BEGINNER’S 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
INCLUDING 
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION ON THE EFFECTS 
OF 
STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 
ON THE 
GROWING BODY. 
BY 
LATE PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, 
SAPPORO, JAPAN; CONSULTING PHYSICIAN IN THE IMPERIAL COLONIAL DEPART- 
MENT; AUTHOR OF “ INTERMEDIATE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE;” 
“COMPREHENSIVE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE,” ETC., ETC. 
JOHN C. CUTTER, B.S., M.D., 
ILL US TEA TED. 
PHILADELPHIA: 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, Copyright, 1887, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 
ilfsTLHLQTVPLRSANPPKiNTERsI PREFACE. 
Young pupils, in order to understand an object must re- 
ceive definite ideas about the same. These definite ideas are 
best communicated by allowing the pupil to see or handle the 
object, or an object similar in nature. In order that they 
may understand the working of an apparatus, or part, they 
must be informed how to observe the phenomena of the part, 
and how to draw conclusions or comparisons from simple 
experiments. 
.That the facts of anatomy may be easier and better im- 
pressed on the mind, directions for the dissection of a rat or 
dog, and for the dissection of special parts of other animals 
are given. For these dissections the only tools required will 
be a pocket-knife, a saw, a thin-bladed bread-knife, several 
hooks in handles (a barbless fish-hook tied to a pen-holder), 
and scissors. 
In order that the 'phenomena of the living body (physiology) 
may be better understood, directions are given where to ob- 
serve and what to look for on the human body, or other 
animal bodies; also directions for illustrative simple experi- 
ments. The apparatus required is meagre: a student’s micro- 
scope, bulb-syringe, fruit-jars, candle, etc. 
The health-hints are largely deduced from the facts of struc- 
ture and of the workings of the living body. The health- 
hints are mainly presented in the form of maxims, and the 
reason for the same is presented in the sentences following. 
Especial attention is directed to the prevention of diseases 6 
PREFACE. 
arising through the use of impure air, water, and food. Simple 
directions for the management of a few common emergent 
cases are given. 
The main facts concerning the injurious actions of narcotics 
and stimulants on (1) the structure, (2) the functions, and (3) 
the health of the parts, and of the whole of the growing 
person, are stated in direct, simple language. More facts 
could be adduced, but only those which a young pupil can 
readily appreciate have been presented. 
The language of the book is simple and direct. Technical 
and long words have been, as far as possible, avoided. The 
pronunciation of the technical words (in the text), and the 
syllabication of the long words, will aid the young pupil. The 
paragraphs are brief, and each one is confined to a single 
topic. Though searching questions are appended, yet the 
head-lines of the sections and of the paragraphs well adapt 
the book for the topical method of recitation. 
Warren, Mass., June, 1887. 
JOHN CLABENCE CUTTEB. 
TO THE TEACHER 
It is suggested that the teacher carefully read the notes; 
that as far as possible the dissections, demonstrations, and 
experiments there outlined be carried out in the presence 
of the class; and that the management of emergent cases be 
fully and repeatedly practised before the pupils. The use of 
painted-plaster or 'papier-mache models and of Cutter’s Out- 
line Anatomico-Zoological Charts is also to be commended. CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER PAGE 
I.—General Definitions and Demonstrations . 9 
II.—The Body and its Coverings 12 
III. The Muscles 18 
IV. —Hygiene of Bone and Muscles 22 
V.—The Skin 26 
VI.—Organs in the Skin 31 
VII.—Narcotics and Stimulants 36 
VIII.—The Blood 43 
IX.—The Circulatory Apparatus 46 
X.—Physiology of the Circulation 54 
XI.—Physiology and Hygiene of the Circulation 59 
XII.—The Breathing Apparatus 65 
XIII. Physiology of Breathing 70 
XIV. Hygiene of Breathing 75 
XV.—The Voice • • 81 
XVI.—Water and Other Foods 84 
XVII.—The Digestive Apparatus 91 
XVIII.—The Digestive Apparatus—Continued .... 96 
XIX.—Digestion 102 
XX.—Hygiene of the Digestive Apparatus .... 106 
XXI.—Anatomy of the Nervous System 110 
XXII.—Physiology of the Nervous System • .... 116 
XXIII.—Hygiene of the Nervous System 118 
XXIV.—Sight and Hearing 123 
XXV.—The Body and its Work 132 
Index 141 THE BEGINNER’S 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
CHAPTER I. 
GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND DEMONSTRATIONS. 
1. Anatomy (a-nat'o-mi) is a description of the 
organs, or parts, of a body (a). 
Examples.—The nails, the teeth, the heart, etc., 
are parts of the body. 
2. Physiology (fiz-e-ol'o-je) treats of the healthy 
operations which take place in the living body. 
Examples.—The blood-tubes convey the blood. 
The kid-neys cast out water and wastes. These are 
their functions, or duties. 
3. Hygiene (hi'je-en) treats of the conditions 
favorable to health. 
Examples.—Sun-light in the living-rooms, clean- 
liness, simple food, the avoidance of alcohol and 
tobacco, etc., favor health. 10 
THE BEGINNER’S 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for General Demonstrations.—Select 
a well-formed boy. Request him to remove most of bis outer garments, and then 
to stand before the class. Point out, designate the limits, and name the following: 
1. Paris of the Body: (a) head, neck, trunk; (6) arms (right and left) and limbs. 
2. Paris of the Head: scalp, face, ears. 
3. Parts of the Pace: (a) fore-head, temples, cheeks, cheek-bones, chin, mouth; 
(6) nose, bridge of nose, nostrils; (c) eyes, eye-brows, eye-lids, eye-lashes; (d) mouth, 
lips, mucous membrane, teeth, tongue. 
4. Parts of the Neck: nape, larynx (Adam’s apple), the pulsating carotid artery, 
the outer, blue veins. 
5. Parts of the Trunk: (a) thorax, abdomen, pelvis; (6) shoulders, spine, collar- 
bone, ribs, hips. 
6. Arms: (a) arm, fore-arm, wrist, hand, palm of hand, fingers; (6) joints: 
shoulder, elbow, wrist, finger; (c) the varieties of motion at each joint. 
7. Hand: (a) palm, back, fingers, nails; (6) fingers: index, middle, ring, little; 
(c) thumb. 
8. Limbs: (a) thigh, patella, leg (shin and calf), ankle, foot; (6) sole, instep, 
heel, ball, toes, arches (make an impress in soft clay or plaster of Paris of the bot- 
tom of the foot, in order to show the two arches); (c) the varieties of motion at each 
joint. 
9. Symmetry: Drop a plumb-line in front of the centre of the fore-head. Call 
attention to the right and left halves of the body; to the right and left parts, in suc- 
cession from above, downwards; to the right and left aperture of the head (mouth 
excepted). 
10. Require the members of the class to demonstrate the parts on the boy, 
naming the parts as they are indicated. 
1. What is anatomy? Mention parts of the body. 2. Of 
what does physiology treat? What are functions? 3. Define 
hygiene. What favors health ? 
QUESTIONS. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Fig. 2. 12 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER II. 
THE BODY AND ITS COVERINGS. 
TABLE OF THE BONES. 
f Frontal (forehead). 
2 Temporal (temples). 
2 Parietal (side). 
Occipital (posterior base). 
Sphenoid (base). 
. Ethmoid (base of nose). 
Skull (8) 
Head (22) . 
2 Superior Maxillae (upper jaw). 
2 Nasal (bridge of nose). 
2 Malar (cheek). 
2 Lachrymal (corner of orbit). 
2 Turbinated (within nostrils). 
2 Palate (posterior hard palate). 
Vomer (nasal partition). 
Inferior Maxilla (lower jaw). 
Face (14) 
Cervical Region (8) 
7 Cervical Vertebras (neck). 
. Hyoid Bone (base of tongue). 
r 14 True, 6 False, 4 Floating Bibs. 
12 Dorsal Vertebras (back), 
i Sternum. 
Thorax (37) 
Shoulder . 
Clavicle (collar). 
Scapula (Shoulder-blade). 
Upper Extremities (64) . 
Arm 
Humerus (arm). 
Kadius, Ulna (fore-arm). 
Hand 
8 Carpal (wrist). 
5 Metacarpal (hand). 
14 Phalanges (fingers). 
Lumbar Region (5) . . . 5 Lumbar Vertebrae (loins). ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
13 
Pelvis (4) . 
r 2 Innominata. 
Sacrum. 
L Coccyx. 
f Thigh . . Femur. 
Leg . . 
Patella (knee-pan). 
Tibia (large bone). 
Fibula (outer bone). 
Lower Extremities (60) 
Foot 
7 Tarsal (instep, heel). 
5 Metatarsal (arch). 
14 Phalanges (toes). 
THE BONES. 
4r. The Frame-Work of the human body con- 
sists of two hundred bones (Fig. 2) held together by 
liefa-ments. 
Fig. 3. Section of the femur (upper part).—1, 2, Hard 
outer shell. Inner cancellated structure. 
5. The Bones are hard, like stone; are strong, 
like oak; and are pinkish-white in color. They 
are made of animal (jelly) and mineral (earthy) 
matters (a). 
6. The Ligaments are stout like cords and are 14 
THE BEGINNER’S 
flexible like leather straps. They are made up of 
white fibres. (Fig. 4.) 
7. Uses of Bones.—They limit the height and 
breadth of the body. They form spaces, as for the 
eyes (Fig. 2), and cavities (skull-case) to shelter soft 
parts. 
8. Deformities.—The bones of children and 
youth are flexible. If easy but firm pressure is put 
upon them they will become deformed bones. Hence 
the corset and “ snug-fitting” shoes ought not to be 
worn by the young. The young baby should not 
try to walk too early, for “ bandy-legs” may result. 
Fig. 4. Section of knee-joint. 
THE JOINTS, 
9. Joints.—The main joints are the shoul-der, 
el-bow, wrist, and fin-ger; and hip, knee, and an-kle. 
A joint is a union of two or more bones held in 
place by ligaments (b). 
10- Cartilages.—The tips of the bones forming 15 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
a movable joint are covered with a layer of car'ti- 
lage (gristle). This layer is white, elastic, and 
smooth. (Fig. 4.) 
11. Synovia.—The membrane lining the inner 
surface of the ligaments of a movable joint makes 
a fluid called sy-no'vi-a (joint-water). This fluid is 
slightly sticky, and looks like the white of an egg. 
(Fig. 4.) 
12. Uses of the Parts of a Joint.—The lig'a- 
ments permit the ends of the bones to move on each 
other. The car’ti-lage makes a smooth and springy 
surface. The fat, inside of certain joints, fills up 
vacant places. The sy-no'vi-a acts on the surfaces 
as oil does on machines. 
13. Summary.— 
A joint is made up of 
Bones, 
End-car'ti-la-ges, 
Lig'a-ments, 
Syn-o'vi-al mem-brane. 
14. Coverings of the Frame-Work.—The 
frame-work is covered in by layer upon layer of 
muscles (lean meat), a layer of fat, and the shin. 
(Fig. 5.) 
HYGIENE OP THE BONES 
15. Endeavor to keep an erect posture. If grow- 
ing persons sit erect, stand erect, and keep erect 
when walking, then will their bones harden in cor- 
rect forms. (190.) 16 
THE BEGINNER’S 
16. The carrying of a weight balanced on the head 
causes a person to stand erect. The carriers of slate 
are erect, fine-appearing men and women. 
INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. 
17. Alcohol.—Al-co-hol'ics are drinks which 
contain alcohol, like beer, cider, wine, rum, etc. 
Alcoholics do not make the bones stronger, or firmer, 
or better formed. 
18. Gout is a painful disease. Over-eating and 
the too free use of wines often cause gout. The 
“ poor man’s gout” is caused by the too free use of 
beer. 
19. Rheumatism (ru'ma-tizm) has for one of 
its causes the too free use of alcoholics. The re- 
covery from this painful disease is hindered by the 
use of beer, cider, and sweet wines. 
20. Tobacco is now thought to have the effect 
of stunting the growth of the bones of the children 
who use it in any form. , 
(а) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Demonstration.—Procure from the 
butcher a part of the thigh-bone and two or three sheep’s ribs. Make sections of 
the former so as to show the covering membrane, the periosteum, the hard outer shell, 
the cancellated part near the ends, and the oily central marrow. (Fig. 3.) 
Show the elasticity of bone by bending the rib. Break a bone and show the 
rough ends which occur in “ broken bones.” 
Take a long bone, as a sheep’s rib, and put it in a vessel containing one part 
of muriatic acid and seven parts of water. Allow it to remain a few days. The 
earthy matter will be mostly dissolved out. The bone will now be flexible, and 
may be knotted. Place another bone in the fire. The animal matter is expelled, 
and the brittle “ bone-earth” alone is left. 
(б) Directions for Dissection.—Procure the fore-leg of a calf or ox. Remove 17 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
all muscle, fat, and connective tissue from about the joint. Observe the lateral, 
anterior, and posterior ligaments, if it is a “ hinge-like joint.” Saw the bone off about 
two inches below the joint. Then saw through the middle of this bone, the joint, 
and the upper bone, laying open the parts, as in Fig. 4. Note the investing mem- 
brane, the periosteum; the compact bone; the cancellated or open-work bone, near 
the joint; the soft, red, oily marrow; the enlargement and processes for muscular 
and ligamentous attachment, near the joint; the cartilage tipping the bone; the 
lateral firm, white, band-like ligaments; the white, viscid synovial fluid; and, per- 
haps, an internal round ligament, movable cartilage, and a mass of fat. Cut the lateral 
ligaments. Observe the smooth, moist surface, the internal layer of synovial mem- 
brane. Shave off a bit of bluish-white, translucent cartilage and compare it with a 
bit of bone. 
QUESTIONS, 
The Bones. 
4. How many bones in the body? How held together? 5. 
Describe bone. How made up? 6. What do ligaments resemble? 
Of what composed? 7. What are the uses of bones? 8. What 
are flexible? What leads to deformities? Hence? 
The Joints 
9. Mention some joints. What is a joint? 10. Where is car- 
tilage found? What is it? 11. What secretes sy-no'vi-a? What 
is synovia? 12. Mention the uses of the parts of joints. 13. Write 
the summary of a joint. 14. Mention the coverings of the frame- 
work. 
Hygiene of the Bones. 
15. Why should a person strive to keep erect? 16. What re- 
sults from carrying burdens on the head ? 
Injurious Action of Alcohol and Tobacco 
17. Mention some alcoholics. How do they affect bone? 18. 
Mention some causes of gout. 19. Speak of alcohol and rheuma- 
tism (ru'ma-tizm). 20. What is the action of tobacco on bone ? 18 
THE beginner’s 
CHAPTER III.. 
Fig. 5. Section of Arm.—Showing the cut skin, fat-layer, muscles, and bone 
(Humerus). 
21. The Muscles make up nearly one-hall* of 
the weight of the healthy body. Most muscles occur 
in pairs,—that is, one on the riglit resembles one on 
the left side. (Fig. 1.) 
22. Tendons.—Most muscles commence and end 
in white, firm cords, called ten-dons. (Fig. 7, *.») 
Tendons do not shorten, do not stretch. 
Examples.—Tendons may be felt under the skin 
about the wrist; also about the ankle and foot. 
23. Kinds of Muscles.—There are two kinds : 
(1) Those under the control of the will (vol'un- 19 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
ta-ry) and (2) those not under the control of the 
will (in-vol'un-ta-ry). 
24. Outside Muscles.—The muscles outside of 
the frame-work are of the first kind. They make up 
the lean meat of the body of man and animals (a). 
25. Inside Muscles.—The second kind of mus- 
cles are mostly found inside 
the frame-work, as in the heart, 
in the walls of the blood-tubes, 
in the walls of the stom-ach, 
bowels, etc. 
26. Fat is made up of little 
globes of oil. (Fig. 6.) 
27. Uses.—Fat rounds out 
the outlines of the body. It 
forms a heat-keeping layer 
under the skin. It is a reserve 
store of food. 
Observation.—When a sick 
person takes no food he be- 
comes thin. This is because the fat in all parts 
is used to feed the body. 
Fig. 6. Fat-Cells. 
HOW MUSCLES ACT 
28. Muscle-Work.—The function of muscle is 
to contract. Rubber is elastic, but, unlike muscle, it 
has not the power of self-shortening. 
29. Action of Muscle.—When muscles contract, 20 
THE BEGINNER’S 
the part to which they are attached must move. 
Thus when we cause the biceps of the arm (Fig. 7,3) 
to swell up, then the fore-arm is moved (owing to 
the hinge-like joint of the elbow) towards the 
arm (d). 
Fig. 7. Action of Muscles.—1, The bone of the arm above the elbow. 2, One of 
the bones below the elbow. 3, The muscle that bends the elbow. This muscle is 
united, by a tendon, to the bone below the elbow (4); at the other extremity, to the 
bone above the elbow (5). 6, The muscle that extends the elbow. 7, Its attach- 
ment to the point of the elbow. 8. A weight in the hand to be raised. The central 
part of the muscle 3 contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The 
bones below the elbow are brought to the lines shown by 9,10,11. The weight is 
raised in the direction of the curved line. When the muscle 6 contracts, the 
muscle 3 relaxes and the fore-arm is extended. 
30. Voluntary Movements.—By the proper 
working together of the outer muscles we can move 
our body, and we can make useful movements of 
arms, hands, feet, lips (walking, grasping, hand- 
working, chewing, talking). 
31. Involuntary Movements.—The muscular 
fibres of the in-tes'tines force the intestinal contents 
along; the contractions of the lieart-muscles force 21 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 
the blood into and through the blood-tubes. These 
movements go on while we are talking, reading, 
thinking, or sleeping. The vital movements of the 
body are carried on by the involuntary muscles. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Demonstration.—Conduct the class 
to a butcher’s shop. Call their attention to a section of the middle of the thigh 
from which “ round-steak” is sliced. Point out the central-placed bone: its hard, 
white outer ring of bone; its soft, oily, blood-stained marrow, and its firm investing 
membrane, the periosteum. 
On the cut surface of the meat, note: the separate muscles; the fibres making 
up a muscle; the white connective tissue separating each muscle or group of muscles; 
the open, round entrance to the arteries; the collapsed entrance to the veins; the 
white section of a nerve; the streaks of fat between the muscles; the white, firm 
membrane enveloping the thigh, the fascia; the outer layer of fat and the shreds of 
connective tissue which hold the skin in place, (See Fig. 5.) 
(b) Dissections —If it is not convenient to visit the butcher’s, then secure the 
hind-quarter of a fresh rat or rabbit. Freeze it hard. (In warm weather use ice and 
salt.) Make a clean cut around the middle of the thigh, cutting through the skin 
and fat. Now, using a fine-toothed, sharp, cold saw (working in a cold room), cut 
through the muscles and bone. Clear oft' the dust. Point out the parts as in the 
previous demonstration (a). 
(c) Microscopic Work.—Secure small bits of fat, muscle, and connective tissue. 
In a shallow dish, and under water, with needles in handles carefully pick a bit to 
pieces. Put the smallest piece on a clean glass slide, add a drop of water, cover, 
and examine with a half inch objective. Call attention to the difference between 
muscle and fat and muscle and connective tissue. Note that the fibres of red meat 
have little cross-lines. The “ inner muscles” do not have these cross-lines. 
(d) Personal Work.—Request each member to bare the arm, even to the 
shoulder. Ask them to vigorously open and close the hand a number of times. 
Call attention to the alternate hardening and softening of the muscles of the fore- 
arm (front and rear) during the movements; to the tense cords lying under the 
skin over the space above the wrist, the tendons, and to the overfulness of the blue 
veins due to the exercise. Call attention to the antagonistic action of the biceps and 
triceps (Fig, 7) of the arm during “ showing the muscle” and straightening the arm. 
QUESTIONS. 
21. What is the weight of the muscles? How do we find 
them? 22. Describe tendons. In what are they peculiar ? Where 
located ? 23. How do muscles differ ? 24. Tell about the voPuti- 
ta-ry muscles. 25. Where are the in-vol'un-ta-ry muscles found ? 
26. What is fat? 27. Mention the uses of fat. What is often 
noticed? 
The Muscles. 22 
THE BEGINNER’S 
28. What is the function of muscle? How does it differ from 
rubber? 29. What do contracting muscles do? Illustrate. 30. 
What do the voluntary muscles enable us to do? 31. Mention 
some movements which go on during sleep. Why are involun- 
tary muscles essential ? 
How Muscles act. 
CHAPTER IY. 
HYGIENE OF BONE AND MUSCLES. 
CONDITIONS FOJt HEALTH. 
32. How to become Vigorous: 
You must eat simple, good food. 
You must breathe pure air. 
You must keep the system clean. 
You must use your muscles regularly. 
You must not overtax your muscles. 
You must not use alcohol or tobacco. 
33. Food .—The growing boy or girl must have 
plenty of bone-making food. This food is best sup- 
plied by fresh milk from a healthy young cow; by 
well-cooked whole-wheat foods, oatmeal, and barley; 
and by fish and eggs in moderation. 
34. Working-Foods.—For sustained work milk, 
oatmeal-porridge, whole-wheat bread, Indian-eorn ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
23 
bread, cracked-wheat, butter, and fish occupy the 
first place. Adults can with safety add to this list 
beef, pork, ham, and cheese. 
35. Air.—Work and exercise is of most ad- 
vantage to the body when it is taken out-of-doors. 
36. Cleanliness.—The vigorous may take a cold 
bath daily. All others must keep the skin clean by 
using warm water, soap, and much rubbing (a). 
EXERCISE AND ITS CONDITIONS, 
37. The object of muscular exercise is to make a 
uniformly strong body. Such exercises should be 
practised as will develop the weaker parts. To do 
good, muscular exercises should be regular and 
graded. 
38. Garden-work and house-work take the first 
rank. Sports (running, tree-climbing, swimming, 
riding, ball, cricket, and lawn-tennis) are excellent. 
Gymnastics (jim-nas'tiks) and out-of-door dancing 
are only less excellent. 
39. The exercise-suit ought to be of flannel. All 
garments should be loose, especially about the neck. 
The shoes should be roomy and long, for the foot 
broadens and lengthens with each vigorous step. 
The heels ought to be low and broad. The soles 
should be thick enough to keep the foot dry and 
warm. 
40. Hot milk, or cool water, may be sipped at 24 
THE beginner’s 
intervals during severe exercise. “ Small quantities, 
and often,” should be the rule. Food ought not to 
be taken just before or just after exercise. 
41. Alcohol.—Students and athletes when train- 
ing for severe exercises, as a boat-race, cease using 
beer, wine, or spirits. Their trainer knows that they 
can do their work better and easier without them. 
For the same reason the trainer forbids the use of 
tobacco. 
42. Action of Alcohol.—In large drams it 
causes the muscles to work improperly and out of 
their proper order (in-tox-i-ca'tion). Large amounts 
cause an entire loss of control over the outside mus- 
cles (“dead-drunk” state). 
43. Alcoholics used constantly and for very 
long times often cause many fibres in the muscles 
to change to fat. Fat cannot contract. When the 
fibres of many muscles become fatty the entire body 
shows weakness. 
44. Alcohol does not feed the bones. It does 
not build up the contracting part of the fibres of 
muscles. 
