-nS?^ ,'. '.V-'' U' Ms m \'-<' m: yT&T5 " .iL/CX.' _w C Surgeon General's Office ) No,A.O^^ *£> f .*•*"' FIRST BOOK ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. BY CALVIN CUTTER, M. D. in AUTHOR OF " ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR ACADEMIES," ETC., AND " PHYSIOLOGY FOR COMMON SCHOOLS." WITH EIGHTY-FOUR ENGRAVINGS. STEREOTYPE EDITION. BOSTON: BENJAMIN B. MUSSEY& CO. NEW YORK, CLARK & AUSTIN. - ROCHESTER, N. Y., S. HAMILTON. PHILADELPHIA, U. HUNT & SON. - BALTIMORE, CUSHLNG & BROTHER. RICHMOND, J. II. RANDOLPH & CO.-NEW ORLEANS, J. B. STEEL & CO. ST. LOUIS, J. HALSALL. - BUFFALO, 0. O. STEEL. '£?.k?C-~zVf ?*o. QTr\ C99lfi 1818 /^/U, P^/7 14*.,^ {£ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1817. By Calvin Cutter, M. D., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. stereotyped at the boston type and stereotype foundry. PREFACE. In presenting this work to the public, the author would indulge in a few prefatory suggestions. Education, to be complete, must be not only moral and intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the mind and of the affections is the subject of systematic attention in early life, should not the education of the physical powers be commenced as early? It will demand no more maturity and thought to understand the reasons for adequate clothing, bathing, the necessity of an erect position in standing and sitting, regularity in taking food, the supply of pure air to the lungs, &c, than to comprehend geographical details or moral truths. Is not a knowledge of the laws and habits upon which health depends, as important to the development of a vigorous pnysical constitution, as moral instruction is to the formation of correct moral principles? Can any reason be given why both should not be taught in the school-room ? A child should be taught to call each organ by its correct name. No more effort is required to learn the meaning of a proper, than an improper term. For example: a child will pronounce the word as readily," and obtain as correct an idea, if you say lungs, as if you used the word lights. In preparing this work, it has not been deemed necessary to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of being understood; but such words have been selected as good usage sanctions. Should the pupil meet with any word he does not understand, 1* 6 PREFACE. let him consult his dictionary, as he should do in perusing works upon history, when a similar difficulty occurs. It would be a profitable exercise for the pupil to draw the illustrating figure on a black-board or slate. This would impress the position of the organs on the mind. With advanced pupils, it is recommended that the subject be examined in the form of topics. In this work, the technical words interspersed with the text, have been divided into syllables, and the accented syl- lables designated. An ample Glossary of technical terms has also been appended to the work, to which reference should be made. For a more full and complete explanation of Anatomy and Physiology, the pupil is referred to the author's Treatise, of 340 pages, for Academies, High Schools, and Families. To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of education, this work is respectfully submitted. Boston, August, 1847. CONTENTS. A. Abdomen...........................68 Absorbents,......................121 ------------of the Skin,...........98 ABSORPTION, .....................121 Acids, Antidotes for,...............139 Air, Composition of the,.............72 ---, the Effects of, when impure, ....78 ---, the Effects of, on Sound,........84 Air-Cells,.........................69 Ammonia, Antidotes for.............138 Aorta..............................57 Arsenic, Antidote for,.............138 Arte ries,. ..,......................54 ---------, Pulmonary,...............56 ---------, of the Skin,..............97 ---------, Treatment of divided,.....64 Asphyxia, from Drowning,.........79 ---------, from Hanging,...........80 .--------, from Carbonic Acid Gas,.80 Attitudes,.....................35, 83 Auricles of the Heart,..............54 Bathing, Necessity of,.............101 --------, proper Time for,.........101 --------, Method of,..........102, 133 Belladonna, Antidote for,........141 Bile,...............................46 Blood,.............................54 ------, Circulation of,...............58 ------, Composition of,..............61 , Change of,..................72 ------, the Effects of, upon the Sys- tem when impure,................75 ______, the Effects of, upon the Brain,.93 Bones, their Use,....................1J ------of the Head,.................11 ______ of the Trunk,................12 ______ of the Spinal Column,........12 ______of the Upper Extremities,.....15 ______ of the Lower Extremities,....17 ______, Composition of,..............17 .------, Reunion of,.................21 ______., Practical Suggestions on, .20—22 Brain, .............................§jj -----, Membranes of,................°° _____t Practical Suggestions on,..92—95 .-----, Injuries of,...................94 Bronchi,...........................£9 Bronchitis,................•• • • • • •»•; Burns and Scalds, Treatment of,..104 C. .58 Capillaries,............... ____________of the Skin,...........97 Carbonic Acid Gas,...............Jj cartilage, .......................■" Caul,...............................j™ Cerebellum,......................w Cerebrum,.........................86 Chest,..........................13, 75 ------, Contractions of,.............76 Chyle,.............................46 Chyme..............................46 Clavicle,.........................16 Clothing, Kind of,................102 --------, Change of,.............103 --------, Amount of,.............103 Conium, Antidote for,..............141 Copper, Antidote for,..............139 Cuticle, ..........................95 Cutis Vera,.......................96 D. Diaphragm,........................69 -----------, the Effects of the Re- striction of the,...................75 Digestive Organs,...............43 ------------------, the Effects of pure Air on the,..................52 ------------------, the Effects of Position on the,..................53 ------------------, Practical Sug- gestions on the,..............50—54 Drinks,.............................51 Drowned, Treatment of Persons,... .79 Duodenum,........................46 E. EAR,...............................109 ---, Bones of,..................12, 111 EYE, ..............................H3 ---, Method of removing Dust from,.120 F. Face, Bones of,.....................12 Follicle,.........................125 Food, Changes of, during the diges- tive Process,.....................48 -----, Quantity of,..................50 -----, Quality of,...................51 -----, proper Time for taking,.......52 Foot, Structure of,..................17 Frozen Limbs, Treatment of,.....104 G. Gastric Juice,....................45 Glands, Salivary,...................43 -------, Mesenteric,.................48 -------, Perspiratory,............97, 99 -------, Lymphatic,................123 _______, Lachrymal,................H8 ________J Oil,........................99 Glottis,...........................81 H. HEALTH, Means of preserving,......127 Hearing, Sense of,................109 ________., Causes of impaired.......113 8 CONTENTS. Heart, ............................54 ------, Contractions of the,..........60 ------, Practical Suggestions on,.62—68 Heat, Animal,.....................126 Hemorrhage, Means of arresting,..65 I. Intestines,........................48 J. Joints,.............................22 ------, Practical Suggestions on,.25—26 Tu. lacte als,.........................47 Larynx,............................81 Lead, Antidote for,.................139 Ligaments,........................22 Light, Influence of,................33 Liver,..............................46 Lungs,.............................69 M. Medulla Oblongata.............87 Mineral Poisons,................138 Mercury, Antidote for,............139 Muscles, Structure of,..............26 ------, Useof,...................27 -------, the Effects of pure Air on,.33 -------, the Effects of Light on,___33 -------, Compression of,...........34 -------, Influence of the Mind on,. .36 -------, Training of,...............38 -------, Effect of, on the Circula- tion of the Blood,.................63 -------, Connection with the Brain, 90 -------, Practical Suggestions on the,.........................32—39 N. Nerves,............................87 ------, Useof the,.................89 ------, Sympathetic,...............92 ------ oftheSkin,................97 ------, Gustatory,.................106 ------, Olfactory,.................108 ------, Auditory,.............109, 112 ------, Optic,.....................116 Nitre, Treatment for an Over-dose,. 139 Nurses, Directions for,.............132 O. CEsophagus,.......................44 Omentum,..........................68 Opium, Treatment for an Over-dose,. 140 P. Pancreas,.........................46 Periosteum,.......................20 Pelvis, Bones of,...................15 Pharynx...........................44 Poisons and their Antidotes,.. 138—141 R. Radius,.............................16 Reading, the proper Position in,. .35, 83 Removal of Disease.............128 Respiratory Organs.............69 -----------1--------, Practical Suggestions on the...........74—80 Retina,.......................114,116 Ribs,...............................12 ---, Contraction of,.................76 S. Saliva,.............................44 Scapula,...........................16 Secretion,.......................124 Senses,............................105 Sitting, proper Position in,..........35 Skele ton,......;..................19 Skin,...............................95 ----, Practical Suggestions on,'101—105 Skull, Bones of the,................11 Sleeping-Rooms, Ventilation of,...78 Smell, Sense of,...................107 Sound,.............................82 Spinal Column,...................14 --------------, Curvature of,......20 ------Cord,....................14, 87 Spleen,............................68 Strammonium, Treatment for an Over-dose, .....................141 Strabismus,......................119 Sternum,..........................13 Stomach...........................45 Sutures, Use of,....................12 Synovia............................23 T. Taste, Sense of,...................106 Teeth,.............................39 ------, Practical Suggestions on, 41—43 Tendon,...........................26 Thoracic Duct,...................48 Throat, extraneous Bodies in,......79 Touch, Sense of,...................105 Trachea,..........................69 V. Ulna,..............................16 V. Valves of the Heart................54 ------ of the Aorta,................55 ------ of the Pulmonary Artery, ... .55 Veins,..............................54 ------of the Skin,.................[97 Vegetable Poisons,............140 Ventilation,.....................78 Ventricles of the Heart,...........54 Vertebrje,........................14 Vision,............................113 Voice,.............................81 ------Practical Suggestions on,. .83—85 Vocal Cords,.....................81 W. Waste, the amount of, through the Skin,...........................100 Watchers, Directions for,.........136 Wounds, Treatment of,.............66 FIRST BOOK ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Anatomy is a description of the organs, or parts of a body. Examples. 1st. Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms. These are their organs. 2d. The teeth, stomach, and heart, are some of the organs of the human body. 2. Physiology is a description of the function, or use of an organ. Examples. 1st. The roots of flowers suck up water, to make them grow. This is their function. 2d. The stom- ach, in man, is one of the organs that prepare the food for his growth. This is its function. 3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds, namely, Animal and Vegetable. 4. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided into Human and Comparative. 1. What is anatomy? Give examples. 2. What is physiology? Give examples. 3. How many kinds of anatomy and physiology are there ? 4. How are animal anatomy and physiology divided ? 10 GENERAL REMARKS. 5. Human Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc- ture and functions of the organs of man. 6. Comparative Anatomy describes the structure of other animals than man. Examples. As the different organs of the horse, the whale, the monkey, and the eagle. 7. Comparative Physiology describes the functions of the organs of these animals. 8. Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc- ture and functions of different parts of trees, shrubs, plants, and flowers. 9. All bodies in nature are divided into Organic and Inorganic. Organic bodies include animals and plants. In- organic bodies include earths, metals, and other minerals. 10. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, and this period varies with every species. In some plants, the period is limite4 to a single summer, as many garden flowers; while some trees, as the olive, live many hundred years. Some animals live but a short time, while the ele- phant lives more than a century. 11. This period of life is shortened by disease; but dis- ease is under the control of fixed laws — laws which we are capable of understanding and obeying. How important, then, is the study of physiology ! For how can we expect to obey laws which we do not understand 1 5. What do human anatomy and physiology describe ? 6. What does comparative anatomy describe ? Give examples. 7. What does comparative physiology describe ? 8. What do vegetable anatomy and physiology describe ? 9. How are all bodies in nature divided ? What bodies are called organic ? What bodies are called inorganic ? 10. Have all animals and plants a limited period of life ? Does this period vary with different species of animals and plants ? Give some examples. 11. How is life visually shortened ? Is disease under the control of fixed laws ? Why is the study of physiology important to every person ? CHAPTER II. THE BONES. 12. The Bones are the frame of the body, having out- side of them the muscles (flesh) and skin. 13. Their use is to support and protect other parts of the body, as the lungs, the liver, the brain, &c. Illustration. The bones are to the body what the different pieces of timber are to a house — they not only give form and support to the building, but, like the bones, impart strength to the whole structure. 