tanning. 4, A. excelsa, De Candolle.— Leaves scattered, somewhat 4-cor- nered, mucronate. Strobiles cylin- drical, pendulous, with blunt, undu- lated, slightly-toothed scales. De Candolle, Fl. Franc. iii. 375; Lindley, Pen. Cy- clop, i. 31 ; Pinus abies, Linn., Sp. PL 1421 ; Willdenow, Sp. PL iv. 506 ; Stephenson and Churchill, ii. 75. Common Names..—Norway Pine ; Norway Spruce Fir. One of the largest of the European trees ; it is found in various parts of Europe and northern Asia. It yields some of the " Burgundy Pitch" of the shops. This product is also obtained from A. picea. 5. A. nigra, Michaux.—Leaves spreading equally round the branch, short, quadrangular. Strobiles ovate-oblong, obtuse, with ragged, rounded scales. Michaux, Arb. Forest, i. t. 11 ; Lindley, Pen. Cyclop, i. 32 ; Pinus nigra and rubra, Lambert, Pin. t. 37, 38 ; P. denticulata, Michaux, Fl. Bor. Am. Common Names.—Black Spruce ; Double Spruce. A large tree, found in the most northern parts of this continent, and extend- A. excelsa. PIN A C E JE. 607 ing in elevated situations to the Middle States. From the young branches the " Extract or Essence of Spruce" is made, from which, or from the fresh leaves and branches, Spruce beer is prepared. 6. A. larix, Richard.—Leaves scattered, deciduous. Cones ovate-oblong, blunt. Richard, Monog. Con. 164, t. 13; Lindley, Pew. Cyclop, i. 32; Pinus larix, Linn., Sp. PL 1420; Lambert, Pin. t. 35 ; Larix europcea, De Can- dolle, Fl. Franc. 2064 ; Loudon, Arboret. 2350. Common Names.—Larch ; Common Larch. A native of mountainous regions in the north and middle of Europe. It furnishes " Venice Turpentine," and a peculiar saccharine substance exudes from the branches, called " Manna of Briancon." When larch forests take fire, a gum issues from the trees during their combustion, which is termed "Gum Orenberg;" this is wholly soluble in water. The bark is used in tanning. The turpentines are all stimulating, diuretic, anthelmintic, and in large doses purgative. At first they are liquid, but gradually lose their volatile oil by evaporation, and become hard, and form what is called Resin. By distil- lation, they afford Oil of Turpentine, and by a coarse kind of distillation, Pitch and Tar. Oil of turpentine is employed for a variety of purposes in medicine. As a vermifuge, especially in cases of tapeworm, it is much relied upon ; to do good in these cases, it must be administered in very large doses. It is also useful as a stimulant in the low stages of fever, and has been given with benefit in chronic rheumatism and obstructions of the bowels ; it has also proved useful in chronic complaints of the urinary apparatus. In the form of enema, it has been successfully resorted to in colic, obstinate constipation, and ascarides. As an external irritant and revulsive, it is extensively em- ployed, but should be used with caution, as it is so powerful as to produce great inflammation ofthe skin. The different varieties of Resin are principally employed as ingredients in ointments and plasters, as are also those known as Burgundy Pitch and Hem- lock Gum. The properties of Liquid Pitch or Tar are much the same as those of the Turpentines ; it is mainly employed in the form of ointment in cutaneous affections. At one time Tar-water had an unbounded reputation in the treatment of almost every disease, being considered a universal pana- cea, but is now seldom used. Numerous other trees of this tribe furnish important products. Thus, the Damarra Turpentine is obtained from Damarra australis ; and the Dom- beya Turpentine from Dombeya excelsa, a native of Chili. Araucaria bra- siliensis yields a fragrant resin. Tribe 2. Cupresse^e.—Ovules erect; pollen spheroidal. The secretions and properties of this tribe differ very materially from those ofthe last, and are by no means as identical among themselves. Juniperus.—Linn. Flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious. Sterile: catkins axillary, or sub-terminal, glo- , 11 Fertile • catkins axillary, ovate imbricated, bracteate. Scales 3—6, united atSbasemand containing 1-3 ovules, which are erect, perforated at the apex and bottle- 608 MEDICAL BOTANY. shaped. Fruit consisting of succulent scales consolidated into a drupe-like body. Seeds triquetrous. These are arborescent, shrubby, or suffruticose plants, with mostly alternate branches, furnished with opposite or verticillate leaves, which are imbricated or spreading, very acute or partly obtuse. They are natives of North Ame- rica, Northern Asia, and Europe. 1. J. communis, Linn.