LESSONS IN HYGIENE: 
AN 
ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK 
ON THE 
MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH, 
WITH THE 
RUDIMENTS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, AND THE TREATMENT 
OF EMERGENT CASES. COMPRISING ALSO LESSONS 
ON THE ACTION OF 
STIMULANTS AND SEDATIVES 
ON THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
ADAPTED FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 
JOHN" C. CUTTER, B.S., M.D., 
BY 
PR0"'5S0R OF PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN THE IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF 
aRICULTURE, SAPPORO, JAPAN; CONSULTING PHYSICIAN TO SAPPORO KEN HOSPITAL; 
COMPREHENSIVE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
us th a ted. 
PHILADELPHIA: / 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 
1885. Copyright, 1885, by J. B. Lippincott Company. TO 
MY MOTHER 
IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED 
THIS ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOE 
ON THE 
MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH. TO THE TEACHER. 
It is suggested that the brief anatomical and physiological text 
be supplemented by mammalian dissections, and by demonstrations 
upon the human body, directions for which may be found in the 
author's " Comprehensive Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene 
that the management of emergent cases be carried out in full in 
the presence of the class; and that the attention of the pupils be 
called to the sanitary or unsanitary features of the ward or town. 
It would be well to conduct the class to houses in process of con- 
struction, to point out to its members the salient features from a 
sanitary point of view, and, upon return to school, to require them 
to prepare an outline sketch of the grounds and of the ground-plan 
of the house. Request them to make suggestions for sanitary im- 
provements. In the same manner call their attention to wearing- 
apparel, house-furnishings, new inventions, etc. 
It is also suggested that the review be conducted by the topical 
method, and that the pupils be required to prepare upon the topics 
to which attention is directed by the cross-references. At this 
period, with the books open before them, it will be well to read the 
fine-print paragraphs, and to explain at length the bearing of the 
facts there given upon the subject under consideration. 
5 PREFACE. 
Agesilaus, King of Sparta, when asked what things boys should 
learn, replied, "Those which they will practice when they become 
men," 
In a concise and orderly form are presented the essential facts 
concerning bathing, clothing, air, water, food, cooking, home-con- 
struction, mental work, physical exercise, eye-work, contagious 
disease, filth-disease, disinfection, tea, tobacco, chloral, alcoholics, 
etc., as bearing upon the maintenance of health and the prevention 
of disease. Especial attention is given to the disease-inducing 
actions of tea, tobacco, chloral, and alcoholics. The simplest and best 
methods of procedure in emergent cases are clearly explained. 
The portion of the text devoted to anatomy and physiology is 
brief, yet contains all the facts deemed essential for the comprehen- 
sion of the practical portions of the book. In the foot-notes and 
in the paragraphs under the " disease-inducing actions of alcohol- 
ics" will be found facts of deep import. 
The author here desires to acknowledger his deep obligations to 
his mother and to Miss M. Tyler, of Warren, Massachusetts, for 
seeing the " Comprehensive Physiology" through the press, and to 
Prof. W. P. Brooks, of Sapporo, for advice in preparing the manu- 
script of this book for the press. 
Sapporo, Japan, December, 1884 CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER PAGE 
I.-Health and Disease .11 
II.-The Framework 15 
III. -Deformities, Diseases, and Injuries of the Framework . 23 
IV. -The Skin 31 
V.-The Heart and Blood-Tubes 43 
VI.-The Air-Passages 53 
VII.-The Larynx 66 
VIII.-The Home 69 
IX.-Foods .80 
X.-Water 95 
XI.-The Digestive Organs • • 105 
XII.-The Excreta H4 
XIII. -Brain and Nerves 121 
XIV. -Cerebral Excitants and Cerebral Sedatives . . . 132 
XV.-The Sense-Organs 148 
XVI.-The Muscles 158 
Glossary 167 
Index • 177 
9 LESSONS IN HYGIENE 
CHAPTER I. 
HEALTH AND DISEASE. 
1. Hygiene is the science of the preservation of health. 
It aims to make growth-physical, mental, and moral- 
more perfect; it aims to prolong the period of active life; 
it aims to make life more vigorous, and therefore more 
efficient; and it aims to defer the hour of death. 
(а) If statistics may be trusted, modern hygiene lias added so much to English lon- 
gevity that men now live two years and women three years and four months longer than 
they did thirty years ago. In the aggregate the improvement is six per eent What- 
ever is possible in England for the amelioration of sickness and suffering and the 
mitigation of sorrow and waste is in a larger measure possible in the United States, where 
there is less of the past to contend with, and more of the present to encourage in varied 
climates and cheap, abundant, and accessible lands. 
(б) Vaccination.-"Of the one hundred and sixty-six patients admitted, eighty-five 
had been vaccinated, seventy-eight had not been, and of three no history could be ob- 
tained. Of the forty-eight deaths, only one had been vaccinated. 91.67 per cent, of 
deaths were of the unvaccinated, while of three no history was obtained." (Report of 
Riverside Smallpox Hospital, New York City, for the month of January, 1882.) 
; (c) " Two dollars per day an individual may be regarded as the minimum average 
cost of sickness to the working people in this State from loss of wages and the attending 
expenses. If, now, the number of working days lost annually (average of eight years - 
1868 to 1872-13.9 days to each individual) be multiplied by two, it is found that the 
total annual loss to the State is $15,267,322; and if we compute in the same way for 
the entire population, this amount would be increased to an average of $39,146,980." 
(Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Health of Massachusetts, 1875.) 
2. Health is an absence of dis-ease. That individual 
is healthy in whom the more important functions of life 
1. Define hygiene. What is its aim? 2. What is health? How 
manifested ? 
11 12 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
take place quietly and uniformly, and who has the sense 
of well-being. 
3. Variations in Health.-There are many degrees 
of health. There are degrees of feebleness and delicacy 
of health without any disorder of the system. Each indi- 
vidual has a "health" peculiar to himself. The "health" 
of a book-keeper is quite different from that of a robust 
laborer. Each is able to perform the duties of his line of 
life without suffering or marked inconvenience. By care, 
forethought, and proper actions, the health-standard can 
be advanced in all classes. 
(a) " He should not be deemed to be thoroughly healthy who is made better or worse, 
more or less fit for work, by every change of weather or of food; nor he who, in order 
that he may do his work, is bound to exact rules of living. It is good to observe rules, 
and to many they are absolutely necessary, but it is better to need very few besides 
those of moderation and cleanliness, and, observing these, to be able and willing to live 
and work hard in the widest variations of food, air, clothing, and all the other suste- 
nances of life." (Paget.) 
4. Aids to Health.-Health is modified, promoted, or 
impaired by the influences to which the body is exposed. 
Health is promoted by a due supply of proper food, by 
an abundance of pure air, by a sufficiency of good drinking- 
and cooking-water, by a certain average of temperatures, 
by sunlight, by clothing suitable to the seasons, by proper 
shelter, by cleanliness and exercise, by temperance in eat- 
ing as well as in drinking, by moderation in enjoyments, 
and by freedom from harassing cares. 
5. Disease is a deviation from a state of health. It is 
an expression of a disturbance of the normal activities of 
the body or mind. 
6. Causes of Deterioration and Disease.-(1) 
3. How does health vary? Examples. What may be done? 4. 
How is health modified? How promoted? 5. What is disease? 
6. Mention material causes of ill health. Social causes. HEALTH AND DISEASE. 
13 
Material causes: impure air, impure drinking- and cooking- 
water, insufficient food, improper food, unwholesome food, 
malaria, contagia, moisture in the soil, deficiency of sun- 
light and warmth, excess of heat, want of exercise, etc. 
(2) 8ocial causes: alcoholic intemperance, tobacco-intem- 
perance, food-intemperance, immorality, injudicious or 
unsuitable marriages, excesses of all kinds, worry, grief, 
idleness, improper pursuits, overwork, etc. Fig. 1. CHAPTER II. 
THE FRAMEWORK. 
7. Organs and Tissues.-As seen by the physiologist, 
man is a complex living machine. The continued exist- 
ence of this machine is dependent upon the performance 
of various functions. These functions, or duties, are as- 
signed to certain organs or parts, as circulation to the heart 
and blood-tubes (83). 
8. The organs are made up of suitable materials, mostly 
soft, called tissues, as fat, muscle, and epithelium. Tissues 
are made up of combinations of simple substances called 
elements, such as carbon, iron, sulphur. 
9. Chemical Elements.-The normal body includes 
only fourteen elements in its composition. Carbon, by 
weight, forms the main element. 
10. The elements are: oxygen, O; hydrogen, H; nitro- 
gen, N; carbon, C; sulphur, S; phosphorus, P; fluorine, 
Fl; chlorine, Cl; sodium, Na (natrium); potassium, K 
(kalium); calcium, Ca; magnesium, Mg; silicon, Si; and 
iron, Fe (ferrum). 
11. The Framework of the human body consists of 
the bones, which, taken together, constitute the skeleton 
(Fig. 1). The bones when in the body are moist and 
pinkish-white in color. Dry bone consists of about one- 
7. What is man ? Upon what does the continuance of life depend ? 
8. What are organs? Tissues? 9. How many elements? What 
of carbon? 10. Name the elements. Write the abbreviations. 11. 
What is the skeleton ? Describe bone. Of what is it made ? 
15 16 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
third animal matter (compounds of C, with H, O, N, S, and 
P) and two-thirds of mineral matter (compounds mainly 
containing Ca, Na, K, Cl, Fl, P, and S). 
12. The Skeleton gives general form to the body 
(Fig. 1). It protects and supports the soft parts of the 
interior. It gives effect and precision to the actions of the 
muscles (Fig. 28). Its separate pieces, two hundred in 
number, are held together by strong, non-elastic, flexible 
bands, called ligaments (Fig. 4). 
13. A Joint is a junction of two 
or more bones (Fig. 2). Joints allow 
motion of one bone upon another, 
thus permitting movements of the 
animal frame. 
14. Cartilage.-The ends of the 
bones of a movable joint (knee, elbow, 
ankle, etc.) are covered by a thin layer 
of bluish-white elastic cartilage (Fig. 
3). This substance closely adheres to 
the ends of the bones. Its joint-sur- 
face is very smooth, and in the normal 
state is bathed with synovia. The 
cartilage-layer affords elasticity and 
facilitates motion. 
15. The Synovia is a whitish, viscid, glairy fluid, sim- 
ilar in appearance to the white of an egg. It is secreted 
by a membrane lining the inner surface of the ligaments 
(Fig. 2, **). It serves the same purpose as do the oils or 
grease when they are used on the bearings of machinery. 
Fig. 2 
Fig. 2. A Vertical Sec- 
tion of the Knee-Joint.- 
1, The femur. 3, The pa- 
tella. 5, The tibia. 2, 4, 
Ligaments of the patella. 
* *, The synovial membrane. 
6, Bursa. 
12. Functions of the skeleton? Describe a ligament. 13. What 
is a joint? Functions? 14. What of cartilage? Where found? 
Uses? 15. Describe synovia. How formed? Uses? THE FRAMEWORK. 
17 
16. Ligaments are the proper ties of the bones (12). 
They bind the bones very firmly, yet permit, in certain 
directions according to the joint, very free movements 
(Fig. 3,2'8; Fig. 4,5>«). 
Fig. 3. 
Fig. 4. 
Fig. 3 (Leidy). The Kight Knee-Joint, laid open from the front,-1, Articular sur- 
face of the femur. 2, 3, Crucial ligaments. 6, 7, Semilunar fibro-cartilages. 9, The 
synovial bursa. 11, Interosseous membrane. 
Fig. 4 (Leidy). Front View of the Right Knee-Joint.-1, Tendon of the quadri- 
ceps extensor muscle. 2, Patella. 3, Ligament of the patella. 4, 4, Capsular ligament. 
5, 6, Internal and external lateral ligaments. 
17. The Flesh includes the soft, red parts of the body. 
The parts of the mass, called muscles, are for the most part 
attached to the skeleton at definite points. There are 
upwards of three hundred and seventy muscles. 
18. The Muscles constitute the lean meat. Muscle is 
largely made up of fibres. In the living animal these 
fibres are endowed with contractility. Contractility is the 
power of self-shortening. 
16. What do ligaments permit? 17. Speak of flesh; of muscles. 
18. What is muscle? Contractility? 18 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
19. The fibres of skeletal muscles (367) have minute 
cross-markings (striae). Skeletal muscles are attached di- 
rectly to the bones, or indirectly by means of tendons (Fig. 
4, h 3). The Tendons are firm white bands or cords 
which merge at one end in the muscle and are attached to 
the bone at the other end. 
20. Hygiene of Bones.-The health of bones is pro- 
moted by regular exercise of the skeletal muscles (375). 
The kind and amount of exercise should be adapted to the 
age, health, and development of the bones. The soft, 
flexible, cartilage-like bones of the child and the brittle 
bones of the aged are not adapted for severe exertions or 
for long-continued labor. 
21. The lower extremities of the very young are not 
adapted to sustaining much weight. " Bandy" or "bow- 
legs" are, in a measure, due to learning to walk too early. 
Children's chairs should be of such height that the feet of 
the child can rest on a firm support. A child should not 
be kept in one position long, especially when learning to 
stand and to walk. 
22. The bones of infants, children, and youth are flex- 
ible. They can be moulded into proper shapes, as they 
can be made to assume improper shapes (32). At birth 
most of the bones of the infant are not united, and the 
heads of the long bones are easily separated from the cen- 
tral portions. Hence too much care cannot be taken to 
prevent deformities. 
23. Chest-Compression should be avoided. Slight 
19. What of skeletal muscles ? Of tendons ? 20. How is bone- 
health promoted ? What of exercise ? Precautions ? 21. Causes of 
"bandy-legs"? What of children ? 22. What of young bones ? Of 
their condition? Hence? 23. Speak of chest-compression. What 
may result ? THE FRAMEWORK. 
19 
but constant pressure upon the bones of the young will 
produce distortion (33). " Tight" or " snug-fitting" cloth- 
ing about the chest and abdomen tends to impede respira- 
tion and digestion, and to reduce the natural capacity of 
Fig. 5. 
Fig. 6. 
Fio. 5. A Correct Outline of the Venus de Medici. 
Fig. 6. An Outline of a Well-Corseted Modern Beauty. 
One has an artificial, insect waist; the other, a natural waist. One has sloping shoul- 
ders, while the shoulders of the other are comparatively elevated, square and angular. 
The proportion of the corseted woman below the waist is also a departure from the sym- 
metry of nature. 
the chest. The clothing of children and adnlts ought to 
be largely suspended from the shoulders. 
24. Posture.-An erect position both in sitting and 
in standing should be carefully maintained. The spinal 
column naturally curves from front to rear (Fig. 8). If 
24. Speak of posture. Of spinal curves. Of prevention of de- 
formities. 20 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
a stooping or a lateral curved posture be continued for 
long periods at frequent intervals, as at school or at the 
sewing-table, the spine will become deformed. Deformity 
Fig. 7. 
Fig. 8. 
Fig. 7 represents the Erect Position of the Body. 1, A perpendicular line from 
the centre of the feet to the upper point of the spinal column, where the head rests. 
2, 2, 2, Spinal column with its three natural curves. The head and body are so balanced 
that the muscles are not kept in a state of tension. 
Fig. 8 represents the Stooping Position of the Body. 1, A perpendicular line. 
2, Unnaturally curved spinal column, and its relative position to the perpendicular 
line (1). The curved position of the body and lower limbs keeps the muscles in tension. 
of the thorax follows deformity of the spine (Fig. 10). 
To prevent deformities of the spine, children should not be 
kept too long in their seats. At frequent intervals there THE FRAMEWORK. 
21 
should be exercises calling the muscles of both sides of the 
body into action, such as rowing, tree-climbing, wrestling, 
etc. 
25. A person can stand longer, walk farther and more 
easily, and perform more labor if he habitually preserves 
an erect attitude. If an erect position is maintained, when 
possible, during childhood and youth, the cartilages of the 
spine will preserve their normal shape, and the bones of 
the spine, pelvis, and limbs will become firm and solid, 
retaining their normal outlines. By steady and careful 
attention, combined with proper muscular exercises, a 
stooping habit can be corrected. 
26. Left-handedness.-In the daily duties of life 
children should be encouraged to use both hands and 
both limbs. If such a habit becomes fixed, the right and 
left halves of the body will be equally strong and efficient. 
Both sides of the body being equally developed, corsets or 
stays will not be needed to prevent lateral curvature or to 
enable the person to sit or stand erect. The carrying of 
burdens or weights upon the head tends to produce an 
easy, erect carriage. 
27. Exercise.-At rising, before dressing (and after un- 
dressing, before retiring), it would be well for all, students 
especially, to practise a few movements. Take several 
deep and prolonged respirations. Place the hands, palms 
together, in front of the chest, on a level with the fourth 
rib, then sweep them around to the rear in that plane. 
Repeat this movement a number of times. Then stand 
erect, heels together, the feet forming an angle of 90°, raise 
25. What of an erect attitude ? How established ? 26. Speak of 
right and left body-culture. What will result? What of head- 
burdens? 27. What exercises are recommended? Why? 22 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
the hands vertically over the head, close the fists and bring 
the thumbs together. Now make a sweep forward with the 
thumbs in contact, bending the back and keeping the knees 
straight. Repeat this movement several times. If pos- 
sible, at each movement touch the knuckles to the floor. 
Such movements rouse the body and tend to enlarge the 
chest, to render the back flexible, to aid digestion, and to 
prevent constipation. CHAPTER III. 
DEFORMITIES, DISEASES, AND INJURIES OF THE 
FRAMEWORK. 
28. The All-wise made each bone and cartilage and 
joint for certain specific functions. He gave to each part 
its proper size and shape, assigned to each system of parts 
definite relative proportions, and so adapted the means to 
the ends in view that each part could do its designed duty 
easily, readily, and efficiently. 
29. A Deformity is a notable departure from the nor- 
mal form of a part, as of a bone, or of a joint. There are 
three kinds of deformities,-natural, acquired, and artificial. 
A natural deformity is one present at birth, like club-foot. 
The others appear after birth, like bow-legs and deformed 
spine.* 
30. Acquired Deformities commonly result from in- 
juries, from joint-disease, from non-use of a part, from 
improper food, or from nerve-disease. The want of bone- 
making materials in the foods is a fertile cause of deformi- 
ties among the poor, and especially those who live in dark, 
damp houses (145). In the well-fed classes deformities are 
more common among girls than among boys. 
31. Prevention of Deformities.-Among children 
in ill-health and children living in sunless and ill-venti- 
28. Speak of the parts of the body. For what adapted ? 29. What 
is a deformity ? Kinds? When do they appear? Examples. 30. 
Mention causes of deformities. Among whom are they common ? 
31. Speak of slight injuries. What must be done ? What was Cline's 
advice? 
23 24 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
lated houses, the ability to recover from slight injuries is 
vastly less than that of robust children (39). The feeble 
must be brought into the sunshine and urged or forced 
to use their muscles. By causing a part to do its duties 
daily, many diseased conditions leading to deformity can be 
amended. Proper braces and supports enable the patient 
to be in the sunshine and to take exercise. An anxious 
mother consulted the celebrated surgeon Cline as to what 
she should do to prevent her daughter from being de- 
formed. He answered, " Let her have no stays, and let 
her run about like the boys." 
Fig. 9. 
Fig. 10. 
Fig. 9. A Chest fashionably deformed. 
Fig. 10. A Deformed Thorax and Spinal Column. 
32. Artificial Deformities are produced by man 
under the dictates of fashion or custom. Deformities of 
32. What of artificial deformities ? Of their influence ? Examples. DEFORMITIES OF THE FRAMEWORK. 
25 
this class are unnecessary. They are injurious not only 
to the deformed part but also to the entire frame. They 
hinder a part in the performance of its proper functions. 
They often render a part worse than useless. Among the 
common deformities are corns, bunions, ingrowing nails, 
abnormal feet, moulded heads, constricted waists, etc. 
33. Custom ordains that there shall be forehead-flatten- 
ing in the children of New Hebrides, and that the feet of 
all Chinese girls of rank shall be made into shapeless and 
almost useless stumps. In America, fashion decrees that a 
boot of a certain form shall be worn, and men and women, 
old and young, crowd their feet into the new mould. Later, 
a "new style" appears, and the majority hasten to compel 
their distorted feet to adapt themselves to a new and rigid 
model. In other words, the foot is made to conform to the 
shoe, not the shoe to the foot. Fashion and false pride 
force the American mother to provide her daughters with 
stays or corsets. Stays or corsets persistently used do not 
advance the health and strength of the wearer (26). Cor- 
sets often are the cause of deformity and disease (Fig. 1). 
The perfect female foot " should have great breadth and fulness of instep, a well- 
marked great toe. a long second toe, a small little toe." Woman needs a strong and firm 
footing particularly because of her function of motherhood. Many ailments peculiar 
to women, causing invalidism, misery, and unhappiness, would vanish or be lessened if 
proper shoes were worn. 
34. Weak Spines.-Girls suffering from ''weak spine" 
-boys rarely are so affected-may be known by their thin, 
pale faces, bowed backs, rounded shoulders, and non- 
elastic gait. At first it would be well for such sufferers to 
wear a pasteboard support which has been moulded to the 
33. What does custom command? What of shoes? Of corsets? 
34. How may the " weak-spined" be known? What can be done? 26 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
back. They should do active housework, cease studying 
or practising on the piano at home, and perhaps leave 
school for a time, should employ cold sponging and rub- 
bing, practise exercises on the horizontal bar and the sus- 
pended swing-rings, and, later, swimming, followed by 
walking and horseback exercise. 
35. Soft Bones.-Infants and young children who live 
in dark, damp, and almost sunless rooms, and who are fed 
on poor milk (whether mother's or cow's milk), arrow-root, 
and white-flour compounds (204 a), develop soft bones. 
These bones are often enlarged at the ends. Such bones 
are easily bent out of shape, even by the action of their own 
feeble muscles. Children with such bones are said to have 
" the rickets." The softening is due to the lack of sufficient 
mineral elements in the food. 
36. Management.-All infants should have an abun- 
dance of healthy milk. All children should have enough 
of normal milk, milk and cream, milk with lime-water, and 
well-cooked oatmeal or wheat flour (decorticated wheat). 
All children ought, if possible, to be exposed several hours 
daily to the sun. They should sleep in dry, well-aired 
rooms. Children with rickets should wear well-adjusted 
splints, in order to prevent deformities. 
37. Sprains of joints are accompanied by greater or less 
strains of the ligaments (Fig. 4, 5' 6), and frequently by 
tearing of the ligaments, with injuries to the tendons and 
muscles. A sudden and severe striking together of the 
bones often induces a bruise. Joint-disease (39) frequently 
starts from a slight cartilage-bruise. 
35. Who suffer from soft bones? Why? What results? Cause of 
softening? 36. What should be the diet of infants? Of children? 
What is said of children with rickets ? 37. What occurs in a sprain ? 
What of a bruise ? DISEASES OF THE FRAMEWORK. 
27 
38. Management.-In simple sprains, rest on a hair pil- 
low from two to six days will restore a healthy joint in a 
robust person. In case of inflammation, " lock the joint" 
by using a well-padded, oil-silk-covered splint or a plas- 
ter-of-Paris dressing, and apply ice constantly. Splints 
compel muscle-rest and joint-rest. Ice checks the setting 
of an increased current of blood to the injured part, and 
acts against inflammation. Use the ice in an ice-bag or 
wrapped in flannel or in a piece of rubber blanket. If ice 
cannot be used, irrigate with cold water or with hot water. 
Later, employ hand-rubbing. Continue the splints for 
weeks. 
Irrigation.-Wrap the parts and the splint in a loose cotton bandage. Place a tub 
of cold water on the table. Run from the tub to different portions of the part a dozen 
or more strands of cotton candle-wicking or yarn. By the action of these strands a con- 
stant stream of water will course over the part. Keep up the irrigation without inter- 
mission for twenty-four to seventy-two hours. In cold weather, water as hot as can be 
borne may be used instead of iced water. 
39. Joint-Disease.-Most joint-disease starts in neg- 
lected slight injuries of a normal joint. Joint-disease 
occurs most frequently in feeble children. When a robust 
child slightly injures a joint, under brief rest the joint fully 
recovers. When a feeble child injures a joint, a brief rest 
is not usually enough. All injuries to the main joints 
(hip, knee, ankle, elbow, and shoulder), especially in the 
feeble, should be looked upon as serious. 
40. If rest is not taken after a sprain (38) or a con- 
tusion, the "blood-blister" caused by the injury is not 
allowed to heal. By the continued use of the joint the 
" blood-blister" is irritated, and an ulcer or sore is formed 
38. Management of a sprain ? Of resulting inflammation ? Speak 
of splints. Of ice. Of water. 39. Mention causes of joint-disease. 
What of feeble children? 40. Speak of the " blood-blister." Of the 
ulcer. Of the cartilages. What results ? 28 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
within the joint. A little later the smooth cartilage (Fig. 
3, J) becomes rough, and erodes, the bones are involved, 
the synovial membrane (Fig. 2, **) becomes diseased, 
and disorganization of the joint follows. The course of 
such a case is painful and tedious. If a disorganized joint 
heals, a " stiff joint" may be expected. 
41. Management.-In joint-troubles "an ounce of pre- 
vention is worth a pound of cure." In early cases, rest 
-prolonged rest and rest aided by splints-is the rule of 
action. The splint ought to be so adapted that out-of-door 
exercise or movements can be taken. More persons are 
crippled from ill-cared-for sprains than from fractured bones. 
42. Dislocation.-A joint is dislocated when the ar- 
ticular surface (the surface in contact) of one bone is dis- 
placed from another bone (13). In dislocations the liga- 
ments are more or less torn, and the adjoining muscles and 
soft parts are usually injured. The habit of "snapping 
the joints" should not be encouraged, as it leads to the 
production of lax ligaments. 
43. Management.-A dislocated bone should be put in 
place as soon as possible after the injury. In most cases 
it is best to administer ether before attempting the reduc- 
tion. After the replacing of the part, splints must be used, 
and sometimes cold applications over the joint. Splints 
must be worn for a number of weeks, in order that the liga- 
ments and torn parts may heal; otherwise joint-disease may 
follow. 
44. Fractures, or Broken Bones.-A fracture may 
41. What must be done in joint-injuries? 42. What is a disloca- 
tion? What parts are injured? What of joint-snapping ? 43. What 
is the early treatment of dislocation ? The later ? 44. How may a 
fracture be recognized ? What should be done? Arm? Leg? INJURIES OF THE FRAMEWORK. 
29 
be recognized by inability to use the part, by grating, by 
much motion, by deformity, and by complaints of pain. If 
the arm be injured, make a sling from a cloth or handker- 
chief. Support the arm from the elbow to the wrist, tying 
the ends of the cloth behind the neck. If the leg or thigh 
be hurt, and if the patient is to be moved only a short 
distance, bind the hurt limb carefully to the sound limb 
with handkerchiefs. If the sufferer is to be removed far, 
carefully remove or cut away the boots and leg garments. 
Gently but firmly pull on the parts below the fracture until 
the limb reaches its full length. Hold it quietly. 
45. The pulling on the parts draws the bone-fragments 
from the torn flesh, prevents the sharp, painful muscle- 
twitchings, and affords the sufferer some ease. Let another 
person secure some thin strips of shingle, or laths, or straight 
sticks, or tin, or even common straw, cut to the length of 
the limb. Place some cloth or grass in the form of even 
pads above and below the seat of injury, then around the 
whole adjust the splints which have been made, and secure 
them in place by cords or straps above and below the seat 
of the break. The limb can now be rested on a rude pil- 
low. An excellent method of removing the patient is to 
carry him on a door or shutter suspended by ropes from a 
stiff pole borne by two men. 
46. Preparation of the Bed.-For the treatment of frac- 
tures of the lower extremities a hard, smooth surface is 
needed. The even mattress should rest on slats rather 
than on ropes or wire netting. Place a thick quilt over 
the mattress, then a rubber sheet and a cotton sheet. The 
45. What are the effects of steady pulling ? What may serve as 
splints? How are they to be applied? Method of removing the 
patient? 46. Speak of bed-making. 30 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
coverings ought to be light, yet warm. They must not 
press upon the foot. 
47. Care.-When the broken parts have been adjusted 
as nearly as possible in position, the surgeon's work is not 
done. For several weeks the keeping of the parts in proper 
position demands daily professional care. The surgeon 
should be retained until the parts are again consolidated in 
the position found most practicable. A broken bone can 
rarely be made as good in form, shape, position, and use- 
fulness as it was before the injury. The bad results in the 
treatment of many fractures are more dependent on the 
wilfulness, irritability, and meddling of the patient or his 
friends, than on the want of skill on the part of the sur- 
geon. 
47. AVhat of care? Of bad results? CHAPTER IV 
THE SKIN 
Fig. 11. 
Fig. 11. Diagrammatic Vertical Section of Normal Skin.-a, Horny stratum of 
the epidermis, b, Lucid stratum, c, Granular stratum, d, Mucous stratum, e, Corium, 
with papillae, f, Tactile corpuscle, g, Sebaceous gland, h, Erector-of-the-hair muscle. 
i, Hair root, j, Pacinian corpuscle, fc, Sweat gland. I, Subcutaneous connective tissue. 
48. The Skin is the flexible, elastic covering of the 
body. It consists of an external portion, made up of two 
principal layers (horny, Fig. 11, a, and soft, or mucous, 
Fig. 11, d), with two much thinner layers between,-the 
lucid and the granular,-the whole constituting the epi- 
dermis; and of an internal portion, called the dermis or 
corium (Fig. 11, e to I). 
48. Describe the skin. 
31 32 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
49. The Epidermis is made up of layer upon layer of 
cells closely pressed together. It is the protective covering 
of the dermis. Its outer surface is constantly being rubbed 
off. In a blister the horny layer (Fig. 11, a) is elevated 
by a gathering of fluid in the soft layer (Fig. 11, d). In 
the soft layer is located the skin pigment. The nail is a 
modified part of the epidermis. 
50. The Dermis is the true skin. By it is formed the 
epidermis. It is abundantly supplied with blood-vessels 
and nerves. In it are found lymphatics, smooth muscles, 
hair roots (i), oil glands or sebaceous glands (g), sweat 
glands (/c), and fat cells, besides the Pacinian and tactile 
corpuscles (/ and J), which are the termini of sensory nerve- 
filaments. (Fig. 11.) 
51. The Lymphatics are a part of a system of very 
minute tubes. They abound in the skin, and are found in 
most parts of the body. They extend primarily to little 
roundish bodies called "glands." The whole system 
centres in two ducts which empty their fluid contents into 
the blood-tubes at the base of the neck. 
52. The Hairs have their seat in pits in the skin (Fig. 
11, i), and grow from a nipple-like projection. By the 
contraction of smooth muscles in the skin the hairs are 
elevated. The function of hairs is protection. It is 
estimated that there are about one hundred and twenty 
thousand on a normal scalp. 
53. The Oil Glands (Fig. 11, g) empty their secretion 
into the hair-pits. Each hair is usually provided with two 
49. What is the epidermis? A blister? A nail? 50. What of 
the dermis?. What does it contain ? 51. What of the lymphatics ? 
Of the glands? Of the fluid? 52.. Speak of the hairs. Hair- 
muscles. Number. 53. What of the oil glands ? Of the oil ? THE SKIN. 
33 
glands. The oil lubricates the hair, keeps the skin supple, 
and protects the epidermis. 
54. A Sweat Gland (Fig. 11, k) consists of a convo- 
luted tube seated deep in the dermis. The outer part is 
spiral, to prevent blocking up of the tube. The sweat, or 
perspiration, during its change to vapor on the surface of 
the skin cools the body. The sweat glands remove water 
and wastes from the blood (263). 
55. Regulations of Temperature.-The heat of the 
body is mostly produced by chemical changes taking place 
in the muscles and the internal organs. The body is kept 
at a normal temperature (98.6° F.; 37° C.) in all climates 
by the varying evaporations from the skin and the air- 
passages (106). 
56. In the summer the skin is turgid with blood, the 
sweat glands work actively, and large amounts of water 
appear on the surface of the skin. Heat is abstracted from 
the warm body, the water is changed to vapor, the blood 
in the skin-vessels is cooled, and later the whole body is 
cooled. 
57. In the winter more blood is retained in the heat-pro- 
ducing parts, less blood is sent to the skin, less perspiration 
appears, less evaporation occurs, and thus the heat-loss is 
diminished. The flow of the blood largely to the internal 
organs, or largely to the skin, is regulated by a medulla 
centre (283) in accordance with the needs of the system. 
58. Thermic Fever, or Heat-Stroke.-The contin- 
ued influence of high atmospheric temperature and great 
air-moisture often induces in the overworked and over-hur- 
54. Describe a sweat gland. Function of the perspiration. 
55. Method of heat-production. What of normal temperature ? 
56. What takes plaee in the summer? 57. Speak of winter heat- 
regulation. 58. What induces heat-stroke? Treatment? Prevention? 34 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
ried an active fever-condition (103° to 110° F.). It occurs 
by night as well as by day. Treatment.-Apply cold water 
and ice to the head. Give ice by the mouth and rectum; 
or cold baths. Alcoholics are hurtful. Prevention.-Wear 
loose-fitting garments. Take plenty of drink, cold water, 
warm coffee, warm tea, but no alcoholics. Secure free 
ventilation. Lessen the daily exertions. Be moderate in 
your movements. 
59. Absorption.-The skin, under suitable circum- 
stances, will absorb water. It is doubtful whether the 
sound skin can absorb substances in solution in water. 
Under friction, mercury, lead, and arsenic may enter the 
system. When the surface of the skin or the mucous mem- 
brane is punctured or abraded, poisons (like lead, arsenic, the 
poison of farcy, pustule, vaccinia, etc.) can readily reach the 
lymphatics, work on to the blood, and later affect the whole 
system. Certain animal poisons (contagia, 126) lying for 
a few minutes or hours in contact with a healthy, sound 
mucous membrane have been known to enter the system. 
60. Precaution.-Before handling poisons, decaying 
meat, bones having shreds of decaying flesh, dead bodies, 
etc., examine the hands and forearms carefully. Apply 
plaster or collodion to denuded spots. Then smear the 
hands and forearms with oil or fat. If you are cut by a 
poisoned knife, allow the part to bleed freely. If the 
mouth is sound, suck the wound. Later, wash out the 
mouth. 
61. Cleanliness.-The skin should be kept clean. 
To remove dirt from the skin nothing is superior to warm 
59. Speak of absorption : through sound skin; abraded skin; 
mucous surfaces. 60. How prevent absorption? What of poison- 
wounds? 61. How may cleanliness be secured? Effect of skin- 
cleaning? What of nurses? THE SKIN. 
35 
water, good soap, and friction. For the body-health cold 
bathing and brisk friction hold the first rank. The effect 
of skin-cleaning is to improve the nutrition of the skin, to 
render its color and texture better, to increase the action 
of the sweat and oil glands, to prevent disease of the skin, 
and to advance the general health. A clean skin relieves 
the air-passages and the kidneys (265) of extra work. The 
attendants of the sick should always wash their hands 
before handling food or eating. 
62. Soap.-Good soap only should be used. Inferior 
soaps injure the color and texture of the skin. Only such 
amount should be used as has been found necessary to keep 
the skin clean. An excess of soap dissolves and removes 
the oily secretion too rapidly, and, as a result, the epider- 
mis is not properly protected, and its surface becomes red, 
rough, and chapped. 
Castile soap is a typical good soap. It is neutral, but strong enough for general 
bathing and washing purposes. Soft soaps contain an excess of alkali. They may be 
useful for removing scales, crusts, and foreign matters from the skin, but after their use 
an oily application should be made. Medicated soaps (tar, sulphur, etc.) are often ser- 
viceable in the milder forms of skin-disease. 
63. Bathing is indispensable to sound health as well 
as to cleanliness. " Daily bathing, from childbirth to old 
age, should be the rule." (Bowditch.') Bathing imparts 
tone and vigor to the internal organs. Cold baths and 
cold washes are the gymnastics of the skin (52), and of 
intestinal and blood-vessel muscles. In the robust, cold 
bathing is followed by a " reaction." 
64. By reaction the skin becomes glowing, the internal 
organs are relieved, respiration is made fuller and easier, 
the heart beats more calmly, the tone of the muscular sys- 
62. Speak of the use of soap. Of the abuse. 63. Of bathing. 
Influence of cold baths. 64. What occurs in reaction ? 36 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
tem is improved, the appetite is sharpened, the mind 
works with greater strength and clearness, and the whole 
system gains in power. Regularity in bathing is necessary 
to produce permanent good effects. 
65. Mode of Bathing.-The simplest modes of 
bathing are by means of the sponge and the shallow bath. 
Under either of these modes the body should be quickly 
washed, dried, and well rubbed. The cold bath should be 
taken only in the early part of the day. As a rule, it 
should always be followed by muscular exercise. The cold 
bath, in general, ought not to exceed five minutes in length. 
Temperature.-Vapor and hot water baths, above 97° F. (36° C.), are stimulant. 
The warm bath, 97° to 85° F. (36° to 29.5° C.), is soothing. The infant's bath should com- 
mence at 99° F. and be gradually reduced. The tepid bath, 75° to 85° F. (24° to 29.5° C.), 
is useful for cleanliness and to keep the sweat pores (Fig. 11, k) open. The temperate 
bath, 65° to 75° F. (18° to 24° C.), is well adapted to the- healthy. The cold bath, 32° to 
65° F. (0° to 18° C.), is a stimulant, a tonic, and later a sedative. It is adapted only to 
the robust who have excellent lungs. 