14. There are two hundred and eight * bones in the human body, beside the teeth. 15. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts : 1st. The bones of the Head. 2d. The bones of the 4*. Trunk. 3d. The bones of the Upper Extremities. 4th. The bones of the Lower Extremities. 16. The bones of the head are divided into those of the Skull, Ear, and Face. 17. The bones of the skull are eight in number. These are joined together by ragged edges, called su'tures. * Some anatomists reckon more than this number, others less, for the reason that, at different periods of life, the number of pieces of which one bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight pieces ; in youth, three; in old age, but one. 12. What are the bones ? 13. What is their use ? 14. How many bones in the human body ? 15. How are they divided ? Name them. 16. How are the bones of the head divided ? 17. How many bones in the skull ? How are the bones of the skull joined together ? 12 THE BONES. 18. The sutures stop, in a measure, the jars caused by external blows. Children should never strike each other upon the head, because the bones of the skull in them are softer than in adults. Fig. 2. Fig. 2. The bones of the upper part of the skull, a, a, b, c, c, The sutures that join the bones. > 19. There are four very small bones in each ear. They aid in hearing. 20. The number of bones in the face is fourteen. 21. The trunk has fifty-four bones — twenty-four Ribs ; twenty-four bones in the Spi'nal Column, (back-bone;) four in the Pelvis; the Ster'num, (breast-bone;) and one at the root of the tongue. 22. All the Ribs are joined to the spinal column. There are twelve on each side. 18. What is the use of sutures ? What does fig. 2 represent ? 19. How many bones in each ear ? What is their use ? 20. How many bones in the face ? 21. How many bones in the trunk ? Name them 22. To what are all the ribs joined ? How many on each side ? THE BONES. 13 23. The seven upper ribs are united in front to the ster- num, by a yielding substance called car'ti-lage* (gristle.) The remaining five are not attached, directly, to the sternum. Three are joined to each other by cartilage; two are not confined; hence they are called " floating ribs." Fig. 3. Fiir 3 1 2. 3, The sternum, (breast-bone.) 4, 5, The spinal column, (back-bone.) 6, 7, 8, 9, The first rib. 10, The seventh rib. 11, The car- tilage of the third rib. 12, The floating ribs. 24. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, lungs, and large blood-vessels. 25. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugar-loaf. * * See paragraph 57- 23 How are the first seven ribs united in front? The next three? What are the last two called? Why ? Describe fig. 3. 24. How is the chest formed? What does it contain? 25. What is the shape of the chest ? 2 14 THE BONES. 26. The lower part of the chest is broader and fuller than the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight clothing. 27. The Spinal* Column is composed of twenty-four pieces of bone. Each piece is called a ver'te-bra. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. The form of a vertebra of the neck. 1, The main portion of the bone. 2, The spinal canal, in which the spinal cord is placed. 4, 5, 7, 8, Points, or projections of the vertebra. Fig. 5. 1, The cartilage that connects the vertebra. 3, 4, 5, 6, Points, or projections of the vertebra. 7, The spinal canal. 28. Between the vertebrae is a thick piece of cartilage, which is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not only unites the vertebrae, but permits them to move in different ways. 29. There is an opening in each vertebra. By a union of these openings, a canal is formed the whole length of the spinal column, in which the spinal cord (pith of the back- bone) is placed. Observation. A good idea of the structure of the vertebra? * From the Latin spi'na, a thorn; so called from the points of the ver- tebrae that are felt beneath the skin. 26. How does the lower part of the chest compare in size with the upper? 27. Of how many pieces of bone is the spinal column com- posed? What is each piece called? Describe fig. 4. Describe fio; 5. 28. What is placed between the vertebra? ? Give its use 29 How is the spinal canal formed, and what does it contain ? . How may an idea of the structure of the vertebra? be obtained ? THE BONES. 15 may be obtained by examining the spinal column of a do- mestic animal, as the hog, dog, or cat. 30. The spinal column is a very curious and perfect piece of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength and suf- ficient movement or flexibility are combined. The vertebra: are so firmly joined together, that dislocation of them, without fracture, is very rare. Fig. 6. Fig. 6. 1, 1, The hip-bones. 2, The sacrum, upon which the spinal column rests. 3, The extremity of the back-bone, named the coc'cyx. 4, 4, The cavities for the head of the thigh-bone. 31. The Pelvis is composed of four bones. They are so arranged as to form a bony basin. The spinal column rests on these bones, and they also serve to support the lower extremities. 32. In the sides of these bones is a deep, round cavity, called ac-e-tab'u-lum, in which the head of the thigh-bone is placed. 33. There are sixty-four bones in the upper extremities — the Scap'u-la, (shoulder-blade;) the Clav'i-cle, (collar-bone;) and the bones of the arm, wrist, and hand. 30. What is said of the structure of the spinal column ? Describe fig. 6. 31. Of how many bones is the pelvis composed ? What is their use ? 32. What is found in the sides of these bones ? 33 Name the bones of the upper extremities. 999 10 THE BONES. 34. The Scapula is a broad, irregular bone, situated upon the upper and back part of the chest. 35. The Clavicle is a thin bone at the base of the neck. It is joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to the scapula. Fig. 7. u, The ulna. », The radius, s, L, c, p, u, M, t, t, The eight bones of the wrist. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, The five bones of the palm of the hand. Fig. 8. 10, 10, 10, The bones of the palm of the hand. 11,12, 13, Tha bones of the fingers. 14, 15, The bones of the thumb. 36. The use of the clavicle is to keep the arms from slid- ing towards the breast. Children should frequently throw their arms backward, as this exercise would tend to increase the length of this bone, and also to enlarge the chest. 37. The long, round bone of the arm, between the shoul- der and elbow, is called the hu'mer-us. 38. The two bones between the elbow and wrist are called the ra'di-us and ulna. By a beautiful arrangement of these bones, the hand is made to turn, or rotate, permitting its 34. Describe the scapula. 35. Where is the clavicle situated? Describe fig. 7. What does fig. 8 represent ? 36. What is the use of the clavicle ? 37. Describe the humerus. 38. What are the names of the bones between the elbow and wrist ? What is said of the ar- rangement of these bones ? THE BONES. 1> complicated and varied movements. Proofs of a designing Creator are nowhere more manifest than in the simple but wonderful structure and adaptation of the human hand. 39. The lower extremities contain sixty bones — the Fe'- mur, (thigh-bone;) the Pa-tella, (knee-pan;) the Tib'i-a, (shin-bone;) the Fib'u-la, (small bone of the leg;) and the bones of the foot. 40. The Femur is the longest bone of the body. It sup- ports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. 41. The Tibia and the Fibula are situated between the knee and ankle. 42. The foot is formed of twenty-six bones — seven in the instep, called Tar'sal bones ; five Met-a-tar'sal, (the middle of the foot;) and fourteen toe-bones, called Pha-lan'ges. 43. The bones of the foot are so united as to give it the form of an arch,— convex on its upper surface, and concave on the lower surface. (See fig. 10.) 44. This structure gives to the foot the elasticity, or spring, which not only lessens the fatigue in walking, but pre- vents injury to the brain, heart, stomach, and other organs. 45. The bones are formed of both animal and earthy matter. Experiment 1st. Take a bone and burn it in a clear fire a short time. On taking it out, it will look white, its weight will be found to be less, and it will break easily, because the fire has destroyed the gela-tin, (jelly;) or animal matter of the bone. 39. How many bones in the lower extremities ? Name them. 40. Describe the femur. 41. What bones are situated between the knee and ankle ? 42. How many bones in the foot ? How many in the instep ? How many in the middle of the foot ? How many toe-bones ? 43. What is the form of the foot ? How does it appear on its upper surface ? Upon its lower surface ?• 44. Of what utility is the arch of the foot ? 45. Of what are the bones formed ? How is it proved, by experiment 1st, that they contain earthy matter ? How, by the 2d ex- periment, that they contain animal matter ? 2* 1*8 THE BONES. Experiment 2d. Take another bone, and immerse it in a weak acid, (one part of muriatic acid to six parts of water,) and let it remain a few days, and it can be knotted or easily cut without dulling the knife. In this experiment, the acid has removed the earthy matter, (carbonate and phosphate of lime,) while the gelatin remains. Fig. 9. 14 13 Fig. 9. The upper surface of the bones of the foot. 1, 2, 3,4,5, 6, 7,8, The tarsal (instep) bones. 9, 9, The metatarsal bones. 10, 11, The bones of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The bones of the small toes. Fig. 10. A side view of the bw.es of the foot, showing its arched form The arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front 1 The lower part of the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the tarsus. 6, The met- atarsal bone. 7, 8, The bones of the great toe. These bones are so united by cartilages as to secure a great degree of elasticity, or spring. 46. The bones of a child contain more of the animal than the earthy matter ; therefore they will bend before they will break. The bones of the aged man will sooner break 46. Why do not a child's bones break as soon as an aged person's ? THE BONES. 19 than bend, because they contain more of the earthy than animal matter. Fig. 11. Fig. 11. 1, 1, The spinal column, on the top of which are the bones of the head. 2, 2, The ribs. 3, The sternum. 4, 4, The clavicle, (collar- bone.) 5, 5, The humerus, (upper arm-bone.) 6, 6, The elbow. 7, 7, The radius. 8, 8, The ulna. 9, 9, The carpus, (wrist-bones.) 10, 10, The phalanges, (finger-bones.) 11, 11, The pelvis. 12, The sacrum. 13, 13, The hip-joint. 14, 14, The femur, (thigh-bone.) 15, 15, The knee- joint. 16, 16, The fibula. 17, 17, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 18, 18, The ankle. 19, 19, The foot. 20 THE BONES. 47. In middle age, the animal and the earthy matter exists in nearly the same proportions; hence the bones are fitted for labor, as they will not bend like the child's, nor fracture like those of the aged man. 48. The bones are covered with a firm mem'brane, or skin, called per-i-os'te-um. This membrane, like the bones, gives us but little pain if wounded when healthy; but if diseased, as in " felons," the pain is very severe. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 49. The ribs and bones of the spinal column are soft and yielding in childhood. A small amount of pressure upon the ribs will cause them to injure the lungs, stomach, and heart. For this reason, every article of clothing should be loosely worn. 50. To prevent the bones of the spinal column becoming curved, every person should sit and stand erect. When a slight curvature of the spine exists, it can be improved by walking with a boolc, or a heavier weight, upon the top of the head; to balance which, the spine must be nearly erect. Those people that carry their burdens upon their heads sel- dom have crooked spines. 51. A person should not stand with one hip elevated more than the other. But, when necessary to throw the weight of the body upon one limb, keep that limb firm. 52. When a bone is fractured, the material that reunites it is deposited on the ends of the broken bone, by the blood- vessels. 47. When are the bones best fitted for labor ? 48. With what are the bones covered ? What is diseased when we have " felons " ? 49. Why should children wear loose clothing ? 50. Give a prevention for a curved spine. When there is a slight curvature, how can it be improved ? 51. Should persons stand with one hip elevated more than the other ? What suggestion when the weight of the body is thrown upon one limb ? 52. How is a broken bone healed ? THE BONES. 21 53. Some days elapse, after the bone is broken, before the substance that reunites it is thrown out from the blood. Fig. 12. 54. In young persons, it may be done during the second or third week, and in individuals advanced in life, it is usually done during the third and fourth week. 55. When the bone is uniting, during the second, third, or fourth week, the attention of a surgeon is more needed than during the first week. At that time, the ends of the bone should be placed together with accuracy. This requires the careful application of proper dressing. 53. Is the reuniting substance thrown out immediately by the blood- vessels ? 54. Does the time vary with different persons ? 55. When is the surgeon's care most necessary ? CHAPTER III. THE JOINTS. 56. The Joints are formed by the union of two or more bones. These are bound together by thin, glistening bands, called lig'a-ments. 57. The end of the bone that forms a joint, is covered with a tough, elastic substance, capable of bearing very great pressure, without causing pain. Fig. 13. 8, 9, The ligaments that extend from the hip-bone (6) to the thigh-bone, (5.) Fig. 14. 2, 3, The ligaments that extend from the collar-bone (1) to the shoulder-blade, (4.) The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the shoulder-blade to the first bone of the arm. 56. How are the joints formed ? What is shown by fig. 13 ? De- scribe fig. 14. 57. What is found at the end of a bone that forms a joint ? THE JOINT-,. 23 58. This substance is called cartilage. It diminishes the jar that the joints receive. 59. External to the cartilage is found a thin skin, or mem- brane. This passes from one bone to the other, and forms a closed sac. It contains a fluid called Sy-no'vi-a,' (joint- water.) 60. This fluid is the oil of nature's own preparing. Its use is to diminish the friction which attends the movements of different parts that form the joint. Observation. The joints of the domestic animals are sim- ilar in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this part of the body, a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be used. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. a Fig. 15. The relative position of the bone, cartilage, and synovial mem- brane, a, a, The extremities of two bones, to form a joint, b, b, The cartilage that covers the end of the bone, c, c, c, c, c, c, The synovial membrane which covers the cartilage of both bones, and is then doubled back from one to the other ; it is represented by the dotted lines. Fig. 16. A vertical section of the knee-joint. 1, The thigh-bone. 3, The knee-pan. 5, The tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the knee-pan. 6, Car- tilage of the tibia. 12, The cartilage of the thigh-bone. * * * * The syno- vial membrane. ' 58. What is it called ? Its use ? 59. What is found external to the cartilage ? What does it contain ? 60. What is its use ? What is represented by fig. 15 ? What is represented by fig. 16 ? 24 THE JOINTS. 61. There are two kinds of joints, the movable and the immovable. 62. When the union of the bones permits them to move, the joint is called a movable joint; as the finger-joints. 63. When bones are united, to secure firmness, the joints are called immovable joints; as the sutures of the skull. (Fig. 2.) 64. The more movable a joint, the less firm- it is, and the more frequently dislocated, or " put out." It is for this reason that the shoulder-joint is more frequently displaced than any other in the body. 65. Some joints move but in one direction, like a hinge of a door. These are called Hinge Joints ; as the ankle and the knee-joint. Fig. 17- 1, The lower extremity of the thigh-bone. 3, 5, The two rounded extremities that rest upon the upper extremity of the tibia, (shin-bone.) 2, Two ligaments within the knee-joint. 6, 7, The cartilage that tips the upper extremity of the shin-bone. Fig. 18.' 2, The deep socket of the hip-joint. 5, The round head of the thigh-bone, which is lodged in the socket. 3, The ligament within the socket. ■" 61. How many kinds of joints are there ? 62. Define a movable joint. 63. Define an immovable joint. 64. Are the most movable joints the firmest? Why is the shoulder-joint more frequently dis- placed than any other in the body ? 65. What are those joints called that move only in one direction ? Give examples. Describe fig. 17. Describe fig. 18. THE JOINTS. 25 66. The union of the spinal column with the skull ex- hibits one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with in the body. 1st. It permits the backward and forward move- ment, as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d. The motion which is made in turning the head from side to side. 67. This admirable piece of mechanism affords great pro- tection to the spinal cord, at the top of the neck; this being, perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to it, or pressure upon it, is instantly fatal. 68. Some joints move in different directions, like a ball in a socket. These are called Ball and Socket Joints; as the shoulder and the hip-joint. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 69. When a bone has been displaced, it should be care- fully replaced, or " set; " and the injured joint should not be used until the swelling and pain begin to diminish. Then it may be rubbed and moved moderately. 70. A sprained joint should never be used, while the swell- ing and pain continue to increase, if a stiff, unyielding joint would be avoided. 71. The circulation of blood in the cartilage and liga- ments of the joints is feeble, and is easily influenced by chills upon the skin. This causes pain and stiffness of the joint. 72. To prevent the chill, clothe the limbs with flannel. When a chill is contracted, immediately apply warm water, followed by vigorous rubbing. ^________________| 66. What is said of the union of the spinal column with the skull ? 67. What is protected by this admirab e piece of mechamsm ? 68. What are those joints called that move in different direction»? Give example, 69. ^^-^^-Jj-^^^^SS 72. How wV^'d ? 7 CHAPTER IV. THE MUSCLES. 73. A Muscle (lean flesh, or red meat) is composed of many little strings, called fibres. 74. Some of these fibres run in straight lines; others spread like a fan; while some are inclined like the feathery part of a quill. Fig. 19. Fig. 19. 1, Represents the fibres of a muscle running in straight lines. 2, The fan-shaped fibres. 3, 4, Fibres inclined like the plumes of a quill. t, t, Tendons at the extremities of the muscle, 1. 75. Towards the extremities of a muscle the fibres unite, and form a substance of a whitish color, harder and tougher than the muscle. This is called ten'don, (cord, sinew.) Observation. The pupil can examine a piece of boiled beef, or the leg of a fowl, and see the structure of the fibres and tendons of a muscle, with the attachment of the tendons to the bones. 73. What is a muscle ? 74. How do these fibres run ? What is shown by fig. 19 ? 75. Describe a tendon. THE MUSCLES. 27 76. Tendons have various shapes. Sometimes they are long, slender strings ; sometimes they are short and thick; again, in some situations, they are thin and broad. 77. The use of tendons is to fasten the muscles to the bones, or to each other. Illustration. The muscles and tendons are to the bones what the ropes are to the sails and yards of a ship. By their action, the direction of the sails and yards is changed. So, by the action of the muscles, the position of the bones of the body is changed. 78. There are more than four hundred muscles in the hu- man body. To these, and a yellow substance called fat, that surrounds and fills the spaces in the muscles, the child and youth are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their limbs. Observation. When we are sick, and cannot take food, the body is fed with this fat. The removal of it into the blood causes the sunken cheek, hollow eye, and prominent appearance of the bones after a severe sickness. 79. In some parts of the body, there is but one layer of muscle over the bones; in other parts, there are five or six layers, one muscle being placed over another. 80. In general, they form about the bones two layers, called the superficial or external muscles; and the deep-seat- ed, or those nearest the bone. 81. When we look at this "harp of thousand strings," and notice the varied, rapid, complicated, yet accurate move- ments it performs in a single day, our thoughts are lost in 76. What is the shape of tendons ? 77. What is their use ? Give an illustration. 78. How many muscles in the human body ? Why are the limbs of a child more round and full than an aged person's ? How is the body nourished when we cannot take food ? What does the re- moval of it cause ? 79. How many layers of muscle are there around the bones ? 80. How many layers generally ? What are they called ? 28 THE MUSCLES. wonder, in contemplating this superb and intricate machine, framed and finished by the divine Architect. 82. Every motion of the body is made by the contracting or shrinking of the fibres of the muscles; from the awkward movement of the boy's first effort at penmanship, to the deli- cate and graceful sweeps of the pianist; from the firm, state- ly tread of the soldier, to the light, fairy-like step of the danseuse. 83. Muscles remain contracted but a short time ; then they relax, or lengthen, which is their rest. When the mus- cles are in a state of contraction, they are full, hard, and more prominent than when relaxed. Fig. 20. Fig. 20. 1, The bone of the arm above the elbow. 2, One of the bones below the elbow. 3, The muscle that bends the elbow. This muscle is united, by a tendon, to the bone below the elbow, (4;) at the other extrem- ity, to the bone above the elbow, (5.) 7, A weight in the hand, to be raised. The central part of the muscle (3) contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The bones below the elbow are brought to the lines shown by * * *. The weight is raised in the direction of the curved line. In this manner all the joints of the system are moved. 84. The eyebrows are elevated or raised by the contrac- tion of the muscles on the forehead, 1, fig. 21. §2. How is every motion of the body produced ? 83. Do muscles remain contracted a long time ? Describe fig. 20. [With figs. 21 and 22 before the pupil, let the uses of the different muscles be given, as explained by the twenty-three following paragraphs.] THE MUSCLES. 29 85. The eyes are closed by the contraction of the mus- cles that surround them, 2, fig. 21. 86. The upper lip is elevated by the contraction of the muscles, 3, 4, 5, 6, fig. 21. 87. The mouth is closed by the contraction of a muscle that surrounds it, 7, fig. 21. 88. The lower lip is drawn down, or depressed, by the contraction of muscles on the lower part of the face, 8, fig. 21. 89. The head is bent forward, as in nodding, by the con- traction of muscles on the front part of the neck, 9, fig. 21. 90. The chin is raised, and the head is brought erect by the contraction of muscles on the back part of the neck, 5, 6, fig. 22. 91. The body is bent forward, and the ribs brought down, by the contraction of muscles on the front and lower part of the trunk, 22, 23, fig. 21. 92. The muscles at the lower and back part of the trunk, keep the spinal column erect, 24, 25, 26, fig. 22. 93. The muscles upon the upper and front part of the chest, bring the shoulders forward, 11, fig. 21. 94. The shoulders are brought back by the contraction of the muscles upon the upper and back part of the chest, 7, fig. 22. 95. The arm is elevated by a muscle upon the shoulder, 10, fig. 21; and 8, fig. 22. 96. The arm is brought to the side by muscles, 11, fig. 21; and 24, fig. 22. 97. The elbow is bent by the contraction of the muscles on the upper and front side of the arm, 14, fig. 21. 98. The elbow is extended by a muscle on the back part of the arm, 10, fig. 22. 99. The wrist and fingers are bent by the muscles on the front part of the arm, below the elbow, 16, 18, fig. 21. 3* 30 THE MUSCLES. THE MUSCLES. 31 Fig. 22. 32 THE MUSCLES. 100. The muscles on the back part of the arm, below the elbow, extend the wrist and fingers, 21, 22, 23, fig. 22. 101. The muscles that bend the lower limbs, at the hip, are situated at the lower and front part of the trunk, and the upper and front part of the thigh, 25, 26, 27, 28, fig. 21. 102. The lower limbs are extended at the hips by the muscles on the lower and back part of the trunk, and the upper and back part of the thigh, 27, 23, fig. 22. 103. The muscles upon the front part of the thigh extend the leg at the knee, 29, 30, fig. 21. 104. The knee is bent by the muscles upon the back part of the thigh, 29, 30, fig. 22. 105. The muscles upon the fore part of the leg, below the knee, bend the foot at the ankle, and extend the toes, 34, 35, 36, fig. 21. 106. The muscles upon the back part of the leg, below the knee, extend the foot at the ankle, and bend the toes, 31, 32, 33, fig. 22. Observation. It would be a profitable exercise for pupils to press their fingers upon prominent muscles, and at the same time, vigorously contract them, not only to learn their situations, but their use; as the one that bends the arm, 14, fig. 21. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 107. Every muscle should be used and then rested. This will increase their size and strength, by increasing the flow of blood to the parts called into action. 108. A muscle should not be used too long, or remain at rest too long; both are alike injurious. Illustrations. 1st. The blacksmith uses and rests the mus- cles of his arm when striking upon the anvil. They not only become large, but very firm and hard. 107. Should muscles be used ? Why? 108. Can muscles be used too long ? Give illustrations. THE MUSCLES. 33 2d. The student uses the muscles of the arm but little, in holding his books and pen; they not only become small, but soft. 3d. Let the student leave his books, and pound heated iron, and the muscles of his arm will increase in size and firmness. On the other hand, let the blacksmith assume the student's vocation, and the muscles of his arm will become soft and less firm. 109. The muscles should be used in pure air. The purer the air we breathe, the longer can the muscles be used in labor, walking, or sitting, without fatigue and injury; hence the benefit derived in thoroughly ventilating mechanics' shops. 110. If the air of the sick-room is pure, the patient will sit up longer than when the air is impure. Observation. It is a common remark that a sick person will sit up longer when riding in a carriage, than in an easy chair in the room where they have lain sick. In the one instance, they breathe the pure air of heaven; in the other, usually, a confined, impure air. 111. The muscles should be exercised in the light. Light, particularly that of the sun, exercises as great an influence on man and the inferior animals as it does on plants. Both require the stimulus of this agent. Students should take their exercise during the day, rather than in the evening. 112. Shops occupied by mechanics, kitchens, and sitting- rooms, should be well lighted, and located on the sunny side of the house. Cellar kitchens and under-ground shops should be avoided. Illustrations. Plants that grow in the shade, as under a 109. Should the muscles be used in pure air? Why? 110. What is said of sick persons ? Give an illustration. Why the difference ? 111. Does the light exercise an influence upon the muscular system ? When should students take exercise ? 112. What suggestion relative to the situation of sitting-rooms, kitchens, and other rooms occupied during the day ? 34 THE MUSCLES. board, are of lighter color and more feeble than those that are exposed to the light of the sun. Persons that dwell in dark rooms are paler and less vigorous than those who inhabit apartments well lighted, and exposed to the rays of the sun. 113. Every muscle should move freely. Compression by any means, lessens the size and strength of the muscle. Illustration. Let a surgeon bandage a limb for some weeks, when a bone is broken, and when the bandage is removed, the limb will be found smaller than when the accident oc- curred. The compression by close dresses produces similar effects upon the muscles of the body. Fig. 23. Fig. 23. An injurious position in sitting. 113. Should every muscle move freely ? Why ? Give an illustra- tion. What effect have close dresses upon the muscles of the bodv ? What does fig. 23 show ? y THE MUSCLES. 