THE HEART AND LARGE BLOOD-VESSELS. 
ii HUMAN 
Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
A TEXT-BOOK % 
tor 
J)tftool& mul JmrateJL 
BY 
JOSEPH C. (I\IARTINDALE, M.D., 
LATE PRINCIPAL OF MADISON GRAMMAR SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF “FIRST 
LESSONS IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY ; ” “HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
FOR SCHOOLS,” ETC. 
PHILADELPHIA : 
ELDREDGE & BROTHER, 
17 North Seventh Street. 
1872. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
ELDREDGK & BROTHER, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
* J. FAGAN A SON, 
3 ELECTROTYPERS, PHILAD’A. 
CAXTON PRESS OP SHERMAN & CO. Preface. 
TN preparing this book, we have aimed to give facts in 
clear, concise language, and as free as possible from 
technical terms. All speculations and hypotheses have 
been omitted as inconsistent with a work of this kind. 
Our endeavor has been to present the subject, both to the 
student and to the general reader, in such a form, that the 
facts may be easily grasped and readily retained. 
The Anatomy and Physiology are given first; because a 
knowledge of the location and the functions of the organs 
of the body, is needed before we can understand how to pre- 
serve them in a state of health. We must be acquainted 
with a law before we can keep it; and we must know the 
laws which govern our systems, before we can observe them. 
The body is composed of many organs, each of which per- 
forms its part in the economy of the system; yet the func- 
tions of these organs are closely connected with ®ach other, 
and they all act so as to produce a unity and harmony in 
the whole being. The Laws of Health, or Hygiene, are not 
V vi 
PREFACE. 
applied so much to the preservation of each part separately, 
as to the preservation of the entire system; hence, their ap- 
plication can be better understood after the Anatomy and 
Physiology have been learned. 
This book is fully illustrated by such engravings as will 
give a clear idea of the facts mentioned in the text; and 
neither pains nor expense have been spared to make it as 
complete as possible in this respect. 
The Appendix contains much useful information under 
the following heads: Care of the Sick; Asphyxia from 
Drowning; Disinfectants; Poisons and their Antidotes ; a 
Glossary of Diseases ; and a Glossary of Words. 
A copious Index is appended, so that reference may be 
made to the text of the book for any desired information. 
Philadelphia, 1872. 
J. C. M. CONTENTS 
CHAPTER I. 
PAGE 
Section 1. Introduction . . • • • * * * * ** 
Section 2. Composition of the Body ...•••• 
General Remarks. 
CHAPTER II. 
Motor Apparatus. 
Section 1. The Tissues of the Body ..... 
Section 2. Anatomy of the Bones ••••*• 23 
Section 3. Physiology of the Bones ..... 
Section 4. Anatomy and Physiology of the Joints . 38 
Section 5. Anatomy of the Muscles . . • • • • • 41 
Section 6. Physiology of the Muscles . ..... 49 
CHAPTER III. 
Section 1. The Membranes of the Body . ...... 54 
Section 2. The Glands of the Body ....... 57 
Section 3. Anatomy of the Digestive System . . . . . .59 
Section 4. Physiology of the Digestive System ..... 68 
Section 5. Anatomy of the Circulatory System . . . . • 75 
Section 6. Physiology of the Circulatory System ..... 86 
Section 7. The Lymphatic System . . . . • • .91 
Section 8. Absorption, Secretion, and Excretion ..... 9» 
Section 9. Anatomy of the Respiratory System . . . . .99 
Section 10. Physiology of the Respiratory System . . . .103 
Section 11. Animal Heat . . . . • • • • 198 
Nutritive Apparatus. viii 
CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER IV. 
Sensory Apparatus. 
PAGE 
Section 1. Anatomy of the Nervous System . . . . .111 
Section 2. Physiology of the Nervous System ..... 124 
Section 3. Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense . . . . . 135 
Section 4. Physiology of the Organs of Special Sense .... 147 
CHAPTER V. 
Section 1. General Remarks ........ 159 
Section 2. Air .......... 160 
Section 3. Water .......... 169 
Section 4. Clothing . . . . . . _ _ yj4 
Section 5. Food .......... 183 
Section 6. Sleep ......... 190 
Section 7. Exercise ......... 194 
Section 8. The Teeth and other Organs ...... 202 
Hygiene. 
CHAPTER VI. 
Development and Death. 
Section 1. Growth and Development ....... 207 
Section 2. Decay and Death ......... 211 
CHAPTER VII. 
Appendix. 
Section 1. Care of the Sick. Asphyxia from Drowning. Disinfectants. Poisons 
and their Antidotes. . . . . . . .215 
Section 2. Glossary of Diseases. Glossary of Words . . . 223 
INDEX 236 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FIG. PAGE 
Frontispiece. 
1. Organic Cells . . . . . .12 
2. Filaments of Fibrous Tissue . . . . .19 
3. Filaments of Connective Tissue ... 20 
4. Cartilage Cells . . . . . . .20 
5. Fibres of Elastic Tissue . . . . - 21 
6. Adipose, or Fat Tissue . ... . . .21 
7. Fasciculi of a Muscle ..... 21 
8. Human Skeleton . . . . . . .25 
9. Human Skull ....... 27 
10. Bones of the Trunk . . . . . .28 
11. Vertebra of the Neck ..... 29 
12. Humerus, or Arm-Bone . . . . . .31 
13. Radius and Ulna ...... 31 
14. Bones of the Hand and Wrist . . . .31 
15. Femur, or Thigh-bone ..... 33 
16. Tibia and Fibula . . . . . .33 
17. Bones of the Foot ...... 34 
18. Section of a Bone . . . . . .37 
19. Muscles of the Front of the Body ... 43 
20. Muscles of the Back of the Body . . . .45 
21. Elbow Joint ....... 50 
22. Ciliated Epithelium . . . . . .55 
23. Different Kinds of Glands .... 58 X 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FIG. PAGE 
24. Section of a Tooth . . . . . .61 
25. Permanent Teeth ...... 62 
26. Stomach and Intestines . . . . .64 
27. Human Liver ....... 66 
28. Digestive Organs of the Common Fowl . . .72 
29. Digestive Organs of an Ox . . . . 73 
30. Heart and large Blood-vessels . . . .75 
31. Position of the Heart ..... 76 
32. Valves in the Veins . . . . . .79 
33. Aorta and its Branches ..... 80 
34. Carotid Arteries . . . . . . .81 
35. Arteries of the Forearm ..... 82 
36. Lymphatic Trunks . . . . . .92 
37 Cartilages of the Larynx .... 99 
38. Vocal Membrane . . . . . .99 
39. Larynx, Trachea, and Bronchi . . . .101 
40. Air-cells ....... 102 
41. Brain and Spinal Cord . . . . .114 
42. Base of the Brain ...... 115 
43. Left Half of the Brain ..... 116 
44. Section of the Spinal Cord . . . . .121 
45. Anastomosis between Nerves . . . .121 
46. Human Eyt: . . . . . . .137 
47. Muscles of the Eyeball ..... 138 
48. Section of the Eyeball . . . . .140 
49. Human Ear ....... 141 
50. Section of the Skin ...... 144 
51. Root of a Hair ...... 145 
52. Natural Waist ....... 179 
53. Deformed Waist ...... 179 Anatomy, 
Physiology, and Hygiene. 
CHAPTER I. — General Remarks. 
Section I. 
Introduction. 
1. All bodies, or masses of matter, on the earth may he 
separated into two classes; the organized and the unorganized. 
The organized bodies comprise all animals and all vegetables; 
the unorganized bodies comprise the air, gases, water, soils, 
ores, stones, and rocks. 
2. All organized bodies are composed of ultimate ele- 
ments combined and arranged according to certain fixed laws, 
yet controlled by a Vital or Life-force. All unorganized 
bodies are composed of similar ultimate elements arranged 
according to fixed laws, yet without any Life-force. These 
ultimate elements are called organic, when they enter into 
the composition of organized bodies; and inorganic, when 
they enter into the composition of unorganized bodies. 
3. Every organized body is living or has been living; its 
origin is from a parent; it is developed by a growth or in- 
crease in all its parts; it must be nourished by food; it has 
the power of reproduction; and it is subiect to death. An 
11 12 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
unorganized body has no life, no parent, no growth, no food, 
no power of reproduction, and no death. 
4. All organized bodies are comprised in two classes; ani- 
mals and vegetables. Animals absorb oxygen and exhale 
carbonic acid; and they require organic food, such as meat 
and vegetables, for their support. Vegetables absorb carbonic 
acid and exhale oxygen; and they obtain their nourishment 
from unorganized substances, such as ammonia, carbonate of 
lime, and phosphate of lime. 
5. Anat'omy treats of the component parts of an organized 
body, and explains the structure and position of its organs 
while in a state of rest. The anatomy of a body is the same 
in death as in life. Physiol'ogy treats of the body during 
life only, and explains its growth, its movements, and the 
various changes which are constantly going on in it. These 
changes are called Vital phenomena, or the phenomena of 
Life, and end when death takes place. 
6. All organized bodies are for the most part composed 
of organic cells, which are spherical in their 
primitive form, having a cell wall and cell 
contents, with a filamentary appendage. A 
second and much smaller cell, called the 
nucleus, is generally found among the con- 
tents of the primitive cell. These cells un- 
dergo more or less change in the formation of the different 
parts of animals and vegetables. Sometimes they retain 
nearly their primitive form, as in the glandular cells of the 
body ; hut at other times they are so modified that they can 
scarcely be recognized, as in the fibrous tissues where the 
cells are in the form of fine filaments. 
Fig. I. 
Fig. 1. Two or- 
ganic cells from the 
submaxillary gland, 
highly magnified. 
7. The primitive cell in all organized bodies is alike. It 
is the starting-point in the formation of them all; thus show- 
ing a unity of plan pervading the whole organic world. In 
the different species of animals, the corresponding parts of 
the body are very similar; thus the composition of bone in 
one animal differs but little from that in another; and this is GENERAL REMARKS. 
13 
true of the muscles, the skin, the hair, the blood, and indeed 
of all parts of the body, so that the whole animal kingdom 
is united into one general class by the similarity of structure. 
8. Although there is great similarity in the composition 
of the structure of all animals, yet there is great diversity 
in the form, the shape, and the general arrangement of those 
structures. Thus the heart and blood-vessels differ in size, 
in shape, and in arrangement, in the different animals. This 
is also the case with the lungs, the muscles, the bones, and 
other organs. It is this diversity in the development of an 
animal, by which it is made to conform to an established 
type, that gives rise to the different species, and that enables 
us to distinguish one species from another, and even to dis- 
tinguish individuals of the same species, and know them 
apart. 
9. Each species of animals varies in size, in shape, and in 
general arrangement of structure; hence, the Anatomy and 
Physiology of one species will vary more or less from those 
of every other species, although all will conform in general' 
characters. It is our province in this work to speak prin- 
cipally of the Anatomy and Physiology of the human species; 
yet reference will be made to other species, whenever such 
reference will aid in the illustration of the theme under 
consideration. 
10. The study of the Anatomy and the Physiology of the 
human body may naturally be separated into three divisions, 
or chapters, corresponding with the functions of the system. 
The three divisions are: the Mo'tor Apparatus, which com- 
prises the bones, the muscles, and the joints; the Nu'tritive 
Apparatus, which includes everything that relates to the sup- 
port and preservation of the entire body; and the Sens'ory 
Apparatus, which protects the individual by means of motion, 
sensation, volition, and consciousness. 
11. The Primitive Cell is the starting point in the forma- 
tion of a living body. A Tis'sne is the texture of which any 
part of the body is composed, and is itself formed from the 14 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
primitive cell. An Or'gan is any part of the body composed 
of one or more tissues, and capable of a special function, as 
the lungs. When several organs similar in structure are 
taken together, they are called a Sys'tem, as the nervous 
system. When two or more systems, or when several organs 
differing m structure, are taken together, they are called an 
Apparatus, as the nutritive apparatus. 
12. When we contemplate the world in which wTe live, and 
become acquainted with the laws by which it is governed, we 
are impressed with the fact that there is a unity in the plan, 
and a system in the arrangement of all its parts. Although 
the finite mind of man is limited in its comprehension, yet 
enough can be understood to know that One greater than 
man must have conceived and arranged all these things. 
The harmony that everywhere exists amid all this diversity 
of form and shape; the order and regularity exhibited in 
the manifold operations of nature; and the unchangeable 
law by which every living thing brings forth according to 
its kind, unmistakably point to an Omniscient and Omnipo- 
tent Being as the Creator and Ruler of the universe! 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Name the classes into which all matter may be separated. What 
does each class comprise ? 
2. Give the composition of organized bodies. Of unorganized bodies. 
3. What are the distinguishing features between organized and unor- 
ganized bodies ? 
4. Name the classes into which organized bodies are divided. State 
the distinctions between them. 
5. Define Anatomy. Physiology. 
6. Define the primitive form of organic cells. How are they modified 
in the formation of animals and vegetables ? 
7. What maybe said of the primitive cell in organized bodies? What 
of their similarity of structure ? 
8. What is said of the difference of structure in organized bodies ? To 
what does this difference give rise ? 
SECTION I. GENERAL REMARKS. 
15 
9. Why do the Anatomy and Physiology of one species differ from those 
of another species ? 
10. How are the Anatomy and Physiology naturally divided ? Define 
each division. 
11. In what is the primitive cell the starting point ? What is a tissue ? 
An organ ? A system ? An apparatus ? 
12. What is said of the unity and of the system in the creation of the 
world ? 
Section II. 
Composition of the Body. 
1. There are fourteen TJTtimate El'ements, or substances 
which enter into the composition of the human body. Of 
these, Ox'ygen, Hy'drogen, Car'bon, and Ni'trogen, exist in 
all plants, and in all animals. The remaining elements 
are Cal'cium, Potas'sium, Sod'ium, Chlor'ine, Phos'phorus, 
Sul'phur, Sil'icon, Pron, Magnes'ium, and Flu'orine. 
2. The ultimate elements seldom exist alone in the body ; 
but they are variously combined with each other, forming 
the proximate elements which constitute the fluids and solids 
of the body. 
3. The Proximate El'ements are divided into three classes. 
The first class are all inorganic, and comprise such sub- 
stances as water, chloride of sodium, and phosphate of lime. 
The second class are crystallizable substances of organic 
origin, and comprise starch, sugar, and fat. The third class 
are all organic, and are often called “ albuminoid sub- 
stances, or “protein compounds,” and comprise such sub- 
stances as albumen, fibrin, and casein. 
4. The proximate elements of the first class are: Water, 
Chloride of Sodium, Phosphate of Lime, Carbonate of Lime, 
Chloride of Potassium, Carbonate of Potassa, Phosphate of 
Magnesia, Phosphate of Soda, Phosphate of Potassa. 
5. Water is present in all the solids and fluids of the body. 
It gives fluidity to the blood and the secretions, so that they 16 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
move more easily through the body; and it keeps the solids 
in their natural condition, so that they can perform their 
functions more readilv- 
6. Water is estimated to constitute more than two-thirds 
of the entire weight of the body. The amount of it taken 
daily into the system, has been calculated to be about four 
and a half pounds. This comprises all the water taken as 
drink, and all that is contained in the food. After the 
water has performed its office, it passes from the body by the 
lungs, the skin, and other organs. 
7. Chloride of Sodium is found in all the fluids and solids 
of the body, except in the enamel of the teeth. It is useful 
in helping to regulate the passage of fluids through animal 
membranes, and it aids in digestion. Its use, as an addition 
to the food, is universal among all races and classes of man- 
kind ; and even the lower animals partake of it freely. The 
system requires to be frequently supplied with it. 
8. Phosphate of Lime exists in all the solids and fluids of 
the body. It forms a large part of the bones and teeth, and 
gives them firmness and solidity. It may be dissolved out 
of the bones by dilute muriatic acid, leaving behind only 
the animal substance, which may then be bent in any direc- 
tion without breaking. The phosphate of lime exists in all 
kinds of meat and vegetables, and in nearly all fruits. 
9. Carbonate of Soda is found in the bones, the blood, and 
the saliva. It helps to dissolve the albumen in the blood. 
It exists in most fruits and vegetables; but the greater part 
of it is formed in the body. 
10. Chloride of Potassium is found in the muscles, the 
blood, and other fluids and tissues of the body. It is readily 
soluble in water, and is always found in a fluid form. It is 
mostly obtained from the food. 
11. Carbonate of Lime is found in the bones. The small 
bones of the ear are formed almost entirely of it. 
12. Carbonate of Potassa is found in the bones, blood, and 
lymph. It helps to dissolve the albumen in the blood. GENERAL REMARKS. 
17 
13. Phosphate of Magnesia, of Soda, and of Potassa, exist 
in very small quantity in all the solids and fluids of the body. 
14. The proximate elements of the second class are : Starch, 
Sugars, Fats. 
15. Starch is found in nearly all vegetable substances used 
for food. During the process of digestion, it is converted 
into sugar. It has been found in the human brain, in the 
form of starch granules. 
16. Sugar is obtained from both animal and vegetable 
food, and particularly from fruits. There are several varie- 
ties of it, which vary somewhat in their chemical com- 
position. 
17. Fat is derived from both animal and vegetable food. 
It is most abundant in the adipose tissue of the body; but it 
also occurs in the marrow of the bones. The human body 
requires food containing both sugar and fat for its support. 
18. The proximate elements of the third class are: Fibrin, 
Albumen, Casein, Globulin, Pepsin, Pancreatin, Mucosin, 
Ostein, Cartilagin, Musculin, Ilematin, Melanin, Biliverdin. 
19. Fibrin is the substance in the blood and lymph, which 
causes them to coagulate spontaneously when removed from 
the circulation. 
20. Albu'men occurs in the blood, the lymph, and the 
fluids of the serous cavities of the body. It coagulates at a 
temperature of 160°, and in many respects resembles the 
white of an egg. 
21. Cas'ein exists in milk. It is coagulated by acids, and 
by the juices of the stomach. 
22. Grlob'ulin forms the principal part of the red cor- 
puscles of the blood. 
23. Pep'sin is found in the gastric juice; Pancreat'in, in 
the pancreatic juice; and Muco'sin in the secretions of mucus, 
from the different mucous membranes. 
24. Os'tein is the substance of the bones, and Cartilag'in 
is the substance of cartilage; both of which are changed 
into gelatin, or glue, by long boiling. 18 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
25. Mus'cnlin is the principal substance of the muscular 
fibre. It has the power of contractility during life. 
26. Hem'atin is the coloring matter of the red corpuscles 
of the blood. 
27. Mela'nin is the coloring matter in the eye, the hair, 
and the skin. It is very abundant in the black and brown 
races; but less so in the yellow and white races. 
28. Biliver'din is the coloring matter of the bile. On 
exposure to the air, in a fluid condition, it absorbs oxygen, 
and changes to a grass-green color. 
29. The aibu'minoid substances form a large part of the 
tissues of the body, and must be regularly supplied for its 
preservation. They are found in the cereal grains, in meats, 
in eggs, and in milk. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION II. 
1. What is said of the ultimate elements in the body ? 
2. What is said of the combination of the ultimate elements ? 
3. How are the proximate elements divided ? Define each class. 
4. Name the proximate elements of the first class. 
5. What is remarked of the use of water in the body ? 
6. What is said of the quantity of water in the body ? 
7. What is said of Chloride of Sodium in the system? 
8. What of the Phosphate of Lime ? 
9. What of the Carbonate of Soda ? 
10. What of the Chloride of Potassium ? 
11. What of the Carbonate of Lime? 
12. What of the Carbonate of Potassa? 
13. What of the Phosphate of Magnesia, of Soda, and of Potassa? 
14. Name the proximate elements of the second class. 
15. What is said of Starch? 
16. What is said of Sugar ? 
17. What is said of Fat? 
18. Name the proximate elements of the third class. 
19. Define Fibrin. 20. Albumen. 21. Casein. 22. Globulin. 23 
Pepsin, Pancreatin, Mucosin. 24. Ostein, Cartilagin. 25. Musculin. 
26. Ilematin. 27. Melanin. 28. Biliverdin. 
29. What is remarked of the albuminoid substances ? CHAPTER II. — Motor Apparatus. 
The motor apparatus of the body consists of the Bones, 
the Joints, and the Muscles. 
Section I. 
The Tissues of the Body. 
1. The tissues of the body are the fibrous, the connective, 
the cartilaginous, the fibro - cartilaginous, the elastic, the 
adipose, and the muscular tissues.. 
2. Fi'brous tissue is white or yellowish-white, while in the 
body; but it becomes yellow when taken out and dried. It 
is very flexible, but inelastic, and is the strongest of all the 
animal tissues; therefore, it is admirably 
adapted to connect and support the other 
tissues and organs of the body. 
3. The fibrous tissue of the skin of ani- 
mals is the part converted into leather by 
the process of tanning. When thife tissue is 
boiled, it is resolved into gelatin, and thus 
furnishes the glue of commerce. 
4. Fibrous tissue is composed of very fine 
filaments or threads. When these filaments 
are all parallel to each other, the tissue will 
not stretch; but when they cross each other, it admits of 
more or less extensibility. 
Fig. 2. 
Fig, 2, Filaments 
of fibrous tissue, 
highly magnified. 20 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
5. Connective, or Are'olar tissue, is composed of filaments 
of fibrous tissue, which interlace or cross each other. It is 
white, soft, and slightly ex- 
tensible, yet very strong, so 
that it holds the bones, 
muscles, skin, nerves, and 
blood-vessels in their places 
without impeding their 
movements. It is the tissue 
which connects the different 
parts of the body together ; 
hence, it is appropriately 
called connective tissue. 
Fig. 3. 
Fig. 3. Filaments of connective tissue, 
highly magnified. 
6. Cartilage, or gristle, is a smooth, elastic, flexible sub- 
stance, whitish in appearance, and softer than a bone, but 
harder than a ligament. It holds a middle place between 
the fibrous tissue and bone; hence, its adaptation to such 
parts as require to be kept in shape, and at the same time to 
have .a moderate degree of motion. 
7. At first, all the bones of the body are in the form of 
cartilage; but they soon ossify and form the skeleton. 
These cartilages are called temporary cartilages, to dis- 
tinguish them from the permanent carti- 
lages, which are not changed into bone. 
8. Cartilage consists of a solid matrix, 
resembling ground glass in appearance. 
The matrix contains nucleated cells, 
which are single, or are arranged in oval 
groups. 
9. Ei'bro-car'tilage consists of a fibrous 
matrix with imbedded cartilage cells. 
It comprises every form of intermixture between the pure 
fibrous tissue and the pure cartilage. Fibro-cartilage com- 
bines the strength of the fibrous tissue with the elastic prop- 
erty of the cartilage; and it is well adapted to the firmest 
union of bones, accompanied with moderate flexibility. 
Fig. 4. 
Fig. 4. Cartilage cells 
Imbedded in a matrix, 
highly magnified. MOTOR APPARATUS. 
21 
10. Elas'tic tissue is a tough, dull-yellow substance com- 
posed of coarse fibres. It is 
usually mingled with the fibrous 
tissues, and is seldom found alone 
in masses of any important size. 
11. Ad'ipose, or fat tissue, does 
not seem to be essential to the con- 
stitution of any organ. It is com- 
posed of delicate cells, which are 
filled with a yellowish substance, called fat. It is found in 
all the connective tissue of the body, 
and it occupies the spaces among the 
muscles, the hollows in the cheeks, 
the temples, and behind the eye- 
balls ; and it occurs almost every- 
where beneath the skin, giving 
roundness and beauty to the human 
form. It is never found in the eye- 
lids, the eyeballs, the brain, or the 
spinal cord. 
12. Mus'cular tissue is composed of soft, red 
fibres, called muscular fibres; and these fibres 
are collected together into bundles or fasciculi. 
Both the fibres and the fasciculi are sur- 
rounded by connective tissue, which holds them 
together. When viewed through the micro- 
scope, these fibres are distinctly striated or 
marked transversely; therefore, they are called 
striated muscular fibres. 
13. The muscular coat of the stomach, the 
intestines, and the blood-vessels, are com- 
posed of fibres which are not striated, and 
are, therefore, called unstriated muscular fibres. All mus- 
cular fibres possess the power of contractility, by which they 
are shortened, and their extremities brought nearer together. 
Upon this power depend all the motions of the body. 
Fie. 5. 
Fig, 5. Fibres of elastic tissue, 
highly magnified. 
Fig. 6. 
Fig. 6. Adipose, or fat tissue, 
with connective tissue, highly 
magnified. 
Fig. 7. 
Fig. 7. A piece 
of muscle, slightly 
magnified, showing 
the bundles or fas- 
ciculi. 22 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION I. 
1. Name the tissues of the body. 
2. Describe the fibrous tissue. 
3. Into what may the fibrous tissue of animals be converted? 
4. What is said of the filaments of fibrous tissue ? 
5. Describe the connective tissue. 
6. Describe cartilage. Of what use is it ? 
7. From what are the bones formed ? What name is given to these 
cartilages, and why? 
8. Of what does cartilage consist ? 
9. Describe fibro-cartilage. 
10. Describe elastic tissue. 
11. Describe adipose tissue. Where is it found ? 
12. Of what is muscular tissue composed ? How does it appear under 
the microscope ? 
13. What is said of the unstriated muscles ? What power is possessed 
by muscular fibres ? 
Section II. 
Anatomy of the Bones. 
1. The Bones are hard and firm, and are placed in the 
interior of the body, where they serve as a frame-work, or 
Sk deton, for preserving its general shape, for the protection 
of its most important organs, and for the attachment of 
muscles. The bones are to the body what the frame-work 
is to a building. 
2. The number of bones in the body varies at different 
periods of life. Many of them are in two or more pieces in 
the child; yet they afterwards grow together, forming but 
one bone in the adult. The number of bones usually given, 
fe two hundred and eight, besides the thirty-two teeth. MOTOR APPARATUS. 
23 
Of these bones, thirty are in the head, fifty-four in the trunk, 
sixty-four in the upper limbs, and sixty in the lower limbs. 
3. The bones in the body differ in size and form, and may 
be divided into four classes: the long bones, as in the upper 
and lower limbs; the broad bones, as in the skull; the short 
bones, as in the wrist and ankle; and the irregular bones, as 
in the vertebrae. 
4. The long bGnes * are more or less cylindrical, and are 
mostly hollow, like a tube. The main part of a long bone 
is called its shaft or body, and the ends are called its ex- 
tremities. The extremities of the long bones are larger than 
the shaft, thus furnishing a broader base of support at the 
joints. When the end of the bone is rounded, as in the 
thigh-bone, it is called a head. 
5. An elevation or prominence on a bone is called a pro- 
cess. A single aperture or orifice in a bone is called a 
foram'en, and two or more apertures are called foramina. 
6. While the bones are in the body they are of a bluish- 
white color, and are slightly tinged with pink from the blood 
which is in them. When removed from the body, and ex- 
posed to the air and the light, they gradually assume a 
chalk-white appearance. In the young, the bones are tough, 
and somewhat elastic, so that they are not easily broken; 
but as the person advances in life, they become harder and 
more brittle. 
7. The bones are nearly twice as heavy as water. They 
are composed of animal matters and mineral matters. In 
the infant, the proportion of these matters is about equal; 
but as the person grows older, the mineral matters increase, 
until they compose fully three-fourths of the material of the 
bones; hence, they are more easily fractured in old persons 
than in the young. 
* In Fishes, the bones are perfectly solid; in Reptiles, they contain a 
few cavities; in the Mammalia, many of them are hollow, and are filled 
with fat; and in Birds, many of them are hollow, but are filled with air, 
which adds to their lightness. 24 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
8. When bones are burned, so> as to char the animal 
matter, they become black, and very brittle, and are then 
called bone-black; but when the animal matter is entirely 
consumed, the mineral parts left are of a pure white color, 
and yield {he. phosphorus of commerce. 