—A large shrub. Ex. Fig. 270. tremities of the branches smooth and angular. Leaves in threes, linear-acerose, sharply mu- cronate, shining green beneath, but with a glau- cous line along the centre of the upper surface; they are resupinate, turning their upper surface to the ground. Barren flowers in small axil- lary aments, with roundish, stipitate scales en- closing the anthers. Fertile flowers on another plant, having a small 3-parted involucre, grow- ing to the scales, which are 3. Fruit fleshy, berried, of a dark-purplish colour, formed ofthe confluent succulent scales, which are marked with three prominences or vesicles at top, and contain three seeds. Linn., Sp. PL 1470; Eng. Bot. 1100 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. iii. t. 44? Rafinesque, Med, Fl. ii. 12; Lindley, J^Y. Med. 556; Loudon, Arboret. 2489. Common Names.—Juniper; Common Juniper. Foreign Names.—Genevier commun, Fr.; Ginepro, It.; Wachholderbaum, Ger. J. communis. The Juniper is found in North Ame- rica, Europe, and Northern Asia. The berries are officinal, and are principally imported into this country from the Mediterranean ports. Some are collected in New Jersey and elsewhere, but are said not to be equal to the foreign. The plant figured and described by Dr. Bigelow as J. communis, is considered by some botanists to be a distinct species, and has been called J. depressa, but it does not appear to be more than a variety. The berries, as found in commerce, are oblong-globular, marked with three radiating furrows at the top, and below by the bracts. They are of a purplish-black colour, have a sweetish, somewhat terebinthi- nate taste, and a peculiar aromatic odour. These properties are owing to the presence of a Volatile oil, besides which they contain Wax, Resin, Gum, &c. The great employment of these berries is in the manufacture of Gin. They are used in medicine as stimulating diuretics, especially in combination with Cremor tartar. They have likewise been prescribed with advantage in some affections of the genito-urinary apparatus, especially in mucous dis- charges from these parts. They are usually given in infusion, but the oil is one of the best modes of exhibition. 2. J. sabina, Linn.—A small tree or shrub, usually more disposed to spread horizon- tally than to form a stem. Branches slender, round, tough, covered with short, acute, imbricating leaves, which are very bitter, and have an unpleasant odour. The fruit is deep bluish-black, about the size of a currant. Linn., Sp. PL 1472; Woodville, t. 94; Lindley, Fl. Med. 557 ; Loudon, Arboret. 2499. pinacea:. 60g Common Names.—Savm ; Common Savin. Foreign Names.—Sabine, Fr.; Sabina, It.; Svvenbaum, Ger. An evergreen shrub indigenous to the South of Europe and Asiatic Russia. ine tips of the branches and their investing leaves are officinal. These, when dried, have a bitter, acrid taste, and a strong disagreeable odour. These properties are owing to the presence of a Volatile oil, which can be obtained by distillation with water; this oil is limpid, almost colourless, and has the odour and taste of the plant. Medical Uses.—Savin and its oil are powerful stimulants, and are supposed to have a special action on the uterus, and hence have been administered in amenorrhoea, and with some success, where there is no local or general ex- citement. It is also thought to be capable of inducing abortion in the pregnant female, and is one article resorted to for this purpose, too often at the ex- pense of the mother's life, as in an over-dose it acts like an irritant poison. Dr. Chapman speaks of it with some praise in chronic rheumatism. It has also proved effectual as an anthelmintic. It is principally employed in the form of cerate to keep a discharge from blistered surfaces. This cerate, mixed with verdigris, is a good application to venereal warts. The dose of the powder is from five to ten grains ; of the oil from two to five drops. 3. J. virginiana, Linn.—A middle-sized tree, with a straight trunk and horizontal branches. The small twigs covered with small, densely imbricated leaves. These leaves are fleshy, concave, rigidly acute, with a minute gland on the middle of their outer side. Sterile flowers m small oblong aments, formed of peltate scales, concealing the anthers between them. Fertile flowers in a small roundish strobile or galbanus, with two or three seeds. Linn., Sp. PI. 1471 ; Bigelow, Med. Bot. iii. t. 45; Loudon, Arboret 2495 ; Marshall, Arbust. Am. 70 ; Michaux, N. A. Syl. iii. 221. Common Names.—Cedar-tree; Red Cedar. The Red Cedar is a native of most parts of the United States, but attains the greatest size in the Southern States. It is well known for its durable and odoriferous heart-wood, of a reddish colour. The leaves are officinal; they very closely resemble those of J. sabina, but may be distinguished by their more agreeable odour. ■ Medical Uses.