35 114. In speaking, reading, singing, and recitation, the body and head should be erect. In this position, the parts called into action will be more under the control of the per- son, and can be used a longer time without fatigue, than in the position represented by fig. 23. 115. A person will stand longer, walk farther, and do more work when erect, than in a stooping posture; because the muscles of the back, in stooping, are in a state of tension, or stretching, to keep the head and trunk from falling for- wards. In the erect position, the head and trunk are nicely balanced and supported by the bones of the spinal column, and the muscles of the back are called but slightly into action. Fig. 24. Fig. 24. The proper position in sitting. 114. What should be the position of the body when we are speak- ing, reading, and reciting? Why? 115. Why will a person walk farther, and do more work, when erect than in a stooping posture ? What is shown by fig. 24 ; 36 THE MUSCLES. Experiment. Hold in each hand a pail of water, or equal weights, in a stooping posture, as long as it can be done with- out much suffering and injury. Again, when the muscular pain has ceased, hold the same pails of water, for the same length of time, in an erect posture, and note the difference in the fatigue of the muscles. 116. While studying, drawing, writing, and sewing, the body should be kept erect. Narrow chests, " hollow stom- achs," "round shoulders," and ill health, follow a violation of this rule. 117. The state of the mind affects muscular contraction. A person who is cheerful and happy will do more work, and with less fatigue, than one who is peevish and unhappy. 118. When the muscular system has been in a state of rest, it should not suddenly be called into vigorous action. On arising from a bed, lounge, or chair, the first movements of the limbs should be slow, and then, if necessary, gradually increased. Observation. If a man has a certain amount of work to be performed in nine hours, and his muscles have been in a state of rest, he will do it with less fatigue by performing half the amount of the labor in five hours, and the remainder in four hours. 119. The same principles should be regarded in driving horses and other beasts of burden. 120. When the muscles have been vigorously used, they should be rested gradually. 121. If a person has been making great muscular exer- tion in cutting wood, or any other employment, instead of Give an experiment. 116. What is one cause of narrow chests and round shoulders? • 117. Does the state of the mind affect mus- cular contraction ? 118. What caution is given in usino-the muscles when they have been some time in a state of rest?C Give an ob- servation. 119. Should this principle be observed in drivino- horses? 120. How should the muscles be rested when they have be'en called into vigorous action ? THE MUSCLES. 37 sitting down to rest, he should continue muscular action by some moderate labor. 122. When the skin is covered with perspiration from muscular action, avoid sitting down " to cool" in a current of air ; rather put on more clothing, and continue to exercise moderately. 123. In cases when severe action of the muscles has been endured, bathing and rubbing the skin over the joints that have been used, are of much importance. By reducing to practice the foregoing suggestions, soreness of the muscles and stiffness of the joints will be prevented. 124. In jumping or falling from a carriage, or any height, the shock to the organs of the system may be obviated in the three following ways. 1st. Let the muscles be relaxed, not rigid. 2d. Let the limbs be bent at the ankle, knee, and hips; the head should be thrown slightly forward, with the trunk a little stooping. 3d. Fall upon the toes, not the heel. Experiments. Stand with the trunk and lower limbs firm, and the muscles rigid; then jump a few inches perpendicu- larly to the floor, and fall upon the heels.. Again, slightly bend the limbs, jump a few inches, and fall upon the toes, and the difference in the force of the shock, to the brain and other organs, will be readily noticed. 125. In walking, dancing, and learning to write, there will be less fatigue, and the movements will be more grace- ful, when the muscles are slightly relaxed, than when rigidly contracted. The same principle applies to most of the me- chanical employments. 122 When the skin is covered with perspiration from muscular action, how should it be " cooled " ? 123. How can stiffness of the muscles be prevented? 124. In jumping from a carriage, in how many ways can the shock to the body be obviated? Give the 1st Goethe 2d. Give the 3d. Give experiments. 12,. In what state should the muscles of the arm be when we are wntmg, or performing most employments ? 4 38 THE MUSCLE?. Experiments. Attempt to bow with the muscles of the limbs and trunk rigid, and there will be a stiff bending of the body only at the hip-joint. On the other hand, attempt to bow with the muscles moderately relaxed; the ankle, the knee, and the hip-joint will slightly bend, producing an easy and graceful curve of the body. 126. When riding in cars and coaches, the system will not suffer so severely from the jar if the muscles are slightly relaxed. When riding over uneven places in roads, rising slightly upon the feet diminishes the shock occasioned by the sudden motion of the carriage. The muscles, under such circumstances, are to the body what elastic springs are to a carriage. 127. To render the action of the muscles complete and effective, they must be called into action repeatedly and at proper intervals. This education must be continued until not only each muscle, but every fibre of the muscle, is fully under the control of the will. In this way persons become expert penmen, dancers, singers, and skilful in every em- ployment. 128. In training the muscles for effective action, it is very important that correct movements be adopted at the commencement. If this is neglected, much power and skill will be lost by acquiring improper and constrained move- ments. Illustration. If a boy, while learning to mow, is allowed to swing his scythe in a stooping position, twisting his body at every sweep of the scythe, he will never become an easv, efficient mower. Proper instruction is as necessary in many of the agricultural branches as in the varied mechanical em- ployments. Give experiments. 126. What remark is given when ridincr in cars and coaches ? 127. How is muscular action rendered complete and effective ? How do persons become skilful in any employment ? 128. What is necessary in the early education of the muscles? Give an illustration. CHAPTER V. THE TEETH. 129. The Teeth are firmly fixed in the sockets of the upper and lower jaw. 130. The first set, which appear in infancy, is called tem'po-ra-ry, or milk teeth. They are twenty in number; ten in each jaw. Fig. 25. Fig. 25. The permanent teeth of the upper and lower jaw. a, b, The in- cisors, c, The cuspids, d, e, The bicuspids. /, g, The molars, (double teeth.) h, The wisdom teeth. 131. Between six and fourteen years of age, the temporary 129. In what are the teeth placed? 130. What is the first set called? How many in number? Describe fig. 25. 131. When are these teeth removed? 40 THE TEETH. teeth are removed, and the second set appears, called per'ma- nent teeth. They number thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. 132. The four front teeth in each jaw are called in-ci'sors, (cutting teeth;) the next tooth on each side, the cus'pid (eye tooth;) the next two, bi-cus'pids, (small grinders;) the next two, mo'lars, (grinders.) The last one on each side of the jaw is called a wisdom tooth, because it does not ap- pear until a person is about twenty years old. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 26. A side view of the body and enamel of a front tooth. Fig. 27. A side view of a molar tooth. 1, The enamel. 2, The body of the tooth. 3, The cavity in the crown of the tooth. 4, A nerve that spreads in the pulp of the tooth. 5, An artery that ramifies in the pulp of the tooth. 133. Each tooth is divided into two parts; namely, crown and root. 134. The crown is that part which protrudes from the jaw-bone and gum. The root, or " fang," is placed in the sockets of the jaw. 135. The incisors, cuspids, and bicuspids, have each but What is the second set called ? How many in each jaw ? 132. What are the teeth in front called ? The next ? The next two ? Those'next the bicuspids? The last that appear in the jaw? De- scribe fig. 27. 133. How is each tooth divided ? 134. Which part of the tooth is the crown? Which the root ? 135. What teeth have each but one root ? THE TEETH. 41 one root. The molars of the upper jaw have three roots, while those of the lower jaw have but two. Fig. 25. 136. The crowns of the teeth are covered with a very hard substance, called en-am'el. The roots consist of bony matter. 137. Through the bony substance several small vessels pass, to aid in the growth and also in the removal of the tooth. 138. There are, beside these vessels,'small white cords passing to each tooth, called nerves. (See fig 27.) When these nerves are diseased, we have the toothache. Observation. It is not always necessary to have teeth ex- tracted when they ache. The nerve may be diseased, and the tooth still be sound. 139. On the banks of the Genesee River there are many nicely-arranged mills for making flour. When the wheat is ground, a peculiar apparatus takes the ground kernels and separates the flour from the coarse part of the grain. But there is a more beautiful mill in the human system, that grinds the food; and then, by a peculiar apparatus in the body, the waste or innutritious part is separated from the nutritious portion. (See Chap. VI.) 140. The teeth are not only useful in chewing our food, but aid in speaking our words distinctly. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 141. Care should be taken in childhood, that the milk teeth be removed as soon as they become loose, in order that What is the difference between the molars of the upper jaw and those of the lower jaw? 136. With what are the crowns of the teeth cov- ered ? Of what do the roots consist ? 137. What is the use of the vessels that pass through the roots of the teeth ? 138. What causes a tooth to ache? Give an observation. 140. Of what use are the teeth ? 141. Why should the milk teeth be removed as soon as loose? 4* 42 THE TEETH. the second set of teeth may present a regular and beautiful appearance. 142. If the teeth are crowded and irregular, in conse- quence of the jaw being narrow and short, remove one or more, to prevent their looking unsightly and irregular. In a few months, the remaining teeth, with a little care, will fill the spaces. 143. When they press so hard upon each other as to in- jure the enamel, one or more should be removed. 144. To preserve the teeth, they must be kept clean. Af- ter eating food, they should be cleaned with a soft brush and water, or rubbed with a piece of soft flannel, to prevent the tartar collecting, and to remove the pieces of food that may have lodged between them. 145. It is well to use refined soap, once or twice every week, to remove any corroding substance that may exist around the teeth. 146. Food or drink should not be taken into the mouth when very hot or very cold. Sudden changes of temperature will crack the enamel, and, finally, produce decayed teeth. Observation. When it is necessary to have decayed teeth filled, it is better for the health of the person and durability of the teeth to have them filled with gold foil. 147. Healthy persons have generally sound teeth, while feeble persons have decayed teeth. For this reason, we should try to learn and practise the few simple rules that give us health. 142. What suggestion when the teeth are crowded and irregular? 143. When they press too hard upon the enamel? 144. How can the teeth be preserved ? How often should they be cleaned ? 145. What may be used once or twice a week to remove any corroding substance ? 146 Why should we not drink hot drinks or eat hot food ? Give an observation. 147. What is one reason for preserving good health? CHAPTER VI. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 148. The Digestive Organs are those that change the food we eat, so that it may be passed into the blood-vessels. 149. These organs are the Teeth, Sal'i-va-ry Glands* CE-soph'a-gus, (gullet,) Stom'ach, Liv'er, Pan'cre-as, (sweet- bread,) small and large In-tes'tines, (bowels,) Lac'te-al Ves- sels, and Tho-rac'ic Duct. Fig. 28. Fig. 28. 1, A gland behind the jaw and below the ear, (pa-rot'id.) 2, Its duct through which the saliva flows into the mouth. 3, A gland within the lower jaw, (svh-max'il-la-ry.) 4, Its duct. 5, A gland situated under the tongue, . What is the innermost coat called ? 426. Where is the iris found ? What gives the eye its blue or black color? 427. What is situated in the centre of the iris ? THE FIVE SENSES. 115 Pu'pil* which enlarges or contracts, according to the quan- tity of light that falls upon the eye. 428. The space between the cornea and iris is filled with the A'que-ous, or watery humor. Fig. 78. Fig. 78. A transverse section of the eye, seen from within. 1, The divided edge of the three coats. 2, The pupil. 3, The iris. 4, The cil- iary processes. 5, The scolloped border of the retina. 429. Behind the aqueous humor and pupil lies the Crys'- tal-line Lens. Its form is different on the two sides. When boiled, it may be separated into layers like those of an onion. Observation. The lens in the eye of a fish is round, like a globe, and has the same appearance, when boiled, as the lens of the human eye. 430. The largest and innermost humor is called the Vit'- re-ous. It occupies more than two thirds of the whole inte- rior of the globe of the eye. * From pu'pa, Latin, a babe; because it reflects the diminished image of the person who looks upon it. 428. What fills the space between the cornea and iris ? What does fig. 78 show ? 429. Where is the crystalline lens situated ? Does the lens in the eye of a fish resemble in structure that of the human eye ? 430. What is the largest and innermost humor called ? 116 THE FIVE SENSES. 431. On viewing the part of the eye near the pupil, small lines of a lighter color will be seen passing to the outer part of the iris; these are called Cili-a-ry proc'ess-es. They are about sixty in number. Fig. 79. Fig. 79. The second pair, or optic nerves. 1, 1, The globe of the eye. The one on the left is perfect, but the sclerotic coat has been removed from that on the right, to show the retina. 2, The crossing of the optic nerve. 3, 4, A portion of the brain. 