0. When bones are steeped in dilute muriatic acid, the 
mineral matters are dissolved out, leaving only the cartilage, 
or animal matter, which retains the original form of the 
bone, and which is very flexible, so that it may even be tied 
into a knot. 
10. The bones are mostly composed of an exterior layer, 
which is firm and compact; and an interior layer, which is 
loose and spongy. 
11. The shaft of the long bones is mostly composed of the 
compact substance, but their extremities are more or less 
spongy. The long bones are in the form of hollow cylinders, 
and are filled with a soft,-yellow fat, called marrow or 
medulla. 
12. The broad bones have two layers of compact sub- 
stance, with a layer of spongy substance intervening. The 
short bones, and the irregular bones, have a thin layer of 
compact substance externally, while the greater part of their 
bulk is composed of spongy material. 
13. The compact substance gives strength to the bones; 
hence, it is found most abundantly in the shafts of the long 
bones, and in bones that are thin, yet require considerable 
strength, as in the skull. The spongy substance increases the 
size of the bones, without increasing their weight; therefore, 
it occurs most abundantly near the joints, and in all bones 
where an enlarged surface is needed for the attachment of 
muscles. It also helps to reduce the force of falls and 
blows. 
14. The exterior surface of the bones, except at the joints, 
is covered with a fibrous membrane, called perios'teum. In 
early life, this membrane may be separated from the bone; 
but it afterwards becomes so blended with the bone as not to MOTOR APPARATUS. 
25 
Fig. 8. 
Fig. 8. A Front Vif.w or the Human Skeleton. — 1, The skull; 2, the spinal 
column; 3, the clavicle; 4, the humerus; 5, the radius; 6, the ulna; 7, the carpus; 
8, the meta-carpus; 9, the sternum; 10, the pelvis; 11, the femur; 12, the patella; 
13, the tibia; 14, the fibula; 15, the tarsus. 26 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
be easily detached from it. It contains the blood-vessels 
which nourish the bone, and it serves as a medium of attach- 
ment for the muscles and ligaments. A similar membrane 
lines the interior surface of the long bones, and is called the 
endos'teum. 
15. At first all bones are composed of cartilage, but after- 
wards deposits of calcareous matter are made in one or more 
points, called the centres of ossification. These deposits 
continue to increase until the whole bone is completely ossi- 
fied. Ossification in all the bones of the body is not com- 
pleted until about the twenty-fifth year. 
16. The long hones grow in length by a continuous growth 
and ossification of cartilage at their extremities; the broad 
bones grow in the same manner from their edges or borders; 
but the short bones grow from all parts of their external 
surfaces. 
17. Calear'eous deposits continue to be made in the bone 
throughout life; thus, a growth of new bone is constantly 
added, while the old and effete bone decays, and is removed. 
The bones of the body are, therefore, changed many times 
during a long life. 
18. The bones of the Head are divided into those of the 
skull, the face, and the ear. 
19. The Skull is composed of eight bones: the two Tem'- 
poral bones, one on each side of the cranium, containing 
the orifice leading to the ear; the two Pari'etal bones, 
situated at the top of the head, and united together in the 
median line ; the Oecip'ital bone, occupying the posterior 
part of the skull, resting on the spinal column, and having 
a large oval foramen for the passage of the spinal cord; the 
Front'al bone, forming the forehead; the Sphe'noid bone, 
situated across the base of the cranium, from side to side, 
and containing numerous and important foramina; and the 
Eth'moid bone, situated at the base of the brain, between the 
orbits, and behind the nose. MOTOR APPARATUS. 
27 
20. The bones of the skull are composed of two layers of 
compact substance, with spongy substance intervening. The 
Fig. 9. 
Pig. 9, A View of the Skull and Face.—1, Frontal bone; 2, parietal bone; 3, 
temporal bone; 4, inferior maxillary bone; 5, superior maxillary bone; 6, malar bone; 
7, nasal bone; 8, lachrymal bone. 
outer layer is tough and strong; while the inner one, called 
the vitreous layer, is. comparatively brittle. 
21. Nearly all the bones of the skull are united by sutures, 
the most of which are of the serrated variety. Before the 
twelfth year the sutures are not fully developed; but after 
that time they are very little changed, until old age, when 
the bones are apt to grow together, so as nearly or quite to 
obliterate the sutures. 
22. The skull is an egg-shaped, bony case, and is especially 
adapted, from its great strength, to protect the tender brain 
within it from being injured by external objects. 
23. There are fourteen bones in the Face, two of which 
are single, and twelve are in pairs. The single bones are 
the Wnier, which separates the nostrils from each other; 
and the Infe'rior Max'illary, or lower jaw-bone, which is the 
largest, and the only movable bone of the face. 28 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
24. The bones of the face, which are in pairs, are the two 
Supe'rior Max'illary bones, forming the upper jaw; the two 
Pal'ate bones, situated back of 
the upper jaw, and forming the 
greater part of the roof of the 
mouth; the two Lach'rymal bones, 
one on the inner wall of each 
orbit; the two N’a'sal bones, form- 
ing the bridge of the nose; the 
two Turbinated bones, in the nos- 
trils; and the two Malar bones, 
forming the most prominent part 
of the cheeks. 
25. Each Ear contains four 
very small bones, which aid in 
the sense of hearing. They are 
named the Mallet, the An'vil, the 
Stirrup, and the Grbic'ularbone; 
and are so very small that the 
four together weigh only a few 
grains. 
26. The bones of the Trunk 
are separated into those of the 
spinal column, the ribs, the ster- 
num, the pelvis, and a bone at 
the root of the tongue, called the 
Hy'oid bone. 
27. The Spinal Column is com- 
posed of twenty-four bones, called 
vertebrae. It extends from the 
skull to the pelvis. Each verte- 
bra consists of a main part, called 
the body, which is a half cylinder 
in shape, with the upper and the 
lower surface nearly flat; it has 
seven projections, called processes, 
Fig, 10. 
Fig, 10. A Side View op Spinal 
Column, Thorax, and Pelvis.—1, 
Cervical vertebrae; 2, dorsal ver- 
tebrae ; 3, lumbar vertebrae; 4. sa- 
crum ; 5, coccyx ; 6, scapula; 7, clavi- 
cle; 8, true ribs; 9, false ribs; 10, 
floating ribs; 11, bip-bone; 12, ace- 
tabulum. MOTOR APPARATUS. 
29 
which serve as points of attachment for muscles and liga- 
ments. These processes are arranged so as to form a canal, 
behind the bodies of the vertebrae, for the spinal cord. 
28. The Vert'ebras aye divided into three classes: the 
cervical, or neck vertebrae; the 
dorsal, or back vertebrae; and the 
lumbar vertebrae. 
29. The Cer'vical vertebrae are 
seven in number, and are smaller 
than those of either of the other 
classes. Their upper surface is 
concave, and the lower surface 
convex, so that they interlock 
with each other. The processes 
are all short, and nearly horizon- 
tal. The first cervical vertebra 
is called the Atlas, from its supporting the head; and the 
second vertebra is called the Axis, because the head rotates, 
or turns on it. 
Fiff. 11. 
Fig. 11. A Vertebra of the Neck. 
1, The body of the vertebra; 2, the 
spinal canal; 3, 4, the processes. 
30. The Dor'sal vertebrae are twelve in number, and furnish 
support for the twelve ribs which are attached to them. 
The processes of the dorsal vertebrae are longer, and their 
bodies larger, than those of the neck, and their upper and 
lower surface are both flat. 
31. The Lum'bar vertebrae are five in number, and extend 
from the thorax to the pelvis. The processes of the lumbar 
vertebrae are longer and less horizontal, and their bodies are 
larger, than those of either of the other vertebrae. Their 
upper and their lower surface are both flat. 
32. Between each two vertebrae is a plate of fibro-carti- 
lage, called an Intervert'ebral ligament, which holds them 
firmly together, and which gives elasticity to the spinal 
column, so that the force from walking, running, leaping, or 
falling, seldom produces any injury. These plates vary in 
thickness, so as to give the forward and backward curve to 
the spinal column. 30 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
33. The Yellow ligaments, composed of yellow, elastic tis- 
sue, number twenty-three pairs. They are situated between 
the arches of the vertebrae behind, which they join together 
so as entirely to inclose the spinal canal. They combine 
great strength with considerable freedom of motion. 
34. The Ante'rior Vert'ebral ligament extends the entire 
length of the spinal column, covering the front of the bodies 
of the vertebrae, and joining them firmly together. The 
Posterior Vert'ebral ligament covers the posterior part of the 
bodies of the vertebrae, within the spinal canal, and helps to 
bind them firmly together. 
35. The Ribs are twenty-four in number; twelve on each 
side. They are all united in the back with the spinal column. 
In front, the seven upper ribs are united with the breast-bone, 
or sternum, by means of cartilage, and are called the true 
ribs; the next three are united to each other by cartilage, 
and are called the false ribs; while the lowest two ribs are 
not united in front, and are, therefore, called the floating ribs. 
In length, the ribs increase from the first to the eighth, and 
decrease from the eighth to the twelfth ; but, in width, they 
gradually diminish from the first to the last. 
36. The Ster'num, or breast-bone, is situated in the middle 
of the front part of the thorax. It is in several pieces in 
childhood; but these are united in later years into one bone. 
37. The cavity formed by the dorsal vertebrae, the ribs, 
and the sternum, is called the Tho'rax, or Chest. It is coni- 
cal in shape, with its apex at the neck; but tight lacing often 
changes its form into an oval. It is admirably adapted to 
protect the lungs, the heart, and the blood-vessels which are 
within it, and at the same time to permit the movements of 
these organs. 
38. The Pei'vis is composed of four bones; the sacrum, the 
coccyx, and the two hip-bones. 
39. The Sa'crum is a triangular bone situated between the 
hip-bones, at the back part of the pelvis. It is concave in 
front and convex behind, and is a continuation of the spinal 
column. MOTOR APPARATUS. 
31 
40. The Coc'cyx is joined to the lower end of the sacrum. 
In early life it consists of four pieces, but these are after- 
wards united into one bone. 
41. The Hip-bones are attached to the sacrum by strong 
ligaments. They are united in front by ligaments in early 
life, but afterwards grow together, forming a bony union. 
In the side of each hip-bone is a deep socket, or cup-like 
cavity, called the acetab'ulum, in which the head of the 
thigh-bone is placed. 
42. The bones of each upper extremity number thirty- 
two. They are the clavicle, the scapula, the humerus, the 
Fig. 12, 
Fig. 13. 
Fig. 14. 
Fig. 12. The Humerus. — 1, The shaft; 2, the head of the humerus at the shoulder; 
3, the end which articulates at the elbow. 
Fig. 13. The Ulna and Radius.—1, The ulna; 2, the radius; 3, the end which 
articulates at the elbow; 4, the end which articulates at the wrist. 
Fig. 14. The Wrist and Hand. — 1, The carpal, or wrist hones; 2, the meta-carpal 
bones of the hand; 3, the phalanges of the thumb and the fingers. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
radius and ulna, the carpus, the meta-carpus, aud the pha- 
langes. 
43. The Clav icle, or collar-bone, is situated in front of the 
upper part of the thorax, and extends from the sternum to 
the scapula. Its use is to prevent the shoulders from being 
drawn towards the sternum. 
44. The Scap'ula, or shoulder-blade, is a broad, thin, trian- 
gular bone, situated at the upper back part of the thorax. 
It is held in position entirely by the muscles which envelop it. 
45. The Hu'merus, or arm-bone, is a long, cylindrical 
bone, extending from the glenoid cavity of the scapula to the 
bones of the forearm, at the elbow. 
46. The UTna is on the lower or inner side of the forearm, 
and is a little longer than the radius. It articulates with 
the humerus at the elbow, forming a hinge joint. 
47. The lla'dius is on the upper or outer side of the fore- 
arm (the thumb side). It is attached to the ulna, both at 
the elbow and at the wrist. It also articulates with the 
carpal bones, forming the wrist-joint. 
48. The Carp'us is composed of eight bones, arranged in 
two rows. These bones are strongly bound together by liga- 
ments, and form the wrist. 
49. The Meta-earp'us is composed of five bones, forming 
the palm of the hand. They extend from the wrist to the 
first bones of the fingers and the thumb. 
50. The Phalang'es are the three bones in each finger, and 
the two bones in the thumb. The fingers are named the 
index, the middle, the ring, and the little finger. 
51. The bones of the lower extremities are larger and 
stronger than those of the upper extremities; because they 
are required to support the weight of the trunk, the upper 
limbs, and the head. 
52. The bones of each lower limb are the femur, the pa- 
tella, the tibia, the fibula, the tarsus, the meta-tarsus, and the 
phalanges. 
53. The Fe'mur, or thigh-bone, is the longest bone in the MOTOR APPARATUS. 
33 
body. It extends from the deep cavity in the hip-bone to 
the tibia, at the knee-joint. 
54. The Patella, or knee-cap, is a chestnut-shaped bone, 
placed in front of the knee-joint. At the upper edge, it is 
attached to some of the muscles of the leg by a tendon; while 
Fig. 15. 
Fig* 16. 
Fig. 15. The Femur. —1, The shaft; 2, the head of the femur at the pelvis; 3, the 
end of the femur which articulates at the knee. 
Fig. 16. The Bones op the Leo. — 1, The tibia; 2, the fibula; 3, the end which 
articulates at the knee; 4, the external ankle ; 5, the internal ankle. 
at the lower edge, it is connected with the tibia by a strong 
ligament. 
55. The Tib'ia, or shin-bone, and the Fib'ula are the bones 
of the leg. The tibia joins the femur at the knee; and both 
the tibia and the fibula join the tarsus at the ankle. 34 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
56. The Tar'sus is composed of seven bones, which are 
strongly bound together by ligaments. These form the heel 
and the instep of the foot. 
57. The Meta-tar'sus is composed of five bones, forming 
the middle of the foot. These and the tarsus are arranged 
Fig. 17. 
Fig. 17. The Bones of the Foot, showing its Arched Form. — 1, The lower end 
of the tibia; 2, the tendon of Achilles; 3, the heel; 4, the arch of the foot, supported 
by the heel and the great toe ; 5, one of the phalanges of the great toe. 
so as to give the foot an arched form, which acts like a 
spring, giving elasticity to the step, and serving to break 
the force of falls and sudden jars. 
58. The Phalang'es are the three bones in each of the 
smaller toes, and the two bones in the great toe. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION II. 
1. What is remarked of the bones ? 
2. What is said of the number of bones ? 
3. How are the bones classified ? 
4. Describe the long bones. 
5. What is a process ? A foramen ? 
6. What is the color of the bones in and out of the body ? What is 
remarked of their elasticity ? 
7. What is said of the weight and composition of the bones ? MOTOR APPARATUS. 
35 
8. What are produced from burning the bones ? 
9. What is the effect of steeping the bones in acid? 
10. What is the difference between the exterior and the interior layer 
of the bones ? 
11. What is the difference between the shaft and the extremities of the 
long bones ? What is said of the marrow ? 
12. What is said of the layers in the broad bones ? In the short bones ? 
13. What is remarked of the compact substance ? Of the spongy sub- 
stance ? 
14. Describe the periosteum. The endosteum. 
15. How is cartilage changed into bone ? At what age is ossification 
completed ? 
16. How do the different classes of bones grow ? 
17. What change is always taking place in the bones? 
18. How are the bones of the head divided ? 
19. Describe the bones which compose the skull. 
20. How are the two layers arranged in the bones of the skull ? 
21. What is said of the sutures? 
22. What of the shape of the skull? 
23. How many bones in the face ? Describe the single bones of the 
face. 
24. What is said of the bones of the face which are in pairs ? 
25. What is remarked of the bones in each ear ? 
26. How are the bones of the trunk separated ? 
27. Of what is the spinal column composed ? Describe the vertebrae. 
28. Name the three classes of vertebrae. 
29. Describe the cervical vertebrae. 
30. The dorsal vertebrae. 
31. The lumbar vertebrae. 
32. The intervertebral ligament. 
33. The yellow ligament. 
34. The anterior and the posterior vertebral ligaments. 
35. Describe the ribs. 
36. Describe the sternum. 
37. Describe the thorax. 
38. Describe the pelvis. 
39. Describe the sacrum. 
40. Describe the coccyx. 
41. Describe the hip-bones. 
42. What is said of the upper extremities? 
43. Describe the clavicle. 
44. Describe the scapula. 
45. Describe the humerus. 
46. Describe the ulna. 
47. Describe the radius. 36 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
48. Describe the carpus. 
49. Describe the meta-carpus. 
50. What are the phalanges of the fingers ? 
51. What is said of the lower extremities ? 
52. Name the bones of the lower limbs. 
53. Describe the femur. 
54. Describe the patella. 
55. Describe the tibia. 
56. Describe the tarsus. 
57. Describe the meta-tarsus. 
58. What are the phalanges of the toes ? 
Section III. 
Physiology of the Bones. 
1. The Bones are the framework of the body, and serve to 
preserve its shape. They afford protection to the most im- 
portant organs; and they furnish places of attachment for 
the muscles, thus becoming the levers of motion. They are 
united together, so as to admit of varied movement; yet 
they furnish examples of wonderful strength, having been 
adapted to their several offices by Him who moulds all things 
in infinite wisdom. 
2. In the general structure of the bones, we may observe 
that they are designed for special use. Their exterior is 
composed of compact substance, and their interior is porous 
and spongy. The compact substance is most abundant in the 
shafts of the long bones, which are required for strength; 
in the pelvis, which is required to sustain the weight of the 
body; and in the skull, which is most exposed to injury. . 
3. The spongy substance increases the bulk of the bones, 
but not their weight; it also increases the amount of surface 
where they articulate at the joints, so that they are much 
less liable to dislocations. This substance helps to break 
the force of falls and blows, and thus prevents injury. In MOTOR APPARATUS. 
37 
animals that creep, or whose bodies remain close to the 
ground, and are therefore less liable to injury from falls, the 
bones contain a comparatively small amount of the spongy 
material; as may be noticed in snakes and in alligators. 
4. The shaft of the long bones is a hollow tube, and is 
much stronger than the same 
weight of bone would be if in 
a solid rod; for it is a well- 
known truth, that a hollow 
column will support a much 
greater weight than a solid 
column containing the same 
amount of material. A familiar 
example of this principle oc- 
curs in the stems or culms of 
many plants, such as wheat, 
rye, and corn, which are very 
light, yet have strength enough 
to support their ripened fruit, 
even when waved about in 
the passing breeze. 
5. The human cranium is 
ovate in form, and is very 
similar to the shape of an 
egg, so that it is well adapted to resist pressure on all sides. 
The smallest and strongest end is situated in front, where it 
is most liable to receive injury from external violence. The 
sutures in it tend to reduce the force of blows; and, con- 
sidered altogether, it is a bony case exactly suited to protect 
the delicate brain within. 
6. The spinal column is the back-bone of the body. It fur- 
nishes a support for the head, and a basis of attachment for 
the ribs, the muscles, and the pelvis, which support and pro- 
tect all the important organs of respiration, digestion, and 
circulation. It also provides a canal to protect the spinal 
cord; it admits of varied movement, backward, forward. 
Fig. 18. 
Pig. 18. A Section of a Bone, showing 
the Compact and the Spongy Substance. 
1, The compact substance; 2, the porous, 
or spongy substance. 38 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
and to either side; and, by its cushions of fibro-cartilage, it 
helps to secure the brain from the shocks occasioned by 
walking, running, leaping, or falling. 
7. The upper and lower extremities are adapted to the pur- 
poses for which they are designed. The upper limbs are for 
prehension, and the hand is so shaped as to facilitate the 
grasping of any object; but the lower limbs are for locomo- 
tion, and the bones are so arranged as to give firmness and 
elasticity to the step. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION III. 
1. Mention some of the uses of the bones. 
2. What is said of the general structure of the bones ? Where is the 
compact substance most abundant ? 
3. What is remarked of the spongy substance in the bones? 
4. What is said of the shaft of the long bones ? Illustrate by a familiar 
example. 
5. What is remarked of the shape and the use of the cranium ? 
6. What are the uses of the spinal column ? 
7. To what purposes are the upper and the lower limbs adapted ? 
Section IV. 
Anatomy and Physiology of the Joints. 
1. The joints, or articulations, are formed by the union 
or joining together of two or more bones. Some joints are 
immovable, while others possess more or less motion. Those 
between the bones of the skull are immovable, and are 
called sutures. When these sutures are toothed, so as to 
dovetail into each other, as between the frontal and parietal 
bones, they are called Ser'rated sutures; but when the edges 
are bevelled, so as to overlap each other, as between the MOTOE APPAEATUS. 
39 
parietal and occipital bones, they are called Squam'ous 
sutures. 
2. The movable joints vary in their kind of motion. Some 
have a hinge-like motion, as in the elbow and the knee-joints, 
and in the joints of the fingers and toes. The wrist and the 
ankle-joints have the hinge-like motion, together with a 
lateral motion, or a motion to either side. 
3. Some joints have a rotary motion, as between the two 
vertebrae next to the skull, by which the head is rotated; 
and also in the articulations of the bones of the forearm, by 
which the hands are rotated. 
4. The joints which admit of the fullest motion, are the 
ball and socket joints, in which the head of one bone fits into 
a cup-shaped cavity of another bone, as in the shoulder and 
the hip-joints. They admit of free movement in almost 
every direction. 
5. The two movements in the hinge-joints are called 
flexion and extension. Flexion is the movement of the shaft 
of one bone toward the other bone with which it is attached, 
as in the flexion of the forearm forward upon the arm, and 
the leg backward upon the thigh. Extension is the move- 
ment opposite of flexion. It brings the limb back to an ex- 
tended or straightened position. 
6. The structures which enter into the composition of the 
joints, are bones, cartilages, fibro-cartilages, ligaments, and 
synovial membranes. All of these, except the ligaments, 
have been described. 
7. The ligaments surrounding the joints are of two kinds: 
the capsular and the band-like ligaments. They are com- 
posed of fibrous tissue, and are very flexible. The capsular 
ligaments are joined to the edges of the articular surfaces of 
the bones forming the joints, so as to form cylindrical sacs. 
The band-like ligaments are the lateral ligaments which 
help to strengthen the joints. 
8. At the movable joints, the ends of the bones are covered 
with fibro-cartilage, which gives to them a very smooth, 40 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
polished surface, and lessens in a great degree the amount 
of friction. At each joint there is a capsular ligament 
which forms a cylindrical sac, like a bag that is open at 
both ends. These ends are joined to the edges of the 
articular surfaces of the bones; thus making a closed sac 
around the joint. External to the capsular ligament, are 
the band-like, or lateral ligaments, which are attached to the 
bones forming the joints, so as to hold them securely together. 
The internal surface of the capsular ligament is lined with 
the synovial membrane, which secretes an oily fluid, called 
Syno'via, to lubricate, and still further reduce the friction in 
the joint. 
9. The lower jaw is attached to the temporal bone, forming 
a hinge joint, which admits of a downward and upward 
movement, as in opening and closing the mouth ; and a side, 
or lateral movement, as in mastication or chewing. 
10. The forward and backward movements of the head are 
hinge-like, and occur between the occipital bone and the 
atlas ; but the rotary motion of the head is between the atlas 
and the axis, or the first two vertebrae. 
11. The shoulder-joint is a ball and socket joint, in which 
the head of the humerus moves in the glenoid cavity of the 
scapula. It is the most movable joint in the body. 
12. The elbow-joint is a hinge joint; the wrist-joint is also 
hinge-like, but it may be moved from side to side, as well as 
be rotated, thus giving much freedom to the movements of 
the hand. The fingers and thumb have a hinge motion, 
which admirably adapts them for grasping objects. 
13. The hip-joint, where the head of the femur moves in 
the acetabulum, is the best instance of a ball and socket 
joint, and is the strongest joint in the body. The knee-joint 
is the largest of the joints, and both it and the ankle-joint are 
hinge-like in their movements. 
14. In no part of the human frame is the wisdom of the 
Creator more clearly exhibited, than in the admirable con- 
struction of the movable joints, and their adaptation to the MOTOR APPARATUS. 
41 
varied movements required of them. A person may walk 
thirty miles a day, requiring not less than forty thousand 
steps, yet the joints of the lower limbs permit, this amount of 
motion without injury; and thousands of movements may be 
made daily by the hands and arms, without even feeling 
weary! 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION IV. 
1. How are the joints formed ? What is said of the immovable joints ? 
2. What of the joints with a hinge-like motion? 
3. What of those having a rotary motion ? 
4. What of the hall and socket joints? 
5. Define the two movements, flexion and extension. 
6. Of what structures are the joints composed? 
7. Describe the ligaments surrounding the joints. 
8. Describe fully the structure of a movable joint. 
9. Describe the movements of the lower jaw. 
10. The movements of the head. 
11. The movements of the shoulder-joint. 
12. The elbow, the wrist, and the finger-joints. 
13. The hip, the knee, and the ankle-joints. 
14. What is remarked of the movable joints? 
Section V. 
Anatomy of the Muscles. 
1. The Muscles are the fleshy or lean parts of the body. 
They surround the skeleton and contribute much towards 
producing the shape of the human being. The muscles usu- 
ally consist of a tendon at each end, and a middle or fleshy 
part, which is called the belly. The fleshy part of the 
muscle is endowed with the power of contractility, and is, 
therefore, the agent of motion; while the tendons have no 
such power, and are entirely passive. 42 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
2. The muscles are attached by their tendons to the bones; 
and the points of attachment of a muscle, are called its origin 
and its insertion. The origin is the point that is least mov- 
able, and is generally the one nearest to the spinal column ; 
wdiile the insertion is the point that is most movable, and is 
generally the one farthest from the spinal column. 
3. The tendons, or sinews, are bundles of yellowish or 
bluish-white fibrous tissue, striated lengthwise, and glisten- 
ing. They are very strong and very flexible, but are entirely 
inelastic. Most of the tendons are gradually narrowed from 
the fleshy part of the muscles to the points of attachment, 
and thus form flattened or cylindrical cords; but others con- 
tinue of the same width to their origin or insertion, and 
these are called aponeuro'ses. 
4. Each muscle is invested with a fibrous sheath, called 
fas'cia, which holds its fibrils together; and each group of 
muscles is enveloped in a still stronger and firmer fibrous 
sheath, also called fascia, which holds the muscles together. 
5. The flattened or cylindrical tendons are often confined 
in grooves in the bones, or are kept in their places by pass- 
ing beneath ligaments, as in the tendons of the fingers, which 
pass beneath the ligament at the wrist and the ligaments of 
the phalanges. When the tendons pass beneath the ligaments, 
or over the bones, they are more or less invested with a serous 
membrane, called synovial bursae, which reduces the friction 
at those points. 
6. The muscles are supplied with blood-vessels, which run 
between the muscular fibres and parallel to them. These 
blood-vessels give to the muscles their red appearance, which 
is characteristic of the flesh of all warm-blooded animals. 
The muscles are abundantly supplied with nerves, although 
they are only moderately sensitive. The tendons contain 
but few blood-vessels or nerves; hence their white color and 
their insensibility. 
7. The names of the muscles are mostly derived from their 
shape, their position, their attachments, or their physiological MOTOR APPARATUS. 
43 
Fig. 19. 