—The leaves have the same properties as Savin, but are less efficient, either as an internal remedy or external application. Small ex- crescences are often found on the small branches, produced like galls, by the puncture of an insect, and having a somewhat aromatic smell, and a bitterish taste; these are much employed in domestic practice as an anthelmintic, and have proved serviceable in many cases, but should not be relied upon to the exclusion of more certain and efficient articles. Some other plants of this tribe afford useful products; thus Sandarach, a whitish-yellow, brittle, inflammable resin, of an acrid, aromatic taste, has been thought to be an exudation from Juniperus communis, but is shown by Bron- gniart and Shousboe, to be obtained from Callitris quadrivalvis, a native of Barbary. The wood is considered, by the Moors, to be indestructible, and is employed by them in the construction of their mosques. A somewhat simi- lar substance is yielded by Thuya, but in very small quantities. The leaves of T. occidentalis or Arbor vitse, are said to form an excellent irritating oint- ment, which has proved useful in rheumatism, &c. A decoction of the leaves has been popularly used in a variety of complaints, and the oil obtained from them by distillation has been noticed as a good vermifuge. The leaves of 39 610 MEDICAL BOTANY. Cupressus sempervirens, are likewise said to be anthelmintic, and according to Pliny, an antidote to the venom of serpents. Galen states that the strobiles are an efficacious astringent in diseases of the bowels, and are also useful as a febrifuge. An infusion of our native C. thyoides, or White Cedar, is stated to be stomachic, and in a warm state, diaphoretic. The cones of Schubertia disticha, or American Cypress, are very balsamic, and the resin from them has been employed in domestic practice as a diuretic and carminative. Tribe 3. Taxine^e.—Fertile flowers solitary, terminal, consisting of an ovule, mostly surrounded by a fleshy disk; in fruit forming a kind of drupe. This tribe has been separated, by some botanists, from Pinacese, on ac- count of the structure of its fruit; but if this is considered a valid ground, the Junipers should also constitute an order. Most of the species are resin- ous, and their wood is very durable. Taxus baccata, the Yew, has fetid leaves, which are said to be poisonous, especially to cattle. The ancients entertained an idea that the emanations from the tree were extremely dangerous, espe- cially during the flowering season, and that the juice ofthe plant was a viru- lent poison. More modern observations have shown, that although the leaves, are capable of destroying life, they cannot be considered as among the active poisons. According to Burnett, on the authority of an Italian physician, these leaves, in small doses, act in the manner of Digitalis, in reducing the force of the circulation, and have one advantage over that drug, of never accumulating in the system. The fruit of Caryotaxus nucifera are astrin- gent, and are said to be employed in Japan to restrain the emission of urine; those of Salisburia are edible, and much esteemed in the same country as promoters of digestion. The young branches of Dacydium taxifolium are used in New Zealand to prepare a beverage analogous to Spruce Beer. Class III.—Endogens or Monocotyledonous Plants, Stem without distinct bark or pith; the wood formed of bundles of fibres and vessels irregularly dispersed through cellular tissue; the epidermis or rind closely adherent; no medullary rays or concentric layers; increase in size by the deposition of new fibres in the central part of the stem, within the old. Leaves seldom articulated, usually sheath. ing at base, with simple, parallel veins. Embryo with a single cotyledon, or if a second be present, it is much smaller than the other. Germination endorhizal. Fig. 271. P A L M A C E M. 611 Group XLII.—Falmales. Order 104.—PALMACE^E.—Lindley. Percent8 TeZtT' '"?"** ^ SCdy *"**• Sepals 3' CoIoUr,ess' A-hj or leathery, persistent Petals 3, sometimes very connate. Stamens inserted on the base of the petals usual y definite, opposite the segments, sometimes indefinite. Ovary ^ u ually of 3 carpels wholly united, or partially so, sometimes of 1 or 2 only. Ovules sol^ry rarelv 2, erec , orthotropa , or anatropal. Styles continuous with the carpels. Fru^t drupaceou^ or nut-hke, or berried, often with a fibrous rind. Seed filling the cavity, often reUcukted Albumen cartilaginous, often ruminated, frequently with a central cavity! Emb yol^ a particular cavity of the albumen. y XL"I1Dr>° in a Plants with arborescent, simple stems, sometimes shrubby, occasionally branched, with clustered, terminal, usually very large, pinnate, or flabelli- form leaves, with simple, parallel veins. They are all natives of warm cli- mates 1 hey are very numerous, Martius estimating the known species at upwards of a thousand. Their products are various: these being, according to Humboldt, wine, wax, oil, flour, sugar, and salt, and their wood and leaves are applied to numerous purposes. They have been divided into several tribes, some of which seem to be enti- titled to a higher rank. Tribe 1. Arece^e. Areca.