5, 6, The commencement of the spinal cord 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, The origin of nerves. 432. The optic nerve, which comes from the brain, passes through the back of the eye, and forms the netted membrane called the retina. 433. The different coats give form to the eye, while the transparent cornea and humors change the direction of the rays of light; so that the rays that leave an object at which we look, form upon the retina a small but clear image of that 431. Where are the ciliary processes? What does fig. 79 show ? 432. Describe the optic nerve. 433. Give the use of the coats and humors of the eye. How is the image of objects seen ? THE FIVE SENSES. 117 object. The impression of the image upon the retina is carried to the brain through the optic nerve. 434. When the cornea and crystalline lens become flat- tened, as in old age, the image is formed beyond the retina. This defect is remedied by wearing convex glasses. 435. When the cornea and crystalline lens are too con- vex, an image of the object will be formed before the retina. This defect of the eye is called near-sightedness. To give such persons longer vision, it is necessary to wear concave glasses. Fig. 80. Fig. 80. a, The lachrymal gland, b, Ducts leading from the lachrymal gland to the upper eyelid, c, c, Ducts at the inner angle of the eyelids. These open into the nasal sac, {d.) e, The nasal duct that opens into the nose. Observation. Persons that train the eye to look at distant objects, as hunters and sailors, are rarely near-sighted; while those who view objects near the eye, as watch-makers and students, are frequently near-sighted. 434. What is the result when the image is formed beyond the reti- na ? How is the defect remedied ? 435. What is the result when the image is formed before the retina ? How can this defect be reme- died ? Explain fig. 80. Give the observation. 118 THE FIVE SENSES. 436. Children should be taught to view objects at differ- ent distances, in order that the eye may adapt itself to view objects near as well as remote. 437. The eye is protected from external injury by the two movable curtains, called eyelids. These are opened and closed by small muscles. 438. They are formed of thin cartilage, placed under the skin, that fits the globe of the eye. Attached to the eyelids are the eyelashes. When the eye is closed, they interlace, and thus prevent particles of matter from injuring this deli- cate organ. 439. The eyelids not only protect the eye, by closing it in front, from too brilliant rays of light, and from dust, but distribute equally over the globe of the eye the fluid which moistens it. 440. This fluid flows from small glands above the eye, called Lach'ry-mal (tear) glands. Several minute ducts con- vey it to the eye. It is carried from the eye to the ducts that open upon the edge of the eyelid, near the nose. 441. These two small ducts usually convey the fluid away as quickly as it is formed ; but when the eye is irritated, or the mind affected by various emotions, it flows to the eye too rapidly to be conveyed to the nose, and it then courses down the cheek in the form of tears. 442. The cavities or orbits of the eye are lined with a thick cushion of fat, in order that the eye may move in all directions with perfect freedom and without friction. 443. The eye is moved by six muscles, one extremity of 437. How is the eye protected from injury ? 438. How are they formed ? What are attached to the eyelids ? 439. What is the use of the eyelids ? 440. Where are the tears formed ? How is it con- veyed to the eyes? How from the eyes? 441. What is the effect when the eye is irritated ? 442. What are the orbits of the eye lined with ? What is its use ? 443. How many muscles move the eye? THE FIVE SENSES. 119 which is attached to the bones of the orbit; the other extrem- ity to the globe of the eye. Fig. 81. Fie 81. A view of the eye and its muscles, a, b, c, d,e, Five of these muscles. /, The optic nerve. The bone is seen above and below the eye. 444. Stra-bis'mus (cross-eye) is caused by a contraction of one of these muscles. If the external muscle is too short, the eye is turned out; if the internal muscle is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the nose. Observation. The vision of a " cross-eye" is always de- fective. This defect can be remedied by a surgical operation, which corrects also the position of the eye. 445 In using the eye, it should be fixed on an object but a short time, before it is allowed to rest. Nor should it be 444 How is strabismus, or « cross-eye," produced ? How is the vision of such "eyes? Can the defect be remedied? 445. How should the eye be used? 120 THE FIVE SENSES. used in intense light but a few minutes, as a glare of light frequently produces blindness. 446. Small particles or dust may become lodged in the eye, and produce much inconvenience, which is often increased by harsh attempts to remove them. The person should be placed before a strong light, the lids held open with one hand, or by another person, and the particles brushed away with the corner of a fine linen or silk handkerchief. 447. Sometimes the substance is concealed under the upper eyelid, and it may then be exposed by turning back the lid in the following manner : Take a knitting-needle, or small slender piece of stick which is perfectly smooth, and place it over the upper lid, in contact with and just under the edge of the orbit; then, holding it firmly, seize the lashes with the fingers of the disengaged hand, and gently turn the lid back over the stick or needle. You can then examine the inner side of the lid, and remove any substance that may have been there concealed. Too many trials ought not to be made, if unsuccessful, as much inflammation may be in- duced ; but a surgeon, in such cases, ought to be consulted as soon as possible. 448. Eye-stones ought never to be placed in the eye, as they often cause more pain and irritation than the evil which they are intended to remedy. 446. How can dust and other small particles be removed from the eye? 447. How removed from the upper eyelid? 448. Ought eye- stones to be used? CHAPTER XIII ABSORPTION. 449. " By Absorption is meant the removal of the soft or hard parts of the body, or of substances placed in contact with these parts." Illustration. When emaciation takes place in consump- tion, or when the fluid in the limbs of a dropsical person has disappeared, the fat and the fluid are said to have been absorbed. 450. Absorption is of two kinds. 1st. The process by which food and drink are removed from the stomach and intestines, and conveyed into the system, for its growth and nourishment. 451. 2d. The action of the absorbent vessels and glands, and also the small veins, by which the waste material from the different organs is poured into the circulating torrent and carried out of the body. 452. The absorbent vessels are very minute at their com- mencement ; so much so, that they cannot be seen without. the aid of a magnifying glass. These small ducts unite and form larger trunks, that open into the veins. 453. They are found in every part of the body, except the brain. The knotted appearance of these vessels is owing to the arrangement of their internal coats, to form valves. 449. What is meant by absorption? Give an illustration 450. How many kinds of absorption ? Give the 1st. 451 Give the 2d. 452 What is said of the size of the absorbent vessels ? 453. Where are they found ' 122 ABSORPTION. Fig. 82. ABSORPTION". 123 Fig. 82. A representation of the absorbent vessels and glands. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, The absorbent vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The commencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The absorbents of the kidney. 10, Of the stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, The lungs. 13, 14, 15, The absorbents and glands of the arm. 16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19, 20, Large veins. 21, The thoracic duct. 26, The absorbents of the heart. 454. In certain parts of the body, as the neck, these ves- sels pass through small, soft bodies, called lym-phat'ic glands. Observation. Sometimes, when we are afflicted with a cold, these glands in the neck enlarge; they are usually called " kernels." 455. When little or no food is taken into the stomach, life is sustained by the absorbent vessels,^ which imbibe, or suck up, particles of fat, and convey them into the veins. It is the removal of the fat that causes the lean appearance of a person recovering from sickness. In consumption, not only the fat, but more solid parts of the body, are removed\y absorption. 456. Bears and other animals, that live in a half-torpid state during the winter, derive their nourishment from the same source. 457. The most important absorbing surfaces are the stomach, intestines, lungs, and skin. Through the lungs absorption is not only very great, but extremely rapid. Illustrations. 1st. In inhaling sulphuric ether, or letheon, it is introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor, and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, and thus influences the nervous system. 2d. Tobacco in a state of minute division, as the smoke of a cigar or pipe, is carried into the system by the action of the absorbent vessels of the lungs. This is the reason What doesfiff. 82 represent? 454. What are lymphatic glands? Are these glands ever seen? 455. How is life sustained when we cannot take food? 456. What sustains those animals that live in a ha"f torpid state during the winter? 457. Name the most importan absorbing surfaces. What is said of the absorbing power of the lungs ? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 124 SECRETION. that persons unaccustomed to the smoke of tobacco are nauseated by it. It is a violation of the rights of others to contaminate or fill the air (which is common property) of public rooms and conveyances, and also the streets, by puff- ing cigars in them. 458. It is probable, also, that the poisonous vegetable or animal matter which produces fever and other diseases, is in this way introduced into the body. 459. This affords another reason why the rooms of sick persons should be kept clean and well ventilated. As a general rule, no person should attend another that is sick more than twelve hours at a time. SECRETION. 460. To secrete means to separate. The curious and mysterious operation of secretion is performed by the capil- lary vessels' 461. The material that forms the bones, muscles, skin, &c, is deposited in the appropriate places by these minute vessels. This may be called nutritive secretion. Fig. 83. Fig. 83. A secretory follicle. An artery is seen, which supplies the ma- terial for its secretion. Follicles are also supplied with veins and organic nerves. 462. The fluids that aid in the digestion of food, as the saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, and synovia, are all the result of secretion. 458. How Is it probable that diseases are contracted ? 459. How long should a person attend another that is sick ? 460. What is the meaning of secrete? How is the operation of secretion performed? 461. Define nutritive secretion. What does fig. 83 represent ? 462. Name some fluids that are the result of secretion. SECRETION. 125 463. The fluids that carry the waste, useless matter from the system, as the perspiration and product of the kidneys, are examples of another result of secretion. 464. Another kind of secretion is performed by small pouches, called Fol'li-cles. The slimy fluid that they secrete is thrown upon the surface of membranes, by minute open- ings. The mucus of the lips, windpipe, and bronchial tubes affords examples of this kind of secretion. 465. The blood contains all the materials of secretion. The different appearances in the secretory fluids, as the yellow, ropy bile, the briny tear, and the tasteless saliva, are chiefly owing to the action of small bodies, called glands. 466. Glands are formed of minute arteries, veins, and tubes, wound together. They vary in size from a mustard seed to that of the liver, which weighs from two to four pounds. Fig. 84. Fie. 84. a, a, Secretory gland, b, b, Minute ducts that are spread through the glands. These unite to form the mam duct, c. 467. Every gland, however minute, has a small duct for collecting and carrying off the secreted fluid. 463 Is perspiration a product of secretion ? 464. What small bodies secrete mucus ? 465. From what are all the different secretions formed ? What causes the difference in the appearances of the secretions ? 466. Describe glands. 467. Do the smallest glands have ducts ? 11* 126 ANIMAL heat. 468. The secretions are much influenced by mental emo- tions. If we smell savory food, there will be an increased flow of saliva in the mouth; if we hear the intelligence of the death of a cherished friend, the tear will quickly course down the cheek. 469. Unless the secretions are regularly maintained, dis- ease will be the final result. Let the secretions from the skin be suppressed, and fever or some internal disease will be produced. If the bile be impeded, digestion will be im- paired. If other secretions be suppressed, it will cause a derangement in the functions of the various internal organs. ANIMAL HEAT. 470. Various opinions exist among physiologists in regard to the manner in which the warmth of the system is main- tained. Observation and experiment show that heat is pro- duced by an action among the particles of matter in the body. 471. In breathing, carbon passes from the body, and oxy- gen is received. This change of matter is attended by a change of temperature. In nutrition, fluids are converted into solids; in absorption, solids are changed into fluids ; in secretion, old particles of matter are removed from the blood, and new particles are formed; in digestion, food is changed into chyle. In all these processes, heat is produced. 472. All of these changes are effected in the capillary vessels, and all require a certain amount of pure blood and nervous fluid. It may be concluded, then, that respiration, circulation, and nervous influence, all cooperate in producing animal heat, or that they are conditions essential to this phenomenon. 468. Are the secretions influenced by mental emotions ? 469. What is the effect if secretions be obstructed ? 470. Are the sources of ani- mal heat well understood ? What do observation and experiment show ? 