Pier, 19, a View of the Principal Muscles of the Front of the Bout.—1, The 
great pectoral muscle; 2, the biceps; 3, the triceps; 4, the deltoid; 5, the internal 
oblique muscle ; 6, the gluteal muscles ; 7, the rectus muscle; 8, the sartorius muscle; 
9, the internal vastus muscle; 10, the soleus muscle; 11, the tendon of Achilles; 
12, the occipi o-frontal muscle. 44 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
action. Some of them are spindle-shaped, terminating at 
each extremity in a flattened tendon; some are triangular, 
and are called radiated muscles ; some have their fibres ar- 
ranged like one side of a feather, and are, therefore, called 
penniform muscles; some are arranged like an entire feather, 
and are called bi-penniform muscles; and others run in a 
circular direction, as the muscle around the mouth, and are 
called orbicular, or sphincter muscles. 
8. There are more than five hundred muscles in the human 
body. These are all arranged in pairs, with the exception 
of twelve, which are single. The muscles of each pair act in 
opposition to each other; when one contracts the other re- 
laxes, and thus motion is produced. 
9. Some muscles are called flexors, because they act so as 
to bend the limbs at the joints, as in the shutting of the hand, 
and in the bending of the arm at the elbow ; and some are 
called extensors, because they extend or straighten the limbs, 
as when the hand is opened, or the arm straightened. 
10. The muscles may be divided into two classes, called 
the voluntary and the involuntary muscles. The voluntary 
muscles act under the control of the will, and move only as 
the individual wishes them to move. They embrace nearly 
all the muscles in the body. The involuntary muscles act 
without the aid of the will. This class embraces the heart, 
the stomach, the intestines, and other organs which continue 
their movements during life, without the control of the per- 
son. The action of some of the involuntary muscles admit 
of a limited influence from the will, as in respiration; but 
their regular movements are always independent of the mind. 
Muscles of the Head and Neck. 
11. The Occip'ito-front'al muscle elevates the eyebrows. 
12. The PaTpebral Orbie'ular muscle closes the eyelids, 
and performs the act of winking. 
13. The O'ral Orbie'ular muscle closes the mouth, and MOTOR APPARATUS. 
45 
Fig. 20. 
Fig. 20. A View of the Principal Muscles of the Back of the Bodt. — 1, The 
occipito-frontal muscle; 2, the'trapezius; 3, the deltoid; 4, the latissimus dorsi 
muscle; 5, the triceps extensor muscle ; 6, the middle gluteal muscle ; 7, the great 
gluteal muscle; 8, the biceps flexor of the leg; 9, the soleus muscle ; 10, the tendon 
of Achilles. 46 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
produces the various changes made in the shape of the aper- 
ture, by the movements of the lips. 
7 j a- 
14. The Zygomat'ic muscles elevate the angles of the 
mouth, as in smiling. 
15. The Temp'oral and Mas'seter muscles produce the 
movements in the lower jaw. 
16. The Ster'no-mast'oid muscle, when both sides contract, 
draws the head downward, but when one side alone contracts, 
the face is turned toward the opposite side. 
17. The Great Pec'toral muscle draws the arm downward 
and forward across the chest. 
18. The Great Ser'rated muscle draws the shoulder for- 
ward, and aids in respiration by elevating the ribs. 
19. The External Oblique' and the Straight Abdom'inal 
muscle occupy the sides and front of the abdomen. They 
support and compress the abdominal organs, and depress the 
ribs in respiration. When the muscles of one side only act, 
the body is turned to that side. 
Muscles of the Front Part of the Trunk. 
20. The Trapez'ius muscle draws the shoulder back toward 
the spine, and the head backward, or to one side. 
21. The Latis'sinras muscle draws the humerus downward 
and backward, and, with the pectoral muscles, is the chief 
agent in climbing. 
22. The Rhomb'oid muscle draws the scapula upward and 
backward. 
23. The Supe'rior Ser'rated muscle aids in elevating the 
ribs, and the Xnfe'rior Ser'rated muscle in depressing them; 
thus both assist in respiration. 
Muscles of the Back Part of the Trunk. 
Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 
24. The Delt'oid muscle raises the arm to a horizontal 
position. MOTOR APPARATUS. 
47 
25. The Bi'ceps and Brach'ial muscles flex or bend the 
forearm on the arm. 
26. The Tri'ceps muscle extends or straightens the forearm 
on the arm. 
27. The Rad'io-carp'al Flex'or bends the hand on the 
wrist; and the TJTno-carp'al Flexor bends the hand in the 
direction of the ulna. 
28. The Ba'dio-carp'al Exten'sor extends the wrist on the 
forearm. 
29. The Flex'ors in front of the fingers, and the Exten'sors 
on the back of the fingers, close and open the hand. 
Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 
30. The Grlu'teal muscles rotate the thighs outwardly, and 
retain the body in an erect position. 
31. The Sartor'ius muscle flexes the leg upon the thigh; 
and, with the aid of the Gradills muscle, draws one leg across 
the other. 
32. The Qaiad'riceps Exten'sor, composed of the Rect'us, 
External Vast'us, Internal Vast'us, and the Crural'is, extends 
the leg upon the thigh. 
33. The Pectine'al and Adduct'or muscles bend the thigh 
on the pelvis, and rotate it outwardly. 
34. The Bi'ceps Flex'or muscle turns the leg outward, and 
flexes it on the thigh. 
35. The Exten'sors of the toes bend the foot on the leg, 
but extend the toes. 
36. The Ante'rior Perone'al and the Tib'ial muscles bend 
the foot; and they are the antagonists of the Long and Short 
Perone'al muscles, which extend the foot. 
37. The Gastrochnem'ius and Sole'ns muscles extend the 
foot on the leg, and raise the body upon the toes in walking, 
in jumping, and in other active movements. 
38. The tendons of the Gastrochnem'ius and Sole'us mus- 
cles unite and form the tendon of Achilles, which is inserted 
into the bone of the heel. 48 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
39. The Bi'aphragm is a muscular partition separating 
the abdomen from the thorax. Three important orifices ex- 
ist in it, which are for the passage of the oesophagus, the aorta, 
and the inferior cava. The diaphragm is a very important 
muscle; for it aids in respiration, coughing, yawning, sneez- 
ing, sighing, singing, vomiting, hiccoughing, sobbing, and 
crying. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION V. 
1. Describe the muscles. With what are they endowed? 
2. How are the muscles attached to the bones? What is meant by the 
terms origin and insertion ? 
3. Describe the tendons. 
4. Describe the fascia. 
5. How are the tendons kept in place ? What are synovial bursae ? 
6. What is said of the blood-vessels and nerves in the muscles ? 
7. From what are the names of the muscles derived ? Define the dif- 
ferent kinds of muscles. 
8. How many muscles in the body ? How are they arranged, and how 
do they act ? 
9. What are flexor muscles ? Extensor muscles ? 
10. What is said of the voluntary muscles ? The involuntary muscles ? 
11. What is the use of the occipito-frontal muscle? 12. The palpebral 
orbicular? 13. The oral orbicular? 14. The zygomatic? 15. The tem- 
poral and masseter? 16. The sterno-mastoid? 17. The great pectoral? 
18. The great serrated? 19. The external oblique? 20. The trapezius? 
21. The latissimus? 22. The rhomboid? 23. The serrated? 24. The 
deltoid? 25. The biceps and brachial ? 26. The triceps? 27. The radio- 
carpal flexor ? 28. The radio-carpal extensor ? 29. The flexors and ex- 
tensors of the fingers? 30. The gluteal? 31. The sartorius? 32. The 
quadriceps extensor? 33. The pectineal and adductor? 34. The biceps 
flexor ? 35. The extensors of the toes ? 36. The peroneal and tibial ? 
37. The gastroclinemius and soleus muscles ? 38. The tendon of Achilles ? 
39. The diaphragm ? MOTOR APPARATUS. 
49 
Section VI. 
Physiology of the Muscles. 
1. The Muscles constitute by far the larger portion of the 
human body, and give to its exterior both symmetry of form 
and beauty. They are its principal organs of motion, and 
their various shapes and sizes depend upon the offices which 
they are required to perform. While the bones are a support to 
the muscular system, providing it with the means of fulfill- 
ing its functions, the muscles cover the bones, and, by their 
soft and yielding nature, break the force of blows and falls, 
and thus protect the framework from injury. 
2. The muscles have the power of contraction * and relaxation, 
by which they are shortened and lengthened. Upon this 
power depend all the movements of the body, whether in 
the employments or the enjoyments of life ; and, wherever any 
movement is required, muscular fibres are there to produce 
it. This property of the muscles is ordinarily excited by 
impressions received from the nervous system; but it may 
be excited by a change of the temperature of the air, by 
electricity, by chemical agencies, and by mechanical irritation. 
3. When a muscle contracts, its extremities, and the organs 
to which they are attached, are brought nearer together; 
hence, there is a change in the position of the bones which 
furnish the principal points of attachment for the muscles. 
The tendons are without the power of contraction ; therefore, 
all movement depends upon the muscular fibres alone. 
* The rapidity with which the muscles can contract and relax, may be 
understood by reflecting upon the velocity of movement of certain crea- 
tures. The hawk and the pigeon move at the rate of one hundred and fifty 
miles per hour; the swiftest race-horse, Eclipse, fifty-six miles per hour; 
the swiftest fish, salmon, twenty-five miles per hour; and man, when run- 
ning, moves about ten miles per hour. If Eclipse cleared fifteen feet at 
each bound, he must have made over three hundred leaps in a minute, 
requiring over three hundred alternate contractions and relaxations of 
the flexor and extensor muscles of his limbs. 50 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
4. When a muscle contracts, its body or fleshy part is de- 
creased in length, but it is increased in breadth and thick- 
ness, becoming larger and firmer. When a muscle relaxes, 
it is increased in length but becomes smaller and softer. By 
grasping the arm between the shoulder and the elbow, these 
changes may be observed. When the arm is bent, the flexor 
muscle contracts and becomes larger and firmer, while the 
extensor relaxes and becomes smaller and softer; but when 
the arm is extended, the flexor muscle is relaxed and the ex- 
tensor contracted. 
5. The flexor and extensor muscles are antagonistic to each 
other, and are placed on the opposite sides of the joints, so 
as to produce the two movements of flexion and extension. 
As the muscle on one side contracts, so must the muscle on 
the other side relax in a corresponding degree; thus, both 
Fig. 21. 
Fig. 21, A View of the Elbow-Joint. — 1, The flexor muscle; 2, the scapula; 3, 
the bones of the forearm; 4, the humerus; when the muscle contracts, the hand is 
moved from 5 to 6. 
muscles are under the influence of the mind at the same 
moment, although their movements are directly opposite to 
each other. 
6. The manner by which muscles produce these movements, 
may be illustrated by Fig. 21, which represents the elbow-joint. MOTOR APPARATUS. 
51 
The tendon at one end of the flexor muscle has its origin in 
the scapula, while the tendon at the other end is inserted in 
one of the bones of the forearm. When the muscle con- 
tracts, the ends of it and the bones to which they are attached, 
are brought nearer to each other. But the scapula is bound 
to the thorax, so as not to be moved; hence, all the motion 
is at the other end of the muscle, so that the forearm and 
hand are drawn towards the shoulder. 
7. By the power of the will over the voluntary muscles, we 
regulate all the movements and positions of the body, as in 
sitting and standing; in walking, running, and leaping; in 
lifting weights; and in all the manifold movements of the 
upper limbs. This power enables us to engage in the duties of 
life, to take part in its pastimes, to provide for the sustenance 
of our bodies, and to exercise our vocal organs in conversa- 
tion with our friends. 
8. The voluntary muscles may be educated in various ways. 
This is done whenever we learn to perform anything requir- 
ing their movements. The result of this education may be 
witnessed in the graceful movements of the skater, the exact 
movements of the musician, and the skilful movements of 
the surgeon. The involuntary muscles enter into the move- 
ments of the lungs, in respiration; of the heart and blood- 
vessels, in the circulation ; and of the stomach and intestines, 
in digestion. 
9. It is a wise provision made by our Creator, that the 
respiratory muscles should act either with or without the aid 
of the will. When we are asleep, or when our minds are 
engaged in the duties or the pastimes of life, the respiration con- 
tinues without our attention ; but when we desire to swallow 
either food or drink, or to listen attentively to any noise, we 
suspend our breathing for a short period by the effort of the 
will. 
10. The size and strength of the muscles may vary very much 
in the same person at different periods of life, depending in 
a great measure upon their use. Exercise tends to increase 52 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
them in size and strength, while want of exercise permits 
them to become soft and weak. The power of endurance in 
an individual depends upon the development and training 
of the muscles, the size of the nerves, and the size and ac- 
tivity of the brain. 
11. When muscles are kept steadily contracted they become 
tired, and for a time lose their power of contractility; but this 
is regained again by rest. The time required for the muscles 
to become tired depends upon their tone and the power 
exerted by their contraction. AVhen the muscles are weak, 
or when great effort is made, exhaustion soon follows; but 
when the muscles are strong and the effort moderate, they 
will remain contracted for a much longer period. 
12. The tendons at the ends of the muscles possess no power 
of contractility. They serve to attach the muscles to the 
bones ; and in their small size, their great strength, and their 
skilful arrangement, they are admirably adapted to that pur- 
pose. They convey power where the more bulky muscle 
would prove inconvenient, as in the hands and the feet. 
Suppose the fleshy muscular fibres be substituted for the 
small tendons in the human hand, what a bulky organ the 
hand would be; and if substituted for the tendons in the 
foot, what a monstrous foot they would make! The beauty 
of both hands and feet would be destroyed, and they would 
be rendered entirely unfit for many of the purposes of life. 
13. With what nice mechanical skill has the Infinite mind 
adjusted the bones, the joints, the muscles, and the tendons 
of the body! All are arranged so as to produce entire unity 
and harmony of action in their movements, whether they be 
the large and powerful Gastrochnemii, in the calf of the leg; 
the delicate muscles of the eye and the ear; or those of the 
vocal organs, by which sounds wonderfully sweet and har- 
monious are made. Every part of the human body bears 
the impress of the Creator, and when we study it aright, we 
will find much to lead our thoughts from nature up to 
nature’s God! MOTOR APPARATUS. 
53 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION VI. 
1. What do the muscles constitute ? What is remarked of their use? 
2. Of what use is-the power of contraction and relaxation? How is 
this power excited ? 
3. How does the-contraction of muscles affect the bones ? Upon what 
does all movement depend ? 
4. How is the fleshy part of a muscle affected by contraction ? How 
may these changes be observed ? 
5. Describe the action of the flexor and the extensor muscles. 
6. Explain how movement is produced in the elbow-joint. 
7. What use do we make of the voluntary muscles ? 
8. What is said of educating the voluntary muscles ? What move- 
ments are produced by the involuntary muscles ? 
9. How do the respiratory muscles act ? Of what use is this ? 
10. What is remarked of the size and strength of the muscles ? 
11. What is said of the loss of contractility in the muscles? 
12. Of what use are the tendons at the ends of the muscles ? What 
about their use in the hands and feet? 
13. What is remarked of the arrangement of the bones, joints, muscles, 
and tendons of the body? CHAPTER III. — Nutritive Apparatus. 
Section I. 
The Membranes of the Body. 
1. The membranes of the body are divided into the serous 
and the mucous membranes. They both possess the same 
anatomical elements ; which are a cellular layer, a basement 
membrane, and a fibrous layer. 
2. The Cellular Layer occupies the free surface of the 
serous and mucous membranes, and is called Epithelium. 
From the difference in form, the epithelium is divided into 
several varieties ; as the squamous, the pavement, the colum- 
nar, and the ciliated epithelium. 
3. The Squam'ous Epithelium consists of many layers of 
broad, thin scales. It is found in the mucous membrane of 
the mouth and nose. The Pave'ment Epithelium consists of 
from one to four layers of flat cells, which are hexagonal, 
and are arranged like the blocks of a pavement. It is found 
in the serous membranes. 
4. The Column'ar Epithelium consists of a single layer of 
hexagonal columnar cells, pointed at one end. It is found 
in the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines. 
The Ciliated Epithelium is similar to the columnar, except 
that cilia, or fine filaments, arranged somewhat like the eye- 
lashes, are attached to the free extremity of the cells. These NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
55 
have the power of moving backward and forward, and by 
this means convey liquids from one place to another. It is 
found in the mucous membranes of the trachea and the 
bronchial tubes, the upper part of the 
nose and pharynx, and in the ear. 
5. The Basement Membrane is a thin, 
homogeneous layer, beneath and in con- 
tact with the cellular layer. It is so 
thin as to be difficult of detection in 
some cases. Beneath this membrane is 
the fibrous layer, composed of fibrous 
and elastic tissue. The blood-vessels, 
lymphatics, and nerves, are found in the 
fibrous layer, but they never penetrate 
the cellular layer or the basement mem- 
brane. 
G. The Ser'ons Membranes line all tlm 
cavities of the body, which are without 
any external communication, and are, therefore, dosed sacs. 
The outer surface of serous membranes is attached to other 
organs by connective tissue; but the inner surface is smooth 
and shining, and secretes a serous liquid, called serum, which 
lubricates it. 
7. The serous membranes are thin and transparent, 
moderately strong, elastic, and extensible. They consist of 
one or more layers of pavement epithelium, a thin basement 
membrane, and a layer of fibrous tissue. They contain only 
a few blood-vessels ; but they have numerous lymphatics and 
nerves, although they are without sensibility when in a 
state of health. The serum which they secrete is composed 
of water, albumen, chloride of sodium, phosphate of lime, 
and phosphate of soda. 
8. The principal serous membranes are the two pleura, 
investing the lungs; the pericardium, surrounding the heart; 
the peritoneum, lining the cavity of the abdomen; the 
arachnoid membrane of the brain; the synovial membrane 
Fig. 22. 
Fig. 22. The Ciliated 
Epithelium op the Bron- 
chial Mucous Membrane. 
1, The columnar cells; 2, 
the cilia; 3, the nuclei; 4, 
the young cells; 5, the 
basement membrane; 6, the 
ibrous layer. 56 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
of the joints; and the lining membrane of the heart and 
blood-vessels. 
9. Synov'ial Membrane is a form of serous membrane 
lining the interior of the joints, but not covering the articular 
cartilages. It secretes a fluid, called synovia, which is more 
viscid than that of other serous membranes. At the margin 
of the joints, it forms one or more folds, called synovial 
fringes, from which much of the synovia is secreted. 
10. Mucous Membranes line all the cavities and passages 
of the body which have an external communication, and, 
therefore, never form, closed sacs. They are all continuous 
with the skin, and with each other; and their free surface 
is bathed with a viscid liquid, or secretion, called mucus. 
11. The mucous membranes are less transparent than 
serous membranes; but they are supplied with more blood- 
vessels, lymphatics, and nerves. They vary from a white 
color to a dark-red, depending upon the amount of blood in 
them. They consist of an epithelium, a basement mem- 
brane, and a fibrous layer, the latter of which is abundantly 
supplied with minute glands. The mucus secreted is a 
clear, colorless, transparent, viscid liquid, composed of 
water, alkaline salts, and the proximate principle, called 
mucosin. 
12. The principal mucous membranes are those which 
line the front of the eye, the deep parts of the ear, the nose, 
the trachea and the bronchial tubes in the lungs, the ducts 
leading from various glands, and the whole alimentary canal. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION I. 
1. How are the membranes of the body divided? What do they 
possess ? 
2. Describe the cellular layer. Mention its varieties. 
3. Of what does the squamous epithelium consist? The pavement 
epithelium ? NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
57 
4. The columnar epithelium ? The ciliated epithelium ? 
5. Describe the basement membrane. 
6. Where are serous membranes found ? What is said of their sur- 
faces ? 
7. Describe the serous membranes, and their secretion. 
8. Name the principal serous membranes. 
9. Describe the synovial membrane. 
10. Where are mucous membranes found ? What is said of their free 
surface ? 
11. Describe the mucous membranes, and their secretion. 
12. Name the principal mucous membranes. 
Section II. 
The Glands of the Body. 
1. A gland is an organ which secretes and pours forth a 
liquid from one or more ducts, or orifices, opening on the sur- 
face of the skin or mucous membrane. This liquid is called 
a secretion, and has various names depending upon its 
source; thus, it is called mucus, from mucous membrane; 
saliva, from the salivary glands; and bile, from the liver. 
When this secretion is rejected from the body as useless, it 
is then called an excretion, as the perspiration from the skin. 
2. The glands consist of a tube, or a series of tubes, which 
are composed of an epithelium, a basement membrane, and 
a fibrous layer; the latter containing the blood-vessels from 
which each gland elaborates its secretion. It also contains 
lymphatic vessels and nerves. 
3. The simplest form of a gland is one straight tube closed 
at one end, and opening at the other end upon the free sur- 
face of the mucous membrane, as in the glands of the small 
intestine. This tube may be dilated at the bottom, as in the 
sebaceous glands of the skin ; it may be divided at the bot- 
tom into two or more parts, as in the gastric glands; it may 
be rendered complex by becoming convoluted, as in the 58 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
sweat glands; it may become branched and rendered more 
complex by becoming convoluted, as in the kidneys ; the ter- 
minal branches may be dilated into vesicles, resembling a' 
bunch of grapes, as in the salivary glands; or the branching 
tubes may form a network, as in the liver. 
4. The principal glands may be classified as the tubular, 
the follicular, the convoluted, the racemose, and the reticular 
glands. 
5. The Tub'ular glands are usually short and uniform in 
diameter throughout. They are imbedded in the fibrous 
layer of the mucous mem- 
branes of the nose, the 
stomach, the small, and the 
large intestine. 
6. The Follic'ular glands 
are tubular glands, more or 
less divided at the bottom. 
These divisions open into a 
common canal or duct, 
through which the secretion 
of the gland is conveyed to 
the surface of the mucous 
membranes. The sebaceous 
glands of the skin, the 
glands of the root of the 
tongue, the tonsils, the soft 
palate, and the pharynx, 
are follicular glands. 
7. The Con'voluted glands are tubular glands rolled into a 
convoluted mass at one end. They present two forms: the 
simple form, as in the sweat glands; and the compound form, 
as in the kidneys. 
8. The Rac'emose glands are rendered complex by being 
branched, and in appearance resemble a cluster of grapes. 
The tubes of the racemose glands collect into one or more 
principal ducts, which have fibrous walls and are lined with 
Fig. 23, 
Fig. 23. A View of the Diffebent Kinds 
of Glands. — 1, Tubular gland; 2, 3, and 
4, follicular glands; 5 and 6, convoluted 
glands; 7, racemose gland; 8, the surface 
of the mucous membranes. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
59 
mucous membrane. The principal racemose glands are the 
lachrymal, lingual, salivary, duodenal, pancreas, tracheal, 
and bronchial. 
9. The only Retic'ular gland is the liver. It is divided into 
several lobes, and these are subdivided into smaller lobes or 
lobules. Ducts from these lobules finally converge into the 
principal ducts, which have fibrous wails and are lined with 
mucous membrane, the same as the racemose glands. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is a gland? What is said of the glandular secretions? 
2. Describe the structure of the glands. 
3. What is the simplest form of a gland ? How may this form he 
varied ? 
4. How may the principal glands be classified ? 
5. Describe the tubular glands. 
6. The follicular glands. 
7. The convoluted glands. 
8. The racemose glands. 
9. The reticular gland. 
SECTION II. 
Section III. 
Anatomy of the Digestive System. 
1. The Digestive Organs include the mouth, the palate, the 
tonsils, the tongue, the salivary glands, the teeth, the phar- 
ynx, the oesophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, the 
large intestine, the pancreas, the liver, and the spleen. The 
canal formed by the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, 
and intestines, is called the alimentary canal. 
2. The Mouth is the space bounded by the lips in front, 60 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
the pharynx behind, the roof or palate above, the floor be- 
low, and the cheek on each side. The roof of the mouth is 
inclosed by the alve'olar arch and the upper teeth ; the floor 
of the mouth is inclosed by the alveolar arch and the lower 
teeth, and has the tongue resting upon it. The mouth, ex- 
cepting the teeth, is everywhere lined with a highly vascular 
mucous membrane, having a squamous epithelium. 
3. The Pal'ate is composed of two parts; called the hard 
palate, and the soft palate. The hard palate covers the 
bones of the roof of the mouth ; but the soft palate is back 
of the hard palate, and is freely movable. Both palates con- 
tain numerous small racemose glands. A small, tongue-like 
body, called the XTvula, hangs from the middle of the soft 
palate. 
4. The Ton'sils are two glands, one on each side of the 
throat. They are about the size and shape of an almond 
kernel, and in popular language are often called almonds. 
They are compound follicular glands, and secrete mucus, 
which lubricates the food in its passage to the stomach. 
5. The Tongue * is a muscular organ resting on the floor 
of the mouth. It has much freedom of movement, and aids 
in the mastication and swallowing of the food. It con- 
tains both racemose and follicular glands which probably 
secrete mucus. 
6. The Sal'ivary glands consist of three glands on each 
side of the mouth; named the parotid gland, the submaxil- 
lary gland, and the sublingual gland. They all secrete a 
liquid, called saliva. 
7. The Parot'id gland, which is much the largest of the 
salivary glands, is situated in front of the external ear and 
behind the angle of the lower jaw. The parotid duct from 
this gland, which opens into the mouth opposite the second 
molar tooth of the upper jaw, is about two inches long, and 
in diameter is one-half the size of a goose-quill. In the dis- 
ease called mumps this gland becomes enlarged. 
* A fuller description of the tongue will be found in the Sections 
which treat of the Organs of Special Sense. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
61 
8. The Submax'illary gland is situated just within the angle 
of the lower jaw, and communicates with the mouth by one 
slender duct, two inches long. The Sublin'gual gland is situ- 
ated on the floor of the mouth beneath the side of the tongue, 
and communicates with the mouth by six or eight small ducts. 
9. The Teeth are firmly fixed in the alveolar arches of 
the upper and the lower jaw-bone by means of bony sockets. 
The exposed portion of a tooth is called 
its crown or body; the portion inserted 
into the socket of the jaw is the fang or 
root; and the part clasped by the gums 
is the neck. 
10. In the interior of each tooth is a 
small cavity, filled with a soft sub- 
stance, named pulp, and containing both 
nerves and blood-vessels. The teeth are 
composed of three substances: Dent'ine 
or ivory, resembling dense bone and 
forming the principal bulk of the tooth; 
Enam'el (the hardest organic substance 
known), covering the crown of the 
tooth; and Cement', a thin layer of 
bone covering the fang of the tooth, thinnest near the 
enamel and thickest towards the end of the fang. 
11. In the grinding-teeth of herbivorous animals, as the 
horse and the ox, these three substances are alternately ar- 
ranged so that as the teeth are worn the triturating surfaces 
become uneven and thus facilitate the grinding of the food. 
In carnivorous and in omnivorous animals, as the cat, the 
dog, and the hog, these substances are arranged in the same 
manner as in the teeth of the human being. 
12. Man, as well as almost all other mammals, is provided 
with two sets of teeth; the first set is called the temporary or 
milk teeth, and the second set is called the permanent teeth. 
Reptiles and fishes have numerous sets of teeth, which suc- 
ceed one another through life. 
Fig. 24. 
Fig. 24. A Section op a 
Tooth. — 1, The dentine ; 2, 
the enamel; 3, the cement; 
4, the pulp cavity. 62 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
13. The temporary, or milk teeth, are twenty in number. 
On each side of the upper and of the lower jaw are five 
teeth; two incisors, one canine, and two molars. These 
teeth appear in infancy; but they are gradually removed 
from the fifth to the fourteenth year, and are then succeeded 
by the permanent teeth, which are both larger and stronger. 
14. The permanent teeth are thirty-two in number. On 
Fig. 25. 