45. Tobacco does not feed the bone or the 
muscle. It does injure the blood and the bone-food 
and the muscle-food carried in the blood. 
In growing children and youth it slows body- 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL A HI) TOBACCO. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
growth. It prevents the muscles from working 
properly. It weakens the entire body. 
4-6. Children and growing persons, certainly, 
should abstain from the use of alcoholics (90) as 
well as of tobacco. 
(a) A free movement from the bowels must be secured daily. Ripe fruit daily is 
excellent for this object. A glass of cold water taken on rising in the morning is 
useful. 
QUESTIONS. 
32. What is essential in order to become vigorous? 33. What 
food is essential? How supplied? 34. Mention food suitable for 
workers. 35. Where should exercise be taken? 36. How may 
cleanliness be attained ? 
Conditions for Health 
Exercise and its Conditions 
37. What is the object of exercise ? Hence ? 38. Mention the 
best kinds of exercise. 39. Speak of the exercise-suit; of shoes. 
40. How should drink be taken ? When ? 
Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco 
41. Who cease using alcoholics and tobacco? Why ? 42. What 
is the effect of large drams? of large amounts? 43. What change 
is caused by alcohol ? What results? 44. What can alcohol not 
do? 45. Is tobacco a food? What evil may it do? 46. Who 
should be abstainers ? 26 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER Y. 
THE SKIN. 
Fig. 8. Vertical section of the skin of the forefinger across two of the ridges of the surface 
47. The Skin is the outer covering of the body. 
It is soft, oily, and smooth (a). 
48. Skin-Layers.—The skin is made up of two 
layers. The outer-layer is called epi-der'mis; the 
inner-layer the der'mis. 27 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
49. The Outer-Layer is horny. When cut 
it does not bleed, for it has no blood-tubes (c). Its 
under surface contains the coloring-matter of the 
skin. (Fig. 8.) 
50. The Inner-Layer contains blood-tubes, 
nerves, minute muscles, hairs, oil-glands, sweat- 
glands, and fat-cells. (Fig. 9.) 
Outer-layer 
(Ep-i-der'mis), 
Inner-layer 
(Der-mis). 
51. Summary.—The shin is 
made up of 
52. Functions of the Skin.—It protects the 
body. It prevents poisons and the germs of disease 
from entering the body. It contains the nerves of 
touch. (Fig. 9.) 
SKIN-INJUBIES. 
53. Upper-Layer Injuries.—When you “scrape 
off the skin” you usually tear off a little of the outer- 
layer only. The “ raw-spot” is the sensitive, exposed, 
inner-layer. When the “raw-spot” heals over no 
scar is left. 
54. Precaution. — Before handling poisons 
(quicksilver, active dyes) or dead bodies, carefully 
seek all scratches, bare-spots, or hang-nails. Cover 
them with sticking-plaster. Then smear the hands, 
wrists, and fore-arms with lard or oil. If you do 
not do so you may be severely poisoned. 28 
THE BEGINNER’S 
severely cut or deeply burnt (d), then the inner- 
layer as well as the outer-layer of the skin is de- 
stroyed. When such a wound heals a scar always 
remains. A scar is a patch “ set in” in the inner- 
layer. 
55. Inner-Layer Injuries.—When a person is 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 
56. The skin should be kept clean. Strong, harsh 
soaps ought not to be used. The daily rubbing of 
the skin with a coarse towel or a flesh-brush will in- 
crease its vigor. 
57. Alcohol in the blood interferes with the healthy 
feedmg of the skin. The continued use of beer, 
cider, wine, or spirits tends to make the skin harsh 
and coarse. The excessive use of alcoholics often 
induces pimples, blotches, and stains. 
58. Tobacco, especially when used by children and 
young people, quite often makes the skin appear old, 
yellow, and sallow. Cigarette-smoking is especially 
injurious to the skin. 
CLOTHING. 
59. Three-fourths of the heat set free in the living 
body is lost by the shin. In cold weather clothing 
serves to retain the heat of the body. In hot 
countries it is used to prevent scorching of the skin. 
60. Woollen garments are safer than cotton or 
linen for constant wear. All under-garments and ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
29 
night-garments should be made largely of wool or 
silk. 
61. Loose-fitting clothing is both warmer and 
cooler than close-fitting clothing. It is better to sus- 
pend the clothing from the shoulders rather than 
from the waist. 
62. The night-clothing should be thicker than that 
worn during the day. (1) The night is cooler than 
the day ; (2) the loss of heat from the body is greater 
during the sleeping than the waking hours. 
63. Waterproof clothing should only be worn to 
keep out the wet. “ Rubbers” should never be worn 
in-doors or during dry weather. 
64. Do not sit in damp clothing. When you get 
dampened, keep in motion until you can change your 
clothing. The sheets and the clothes from the wash 
should always be sunned or well warmed before being 
put in use. 
65. A change of clothing from thick to thinner 
should only be made in the morning. The evening 
hours demand an increase of clothing because (1) of 
the increasing coolness and dampness, and (2) be- 
cause of the more weary condition of the body. 
66. It is not safe to wear light, gauzy garments at 
balls or parties occurring late at night. Many young 
ladies date their decline in health from a certain 
party. It is dangerous to wear thin, close-fitting 
shoes in cold or damp weather. 30 
THE BEGINNER^ 
(а) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Demonstration.—Call attention to the 
oily, flexible, elastic surface; the creases; the pits; the varying thickness (palm of 
hand, sole of foot, between the Angers, the outer and inner parts of the arm, etc.): 
the upper-layer scales (scurf); the dandruff of the scalp; the varying color; the oil; 
the moisture; the body-hairs. 
(б) With a magnifying-glass seek the sweat-pores on the tip of the Angers and study 
the exuding drop. Place a few hairs under the microscope, also a few sections 
of hair from the paper of a man who has just shaved. Note the oval cross-section, 
the shingle-like imbrications of the hair’s outer surface with the free ends looking 
towards the point of the hair, and the pith of the hair. 
(c) A com is a small, hard portion of the thickened outer-layer. A freckle is an 
increase in spots of the coloring-matter. In a blister, water from the blood gathers 
between the inner- and outer-layers. The scurf is made up of dead scales of the 
upper-layer. When the upper surface wears off the middle-cells are pushed up 
by the under, newly-made cells. 
(d) Management of a Burn or Scald.—In a small bum apply cold water continu- 
ously until the smarting ceases. If severe, prick the blisters (do not pull array the upper- 
layer) and apply cloths wet with water containing cooking soda or strong soap-suds. Send 
for the doctor. 
QUESTIONS. 
47. What is the skin? 48. Describe the skin. 49. Speak of 
the outer-layer; of the color-layer. 50. What is found in the 
inner-layer? 51. Write out the skin-summary. 52. What are 
the functions of the skin ? 
The Skin. 
53. Speak of upper-layer injuries; of the raw-spot. 54. What 
pre-cau'tions should be taken? Why? 55. Speak of inner-layer 
injuries. What is a scar? 
Skin-Injuries. 
Hygiene of the Skin. 
56. What encourages cleanliness and vigor of the skin? 57. 
What is the action of alcohol? of continued use? of excessive 
use? 58. How does tobacco injure the skin? 
59. What passes from the skin? For what is clothing used? 
60. Why are woollens to be preferred? 61. Why wear loose-fit- 
ting clothing? What is preferable? 62. Why should night- 
clothing be thick? 63. When should rubber not be worn? 64. 
When wetted, what should you do? What should be dry? 65. 
Why is the morning suitable for a change of clothing? 66. Men- 
tion some unsafe and dangerous customs. 
Clothing. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
31 
CHAPTER VI 
ORGANS IN THE SKIN, 
Fig. 9. Vertical section of normal skin. (Highly magnified.) 
THE NERVES OF TOUCH. 
67. Touch gives us knowledge about things with 
which we come in brief contact. The nerves of 
touch are protected by the outer-layer of the skin. 
(Fig. 9.) 
68. Uses.—The sense of touch acts to give us 
warning about injurious things, as hot, or cold, or 32 
THE BEGINNER’S 
sharp objects. It enables us to learn of the size, 
form, and nature of objects found in the dark. 
69. Alcohol in small doses acts in many to lessen 
the keenness and delicacy of touch. When used in 
excess the sense becomes very much dulled. 
THE HAIR. 
70. Hairs are found on most parts of the body. 
They have their seat in pits in the skin (Fig. 9), and 
grow on the hair pa-pil'loe. 
71. The Function of the hair is to protect ex- 
posed parts, as the head, face. A hair only grows 
in length, not in bulk. 
72. Muscles of the Hair.—Most hairs have a 
minute muscle (Fig. 9). When the muscle is excited 
(cold, fright, electricity) it contracts and the hair 
“ stands on end.” 
73. The Oil-Glands are found in most parts of 
the skin (Fig. 9). The oily secretion keeps the hair 
glossy and the skin supple. 
74. Care. —The oil-ducts become clogged with 
dust. Dust and dirt gather on the hair and scalp. 
Hence the head should be occasionally washed and 
frequently brushed. 
75. Hair-oils are offensive and are not needed. 
Cos-met'ics often contain injurious agents (lead, quick- 
silver, bismuth). Such agents injure the texture, 
softness, and vigor of the skin. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
33 
THE NAILS. 
76. The Nail is a changed part of the upper- 
layer of the skin. It is smooth, flexible, and horny. 
77. Uses.—The nail protects the sensitive finger- 
tips, and aids the finger-tip in picking up small 
objects. 
78. Care.—It is better to file the nails rather 
than to pare them with a knife or to snip them with 
scissors. Dirt is best removed with a quill tooth- 
pick and the nail-brush. 
TIIB SWEAT-GLANDS. 
79. The Sweat-Glands are seated deep in the 
skin (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). They set free from the 
blood a fluid called the per-spi-ra'tion. 
80. The Quantity of the Perspiration ranges 
from two to four pints daily. The amount is greater 
in warm than in cold weather. 
81. The Functions of the sweat-glands are (1) 
to cool the body (a), and (2) to remove water and 
certain wastes from the system. 
r Nerves of Touch, 
Hair-Papillae, 
Oil-Glands, 
. Sweat-Glands. 
82. Summary.—The organs 
seated in the skin are 34 
THE beginner’s 
CAKE OF THE SKIN. 
83. Damp clothing is dangerous. Wet clothing 
and wet shoes convey the heat too rapidly from the 
skin. Avoid a damp bed, a damp, musty-smelling 
room, a damp house, and a damp location for a house. 
84-. Dampness is often as much of an enemy to 
health as filth. Dampness of the home is a great 
cause of early con-sump'tion and of rheumatism (ru- 
ma-tizm). 
85. Avoid sitting in a current of air when heated 
or freely perspiring. Do not sit or lie on the damp 
ground. 
86. A clean shin relieves the lungs and kidneys of 
extra work. It favors the keeping of health and the 
strengthening of the body and the mind. 
87. “ Daily bathing, from childhood to old age, 
should be the rule” (Bowditch). Bathing imparts 
tone and vigor to the brain and internal organs, as 
well as to the muscles and skin. 
88. The face and head should be wet with cold 
water before entering the bath. Cold-baths, river- 
baths, and sea-baths ought only to be taken in the 
morning hours. Do not bathe directly after eating 
or when heated. 
89. Sea-bathing is valuable for persons in fair 
health. It should not be indulged in by infants, the 
BATHING. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
35 
elderly, and most feeble persons. Keep salt water 
out of the mouth and ears. 
Exercise should follow the sea-hatli, as well as 
other baths (b), the warm evening bath excepted. 
(а) Experiment.—Place a few drops of alcohol or of cologne on the skin. It 
rapidly disappears (e-vap'o-rates) and the skin feels cooler. Place a few drops of 
water on the skin. The same results take place, but slower. In both cases some of 
the heat of the skin was taken away in order to convert the fluid into a vapor. 
The same occurs at or near the mouths of the 2,400,000 sweat-ducts when the glands 
are in health. By this process the heat of the body is rapidly passed away. 
(б) Treatment of a Drowning Case.—(1) Act at once. Raise the body so that the 
water will run from, nose and mouth. Wipe mouth and nose. Loosen the clothing. Lay 
the person on the back. Two persons, standing to the right and left of the patient, pass the 
right hands under the waist and lock hands; now raise the body until the heels and head 
alone touch the ground; count fifteen rapidly; then lower the body flat to the ground, and 
press the elbows to the side; count fifteen rapidly; then raise the body as before; count, 
lower; and so on alternately, raising and lowering. Allow head, arms, and legs to dangle 
freely. (Francis’s Method.) 
(2) Persevere for half an hour to an hour. As soon as the natural movements of the 
breathing recommence, cease the Francis movements. 
(3) Maintain the temperature of the body by friction, hot bottles, and warm blankets. 
Keep the head in a current of fresh air. 
(4) As soon as the patient can swallow, give warm milk, tea, or coffee containing a little 
ammonia (spirits of hartshorn). Put the patient in a warm bed. Pack hot-water bottles 
about him. Encourage sleep. Keep the windows open. 
QUESTIONS. 
The Nerves of Touch. 
67. What is touch ? What protects its nerves ? 68. What is 
the use of touch ? 69. How does alcohol affect touch ? 
The Hair. 
70. Where are hairs found? 71. What is the purpose of the 
hair? 72. What do hairs have? What may happen? 73. What 
glands exist in most parts? What is the use of the oil? 74. Why 
should the hair be cleaned? 75. Mention objections to hair-oils ; 
to cos-met/ics. 
76. What is a nail? 77. Of what use are nails? 78. How 
should nails be cared for ? 
The Nails. 36 
THE BEGINNER’S 
79. What are deep-seated ? What is per-spi-ra'tion ? 80. How 
does the amount of perspiration vary ? 81. What are the duties 
of the sweat-glands? 82. Write out the organs-of-the-skin-sum- 
mary. 
The Sweat-Glands. 
83. Why is damp clothing dangerous? What should be 
avoided? 84. Why is dampness a human enemy? 85. What 
should be avoided ? 
Care of the Skin. 
86. How does a clean skin favor health ? 87. Give Dr. Bow- 
ditch’s maxim. What results from bathing? 88. What care 
should be taken in bathing? 89. Who may take sea-baths? 
What should follow baths ? 
Bathing. 
CHAPTER VII. 
NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS. 
NARCOTICS. 
90. Common Alcohol (a) is tlie agent in pure 
beers, ciders, wines, and spirits which causes the bad 
effect of those drinks. 
91. Alcohol (b) is largely made in the United 
States from corn. Alcohol and water mix readily. 
92. Medicine.—First quality alcohol is safer for 
medicine than wines or spirits. (1) It is pure. (2) 
It can be more accurately dealt out. (3) It is not 
so tempting to the taste. 37 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
93. Alcoholics are of two kinds; fer-ment'ed, 
like beer, cider, and wine, and dis-tilled', like rum, 
brandy, gin, and whiskey. 
94r. Fermentation.—By the action of a yeast 
(fer-ment) apple-juice becomes cider; grape-juice 
becomes wine ; fruit-juices become fruit-wines ; and 
malted barley with hops becomes beer. They all 
contain alcohol. 
Fig. 10. The white space shows the proportion of alcohol in each of the measures. 
95. Distillation.—If cider is heated in a “ still,” 
cider-brandy is distilled over; if wine, brandy; if 
fermented molasses, rum ; if fermented corn, or rye, 
whiskey. These liquors are rich in alcohol (Fig. 
10). They are called spirits. 
96. Chloral (klo-ral) is made from alcohol. In 
proper doses it induces rest and sleep. It causes the 
“ chloral-habit.” 
97. Opium.—This drug is made from the juice 
of the poppy. The best opium comes from Turkey (/). 
98. Uses of Opium.—It is the best drug we 38 
THE BEGINNER’S 
now have to relieve pain. It not only quiets pain, 
but to many it gives mental delight. Persons who 
learn to like it often become enslaved to the use of 
the drug (Opium Habit). 
99. The Opium Habit deeply injures the mind 
and the body. This is well seen in the degraded 
Chinese opium-smoker. 
100. Opium Preparations (/) should not he 
used except when the doctor orders them from day 
to day. 
101. Narcotics.—Alcohol, chloral, and opium 
belong to the same class of drugs. They are nar- 
cotics (g). 
MOTOR-DEPRESSANTS. 
102. Tobacco.—The tobacco-plant was found in 
Virginia. Chewing, snuffing, and smoking com- 
pounds are largely made from the dried and pre- 
pared leaves of tobacco. 
103. Nicotin.—The leaves of the tobacco-plant 
contain several active drugs. The most powerful 
and most dangerous one is the nic'o-tin. Nicotin is 
a poison which acts like Prussic acid. 
104. No young person should use tobacco. The 
younger and the feebler the person the more in- 
jurious are the actions of the active drugs of tobacco. 
Minute doses taken daily, as by smoking, slowly 
injure the youthful system. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
39 
STIMULANTS. 
105. Coffee is the seed of a plant growing in 
Java, Costa Kica, Brazil, and other hot countries. 
Coffee contains an exciting drug called caffe-in. 
106. Tea is the dried leaves of plants which are 
largely cultivated in China, Japan, and India. Tea- 
leaves contain an exciting drug exactly like caf fe-in. 
107. The active drugs of tea and of coffee act to 
spur nerve-action. They do not feed and strengthen 
the body any more than the whip adds strength to 
the horse. 
108. Quinia (kwin'ee-ali) is derived from the 
bark of trees largely cultivated in Java, India, and 
South America. It acts to spur nerve-action. 
It is useful in malaria (ma-lay'ree-ah). Its com- 
mon use as a “ pick-me-up,” as a “ cure-all,” as a 
“ home-stimulant” is bad and harmful. 
109. Mustard, Pepper, and Spices.—These 
“ ap'pe-tiz-ers” have no feeding value. They each 
contain peculiar, active drugs. These drugs make 
some foods taste better. They encourage persons to 
eat more than is really needed. The “appetizers” 
should not be used by children and youth. 
110. A Stimulant acts like a spur. Tea spurs 
the brain. Pepper spurs the stomach. Spices spur 
the glands about the mouth. A stim'u-lant does 
not give strength, or force, or heat to the body. 40 
THE BEGINNER’S 
111. Summary.— 
Alcohol, 
Chloral, 
Opium. 
Nar-cot'ics. 
De-pres'sant. Tobacco. 
' Coffee, 
Tea, 
Quinia, 
. Mustard, Pepper, Spices. 
. 7 
ohmu-lants. 
(a) Fusel Oil.—“ Ethyl Alcohol” is the scientific name of common alcohol. 
“ Raw” alcohol, some “ made drinks,” and many “ drugged alcoholics” contain a 
very exciting and poisonous alcohol known in chemistry as Amyl Alcohol, or “ fusel 
oil.” Many true alcoholics are “ fortified,” and thus made much more actively and 
destructively injurious to the body, by the addition of corn-alcohol or potato-alcohol. 
(b) FOR THE TEACHER. Properties of Alcohol.—Show to the class a speci- 
men of good alcohol. It is a clear, colorless fluid. It cannot be frozen by common 
means. It rapidly evaporates, as from the hand. Its drops arc small—about half the 
size of drops of water. It has a peculiar, characteristic odor. It readily bums, pro- 
ducing little light, no smoke, and much heat, and leaves no ash,—that is, it readily 
unites with the oxygen of the air when set on fire and changes to vapor of water 
and carbonic acid gas. If some is taken into the mouth, it produces a burning, 
warming sensation; if it is swallowed, the sensation is felt even to the stomach. 
(c) Tests for Alcohol.—If an alcoholic contains less than one-half of water it 
will ignite. If an alcoholic is distilled, the fluid which first comes over will have the 
odor and taste of alcohol and will readily ignite. If a fluid contains alcohol the 
addition of the chromic-acid test (potassium bichromate, one part, pure sulphuric 
acid, three hundred parts) will produce, after a time, an emerald-green color. 
(d) Uses for Alcohol.—To make, prepare, and preserve drugs; to make “patent 
medicines”—as tonics, bitters, etc.; to make perfumes, varnishes, vinegars; to make 
chloral, chloroform, and ether; to aid in the making of rubber goods, many fabrics, 
jewelry, etc. Nearly half the alcohol made in the United States is used in the arts 
and industries of our country. 
(e) Demonstration.—Exhibit to the class specimens of the common alcoholics. 
If convenient, test the presence of alcohol. Exhibit specimens of opium, morphia, 
tobacco, spices, etc., allowing the pupils to handle, smell, and taste. Call their at- 
tention to the proper use for these agents derived from nature or made by the art of 
man. 
(/) Opium Preparations.—Morphia (mor'fe-ah) is a white powder taken out of 
crude opium. Laud'a-num is an alcoholic preparation of opium. Most “ soothing 
syrups” contain morphia—and often dangerous amounts of that drug. The majority 
of commercial “ cough medicines” are rich in opiates. 41 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
(g) Action of Narcotics.—At first narcotics excite the brain, Later, the brain- 
action is dulled. In large doses they overcome brain-action and cause deep, stupid 
sleep. Sometimes they cause dangerous, death-like sleep. 
QUESTIONS. 
Narcotics. 
90. What liquors contain alcohol ? 91. From what is alcohol 
largely made? 92. Why is alcohol safer than wines or spirits? 
93. What two kinds of alcoholics ? Mention examples. 94. What 
results from fer-men-ta'tion ? 95. What is made by dis-til-la/tion ? 
Name some spirits. 96. From what is chloral made? What 
may it do? 97. What is the source of opium? 98. What good 
effect from opium? bad effect? 99. What is the “ opium-habit”? 
Where seen? 100. How may the “opium-habit” be prevented? 
101. Name the common nar-cot'ies. 
Motor-Depressant. 
102. What are largely made from tobacco-leaves ? 103. What 
exists in tobacco? What is peculiar about nic'o-tin ? 104. Why 
should the young not use tobacco ? 
Stimulants. 
105. What is the source of coffee ? What does it contain ? 
106. Mention sources of tea. How does it resemble coffee? 107. 
What is the action of the tea- or coffee-drugs? 108. Give sources 
of quinia (kwin'ee-ah). When is it useful? hurtful? 109. Name 
some ap'pe-ti-zers. What is their action ? Hence ? 110. Mention 
some spurs. What do stim/u-lants lack? 111. Write out the 
narcotic stimulant summary. 42 
THE BEGINNER’S 
Fig. 11. 43 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
CHAPTER VIII. 
THE BLOOD. 
112. The Blood is found in all parts of tlie 
body. You cannot prick the soft parts of the body 
without setting free blood (a). 
113. Composition.—The blood is the red-fluid 
of the living body. It is made up of a clear fluid, 
the plas'ma, and many round 
disks (red and white) called cor- 
pus-cles (koTpus-ls). 
114. Clotting.—The blood 
in the living body is always 
fluid. If it escapes from the 
blood-tubes it becomes semi- 
solid,—that is, it clots. 
115. Use of the Clot.—If you are cut, then the 
blood trickles out, perhaps it comes out in jets. If 
it is a small wound, the blood soon clots in the cut 
tube and the wound. The blood-clot forms a plug. 
The plug stops the bleeding (b). 
Fig. 12. Blood-corpuscles. 44 
THE BEGINNER’S 
Fig. 13. The manner of compressing divided arteries.—A, Compressing 
the large artery of the arm with the fingers. B, The subclavian artery. C, 
Compressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound with a finger. 