66. Precautions.-The face and head should be wet 
in cold water before the bath. Cool baths must not be 
taken when the body is chilly, perspiring, or greatly 
fatigued. Common baths ought to be taken briskly (64). 
Excepting the warm evening bath, exercise should always 
follow bathing. When " reaction" does not promptly 
follow a cold bath or a sea-bath, the bath is injurious. 
67. Sea-Bathing increases tissue-changes, and also in- 
creases the amount of the excreta. It improves the appe- 
tite and aids digestion; it quickens the circulation and 
braces up the nervous system. Sea-bathing is valuable 
to persons in ordinary health who are fatigued by busi- 
ness cares and mental overwork. It is not proper for in- 
65. What of the manner of bathing ? Of cold baths ? 66. Speak 
of cool baths. Of warm baths. Of injurious baths. 67. What of 
sea-bathing ? Who are aided ? Who are injured ? 37 
THE SKIN. 
fants, elderly persons, or those suffering from well-seated 
disease of the kidneys, liver, heart, or lungs. 
68. Prevention of Drowning.-The buoyant power 
of water is great. One or both hands placed on a block, 
or stool, or chair will suffice to keep the mouth and nose 
out of water. This, in many cases, is all that is absolutely 
necessary. If you are in danger of drowning, do not at- 
tempt to raise your body out of water. Keep your nose 
and mouth out of water, and endeavor, by movements of 
the legs, to work your way shoreward. 
69. Management of a Drowning Case.-Treat the 
patient on the spot. Raise the person by the limbs, in 
order to allow the water to run out. Remove all close- 
fitting garments from the neck and chest. Wipe the froth 
from mouth and nostrils. Keep the people from crowding 
around. If natural respiration has ceased, employ the 
"Silvester method" at once. 
70. Silvester Method.-(1) Lay the body on the 
back. Slightly elevate the feet and limbs. Put a block 
under the shoulders. Pull the head well back. Draw 
and hold the tongue well out. Place yourself at the head. 
Seize the arms above the elbow. Draw them upwards until 
they meet above the head, then move them back to the 
side and press with both hands on the lower part of the 
breast-bone. Repeat this movement deliberately fourteen 
times per minute. Persevere for half an hour. 
(2) Dash cold water or water of 120° F. temperature on 
the naked chest. As soon as the natural movements of 
the breathing recommence, cease the Silvester movements. 
(3) Maintain the temperature of the body by friction, 
hot bottles, and warm blankets. Keep the head in a cur- 
rent of fresh air. 
68. How may drowning be averted ? 69. What shall be done with 
a " drowning case" out of water ? 70. Describe the Silvester method. 
What of water? Of heat? Of nourishment? 38 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
(4) As soon as the patient can swallow, give warm 
milk, tea, or coffee containing a little ammonia (spirits of 
hartshorn). Put the patient in a warm bed. Pack hot- 
water bottles about him. Encourage sleep. Keep the 
windows open. 
71. Cosmetics often contain lead, bismuth, mercury, and 
other dangerous and injurious ingredients. They clog the 
sweat-gland pores, and injure the texture, softness, and 
health of the skin. Superfluous facial hairs are best re- 
moved by passing an electric current through each hair- 
root. Hair- and whisker-dyes not only disfigure a person, 
but very often cause systemic poisoning (lead paralysis). 
72. Burns.-When the burn is small, apply cold water 
continuously until the smarting ceases. If the burn is 
severe, prick the blisters. Do not pull off the epidermis. 
Apply wet clothes. Keep them wet with a strong solution 
of cooking soda. If soda is not at hand, use strong soap- 
suds. Do not remove the first dressing until smarting has 
ceased. If the burn is severe, let the dressings remain 
until pus-formation loosens them. In very bad, extensive 
burns, put the patient in a warm bath. Give hot milk 
and a little ammonia. Later, zinc ointment or carbolized 
sweet oil or cotton-seed oil makes a good dressing. 
73. Clothing.-The object of clothing is to protect 
against cold and against heat. In cold climates clothing 
is an equivalent of a certain amount of fatty food, and 
is essential. In hot climates the head must be protected 
against direct sun-heat, and the abdomen, at night, by the 
cotton " kummerbund" or the flannel waist-belt (104). 
71. What is found in cosmetics? Their action? What of stray 
hairs? Of hair-dyes? 72. Treatment of a small burn ? of a moder- 
ate burn? of the dressings? of a large burn? 73. What is the object 
of clothing? In cold climates? In hot climates? THE SKIN. 
39 
74. Clothing does not warm the body (55). It retards 
the outward passage of the body-heat. Flannel or merino 
absorbs the excessive perspiration. Clothing also protects 
against external agents, like furnace-heat, blowing sand, 
hail, and winds. 
(а) " Protection against cold.-For equal thicknesses, 
wool is much superior to either cotton or linen, and should 
be worn for all underclothing. In case of extreme cold, 
besides wool, leather or water-proof clothing is useful. 
Cotton and linen are nearly equal." 
(б) " Protection against heat.-Texture has nothing to do 
with protecting from the direct solar rays: this depends 
entirely on color. White is the best color, then gray, 
yellow, pink, blue, and black. In the shade the effect of 
color is not marked. The thickness and the conducting 
power of the material are the conditions which influence 
heat." 
(c) " Protection against cold winds.-For equal thick- 
ness, leather and india-rubber take the first rank; wool, 
the second; cotton and linen, third, and about equal." 
(cZ) "Absorption of perspiration.-Wool has more than 
double the absorbing power of cotton and linen." (Parkes?) 
75. The clothing should be loose-fitting.-In warm weather, 
thin, loose, and porous garments favor the outward pas- 
sage of heat and the removal of the skin's moisture. In 
cold weather, dry, well-meshed materials, like woollens, 
merinos, and furs, made into loose garments, keep several 
layers of poorly-conducting air between the warm body 
and the cold air. Tight-fitting garments do not permit 
of the non-conducting air-layers; besides, they interfere, 
by pressure, with free blood-circulation (105). When going 
out, put on your overcoat in the warm room five minutes 
before you are ready to leave the room. 
74. What does clothing do ? 75. What results from wearing loose 
clothing? Tight-fitting clothing? 40 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
76. Water-proof clothing, and water-proof boots or shoes, 
should be worn only to keep out external wet, and only 
during the time of exposure. As they retain the body- 
moisture, they are highly injurious if worn continuously 
for a length of time. When water-proof clothing must 
be so worn, however, wool next to the skin mitigates the 
evil effects. 
77. Night-clothing should be thicker than that worn 
during the day. The night is colder than the day. The 
loss of heat from the body is greater during the night than 
during the day. A wool or hair mattress, light, fleecy wool 
blankets, and clean sheets (in the winter warmed with the 
old-fashioned "warming-pan") make a healthy, sleep-in- 
ducing bed. All bedding should be exposed to currents 
of air and to direct sunlight several hours daily. The 
Italian method of not " making up the bed" until late in 
the day is worthy of imitation. 
78. The clothing must be clean.-All clothing should be 
frequently changed, often exposed to sunlight, daily shaken, 
and well washed at frequent intervals. Under-garments 
should be changed twice daily; i.e., there should be a day 
set and a night set. The attendants of the sick should 
wear light-colored, washable garments. 
79. Damp clothing is dangerous.-All articles from the 
laundry should be aired and sunned or warmed before 
being put on. In the unaired, unwarmed "spare bed" 
lurks the visitor's dangerous foe. A robust person sud- 
denly wet suffers no evil consequences if he keeps in motion 
until he has an opportunity to disrobe, rub down, and put 
76. When should water-proof clothing be used? Why? 77. Why 
should night-clothing be thickest ? What of the bedding? Of bed- 
making? 78. What of the care of apparel? 79. What of damp 
clothing? Of the spare bed? Of exposure to wet? THE SKIN. 
41 
on dry garments. Cold, damp feet are the starting-points 
of many an illness. 
80. In the northern and central zones of the United 
States, merino, the admixture of cotton varying with the 
locality and the season, is the safest material for under- 
garments at all times. A change from thick to thinner 
garments should be made in the morning, when the system is 
buoyant. The system of " hardening" children by giving 
them insufficient clothing is non-hygienic and inhuman. 
Persons who suffer from headache, neuralgia, dyspepsia, 
etc., need more clothing than healthy persons under the 
same conditions. Persons in active employments need less 
clothing than those engaged in sedentary pursuits. 
81. Shoes.-Well-tanned, good skins make the best and 
warmest of foot-protectives. In cold weather shoes should 
be of an "easy fit." The "easy fit" permits a layer of 
warm air to surround the foot, the dry leather permits a 
limited amount of the perspiration to escape, and the good 
leather well protects the foot. 
80. Mention suitable materials. Speak of changes. Of "harden- 
ing." Of clothing for invalids. 81. What about shoes ? Fig. 12. CHAPTER V. 
THE HEART AND BLOOD-TUBES. 
82. The Thorax is a cage-work of bones filled in with 
muscles and soft parts (Fig. 1). It is limited below by 
the diaphragm (Fig. 12), and by the soft parts of the neck 
above. Its shape is conical, and its capacity is variable. It 
contains and protects the heart and lungs (Fig. 21), the 
great blood-tubes (Fig. 12), the oesophagus, and the thoracic 
duct (Fig. 21,13'24). 
83. The Heart is the great central engine-pump. It 
is a hollow, muscular organ. The contractions of the heart 
are due to nerve-centre action in the heart itself. It is 
provided with valves to guide the blood-current. It forces 
the blood to the lungs and to all parts of the body. Blood 
from the lungs and all parts of the body comes back to it. 
84. Blood-Tubes.-The blood forced from the heart is 
conducted to all parts of the body by tubes called arteries. 
These tubes terminate in a net-work of minute tubes, the 
capillaries, in every tissue of the body. The blood issuing 
from the capillaries returns' to the heart in tubes called 
veins. The arteries have circular muscular fibres, the con- 
traction of which lessens their diameters. The calibre of 
the arteries is controlled by a nerve-mechanism (283). 
85. The Blood in the living body is a fluid varying in 
color from brownish-red to a bright red. It consists of a 
82, Describe the thorax. What does it contain ? 83. Speak of the 
heart. Of its valves. Of its work. 84. Mention functions of arteries ; 
of veins; of arterial muscular fibres. 85. Describe the blood. What 
does it contain ? 44 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
pale, yellowish fluid, the plasma, in which float a large num- 
ber of disks, called corpuscles. The blood contains in suit- 
able form for tissue-use all the chemical elements found in 
the body (10). 
86. The Function of the red corpuscles is to convey 
oxygen to all parts of the body. The plasma of the blood 
contains the tissue-food and the tissue-wastes. 
87. Capillary Interchanges.-The blood-stream in 
the capillaries (81) is regular, equable, and slow. It is 
during this portion of its rounds that the blood gives to 
each tissue such needed substances as it is able to withdraw 
and receives from each tissue that which the tissue gives 
up. Blood coming from the capillary areas is darker in 
color and richer in wastes, but poorer in oxygen, than 
arterial blood. 
88. Bleeding, or Hemorrhage.-There is no soft part 
of the body which, when cut, will not afford blood. If 
the issuing blood is bright red in color and comes forth in 
jets, it is arterial; if in a darker, constant flow, venous; and 
if it oozes out in many points, capillary (84). As a rule, 
arterial blood escapes from the heart-side of a wound, 
venous blood from the side farthest from the heart, and 
capillary blood from both sidfs. Crushed and torn blood- 
tubes rarely leak much blood. 
89. Management of Bleeding.-When a part is cut 
and small jets as well as a steady flow of blood appear, 
raise the part, if possible, and apply a dry cloth with firm 
pressure. In a few minutes remove the cloth, wash the 
86. What of the corpuscles? Of the plasma? 87. Speak of the 
capillary flow. Of the interchanges. Of blood-changes. 88. What 
kinds of bleeding? How may each be known? What of crushed 
wounds? 89. Management of small jets. What of ice? Of hot 
water ? What stops the bleeding ? THE HEART AND BLOOD-TUBES. 
45 
parts with a stream of water, and expose the cut to the air. 
If ice is at hand, apply a piece against the bleeding points. 
If ice is not at hand, direct a stream of hot water (as hot 
as can be borne by the hand) for some time against the 
Fig. 13. 
Fig. 13. Manner of Compressing Divided Arteries.-a, compressing the large 
artery of the arm with the thumb, b, The subclavian artery, c, Compressing the di- 
vided extremity of an artery in the wound with a finger. 
wound. The contraction of the arterial muscular fibres 
(84) and the little plugs of clotted blood in the cut ends 
will control the bleeding. Use no alum or tannin. 
90. Bleeding from large arteries and veins must be quickly 
controlled. Apply your finger at once to the point from 
whence the large jet escapes (Fig. 13, c), elevate the limb, 
90. What is to be done in severe b1r.d;no-'' ..itches. 46 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
and keep the patient quiet. Hold your finger against the 
point until a friend can apply the " field tourniquet" in the 
course of the artery above the wound. Now the finger can 
be removed and the smaller jets attended to, as directed in 
paragraph 89. (Figs. 14, 15.) 
Fig. 14 
Fig. 15. 
Fig. 14. Method of Applying the Knotted Handkerchief to compress a divided 
artery.-a, b, Track of the brachial artery (arm). 
Fig. 15. a, c, Track of the femoral artery ; the compress applied near the groin. 
91. Field Tourniquet.-Take a square piece of cloth 
or a handkerchief, twist it cornerwise, and tie a hard knot 
in the middle. Place the knot over the artery between 
the wound and the heart, carry the ends around the limb, 
and tie them loosely. Place a stick under the handker- 
chief near the last tie, and twist till the fingers can be 
removed from the compression without a return of the 
bleeding. (Fig. 14.) 
92. Having the bleeding under control, let the patient lie 
Wi(91. What is the field tourniquet? How applied? 92. What shall 
vne with the patient? How close the tubes? THE HEART AND BLOOD-TUBES. 
47 
down in a cool, quiet room. Place bottles holding hot 
water around his limbs. Give him water when he desires. 
A little hot water and ammonia often does good. If a 
surgeon cannot be had, slightly pull out the gaping artery 
or vein with a fish-hook fastened to a pen-holder, or with 
a pair of small toothed forceps. Pass around the tube be- 
tween the hook and the flesh a silk or linen thread, and tie 
it with a " reef-knot." Do not cut off the threads, but 
allow the ends, knotted together, to hang out of the wound. 
Treat each of the arteries in the same manner. Slacken 
the tourniquet. If jetting points appear, secure them. 
Finally, loosen the tourniquet, but leave it on the limb 
so as to be ready should the main ligature not hold. 
Fig. 16. 
Fig. 16. Manner of Applying Adhesive Strips to Wounds. 
93. Dressing of the Wound.-After the bleeding 
has ceased, wash the wound with a stream of tepid water 
squeezed from a sponge or forced from a syringe-nozzle. 
Then carefully draw the several parts together. If the cut 
is small, retain the parts with strips of adhesive plaster not 
more than three-eighths of an inch wide (Fig. 16). Apply 
over this two or four folds of soft cloth. Secure all in place 
by a stitched or well-pinned cloth. In severe wounds it may 
be necessary to insert several stitches and to prop up the 
93. Speak of wound-cleansing. Of adhesive plaster. Of stitches. 48 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
flaps with pads of cotton or of cloth. In ragged wounds the 
stitches can rarely be expected to hold or to do much good. 
94. In dressing severe wounds, the position of the wound 
must be considered. If the wound be on the front of the 
arm, flex the forearm; if on the back, extend the forearm 
(Fig. 17); if on the front of the leg, extend the leg and 
Fig. 17. 
Fig. 17. a, a, Wounds on the back part of the arm and forearm, b, b, Wounds of the 
anterior part of the arm and forearm. By bending the elbow and wrist, the incisions 
at a, a, are opened, while those at b, b, are closed. Were the arm extended at the elbow 
and wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those at b, b, would be opened. 
bend up the ankle; if on the back part, reverse the posi- 
tion, etc. Splints may be used to keep the parts at rest, 
prevent joint-motion, and control muscular action (38). 
95. Re-dressing of Wounds.-Meddle with a wound 
as little as possible. When the dressing becomes foul and 
a bloody discharge quite evident, soften and remove the 
cloths with a stream of warm water. In removing the 
plasters, both ends should be raised, and, one at a time, 
stripped towards the wound. If plasters are to be re- 
tained, remove and replace alternate strips. Do not use 
" healing" salves or ointments. Nature does the healing. 
Ointments and oils serve to keep the dressing from sticking 
94. What of the position of the part ? Of splints? 95. When are 
wounds to be re-dressed ? How ? What of ointments ? THE HEART AND BLOOD-TUBES. 
49 
to tender surfaces. If the wound is fetid, alcohol 1 to 15 
of water may be used as a dressing-wash. 
96. Internal Bleeding.-When from the rectum or 
adjacent organs, the hot-water douche (115° to 160° F.) is 
most efficacious; when from the lungs, quietness of the 
patient must be maintained. Cause the patient to chew 
ice. In bleeding from the nostrils, sit up. Do not bend 
forward. Elevate the arms above the head. Breathe 
through the mouth. Apply ice to the sides of the nose, 
to the middle of the forehead, and to the nape of the neck. 
In bleeding* following* tedh-extraction, fill the hole in the 
jaw with plaster-of-Paris paste. In stomcicA-bleeding ac- 
companied by vomiting, rest on the back and swallow bits 
of ice. In bleeding from the bowels, suck ice, and apply 
ice wrapped in flannel to the abdomen. 
97. Punctured Wounds, as from the teeth of animals, 
old nails, thorns, etc., are often dangerous, for they cannot 
be cleansed to the bottom. Wash the parts about the 
wound. Apply a bread or linseed-meal poultice. Change 
this every four or six hours. The poultice favors pus- 
formation, prevents surface-healing, and cleanses the 
wound. 
98. Mad-Dog Wounds.-Cauterize at once with lunar 
caustic (nitrate of silver), or pour into the wound strong 
acid or alkali. Do not dose the person who is bitten. 
Endeavor to divert his mind from the occurrence. 
Do not kill the dog. Keep him securely until unmis- 
takable madness appears, then shoot him. All angry dogs 
are not mad (rabid) dogs. 
96. How control bleeding from the rectum ? from the lungs ? from 
the nostrils? from a tooth-cavity? from the stomach? from the in- 
testines? 97. What of punctured wounds? Action of poultice? 
98. Treatment of a mad dog's bite. What of the dog ? 50 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
99. Poison-Serpent Wounds.-Tie at once a cord or 
band very tightly around the part between the wound and 
the heart. Cut near the wound, to favor bleeding. If your 
mouth is sound (59), suck the wound ; if not, apply a live 
coal to the bite. Subcutaneous injections of ammonia are 
recommended. Give ordinary alcohol in tablespoonful 
doses, or its equivalent, in a little hot water. Add to 
each dose one grain of quinia and five to ten drops of 
water of ammonia. Repeat every ten minutes. Continue 
as long as heart-sustaining effects are produced. With a 
bettering of the condition, gradually increase the intervals 
of administration. From a pint to a quart of alcohol may 
be needed (322). 
100. Heart-Strain.- A frequent cause of heart- 
troubles is unduly violent efforts. Soldiers in forced 
marches, oarsmen in hotly-contested races, and gymnasts 
in vaulting-matches too often exceed their powers. They 
falter, hesitate, and give up to the sudden heart-weakness 
and prostration. If they survive, they very often drag 
along for years a less efficient life than before their exer- 
tion, and finally succumb to some chest-disease. 
101. Atheroma.-From strain of the heart, from gout 
and rheumatism, from the abuse of alcohol, and on the 
approach of old age, the coats of the large arteries undergo 
a change. In some cases the arterial tube-walls become 
fatty in their nature, and hence are easily ruptured. In 
other cases lime-salts are deposited in the elastic tissues, 
and the tubes become hard, rigid, and brittle. The latter, 
under a very sudden severe exertion, may crack open. 
99. How manage serpent wounds ? How stimulate ? 100. Causes 
of heart-strain? Effects of heart-strain ? 101. Causes of atheroma? 
Kinds? What may occur? Hence? THE HEART AND BLOOD-TUBES. 
51 
Rupture of an artery in the head induces apoplexy ; rupture 
of the aorta, sudden death. Hence elderly persons and per- 
sons long diseased should make no sudden severe exertions. 
102. Fainting.-In order to work properly, the heart 
must be supplied with enough good blood. Fainting is 
due (1) to failure of the heart's action, (2) to lack of blood 
in the brain-centres, and (3) to failure of lung-action. A 
common cause is the constant sending of an impure blood 
to the heart-walls. Management.-Put the person in a 
horizontal position. Loosen the clothing about the thorax 
and neck. Cut the stay-strings. Keep persons from crowd- 
ing around the patient. Dash cold water on the face. 
Apply ammonia to the nostrils. Rub the limbs, and rub 
over the heart-region. Mustard paste over the heart is 
often beneficial. Elevate the limbs. In very bad cases, 
raise the patient by the limbs until he rests on the head. 
On revival, give aromatic spirits of ammonia, or coffee. 
Keep the patient quiet for some hours in a warmed bed. 
103. Clothing.-A normal and equable temperature 
of the body must be maintained (55). When the skin or 
the air-passage surfaces (106) are chilled, the calibre of the 
blood-tubes in these parts becomes reduced, less blood flows 
to these parts, and more than a normal amount of blood is 
forced upon the internal organs. The latter become over- 
full (congestion). If the over-fulness is in the intestinal 
region, a sharp diarrhoea may follow; if in the lungs, op- 
pression of the chest-organs, followed by a profuse nasal 
and air-passage discharge. 
104. To prevent summer diarrhoeas, during summer even- 
102. Causes of fainting? What may be done? 103. What follows 
after a surface-chill? What may result? 104. How prevent sum- 
mer diarrhoeas ? Speak of underclothing. Of baths. 52 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
ings and nights a broad flannel waist-belt should always 
be worn. Native East-Indians and Anglo-Indians never 
neglect to wear the waist-belt at night during the cholera 
season (73). During the cool and cold months, merino, 
flannel, or silk should be worn next to the skin, in order to 
keep it of an equable temperature (80). Persons suffering 
from heart-troubles ought always to wear wool or silk 
undergarments. Among the robust, cold baths are very 
effective in keeping the blood-circulation equable and uni- 
form (66). 
105. The clothing should be loosely adjusted. Com- 
pression, or pressure of any kind upon the soft parts, im- 
pedes free blood-movements. Upon infants and children 
all bands should be elastic, and never of a close fit (23). 
Heart-disease is very much more frequent among soldiers 
than among policemen. The reason assigned for this is that 
the soldier's movements-chest and abdominal-are much 
hampered by the close-fitting uniform and the many straps 
of his accoutrements. The close-fitting waistcoats and 
snug-fitting stiff shirts and collars of men, as well as the 
corsets of women, are unhygienic (33). Students, brain- 
workers, and public speakers, as well as laborers, should 
wear garments which are loose about the neck and thorax 
(75). 
105. Speak of clothing. Of heart-disease. Of unhygienic apparel. 
Hence ? CHAPTER VI 
THE AIR-PASSAGES 
Fig. 18. 
Fig. 18. Vertical Section.-c, Cavity of skull. /.Falx, s, Spinal canal, leading from 
cavity of skull, n, Right nasal cavity; below, the hard and soft palate: the cavity of the 
mouth, the teeth, tongue, and lips, p, Pharynx, o, (Esophagus, h, Section of hyoid 
bone. 1, Larynx, e, Epiglottis, t, Trachea, v, Section of cervical vertebrae. (Marshall.) 
106. The Air-Passages.-The air entering the right 
or left nostril moves along the inferior nasal passage (Fig. 
18) into the open passage, the pharynx (Fig. 18, p), whence, 
106. Speak of the route of the entering air. Of mucous membrane. 
Of mucus. 
53 54 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
passing the vertical epiglottis (Fig. 18, e), it enters the 
cartilaginous passage, the larynx (Fig. 18, Z), and the many- 
ringed tube, the trachea (Fig. 19, 4). It next reaches the 
many-branching tubes, the bionchise (Fig. 19, 5'6'7'8), 
which finally terminate in a multitude of little, thin-walled 
air-sacs (Fig. 19, 9* 9). The entire system of passages, 
tubes, and sacs is lined with 
a membrane called mucous 
membrane. The surface of 
this membrane is bathed with 
moisture called mucus. The 
mucus is secreted by the cells 
of the membrane or glands 
in the membrane. 
107. The Lungs are two 
innumber. They occupy the 
right and left divisions of the 
thorax (Fig. 21, 3' 4). They 
consist of a pinkish-colored, 
spongy mass, made up of air- 
tubes, air-sacs, blood-vessels, 
and nerves bound together by webs of connective tissue. 
108. Inspiration.-By the elevation of the front ends 
of the ribs and the sternum and the flattening of the arched 
diaphragm (Fig. 21, 15) the capacity of the thorax is 
increased. By this enlargement the pressure of the air 
within the lung air-passage is lessened. The outer air now 
rushes into the mouth or nostrils and enters the air-pas- 
sages. Thus new air is introduced into the small tubes. 
109. Expiration.-By the muscular act of inspiration 
Fig. 19. 
Fig. 19. The Bronchi.®.-1, Outline 
of right lung. 2, Outline of left lung. 
3, Larynx. 4, Trachea. 5, 6, 7, 8, Bron- 
chial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. 
107. Describe the lungs. 108. How is the capacity of the thorax 
increased? What results? 109. How is expiration brought about? 
What occurs ? THE AIR-PASSAGES. 
55 
the elastic tissues of the lungs and chest-walls have been 
put on the stretch. When the muscles cease their contrac- 
tion in ordinary breathing, the elastic fibres react and di- 
minish the capacity of the lung-tubes. Thus about thirty 
cubic inches (500 c.c.) of air are forced out. 
110. Breathing is an involuntary act. The regularity 
of its movements is controlled by a " centre" in the medulla 
oblongata (283). The new air introduced contains more 
oxygen and less carbonic acid than the air in the small 
passages. By natural gas-mixing, the new air gives some 
of its oxygen to the old, and receives from it some of its 
carbonic acid. This recently-mixed air is expelled by ex- 
piration. Thus oxygen, a food, is introduced, and carbonic 
acid, a waste product, is removed. 
111. The Expired Air is warmer, contains more moist- 
ure and more carbonic acid (about 4 per cent.), and has less 
oxygen than the inspired air. The expired air also con- 
tains several impurities, most of which have a bad odor, 
and many of which undergo quick decay. 
112. Conditions for Health.-For proper action 
each organ and tissue of the body must be supplied with 
normal blood (85). In order that the moving blood may 
continue normal, it must be supplied with oxygen gas. In 
order to supply the needed oxygen, the lungs must be in 
good working condition, must not be impeded in their 
action, and must be supplied with normal air. Further- 
more, certain waste materials in the blood must reach the 
air-cell capillaries in order to be cast out of the system 
(111). When these wastes are cast out of the blood, they 
110. What is breathing? What takes place? The gain? The 
loss? 111. Speak of the expired air. 112. What is needed for tissue- 
action ? for normal blood ? for lung-action ? for waste-removal ? 56 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
must be rapidly removed from the air-passages, and later 
from the vicinity of the nostrils. 
113. Impediments to Normal Breathing.-By the 
presence in the blood and tissues of certain agents, like 
morphia, aconite, alcohol, the normal gas-interchange is 
hindered and the respiration diminished. The respiratory 
movements are hampered by improperly-fitting garments, 
by tight waistcoats and close-fitting shirts, by corsets and 
stays, by chest and abdominal bands and straps, by an 
over-distended abdomen following gluttony, and by vari- 
ous disease-processes involving the thoracic, abdominal, or 
cerebral organs. 
114. Normal Air is a mixture of about twenty-one 
volumes of oxygen and seventy-nine of nitrogen gas, 
together with small amounts of carbonic acid, vapor of 
water, and traces of living or dead organic matters. Nor- 
mal air is clear, has no odor, and contains an agreeable 
amount of moisture (60 to 70 per cent, of saturation). It 
induces no sensation of " closeness," and readily supports 
combustion. " Air at 32° F. contains about 10 per cent, 
more of oxygen than air at 80°." {Mayer.) 
115. Air-Impurities.-A large number of substances 
are continuously entering the air about us. Among them 
may be mentioned once-breathed air of man or animals, 
the carbon compounds from fires and lamps, the various 
matters coming from decaying flesh and vegetables, and 
dust of all kinds. The most dangerous of the impurities 
are the first and third kinds. 
116. Detection of Impurities.-Most organic matters, 
113. What hinders blood-changes ? Respiratory movements? 114. 
What is normal air? How may it be known? 115. Mention air- 
impurities. Name the most injurious. 116. How may impurities be 
detected ? THE AIR-PASSAGES. 
57 
whether resulting from respiration, decay, or disease, have 
peculiar, and often penetrating, odors. The trained nose 
can readily detect them when it is first brought in contact 
with them, but later loses its power of recognizing them. 
Various other impurities are detected by sight, or by 
microscopical and chemical means. 
117. Action of Impurities.-Impurity of breathing- 
air is the most fertile cause of death among those com- 
monly in action. The effects of breathing an impure air 
do not usually appear suddenly. The continued use of a 
bad air undermines the health, increases the number of 
sick days per year, and renders diseases of parts other 
than the respiratory more severe. The death-rate of infants 
and children is largely increased by air-impurity (120). 
(а) In 1880 there were 35,292 deaths in a population of 1,783,085 in Massachusetts. Ac- 
cording to English Aid Society tables, there are two constantly sick for every death,-i.e., 
there are seven hundred and thirty days' complete disability for every death occurring. 
The English tables do not take into account the trivial illnesses-colds, headaches, slight 
rheumatism, slight injuries, etc.-which suspend the power to labor for less periods than 
a week. 
(б) In Massachusetts, in 1880, consumption easily led the list in order of fatality, and 
lung fever followed second. From the fifteenth to the twentieth year, consumption 
caused nearly one-half of all the deaths; from twenty to thirty, more than one-half; and 
in the next four decades, although first in order, it was not so prominent. " But not 
only phthisis (consumption) may reasonably be considered to have one of its modes of 
origin in the breathing an atmosphere contaminated by respiration, but other lung-dis- 
eases, bronchitis and pneumonia (lung-fever), appear also to be more common under such 
circumstances." (Parkes) 
118. Injurious Solids in the Air.-Dusts are present 
in the air, but in a variable amount. In workshops and 
mines they are often very abundant, in ordinary rooms to 
a moderate amount, and at certain seasons of the year in 
the outer air (sand, clay dusts, pollen of plants). When 
such materials enter the air-passages, they induce dryness 
117. What is induced by impure air? What results ? 118. Men- 
tion injurious solids. What is induced ? What may occur ? 58 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
and irritation. If they gain lodgment there, the irritation 
may lead to an increased secretion of mucus, to coughing, 
and to a catarrhal condition. If the particles remain long- 
in contact, especially if they have sharp corners, like iron, 
steel, coal, pottery and other dusts, the mucous discharge 
becomes fetid, evidences of lung-cavities appear, bleeding 
may occur, and consumption renders labor impossible. 
119. Inhabited Room Aijr Impurities in the main 
consist of the carbonic acid from the air-passages and skin, 
the carbon compounds from the lamps and imperfect 
heating apparatuses, the vapor of water, the foul-smelling 
compounds from the body and its passages (115), and 
sometimes tainted air from kitchen, cellar, and water-closet. 
120. Influence of Inhabited Room Air.-The 
common effects of breathing a vitiated room air are a sense 
of heaviness, headache, weariness, inertness, and, in some 
cases, nausea. When the air is moderately impure, when the 
inmates of the room occupy chairs or benches for hours at 
a time (sewing-rooms, work-rooms, school-rooms, railway- 
cars), when the ventilation is so defective that portions of 
the air are breathed over and over again, when this is con- 
tinued day after day, such inmates tend to become pale, 
to lose partly their appetite, and later to experience a fail- 
ing in muscular strength and in mental acuteness (117). 
If such inmates lodge in ordinary tenement- or board- 
ing-house sleeping-rooms, the bad influence is intensified. 
But few work-rooms and factories are properly heated, 
and the majority have no means of ventilation except the 
window. The open window in a workshop is a source of 
119. Mention the impurities in common room air. 120. What is 
the effect of bad air? Who suffer most? What results? What of 
sleeping-rooms ? Of work-rooms ? Of disease ? 59 
THE AIR-PASSAGES. 
danger. Of the special diseases following such conditions 
of existence, the lung-diseases are most common (consump- 
tion and foul-air pneumonia). 
(a) Specific Influence of Impurities.-A large amount of carbonic acid in the air 
causes the lamps to burn dim and the people in the room to become drowsy and dull. 
The carbonic oxide and other carbon compounds irritate the air-passages and work mis- 
chief in the blood. The carbonic oxide replaces the oxygen in the blood-corpuscles, 
is very slowly eliminated, and is a very fatal poison. The vapor of water tends to satu- 
rate the air and thus to hinder the action of the skin (65). Ike organic gaseous emana- 
tions are the most dangerous of the impurities. At one time they convey disease (cholera, 
typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc.), at another time give forth odors having 
a depressing effect on the system, and at all times work mischief. 
(b) Carbonic acid is commonly measured in examined airs, not because of the bad action 
of the carbonic acid itself, but on account of its ease of determination, and the fact that 
the increase of carbonic acid in an air is a very good index of the increase of the other 
more dangerous impurities. The Parkes standard is, that air containing more than six 
parts of carbonic acid per ten thousand is unfit to breathe, and that with a ratio of eight, 
nine, or ten parts per ten thousand the air smells stuffy and close, and beyond this be- 
comes foul and offensive. 
(c) The experiments of Prof. Remsen show that carbonic oxide will pass through heated 
plates of wrought iron as well as of cast iron. The presence of carbonic oxide in fur- 
nace-air is one of the drawbacks to that method of heating. 
121. Sewer-Gas or Cesspool-Gas.-When human 
excreta, the waste water from the kitchen and the bath 
and wash-room, and other household wastes are allowed to 
accumulate in pipes, or closed tubs, or open tanks, they 
undergo decay. During the warm days of spring and the 
hot days of summer the decay is hastened. The decay- 
process causes the formation of large amounts of " sewer- 
gas." These gases-for " sewer-gas" is made up of many 
kinds of gases-are very light, and are characterized by 
their bad odors. 
122. Movements of Sewer-Gas.-If the pipes, tanks, 
or cesspools are open, the gases rise into and pollute the ad- 
jacent air, and may thus enter the open windows of a room. 
If the cesspool and pipes are tight but become blocked or 
121. From what does sewer-gas form ? What of the gas ? 122. How 
may sewer-gas gain entrance? What facilitates the entrance? 60 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
closed, the gas forces itself along, rises in the pipes, and 
enters the house. The higher up and the warmer the 
room, the more rapidly does the gas enter it. In general, 
the gas enters by the sink, the bath-waste, the soil, and 
the fixed basin pipes. As yet, human intelligence has not 
succeeded in controlling the movements of sewer-gas. 
123. Effect of Sewer-Gas.-The influence is most 
marked on children, especially when the gas enters the 
sleeping-room. The children become pale and are languid 
in their movements. They lose their appetite. They 
suffer quite frequently from diarrhoea. The young, mid- 
dle-aged, and elderly suffer from headache, malaise, fever- 
ishness, and even diarrhoeas. They become pale and 
waxy-looking. Their nostrils and lips appear bloodless. 
In some cases they are troubled by fevers lasting three to 
five days, by loss of appetite, and by nausea. 
124. It is quite certain that many cases of diarrhoea, 
diphtheria, and typhoid fever are directly due to sewer-gas. 
Sewer-gas always aggravates the severity of all diseases. 
As a rule, " modern improvements" are a constant source 
of peril to health. The waste-basins of the sleeping-rooms 
or adjacent closets ought not to connect with the sewer- 
pipes (150, 6). The " soil-pipe" should always extend and 
open above the roof. The best-trapped sewers cannot be 
relied upon. 
125. A Contagious Disease is a disease which can be 
transmitted from one animal to another, as from men to men 
(smallpox), or from dog or horse to man (rabies, pustule). 
The agent by which it is so conveyed is called contagium. 
123. What is the action of sewer-gas on children ? On the middle- 
aged ? What may follow ? 124. What diseases may arise ? Speak 
of waste-pipes. Of soil-pipes. 125. Define contagious disease. THE AIR-PASSAGES. 
61 
126. In some cases the agent enters by an abrasion in the 
skin or mucous membrane (poison wound), in others by 
direct contact, especially through the mucous membrane 
(specific eye-disease); in others it enters the atmosphere and 
is inhaled, or swallowed, or absorbed (phthisis, scarlet fever, 
diphtheria, malaria), in others it is carried in clothing, bed- 
ding, etc. (smallpox), and in others it enters in drinking- 
water (cholera, typhoid fever), and in food (trichinse). 
127. Prevention of Atmospheric Contagium In- 
fluence.-Be clean,-clean in your person, in your cloth- 
ing, in your room, in your house and about your house. 
Keep the windows shut, and you keep in the germs; open 
them, and they pass out with the changing air. A clean, 
dry air is unfavorable for the activity of contagia and their 
increase. Hence the importance of free ventilation. All 
fever and contagious cases should be treated in large, airy 
rooms having an open fire, or in tents. 
128. Management during Epidemics.-Measures of 
cleanliness taken beforehand are of far more importance 
for the protection of a district than the removal and dis- 
infection of garbage after a disease has actually made its 
appearance. " No excesses of any sort, and especially no 
excess of prudence," is a good rule of action during an 
epidemic. Keep cool. Wear a " waist-belt" (73). Do 
not radically change your diet, for your stomach will 
probably rebel. Keep yourself, your house, and your sur- 
roundings clean. Use boiled water for drinking-purposes. 