471. Name the different processes of the system which produce animal heat. 472. Where are all of these changes effected ? What functions cooperate in the production of animal heat ? CHAPTER XIV . MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH. 473. Our bodies are constituted according to certain laws, and every person should learn these laws, in order to regulate his actions and duties, so that life may be prolonged, and the power of enjoyment, activity, and usefulness, con- tinue while life lasts. 474. It is a law of the muscles, that they should either be used in some vocation, or called into action by some social play and active sport. (As to the proper time for calling the muscles into action, see Practical Suggestions, Chap. IV.) 475. All admit that food is necessary to sustain life; and unless it be of a proper quality, taken in proper quantities, and at proper times, the functions of the digestive organs will be deranged, and disease produced. (See Practical Suggestions, Chap. VI.) 476. Pure air is essential to the full enjoyment of health. The close, impure air of heated rooms and crowded assem- blies may be breathed, and the effect be so gradual as not to arrest attention ; yet it is a violation of the physical laws, and, sooner or later, we pay the penalty in disease and suffering. (See Practical Suggestions, Chap. VIII.) 473. Why is it incumbent on every person to learn the laws of health? 474. Give a law of the muscles. 475. In preserving the health, is it necessary to give attention to the food which is eaten ? Why ?' 476. What beside food is essential to the full enjoyment of health ? What is said of the imnure air of heated rooms and crowded asSemhlipo ■ 128 REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 477. The body also requires sleep; and if it is not taken at the right time, we do not feel a full refreshment from " tired nature's sweet restorer." Let youth be taught that " early to bed and early to rise" gives him health and its attendant blessings. The brain, like other organs of the body, should-be called into action at proper times. (See Practical Suggestions, Chap. X.) 478. In preserving the health, it is very important that the functions of the skin be not deranged; and usually no part of the body is so much neglected. (For the means by which it may be kept in a healthy state, see Practical Sug- gestions, Chap. XI.) REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 479. It is seldom that a physician is called in the first stages of disease. At this important period, the treatment adopted should be proper and judicious, or the sufferings of the patient are increased, and life, to a greater or less degree, is jeopardized. Hence the utility of knowing what should be done, and what should not be done, in order that the health may be rapidly regained. 480. In all instances of acute disease, it is proper to rest, not only the body, but the mind. To effect this, the patient should cease from muscular exertion, and also withdraw his thoughts from study and business operations. This should be done, even if the person is but slightly indisposed. 481. A sick person, whether a child or an adult, should not be disturbed by visitors, even if their calls are short. The excitement of meeting them is followed by a depression 477. Should regularity be observed in regard to sleep ? 47S. Have the functions of the skin great influence in keeping other organs healthy ? 479. What is important in the first stages of disease ? 480. What is proper in all instances of acute disease ? How can it he effected ? 481. What effects have calls, though they be short, on the eick ? REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 129 of the nervous system. The more dangerous and apparently nearer death the sick person is, the more rigorous should be the observance of this suggestion. 482. The custom of visiting and conversing with sick friends during the intervals of daily labor, and particularly on Sunday, is a great evil. No person will be guilty of this, who cares more for the welfare of the suffering friend than the gratification of a sympathetic curiosity. Illustration. While attending a Miss B., of N. H., sick of fever, I pronounced her better, withdrew medicine, directed a simple, low diet, and the exclusion of all visitors. In the evening, I was sent for, in haste, to attend her. There was a violent relapse of the disease, which continued to increase in severity until the fourth day, when death terminated her sufferings. I learned that, soon after I gave directions that no visitors be admitted into her room, several particular friends were permitted to enter the chamber and talk with the sick girl. Their conversation produced a severe headache, and, to use the language of the patient, " it seemed as if their talk would kill me ; " and it did kill her. 483. No solid food should be taken in the first stages of disease, even if the affection is slight. The thirst can be allayed by drinking cold water, barley-water, and other prep- arations of this simple character. 484. When a patient is recovering from illness, the food should be simple in quality, and in quantities not so great as to oppress the stomach. It should also be given with regu- larity. " Eat little and often," with no regard to regularity, is a pernicious practice. 482. What is said of the custom of calling and conversing with the sick during the intervals of daily labor ? Give an illustration. 483. Should solid food be taken in the first stages of disease ? How can the thirst be allayed ? 484. When the patient is convalescent, how should the food be given ? What is said of the practice of eating "little and often"? 130 REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 485. In all instances, when a physician attends a sick person, he should have the special management of the food, particularly after the medicine has been withdrawn and the patient is convalescent. The prevailing idea that every per- son may safely advise relative to food, or that the appetite of the convalescing person will guide correctly, is dangerous, and cannot be too much censured. Illustration. In 1832, I attended a Miss H., sick of fever. After an illness of a few days, the fever abated, and I direct- ed a simple, unstimulating diet. Business called me from the town two days. During my absence, a sympathizing, officious matron called; found her weak, but improving; and told her she needed food to strengthen her; that " food was made to eat," and " it would now do her good." According- ly, wine and eggs, with a piece of beefsteak, were prepared, and given to the convalescent girl. She ate heartily, and the result was a relapse of the fever. For several days, her friends watched by her bedside, expecting every hour would be her last. She recovered, and her sufferings taught that matron a lesson that was not soon forgotten. 486. It is very important in disease that the skin be kept clean. A free action of the vessels of this part of the body exerts a. great influence in removing disease from the internal organs, as well as keeping them in health. If the twenty or thirty ounces of waste, hurtful matter, that passes through the " pores" of the skin in twenty-four hours, is not re- moved by frequent bathing and dry rubbing, it deranges the action of the vessels that separate this waste matter from the blood, and thus increases the disease of the internal organs. 485. Who should have the special management of food when medi- cine is withdrawn ? What idea prevails in the community ? Give an illustration of the evil effects attending such an idea. 486. Does the skin exert a great influence in removing disease from the internal organs, as well as in keeping them in health ? REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 131 487. Every sick person should breathe pure air. The purer the blood that courses through the body, the greater the energy of the system to remove disease. The confined, vitiated air of the sick-chamber not unfrequently prolongs disease, and, in many instances, the affection is not only ag- gravated, but even rendered fatal, by its injurious influences. Illustration. 1st. In 1833, I was called, in consultation with another physician, to Mr. H., who was much debilitated from a long sickness, and was delirious. For several suc- cessive days he had not slept. His room was kept very warm and close, for fear he would " take cold." The only change that I made in the treatment was to open the door and win- dow, at a distance from the bed. In a short time, the deliri- um ceased, and he fell into a quiet slumber. From this time he rapidly recovered, and I have no doubt that the delirium was the result of breathing impure air. 2d. Formerly, every precaution was used to prevent per- sons sick of the small-pox from breathing fresh air. When Mrs. Ramsay had this disease in Charleston, S. C, her friends, supposing that life was extinct, caused her body to be removed from the house to an open shed. The pure air revived the vital spark. The result probably would have been different, had she been kept a few hours longer in the confined, vitiated air. 488. Medicine is sometimes necessary to assist the natu- ral powers of the system to remove disease; but it is only an assistant. While emetics are occasionally useful in re- moving food and other articles from the stomach, that would cause disease if suffered to remain, and cathartics are valuable, in some instances, to relieve the intestines of irri- 487. Why should every sick person, particularly, breathe pure air? Are not diseases prolonged, and even rendered fatal, from breathing the impure, vitiated air of the sick-chamber? Give illustration 1st. Give illustration 2d. 488. What is said of the use of medicine? 132 DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. tating residuum, yet the frequent administration of either will cause serious disease. The same remarks may be made relative to the use of opium, to relieve pain, and of stimu- lating bitters, to create appetite. 489. Although medicine is useful in some instances, yet, in a great proportion of the cases of disease, including fevers and inflammations of all kinds, attention to the laws of health will tend to relieve the system from disease, more certainly and speedily, and with less danger, than when medicines are administered. 490. Thomas Jefferson, in writing to Dr. Wistar, of Philadelphia, said, " I would have the physician learn the limit of his.art." I would say, Have the matrons, and those who are continually advising " herb teas, pills, powders, bit- ters," and other " cure-alls," for any complaint, labelled with some popular name, learn the limits of their duty, namely, attention to the laws of health. Future generations will look upon the administration of medicine, as now pursued, with as much astonishment and regret, as we view the habitual use of intoxicating drinks. The rule of every family, and each individual, should be, to touch not, taste not, of medi- cine of any kind, except when directed by a well-educated and honest physician, (sudden disease from accidents ex- cepted.) DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 491. The nurse requires knowledge and practice to enable her to discharge aright her duty to the patient, as much as the physician and surgeon do to perform what is incumbent on them. 489. What is said of its use in fevers and many other cases of dis- rase ? 490. What remark by Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Wistar ? What should matrons learn ? What should be the rule of every per- son in regard to taking medicine ? What exception ? 491. Does the nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment, as well as the physician ? DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 133 492. Woman, from her constitution and habits, is the natural nurse of the sick; and, in general, no small portion of her time is spent in ministering at the couch of disease and suffering. As the young and vigorous, as well as the aged and the infirm, are liable to be laid upon the bed of sickness, by an epidemic, or imprudent exposure, or by some accident, it is therefore necessary that the girl, as well as the matron, may know how she can render services in an efficient and proper manner. No girl should consider her education complete who is not acquainted with the principles of the duties of a general nurse and a temporary watcher. 493. It is to be regretted, that, while we have medical schools and colleges to educate physicians, there is no insti-' tution to educate nurses in their equally responsible station. In the absence of such institutions, the defect can be reme- died, to some extent, by teaching every girl practical phys- iology or the laws of health. To make such knowledge more available and complete, attention is invited to the follow- ing suggestions relative to the practical duties of a nurse. 494. Bathing. The nurse, before commencing to bathe the patient, should provide herself with water, two towels, a sponge, a piece of soft flannel, and a sheet. 495. When the patient is feeble, use tepid or warm water. Cold water should only be used when the system has vigor enough to produce reaction upon the skin. This is shown by the increased redness of the skin and a feeling of warmth and comfort. 496. Before using the sponge to bathe, a sheet, or fold of cloth, should be spread smoothly over the bed, and under 492. Who is the natural nurse of the sick ? What, then, is in- cumbent on every girl ? 493. Should there be schools to educate nurses, as well as physicians and surgeons? 494. What should the nurse provide herself with, before bathing a patient ? 495. When should cold water be used ? 496. How should the bathing then be performed so that the patient may not contract a cold ? 12 134 DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. the patient, to prevent the bed-linen on which the patient lies from becoming damp or wet. Apply the wet sponge to one part of the body at a time, as the arm, for instance. By doing so, the liability of contracting chills is diminished. Take a dry towel, wipe the bathed part, and follow this by vigorous rubbing with a crash towel, or, what is better, a mitten made of this material; then use briskly a piece of soft flannel, to remove all moisture that may exist on the skin, and particu- larly between the fingers and the flexions of the joints. In this manner, bathe the entire body. 497. The sick should be thoroughly bathed at least twice in twenty-four hours. The practice of daubing the face and /hands with a rag dipped in hot rum, camphor, and vinegar, does not remove the impurities, but causes the skin soon to feel dry, hard, and uncomfortable. The best time for bath- ing is when the patient feels the most vigorous and freest from exhaustion. 