Fig. 14. The method of applying the knotted handkerchief to make compres- 
sion on this artery.—A, C, The track of the large artery of the arm. 45 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
(a) FOR TIIE TEACHER. Examination of the Blood.—Place the microscope 
in a good light. Put in the middle-length eye-piece and the one-fourth inch objec- 
tive. Clean and warm several glass slides and covers. Prick the finger. Transfer 
a minute drop of blood to the centre of three slides. After spreading, allow one 
drop to dry. At once cover the other drops. 
Place slide No. 1 on the stage, focus, and note: a pale fluid, the plasma and nu- 
merous disks, the red corpuscles. Perhaps you may see a larger, round mass, whiter 
in color, irregular at the edges, and granular in appearance, a white corpuscle. The 
red are about of an inch in diameter and r4J„5 in thickness. Later, examine 
the other slides, noticing differences. (Fig. 12.) 
(b) How to Stop Bleeding.—Let the wounded person lie down, Raise the cut part 
and hold it up. If the cut is small, clean the wound with water and expose it to the air; 
or apply cold water; or apply hot water (as hot as can be borne). This will control the 
bleeding. 
(c) If the- cut is large, hold your fingers on the jetting points in the wound. Have a 
friend tie a twisted handkerchief loosely around the arm, or leg, on the body-side of the 
cut. Put in a small stick and twist (Fig. 14) until the bleeding stops. Remove your finger 
from the wound and send for a doctor. Keep the wounded person quid. Give the patient 
water, or hot milk, or hot coffee, but no alcoholics. 
QUESTIONS. 
112. Where is the blood found ? 113. What is the blood ? How 
made up? 114. How does living blood differ from clotted? 115. 
How does blood come from a wound ? What stops the bleeding ? 
The Blood. 46 
THE beginner’s 
CHAPTER IX. 
THE CIRCULATORY APPARATUS. 
TIIE HEART. 
Fig. 15. The heart and the great blood-tubes. 
116. The Heart is found in the left side of the 
chest. (Fig. 21,5.) It is a hollow organ made largely 
of muscle. It is about the size of the closed fist (a). 
117. Cavities.—By a partition the heart is di- 
vided into a right and a left heart (b). Each half is 
divided into two chambers called au'ri-cle (the upper) 
and ven'tri-cle (the lower). An opening exists be- 
tween the chambers of the same side. (Fig. 15.) 47 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
118.- Valves.—At the openings to the ventricles 
and at the entrances to the large arteries valves are 
found. (Fig. 15.) The valves permit the blood to 
flow forward, but not backward (b). 
THE BLOOD-TUBES. 
119. The Arteries are the round, open tubes 
which conduct the blood from the heart. 
120. The Veins are the tliin-walled tubes ex- 
tending in from all points of the body and ending 
at the heart. (Fig. 11, the black lines.) 
121. The Capillaries are the minute tubes con- 
necting the ends of the arteries with the beginnings 
of the veins. (Fig. 20,6> 14.) 
The cap'il-la-ries are smaller than fine hairs. 
Their walls are so thin that the plasma can easily 
pass back and forth. 
122. Position.—The capillaries abound in all 
parts. The arteries are usually placed deep between 
the muscles or under bones. (Fig. 5.) This is for 
safety. Veins run along side the large arteries. 
They also are numerous just under the skin. (Fig. 5.) 
123. Summary.— 
The Heart, 
Ar'te-ries, 
Cap'il-la-ries, 
Veins, 
hold the blood in the living 
body. 48 
THE BEGINNER’S 
124. Duties.—By the action of the heart (in 
the main) the vital fluid (the blood) is kept in mo- 
Fig. 16. The viscera of a rabbit as seen when the cavi- 
ties of the abdomen and thorax are opened. 
tion. By means of tlie blood-tubes the feeding fluid 
(the blood) reaches all parts of the body. If the 
blood cannot reach a part, that part soon dies. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
CHANGES IN STRUCTURE INDUCED BY ALCO- 
HOL. 
125. To the Heart.—If al-co-hol'ics, especially 
beer, are used in excess for long periods many fibres 
of the lieart-muscle may change to fat. 
126. Fatty Heart.—A fatty heart is a weak 
heart (43). It is unable to do full work. Hence 
the entire body suffers from its feebleness. 
127. To the Arteries.—The long use of alco- 
holics, in excess, sometimes causes the walls of the 
blood-tubes to change to fat; at other times to a 
substance like chalk. Such tubes are weak and 
brittle. 
128. Apoplexy.—When a blood-tube in the 
brain cracks open, the blood escapes into the brain. 
This escape causes ap'o-plex-y. Persons who have 
used alcoholics in excess are quite liable to such an 
accident, because their arteries are not healthy. 
THE WOEK OF THE LYMPHATICS. 
129. The Lymphatics (lim-fat'iks) are a sys- 
tem of fine tubes found in most parts of the body. 
(Fig. 17.) They end in the large veins at the base 
of the neck. (Fig. 21, 24.) 
130. The Lymphatic Glands are little masses 
found in the course of the lym-phat'ics. (Fig. 50 
THE BEGINNER’S 
Fig. 17. The lymphatics oj the head. (The skin and fatty tissues having been 
removed.)—1, 2, 3, Lymphatics. 4, Lymphatic glands. 6, 7, Veins. (Leidy.) 51 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
17, 3’4>5.) In scrof'u-la they are often enlarged and 
painful. 
131. Duties.—The lym-phat'ics suck up stray 
drops of fluid in all parts. They suck digested fats 
from the intestine. They convey these fluids into 
the blood. 
The glands work over and make changes in the 
lymph (limf) and the fats. They make them fit to 
enter the blood. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Dissection.—Place a dog, rabbit, or 
rat on its back. Make an incision in the middle line from the lower jawbone to 
the pubes. Dissect up the skin as far back as possible on each side, and tie it back 
with threads. The ribbed part thus exposed is the thorax (chest), and the soft part 
the abdomen. (Fig. 16.) 
The ribs are seen to be connected with the sternum by means of a white, gristle- 
like material, the costal cartilages. Cut through, on each side of the sternum, the 
white cartilages, making the cut as near the blue hard rib as possible. At the in- 
ferior end of the sternum raise the bone and cut away the muscle, the diaphragm,, 
which holds it in place. The freed end is now to be raised, freed from its under 
parts with a few nicks of the knife, turned over towards the chin, and the ligament- 
ous attachments of the sternum to the right and left upper ribs severed. 
Dissect the skin and subcutaneous tissues from the neck parts. On the front 
neck, to the right and left, we see a thin tube holding dark blood, the jugular vein. 
In the middle line cut through the thin muscle and draw it to the right and left. 
Remove the layers of tissue beneath until you expose the white, ring-like tube, the 
trachea, and the cartilaginous enlargement above, the larynx. By drawing the mus- 
cles and connective tissue from the trachea, there will be brought into view, run- 
ning nearly parallel to it, a firm, whip-cord-like tube, the carotid artery; near it, 
thinner tubes, containing dark fluid, the veins, and a white, string-like fibre, the 
pneumogastric nerve. If the larynx is followed upward, it is found to end in a mus- 
culo-membranous cavity, th& pharynx. Beneath and to one side of the trachea is to 
be seen a collapsed tube with thick fibrous walls, the oesophagus, which is seen to 
open into the pharynx above. 
Now cut the larynx free from the pharynx, then raise and separate the parts from 
the oesophagus and the muscles of the neck below, and pull towards the thorax. 
The trachea will easily be removed from contact with the oesophagus. Put two 
strings around each jugular vein, about an inch apart; tie them so as to compress 
the tubes, and sever the veins between the ligatures. Sever the carotids; but, as they 
are empty, ligatures are not needed. 
Now observe the contents of the thorax,—two lateral compartments, formed by 
the thin, smooth-surfaced pleura, lining the chest-walls, each compartment contain- 52 
THE BEGINNER’S 
ing a shrunken, pinkish-white, spongy organ, the lungs, of which the right is the 
larger. Tie a tube in the trachea, and fill the lungs with air, by blowing into the 
tube. Notice the deep lines dividing the lungs into lobes, and the irregular lines 
marking lobules, situated just under the pleura. Between the lungs is a sac, the peri- 
cardium, containing fluid and a firm, pear-like, fleshy organ. Projecting and arch- 
ing into the thorax from the abdomen is seen a muscular and fascia-like partition, 
the diaphragm. The pericardium is attached to this, and should be cut free; but 
the lungs are not attached to the diaphragm. 
Open the pericardium with the scissors. It is seen to contain a small amount of 
fluid, and to be lined by a smooth, close, serous membrane. Floating in this peri- 
cardial fluid is a firm, pear-shaped, muscular organ, the heart. Its apex, or free 
point, is turned towards the ribs, and its broad, tube-attached base towards the 
back. 
Now continue the separation and elevation of the trachea, arteries, and veins, 
in a mass, down into the thorax. After the large tube, the aorta, is cut below its 
arch, the lungs and the heart can easily be raised out. The trachea is seen to divide 
into two tubes, the bronchi, which in turn divide and subdivide as they enter the 
lungs. From the heart are seen tubes, arteries and veins, running into the lungs in 
company with the bronchia. Rising from the base of the heart is seen a large, 
round, gaping tube, the aorta, which arches, gives off several branches, among them 
the carotids, and passes downward along the backbone of the animal, where it is 
called the thoracic aorta. This latter gives off many branches to the right and left, 
and passes out of the thorax through a hole in the diaphragm. 
(6) Dissection of Heart.—Procure the heart of a sheep, ox, or dog. The front 
of the heart may be recognized by a groove filled with fat. Hold the heart with 
the front towards you. The right ventricle in your left hand is more yielding, be- 
cause its walls are thinner, than the left ventricle in your right hand. Observe the 
gaping pidmonary artery rising near the middle line, and back of it the large, elastic, 
tubular aorta. Tie a tube in the pulmonary artery and fill it with water. The fluid 
does not enter the heart, it being stopped by the semilunar valves. Test the aorta in 
the same manner. If the valves are uninjured, the water will not pass into the 
heart. 
Lay open the ascending and descending venx cavx. Allow the cuts to meet in front 
of the right auricle. Note the size of the vense cavse, the thinness of the walls, and 
the absence of valves between them and the auricle. Observe the size, form, and 
thickness of the walls of the auricle and its dog-ear appendage. Cut away most of 
the right auricle. Holding the ventricles in the left hand, pour some water suddenly 
through the opening into the ventricle. The tricuspid valves will float up and close 
the opening. Allow the water to pass out through the semilunar valves. Introduce 
the scissors between two of the folds of the tricuspid valve, and cut a slit through 
the ventricular wall to the apex, then turn the scissors and cut alongside of the 
septum towards the pulmonary artery. Observe on the ventricular side of the tri- 
cuspid valves the many thin fibres attached to the folds of the valves, the chordx 
tendinex, and their attachment at the other end to the columnx carnex, or muscular 
pillars. 
Hold the right ventricle. Pour water into the pulmonary artery (lung). Raise 
the ventricular flap, and observe from below the form and mode of closing of the 
semilunar valves. Then continue the last incision, and lay open the semilunar valve 
and the pulmonary artery. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Lay open the left auricle in the same manner as the right. Study the mitral valve 
and use water as before. Note the thickness of the walls of the pulmonary veins and 
of the auricles. Lay open the left ventricle in the same manner as the right. Note the 
very thick walls and the great firmness of the tissues near the apex. Compare the 
walls of the auricles and ventricles as to the thickness and firmness. Observe the 
mitral valve from the ventricle. Notice its greater thickness and rigidity as compared 
with the tricuspid, also the increased size and strength of the chordae tendinese and 
the column® came®. Lay open the aorta. Examine its coats, their layers, thick- 
ness, atid elasticity. Observe the entrance to the coronary arteries (the nutrient 
arteries of the heart-muscle) in the anterior sinuses. 
QUESTIONS. 
The Heart. 
116. Where is the heart found? What is it? 117. How is the 
heart divided? What chambers? What openings? 118. Where 
are valves found ? What do they permit ? 
119. Describe the arteries. 120. Describe the veins. Where 
are they found? 121. Speak of cap'il-la-ries : position; size; 
walls. 122. Where are capillaries found? arteries? Why? 
Veins? 123. Write the circulatory system summary. 124. What 
keeps the blood in motion? By what conveyed? What may 
cause death of a part ? 
The Blood-Tubes. 
Structural Changes induced by Alcohol. 
125. How does alcohol change heart-structure ? 126. What de- 
fects in a fatty heart? What follows? 127. How does alcohol 
affect arteries ? 128. What causes ap'o-plex-y ? Who are liable ? 
Why? 
Work of the Lymphatics 
129. Describe the lym-phat/ics. Where do they end? 130. 
What are lymphatic glands? What has been noticed? 131. 
What do the lymphatics do ? the glands ? 54 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER X. 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATION. 
HOW THE BLOOD IS MOVED. 
132. Action of the Heart.—The heart is a 
hollow organ. When its muscles contract, the blood 
in the lower cavities of the heart (117) is forced out 
into the arteries and thence to all parts of the body. 
(Fig. 11.) 
When the heart-walls expand, a fresh amount of 
blood enters the upper cavities of the heart from the 
veins; and the lower cavities from the upper (a). 
133. Regular Action.—The heart-muscles con- 
tract and expand at regular intervals. These regular 
contractions keep the blood in constant motion in all 
parts of the living body. 
134. Heart-Work.—At birth the heart con- 
tracts about 135 times each minute; at the tenth 
year about 90 times; and at the thirtieth year (adult) 
about 70 times. 
135. Heart-Rest.—The heart works night and 
day. If it should stop working for a few minutes 
only we should die. The lieart-muscle rests while ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
55 
the cavities of the heart are expanding. (Dem. III.) 
The sum of these little rests is nearly nine hours 
daily. 
IRREGULAR HEART-ACTION. 
136. In Fainting the heart beats very slow, or, 
for a short time, ceases beating (6). Fainting is 
commonly due to the sending of impure blood to the 
heart and brain. 
Bad air makes impure blood. Tobacco-using 
injures the blood. Too little good food makes poor 
blood. 
137. Tobacco-Heart.—When the doctor says 
that Charlie B., or that Col. A., has a “ tobacco- 
heart,” it means that the blood, the brain-cells, the 
heart-muscle, and the lieart-neryes have been severely 
hurt by the tobacco used. It means that the heart 
works improperly and irregularly, causing distress 
and even pain under severe exertions. 
138. Tea-Drinker’s Heart.—The use of tea 
causes the heart unnecessary extra work, as does 
alcohol (139). When tea is drank in excess it may 
cause a peculiar beating called pal-pi-ta'tion. This 
peculiar beating happens in “old tea-drinkers” when 
they are obliged to hurry. 
139. Alcohol and Heart-Action.—When a 
temperate person takes a moderate dose of alcohol, 
the heart increases the number of its beats. Alcohol 56 
THE beginner’s 
thus causes the heart to work faster, to lessen its rests, 
and to wear out faster. 
140. A large dose of alcohol slows the heart’s 
action. It may stoj) the heart’s action quite rapidly. 
Snake-poison slows the heart’s action very power- 
fully. After snake-bite spirits should be used with 
care (c). 
14:1. Chloral (klo'ral), when used for some time, 
may cause heart-trouble. It lessens the heart’s 
power. It makes its action irregular. It sometimes, 
in a small dose, causes death by suddenly stopping 
the heart’s action (96). 
fa) FOR THE TEACHER. Experiment I.—Procure a Davidson’s rubber bulb- 
syringe. Show the construction to the class: the elastic bulb in the course of the 
tubing, and the valves. Between the bulb and the pipe-section of the tubing is a 
valve opening towards the pipe. Between the suction-pipe and the bulb is a valve 
opening towards the bulb. 
Action.—Holding the bulb in the hand place the suction-end and the pipe-end 
under water. Squeeze the bulb,—a few bubbles of air will escape. Relax the hand, 
—the elastic bulb expands. Squeeze the bulb again,—bubbles of air and a little 
water escape from the pipe. By repeating the squeezings and the relaxations, a 
stream of water soon will issue from the pipe with each squeeze. 
The forward movement.—When the bulb containing water is squeezed, the water 
cannot go back into the basin because the valve in the suction-pipe stops the way. 
The water must go forward into the pipe, or the rubber bulb must crack open, or the 
suction-pipe-valve give way under the severe squeezing. When the water has left 
the bulb it cannot return to the bulb, because the valve in the pipe-tubing is closed 
against a back-current. Now when the hand is relaxed and the bulb again ex- 
pands, water is sucked into (more properly, is forced into the bulb by the pressure 
of air on the water in the basin) the bulb, which again, by the squeezings of the 
hand, is forced out. and so on and on. 
Comparison with the heart.—Request the pupils to open their books to Fig. 20 and 
to follow the demonstration. When the muscular walls of the ventricles (2,10) con- 
tract the blood cannot return to the auricles because the tri-cus'pid (17) and mitral 
(19) valves prevent, hence it must go forward into the arteries (3,11), just as the water 
in the squeezed bulb was forced into the pipe-tube. When the heart ceases contrac- 
tion and expands, this blood cannot come back into the ventricles because of the 
sem'i-lu-nar (18, 20) valves, just as the pipe-tube-valve prevents the water returning. 57 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
After the contraction the ventricles expand. A vacant space would now he 
formed, but the blood in the auricles (1, 9) which now contract, and in the large venx 
cavx (15,16) rushes in from the venous side and again fills the ventricles, as occurs 
through the suction-pipe into the expanding bulb. 
In the living heart these contractions, valve-closures, and expansions occur 
regularly and frequently. The right and the left ventricles contract at the same 
time, expand together and rest together. The right and left auricles contract, ex- 
pand, and rest together. 
Experiment II.—Remove the lead-sinker from the suction-end of the suction- 
tube. Fill the bulb and tubes with water. Now push the pipe into the open end of 
the suction-tube. 
If the bulb be now squeezed, the water in the bulb will be forced forward into 
the tube forming the circuit. The tube becomes over-full. The rubber-tubing 
swells out. (The arteries after each heart-beat also swell out because they are 
made of elastic tissue.) When the bulb is relaxed, a part of the water in the tube- 
circuit enters the bulb and the tubing contracts to its normal size. Thus we can 
force the yvater round and round. 
All warm-blooded animals (man, dog, sheep, birds) have two hearts and a double 
circulation.—the circulations connecting in the capillaries of the lungs and the 
capillaries of the body at large. 
FOR THE TEACHER. Demonstration I.—The Pulse.—Place the fore-finger 
lightly on the radial artery. This artery lies just over the radius and just under the 
skin, on the thumb side of the wrist, about half an inch from the edge. The skin 
over the artery is felt to rise and fall at regular intervals. The sensation conveyed 
to the finger is called the pulse. It informs us how many times the heart contracts, 
as in a minute of time; how strong it beats, and if it beats regularly. 
Request all members of the class to place the fore-finger of one hand over the 
radial artery of the other. Let them count the beats for one minute. Place the 
results on the black-board and ascertain the average for the class. In high fever the 
pulse may indicate as many as 170 heart contractions per minute, and in the early 
stage of opium poisoning as low as 35 contractions per minute. 
Demonstration II.— Heart-Impulse.—On the left side of the chest, commen- 
cing at the collar-bone (clavicle), count down to the fifth rib. Place the palm of the 
hand over the fifth space. An impulse will be felt at regular intervals. Place a 
finger of the other hand over the radial artery. The impulse nearly coincides with 
the pulse. This impulse, or shock, is due to the contracting heart striking against 
the walls of the chest. 
Demonstration III.—Heart-Sounds.—Request a friend to remove all clothing 
from the chest, save the under-shirt. Find the heart-impulse-place. Place your 
ear against that spot. Put the finger of one hand on the radial pulse of your friend. 
Listen attentively and notice: (a) the impulse of the heart; (b) a dull sound like 
“ lubb”; (c) a slight pause ; (d) a sharp sound like “ dupp” ; (e) a longer pause (less 
than half a second). Listen to this again and again: “ lubb,” “ dflpp,” pause; 
“lubb,” “dflpp,” pause. 
The “ lubb” is mainly due to the closure of the valves between the auricles and 
ventricles; the “dflpp” to the closure of the semi-lunar valves at the entrance of 
the aorta and of the artery to the lungs. The long and short pauses are the periods 
of rest for the heart-muscle. 
(6) Management of Fainting.—Place the person flat on the back. If possible lower 58 
THE BEGINNER’S 
the shoulders and head and elevate the limbs. This enables more blood to go to the brain. 
Loosen all the clothing. Out all tight bands. Keep the people from crowding around. 
This secures more and better air. Dash cold water in the face. This latter excites deeper 
breathing. 
(c) Management of Snake-Bite.—Tie a cord or band between the bite and the heart. 
(See Fig. 14.) Cut near the wound to favor bleeding. If your mouth is sound suck the 
wound; if not, apply a live coal to the bite. Later apply a poultice to the bite. Give 
ordinary alcohol (a tablespoonful), water of ammonia (five to ten drops), and. quinia (one 
to three grains) in a little hot water. Repeat every ten minutes. Continue as long as the 
heart’s action is benefited. As the condition improves, gradually increase the intervals of 
administration. 
QUESTIONS. 
132. What happens when the lieart-muscle contracts ? When 
the lieart-muscle expands ? 133. What occurs regularly ? What 
results? 134. Speak of the work of the heart. 135. When does 
the heart work ? When can it rest ? How much ? 
How the Blood is moved. 
Irregular Heart-Action. 
136. What takes place in fainting? To what due? What 
makes impure blood? 137. What is injured in “ tobacco-heart” ? 
How shown ? 138. What may tea cause ? What causes pal-pi-ta'- 
tion? When is it commonly excited? 139. How does alcohol 
affect heart-action ? What results ? 140. How does a large dose 
of alcohol affect heart-action ? Snake-poison ? Hence ? 141. 
What is the influence of chloral on the heart? What may 
happen ? 59 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
CHAPTEfl XI. 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULA- 
TION. 
HOW THE BLOOD MOVES 
Fig. 18. A piece of the web of a frog’s 
foot showing the capillary net-work. 
Fig. 19. The arrows show the course 
of the corpuscles in the web of a frog’s 
foot. (Magnified thirty diameters.) 
142. Capillary Motion.—Many persons have 
seen the cor'pus-cles (kor'pus-ls), moving in the 
wing of the bat and in the web of the frog. (Fig. 18.) 
A few persons have seen the cor'pus-cles moving in 
the back part of the human eye. The blood moves 
from the arteries to the veins (a). 
143. Direction of the Current.—Pressure on 
the arm (.Bern. b), the flow in the web of the 60 
THE beginner’s 
frog’s foot (Fig. 19), and the blood flowing from 
the surfaces of a wound show us that the arteries 
convey the blood from the heart, and the veins 
towards the heart. 
144. Motion of the Blood.—In the cap'il-la- 
ries the flow is uniform ; in the ar'te-ries in waves 
thus causing “the pulse” (Dem. I. Chap. X.), and 
in the veins in a steady stream (b). 
THE COURSE OF THE BLOOD. 