An odor of carbolic acid or of sulphur fumes is of little 
use. Filth and house-refuse must be removed daily. 
Ventilate the house-drains and waste-pipes. 
126. How may contagia enter the system ? 127.* Speak of cleanli- 
ness. Ventilation. Dry air. Fever patients. 128. What shall be 
done in epidemics ? Personal care ? Filth-removal? 62 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
129. Air-Purifiers.- Dried earth, quicklime, and 
powdered wood charcoal (the latter is most efficient) may 
be used in the sick-room to absorb foul gases. Gases and 
vapors, like chlorine, nitrous acid, sulphur fumes, and 
carbolic acid vapor, are more active than the solid puri- 
fiers. Neither class can fill the place of the freest ventila- 
tion : they only supplement it by removing the stronger 
odors, and to a limited extent, in occupied rooms, prevent 
the growth of low organisms. 
Purifying Agents.-Where the room is vacated and all openings closed, and where 
vapors are set free in large amounts and thus penetrate to every nook and corner, they 
do great good. Thus, chlorine, from chloride of lime moistened, or from a heated mixture 
containing common salt (4 parts), water (2),binoxide of manganese (2), and sulphuric acid 
(2); or sulphur fumes, by burning sulphur in many basins; or carbolic acid, by being 
set free from cloths soaked with dilute solutions. 
130. Marsh Miasm.-The ageut is an emanation from 
soils more or less rich in organic matter. It arises more 
commonly from soils not devoted to the growth of useful 
vegetation. It appears only where vegetable decay is going 
on at a certain temperature (rarely below 60° F.) and with 
a certain degree of moisture. At present the agent is held 
to be an organism (bacillus). It enters the system chiefly 
through the air-passage membranes. It may enter in the 
drinking-water (228) or by the skin. It gives rise to a 
train of diseases known as malaria (fever, neuralgia, spleen- 
enlargement, diarrhoea). 
131. Prevention of Malaria.-The great reduction, 
almost extinction, of malaria in England, and its decrease 
in America, have been brought about by thorough under- 
draining, cultivation of the soil, and a wise attention to 
129. Mention some air-purifiers. What can they do ? 130. Under 
what conditions does marsh miasm arise ? How does it enter the 
system? What follows? 131. What has been done in England? 
What is the opinion of Crudelli ? What do trees accomplish ? 63 
THE AIR-PASSAGES. 
tree-planting and tree-preservation. " Were it possible to 
cover an ague-bearing tract with thick, grassy sod, health 
would follow." (Crudelli.') The Eucalyptus-tree has done 
excellent work in rendering certain Italian regions habita- 
ble. It would be well to introduce it in the southern parts 
of the United States, and the willow in the bad districts 
of the Northern States. Both trees grow rapidly, both 
withdraw immense amounts of water from the soil, and 
both are useful in the arts. 
132. In very malarious districts the houses should be 
built on arches or piles. Only the upper floors ought to 
be occupied at night. Exposure in the early morning air 
and in the night should be avoided. You must breathe 
night air: there is no other. Hence have your rooms 
well ventilated, especially at night. Flannel should be 
worn next to the skin. Hot coffee and a good breakfast 
help to ward off the agent. Spirits are useless. Quinia, 
in regular doses, is often the one means of keeping the 
agent at bay. 
133. Consumption (pulmonary phthisis) is a disease in 
which a portion of the lung becomes solidified, and later 
destroyed, cavities being formed in it. At the same time 
there is a wasting of the blood and of the tissues of the 
body. There are reasons for believing that one form of 
consumption is contagious (126). A youth having a con- 
sumptive ancestry (287) has a predisposition to the disease. 
A youth of a healthy family may develop from a cold or 
a series of colds a destructive lung-disease. The latter 
youth, however, is not so liable, under common events, 
to glide into consumption as the former. 
132. Mention precautions. Preventive agents. 133. What is con- 
sumption ? What of its contagiousness ? 64 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
134. Causation of Consumption.-The germs of 
tuberculous consumption may be transferred to a healthy 
from a diseased person. The common factor in the causa- 
tion of destructive lung-disease in all climates-for con- 
sumption is common in the West and East Indies as well as 
in New England-has been found to be the breathing of air 
made impure by respiration. In Massachusetts dampness 
of the soil has been found to be an additional strong factor 
(145, "). Where the air-space of the sleeping- and working- 
rooms has been enlarged, and where the methods for the 
removal of the bad air have been improved, all other 
conditions remaining the same, there has been a marked 
decrease in the death-rate from phthisis in all parts of the 
world. 
135. Prevention of Consumption.--To prevent the 
onset of a destructive lung-disease, all persons should take 
ordinary precautions. Avoid a house located on a damp 
soil (145, ") or in an ill-drained district; do not allow the 
health so to fall off that common foods, containing average 
amounts of fats, cannot be taken; do not breathe an air 
laden with dusts (118), or a once-breathed air (120); avoid 
sleeping in an ill-ventilated, sunless, small room (150); if 
possible, do not neglect slight complaints, as a cold, a chill, 
or a diarrhoea. Practise deep breathing (141). The 
climate best for consumptives is that one in which they 
can pass the most hours in the sunshine in the open air. 
"Very few vocalists die of consumption." (Bach.) 
136. Personal Hygiene.-Breathe through the nostrils. 
The hairs at the entrance act as a sieve. The long, tor- 
134. Mention its main causes. What has been noticed ? 135. Men- 
tion precautions. Speak of climate. Of vocalists. 136. Speak of 
nasal breathing. Of mouth-breathing. Of personal care. THE AIR-PASSAGES. 
65 
tuous air-passages (Fig. 18) are lined with a membrane 
the blood-vessels of which are laden with warm blood, and 
the surface of which is bathed with moisture. Hence the 
cool entering air, upon reaching the smaller tubes, is moist 
and warm. Indians are remarkably free from affections 
of the nose, throat, and ears. The immunity is largely due 
to their habitual practice of nose-breathing. ( Wagner.) 
Mouth-breathing is noisy, gives rise to bad odors, and is 
unhealthy. Mouth-breathing, in cold weather, introduces 
cold air too quickly to the fine air-tubes, and often induces 
catarrhs, and even lung-fever. Keep your nose out of a 
tainted air (116). As far as you can, avoid breathing an 
air laden with fire-smoke, tobacco-smoke, effluvia from 
damp clothing, sewer-gas, or once-breathed air. CHAPTER VII. 
THE LARYNX. 
137. The Larynx (Fig. 18, Z) acts a double part. It 
forms a portion of the air-passages, and serves as the organ 
of voice. 
138. Voice.-During ordinary breathing the vocal cords 
(Fig. 18, Z) are widely separated, and the air passes in 
and out freely. When a vocal sound is to be produced, 
the cords are tightened by muscle-action, and the right and 
left cords approach, leaving a fine slit-like interval. A 
forceful expulsion of air from the lower air-passages causes 
the edges of the cords or bands to vibrate, and the air in 
the larynx, pharynx (Fig. 18, p), and nasal passages (Fig. 
18, n) to be agitated, and sound results. 
139. Voice-Failure.-The wrong production of the 
voice and the- abuse of the vocal apparatus are the chief 
causes of most of the cases of voice-failure, and even of 
throat-disease. In voice-culture the chief faults are (1) 
attempting to use the voice with an insufficient amount of 
air, or with imperfect control over the respiration, and 
(2) an undue forcing of the registers.(") (Broicne.') 
(a) A register is " a series of tones produced by the same mechanism." The human 
voice is said to have five registers. Each register is produced by a distinct muscular 
mechanism. 
137. AV hat are the functions of the larynx? 138. What of the 
cords during breathing? During the making of vocal sounds? 
How is a vocal sound produced ? 139. Mention causes of voice-fail- 
ure. What faults in voice-culture ? THE larynx. 
67 
140. Air-Capacity.-The air which always remains 
in the normal lung air-passages (adult) is estimated at one 
hundred cubic inches (1640 c.c.). The "tidal air" which 
passes in and out during ordinary breathing is about thirty 
cubic inches (500 c.c.). By a forced inspiration about ninety- 
eight cubic inches (1600 c.c.) can be added to the "tidal 
air." The amount of " tidal air" can be much augmented 
by the habit of deep breathing. A large amount of air in 
the air-passages, and a control over that air, are essential 
to good vocalization (singing, recitation, reading). 
141. Thoracic Exercise.-Go out of doors, into the 
fields or the park. If the thoracic and abdominal gar- 
ments are "snug-fitting," loosen them. Slowly draw air 
in through the nasal passages. Fill the chest quite full. 
Do not strain. Allow the air to pass out slowly and delib- 
erately. Execute twenty or thirty of these movements. 
Repeat the series, if possible, several times daily. By such 
exercises the blood will be better oxygenated, the waste will 
be more completely expelled, the digestion will be im- 
proved, the general well-being will be advanced, the air- 
capacity will be increased, and the power over the respira- 
tory muscles will be augmented. 
142. Vocal Exercise.-During exercise an easy, erect 
posture should be maintained. The chest, abdominal, and 
neck apparel must be loose-fitting. Tight lacing leads 
to improper breathing, and tends to give a tremolo and a 
bad quality to the voice. The exercises must not be car- 
ried to the point of exciting soreness or fatigue. They 
140. What is "reserve air"? "Tidal air"? How much can be 
added? What is essential ? 141. Describe the thoracic drill. What 
may it do? 142. Speak of position. Of tight garments. Of long 
exercises. Of graduated exercises. Of stopping exercises. 68 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
should be graduated and progressive. The course should 
not be hurried.(") Until the larynx and the lungs are 
drilled into accord, the exercises ought to be brief, and 
the pauses of such a length as fully to rest all parts. 
During the transition period, from the thirteenth to the 
sixteenth year, the vocal organs should not be unduly 
exercised. In some children all vocal drill and practice 
must be suspended during that time. 
(a) Suggestions in the form of Punch's " Don't." " Don't choose a poor teacher for be- 
ginners ; don't indulge in superficial breathing; don't use too much breath in singing ; 
don't fail to pronounce the consonants distinctly; don't clear the throat; don't make 
your exercises in any other than the middle register; don't fail to avoid very Hot or very 
cold or hotly-spiced dishes, strong drink, and heavy tobacco." CHAPTER VIII. 
THE HOME. 
143. From a hygienic point of view the home is a 
most important consideration. The mother, the youngest 
children, and the elderly spend most of their hours beneath 
its roof. The young, the workers, and the middle-aged 
spend from one-third to one-half of their hours in its sitting- 
or sleeping-rooms. In order that health may be established 
and continued, it is necessary that the home be a well- 
located, well-arranged, and well-cared-for structure. 
(a) The more common diseases among farmers are: (1) air-passage maladies in various 
forms; (2) rheumatism; (3) dyspepsia; (4) fevers, especially of a typhoid typd (229, a). 
The farmer's home is too often located in a low, damp, and unhealthy spot. In such 
cases the cellars are damp and the drainage poor. In order to save steps, the house-well 
is quite near the barn, perhaps the barn-yard, the sink-drain, and the water-closet, as w ell 
as the kitchen. Farm-houses are no oftener badly located than houses in villages, towns, 
and cities, but in the latter there is little or no choice. Farm-houses may be and ought 
to be better located than city residences. 
144. The Site.-Gravel hillocks are the healthiest of 
all positions. Pure sands and most gravels are healthy, 
provided they do not lie below the level of the adjacent 
country. Clay, marl, and alluvial soils (fine clay and sand) 
must be considered as suspicious. Well-cultivated lands 
are often healthy. Deep garden-mould and "made land" 
(especially when city wastes have been used) are held to be 
dangerous. A "made soil" improves after a few years' 
exposure, unless further polluted. Positions near the top 
143. Speak of the importance of the home. Hence? 144. Mention 
suitable sites. Unsuitable. Desirable. 
69 70 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
of a slope, on the sunny side, secure air-movements and are 
easy to drain, and are therefore desirable. 
145. Preparation of Site.-Dampness is often as 
much of an enemy as filth (274). Trees should be re- 
moved prudently. A belt of trees is an excellent wind- 
guard and malaria-obstructor. Brush-wood must always 
be cleared away. The trees should be so removed that 
grass can grow luxuriantly about the house. Herbage 
conduces to health. It removes water from the surface- 
soil, cools the air, pievents dust-gusts, utilizes the organic 
waste, and offers an agreeable hue to the eye. In all cases 
it is best that the site be pipe-drained. The entire lot 
should be drained, and the main drain should be lower 
than the bottom of the cellar. If old drains or cesspools 
exist, they should be cleaned and filled with concrete or 
gravel. 
(а) Dr. H. I. Bowditch lias formulated a law concerning consumption in Massachusetts, 
which law " has for its central idea that dampness of the soil of any township or locality is 
intimately connected with the prevalence of consumption in that township or locality." 
(б) " But in addition to phthisis, there are other diseases the prevalence of which is 
largely affected by dampness of soil. Thus, rheumatism, heart-disease, catarrhal complaints, 
and ague are especially common in damp districts; and no greater proof can be given of 
the sanitary advantages arising from drainage on an extensive scale than the total dis- 
appearance of the last-named disease in various parts of the country (England) where it 
was at one time so common. Moreover, it is evident that in towns situated on damp, 
pervious soils there is the constant danger of filth-accumulations finding their way by 
soakage into surface wells (225), or, as has previously been shown, the soil may eventually 
become excrement-sodden, so that the air as well as the well-water becomes polluted." 
(Wilson.) 
146. Ground-Air.-All soils contain a varying amount 
of moisture and damp air laden with the products of decay- 
processes. When the site is not well drained, and when 
the cellar is not paved and cemented and the walls grouted, 
145. What is the influence of damp ? Trees ? Brush-wood ? Herb- 
age? Drainage? 146. What exists in soils? How may ground-air 
enter the house ? What other gases may enter ? Hence ? THE HOME. 
71 
ground-air is quite liable to enter the cellar and ascend to 
the rooms above. This movement is most rapid and dan- 
gerous during the cold months, when the rooms are heated. 
Thus it is that illuminating gas and sewer-gas from the 
street mains, and gases from rotting " made soils" (144) 
and excreta in the soils, enter the home and cause ill health 
and disease. The ground near the home, therefore, should 
not be polluted by excreta. 
(a) " It appears probable that a dry gravel and possibly a very dry coarse sand interpose 
no barrier to the free entrance into houses built upon them of those organisms which 
swarm in the ground-air around leaching cesspools, leaky drains, etc., or in the filthy 
made ground of cities." (B. If. S. J.) 
147. The Foundation.-The stone, hard-burned brick, 
cement, and sand should be selected with care. In most 
situations health will be advanced by having the cellar- 
bottom cemented and the walls grouted. All pipes should 
be in sight, never in the cellar walls. In damp districts, 
in order to prevent damp reaching the walls, a "damp- 
proof course" of slate or enamelled brick is advisable above 
the level of the ground. Ample windows for cross-ven- 
tilation of the cellar demand attention. On damp soils, 
where the cellar does not extend under the whole house, 
the flooring ought to be raised two feet or more from the 
ground. This under space demands window cross-venti- 
lation. 
148. Building-Materials.-It is well for the materials 
to be porous and permeable. Such materials allow of air- 
circulation through the walls, and the removal of moisture 
from the rooms and the walls, and thus conduce to health. 
The moisture and bad air reaching the outer surfaces are 
147. Speak of the cellar-bottom. Pipes. Cellar-windows. Cellar- 
less parts. 148. What may be said of porous building-materials ? 
What is the influence of air-currents? Of damp walls ? 72 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
rapidly removed by wind and sunlight. The want of such 
air-currents is noticeable in new-plastered rooms, in the 
lower rooms of houses on damp soils, and in basement 
rooms. As wet clothes remove the body-heat rapidly (79), 
so damp walls cause room-air to be chilly. Air-currents 
in the materials are the remedy for the moisture of dwell- 
ing-houses. 
149. The AV alls.-Dryness of walls is best secured by 
making them hollow. Walls that afford proper space for 
air between the lath and sheathing, and that have the best 
of sand and mortar finish, are most desirable. Brick walls 
should always be hollow, also divisional walls. For the 
preservation of joists and flooring, " air-bricks" may be 
inserted at proper places. With double walls it is not 
advisable to apply water-proof composition to the outer 
wall surface. Tightness of the roof is a prime necessity 
for the preservation of the house and for health. 
150. Light and Air.-The windows should reach 
almost to the ceiling. They should be so arranged as to 
be easily lowered. A single window may light a room, 
but such a room must have an open transom over the hall 
door, or the door be left ajar, to insure good air throughout 
the room. Every room should be so placed that direct 
sunlight shall enter for a few hours daily. Houses where 
the long axis runs east and west cannot well fulfil tfnis 
requisite. The dark inner rooms of the houses occupied 
by artisans, clerks, and laborers are fertile sources of ill 
health, misery, and crime. Beware of a house having a 
" musty-smelling" hall. All large houses should have a 
149. What advantages in hollow walls ? Air-bricks ? Tight roofs ? 
150. Speak of windows. Arrangement of rooms. Dark rooms. 
Musty halls. The water-closet. 73 
THE HOME. 
central hall-ventilating shaft, or a roof-opening. The 
water-closet should always be located outside of the inhab- 
ited house.(6) 
(а) According to Colin, the school-room windows collectively should equal at least 
one-fifth of the floor-space: some American authorities allow only one-sixth. Most 
school-rooms in the United States have the following faults: (1) the cubic space allowed 
to each scholar is too small (minimum space should be two hundred and fifty cubic feet 
to each scholar); (2) the means of ventilation are, as a rule, wholly inadequate, even if 
the cubic space allowed were sufficient (minimum of fresh air should be fifteen hundred 
cubic feet per hour per pupil); and (3) the desks are not placed to admit the best action 
of the eyes (363). 
(б) The Water-Closet.-In town houses the water-closet should be in an " annex" or 
tower, separated from the house by a latticed and roofed passage, permitting free cross 
air-currents, and by double doors. The "soil-pipe" must extend above the roof, and 
should have a flaring top. Each water-closet should have a separate roof-reaching ven- 
tilator-shaft as well as a window. Could a lamp burn in the shaft all the time, or the 
waste steam-pipe run in the same, it would be well. It would be advisable to have all 
slop-dumps, bath-rooms, and wa-ffi-rooms in the "annex." In country houses, where the 
town method cannot be followed, the water-closet should be well removed from the 
houses and the well, should have a water-tight vault and roof-reaching ventilators, one 
from the vault and one from the water-closet. The water-closet should be connected 
with the houses by a dry walk, sheltered from wind and rain, yet ventilated. For the 
aged and the feeble, an " earth-closet" may be arranged in the house. The earth used 
must be dry, the amount used ample, and the pan ought to be emptied daily. 
151. Air-Space.-To secure and continue the best 
health attainable, there should be one thousand cubic feet 
of space allowed per head in buildings permanently occu- 
pied as dwelling-houses. When warmed fresh air can be 
freely admitted, four hundred cubic feet will suffice (9.4 
kilolitres). In sick-rooms there should be twelve hundred 
to two thousand cubic feet of space per head. The air of 
such a room must be frequently renewed. The entering 
air for a room occupied many hours in succession should not 
be less than twenty-five hundred cubic feet (70 kilolitres) 
per hour per head. The less the cubic space, the more 
rapid must be the air-currents. Draughts will occur. 
151. What space is needed in homes ? In sick-rooms ? How 
much air per hour? What is the air-test? 74 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
Hence the advantage of large rooms. Sufficient air should 
enter and leave a room, so that an outsider entering the room 
will experience no sense of "closeness" nor detect bad odors. 
(a) An ordinary passenger-car (railway) has seats for about seventy persons. It has 
an air-space of about two thousand five hundred cubic feet; i.e., nearly enough for/our 
persons. According to Prof. Huxley's estimates, a car full of clean passengers would 
give off six pounds of solid, liquid, and gaseous impurities each hour. The ventilators 
of no ordinary car remove so much. Is it then a wonder that headaches, nausea, colds, 
and fevers so often succeed journeys ? 
152. Sunlight and Ventilation.-Ventilation is the 
removal, by currents of normal air (114), of the impure 
air of rooms. The most thoroughly calked room is not 
proof against air-movements when there is a slight differ- 
ence of temperature. There can be no efficient natural 
ventilation in the absence of direct sunlight. The heat of 
the sun's rays causes the air in the nooks and crannies to 
" move on." Sunlight brings to notice collections of dirt 
and filth in the corners and under furniture. It favors 
the oxidation and destruction of dead organic matters. It 
works against the growth of moulds and low organisms. 
Tent-life, insuring abundance of normal air and sunlight, 
is excellent for summers. 
153. Artificial Ventilation.-In summer, the doors 
and windows being opened, natural air-changes will stiff 
fice. In the cold months, in most houses, ventilation and 
warming must work together. When the air of a room is 
warmed by artificial heat, or by the presence of persons, it 
expands, rises, and, if any opening exists, flows to another 
room, or outside, while a cooler current sets in from else- 
where. Small houses can be quite well ventilated by 
taking advantage of the movements induced by heating. 
152, Define ventilation. Speak of sunlight. Of tent-life. 153. 
What of summer and winter ventilation? What is the effect of 
warmth? Instance healthy airs. THE HOME. 
75 
In cold climates the entrance of warm normal air is 
healthier than the entrance of cold air. A normal cold 
air is less injurious than an impure dry warm air (134). 
• 154. Inlets.-Irregular, rapid, and excessive currents 
of air are injurious. Holes can be made anywhere, but 
they do not always ventilate a space, for too often the entire 
air-currents pass through the space and leave the side- 
masses of foul air unchanged. The inlet-tubes must be 
short, smooth, and easy of access for cleaning-purposes. 
When possible, each room ought to have its own inlets. If 
the incoming air is not warmed, inlets should discharge 
about four feet from the floor. 
155. The air-shaft for the furnace or steam-heater 
should start four feet above the ground on the clear side 
of the house. Its entrance should have a netting of wire, 
and sometimes also a flannel filter. During the winter, air 
must not come from cellars. The regulating valve should 
be at the entrance. Keep the inlets clean. In the summer, 
if the cellar is clean, cold air may be taken from it. 
156. Outlets.-In ordinary houses the outlets must be 
near the ceiling. In most house-rooms, the lowering of 
the windows will suffice. It is better, however, to provide 
ample outlets near the ceiling. These outlets should have 
no valves. A grating over the chandelier should always 
be present. 
157. Heavy Dusts, as in factories, may be sucked out 
near the floor. Where live steam is used, or where special 
warmed shafts are constructed, the foul air can be drawn 
154. What is the action of holes ? What about inlets ? 155. What 
of the furnace cold-air inlet? Of its valve? Of cellar-air? 156. 
Speak of the position of outlets. Of gratings. 157. Removal of 
dusts. Of foul air by warm currents. Of kitchen-air. 76 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
out anywhere. The inlets and outlets must be numerous, 
but not large (inlets not more than forty-eight square 
inches, outlets one hundred and forty-four square inches). 
A large metal hood, leading by pipe into the chimney or 
directly out through the roof, ought to be suspended over 
every kitchen stove. 
158. Ordinary Methods.-Rooms warmed by stoves 
may be fairly ventilated by putting a board about four 
inches wide, extending from side to side, under the lower 
sash of each window, and having one sash lowered at the 
top; or by having a fine-meshed wire netting to follow down 
the upper sash when it is lowered; or by having a board 
attached to the lowered upper sash arranged to direct the 
incoming currents against the ceiling; or by using double 
windows, having the outer lower and the inner upper con- 
stantly open. Unless special inlets are provided, the new 
-though probably not normal-air will come in from the 
other rooms and the cellar through cracks and crevices. 
159. Open Fire.-This is a healthy method of warm- 
ing a small room in a moderately cold climate. The heat 
is pure heat, not the drying, parching, impure air warmth 
of the stove, furnace, or steam-pipe. Only twelve per cent, 
of the heat evolved is utilized. It is a grand ventilator, but 
it is costly, and it gives rise to cold currents along the floor. 
Yet it is cheerful and most healthy. Persons who have 
an open fire, as a rule, suffer less from coughs, colds, head- 
aches, neuralgias, and petty ills than do those who keep 
their rooms close, stuffy, and hot with stove- and furnace- 
heat. When an open fire is used, special inlets (154) are 
essential. Inlets properly placed mitigate floor-draughts. 
158. Mention methods of ventilating a room. What danger ? 159. 
Give the advantages of an open fire. The disadvantages. Hence ? THE HOME. 
77 
160. The Stove is an economical but unhealthy heating 
agent. There should be no back-damper, because it pre- 
vents the rapid escape of the products of the burning. The 
water-urn should be so near the source of heat that large 
amounts of water-vapor may be given forth to mitigate the 
parching heat. 
(a) Stoves.-The close stove, for wood or coal, heats the air of the room. It takes oxy- 
gen.from the room-air to continue its burning. It directly brings no fresh air into the 
room. It takes little foul air out of the room. It does not ventilate. It gives forth a dry, 
parching, and, too often, excessive heat. It furnishes to the room upwards of three- 
fourths of the heat evolved. 
(b) Furnace and Steam.-In a cold climate, heating and ventilation should be com- 
bined. That system is best which introduces an abundance of warmed normal air into the rooms 
and remotes the impure air. Air that has been heated to 300° or 400° F. is unfit to be 
breathed. Such an air is introduced by the majority of furnaces (120, c). Even when 
common furnace-air is diluted and cooled before it enters the room, it is parching 
and unhealthy. The heating of the air of a room by hot-water or steam pipes, as fresh 
warmed air is not introduced, is also objectionable. Either method of heating may well 
be supplemented by the fire on the hearth. Where health is regarded rather than ex- 
pense, indirect steam-heating is best. Allow the outer air for each room to enter directly 
a clean, confined space containing a coil of heated steam-pipes, and then to move on to 
the room. Thus a stream of warmed pure air will enter the room. The waste steam 
will heat the ventilating shafts, and will insure removal of the foul air. 
161. Room-Temperature.-Every house ought to have 
a good thermometer. The right temperature of rooms in 
winter is important. The temperature should be taken 
about four feet from the floor on the side of the room 
opposite to the stove. At this place the temperature may 
be kept at 60° F. in rooms for the healthy. 
Young children and the elderly require from 65° to 70°; young infants, 70° to 80°; the 
sick, from 60° to 65°; in fever cases, 40° to 50° is often the best. It would be advisable 
for the children's room to have a false floor, about one foot above the ordinary floor, in 
order that the "creepers" shall not feel the full force of the cold floor-draughts. 
162. Plants in Rooms.-Plants at all hours give forth 
160. What of the stove? Of the position of the water-urn? 
161. What of the thermometer? Of warm temperature? 162. 
Under sunlight what is the action of plants? Under darkness? 
Hence ? 78 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
small amounts of carbonic acid. Under the influence of sun- 
light they absorb large amounts of carbonic acid and give 
forth oxygen. At night the carbonic acid absorption and 
oxygen elimination quite cease. During cloudy weather 
the oxygen production is diminished. Plants in the living- 
rooms are air-purifiers during the hours of sunlight. They 
do little or no harm in the sleeping-room during the night- 
hours if the room is well ventilated. 
163. Sleeping-Rooms.-These rooms, in which one- 
third of life is passed, should be located so as to receive 
the direct sunlight several hours daily (150). Each per- 
son ought to have eight hundred cubic feet (18.7 kilolitres) 
of space at least: more space would be better. If there is 
no fireplace in the room in which a fire is kept for a few 
hours daily or a lighted taper burning all night, then the 
upper sash must be kept lowered night and day, severe 
weather alone excepted. These precautions are most impor- 
tant, for during the waking hours our senses can warn us 
of air-impurities, but during sleep smell and taste do not 
afford us early and efficient warning. It is during the 
sleeping hours that sewer-gas and illuminating gas do their 
evil work. 
164. Gas-pipes ought never to be within the walls or 
under the floors of sleeping-rooms. If gas is to be used 
in such rooms, then all pipes and fixtures must be in the 
room, so that leaks may be readily located. Fixed wash- 
basins are a source of danger (122). 
165. It is best for every person to occupy a separate bed. 
There are many facts which go to show that a healthy 
163. "What of the location of sleeping-rooms ? Of the cubic space? 
Of the ventilation? What dangers? 164. Speak of gas-pipes. Of 
fixed basins. 165. What is the influence of bedfellows ? Hence? THE HOME. 
79 
person constantly sharing a bed with a consumptive may 
sooner or later acquire the same disease (134); also that 
when two persons in ordinary health share the same bed, 
the influence is not for the best health of the parties., The 
old and the young certainly ought not to occupy the same 
bed. 
166. Cellars.-" Mould and decaying vegetables in a 
cellar weave shrouds for the upper chambers." A damp 
cellar is a very undesirable feature of a home. Cellars 
ought to have many windows, in order to admit the sun- 
light and to further cross-ventilation (147). In construct- 
ing a house, let the chimneys start from the cellar-bottom. 
Have a flue within or alongside the chimney from the 
cellar to the roof. The heat of the smoke-flue will draw 
the bad air from the cellar. A cellar should be inspected 
and cleaned the first- Saturday of every month. Room- 
air ought not to be drawn from the cellar (158). 
167. Healthy Homes.-The objects to be secured in a 
healthy home are perfect purity and cleanliness of the air 
(114), freedom from excessive moisture (145, a), ample 
direct sunlight in every room (152), an abundance of pure 
water (220, "), a ready removal of solid, liquid (275), and 
gaseous waste substances (153), and the minimum of stair- 
climbing. After these have been attained, minor comforts, 
convenience, and adornments may be considered. 
166. What dangers in the cellar ? Speak of its ventilation. Of 
cleaning. 167. What are essentials in a healthy home ? CHAPTER IX. 
FOODS. 
168. The Human Body is a mechanism capable of 
storing up energy and force, and of giving forth energy 
and force, as the system demands. The storage of energy, 
as well as the giving forth of stored-up energy, occasions 
wear of the mechanism. The building up of every 
thought, of every activity, of every motion of the body 
occasions tissue-changes. All tissue-changes cause the for- 
mation of wastes. 
169. In order that normal body-action may continue, 
the used-up materials must be replaced and the wear of 
the machine must be made good. In order that the 
human machine may do more work, when young it must 
grow, and its stores must be increased. The wastes are 
made good, the wear is provided for, the working of the 
mechanism is aided and its growth made possible, by the 
taking into the system of materials known as foods. 
170. A Food is a substance which, when utilized or 
destroyed in the system, gives forth heat or force. Foods 
furnish the materials which build up, repair, and sustain 
the system. 
171. Milk contains all the chemical elements found in 
the human body (10): (1) the proteid substances, like the 
casein and albumen of cheese; (2) the fats and oils, as in 
168. What can the body do ? What produces wastes ? 169. What 
is demanded? What may the foods do? 170. Define a food. What 
do foods furnish? 171. Of what does milk consist? 81 
FOODS. 
cream; (3) the carbo-hydrate class, as in milk-sugar; and 
(4) the water and salt class, as in the whey. 
172. I. The Proteids, or nitrogenous food-stuffs (C, 
H, O, N, S, with P and Ca), are mostly derived from the 
flesh of animals, birds, and fishes; from eggs and milk- 
cheese; from peas, beans, and vetches; and from wheat, 
barley, oats, and maize (corn) flours or preparations. 
173. II. The Fats and Oils, or hydro-carbons (C, H, 
0), are found in the diet-lists of most peoples. The fats 
are principally obtained from the blubber of sea-animals, 
the bodies of animals and birds, the yellow of the egg, the 
flesh and livers of fish, and cow's milk. The oils are 
largely derived from the palm, the olive, the cotton-seed, 
the rape-seed, and the cocoa-nut. Maize is rich in fats. 
The other grains, oats excepted, are quite deficient in fats. 
174. III. The Carbo-Hydrate Class (C, H, O) is a 
most important part of a normal diet. This class embraces 
the starches of the grains, roots, and tubers, the sugars of 
the cane, beet, sorghum, fruits, honey, and milk, the vege- 
table-acid salts of fruits and vegetables, the cellulose of 
plants and grains, and the vegetable extractives. 
175. The substances of the carbo-hydrate class are mostly 
derived from the vegetable world. They contain the same 
chemical elements as certain of the oils, yet in the repairing 
and building up of the body they act quite differently from 
oils. In feeding, starches can be changed for fats, and fats 
for starches, only to a very limited extent. 
• 176. IV. The Water and Salts Class (H, O, K, 
172. Wha't elements in proteids ? What furnish proteids? 173. 
From what are fats derived? Oils? 174. What are included in the 
carbo-hydrate class ? 175. What differences between fats and carbo- 
hydrates ? 176. What of the fourth class ? How derived ? 82 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
Na, Ca, Mg, C, P, S, CI, Fl, Fe, Si) is as essential for 
health as the proteid class. Upon this class depends the 
integrity of the framework. If a normal diet is taken, 
all of these elements will be present in sufficient quanti- 
ties, with the exception, perhaps, of common salt (NaCl). 
177. V. The Accessory Class includes the various 
condiments, relishes, acids, spices, tea, coffee, cocoa, and 
alcoholics. Of their action in aiding the body-work and 
activities but little is known. Some of this class ought 
never to be used (Chapter XIV.), the others only in 
moderation. 
178. Diet for Health.-A certain amount of each 
of the first four classes must be present in a perfect diet. 
The best proportion for the common wants of the adult 
human system is about twenty-two of proteids, sixty-nine 
of the carbo-hydrate class, and nine of fats. In such a diet 
there will be sufficient salts (176). Health is not long kept 
when the carbo-hydrate class contains none of the vegetable 
acids found in fruits, potatoes, fresh vegetables, and in lime- 
or lemon-juice. Their absence induces the condition known 
as scurvy. 
179. Amount of Food.-The amount of food required 
by a healthy adult is large (182, "). He demands, under 
average work, about five and a half pounds of water and 
one pound and a third of dry food-substances every twenty- 
four hours. This food must contain at least two hundred 
and fifty grains of nitrogen in its digestible proteids. Fats 
are most essential in the diets of hard workers. They hold 
up a healthy person under continued exertion better than 
177. Speak of the accessory class. 178. What constitutes a perfect 
diet? What proportions? What of scurvy? 179. How much food 
is demanded? What of fats? Of, women's diet? FOODS. 
83 
proteids or starches. In general, women require one-tenth 
less than in-door working males, and from one-fourth to 
one-third less than out-door male laborers. 
(a) Under ordinary circumstances, a daily ration should contain about the following 
proportions and quantities (Table I.). This might be furnished by a mixed diet of the 
following foods (Table II). In the latter table an excess of about an ounce is included, 
because small quantities of cellulose existing in the foods have no feeding-value (174). 
TABLE I. 
TABLE II. 
Water 
5 lbs. 8 oz. 320 grs. 
Proteids 
. . 4 " 110 " 
Starch, sugar, etc . . 
. . 11 " 178 " 
Fat 
. . 3 " 337 " 
Common salt.... 
.... 325 " 
Salts (K, Ca, P, S, etc.) 
.... 170 " 
Bread 
. 18 oz. 
Cheese 
. . . 3| oz. 
Butter . 
. 1 
CC 
Sugar. 
. . . 1 " 
Milk . . 
. 4 
It 
Salt . 
• • • 3 " 
Bacon 
o 
ll 
Water, and wa- 
Potatoes. 
. 8 
ll 
ter in tea, 
Cabbage. 
. 6 
ll 
coffee, 
etc. . 66J " 
(Church.) 
180. Infants' Food.-The food of infants should be 
water and milk. Up to the age of nine or ten months, 
human milk is preferable. When artificial feeding must 
be resorted to, then allow the infant to take its fill of clean 
warm water. When it has satisfied its thirst, after an in- 
terval, allow it to suck all the warmed, undiluted cow's 
milk (slightly salted) it wants. The tube should be so 
knotted or contracted that the flow shall be quite slow. 
The addition of cream softens and divides the curds. 
Lime-water is often useful. Some infants, however, may 
require diluted milk. Starchy and flesh foods ought not 
to be given during the first seven months. 
181. Children's Food.-From the twelfth to the eigh- 
teenth month, milk should form the main food. With it 
may be combined baked fruits, potatoes, oatmeal, and wheat 
preparations (204, ") in gradually increasing amounts. Up 
to the ninth year, the diet should be mainly milk, well- 
cooked oat, maize, barley, and decorticated wheat foods, 
180. What of infants' diet? What may be added? 181. In chil- 
dren's diet, what is essential ? What injurious? 84 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
rice, most fruits and vegetables, fish, and occasionally 
roasted meats. Pastry, cakes, hot bread, tea, and coffee 
ought not to be given. 
182. At the tenth year a child may partake of the usual 
food of the family, tea, coffee, and sharp condiments and 
spices excepted. At this time it will require half as much 
in quantity as an adult woman, and at the fourteenth year 
quite as much. 
(a) An American Soldier has a daily allowance of 22 ounces of bread, 12 ounces of 
pork or bacon or 20 ounces of salt or fresh beef, 15 ounces of potatoes (three times a 
week), 1.6 ounces of rice, with 1.6 ounces of coffee, 2.04 ounces of sugar, 0.64 gill of beans, 
0.32 gill of vinegar, and 0.16 gill of salt. The total quantity provided for a soldier of 
the United States Army is larger than that consumed by the general working-man. 
183. Water constitutes sixty-eight per cent, of the 
entire body. As a beverage it is one of the most impor- 
tant parts of the human food. A good water has these 
characters: clearness, freedom from odor or taste, good 
aeration, coolness, and a certain degree of softness. Vege- 
tables cook best in a soft water. 
184. Fresh, Cool Water (40° to 50° F.; 10° to 
15.5° C.) is a tonic to the stomach. Each adult requires 
a little upwards of two quarts of water, taken as water, 
or in tea, coffee, etc., every twenty-four hours (179, °). 