Fig, 25, A View of the Permanent Teeth. — 1, Incisors ; 2, canines; 3, bicuspids; 
4, molars; 5, wisdom teeth; 6, the crown; 7, the fang, or root. 
each side of the upper and of the lower jaw are eight teeth; 
two incisors, one canine, two bicuspids, and three molars. 
15. The inci'sors are the front teeth, and are so named, 
because the crown is wedge-shaped, and is, therefore, adapted 
to biting or cutting the food. The canine' teeth are placed 
next to the incisors, and have been so named from their 
great size and strength in the canine, or dog tribe of animals. 
In the human being, the upper canines are called eye-teeth, 
and the lower canines are.called stomach teeth. 
16. The bieusp'ids, or small grinders, are placed next to 
the canine teeth. Their grinding surface consists of two 
points, with a rough groove between them. The molars, or 
grinders, have each a large crown, and a grinding surface, 
which has four points separated by grooves. The last molar NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
63 
tooth, on each side, usually appears about the twentieth year, 
and is called the wisdom tooth. 
17. The incisors, cuspids, and bicuspids, have only one 
root each; while the molars of the lower jaw have two 
roots, and those of the upper jaw have three roots each. 
18. The Phar'ynx, or throat, is the funnel-like cavity, 
about four inches long, extending from the back part of the 
mouth to the oesophagus, which is on a level with the fifth 
cervical vertebra. The larynx opens into the pharynx from 
below, and the nasal cavities open into it from above. The 
walls of the pharynx consist of a fibrous layer externally; 
a middle layer, which is muscular; and an internal layer 
of mucous membrane, which is continuous with that of all 
the cavities opening into it. The glands of the pharynx are 
both racemose and follicular. 
19. The (Esoph'agus, or gullet, is a muscular tube extend- 
ing from the pharynx to the stomach. It is about nine 
inches long, and is nearly an inch in diameter. Its course 
through the neck and thorax, is in front of the vertebrae, but 
behind the trachea and the heart. The walls of the oesoph- 
agus consist of an external fibrous layer; a middle layer 
which is muscular; and an internal layer of mucous mem- 
brane, which is much paler than that of the mouth or phar- 
ynx. It contains a few scattered racemose glands. 
20. The Abdo'men is the large cavity in the body, extend- 
ing from the diaphragm to the pelvis. Within it are found 
the stomach, the intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, 
and the kidneys. These are called the abdominal viscera. 
A serous membrane, called the Peritone'um, lines the inner 
walls of the abdomen, and from them is reflected upon the 
abdominal viscera, so as to form a closed sac. A portion of 
the peritoneum is folded over the intestines, like a broad 
apron. This is called the Omen'tum, and in fat persons 
contains large accumulations of fat. 
21. The Stom'ach. is a large pouch, extending from the 
oesophagus to the small intestine. It is situated in the left 64 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
side of the abdomen, just beneath the diaphragm. The 
stomach is from nine to twelve inches long, and from four to 
five inches in diameter, at the largest part. It will hold 
from one to two quarts; but it may be distended, so as to 
become still larger. The opening from the oesophagus into 
the stomach is called the car'diac orifice; and the opening 
from the stomach into the small intestine is called the 
pylor'ic orifice. 
22. The walls of the stomach 
are composed of four coats: the 
serous or external coat; the mus- 
cular coat, having its fibres ar- 
ranged so as to enable it to con- 
tract in every direction; the 
fibrous coat, which gives it 
strength; and the mucous or 
lining membrane, which is soft 
and pulpy to the touch, and 
which exhibits a mammillated 
appearance, caused by its be- 
ing everywhere minutely punc- 
tured by the orifices of the gas- 
tric glands. It is richly sup- 
plied with blood-vessels and lym- 
phatics. 
23. The gastric glands are 
tubular, and are very numer- 
ous in the mucous membrane. 
They are mostly simple, and 
many of them are lined with a 
columnar epithelium, similar to 
that of the lining membrane 
of the stomach. These glands 
secrete the gastric juice. 
24. The Small Intestine is a cylindrical and much convo- 
luted tube, extending from the stomach to the large intestine. 
Fig. 26. 
Pig, 26. The Stomach and Intes- 
tines. — 1, The stomach; 2, the duo- 
denum; 3, the jejunum ; 4, the ileum; 
6, the vermiform appendage; 6, the 
cascum; 7, the ascending colon ; 8, the 
transverse colon; 9, the descending 
colon ; 10, the sigmoid flexure; 11, the 
rectum. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
65 
It is about one and a half inches in diameter, and twenty- 
five feet in length. It is divided into three portions: the 
duode'num, or widest portion, which is next to the stomach, and 
is “ twelve fingers’ breadth ” in length ; the jeju'num, which 
is the upper two-fifths, and the il’eum, which is the lower 
three-fifths of the remaining portion of the small intestine. 
25. The walls of the small intestine are composed of four 
coats, arranged like those of the stomach. The mucous or 
lining membrane is thinner and redder than that of the 
stomach, and has a columnar epithelium. It forms folds or 
valves, called valvulse conniventes, which are widest and 
most numerous in the upper part of the intestine. The 
mucous membrane contains numerous minute elevations, 
called villi, which are provided with a columnar epithelium, 
and which contain capillary blood-vessels and the commence- 
ment of tnose lymphatics, commonly called laeteals. 
26. Th'* Large Intestine is a cylindrical tube from two to 
two and a half inches in diameter, and about five feet in 
length, ic is divided into four portions: the ccecum, next 
to the smoU intestine, and from two to three inches long; the 
colon, about four feet long, and named in different parts the 
ascending, che transverse, and the descending colon; the sig- 
moid flexile; and the rectum, or terminal portion, which is 
from six to nine inches in length. A worm-like tube, four 
or five inclies long, and the size of a goose-quill, is attached 
to the end of the cae'cum, and is called the appendix vermi- 
formis. Its use is not known. 
27. The walls of the large intestine are composed of four 
coats, arranged like those of the small intestine. The mucous 
or lining membrane is soft, smooth, and pale, and is provided 
with a columnar epithelium; but it is without the villi and 
the valves of the small intestine. 
28. The Pan'creas is a flat, pinkish-white gland, situated 
behind the stomach. It is from six to eight inches long, and 
about one and a half inches broad; and it weighs from two 
to three ounces. It secretes the pancreatic juice, which passes 66 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum, about four 
inches from the orifice of the stomach. 
Fig. 27. 
Fig, 27. A View op the Liver.—1, The right lobe; 2, the left lobe; 3, the gall- 
bladder ; 4, the inferior cava. 
29. The Liver is the largest glandular organ in the body. 
It is situated in the right side of the abdomen, below and 
against the diaphragm, to which it is joined by ligaments. 
It has a firm texture, a smooth surface, and is of a reddish- 
brown color tinged with yellow. Its substance is divided 
into small lobes or lobules, which are held together by connec- 
tive tissue. The liver is from nine to twelve inches long, 
from five to six inches broad, and weighs from three to four 
pounds. It is divided into two unequal parts, called the right 
and the left lobe; the right lobe being four or five times as 
large as the left one. 
30. The Gall-bladder is situated on the under side of the 
right lobe of the liver. It contains the secretion of the liver, 
called bile, which passes through the hepatic duct into the 
duodenum, about four inches from the stomach. The hepatic 
duct is about three inches long, and of the diameter of a 
goose-quill. 
31. The Spleen is situated in the left side of the abdomen, 
just below the diaphragm. It varies much in size; but is 
usually four or five inches long and three or four inches NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
67 
broad, and weighs about six ounces. It has no duct, and its 
use in the system is not known. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION III. 
1. What do the digestive organs include? Which of them form the 
alimentary canal ? 
2. Describe the mouth. 
3. How is the palate divided? Describe each part. What is the 
uvula ? 
4. Describe the tonsils. 
5. Describe the tongue. 
6. Name the salivary glands. What do they secrete? 
7. Describe the parotid gland. 
8. Describe the submaxillary gland. The sublingual gland. 
9. How are the teeth fixed in the jaws ? What name is given to each 
part of the tooth ? 
10. Describe the pulp of the teeth. Describe the structure of the teeth. 
11. How are these substances arranged in herbivorous animals ? In 
carnivorous animals ? 
12. What is remarked of the two sets of teeth ? 
13. Describe the temporary teeth. 
11. Describe the permanent teeth. 
15. Describe the incisors. The canine teeth. 
16. Describe the bicuspids. The molars. 
17. How many roots have the different teeth ? 
18. Describe the pharynx. 19. The oesophagus. 20. The abdomen. 
The peritoneum. 21. The stomach. Its orifices. 22. Describe the coats 
of the stomach. 23. The gastric glands. 24. Describe the small intes- 
tine. 25. Describe its coats. What are the villi ? 26. What is the large 
intestine? Describe its three portions. 27. Describe its coats. 28. 
Describe the pancreas. 29. The liver. 30. The gall-bladder. The hepatic 
duct. 31. The spleen. 68 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Section IV. 
Physiology of the Digestive System. 
1. Digestion is that process by which food in the alimen- 
tary canal is so changed that it may be absorbed by the 
lymphatics and the blood-vessels of the system. This process 
does not take place in vegetables; because they feed upon 
inorganic substances, which are in such a form as to be 
readily absorbed into their circulation. But man and other 
animals require organic substances, such as bread, meat, 
and vegetables, as a portion of their food; and these sub- 
stances are more or less solid, and must undergo a change 
before they can be absorbed. 
2. The general characters of digestion are the same in all 
cases. The food is taken into the mouth and passes through 
the alimentary canal, meeting in its passage certain digestive 
fluids, which prepare it for absorption. The food consists of 
a variety of substances, differing from each other; and the 
digestive fluids also differ in their composition, so that the 
action of each one of them is more or less confined to certain 
kinds of food. As the food becomes digested in its passage 
through the intestines, it is removed by absorption, leaving 
the indigestible parts to be discharged from the large intestine. 
3. The digestive organs vary in the different species of 
animals according to the nature of their food; but they are 
always more complex in the herbivora than in the carnivora. 
Vegetable substances are usually more indigestible than 
animal substances ; hence, the alimentary canal is longer 
and larger in herbivorous than in carnivorous animals. In 
man, the digestive organs are very similar to those of the 
carnivora, although his food is of a mixed character. 
4. In the passage of the food through the alimentary canal, 
it meets with five different digestive fluids: the saliva, in 
the mouth ; the gastric juice, in the stomach ; and the bile, NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
69 
the pancreatic juice, and the intestinal juice, in the small 
intestine. 
5. In the mouth the food undergoes two operations; mas- 
tication and insalivation. The first consists in cutting and 
grinding the food into fine particles by the teeth, so that all 
parts of it may be acted upon more readily by the digestive 
fluids. The thorough mastication of the food is an important 
part in the process of digestion ; for wThen food is hastily 
swallowed, in large masses, it remains a long time undigested 
in the stomach, and becomes a source of pain and irritation. 
6. During the process of mastication the food is thor- 
oughly mixed with the saliva from the salivary glands. Sa- 
liva is a colorless, slightly alkaline fluid, rendered more or 
less viscid by a substance named ptyalin, which is secreted 
from the submaxillary and sublingual glands. Only a little 
saliva is secreted while the jaws remain at rest, but during 
the movements of mastication, it flows in more abundance. 
Even the sight or odor of food, when we are hungry, will 
stimulate the flow of saliva, and, as is often expressed, “ make 
the mouth water.” The amount of saliva secreted in twenty- 
four hours, has been estimated by Dr. Dalton to be rather 
less than three pounds. 
7. The function of the saliva in digestion is only a physical 
one. Its action is to moisten the food, thus facilitating its 
mastication, and lubricating it so that it passes more easily 
down the oesophagus to the stomach. Hard, dry food, such 
as crackers, requires much saliva to moisten it; soft and 
moist food requires less moistening; and liquids, such as soup 
or milk, do not require any moistening, but pass at once into 
the stomach. The food may be moistened by water instead 
of saliva, without interfering with the chemical changes in 
digestion. 
8. In the stomach the food meets with the gastric juice, 
which is a clear, colorless fluid having an acid taste. It con- 
sists principally of water, holding in solution lactic acid, 
the chloride and phosphatic salts, and a peculiar principle, 70 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
called pepsin. The gastric juice may be kept a long time in 
a glass-stoppered bottle without putrefying. In this respect 
it differs from all other fluids of the body. 
9. The gastric juice is secreted in greatest abundance during 
digestion. It begins to flow in a few minutes after the intro- 
duction of food, and continues from nine to twelve hours, 
depending upon the quantity of food eaten. The gastric 
juice acts as a solvent on the albuminoid substances, such as 
flesh, cheese, eggs, and the gluten of vegetables, changing 
them into a digested mass, called albuminose; but it does 
not in the slightest degree digest starchy or fatty substances. 
Fatty matters in the stomach are simply melted by the heat 
of the body; and starchy matters are gelatinized by the 
gastric juice, the same as they would be by water. 
10. During digestion the fibres of the muscular coat 
undergo alternate contraction and relaxation, by which the 
food is carried back and forth through the stomach, and is 
thoroughly incorporated writh the gastric juice. This is 
called the peristaltic movement of the stomach. The length 
of time required for digestion, according to Dr. Beaumont, 
is from one to five and a half hours, depending upon the 
kind of food eaten. 
11. The quantity of gastric juice secreted in twenty-four hours, 
has been estimated to be about fourteen pounds. This is mixed 
with the food as rapidly as it is secreted, and when it has 
performed its office in the digestion, it is re-absorbed along 
with the food and again enters the circulation; therefore, 
during digestion, the digestive fluids are constantly flowing 
from the blood-vessels to the alimentary canal, and from the 
alimentary canal back again to the blood-vessels. 
12. Although the gastric juice is such a powerful solvent, 
it does not act upon living animal substances; therefore, the 
stomach and intestines are not injured by it during life; but 
when death takes place, the coats of the stomach are 
attacked, and more or less digested by this fluid. No 
plausible reason for this protection of the stomach during 
life has been given. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
71 
13. The starchy and the fatty substances are not digested 
by the gastric juice; and, therefore, must pass unchanged into 
the small intestine, where they are subjected to the action 
of the intestinal juices, the pancreatic juice, and the bile. 
14. The Intestinal juice is a clear, colorless, alkaline fluid, 
and has the property of rapidly converting starch into sugar. 
Tile Pancreatic juice is a clear, colorless, alkaline fluid, con- 
taining a peculiar principle, called pancreatin. It possesses 
the property of converting starch into sugar, and it is the 
active agent in the digestion of fatty substances, converting 
them into a milky fluid, called chyle. The amount of the 
pancreatic juice, secreted in twenty-four hours, has been 
estimated to be rather less than two pounds. 
15. The Bile is a viscid, dark golden-brown fluid, having 
a very bitter taste, and is neither acid nor alkaline. It con- 
tains the peculiar principle, called biliverdin, which is its 
coloring matter. It is this that gives the yellow color to the 
body in the disease known as Jaundice. The bile, unlike 
the other fluids which assist in digestion, is a constant 
secretion, and continues even after an animal has been kept 
ten or twelve days without food. Its secretion, however, is 
increased during digestion, so that it amounts in the twenty- 
four hours to nearly two and a half pounds. 
16. The particular use of the bile in the process of diges- 
tion, has not yet been determined; but experiments prove 
that this secretion must be discharged into the intestine, and 
be mixed with the food, or death will finally result. It is 
probable, however, that the bile undergoes some change in 
the small intestine, and is then absorbed along with the chyle 
into the circulation. 
17. From the above we find the food is changed into three 
substances, during digestion. The gastric juice changes the 
albuminoid substances, into albuminose; the pancreatic juice 
changes the fat into chyle ; and the mixed intestinal juices 
change the starch into sugar. All these substances are 
mixed together in the small intestine, under the general 
name of chyle, whence they are taken into the circulation. 72 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
18. All food taken into the system belongs to one or more 
of the following classes, the fats, the starchy matter, or the 
albuminoid substances; and the pro- 
cess by which these are digested may 
be summed up as follows: 
1st. The food is taken into the 
mouth, where it undergoes mastica- 
tion and insalivation, and is thus 
prepared for deglutition. 
2d. It passes from the mouth 
through the pharynx and the oesoph- 
agus into the stomach. Here it is 
subjected to the action of the gastric 
juice, which digests the albuminoid 
substances in it, and changes them 
into albuminose. 
3d. As rapidly as the food is di- 
gested in the stomach, it passes into 
the small intestine, where it is sub- 
jected to the intestinal juice, the bile, 
and the pancreatic fluid, which di- 
gest the starch and fat, changing the 
starch into sugar, and the fat into 
chyle. The albuminose and the 
sugar are mixed with the chyle, 
which gives them a milky appear- 
ance, so that the whole digested mass 
in the small intestine is called chyle. 
4th. The chyle is absorbed from the 
small intestine by the lacteals and 
the blood-vessels, and taken into the 
circulation, where it furnishes nour- 
ishment and support to the whole 
system. 
5th. The innutritious and the undigested parts pass on into 
the large intestine, to be excreted from the body. 
Fig. 28. 
Fig. 28. A View of the Di- 
gestive Organs of the Com- 
mon Fowl.—1, The oesophagus; 
2, the crop; 3, the secreting 
stomach ; 4, the gizzard; 5, 
the intestine. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
73 
19. In birds that feed mostly upon grain and insects, as 
the common fowl, the food passes down the (Esophagus (1) 
into a pouch (2), called the Crop. After remaining here 
for a time, it passes into a second pouch (3), and afterwards 
into the Gizzard (4), which is provided with very thick walls. 
Here the food is subjected to a grinding action, which is 
facilitated by the grains of sand and gravel which the fowl 
swallows instinctively with its food. It then passes into the 
intestine (5), where the intestinal juices complete the diges- 
tion. 
Fig. 29. 
Fig. 29. A View of some of the Digestive Organs of an Ox.—1, The oesophagus 
2, the rumen or paunch; 3, the reticulum ; 4, the omasus; 5, the abomasus or rem 
net; 6, the intestine. 
20. The ox, the deer, the sheep, and all other ruminating 
animals, have four stomachs. Their food is of a vegetable 
nature, and passes from the mouth down the oesophagus (1) 
into the Rumen or paunch (2). Here it remains until the 
animal is done feeding, and the process of ruminating, or 
chewing the cud, commences. The food is then regurgitated 
into the mouth, and slowly masticated, after which it is again 
swallowed, but this time it is turned by means of a valve into 
the Reticulum (3). It next passes into the Omasus (4), ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
thence into the Abomasus, or Rennet (5), which is the true 
digestive stomach, and then into the small intestine. It is 
acted upon by the fluids in each stomach, but is not fully 
digested until it has passed through them all. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is digestion ? What kind of food is needed by vegetables ? 
By animals ? 
2. State the general characters of digestion. 
3. What is remarked of the digestive organs in different species of 
animals ? 
4. Mention the digestive fluids in the alimentary canal. 
5. What operations does the food undergo while in the mouth ? What 
is said of mastication ? 
6. When is the food insalivated ? Describe the saliva, and when 
secreted. 
7. What is said of the function of the saliva? 
8. Describe the gastric juice. 
9. When is the gastric juice secreted ? How does it act upon the food ? 
10. Describe the peristaltic movement of the stomach. What length 
of time is required for digestion ? 
11. What quantity of gastric juice is secreted? What becomes of it? 
12. What is said of the action of the gastric juice on the coats of the 
stomach ? 
13. What kinds of substances are not digested by the gastric juice ? 
14. Describe the intestinal j uice. The pancreatic juice. 
15. Describe the bile. 
16. Of what use is the bile in digestion ? 
17. Into what is the food changed during digestion ? 
18. Of what is all food taken into the system composed ? 1st. What 
takes place while the food is in the mouth ? 2d. While in the stomach ? 
3d. While in the small intestine? 4th. What becomes of the chyle? 
5th. What becomes of the undigested portions? 
19. Describe digestion in birds. 
20. Describe digestion in the ruminating animals, as the ox, deer, and 
sheep. 
SECTION IV. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
75 
Section V. 
Anatomy of the Circulatory System. 
1. The Organs of Circulation comprise tlie heart, the 
arteries, the capillaries, and the veins. 
2. The Heart is the chief agent in the circulation. It is a 
hollow muscular organ, situated between the lungs in the 
thorax, but more to the left than to the right side. It is 
conical in shape, and is everywhere free, except at its base, 
where it is attached to the front of the spinal column by 
means of the large blood-vessels. The base is directed up- 
ward, backward, and to the 
right, and extends from the 
fourth to the eighth dorsal 
vertebra; and the apex is 
directed downward, forward, 
and to the left, and is oppo- 
site to the cartilage of the 
sixth rib. The length of the 
heart is about five inches, 
and the breadth about three 
and a half inches, and its 
average weight is ten ounces. 
3. The interior of the 
heart is separated by a 
muscular partition into two 
parts, called the right and 
the left side; and each side 
is again separated into an 
auricle, next to the base 
of the heart, and a ventri- 
cle, next to its apex. The 
ventricles are larger and 
stronger than the auricles; 
and the left side of the heart is larger and stronger than the 
Fig, 30. 
Fig, 30. The Heaet and Large Blood- 
vessels.— 1, Right ventricle; 2, left ventri- 
cle; 3, right auricle; 4, left auricle; 5, 
aorta; 6, pulmonary artery; 7, right subcla- 
vian artery; 8, right common carotid; 9, 
left subclavian; 10, left common carotid; 11, 
superior cava; 12, pulmonary vein. 76 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Fig. 30. 
Fig. 30. A Vie/w of the Chest, showing the Position of the Heart, the Lungs, 
and the Large Blood-vessels.—1, The heart; 2, the superior cava ; 3, the pulmonary 
artery; 4, the aorta; 5, the carotid arteries; 6, the jugular veins; 7, the trachea; 
8, the right lung; 9, the left lung; 10, the clavicle; 11, the ribs; 12, the lower part 
of the sternum. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
77 
right side. Each ventricle will hold from four to six cubic 
inches of blood, equal in amount to two or three ounces. 
The capacity of the auricles is rather less than that of the 
ventricles. 
4. The right auricle has thin, translucent walls, and has 
the superior and the inferior cava opening into its cavity. 
The left auricle has thicker and less translucent walls, and 
has the four pulmonary veins opening into its cavity. The 
right ventricle has walls about the fourth of an inch thick; 
and it gives off the pulmonary artery to the lungs. The 
left ventricle has walls nearly an inch thick, and it gives 
off the large artery, called the Aorta. The thickness of the 
walls is in proportion to the force which they exert. 
5. The valves of the heart are the tricuspid valve, the 
semilunar valves, and the mitral valve. The Tricus'pid 
valve separates the right auricle from the right ventricle. 
It consists of three membranous folds, which are pressed 
against the sides of the ventricle, when the valve is open, 
but which close the orifice between the auricle and the 
ventricle, when the valve is shut. The Semilu'nar valves 
are in the pulmonary artery, where it springs from the right 
ventricle, and in the aorta, where it springs from the left 
ventricle. They are composed of three membranous folds, 
arranged in a circle, so as to close the orifice when they are 
shut. The Mi'tral valve separates the left auricle from the 
left ventricle. It consists of two folds, which act like the 
tricuspid valve to close the orifice between the auricle and 
the ventricle, when the valve is shut. 
6. The muscular fibres composing the walls of the heart 
are exceedingly complex in their arrangement, crossing each 
other in various ways, so as to produce the peculiar move- 
ments of that organ. The heart is inclosed in a fibro-serous 
sac, which consists of two layers, and is called the Pericar- 
dium. The external layer is a strong membrane of fibrous 
tissue; but the internal layer is a serous membrane, one 
portion of which closely invests the heart, and the other 78 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
lines the inner surface of the external layer, so that the two 
surfaces thus rubbing together at each pulsation of the heart 
are very smooth, and are bathed with an oily fluid, which 
tends to lessen the friction between them. 
7. The interior of the heart is lined with a very smooth 
serous membrane, called the Endocar'dium, which is similar 
to that lining the blood-vessels. The endocardium consists 
of an epithelium of pavement-like cells, and a fibro-elastic 
layer, which is closely united to the muscular structure of 
the heart. 
8. A good idea of the structure and the appearance of 
the human heart and its valves, may be obtained by exam- 
ining the heart of an ox, which is very similar to that of 
the human being. 
9. The Arteries are cylindrical tubes, which spring from 
the ventricles of the heart in two great trunks; the Pul'- 
monary artery from the right ventricle, and the Aor'ta from 
the left ventricle. They give off branches, and thus dis- 
tribute the blood to all parts of the body. The course of 
the larger arteries is mostly along the bones, wThere they are 
better protected by the muscles and other soft parts. The 
arteries frequently communicate with each other by anasto- 
moses, or connecting branches, thus affording several chan- 
nels for the passage of the blood to every part of the system. 
10. The walls of the arteries are composed of three coats: 
the external coat, which is mainly of fibrous tissue, giving 
firmness and strength; the middle, or thickest coat, which 
is composed of elastic and muscular tissue, giving elasticity, 
contractility, and strength; and the internal coat, which is 
thinnest and most elastic, and is similar to the lining mem- 
brane of the interior of the heart. 
11. As the arteries pass from the heart, they give off 
branches similar to the branching of a tree, and thus become 
smaller and smaller until they are called capillaries. The 
Capillaries are minute blood-vessels, ranging iii size from 
the to the T3g0 of an inch in diameter, and connecting NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
79 
the termination of the arteries with the commencement of 
the veins. In structure, they have only a single layer of 
transparent, elastic, structureless membrane. They form a 
network in all parts of the body; but are most numerous in 
the lungs, the liver, the kidneys, the skin, the mucous mem- 
brane, and the muscles, where they are so close together that 
the finest puncture cannot be made anywhere without wound- 
ing some of them. 
12. The Veins are cylindrical tubes, like the arteries, but 
are larger and more numerous. They commence at the 
capillaries, and gradually converge, or run together, as they 
approach the auricles of the heart, until those from the body 
finally terminate in two large venous trunks, called the supe- 
rior cava and inferior cava, which empty into the right 
auricle; and those from the lungs terminate in the four pul- 
monary veins, which empty into the left auricle. 
13. The larger veins consist of a superficial set, which run 
immediately beneath the skin; and a deep set, which usually 
accompany the arteries, and are called companion veins. 
Anastomosis between veins is more common than between 
arteries. Many of the larger veins, particularly in the upper 
and the lower extremities, are provided with 
valves, arranged in pairs opposite to each 
other, so as to prevent the reflux of the blood. 
The walls of the veins are composed of three 
coats, very similar to those of the arteries. 
14. The Aor'ta is the large artery spring- 
ing from the left ventricle of the heart. It 
ascends from the heart, and arches from the 
right to the left of the spinal column; then 
it descends through the body, receiving the 
names of thoracic aorta and abdominal aorta, 
and finally divides opposite the fourth lumbar 
vertebra into the iliac arteries. The arteries 
given off from the arch of the aorta, are the 
right coronary, the left coronary, the innominate, the left 
common carotid, and the left subclavian artery. 
Fig, 32, 
Fig, 32, A Vein 
Opened so as to 
show the Valves 
in Pairs. 80 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
15. The right coronary artery goes to the right side, and 
the left cor'onary artery to the left side of the heart. The 
innominate artery ascends about one and a half inches, then 
Fig. 33. 