498. Food. It is the duty of every woman to know how to make the simple preparations adapted to a low diet in the most wholesome and the most palatable way. Water-gruel,* which is the simplest of all preparations, is frequently so ill made as to cause the patient to loathe it. 499. When the physician enjoins abstinence from food, the nurse should strictly obey the injunction. She should be as particular in getting the physician's directions about diet, as in knowing how and when to give the prescribed r/edicines, and abide by them as faithfully. * Directions for making the simple preparations for the sick are found in almost every cook-book. 497. How often should a sick person be bathed ? What is said of daubing the face and hands merely with a wet cloth ? 498. Should every woman know how to make the simple preparations adapted to a low diet? 499. Should the nurse strictly obey the injunctions of the physician relative to food ? DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 135 500. When a patient is convalescent, it often requires firmness and great care, on the part»of the nurse, that the food is prepared suitably, and given at proper times. The physician should direct how frequently it should be taken. 501. Pure Air. It is the duty of the nurse to see that not only the room is well ventilated in the morning, but that fresh air is constantly coming in during the day. Great care must be taken, however, that the patient does not feel the current. 502. Bed-linen, as well as that of the body, should be aired every day, and oftener changed in sickness than in health. All clothing, when changed, should be well dried, and warmed by a fire previous to its being put on the patient or the bed. 503. There should be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-room. The feelings of the nurse or patient are not to be relied on as an index of the temperature of the room. 504. The temperature of the «ick-chamber should be moderate. If it is so cold as to cause a chill, the disease will be aggravated. If, on the other hand, it is too warm, the patient is enfeebled and rendered more susceptible to cold, on leaving the sick-chamber. The Latin maxim " In medio tutissimus ibis," (in medium there is most safety,) should be regarded in the rooms of the sick. 505. The room of the patient should be kept Quiet. It is the imperative duty of the physician to direct that all vis- itors be excluded, and no more persons remain in the room 500. What period of a person's illness requires the most care in regard to the food? 501. Give another duty of the nurse. 502. What directions respecting the bed-linen of the patient ? What is necessary when there is a change of clothing ? 503. Why should there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-chamber? 504- What is said of the temperature of the sick-chamber ? 505. Should the sick-room be kept quiet ? 136 DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. than the welfare of the patient demands. The duty of the nurse is, to see that these directions are enforced. 506. The movements of the attendants should be gentle and noiseless. Shutting doors violently, creaking hinges, and all unnecessary noise, should be avoided. Most persons refrain from loud talking in the sick-chamber, but are not equally careful to abstain from whispering, which is often more trying than a common tone. 507. The deportment and remarks of the nurse to the patient should be tranquil and encouraging. No doubts or fears of the patient's recovery, either by a look or by a word, should be communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick. 508. When such information is necessary to be commu- nicated, it is the trying duty of the physician to impart it to the sick person. 509. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick- room more than six hours at a time. She should eat her food regularly, sleep at regular periods, and take exercise daily in the open air. To do this, let her quietly leave the room when the patient is sleeping. A watcher, or temporary nurse, may supply her place. DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 510. These necessary assistants, like the nurse, should have knowledge and practice. They should ever be cheerful, kind, firm, and attentive in the presence of the patient. 506. What is said of noise in the sick-chamber ? Of whispering ? 507. What should be the deportment of the nurse towards the patient ? Should doubts and fears of the patient's recovery be communicated in the sick-room ? 508. When necessary to communicate such in- telligence, on whom does it depend ? 509. How long should a nurse remain in the sick-chamber at a time ? 510. What qualifications are necessary in a watcher ? DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 137 511. A simple, nutritious supper should be eaten before entering the sick-room; and it is well, during the night, to take some plain food. 512. When watching in cold weather, take care to be warmly dressed, and furnished with an extra garment, as a cloak or shawl, as you may be chilly before morning. 513. It can hardly be expected that the farmer, who has been laboring hard in the field, or the mechanic, who has toiled during the day, is qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick person requires. Hence, would it not be more benevolent and economical to employ and pay watchers, who are qualified by knowledge and training, to perform this duty in a faithful manner, while the kindness and sympathy of friends may be practically manifested by assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful assistants 1 511. What directions in regard to the food of the watcher? 512. When watching in cold weather, what precaution is necessary ? 513. What is said of employing those persons to watch who labor hard during the day ? 12* APPENDIX. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 514. Poisoning, either from accident or design, is of such fre- quency and danger, that it is of the greatest importance that every person should know the proper mode of procedure in such cases, in order to render immediate assistance when within his power. 515. Poisons are divided into two classes — mineral (which will include the acids) and vegetable. 516. The first thing, usually, to be done, when it is ascertained that a poison has been swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. Emetics of the sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol,) or ipecacuanha, (ipecac,) or the wine of antimony, should be given. 517. When vomiting has commenced, it should be aided by large and frequent draughts of the following drinks : flaxseed tea, gum- water, slippery-elm tea, barley-water, sugar and water, or any thing of a mucilaginous or diluent character. MINERAL POISONS. 518. Ammonia. —The water of ammonia, if taken in an over-dose, and in an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive poison. 519. The best and most effectual antidote is vinegar. It should be administered in water, without delay. It neutralizes the ammonia, and renders it inactive. Emetics should not be given. 520. Antimony. — The wine of antimony and tartar emetic, if taken in over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addition to the diluent, mucilaginous drinks, give a tea-spoonful of the sirup of pop- pies, paregoric, or twenty drops of laudanum, every twenty minutes, until five or six doses have been taken, or the vomiting ceases. 521. The antidotes are nut-galls and oak bark, which may be ad- ministered in infusion. 522. Arsenic — When this has been taken, administer an emetic of ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the stomach-pump as soon as possible. 514. Is it useful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison ? 515. Into how manv classes are poisons divided? 516. What is the first tiling to be done when it is ascer- tained that poison has been swallowed ? 517. What should be taken after the vomit- in" has commenced? 518. What effect has an over-dose of ammonia? 519. The antidote? Should an emetic be given for this poison? 520. What effect has an'over- dose of the wine of antimony or tartar emetic ? 521. What is the antidote ? 522 What should immediately be done when arsenic is swallowed ? APPENDIX. 139 523. The antidote is the hydrated peroxide of iron. It should be kept constantly on hand at the apothecaries' shops. It may be given in any quantity, without injurious results. 524. Copper. — The most common cause of poisoning from this metal, is through the careless use of cooking utensils made of it, on which the acetate of copper (verdigris) has been allowed to form. When this has been taken, immediately induce vomiting, give muci- laginous drinks, or, what is still better, the white of eggs, diffused in water. 525. The antidote is the carbonate of soda, which should be admin- istered without delay. 526. Lead. — The acetate (sugar) of lead is the preparation of this metal which is liable to be taken accidentally, in poisonous doses. Induce immediate vomiting, by emetics and diluent drinks. 527. The antidote is diluted sulphuric acid. When this acid is not to be obtained, either the sulphate of magnesia, (epsom salts,) or the sulphate of soda, (glauber's salts,) will answer every purpose. 528. Mercury.—The preparation of this mineral by which poi- soning is commonly produced, is corrosive sublimate. The mode of treatment to be pursued, when this poison has been swallowed, is as follows : The whites of a dozen eggs should be beaten in two quarts of cold water, and a tumbler-ful given every two minutes, to induce vomiting. When the whites of eggs are not to be obtained, soap and water should be mixed with wheat flour, and given in copious draughts, and the stomach-pump introduced as soon as possible. Emetics or ir- ritating substances ought not to be given. 529. Nitre — Saltpetre. This, in over-doses, produces violent poisonous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately induced by large doses of mucilaginous, diluent drinks; but emetics, which irritate the stomach, ought not to be given. 530. Zinc — Poisoning is sometimes caused by the sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol.) When this takes place, vomiting should be induced, and aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks. Use the stomach-pump as soon as possible. 531. The antidote is the carbonate or super-carbonate of soda. 532. Nitric, (aqua fortis,) muriatic, (marine acid,) or sulphuric, (oil of vitriol,) acids, may be taken by accident, and produce poisonous effects. 533. The antidote is calcined magnesia, which should be freely ad- ministered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. When mag- nesia cannot be obtained, the carbonate of potash (salaeratus) may be given. Chalk, powdered and given in solution, or strong soap suds, will answer a good purpose, when the other articles are not at 523. What is the antidote? Can any quantity of this preparation of iron be given without injurious results ? 524. What should be given when verdigris has been taken into the stomach? 525. What is the antidote? 526. What should immedi- ately be given when sugar of lead is taken? 527. What is the antidote? 528. Give the treatment when corrosive sublimate has been swallowed. 529. What effect has an over-doso of saltpetre ? What treatment should be adopted ? 530. What is the antidote for white vitriol ? 533. What is the antidote for aqua fortis and oil of vitriol ? 140 APPENDIX. hand. It is of very great importance that something be given speedily, to neutralize the acid. One of the substances before named should be taken freely, in diluent and mucilaginous drinks; as gum-water,milk, flaxseed or slippery-elm tea. Emetics ought to be avoided. 534. Oxalic Acid. — This acid resembles the sulphate of magne- sia, (epsom salts,) which renders it liable to be taken, by mistake, in poisonous doses. Many accidents have occurred from this circum- stance. They can easily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity. Epsom salts, when applied to the tongue, have a very bitter taste, while oxalic acid is intensely sour. 535. The antidote is magnesia, between which and the acid a chemical action takes place, producing the oxalate of magnesia, which is inert. When magnesia is not at hand, chalk, lime, or carbonate of potash, (salasratus,) will answer as a substitute. 536. Give the antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks before named. No time ought to be lost, but the stomach-pump should be introduced as soon as a surgeon can be obtained. 537. Ley. — The ley obtained by the leaching of ashes may be taken by a child accidentally. . The antidote is vinegar, or oil of any kind. The vinegar neutralizes the alkali by uniting with it, forming the acetate of potash. The oil unites with the alkali, and forms soap, which is less caustic than the ley. Give, at the same time, large draughts of mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, &c. VEGETABLE POISONS. 538. The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many of them equally as violent, as any in the mineral kingdom. We shall describe the most common, and which, therefore, are most liable to be taken. 539. Opium. — This is the article most frequently resorted to by those wishing to commit suicide, and, being used as a common medi- cine, is easily obtained. From this cause, also, mistakes are very liable to be made, and accidents result from it. Two of its prepara- tions, laudanum and paregoric, are frequently mistaken for each other ; the former being given when the latter is intended. 540. Morphia, in solution, or morphine, as it is more commonly called by the public, is a preparation of the drug under consideration, with which many cases of poisoning are produced. It is the active narcotic principle of the opium ; and one grain is equal to six of this drug in its usual form. 541. When an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, has been swallowed, the stomach should be evacuated as speedily as possi- ble. To effect this, as much tartar emetic as can be held on a ten-cent Should emetics be avoided ? 534. How can oxalic acid be distinguished from epsom salts ? 535. What is the antidote for an over-dose of oxalic acid ? When ina«nesia cannot be obtained, what will answer as a substitute ? 537. What is the antidote when ley is swallowed ? 538. Are vegetable poisons as numerous and as violent in their effects as mineral ? 539. What is said of opium and its preparations ? 