This amount suffices to carry on the body-functions in a 
normal manner. Constipation, which is so common among 
females and sedentary men, is largely due to a want of 
sufficient liquid in the intestinal canal. 
(a) It is to the taking of unaccustomed large amounts of water daily, rather than to 
the minerals contained in the same, that the good effects of "a course at the springs" 
are due. It is the " flushing" and cleansing action of the water that has made the 
" hot-water craze" so successful. 
182. Speak of the diet after the tenth year. 183. Importance of 
water? Mention characteristics. 184. How much water? Cause 
of constipation? 85 
FOODS 
185. Milk is the best of foods for the young, the con- 
valescent, and the aged (180). The proportion of the pro- 
teids and fats is relatively large, its digestion is easy and 
rapid, and its feeding-power is great, because there is little 
waste. 
186. Cow's Milk is best when taken in the fresh state. 
Milk should not be taken by the glassful at a gulp. It 
ought to be taken by swallows, with short intervals coming 
between, otherwise large indigestible curds may form. A 
tumbler of fresh milk, as hot as it can be sipped, is an ex- 
cellent morning " pick-me-up." The heating of milk to 
100° F. (37.6° C.) often enables a person to take it with 
regularity and to digest it with ease. The tendency to 
curdle may be corrected by using lime-water; the consti- 
pating effect, by the taking of more water. 
187. Cream.-Milk is often too poor, but never too 
rich. Cream removed by "skimming" is preferable to the 
"centrifugal process cream." By adding cream to the 
milk the amount of fat is increased and the curd is soft- 
ened. "Fat, butter, and oily matters in general require 
no digestion; the emulsion into which they are mechani- 
cally converted passes (almost directly) into the general cir- 
culation of the blood." {Church.') Thus it is that cream 
and genuine milk butter are such excellent articles for 
hard work in cold climates, and for the sustaining of the 
sick. The melting of butter and fats renders the emul- 
sion process more difficult. 
188. Source of Milk.-Milk should be procured from 
185. What of the value of milk? 186. Methods of using milk? 
What additions may be made? 187. Speak of cream. What of fat 
foods ? What is the action of heat ? 188. What of the source of 
milk ? What precautions ? 86 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
healthy cows which are fed on normal food (not city or 
brewery slops), furnished with pure water, and kept in 
clean, ventilated stables. The milk from young cows is to 
be preferred. Clean glass jars, closed and sealed at the farm, 
offer the safest method of transportation. A suspicious 
milk should be well boiled before being used. Tinned 
milk is inferior to fresh milk, and is too rich in sugar. 
Milk from tuberculous cows is dangerous. The direct transmission of tuberculosis 
from the cow to man through milk is, however, difficult of proof. Cans washed with 
fecal-polluted well-water have been known to contaminate the contained milk with 
typhoid-fever germs. 
189. Cooking.-By the aid of heat the chemical and 
physical conditions of foods are changed. The proteids 
are slightly swollen, and are made jelly-like, or coagulated. 
(Boiling an egg coagulates the white.) The fat-cells are 
ruptured and the fat-globules rendered more fluid. The 
cells containing starch are split open, and the starch-grains 
become more or less pulpy. The cellulose and lignin of 
vegetable tissues are softened and broken up. Peculiar 
flavors and odors are developed in cooking. By cooking, 
most foods are softened and become more finely divided. 
190. Methods of Cooking.-Animal flesh, oysters ex- 
cepted, and starchy and cellulose substances, ripe fruits 
excepted, should be cooked before being eaten. The 
simpler methods of cooking make the most wholesome 
foods. Cooking demands knowledge, skill, preparation, 
and waiting. Good cooking is the basis of a happy home. 
191. Roasting and Broiling are the best methods of 
cooking meats. The heat, at first, should be intense, in 
order to form a protective film which shall retain the juices. 
189. What does cooking accomplish ? Proteids? Fat-cells? Starch- 
cells? Cellulose? 190. What should be cooked? What is essential 
in cooking? 191. Method of roasting? Effects produced ? FOODS 
87 
Later, the heat should be moderate, but long-coutinued. 
The roasting of fruits and potatoes renders them more 
palatable, digestible, and nutritious. The baking of flour 
renders it sweeter, breaks the starch-grains, and makes the 
starch more digestible. 
192. Boiling.-In the case of vegetables, boiling effects 
the solution of the sugar, the rupture of the starch-cells, a 
partial solution of the starch-grains, the coagulation of the 
proteids, and a softening of the cellulose. In the case of 
meats, the proteids are coagulated, the muscle-bundles are 
broken, and the juices extracted. In either case the water 
becomes laden with valuable salts and extractives. These 
fluids should be utilized. 
In boiling meats, first plunge the flesh into boiling-hot 
water. Retain it there a few minutes. A protective film 
is formed. This film helps to retain the nutritive juices. 
Now cook it in water of a temperature of 160° F. (71° C.) 
for a very long time. 
193. Braizing.-When small bits of meats are to be 
cooked, this is a good method. Stew or semi-stew the 
meat, then brown it under high heat in the oven. This 
method renders the viand tender and develops an appe- 
tizing flavor. 
194. Frying.-The cooking of substances in melted oils 
and fats is a most objectionable method. The heated fats 
more or less permeate the food-mass. These fats are with 
difficulty formed into emulsions. They also hinder the 
access of the digestive fluids to the food-materials. 
195. Eggs are a concentrated food. Eighteen eggs will 
192. Effect of boiling vegetables ? Meats? Give a proper method. 
193. What of braizing ? Effect produced ? 194. Mention objections 
to frying. 195. What of the food-value of eggs ? Of method of 
cooking ? 88 
lessons in hygiene. 
furnish materials for the needs of a robust man during 
twenty-four hours. Raw eggs are easily digested. The 
fats of the yellow are very easily appropriated by the sys- 
tem. Eggs should not be boiled or fried. They may be 
well cooked by placing them in hot water in which they 
shall remain from seven to twelve minutes. 
196. Meats contain a large amount of proteids united 
with much fat. Good meats are easily and rapidly cooked. 
They are more easily digested than vegetable foods, are 
largely absorbed, and furnish but little waste (208, "). As 
they are lacking in starches, it is well to combine them 
with bread, rice, or potatoes. 
197. Selection of Meats.-The muscles ought to 
be firm, elastic, but not tough. There should be a nearly 
uniform hue in the cross-section. Lividity indicates danger. 
Mucus-like fluid or pus between the muscle-bundles is a 
very suspicious sign. The fat should be fine, have a whitish- 
yellow hue, have no bleeding points, and no jelly-like con- 
sistency. Good meat has a marbled appearance, owing to 
the running of little lines of fat among the muscles. Good 
meat is uniform in its feel ; putrefying meat has soft spots 
here and there. The odor of the meat and the odor of the 
knife should be noticed. 
198. Salt Meats, so far as nutriment is concerned, are 
about as good as fresh meats from which a good soup has 
been extracted. In most cases the salted meats are hard 
and indigestible. The nutritive and stimulating portions 
are left in the brine. 
199. Tainted Flesh.-The flesh of animals over- 
196. Speak of meats. In what deficient? 197. What indications 
are offered by good meat ? By suspicious meat ? 198. What of the 
value of salt meats ? 199. What may injure an animal food ? What 
foods are often hurtful ? FOODS. 
89 
excited before death has frequently proved unwholesome. 
Flesh may be made poisonous through the foods taken by 
the sound animal (weeds). Oysters, mussels, and crabs, 
also sea-perch and conger-eel, when eaten, sometimes cause 
severe disturbance of the human system. 
200. The flesh of pigs which had been fed on garbage 
has been known to excite stomach and intestinal troubles. 
The decomposing flesh of animals is sometimes eaten with- 
out mishap (piquant game), and at other times even 
thorough cooking has not prevented vomiting, diarrhoea, 
and prostration. Decaying sausages are known to develop 
a very active poison. All flesh having an objectionable 
odor ought to be avoided. 
201. Parasites.-Fresh pig's flesh may contain the 
Trichina, or the "cyst-worm" of a tape-worm (Taenia 
solium). Fresh ox's flesh may contain the "cyst-worm" of 
another tape-worm (Taenia medio-canellata), and sheep's 
liver may contain the " fluke-worm" (Distoma). Our 
safety against all these intruders is to cook flesh thor- 
oughly. Thorough roasting is safest. No raw or under- 
done flesh is a safe food. 
(а) On September 15, 1883, a trichinous pig was killed at Emersleben, Saxony. Th® 
flesh was disposed of on that and the following day. According to Saxon custom, nearly 
all the flesh was eaten in a raw state, or in a green smoked state, as minced meat. The 
earliest illness occurred on September 18 ; by the 28th the disease was quite prevalent. 
Up to November 11, out of a population of about 1000 persons, there had occurred 361 
cases, of which 57 had proved fatal. 
(б) Fourment's experiments show that the most efficient salting does not destroy the 
Trichinae. Ordinary smoking does not touch the Trichinae (Kuchenmeisler). A temper- 
ature of 144° to 155° F. kills the free Trichinae (Fiedler). The most thorough cooking of 
a leg of pork by boiling (165° in the interior) does not destroy the life of the encapsuled 
Trichinae (Vacher). A temperature of 212° F. does not ruin the eggs of many parasites. 
(c) During the week ending March 22, 1884, thirty-three thousand four hundred and 
five pounds of diseased meat and " bob" veal were seized by the inspectors of the Health 
Department in New York City. 
200. Speak of garbage-fed animals. Of rotting game or meats. 
201. Mention some parasites. Give precautions. 90 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
202. Fish.-The water-world affords excellent foods. 
Fish, as food, is not equal to flesh. It is insufficient to 
maintain full health and vigor. When salmon, herring, 
shad, or white-fish are " cheap," they are the most eco- 
nomical of animal foods in proportion to their nutriment. 
Fish average about the same percentages of proteids as the 
meats, but, in general, have less of fats. 
(a) The cod, haddock, and bass, as well as oysters, scallops, and clams, have little fat. 
Eels, shad, mackerel, herring, salmon, and turbot are very fat. Fish should be combined 
with beans, rice, bread, and potatoes in order to make a fair diet. 
(6) APPROXIMATE VALUATIONS. 
(Edible portions free from bone, skin, refuse, etc.) 
Beef, medium . . 
100. 
Cow's milk, cream . 
. 56.1 
White-fish .... 
. 104.5 
Beef, fat 
112. 
Cheese, whole milk 
151. 
Salmon 
. 107.9 
Pork, fat ... . 
116. 
Butter, cow's. . . 
. 124. 
Salmon, canned . . 
. 107.2 
Veal, fat . . . . 
92.4 
Eggs, hen's . . . 
. 72.2 
Cod, salted .... 
. 108.9 
Smoked ham . . . 
157. 
Cod, fresh .... 
. 69.1 
Mackerel, salted. . 
. 125.4 
Hen's flesh, fat . . 
93.9 
Halibut, fresh . . 
. 87.9 
Herring, smoked . 
. 163.4 
Duck 
104. 
Mackerel, fresh . . 
. 90.9 
Oysters 
. 29.6 
Cow's milk, skimmed 
18.5 
Eels, salt-water . . 
. 95.6 
Lobster 
. 62. 
Cow's milk, fresh . 
23.8 
Shad 
. 98.2 
203. Wheat contains much nutriment in small bulk. 
It is quite rich in soluble proteids. Its starches are abun- 
dant and are easy to digest. The salts are largely made up 
of phosphates. The " fine flour" made from wheat is lack- 
ing in flesh-formers, fat-formers, and bone-formers. "De- 
corticated wheat flour" makes sweeter, more nutritious, and 
more wholesome food than does fine white flour. 
204. Bread is an article of diet of which few weary. 
When made from white flour it is deficient in salts, in fats, 
and in proteids. (The growing boy should not be chidden 
{Atwater.') 
202. What of fish ? When are they an economical food ? 203. 
Speak of wheat. Of fine flour. Of decorticated wheat flour. 204. 
Give facts about bread. Characteristics of good bread. Why is new 
white bread indigestible ? FOODS, 
91 
because he eats " butter with bread.") The external sur- 
face of bread should be well baked, not burnt. Bread 
ought to be from one-fifth to one-third crust. The crumb 
should be permeated with regular cavities. No part should 
be sodden. Even when held in the mouth its taste should 
not be acid. New bread is less digestible than stale bread, 
because the crumb is soft, elastic, and sticky, and the di- 
gestive juices are slow in permeating the mass. 
(а) The experiment of Rubner shows that a white wheat-bread contains more assimi- 
lable nutriment than does one made from whole wheat-flour. This, however, does not 
make it a desirable food for exclusive use. Children fed on white bread are very liable to 
suffer from rickets (35), consumption, and bad teeth. Dr. Kirk, of the Pennsylvania Insti- 
tution for the Deaf and Dumb, reports that there was an entire change in the condition 
of the children's teeth when they had been there a year. The teeth became harder and 
more firmly placed in the sockets. Many cases of self-arrest of caries occurred. These 
favorable changes were due to the food, which consisted of a liberal supply of milk, 
preparations of maize, oats, and wheat froi» which the layer just under the siliceous coat- 
ing had not been removed by milling, and a small amount of meat and sugar. 
(б) The materials of wheat bran are but slightly assimilated by man. The "gluten- 
cells" of the fourth bran-layer appear to be little utilized in digestion. " The major portion 
of the gluten of wheat exists in the central four-fifths of the grain." (Roussel.) To persons 
of constipated habit whole-wheat foods are desirable. To non-coustipated persons living 
on a generous mixed, diet, the retention of the bran in the flour leads to a quickened peri- 
staltic action, to the formation of gases, to incomplete digestion and absorption not only 
of the proteids of the branny foods, but those of the other foods taken, and therefore 
is not advisable. Persons of a vigorous habit living largely on bread ought to use whole- 
grain flours if they cannot procure flours from which the two or three outer protective 
layers only have been removed. Finely-milled flours should be used. 
(c) Maize contains a large amount of fats as well as of starch. It requires a longer 
and a more careful cooking than wheat or oats. It is an excellent food-stuff for robust 
persons living in a cold climate and engaged in hard out-of-door labor. 
(d) The oat has not only a large amount of proteids, but it is rich in fats. It is more 
easily cooked than wheat. When well cooked, its preparations make excellent foods for 
sustained mental and physical labor. Oatmeal made into a thin gruel is a sustaining 
and cooling drink for men exposed to great heat, as stokers, puddlers, etc. 
(e) Barley contains a larger amount of digestible proteids than wheat. It is very rich 
in phosphates and iron. The athletes of ancient Greece were trained on a barley diet. 
(/) Rice contains the most easily digested and most perfectly assimilated of the starch- 
grains. It is very poor in proteids, fats, and salts. Rice is four times as nutritious as 
potato (Kiinig), and is also more uniform in quality. Rice and millet form the chief food 
of more than half of the people of the world. 
(g) Potato (Irish) has a very low feeding rank. Its starch is very digestible. It is very 
poor in proteids and deficient in fats. Upwards of 75 per cent, of the best potato is 
water. When consumed in excessive quantity (the regular allowance of an Irishman 
at home is ten and one-half pounds daily (Smith),) potatoes fail to nourish the frame, they 
make the blood watery, they render the muscles weak, and they form imperfect bones. 92 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
To save the most of their little nutriment, potatoes ought to be cooked in the skins. The 
sweet potato has a higher nutritive value than the common potato. 
(A) Beans and Peas are distinguished from other seeds by containing a very large 
amount of proteids (legumin). ftiey are rich in starches, sulphur, and phosphorus. 
In order to be cooked they demand very long boiling and baking. The skins should be 
rejected, on account of their irritant qualities. As these seeds are deficient in fats and 
contain much nitrogen, digestion is facilitated by combining pork and other fats with 
them (209). Even when well cooked, these seeds demand strong digestive powers in order 
to utilize their stores of energy. In rice and millet countries the people are indebted 
to beans, peas, vetches, etc., for their highest nourishment. 
205. Succulent Vegetables (cabbage, lettuce,, pars- 
nip, turnip, etc.) are chiefly eaten for the juices and starches 
which they contain, and are prized for certain flavors pecu- 
liar to each. Their feeding-power is small. All vegetables 
should be sound and well preserved or fresh. Most vege- 
tables should be used only in the cooked state. The pot- 
tage-water of all vegetables, the potato excepted, should be 
saved and used. When eaten raw, or dressed as salad, 
vegetables ought to be used in moderation. No part of a 
diet-list is more important than this portion. Salads afford 
a ready means for many intestinal parasites to gain access to 
the system. 
206. Fruits are most valuable for their acid salts (174), 
their flavors, and their sugars. Most fruits are agreeable, 
refreshing, and cleansing rather than sustaining. The date 
and fig, however, are staples in certain countries. Ripe 
fruits, in their season, are beneficial and healthy. As un- 
ripe fruits contain starches which have not been converted 
into sugars, they ought not to be used, or, if used, they 
should be well cooked before using. 
(a) Vegetable Diet.-At the existing (1884) International Health Exhibition, London, 
the " Vegetarian Society" are furnishing a sixpenny (twelve cents) dinner to four or five 
hundred people daily. From a carefully-kept account of the substances used for the bill 
of fare the following " food equivalents" have been calculated (Table I.). Physiologists 
lay down the standard diet for ordinary labor pretty much as follows (Table II.): 
205. For what are vegetables esteemed ? Mention precautions; 
dangers. 206. Speak of fruits; ripe; unripe. FOODS. 
TABLE I. 
TABLE II. 
Proteids 
Fats 
44 " 
Carbo-hydrates.... 
.... 3.17 " 
Salts 
09 " 
Proteids 
.... oz. 
Fats 
.... 1.6 " 
Carbo-hydrates.... 
.... 18.7 " 
Salts 
.... 1.0 " 
It appears, therefore, that it would require about six of the sixpenny dinners to sup- 
port a man during a day's hard labor. (Jfed. Times and Gaz., May 24, 1884.) 
207. Tinned Foods.-In well-canned foods the metallic 
impurity, if any, will be a bit of tin solder, as some salts 
of tin. The former is harmless; the latter, in poisonous 
amounts, would give the contents such a metallic taste that 
any sane person would avoid them. Cans or tins sealed 
with a tin and zinc compound are very dangerous. 
Reject all tins that do not show a line of rosin around 
the edge of the cap such as is seen near the seams. Reject 
every tin with two or more soldered holes in the caps. A 
"swell" or decomposing can may be detected by pressing 
on the bottom. A sound can affords a solid feel, a "swell" 
tin gives forth a rattle-sound. When the tin is opened, turn 
out the entire contents. Smell and taste. Avoid tinned 
foods which have a metallic taste or an odor of decay. Ob- 
serving these precautions, tinned foods of reliable com- 
panies may be used fearlessly. 
208. Digestibility.-It is advantageous to the animal 
economy for vegetable stuffs to pass into and through the 
system. Food-animals save human digestive labor and ad- 
vance nutrition. A pound of bread contains more feeding- 
matter (by analysis) than a pound of beef-steak ; but in an 
ordinary man the bread does not do so much feeding or 
develop so much force, because the cooked meat is more 
largely utilized and demands less energy to digest. The 
207. What indicates a good " tin" ? Method of examination ; can ; 
the contents. 208. What advantage results from animal digestion ? 
Speak of meat and bread. 94 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
same is true of cheese, as compared with salmon, of lean 
pork and venison, of maize and rice. 
209. As a rule, animal food is digested sooner than 
starchy food. The more tender the fibre and the finer the 
division, the quicker is the digestion. The admixture of 
the different classes of foods, as of fat and lean meat with 
starchy and accessory foods, aids digestion. Variety of 
foods of the same class, as of beef, mutton, eggs, fish, 
beans, peas, cereal grains, rice, potato, etc., should be 
sought after. As sameness cloys the palate, changes in 
the mode of preparing and cooking should engage the 
attention of the cook. 
210. The raw egg is one of the most digestible of foods. 
The whipped white is somewhat, and the hard-boiled white 
is quite, indigestible. Lean and fat meats together are more 
digestible than when taken separately. Cold, well-cooked 
sausage is more easily digested than hot sausage. Stale 
bread with butter can be tolerated when buttered hot toast 
or buttered hot biscuits or bread would excite gastric tor- 
ments. 
(a) Order of Digestibility.-Cooked rice, cooked tripe, raw white of egg, cooked sago 
tapioca, and barley, boiled milk, raw eggs, roasted lamb, parsnips, and potatoes are the 
most readily digested of foods, and in the order named. Prepared in the most favorable 
manner, beef, mutton, oyster, veal, and fowl, and white bread with butter are rather less 
digestible. Fresh pork, salt pork, and salt beef require much more time and energy for 
their digestion. 
209. Influence of division; of admixture; of variety; of prepara- 
tion. 210. Speak of the digestibility of eggs; of cold sausage; of 
hot bread. CHAPTER X. 
WATER. 
211. Water is a necessity (184). As a food, an average 
person uses from seventy-five to one hundred ounces daily, 
of which about two-thirds are taken in the form of drink 
and one-third in the foods (179, "). For other purposes, 
each person in civil life needs about twenty-five gallons. 
212. Sources.-The supplies of fresh water are derived 
from the vapor of water existing in the atmosphere. Under 
changes in temperature the vapor in the atmosphere is con- 
densed, and reaches the ground as rain, snow, hail, etc. On 
reaching the ground, a portion (rain) flows off to the brooks 
and rivers; a portion sinks into the soil, to appear later in 
springs, wells, etc.; a portion soon returns to the air as 
vapor, and the rest is used in the growth and decay of 
plants and animals. On steamers fresh water is condensed 
from the heated vapor derived from salt water. 
213. Rain-Water.-As the drops of water move to- 
wards the ground they wash materials from the air and ab- 
sorb air. That which falls earliest is quite impure. The 
entire rain-water of manufacturing and thickly-populated 
districts is quite unfit for drinking or cooking. Country 
rain-water, though not pure, is a healthy and pleasant do- 
mestic water. The freezing process purifies water, though 
211. How much water- is needed daily ? 212. What is the source 
of fresh water ? What becomes of rain-water ? What is condensed 
water? 213. What of early rain? of town rain? of country rain ? 
Why is ice-water heavy ? Speak of ice- and snow-water. 
95 96 
lessons in hygiene. 
much of the mixed air is expelled. Ice-water is therefore 
"heavy." Ice- water is not so good for the stomach's health 
as spring- or rain-water. Clean snow-water is not objec- 
tionable. 
214. Soil-Water.-The quality of the water taken 
from the ground varies with the nature of the soil. The 
rain-water in passing through the soil becomes highly 
charged with carbonic acid. Later this water dissolves 
out and becomes laden with many compounds, like salt, 
lime, etc. When the water is very highly charged with 
gases and chemical compounds, it becomes a " mineral 
water." 
215. A Shallow Well is one whose depth is rarely 
more than twenty-five feet, and which has not been sunk 
through deep layers of clay, hard-pan, or rock to a water- 
bearing stratum. The water of such a well is rapidly de- 
rived from waters on the ground near the well. 
216. Shallow-Well-Waters usually contain much 
organic matter. In woody districts the water has often a 
yellowish tinge. In populated places, in old towns and 
cities, and at homesteads where the well is located near the 
privy and the barn, the water is commonly polluted with 
human and animal excreta and sink-waste. "Shallow- 
well-water often consists largely of the leakage and soak- 
age of the receptacles for human excrement." Shallow- 
well-waters are dangerous (Fig. 20). 
217. Driven or Tube Wells.-These are shallow 
wells. As they are commonly driven in alluvial soil, 
214. What is added to rain-water in the soil ? What is a mineral 
water? 215. What is a shallow well? Speak of its water-supply. 
216. What may enter a shallow well? Why is its water dangerous? 
217. Speak of driven-well-water. Why ;s it better than river water? 
What is done by black soil and plants ? WATER. 
97 
such waters are often laden with mineral matters, and 
hence are not good waters. The advantage of the driven 
well is that pollution of the water is not so easy as in the 
case of ponds, rivers, or shallow wells. As the black soil 
and plant-action near the well purify the descending rain- 
water, tube-well-water is safer than shallow-well-water 
subject to inflows of washings. 
218. Deep-Well-Water.-A deep well is one in 
which the water-bearing stratum lies beneath a thick, 
water-tight layer. Its supplies are drawn from waters 
which have sunk slowly and have undergone a prolonged 
filtration. Deep-well-waters are usually clear, cool, and 
sparkling. At times they are "hard," owing to the lime 
salts in solution. Waters from granite, trap, and slate- 
rock regions are the best. 
219. Precautions.-All wells should be curbed. The 
slope from the mouth of the well should be such that 
surface-washings cannot enter. It is advisable to have 
the upper two-thirds of the well-lining laid in water-tight 
cement, or the lining backed by a mass of well-tamped 
puddled clay. Grass near the well makes an excellent 
protective (Fig. 20). 
220. River- and Lake-Waters.-These waters are 
soft and well aerated. If the waters are derived from hill- 
regions, away from habitations, then they are wholesome. 
If the waters are taken out in the vicinity of cultivated 
lands or large towns, then they are suspicious, if not dan- 
gerous. Such waters are improved by motion, by exposure 
218. What is a deep well ? From whence comes its water-supply ? 
What qualities does it possess? Mention the best sources. 219. 
Mention precautions in well-construction. 220. What good quali- 
ties in river-water ? When is it suspicious? How improved? 98 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
to sun and air, by plants, fish, and microscopic animals, and 
by filtration (228, 6). 
(a) Wholesome.* 
zl. Spring-water. 
| Very palatable. 
2. 
Deep-well-water. 
13. 
Grass-land surface-water. 
j- Moderately palatable. 
(4. 
Stored rain-water. 
Suspicious. ■ 
{5. 
Surface-water from cultivated land. 
Dangerous. 
River-water, with sewage- 
■access. 
17. 
Shallo w-well-water. 
(IVaiiJcland.) 
221. Dangers in Waters.-Living organisms in waters 
are the causes of much disease. These organisms are rarely 
detected by the chemist. They are detected only by ob- 
serving their growth and the effects produced by them on 
living animals. Koch found thirty-eight million living 
organisms (microderms) in a cubic centimetre (0.061 cubic 
inch) of impure water, and only four in the same quan- 
tity of distilled water. Water having more than one 
hundred and twenty to the cubic centimetre is unfit for 
drinking-purposes. 
222. Source-Impurities.-Upland granite soil-waters 
are usually pure. Waters from chalk and limestone dis- 
tricts are sparkling and clear, but "hard." Waters from 
a mixture of sand and clay (alluvial) usually are laden 
with much mineral matter. Surface- and shallow-well- 
waters are commonly polluted by surface-washings and 
decaying animal and vegetable substances. They also are 
rich in certain dangerous compounds (ammonias, nitrites, 
nitrates). Marsh-waters and grave-yard-waters should be 
avoided (130). 
223. Transit-Impurities.-When the water is con- 
221. How are impurities detected? What did Koch determine? 
222. Mention pure waters. Speak of alluvial waters. Of surface- 
and shallow-well-water. Of marsh-water. 223. How is water pol- 
luted ? In ditches ? In rivers or ponds ? In pipes ? What is the 
safest piping ? WATER 
99 
veyed in open ditches, open troughs, etc., it is liable to 
be fouled with dust, dead leaves, excreta, etc. Waters of 
streams and rivers, especially in manufacturing districts, 
are fouled by excreta, oil, dyes, bark, shoddy, and other 
wastes (220). Waters conveyed in zinc-coated iron pipes 
are known to become laden with the salts of zinc. Except 
for distribution in the house, lead pipes ought not to be 
used. The well-pump pipe should be of iron. Iron makes 
the best cheap water-piping. 
224. Storage-Impurities. - House-cisterns, whether 
above or in the ground, are very liable to fouling. Dust, 
soil, leaves, excrements of vermin, or vermin find access. 
If the waste-pipe runs direct into the sewer rather than 
into an open spout, not unfrequently the cistern-water be- 
comes fetid with sewer-gas. The cistern supplying the 
water-closet ought never to be the drinking-water cistern 
also. A shallow well near the house and barn, near the cess- 
pool or privy, near the sink-drain and the house waste- 
dump, is always liable to pollution (Fig. 20). 
225. A well drains an extent of soil about it shaped like 
an inverted cone (Fig. 20, F, F.\ The diameter of the 
base of the cone will vary with the nature of the soil. In 
loose soils it is said that a well sixty feet deep will drain 
an area the cone of which has a base-diameter of two hun- 
dred feet. The Newport experiments show that sand is 
no barrier to the entrance of germs into wells from privies 
and bad cesspools. The amount of surface-impurities 
reaching the water-bearing layer of a shallow well will 
depend much upon the foulness of the black soil. If this is 
224. Speak of cistern-water pollution. Of sewer-gas action. Of 
shallow wells. 225. Speak of well-drainage. Of the Newport ex- 
periments. Of degree of impurity. 100 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE 
sodden with foul materials, the water will readily become 
foul (145, 6). 
Fig. 20. 
Fig. 20. Well-Drainage Cone.-A, house; B, sink-spout; C, pump, thirty feet from 
the house ; D, well twenty feet deep; F, cone of soil; H, sloping pump-trough. 
(a) Cesspools.-When they must be used, they should be placed at a considerable dis- 
tance from the building. Both roof and bottom should be arched. The roof should have 
a man-hole and a ventilating-pipe. The depth should not exceed seven feet. The walls 
should be of brick set in cement, surrounded by a clay puddle and lined with a coating 
of cement. To divide the solid from the liquid, a galvanized iron grating may divide it 
into two parts. The ventilator must be provided with a charcoal-laden screen. In the 
connecting-pipe there must be a water-trap and a foul-air up-shaft. The cesspool must 
be regularly and frequently cleaned. A leaky, non-rentilated cesspool is a nuisance of the most 
dangerous stamp. 
(b) Purification of Waters.-Quietness of water permits the subsidence of the coarse 
impurities. Agitation of waters, with exposure in spray or sheets, clears them of organic 
matters. The slow filtration of waters through deep layers of gravel and sharp sand 
lessens the solids, diminishes the hardness, and removes much of the color. When a 
water slowly passes through a compressed mass of animal (bone) charcoal, it loses most 
of the fine suspended matters, mineral and organic, and it appears clear and bright. 
Vegetable (wood) charcoal is not so efficient as animal charcoal. The best filters (do- 
mestic) are made of animal charcoal, magnetic carbide of iron, or of spongy iron. (Parkes.) 
(c) The action of all kinds of filters is temporary. They soon lose their cleansing- 
powers. Small filters must be frequently washed, and occasionally cleaned with acids 
or permanganate of potassa solution. In the case of animal charcoal and sand, fire is 
the best cleaning agent. 
226.. Domestic Purification of Waters.-A con- 
226. What of water-supply ? Of house-tanks ? Of filtration ? Of 
boiling ? WATER 
101 
stant running supply of water from the main is preferable 
to an intermittent supply. Water which is stored for 
hours in house-tanks is quite liable to become fouled (224). 
The kitchen-taps ought to be provided with filters, in order 
to strain out the grosser impurities. It is well to refilter 
all drinking-water by passing it through a charcoal filter. 
Some waters should always be boiled before use. 
227. When Cholera or Yellow or Typhoid Fever 
is prevalent, all drinking-waters, and especially those from 
suspicious sources (Table, 220), ought to be well boiled and 
then agitated in the open air. The boiled water should be 
cooled, not by putting ice into it, but by packing ice about 
the water-bottle or tank. Ice is often impure. The germs 
of many diseases are not killed by freezing. Filtration is 
not adequate to remove disease-germs. A dash of brandy, 
whiskey, or wine in the water, or in the stomach, will not 
destroy germ-vitality. 
228. Action of Impure Waters.-The effects pro- 
duced by the continued use of impure waters for drinking- 
purposes are rarely sudden and violent. In general the 
health is gradually undermined. The system loses its tone, 
and thus can offer little resistance to the action of disease- 
agents (125). The principal effects are localized in the ali- 
mentary canal. The common signs are uneasiness, lessen- 
ing of appetite, imperfect digestion, looseness of bowels (in 
lead-poisoning, constipation), loss of muscular power, and 
even mental weakness. Dysentery and chronic diarrhoea 
often have their efficient cause in impure water. Malarial 
227. When should the water he boiled? How cooled? What is 
the influence of freezing? Of filtration? Of alcoholizing? 228. 
What is the influence of impure water? What effects are produced? 
What disease-conditions mav arise ? 102 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
disease may and often does follow the use of marsh-water 
and shallow-well-water (130). Parasites may enter by the 
drinking-water. 
229. Fecal Diseases.-Cholera, yellow fever, and 
typhoid fever are largely fecal diseases. The germs (125) 
of these diseases leave the living human body in faeces or 
the vomit. If these ejecta are not burnt or thoroughly 
disinfected (267,6), the germs (contagia) will long retain 
their vitality.. If the ejecta are cast into ordinary privy- 
boxes or water-closets, or are thrown upon the ground, the 
germs gain access to the shallow wells, imperfect cisterns, 
streams, and other sources of the water-supply, or, drying, 
pass into the air, enter the air-passages of many, or reach 
distant waters. When a polluted water is taken into the 
system, especially an enfeebled system (228), the germs 
gain a foothold, and, finding suitable conditions, rapidly 
reproduce, and in due time develop a peculiar disease-con- 
dition (specific disease). 
(a) Typhoid Fever is called by Prof. Huxley "the scourge and the disgrace of our 
country" (England). In typhoid-fever patients the intestines for a fortnight, or there- 
abouts, discharge floods of liquid laden with matters on which the specific poison of a com- 
municable disease has set its most specific mark. These specific germs may be propa- 
gated among healthy persons: (1) by percolation through the soil, when the alvine 
discharges are thrown upon the ground or into a cesspool or a common privy, into the 
wells which supply drinking-water to the inhabitants; (2) by issuing,through defects in 
the sewers, into the air of the rooms, or areas adjacent to the rooms (122); (3) by exhala- 
tion through the apertures of small, ill-trapped, non-ventilated water-closets or privies, 
which are at once the receptacle of the discharges of the sick and the daily resort of the 
healthy. (Aitkin.) 
(&) Yellow Fever is a localized disease. The germ, agent, or poison which causes it 
is transportable. The great localizing causes are the accumulation of filth around hab- 
itations, defective ventilation, and overcrowding (163). "It is now coming out more 
and more clearly that yellow fever, like cholera, is a fecal disease." (Parkes.) 
(c) Cholera is a portable disease. It is always present in India. Its germs can be 
carried by persons and objects from place to place. The specific agents are conveyed by 
229. Mention the fecal diseases. How do the contagia leave the 
body ? How do they gain access to the body ? What is their in- 
fluence ? 103 
WATER 
the fecal discharges entering the drinking-water, or upon the food, or in the clothing or 
through the air. The vomit and the al vine discharges need the most active attention 
(267, 6). 
230. Prevention of Fecal Diseases.-Under the 
conditions of modern commerce and travel it is impossi- 
ble to prevent the carriage of the germs from infected to 
non-infected districts, and quarantine is largely useless. 
Disease-germs thrive in conditions of filth and moisture,- 
atmospheric and ground. Measures of cleanliness taken 
beforehand are of far more importance than the removal 
and disinfection of filth after the germs have actually made 
themselves known by wide-spreading disease. 
231. Precautionary Measures. - The sources of 
water-supply must be examined by the authorities. The 
intermittent service of water should be made constant. 
Cisterns must be made clean and kept clean. The waste- 
pipes of water-cisterns should discharge into the air, not 
direct into sewers. All accumulations of filth, excreta, 
and house-waste must be removed regularly and at fre- 
quent intervals. The drains and waste-pipes must be 
ventilated and disconnected from the sewer-pipes, so that 
sewer-gas cannot enter the house (122). The people must 
be encouraged to live on wholesome, well-cooked foods, to 
avoid unripe fruit and vegetables, and to keep themselves, 
their clothing, and their surroundings clean. Action in 
these directions will do more to save households from in- 
fection than all the quarantine measures ever devised. 
232. Lead-Poisoning.-In America, lead-poisoning 
230. Why is land-quarantine nearly useless? Under what con- 
dition do germs or contagia thrive? What can be done? 231. 
What may be done ? Water-supply? Waste-pipes? Filth? Drains? 
Sewerage? Food? Cleanliness? 232. What signs indicate lead- 
poisoning ? How is water poisoned ? Mention other mineral poisons 
and their mode of access. 104 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
due to the water-supply is not an unknown malady. In 
advanced cases it is known by the fetor of the mouth, blue 
line on the gums, obstinate constipation, and even " wrist- 
drop" (228). It usually results from using water which 
has sluggishly passed through much-corroded lead pipes. 
Shallow-well, condensed, and rain waters most readily dis- 
solve lead. Zinc, copper, arsenic, and mercury may enter 
the system through certain of the " made" drinks, and thus 
occasion disease-action (71). 
Parasites in Water.-The tape-worm {Bothriocephalus), derived from the ox, the 
liver-worm {Distoma), the round-worm {Ascaris), the leech, and other worms {Filaria), may 
gain lodgment through the drinking-water. CHAPTER XI. 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
233. The Apparatus concerned in digestion consists 
of the mouth-parts, the alimentary canal, and the glands 
connected with the same. The mouth-parts, the canal, and 
the gland-tubes are lined with mucous membrane (106). 
234. The Mouth-Parts include the upper and lower 
jaws, the teeth inserted in the same, the salivary glands 
(opening by ducts into the mouth), and the tongue (Fig. 18). 
235. The Alimentary Canal is a long passage of 
variable siz:e. It includes the pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, 
and intestines. It extends from the base of the skull (Fig. 