Pig, 33. The Aorta and its Branches.—1, The arch of the aorta; 2, thoracic 
aorta; 3, abdominal aorta; 4, innominate artery; 5, right common carotid; 6, right 
subclavian; 7, left common carotid; 8, left subclavian; 9, bronchial artery; 10, oesoph- 
ageal arteries ; 11, intercostal arteries of the right side; 12, intercostal arteries of the 
left side; 13, phrenic arteries; 14, coel iac axis; 15, coronary artery; 16, splenic artery; 
17, hepatic artery; 18, superior mesenteric artery; 19, supra-renal arteries; 20, renal 
arteries; 21, inferior mesenteric artery; 22, lumbar arteries; 23, common iliac arteries. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
81 
divides into the right common carotid, and the right subcla- 
vian artery, which are similar to those of the left side. 
16. The common carot'id arteries ascend the neck, one 
on each side, to the upper border of the larynx, where each 
one divides into the external carotid, and the internal carotid 
artery. 
Fig. 34. 
Fig, 34, The Carotid Arteries.—1, Right common carotid; 2, internal carotid; 
3, external carotid; 4, superior thyroid; 5, lingual; 6, facial; 7, submental; 8, in- 
ferior coronary; 9, superior coronary; 10, muscular branches; 11, lateral nasal 
artery; 12, angular artery; 13, occipital artery; 14, descending cervical; 15, mus- 
cular branch; 16, posterior auricular artery; 17, parotid branches; 18, internal 
maxillary; 19, temporal; 20, transverse facial; 21, anterior auricular; 22, supra- 
orbital ; 23, middle temporal; 24, anterior temporal; 25, posterior temporal artery. 
17. The external carot'id artery supplies all parts of the 
head, except the brain and the orbits. It gives off the 
superior thyroid artery to the thyroid gland, the lingual 
artery to the tongue, the pharyngeal artery to the pharynx, 82 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
the facial artery to the face, the occipital artery to the back 
part of the head, the parotid arteries to the parotid gland, 
the temporal artery to the temporal region of the head, and 
the internal maxillary artery to the teeth, the gums, the 
lower eyelid, the upper lip, the palate, and the nose. 
18. The internal carotid artery 
supplies the brain and the orbits. 
It gives off the cerebral artery to 
the brain, and the ophthalmic artery 
to the orbit and its contents. 
19. The subcla'vian arteries, one 
on each side, curve outwardly, and 
pass over the first rib, when each 
assumes the name of axillary ar- 
tery. The subclavian artery gives 
branches to the brain, the spinal 
column, the ears, the pleura, and to 
the muscles of the neck, the chest, 
and the abdomen. 
20. The axillary artery gives 
branches to the chest and the 
shoulder, and passes along the in- 
ner side of the arm where it re- 
ceives the name of brachial artery. 
At the elbow, the brachial artery 
divides into the radial artery and 
the ulnar artery, which supply the 
forearm and the hand. The radial 
artery passes along the outer side, 
and the ulnar artery along the 
inner side of the forearm, until they 
reach the palm of the hand. Here 
they are united by two communi- 
cating arteries, forming the deep 
palmar arch, and the superficial 
palmar arch, which give branches 
Fig. 35. 
Fig. 35. Arteries of the Fore- 
arm.— 2, The brachial artery; 4, 
radial artery; 5, uluar artery; 6, 
recurrent artery ; 7, interosseous 
artery; 11, superficial palmar 
arch; 12, artery to the thumb; 
13 and 14, arteries to the fingers. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
83 
to the palm of the hand, the thumb, and the fingers. The 
pulse may be easily counted in the radial artery at the wrist. 
21. The thoracic aorta commences at the arch of the 
aorta and descends along the left side of the spinal column 
to the last dorsal vertebra, where it passes through the 
diaphragm, and is then called the abdominal aorta. It 
gives small branches to the pericardium, the bronchi, the 
oesophagus, the pleura, and to the intercostal muscles. 
22. The abdominal aorta inclines a little to the right, and 
then descends in front of the spinal column to the fourth 
lumbar vertebra, where it divides into the two iliac arteries. 
Its branches are the eceliac axis, which gives the coronary 
artery to the stomach, the hepatic artery to the liver, and the 
splenic artery to the spleen and pancreas; two mesenteric 
arteries, which supply the small and the large intestine; 
the two phrenic arteries, which supply the diaphragm; the 
two renal arteries, which supply the kidneys; and the 
lumbar arteries, which supply the muscles of the back and 
of the abdomen. 
23. Each il'iac artery is divided into the internal iliac 
and the external iliac artery. The internal iliac supplies 
the contents of the pelvis; and the external iliac passes to 
the inner side of the thigh, where its upper part is called 
the femoral, and its lower part, towards the knee, is called 
the popliteal artery. 
24. The poplit'eal artery passes behind the middle of the 
knee-joint; and then divides into the anterior tibial and the 
posterior tibial artery. The anterior tibial artery descends 
in front of the tibia and over the instep, supplying the upper 
parts of the foot. The posterior tibial artery descends along 
the back of the leg to the heel, and curves under the inner 
ankle to the hollow of the foot, where it joins with the 
anterior tibial artery, and forms the plantar arch which gives 
branches to the toes and the bottom of the foot. 
25. The cor'onary vein and its branches conveys the blood 
from the walls of the heart to the right auricle. 
26. The veins of the upper limbs converge, or run 84 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
together, and thus grow larger as they approach the shoulder. 
Each artery of the arm has two companion veins, but these 
unite into one vein at the axilla. Besides these deep veins, 
there is a superficial set; the radial, the median, and the 
ulnar vein, below the elbow, and the cephal'ic and basil'ic 
vein above that joint. 
27. All the veins of the arm unite at the axilla, and thus 
form the subclav'ian vein, which receives the external 
ju'gular vein with its blood from the exterior of the head, 
and from a portion of the face and the neck. It then unites 
with the internal ju'gular vein, which returns the blood 
from the interior of the skull and the orbits, and from the 
remaining portion of the face and the neck. 
28. After the subclavian vein unites with the internal 
jugular vein, it is called the innominate vein; and the 
innom'inate veins, one on each side, unite to form the 
Superior Ca'va, which descends on the right of the aortic 
arch, and terminates in the right auricle of the heart. 
29. The deep veins of the lower limbs accompany the 
arteries, and are finally united into the femoral vein, on the 
inner side of the thigh. The superficial veins also unite as 
they pass towards the body and empty into the femoral vein, 
which then ascends into the pelvis, where it is called the 
iliac vein. 
30. The il'iac veins, one from each limb, finally unite and 
form the Inferior Ca'va which ascends in front of the spinal 
column to the right of the aorta, and terminates in the right 
auricle of the heart. It is larger in diameter than the aorta; 
and it receives the veins from the abdominal viscera and the 
muscles of the back. 
31. The Pulmonary artery ascends about two inches from 
the right ventricle, and then divides into the right pulmo- 
nary artery which goes to the right lung, and the left pulmo- 
nary artery which goes to the left lung. 
32. The Pulmonary veins are the two right pulmonary 
veins from the right lung, and the two left pulmonary veins 
from the left lung. They all terminate in the left auricle. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
85 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION V. 
1. What do the organs of circulation comprise ? 
2. Describe the heart. Its size and weight. 
3. How is the interior of the heart divided ? What is the capacity of 
each cavity ? 
4. Describe the right auricle. The left auricle. The right ventricle. 
The left ventricle. 
5. Name the valves of the heart. Describe the tricuspid valve. The 
semilunar valves. The mitral valve. 
6. What is said of the muscular walls of the heart? Describe the 
pericardium. 
7. Describe the endocardium. 
8. How may a good idea of the valves of the heart be obtained ? 
9. What are the arteries ? What is said of the course of the larger 
arteries ? W'hat of their connecting branches ? 
10. Describe the walls of the arteries. 
11. How do the arteries branch ? Describe the capillaries. 
12. What are the veins ? What is said of their course ? 
13. What is remarked of the two sets of veins? What of the valves 
in the veins ? Of what are their walls composed ? 
14. Describe the course of the aorta. 
15. What is said of the coronary arteries? The inncminate artery? 
16. The common carotid arteries? 
17. The external carotid and its branches? 
18. The internal carotid and its branches? 
19. The subclavian arteries ? 
20. The axillary artery ? The brachial artery^and its branches to the 
arm and hand? 
21. The thoracic aorta and its branches? 
22. The abdominal aorta and its branches ? 
23. The iliac arteries and their branches? 
24. The popliteal artery and its branches to the leg and foot? 
25. What is said of the coronary vein ? 
26. What is said of the veins of the upper limbs? 
27. What of the subclavian and the jugular veins? 
28. What of the innominate veins and the superior cava? 
29. What of the veins of the lower limbs ? 
30. What of the iliac veins and the inferior cava? 
31. Describe the pulmonary artery. 
32. Describe the pulmonary veins. 86 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Section VI. 
Physiology of the Circulatory System. 
1. The fluid which circulates in the heart and blood-vessels 
of the body, is called blood. It is a thick, opaque liquid, of 
a bright red color in the arteries, and of a dark purple, or 
nearly black color in the veins. It is heavier than water, 
its specific gravity being 1055. The blood is divided into 
two parts; a multitude of minute cells, called blood-globules, 
and a colorless liquid, called the plasma. 
2. The blood - globules are of two kinds, the red and the 
white. The red globules are very small, having an average 
diameter of 3 g10- f)- of an inch, and in shape resemble the 
common water-cracker of the stores. The size and structure 
of the red globules vary in different animals. In most 
mammals they are circular; but they are generally smaller 
than in man. The white globules are rather larger but 
much less numerous than the red, being in the proportion of 
one white globule to three or four hundred red globules. 
The plasma is the liquid in which the blood-globules float; 
and it is the nutritive part of the blood, which is absorbed 
from the capillaries by the organs and tissues of the body. 
3. In every 1000 parts of the blood, 513 parts are globules 
and 487 parts are plasma, having the following composition: 
1. 513 parts of globules, containing 
Water, 350 
Globulin, 151 
Hematiu, 8 
Salts, 4 
2. 487 parts of plasma, containing 
Water, 440 
Fibrin, 3 
Albumen, 40 
Salts, 4 
1000 
4. When the blood is removed from the body, it undergoes 
coagulation, or clotting, which process is completed in about 
twenty minutes. This process depends entirely upon the NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
87 
fibrin in the blood. After the clot is fairly formed, it begins 
to contract and continues for ten or twelve hours, during 
which time the whole of the blood is separated into two 
parts; called the clot and the serum. In this change, the 
fibrin leaves the plasma and unites with the globules, forming 
the clot; hence, the blood after coagulation is separated into 
1. Clot, containing • 
Globules. 
Fibrin. 
Water. 
Albumen. 
Salts. 
2. Serum, containing - 
5. Whenever the circulation of the blood is retarded in the 
blood-vessels, a clot is formed. This is one of the means by 
which nature checks hemorrhage from the smaller vessels, 
and it may be facilitated in various ways; such as by elevating 
the limb when it is wounded, and by making pressure upon 
the wound by bandages. After death, the blood coagulates 
in the heart and large blood-vessels. In man, this coagula- 
tion requires from twelve to twenty-four hours; but in the 
lower animals, from four to ten hours only are needed. 
6. The quantity of blood in a healthy person is estimated 
to be about the one-eighth part of the entire weight of the 
body; hence, a man weighing one hundred and sixty pounds 
would have about twenty pounds of blood, equal to nearly 
sixteen and a half pints. 
7. The blood holds in solution all the materials necessary 
for the formation of the tissues and organs of the body. 
These materials are obtained from the chyle in the small 
intestine, and are conveyed, by the blood, in its circulation 
through the vessels, to all parts of the system. 
8. The heart, hy its alternate contraction and dilatation, forces 
the blood to circulate through the blood-vessels. The contrac- 
tion of the heart begins in the two auricles at the same mo- 
ment and immediately extends to the ventricles, so that the 
contraction of the auricles and ventricles may be considered 
as one movement. The contraction of each cavity is imme- 88 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
diately followed by its dilatation. Then comes a period of 
repose, during which the blood flows in a steady stream into 
the auricles and through the valves into the ventricles, until 
they are about two-thirds full. Then the contraction of 
the auricles begins again, and thus the alternate movements 
of contraction and dilatation are continued. 
9. The alternate contraction and dilatation of the heart pro- 
duce its beating, or pulsation. They also force the blood to 
pass in successive jets or waves through the arteries, thus 
constituting the pulse. There is no pulse however in the capil- 
laries or the veins, and the blood in them moves in a steady 
stream; hence, when a vein is wounded, the blood flows 
steadily from it; but when an artery is wounded, the blood 
flows from it in successive jets. In the healthy adult the 
pulse beats from sixty to eighty times in a minute; but it 
is more frequent than this in children, and rather less fre- 
quent in old persons. 
10. The course of the circulation is as follows: — The right 
auricle of the heart receives the blood of the body from the 
two large veins. By contracting it sends this blood into the 
right ventricle, which, in turn, contracts and sends it through 
the pulmonary artery to the lungs. It is then conveyed 
through the pulmonary veins to the left auricle of the heart. 
This is called the Pulmonary circulation. 
11. The left auricle contracts and transmits the blood to 
the left ventricle, which, in turn, contracts and sends it through 
the aorta to all parts of the system, from which it returns 
through the capillaries and the veins to the right auricle. 
This is called the System'ic circulation. 
12. In the capillary vessels, between the pulmonary artery 
and the pulmonary veins, the venous blood is changed into ar- 
terial blood, by absorbing oxygen from the air and giving off 
carbonic acid to it. In the capillary vessels, between the 
arteries and the veins, in the systemic circulation, the arterial 
blood is changed into venous blood, by absorbing carbonic acid 
from the tissues and organs of the body and giving off oxygen 
to them. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
89 
13. The pulmonary veins, the left auricle, the left ventri- 
cle, the aorta and other arteries, all contain bright red, or 
arterial blood. The veins, the right auricle, the right ventricle, 
and the pulmonary artery, all contain dark purple, or venous 
blood. 
14. The capacity of the venous system is about twice that of 
the arterial system. During life, however, the veins are 
never full of blood, but the arteries are always full; hence, 
it has been estimated that there is one and a half times as 
much blood in the veins as in the arteries. 
15. The velocity of the blood in the arteries varies from six to 
twenty inches in a second; the average velocity, however, is 
about twelve inches in a second. It is slower near the capil- 
laries and more rapid near the heart. The velocity in the 
capillaries varies in different organs; but the average is about 
the one-thirtieth of an inch in a second. The velocity in the 
veins is more irregular than in the arteries; but the average 
is about eight inches in a second. It is slower near the 
capillaries and more rapid near the heart. The capacity of 
the aorta is not so great as the combined capacity of the 
small arteries; and the capacity of the two large veins is not 
so great as the combined capacity of the small veins, near 
the capillaries; hence, the blood must move most rapidly 
near the heart where the channel is smallest. 
16. The time required for the entire blood to pass the round 
of the whole system, cannot be absolutely fixed; because its cir- 
culation is complicated in many ways. It has been estimated, 
however, to make the round to the lower limbs in about 
thirty seconds. Less time than this is required for it to pass 
through the head and upper limbs ; but a longer time is 
needed to pass through the digestive organs. 
17. The circulation of the blood through the arteries is 
caused by the contraction of the heart, which forces the blood 
into the arteries, and by the elasticity of the walls of the 
arteries, which contract upon the blood in them pressing it 
on into the capillaries. This pressure is probably sufficient to 90 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
cause the blood to flow through the capillaries in a con- 
tinuous stream, and to pass into the veins, on its return to 
the heart. The circulation in the veins is caused by the 
movements of the chest in respiration, which gently draw 
the blood towards the heart; by the contraction of the 
voluntary muscles, which presses it onward through the 
veins, while the valves in them prevent its return; and by 
the force with which it enters the veins from the capillaries. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION VI. 
1. What is said of the blood ? How is the blood divided? 
2. Describe the blood-globules. The plasma. 
3. State the proportion of the globules and the plasma. Give the com- 
position of the globules. Of the plasma. 
4. What is remarked of the coagulation of the blood? What takes 
place in the blood during coagulation ? 
5. When does the blood coagulate? Of what use is this? What is 
said of coagulation after death ? 
6. What of the quantity of blood in the body? 
7. What of the materials for nourishing the body ? 
8. Explain the alternate contraction and dilatation of the heart. 
9. What is remarked of the pulse ? How often does the pulse beat? 
10. Describe the pulmonary circulation. 
11. Describe the systemic circulation. 
12. What change occurs in the blood while in the capillaries of the 
lungs ? In the capillaries of the system? 
13. Which of the circulatory organs contain arterial blood ? Which 
contain venous blood ? 
14. What of the quantity of blood in the veins and in the arteries ? 
15. What of the velocity of the blood in the arteries? In the capilla- 
ries ? In the veins ? What of the relative capacity of the large and the 
small blood-vessels ? 
16. What of the time required to make the round of the circulation ? 
17. What causes the circulation through the arteries ? Through the 
veins? NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
91 
Section VII. 
The Lymphatic System. 
1. The Lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels 
and lymphatic glands, both of which are called lymphatics. 
The lymphatic vessels are found in most of the tissues and 
organs of the body that receive blood, except that none have 
been detected in the substance of the brain, the spinal cord, 
or the eyeball. They consist of a deep and a superficial 
set. The deep lymphatics follow the course of the arteries, 
while the superficial lymphatics are mostly found near the 
skin. 
2. The finer lymphatic vessels are long, thread-like, trans- 
parent tubes, and are more numerous than either the arteries 
or the veins. Many of them are so small that they can 
scarcely be detected, unless some colored liquid is first in- 
jected into them. They gradually unite with each other, 
and thus become larger and larger as they approach the two 
great lymphatic trunks; called the thoracic duct, and the 
right lymphatic duct. 
3. The thoracic duct commences just below the diaphragm, 
and ascends in front of the spinal column to the apex of 
the chest, where it curves and empties into the left sub- 
clavian vein. It is about the diameter of a goose-quill, and 
its walls are composed of three coats, similar to those of 
the veins. The right lymphatic duct is about half an inch 
in length, and empties into the right subclavian vein. The 
lymphatics from the right side of the head and the neck, 
and from the right arm, empty into the right lymphatic 
duct; but the lymphatics from all other parts of the body, 
empty into the thoracic duct. 
4. Nearly all the smaller lymphatic vessels pass through 
lymphatic glands in their course to the great trunks. These 
glands are moderately hard bodies, of a pink color, and vary 
in size from that of a hemp-seed to an almond. They are 92 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Fig. 36. 
Fig. 36. The Lymphatic Trunks. —1, 2, Thoracic duct; 3, its termination in the 
left subclavian vein; 4, the right lymphatic duct; 5, lymphatics of the thigh; 6, 
lymphatics of the pelvis; 7, of the hack; 8, of the chest; 9, superior cava; 10, left 
innominate vein ; 11,right innominate vein ; 12,aorta; 13,inferior cava; 14 origin of 
the diaphragm. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
93 
most numerous along the course of the larger blood-vessels, 
and in the axilla, the groins, the sides of the neck, the 
bronchi, and the abdomen. These glands swell when they 
are inflamed, and are then called “ kernels.” 
5. The lymphatic vessels contain lymph, which is a color- 
less, transparent fluid, consisting of water, saline matters, 
fibrin, and albumen. The lymph is obtained from the dis- 
integration of the tissues which are changed to a fluid form, 
and are then absorbed into the circulation, so as to be elimi- 
nated from the system by the secretory organs. 
6. The lymph, when obtained pure from the thoracic duct, 
is remarkably similar to the composition of the blood 
plasma. When taken from the body, it coagulates, and 
separates into the clot and the serum, the same as the blood. 
During the digestion of the food, and its absorption by the 
lacteals, the lymph has the addition of the milky chyle, 
giving it a white appearance; but during the intervals of 
digestion, it is a clear and colorless liquid. In a man weigh- 
ing one hundred and forty pounds, the total amount of 
lymph and chyle passing through the lymphatics, in twenty- 
four hours, is about six and a half pounds, nearly four 
pounds of which are pure lymph. 
7. The villi, which are very numerous throughout the 
length of the small intestine, contain capillary blood-vessels 
and the lymphatics, called lacteals. During the passage 
of the digested food, or chyle, through the intestine, it is 
gradually absorbed by both the blood-vessels and the lac- 
teals, so that, at the termination of the small intestine, the 
refuse and the indigestible part of the food only remain to 
pass into the large intestine. 
8. The chyle absorbed by the blood-vessels is carried through 
the capillary circulation of the liver, by which all parts 
of it, except the fat, are changed into substances similar 
to those previously existing in the blood. It then passes to 
the right side of the heart, and through the capillaries of the 
lungs, where the fat disappears; but what becomes of it is 
not definitely known. 94 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
9. The chyle absorbed by the lacteals is carried by the 
thoracic duct into the left subclavian vein, whence it goes 
to the right side of the heart, and through the capillaries 
of the lungs where the fat disappears. When the digestion 
is active, the chyle is absorbed more rapidly than it can be 
changed in the lungs, and a portion of it is then found un- 
changed in the general circulation; but when digestion is 
completed, it is soon assimilated to the other ingredients of 
the blood, and all traces of it disappear. 
10. When the blood containing this nourishment reaches 
the capillaries, the nutrient parts of it are absorbed by the 
various organs and tissues of the body. Thus the bones, 
the muscles, the tendons, the nerves, the lungs, the heart, 
the liver, the brain, the eye, and other organs, each absorbs 
from the blood the particular materials needed for its own 
growth and development. 
11. When more of these materials are absorbed than are 
needed to supply the waste of the system, they are deposited 
in different parts of the body in the form of fat; but when 
they are insufficient to supply the system, which is the case 
in sickness, and when food cannot be obtained, this fat is 
re-absorbed by the lymphatics, and is conveyed again into 
the blood so as to nourish the body. This explains why the 
fat is removed from the orbits, the cheeks, and other parts 
of the body, during any protracted illness. 
12. The lymphatic vessels all pass from without inward, and 
none pass from within outward; hence, the peculiarity of 
the lymphatic system is that the lymph and chyle always 
flow in one direction, which is towards the thoracic duct, or 
the right lymphatic duct. The lymph, therefore, does not 
circulate like the blood. 
13. The lymphatic vessels are provided with valves, arranged 
like those of the veins, which allow the lymph and chyle to 
pass readily towards the two great ducts, but which prevent 
its flow in an opposite direction. The passage of the lymph 
through these vessels is caused by the movements of the chest 95 
NUTEITIVE APPAKATUS. 
in respiration, the contraction of the voluntary muscles, and 
the force with which it is absorbed by the small lymphatics. 
These forces are the same as those which cause the blood to 
pass through the veins. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION vii. 
1. Of what does the lymphatic system consist? Where are lym- 
phatics found ? 
2. What is said of the finer lymphatics? 
3. Describe the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct. What 
vessels empty into each duct ? 
4. What is said of the lymphatic glands ? 
5. What of the lymph in the lymphatics ? 
6. What resemblance is there between the lymph and the blood 
plasma? How is the lymph changed during digestion? What is said 
of the quantity of lymph in the body ? 
7. What do the intestinal villi contain? Of what use are these 
vessels ? 
8. What is done with the chyle absorbed by the blood-vessels ? 
9. What with the chyle absorbed by the lacteals ? 
10. What is done with this nourishment in the blood ? 
11. What is remarked of the deposits of fat? 
12. What is peculiar in the flow of lymph and chyle ? 
13. What causes the lymph to flow through the lymphatics ? 
Section VIII. 
Absorption, Secretion, and Excretion. 
1. Absorption takes place through the different membranes 
of the body, both by the lymphatic and the capillary vessels. 
The food is absorbed through the mucous membrane of the 
alimentary canal, and gases through that of the lungs. In 
this way, contagious and miasmatic matters and other impu-  ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
rities in the air, are introduced into the system. Even solid 
particles when fine, such as arsenic from artificial flowers 
and from green wall-paper, have been absorbed through the 
mucous membrane of the lungs so as to produce poisoning. 
2. Absorption also takes place through the skin, so that thirst 
may be partially relieved by immersing the body in water; 
aud even life may sometimes be prolonged by immersing the 
patient in milk. When the cuticle is removed, various sub- 
stances, if finely powdered, may be absorbed into the system; 
hence, care should be taken, when handling poisons, that the 
skin is unbroken. 
3. The liquid poured out by the serous membranes when 
inflamed, as in the joints, the pleural cavities, the pericar- 
dium, and the peritoneum, giving rise to local dropsy, is often 
removed by absorption ; and even the muscles and the bones 
have been disintegrated and absorbed. 
4. The principal secretiom and excretions of the human 
body are: 
1. Mucus. 
2. Sebaceous matter. 
3. Perspiration. 
4. The tears. 
5. The serous fluid. 
6. Saliva. 
7. Gastric juice. 
8. Pancreatic juice. 
9. Intestinal juice. 
10. Bile. 
5. Several of these fluids are discharged into the alimen- 
tary canal, and are re-absorbed into the blood along with the 
chyle from the small intestine. It is estimated, in a person 
weighing one hundred and forty pounds, that over twenty-five 
pounds of mucus, saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, 
and intestinal juice, are secreted from the blood and re-ab- 
sorbed into it again in twenty-four hours. This exhibits the 
great activity of the secretion and the absorption, which are 
always going on in the living body. 
6. These fluids are formed from the blood by the different 
organs, and are then conveyed into the alimentary canal, 
where they assist in the physical and chemical changes NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
97 
necessary to prepare the food ready for absorption into the 
system; and, having performed this office, they are re-ab- 
sorbed, along with the food, and carried back into the blood. 
They seem thus to be sent out by the blood to bring in pro- 
visions, and when they return they are laden with nourish- 
ment for every tissue and organ of the body. Thus new 
material is constantly furnished by the blood for making 
new growth. 
7. While all parts of the body are constantly receiving 
this new material, they are constantly losing their old and 
worn-out matter. The substances thus formed in the tissues, 
by the waste and decomposition going on in them, are taken 
up by the lymphatics and the capillaries, and are conveyed 
to certain organs, such as the skin, the lungs, and the kidneys, 
by which they are finally expelled from the system. If these 
substances be not removed, they accumulate in the blood and 
the tissues, and soon clog up the wheels of life; thus pre- 
venting the changes which are constantly required to pre- 
serve a state of health. They act soonest on the nervous cen- 
tres, producing irritability, delirium, and finally death; and a 
fatal result is sure to follow, sooner or later, when any one 
of the excretions is checked so as to accumulate in the body. 
8. In a healthy person, weighing one hundred and forty 
pounds, about seven pounds of material are absorbed into the 
body from without, and seven pounds are discharged or ex- 
creted from the body in twenty-four hours ; thus showing 
that a quantity of matter equal to the entire weight of the 
body, passes through it in twenty days. 
9. The component parts of every living body are necessarily 
in a state of change, for it is an essential condition of their 
existence that there should be an incessant renewal of their 
structure. There is a continual absorption of materials from 
without to supply this incessant growth, which is going on 
in all the tissues, and the secretory and excretory organs, 
like faithful scavengers, are continually at work to carry 
away the products of their decomposition. 98 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
10. The life of the body is but a round of unceasing change. 
The food is taken into the system, where it is assimilated to 
the different organs and tissues of the whole body, and like 
them, becomes endowed with life. Here it remains perform- 
ing its office for an allotted time, then it loses its vitality and 
must be removed from among the living, where its presence 
can no longer be of use. Thus life and death are ever busy 
in all parts of the living frame. In youth, the powers of 
life are stronger than those of death, and the body grows 
faster than it decays ; hence, it increases in size and strength 
until it becomes a full-grown man or woman ; in middle age, 
these forces are more evenly balanced, and neither one can 
claim much advantage; but as old age comes on, life is on 
the wane, the growth becomes more and more feeble, while 
waste and decay still go on, until death finally steps in and 
ends the scene ! It has been truly said, “ in the midst of life 
we are in death; ” and when we come to understand these 
changes of life and death, constantly occurring in our own 
bodies, how clearly shall Ave behold in them the conceptions 
of the Infinite One, and be made to feel that we are indeed 
both “ fearfully and wonderfully made ” ! May these truths 
teach us the reverence due to Him who is over and above 
all! 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION VIII. 