145. Blood-Flow.—The contractions of the 
left heart cause the blood to reach every part of the 
body by forcing it into the a-or'ta and its branches. 
(Fig. 11, the white bands.) 
The con-trac'tions of the right heart cause the 
blood to reach all portions of the lungs by forcing it 
into the pul'mo-na-ry ar'te-ry and its branches. 
(Fig. 26,8-9.) 
HYGIENIC HINTS. 
146. Wear loose garments and comfortable shoes. 
—Close-fitting garments, shoes, and gloves impede 
the movements of the blood. They cause the skin 
to become too cool and the inner organs too warm. 
147. People who are not robust should always 
wear woollen under-clothing even in the summer.— 
Such clothing tends to equalize the work of the 
heart, for it keeps the skin warmer. 61 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 
148. In the summer and autumn always wear a 
broad woollen waist-band during the night.—It will 
prevent most colics and sudden “ morning di-ar- 
rhoe'as” (di-ar-re'ahs). 
149. Steady pressure on the skin makes it pale.— 
This is due to the pressing of the blood out of the 
surface capillaries. Hence wear loose, elastic bands 
on the limbs. 
150. “ Make haste slowly .”—When in haste to 
reach a distant point, as a burning building, start 
out at a walk and increase the speed gradually to a 
quick walk, a trot, and, when heart and lungs work 
well, then full speed. 
ACTION OF NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS. 
151. Narcotics.—Alcohol injures the heart-struc- 
ture. Alcohol and chloral and tobacco cause the 
heart to work improperly. They act more intensely 
on the young and the growing than the robust, out- 
of-door working-man. Hence they ought not to be 
used by the young. 
152. Stimulants.—Tea and coffee are stim'u- 
lants. They do not give force or food to the heart. 
They cause the heart extra work. Hence they are 
not needed by the young and ought not to be used 
by them. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Demonstration of the Blood-Movements.—Wrap 
a live frog in a moist cloth, allowing one hind leg to stick out. 
With tapes fasten a live frog on a piece of stiff card-board. Near the toes of one 62 
THE BEGINNER’S 
Fig. 20. An ideal view of the circulation in the lungs and system (a). 
outstretched hind limb cut a hole in the card three-quarters of an inch in diameter. 
Attach threads to two adjacent toes. So arrange the threads that the stretched web 
comes over the centre of the hole. Place a drop of water on the web, and over the 
same a thin cover-glass. Use on the microscope a 1-inch or %-inch objective. Ob- 
serve the moving bodies; the red and the white corpuscles; the comparatively small 
number of the latter; the walls of the channels; the rapid central current; the 
slow wall-current; and the pigmented granules in the web. (Figs. 18,19.) 
(6) Demonstration of the Course of the Blood-Current.—Place a twisted hand- 
kerchief loosely about the arm, tie it securely and insert a small rod, as in Fig. 14. 
Place the finger over the radial artery. Twist the stick until the skin is compressed, 
—the veins under the skin of the fore-arm swell out. Loosen the twisting,—the 
veins grow smaller and the skin appears natural. Twist again,—the veins swell up, 
yet the radial pulse continues,—i.e., the blood flows from the heart in the arteries and 
towards the heart in the veins. Twist still more,—the radial pulse ceases, the veins ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
63 
do not further enlarge and do not grow smaller, but the artery above the handker- 
chief beats strongly and the skin appears normal. If the twisting is kept up for 
some minutes, the hand will become cool, for no new and warmer blood arrives, and 
the parts also become painful. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER.—With the books open to Fig. 20 it is suggested that the 
teacher start the pupils from different points, as 1, 9,14, etc., and request them to 
trace the course of the blood, naming the tubes, parts, and valves in turn around to 
the starting-point. Later, drill them in the same manner on Fig. 11; also on the 
anatomical chart of the circulatory organs. 
The Lung Circulation.—From the right ventricle of the heart (Fig. 20,2), the dark 
impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery (3); and its branches (4, 5) carry 
the blood to the left and right lung. In the capillary vessels (6, 6) of the lungs, the 
blood becomes pure, or of a scarlet color, and is returned to the left auricle of the 
heart (9) by the veins (7, 8). 
The General Circulation.—From the left auricle the pure blood passes into the 
left ventricle (10). By a forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heart the 
blood is thrown into the aorta (11). Its branches (12,13,13) carry the pure blood to 
every organ, or part of the body. The* divisions and subdivisions of the aorta ter- 
minate in capillary vessels, represented by 14,14. In these hair-like vessels the 
blood becomes dark-colored, and is returned to the right auricle of the heart (1) by 
the ve'na ca'va de-scen'dens (15) and ve’na ca'va as cen'dens (16). (See Fig. 11.) 
The Valve-Action.—The tricuspid valves (17) prevent the reflow of the blood 
from the right ventricle to the right auricle. The semi-lunar valves (18) prevent the 
blood passing from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. The mitral valves 
(19) prevent the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the left auricle. The semi- 
lunar valves (20) prevent the reflow of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle. 
QUESTIONS. 
142. Where has blood-motion been seen? In what direction? 
143. How was the course of the blood-current proven? What is 
the direction? 144. How does the blood flow in the capfil-la-ries? 
arteries ? veins ? 145. Where is the blood forced by the left heart ? 
the right ? 
How the Blood moves. 
146. State objections to the use of close-fitting apparel. 147. 
Why should woollen under-clothing be worn? 148. What acts to 
prevent summer illness? Hence? 149. Why are elastic bands to 
be preferred? 150. How would you run, as to a fire? 
Hygienic Hints. 
Action of Narcotics and Stimulants. 
151. What is the influence of alcohol? Of chloral? Who are 
most affected? Hence? 152. What are not foods? What evil 
do they induce ? Hence ? 64 
THE BEGINNER’S 
Fig. 21. A front view of the organs of the chest and abdomen.—1, 1, 1, 1, The 
muscles of the chest. 2, 2, 2, 2, The ribs. 3, 3, 3, The lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, 
The lobes of the left lung. 5, The right ventricle of the heart. 6, The left ventricle. 
7, The right auricle. 8, The left auricle. 9, The pulmonary artery. 10, The aorta. 
11, The vena cava deseendens. 12, The trachea. 13, The oesophagus. 14,14,14,14, 
The pleura. 15,15,15, The diaphragm. 16,16, The lobes of the liver. 17, The gall- 
bladder. 18, The stomach. 19,19, The duodenum. 20, 21, 25, The large intestine. 
22, 22, 22, 22, The small intestine. 23. 23, The abdominal walls turned down. 24, 
The thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein. 26, The spleen. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
65 
CHAPTER XII. 
THE BREATHING APPARATUS. 
153. The Need of Air.—I have met a sailor 
who lived four days without food or water. In 
Yezo I took care of a boy of fourteen who lay in 
the snow, ice, and water of a swamp, because of 
frozen feet, twenty-eight days in March and April, 
1880. For twenty-five days he had no food. I have 
never read of a man who has lived as much as 
five minutes without air. 
154. The Air contains a vital food. It is called 
oxygen (ox'i-jen). It forms about one-fifth of a good 
air. 
THE AIR-PASSAGES 
155. The Air-Passages are the 
Two nostrils. 
Two nasal passages (Fig. 22). 
Phar'ynx (far'inks), or throat (Fig. 22). 
Lar'ynx (lar'inks), or Adam’s apple (Fig. 22). 
Tra'che-a (tra-kee-ah), or wind-pipe (Fig. 22). 
Bron'chi-al tubes (brdn'kee-al), (Fig. 24,5,6). 
Air-cells (sells) Fig. 24,9>9). 66 
THE BEGINNEU’S 
156. Mucous Membrane.— The air-passages 
are lined by a thin, inner skin,—the mucous mem- 
brane. It is red in color. It secretes a moisture 
called mu'cus (a). 
Fig. 22. Section of head and neck in the median line. 
157. Open Passages.— The air-passages are 
always open. Hence the air, in health, can pass 
freely in and out (b). 
THE CHEST AND ITS CONTENTS. 
158. The Chest (or Tho'rax) is a bony cage- 
work (Fig. 21) filled in with muscles. It holds and ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
67 
protects the heart, lungs, great blood-tubes, and the 
gullet. 
Fig. 23 The heart, lungs, and trachea— t, Trachea; a, Arch of aorta; h, Heart 
1, 2, Pulmonary artery. 
159. The Diaphragm (di'a-fram) is a broad, 
thin muscle. It separates the thorax from the ab- 
do'men. (Fig. 32.) It is the great breathing-muscle. 
160. The Lungs are two in number. The right 
is the larger. (Fig. 21.) The lung is soft, elastic, 
and light. 
161. Lung-Structure.—The trachea (Fig. 24,4) 
is like the trunk of a tree; the bronchial tubes (Fig. 
24,5,e) like its limbs, branches, and twigs, and the 
air-cells like the leaves. (Fig. 24,9.) 
162. The Air-Cells are surrounded by a fine 68 
the beginner’s 
net-work of capillary blood-tubes. (Fig. 25,5.) The 
air in the air-cells and the blood in the cap'il-la-ry 
Fig. 25. (Leidy.) Diagram of two lobules 
of the lungs, magnified.—1, Bronchial 
tube. 2, A pair of primary lobules con- 
nected by fibro elastic tissue. 3, Air- 
passages. 4, Air-cells. 5, Branches of 
the pulmonary artery and vein. 
Fig. 24. Diagram of the lower air-pas- 
sages.—I, Outline of right lung. 2, Out- 
line of left lung. 3, Larynx. 4, Trachea. 
5, 6, 7, 8, Bronchial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. 
tubes are separated by two very, very thin mem- 
branes only. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Dissection.—Open the thorax as 
directed in Chapter IX. (Fig. 16). 
When the thorax of a dog or rat is opened, air enters the pleural cavities; the 
lungs, which had hitherto filled the large right and left chambers of the thorax, 
shrink somewhat. Before removing the thoracic viscera, bend two straws of broom- 
corn into a sickle shape, pass one into each nostril, and then urge them gently for- 
ward to their whole length. Open the mouth, gently move the soft curtain attached 
to the back part of the roof of the mouth to one side, and the two straws will be 
seen projecting into a cavity or open sac, the pharynx. The passages in which the 
straws lie are separated from each other by a long and cartilaginous septum, and 
from the mouth by bone and a soft fleshy curtain. 
Remove the larynx, trachea, lungs, and heart, as directed in Chapter IX. At 
the upper or anterior part we encounter the larynx, an irregular cartilaginous box, 
opening above into a membranous sac, the pharynx, and below into a cartilaginous 
tube, the trachea. Observe on the upper front of the larynx a stiff, elastic, projecting, 
tongue-like mass, the epiglottis. Press this down, and it is seen to close over a slit-like 
opening in the larynx. 
Lay open the larynx by an incision on the oesophageal side. In the interior, 
from above downward, note: the mucus on the surface, the two continuous surfaces ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
69 
forming the upper slit, two right and left pits, the ventricles of the larynx, and two 
thin, contiguous surfaces, forming the vocal cords, and the cut cricoid, with the two 
arytenoid cartilages resting thereon. 
The trachea is found to be an open tube. The trachea divides into two partly 
cartilaginous tubes, the bronchi, which in turn, as a rule, divide and subdivide by 
twos. The cartilages in these latter soon disappear, they only being represented by 
membrane. The lumen of these tubes grows smaller and smaller, and is lost to 
sight in the soft, elastic, pinkish mass called the lung. 
Entering the lung-mass, side by side with the bronchi, are seen the open, firm 
arterial tubes, and the numerous dark, thin, flattened veins. These bronchi, arteries, 
and veins, together with the accompanying nerves, lymphatics, and connective 
tissue, constitute the root of the lung. The smooth outer surface of the lung-mass is 
the pulmonary pleura. By a dainty scratch a portion of a thin membrane, the pleura, 
may be raised into view. 
Squeeze a portion of fresh lung-mass, and there arises a sensation called crepita- 
tion; throw a bit into water, and it is seen to float; hold a bit under water, squeeze 
it, and bubbles will be seen to arise,—the residual air of the lung. 
(6) The frame-work of the nostrils keeps them open. The nasal passages and 
the throat are channels between bones; the lar'ynx and trachea have rings or plates 
of car'ti-lage in their walls, and the bron'chi-al tubes have bits of car'ti-lage in their 
walls. 
QUESTIONS. 
Air. 
153. How long may a person live without food? Without air? 
154. What does air contain ? What amount? 
The Air-Passages. 
155. Name, in order, the divisions of the air-passages. 156. 
What is the mucous (mu/kus) membrane? What is mucus? 
157. What are open ? Hence ? 
158. What is the thorax ? What does it contain ? 159. De- 
scribe the diaphragm (di'a-fram). What does it do ? 160. Speak 
of the lungs. 161. Compare the air-passages with a tree. 162. 
What surrounds the air-cells ? Hence ? 
The Thorax and its Contents 70 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XIII. 
THE PHYSIOLOGY OP BREATHING. 
Fig. 26. A diagram of the, pulmonary circulation.—I, Vein bringing blood from 
the head, etc. 2, Vein bringing blood from lower parts of the body. 3, 4, Lung in 
section. 5, Aorta. 6, Arch of aorta. 7, Right heart. 8. 9, Pulmonary arteries. 10, 11, 
Pulmonary veins. The arrows show the direction of the blood-stream. 
HOW WE BEEATHE. 
163. Breathing is the taking in and giving out 
of air. In a healthy adult it occurs about seventeen 
times each minute (a). 71 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
164. Inspiration.—"When the diaphragm (di'a- 
fram) contracts (Fig. 27), and when the muscles be- 
tween the ribs (Fig. 21,1,1) 
contract, the cavity of the 
chest is made larger. (Fig. 
27,4’5.) An empty space is 
made in the chest. 
Results.—Air rushes in 
through the air-passages 
(155). The lungs expand. 
New air reaches the air-cells. 
This is in-spi-ra'tion. 
165. Expiration.— 
When the muscles between 
the ribs and the di'a-phragm 
cease contracting, the capac- 
ity of the chest becomes less. 
(Fig. 27,1’3,7.) 
Results.—A part of the 
air iji the air-passages of 
the lungs is forced out. This 
is ex-pi-ra'tion. 
166. The Outward 
Passage.—The bad air, 
leaving the air-cells, enters 
the bronchial (bron'kee-al) tubes, from which it 
passes into the many-ringed trachea (tray'kee-ah), 
and thence through the larynx (lar'inks), pharynx 
Fig. 27. A section-view of the chest 
and abdomen in respiration.—1, The 
cavity of the chest. 2, The cavity of 
the abdomen. 3, The line of direction 
for the diaphragm when relaxed in 
expiration. 4, The line of direction 
for the diaphragm when contracted 
in inspiration. 5, 6, The position of 
the front walls of the chest and ab- 
domen in inspiration. 7, 8, The posi- 
tion of the front walls of the abdo- 
men and chest in expiration. 72 
THE BEGINNER’S 
(far'inks), and nasal passages to the outer air. (Figs. 
24, 22.) 
CHANGES EFFECTED BY BREATHING. 
167. Effects of Breathing.—(1) The fresh air, 
which enters with every breath, takes in a new sup- 
ply of oxygen. (2) The air which passes out in ex- 
pi-ra'tion takes away a part of the wastes and much 
water. It also takes away about one-fifth of the heat 
made in the body (383). 
168. Impure Blood.—The blood which comes 
from the right heart to the lungs is impure blood. 
It is of a dark red color. The impure blood is laden 
with wastes, especially car-bon'ic acid gas. The 
wastes have been sucked up in all parts of the body. 
169. Changes occurring in the Lungs.— 
Wastes (especially car-bon'ic acid) pass from the 
dark blood through the blood-tube walls and the air- 
cell walls to the air-cell. A food (ox'y-gen) passes 
from the air-cell through the air-cell walls and the 
blood-tube walls to the blood. (Fig. 26.) 
170. Results.—Car-bon'ic acid and bad-smelling 
compounds are cast from the blood. Later, they are 
passed out of the body by way of the air-passages 
(166). 
Oxygen is taken in and the red corpuscles become 
bright red. The corpuscles convey it to all parts. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
73 
171. Summary.— 
Thorax enlarges. 
New air rushes in. 
Oxygen (a food) is introduced. 
Inspiration. . 
Interchanges. 
Fresh oxygen enters the blood. 
TT_ J & _ . .. . 
Wastes are cast from the blood. 
Thorax lessens in size. 
Heat is lost. 
Wastes are expelled. 
Expiration. . 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Demonstrations.—Let a healthy boy 
remove the apparel covering his neck and chest, except a close-fitting undershirt- 
Have him stand easily erect and execute four or six full respirations in a deliberate 
manner, the class, meanwhile, watching the movements attentively. 
Place a tape snugly around the chest, about three inches below the armpits. 
Notice the difference in circumference during a full inspiration and a complete ex- 
piration,—1st, in normal breathing; 2d, in labored breathing. Notice that the right 
half-circle of the chest is usually larger. If a spirometer can be procured, test the 
air-capacity of the lungs. 
Place the forefinger flat on the wall of the chest. Tap this finger smartly with 
the first two fingers of the other hand. Test different parts of the chest in front and 
in the rear in the same manner. A clear sound denotes the presence of air in the 
organs beneath; a dull sound, the presence of solids or liquids. The healthy lung- 
areas give forth a clear sound. By this method, the limits of the lungs, the heart, 
the liver, and the intestines may be approximately mapped out. 
Place the ear on the skin over the region of the trachea in front; a blowing 
sound is heard both in inspiration and in expiration. Then place the ear on the 
shirt, over the lung-areas, pressing the latter smoothly and closely on the chest-walls. 
Listen in one place during several respirations. Shift the ear to different parts of the 
chest, and listen. A soft, low, murmuring sound is heard, being most marked over 
the front and upper parts of the chest and during inspiration. The murmur is 
mainly caused by the air passing in and out of the air-sacs and air-cells. 
Experiments.—Take a clean glass (fruit) jar with cover; fasten a piece of 
caudle, with wire or a small nail, near the end of a stick twenty inches long. 
Lower the lighted candle into the jar: it will burn freely. Reverse the jar; shake 
after the taper is withdrawn. Now have some person take a full inspiration, re- 
taining the air, for a time, in the lungs; then steadily expel it from the lungs into 
the jar, directing the current to one side; cover; soon breathe again in the same 
manner into the glass vessel, and lower a lighted candle. The flame will be extin- 
guished, because the carbonic acid, the watery vapor, and other gases from the 
lungs have so vitiated the air in the jar as to prevent combustion. 
Place a little fresh lime-water in a jar; breathe several times into it; cover, 74 
THE BEGINNER’S 
and shake the lime-water. Instead of a clear liquid, there will be formed the 
white carbonate of lime. 
Put a live rat in a jar. Regulate the supply of air by the cover, giving a liberal 
supply, a limited supply, and then total exclusion of air, and notice the results. 
Breathe on the cool surface of a clean mirror, and watery vapor will be con- 
densed from the saturated exhaled air. Take a clean, cool mirror into the recita- 
tion-room. In a few minutes examine the moist surface. 
If onions or leeks have been recently eaten, ether or chloroform inhaled, or 
alcoholics recently drunk, or if persons have decayed teeth, the expired air will give 
forth odors easily detected. The air from a crowded room, or badly ventilated room, 
is tainted with odors from the the throat, the mouth, the nasal passages, 
the skin, and unclean clothing. These are made known to us by the sense of smell, 
These are the dangerous factors in a once breathed air. 
Borrow the doctor’s clinical thermometer. Test the temperature of the expired 
air. Compare the readings with the room-air readings. 
QUESTIONS. 
How we Breathe, 
163. What is breathing? How often ? 164. What muscles act 
in in-spi-ra'tion ? State the changes ; the results. 165. What 
causes ex-pi-ra'tion? What follows? 166. Through what chan- 
nels does the out-going air pass ? 
167. What is taken in? What is cast out? What is lost? 
168. What is peculiar about the blood from the right heart? 
What does it contain? Where gathered ? 169. How are wastes 
cast out? How is ox'y-gen taken in ? 170. What is passed out? 
How expelled? What change occurs? What becomes of the 
oxygen? 171. Write the summary of the breathing process. 
Changes effected by Breathing. 75 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
CHAPTER XIV. 
HYGIENE OF BREATHING, 
HOW TO BREATHE 
172. Breathe a pure air. A good air is clear 
and cool. It has no dusts, no odor, and no taste. 
It is free from smoke. 
173. Breathe through the nostrils. When the 
entering air passes through the air-passages (Fig. 30, 
7,26, js warmect and moistened. Hence, when 
it reaches the lungs, the air is agreeable. 
Observation.—The American Indians are remark- 
ably free from diseases of the nose, throat, and ears. 
This freedom is largely due to their habit of breath- 
ing through the nostrils. 
174. Avoid breathing through the mouth. Breath- 
ing through the mouth, as when a person snores, 
makes the mouth and throat dry and bad smelling. 
Mouth-breathing is a frequent cause of sore-throat, 
colds, coughs, and even lung-fever. 
THE NERVES OF SMELL. 
175. The Nerves of Smell are found in the 
upper nasal passages. (Fig. 28,5.) When we breathe 
a good air they are not excited. Odors excite them. 76 
THE beginner’s 
176. Uses. —These special nerves are placed at 
the entrance of the air-passages to warn us against 
bad airs. Hence, when the air smells bad, we should 
leave the room or place at once. 
Fig. 28. A side-view of the passage of the nostrils and the distribution of the nerve of 
smell.—4, The olfactory bulb. 5, The fine divisions of this nerve in the membrane 
of the nose. 
177. Tobacco-smoke blunts the sense of smell. It 
injures the texture of the membrane lining the nose 
and throat. Snuff-taking is even more injurious to 
this sense than smoking. 
INJURIOUS ACTIONS OF ALCOHOL, OPIUM, AND 
TOBACCO. 
178. Alcohol and the Blood.—When an al- 
coholic is drunk, its alcohol soon reaches the blood. 
It rapidly mixes with the plasma. In a few mo- 
ments some of it has visited every part of the body. 
179. Alcohol in excess hurts the feeding power of 
the plasma. It acts to hinder the passing out of the 77 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
wastes of the body. It also hinders the taking in 
of oxygen. 
180. Alcohol and Lung-Disease.—It is not 
true that alcohol is a “ cure for con-sump'tion.” It 
is very doubtful if alcohol acts to prevent consump- 
tion. 
181. Alcoholic Breath.—When alcohol is taken 
in excess then a part of it may be cast out (as alco- 
hol) by the lungs (395). 
182. Opium-Smoking.—The Chinese method 
of taking opium by “smoking” does less harm to 
the body and mind than does the American method 
of taking it by the stomach, or under the skin. 
183. Tobacco-Smoke.—The hot smoke injures 
the linings of the mouth, throat, and larynx. The 
hot smoke and the drugs of the tobacco cause red- 
ness, dryness, irritation, coughing, and even disease 
of the linings of the air-passages. 
184. Cigarette-smoking is the most injurious form 
of smoking: (1) The entering smoke is hotter. (2) 
The drugs of the tobacco more largely and more 
quickly enter the blood. It is the tobacco and not 
the paper that injures the young cigarette-smoker. 