18) to the anus. The bulk of the canal lies in the abdom- 
inal cavity (Fig. 12, space below the diaphragm). 
236. The Glands include the saliva-secreting glands 
(parotid, Fig. 12), the gastric glands, lying in the lining 
membrane of the stomach, the intestinal glands, in the lining 
membrane of the intestines, the pancreas (seated behind 
and below the stomach), and the liver (Fig. 21, 16). The 
secreting cells are bound together by connective tissue, which 
is made up of delicate white fibres. Each gland makes a 
peculiar fluid. All these fluids in their proper order are 
essential to normal digestion. 
233. What constitutes the digestive apparatus? What are lined 
with mucous membrane? 234. Name the mouth-parts. 235. What 
is the alimentary canal ? What is included? Where found ? 236. 
Name the glands. How are the cells held together? What is the 
gland-work ? 
105 106 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
Fig. 21. 
Flo. 21. A Front View of the Organs of the Chest and Abdomen.-1,1, 1,1, The 
muscles of the chest. 2, 2, 2, 2, The ribs. 3, 3, 3, The upper, middle, and lower lobes of 
tlie right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. 5, The right ventricle of the heart. 6, 
The left ventricle. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The left auricle. 9, The pul- 
monary artery. 10, The aorta. 11, The vena cava descendens. 12, The trachea. 13, 
The oesophagus. 14,14, 14,14, The pleura. 15, 15,15, The diaphragm. 16,16, The right 
and left lobes of the liver. 17, The gall-cyst. 18, The stomach. 26, The spleen. 19,19, 
The duodenum. 20, The ascending colon. 21, The transverse colon. 25, The descend- 
ing colon. 22,22, 22, 22, The small intestine. 23,23, The abdominal walls turned down. 
24, The thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein (27). THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
107 
237. Foods, when introduced into the mouth, are for 
the most part not in condition to enter the blood. They 
are not diffusible; that is, they cannot pass through moist 
membranes. In the alimentary canal, under the influence 
of the gland-secretions of moisture and of motion, the 
foods become largely diffusible. 
238. Changes Effected.-In the mouth, the mixed 
food, as of flesh, bread, vegetables, is broken into small 
bits by the teeth, is moistened with saliva, is mixed with 
air and mucus, becomes alkaline in reaction, and a portion 
of the non-diffusible starch is changed into the diffusible 
sugar. The food is now forced by muscular contractions 
through the pharynx and oesophagus (Fig. 18) to the 
stomach. 
239. In the stomach (Fig. 21, 18), under gastric-juice 
action the food-mass becomes acid, the change from starch 
to sugar is lessened or stopped, the protectives of the starch- 
grains and oil-drops are loosened, the bundles of flesh- 
fibres and bits of vegetable fall asunder, and the non- 
diffusible proteids are changed into diffusible peptones. 
From time to time portions of the pulpy mass are forced 
into the small intestines. 
240. In the small intestines (Fig. 21, 19, 22), under the 
action of the pancreatic, hepatic (liver), and intestinal se- 
cretions, the food-mass becomes alkaline, the remaining 
proteids become peptones, the starches become sugar, and 
the non-diffusible fats are changed into finely-divided emul- 
sions or into soaps, both of which are diffusible. 
237. What is the condition of foods? By what modified? 238. 
What changes occur in the mouth? What becomes of the mass? 
239. What occurs in the stomach? What is a peptone ? 240. What 
is the intestinal action ? What is an emulsion ? 108 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
241. Absorption.-Water passes readily from all parts 
of the canal into the blood-vessels lying in the canal- 
walls. Diffusible materials and salts may leave the canal 
at most portions. The bulk of the food-materials leaves 
the canal in the small intestines. The insoluble and non- 
diffusible matters accumulate in the lower bowels (colon 
and rectum). 
242. Indigestion (dyspepsia) is a state of the stomach 
or of the intestinal canal, or of both, in which they cannot 
perform their normal duties. Its causes are usually either 
in the quantity, the quality, or the improper preparation 
of the foods taken. 
243. Quantity of Food.-Each person require a defi- 
nite amount. This amount varies with age, duties, habits, 
amount of clothing, health of body, and vigor of mind. 
The supply must equal the waste of the system. Frequent 
weighing of the body is to be recommended. The mini- 
mum weight consistent with health is two pounds to each 
inch of adult stature. A generous diet conduces to health, 
good work, and good morals. 
244. The Supply in the case of growing persons must 
exceed the waste. The body must be fed and filled. The 
supply should be in the form of plain foods, meats, fish, 
eggs, milk, bread, rice, vegetables, and ripe fruits, plainly 
served. Fashionable dishes and tid-bits are inadequate. 
During childhood and youth a reserve of energy and force 
must be stored. 
245. Decrease of Quantity.-When you lessen 
241. What becomes of the water? the diffusibles ? the salts? the 
insolubles? 242. What is indigestion? Mention causes. 243. How 
should the quantity vary ? Speak of weighing. Of a good diet. 244. 
Of the food-supply. What is demanded in childhood? 245. When 
should the amount be lessened? What results from self-denial? THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
109 
markedly the average daily muscular work, as the stop- 
ping of a line of work, or upon leaving the farm or shop 
for school, practise self-denial. Eat less food at each meal. 
Drink more water. Replace the hearty fatty foods with 
vegetables and fruits. Continue the denial for a few days, 
or until the system is accustomed to the new order of life. 
Self-denial should be practised during the warm days of 
spring and early summer. By so doing, indigestion and 
"biliousness" may be averted. Self-denial is the antidote 
to many " sick-headaches." 
246. Physical State of Food.-Fine division of 
foods favors digestion. Small particles offer more surface 
for the digestive juices to attack than do large particles. 
Hence the cook should use the knife and heat so well that 
the food shall be well divided, or can be easily divided by 
the teeth. 
247. Eating and Drinking.-Simplicity of food is a 
condition of health. Chew the food well. Mix the foods 
most completely with saliva and mouth-mucus. A warm 
simple soup or cool water may be taken at the opening of 
the repast. Little or no fluid should be taken during the 
repast. It is not well to drink large amounts at the close 
of the meal. It is better to wait one or two hours after 
the repast before drinking freely. 
248. Bad Teeth.-A person having bad teeth does not 
and cannot divide and crush the food sufficiently. Hence 
the food is not well mixed and moistened with saliva. The 
habit of making the foods soft by the admixture of fluids 
other than saliva, and then rapidly passing them to the 
stomach, is unhygienic. 
246. Why is fine division desirable ? Hence? 247. What of eat- 
ing? Of drinking? 248. What results from bad teeth? Mention a 
bad habit. 110 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
249. Care of Teeth.-Pay careful attention to the 
teeth from childhood. Keep them clean. Rinse the mouth 
with tepid water after each meal. Brush the teeth and 
gums, inside and outside, at least twice daily. A fine soap 
is preferable for occasional use to commercial powders and 
washes. With a thread remove all food-particles that have 
collected between the teeth. 
250. Quill or wood picks are preferable to metallic picks. 
" Tartar" should be early removed by the dentist. All cav- 
ities ought to be cleansed and filled at the earliest possible 
opportunity. Gold-foil makes the best filling. Artificial 
teeth are better than very bad teeth or no teeth. All badly- 
decayed teeth, when they cannot be filled with a "soft fill- 
ing," should be removed. 
251. Frequency of Eating.-Experience shows that 
in working America of to-day three meals a day is a good 
division. Hard-working students and literary men should 
never fast more than five hours. According to E. Smith, 
M.D., the best division of the food is about one part for 
evening meal, one and a half parts for breakfast, and two 
parts for dinner. (In summer, cold-meat dinners are pref- 
erable to hot dinners with iced drinks.) School-children 
ought to have more than three meals in twenty-four hours. 
Infants may be fed at intervals of from two to four hours. 
252. In general, it is best for the healthy adult to take 
no food between the meals. The interval from supper to 
breakfast is too long for invalids. They should take "a 
little and often." The ordinary evening meal ought to 
249. How should the teeth be cared for ? 250. What are desirable 
toothpicks? What can the dentist do ? 251. Speak of the frequency 
of eating. 252. Speak about " between-meal" eating ; invalids' food ; 
the evening meal; the table hour. 111 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
take place two or three hours before the retiring hours. 
An hour at each meal is time well spent. Take a short 
rest before going to the table. Slow eating is favorable to 
digestion. Mirth at the table and a " romp" after eating 
are excellent preventives of indigestion. 
253. Appetite is a safe guide, when a person is in health, 
when the food is simple and natural in kind and in quality, 
and when its preparation is plain (258). A natural diet, 
like fruit, is self-limiting. The more artificial the food, 
the more it is sugared, flavored, and spiced, the more a 
person is tempted to take. Overeating leads to overful- 
ness of the stomach and intestines, the digestive apparatus 
is unequal to the abnormal work, and, later, indigestion and 
its train of troubles follow. 
254. Quality of Food.-Indigestion ranks third in 
the list of diseases prevalent among Massachusetts farmers, 
but it ranks first among the wives and daughters. The 
farmers, living largely in the open air, and mainly using 
their muscles, can attack, if not easily digest, any kind of 
food. The in-door members of the family, on the same 
diet, are unable to thrive. Hence the quality of the food 
must vary with the occupation and body-condition as well 
as with age (179). 
255. Improvements.-In general, more fresh and 
canned flesh should be used. Salted flesh ought to be 
used less frequently. The cooking of the materials in 
hot fats should, as far as possible, be avoided. Good 
yeast-bread ought to supplant cream-of-tartar and soda 
compounds. Pies and other pastry may well be replaced 
253. When is appetite a safe guide ? What induces overeating ? 
What may result? 254. Why is indigestion common? Hence? 
255. How may the common diet be improved? 112 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
by fruits and fruit-preparations. Badly-prepared, tasteless 
food undoubtedly is one impelling cause of the use of alco- 
holics in moderation. 
256. White Bread and Tea, the main-stay of too 
many working-women of America, is an inadequate diet. 
To get enough energy from such food, they must eat about 
four pounds of bread daily. As the butter used is increased, 
so may the weight of bread be lessened. Proteids in a food 
are necessary, but the great force-producers in the human 
system are the fats (187). 
257. Good Work, mental or physical, cannot be done 
on a poor food or on an improper food. As a rule, women- 
workers, clerks, students, and persons at in-door employ- 
ments need a finer quality and a greater variety of simple 
foods than out-door workers. The food for in-door workers 
ought to be most carefully prepared, and but little or not 
at all spiced. The appetite should be spurred, not by 
" tonics" and " bitters," but by enlivening out-of-door ex- 
ercises (lawn-tennis, base-ball, rowing, running, etc.), by 
breathing pure air (114), by keeping the skin healthy, by 
suitable clothing (80) and baths (63), and by preventing 
the constipated habit (273). These workers are most in- 
jured by excitants and sedatives (Chapter XIV.). 
258. Management of the Diet.-In all cases of 
commencing indigestion, articles known to be difficult of 
digestion-pastry, cheese, peculiarly-acting fruits or vegeta- 
bles, fresh white bread, and most " made dishes"-must be 
avoided. Pork, veal, and salted meats are to be used with 
caution. Fresh beef and mutton, not too fat, carefully 
256. Speak of a working-woman's diet. What is the influence of 
fats? 257. What of a diet for in-door workers? How best improve 
the appetite ? 258. Mention articles difficult to digest; easy to digest. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
113 
roasted or broiled, are the most suitable of meats. Light 
soups,-soups, like beef tea, are more stimulating than nu- 
tritious,-broths, chicken, game, white-fish, salmon, yolk 
of eggs, raw eggs, milk-puddings, milk, rice, barley, oat- 
meal, and stale bread (decorticated wheat) are to be com- 
mended. 
259. Influences predisposing to Dyspepsia.- 
Sedentary habits, as exhibited in the lives of most students, 
lawyers, seamstresses, etc.; undue exercise, mental or physi- 
cal, just before or just after eating; the drinking of too 
much fluid at meals; the drinking of large draughts of 
iced water just before, during, or just after meals; habitual 
constipation; the constant use of " pills;" the abuse of 
opium, chloral, etc.; the injudicious use of tobacco, tea, 
condiments, and alcoholics; tight lacing, excessive study, 
emotional disturbances, and mental shocks. 
260. Acute Poisoning.-Act at once. If acids have 
been taken, give strong soapsuds, soap, whitewash, or 
chalk; if alkalies, dilute vinegar, raw eggs, sweet oil; if 
metallic irritants (corrosive sublimate, arsenic, verdigris, 
etc.), give raw eggs freely (do not wait to separate the 
yolks) or milk. Zn all cases, at first, encourage vomiting: 
administer large amounts of tepid water, or tepid mus- 
tard-water. Tickle the fauces. After vomiting, in case 
of vegetable narcotics (monk's-hood, wolf's-bane, etc.), en- 
force rest on the back, and give alcoholics (99); in opium 
cases, give strong coffee and enforce walking. Send for 
an able physician to guide the case while the poison is 
being cast out of the system (265). 
259. What encourages a dyspeptic condition? 260. What should 
be done in acute poisoning? acids? alkalies? irritants? vegetable 
narcotics? opium? Later? CHAPTER XII. 
THE EXCRETA. 
261. Excretion.-Every thought, every cell-action, 
every kind of energy evolved by the living body, occasions 
the formation of wastes. These wastes are like the ashes 
in the grate: they must be frequently removed, or the in- 
ternal fires will not burn well. Excretion is the process of 
separating from the blood the materials no longer needed 
in the blood. 
262. The Principal Wastes of the system are water, 
carbonic acid, urea and other nitrogenous compounds, the 
salts, and the faeces. The undue retention of any of these 
wastes in the system induces trouble. The rapid and 
efficient casting out of these wastes insures the continuation 
of normal body-action. 
263. In general terms, the water leaves the system by the 
way of the skin, air-passages, and kidneys; the carbonic 
acid, via the air-passages (111); the urea and other nitro- 
genous compounds, via the kidneys; the salts, via the skin, 
kidneys, and bowels; and the faeces, via the rectum. 
(a) Summary.-Of the entire excreta, 32 per cent, passes off by the air-passages, 17 
per cent, by the skin, 46.5 per cent, by the kidneys, and 4.5 per cent, by the aliment- 
ary canal. In vegetarians the faeces are nearly or quite doubled. 
264. The Sweat Glands (Fig. 11, A) are seated deep 
261. How are wastes formed? What are they like? What is ex- 
cretion ? 262. Mention the main wastes. What is essential for 
health ? 263. How are the wastes cast out ? 264. W here are the 
sweat glands found ? What do they do ? THE EXCRETA. 
115 
in the dermis. These glands are found, with few excep- 
tions, over all parts of the body. The amount of fluid 
daily separated by them from the blood ranges from one 
and one-half to four and two-fifths pounds (700 to 2000 
grammes). Dryness of the air and warmth favor their 
activity (56). 
265. The Kidneys (Fig. 
22) are two in number. They 
are placed in the back and 
upper portion of the abdomen 
(Fig. 12). They separate 
from the blood the extra 
water of the blood, the salts, 
and the nitrogenous wastes. 
The whole product is called 
the urine. 
266. The Urine is sep- 
arated, drop by drop, night 
and day. It is formed most 
rapidly after meals, especially 
when much fluid has been 
taken. It is formed more 
largely in winter, when the 
sweat glands are less active 
(57), than in the summer. It 
accumulates in the pelvis of the kidney (Fig. 22, 4), passes 
along the ureter, and flows into the bladder (Fig. 12). When 
the bladder becomes more or less full, its contents are 
evacuated by way of the urethra. The desire to urinate 
should not be disregarded (270, "). 
Fig. 22. 
Fig. 22 (LeulyY Longitudinal Sec- 
tion of a Kidney.-1, Cortical substance. 
2, Renal pyramid. 3, Renal papillae. 4, 
Pelvis. 5, Ureter. 6, Renal artery. 7, 
Renal vein. 8, Branches of the latter 
vessels in the sinus of the kidney. 
265. Speak of the kidneys. What is their function? 266. What 
about the separation of the urine? What becomes of it? 116 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
267. The Lower Bowel receives the undigested foods, 
the non-digestible materials, and the intestinal gland excreta. 
The materials thus accumulating lose much of their water 
through intestinal absorption. Every person ought to have 
at least one softish passage daily. The unnatural reten- 
tion of excrement leads to rectal and intestinal discomfort, 
and later to indigestion (242) and constipation (273). 
(a) The Excrement of the Sick should be received in a pan containing a few spoon- 
fuls of a solution of chloride of zinc (five grains to the ounce), or of a saturated solu- 
tion of permanganate of potassa. If these cannot be procured, then use dry earth in the 
pan and dry earth over the feces. These agents and ferrous sulphate are excellent 
deodorizers. The excrement should be removed at once to the water-closet, cesspool, or 
manure-heap. 
(b) The Excreta of Typhoid Fever, Yellow Fever, and Cholera patients ought to 
be received in a pan as before indicated. The feces ought to be burnt. Fire is the only 
sure disinfectant and germ-destroyer. If they cannot be burnt, then they must be thor- 
oughly disinfected with crude carbolic acid or a strong solution of zinc chloride. They 
may be rendered odorless by dry, black earth or powdered charcoal. They must not be 
cast into the common privy, into leaky boxes or cesspools, or on to the ground (229, a). 
They may be deeply buried in soil far removed from any source of water-supply. 
(c) Fouled Clothing is best purified by baking. If this cannot be done, it may be 
boiled in a solution of white vitriol (one ounce to the gallon) or chloride of zinc (half an 
ounce to the gallon). The baking and the boiling should be prolonged. Later, it may be 
washed as usual. 
(<i) Cremation.-The bodies of persons dying of fecal diseases (229) are pre-eminently 
sources of danger to the living. The germs do not lose their vitality on the death of the 
subject of their operations. They continue to increase, and, on the decay of the body, 
contaminate the surroundings of the body. Later they are quite liable to reach some 
source of water-supply or to enter the air and thus spread disease anew. Fire is the 
only sure agent against germs or contagia. Should not the bodies of persons dying of 
fecal disease be cremated ? 
(e) A body weighing two hundred and twenty-seven pounds was placed in a cylindri- 
cal vessel seven feet long by five or six feet in diameter. This was run into a Siemens 
furnace, the interior of which was heated to 2000° F. In fifty-five minutes it was 
reduced to five pounds of ashes. 
268. Wastesand Poisons.-The holding in the living 
blood for long periods of wastes (which is one of the effects 
of agents like morphia, alcohol, etc.) works mischief 
267. What accumulates in the lower bowel? Hence? What fol- 
lows retention ? 268. What is the influence of poisons? of wastes? 
How is abnormal heat reduced ? THE EXCRETA. 
117 
'Chapter XIV.). The retention of wastes (262) induces a 
febrile condition (55). This condition is recognized by a 
hot skin, flushed face, and an elevation of the body-temper- 
ature (100° to 110 F.; 37° to 43° C.). To mitigate these 
discomforts, and to hasten the casting out of the wastes or 
agents, wre endeavor to encourage the action of the bowels 
(injections and cathartics), the kidneys (copious drinks), and 
the sweat glands (hot drinks, blankets, Simpson's bath). 
269. Skin-Disease.-More diseases of the skin arise 
from an improper diet (243) than from any other single 
cause. Eczema and acne, two of the most common skin- 
maladies, are usually accompanied by derangements of 
the stomach and intestines. Liver- (272) and kidney- (270) 
troubles are a fertile cause of skin-disease. A majority of 
skin-diseases (parasites excepted) are benefited by securing 
proper and regular bowel-action, by encouraging the activity 
of the kidneys, and by the good influences of cleanliness, 
exercise, and proper clothing. 
270. Kidney-Disease.-The main causes leading to 
kidney-troubles are diseases of the skin (like scarlatina), 
want of cleanliness of the skin, alcoholic intemperance, 
eating too large amounts of foods rich in proteids, the use 
of too little water, exposure to wet and cold, and the 
damming back of the urine owing to disease or obstruction 
in the urethra or bladder. Hence avoid or mitigate the 
causes, and conform, as far as possible, to a common-sense 
mode of living. 
(«) Retention.-The forced retention of the urine in the bladder leads to severe pain 
and over-distention. The latter may result in an inability to empty the bladder, in an 
inflammation of the lining membrane (cystitis), or in overflow. Disease of the kidney 
may occur subsequent to a cystitis (296). 
269. "What favors skin-diseases? How may they be benefited? 
270. Mention the main causes of kidney-troubles. Hence? 118 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
(&) Management.-Place the sufferer in a hot bath, or employ the Simpson bath. Ad- 
minister two "Dover's powders," or two grains of opium. Usually micturition will be 
induced. After half an hour in the bath, remove to a warm bed. Apply over the pubis 
cloths wrung out of hot water upon which has been sprinkled camphor. Send for a 
surgeon. 
(c) Simpson's Bath.-Fill six or eight soda-water bottles with hot water. Cork tightly. 
Wring six or eight woollen socks out of hot water. Have the socks moist, but not drip- 
ping. Draw one of the socks over each bottle. Pack these bottles about the body 
and between the legs of the patient. Cover the patient well. In half an hour a free 
perspiration will be established. Remove the bottles, wrap the patient in fresh, warmed 
blankets, and allow the action to continue half an hour, then remove the damp blankets 
and put the patient in a warm, dry bed. 
271. Rectal Diseases are the producers of more misery 
than almost any other local affection. In the healthy they 
are largely preventible. Among the main causes of rectal 
and anal diseases (piles, spasm, fissure, etc.) are want of 
cleanliness, the use of irritant paper, high living, sedentary 
habits, and habitual constipation. Rectal disease may be 
largely averted by practising body-flexion movements (27). 
Persons having piles may mitigate their troubles by culti- 
vating the habit of securing a " soft passage" nightly before 
retiring (273). 
272. Liver-Disease.-The main causes of liver-disease 
may be classed under two heads : (1) personal, as alcoholic 
intemperance (especially spirit-drinking), indolent and lux- 
urious habits, the wearing of close-fitting garments, and 
tight lacing, and (2) climatic, as exposure to excessive heat 
and malarial influences. Liver-disease may be mitigated 
by a simple diet, by the taking of judicious exercise, by 
keeping the skin warm, and by securing free kidney and 
rectal action. 
273. Constipation is a state of the lower bowels in 
271. Speak of rectal disease; of the main causes. What may be 
done ? 272. Mention causes of liver-disease; personal ; climatic. 
How may they be mitigated ? 273. What is constipation ? What 
may be done externally ? by drinks ? by food ? THE EXCRETA. 
119 
which the fecal evacuations do not take place with normal 
regularity. The evacuations are usually hard, and their 
passage causes more or less pain. Management.-In order 
to re-establish the normal habit, employ one of the follow- 
ing methods: friction over the abdomen ; apply a cold wet 
cloth to the abdomen, followed by kneading of the abdom- 
inal muscles; use a hard-soap suppository, or an injection 
of warm water and soapsuds, or warm oil, at a certain 
hour daily. Cultivate the habit of going to the water- 
closet at a certain hour daily: for most persons just after 
breakfast appears to be best. Drink more water (184). 
Change the diet. Use fruits and foods made up of entire 
grains (204, 6). Practise body-flexion movements (27) 
daily. 
274. Sewage is a compound of human excreta and 
household waste. The history of many epidemics affords 
examples of the poisonous influence of retained or stored 
sewage. Late investigations show that the germs of certain 
diseases (typhoid fever, typhus, and diphtheria) multiply in 
sewage-filth. Sewage ought to be rapidly removed from 
the vicinity of human dwellings (121). 
275. Sewage-Removal.-The two methods most in 
use are " dry removal" and " water-carriage." The first 
method can be used only in the country. It is not adapted 
for Occidental towns and cities. The second method, though 
wasteful and, in certain respects, dangerous (sewer-gas, 123), 
has been found best in modern times. 
(n) Dry Removal.-(1) The odorous "pail" or "cask" method, as practise! in Japan, 
China, and South Germany; (2) the "privy" method, most objectionable on account of 
water-pollution (225) and air-contamination (119), as practised in the Northern United 
274. What is sewage? What is its influence? Hence? 275. 
Mention methods of sewage-removal. 120 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
States; (3) the "dry-earth" system; (4) the ventilated, water-tight masonry vault, in 
which liberal amounts of earth and charcoal are used; and (5) the cesspool or pit (22S, a). 
(t>) Water-Carriage,-In this method sufficient water is added (from the roofs or 
water-mains) to insure the continuous flowing off of the mixture through pipes and 
sewers. Usually the main sewers discharge into ponds, rivers, or the sea, and thus pol- 
lute the water and the air. " Sewage-farms" ought to be encouraged. The wastes of the 
towns, when conveyed to the land and used for irrigation and fertilization, cause healthy 
plant-growth, a purified condition of the outflowing water, and little or no air-pollution. 
(c) "In Germany it is admitted, without question, that municipal healthfulnett depends 
on three principles: (1) the total discharge of water-closets into sewers, (2) the distribu- 
tion of an abundant supply of water in dwellings and frequent flushing of drains, and 
(3) the purification of sewage by soil and vegetation." (Durand-Claye.) CHAPTER XIII. 
BRAIN AND NERVES. 
276. The Nervous System is made up of gray nerve 
cells (Fig. 23, x) and white, or gray, 
nerve-fibres (Fig. 23, 4) joined to- 
gether by fine-meshed tissue. The 
fibres serve as the conductors of 
nerve-cell products, i.e., nerve-im- 
pulses. Groups of nerve-cells orig- 
inate, receive, remember, and send 
out nerve-impulses. 
277. The Nervous System is com- 
posed of the brain (Fig. 24, 2), the 
spinal cord (Fig. 24, 3> 3), the gan- 
glia, and the nerves (Fig. 24, 4). 
278. The Brain is composed of 
a superior and larger portion, the 
cerebrum (Fig. 25, 6'31,32), an inferior and smaller por- 
tion, the cerebellum (Fig. 25, 4' 5), and a connecting por- 
tion, the pons (Fig. 25, 2). The right and left halves are 
intimately united (Fig. 25, TJie ]l)rajn aud t}ie 
medulla lie within the skull-case (Fig. 18, c). 
279. The medulla (Fig. 25, 4) is the upper portion of 
the spinal cord (Fig. 23, 3> 3). The cord extends from 
Fig. 23. 
Fig. 23 Portion 
of Gray Substance, from 
the Exterior of the Cere- 
bellum.-1, Two nerve-cells 
with bipolar prolongations. 
2, Granular matter. 3, Nu- 
clear bodies. 4. Nerve-fibres. 
276. What enters into this system ? What are their functions ? 
277. Of what is this system composed? 278. Describe the brain. 
What are found in the skull-case? 279. What is the medulla? 
Speak of the cord. Fig. 24. 
Fig. 24. A Representation of the Brain, Spinal Cord, and Spinal Nerves.- 
1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, Spinal cord lying in the vertebral canal. 
4, The sciatic nerve. 
A. Apparatus of Smell.-1, 2, Olfactory nerve. B. Apparatus of Vision.-15, Optic 
nerve. C. Distribution of the Trigeminal Nerve.-6, Nerve of taste. D. Apparatus 
or Hearing. BRAIN AND NERVES. 
123 
the skull as far as the small of the back, and lies within 
the vertebral canal. 
280. The nerves, leaving the brain by openings in the 
skull-case, and the cord, by openings between the vertebrae 
(Fig. 1), ramify to all parts of the body, the special sense 
Fig. 25. 
Fig. 25 (Leidy). Section of the Brain along the Great Longitudinal Fissure.- 
1, Medulla oblongata. 2, Pons. 4, Arborescent appearance in section of the cerebel- 
lum. 5, Left hemisphere of the cerebellum. 6, Inner surface of the left hemisphere 
of the cerebrum. 7, Corpus callosum. 20. Optic nerve. 26, Fourth ventricle. 30, 31, 
32, Anterior, middle, and posterior lobes of the cerebrum. 
organs, and the skin. The fibres of the brain, cord, and 
nerves are continuous. 
281. Functions.-The controlling parts of the human 
body are located in masses of gray nerve-cells. The brain 
is the head-centre. Impulses arising in the cerebrum exert 
280. Speak of the nerves. 281. What is the function of nerve- 
cells ? What of cerebral impulses ? 124 
lessons in hygiene. 
a modifying, and even controlling, influence upon impulses 
originating in, or coming from, other nerve-cell masses. 
282. Certain groups of cells seated in the irregular outer 
folds of the cerebrum are concerned with thought, will, 
emotion, memory, and speech; other groups, with sight, 
smell, hearing, etc.; and groups in the cerebellum with the 
orderly arrangement of skeletal muscle actions (366). 
283. Groups of nerve-cells in the medulla are concerned 
with body-movements, blood-flow, heart-action, respiration, 
etc.; groups in the spinal cord, with the carrying out of 
acquired and well-learned movements; and the groups in 
the ganglia, seated in the abdomen, thorax, and skull, with 
blood-flow and internal muscle action. The nerves convey 
information to the central nerve groups, and transmit 
mandates to the executing organs and tissues. 
284. The Mixd.-The processes which constitute the 
mind are carried on in the gray nerve cells of the cere- 
brum. In order that the processes shall be normal, five 
conditions are necessary: (1) the brain must be normal in 
its structure; (2) it must receive a due amount of normal 
blood; (3) its work must be adjusted to its capacity; (4) 
it must be worked methodically and regularly; and (5) it 
must be able to secure rest. 
285. Heredity.-Children, as a rule, resemble their 
parents, one or both ; sometimes not their parents, but their 
grand- or great-grandparents (atavism). Not only is there a 
striking resemblance in form, features, and movements, but 
also a resemblance in their brain-action, and in their ten- 
282. Speak of the functions of cerebral groups ; of cerebellar groups. 
283. Mention the duties of the medulla; the cord ; the ganglia; the 
nerves. 284. Speak of the mind. What conditions are essential ? 
285, What is noticed in children ? What may be detected? What 
is intensified ? 125 
BRAIN AND NERVES. 
dencies to certain lines of conduct or predisposition to body- 
conditions favorable to certain diseases (consumption, gout). 
As a rule, the vicious tendencies in the parents become in- 
tensified in some form or other in the offspring. 
286. The Marriage of Blood-Relations is not 
judicious. In 17 marriages between blood-relations, result- 
ing in the birth of 95 children, Dr. Howe found that 44 of 
the children were idiots, 12 scrofulous, 1 deaf, 1 a dwarf, 
and only 37 enjoyed tolerable health. Hence it was that 
ancient aristocracies (Florence, Venice, Berne) reduced to 
repeated intermarriages degenerated, drifted into mental 
weakness, and later became infertile and finally extinct. 
287. The marriage of persons suffering from deep-seated 
or communicable disease is dangerous and wrong. Thus, 
if both parents are consumptive, the chances are that all 
the offspring will be physically weak ; if one of the parents 
be sound, the danger to the children is by no means reme- 
died (285). As of consumption, the same may be affirmed 
of mental unsoundness, of deaf-mutism, of alcoholism, of 
the tendency to lie, to steal, or to lead improper or vicious 
lives. 
288. Too late or too early marriages result in sterility or 
in the presence of children afflicted with a lowered vitality. 
The marriage of very old with the young is most unhygienic 
(165). The children of " fast" people are often mentally 
and physically unsound. In short, a child is often over- 
weighted for life by the mistakes or vices of its ancestors. 
289. Education, mental, moral, and physical, and 
286. Speak of marriage among relatives. What has been noticed 
in Europe ? 287. What marriages are wrong ? Why? Who should 
not marry? 288. Mention improper marriages. What often results? 
289. What kind of education is essential ? Mention precautions. 126 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
proper food (181), can do much to aid children weighted by 
the faults of their ancestors. The managers of such chil- 
dren will need to exercise vigilance in order to thwart com- 
mencing evil tendencies. The child, the youth, and the 
adult will have to be "on guard" at all times. Endeavors 
to do right will strengthen the nerve-cells for good ; to do 
evil, for bad. 
(a) Married Life.-"According to statistics, the married life is not only the purer, 
producing the minimum of evil-doers and criminals, but it is also by far the most healthy. 
Take the male sex, and it is seen that from twenty-five to thirty years of age 1000 mar- 
ried men furnish 6 deaths annually ; 1000 bachelors furnish 10 deaths; 1000 widowers 
furnish 22 deaths. The figures, however, become very unfavorable if the marriage be 
contracted before twenty. Out of 8000 young men married before twenty the mortality 
has been found to be, before marriage only 7 per 1000; after marriage 50 per 1000. With 
respect to the female sex we find a similar advantage of marriage over celibacy, but on 
the same conditions. If young girls be turned into wives before twenty, a like mortality 
befalls them which befalls the other sex. Everywhere young married people from 
eighteen to twenty years of age die as fast as old people from sixty to seventy years of 
age. The common sense and law of Western Europe have with perfect justice marked 
twenty-one as the age of maturity. After that epoch, however, marriage should be con- 
tracted as soon as practicable." (Il'm. Pratt, M.D., London, 1884.) 
290. Blood-Supply.-All parts of the brain and the 
nerve-mass are rich in blood-tubes. Though the brain 
weighs less than one-forty-fifth of the body, yet it is said 
to receive upwards of one-fifth of the blood discharged by 
each beat of the left heart. The nerve-cells are very sensi- 
tive to variations in amount or in quality of the blood- 
supply. 
291. Improper Blood induces improper nutrition. Im- 
proper nerve-cell nutrition is manifested by irregular and 
perverted thoughts (delirium) and ill-regulated muscular 
movements (chorea). The presence of tissue-wastes (262) 
and poisons in the blood must rapidly affect brain-nutrition 
and brain-action (inebriation, uraemia). 
290. Speak of the brain blood-supply. Of the brain sensitiveness. 
291. What is the influence of improper blood? BRAIN AND NERVES. 
127 
292. Brain-Nutrition. - Mind cannot grow except 
by growth of brain; brain cannot grow except through 
good food, good air, brisk physical exercise in the open 
air, mental work, and mental rest in proper proportions. 
Effective brain-work cannot be expected in an underfed 
person: it cannot be expected in an overfed person, es- 
pecially if the food is rich and stimulating (257). 
293. Posture.-When the head is held erect, the blood- 
flow to and from the brain is least impeded. The bending 
of the head well forward, or the use of close neck-wear, 
hinders the blood-flow and leads to overfulness of the brain 
veins. The fulness causes heaviness, dull pain, and in- 
ability to do efficient work. Hence use loose neck-wear, sit 
erect, and hold the head up (105). It is often well for 
students to study while standing before a box on the table. 
294. Mental Work.-Regular brain-work is essential 
to health. Graded mental exercises regularly taken advance 
the health, the power, and the working capacity of the 
brain. The outcome of a sound and well-drilled brain is 
an even-working, well-poised, enduring mind. Irregular 
and spasmodic mental exercise does not and cannot build 
up a sound, well-balanced mind. 
295. Mental Drill.-The drill of school-children 
ought to be confined to a few subjects. The drill should 
be intensive. Short lessons, frequently repeated, should 
be the rule. There should be frequent rests,-partial, by 
change of work, and absolute, by out-of-door, active sports. 
There should be no lounging or dawdling over books. The 
faculty to observe and compare (object-lessons) should be 
292. What is essential for good brain-work? 293. What hinders 
blood-flow ? What results ? Hence ? 294. Speak of regular brain- 
work. Of its influence ? What must not be expected ? 295. Speak 
of mind-drill; lessons; rests; object-lessons; body-training. 128 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
drilled as well as that of memory. Bodily training, as in 
Russia, should go forward with mental culture. 
296. School-Work.-Children can attend to mental 
problems for brief periods only,-from ten minutes in the 
youngest to thirty minutes in the elder scholars. Sharp, 
active brain-work for half an hour will do more than an 
hour's effort of a fagged brain. An out-of-door romp is an 
excellent mental spur. In the lower grades of school there 
should be a recess hourly; in the other grades, at least once 
in two hours. Foul air, the forced work of a weary brain, 
and bad light are bad enough, but constrained positions, 
prolonged retention (270, "), and want of blood-stirring 
exercises are worse. 
297. Study.-After a night's good rest the best work is 
done in the morning hours. The best work cannot be done 
immediately after eating, for the blood-flow tends to the 
digestive organs, and the blood-current is laden with ma- 
terials too crude for brain-cell food. It would be conducive 
to better health if the scholars who dine at home could 
have a two-hours' " nooning." 
298. Children should not be permitted to study, or the 
daughters to practise on the piano, on returning from school. 
That time should be devoted to a light lunch, to useful mus- 
cular work, or to active sports. Evening study is a tax 
upon an already weary brain. It should not commence 
directly after supper, and it ought to cease at least half an 
hour before the retiring-hour. 
299. In order to accomplish a certain line of studies, 
296. How long can the attention be fixed ? What injurious factors 
in school-life ? What of recesses ? 297. Under what conditions can 
good work be done? 298. Speak of after-school work; of evening 
work. 299. Mention a fact in education. What is needed by young 
women ? 129 
BRAIN AND NERVES. 
as a collegiate course, young women should employ more 
months than young men. Their organisms, under modern 
life, cannot hold up under unremitting brain-toil. Head- 
aches in a school-girl usually mean exhausted nerve-power. 
The majority of American young women need a well-poised, 
practical mind seated in a compact, rounded, uniformly- 
developed body, much more than a cultured mind lodged 
in an anaemic, stunted, neuralgic body. 
300. Normal Work.-A well-trained brain can do 
immense amounts of work and hold its own. An ill- 
trained or imperfectly organized brain has little reserve 
power, and easily breaks down. Good brain-work is done 
with quiet action, an equable temper, and a spirit of 
buoyancy. It is done by a brain having a reserve of 
strength. 