1. By what vessels does absorption take place? What is said of 
absorption through mucous membranes ? 
2. What of absorption through the skin ? 
3. What of absorption of the serous fluid and of bone ? 
4. Name the secretions and excretions. 
5. What is said of the secretions that are re-absorbed ? 
6. Whence do these fluids come, and what is their function ? 
7. What change is constantly taking place in the body? If the excre- 
tions be not removed what must result ? 
8. What is said of the amount of material absorbed and secreted ? 
9. What is remarked of the growth and decay in the living body ? 
10. What of the changes of life and death ? NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
99 
Section IX. 
Anatomy of the Respiratory System. 
1. The Respiratory system consists of the larynx, the 
trachea, and the lungs; together with the thorax, and the 
muscles used in breathing. 
2. The Lar'ynx is situated below the root of the tongue 
and the hyoid bone, and at the top of the trachea. It 
opens into the pharynx above and the trachea below; and 
it produces the prominence in the middle of the neck, called 
“ Adam’s apple.” The larynx is composed of the thyroid, 
the cricoid, and the arytenoid cartilages, and the epiglottis. 
3. The Thy'roid cartilage is the largest, and is situated 
at the upper front part of the larynx. It consists of two 
quadrilateral, wing-like plates, which unite in front, and 
diverge behind. 
Fig. 37. 
Fig. 38. 
Fig. 37. A Front View of the Cartilages of the Larynx.—1, Thyroid cartilage ; 
2, its right side; 3, superior horn; 4, inferior horn; 5, posterior portion of cricoid 
cartilage ; 6, anterior portion of cricoid cartilage; 7, the arytenoid cartilages. 
Pig. 38. A View OF the Vocal Membrane.—1, Loft half of the thyroid cartilage ; 2, 
cricoid cartilage; 3, right half of the vocal membrane ; 4, left half of the vocal mem- 
brane; 5, arytenoid cartilage ; 6, arytenoid muscle. 100 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
4. The Cri'coid cartilage resembles a seal-ring in shape, 
being a fourth, of an inch wide in front, and an inch wide 
behind. It is situated below the thyroid cartilage, and unites 
with the first ring of the trachea. 
5. The Aryt'enoid cartilages, two in number, are small, 
triangular, and curved, and are situated at the posterior 
summit of the cricoid cartilage. 
6. The Epiglot'tis is an oval-shaped plate of fibro-cartilage 
projecting above the aperture of the larynx, and closing upon 
it in the act of swallowing. The convex surface of the epi- 
glottis is towards the mouth, and the concave surface towards 
the larynx. All parts of the larynx are lined with mucous 
membrane; and all parts, except the epiglottis, are strongly 
disposed to ossify in advanced life. 
7. The Vo'cal Chords are composed of elastic tissue, and 
extend from the front and sides of the upper edge of the 
cricoid cartilage to the bases of the arytenoid cartilages. 
The narrow chink, or aperture between the vocal chords, is 
called the glottis, and is the opening to the larynx. 
8. The Tra'chea, or windpipe, is a cylindrical tube pass- 
ing from the larynx down the neck, in front of the oesoph- 
agus. It is about four inches long, and three-fourths of 
an inch in diameter; and at its lower end, opposite the third 
dorsal vertebra, it divides into two branches, called bronchi, 
one of which passes to each lung. The bron'chi pass behind 
the large blood-vessels, into the lungs, where they are divided 
and subdivided ; thus growing smaller and smaller, like the 
branches of a tree, until they reach the air-cells. The 
smaller divisions are called bronchial tubes. 
9. The trachea and bronchi are composed of cartilaginous 
rings, imperfect behind, next to the oesophagus, and con- 
nected together by strong fibro-elastic membrane. The 
trachea, the bronchi, and the bronchial tubes, are all lined 
with a pinkish-white mucous membrane having a ciliated 
epithelium. Numerous minute racemose glands are imbed- 
ded beneath the mucous membrane, and open upon its free 
surface. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
101 
10. The Lungs occupy the greater part of the cavity of 
the chest, and adapt themselves to its varying size in respi- 
ration. They are situated, one on each side; and the two 
Fig. 39. 
Fig, 39. A View of the Larynx, the Trachea, the Bronchi and their Branches, 
terminating in the Pdlmonary Lobules.—1, The larynx; 2, the trachea; 3, the 
right lung; 4, the left lung. 
are separated from each other by the heart and the great 
blood-vessels. They are free everywhere, except at their 
root, where they are attached to the bronchi, to the pulmo- 
nary ligaments, and to the pulmonary arteries and veins. 
The right lung is wider and somewhat larger, although it is 
shorter than the left one. It is divided into three lobes; 
but the left lung is divided into only two lobes. 102 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
11. The lungs are composed of a sponge-like substance, 
of a pinlcish-gray color. They vary much in weight and 
capacity, according to the age, the sex, the health, and the 
size of the individual. In the adult, their average weight 
is about two and a half pounds, and their capacity about 
three hundred cubic inches. They ahvays contain more or 
less air after they are once inflated; hence, they are so light 
as to readily float in water. 
12. The terminal ends of the bronchial tubes are called 
pulmonary lobules, and are the 
one-twelfth part of an inch 
in diameter. Each lobule con- 
sists of a number of cavities, 
or air - cells, separated from 
each other by thin partitions. 
The air-cells vary much in 
size, yet they approach an 
average diameter of about the 
one-hundredth part of an inch. 
They are surrounded by a fine 
network of capillary blood- 
vessels, and are lined with 
mucous membrane. Between 
the lobules there is a large 
quantity of elastic tissue, which 
gives firmness and elasticity to the lung structure. The air- 
cells in the lungs are very numerous, and have been esti- 
mated to number six millions; while the whole extent of 
their free surface, which is in contact with the air, is proba- 
bly not less than fourteen hundred square feet. 
Fig. 40. 
Fig, 40. A View of Air-Cells, Magni- 
fied.— 1, Bronchial tube ; 2, portion of 
lobule with air-cells on its surface ; 3, 
lobule laid open so as to show the air- 
cells within it. 
13. The pleura is a closed sac of serous membrane for 
each lung. One layer covers the lung while the other lines 
the walls of the chest, so that the two surfaces rub together 
during respiration. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
103 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION IX. 
1. Name the respiratory organs. 
2. Describe the larynx. 
3. Describe the thyroid cartilage. 
4. Describe the cricoid cartilage. 
5. Describe the arytenoid cartilage. 
6. Describe the epiglottis. With what is the larynx lined ? 
7. What are the vocal chords ? What is the glottis ? 
8. What is said of the trachea and its branches? 
9. Of what are the trachea and bronchi composed ? What is said of 
their lining membrane ? 
10. Describe the lungs. 
11. Of what are the lungs composed? What is said of their weight? 
12. Describe the pulmonary lobules and air-cells ? What is said of the 
number and the extent of the air-cells? 
13. Describe the pleura. 
Section X. 
Physiology of the Respiratory System. 
1. The Lar'ynx performs a double function; one part being 
to produce the voice, and the other to assist in the respiration. 
The voice is produced by the vocal chords. When they are 
in a relaxed condition, during expiration, no sound except 
that of the air gently passing through the larynx is heard; 
but when the chords are made tense and drawn closely 
to each other, so as to diminish the size of the aperture, the 
air is made to vibrate in passing through it, and these vibra- 
tions produce the voice. 
2. The tone, pitch, and strength of the voice depend upon the 
conformation of the larynx, the tension of the vocal chords, 
and the force with which the air is expelled; and these are 
all under the control of the will. The greater the tension 
of the chords, and the narrower the aperture, the more acute 104 
ANATOM Y, PH YSIOLOQY, AND HYGIENE. 
is the sound; but the less the tension of the chords, and the 
wider the aperture, the graver is the note produced. 
3. The strength of the voice, in different individuals, depends 
upon the size of the chest and the power of the muscles used 
in speaking. When these are strong, the air is expelled for- 
cibly and a loud voice is heard. The tones and pitch of the 
voice depend upon the size and shape of the vocal organs. 
In man, the larynx is usually large and the vocal chords 
comparatively coarse, giving to his voice a coarse and deep 
tone; but in woman, the larynx is smaller and the vocal 
chords finer, giving to her voice a finer and more acute tone. 
4. Articulation, or the formation of the voice into vowel 
and consonant sounds, so as to produce distinct syllables 
and words, is made by the throat, the palate, the tongue, 
the teeth, and the lips, which act in conjunction with the 
vocal organs of the larynx. 
5. The respiratory movements in the larynx co-operate with 
those of the chest, so that the size of the glottis is alternately en- 
larged and contracted. During the inspiration, the glottis 
opens and permits the air to pass freely into the trachea; 
but during the expiration, it relaxes and the air is forced out 
through it. The inspiratory movements of the glottis are 
active, requiring an effort to open the aperture; but the ex- 
piratory movements are passive, and all the movements cor- 
respond with those of the chest, both in time and intensity. 
The Epiglot'tis stands as a sort of guard over the glottis, so 
as to prevent the entrance of food and other foreign sub- 
stances into the respiratory passages, where they would be a 
source of irritation. 
6. By the co-operation of the larynx with the lungs, 
various sounds, such as yawning, sighing, sobbing, crying, 
laughing, sneezing, and coughing, are produced. Yawning 
occurs from want of fresh air, and often from irritation; 
sighing from depressed feelings, or the want of fresh air ; 
sobbing and crying mostly come from emotions of sadness, 
and laughter from emotions of joy; sneezing and coughing NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
105 
are caused by irritation in the air-passages of the lungs, and 
are but the sudden efforts made for the expulsion of all offend- 
ing matter. 
7. Respiration is the breathing of air into and out of the 
lungs. This is called inspiration and expiration, and is the 
process by which the venous blood is changed into arterial 
blood, and is thereby fitted to supply the wants of the system. 
During inspiration the lungs are expanded, and the trachea, 
the bronchial tubes, and the air-cells, are all filled with air. 
During expiration the lungs are contracted, and a portion 
of the air in them is expelled. In the adult man, the average 
number of respirations is eighteen in a minute; but they are 
rather more frequent than this in women and in children. 
8. The average quantity of air taken into the lungs at each 
inspiration, and, therefore, expelled at each expiration, is 
estimated to be about twenty cubic inches; hence, several 
respirations are required to change the whole of the air in 
the lungs. At the average of eighteen respirations, the 
quantity of air taken into the lungs amounts to three hundred 
and sixty cubic inches in a minute, 21,600 cubic inches in an 
hour, or three hundred cubic feet in twenty-four hours. 
9. The air is composed of three gases; oxygen, nitrogen, 
and carbonic acid gas. In one hundred cubic inches of air, 
there are nearly twenty-one cubic inches of oxygen, seventy- 
nine cubic inches of nitrogen, and only the one-twentieth of 
a cubic inch of carbonic acid. The proportion of these gases 
as they are mixed in the air is exactly suited to the wants 
of the human being; and they can neither be increased nor 
diminished without being followed by injurious results. 
10. The air, when taken into the lungs, has a portion of 
its oxygen absorbed by the blood, and receives carbonic acid, 
and a small amount of water from the blood in return ; hence, 
the same air should not be breathed a second time. 
11. Pure oxygen is highly injurious and even fatal to human 
life. By it the vital functions are stimulated, the respiration 
and circulation increased, and insensibility gradually comes 106 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
on so that death occurs in from six to twelve hours. When 
the amount of oxygen is decreased, the venous blood remains 
to a greater or less degree unchanged, and the energies of the 
system are depressed. When one-half of the oxygen in the 
air is removed, the amount left will not support life in man. 
12. The quantity of oxygen taken from the air during 
each respiration, and, therefore, absorbed by the blood, is 
about one cubic inch, which amounts to seventeen and a half 
cubic feet in twenty-four hours, or to rather less than one 
and a half pounds. 
13. The quantity of carbonic acid given off by the lungs, 
and, therefore, absorbed by the air, at each respiration, is, 
on an average, nearly one cubic inch, and in twenty-four 
hours amounts to about fourteen cubic feet. The amount 
of carbonic acid given off by the lungs varies considerably 
with the age, the sex, the size, and the health of the indi- 
vidual. In man, the quantity exhaled is nearly twice as 
great as in woman. 
14. The amount of carbonic acid continues to increase during 
childhood and youth. In adult life it is more or less station- 
ary, until the fortieth year, after which it diminishes until 
the close .of life. Active exercise increases the carbonic 
acid from the lungs, so that it is one-tliird greater then than 
when the body is at rest. Food generally increases the 
quantity, and most drinks have the same effect. Tea, coffee, 
and alcoholic liquors, produce their effects very quickly, but 
they seldom last more than half an hour. 
15. The amount of carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs is 
much less during the night than during the day. The respi- 
ration is slower at night, and there is less muscular action, 
so that only one-half or two-thirds as much is exhaled during 
sleep as when awake. The quantity is also diminished in 
all organic diseases of the lungs, and in low forms of fever 
where it is sometimes reduced one-half; but it is mostly in- 
creased in diseases of the skin, and, in cases of small-pox, it 
is nearly doubled. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
107 
16. The air in the air-cells of the lungs is separated from the 
blood in the capillaries by a thin membrane. Through this 
membrane the oxygen passes from the air to the blood, and 
the carbonic acid and vapor of water pass from the blood to 
the air. The oxygen obtained by the blood is carried away 
to the tissues, and by them appropriated to their own use. 
The carbonic acid is mostly formed from the disintegration 
of the tissues, and is carried by the venous blood to the 
lungs. Both the oxygen and the carbonic acid are absorbed 
by the blood globules, and are conveyed by them in the 
form of a solution, and not a chemical combination ; hence, 
the changes in the color of the blood are produced by the 
action of these gases on the blood globules. 
17. When the carbonic acid in the air is increased to ten 
per cent., or when the oxygen is decreased to ten per cent, 
of its entire volume, the air is then unfit for breathing, and 
cannot sustain life. As the carbonic acid is increased, and 
the oxygen is decreased, with every respiration, it has been 
estimated that each individual will, on an average, render 
about eight cubic feet of air unfit for breathing in every minute, 
or four hundred and eighty cubic feet in every hour. When 
less than this amount of fresh air is supplied, more or less 
injury must result. 
18. A small quantity of animal matter, in a gaseous form, is 
exhaled with the breath. It is this which causes the heavy 
and oppressive odor of a badly ventilated room in which 
several persons are breathing. This animal matter is prob- 
ably one of the most injurious of the exhalations from the 
lungs. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What double function is performed by the larynx ? How is the 
voice produced ? 
2. Upon what do the tone and pitch of the voice depend ? When 
will the souud be acute, and when grave ? 
SECTION X. 108 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
3. Upon what does the strength of the voice depend ? Why does a 
man’s voice differ from a woman’s voice ? 
4. How are these sounds formed into distinct words ? 
5. With what do the respiratory movements in the larynx co-operate ? 
What is the function of the epiglottis? 
6. What sounds may be produced by this co-operation of the larynx 
with the lungs? What cause these sounds? 
1 • Define respiration. \Y hat changes occur during respiration ? 
How often do we breathe ? 
8. A\ hat is remarked of the quantity of air needed in respiration ? 
9. \Y hat is said of the composition of the atmosphere ? 
10. \\ hat change takes place in the air during respiration? 
11. How does pure oxygen affect the system? How does a decrease 
of oxygen affect the system ? 
12. How much oxygen is absorbed by the lungs? 
13. How much carbonic acid is given off from the lungs? 
14. A\ hat conditions cause an increase in the amount of carbonic acid 
exhaled from the lungs ? 
15. What cause a decrease in the amount exhaled? 
16. What separates the air in the lungs from the blood ? What gases 
pass through this membrane ? What is remarked of the oxygen and the 
carbonic acid in the blood ? 
17. A\ hen is the air unfit for breathing? What amount of fresh air is 
needed to supply each individual ? 
18. \\ hat is said of the animal matter exhaled from the body ? 
Section XI. 
Animal. Heat. 
1. All substances, not living, vary in temperature, according 
to the atmosphere in which they are placed; but living things 
have the power, to a greater or less degree, of resisting the 
influence of both heat and cold. This power is feeble in 
plants, but it is stronger in animals; and, as we ascend in 
the scale, we find each species to possess the inherent power 
of maintaining a temperature peculiar to itself. The heat 
which is produced in the body so as to maintain this tem- 
perature, is known as Animal Heat. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
109 
2. Animals may be divided according to the temperature 
of their bodies, into two classes; called the warm-blooded 
animals and the cold-blooded animals. The birds and the 
mammals, including man, are warm-blooded, and maintain 
nearly a uniform temperature; but the fish and the reptiles are 
cold-blooded, and their temperature varies very much with the 
air or the water in which they live. 
3. The range of temperature in mammals is from 97° to 105°; 
while, in birds, it varies from 100° to 111°. In the Arctic 
fox, the temperature has been found to be 107° while in an 
atmosphere of only 14°. Iii the common fowl, it ranges from 
107° to 110°, according to the climate; and in the swallow, 
it reaches 111°, which is higher than the temperature of any 
other living creature. 
4. The tissues of the human body, mostly range in tem- 
perature from 98° to 100°, while the blood varies from 100° 
to 102°. The temperature in the thorax is about 100°, un- 
der the tongue it is 98°, and in the axilla, 96°, while the 
hands and feet are from 4° to 6° cooler. When from any 
cause the temperature of the human body is raised to 113°, 
or is lowered to about 80°, the individual becomes insensible, 
and death soon follows. 
5. The temperature of the human body is the same at all 
ages; but the very young and the very old cannot resist the 
depressing effects of cold so well as the middle-aged. The 
heat of the body may be increased 1° or 2° by exercise; and 
it is reduced 1° or 2° during sleep. The temperature varies 
much in disease; for while it is llO0 in lock-jaw, it is often 
below 80° in cholera. 
6. The heat of the body is probably produced in the tissues 
by a long series of chemical changes which take place during 
the process of nutrition; but these changes are not well 
understood. 
7. In the coldest weather of winter the body generates so 
much animal heat that the temperature of the internal or- 
gans is kept up to the natural standard. In the lower ani- 110 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
mals, the heat is maintained in the body by means of the 
natural covering of hair or wool; but man is forced to clothe 
himself in woollen goods or furs so as to preserve an equable 
temperature. He also resorts to artificial heat, and warms 
his places of abode so as to make himself comfortable. 
8. In the summer season, although the weather is warm, 
the temperature of the body does not rise above 100°. Its 
warmth is regulated then, not by artificial heat or by cloth- 
ing, but by means of the perspiration. Whenever the tem- 
perature is increased by the warm weather, or by exercise, 
the sweat glands pour out the perspiration, in increased 
abundance, upon the surface of the body. This perspiration 
is evaporated, and thus the temperature of the body is pre- 
vented from rising above the natural standard. 
9. Evaporation is a cooling process; and the heat of the 
body may be rapidly reduced by the evaporation from its 
surface. On this account it becomes a fruitful source of 
colds. When the body is in a state of perspiration from any 
cause, and a part of the clothing be removed, or we remain 
in a draught of air, the evaporation will take place so rap- 
idly as to reduce the body below its natural temperature, 
and cold or other sickness will almost surely result; but if 
an additional garment be put on, so that the cooling goes on 
more slowly, injury will seldom follow. 
QUESTIONS, 
SECTION XI. 
1. What is remarked of the temperature of substances? 
2. How may animals be classified? What is said of each class ? 
3. What of the range of temperature in mammals and in birds ? 
4. What of the temperature of the human body ? 
5. How may the temperature of the body be changed ? 
6. How is the heat of the body produced ? 
7. How is the heat of the body maintained during the winter season? 
8. How is it reduced during the summer season ? 
9. What is said of evaporation from the surface of the body ? CHAPTER IV.—Sensory Apparatus. 
Section I. 
Anatomy of the Nervous System. 
1. The Ner'vous System may be divided into two systems; 
the cerebro-spinal system, consisting of the brain, the spinal 
cord, and the nerves given off by them to all parts of the 
body; and the sympathetic system, composed of nerves and 
ganglia, mainly distributed to the viscera of the body. 
General Character and Structure of the Nerves. 
2. The nervous system is composed of two kinds of nerve 
matter; called the white substance and the gray substance. 
The brain has the gray substance for its exterior, and the 
white substance for its interior; but the spinal cord has the 
white substance for its exterior, and the gray substance for 
its interior. 
3. The white substance is composed of transparent 
tubular fibres, of various sizes, and so soft as to be broken 
into fragments by the slightest violence. These are called 
white nerve-fibres, and average about the gg\jg of an inch 
in diameter. 
4. The gray substance is composed of nerve-fibres, nerve- 
cells, nuclei, and granular matter. The gray nerve-fibres 
are similar in structure to the white; but in size are not 
more than two-thirds of their diameter. The nerve-cells 112 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
have a delicate wall, with granular contents, and one or 
more nuclei, and are probably the most important element 
of the gray substance. The granular matter furnishes a 
kind of matrix, in which the nerve-cells and numerous 
nuclei are imbedded. 
5. The Cer'ebro-spi'nal nerves are given off from the 
brain and spinal cord, in pairs, and are thence distributed 
to the body. At their origin, they appear like white cylin- 
drical cords ; and they give off branches in their course 
until they are finally reduced to fine filaments in the various 
tissues and organs. The nerves, supplying an organ, are 
generally found in company with the lymphatics and the 
blood-vessels of that organ. 
6. The nerves are composed of bundles of nerve-fibres, 
arranged nearly parallel with each other, and enclosed in a 
sheath of connective and elastic tissue, called the neuri- 
lem'ma. The nerve-fibres of these nerves are similar to 
those of the white substance of the brain, except that they 
are larger. Each nerve-fibre remains undivided from its 
origin, where it connects with the brain, or spinal cord, to 
its termination, where it ends in the tissues. 
7. A nerve is said to arise by one root, when all its fibres 
come from one point; and from two or more roots, when its 
bundles of fibres come from two or more points. The man- 
ner of the termination of the nerves is for the most part 
unknown. Three modes of termination, however, have been 
detected. 
8. First, by the Pacin'ian corpuscles found in the fingers 
and toes. They consist of concentric layers of fibrous tissue, 
forming a cavity, which contains a single nerve-fibre. 2d, 
By the Tac'tile corpuscles found in the papillse of touch in 
the hands and feet. They consist of a single layer of mem- 
brane, forming a cavity, which contains from one to four 
nerve-fibres. 3d, By Spher'ical corpuscles, containing one 
or two nerve-fibres, and found in the eyeball and the tongue. 
9. The nerves of the Sympathetic System are mostly 113 
SENSORY APPARATUS. 
reddish-gray, or grayish-white, but a few of the largest 
trunks are white. They are connected with numerous 
ganglia; hence, have been called the ganglion'ic system. 
They are composed of two kinds of nerve - fibres; the white 
fibres, which are mostly found in the white trunks, and are 
much finer than those of the cerebro-spinal system; and the 
gray fibres, which are most numerous in the reddish-gray, 
and the grayish-white nerves, and occur in the form of 
bands. 
10. The Gan'glia are roundish bodies, which vary much 
in form, and appear like knots or swellings in the course of 
the nerves. They are regarded as sources of nerve power; 
and are called nerve centres, the same as the brain and 
spinal cord. They consist of nerve-cells, similar to those of 
the gray substance of the brain, which are imbedded along 
with the nerve-fibres in the connective tissue. Some of the 
nerve-fibres in the ganglia are joined to the cells, while others 
are without any such attachment. 
The Cerebro-Spinal System. 
11. The Cer'ebro-spi'nal system consists of the brain, the 
spinal cord, and the nerves originating from them. The 
brain and spinal cord are in two symmetrical halves, which 
are united in the median line by commissures of nerve 
matter. 
12. The Brain is the mass of nervous matter which com- 
pletely fills the cavity of the cranium, and is the seat of the 
sensitive and intellectual faculties. The size and weight of 
the brain varies with the age, the sex, the race, and the indi- 
vidual. It is largest in the white race; averaging nearly 
fifty ounces, avoirdupois, in the man, and forty-five ounces, 
in the woman. The brain of the human species is larger 
than that of any other species of animals, except elephants 
and whales. It is divided into four parts; the cerebrum, 
the cerebellum, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. 114 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Fig, 41. 
Fig. 41. A Back View of the Brain and of the Spinal Cord and its Branches. SENSORY APPARATUS. 
115 
IB. The Cer'ebrum is the largest division of the brain, 
and comprises about six-sevenths of its entire mass. It ex- 
tends the whole length and breadth of the upper part of the 
brain, and conforms in shape exactly with the cavity of the 
Fig. 42. 
Fig. 42, Tiie Base of the Brain. — 1, The anterior lobe of the cerebrum ; 2, the 
middle lobe; 3, the posterior lobe; 4, the anterior end of the great longitudinal 
fissure; 5, the end of the medulla oblongata where it joins with the spinal cord ; 6, 
the hemispheres of the cerebellum; 7, the pons ; 8, the sylvian fissure; 9, the crura 
of the cerebrum; 10, the medulla oblongata; 11, the olfactory nerve; 12, optic nerve ; 
13, oculo-motor nerve; 14. pathetic nerve; 15, trifacial; 16, abducent; 17, facial; 
18, auditory; 19, glosso-pharyngeal; 20, pneumo-gastric; 21, accessory ; 22, hypo- 
glossal nerve. 
skull. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, by 
the great longitudinal fissure in its upper part. The base, 
or lower part of each hemisphere, is separated into three 
lobes; the anterior lobe, resting above the position of the 116 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
orbits; the middle lobe, occupying the middle portion of the 
brain; and the posterior lobe, resting above the cerebellum, 
at the back part of the skull. 
14. The external surface of the hemispheres is every- 
where raised up into convolutions which are separated from 
each other by winding fissures. These convolutions are 
nearly uniform in diameter; but their course varies in the 
two hemispheres, and in different individuals. 
15. The Cer'ebrum is composed of two kinds of nerve 
substance; a gray substance, which occupies its exterior in 
the form of a layer of uniform thickness, following the 
course of all its convolutions, and extending over the whole 
of its surface; and a white substance, which fills all its in- 
terior portion. 
16. At the bottom of the deep longitudinal fissure, which 
Fig. 43 
Fig, 43. A View of the Left Half of the Brain.—1, Medulla oblongata; 2, pons; 
3, crus of the cerebrum ; 4, arborescent appearance of the cerebellum ; 5, left hemis- 
phere of the cerebellum; 6, left hemisphere of the cerebrum; 7, corpus callosum; 8, 
pellucid septum; 9, fornix; 10, anterior crus of the fornix; 11, pineal gland; 12, 
optic nerve; 13, oculo-motor nerve; 14, fourth ventricle; 15, quadrigeminal body; 
16, canal from the third to the fourth ventricle; 17, anterior lobe of the cerebrum; 
18, its middle lobe ; 19, its posterior lobe ; 20, the commencement of the spinal cord. SENSORY APPARATUS. 
117 
separates the cerebrum into two hemispheres, is a convex 
body of white nerve matter, called the cor'pus callosum. 
It is about three inches long, and three-fourths of an inch 
wide, and unites the two hemispheres together. It is trans- 
versely striated, but has some longitudinal fibres along the 
median line. 