HYGIENIC HINTS 
185. Personal.—Practise deep breathing daily. 
It is an excellent method to guard against consump- 
tion. Always breathe through the nose. 78 
THE BEGINNER’S 
186. When possible sleep in an upper room. 
Dampness and ma-la'ri-a act most injuriously near 
the ground. 
Be sure that the sleeping-room window is lowered 
{from the top) every night, so that the bad air can 
quickly pass out. Let the night air in freely, and 
let it out freely. 
187. Do not wear close-fitting chest and waist 
garments. Corsets and tight vests compress the 
lower ribs. (Fig. 29.) They press the digestive or- 
gans out of place. They hinder deep and proper 
breathing. 
188. Avoid an air laden with smoke and dusts, 
as coal-, pottery-, and steel- 
dusts. Dusts cause lung-dis- 
ease. 
189. When the lamps burn 
dim, open the windows. A 
lamp will not burn well in 
a bad air. A bad smell is a 
sign of danger. 
190. Stand erect Sit erect. 
Keep the shoulders well back. 
This will give you a line ap- 
pearance. This will enable 
you to breathe better. This 
will make you healthier (15). 
191. Household. —The sunlight should freely 
Fig. 29. A deformed chest. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
79 
enter each living-, working-, or sleeping-room. Sun- 
light makes the air pure and healthy. 
192. The open fire is the healthiest method of 
warming a small room. 
There should be no damper in the stove-pipe. It 
hinders the passing away of the bad gases from the 
lire. 
193. Ventilation.—In the cold weather, keep a 
board about live inches wide under the lower sash of 
each window. This allows fresh air to constantly 
enter where the lower sash overlaps the upper sash. 
Always have one sash lowered from the top, thus 
allowing foul air to pass out. Foul air is the great 
inducer of consumption. 
194-. Allow no refuse or filth to gather in, under, 
or near the home. In decaying they taint the air. 
Filth feeds the germs of disease (a). It is best to 
burn refuse which cannot be at once used in the soil. 
(a) Epidemics.— When cholera, yellow fever, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, 
and other infectious diseases prevail, he clean. Keep your skin clean. See to it that the 
cellar, the sink-waste, the eaves, the ditches, and the grounds about the house are free from 
leaves, refuse, and filth. Wash, air, and sun the clothing and the bedding. All these ef- 
forts are directed to make the air clean and pure and to prevent the germs of disease living 
and increasing near the home. Live on simple, plain, wholesome food. Ripe fruits are 
safe. Wash the hands and mouth before eating. If the water is suspicious, only drink 
boiled water, which has been cooled by putting ice about the pitcher. Boil the milk, if you 
are not certain of its source. Avoid Alcoholics. They increase the tendency to most 
diseases. 
QUESTIONS. 
How to Breathe. 
172. What is peculiar to a pure air ? 173. Why breathe through 
the nostrils? What has been noticed? How accounted for? 
174. State objections to mouth-breathing. 80 
THE BEGINNER’S 
175. Where are the nerves of smell located ? How excited ? 
176. Why are they so placed? Hence? 177. What is the influ- 
ence of tobacco-smoke ? of snuff? 
The Nerves of Smell 
Injurious Actions of Alcohol, Opium, and Tobacco. 
178. What becomes of an alcoholic? Where is it taken? 179. 
What is the action of an excess on the plasma? on wastes? on 
ox'y-gen-taking? 180. Speak of alcohol and con-sump'tion. 181. 
What may become of an excess of alcohol? 182. Speak of the 
methods of opium-taking. 183. What is injured by tobacco- 
smoke? What often results? 184. Why is cigarette-smoking so 
hurtful? To what due? 
Hygienic Hints. 
185. Why practise deep breathing? 186. Why sleep in an up- 
per room? What should be done nightly? 187. Mention objec- 
tions to close-fitting waist- or chest-garments. 188. What should 
be avoided ? Why ? 189. Mention signs of danger. 190. Why 
is the erect posture desirable? 191. What does sunlight do? 
Hence? 192. How best warm a room? What should not be 
used? Why? 193. How can you ventilate an ordinary room? 
What danger from using foul air? 194. What shall be done with 
filth? Why? What is best? ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
CHAPTER XV. 
VOICE. 
THE YOCAL ORGANS. 
Fig. 30. Vertical section of face and neck— 5, 6, 7, Outer wall of left nose. 10, 
Entrance to tube leading to middle ear. 14, Roof of mouth. 16, Tongue. 23, TonsiL 
26, 27, Pharynx. 28, Larynx. 29, Left vocal cord (upper line). 30, Epiglottis. 82 
THE BEGINNER’S 
195. The Larynx (lar'inks) is made up of car'- 
ti-la-ges. (Fig. 30,28 ) It forms the “Adam’s 
apple.” 
196. The Vocal Cords are two in number. 
They are within the larynx. (Fig. 30,29-) 
197. The Epiglottis is the lid of the larynx. 
It acts to keep food or drink from entering the 
larynx. (Fig. 30,30 ) 
HOW WE MAKE SOUNDS. 
198. The Larynx is the organ of voice. In 
breathing the air passes in and out freely, producing 
no sound. 
199. Vocal Sound.—By the action of the mi- 
nute muscles inside the larynx the cords are brought 
near together. When air is then forced from the 
lungs through the larynx the cords vibrate and a 
vocal sound {a, e, i, o, u) results (a). 
HYGIENIC HINTS 
200. Practice tends to improve the voice. Deep 
breathing improves the cultured voice. Singing 
causes the voice to improve in clearness, in firmness, 
and in strength. 
201. We learn to speak, as well as to sing, by imi- 
tating the sounds ivhich we hear. If children hear 
good words and gentle tones, they will use good 
words and polite tones. 83 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
202. Children should he encouraged to speak and 
sing in a natural tone. They should utter the con' 
so-nant sounds as well as the vowel sounds clearly 
and distinctly. 
203- The posture during vocal exercises should be 
erect, yet easy. The garments of the neck, chest, 
and waist ought to be loose fitting (187). 
204:. Strong tobacco is known to injure the vocal 
organs. Young singers should not use tobacco or 
alcoholics. The latter sometimes injure the voice; 
neither improve the voice. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Illustration.—In a toy-trumpet the blast of air 
blown through it causes the brass reeds to vibrate and sound is produced. In the 
larynx, the blast of air forced from the lungs causes the vocal cords to vibrate and 
to produce a vocal or vowel sound. 
Sounds.— Vowel sounds are produced in the larynx. Con'so-nant sounds are 
produced in the air-passages above the vocal cords. These sounds are varied by the 
position of tongue, teeth, lips, and cheeks. 
Demonstration.—-Let the teacher pronounce the consonant sounds, Avhile the 
pupils note the changes in the position of the parts of the face and neck. Also utter 
the vowels. 
The Vocal Organs. 
QUESTIONS. 
195. What of the larynx (lar'inks)? 196. Speak of the vocal 
cords. 197. What is the ep-i-glot/tis ? What does it do? 
198. What is the larynx? What is noticed in’ breathing? 
199. What is done in the larynx? What causes the cords to 
vibrate ? What results ? 
How we make Sounds. 
Hygienic Hints. 
200. What improves the voice? What advantage from sing- 
ing? 201. How do we learn to speak? Hence? 202. How should 
children speak? What should be uttered clearly? 203. Speak 
of posture and clothing. 204. What injures the vocai organs? 
the voice ? Hence ? 84 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XVI. 
WATER AND OTHER FOODS, 
WATER. 
205. Water.—Nearly seven-tenths of the living 
body is water. A person needs about five pints 
daily. 
206. A Good Water is clear and bright. It 
has no odor or taste. It is the best of bev'er-ages. 
207. Drinking-Water.—Country rain-water, 
when filtered, is healthy. Ice-water is “ heavy.” 
Spring-water is the safest and the best (a). 
208. Shallow-Well-Waters are dangerous. 
—When the well is near the house or barn, then 
too often the sink-waste, the privy-waste, and the 
barn-waste leak into the well. (Fig. 31.) Such wastes 
in the drinking-water cause ill-health (fevers, di-ar- 
rhoe'as) (Jr). 
209. The Germs of chol'e-ra, ty-phoid- (ti'foid) 
and yellow-fevers are carried from the sick to the 
healthy. These germs most often pass into the sys- 
tem in the drinking-water taken from shallow wells 
or stagnant pools (c). 
210. Prevention of Disease.—Drink pure ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
85 
water. It is safest to cool the water by placing ice 
about the jar, not in it. When diseases like ty'phoid 
fever are common, drink water that has been boiled. 
Fig. 31. Well-drainage cone.—A, house; B, sink-spout; C, pump, thirty feet from 
the house; D, well twenty feet deep ; F, cone of soil; H, sloping pump-trough. 
211. The Well.—It should be at least fifty feet 
away from the pig-sty, the sink waste-pool, or other 
filthy spot. Surface-washings should not be allowed 
to run into the well. The ground around the well 
should be grassed. 
212. Lead-Poisoning sometimes occurs from 
using shallow-well- or rain-waters which have slowly 
passed through lead-pipes. Lead causes “ wrist- 
drop” and colicky pains. 
FOODS 
213. Foods.— Water is a food. The ox'y-gen 
from the air is a food. The starches of flour, meal, 86 
THE beginner’s 
and seeds are food. The oils found in grains and 
meats are foods. The ni'tro-gen com'pounds of lean 
meat, the white of an egg, etc., are foods. Salt is a 
food. 
214. Milk is a perfect food. It has bone-making 
and flesli-making matters. It contains matters to 
repair the wasting blood and wasting organs. It is 
rich in heat-making and strength-giving matters. 
ANIMAL FOODS. 
215. Cow’s Milk is best when taken fresh. It 
should be sipped or taken in small swallows. Hot 
milk is most excellent for tired persons. Cheese is a 
rich and hearty food suitable for hard workers. 
216. Eggs form a rich food. Raw eggs are easily 
digested. “ Hard-boiled” and fried eggs are difficult 
to digest. 
217. Meats are rich in fats and ni'tro-gen com- 
pounds. Beef and venison are best. Pork is good, 
though difficult to digest. 
218. Selection of Meats.—Good meat has a 
good odor. It is uniform to the touch. Bad meat 
has soft spots. 
219. Dangers in Meats.—Pork and ham some- 
times contain a worm called tri-chi'na (tri-ki'na). 
This worm causes in man a painful and even fatal 
disease. Man derives the tape-worm most commonly 
from liog-flesli. 87 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
220. Eat no raw meat. Eat no uncooked smoked 
meats. Eat only well-cooked flesh. 
221. Fresh Fish is an excellent food. As a rule 
it is lacking in fats. Stale fish soon develops poison 
properties, and is dangerous. 
YEGETABLE FOODS 
222. White Wheat-Bread is lacking in bone- 
making matters; also in fats and ni'tro-gen com- 
pounds. Hence meats, fish, butter, and eggs should 
be largely used with white bread. 
223. Yeast-Bread is the most wholesome bread. 
Stale bread is healthier than fresh bread, for it is 
more easy to digest; for the same reason the crust is 
better than the interior. 
224-. Children’s Foods.—Children should not 
be fed on white wheat-bread. They need bone- 
making (5), muscle-making, and teeth-making food. 
Hence they should live almost entirely on cracked- 
wheat, oatmeal, milk, and fruits (33). 
225. Potato and Rice are very poor in bone- 
making materials. Indian-corn, beans, and peas are 
good foods for hard-working persons, like soldiers, 
lumbermen, laborers. 
226. Vegetables have little value as foods. 
They are good to supply bulk or to give flavor to 
other foods. 
227. Fruits are valuable for their flavors and 88 
THE beginner’s 
their juices. They have very little feeding power. 
Avoid unripe fruits. 
223. Tinned-Foods.—Avoid all tinned-foods 
which have a bad odor or taste. Never keep the 
food in the opened tin. 
229. Mineral-Foods.—With the exception of 
common salt, a common good diet contains all the 
bone-making elements needed. Salt, in moderation, 
is needed in most foods. 
COOKING. 
230. Fire .—Man uses fire to make his food more 
agreeable to the taste and more easy to digest. 
231. Method of Cooking.—Roasting and broil- 
ing are the best methods of cooking flesh, as well as 
most vegetables. “ Baked potato” is far better than 
“ boiled potato.” Boiling is a ready means of cook- 
ing, hence it is most often employed. 
232. Frying is the most objectionable method of 
cooking. It causes heated fat to enter the food-mass. 
Heated fat is slow and difficult to digest. 
233. Pastry and Cake.—They contain large 
amounts of butter or lard which has been highly 
heated. They are less easy to digest than bread. 
Small amounts of plain cake do little or no harm. 
(a) Wholesome, v 
-1. Spring-water. 
2. Deep-well-water. 
L3. Grass-land surface-water. 
Very palatable. 
Suspicious. . 
f 4. Stored rain-water. 
5. Surface-water from cultivated land. 
Moderately palatable. 
Dangerous. . 
16. River-water, with sewage-access. 
17. Shallow-well-water. 
(Frankland.) 89 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
(6) A Shallow Well is one whose depth is rarely more than twenty-five feet. 
The water which enters such a well comes from the soil near the well. Such water 
enters the well too quickly to be cleaned by the soil and sand. (Fig. 31.) 
(c) In June, 1886, a young man came to his home in Waterford, Wis., sick with 
ty'phoid fever. The utensils used in his case were rinsed under the family pump. 
On July 5, with the thermometer at 108° in the shade, all the pupils of the neigh- 
boring school drank of the infected water. In a few days nearly every pupil was 
severely ill with ty'phoid fever! The epidemic involved the people of the town also! 
QUESTIONS. 
Water. 
205. How much water in the body ? How much is needed ? 
206. Describe a good water. 207. Mention good drinking-waters. 
208. When is well-water unsafe? Why? 209. What diseases 
are carried by germs? How are some germs conveyed? 210. 
What should be done to avoid some diseases? 211. Where 
should the well be placed? What should be done near the well? 
212. What leads to lead-poisoning? What is caused? 
Foods. 
213. What supplies ox'y-gen? starches? oils? ni'tro-gen com- 
pounds? 214. Why is milk a perfect food? 
215. How should milk be taken? What is excellent? Speak 
of cheese. 216. Tell about eggs as food. 217. Why are meats 
valuable? Mention some meats. 218. Compare a good with a 
bad meat. 219. What may contain the trichina (trl-ki'na) ? What 
results ? Speak of tape-worm. 220. What should not be eaten ? 
221. What is lacking in fish ? Why is stale fish objectionable ? 
Vegetable Foods. 
222. What is lacking in white bread? Hence? 223. What is 
wholesome ? Why use stale bread ? 224. Why should children 
not use white bread constantly? What is good for them? 225. 
Speak of potato; corn; beans. 226. For what are vegetables 
valuable ? 227. What do fruits supply ? What avoid ? 
228. What care is necessary with tinned-foods ? 229. How is 
salt provided ? What is needed ? 
Cooking, 
230. Why does man use fire? 231. Speak of roasting ; broiling ; 
boiling. 232. Why is frying objectionable? 233. What is used 
in cake ? What results ? 90 
THE BEGINNER’S 
Fig. 32, ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
91 
CHAPTER XVII. 
THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 
WHY WE NEED TO DIGEST FOODS. 
234. Raw Foods. —A man can sustain life on 
raw fruits, raw roots, raw flesh, milk, eggs, and water. 
It is better not to live in a savage state. It is better 
to use cooked foods. 
235. Preparation of Food-Stuff's .—The ox, 
eating grass, and hay and grains, builds up the rich, 
juicy meat. The miller, using stones, rolls, and 
sieves, crushes the grains, removes the rough por- 
tions, and furnishes fine flours and meals. 
In the kitchen, the cook combines many raw and 
prepared materials, uses heat (as in baking and boil- 
ing) , and prepares tempting and tasty dishes. 
236. Advantages of Preparation.—The work 
of the ox, of the miller, and of the cook so changes 
raw foods that we can easily gain strength from pre- 
pared foods. Well-prepared foods lessen the work 
of the teeth, stomach, and bowels. 
237. Need of Digestion.—Most foods (water, 
salt, and a part of milk excepted) must be changed in 
the body before they are fit to enter the living blood. 92 
THE BEGINNER’S 
THE MOUTH PARTS. 
238. The Mouth is an irregular cavity in the 
face. (Fig. 30.) It contains the teeth and the tongue 
(a). It is lined with mu'cous mem'brane (156). 
239. The Teeth, in children under seven, may 
number twenty ; in healthy adults, thirty-two. They 
are placed in sockets in the upper and lower jaws. 
(Fig. 30.) 
Fig. 33. Teeth of an adult.—1, 2, Incisors. 3, Canines (cus'pids). 4, 5, Pre-molars 
(bi-cus'pids). 6, 7, 8, Molars (grind'ers). 9, 9, Neck of tooth. 
240. Uses of the Teeth.—(1) The sharp cut- 
ting teeth (in-ci'sors) divide the food; the dog-teeth 
(ca-nine') enable us to hold food, and the broad 
mo'lar teeth grind and crush the food. (Fig. 33.) 
(2) The teeth enable us to speak clearly and dis- 
tinctly. (3) They add beauty to the face. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
93 
241. The Tongue is made up of many muscles. 
It can move in many directions. (Fig. 30,16-) 
242. Functions.—The tongue 
aids in speaking, in keeping the 
food between the teeth during 
chewing, and in pushing food back 
into the throat. 
INJURIOUS ACTIONS OF TO 
BACCO. 
243. Tobacco-chewing fouls the 
mouth and taints the breath. To- 
bacco sometimes hastens the decay 
of the enamel. It may soften the 
gums. 
244. Tobacco-smoking exposes 
the mouth and throat to sudden 
changes, as from hot to cold. These 
rapid changes produce redness, 
heat, and swelling in the mouth 
and throat. Smoking sometimes causes a disease 
called “ smoker’s sore throat.” 
Fig. 34. Vertical sec- 
tion of a molar tooth.—A 
tooth is mainly made up 
of bony matter, 2. In the 
middle is the pulp-cavity, 
3, which holds the nerve 
and blood-tube. The 
outer surface and the 
edges are covered by 
enamel, 1, which is harder 
than bone. 
THE NERYES OF TASTE. 
245. The Nerves of the Sense of Taste are 
mostly seated in tlie tongue. (Fig. 35,1>2.) The 
endings are most numerous near the tip. 
246. Uses.—The great use of taste is to warn 94 
THE BEGINNER’S 
us against improper foods, hence its nerves are placed 
where food is taken in. 
Fig. 35. A section of the tongue.—1, 2, Nerves of taste ending in the papilla}, 
247. Taste is injured by over-use. It is dulled 
by the use of improper foods. Hence it may be 
educated to pass objectionable foods, as rotting fish 
or “ gamey” flesh. 
HYGIENE 
248. All desire a sweet-smelling mouth. As to- 
bacco fouls the mouth, it ought not to be used. Food 
remaining in the mouth soon decays and hastens 
tooth-decay. The mouth should be rinsed with tepid 
water after each meal. Particles of food between the 
teeth are best removed by quill or ivory tooth-picks. 
249. The teeth should be carefully brushed, front 
and rear, morning and night. A fine soap, followed 
by free rinsing, may be used from time to time. Be- 
ware of cheap, acid tooth-powders. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Examination of the Mouth Parts. 
—Request a boy haying a good set of teeth to stand before the class. Call attention ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
95 
to the lips and the denial arch. Insertion of teeth, the gums, order of teeth from the 
median line,—incisors, canines, bicuspids, and molars; variations in the cutting sur- 
faces; of the grinding surfaces; points of decay. 
Movements of the lower jaw : forward, backward, to the right or left, and combi- 
nations of movements. Place the finger in front of the ear, over the jaw articula- 
tions, then move the jaw slightly, then stretch open ; notice the degree of motion. 
Hard palate: notice its hard surfaces, with ridges, the soft posterior portion termi- 
nating in the soft palate, or uvula. Tongue: its free apex, its bridle, its veins prom- 
inent on the lower surface. On its upper surface note the numerous papillx. Ob- 
serve the variety of movements which the tongue can execute. 
Throat: Request the boy to stand in the sunlight, mouth wide open, head slightly 
thrown back, and then to articulate slowly, Ah—ah—h—h. Thus the soft palate will 
be elevated, and the throat parts brought into view; the soft palate in the middle 
line, the right and left almond-shaped tonsils, then the posterior wall of the pharynx 
in the central field. 
Observe that the mouth and pharynx are lined with mucous membrane, and that 
the surfaces are bathed with mucus. If the mouth is suddenly opened, a jet of fluid 
may come from near the second upper molar tooth,—saliva from the duct of Steno 
(parotid), or, if the tongue is raised, from the floor,—saliva from Wharton’s ducts. 
Why we need to Digest Foods. 
QUESTIONS. 
234. Upon what can a man live? What is better ? 235. What 
is done by the ox? the miller? the cook ? 236. What advantages 
follow from the careful preparing of foods? 237. Why must we 
digest foods ? 
The Mouth Parts. 
238. What is the mouth? What is in it? 239. How many 
teeth ? Where placed ? 240. What is the first use for teeth ? the 
second? the third? 241. Speak of the tongue. 242. What are 
the duties of the tongue ? 
Injurious Actions of Tobacco. 
243. Mention some actions of tobacco. 244. What does tobacco- 
smoking induce ? What changes follow ? 
The Nerves of Taste. 
245. What are seated in the tongue ? 246. What is the great 
use of taste? 247. How may taste be injured? What is over- 
come ? 
Hygiene. 
248. What fouls the mouth? What causes decay? What 
should be done? 249. How should the teeth be cared for ? What 
is to be shunned ? 96 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS—Continued. 
THE DIGESTIVE CANAL. 
250. The Mouth is the upper opening of the 
di-ges'tive canal. The ducts which convey the sa- 
li'va end in it. (Fig. 30.) 
251. The Pharynx (far'inks), or throat, is a pas- 
sage seated back of and below the mouth. (Fig. 
30, 26,27.) The air uses this passage to reach the 
larynx (lar'inks), and the food to reach the gullet. 
252. The CEsophagus (e -sof'a-gus), or gullet, 
is a mus'cu-lar tube leading from the throat to the 
stomach. (Fig. 22.) 
253. The Stomach (stum'ak) is seated under 
the left side of the diaphragm (di'a-fram). It is a 
pear-shaped bag. (Fig. 36.) Its walls contain 
muscular fibres. (Fig. 36,b.) 
254. The Bowels, or in-tes'tines, lead from the 
stomach. The small intestine (Fig. 32) is about 
twenty feet long. The large intestine (Fig. 21,20,21> 2o) 
is about six feet long. They lie coiled in the ab- 
do'men. 
255. The Abdomen (belly) is the cavity of the ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
97 
body between the diaphragm and the pel'vis. It is 
lined by the thin per-i-to-ne'um. Its walls are 
mainly muscular. (Fig- 21, 23,23.) 
Fig. 36. The inner surface of the stomach and duodenum.—The lower portion of 
the oesophagus. 8, Stomach. 9, The pylorus through which the food passes out 
of the stomach into the duodenum, or upper portion of the small intestine. 10,11, 
14, The duodenum. 12, 13, Ducts through which bile and pancreatic fluid pass into 
it. a, b, c, The three coats of the stomach. 