541. What treatment should be adopted when an over-dose of opium or any of its prepara- tions is taken ? APPENDIX. 141 piece, or as much ipecacuanha as can be held on a twenty-five cent piece, should be dissolved in a tumbler of warm water, and one half given at once, and the remainder in twenty minutes, if the first has not, in the mean time, operated. In the interval, copious draughts of warm water, or warm sugar and water, should be drank. 542. The use of the stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the great- est importance, and should be resorted to without delay. After most of the poison has been evacuated from the stomach, a strong infusion of coffee ought to be given ; or some one of the vegetable acids, such as vinegar or lemon-juice, should be administered. 543. The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary effects will often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on the head. Artificial respiration ought to be established, and kept up for some time. If the extremities are cold, apply warmth and friction to them. After the poison has been evacuated from the stomach, stimulants, as warm wine and water, or warm brandy and water, ought to be given, to keep up and sustain vital action. 544. Stramonium — Thorn-Apple. This is one of the most active narcotic poisons, and when taken in over-doses, has, in numer- ous instances, caused death. 545. The Treatment. — Similar to that recommended in poisoning from opium. 546. Hyosciamus—Henbane. This article, which is used as a medicine, if taken in improper doses, acts as a virulent irritating and narcotic poison. 547. Treatment. — Similar to that of poisoning from over-doses of opium. 548. Conium — Hemlock. Hemlock, improperly palled, by many, cicuta, when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic poison. It was by this narcotic that the Athenians used to destroy the lives of indi- viduals condemned to death by their laws. Socrates is said to have been put to death by this poison. When swallowed in over-doses, the treatment is similar to that of opium, stramonium, and henbane, when over-doses are taken. 549. Belladonna — Deadly Nightshade. Camphor. Aconite — Monkshood, Wolfsbane. Bryony — Bryonia. Digitalis — Foxglove. Dulcamara—Bitter-sweet. Gamboge. Lobelia — Indian Tobacco. Sanguinaria — Blood-root. Oil of Savin. Spigelia — Pink-root. Strychnine — Nux vomica. Tobacco. All of these, when taken in over-doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment of poisoning, by the use of any of these articles, is similar to that pur- sued in over-doses of opium. (See Opium, page 140.) 550. In all cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as possible. 543 Should the person be kept in motion ? 544. What should be the treatment when an over-dose of stramonium is taken? 546. For henbane ? 548. What name is sometimes improperly given to conium, or hemlock ? How was this narcotic poison used by the Athenians? How are the effects of an over-dose counteracted? 549. What is the treatment when an over-dose of deadly nightshade, monkshood, fox- glove bitter-sweet, gamboge, lobelia, blood-root, tobacco, &c,is taken? 550. Should a physician be called in all cases when poison is swallowed : GLOSSARY. Ab-sOrp'tion. From the Latin ab- sorbere, to suck up. The use of the absorbent vessels is to take up substances from without or within the body. Ac-E-TAB'u-LUM. From the Latin ace- tum, vinegar. The cavity in the hip- bone, so called from its resemblance to the ancient Greek vinegar vessel. A-nat'o-my. From the Greek ana, through, and temnS, I cut. A descrip- tion of the structure of animals. A-OR'TA. From the Greek aorte, to keep in air. The large vessel that carries blood from the heart. Ap-pa-Ra'tus. From the Latin ad, for, and parare, to preparev A collection of organs. Ap-pen'dix. From the Latin ad, to, and penderc, to hang. Something added. A-RACH'noid. From the Greek arach- ne, a spider's web, and eidos, resem- blance. A thin membrane that covers the brain. Ar'te-ry. From the Greek arteria, formed from air, air, and terein, to keep. The ancients believed that the arte- ries were filled with air, like the windpipe. At'MOS-phere. From the Greek atmos, vapor, and sphaira, a sphere. The air which surrounds the earth. Au'di-to-ry. Belonging to the sense of hearing. Au'RI-cle. From the Latin auris, an ear. The two cavities of the heart derive the name from their resemblance to ears. Bi-cus'pids. From the Latin bis, two, and cuspis, a point. The name of cer- tain teeth. Bile. A yellow, bitter, nauseous fluid, secreted by the liver. Bron'chus, -chi. From the Greek brog- chos, the throat. The two branches of the windpipe. Bron'chi-al. Relating to the bronchi. Ca-nine'. From the Latin cams, a dog. The name of certain teeth. Cap'il-La-RY. From the Latin capillus, hair. The capillary vessels are the ex- tremely minute terminations of the ar- teries, and commencing branches of the veins. Car'bon. Pure charcoal. Car-bon'ic. Relating to carbon. Car'di-a. From the Greek kardia, the heart. The opening of the stomach where the oesophagus enters. Car'pus. From the Greek karpos, the wrist. There are eight bones in the wrist. Car'ti-lage. Gristle; a part of the animal body, softer than bone, but harder than ligament. Cer-e-bel'lum. The lower and small- er portion of the brain. Cer'e-brum. The uppei and larger por- tion of the brain. Chest. The part of the body between the neck and the belly. Cho'roid. From the Greek chorion, the skin, and eidos, resemblance. Chyle. From the Greek cltulos, nutri- tious juice. Chyme. From the Greek chumos, a grayish juice. Cil'i-a-ry. Latin. Relating to the eye- lids. Clav'i-cle. From the Latin clavis, a key. The collar-bone. Coc'cYX. Latin. The lower extremity of the spinal column. Coch'i.e-a. Latin. A snail-shell. A name given to one of the three cavities of the internal ear. Co'lon. Greek. The first portion of the large intestines. Con'cave. Hollow ; as the inner surface of a spherical body. Con'vex. Bulging; as the external sur- face of a spherical body. Cor'ne-a. From the Latin cornu, a horn. One of the coats of the eye. Cu'ti-cle. The external layer of the skin. Cu'tis Ve'ra. Latin. The true skin. The internal layer of the skin. Di'a-phragm. From the Greek dia- phragma, a partition. The muscle that separates the lungs and heart from the stomach, liver, and intestines. Di-GES'tion. The process of dissolving GLOSSARY. 143 food in the stomach, and .preparing it for circulation and nourishment. Du-o-de'num. The first of the small intestines, being about twelve fingers' breadth. Du'RA. Latin. Hard. A dense mem- brane which covers the brain. En-am'el. The smooth, hard substance which covers the crowns of the teeth. Ep-i-glot'tis. From the Greek epi, upon, and glottis, the glottis. A kind of cartilaginous valve at the upper part of the larynx, behind the base of the tongue. It closes at the moment of swallowing, to prevent food and drink from passing into the windpipe. Eu-sta'chi-an Tube. So called from its discoverer, Eustachius. A tube that connects the middle ear with the throat. Ex-ha'lent. From the Latin exhalare, to throw out. Ex-trem'i-ties. The limbs ; the legs and arms. Fe'mur. Latin. The thigh-bone. Fi'bre. An organic filament, or thread, of a solid consistence, which enters into the composition of every animal and vegetable texture. Fib'u-la. Latin. A clasp. The outer and lesser bone of the leg. Fol'li-cle. From the Latin follis, a bag. Very minute secreting cavities. Fore'arm. That part of the arm be- tween the elbow and wrist. Func'tion. From the Latin fungor, I act, I perform. The action of organs ; as the function or action of the eye is to see, the ear to hear. Gas'tric Juice. From the Greek gas- ter, the stomach. The fluid secreted by the stomach. Gel'a-tin. From the Latin gclu, jelly. Glot'tis. A small, oblong opening at the upper part of the larynx. Hu'mer-US. The bone of the arm, sit- uated between the shoulder-joint and elbow. Hu'MOR. Every fluid suDstance of an organized body ; as the chyle, the blood. In-ci'sor. From the Latin incido, I cut. The fore-teeth. I'ris. Latin. The rainbow. The col- ored membrane round the pupil of the Lab'Y-RINTH. From the Greek laburin- thos, a place full of turnings. A name given to the windings of the internal ear. . , Lach'ry-MAL. From the Latin lachry- ma, a tear. > . Lac'te-al. From the Latin lac, milk. The vessels that convey the chyle, or a milk like substance, into the veins. LAR'YNX. From the Greek larugx, a whistle. The upper part of the wind- pipe. Lig'a-ment. From ligo, I bind. A strong, fibrous substance, which binds bones, &c, together. Lobe. A round, projecting part of an organ. Mas'ti-cate. To chew. Me-dul'la Spi-na'lis. From the Lat- in medulla, marrow, and spinalis, relat- ing to the spine. The spinal cord. Me-dul'la Ob-lon-ga'ta. The spi- nal cord that is situated within the skull-bones. Mem'brane. From the Latin meinbra- na, a film, a delicate web. A name given to different thin organs. Mes'en-ter-y. From the Greek mesos, in the middle, and enteron, an intestine. A membrane in the middle of the intes- tines, by which they are attached to the spinal column. Met-a-car'pus. From the Greek meta, after, and karpos, the wrist. That part of the hand between the wrist and fin- gers. Met-a-TAR'sus. From the Greek meta, after, and tarsos, the instep. That part of the foot between the instep and toes. Mid'riff. The diaphragm. Mo'lar. From the Latin molo, I grind. The name of certain teeth. Mu'cus. A viscid fluid secreted by the mucous membrane, which it serves to moisten, and also to defend. Mus'cle. A bundle of fibres enclosed in a sheath. Mus'cu-LAR. Relating to the muscles. Nerve. An organ of sensation and motion in animals. Nl'TRO-GEN. From the Greek nitron, nitre, and gennad, I beget. One of the gases that compose atmospheric air. Nu-tri'tion. The act or process of pro- moting the growth, or repairing the waste of the system. CE-soph'a-GUS. From the Greek oid, I carry, and phago, I eat. The tube that leads from the mouth to the stomach. Ol-fac'to-ry. From the Latin olrac- tus. Belonging to the sense of smell. O-MEN'tum. Latin. The caul, so called because the ancient priests prophesied from an inspection of this part of the body. Or'gan. From the Greek organon, an instrument. A part of the system des- tined to exercise some particular func- tion. „ ■ , -j Ox'y-gen. From the Greek oxus, acid, and geinomai, I engender. A gas which constitutes about one fifth of our atmos- phere. n , „ Pan'cre-as. From the Greek pan, all, and kreas, flesh ; that is, quite fleshy. A gland situated behind the stomach. Pan-cre-at'ic Relating to the pancreas. Pa-PIL'LA. From the Latin papilla, nip- 144 GLOSSARY. pie. Small, conical prominences seen on the tongue and skin. Pa-ROT'id. From the Greek para, about, and ous, the ear. A gland situated under the ear. Pa-tel'la. From the Latin, patina, a dish. The kneepan. Pel'vis. Latin. A basin. The name of a bony structure at the lower part of the trunk. Per-i-Os'te-um. From peri, about, and os, bone. The membrane or skin that surrounds the bones. Per-spi-ra'tion. The evacuation of the fluids of the body through the pores of the skin. Pha-lan'ges. From the Greek pha- lagx, a file of soldiers. The bones com- posing the fingers and toes. Pha'rynx. From the Greek pharugx, the pharynx. The swallow. Piiys-I-OL'o-gy. From the Greek phu- sis, nature, and logos, a discourse. The science which treats of the functions of animals and vegetables. Pleu'ra. Greek. The membrane that lines the chest and surrounds the lungs. Pul'MO-na-ry. Belonging to the lungs. Py-lo'rus. From the Greek pule, a gate, and ouros, a guardian. The ori- fice of the stomach, that connects with the duodenum. Ra'di-us. Latin. A spoke. The small bone of the fore-arm. Rec'tum. The lower and straight por- tion of the intestines. Ret'i-na. From the Latin rete, a net. The net-like expansion of the optic nerve on the inner surface of the eye. Re-sid'u-um. Residue. The waste re- mains of the food. Res-pi-ra'tion. The act of breathing. Sa'CRUM. A bone so called because it was offered in sacrifice. The lower portion of the spinal column. Sa-U'va. Latin. The fluid secreted in the mouth. Sal'i-va-RY. Belonging or relating to saliva. Scap'u-la. Latin. The shoulder-blade. ScLE-ROT'lC. From the Greek skleroo, I harden. A membrane of the eye. SE-CRE'TION. From the Latin secernere, to separate. The function of several glands, by which they separate from the blood the material which they respec- tively demand for their several purposes. Skel'e-ton. From the Greek skellQ, I dry. The articulated, dry bones of an animal. Spi'nal Cord. A prolongation of the brain. Spine. From the Latin spina, a thorn. The back-bone. Spleen. The milt. It was supposed by the ancients to be the seat of melan- choly, anger, and vexation. Sub-lin'gual. From the Latin sub, under, and lingua, the tongue. The name applied to the gland under the tongue. Sub-max'il-la-ry. From the Latin sub, under, and maxilla, the jaw-bone. The name applied to the gland under the jaw. Su'ture. From the Latin suo, I stitch. The seam or joint which unites the skull-bones. Sy-no'vi-A. From the Greek sun, with, and don, an egg. The lubricating fluid of the joints. Sys'tem. From the Greek sun, together, and istemi, I place. An assemblage of organs, composed of the same tissues, and intended for the same functions. Sys-tem'ic. Belonging to the general system. Tar'sus. From the Greek tarsos, any row. The space between the bone of the leg and the metatarsus. Ten'don. From the Greek teind, I stretch. Strong, white cords that con- nect the muscles to the bone which they move. Tho-rac'ic. From the Greek th6rax the chest. Tib'i-a. Latin. A pipe or flute. The largest bone of the leg. Tra'che-a. From the Greek trachus, rough, and arteria. The canal that con- veys air to the lungs. Trunk. The body of animals, without the limbs. Tym'pa-num. Latin. The drum of the ear. Ul'na. Latin. A cubit. A bone of the fore-arm. Valve. From the Latin valva, a small door. Any membrane, or doubling of any membrane, which prevents fluid from flowing back in the vessels and canals of the animal body. Veins. From the Latin vena. The ves- sels that carry the blood to the heart. Ven'tri-cle. Latin. A small cavity of the animal body. Ver'te-bra, -jE. From the Latin verto, I turn. A joint of the spinal column. Vi'rus. Latin. Poison. Vi'tal. From the Latin vita, life. Vit're-ous. Pertaining to glass. A name given to one of the humors of the eye. ft ■■^Wmm^---'" n & 'i^$%&*^ •:^rTK\ •■*$&< «*SWX$t! wS^ M M M :SS;