17. Beneath the corpus callosum are two cavities, called 
the lateral ventricles. Each of these cavities extends into 
the three lobes of the cerebral hemispheres, by prolongations, 
named horns; and the two cavities are separated from each 
other by a thin partition of nerve matter, called the pellu'cid 
sep'tum. Beneath the lateral ventricles, is a thin layer of 
white nerve matter, named the fornix; and beneath the 
fornix, is a narrow triangular cavity, called the third 
ventricle of the brain. Below the third ventricle, and form- 
ing its floor, from before backward, are the op'tic commis- 
sures, uniting the optic tracts, and giving rise to the optic 
nerves; the infundib'ulum, a funnel-shaped body of gray 
substance; the mam'millary eminences, which are two, small, 
white, spherical bodies; the posterior perforated space; and 
the cru'ra of the cerebrum, which are two large bodies 
diverging in front of the pons, and entering the cerebral 
hemispheres. 
18. Four eminences of white substance, called the quadri- 
geminal bodies, are situated behind the third ventricle, and 
are separated from the cerebral crura by the passage leading 
from the third to the fourth ventricle. A small body of 
gray substance is situated on the two anterior eminences of 
the quadrigeminal bodies, and is called the pine'al gland. 
It is remarkable for containing grains of a sand-like nature. 
19. The Cerebellum is next to the cerebrum in size, and 
comprises about one-eighth of the entire mass of the brain. 
It is divided into two hemispheres by a deep groove, called 
the valley. The exterior of the cerebellum is composed of 
gray substance, and is raised into convolutions, similar to 
those of the cerebrum, while the interior is composed of the 118 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
white substance. The arrangement of the gray and the 
white substance, gives an arborescent appearance to the cere- 
bellum, when cut vertically. 
20. The Pons is a small body of white substance, situated 
in front of the cerebellum, and extending, like a bridge, 
from one hemisphere to the other. The lower portion of the 
pons is composed of transverse nerve-fibres, which diverge 
at each side, forming the crura of the cerebellum, and pass- 
ing into its hemispheres. 
21. The Medulla Oblonga'ta is about one inch long, and 
is the smallest of the divisions of the brain. It is composed 
of white nerve-substance, and is situated in front of the cere- 
bellum, beneath the pons. It is divided by the anterior and 
the posterior median fissure into two lateral portions, which 
are further divided into the pyramidal, olivary, and resti- 
form bodies, and the posterior pyramids. Fibres of nerve- 
matter extend from the medulla oblongata behind the pons, 
and emerge from its upper part, forming the crura of the 
cerebrum, which, therefore, connect the spinal cord with the 
brain. 
22. The Spinal Cord occupies the spinal canal, and fur- 
nishes nerve power to the skin and to the muscles of the neck, 
the trunk, and the extremities. It connects with the medulla 
oblongata, at the occipital foramen, and it extends to the lower 
part of the last lumbar vertebra. It is from fifteen to eighteen 
inches long, and weighs about one and a half ounces. The 
spinal cord is somewhat cylindrical in form, but is flattened 
from before backward. It presents two enlargements, called 
the cervical enlargement, and the lumbar enlargement, 
which correspond with the large nerves, emanating from 
these portions, to be distributed to the upper and the lower 
limbs. 
23. The spinal cord is divided by the anterior and the 
posterior median fissures into two symmetrical halves; and 
these are each subdivided into three columns, the anterior, 
the lateral, and the posterior columns, by the anterior and 119 
SENSORY APPARATUS. 
the posterior lateral fissures. The spinal nerves originate 
from each side of the cord, by anterior and posterior roots, 
which rise from the corresponding lateral fissures. 
24. The brain and the spinal cord are enveloped by three 
membranes; the dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia 
mater. The Du'ra Ma'ter of the brain is its exterior mem- 
brane, and is composed of fibrous tissue. It is very tough, 
and consists of two layers; the outer one corresponding with 
the periosteum of the bones, and the inner one with the dura 
mater of the spinal cord. 
25. The Arach'noid is a delicate serous membrane, closely 
lining the dura mater, and loosely attached to the pia mater; 
thus forming a cavity called the subarachnoid space. This 
cavity usually contains several ounces of a serous fluid, 
secreted by the arachnoid membrane. 
26. The Pi'a Ma'ter is a delicate membrane, closely in- 
vesting the brain and the spinal cord. It is composed of 
numerous blood-vessels, with interlacing bundles of fibrous 
tissue; and it extends into all the fissures of the brain. 
27. The Cra'nial nerves, or nerves originating in the brain, 
consist of twelve pairs, named from before backward. 
28. The Olfac'tory, or first pair of nerves, are situated 
beneath the anterior lobes of the cerebrum, and are dis- 
tributed to the mucous membrane of the upper part of the 
nose. They are nerves of smell. 
29. The Op'tic, or second pair of nerves, diverge from the 
optic commissure, and pass into the orbits where they are 
distributed to the retina of the eyeball. They are nerves of 
vision. 
30. The Oc'ulo-mo'tor, or third pair of nerves, originate 
from between the crura of the cerebrum, and in front of the 
pons, and are distributed to the muscles moving the eyeball. 
They are motor nerves. 
31. The Pathet'ic, or fourth pair of nerves, originate from 
behind the quadrigeminal bodies, and are distributed to the 
superior oblique muscle of the eye. They are motor nerves. 120 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
32. The Trifa'cial, or fifth pair of nerves, arise by two 
unequal roots from each side of the pons. The large root 
terminates in the semilunar ganglion from which emanate 
three nerves: 1st, The Ophthal'mic nerve distributed to the 
lachrymal gland, the skin and muscles of the forehead, the 
iris, the eyelids, and the skin of the nose; 2d, The Superior 
Max'illary nerve distributed to the cheeks, the nose and 
upper lip, the upper teeth, the mouth, and the pharynx; 3d, 
A branch which unites with the small root of the trifacial 
nerve, and forms the Infe'rior Max'illary nerve, which is di- 
vided into two branches, one going to the muscles that move 
the jaw, and the other to the external ear, the tongue, the 
lower teeth, the chin, and the lower lip. The large root is sen- 
sitive, and also the nerve of taste; and the small root is motor. 
33. The Abdu'cent, or sixth pair of nerves, arise between 
the pons and the medulla oblongata in front, and are dis- 
tributed to the external straight muscles of the orbits. They 
are motor nerves. 
34. The Fa'cial, or seventh pair of nerves, arise between 
the pons and the medulla oblongata at the sides, and arc 
distributed to the muscles of the ear, the upper part of the 
neck, and to the temples, cheeks, forehead, eyelids, nose, 
lips, and chin. These are motor nerves, and they produce 
all the emotional changes in the expressions of the face. 
35. The Au'ditory, or eighth pair of nerves, originate 
from the sides of the medulla oblongata, and are distributed 
to the labyrinth of the car. They are nerves of hearing. 
36. The Glos'so-pharyn'geal, or ninth pair of nerves, arise 
by five or six roots from each side of the medulla oblongata, 
and are distributed to the lining membrane of the internal 
ear, the tonsils, the muscles, and mucous membrane of the 
pharynx, and the root of the tongue. They are sensitive 
nerves, and also nerves of taste. 
37. The Pneumogas'tric, or tenth pair of nerves, arise by 
from ten to fifteen roots from each side of the medulla 
oblongata, descend through the neck and thorax, and are SENSORY APPARATUS. 
121 
distributed to the larynx, the trachea, the lungs, the heart, 
the pharynx, the oesophagus, and the stomach. They are 
sensitive nerves. 
38. The Acces'sory, or eleventh pair of nerves, arise by 
several roots from the spinal cord, and the upper parts of 
the medulla oblongata, and are distributed to the larynx, 
and to the muscles of the neck, and the upper back part of 
the chest. They are motor nerves, and preside over the vocal 
movements of the glottis. 
39. The Hypoglos'sal, or twelfth pair of nerves, arise from 
each side of the medulla oblongata, and are distributed to 
the muscles of the tongue. They are the motor nerves of 
the tongue. 
40. The Spi'nal nerves number thirty-one pairs. Each 
nerve originates by an anterior and a posterior root, from 
Fig. 44. 
Fig. 45. 
Fig. 44. A Transverse Section of the Spinal Cord.—1, The spinal nerve of the 
right and of the left side; 2, the anterior root; 3, the posterior root; 4, the ganglion 
of the posterior root. 
Fig. 45. Anastomosis between two Nerves.—1, 2, Nerve fibres; S' anastomosis 
between two nerves ; 4, a branch from a nerve. 
the corresponding lateral grooves of the spinal cord. The 
posterior root is smaller than the anterior root, and is pro- 
vided with a small ganglia. Near this ganglia, the two roots 122 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
unite by an intermixing of their fibres, and form a common 
trunk, which is afterwards separated into an anterior and a 
posterior branch, each of which is composed of fibres from 
both roots. The anterior branch supplies the front parts, 
and the posterior branch the back parts of the body. 
41. The spinal nerves anastomose very much with each 
other, with some of the cranial nerves, and with the nerves 
of the great sympathetic system, forming networks, called 
plexuses; and indeed almost all nerves anastomose more or 
less with each other, thus presenting a most intricate system 
of study. Nerves are said to anastomose when some of their 
fibres pass to other nerves. 
The Sympathetic System. 
42. The nerves of the Sympathetic System are usually 
much smaller than those of the cerebro-spinal system, and 
are much more numerously provided with ganglia. The 
sympathetic system consists of two nerves, containing many 
ganglia. They extend the whole length of the spinal column, 
one nerve being on each side. 
43. The number of these ganglia on each side of the 
spinal column, corresponds very nearly with the number of 
spinal nerves. The ganglia and the spinal nerves are united 
by short, narrow cords, composed of nerve-fibres; thus the 
two systems are closely connected together. 
44. Many of the nerves from this system follow the course 
of the blood-vessels; but hv far the greater number con- 
tribute to form three plexuses: the Car'diac, in the thorax; 
the Solar, in the abdomen; and the Hypogas’tric, in the 
pelvis. These give off many smaller plexuses, which form 
networks around the larger blood-vessels, extending from 
their origin in the aorta to their termination in the different 
organs. SENSORY APPARATUS. 
123 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION I. 
1. Define the two systems into which the nervous system is divided. 
2. Name the two kinds of nerve-matter. How are they arranged in 
the brain and in the spinal cord ? 
3. Describe the white nerve-substance. 
4. The gray nerve-substance. 
5. What is said of the cerebro-spinal nerves ? 
6. Of what are the nerves composed ? What is said of each nerve- 
fibre ? 
7. What is said of the origin of the nerves ? What of their termina- 
tion? 
8. Describe the paeinian corpuscles. The tactile corpuscles. The 
spherical corpuscles. 
9. Describe the nerves of the sympathetic system. 
10. Describe the ganglia. 
11. Of what does the cerebro-spinal system consist? 
12. Describe the brain. What are its divisions? 
13. Describe the cerebrum. 
14. What is said of the external surface of the cerebrum ? 
15. Describe the gray and the wThite substance in the cerebrum. 
16. Describe the corpus callosum. 
17. Describe the cavities, commissures, and other parts at the base of 
the brain. 
18. Describe the quadrigeminal bodies. The pineal gland. 
19. Describe the cerebellum. 
20. Describe the pons. 
21. Describe the medulla oblongata. 
22. Describe the spinal cord. 
23. How is the spinal cord divided? From what do the spinal nerves 
originate ? 
24. Name the membranes of the brain. Describe the dura mater. 
25. Describe the arachnoid membrane. 
26. Describe the pia mater. 
27. Of what do the cranial nerves consist ? 
28. Describe the olfactory nerves. 
29. The optic nerves. 
30. The oculo-motor nerves. 
31. The pathetic nerves. 
32. The trifacial nerves. 
33. The abducent nerves. 
34. The facial nerves. 
35. The auditory nerves. 
36. The glosso-pharvngeal nerves.  ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
37. Describe the pneumogastric nerves. 
38. The accessory nerves. 
39. The hypoglossal nerves. 
40. The spinal nerves. 
41. What is said of the anastomoses of nerves? 
42. Describe the sympathetic nerves. 
43. What is remarked of the ganglia and the spinal nerves? 
44. What is said of the plexuses of nerves ? 
Section II. 
Physiology of the Nervous System. 
1. The functions of the Nervous System are neither physical 
nor chemical in their nature. It does not act for itself, like 
the heart, the lungs, and other organs; but its purpose is to 
influence the action of those organs. 
2. The Cer'ebro-spi'nal system presides over the locomo- 
tory, respiratory, sensitive, and intellectual functions of the 
body. The Sympathet ic system presides over the vegetative 
or nutritive functions of the body. As we ascend in the scale 
of animals, the cerebro-spinal system increases in size in pro- 
portion to their intelligence, sensation, and power of motion; 
man being the highest in the scale. The sympathetic sys- 
tem, however, is more highly developed in some of the lower 
animals than it is in man. Its development corresponds 
with the development of the digestive organs; and man does 
not present the highest type in this respect. 
3. The entire nervous system consists of nerve centres, nerves, 
and commissures. The latter are composed of white nerve- 
fibres, and serve to connect the hemispheres of the brain; 
and also the symmetrical halves of the spinal cord. 
4. Every collection of gray nerve-matter is called a nerve- 
centre; hence, the brain, the spinal cord, and the ganglia, 
are all nerve-centres. They receive impressions brought to 
them by certain nerves, and they send out expressions by SENSORY APPARATUS. 
125 
other nerves. Nerve-power thus originates in the nerve- 
centres ; but the transmission of this power belongs exclu- 
sively to the nerves. How this nerve-power is produced in 
the nerve-centres, is entirely unknown; yet, that it is so pro- 
duced is evident, because neither motion nor sensation can 
be excited in a nerve, unless it communicates with a nerve- 
centre. 
5. All communication between two organs in the body must 
be through a nerve-centre; thus, the sensations produced by 
a foreign substance in the glottis are carried to a nerve- 
centre, which immediately reacts and sends a power that 
calls into activity the various muscles needed in its expul- 
sion. This is called the reflex action of the nervous system; 
because information is first sent inward to the nerve-centre, 
and is then reflected from that centre to its appropriate 
destination. 
6. The nerves are organs of communication connecting the 
nerve-centres with the tissues and organs of the system. 
They are endowed with a peculiar function, and when this is 
excited at one extremity, it extends throughout the entire 
length, producing its effects at the opposite extremity. Thus, 
when nerves distributed to the muscles are excited at their 
origin, in the brain, by the impulse of the Avill, they produce 
a contraction of the muscular fibres at their extremity; and 
when nerves of sensation are excited at their extremity, in 
the skin, they produce a corresponding sensation at their 
origin in the brain. How this power is conveyed is not 
known, as no visible change takes place in the nerve-fibres. 
7. All nerve-power in the body shows itself in one of two dis- 
tinct forms; either as sensibility, or power of sensation, or as 
excitability, or power of motion. Hence, there are two sets 
of nerves or nerve-fibres; one to extend from the sensitive 
surfaces of the body to the nerve-centres, to carry impres- 
sions inward, and the other to extend from the nerve-centres 
to the muscles, to carry impressions outward. The first 
are called sensitive nerves, and the second are called motor 126 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
nerves. Both sets of nerves have the function of irritability; 
but in the sensitive nerves, it produces sensation, and in the 
motor nerves, it produces movement. 
8. Nervous irritability is inherent in the nerve, as a special 
endowment; but the power of this irritability is manifested 
only in the organ to which the nerve is distributed. It may 
be exhausted by continued irritation, but the power will be 
regained by rest. The shock, from a severe injury, often 
destroys or suspends the irritability of the nerves, so that 
the patient experiences no pain, until reaction takes place, 
which may not be until several hours have elapsed. 
9. Each organ and tissue of the body is endowed with a func- 
tion peculiar to itself and this function is called into action 
by the irritability of the nerves; thus, when a nerve dis- 
tributed to a gland is excited, it produces increased secretion, 
and when a nerve to a muscle is excited, it causes contrac- 
tion of the fibres. How the nerves operate to excite these 
functions cannot be explained. 
10. The function of many of the organs may be called 
into activity in an indirect way, as by the sympathy which 
one organ of the body has for another organ. Thus, when 
light falls upon the retina, it causes a contraction of the 
pupil of the eye; and when a foreign substance is lodged in 
the glottis, it excites various muscles, so as to produce 
coughing. This sympathetic connection between the differ- 
ent organs, so necessary to our existence, is established by 
means of the nervous system. 
11. When a nerve-fibre is cut or broken, its junction ceases; 
but it has the power of re-uniting, and in this way its func- 
tion may be recovered. In man, several weeks, and even 
months, are required to complete this process; but it is 
usually accomplished in a few days, in the young of the 
inferior animals. 
12. The spinal cord sends out nerves to supply the neck, 
the trunk, and the extremities, and these embrace the skin 
and the muscles of about nine-tenths of the whole body. All SENSORY APPARATUS. 
127 
these parts are endowed with the power of sensation, and the 
power of motion, both of which depend directly or indirectly 
on the nerve-centres in the spinal cord. 
13. The power of sensation enables us to receive impres- 
sions from external things, by which we obtain some infor- 
mation in regard to their qualities, and the effect they may 
have upon our systems; thus, when a foreign substance is 
brought in contact with our bodies, we learn whether it is 
hot or cold, rough or smooth, hard or soft, large or small, at 
rest or in motion, and many other things in regard to it. 
This power of sensation depends upon the sensitive nerves, 
and varies in acuteness according to their distribution; the 
lips, the tip of the tongue, and the ends of the fingers being 
more sensitive than other parts of the surface of the body. 
14. When this foreign substance is of such a nature as to 
injure the skin or its nerves, the sensation of pain is produced. 
This sensation of pain is different from the sensitive impres- 
sions just mentioned, and seems to take their place in most 
cases. For instance, we can judge of the temperature of a 
body that is moderately hot or cold; but when it is hot 
enough or cold enough to injure the skin, we lose the sense 
of judging of its temperature, and feel only the pain pro- 
duced. The sensation of pain may be blunted while we still 
remain subject to sensitive impressions. Opium may lessen 
the pain from neuralgia in a nerve, while the nerve still re- 
mains subject to sensitive impressions ; and ether may make 
a person insensible to pain without destroying his conscious- 
ness of external things. 
15. The various impressions made upon the nerve-centres, 
through the sensitive nerves, are conveyed by the motor 
nerves to the proper tissues and organs, so as to excite their 
functions into activity. The effect of this nervous excite- 
ment on a gland, is to increase its secretion; as when food is 
taken into the mouth, the fact is carried by the sensitive 
nerves to the brain, and the motor nerves are set at work to 
excite the salivary glands, which respond by increasing the 128 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
amount of saliva. The effect on the lungs is to increase 
their movement; thus, when more oxygen is needed, the 
lungs are excited to increased motion, so as to supply it. 
And the effect on a muscle causes it to contract or relax, so 
as to correspond with the impressions given. 
16. The nerves of sensation and motion are closely connected, 
and their functions are generally impaired or suspended 
together, as in a fit of fainting, or an attack of apoplexy. 
Sometimes there is a loss of motion, and not of sensation, as 
when the muscles of the face are paralyzed; and there may 
be a loss of sensation, and not of motion. 
17. The spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord by two 
roots; the anterior, which is exclusively motor, and the pos- 
terior, which is exclusively sensitive, in function. In the 
trunks of the spinal nerves both sets of nerve-fibres, the 
sensitive and the motor, are mingled together; hut in the 
roots of the spinal nerves, these fibres are separated. Spinal 
nerves are, therefore, called mixed nerves, having both sensi- 
tive and motor fibres. 
18. The anterior columns of the spinal cord, like the 
anterior roots, are motor; and the ptosterior columns, like the 
posterior roots, are sensitive. A sensitive impression made on 
the skin is carried by sensitive nerves to the posterior columns 
of the spinal cord, thence to the brain by communicating 
fibres in the cord. A motor impression from the brain is 
carried along the fibres of the anterior columns of the spinal 
cord, and passes off by the anterior roots to the nerves by 
which it is carried to its destination in the tissues or organs. 
19. The motor nerve-fibres of the anterior columns decussate, 
or pass from side to side, at the lower part of the medulla oblon- 
gata; those of the right side pass to the left, and those of the 
left side pass to the right. The result of this decussation is, 
that any injury to one side of the brain, produces loss of 
motion in the opposite side of the body; thus, injury to the 
left side of the brain will cause paralysis of the right side of 
the body. When the anterior columns of the spinal cord SENSORY APPARATUS. 
129 
are injured below the medulla oblongata, the effect is shown 
on the same side as the injury; thus, injury on the left side 
of the cord, causes a loss of motion in the left side of the 
body. 
20. The sensitive nerve-fibres of the posterior columns, cross 
from side to side throughout the entire length of the spinal cord ; 
hence, any injury to one side of the brain, or to the spinal 
cord, will produce a loss of sensation in the opposite side of 
the body below where the injury is received. 
21. A nerve may be irritated anywhere along its course by 
various means, such as by heat, cold, or electricity. When 
the irritation is to a motor nerve, the effect is produced at its 
termination in the muscle; but when it is to a sensitive nerve, 
the impression is made upon the brain, and this impression 
seems to come from the termination of the nerve, and not 
from the point of irritation. Thus, after an arm is amputated, 
if the nerve, originally distributed to the fingers, be irritated, 
the sensation produced upon the brain seems to come from 
the fingers, and not from the amputated end of the nerve. 
22. Although many nerve-fibres are mingled together to 
form the trunk of a nerve, yet each fibre remains unbroken 
from its origin to its termination; and when it is irritated, it 
acts independently of all other fibres, and does not communi- 
cate its irritability to them. Thus, when a nerve is touched 
by the point of the finest needle, the impression upon the 
brain is from that point alone. If this were not so, there 
would be constant confusion in the sensations and movements 
of the body. 
23. There are other nerve-sensations and movements pro- 
duced in the body, which have been called associated sensa- 
tions, and associated movements; thus, disagreeable odors and 
disagreeable sights may produce nausea; the odor of food 
stimulates the salivary glands and makes the mouth water; 
tickling the feet causes laughter; and when the extensor 
muscles contract, the flexor muscles relax — the two move- 
ments being associated. 130 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
24. The irritability of the sensitive nerves ceases from without 
inward; hence, the external parts of the body may lose their 
sensibility several hours before death takes place. 
25. The brain comprises all that part of the nervous 
system contained within the cavity of the cranium; and it 
is the seat of sensation and of motion. The sensitive portions 
of the brain are the posterior parts of the medulla oblon- 
gata, and the upper part of the crura of the cerebrum. 
The motor portions are the anterior parts of the medulla 
oblongata, and the lower part of the crura of the cerebrum. 
These portions are but a continuation of the spinal cord, 
and like it are subject to irritability; but all other parts 
of the brain are destitute of both irritability and sensibility. 
26. The cerebrum is the seat of the reasoning or intellectual 
facidties. It is the instrument through which the powers of 
memory, reason, and judgment make themselves manifest. 
When the cerebrum is imperfect, or is injured in any way, 
the intelligence of the individual is correspondingly affected. 
27. The cerebellum is supposed to be the seat of the asso- 
ciated sensations and movements of the body. It preserves 
the unity and harmony of various muscular movements, 
which are absolutely indispensable to life. 
28. The medulla oblongata is the nerve-centre presiding 
over the respiration. When it is destroyed, respiration ceases, 
and death results. 
29. The actions of the cerebrospinal system may be classed 
as instinctive and reasoning. The instinctive actions are such 
as are performed blindly, and without any reference to ex- 
perience or judgment. Thus, the feeling of hunger creates 
a desire for food, and thirst, a desire for drink. The food 
and the drink are taken instinctively to satisfy the desires, 
and not from any reasoning of the mind that they are neces- 
sary to support life; hence, all animals eat when they are 
hungry, and drink when they are thirsty, from instinct 
alone. The bird builds its nest, the honey-bee constructs its 
cell, the silk-worm spins its coccoon, and the spider its web, SENSORY APPARATUS. 
131 
without experience or judgment, and, consequently, without 
improvement, although centuries have rolled away since God 
first set these creatures to work. 
30. The actions which residt from reasoning, require the co- 
operation of the cerebrum. The nature of a sensation must 
first be comprehended, and its effects be understood, before 
we can, by our judgment or experience, decide how to act 
in regard to it. The action does not depend upon the sen- 
sation produced in the brain, but upon the reasoning in re- 
gard to that sensation, by which the human mind is enabled 
to adapt means to ends. It is this faculty of reason which 
makes man the crowning glory of God’s creation, in this 
world, and enables him to profit from the experience of those 
who have passed away. 
31. The nerves given ' off by the brain may be divided into 
three classes; nerves of special sense, sensitive nerves, and 
motor nerves. 
1. The nerves of Special Sense are neither sensitive nor 
motor, and convey only tlieir special sense of smelling, see- 
ing, or hearing. They are: 
The Olfactory, or first pair of nerves. 
The Optic, or second pair of nerves. 
The Auditory, or eighth pair of nerves. 
2. The nerves of motion, called Motor nerves, are : 
The Oculo-motor, or third pair of nerves. 
The Pathetic, or fourth pair of nerves. 
The Small root of the fifth pair of nerves. 
The Abducent, or sixth pair of nerves. 
The Facial, or seventh pair of nerves. 
The Accessory, or eleventh pair of nerves. 
The Hypoglossal, or twelfth pair of nerves. 
3. The nerves of sensation, called Sensitive nerves, are: 
The Large root of the fifth pair of nerves. 
The Glosso-pharyngeal, or ninth pair of nerves. 
The Pneumogastric, or tenth pair of nerves. 
32. The motor nerves, originating from the brain, are the 132 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
same in function, as the motor nerves from the spinal cord. 
They are purely motor at their origin from the brain, but 
after they leave the cranium they receive fibres, more or less, 
from the sensitive nerves, and become mixed nerves, having 
both motor and sensitive fibres mingled in the same trunk. 
33. The sensitive nerves from the brain are capable of sen- 
sation, the same as those from the spinal cord. Each sensi- 
tive nerve passes through a ganglion, near its origin, the 
same as is done by the sensitive roots from the spinal cord, 
and then receives more or less motor fibres from other 
nerves. In these respects the functions of the cranial nerves 
and of the spinal nerves are identical; but the sensitive 
nerves from the brain also give off nerves of special sense. 
The large root, from the fifth pair, sends one branch to the 
tongue, as a nerve of taste; the Glosso-pharyngeal also sends 
a branch to the tongue, as a nerve of taste; and the Pneu- 
mogastric presides over the voice, the respiration, the deglu- 
tition, and the digestion in the stomach. 
34. The great sympathetic nerve acts with less force and 
less rapidity than the cerebro-spinal nerves; hence, the in- 
ternal organs, over which it presides, move very slowly and 
to a very limited extent, and their sensibility to pain, or to 
the touch, is scarcely perceptible, except when they are in 
an inflamed state. 
35. On account of this slowness of movement in the sym- 
pathetic system, internal inflammations are not manifested 
for some time after the application of the exciting cause ; 
thus, indigestible food remains in the stomach some hours 
before irritation is produced in that organ; and the effect of 
exposure to cold or to dampness often is not felt for hours, or 
even for days afterwards. Because of the slowness in the 
production of these inflammations, they usually remain a 
considerable time after the cause is removed. 
36. Three kinds of reflex action take place through the 
sympathetic system: 1st, The reflex action which takes place 
through its ganglia, from one organ to another; thus, food SENSORY APPARATUS. 
133 
in the intestinal canal causes a peristaltic movement in its 
muscular coat, and food in the small intestine excites the 
lymphatic and the capillary vessels to increased absorption. 