256. Contents.—The abdomen shelters the stom- 
ach, bow'els, liv'er, pan'cre-as, kid'neys, and blood- 
tubes. 
THE DIGESTIVE GLANDS. 
257. A Gland is a soft solid made up of se-cret'- 
ing-cells, of blood-tubes, and of duets held together 
by meshes of fine fibres. 
258. Gland-Work.—The gland-cells make from 
the blood juices, or se-cre'tions. The ducts convey 
away the secretions. 98 
THE BEGINNER’S 
259. The Saliva (spit'tle) is a frothy fluid. It 
appears abundantly in the mouth during the chewing 
process. It is made by the sal'i-va-ry glands, which 
number three pair. (Fig. 37,1’3,5.) 
Fig. 37. A view of the salivary glands in their proper situations.—1, The parotid 
gland. 2, Its duct. 3, The submaxillary gland. 4, Its duct. 5, The sublingual 
gland, brought to view by the removal of a section of the lower jaw. 
260. The Liver is the largest gland in the body. 
It is dark red in color. It is found on the right side 
of the ab-do'men. (Fig. 32.) The liver secretes the 
bile. It forms glycogen (glik'o-jen) from the food. 
It aids in casting out ni'tro-gen-ivastes. 
261. The Gall-Bladder is placed on the under 
side of the liver. (Fig. 21, 17). Its duct leads to the 
small intestine. It stores the yellow, bitter bile. 
262. The Pancreas (pan'kre-as) is a long gland ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
99 
found near the stomach. It forms the pan-cre-at'ic 
juice. Its duct leads to the small intestine. 
263. Mucous Glands.—In the lining of the 
mouth mucus is found. In the walls of the stomach 
glands secrete an acid juice. In the walls of the 
small intestine glands secrete in-tes'ti-nal juices. All 
these secretions, in their proper order, are needed in 
digestion. 
264. Summary of the Digestive Organs.— 
Teeth. 
Tongue. 
Mucous Glands. 
In the Head . 
' Mouth. 
Salivary Glands. 
In the Neck . Throat. 
In the Chest . Gullet. 
In the Abdo- 
men . . 
Stomach (Stomach-Glands). 
Small Intestine (Intestinal Glands). 
Large Intestine. 
Liver—Pancreas. 
CHANGES IN STRUCTURE INDUCED BY ALCOHOL. 
265. In the Stomach.—As a result of the use 
of strong al'co-hol-ics, in excess, for a long time, the 
walls of the stomach often become thickened and 
leathery. The stomach often becomes lined with a 
thick, ropy, foul mucus. 
266. Stomach to Liver.—Water and alcoholics 
taken by the mouth reach the blood through walls of 100 
THE BEGINNER’S 
the stomach and small intestine. This blood flows 
at once to the liver. Hence the evil actions of alco- 
hol are severely felt in the liver. 
267. In the Liver.—Alcohol is one of the most 
common causes of disease of the liver. When used 
in excess for long times, it causes changes in the 
structure of the liver. These are fatty (in the main) 
or hardening changes. 
268. In the Glands.—Alcohol, after a time, 
produces changes in the structure of most glands. 
These changes more or less unfit the glands for their 
proper work. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Dissection.—Secure the animal (dog, 
rabbit, or rat) and open thorax and abdomen as directed in Chapter IX. Observe 
the pale abdominal muscles; the glistening fascia of the muscles; the fibres of the 
external oblique muscle. 
Remove the skin from one side of the face and neck. Near the lower jaw and 
in front of and below the ear the lobulated, pale brown salivary glands can be 
readily dissected out. 
With scissors, divide in the median line the walls. A large cavity, lined by a 
smooth moist membrane, the peritoneum, is exposed. This membrane lines the 
abdominal cavity. (Fig. 16.) Without cutting or tearing, but by simply turning 
over or pulling aside, trace the alimentary canal from near the left inferior side of 
the diaphragm, viz., the narrow oesophagus, the dilated stomach, the convoluted 
small intestine, the large, dark, sacculated csecum, with its worm-like appendix, the 
large intestine, containing balls of excrement, and the rectum. Trace out the mesen- 
tery, made of two folds of the peritoneum, enclosing blood-vessels, lymphatics, and 
nerves, which connects the alimentary canal to the vertebral region. If the dog is 
in good condition, a loose, mesenteric, fatty apron, the great omentum, will be seen 
hanging from the lower border of the stomach. 
Notice the dark-purple-colored long body lying near the broad end of the stom- 
ach, the spleen. Observe the form, the lobes, the tubes entering, and the attachments 
of the large, dark-red solid organ, the liver. Now turn over the stomach, slightly 
stretch the small intestine, and notice within the mesentery the long, hammer-like, 
pale-red, lobated pancreas. Trace the duct from the pancreas to its entrance into the 
small intestine, about a foot from the stomach. 
Turn the stomach and intestines to the right side (towards the liver side of the 
animal). Notice the abdominal aorta at its exit from the diaphragm. Follow its 
branches to the principal organs. Turn the stomach and intestines to the left side. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
101 
Trace the flaccid tubes (containing dark maroon blood) from the mesentery, spleen, 
and stomach until they unite in a single trunk, the portal vein, which is seen to enter 
the liver. Observe the vena cava ascendens as it enters the diaphragm, receiving 
blood from the liver. Turn the dark-red liver up towards the diaphragm, and its 
greenish gall-bladder, with its cystic dad, and the hepatic duct (from the liver), forming 
one common duct, will be brought into view. 
Tie strings about the upper and lower parts of the canal. Remove the alimen- 
tary canal and its appendages by cutting the mesentery free from the posterior 
walls of the abdomen, then carefully trim the mesentery from the alimentary canal. 
Examine the tube externally from the stomach to the rectum. 
Remove the glands. Cut open the liver. Note its dark-red, firm, uniform struc- 
ture. Cut open the spleen. Note its fibrous investment, its pulpy contents, and the 
absence of a duct. Separate the long, pale-red pancreas, and note its friable, lobu- 
lated character. Observe to the right and left of the backbone a compact, roundish 
bean-shaped solid organ, invested by fat, the kidney. Notice the ureter, a pale, firm- 
feeling duct, running from a depression in the kidney towards the middle line into 
the pelvis, and ending in the bladder. 
QUESTIONS. 
250. What is the mouth? What end in it? 251. Where is the 
pharynx (far'inks) found? For what used? 252. What is the 
oesophagus (e-sof'a-gus) ? 253. Where is the stomach (sttim'ak) 
found? Describe it. 254. Speak of the bowels ; of the small and 
large in-tes'tines. 255. What is the ab-do'men? How lined? 
How made? 258. What is held in the abdomen? 
The Digestive Canal 
The Digestive Glands. 
257. What is a gland? 258. What is the work of gland-cells? 
of the ducts? 259. Describe the sa-li'va. By what made? 260. 
Speak of the liver. Where found? What is its work? 261. 
Where is the gall-bladder found? Where does its duct end? 
What does it do? 
262. Speak of the pan'cre-as ; its juice ; its duct. 263. What is 
formed in the mouth? the stomach? the intestines? What is 
needed? 264. Write out the summary of the di-ges'tive organs. 
Structural Changes induced by Alcohol. 
265. What changes occur in the stomach from the use of strong 
al-co-hol'ics? What is sometimes seen? 266. How do fluids get 
into the blood? Where are they floated? Hence? 267. What 
is a cause of liver-disease? What changes does alcohol induce? 
268. What does alcohol cause in glands? What must follow? THE BEGINNER’! 
102 
CHAPTER XIX. 
DIGESTION. 
269. Digestion (di-jes'tshun) includes all tlie 
changes which foods undergo in the mouth, the 
stomach (stum'ak), and the bowels. Digestion makes 
'proper foods fit to enter the blood (237). 
270. Changes in the Mouth.—When we take 
some food, as beef and potato, into the mouth, the 
tongue acts to keep the food between the teeth. Un- 
der the motions of the lower jaw the teeth divide and 
crush the food. The sa-li'va, trickling into the 
mouth, wets the food and acts to change starchy foods 
(potato, cracker, white bread, etc.) into sugar (a). 
271. Swallowing.—When a moist mass is 
formed, the tongue pushes it into the phar'ynx 
(far'inks). (Fig. 30,26,27.) The muscles of the throat 
crowd it over the ep-i-glot'tis and into the gullet. 
The muscles of the gullet rapidly urge it on to the 
stomach (b). 
272. Changes in the Stomach.—The muscles 
of the walls of the stomach churn the food back 
and forth. The mass becomes well mixed with the 
juices made by the glands of the stomach. A soft ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
103 
pulpy mass is formed. The ni'tro-gen foods (beef, 
pork, white of eggs, etc.) are now changed into a 
digested form. 
273. Absorption is the process by which digested 
foods and liquids pass from the digestive canal into 
the blood-tubes. 
274. Stomach Absorption.—A portion of the 
starches and meats, having been digested, are sucked 
into the blood in the blood-tubes of the stomach. 
From time to time portions of the soft mass remain- 
ing are squeezed into the small intestine. (Fig. 
36,10.) 
275. Ice-water, when taken with food, or soon 
after eating, hinders digestion. (1) It makes the 
stomach cold and checks the making of juices. (2) 
It slows the digestive changes of meat, eggs, etc. 
Hence ice-water, or ice-cream, ought not to be freely 
taken with food, or soon after eating. 
276. Changes in the Intestines.—All kinds of 
foods (bread, meats, fish, and oily foods) are largely 
digested in the small intestine. The pan-cre-at'ic 
juice (262) digests fats as well as all other food- 
materials. 
277. It is best not to drink while eating. (1) 
Large amounts of fluid in the stomach slow stomach- 
digestion. (2) A large amount may wash foods too 
rapidly from the stomach to the intestine. (3) A 
large amount of fluid in the intestine very much 104 
THE beginner’s 
hinders intestinal digestion. Water, or other warm 
fluids, may be taken freely two to three hours after 
eating. 
278. Intestinal Absorption.—The greater part 
of digested foods soak into the blood from the small 
intestine. The waste parts are sucked quite dry in 
the large intestine, and later are cast out of the bowels. 
279. Summary of Digestion.— 
Chewing of food. 
Moistening of food. 
Starches change to sugar. 
In the Mouth . . 
Churning and mixing of food. 
Flesli-foods digested. 
Digested-foods absorbed. 
In the Stomach 
Fats digested. 
All kinds of foods digested. 
Digested-foods absorbed. 
In Small Intestine. 
In Large Intestine. Watery fluids absorbed. 
CHANGES IN THE BLOOD. 
280. New Material.—We now have learned 
how new material reaches the blood: the ox'y-gen 
is taken in through the lungs, and the water and the 
common foods (after digestion) by soaking through 
the walls of the stomach and intestine. The new 
materials rapidly become uniformly mixed with the 
blood. 
281. Changes in the New Material.—The ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
105 
blood takes the new foods through the liver and other 
glands and the lungs. In these organs the new 
material is so changed that it becomes blood. How 
it is done we do not yet know. 
(a) Experiment —Wipe the mouth and tongue. Hold abit of cracker. Remove. 
Move the mouth parts a few minutes, and then insert a new bit of cracker and hold 
a few moments. What changes have taken place in each case? 
(b) Observation.—Watch a horse when he is drinking, or an ox when swallow- 
ing the cud. Notice the progress of the swallow of water or the mass of food; also 
the successive constrictive motions of the gullet. 
QUESTIONS. 
Digestion. 
269. What is digestion (di-jes'tshun) ? What does it do? 270. 
What is done by the tongue? the lower jaw? the teeth? the sa- 
liva? 271. In swallowing, what is done by the muscles of the 
tongue? of the throat? of the gullet? 272. What churns the 
food ? What is added ? What are digested ? 
273. Define ab-sorp'tion. 274. What is absorbed from the 
stomach (stfim'ak) ? What becomes of the un-di-gest'ed por- 
tion? 275. Why should ice-water not be freely taken with food? 
Hence? 276. What are digested in the small in-tes'tine? What 
can the pan-cre-atfic juice do? 277. Why should fluids not be 
taken with the food ? When is it better to take them ? 278. What 
is absorbed from the small intestine? What becomes of the 
waste portions ? 279. Write out a summary of digestion. 
280. How are new materials taken into the blood ? What be- 
comes of them? 281. Where are the new materials changed? 
How are they changed ? 
Changes in the Blood. 106 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XX. 
HYGIENE OP THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 
ACTIONS OF INJURIOUS AGENTS. 
282. Alcohol. —Beer, even in small amounts, 
hinders stomach-digestion. Strong alcoholics, if 
used continuously, spoil the appetite for proper 
foods. If taken in large doses continuously they 
almost ruin stomach-digestion. 
283. Opium. —In moderate doses, as in “ sooth- 
ing syrups,” it lessens the desire for foods. It acts 
to slow digestion. It acts to clog the entire system 
(336). 
284. Tobacco, when first used by children, 
often causes sickness at the stomach and even vomit- 
ing, for the child’s system rebels against the drug. 
As tobacco is not a food, children should not learn 
to use it. 
285. Coffee in large doses hinders digestion. 
In moderate amounts it rarely injures adults. It is, 
however, not needed by child or youth (339). 
286. Tea, even “ weak tea,” is powerful in hin- 
dering and injuring digestion (a). When used as ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
107 
“ tea-drinkers” use it, it works quite as much harm 
to the digestive function as alcoholic drinks (340). 
287. Pepper, Mustard, and Spices spur the 
digestive glands (109). The glands of a healthy 
child, or young j)erson, do not need spurring. In 
adults, the too free use of ap'pe-tiz-ers often produces 
catarrh (ka'tar) of the stomach. 
288. Confectionery. —Common pure candies 
contain, not only cane-sugar, hut materials which 
are difficult to digest. Cheap candies are often dan- 
gerous and very hurtful compounds, because of their 
poisonous colors or flavors. Candies, when freely 
used, injure the teeth and derange the stomach (b). 
They educate a craving for articles not needed as 
food. They should be denied to children. 
HYGIENIC HINTS. 
289. Amount of Food.—Appetite is a safe 
guide when a person is in health, when the food is 
simple in kind, and when its preparation is plain. 
290. Quality of Food.—Simple foods, plainly 
yet thoroughly cooked, favor digestion and health. 
Ripe fruits are wholesome. 
A food which disagrees ivith a person ought to be 
avoided. As a rule, pastry, cheese, fresh white-bread, 
and “ made dishes” most often cause discomfort. 
Highly-spiced foods, mustard, sauces, and confec- 
tionery, should be excluded from the food of children 108 
THE beginner’s 
and youth. Tlieir use often cultivates a craving for 
narcotics. “ Hunger is tlie best sauce.” 
291. Manner of Eating.—Eat slowly. Care- 
fully chew the food. Mix it thoroughly with the 
juices of the mouth. By so doing, you render di- 
gestion easy and rapid (270 a). 
292. Tea should not be taken with starchy foods 
(white-bread, cake, rice, etc.). It hinders digestion 
(286). It causes “acid-stomach.” It causes the 
formation of gas in the stomach and bowels. 
293. Food should be taken only at regular inter- 
vals,—as two to four times daily. The digestive 
organs need regular rests, as well as the working 
muscles of the body. 
294. Manner of Drinking.—When thirsty, 
take a little water into the mouth, hold it a few 
moments, then slowly swallow. This is better than 
to gulp down a large amount (277). Water and milk 
are the beverages most suitable for children and youth. 
295. Rest the body and the mind before eating. 
A rest, or a nap, after eating will favor digestion and 
health. All animals, when it is possible, sleep after 
having taken food. 
296. Pare air and active exercise are the best 
spurs for a languid digestion. Do not use “ bitters,” 
tonics, or other alcoholics. They are deceptive and 
dangerous. Beer or wine serve no good purpose in 
the healthy, growing body. ♦ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
109 
(a) Tea.—The powerful slowing of salivary and pancreatic digestion by tea is 
due mainly to the tannin present. Tea is rich in tannin. Tannin is very soluble. 
You can no more have tea without tannin, than wine without alcohol. Tannin re- 
markably hinders the digestion of all starchy foods. 
(b) Management of a Poison Case.—Treat the person at once. Cause him to vomit 
by giving a tumbler of warm water with a teaspoonful of mustard in it. Send for the 
doctor. 
Antidotes.—Always cause vomiting. If the poison is acid, give chalk and water; 
powdered plastering and water ; or soap and water, and plenty of warm water. If the 
poison is an alkali (like ammonia or potash), give vinegar and water or lemon-juice. If 
it is an irritant poison (like verdigris, corrosive sublimate, etc.), give rapidly beaten-up 
raw eggs. If it is an opium compound, give strong coffee and keep the patient awake. If 
it is a vegetable narcotic (henbane, belladonna), keep him quiet. Always summon the 
ablest doctor to manage the case. 
QUESTIONS. 
Actions of Injurious Agents. 
282. How does beer affect digestion ? Strong alcoholics? 283. 
What is the action of opium? 284. How does tobacco affect 
the young? Hence? 285. Speak of the action of large doses of 
coffee; of moderate amounts. Is it needed? 286. What is the 
action of tea? What may result? 287. Mention some ap'pe-tiz- 
ers. Why not needed by children ? What may they cause ? 288. 
State objections to the use of candies. What harm may they do? 
Hygienic Hints. 
289. When is appetite a safe guide? 290. What favors diges- 
tion? discomfort? What should children avoid? Why? 291. 
How should you eat? Why? 292. With what should tea not be 
taken? Why? 293. Why eat at regular hours? 294. How 
should you drink? What are the best beverages? 295. What is 
the influence of rest? 296. Mention the better digestive spurs. 
What are to be avoided ? Why ? 110 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XXL 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Fig. 38. Diagram of brain, spinal cord, and spinal nerves. ANATOMY, BHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
297. Our Studies have informed us about the 
frame-work, its coverings, and its work (Chaps. II.— 
VI.) ; about the blood and its movements (Chaps. 
VIII.—XI.) ; about the air-passages and breathing 
(Chaps. XII.-XV.); about water and food (Chap. 
XVI.) ; and about the digestive organs and digestion 
(Chaps. XVII.-XX.). 
THE STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
298. The Nervous System will now engage 
our attention. It is the master system of the body. 
299. The Brain is the large, grayish pulpy 
Fig. 39. The right half of the brain and the nerves of the right side— 1. Cerebrum, 
2, Cerebellum. 3, Medulla. 4, Spinal Cord (upper end). 112 
THE beginner’s 
organ seated in the skull (a). It is made up of a 
right part and a left part. (Fig. 39.) 
300. The Spinal Cord is a tail-like projection 
(not unlike a Chinaman’s cue) of 
nerve-matter extending from the 
brain. (Fig. 38.) 
301. Membranes.—The brain 
and spinal cord have three protect- 
ing membranes about them. 
302. The Skull-Bones (see 
table of bones) form a closed cavity 
for the brain and its membranes. 
(Fig. 22,c.) 
303. The Backbone is made 
up of a series of bones called ver'te- 
broe. They are placed one on top 
of the other. (Fig. 40.) The bones 
are held in place by many lig'a- 
ments. 
304. Spinal Canal. —Each ver- 
tebra has a large central hole. The 
series of holes form a long tube called 
the spinal canal. (Fig. 40,4> 4.) This 
canal shelters the cord and its mem- 
branes. 
Fig. 40. A section of the 
skull and spinal column. 
—1, 2, 3, The brain. 4, 
4, The spinal cord ly- 
ing in the spinal canal. 
305. The Nerves are small white cords. (Fig. 
38.) Those on the right side are similar to those on 
the left side of the body. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
113 
306. Some of tlie nerves extend from the brain 
through holes in the skull to the face, neck, and 
chest. (Fig. 39.) Other nerves extend from the 
spinal cord through holes in the spinal canal to all 
parts of the arms, chest, waist, and limbs. (Fig. 38.) 
307. Ganglia .—In the chest and abdomen, in, 
or on, most organs, we find little nerve-masses. 
They are called gan'gli-a. 
308. Nerve-Connections.—As the head office 
of a telegraph company is connected by Avires with 
every office on its line, so the brain has nerve-fibres 
connecting it with every nerve-mass in each part of 
the body. Hence each part can send messages to 
the brain or receive messages from the brain. 
309. Structure .—The brain, spinal cord, and 
gan'glia contain masses of minute gray nerve-cells. 
(Fig. 41.) The cells connect with each other by fine 
white nerves. (Fig. 41,3’5-) Nerves are made up of 
many fine, Avliite nerve-fibres. 
Fig. 41. Isolated nerve-cells (100 diameters). 
10* 114 
THE BEGINNER’S 
310. Summary 
Brain. 
Spinal Corel. 
Gan'gli-a. 
Nerves (a) Brain-Nerves. 
(/>) Spinal Nerves. 
(c) Gan'gli-on-ic Nerves. 
The Nervous Sys- 
tem is made up 
of the 
311. Alcohol, when used for long periods, pro- 
duces changes in the structure of the brain, the 
ganglia, and the nerves. These changes are revealed 
by the mi'cro-scope. They are of a hardening or of 
a fatty nature (267). 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Dissection of Head.—Procure the head of a calf, a 
beef, or a pig. Remove the skin. In the middle line of the head saw vertically 
downwards through the skull and face, dividing the head into equal right and left 
parts. Remove splinters, loose tissue, clots, etc. 
Note: The connective tissue which holds the scalp to the bones; the periosteum; 
the outer plate of the skull-hones; the cavities or the spongy bony tissue; the inner plate 
of the bones; the white firm fold of membrane (falx) dipping down between the 
right and left parts of the brain, and the firm membrane (dura mater) between the 
skull-bones and the brain. 
Observe: The soft pulpy mass (brain) lying in the skull-case; the triangular- 
shaped, larger mass (cerebrum) showing irregular gray folds; the white band of nerve- 
matter (corpus callosum) which united it with the opposite half; the round mass 
(cerebellum) behind the cerebrum showing a tree-like arrangement of white in gray 
and the commencement of the spinal cord. 
Commencing at the cord end, raise the cord out of its groove, cutting the nerves 
as they appear; raise out the cerebellum (using the scalpel-handle and the fingers); 
nick the falx and raise out the cerebrum, cutting the nerves as they appear. Place 
the half-brain in a shallow dish of water having a little alcohol. 
Note the outer irregular folds in reddish gray (convolutions) of the cerebrum; the 
ridges of the cerebellum; and the abundant blood-tubes. Also note that the cerebrum, 
cerebellum, and spinal cord are connected by a mass of nerve-matter, the pons. 
Turn the portion over. Observe at the base of the cerebrum, pons, and cord the 
stubs of the cut cranial nerves. The olfactory bulb (smell) is near the base of the nose. 
In the ox it is hollow. The round, prominent optic nerves (sight) lie just behind. 
With a thin, sharp knife shave off one-half of an inch of the inner surface of half 
of the brain. This brings into view the gray older layer which dips down into the 
substance of the cerebrum; the white central mass; a cavity under the corpus callo- ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
115 
sum (ventricle) and masses of gray matter (basal ganglia); also a clearer view of the 
arbor-vilx (“ tree of life”) of the cerebellum. 
Make a cross-section of the spinal cord. It is divided by a front-and-rear groove 
into a right and left part. The outer surface is white ; the inner and connecting 
part is gray. 