301. Overwork.-Headache, heaviness, confusion of 
thought, and brain-wear in ess in a child point to the need 
of rest. If the brain-weariness is detected early, brain- 
mischief may be averted. Brain-overwork in children 
and youth often leads to permanent mental weakness. 
Brain-exhaustion in adults and brain-overwork in children 
are serious maladies. Both demand rest-by change of 
occupation. 
302. Worry.-Excessive activity, with anxiety, char- 
acterizes worry. Worry is fatal to good work. Worry 
largely arises through a feeling of incapacity to perform 
the work at hand. In school-life, the "cramming" of 
facts for the test-examinations, the rivalry for prizes, the 
300. Speak of the work of a trained brain ; of that of an ill-trained 
brain ; of good brain-work. 301. Mention indications of overwork. 
What may result? What must be done? 302. What is worry? 
How does it arise? What results? 130 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
desire to do three years' work in two years, constitute 
sources of worry. In world-life, business and social rival- 
ries and envyings induce worry. It is worry, and not 
mental work, that oftenest uses up the brain (305, "). 
303. Rest.-During brain-activity the brain-cell waste 
is in excess of the income. Furthermore, wastes accumu- 
late about the cells and in the blood. During periods of 
rest the wastes are removed and the losses are made good. 
Young or ill-trained brains require longer rest than old or 
well-trained brains. The rests for the former should be 
of frequent occurrence. Brain-rest is secured by change or 
cessation of studies, change of occupation, muscle-work, 
and sleep. 
304. Sleep.-During sleep the brain-tissues lay up new 
stores of energy. The early hours of night afford the most 
refreshing sleep. As a rule, all persons should average 
eight hours' sound sleep daily (163). In the winter more 
hours' rest should be taken than in the summer. Those 
engaged in mental work need more sleep than those wearied 
by hard labor. The young, the aged, and the invalid need 
more sleep than any other classes. In winter, children may 
well sleep from ten to twelve hours daily. 
305. Causes of Insanity.-Dr. Allen places heredity 
(285) among the first sources of insanity. After this he 
ranks dissipation (drinking-habits, abuse of tobacco and 
opiates, licentiousness, etc.), overwork (301), meagre fare, 
lack of ventilation, and neglect of moral culture. About 
one-half of all cases of insanity are due to causes under 
303. What occurs during brain-activity? during rests? Speak of 
brain-rest. How secured? 304. What takes place during sleep? 
Time for sleep? Amount needed? 305. Mention the main causes 
of insanity. What can be done ? BRAIN AND NERVES. 
131 
the control of man. Well-settled insanity is almost in- 
curable : hence the only safety lies in prevention. 
Out of 2333 cases admitted into the Connecticut Hospital for the Insane, old age, brain- 
disease, and fever were the cause of 263; general ill health, 331; alcoholics, tobacco, 
and opium, 226 (in Great Britain 25 per cent, of the insanity is attributed to alcoholics); 
licentiousness and self-abuse, 116; religion, the affections, and domestic relations, 198; 
business anxiety and vicissitudes, 147; overwork and over-study, 72; causes unknown, 
957. 
306. Sunstroke.-Continued exposure to the direct 
rays and the powerful heat of the sun gives rise to insola- 
tion. In this there is sudden failure of the heart's action, 
often ending in speedy death. The affected person drops 
as if struck on the head. It is different from "heat- 
stroke" (58). Treatment.-Dash cold water on the head; 
give the patient plenty of air; administer hot brandy or 
whiskey in water, by the rectum. Prevention.-Use a sun- 
umbrella, wear a light, well-ventilated hat, and be moderate 
in your movements. 
306. What causes sunstroke? Treatment? Prevention? CHAPTER XIV. 
CEREBRAL EXCITANTS AND CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
307. A Cerebral Excitant is a drug or agent which 
increases the rapidity of the blood-flow, causes the func- 
tions of the brain to become slightly more active, induces 
the ideas to flow more freely, and alleviates nervousness, 
mental and muscular. These agents rarely suspend the 
brain-functions. The activity induced by them is rarely 
followed by depression. To this class belong coffee, hashish, 
and tea. 
308. Coffee makes a pleasant excitant beverage. It 
removes the sense of commencing fatigue, affords an in- 
vigorating nervous stimulation, increases the action of the 
skin, and promotes wakefulness (132). It has been found 
well adapted to soldiers and men working under a tropical 
sun (Algeria, India). In the British Antarctic Expedition 
hot coffee was found to be superior to hot spirits. 
309. Coffee is not necessary for the production of the 
highest physical and mental activity. It occasionally 
induces irregular and painful heart-action. It does not 
occasion the nervous symptoms following the excessive use 
of tea (312). It should be used in moderation only, and 
should alw.ays be excluded from the diet of children and 
youth. It is said to be an anti-alcoholic. 
307. What is the action of an excitant? What does not follow? 
Name the excitants. 308. What does coffee do ? For what adapted ? 
309. For what is it not essential? What peculiar actions? What 
of its use ? CEREBRAL EXCITANTS. 
133 
310. Hashish in small doses by the stomach increases 
the intellectual and motor activities. It makes the amiable 
more joyful, and the vicious more evil. In large doses it 
induces trance and deep, painless sleep. It is an ingredient 
in some of the nostrums vaunted as cures of consumption. 
Its habitual use is injurious to the nervous system. In the 
East it is employed to produce intoxication and hallucina- 
tions, and to lull acute pain. 
311. Tea is largely used by the Japanese in the form of 
a weak infusion, and by the Americans and English as a 
strong decoction. It enables a person to live on a smaller 
amount of food than is usually demanded. It increases 
the capacity for work, puts away sleep, allows of deeper 
draughts on the stored-up energies than ordinary nerve- 
action, and, taken moderately, allays mental unrest, fatigue, 
and hunger. Its hot infusion is potent against heat (China) 
or cold (Canada). It is not an essential. Children and 
youth should not be allowed to use it. 
312. Tea used in excess deranges the digestive organs 
and excites a disturbance in the nervous system. It 
induces stomach-acidity, water-brash, eructations, and flat- 
ulence (259). It causes irregular action of the heart, head- 
ache, dizziness, ringing in the ears, and confusion of the 
mind. The evil results are well seen in sewing-women 
living on tea and bread (256), who become excessively 
" nervous," irritable, neuralgic, and dyspeptic. Tea-drink- 
ing in excess is only less harmful than alcoholic drunken- 
ness (Attfield'). 
313. A Cerebral Sedative is a drug or agent the 
310. What is induced by hashish? For what employed? What 
dangers? 311, How is tea used? Its influence? When useful? 
312. Speak of the injurious actions; the evil effects. Therefore? 
313. What is the action of a cerebral sedative? 134 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
effects of which are expended chiefly on the nervous system. 
At first it stimulates the functions of the brain. This stage 
is of variable duration. The state of excitement is fol- 
lowed by profound sleep, by a sleep from which the person 
is with difficulty aroused (coma), by insensibility, and per- 
haps by death. 
314. This class of agents, when used for considerable 
periods, causes abnormal tissue-nutrition. The abnormal 
tissue-nutrition induces changes in the structure of the 
soft parts and perverted actions of the same. To this class 
belong alcoholics, bromides, chloral, chloroform, ether, opium, 
and tobacco. None of these agents should be used except 
under the orders of a medical person, and not beyond the 
prescribed time. 
315. Alcohol (ethyl alcohol, C2II6O) is made by fer- 
mentation from materials containing carbo-hydrates (174), 
like grape-juice, apple-juice, cane-juice, and the sugars 
derived from the starches of grains and roots. Pure 
spirits, wines, ales, and beers owe their exhilarating, in- 
toxicating, sedative, and paralyzing effects to the alcohols 
they contain. The amount of this agent ranges from 1.28 
per cent, (small beer) to 56 per cent, (natural whiskey). 
Amylic alcohol (fusel oil) is an impurity found in many 
alcoholic beverages. 
(a) Amylic Alcohol (C6H]2O) is highly poisonous. The results of a number of analy- 
ses have shown that certain natural wines (Alsace, Bordeaux) contain a notable propor- 
tion of fusel oil. It is also an ingredient in raw whiskey, in gin, and in certain brandies. 
Fusel oil causes in animals tremors and muscular twitching " identical with the tremors 
observed in the human subject during the alcoholic disease known as delirium tremens." 
(Richnrdmn.) 
316. Course and Action.-In most cases alcoholics 
314. What results from prolonged use? Name the agents. Give 
a rule of action. 315. From what is alcohol made? Influence? 
Amounts? Main impurity? 316. How does it enter the blood? 
What changes occur? What action ? How cast out? CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
135 
enter the system by way of the mouth. They are mostly 
absorbed through the walls of the blood-vessels of the 
stomach. They circulate in the blood, and soon reach all 
the soft tissues of the body (84). Small amounts are 
destroyed in the system, yielding heat and energy. The 
non-destroyed portion exerts an injurious and even poison- 
ous effect on the tissues of all the soft parts (muscle, con- 
nective tissue, nerve-cell, gland-cell). The non-oxidized 
portions are cast out of the system, for the most part, by 
the way of the kidneys (265). 
(a) The idea that alcohol is present in the breath after wine or spirits have been 
drunk, depends on the odor imparted by the presence of various ethers, fusel oil, etc., 
and not upon alcohol (327, e). A quantity of pure, diluted alcohol equal in volume to 
half a bottle of champagne may be drunk without tainting the breath in the least; 
and alcohol may be subcutaneously injected with the same result, though odor is imme- 
diately detected if a little fusel oil is added to it first. (Biuz.) 
317. Tissue-Modifications. - Ethyl alcohol circu- 
lating more or less constantly in the blood modifies the 
nutrition of important tissues (nerve, gland, and connec- 
tive), and influences for the worse the functions of impor- 
tant parts (brain, liver, gastric glands, and heart). At first 
the bulk of the connective tissue (236) is increased ; later 
it is reduced below normal. The functions of gland-tissue 
and nerve-cell-tissue (276) are at first exalted; but after a 
time they are lessened or suppressed. The tendency of 
alcohol is to cause profound fatty changes or hardening 
changes in all the soft tissues of the body. Alcohol is a 
"genius of degeneration" (101, 132, 324 to 328). 
318. A healthy person needs no alcoholics, and will con- 
tinue more efficient and more healthy without them. The 
317. What is its influence? What action on connective tissue? 
On gland-tissue ? What is its tendency ? 318. Why is it not needed ? 
Speak of the Ashantee campaign ; of East-Indian experience. Does 
it keep out heat ? 136 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
habitual use of alcoholics by a well-fed person is un- 
necessary, and, moreover, it is harmful. The experience 
of the British army in the Ashantee campaign-one of 
the most trying of modern times-showed " that absti- 
nence did not render those who abstained more sickly as 
a whole, or more liable to malarious fever, nor did it in- 
terfere with their powers of marching." The records of 
the Eighty-fourth Regiment in India u show that on both 
tropical service and on marches in India the teetotallers 
were more healthy, more vigorous, and far better soldiers 
than those who did not abstain." (Parkes.) Alcohol has 
been found to be most hurtful in moist, hot climates (272). 
319. Most travellers and explorers condemn the use of 
spirits, and even of wine or beer, as a preventive against 
cold. The Russian army on a march in cold weather has 
no spirit ration. A man who has lately indulged is not 
allowed to march. The lumbermen of Canada, "em- 
ployed upon the hardest work, and exposed to a freezing 
temperature, are allowed no spirits, but have an unlimited 
quantity of tea" (311). 
320. It has not been shown that the deftness and en- 
durance of the hand-worker have been improved by the 
irregular or regular use of alcoholics. Experience proves 
that men doing very hard work, as iron-puddlers, glass- 
blowers, prize-fighters under training, do their work more 
easily without alcohol. It has not been proved that users 
of alcoholics are capable of doing more or better literary 
work than abstainers. It is " a question whether the power 
of clear, consecutive, and continuous reasoning is not 
319. What is the opinion of explorers? Of the Russians? Of the 
Canadians? 320. What is their influence on hand-workers? On 
toilers? On brain-workers ? As a preventive of disease? Upon the 
people ? CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
137 
always lessened." It is certain that abstainers hold up 
under acute disease, injuries, or surgical operations better 
than habitual drinkers. All epidemics prove that alco- 
holics do not prevent disease, but the reverse. It is settled 
that alcoholics are the most potent, direct causes, in our time, 
of poverty, crime, and disease. 
321. Alcoholic stimulants ought never to be used for the 
relief of nerve-pain like neuralgia, for in such circum- 
stances the " alcohol-habit" is very likely to be formed. 
Under sixty years of age the daily use of alcoholics ought 
to be discouraged. 
(a) A measure of alcohol which produces in a person a sudden effect, flushes the face, or 
exhilarates, is a toxic dose for that person. Such a dose is usually followed by a de- 
pression felt throughout the system. It is a quantity short of this which is allowable. 
One-fourth to one-half a teaspoonful of alcohol in much liquid may be a commencing 
dose. Frequent small doses produce the best effects. Ethyl alcohol is preferable to 
spirits, wines, or beers for most medicinal purposes, because it is pure, and it can be 
accurately and readily measured. 
322. Alcoholics, like chloral and opium, are dangerous 
agents.-They act badly upon the young and upon the im- 
mature of either sex. Their evil effects are more marked 
on females than on males. The attraction of these agents 
for themselves is cumulative. Their habitual use compels 
use. Their activities so modify the organism and so weaken 
the will-power as to establish a controlling craving for 
them. This craving is difficult to combat, to turn aside, 
or to suppress. The human system never fully recovers 
when it has been once saturated with alcohol, opium, or to- 
bacco. As it is uncertain whether a person who uses any 
one or more of them at all will not end by using them in 
injurious amounts, it is safest to abstain from their use. 
321. Why is it useful? How should it betaken? When should 
it be shunned? 322. Mention dangerous agents. What of their in- 
fluence? Speak of the cumulative power; of the craving; of the 
effects. Therefore ? 138 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
323. Malt Liquors.-The nutrient value of the malt, 
bitters, acids, etc., of beer, ale, or porter, is very small. 
The confirmed beer-drinker is as much an alcoholist as the 
wine- or spirit-drinker : the difference is only in degree. 
Large numbers of persons in the United States are deeply 
injured by malt liquors without being drunkards. The 
moderate use of alcohol is a prominent factor in the causa- 
tion of acute diseases, like coughs, colds, slight fevers, 
rheumatism, etc. 
324. Buchner's experiments show that diluted beer or 
wine hinders digestion, and that the undiluted stays it for 
hours. The steady use of malt liquors induces fatty disease- 
changes in the soft tissues and the accumulation of masses 
of unsound fat. The liver, the heart, and, later, the kid- 
neys, especially suffer. The brain is so modified that the 
mind becomes sluggish, heavy, morose, and stolid. The 
habitual beer-drinker, though rotund, florid, and appar- 
ently vigorous, is in reality incapable of resisting disease. 
Trivial injuries and maladies affect him seriously and very 
often cause an early death. "Beer is peculiarly deceptive 
at first, but is thoroughly destructive.at the last." 
325. Wine and Spirits.-The action of the ethyl 
alcohol of wines differs from that of spirits only in de- 
gree. The acids, sugars, ethers, coloring-ingredients, etc., 
exert slight special influences on the system. They have 
little nutrient power. The use of wines produces no 
good effect on the healthy body. The habitual use of 
spirits, and especially slightly-diluted spirits, leads to fatty 
chaiiges or hardening changes in all the soft parts. These 
323. What is small ? Speak of beer-drinking. Of moderate drink- 
ing. 324. What results from small amounts? From steady drink- 
ing ? What is noticed about the habitual beer-drinker? 325. What 
is the influence of wines ? Of spirits ? CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
139 
changes are more or less destructive to the efficiency, en- 
durance, and longevity of the human body. 
(a) " Among the persons selected with care for physical soundness and sobriety, and 
who are, as a rule, respectable and useful members of society, the death-rate is more 
profoundly affected by the use of intoxicating drinks than from any other one cause, 
apart from heredity." (J. L. Greene, Prest. Conn. Mutual Life Ins. Co., 1883.) 
(b) In Great Britain 25 per cent, of all insanity is laid to alcoholic intemperance; in 
the United States, 10 per cent.; and in France, about 15 per cent. The consumption of 
spirits in France, owing to the introduction of absinthe and cheap brandies, increased 
from 32 gallons per hundred persons in the decade 1841-50 to 52 gallons in the decade 
1861-70, and the percentages of insane from drink during the same periods were 7.83 and 
14.78 respectively. 
(c) The Mortality in London " among any considerable group of intemperate persons 
will differ from that generally prevailing among adults in the following important par- 
ticulars,-namely, a fourfold increase in the deaths from diseases of the liver and chylo- 
poietic viscera; a twofold increase in the deaths from disease of the kidney; an increase 
of half as much again of those from heart-disease ; a marked increase of those from 
pneumonia and pleurisy; a considerable increase and an earlier occurrence of those from 
disease of the central nervous system ; a marked decrease of those from bronchitis, 
asthma, emphysema, and congestion of the lungs; a decrease nearly as great of those from 
phthisis, and a later occurrence, or at least termination, of the disease ; a very large de- 
crease in those from old age, with an increase of those referred to atrophy, debility, etc., 
and the addition of a considerable group referred in general terms to alcoholism, or 
chronic alcoholism, or resulting from accidents." (Report of Committee of Harceian Society, 
1883.) 
326. The Heredity of Alcoholism is an established 
fact. The continual use of alcoholics produces a firmly- 
seated disease known as chronic alcoholism, which is charac- 
terized by a decided lowering of the mental and moral tone, 
and by a noted falling off in the physical appearance, effi- 
ciency, and endurance. It entails upon an innocent pos- 
terity a tendency to insanity, idiocy, instability of mind, 
weakness of mind, and a craving for alcoholics (287). The 
evils of heredity are said to be more positive in beer- 
drinkers than in wine- or spirit drinkers. According to 
Bruehl-Kramer, the influence of the alcoholic father is 
worse than that of the intemperate mother. 
326. What is certain ? What is chronic alcoholism ? What is its 
entail? What has been noticed ? 140 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
(a) Of 300 idiots in Massachusetts, Dr. Howe referred 145 directly to intemperance. 
A like proportion of insanity finds a similar reference. (Bascom.) Experience shows 
that it is the habit of moderate drinking in health, coupled with an inherited nervous 
weakness, that leads to alcoholism in the educated ; and among the hand-toilers, heredity, 
poor food, ill-prepared, tasteless food, overcrowding, mental depression, and misery. 
327. (a) Alcoholic Disease-inducing Actions.-It is difficult in the human organism 
to assign to a particular agent its specific influence in producing a given disease-condi- 
tion. In many cases of well-seated disease, alcohol is one of the many factors (heredity, 
improper food, overcrowding, impure water, deficient clothing, dampness, exposure, 
overexertion, etc.) leading to deterioration, degeneration, and disease. In some dis- 
orders it is the prime factor, but in others it plays an injurious though subordinate 
part. 
(t>) Local Effect.-Alcoholics induce a warming, puckering effect on the membrane of 
the mouth, fauces, oesophagus, and stomach. The induced warmth is soon felt over the 
entire system. They cause an increased flow of blood to the walls of the stomach, and 
excite the gastric glands to increased action. An excessive amount, undiluted, stops 
gland-action. 
(c) Absorption.-Alcoholics entering the system by the way of the mouth mostly leave 
the canal from the stomach, very little reaching the intestines. The blood returning to 
the heart from the stomach passes by way' of the portal vein into the liver, in the 
tubes of which gland it circulates. Hence the stomach and the liver bear the brunt of 
the early influences of alcohol. 
Lallemand, Perrin, and Duroy (1860), as the results of experiments, reported that alco- 
hol undergoes no change in the body, that it cannot be digested and incorporated into 
tissue or any bodily substance. Binz, Henbach, and Schmidt (1870) concluded that by 
far the larger part of any ingested alcohol (30 to 50 c.c.-1 to 2 ounces) is disposed of 
within the organism in the presence of tissue-change. Anstie and Dupre (1872) 
affirmed as the result of experiment that a certain amount of alcohol disappeared in 
the passage through the system. Jaillet (1882) demonstrated that in the presence of 
haemoglobin and oxygen, alcohol (C2H6O) is transformed into aldehyde (C»H40), and 
then into acetic acid (('2H4O2). Acetates are converted in the system into carbonates, 
and eliminated as such, or into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). 
(d) Disposal.-" At present (1883) the weight of authority and the deductions of experi- 
ment are in favor of that view which maintains that within certain limits (one ounce 
to one and a half ounce of absolute alcohol to a healthy man [in divided doses, well 
diluted with water, in twenty-four hours]) alcohol is oxidized and destroyed in the 
organism, and yields up force which is applied as nervous, muscular, and gland force." 
(BartholoicA) Dujardin-Beaumetz (Paris, Acad, of Med., 1884) expressed an opinion 
that the disposal of alcohol in the body differs with the amount taken. " When taken 
in very' small doses, it is transformed into acetic acid, and combines with the basic 
substances in the blood; in larger doses the acetic acid is formed in the lungs by oxida- 
tion ; in still larger doses it takes oxygen from blood-corpuscles as well as the lungs." 
(e) Elimination.-Alcohol is eliminated slowly from the system. After the ingestion 
of an excess (five ounces of whiskey) it has been detected in the urine as early as 
ten minutes. Traces appear in the urine sixteen to twenty-four hours after its inges- 
tion. With Geissler's vaporimeter as little as 0.05 per cent, of alcohol may be detected. 
Prof. Binz (1870), using the vaporimeter, was able to recover in the urine less than six 
per cent, of the alcohol ingested by the six patients experimented upon. In some de- 
terminations he failed to detect any. After the giving of upwards of one ounce of 
1 " Materia Medica and Therapeutics," 5th edition (Sept. 1883), page 475. CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
141 
absolute alcohol diluted with syrup, he affirms that in the lung-exhalations immediately 
after, or at any period within six hours, not a trace of alcoh'1 could be found. Reason- 
ing from analogy, he regards it as impossible that the skin should eliminate any. 
(f) Gastric Action.-The habitual use of alcoholics in excess of the physiological dose 
(321) produces structural alterations and functional derangements. Alcoholics induce 
changes in the mucous surface of a corrugating and hardening nature. The gastric 
glands, at first slightly enlarged and rendered more active, later become smaller and less 
active. The connective tissue in the walls between the glands, at first enlarged (causing 
pressure on the glands), later becomes markedly contracted. Hence, after a time, the 
ability to secrete juices and to digest proteids is diminished or nearly suppressed. The 
walls become thickened and coated with a thick slime, establishing chronic gastric catarrh. 
(g) Gastric Catarrh is characterized by acidity, heart-burn, water-brash, morning 
retching, and even vomiting. Starches and sugars introduced into a catarrhal stomach 
soon undergo acid fermentation. Ordinary foods remain long periods undigested, and 
they are so affected that the intestinal fluid action (240) is very much slowed. 
(ft) Hepatic Action.-Alcoholics induce increased activity of the liver-cells, and an ex- 
cessive growth of the connective tissue (236). The liver becomes larger. When the 
maximum enlargement has been reached, the opposite tendency comes into play, the 
cell-activity diminishes, the connective tissue contracts, the liver becomes smaller than 
normal, hard and nodular (•• hob-nailed liver"), the rectal, intestinal, and gastric circula- 
tions are impeded, rectal and renal troubles arise, dropsy appears, and " liver-disease" is 
easily recognizable. Long indulgence in spirits is necessary to produce marked changes. 
Excessive beer-drinking induces fatty degeneration of the liver. 
(t) Hiemic Action.-From disease of the stomach and liver follows disease of the blood. 
Alcoholics interfere with the changes occurring in the blood necessary to the," ripening" 
of the crude materials received from foods. They diminisl) the mobility of the corpus- 
cles, remove oxygen from the haemoglobin (327, d), and hinder the elimination of carbonic 
acid and nitrogenous wastes. The blood thus becomes laden with crude tissue-foods, 
with tissue-wastes, and tissue-poisons. Hence malnutrition of the cells of the soft parts 
of the system, as well as functional bad action, must result. 
(J) Cardiac Action.-Alcoholics cause increased heart-action (500 to 800 extra beats 
per hour) and increased unnecessary work. The periods of rest are shortened. In small 
doses alcoholics are excitants; in large doses, heart-sedatives. The heart-muscle, es- 
pecially in beer-drinkers, after a time gives evidence of enlargement followed by fatty 
degeneration. 
(A-) Capillary Action.-Alcoholics derange (paralyze) the nerve-centres (282) controlling 
the blood-supply to each part. As a result, the blood-flow becomes abnormally large, 
then abnormally small, and unhealthy growth or nutrition follows. One of the early 
effects of each dose, up to a certain point, is to permit an abnormal amount of blood to 
enter the skin and nerve-centre areas, causing a sense of warmth and exhilaration. 
Heat loss occurs rapidly (56), and chilling ensues. Soon the exhilaration is followed by 
depression, mental and physical. 
(l) General Action.-Alcoholics retard the destruction of nitrogen and carbon com- 
pounds in the tissues. The consumers of alcoholics often increase in weight, but the fat 
laid on is not firm, solid, and enduring. The temperature is subject to slight variations 
only in habitual users. Often the alcoholic influence is such that in chronic alcoholism 
the system is unable to utilize common foods, but can utilize large amounts of alcohol 
daily and can derive force and energy from the same. Anstie instances a tailor who 
lived for years on a bottle of gin and a small piece of white bread per day. 
(m) Pulmonary and Cutaneous Action.-Alcoholics lessen the carbonic acid elimination 
by the way of the air-passages. They are not known to increase the oxygen-receiving 142 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
function. They cause structural changes leading to chronic bronchitis. They are 
capable of evoking morbid cutaneous phenomena, and they bear an important part in the 
maintenance and aggravation of pre-existing skin-disease, to which they sometimes im- 
part a very serious character. 
(n) Renal Action.-As in the liver (h), so in the kidneys, alcoholics early induce an in- 
creased activity and an inferred increase of bulk. The excretion of alcohol by the way 
of the kidneys induces one form of Bright's disease, similar to the form following scarlet 
fever. After several years' excessive use of alcoholics the kidney becomes contracted, 
hard, and nodular (cirrhosis). Then the secretion of urine is markedly decreased, and 
may be suppressed. Then the skin becomes dry and harsh, the face sallow and pinched, 
and the entire system debilitated. 
(o) Cerebral Action.-A blood habitually laden with alcohol surging through the capil- 
laries of the brain and nerve-centres induces a fatty change in the gray cells (276) and 
an early thickening and a later contraction of the delicate connective tissue (236) hold- 
ing the cells in place. Alcohol has a special affinity for nerve-cell tissues. Structural 
changes are gradually produced. After a time the cerebrum shrinks and becomes firmer 
than normal (sclerosis), and the fluids occupying the ventricles of the brain increase in 
order to keep the brain-case filled. These changes are evidenced by the mental weak- 
ness, the moral weakness, the muscular tremors, and the irregular muscular movements 
of the chronic inebriate (326). 
(p) Toxic Action.-The action of alcoholics upon the brain varies with the quality, the 
quantity, and the length of the influence. An exhilarating dose causes certain trains 
of ideas to flow easily, the senses to become more acute, and the muscular movements 
more active and vigorous. An additional amount causes the cerebral excitement to be- 
come disorderly, the ideas to be evolved in an irregular and rambling order, and the 
muscular action to become disorderly and uncontrollable. Later, deep, heavy sleep 
follows (intoxication). 
(<l) Lethal Action.-Two tablespoonfuls of whiskey have been known to cause the death 
of a child. In 1881 a man drank, on a wager, at one sitting, three pints of whiskey. 
There was almost no stage of excitement, for he soon dropped insensible. The succes- 
sion of symptoms was as follows: a most frequent and feeble pulse, noisy breathing, cold 
skin, loss of sensation, collapse, and death ; that is, the toxic dose overpowered the mental 
and movement centres (282), slowed those essential to life, and finally arrested the actions 
of the centres presiding over respiration and circulation (283). 
328. Anaesthesia is partial death. It should be 
avoided, even at the expense of much pain, as in teeth- 
extraction. The agents used overpower the conscious and 
motor centres and obtund the circulatory and respiratory 
centres (283). Chloroform may cause death by sudden 
arrest of the heart's action without preceding warning 
signs. Ether causes death through the respiratory tract. 
It gives signs of danger well known to the skilled admin- 
328. Why should anaesthesia be avoided? What is the action of 
chloroform ? of ether ? W'hich is safer ? Of the use of chloroform ? CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
143 
istrator. Ether (ethyl oxide) is the safest anoesthetic. In 
Lyman's statistics (1881) there are recorded three hundred 
and sixty-eight cases of chloroform-death, and twenty- 
seven of ether-death. No person, unless ordered by a com- 
petent physician, should whiff chloroform to annul pain. 
329. Bromides are not free from danger. Their use 
in excessive doses may induce headache, confusion of the 
mind, and a sort of intoxication. Their habitual use often 
induces pallor, anaemia, loss of muscular power, and con- 
stant drowsiness. They have been known to cause weak- 
ness of mind and mental derangement. 
330. Chloral is an agent of uncertain action. It is a 
cumulative poison; i.e., after the taking of several doses with 
little effect, sudden toxic symptoms appear. It is a drug 
which must be employed in increasing doses by its habitual 
users in order to get the desired excitant or hypnotic effect. 
The "chloral habit," like the "opium habit," is fraught 
with trouble and danger. 
331. Chloral lessens the appetite and interferes with 
digestion. It induces weakness and irregularity of the 
heart's action. It reduces the vigor of the muscles. It 
causes the mind to become dull and dreamy, the will- 
power to be lessened, the judgment to be impaired, and 
the mental faculties to be blunted. Muscular fatigue is 
a safer sleep-inducer than chloral. 
332. Opium and its alkaloid, morphia, are dangerous yet 
useful drugs. Death has occurred to a nursing infant whose 
mother had taken a medicinal dose of opium. One drop 
329. What may bromides induce? What later effects? 330. 
What of chloral? What may follow? 331. What is the action of 
chloral on the system ? on the mind ? Hence ? 332. What danger 
in opium compounds ? in " soothing syrups" ? 144 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
of laudanum has proved fatal to a child under six months. 
"Soothing syrups," designed for infants, usually contain 
opium in uncertified amounts. They are dangerous com- 
pounds. They cultivate an "opium habit." It is not im- 
probable that the infantile "opium habit" contributes to 
the adult " alcohol habit" (326, "). 
333. The habitual use of opium preparations induces a 
marked change in the system. It engenders an uncon- 
trollable craving for the drug (322). It diminishes the 
appetite, enfeebles the muscles, and lessens the fat. The 
skin becomes sallow, parchment-like, and shrivelled. In 
adults, the will-power, the memory, and the moral tone 
deteriorate. The users become inattentive to their proper 
duties. Their whole endeavors are shaped towards the 
indulgence of the "opium habit." Opium preparations 
should never be used beyond the period prescribed by a 
prudent physician. 
(a) The hypodermic method of taking morphia is the most dangerous,-immediately, 
from an overdose; remotely, from the establishment of the " morphine habit." The 
smoking method is the least injurious. The modern tobacco and opium cigarettes are a 
seductive and dangerous compound. 
334. Tobacco contains several active alkaloids, among 
them nicotine, and several acids. They very rapidly enter 
the blood through the mucous surfaces (106) by the smoke, 
the snuff, or the swallowed saliva. The alkaloids modify 
the energy of the nervous system, interfere with tissue- 
change, and impair nutrition. They are mainly eliminated 
by the kidneys. 
335. In the young, tobacco appears to interfere with 
333. What is the action of opium on the body? on the mind? 
Hence? 334. What exists in tobacco? How do they enter the 
blood? What occurs? 335. What is their influence on the body? 
on the heart ? on the muscles ? CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
145 
and retard the symmetrical development of the body. It 
induces, in many cases, an irritable and irregular action of 
the heart, which is manifested by palpitations, fleeting pains 
in the vicinity of the heart, faintness, and dizziness. It 
frequently causes a loss of control over the muscles, es- 
pecially of the forearm and arm. Drawing-masters have 
noticed that young smokers fail to draw "a clean, straight 
line." 
336. Mental Influence.-It is an obstacle to mental ap- 
plication and mental growth. It impairs the memory. 
Under the orders of Napoleon III., the records of the stu- 
dents of the government schools were kept in two classes, 
those of the smokers and those of the non-smokers. After 
a time it was found that the smokers were markedly inferior, 
physically, mentally, and morally, to the abstainers. As a 
result of these investigations, an order was issued prohibit- 
ing the use of tobacco by the government students. 
337. The reports of its influence on the digestive func- 
tion are conflicting. A few cases have been reported of 
injury to the retina and the nerves of vision. Certain 
organs are at first over-stimulated, but eventually become 
much weakened. This stimulation encourages pernicious 
acts (305, a). The children of excessive tobacco-users are 
quite frequently found to be weak, nervous, and prone to 
the alcoholic habit (326, "). 
338. Chewing and Snufling.-The presence of the tobacco 
and the movements of the lower jaw excite the salivary and 
mucous glands to great activity. This increased secretion 
is swallowed or expelled. The presence of the tainted se- 
336. How does tobacco influence the mind ? What was noticed in 
France? 337. What influence on digestion? on vision? on glands? 
What is its heredity? 338. What occurs in the mouth? What is 
induced ? Speak of snuffing. 146 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
cretions injures the membranes, blunts the sense of taste, 
debilitates the gums, injures the enamel of the teeth, dis- 
colors the teeth, and probably interferes with the change 
of starches to sugar (238). The powdered snuff folds the 
nostrils, blunts the sense of smell, irritates the nasal pas- 
sages, and causes a persistent catarrhal condition. 
339. Tobacco-smoke, laden with carbonic acid, organic 
acids, and alkaloids and unburnt carbon, and having a high 
temperature, causes the throat to become dry and red, and 
the tonsils to enlarge. The persistent inhalation of smoke 
induces the " smoker's sore throat." Tobacco-smoke aggra- 
vates a nasal and throat (Fig. 18) catarrh, markedly in- 
jures the quality of the voice (142, "), and often induces 
redness and painful sensations upon the eye-surfaces. By 
extension up the Eustachian tube the smoker's throat-catarrh 
often causes deafness (348). 
340. Smoking.-The cigarette affords the most, and the 
long-stemmed, porous-bowled pipe the least, objectionable 
method of smoking. With the cigarette more of the hot 
smoke enters the air-passages, more of the acids and alkaloids 
reach the mucous surfaces, and more of the injurious mate- 
rials enters the blood than with the cigar or the pipe. The 
influence of the cigarette-smoke is felt throughout the sys- 
tem. If the influence is not kept up by repeated smoking, 
" ennui, malaise, indolence, and muscular inertness follow." 
(a) Cigarette-tobacco is moister than cigar- or pipe-tobacco. In most cases less of its 
alkaloids have been lost by evaporation. Furthermore, many cheap cigarettes are made 
of refuse tobacco and cigar-stumps. As a rule, cigar-stumps contain the bulk of the 
alkaloids and acids of the burnt portion, and hence the stumps are excessively charged 
with the toxic agents. The pernicious effects of cigarettes are not due to the paper used, 
but to the agents present in the tobacco. 
339. What exist in tobacco-smoke? What is induced? What 
may happen? 340. Speak of smoking. Of cigarette-smoke and of 
its influence. 147 
CEREBRAL SEDATIVES. 
341. Tobacco is the bane of the youth of the world. No 
boy of ten to fourteen can begin the practice of smoking or 
chewing without becoming as a man mentally and physi- 
cally less efficient than he would otherwise have become. 
(a) Upon the adult tobacco is not void of injurious effects. Many soldiers in the late 
war suffered from a nervous weakness,-" tobacco heart." It has a bad effect on the 
minority of healthy adults who use it in moderation. Its worst effects usually subside 
when the habit is given up. It is probable that it has enabled some men to endure 
hunger, privations, cold, and hardships better than they could have done without it. It 
has not been shown that it enhances the physical or mental powers of those not habit- 
uated to its use. " Moderate smokers can do more work than excessive smokers." (B. W. 
Richardson.) Robust adults working out of doors are less impressed by its bad effects 
than persons of sedentary habits. 
(b) Precautions.-It is best not to smoke. If habit compels a person to smoke, then use 
a long-stemmed pipe having a soft porous bowl; procure a new pipe at frequent inter- 
vals ; avoid a well-colored pipe; smoke out of doors or in a well-ventilated room; and 
wash the mouth thoroughly after each indulgence. If cigars must be used, then employ 
a long holder made of porous materials. 
341. What evil effects from tobacco? CHAPTER XV. 
THE SENSE-ORGANS. 
342. Touch.-The tip of the tongue, the lips, and the 
tips of the fingers are the main sensitive parts. To pre- 
serve delicacy of touch, the fingers should be exposed to 
wear the least possible. They should never be put in hot 
water. For cleansing use warm, soft water, fine soap 
(62, "), ammonia-water, and a brush. Nails are best 
cleansed with an ivory toothpick, and trimmed with a 
file. 
343. The Tongue (Fig. 24, C, 6) contains the nerve- 
endings concerned with taste. A temperature of 72° F. 
(22° C.) is most favorable to taste. Taste is not well de- 
veloped in too hot or too cold dishes. It is injured and 
perverted by the use of tobacco, condiments, and stimu- 
lants, and by too numerous food-admixtures. It is a pro- 
tective. It often gives early warning of deleterious foods 
(200). 
344. The Upper Nasal Passages (Fig. 24, A) con- 
tain the nerve-endings concerned with smell. The sense 
of smell is a protective. It is the most available test for 
air-impurity (116). Its acuteness may be cultivated (tea- 
tasters), or may be blunted (saloon-loafers). The sharp- 
ness of the sense is blunted by the use of snuff, smelling- 
342. Mention the more sensitive parts. Speak of care of the 
hands ; of the nails. 343. What of the tongue? What favors taste? 