—Linn. Flowers monoecious. Sterile: calyx 3-parted, corolla 3-petalled. Fertile- calyx 3 leaved. Corolla 3-petalled. Nectary 6-toothed. Ovary superior, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Drupe coriaceous, containing a single seed, with a ruminated albumen, with the embryo at the base. J Linn., Sp. PL 1225 ; Roxburgh, Cor. PL 75; Ainslie, Mat. Ind. ii. 268. A small genus, bearing a kind of nut much used in the East Indies, where it is known as the Betel-nut. A. catechu, Linn.—Trunk straight and slender, from 40 to 50 feet high. Fronds pin- nate ; leaflets compound, linear, opposite, praemorse. Spathe erect, ramose. Male flowers hexandrous. Seed of a roundish, conic form, and obtuse. Common Names.—Betel-nut tree; Pinang tree. It grows in most parts ofthe East Indies, and was known from the earliest times. The Greeks and Romans do not appear to have been acquainted with it, but the ancient Arabian writers speak ofthe nut frequently in their works, under the name of Foofel, and considered it as astringent and tonic. This fruit is about the size, and somewhat the shape of a small egg, the nut itself is rather larger than a nutmeg, roundish-conical, flattened at base, hard, corneous, ex- ternally reddish-brown, and internally brown, with white veins; it is inodo- rous, and of an astringent, somewhat acrid taste. It contains Tannin, Gallic acid, Oil, Gum, &c. They furnish an astringent extract, which constitutes one or more varie- ties of the Catechu of commerce. According to Dr. Heyne, the nuts are boiled for some hours in an iron vessel. They are then removed, and the fluid inspissated by continuing the heat; this affords the second quality. After the nuts are dried, they are again boiled in another portion of water, which, on being evaporated, gives the first and dearest kind. These extracts have the same properties as those from the Acacia, Nauelea, &c. (q. v.) 612 MEDICAL BOTANY. But the great consumption ofthe Betel-nut is for chewing in combination with the leaf of the Chavica betle and lime. For this purpose they are di- vided into quarters, one of which, rolled in the Pepper-leaf and sprinkled with the lime, forms the quantity generally used. This mixture acts as a siala- gogue, and tinges the saliva of a red colour. The natives of the East Indies say that it strengthens the gums, fastens the teeth, and cools the mouth. It also seems to have some narcotic power, but Dr. Lindley suggests that this is owing rather to the Pepper-leaf than to the Areca. Lunan (Hort. Jam. i. 86) states that it is used in the West Indies, and it is there supposed, that when thus used in combination it strengthens the stomach, but if em- ployed alone, it impoverishes the blood and causes jaundice. It is probable that the nut he alludes to is the product of another species, the A. oleracea, or Cabbage Palm. Loureiro, also, notices another species, A. sylvestris, which is used in Cochin China. The Arenga saccharifera (Saguerus Rumphii) is another very impor- tant species belonging to this tribe. It abounds in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and is very valuable on account of its saccharine juice. This flows from the spadices in large quantities, if they are wounded; and if suf- fered to ferment, forms an intoxicating liquor, and when boiled affords a kind of sugar, which is much used for various purposes. The pith of the trunk also furnishes Sago of good quality ; as much as one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds from a single tree. The wood is very hard, and is em- ployed for building; and the leaf-stalks afford a black, strong fibre, resem- bling horse-hair, which is extensively manufactured into ropes, &c. The fruit is excessively acrid, and causes severe inflammation ofthe mouth if it be eaten ; and forms the basis of the " infernal water" used by the Moluc- cans to pour over their enemies ; the albumen, however, is made by the Chi- nese into a pleasant sweetmeat, by destroying the acridity by soaking it in lime-water and then boiling it in suo-ar. According to Roxburgh, Caryota urens is equally valuable to the natives of the places where it grows. It yields, during the hot season, great quan- titles of juice, which, when fermented, forms what is called Toddy or Palm Wine. It is said a good tree will afford one hundred pints in the twenty-four hours. The pith furnishes a very superior Sago, which forms the principal part of the food of the inhabitants; Roxburgh states that it is fully equal to that from the Sagus. The fruit is extremely acrid. Tribe 2. Calame