Examine the skull. Note the white, tough, lining membrane (dura mater); the 
fold of membrane (tentorium) separating the cerebral from the cerebellar cavities ; 
the fold of membrane (falx) separating the upper parts of the right and left portions 
of the brain; the irregular pits in the inner surface of the skull-bones; the openings 
for the passage of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves, and the passage from the skull to 
the spinal canal. 
Visit a butcher’s shop. Examine the cut backbone of half of a beef. Note: 
the cut bone (vertebrx); the groove (spinal canal); the spinal cord, and the diverging 
spinal nerves passing outwards through openings between the vertebras. Examine 
the cut surface of a thigh and note that the large nerves are found between the mus- 
cles and near the blood-tubes; that they are well sheltered, and that nerve-fibres 
radiate out to the adjacent muscles and other parts. 
QUESTIONS. 
297. What have we already learned ? 298. What is the nervous 
system? 299. Describe the brain. 300. What is the spinal cord ? 
301. What protects the brain and cord ? 302. How many bones 
in the skull? What do they form? 303. How is the backbone 
made up? How kept in shape? 304. How is the spinal canal 
formed? What is its use? 305. What are nerves? 306. To what 
parts do the brain-nerves extend? the spinal nerves? 
307. Where are ganglia found? 308. What is noticed in a 
telegraph system? in the animal system? Hence? 309. What 
elements are found in the nervous system? How connected? 
How are nerves made? 310. Write a summary of the nervous 
system. 311. What are changed by alcohol? How detected? 
What are the changes ? 
The Nervous System. 116 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XXII. 
PHYSIOLOGY OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
DUTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
312. The Nerves. —If a telegraph wire is cut, 
electric signals cannot be sent over that wire. If 
the leg-nerves are cut, pain-signals are not received 
from the foot. Orders sent from the brain are not 
received by the foot. 
313. The function of the nerve is to conduct 
nerve-cell messages. The common nerves conduct 
pain- or touch-signals to the cord and brain; the 
stomach-nerves, pain- or hunger-signals ; the . eye- 
nerve, light-signals; the ear-nerve, sound-signals; 
etc. The Nerves also conduct order-signals from the 
brain, and cord, and ganglia to the muscles. These 
signals cause the muscles to act. 
314. The Ganglia.—The nerve-masses of the 
chest and ab-do'men, of the heart and lungs, of the 
stom'ach and glands, send forth orders which regu- 
late the vital functions. They attend to blood-mo- 
tion, to air-changes, to digestion, and to other inter- 
nal duties. 
315. The Spinal Cord conducts signals to and ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
117 
from the brain. When the cord is cut across, pain- 
signals do not affect the brain; neither do motion- 
signals from the brain reach the muscles. 
316. The spinal cord is a seat of reflex actions. 
These actions are seen when a sleeping person with- 
draws the tickled foot; when dust enters the nostrils 
and sneezing is caused; when dusts cause coughing, 
even against the will. After a time, walking and 
piano-playing become nearly reflex acts. 
317. The Brain is the master organ. It is the 
organ essential to and concerned in thinking, reason- 
ing, remembering, knowing, and willing. 
318. Summary.— 
Nerve-cells—originate nerve-signals. 
Nerves—conduct nerve-signals. 
Ganglia—control the vital work. 
conducts nerve-signals 
. ° 
causes reflex actions. 
Spinal Cord— 
Brain—is the organ of the mind 
QUESTIONS, 
312. What is noticed when a telegraph wire is cut? the leg- 
nerves? 313. What is the duty of the nerves? Give examples. 
In what directions are signals also sent? 314. What regulate the 
vital functions? Mention some vital functions. 315. What is a 
duty of the cord ? What results when it is cut ? 316. What other 
function has the cord ? Give examples. What nearly becomes 
reflex? 317. What is the brain? With what is it concerned? 
318. Write a summary of the functions of the nervous system. 
Duties of the Nervous System. 118 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
CAEE OF THE BRAIN 
319. You must allow the brain an abundance of 
blood. All should hold the head erect. All should 
use loose neck-wear. 
320. You must give the brain good blood. Blood 
containing waste or drugs very soon causes improper 
brain-action. Hence you should breathe deeply of 
pure air; should eat simple food (290); should keep 
the skin clean (36) ; should exercise daily (37); and 
should abstain from the use of narcotics or stimu- 
lants. 
321. You should use the brain daily upon some 
useful task. Muscle cannot grow except by food and 
exercise. The mind cannot grow except the brain 
have regular graded mental work and proper food. 
322. You must rest the brain. The young brain 
needs rests oftener than the older brain. Active in- 
teresting exercise rests the brain. 
323. You must give the brain time for sleep. 
Sleep is the great resting time of the brain. A child 
should sleep from ten to twelve hours daily. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
119 
324. Sharp, active, brief study should be the rule. 
If you feel stupid and sleepy, open the window and 
take some active exercise. 
325. If you have constant dull headaches, cease 
studying {a). Go out of doors and do some useful 
work. Engage in sports. 
326. A student should never use tea. Some 
students use strong tea in order to keep awake so 
that they can study many hours. Tea prevents 
sleep. 
The loss of sleep weakens the brain and the body. 
327. A student should, never use alcoholics or to- 
bacco. They weaken the brain-actions. They in- 
jure students more severely than they do young 
working-men. 
INJURIOUS ACTIONS INDUCED BY ALCOHOL. 
328. A moderate dose of alcohol in tlie blood 
causes the brain-cells to work improperly. Alcohol 
disturbs the mind. 
329. Several moderate doses of alcohol, in those 
not hardened to its use, cause the mind’s action to 
become disorderly. Alcohol in-tox'i-cates. 
330. Many moderate doses of alcohol, as in a 
“drinking-bout,” produce varying effects. Some 
persons become silly, noisy, or boastful, while others 
lose control of the temper, become excited and quar- 
relsome. Some are made acutely insane by alcoholics, 120 
THE beginner’s 
and, under their influence, fight madly and even do 
murder. Alcohol often enrages. 
331. A single large dose may cause death. Two 
tablespoonfuls of whiskey have been known to kill a 
child. Alcohol may kill. 
332. The use of alcoholics encourages their use. 
Alcoholics are more enticing than rich, sweet foods. 
The use of beer and wine too often leads to the use 
of spirits. Children ought not to be allowed to taste 
or to sip the sugared dregs of alcoholics. 
333. A craving for alcoholics occurs more fre- 
quently in the children of those who habitually use 
alcoholics than in those of water-drinkers (b). The 
children of in-e'bri-ates (drunkards) should never 
use alcoholics. It is perilous for children of “ mod- 
erate drinkers” to use alcoholics. 
ACTIONS OP INJURIOUS AGENTS. 
334. Chloral, when constantly used, tends to 
weaken the mind and the will. Its use fixes the 
“ chloral habit.” This habit is difficult to cure. 
335. Opium acts to relieve pain. Yet, in disease 
where pain is to he a constant symptom for months, 
years, and perhaps the whole life, it should not he 
used (c). 
336- Opium is a dangerous drug. A single drop 
of laudanum (law'da-num) has killed a six months’ 
child. Children are easily excited into con-vul'sions 121 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
by opiates (d). “ Soothing syrups” ought not to be 
given to children and infants. 
337. Tobacco is a poison to young people. It 
causes the children who use it to become less strong, 
less alert, less efficient, and less useful. 
338. Tobacco hurts the mind as well as the body. 
(45). In the government schools of France, in the 
time of Napoleon III., it was found that the smoking 
students were inferior in all respects to those who did 
not smoke (e). 
339. Coffee is a stimulant to the nervous system. 
It is not a proper drink for children and young 
people. It is useful for adults who must be exposed, 
as in out-of-door employments. 
340. Tea, as used in our country, is a brain- 
spur. It is used to prevent sleep, to enable a person 
to do much work on a poor diet (“bread and tea”), 
and, worst of all, “to brace up the system” (/). 
341. Tea is not a 'proper drink for the young 
(286). It acts badly on their nerves. If freely 
used it may cultivate a craving for narcotics. 
(a) Management of “ Fits.”—Children subject to fits (epilepsy) should not be pressed 
in their studies. During a fit or convulsion prevent the person from hurting himself. Place 
a piece of rubber or cloth between the teeth. Loosen the neck- and chest-garments. Allow 
plenty of air. When the fit is over encourage sleep by putting Mm to bed in a quiet, cool 
room. 
(b) Brain-disease is frequently caused by the steady use of alcoholics. “Sleeplessness” 
is one form of alcoholic disease. In-e-bri'e-ty is a terrible and lasting form of disease. 
About one in nine of the insane in our country owe their disease directly to the use 
of alcoholics! The use of alcoholics is a great cause of crime in our country. It is 
an active cause of want, misery, ill-health, and disease. Alcoholics shorten the work- 
ing period of life. 122 
THE BEGINNER’S 
(c) Opium.—(1) The brain and other nerve-cells will learn to depend upon it. 
(2) It will need to be taken in larger doses, or more frequently, to produce the de- 
sired effect. (3) It will establish the “ opium habit.” Of the two evils the “ opium 
habit” is held to be worse than constant pain. 
(d) Soothing syrups almost always contain morphia (mor'fi-ah). The amount which 
they contain is not stated on the bottle. Most “ cough medicines” and some “ tonics” 
contain opiates! The use of ‘‘patent medicines” may thus educate a child into a 
craving for opiates or alcoholics! 
(e) Cigarette-smoking is the most injurious method of taking in the drugs of tobacco 
(184). Cigarette-smoke, by its effects on the nerves, often causes young smokers to 
have an unsteady arm and hand. Its action is such that the young smoker feels 
weak, spiritless, and heavy, unless he can smoke freely and often. This dependence, 
this craving, shows that the weakened boy is under the poison-influence of the 
drugs. 
(/) The habit of tea-drinking is one that grows on its victim, like the similar ones 
of opium or alcohol. When a lady feels that she “ must have her tea,” then it is 
certain that tea has injured her and is deeply injuring her (e). 
The excessive use of tea gives rise to ner'vous-ness, sleep'less-ness, ir-ri-ta-bil'i-ty as 
well as in-di-ges'tion (292). Tea works its worst effects on the brain. “ To the brain- 
worker, tea is worse than alcohol.” It causes a disease (Theism) belonging to the 
same class as mor'phin-ism. “Tea-drinking in excess is only less harmful than 
alcoholic drunkenness.”—Prof. Attfield. 
QUESTIONS. 
Care of the Brain. 
319. How may you secure to the brain plenty of blood ? 320. 
What causes improper brain action ? What is necessary to make 
good blood? 321. Why should you do useful brain-work? 322. 
Who most need brain-rest? How secured? 323. Why should 
sleep be secured ? How much ? 
324. How should you study? How may you spur the brain to 
action? 325. What must be done for constant headaches (hSd'- 
aks) ? 326. Why do students use tea ? What results? 327. From 
what ought students to abstain ? Why ? 
Actions induced by Alcohol. 
328. Wliat is the action of a moderate dose of alcohol ? 329. 
How do successive doses of alcohol act? 330. What may be 
caused by many moderate doses? What may happen? 331. 
Mention a fatal dose. Hence? 332. What is the influence of 
use? How shown ? Hence? 333. In whom is the alcoholic crav- 
ing often noticed? Who should not use alcoholics? ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
123 
Actions of Injurious Agents. 
334. What is the action of chloral (klo'ral) ? What is difficult 
to cure? 335. When should opium be shunned? 336. Why is 
opium dangerous? What ought not to be given? 337. What is 
the action of tobacco on young people ? 338. How does tobacco 
influence the mind? How shown? 339. Who should not use 
coffee? Why? Who may use it? 340. For what is tea used? 
341. Why should the young not use tea ? 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
SIGHT AND HEARING. 
THE EYE. 
Fig. 42. The ei eball and its muscles (a part of the orbit is cut away).—A, Eye- 
ball. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6,10, Muscles. 11, Optic nerve. 
342. The Eyeball is shaped like a globe. (Fig. 
42.) It is found in the cavity under the forehead. 124 
THE BEGINNER’S 
343. Structure. —The sides and back of the eye 
are made of three coats. (Fig. 43.) In (A) front we 
see the watch-glass-like cor'ne-a. (Fig. 43.) The 
interior contains the lens and the humors (a). 
344. The Retina is the thin, inner coat. (Fig. 
43,K.) It is a part of the optic nerve. 
345. The Optic Nerve extends from the brain 
to the eye. (Fig. 39,8.) 
Fig. 43. Section of the human eye in position.—A, Cornea. B, Watery humor. C, 
Pupil. D, Iris. E, Lens. H, Sclerotic coat. I, Choroid coat. K, Retina. L, Glassy 
humor. M, Optic nerve. N, O, P, Muscles. Q, R, Eyelids. 
346. The Lens is shaped like a “burning- 
glass.” (Fig. 43,E.) 
347. Humors .—In front of the lens a few drops ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
125 
of watery fluid compose the Watery Humor (B). 
Behind the lens is a jelly-like, clear mass forming 
the Glassy Humor (L). 
348. The Iris is a curtain. (Fig. 43,B.) Its 
color varies from dark brown in the African to light 
blue in the Norwegian. 
349- The Pupil is the round, black opening in 
the iris (°). 
350- The Conjunctiva is the thin, outer cover- 
ing of the eyeball. Dusts 
cause the con-junc-ti'va to be- 
come red. 
PEOTECTIVE PAETS. 
351. Tears.—The surface 
of the eyeball is kept smooth 
and moist by the tears. They 
are made by the tear-gland. 
(Fig. 44, b) In health tears 
flow off to the nose by the 
nasal duct. (Fig. 44,4.) 
352. The Eyebrows pre- 
vent moisture from entering 
the eyes (b). The Eyelashes and Eyelids (Fig. 
43, Q’R>) act to keep out dusts. The Pupil is con- 
stantly changing its size. In a dark room it is 
large; in a bright place it becomes small. These 
changes are made by minute muscles in the iris. 
Fig. 44. View of tear-gland and 
nasal duct.—1, Tear-gland. 2, 
Ducts leading from the tear-gland 
to the upper eyelid. 3, Canali- 
culi. 4, Nasal duct. 5, Nose end 
of duct. 126 
THE BEGINNER’S 
353. The Eyeball is a kind of camera (c). The 
coats form a globular box. The middle coat is black. 
The lens acts somewhat like a glass lens. The ret'i- 
na is the sensitive plate. 
HOW WE SEE. 
354. Action of Lens.—Rays of light from ob- 
jects in front of the eye pass through the cor'ne-a, 
lens, and humors. (Fig. 45.) The lens causes the 
large picture before us to be reduced to a small 
picture and to appear distinct on the ret'i-na. The 
picture makes an impression on the retina. (Fig. 
45, B.) 
Fig. 45. A, A pen, an inverted image of which is painted on the retina of the 
eye, at B. 
355. Seeing.—The retina sends signals over the 
optic nerve to the brain. The mind understands the 
signals and we see. 
CARE OF THE EYES. 
356. Good Eyes give us no trouble. They 
enable us to see near and far objects quickly and 
sharply. 127 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
357. Near-Sighted Eyes often cause pain and 
weariness. They enable a person to see very near 
objects clearly, while objects at a short distance ap- 
pear blurred (d). 
358. Arrange your bed so that the sun will not 
shine in your eyes when you awaken. A sudden 
bright light injures the retina. 
359. The sunlight is the healthiest light. Hence 
do all possible eye-work (studying, fine sewing, etc.) 
by daylight. 
360. Keep the reading or work at least ten inches 
from the eyes. If you cannot see common print well 
at that distance you should use glasses. 
361. Do not attempt to read or sew by twilight. 
The fading light is very trying. 
Do not bend over your work. It causes the eyes 
to become overfull of blood. 
Do not study or read while lying down. The 
strain upon the eyes is vastly increased. 
362. When the eyes become weary and watery, 
cease using them. It is better to be less learned than 
to have very imperfect sight. 
TUB EAR 
363. The Ear is composed of three portions: 
the outer, the middle, and the inner. (Fig. 46.) 
The Drum-head is a membrane separating the 
outer from the middle ear. 128 
THE BEGINNER’S 
364. The Middle Ear contains three minute 
bones. A tube leads from it to the throat. The 
Fig. 46. A section of the temporal bone which holds the organs of hearing. 
passages of the inner ear contain the ends of the 
nerve of hearing. 
IIOW WE HEAR. 
365. The Sound Vibrations (199) enter the 
outer ear, cause the drum-head to vibrate, move the 
chain of bones, and affect the ends of the nerve. 
366. Hearing.- -The nerve of hearing conveys 
signals to the brain. The mind understands these 
signals and we hear. 
CARE OF THE EAR. 
367. Keep the external ear and the canal clean. 
Never shave out the hairs. Do not use an ear-scoop. 129 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
368. Prevent currents of air from 'playing on the 
outer ear. Do not cut the hair close in cold weather. 
INJURIOUS ACTIONS OF ALCOHOL AND 
TOBACCO. 
369. Tobacco often causes deep injury in the 
young to the retina. Alcohol and tobacco may cause 
weak sight. Tobacco-smoke is especially irritating to 
the eye-surfaces. 
370. Tobacco-Smoking often induces throat- 
disease (244). The throat-disease extends up the 
tube (Fig. 30, 10) to the middle ear (Fig. 46, Eusta- 
chian Tube). Hence difficulty of hearing and deaf- 
ness may result. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Directions for Dissection.—Secure the eye of an 
ox or sheep. Observe: the transparent, bulging, glass-like cornea in front; sur- 
rounding and continuous with the cornea, the dirty-white sclerotica; and the thin 
conjunctiva adherent to the outer surface of the sclerotica. Dissect away the fat 
from the posterior part of the ball, exposing the junction of the four recti (straight) 
muscles with the sclerotic and the round optic nerve. 
Puncture the cornea, and a small amount of limpid fluid, the aqueous fluid, 
escapes. With fine embroidery scissors cut the cornea from the sclerotic close to its 
union with the latter. The cornea is seen to be transparent, of nearly uniform 
thickness, and watch-glass shaped. With the cut surface uppermost, examine the 
eye. Note: the iris, its free edge bounding the dark opening called the pupil, and 
resting on the anterior surface of the capsule of the lens. On the front surface of 
the lens make a shallow, cross-shaped incision. The tissue which retracts is the 
capsule of the lens. Under slight pressure with the handle of the scalpel the lens 
will escape from its capsule. Notice the difference in curvature between its front 
and rear surfaces, the firmness of its tissues, and its transparency. Cause a ray of 
light to pass through a fresh lens, and note its refracting power. Behind the bed in 
which the lens rested will be seen the glass vitreous humor. 
Place the eyeball in a shallow dish of water. Allow the vitreous to escape. 
Looking into the hollow of the ball, note: the entrance at the fundus of the optic 
nerve, and the blood-vessels radiating from that spot. Separate the inner thin mem? 
brane, the retina, from the next membrane, the choroid. Observe that the retina 
appears like an expansion of the optic nerve, and that most of the black pigment 130 
THE BEGINNER’S 
adheres to the choroid. Outside of the choroid is seen the sclerotica of the posterior 
part of the ball. 
Secure several fish-eyes. Freeze them. With a sharp razor make transverse and 
longitudinal sections. The latter are best made by placing the cornea on cork and 
cutting from the optic nerve side. When the razor reaches the lens, press it through 
rather than continue the saw-like motions. Point out the several parts in order. 
(6) Demonstrations.—Select a boy having a large and prominent eye. Call 
attention to the eyebrows, eyelids and eyelashes. Point out the method of insertion 
and the curvature of the upper and lower eyelashes; the fifteen to twenty openings 
on the free-edge of the lids (ducts of the palpebral glands); the lining, pinkish mu- 
cous membrane of the lids, and the junction of skin and mucous membrane. When 
the eye is open, at the inner corner is seen a pinkish, triangular surface (lacus) hav- 
ing a small, reddish, conical body (caruncle). This is the source of the white secre- 
tion which gathers at the corner of the eye. Near the lacus in the edge of the upper 
and lower lid is seen a small opening (puncta). These openings admit the tears to 
the canalicula. (Fig. 44, 3,3.) 
Point out the loose, clear, white, thin conjunctiva overlying the sclerotica; the 
white or yellowish-white sclerotica, the clear, transparent cornea, the black pupil, 
and the various-liued iris. Place a lamp to the right and a little in front of the face 
of the student. With a convex lens between the lamp and the eye, direct a pencil 
of rays on to the cornea. Then call attention to the cornea, its form and scleral 
junction, the anterior chamber, containing the aqueous humor, the iris, and the lens. 
Note the ready contraction and dilatation of the pupil under varying amounts of 
light. 
(c) Experiment.—Remove the front convex lens from a pair of opera-glasses, 
or procure a convex lens with a gradual curve Hold it opposite a window, and 
place a piece of white paper behind it to act as a screen. A small reversed picture 
of the window-frame will appear on the paper. If the paper be moved to a certain 
distance, varying with each lens, the picture will become clear and distinct, yet 
with color-rings about the edges. At that distance from the lens the paper is said 
to be in focus. If the paper be moved nearer to, or farther from, the lens, the picture 
becomes blurred, and the paper is said to be out of focus. 
Visit a photographer's studio. Request him to point out and name the uses of 
the essential parts of the camera,—the blackened box, the ground-glass screen, the 
lens, the diaphragm, and the apparatus for adjusting the lens and the screen to 
the object. Watch him place the camera and then work the ground-glass screen 
into the proper focus. When all is ready, put your head under the curtain of the 
camera and study the reversed image depicted on the glass. 
Carefully remove the sclerotica and ehoroidea from a small portion of the back 
of a bullock’s eye, near the entrance of the optic nerve. Place the prepared eye in 
the end of a tube, blackened in the interior, which closely fits the globe of the eye, 
having the cornea forward. You will be enabled to see a distinct reversed image on 
the retina of the illuminated object in front of the cornea. 
(d) The Causes of Near-sight are many. It may exist at birth. It is often ac- 
quired by feeble children by overstraining the eyes, by reading too fine print, or by 
reading by a dim or poor light. It is unknown among young savages. A few cases 
occur in the primary school; many cases are found in high schools and colleges. 
(e) A Color-blind person usually confuses reds and greens. He fails to match red 
with shades of red, or green with shades of green. He is thus unfitted for railway 
or deck service. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
131 
QUESTIONS. 
The Eye. 
342. What is the eyeball? Where found? 343. How many 
coats? What is in the interior? 344. What is the retfl-na? 345. 
Where is the optic nerve found? 346. Describe the lens. 347. 
Speak of the watery humor; of the glassy humor. 348. How 
does the iris appear? 349. What is the pupil? 350. What is the 
con-june-ti'va? When is it injured ? 
Protective Parts, 
351. What is the duty of the tears? How made? How con- 
ducted away? 352. What is the duty of the eyebrows? eyelids? 
eyelashes? pupil? 353. How does the eyeball resemble a 
camera? 354. Through what do the rays of light pass? What 
does the lens do? 355. What is the function of the retina? of the 
mind ? 
Care of the Eyes. 
356. What can good eyes do ? 357. How do near-sighted eyes 
act ? 358. How should the bed be placed ? Why ? 359. Why 
study by daylight? 360. When should you use glasses? 361. 