What injures it? Duty of taste? 344. Speak of the organ of smell ; 
of its functions. Mention injurious agents. 
148 THE SENSE-ORGANS 
149 
salts, powerful perfumes, and tobacco. The sense-organ is 
injured by breathing an air laden with smoke, sewage-gas, 
gases from decaying goods and foul clothes, and by the 
gases arising from diseased lungs, larynx, pharynx, and 
mouth (116). 
345. When air, clothing, or the body is offensive to this 
sense-organ, then ventilate (153) and use cleansing agents, 
-hot water, soap, disinfectants, and heat (267, C). Do 
not mask the filth-odors with strong perfumes, as is the 
custom in Arabia and the far East-and in the United 
States. 
Fig. 26. 
Fig. 26. A View of all the Parts of the Ear.-1, The meatus. 2, The membrana 
tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The vestibule. 8, 9, 10, The semicircular 
canals. 11, 12, The channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve meatus. 14, The 
opening from the middle ear to the throat (Eustachian tube). 
346. The Ear.-The nerves concerned with hearing are 
345. What should be done? 346. Speak of the location of the 
organs of hearing; of sound-waves; of distinct hearing. 150 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
deeply seated within the hardest portion of the temporal 
bone (Fig. 1). Waves of sound reach the internal ear 
(Fig. 26, 7) most readily by way of the meatus (external 
canal (Fig. 26, *). The range of distinct hearing of the 
ordinary human voice is limited to a distance of twenty- 
three to twenty-seven feet (seven to nine metres) from the 
speaker. 
347. Hearing is impaired by colds and inflammations 
following the same. After washing the hair, dry it rap- 
idly. During the cold season do not cut the hair too 
close. Avoid exposing the neck or the side of the head 
to draughts of cool or cold air. Do not use metallic ear- 
scoops or knives, because of the danger of injury to the 
membrana (Fig. 26, 2). 
348. Colds and Catarrhal Diseases of the throat 
(Fig. 18, ') often extend from the pharynx to the middle 
ear (Fig. 26, 316) by the way of the Eustachian tube (Fig. 
26, u). The immoderate use of tobacco excites throat- 
troubles, which in turn extend to the middle ear, giving 
rise to more or less deafness. Avoid the use of tobacco. 
Cure commencing catarrhs as soon as possible. 
349. Ear-Wax.-Keep the external canal clean. In 
health the wax of the meatus (Fig. 26, *) dries, scales, and 
falls out. If the wax becomes hardened, do not scoop it 
out. At night run in a few drops of glycerin and water, 
retaining them with a pledget of cotton. In the morning 
wash out the canal, or direct a stream of tepid water against 
one side of the canal. Take time, and use much water. 
350. The ears of children ought not to be boxed. The 
347. How is hearing impaired? Hence? Mention precautions. 
348. What is the influence of colds ? Of tobacco ? 349. What is the 
management of ear-wax ? 350. Speak of ear-boxing ; of cotton 
pledgets; of disease. THE SENSE-ORGANS. 
151 
sudden compression of air in the meatus may rupture the 
membrana (Fig. 26,2). The wearing of cotton in the canal 
is improper. The cotton interferes with hearing, and it 
lowers the natural power of resistance against cold. In 
all ear-troubles consult a good surgeon. Avoid all adver- 
tised nostrums. 
351. Foreign Bodies in the Canal or Meatus.- 
Remove vegetable bodies as soon as possible. Run a stream 
of water in at one side of the object ; or fill the ear with 
warm oil, especially in case of insect intruders. Thus the 
bodies are floated out. If these agents fail, make a loop 
of clean, twisted wire, introduce it into the canal along one 
side of the passage, turn the handle half round, noose the 
body, and jerk it out. 
(a) Defective Hearing is growing more prevalent in the United States. It produces 
in children an appearance of stupidity. They cannot hear sounds distinctly, and, as a 
result, cannot imitate sounds accurately. Defects in the teeth of the young are a great 
cause of deafness. (Sexton.) It has been estimated that not more than 5 per cent, of the 
people of the United States have perfect ears. (Bell.) From 20 to 25 per cent, of school- 
children hear imperfectly. (Gelle.) Deaf-mutes should not intermarry (287). The hear- 
ing of school-children and railroad-men ought to be tested at regular intervals. 
352. In the Retina of the eyeball are located the 
nerve-endings concerned with The rays of light 
from an object enter the dark chamber through the cornea 
(Fig. 27, A, h), are bent out of their course by the lens (Fig. 
27, Z), and form in a normal eye a small, distinct picture 
on the retina (Fig. 27, i). 
353. Kinds of Eyes.-There are three forms of eyes,- 
" normal" (emmetropic), " long-eye" (myopic), and " flat- 
eye" (hypermetropic). In the first, pictures of near and 
distant objects appear distinct on the retina; in the second, 
351. How remove foreign bodies ? Insects ? 352. Speak of the 
retina. How is a picture formed ? 353. What kinds of eyes ? How 
do they differ ? What causes " long-sight" ? 152 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
pictures of very near objects only are distinct; and in the 
third, pictures of near and of far objects are indistinct. 
Fig. 27. 
Fig. 27. Horizontal Section of Right Eyf. (from Helmholtz).-W, Aqueous humor. 
L, Lens. G, Vitreous humor, f, f, Conjunctiva, h, h, Cornea, y, p, Iris, t, t, Ciliary 
muscle, k, k, Hyaloid membrane, c, Ciliary processes, e, e, Suspensory ligament. 
m, n, Sclerotica, g, g, Choroidea. i, Retina, s, Fovea centralis, d, Optic nerve. 
The " long-sight" (presbyopia) of the old is, in the main, 
due to flattening of the lens. 
354. Near-Sight.-A near-sighted person cannot see 
the fixed stars distinctly. He can see near objects very 
distinctly. In most cases the axis of the eyeball is too 
long (antero-posterior). The coats (Fig. 27) of a " long- 
354. Speak of near-sight; of its main cause. What may occur ? THE SENSE-ORGANS. 
153 
eye" have been weak. The great cause of the lengthening 
of the ball is a too early and too prolonged eye-strain upon 
small objects by young and feeble children. If the length- 
ening is not arrested, the near-sight will tend to increase. 
355. Management.-Every near-sighted child, youth, 
or adult should be provided with glasses which will make 
seeing easy and clear within six to ten feet. For near work, 
the glasses should enable the person to see distinctly ten to 
twelve inches from the eyes. The glasses are used to enable 
the myope to keep the work away from the eyes, not to see 
more distinctly. Each eye should be fitted. Use only the 
best glasses. Spectacles are better for the eyes than eye- 
glasses. Myopes should not bend over their work or hold 
their heads near hot lights. 
(a) Myopia.-The report of Dr. Risley (1881) shows that in Philadelphia, in the pri- 
mary schools, there is 4.27 per cent, of myopia, that the percentage steadily increases as 
the pupils pass to higher grades in the public schools, and that in the highest grade there 
is 19.33 per cent, of myopia. Drs. Loring and Agnew found that in New York City there 
was 3.5 per cent, in the youngest classes and 26.78 per cent, in the highest. Dr. Derby 
(1883) reports, as the results of the examination of four consecutive classes at Amherst 
(Massachusetts) College, that 34 per cent, out of 254 were myopic at entrance and 47 per 
cent, at graduation. In 32 cases the myopia remained stationary, and in 58 cases it 
increased. 
356. Flat-Eyes.-In the " flat-eye" the axis of the 
eyeball (antero-posterior) is too short. Its apparatus is 
unable to make a clear, sharp picture on the retina. The 
owner of such eyes lives in a visual mist or fog and strain, 
and rolls the eye inward in his efforts to see. This gives 
rise to an " internal squint." Such eyes soon become tired. 
They are weak and imperfect eyes. They readily become 
diseased eyes, and frequently myopic. They are common 
among weak school-children. Glasses sometimes afford 
355. What shall be done ? What do glasses do ? Speak of specta- 
cles ; of eye-work. 356. What defect in " flat-eye"? What results? 
What may be done ? 154 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
benefit, at other times fail. A skilled oculist can alone 
select proper glasses for such eyes. Out-of-door pursuits, 
with suitable glasses, afford the best aid. 
357. Weak Eyes (asthenopic) may be correct in struc- 
ture, but their muscles are weak and their nerves of sight 
soon weary. If well used, they are capable of considerable 
service. They require frequent and long rests. Children 
after whooping-cough, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc., suffer 
from weakness of the eye-muscles. Weak spectacles are 
then to be recommended. Paper with high gloss is un- 
favorable for them. They are most benefited through an 
improvement in the body-health. 
358. Prevention of Eye-Disease.-Secure a pure 
and a clear air. Tobacco-smoke, fire- or lamp-smoke, dusts, 
and emanations from steaming dirty clothing are injurious 
to young eyes. The eyes, the spectacles, the window-panes, 
and the lamp-chimneys should be kept clean. The wash- 
ing of the eyes with clear, soft water is beneficial. Hot 
water should be used only under a surgeon's direction. 
Avoid eye-washes containing lead. A dilute solution of 
borax (ten grains to the ounce of water) is a safe household 
wash. 
359. The causes of infantile sore eyes and blindness are 
carelessness and ignorance, rather than injuries or disease. 
Feeble children should not be urged to study over fine 
letters or pictures (354). Weak children should not be 
sent to school until they have been brought into a state 
of fair health by out-of-door pursuits. The probability of 
harm resulting from school life diminishes with every 
357. What are weak eyes ? How to be used? When are spectacles 
needed? Precautions? 358. Speak of air. Cleanliness. Washes. 
359. Mention causes of eye-troubles. What therefore is essential ? THE SENSE-ORGANS. 
155 
added year. Weak children ought never to read or study 
by lamp-light. 
360. Precautions.-The eyes of all children, but es- 
pecially of school-children, should be examined at regular 
intervals. Having never enjoyed better vision, children 
are not conscious of their optical defects. All defects of 
vision should be promptly corrected. The " long-eyed" 
and the " flat-eyed" should constantly wear their appro- 
priate glasses. Children should use well-printed, broad- 
margined, large-typed books. The small-typed, narrow- 
margined, abominably-printed editions of standard authors 
are dangerous aids to knowledge. Tinted paper and letters 
are preferable to white paper and black letters. 
361. Light.-Solar light is healthy (152). It is a ne- 
cessity to the eye. Solar light is the best light. Too much, 
too dazzling, or too little light is hurtful. Solar light 
entering through low windows and then being reflected up 
from polished floors is injurious. The eyebrows and lashes 
can protect the eye from too strong light from above, but 
not from below. Unsteady light, as in a jolting car, light 
with shadows, and light directly entering the eyes are dan- 
gerous lights. 
362. Large windows, and large, clear, uniform panes of 
glass, are desirable in all work- or study-rooms (150). 
Evening twilight affords a dangerous light. The darkness 
steadily increases, and the eyes are being more and more 
strained in order to utilize the little light. Let the solar 
light come upon the work from above, behind, and the left 
side. All work demanding close eye-attention should be 
360. Speak of eye-examinations. Optical defects. Books. 361. 
What of solar lights ? Mention improper lights. 362. What is de- 
sirable? Speak of twilight. Entrance of light. Eye-work. 156 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
done under solar light. Reading demands greater eye- 
effort than copying, and copying than common letter- 
writing. 
363. Artificial Lights should be white, uniform, and 
steady. The argand-burner student-lamp and the argand- 
burner table gas-lamp afford good artificial light. A white 
porcelain shade with a green outer surface is to be com- 
mended. As a rule, the light ought to be placed to the 
left front of the worker, the flame being slightly above the 
level of the eyes. The central chandelier of the dining- 
or sitting-room is too distant a light to study by. If the 
eyes become dry, place a moist sponge near the lamp. Rest 
the eyes at frequent intervals. As far as possible, avoid 
evening study (297). 
(a) The electric light is inferior to solar light. All artificial lights except the electric light 
contaminate the air. At the " twelve-candle standard," coal-gas vitiates 348, paraffine oil 
484, composite candles about G50, and tallow candles 933 cubic feet of air per hour, but 
the electric light none. The amount of heat produced in the same time by the same 
lights is represented by the numbers 279, 362, 383, 505, and 14. The eyesight of the men 
in the British General Post-Office has been greatly improved since the electric lights 
were introduced. (Crompton.) 
364. Color-Blindness is an inability of certain persons 
to distinguish certain colors. The most common form is 
the inability to distinguish reds and greens from each other. 
Commonly the color-blind are able to distinguish them in 
ordinary weather by the intensity of the lights; but in hazy 
or foggy weather this test often fails them. No color-blind 
person should be permitted to act as a locomotive-driver, 
trainman, signal-man, or deck-officer (a). 
(a) Color-blindness is a congenital, incurable malady. In 1880,1950 railway employes 
363. What qualities in good light ? Speak of the shade. Position 
of the lamp. Chandelier. Eye-rest. 364. What is color-blindness ? 
How do the color-blind distinguish ? Therefore? THE SENSE-ORGANS. 
157 
were examined in Connecticut; 196 had defective vision, and 68 defective color-sense. 
Four per cent, of males have defective color-sense; only 10 out of 13,893 females examined 
were found so affected. (Jeffries.) 
These letters may be read easily at ten feet by a normal 
eye: 
V Z B D F H KOS 
365. Removal of Dust.-(1) Hold the lids open while 
the eye is rolled up and down or from side to side; (2) 
hold up the upper lid and blow the nose; or (3) seize the 
lashes of the upper lid and draw it away from the ball, 
look down, and push the lower lid beneath the upper; or 
(4) evert the lid by placing a small pencil on the upper lid, 
suddenly turning up the lid and removing the dust with a 
fine cloth on a pencil-point. After the removal of the dust 
or body, put in a drop of castor oil to soothe the roughened 
part. 
365, How may dust be removed ? After removal, what? CHAPTER XVI. 
THE MUSCLES. 
366. The Skeletal Muscles (19) are under the con- 
trol of the will (282). When they shorten their fibres, the 
parts to which they are attached are moved. In most 
movements several muscles act together. The proper 
movements of a part, as of the hand, depend more upon 
the proper order and proper amount of the shortening than 
upon the force of the contractions (18). The skilled artisan 
uses his muscle-power to good advantage; the new appren- 
tice cannot. 
367. Energy of Muscle.-The source of muscular 
energy is the chemical changes occurring in the chemical 
substances in the muscle. A part of the immediate muscle- 
food is stored up in the muscle. This food is mainly 
carbo-hydrate (174). 
368. Action of Muscle.-During muscle-work there 
is an increased consumption of oxygen by the muscle, 
and consequently an increased production of lactic acid 
(C3H6O3) and carbonic acid (H2CO3). The excretion of 
nitrogen wastes (265) is but slightly increased. During 
the contractions heat and muscular force are manifested. 
369. Systematic Exercise.-The term " exercise" is 
usually restricted to the actions of the skeletal muscles 
366. Speak of skeletal muscles; their action ; their proper move- 
ments. 367. Upon what does their continued energy depend ? Where 
stored? What? 368. What occurs during action? 369. Define 
systematic exercise. What is its object? 
158 THE MUSCLES. 
159 
Fig. 28. 160 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
(Fig. 28). It should include the indirect training of the 
eye, ear, conscious centres, motor centres (283), and the 
internal organs, induced through regulated movements. 
The object of systematic exercise is to develop and main- 
tain a sound, well-drilled, well-balanced organism. 
370. Influence of Muscle-Exercises.-The lung- 
action is hurried. The blood-flow through the lung is 
augmented. The quantity of air inspired and of carbonic 
acid expired is increased. The capacity of the air-tubes is 
enlarged. 
371. The action of the heart increases rapidly in force 
and frequency. The flow of the blood through all parts is 
fuller and freer. The blood-flow in the working muscle 
becomes larger than in the resting muscle. The heart- 
muscle improves in strength and in capacity for work. 
372. The skin becomes reddened, from the fulness of 
the vessels. The sweat glands (54) work more efficiently. 
The increased evaporation from skin- and air-passages 
controls the rising temperature (55). The blood-flow in 
the kidneys is augmented. The waste salines and nitrogen 
wastes (265) of the system are more rapidly and better 
removed. 
373. The appetite is much improved. The demand for 
meats and fats, rather than for starches and sugars, is no- 
ticed (179). Under exercise the digestion improves and 
the utilization of the foods in the alimentary canal be- 
comes more perfect. 
374. The action of the brain is indirectly affected. 
370. Mention the influence on the lungs; on respiration. 371. 
What about the heart? the blood-flow? the heart-muscle? 372. 
How is the skin affected? the kidneys? What results? 373. What 
effect on appetite ? on digestion ? 374. What influence on brain ? 
on mind ? THE MUSCLES. 
161 
Under exercise the brain receives better blood. The re- 
ception of better blood renders nerve-cell action better and 
quicker. The improved brain-nutrition gives the mind, 
an increased ability to overcome mental obstacles. 
375. The skeletal muscles become heavier. Up to a cer- 
tain point, peculiar to each person, their strength increases 
with the work demanded of them. The capacity for en- 
durance is increased. The muscles acquire ability to con- 
tract with greater rapidity and precision. Under continued 
exercise the smooth muscle-fibres of the blood-tubes and 
alimentary canal appear to gain power. 
376. A Sound Body, rather than a strong body, is 
needed. All cannot be sound, or sound and strong, but 
all may be improved. Judicious exercise tends to estab- 
lish an accord between heart, lung, muscle, stomach, kid- 
ney, and skin. This accord best permits the owner of the 
organism to perform the duties of life efficiently, regularly, 
and without marked physical discomfort. 
377. The Value of a systematic muscle and nervous- 
system drill is well shown in emergencies, as fire, run- 
aways, shipwreck, etc. The trained person is conscious of 
power. His trained muscles, trained nerves, and quickly- 
apprehending brain enable him to act promptly, judi- 
ciously, and efficiently. 
378. Conditions for Exercise.-It is preferable that 
exercise should be taken in the early morning hours, and 
out of doors or in an open shed. Flannel is the best ma- 
terial for an exercise suit. The suit should be of strong 
material, loose-fitting, yet not baggy. No part of the suit 
375. What results to skeletal muscles? to smooth muscles? 376. 
What is needed? What follows from exercise? What, then, is pos- 
sible? 3.77. Speak of the value of body-training. 378. Of exercise. 
When? Where? What of the suit? 162 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
should in the least impede the movements of the neck, 
chest, or abdomen. 
379. The shoes (33) should afford plenty of room all 
around the foot. The sole should be thinnest and nar- 
rowest at the " waist," where elasticity is wanted; broad 
and thick at the " tread," where protection is most re- 
quired ; long, so as not to limit the foot-extension, for the 
foot is slightly lengthened with every step, and especially 
in running or jumping; and broad, in order not to crowd 
the toes. The heels must be low and broad. 
380. The heart demands graduated exercise. It should 
be methodically worked into vigorous action,-slow walk, 
quick walk, trot, run, quick walk, slow walk, or other 
graduated exercise. The heart's action must be closely 
watched. Frequency of beats (110-140), inequality of 
beats, painful or irregular action, point to the need of 
rest. Later, a more moderate order of exercises must be 
followed. 
381. Lung-action.-Under improper exercises the heart 
beats so rapidly that the lungs are unable to take the in- 
rushing blood-stream sufficiently fast. Breathlessness and 
a sensation of oppression in the chest follow. By me- 
thodical, graduated exercise alone can the lungs be drilled 
into accord with the heart-action. As soon as the respira- 
tions become labored, rest must be taken, or mischief will 
result. " A boat-race has become a matter of wind rather 
than muscle." [Maclaren.) 
382. The skin during exercise may be thinly clad. In 
379. What is essential about shoes ? 380. What of mode of exer- 
cising? What must be guarded against? 381. How does breathless- 
ness arise? What, then, is essential ? Speak of races. 382. Care of 
the skin during exercise ? in the intervals ? after ? THE MUSCLES. 
163 
the intervals between exertions or immediately after exer- 
cise it should be well covered. The slightest sensation of 
chilliness of the surface must be prevented. The skin 
must be kept clean. After exercise, a sponging with tepid 
water, a vigorous rubbing, the putting on of warm, wool- 
len garments, and an adequate rest should follow. 
383. Drink.-Water is the best fluid to train on. Dur- 
ing the intervals of exercise the mouth may be washed out 
and small amounts of cool water swallowed. After exer- 
cise, and when cooled off, it may be freely used. 
384. Food should not be taken immediately before or 
immediately after exercise (259). The demands of the 
system for plain food will be a safe guide as to amounts. 
As the desire for carbo-hydrates lessens, the amounts of 
fats and proteids must be increased (179). 
385. Rest is essential at frequent intervals. It enables 
the blood to remove the wastes from nerve and muscle, and 
it permits these parts to lay up new stores of oxygen (368). 
The rest must be taken in a pure atmosphere (114). It 
must be of such a length as will enable the muscles to 
regain their tone and later to work with ease and vigor. 
Untrained muscles demand more frequent and longer rests 
than trained ones. , 
(a) Training is accomplished by a course of graduated exercises, by restricting the 
carbo-hydrates and increasing the fats and proteids of the diet, by the judicious use of 
water, and by abstaining from dissipation and the use of excitants and sedatives. No 
one should enter upon a course of training until he has been examined and passed by a 
competent gymnast-physician. The great dangers in athletics lie in over-training, or 
in shirking training yet attempting to do the expected work. When these extremes 
are avoided, the human system is benefited. As a whole, training and athletic compe- 
titions probably ward off more diseases than they produce. 
(b) Methodical Ex ercises.-Calisthenics and dancing cultivate grace and ease of motion. 
383. What of the use of water? 384. When shall food be taken? 
How much? What kinds? 385. Why is rest needed? Where to 
be taken ? How much ? 164 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE. 
Gymnastics develop strength, power, and endurance. Athletic sports increase courage, 
perseverance, and the power to adapt one's self to emergencies. Military drill induces 
an erect, precise carriage, and cultivates patient endurance and unquestioning obe- 
dience. 
386. The Kinds of Exercise should be selected in 
accordance with the physical wants of the individual. The 
young farmer should bend his knees and hips more, and 
his back less; the lady, the student, and the clerk need to 
call all their muscles into action; the shoemaker, the mus- 
cles of the thorax, abdomen, etc. The object to be kept 
in view in arranging exercises is to employ those move- 
ments which will drill the non-developed parts into an 
accord with the parts more efficient in their action (26). 
387. All Exercises should interest the mind as well 
as strengthen the muscles. Daily work in the garden, 
provided the person does all kinds of work, is a good form 
of exercise. No kind of exercise is so well calculated to 
develop all parts of the body in the female and to promote 
good health as house-work. 
388. Walking, in order to be of benefit, must be active 
enough to excite perspiration in cool weather. Running is 
a most excellent exercise. In quick walking, running, 
and rowing with the slide-seat, most of the work is done 
by the muscles of the limbs: hence these exercises should 
be supplemented by Indian club, dumb-bell, rope and 
ladder exercises, and active vocalization (142). 
389. Sports are to be highly commended. Base-ball, 
foot-ball, cricket, swimming, skating, gunning, and the 
riding of a restive horse are most excellent. Lawn-tennis 
386. What forms of exercise ought to be taken? Examples? 
What is the object? 387. What is essential? Speak of garden-work ; 
of house-work. 388. What about walking? Running? Supple- 
mental exercises ? 389. What is the value of sports ? Of lawn-tennis ? THE MUSCLES. 
165 
is one of the best of modern games, especially for girls. 
It calls the eye and the mental and motor nerve cells into 
interested action, and make demands on most of the mus- 
cles of the body. 
390. The Amount of Exercise should be adjusted 
to the age and the power of the person. All movements 
must be kept within his strength and capacity. Exercise 
beyond the point of fatigue is injurious. Prolonged, 
severe efforts ought not to be required until the system is 
drilled and hardened by work, exercise, and maturity. 
391. During childhood boys and girls should take part 
in the same sports (31) and be trained in similar duties, as 
garden-work and house-work. During the period from 
fourteen to twenty years of age such an amount of out-of- 
door exercise, in addition to daily duties, should be taken 
by all as will induce sound, healthy sleep from 9 p.m. until 
5.30 or 6.30 a.m. 
392. All adults, especially business men and women not 
engaged in house-work, will be benefited by a daily walk, 
and most should have in addition abdominal, thoracic, arm, 
and vocal drills. As a rule, a five-mile walk, in addition 
to daily duties, will be about sufficient for a business-man 
or clerk. Continued physical training, as exemplified in 
the lives of Bryant (1794-1878) and Ericsson (1803-18-), 
alone secures prolonged happiness, efficient, enduring mental 
labor, and length of life. 
390. How much exercise is needed? What works injury? 
Hence? 391. Speak of children's exercises; of exercises for youth. 
392. What kinds are needed by adults ? What may be secured? PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
Ab-do'men. [L. abdo, to hide.] That part 
of the body which lies between the 
thorax and the bottom of the pelvis. 
Ab-nor'mal. [L. ab, from, and norma, 
a rule.] Contrary to the general order. 
Ab-sorp'tion. [L. ab, and sorbere, to suck 
up.] 7 he process of taking into a vessel 
or into the system. 
A-e-ra'tion. [Gr. aer, air.] The act of 
supplying with air. 
Air'-Bricks. Bricks having numerous 
artificial passages. 
Air'-Space. Cubic space allowed men or 
animals in habitations. 
Al-bu'men. [L. albus, white.] The chief 
constituent of the white of egg. 
Al'co-hol-ism. A series of diseased ac- 
tivities produced by the use of alcoholics. 
Al'de-hydes. (Contracted from alcohol 
dehydrogenatus.) Alcohol deprived of 
part of its hydrogen. 
Al-i-ment'a-ry Ca-nal'. [L. alere, to nour- 
ish.] The musculo-membranous tube 
into which nutriment is taken to be 
digested, and by which it is conveyed 
through the body, the useless parts to 
be evacuated. 
Al'ka-loid. [From alkali and Gr. eidos, 
form.] A nitrogenous chemical base 
containing nitrogen; the active princi- 
ple of certain plants, as nicotia, morphia. 
Am-bly-o'pi-a. [Gr. amblus, obscure, and 
ops, the eye.] Impairment of vision; 
weakness of vision. 
Am-mo'ni-as. Compounds containing am- 
monia (NH3) or derivatives of ammonia. 
A-nae'mi-a. [Gr. an, without, and haima, 
blood.] Bloodlessness. 
An-aes-the'si-a. [Gr. an, against, and 
aisthanomai, I feel.] The absence of 
sensation, especially of touch. 
A-nat'o-my. [Gr. ana, through, and tome, 
a cutting.] The description of the 
structure of animals. (The word anatomy 
properly signifies dissection.) 
An'te-ro-Pos-te'ri-or. From front to 
rear. 
A-or'ta. [Gr. aorte; from aer, the air, and 
tereo, to keep.] The great artery that 
arises from the left ventricle of the 
heart. 
Ap'o-plex-y. [Gr. apoplettein, to strike 
with violence.] A sudden escape of fluid 
into tlie substance of an organ, as of the 
brain. 
Ap-pa-ra'tus. [L. apparo, to prepare.] 
An assemblage of organs designed to 
produce certain results. 
A're-as. The spaces or portions of an 
organ or system. 
Ar'gand. The burner invented by Ar- 
gand, of Geneva, in 1782. 
Ar'te-ry. [Gr. aer, air, and tereo, to keep • 
because the ancients thought that the 
arteries contained only air.] A tube 
through which blood flows. 
Ar-tic-u-la'tion. [L. artns, a joint.] The 
union of bones with each other. Also, 
the forming of syllables by the organs 
of speech. 
As-phyx'i-a, as-fiks'e-a. [Gr. a, with- 
out, and sphyxia, pulse.] Originally, 
want of pulse; now used for suspended 
respiration, or apparent death. 
As-sim-i-la'tion. The process of making 
food-stuffs like the components of the 
organs and tissues. 
As-the-no'pi-a. [Gr. asthenis, weak, and 
ops, the eye.] Weakness of sight. 
A-stig'ma-tism. [Gr. a, without, and 
stigma, a point.] Irregular refraction 
of the eye, producing a blurred image. 
167 168 
PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
At'a-vism. [L. atavus, an old grandsire.] 
A case where a family peculiarity skips 
a generation. 
Ath-e-ro'ma. [Gr. athera, pulp.] A fatty 
change occurring in cells; a degenera- 
tion. 
At'ro-phied, at'ro-feed. [Gr. a, without, 
and trophe, nourishment.] Diminution 
in bulk of a part. 
Bane'ful. Having poisonous qualities. 
Bath. The immersion of the whole or a 
part of the body in some medium, as 
water, mud, or sand. 
Bi'o-plasm. [Gr. bios, life, and plasso, to 
form.] The physical basis of life. 
Blis'ter. A collection of serous fluid 
under the epidermis. 
Bron'chi-a, bron'ke-ah, pl. Bron'chi-ae. 
[L], A division of the trachea that 
passes to the lungs. 
Bron-chi'tis, bron-kee'tis. [L.] An in- 
flammation of the bronchial mucous 
membrane. 
Bun'ion, bun'yun. A painful enlarge- 
ment near the ball of the great toe. 
Buoy'an-cy, bwoy'an-se. The quality of 
floating, as on water. 
C. The chemical symbol of carbon. 
Ca. The chemical symbol of calcium, the 
base of calx or lime. 
Cal-is-then'ics. [Gr. kalos, beautiful, and 
sthenos, strength.] Exercises pursued for 
the development of ease and beauty of 
motion. 
Cap'il-la-ry. [L. cap Ulus, a hair.] Re- 
sembling a hair; a small tube. 
Car'bo-Hy'drates. Compounds made up 
of C, H, 0, like starch, sugar, etc. 
Car'bon Com'pounds. Chemical com- 
pounds whose base is carbon. 
Car-bon'ic A gas produced by per- 
fect combustion of carbon in oxygen. 
Car-bon'ic Ox'ide. A colorless gas formed 
under imperfect combustion. 
Car'di-ac. [Gr. kardia, the heart.] Re- 
lating to the heart or to the upper 
entrance of the stomach. 
Ca'ries. Decay of a bone. 
Car'ti-lage. A pearly-white, glistening, 
elastic substance found adherent to 
bones. 
Ca'se-in. [L. caseus, cheese.] The prin- 
cipal nitrogenous portion of milk. The 
constituent of cheese. 
Cat'a-lep-sy. [Gr. katalambano, to seize.] 
A total suspension of sensibility and 
voluntary motion; a trance. 
Cat'a-ract. [Gr. katarrasso, to fall down.] 
Obstructed vision due to disease of the 
crystalline lens or its capsules. 
Ca-tarrh', ka-tar'. [Gr. katarreo, to flow 
down.] A profuse secretion from a 
mucous surface, as in a cold. 
Ca-thar'tic. [Gr. kathartikos.] A purging 
or cleansing medicine. 
Cell. The anatomical unit. 
Cel'lu-lar. [L. cellula, a little cell.] Com- 
posed of cells. 
Cel'lu-lose. The chief component of 
plants. 
Cen-tim'e-tre. The hundredth part of a 
metre, or 0.394 of an English inch. 
Cer-e-bel'lum, ser-e-belTum, pl. Cer-e- 
bel'la. [L.] The hinder and lower part 
of the brain, or the little brain. 
Cer'e-bral, ser'e-bral. [L. cerebrum, the 
brain.] Belonging to the brain. 
Cer'e-brum. [L.] The front and large 
part of the brain. 
Chem'is-try, kem'is-tre. The science of 
the statics and dynamics of atoms. 
Chest. [Sax.] The thorax; the portion 
of the body from the neck to the dia- 
phragm. 
Chlo'ral, klo'ral. [Chlor, from chlorine, 
and al, from alcohol ] A substance pre 
pared by the action of chlorine on alco- 
hol. A hypnotic. 
Chlo'ral-ism. The condition resulting 
from using chloral. 
Cho-re'a, ko-ree'ah. [Gr.] St. Vitus's 
dance. 
Chy-lo-poi-et'ic, ki-lo-poi-et'ik. [Gr. chulos, 
juice, and poieo, to make.] Connected 
with the formation of chyle. 
Ci-ca'trix. [L.j The scar of a healed 
wound. 
Cil'i-a. [L., plural of cilium.'] Eye- 
lashes. 
Cir-cu-la'tion. [L. circtdalio, a going 
round.] The name given to the motion 
of the blood through the different vessels 
of the body. PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
169 
Cir-rho'sis, sir-ro'sis. A hardening and 
contraction of an organ. 
Cl. The chemical symbol of chlorine. 
Clot. [Dut. kluit, a mass or lump.] Soft 
or fluid matter becoming thicker or more 
solid, as a concretion of stagnant blood. 
Co-ag-u-la'tion. [L. coagulo, to curdle.] 
The process of producing a thickened 
state in albuminoid fluids. 
Col'ic. Acute pain in the abdomen, ag- 
gravated at intervals. 
Col'or-Blind'ness. Daltonism. 
Co'ma. [Gr.] A most profound sleep. 
Com-bus'tion. [L. combustio, a burning.] 
Burning. The chemical union of oxygen 
with other elements or compounds. 
Con'di-ments. [L. condire, conditum, to 
season.] Substances taken with food to 
improve flavor or to promote digestion. 
Con-junc-ti'va. [L. com, together, and 
jungo, to join.] The membrane that 
covers the front of the eyeball. 
Con-sti-tu'tion. [L. com, together, and 
statue, to set.] The particular frame or 
temperament of the human body. 
Con-sump'tion. [L. consume, to waste 
away.] A wasting away of the tissues. 
Usually applied to phthisis of the lungs. 
Con-ta'gion. [L. com, with, and tango or 
Iago, to touch.] The communication of 
disease by contact or the inhalation of 
the effluvia of a sick person. 
Con-trac'tile. [L. con, together, and traho, 
tractum, to draw.] Possessing contrac- 
tility. 
Con-va-les'cent. [D. convalesce, to grow 
strong.] Recovering health after disease. 
Con'vex. Swelling on the exterior surface 
into a round or spherical form. 
Con-vul'sion. [L. conrello, to pull to- 
gether.] Violent agitation of the limbs 
or body. 
Corn. [L. cornu, a horn.] A horny hard- 
ness of the epidermis. 
Cor'ne-a. [L. cornu, a horn.] The trans- 
parent membrane in the fore part of 
the eye. 
Cor'pus-cle. [Dim. of L. corpus, a body.] A 
small body, as a blood-disk. 
Cos-met'ics. [Gr. cosnieo, to adorn.] Medi- 
cines supposed to beautify and improve 
the complexion. 
Cramp. Spasmodic contraction of the 
muscles independently of the will. 
Cu'mu-la-tive. A term applied to the vio- 
lent action from drugs which supervenes 
after the taking of several doses with 
little or no effect. 
Cu-ta'ne-ous. [L. cutis, the skin.] Belong- 
ing to the skin. 
Cyst'-worm. [Gr. kustis, a bladder.] The. 
tailed bladder-worm :-one stage in the 
life of the tape-worm, or Tienia. 
De-coc'tion. [L. de, down, and coquo, coc- 
tum, to boil.] A preparation made by 
boiling substances in water to extract 
their virtues. 
De-cor'ti-cate. [L. de, separation, and cor- 
tex, bark.] To remove the exterior coats. 
De-gen-er-a'tion. [L. degenero, to be worse 
than one's ancestors.] A diseased change 
in the structure. 
De-lir'i-um. [L. deliro, to rave.] Wander- 
ing of the mind, as seen in fevers. 
De-lir'i-um Tre'mens. Trembling de- 
lirium ; " the horrors." 
Den'tal. [L. dens, a tooth.] Pertaining to 
the teeth. 
De-o'dor-iz-er. An agent which removes 
odors. 
Der'mis. [L., from derma, the skin.] The 
skin. 
Di'a-phragm, di'a-fram. [Gr.diaphragma, 
a partition.] The midriff,-a muscle sepa- 
rating the chest from the abdomen. 
Di-ar-rhoe'a, di-ar-re'ah. [Gr. diarrheo, 
to flow through.] A morbidly frequent 
evacuation of the intestines. 
Dif-fu'sion. [L. difimdo, diffusum, to 
spread.] The gradual mixing of gases or 
of fluids when in contact or separated 
by porous walls or divisions. 
Di -ges'tion, di-.jes'tshun. [L. dis, apart, 
and gero, to bear.] The process of pre- 
paring foods in the alimentary canal for 
absorption into the blood-current. 
Diph-the'ri-a, dif the'ree-ah. [Gr. diph- 
thera, a membrane.] A systemic disease 
with local membrane-formation in the 
throat or larynx. 
Dip-so-ma'ni-a. [Gr. dipta, thirst, and 
mania, madness.] An insatiable desire 
for intoxicants. 170 
PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
Dis-charge'. An increase of material from 
a part that secretes a fluid. 
Dis-in-fect'ant. [L. dis, parting from, 
and inficere, to infect.] An agent which 
removes or suppresses infecting agents. 
Drop'sy. An abnormal collection of fluid 
in the areolar tissue. 
Duct. [L. duco, ductum, to lead.] A canal 
or tube. 
Dys'en-ter-y, dis'sen-ter-e. [Gr. dws, bad, 
and enteria, intestines.] A discharge of 
blood and mucus from the intestines, 
attended with tenesmus. 
Dys-pep'si-a, dis-pep'se-ah. [Gr. dus, bad, 
and pepto, to digest.] Indigestion, or dis- 
ordered state of the digestive organs. 
E-con'o-my. [Gr. oikos, a house, and nemo, 
to arrange.] The total of the arrange- 
ments necessary to the animal system. 