Why not use the eyes at twilight ? while leaning over work ? 
while reclining? 362. When should you cease using the eyes? 
The Ear. 
363. Of what is the ear composed? What is the drum-head? 
364. What is in the middle ear ? the inner ear? What leads to the 
throat? 365. How do sound-vibrations reach the endings of the 
nerve of hearing? 366. How do we hear? 367. How should you 
manage the outer ear? 368. What should not be done ? 
Injurious Actions of Alcohol and Tobacco. 
369. What is the influence of tobacco? of alcohol and tobacco? 
of tobacco-smoke? 370. How may tobacco-smoking induce deaf- 
ness? 132 
THE BEGINNER’S 
CHAPTER XXV. 
THE BODY AND ITS WORK. 
THE WORK OF THE BLOOD. 
371. The Red Corpuscles are ox'y-gen bearers. 
Tlie work of the white cor'pus-cles is not well known. 
372. The Plasma contains the foods for the 
par'ti-cles of the body. The plasma of the venous 
blood receives and removes the wastes from the 
body-particles. 
373. The plas'ma can visit every particle of the 
body. The nerve-cell takes from it nerve-food; the 
muscle-cell, muscle-food ; the gland-cell, gland-food. 
374. The plasma receives new foods from the 
digestive canal, and from the lymphatics (lim-fat'iks). 
It is constantly giving and receiving. 
375. When the plasma is laden with drugs (al'- 
co-hol, chlo'ral, to-bac'co, op'i-um), or with the ac- 
tive parts of stim'u-lants,—tea, coffee, quin'i-a, spices, 
—or with wastes, then it does not do its work well. 
Then all parts of the body fail to enjoy peace, com- 
fort, and health. 
THE ACTIVITIES OF THE BODY 
376. The Human Body is wonderfully made. 
It takes in foods (280). It changes the foods to ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
133 
blood (281). Its parts feed on the blood. The body 
works; it grows; it suffers wear; it repairs itself; 
it shows activities. 
377. Body Activity is shown in muscle-work 
(chewing, talking, grasping, moving objects as in 
working, walking, etc.), in digestion, in blood-motion, 
in breathing, in growth, in heat-making, in the inner 
work of the body, and in mind-work. 
378. Body-Growth. —At birth the average 
baby weighs about seven pounds and is about 
twenty inches tall. The girl continues growing in 
height until about the twentieth year; the boy, to 
about the thirtieth (a). 
379. Alcohol and Tobacco.—It is during the 
growing period that these agents work the most 
harm. They act to stunt the growth of bone, mus- 
cle, and nerve. They deaden the activity of nerve 
and gland. They hinder the inner activities of the 
body. They are of no good use to the young body. 
Hence the young, the growing, should not be permitted 
to use them. 
TIIE WARMTH OF THE BODY. 
380. The Body Heat is largely due to burn- 
ings occurring in all parts of the body. The body- 
burnings take place slowly. They produce heat, 
car-bon'ic acid, and ni'tro-qen wastes. 
381. The Heat is set free where the burnings 134 
THE BEGINNER’S 
take place. The burning mostly occurs in the mus- 
cles, the brain, the liver, and the digestive canal. 
382. Conditions for Burning.—(1) Every part 
of the body must be supplied with oxygen, just as the 
fire in order to burn well must receive air. Hence 
breathing and blood-motion must be unhindered. 
(2) The ashes (ni'tro-gen and min'er-al wastes) 
and the smoke (car-bon'ic acid and vapor of water) 
must be rapidly removed. (The fire in the stove 
will not burn well if the grate is clogged and the 
pipe full of soot.) Hence the kid'neys, the lungs, 
and the skin must work freely. 
383. Heat is mainly 
lost by the way of 
The Skin (59). 
The Air-Passages (167). 
384. Heat Regulation.—The blood-flow is 
regulated by nerve-cells. This nerve-control is deli- 
cate. In health heat-losing balances heat-making. 
385. Alcoholics, when taken by the young, or 
the temperate, overcome the nerve-cell control. The 
blood rushes to the flushing skin. Hence the heat- 
loss, in cold weather, exceeds the healthy loss and 
the body gets chilled. Alcoholics, hot or cold, should 
not be taken before going out into the cold (b). 
ALCOHOL AND EXPOSUKE. 
386. Alcohol and Cold. —Most Arctic explorers 
affirm that the use of alcohol unfits a man to resist 
intense cold (c). ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
135 
387. Alcohol and Heat.—The use of alcoholics 
in the tropics favors “ heat-stroke” and bowel-dis- 
ease (d). Alcoholics are more injurious in hot than 
in temperate climates. 
388. Alcohol and Disease.—In times of 
cholera, yellow-fever, and plague the intemperate 
are earlier attacked than the temperate. The death- 
rate anions; them is also higher. 
o o 
389. Tobacco and Cold.—It was found in the 
Greely Expedition (1882-84) that those who did not 
use tobacco (eight) except one lived to come back. 
All the users (eleven)'perished in the North! 
THE WASTES OF TIIE BODY. 
390. Heat and Wastes.—When we work, talk, 
or walk heat is set free and wastes are made. When 
we eat, digest, and secrete heat appears and wastes are 
formed. When we read, study, plan, and think heat 
and wastes result. 
391. The Body Wastes are of no use in the 
body. They collect in the blood. If they are kept 
long in the blood they induce heaviness, headache, 
and even disease. 
By the Skin (81), 
By the Lungs (169), 
By the Kidneys (394), 
By the Bowels (278). 
392. Waste Matter 
is cast out 136 
THE beginner’s 
THE KIDNEYS. 
393. The Kidneys are two in number. They 
are found in the right and left side of the abdomen. 
(Fig. 11.) They are glands. 
394. Function.—Their 
work is to filter out the ex- 
tra water of the blood, to 
cast out the ni'tro-gen and 
min'er-al wastes and to re- 
move poisons from the blood. 
Their product is the urine. 
395. Alcoholic Kid- 
neys.—A small amount of 
alcohol disappears in the 
adult body. That part which 
is not used up in the body 
is mostly cast out by the 
kidneys (181). The use of alcoholics in excess is a 
great cause of “ kidney-disease.” 
396. Spleen.—The work of the spleen, as well 
of some other organs, has not yet been determined. 
Fig. 47. A section of the kidney—6, 
7, Artery and vein of kidney. 5, Ureter 
leading to the bladder. 
SUMMABY. 
397. The Human Body is fearfully and won- 
derfully made. The Creator has endowed it with 
life and mental power that it may perform useful 
work. We should so use our body that the wo7'ld 
will be the better for our having lived in it. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
137 
398. We all desire to avoid pain and disease. 
We all want to “get on in the world.” We all 
know that ill-health is a hindrance to mind- or 
body-work. Ill-health and disease is, however, to a 
large extent preventable. It is our duty to try to 
keep well. 
399. Ill-Health is encouraged, the number of 
sick days in the year is increased, the working pe- 
riod of life is shortened, the efficiency and usefulness 
of the body and mind is lessened, and misery and 
pain is assured by more or less constantly 
Breathing an impure air, 
Drinking a tainted water, 
Eating unwholesome food, 
Living in damp, sunless rooms, 
Neglecting out-door exercise, 
Wearing unsuitable, close-fitting clothing, 
Omitting to keep the skin clean, 
Failing to employ the mind usefully, 
Postponing the correction of defects in sight, 
Pursuing injurious occupations, 
Using alcoholics. 
400. Growth, endurance, usefulness, and efficiency 
are markedly lessened in the growing boy and girl, 
in the young man and young lady, by 
The use of confectionery, 
The use of appetizers, 
The use of tea or coffee, 138 
THE BEGINNER’S 
The use of opiates, chloral, etc., 
The use of tobacco, 
The use of alcoholics. 
(a) FOR THE TEACHER. Boys and girls attain half {}/,) of their average 
weight and about eleven-thirteenths (JJ) of their stature before the thirteenth year. 
Hence the food given in this rapid-growing period should certainly be rich in 
bone-, in muscle-, in gland-making materials. 
(b) Heat-Control.—If the control is disturbed then too much blood may go to 
the skin, causing too rapid heat-loss, or too much to the internal organs, causing 
too much heat-making. In health, the balance is so well kept that the body tem- 
perature remains at about 99° F. day and night, summer and winter, in Cuba and 
in Labrador. The control is so prompt that a healthy person can go from a hot to 
a cold place with little concern. 
Illustration.—Sir John Richardson was an abstainer. He spent a winter in 
British America, as near the Arctic Sea as the party could reach. Without putting 
on his great-coat, he frequently went from the log hut (temp. 50° F.) to the observa- 
tory out of doors (temp. 50° F. below 0°) and remained out ten minutes. He suffered 
no ill effects from the great change of a hundred degrees (c)! 
(c) Management of Frost-Bite.— To restore circulation and sensibility, rub thefrozen 
part with snow, or apply iced water. Keep the sufferer at .first in a cold room, and let the 
return to a higher temperature be gradual and cautious, else gangrene may supervene. 
(d) Management of “Heat-Stroke.”—The majority of “sunstrokes” are merely 
the effects of the heat, not of the direct rays of the sun. Hence they should be calted “ heat- 
strokes.” Apply cold water and ice to the head. Pour salt water on the head. If the per- 
son can swallow give him ice freely. Put the patient in a cold bath. Give no alcoholics. 
The object in view is to reduce the temperature of the blood. 
Prevention of Heat-Stroke.— Wear loose-fitting garments. In very hot, sultry 
weather be moderate in your movements. Avoid hurry and worry. Drink freely of warm 
tea or coffee and cold water. Avoid “ made drinks” and alcoholics. To prevent the 
direct action of the sun’s rays, wear a ventilated hat; place a green leaf in the hat; protect 
the back of the head; use a sun-umbrella. 
QUESTIONS. 
371. What is the work of the red cor'pus-cles? of the white? 
372. What is found in the plasma? 373. What may be taken from 
the plasma? 374. What is received by the plasma? 375. What 
injures the plasma? What may wastes or drugs induce ? 
The Work of the Blood 
The Activities of the Body. 
376. What can the body do? What is its work? 377. Mention 
the body activities. 378. What is the weight and stature of a ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
139 
babe? When does growth cease? 379. When do alcohol and 
tobacco work most injuriously ? What do they do? Hence ? 
The Warmth of the Body. 
380. To what is body-heat due? What is formed? 381. Where 
is the heat mostly set free? 382. Why must oxygen be freely 
provided? What must be removed ? Why? Hence? 383. How 
is the heat lost? 384. How is the blood-flow regulated? What 
is balanced? 385. What is the action of alcohol? What follows 
in cold weather ? Mention a true maxim. 
386. What is the influence of akco-hol-ics in cold countries? 
387. What do alcoholics favor? Where very injurious? 388. 
What diseases are favored by alcoholics ? 389. What was noticed 
in the Greely Expedition ? 
Alcohol and Exposure 
The Wastes of the Body. 
390. What causes the making of heat and of wastes ? 391. What 
becomes of the wastes? What trouble may they cause? 392. 
How are the wastes cast out? 
393. How many kidneys? Where found? 394. What is the 
duty of these glands? 395. What becomes of a portion of an 
absorbed alcoholic? of another portion9 What may result? 
396. What is the duty of the spleen ? 
The Kidneys 
397. Why has the human body been richly endowed ? Hence ? 
398. What do all desire? What should we know? What is a 
duty? 399. Mention, in turn, actions which are unfavorable for 
body-work and efficiency. 400. Mention, in turn, actions which 
markedly injure the health of the growing person. 
Summary. INDEX. 
Abdomen, 96. 
Absorption, 103,104. 
Air, 65. 
Air-cells, 67. 
Air, dangers in, 74. 
Air-passages, 65. 
Alcohol, 36, 37, 40. 
Alcohol, circulation of, 76. 
effect on body heat, 134. 
effect on bone, 16. 
effect on digestion, 106. 
effect on growth, 133. 
effect on heart-action, 55. 
effect on joints, 16. 
effect on kidneys, 136. 
effect on lung-disease, 77. 
effect on mind, 119. 
effect on touch, 32. 
effect on voice, 83. 
effect under exposure, 134. 
Alcohol and work, 24. 
Alcohol, craving for, 120. 
not a preventive of disease, 135. 
as a medicine, 36. 
Alcoholic fatty changes, 24. 
Alcoholic structural changes, 28, 49, 99, 
100,114. 
Anatomy, 9. 
Apoplexy, 49. 
Appetizers, 39. 
Arteries, fatty change of, 49. 
Artery, 47. 
Auricles, 46. 
Backbone, 112. 
Bathing, 34. 
Beer, 37. 
Bleeding, management of, 45. 
Blood, 43. • 
changes in the, 72,104. 
effect of drugs on, 132. 
work of the, 132. 
Body, activities of, 132. 
the wastes of, 135. 
Bone, 13. 
Bones, hygiene of, 15, 22. 
table of, 12. 
Bowels, 96. 
Brain, 111. 
care of, 118 
duties of, H7. 
Bread, 87. 
Breathing, 70. 
effects of, 72. 
hygiene of, 75, 78. 
Bronchial tubes, 67. 
Burn, management of, 30. 
Cake, objections to, 88. 
Capillaries, 47. 
Carbonic acid, 72. 
Cartilages, 14. 
Chest, 66. 
Chloral, 37, 56. 
effect on mind, 120. 
Cholera, 84. 
Cigarettes, influence of, 77,122. 
Circulation, 63. 
Clothing, 23, 28. 
Clotting, 43. 
Coffee, 39. 
effect on digestion, 106. 
effect on nerve, 121. 
Color-blindness, 130. 
Confectionery, 107. 
Conjunctiva, 125. 142 
INDEX 
Consumption, causes of, 34. 
prevention of, 77, 79. 
Cooking, 88. 
Corpuscles, 43. 
Cosmetics, 32. 
Deformities, 14. 
Demonstration of alcohol, 40. 
of bone, 16. 
of the blood, 45. 
of blood-motion, 61. 
of the eye, 130. * 
general, 10. 
of heart-sounds, 57. 
of the mouth, 94. 
of muscles, 21. 
of pulse, 57. 
of respiration, 73. 
of skin, 30. 
of the voice, 83. 
Diaphragm, 67. 
Digestion, 91,102. 
Disease, prevention of, 84. 
Dissection of air-passages, 68. 
of brain, 114. 
of digestive organs, 100. 
of the eye, 129. 
of joint, 16. 
of muscles, 21. 
Distillation, 37. 
Drowning case, management of, 35. 
Drum-head, 127. 
Ear, 127. 
care of, 128. 
Eating, manner of, 108. 
Eggs, 86. 
Epidemics, management during, 79. 
Epiglottis, 82. 
Exercise, 23. 
Experiments upon breathing, 73. 
with foods, 105. 
with vision, 130. 
Expiration, 71. 
Eye, appendages of, 125. 
humors of, 125. 
structure of, 124. 
Eyes, care of, 126. 
Fainting, 55. 
management of, 57. 
Fat, 19. 
Fermentation, 37. 
Fish, 87. 
Fits, management of, 121. 
Food, 22, 85, 87. 
amount of, 107. 
preparation of, 91. 
quality of, 107. 
Frost-bite, management of, 138. 
Fruits, 87. 
Fusel oil, 40. 
Gall-bladder, 98. 
Ganglia, 113,116. 
Germs of disease, 84. 
Glands, 97, 99. 
lymphatic, 49. 
Gout, 16. 
Growth, 133. 
Hair, 32. 
Hair-muscles, 32. 
Hearing, 128. 
Heart, 46. 
alcoholic fatty, 49. 
work of, 54. 
Heating, 79. 
Heat-control, 138. 
Heat, loss of, 134. 
production of, 133. 
regulation of, 134. 
Heat-stroke, management of. 138. 
Human body, summary of, 136. 
Hygiene, 9. 
Ice-water, effects of, 103. 
Ill-health, prevention of, 137. 
Inspiration, 71. 
Intestines, 96. 
Iris, 125. 
Joints, 14,15. 
Kidneys, 136. 
Larynx, 82. 
Lead-poisoning, 85. 143 
INDEX 
Lens, 124. 
action of, 126. 
Ligaments, 13. 
Liver, 98. 
Lungs, 67. 
Lymphatics, 49. 
duties of, 51. 
Meats, 86. 
Milk, 86. 
Mouth, 92, 96. 
food-changes in, 102. 
Mouth-breathing, dangers in, 75. 
Movements, 20. 
Mucous membrane, 66. 
Mucus, 66, 68. 
Muscles, 18. 
action of, 19. 
care of, 22. 
involuntary, 19. 
voluntary, 18. 
Kails, 33. 
Narcotics. 38, 41. 
Nasal duct, 125. 
Near sight, 127,130. 
Nerves, 112,113. 
duties of, 116. 
Nervous system, 111. 
Nicotin, 38. 
Nitrogen foods, 86. 
(Esophagus, 96. 
Oil-glands, 32. 
Opium, 87, 40. 
effect on digestion, 106. 
effect on mind, 120,122. 
Opium-habit, 38. 
Opium-smoking, 77. 
Optic nerve, 124. 
Oxygen, 65, 72. 
Pancreas, 98. 
Peritoneum, 97. 
Perspiration, 33. 
Pharynx, 96. 
Physiology, 9. 
Plasma, 43. 
Poison case, management of, 109. 
Pupil, 125. 
Quinia, 89. 
Retina, 124. 
Rheumatism, 16, 84. 
Saliva, 98. 
Salt, 86, 88. 
Sea-bathing, 34. 
Shoes, 23, 29. 
Skin, 26, 27. 
care of, 28, 34. 
injuries of, 27. 
Skull-bones, 112. 
Smell, nerves of, 75. 
Snake-bite, management of, 58. 
Snoring, 75. 
Snuff-taking, 76. 
Soothing syrups, 122. 
Sounds, making of, 82, 83. 
Spices, effect on digestion, 107. 
Spinal canal. 112. 
Spinal cord, 112. 
duties of, 116. 
Spirits, 37. 
Spleen, 136. 
Stimulant, 39, 61. 
Stomach, 96. 
food-changes in, 102. 
Sunlight, influence of, 78. 
Sunstroke, prevention of, 138. 
Swallowing, 102. 
Sweat-glands, 33. 
Synovia, 15. 
Tape-worm, 86. 
Taste, nerves of. 93. 
injury of, 94. 
Tea, 89. 
Tea-drinker’s heart, 55. 
Tea, effect on digestion, 106,109. 
effect on mind, 121, 122. 
Tears, 125. 
Teeth, 92. 
care of, 94. 
Tendons, 18. 
Thorax, 66. 
Tinned-foods, 88. 144 
INDEX 
Tobacco, 38. 
effect on digestion, 106. 
effect under exposure, 135. 
effect on growth, 133. 
effect on hearing, 129. 
effect on mind, 121. 
effect on muscle, 24. 
effect on sight, 129. 
effect on skin, 28. 
effect on voice, 83. 
Tobacco-chewing, effects of, 93. 
Tobacco-heart, 55. 
Tobacco-smoke, actions of, 76, 77. 
Tobacco-smoking, effects of, 93. 
Tongue, 93. 
Touch, 31. 
Trachea, 67. 
Trichina, 86. 
Typhoid fever, 84, 89. 
Valves, 47. 
Vegetables, 87. 
Veins, 47. 
Ventilation, 79. 
Ventricles, 46. 
Vocal cords, 82. 
Voice, hygiene of, 82. 
Waist-band. 61. 
Water, 84, 88. 
Wells, 85, 89. 
Wrist-drop, 85. 
Yellow-fever, 84. 
THE END. WEW SERIES OF 1887. 
LESSONS IN HYGIENE 
ADAPTED FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. By JOHN C. CUTTER, B.Sc M.r G88o 
12mo. 180 Pages, Small Pica Type. Extra cloth, red edges. 50 Cents. 
This little work presents the essential facts concerning bathing, clothing, 
air, sewer-gas, food, water, home-location, drainage, home-construction, men- 
tal work, physical exercise, eye-work, contagious disorders, etc., as bearing 
upon the problem of preserving the health and warding off disease. About 
one-sixth of the text is devoted to setting forth such facts of structure 
(anatomy) and function (physiology) as are deemed essential for the under- 
standing of hygienic principles. 
The degenerating and disease-inducing influences of Coffee, Tea, Alcoholics, 
Chloral, Opium, and Tobacco receive marked attention. The action of alco- 
holics on the tissues and organs is considered in each division of the book 
in the light afforded by experimental science and clinical experience. The 
simpler methods of procedure in the management of emergent cases—of 
the home, the field, the workshop, the road—are described in a clear and 
orderly manner. * 
Cutter’s New Physiological Charts, 
OR 
HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMICAL PLATES. 
These charts, nine in number, are executed in the best manner, being 
artistically shaded and colored, and printed with great care upon tinted 
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muslin backs, etc., are of superior workmanship. They are the only school 
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Teachers will find them peculiarly adapted to Dr. Cutter’s New Series on 
Physiology and Hygiene, which has been recently issued. Price, $12.00. 
Chart 1. Osseous System. 
“ 2. Muscular System. 
“ 3. Nutritive System. 
“ 4. Digestive System. 
Chart 5. Cutaneous System. 
“ 6. Respiratory System. 
“ 7. Circulatory System. 
“ 8. Nervous System. 
Chart 9. Special Senses. 
J. B. UPPINCOTT COMPANY, 
Nos. 715 and 717 Market Street, Philadelphia. REW SERIES OF 1887. 
INTERMEDIATE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
Including Scientific Instruction upon the Effects of Narcotics and 
Stimulants upon the Human Body (1887). 
A Revision of the “First Book on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene,” prepared by Calvin 
Cutter, A.M., M.D., in 1854. 
l'inno. ‘its Pages. 70 Illustrations. Small Plea Tgpe. doth, printed. 
Price: Exchange, 25 Cents. Introduction, SO Cents. 
In 1854, owing to the want of a teachable text-book, physiology and 
hygiene was not a general branch of school instruction. The “ First Book 
on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene,” more than any other, has served 
to educate the teacher and the public of this decade to the importance of 
hygiene and the need of physiological school instruction. 
This book in the hands of missionary laborers and native scholars has 
been translated and published in the Bulgarian, Armenian, Arabic, Hin- 
dustani, Tamil, Japanese, also in other Oriental languages. It has also been 
prepared in raised letters for the blind. 
The effects of Alcohol, Tobacco, Opium, etc., on the structure, on the 
functions, and on the health of the parts of the body (particularly of young 
persons) have been treated from a scientific stand-point in each chapter of 
this revision. 
There have been added in this edition chapters on Foods, Beverages, the 
Home and Emergent Cases, also directions for simple experiments and 
for demonstrations on the living body, and for the dissection of small 
animals (dog, rat), illustrative of the structure and the actions of the living 
body. While believing that charts for reference and engravings on the 
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think that object lessons, seeing the organ or part, and witnessing the phe- 
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The Anatomical portion is clear and brief. Each anatomical statement 
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The Physiological explanation of the phenomena of the living body is 
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The Review questions, the antique letter headings of the paragraphs, 
the Blackboard Analytic Summaries, the cross references, the con- 
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the full index make the book a teachable elementary text-book. 
J. B. UPPINCOTT COMPANY, 
Nos. 715 anti 717 Market Street, Philadelphia.