Ef-fiu'vi-a. [L., from effluo, to flow out.] 
Exhalations or vapors coming from the 
body, and from decaying animal or vege- 
table substances. 
Ef-fu'sion. [L. effusio, to pour out.] The 
appearance of blood or other fluid in a 
space. 
E-ges'ta, e-jes'tah. [L.,from egero, to cast 
out.] The natural excretions, like urine, 
excrement, etc. 
E-lim-i-na'tion. [L. e, out of, and timen, 
a threshold.] Expulsion or discharge 
from an organ, a tissue, or the system. 
Em-a-na'tion. [L. emano, to issue from.] 
The miasm from putrid materials. 
Em-me-trop'ic. [Gr. em, in, metron, a 
measure, and optomai, I see.] Pertain- 
ing to emmetropia, or the condition of 
the normal eye. 
E-mo'tion. [L. e, out of, and moreo, to 
move.] Passion or delirium indepen- 
dent of the will. 
Em-phy-se'ma, em-fi-se'mah. [Gr. em- 
phusao, to inflate.] Collection of air in 
the areolar tissue under- the skin, or in 
the interlobular lung-tissue. 
E-mul'sion. Oil divided and held in a 
state of fine drops in water containing 
an alkali or a mucilage. 
En-am'el. The smooth, hard substance 
which covers the crown or visible part 
of a tooth. 
End'-Or'gan. The outer terminal mecha- 
nism of a sensory nerve. 
En-tail'. [Fr. entailler, to cut deep.] A 
legacy transmitted from generation to 
generation. 
Ep-i-dem'ic. [Gr. epi, upon, and demos, 
the people.] An extensively prevalent 
disease. 
Ep-i-der'mis. [Gr. epi, upon, and derma, 
the skin.] The superficial layer of the 
skin; the cuticle. 
Ep-i-glot'tis. [Gr. epi, upon, and glotta, 
the tongue.] A cartilage of the larynx, 
which covers the glottis during deglu- 
tition. 
Ep'i-lep-sy. [Gr. epilambano, to seize upon.] 
Sudden attacks of convulsions, with deep 
sleep and mouth-frothing. 
Ep-i-the'li-um. [Gr. epi, upon, and thele, 
a nipple.] The upper cell layers of a 
mucous or serous membrane. 
Eu-sta'chi-an (yu-sta'ke-an) Tube. A 
channel from the fauces to the middle 
ear, named from Eustachius, who first 
described it. 
Ex-cre'ta. [L. exeerno, to separate.] 
Matter excreted and ejected; alvine dis- 
charges. 
Ex-cre'tion. [L. exeerno, excretum, to sift 
out.] The process of separation of effete 
materials. 
Ex-pec-to-ra'tion. [L. ex, out, and pectus, 
pectoris, the breast.] The act of eject- 
ing from the air-passages mucus and 
other matters from the lungs by cough- 
ing, etc. 
Ex-pi-ra'tion. [L. expiro, expiratmn, to 
breathe forth.] The act of expelling air 
from the air-passages. 
Ex-ten'sion. [L. ex, out, and tendo, to 
stretch.] The act of restoring a limb 
to its natural position after it has been 
flexed or bent. 
Ex-tract'ive. Ill-defined matters met in 
animal and vegetable analysis. 
Fats. Vegetable and animal oils. They 
are mostly hydro-carbons. 
Fau'ces. [L.] The cavity at the back of 
the mouth. 
Fe. [L. ferrum, iron.] The chemical sym- 
bol of iron. PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
171 
Fer-men-ta'tion. [L. fermento, to leaven.] 
The spontaneous changes which watery 
solutions or organic matter undergo 
under atmospheric influences. 
Fe'ver. A condition of the system char- 
acterized by continued elevation of the 
body-temperature, with disordered func- 
tions. 
Fi'bre. [L. fibra.] An organic filament 
or thread which enters into the compo- 
sition of animal and vegetable textures. 
Fi-brot'ic. Resembling fibrous tissue. 
Fil-tra'tion. Straining. 
Fis'sure. [L. findo, fisswrn, to cleave.] A 
deep groove or depression. 
Fl. The chemical symbol of fluorine. 
Flat'u-lence. [L. flatus, wind.] A collec- 
tion of gas in the stomach and intestines. 
Flex'ion. [L. flectio.] The act of bending. 
Flue. A tube or passage for air, cold or 
hetfted. 
Frac'ture. [L. frango, fractum, to break.] 
The solution of continuity of a bone; a 
break in a bone. 
Func'tion. [L. fungor, to perform.] The 
appropriate action of an organ or system 
of organs. 
Gan'gli-on, pl. Gan'gli-a. [Gr., a knot.] 
A collection of gray cells in the course 
of a nerve. 
Gas'tric. [Gr. gaster, the stomach.] Be- 
longing to the stomach. 
Gen-er-a'tion. An age ; people living at 
the same time. 
Germ. The rudiment of a new being. A 
living particle which has been detached 
from already existing living matter. 
Gland. [L. glans, an acorn.] An organ 
whose function it is to secrete or sepa- 
rate some particular fluid from the blood. 
Glot'tis. [Gr.] The narrow opening at 
the upper part of the larynx. 
Glu'ten. [L.] Glue. The residue after 
wheat flour has been deprived of starch. 
Glyf'e-rin, glis'e-rin. [Gr. glulcos, sweet.] 
A yellow, transparent, svrup-like fluid, 
the chemical base of animal fats. 
Gout. Inflammation characterized by pain 
in the joints of the feet ami hands. 
Gums. The red, firm, solid tissues which 
adhere to the necks of the teeth. 
Gym-na'si-a, jim-na'zhe-ah. [Gr. gumna- 
sion.] An establishment for bodily exer- 
cise. 
H. The Chemical symbol of the element 
hydrogen. 
Haem-o-glo'bin. [Gr. haima, blood, and 
globus, a globe.] The iron compound of 
the red corpuscles. 
Hal-lu-ci-na'tion. [L. hallucinor, halluci- 
natus, to mistake.] Mental error; delu- 
sion. 
Ha-shish', hah-sheesh'. A preparation of 
Cannabis Indica, or Indian hemp. 
Hem'or-rhage. [Gr. haima, blood, and 
regnumi, to burst.] A discharge of blood 
from an artery. 
He-pat'ic. [Gr. hepar, hepalos, the liver.] 
Belonging to the liver. 
Herb'age. Grasses. 
He-red'i-ta-ry. [L. hseres, an heir.] Trans- 
mitted from parent to offspring. 
He-red'i-ty. The predisposition or ten- 
dency to definite physiological actions 
derived from one's ancestors. 
Her'ni-a. [Gr. hernos, a branch.] A rup- 
ture or breach. A tumor arising from 
the protrusion of a portion of the intes- 
tines through an opening in the abdom- 
inal walls. 
His-tol'o-gy. [Gr. histos, tissue, and logos, 
a discourse.] A description of the minute 
structures of the body. 
Hy'dro-Car'bons. Compounds of hydro- 
gen and carbon. They include many of 
the group of fats and oils. 
Hy'gi-ane. [Gr. hugieinon, health.] The 
part of medicine which treats of the pres- 
ervation of health. 
Hy-per-me-tro'pi-a. [Gr. huper, above, 
melron, a measure, and opsis, vision.] 
" Flat-eye." 
Hyp-not'ics. hip-not'iks. [Gr. hupnos, 
sleep.] Drugs having the power to 
induce sleep. 
Hy-po-der'mic. [Gr. hypo, under, and 
derma, the skin.] A term used to denote 
the application of medicines under the 
skin. 
Hys-te'ri-a. A very complex morbid con- 
dition. It is probably a disorder of the 
nervous system. 172 
PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
Im'pulse. That which passes over the 
nerve-fibres from nerve-cell group to 
nerve-cell group. 
In-flam-ma'tion. [L. injlammo, inflamma- 
tum, to set on fire.] A disordered func- 
tion, characterized by pain, heat, redness, 
and swelling. 
In-fu'sion. [L. in, upon, and/undo,/usum, 
to pour.] A solution of the soluble prin- 
ciples of a substance obtained by the ac- 
tion of warm or cold water. 
In-sal-i-va'tion. The process of mixing 
saliva with food during mastication. 
In-ser'tion. [L. insero, insertion, to im- 
plant.] The attachment of a muscle to 
a bone or other part. 
In-so-la'tion. [L. in, in, and sol, the sun.] 
Disease induced by exposure to the sun's 
rays. 
In-spi-ra'tion. [L. in, in, and spiro, spira- 
tum, to breathe.] The act of drawing in 
the breath. 
In-tes'tines. [L. intus, within.] The canal 
that extends from the stomach through 
the body, situated in the abdominal 
cavity. 
In-tox'i-cant. . [L. in, in, and toricum, 
poison.] A substance which will induce 
drunkenness or inebriety. 
In-vol'un-ta-ry. Independent of the will 
or power of choice. 
I'ris. [L., the rainbow.] The colored 
circle that surrounds the pupil of the 
eye. 
Ir-ri-ta'tion. [L. irrito, irritatum, to pro- 
voke.] Excessive action of an organ or 
tissue, causing a morbid increase of the 
circulation or disturbance of sensibility. 
K. [L. kalium.] The chemical symbol of 
the element potassium. 
Kil'o-litre, keel'o-lee-ter. One cubic 
metre,-about 35.326 cubic feet. 
Kum'mer-bund. The waist-cloth worn 
by the East Indians. 
Lac'tin. [L. lac, milk.] Lactose, or milk- 
sugar. 
Lar'ynx. [Gr. larwnr.] The upper part of 
the windpipe. The organ of the voice. 
Le-gu'min. Cheese or vegetable casein 
found in peas, beans, etc. 
Le'thal. [L. lethum, death.] Mortal. 
Lig'a-ment. [L. ligo, to bind.] A strong, 
compact substance serving to bind one 
bone to another. 
Lig'a-ture. A thread of silk, flax, sil- 
ver, etc., suitable for tying arteries and 
veins. 
Lig'nin. The woody fibre of vegetable 
substances. 
Lobe. A round or projecting part of an 
organ. 
Lo'tion, lo'shun. [L. lotio, a wash.] A 
medicated fluid used as an external 
application. 
Lu'bri-cant. [L. lubricant.] That which 
makes smooth or slippery. 
Lu'na-cy. | L. luna, the moon.] Insanity 
in which there are lucid or normal in- 
tervals. 
Lymph. [L. lympha, water.] A colorless 
fluid in animal bodies, contained in 
vessels called lymphatics. 
Lym-phat'ic, lim-fat'ik. A vessel of ani- 
mal bodies that contains or conveys 
lymph. 
Maize. Indian corn (Zea. mays). 
Mal-aise', mal-ez'. [Fr. mal, ill, and aise, 
ease.] Discomfort; uneasiness. 
Ma-la'ri-a. [Ital. mala, bad, and aria, 
air.] A term for the disease-inducing 
agents arising from decaying organic 
materials. 
Ma'ni-a. [Gr. mainomai, to rage.] Mad. 
ness; delirium not occasioned by fever- 
action. 
Mas-ti-ca'tion. [L. mastico, to chew.] 
The act of chewing. 
Me-a'tus. [L. meo, to go.] A passage or 
channel. 
Mech'an-ism. mek'an-ism. An assem- 
blage of cells or parts to perform a 
special function or action. 
Me-dul'la Ob-Ion-ga'ta. The commence- 
ment of the spinal cord. 
Mem-bra'na. A membrane; a thin, white, 
flexible, skin-like expansion, formed by 
fibres interwoven like net-work. 
Mg. The chemical symbol of magnesium, 
the base of magnesia. 
Mi'asm. [Gr. miasma, defilement.] An 
emanation injurious to health. PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
173 
Mi'cro-scope. [Gr. mikros, small, and 
skopeo, to look at.] An optical instru- 
ment employed in the study of minute 
objects. 
Mor'phi-a, mor'fe-ah. [From Morpheus, 
the god of sleep.] The most important 
narcotic principle of opium. 
Mo'tor, pl. Mo-to'res. [L.] A mover:-a 
term applied to certain nerves. 
Mu' cus, mu'kus. A viscid fluid secreted 
by the mucous membrane, which it 
serves to moisten and defend; animal 
mucilage. 
My-op'ic. [Gr. muo, to contract, and ops, 
the eye.] (Near-sighted persons partially 
close the eyes when looking at distant 
objects.) Relating to near-sight. 
N. The chemical symbol of nitrogen. 
Na. [L. natrium.] The chemical symbol 
of sodium, the base of soda. 
Nar-cot'ic. [Gr. narke, stupor.] A medi- 
cine which induces stupor or sleep. 
Na'sal. Relating to the nose. 
Nau'se-a. [Gr. naus, a ship.] Any sick- 
ness at the stomach, similar to com- 
mencing sea-sickness. 
Nerve. The fibres of the animal body 
which transmit impulses. 
Nerve'-Cen-tre. A group of nerve-cells. 
It can originate, receive, and modify 
impulses. 
Ner'vous-ness. Unusual impressibility of 
the brain-centres; "brain-fag." 
Neu-ral'gi-a, nu-ral'jee-ah. [Gr. neuron, 
a nerve, and algos, pain.] Pain in the 
course of a nerve. 
Nic'o-tin, or Nic'o-tine, nik'o-teen. The 
colorless, poisonous, and stupefying 
odorous oil extracted from tobacco. 
Nor'mal. [L. norma, a rule.] Of the reg- 
ular type or form. 
Nu-tri'tion. [L. nutria, nutritum, to nour- 
ish.] Assimilation; the act of nourish- 
ing. 
O. The chemical symbol of the element 
oxygen. 
(E-soph'a-gus. [Gr. oio, to carry, and 
phago, to eat.] The name of the passage 
through which the food passes from the 
mouth to the stomach. 
01-fac'to-ry. [L. oleo, to smell, and facio, 
to make.] Pertaining to smelling. 
O'pi-um. [Gr. opos, juice.] The concrete 
juice of the Papaver somniferum. It is a 
stimulant narcotic. 
Or-gan'ic. Having an organized struc- 
ture ; relating to organs. 
Or'i-gin. The source of a muscle's at- 
tachment. 
Os'mose, Os-mo'sis. [Gr. osmos, impulse.] 
The mixing of fluids through a moist 
membrane or a porous substance. 
O'vum. [L., an egg.] The germ before 
impregnation. It is the product of the 
ovary. 
Ox-i-da'tion. The chemical union of 
oxygen with other substances; burning. 
P. The chemical symbol of the element 
phosphorus. 
Pal'lor. [From palleo, to be pale.] Pale- 
ness ; loss of color. 
Pan'cre-as. [Gr. pan, all, and kreas, flesh.] 
The name of one of the organs of diges- 
tion. 
Pa-pil'la, pl. Pa-pil'lse. [L.] Small coni- 
cal prominences. 
Pa-ral'y-sis. Abolition of function, 
whether of intellect, sensation, or 
motion. 
Par'a-site. An animal which lives upon 
another animal. 
Pa-rot'id. [Gr. para, near, and otos, geni- 
tive of ous, the ear.] The name of the 
largest salivary gland. 
Path-o-log'i-cal. [Gr. pathos, disease, and 
logos, a discourse.] Belonging to dis- 
ease, or to disease-action. 
Pel'vis. [L.] The basin formed by the 
larger bones at the low'er part of the 
abdomen. 
Pep'sin. [Gr. pepto, to cook.] An ingre- 
dient of the gastric juice which acts as a 
ferment in the digestion of the food. 
Pep'tone. A proteid soluble in water and 
not coagulable by heat. 
Per-i-car'di-um. [Gr. peri, around, and 
kardia, the heart.] A membrane that 
invests the heart. 
Per-i-os'te-um. [Gr. peri, around, and 
osteon. a bone.] The white membrane 
investing the bone. 174 
PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
Per-i-stal'tic. [Gr. peri, around, and 
stello, I contract ] A movement like the 
crawling of a worm. 
Per-i-to-ne'um. [Gr. peri, around, and 
teineiii, to stretch.] A thin, serous mem- 
brane investing the internal surface of 
the abdomen. 
Per-spi-ra'tion. [L. per, through, and 
spiro, to breathe.] Excretion by the skin. 
Per-ver'sion. A departure or change from 
the normal action. 
Phar'ynx, far'inks. [Gr. pharunx.] The 
upper part of the oesophagus. 
Phthi'sis, thi'sis. [Gr.phthio, to consume.] 
Pulmonary consumption. 
Phys-i-ol'o-gy, fiz-e-ol'o-je. [Gr. phusis, 
nature, and logos, a discourse.] The 
science of the functions of the organs of 
animals and plants. 
Plas'ma. [Gr. plasso, to form.] The fluid 
in which the blood-corpuscles float; the 
serum. 
Pled'get. A piece of cotton or lint rolled 
in an oval form. 
Pleth'o-ra. [Gr. pletho, to be full.] Ex- 
cessive fulness of the vessels or of the 
body. 
Pleu'ra, plu'rah.pi. Pleu'rse. [Gr. pleura, 
the side.] A thin membrane that covers 
the inside of the thorax and also forms 
the exterior coat of the lungs. 
Pneu-mo-ni'tis. [Gr. pnetimon, the lungs.] 
Pneumonia; inflammation of the lungs. 
Pons. [L.] A bridge. Pons Varolii, a part 
of the brain formed by the union of the 
crura cerebri and crura cerelielli. 
Por'tal. [L. porta, a gate.] Relating to 
the vessels entering the fissure of the 
liver. 
Pres-by-op'ic. [Gr. presbus, an old man, 
and ips, the eye.] Relating to the de- 
fective vision (long-sight) of old per- 
sons. 
Pro'te-ids. [From Proteus, who could 
assume different shapes.] A name given 
to a class of chemical compounds made 
exclusively by plants, and composed of 
C, H, 0, N, S, with Ca and P. 
Pro'to-plasm. [Gr. protos, first, and plasso, 
to form.) Bioplasm. 
Pul'mo-na-ry. [L. puhno, the lungs.] 
Belonging or relating to the lungs. 
Pulse. [L. pello, pulsum, to beat, to strike.] 
The beating of the arteries following the 
contraction of the heart-muscle. 
Pu'pil. A little aperture in the centre of 
the iris, through which the rays of light 
pass to the retina. 
Py-lo'rus. [Gr. puloros, a gate-keeper.] 
The lower orifice of the stomach. 
Quar'an-tine, kwor'an-teen. [L. quadra- 
ginta, forty (days).] The restraint of per- 
sons or goods in order to prevent the 
entrance of disease into a country. 
Ra'bi-es. [L. rabio, to be mad.] A dis- 
ease caused by the absorption through a 
scratch or wound of the saliva of a mad 
animal, inducing hydrophobia, or dread 
of water. 
Ra-di-a'tion. The direct passing away 
of heat into the air from a warm body. 
Re-ac'tion. The vigorous acting again 
of the vital powers after they have been 
depressed. 
Rec'tum. The third and last portion of 
the intestines. 
Re'flex Ac'tion. A term applied to cer- 
tain movements executed independently 
of the will. 
Re'nal. [L. ren, the kidney.] Belonging 
to the kidney. 
Re-pro-duc'tion. [L. re, again, and pro- 
duce, production, to bring forth.] The 
production by organized bodies of others 
similar to themselves. 
Res-pi-ra'tion. [L. re, again, and spiro, 
to breathe.] The act of breathing. 
Ret'i-na. [L. rete, a net.] The essen- 
tial organ of sight. One of the coats 
of the eye, formed by the expansion of 
the optic nerve. 
Rick'ets. A disease of children charac- 
terized by a large head, crooked spine 
and limbs, tumid abdomen, and general 
debility. 
S. The chemical symbol of the element 
sulphur. 
Sa-li'va. [L.] The fluid secreted by the 
salivary glands, which moistens the food 
and the mouth. 
Scle-ro'sis. [Gr. Meros, hard.] The hard- 
ening of tissues under disease. PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
175 
Scrofu-la. [L. scrofa, a breeding sow.] 
A disease of the lymphatic glands; king's 
evil. 
Scur'vy, skur've. Scorbutus:-a disease 
of the general system, having prominent 
skin-symptoms. 
Se-cre'tion. The act of producing from 
the blood substances different from the 
blood itself; also the matter secreted, as 
mucus, bile, saliva, etc. 
Sed'en-ta-ry. [L. sedere, to sit.] Accus- 
tomed to sit much and long. 
Selt'zer. Water impregnated with car- 
bonic acid gas; also, water containing 
carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline 
earths; soda-water. 
Sen-sa'tion. The consciousness of the 
reception of an impulse. 
Se'rous. Thin; watery; pertaining to 
serum. 
Se'rum. [L.] The thin, transparent part 
of the blood. 
Sew'er-Gas. The complex gases devel- 
oped by decomposition of organic mate- 
rials in sewers and cesspools. 
Si. The chemical symbol of the element 
silicon, the chief ingredient of silex and 
sand. 
Skel'e-tal Mus'cles. Muscles attached 
directly or indirectly to the Ixjny frame- 
work. 
Skel'e-ton. [Gr. skello, to dry.] The aggre- 
gate of the hard parts of the body; the 
bones. 
Smell'ing Salts. Carbonate of ammonia. 
Soaps. Compounds made by the action 
of soda or potassa with fatty acids. 
Soft Water. A water which readily 
yields a lather with soap ; a water free 
from lime-salts. 
Soil-pipe. The pipe into which the water- 
closet basin empties. 
So'lar. [L. sol, the sun.] Pertaining to, 
or derived from, the sun. 
So-lu'tion. [L. solco, solutum, to dissolve, 
to loosen.] Any substance dissolved in a 
liquid. 
Spasm. A sudden contraction of muscular 
fibres independently of the will. 
Sphinc'ter, sfink'ter. |Gr. sphingo, to 
restrict.] A muscle that contracts or 
shuts an orifice. 
Spi'nal Cord. A prolongation of the 
brain. 
Spir'its. A name given tp liquid products 
of distillation. The term is confined to 
the stronger beverages, such as rum, gin, 
whiskey, brandy, etc. 
Spu'tum, pl. Spu'ta. [L. spuo, sputum, to 
spit.] The matter which is coughed up 
from the air-passages. 
Ste-a-to'sis. [Gr. stearos, fat.] The change 
of soft tissues or cells to fatty masses. 
Ster'num. The breast-bone. 
Stim'u-lant. A drug or agent which 
excites the organic action of the animal 
system. 
Stra'tum. [L. sterna, to spread.] A bed 
or layer of anything. 
Stri'ae, stri'ee. [L., a groove, a crease.] 
Marks seen on certain fibres. 
Sub-cu-ta'ne-ous. [L. sub, under, and cutis, 
the skin.] Situated under the skin. 
Sub-or'di-nate. [L. sub, under, and ordi- 
nare, to set in order.] Placed in a lower 
order or position. 
Sub'soil. The soil lying under the black 
or cultivated earth. 
Sup-pos'i-to-ry. A medicated, butter- 
like mass placed in the rectum to be 
dissolved. 
Sym-met'ri-cal. The resemblance exist- 
ing in many organs or parts situated on 
each side of the median line. 
Sy-no'vi-a. [Gr. sun, with, and oom, an 
egg.] The fluid secreted into the cavi- 
ties of joints for the purpose of lubri- 
cating them. 
Sys'tem. An assemblage of organs com- 
posed of similar tissues and intended for 
the same functions. 
Tem'per-a-ture. A definite or certain 
degree of sensible heat, as measured by 
a thermometer. 
Tem'po-ral. [L. tempus, time.] Pertain- 
ing to the region of the temple. 
Ten'don. [Gr. teino, to stretch.] A hard, 
insensible cord, or bundle of fibres, by 
which a muscle is attached to a base. 
Test. In chemistry, anything by which 
the nature of a substance is disti nguished. 
Tho-ra'cic Duct. The principal tube of 
the lymphatic system. 176 
PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY. 
Tho'rax. [Gr.] That part of the skele- 
ton that composes the bones of the chest; 
the cavity of fhe chest. 
Tis'sue. The texture or organization of 
parts. 
Ton'sil. [L.] A glandular body in the 
throat or fauces. 
Tour'ni-quet, tur'ni-ket. A band to check 
bleeding. 
Tox'ic. [L.] Poison. 
Tra'che-a, tra'ke-ah. [Gr. trachus, rough.] 
The windpipe. 
Train'ing. The preparing of an animal 
for sustained athletic exercises. 
Trans-mis'sion. The passing of mental, 
moral, and physical peculiarities from 
father to son, son to grandson, etc. 
Tran'som. A swing-window over a door. 
Trans-pa'rent. Admitting the passage of 
rays of light, so that objects may be seen 
on the other side. 
Tri-chi'nae (tre-ki'ne) Spi-ra'lis. A species 
of minute worms which work their way 
through human muscles, causing pain, 
irritation, and exhaustion. They most 
commonly occur in hogs' flesh. 
Tu'ber-cle. [L. tuber, a bunch.] A pim- 
ple, swelling, or tumor on animal bodies. 
A morbid product occurring in certain 
lung-diseases. 
Tym'pa-num, tim'pa-num. [Gr. tumpa- 
non, a drum.] The middle ear. 
Ty'phoid (ti'foid) Fe'ver. [Gr. tuphos, 
stupor, and eidos, form.] A fever resem- 
bling typhus, but having intestinal 
lesions. 
U1 -cer-a'tion. The formation of an ulcer; 
an ulcer or sore; a solution of con- 
tinuity. 
Um-bi-li'cus. [L.] The navel. 
U-rae'mi-a. [Urea,a constituent of urine, 
and Gr. haima, blood.] The presence of 
an excess of waste nitrogen compounds 
in the blood. 
U-re'ter. [Gr. ourein, to conduct water.] 
The excretory duct of the kidneys. 
U-re'thra. [Gr. ourein, to pass urine.] The 
membranous tube leading from the uri- 
nary bladder. 
U'ric. [Gr. ouron, urine.] An acid con- 
tained in urine and in gouty concretions. 
Vac'cine (vak'sln) Vi'rus. [L. caeca. a 
cow, and virus, poison.] The material 
derived from heifers for the purpose of 
vaccination,-the great preventive of 
smallpox. 
Vac'u-um. [L. vacuus, void, empty.] A 
space void of matter. 
Valve. Any membrane, or doubling of 
any membrane, which prevents fluids 
from flowing back into the vessels and 
canals of the animal body. 
Va'so-Mo'tor. [L. vas, a vessel, and 
motor, a mover.] That which causes 
movements or changes in the calibre of 
vessels. 
Veins. Vessels that convey blood to the 
heart. 
Ven-ti-la'tion. [From L. ventilo, ventila- 
tum, to blow, or to fan.] The operation 
of causing the air to pass through any 
place for the purpose of expelling im- 
pure air. 
Ven'tri-cle. [L. venter, the stomach.] A 
small cavity of the animal body. 
Ver'te-bra, pl. Ver'te-brse. [L. verto, to 
turn.] A joint of the spinal column. 
Vi-bra'tion. [L. vibro, vibratum, to shake.] 
The very rapid movements which 
stretched cords or elastic bodies make 
when oscillating. 
Vi'rus. [L., poison.] Foul matter of an 
ulcer; poison. 
Vis'ce-ral, vis'se-ral. [L. viscus, visceris, 
a bowel.] Belonging to the viscera, or 
bowels. 
Vis'u-al. [L. video, visum, to see.] Per- 
taining to, or used in, sight. 
Vi'tai. [L. vita, life.] Pertaining to life. 
Vo'cal. [L. vox, the voice.] Uttered by 
the voice; belonging to the vocal appa- 
ratus. 
Vo-li'tion. [L. volo, volition, to desire.] The 
act of willing or of choosing. 
Vol'un-ta-ry. [L. voluntas, the will.] 
Acting or moving in obedience to the 
will. 
Will. The faculty or power of choosing 
to do or not to do, to act or not to act. 
Wrist'-Drop. Loss of power in the mus- 
cles of the forearm in lead-poisoning. INDEX. 
Bones, softness of, 26. 
Bowel, 105,117. 
Bowels, 106,107. 
Brain, 121,124. 
nutrition of, 126,127. 
Braizing, 87. 
Bread, 90, 112. 
Breathing, 55, 65. 
impediments to, 56. 
Broiling, 86. 
Bromides, 143. 
Bronchi®, 54. 
Building-materials, 71. 
Burns, 38. 
Canned foods, 93. 
Capacity of lungs, 67. 
Capillaries, their effects on the blood, 44. 
Carbo-hydrates in food, 81, 159. 
Cartilage, 16. 
Catarrhal disease, 150. 
Cellars, 79. 
Cerebral excitants, 132. 
sedatives, 133. 
Cesspool gas, 59. 
Chemical elements in tissues, 15. 
Chest-compression, 18. 
Children's food, 26, 83. 
Chloral, 143. 
Cholera, 101, 102. 
Cleanliness, 34, 35. 
Clothing, 38, 39, 51, 52. 
Coffee, 132. 
Colds, 150. 
Color-blindness, 156. 
Compression of chest, etc., 18. 
of wounded arteries, 45. 
Condiments, 82. 
Constipation, 84, 118. 
Consumption, 63, 64. 
Contagious diseases, 60, 61. 
Abdomen, compression of, 23, 24. 
Absorption by the skin, 33. 
of food, 108. 
Adhesive strips, 47. 
Air, expired, 55. 
impure, 56, 58. 
normal, 56. 
of rooms, 58, 72-75. 
Air-purifiers, 62. 
Air-space, 73. 
Alcohol, 134-137,140,141. 
amylic, 134. 
Alcoholism, heredity of, 139. 
mortality from, 139. 
Alimentary canal, 105, 
Amylic alcohol, 134. 
Anaesthesia, 142. 
Antidotes, 113. 
Appetite, normal, 111. 
Arteries, bleeding from, 44. 
Atavism, 124. 
Atheroma, 50. 
Attitudes, correct, 19-21. 
Bandy-legs, 18. 
Bath, Simpson's, 118. 
Bathing, 35, 36. 
Biliousness, 109. 
Bite of mad dog, 49. 
of serpent, 50. 
Bladder, 115, 117. 
Bleeding, 44. 
internal, 44. 
Blood, 43, 126. 
corpuscles of, 44. 
supply of, to brain, 126. 
Blood-tubes, 43. 
Body, mechanism of, 80. 
Boiling, 87. 
Bones, fractured, 28-30. 
hygiene of, 18. 
m 
177 178 
INDEX 
Cooking, 86. 
Corpuscles of blood, 44. 
Cosmetics, 38. 
Cream, 85. 
Cremation, 116. 
Curvatures of spinal column, 20. 
Customs of savages, 25, 
Damp clothing, 40. 
Deformities, artificial, 24, 25. 
prevented, 23. 
Deformity defined, 23. 
. of spinal column, 20. 
Dermis, 32. 
Deterioration, causes of, 12. 
Diaphragm, 42, 54. 
Diarrhoea, 51, 52, 60. 
Diet, 82, 112. 
Digestion, 93, 94. 
Digestive apparatus, 105. 
Disease, causes of, 12. 
defined, 12. 
prevention of, 103. 
Dislocation of joints, 28. 
Drill, mental, 127. 
Drinking. See Alcohol. 
at meals, 109. 
Drowning, prevention, 37. 
treatment, 37. 
Dust, 75. 
Dwellings, 69. 
Dyspepsia, 108. 113. 
Ear, 148,150. 
foreign bodies in, 151. 
Ear-wax, 150. 
Eating, 125, 126. 
Eggs as food, 87. 
Elements, chemical, in the body, 15. 
Epidemics, 101-102. 
Epidermis, 32. 
Epiglottis, 54. 
Excitants, 132. 
Excreta, 116. 
Excretions, 114. 
Exercise for health, 21, 22. 
of chest-muscles, 67. 
of voice, 67. 
Expiration, 54. 
Eye, 152. 
Eye-disease, 154, 155. 
Eyes. flat. 152. 
weak, 154. 
Fainting, 51. 
Fashion, 25. 
Fats as food, 81. 
Fecal diseases, 102. 
substances, 116. 
Fever, malarial, 62, 63. 
thermic, 33. 
typhoid, 60, 102. 
yellow, 102. 
Fires, 76. 
Fish as food, 90. 
Flat-eyes, 153. 
Flesh, 17. 
Flesh-taints, 88. 
Food, 80, 82, 93, 94, 107-109, 111. 
Foundations of houses, 71. 
Fractures of bones, 28-30. 
Framework of body, 15. 
Fruits, 92. 
Frying, 87. 
Functions of parts, 23. 
Furnaces, 76. 
Gas of cesspools, 59. 
Gas-pipes, 78. 
Glands, 1' 5. 
Glossary, pronouncing, 166 
Grains as food, 91. 
Ground-air, 70. 
Haemorrhage. See Hemorrhage. 
Hairs, 32. 
Hashish, 133. 
Health defined, 11. 
aids to, 12. 
conditions for, 55. 
variations in, 12. 
Hearing, 150. 
Heart, 43. 
strain, 50. 
Heat in dwellings, 75. 
of body, 33. 
Heat-stroke. 33, 131. 
Hemorrhage, 44. 
Heredity, 124. 
Home, 69, 79. 
Hygiene defined, 11. 
of bones, 18. 
of lungs, 64. 
See Health and Disease. 
Impurities in air, 56, 57. 
in water, 96, 98, 99, 101. INDEX 
179 
Indigestion, 108. 
Infants' food, etc., 26, 83. 
Insanity, 130. 
Inspiration, 54. 
Intestine, 106, 107. 
Joint-disease, 26-28. 
Joints, 16. 
Kidney-disease, 117. 
Kidneys, 115. 
Larynx, 54, 66. 
Lead-poisoning, 103. 
Left-handedness, 21. 
Ligaments, 17. 
Light, artificial, 156. 
effect on eyes, 155. 
in dwellings, 72. 
Liver-disease, 118. 
Lung-disease, 63. 
Lungs, 54. 
Lymphatics, 32. 
Mad-dog bite, 49. 
Malaria, 62, 63. 
Malt liquor, 138. 
Marriages, 125. 
Marsh miasm, 62. 
Meats as food, 88. 
Merino underwear, 41. 
Miasm, 62. 
Milk, 80, 85. 
Mind, 124. 
Mouth, 105. 
Mucous membrane of lungs, 54. 
Muscles, 17, 18,159-165. 
action of, 159. 
energy of, 159. 
exercise of, 159-165. 
Nasal passages, 148. 
Near-sight, 152, 153. 
Nerves, 124. 
Nervous system, 121. 
Night-clothing, 40. 
Nose, nostrils, 53, 148. 
Odors, 148. 
Oil glands of skin, 32. 
Oils as food, 81. 
Ointments to be avoided, 48. 
Opium, 143. 
Organs of the body, 15. 
Overwork, 129. 
Parasites, 89. 
Perspiration, 32, 114. 
Plants in sleeping-rooms, 77. 
Plasma of blood, 44. 
Poison of serpents, 50. 
Poisoning, acute, 113. 
by wastes, 116. 
Posture, correct, 19. 
effect on brain, 127. 
Potato as food, 91. 
Prevention of disease, 103. 
Proteids, 81. 
Pulse as food, 72. 
Rectal disease, 118. 
Rectum, 117. 
Rest, 130. 
Rickets, 26. 
Roasting, 86. 
Salt meats, 88. 
Salts of food, 81, 82. 
Salves to be avoided, 48. 
Sanitation of dwellings, 69, 70. 
Scalds and burns, 38. 
School-work, 128. 
Sea-bathing, 36. 
Sebaceous glands, 32. 
Sedatives, 133, 143. 
Sense-organs, 148. 
Serpent, bite of, 50. 
Sewage, 119. 
Sewer-gas, 59, 60. 
Shoes, 41. 
Sight, 151. 
Silvester method for drowning, 37. 
Site of a home, 69. 
Skeletal muscles, 18, 159. 
Skeleton, 14, 16. 
Skin, 31-33. 
disease, 117. 
Sleep, 78, 130. 
Sleeping-rooms, 78. 
Smell, 148-149. 
Snake-bite, 50. 
Soap, 35. 
Soil-water, 96. 
Solids, injurious, in air, 57. 180 
INDEX 
Spinal cord, 121. 
Spine, deformed, 23, 24. 
weak, 25. 
Spirits, 138. 
Sprains, 26-28. 
Stomach, 107. 
Study, 128. 
Summer diarrhoeas, 51. 
Sunlight, 72, 74. 
Sunstroke, 33, 131. 
Sweat glands, 32, 33, 114. 
Tape-worm, 89. 
Tartar on teeth, 110. 
Taste, 109, 110. 
Tea, 133. 
Teeth, 109, 110 
Temperature, 33, 77. 
Tendons, 18. 
Test-types, 157. 
Thermic fever, 33. 
Thorax, 43. 
Tissues of body, 15. 
Tobacco, 144-147. 
Toothpicks, 110. 
Touch, 148. 
Tourniquet, 46. 
Trachea, 54. 
Trichina, 89. 
Typhoid fever, 60,102. 
Urine, 115. 
Vegetables as food, 92. 
Venomous snakes, 50. 
Venous bleeding, 44. 
Ventilation, 72-75. 
Vocal exercise, 67. 
Voice, 66. 
range of, 150. 
Waist-belt, 52. 
Walls of dwelling, 72. 
Warming of houses, 75, 77. 
Wastes, 114. 
Water, 81, 84, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101. 
in food, 81. 
Water-closets, 73. 
Water-proof clothing, 40. 
Water-supply, 95, 96. 
Wells, 96, 99. 
Wheat, 90. 
Wine, 138. 
Work, 127. 
normal, of brain, 129. 
Worms, intestinal, 89. 
Worry, 129. 
Wounds, dressing of, 47. 
punctured, 49. 
Yellow fever, 102.