2d, The reflex action from the sensitive surfaces to the in- 
ternal organs; thus, disagreeable sights or odors may pro- 
duce nausea, and mental impressions may disturb the circu- 
lation and digestion, the same as joyful or sorrowful news 
often takes away the appetite. 3d, The reflex action from 
the internal organs to the sensitive surfaces; thus, indi- 
gestible food in the stomach may cause convulsions, or even 
temporary blindness. 
37. The activity of the organs of circulation, digestion, and 
absorption, depends in a measure upon each other. There is 
a sympathy of feeling among them by which their functional 
activity is regulated, and this sympathetic feeling is presided 
over by the sympathetic system ; hence, its name. By this 
means the internal organs, which, anatomically considered, 
are entirely separated from each other, are bound together 
physiologically, so that they act in harmony one with 
another; thus producing that unity of action, throughout 
the nutritive apparatus, so necessary to the preservation of 
the life and health of the individual. 
38. Nowhere in the human frame do we find a more per- 
fect adaptation of means to produce certain ends, than in 
the intricate system of nerves pervading every part of the 
body. Through them we become acquainted with the world 
around us, and through them our own existence is made 
known to others. The nerve-centres in the brain are the 
seat of all the intellectual faculties, by which we can con- 
template things earthly, and things divine; for the human 
mind seems to be the connecting link between the animal 
and the spiritual world. It can take cognizance of the life 
of the creature, and all its manifold relations with the things 
of time and sense; and it can be impressed with the truths 
of Deity, and be made to feel and know that they are truths 
divine! 134 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION II. 
1. What is said of the functions of the nervous system ? 
2. Over what does the cerebro-spinal system preside? The sym- 
pathetic system ? What is said of their development in animals ? 
3. Of what is the nervous system composed ? 
4. What is remarked of the nerve-centres? 
5. How must all communications between two organs be made? 
Why is this called reflex action ? 
6. What effects are produced by exciting the nerves ? 
7. In what two forms does all nerve-power show itself? What func- 
tion is possessed by both sets of nerves ? 
8. What is remarked of nervous irritability? 
9. How is the function of an organ excited into action ? 
10. How is the function excited by sympathy ? 
11. What occurs when a nerve-fibre is broken? 
12. What parts of the body are supplied by the spinal cord? 
13. What does the power of sensation enable us to do? Upon what 
does this power depend ? 
14. What is said of the sensation of pain ? How may this sensation 
be blunted ? 
15. What is done with the impressions made through the sensitive 
nerves ? Illustrate by examples. 
16. What is said of the connection in function between the sensitive 
and motor nerves ? 
17. What is remarked of the fibres in the roots and the trunks of the 
spinal nerves? 
18. Of what kind of fibres are the spinal columns composed ? How 
are sensitive impressions carried to the brain ? Motor impressions from 
the brain ? 
19. Where do the fibres of the anterior columns decussate? What is 
the result of this ? 
20. Where do the fibres of the posterior columns decussate ? 
21. May a nerve be irritated along its course ? Where is the impres- 
sion made ? 
22. What is said of the aotion of each nerve-fibre? 
23. Describe associated sensations, and associated movements. 
24. How does the irritability of sensitive nerves cease ? 
25. In what parts of the brain are the functions of sensation and 
motion ? 
26. Of what is the oerehrum the seat ? 
27. The cerebellum ? 
28. The medulla oblongata ? SENSORY APPARATUS. 
135 
29. Define tlie instinctive actions of the cerebro-spinal system. 
30. The reasoning actions. 
31. How may the nerves from the brain be classified? Name the 
nerves of special sense. The motor nerves. The sensitive nerves. 
32. What is said of the class of motor nerves ? 
33. What of the sensitive nerves? What of the functions of the 
cranial nerves, and the spinal nerves ? 
34. What is said of the action of the sympathetic nerve ? 
35. Explain how this slowness of movement operates on the system. 
36. What are the three kinds of reflex action produced through the 
sympathetic system ? 
37. What is said of the sympathy of feeling among the internal 
organs ? 
38. What is remarked of the adaptation of means to ends ? 
Section III. 
Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense. 
1. The Tongue, which is the organ of taste, is composed 
of muscles covered by mucous membrane, and is situated 
within the arch of the lower jaw. It is attached by its root 
to the hyoid bone, and by the middle part of its under sur- 
face to the floor of the mouth, while its sides, its upper sur- 
face, and its tip are free. Upon the anterior part of the 
upper surface of the tongue are numerous small eminences, 
called the papillae of taste. 
2. The papillae of taste are of three kinds; the circum- 
vallate, the capitate, and the conical papillae. The Circum- 
val'late papillae number about a dozen, and are arranged in 
the form of a Y across the tongue, about two-thirds of the 
way from its tip to its root. The Capitate papillae, which 
are numerous, small, red eminences, and the Conical pa- 
pillae, which are still smaller and more numerous, cover the 
two-tliirds of the surface of the tongue next its tip. 
3. All the papillae of taste, and the spaces between them, 
are covered with simple papillae. From the simple papillae 136 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
that surround the conical papillae, the squamous epithelium 
rises in hair-like appendages, which are admirably adapted 
to the imbibition of liquids to be tasted. These hair-like 
projections give the tongue a velvety appearance in health ; 
but they usually become “ coated or furred ” in sickness. 
4. The nerves of the special sense of taste are the lingual 
branch of the fifth pair of nerves, and the glosso-pharyngeal 
nerve. Filaments from each of these nerves pass into all 
the papillae, and also to the mucous membrane of the 
tongue. 
5. The Nose is the organ of the special sense of smell; 
yet it performs a part in the respiration and the voice. It is 
composed of cartilage, which is covered by muscles and 
skin. At its lower part are the two nostrils, or orifices, 
separated from each other by a partition consisting of bone 
and cartilage. The nostrils open externally in front, and into 
the pharynx behind, and are lined throughout by mucous 
membrane, which is continuous with that of the throat. 
6. The olfac'tory nerves, or nerves of smell, pass through 
the foramina of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, in 
the roof of the nasal cavities. They arc in two groups; one 
of which is distributed to the inner wall and the other to 
the outer wall of the nostrils. 
7. The Eye is the special organ of sight, and includes the 
eyeball and its appendages. The eyebrows are the hairy 
brows, or arches, situated between the upper eyelid and the 
forehead. The eyelids are two curtains, situated in front 
of the eyeball, and fringed at their free edges with the eye- 
lashes. They are composed of skin externally; then the 
orbicular muscle, which is concerned in winking; next the 
palpebral cartilages and glands; and then the lining or 
internal membrane, called the conjunctiva. 
8. The Pal'pehral cartilages, one in each eyelid, are thin 
plates of fibro-cartilage, which preserve the shape of the 
eyelids, and are placed next to their free margin. The 
Pal'pehral glands number about twenty to each eyelid. SENSORY APPARATUS. 
137 
They are situated between the palpebral cartilages and the 
conjunctiva, and are arranged vertically. They open at the 
margins of the eyelids, and secrete an oily fluid which pre- 
vents the tears from escaping along those margins. The 
edges of the eyelids are furnished with stiff hairs, called 
Fig. 46. 
Fig, 46. A View of the Right Eye. — 1, The lachrymal gland; 2, lachrymal 
canals; 3, nasal duct. 
eyelashes, which curve downward from the lower lid, and 
upward from the upper lid. 
9. The Conjunc'tiva is a thin, transparent, mucous mem- 
brane lining the inner surface of the eyelids, and is thence 
reflected over the front of the eyeball. 
10. The Lachrymal apparatus, which secretes the tears, 
consists of the lachrymal gland, lachrymal canals, and the 
nasal duct. The Lach'rymal gland is situated at the upper 
part of the outer angle of the orbit. It consists of two 
portions; the larger one being about the size and shape of 
an almond kernel. It is a racemose gland, with about 
half a dozen ducts, arranged transversely, and opening in 
the conjunctiva above the outer angle of the eye. 
11. The Lach'rymal canals commence at the edge of each 
eyelid, near the inner angle of the eye, by a minute orifice. 
They open into the Na'sal duct, which is the passage to 
convey the tears from the eye to the nose. It is nearly an 138 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
inch long, and is lined with mucous membrane, which is 
continuous above with the mucous membrane of the eyelids, 
and below with that of the nose. The tears from the 
lachrymal gland enter the eye at its outer angle, then pass 
between the eyeball and the eyelids to the inner angle, where 
they enter the lachrymal canals, and are thence conveyed 
through the nasal duct into the nose. 
12. The Eyeball is situated in the orbit, with the eyelids 
in front of it, and a cushion of fat behind it. It is spherical 
in shape, and is nearly an inch in diameter. The eyeball is 
composed of three concentric envelopes or coats, which 
enclose the three humors of the eye. The three coats, are 
the sclerotic coat, with the cornea in front; the choroid 
coat, with the iris in front; and the retina. The three 
humors, are the aqueous humor, the crystalline lens, and 
the vitreous humor. 
13. The muscles of the eyeball are divided into straight 
muscles and oblique muscles. The straight muscles of the eye- 
ball are the superior, the inferior, the external, and the internal 
muscle. They arise at the optic foramen, and are inserted 
Fig. 47. 
Fig, 47. The Muscles or the Eyeball.—1, Sphenoid .bone through which the 
optic nerve passes; 2, optic nerve; 3, the eyeball; 4, muscle to raise the upper e}re- 
fid; 5, 7, superior oblique muscle; 6, its pulley; 8, inferior oblique muscle; 9, 
superior straight muscle; 10, internal straight muscle, nearly hidden by the optic 
nerve; 11, 12, parts of the external straight muscle; 13, inferior straight muscle. 
into the sclerotic coat near the cornea. The superior muscle 
draws the eyeball upward, the inferior draws it downward, 
the external draws it outward, and the internal draws it SENSORY APPARATUS. 
139 
inward. The united action of the straight muscles draws 
the eyeball back into the orbit. 
14. There are two oblique muscles ; the superior and the 
inferior. The superior oblique muscle has its origin above 
the optic foramen, and its course along the inner side of the 
orbit. It ends in a tendon, which passes through a pulley, 
and then turns backward and outward, and is inserted be- 
tween the external and the superior straight muscle. The 
inferior oblique muscle passes from the internal angle of the 
orbit outward and backward, and is inserted into the outer 
part of the eyeball. The oblique muscles protrude the eye- 
ball, and rotate it in opposite directions. 
15. The Sclerotic coat is composed of a very strong white 
fibrous membrane, which forms the exterior wall of the eye- 
ball. At its back part is an orifice, through which the optic 
nerve passes. The sheath of the nerve is continuous with 
the sclerotic coat. At its front part is a circular aperture 
into which the cornea is inserted, like a watch-crystal in its 
frame. The cor'nea, which occupies about the fifth part of 
the wall of the eyeball, is a transparent, fibrous membrane 
lined in front by the conjunctiva. 
16. The Cho'roid coat is a thin, vascular membrane situated 
next within the sclerotic coat. It consists of a vascular 
lamina, lined by a pigmentary layer, which is very smooth 
and very black. In Albinoes, this black matter is absent, 
and the choroid coat presents a red color from the numerous 
blood-vessels in it. 
17. The I'ris is a flat disk, whose circumference is con- 
nected with the choroid coat by a whitish zone, called the 
ciliary muscle. The iris has a central aperture, named the 
pupil, which dilates or contracts, so as to regulate the amount 
of light received by the retina. In different individuals the 
iris presents various tints or shades of blue, gray, brown, or 
black. It is a fibrous structure with unstriated muscular 
fibres, forming a circular layer around the pupil, and 
regulating its size. 140 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
18. The Het'ina is the inner coat of the eye. It is a soft, 
nearly colorless membrane, and is formed by the optic nerve, 
which expands and spreads over the inner surface of the 
Fig. 48. 
Fig, 48. Section op the Eyeball. — 1, Sclerotic coat; 2, clioroid coat; 3, retina; 
4, crystalline lens; 5, hyaloid membrane; 6, cornea; 7, iris; 8, optic nerve; 9, aqueous 
humor; 10, vitreous humor. 
choroid coat, as far front as the ciliary muscle, where it ends 
in a waving margin. It is the sensitive coat of the eyeball, 
and it receives all impressions made upon the eye by external 
things. 
19. The Aqueous humor is a clear, colorless, watery liquid, 
filling the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens. 
The space occupied by this humor is divided by the iris into 
two parts; called the anterior and the posterior chambers 
of the eye. 
20. The Crystalline lens is situated between the aqueous 
humor in front, and the vitreous humor behind. It is a 
double convex lens, composed of concentric layers, like the 
coats of an onion. It is a perfectly transparent and color- 
less substance, enclosed in a capsule, and surrounded by the 
ciliary processes. 
21. The Vit'reous humor is also clear and colorless, and 
occupies all the space within the retina and the ciliary SENSORY APPARATUS. 
141 
muscle. It is a viscid liquid, and is contained within a deli- 
cate structure, called the hyaloid membrane. 
22. The Ear is the special organ of hearing. It may be 
divided into the external, the middle, and the internal ear, 
or labyrinth. 
Fig. 49. 
Pig. 49. A View of the Ear. — 1, The external ear; 2, the external auditory 
canal; 3, the tympanic membrane; 4, the middle ear; 5, the Eustachian tube; 6, 
the internal ear; 7, the semicircular canals; 8, the cochlea; 9, a portion of bone. 
23. The External Ear consists of the auricle and the ex- 
ternal auditory canal. The auricle is composed of fibro- 
cartilage, closely covered by the skin, and is the part called 
the ear in common language. The external auditory canal 
is about one inch long, is narrowest in the middle, and ex- 
tends from the auricle inward towards the brain. The outer 
portion is Composed of fibro-cartilage, and the inner portion 
of bone; and both parts are lined with skin. The skin of 
the oiiter part is furnished with numerous short hairs, and 
also with glands, which secrete the cerumen, or ear-wax. 
24. The cavity, called the Middle Ear, consists of the 
tym'panum and the Eustach'ian tube, both of which con- 
tain air. It is everywhere lined by a delicate mucous mem- 
brane, continuous with that of the pharynx, or throat. 142 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
25. The Tym'panum, or drum of the ear, is an irregular 
bony cavity between the external and the internal ear, and 
is separated from the external canal, by a thin, translucent 
membrane, called the tympanic membrane. Three small 
bones, called the mallet, the anvil, and the stirrup, are 
situated in the upper part of the tympanum, and form a 
chain of bones in the order named. The mallet is attached 
to the tympanic membrane, at one end of the chain, while 
the stirrup joins the oval window, communicating with the 
internal ear at the other end; thus, forming a continued 
connection by which the vibrations of the tympanum are 
carried to the internal ear. 
26. The Eustachian tube is a canal about one and a half 
inches long, and extends from the fore part of the tympanum 
to the pharynx. Its upper portion is bony; but its lower 
and longer part is composed of cartilage and fibrous mem- 
brane, formed into a trumpet-shaped tube. 
27. The Internal Ear, or Lab'yrinth, so called from its 
complex character, is divided into three parts; named the 
vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea. 
28. The Ves'tibnle is a small, oval cavity, communicating 
with the tympanum by the oval window, and situated be- 
tween the cochlea and the semicircular canals. 
29. The Semicir'cular Canals are three in number. They 
are curved so that each canal forms rather more than half a 
circle. Two of them open at each extremity into the vesti- 
bule, and the third conjoins with one of the other canals at 
one end, and opens into the vestibule at the other end; so 
that there are five openings from the three canals. Both 
the canals and the vestibule contain a serous liquid; and in 
this liquid floats a pouch or bag, called the membranous 
labyrinth, which is of the same shape as the vestibule and 
the canals, and is also filled with a serous liquid. A branch 
of the auditory nerve is distributed to this membranous 
labyrinth. 
30. The Cochlea, named from its resemblance to a snail- SENSORY APPARATUS. 
143 
shell, is situated in front of the vestibule. It consists of a 
bony canal wound nearly three times around a hollow axis, 
so as to form a spiral cone. This canal is separated by a 
membrane into two passages, which communicate with each 
other only at the apex of the cone. At the lower extremity 
of the cone, one of the passages opens into the tympanum, 
and the other into the vestibule. A branch of the auditory 
nerve is distributed to the cochlea. 
31. The Skin is the natural covering of the body, and is 
the organ of touch. It varies somewhat in thickness in 
different parts of the body, being thinnest on the eyelids 
and lips, and thickest on the back, the palms of the hands, 
and the soles of the feet; and it serves as a protection to the 
muscles, the bones, the blood-vessels, and the nerves placed 
beneath it. The skin varies in different individuals; but it 
is mostly smooth, soft, and flexible in young persons; while 
it becomes harder and more or less wrinkled in the aged. 
32. The skin is composed of two layers, the dermis, and 
the epidermis; it contains two kinds of glands, the sweat 
glands, and the sebaceous glands; and it is furnished with 
two appendages, the hairs, and the nails. 
33. The Der'mis is the deeper layer of the skin. It is 
of a pinkish cream-color, and is mainly composed of a dense 
fibrous tissue, although it contains a few unstriated muscular 
fibres which contract under the influence of cold, fear, or 
electricity, so as to produce the phenomenon of “goose- 
flesh.” Its outer surface is furnished with tactile papillae, 
which vary in number and size, being most numerous and 
longest on the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet. 
Each papilla contains the terminal filament of a sensitive 
nerve, and a looped capillary blood-vessel. The dermis is 
richly supplied with nerves, blood-vessels, and lymphatics, 
each of which forms a close network of vessels near its ex- 
terior surface. 
34. The Epider'mis is the external layer of the skin. It 
is without nerves and blood-vessels; therefore, it is not sensi- 144 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AXD HYGIENE. 
tive to the touch, and it will not bleed upon injury. It 
consists of two layers; the soft epidermic layer, and the 
cuticle. 
35. The Soft Epidermic layer is next above the dermis. 
It is composed of delicate polyhedral cells, formed from the 
dermis; and these cells are changed into dry scales to form 
the cuticle. The soft epidermic layer contains more or less 
black pigmentary matter, which gives the various shades of 
complexion in the skin of the different races, and in different 
individuals of the same race. In a very white skin, this 
coloring matter is almost if not entirely absent. 
36. The Cuticle is the external layer of the epidermis. 
It is composed of scales from the soft 
epidermic layer; and it is constantly 
shedding these from its surface in the 
form of small flakes or scales, called 
scurf, or dandruff. When blisters are 
applied to the skin, the cuticle is the 
part removed. When the skin is sub- 
jected to pressure, or to friction, the 
cuticle becomes thickened and harden- 
ed, and then excites inflammation by 
pressing on the dermis beneath ; thus, 
producing what is called a “ corn.” 
37. In nearly every part of the body, 
small glands, called Sweat glands, are 
found in the skin. They are so numer- 
ous that their number, in an ordinary 
sized man, is estimated to be about two 
millions. Their average diameter is 
about the part of an inch. Each 
gland consists of a tube, which is coiled 
into a ball, and then ascends more or 
less spirally to the surface of the skin. 
These tubes are about the of an 
inch in diameter, and the of an inch in length. The 
Fig. 50. 
Fig, 50. Vertical Sec- 
tion of the Skin ; highly 
magnified. — 1, Epidermis; 
2, cuticle; 3, soft epidermic 
layer; 4, dermis; 5, outer 
surface of the dermis, con- 
taining the tactile papillae; 
6, sweat gland; 7, sweat duct 
opening on the surface of the 
skin. SENSORY APPARATUS. 
145 
entire length of all the sweat tubes in the body, is about two 
and a half miles. The sweat glands secrete a watery liquid, 
called the sweat, or perspiration. 
38. The skin also contains another set of glands, called 
the Seba'ceous glands. They are very numerous, and they 
secrete an oily substance, which anoints the hair and 
keeps the skin soft and moist. The greasiness of the skin, 
from this secretion, causes the dirt to adhere readily to it, 
and thus to close up the mouths of the ducts, so that fre- 
quent washing with soap and water is necessary for its re- 
moval. These glands are most numerous about the roots 
of the hairs. When they become diseased, so that their 
secretion ceases, the hairs become dry and brittle, are easily 
split or broken, and soon cease to grow. 
39. Almost all parts of the body, except the palms of the 
hands and the soles of the feet, are covered more or less 
with hairs, which vary much in color, in size, and in form. 
The portion of the hair projecting from the skin, is called 
its shaft, or stem ; and the part inserted into the skin, is the 
root, or bulb. 
40. The shaft of the hair consists of a cuticle, a cortical 
substance, and a medullary sub- 
stance. The cuticle of the hair is 
composed of a single layer of thin, 
flattened cells, which overlap some- 
what like the shingles of a roof, the 
projecting edges being turned away 
from the root, or bulb. The cortical 
substance forms the chief bulk of 
the hair; and it contains the matter 
which gives the hair such a variety 
of colors. The medullary sub- 
stance forms the axis of the hair, 
although it is frequently absent. 
41. The root of the hair is placed 
in the hair follicle, which is im- 
Fig. 51. 
Fig. 51. The Root op a IIair, 
magnified.—1, Root of the hair; 
2, the hair papilla ; 3, the seba- 
ceous glands; 4, the shaft of the 
hair. 146 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
bedded in the dermis, or the connective tissue beneath it. 
At the bottom of the hair follicle is a papilla, which con- 
tains both nerves and blood-vessels, and from which the hair 
grows. The root of the hair is composed of soft, polyhedral, 
nucleated cells, which are produced from the papilla. As 
these new cells are formed at the bottom of the root, they 
push the hair further out, and thus it grows in length. 
When a hair is extracted, it is reproduced by the papilla 
and hair follicle. 
42. The Nails, on the fingers and toes, are horny append- 
ages, corresponding with the claws and hoofs of other ani- 
mals. They are flexible, translucent plates, continuous with 
the epidermis, and resting on a depressed surface of the 
dermis, called the matrix, or bed. The root and lateral 
edges of the nail are imbedded in grooves in the matrix, 
while the remaining part ends in a free border. The nails 
grow in length by the addition of cells at the root; and they 
grow in thickness by the addition of cells to their under 
surface. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION III. 
1. Describe the structure and position of the tongue. 
2. Describe the papillae of taste. 
3. Describe the simple papillae. 
4. Which are the nerves of taste? 
5. Describe the nose. 
6. Describe the nerves of smell. 
7. Describe the eye. 
8. Describe the palpebral cartilages and glands. The eyelashes. 
9. Describe the conjunctiva. 
10. Of what does the lachrymal apparatus consist? Describe the 
lachrymal glands. 
11. Describe the lachrymal canals. The nasal ducts. Describe the 
course of the tears. SENSORY APPARATUS. 
147 
12. Describe the position and shape of the eyeball. What is said of its 
coats and its humors ? 
13. Describe the straight muscles of the eye. 
14. The oblique muscles of the eye. 
15. The sclerotic coat of the eye. The cornea. 
16. The choroid coat. 
17. Describe the iris. 
18. The retina. 
19. The aqueous humor. 
20. The crystalline lens. 
21. The vitreous humor. 
22. Name the divisions of the ear. 
23. Describe the external ear. 
24. Of what does the middle ear consist? 
25. Describe the tympanum. The chain of bones. 
26. The eustachian tube. 
27. The labyrinth. 
28. The vestibule. 
29. The semicircular canals. 
30. The cochlea. 
31. Describe the skin. 
32. Of what is the skin composed? 
33. Describe the dermis. 
34. Describe the epidermis. 
35. Describe the soft epidermic layer. 
36. The cuticle. 
37. Describe the sweat glands. 
38. Describe the sebaceous glands. 
39. With what are all parts of the body more or less covered ? 
40. Describe the shaft of the hair. 
41. Describe the root of the hair. 
42. Describe the nails. 
Section IV. 
Physiology of the Organs of Special Sense. 
1. The sense of Taste is confined to the tongue, the soft 
palate, the fauces, and the pharynx ; but these organs are 
also endowed with a general sensibility, similar to that of 
other parts of the body. Before a substance can be tasted, 148 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
it must be in a state of solution, so that it can come in con- 
tact with the nerves of taste; therefore, the sense of taste is 
not excited by insoluble substances, such as glass or sand ; 
neither will it be perceived when the tongue is heavily coated, 
as in many cases of sickness. 
2. The substances which excite the sense of taste comprise 
four classes: the sour, as tartaric acid; the sweet, as sugar; 
the bitter, as quinine; and the saline, as common salt. This 
sense seems to be limited to the posterior third of the 
tongue, and to its margin and tip. The posterior part 
is more sensitive to salt and to bitter impressions; and as this 
part of the tongue is supplied by the glosso-pharyngeal 
nerve, these impressions often act sympathetically on the 
stomach, producing nausea and vomiting ; but the margin or 
tip perceives more acutely sweet and sour tastes; and as these 
parts are supplied by the fifth pair of nerves, which also sup- 
ply the face, the countenance is often involuntarily distorted. 
3. The sense of taste appears naturally to act as a guide in 
the selection of food; because articles that are palatable are 
generally wholesome. The taste, however, becomes perverted 
by the habitual use of certain articles, such as tobacco, 
stimulating drinks, and pungent substances generally; and 
a liking for almost any article may be acquired by habit, as 
is the case with the Esquimau who drinks whale-oil, and 
the Cannibal who eats human flesh. 
4. The sense of Smell is confined to the nose. It may be 
excited without the substance coming in contact with the 
olfactory nerves; but the odor from the substance must 
impress those nerves. What this odor is we cannot tell; 
because articles do emit an odor, even for months and years, 
and yet undergo no appreciable change. Volatile substances 
and those in a gaseous form usually emit more odor than 
solids. 
5. Smell aids much in the proper choice of food, warning us 
to reject such articles as have a rancid or a putrid odor, and 
which generally are unfit to be taken into the stomach. It 149 
SENSORY APPARATUS. 
also warns us against offensive odors from gases, the most of 
which are unfit to be breathed; but we may become accus- 
tomed to many of these odors, so as to notice them but little; 
as is the case in poorly ventilated rooms where several 
persons are congregated. 
6. The sense of smell is very feeble in man compared with 
what it is in some of the inferior animals. The lion and 
other carnivorous animals scent their prey from a great dis- 
tance; the dog can track the fox and other animals for miles 
through fields and thickets; and the herbivorous animals, 
such as the deer and the sheep, often discover the approach 
of their natural enemies by the sense of smell alone. 
7. The sense of Sight, or Vision, is confined to the eye. 
It is one of the most important of the special senses, and 
contributes in a great degree to our comfort and our happiness. 
By it we become acquainted with the color, the form, the 
size, the position, the distance, the movements, and other 
physical properties belonging to external objects. But we 
may have all these impressions from internal sources, as in 
dreams, which are often of such a nature as to powerfully 
impress us. Impressions similar to these are also produced 
by nervous diseases of the brain. 
8. Vision does not require contact with a substance, neither 
does it require any emanation from that substance; but it 
needs the intervention of another agent, called light, by which 
objects become visible. The eye may receive the impressions 
of light from a great distance, even from the fixed stars, 
which are millions of miles awav from the earth. 
9. All impressions from the light are made upon the retina 
of the eye, which is insensible to impressions of every other 
kind. Its sensibility to the light is so great, that it not only 
appreciates the different colors of objects, but also the shad- 
ing and blending of those colors, so as to readily distinguish 
them one from another. 
10. The retina, which is so sensitive to light, is protected hy 
the eyelids and the iris. When the light is greatly in excess, 150 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
the eyelids may be partially or entirely closed, thus exclud- 
ing a part or all of its rays; but when the amount of light 
is more moderate, the iris regulates the supply by causing 
the pupil to contract or dilate, and thus admit fewer or more 
rays as occasion requires. The size of the pupil is, there- 
fore, constantly varying, according to the intensity of the 
light falling upon the retina. 
11. The retina is not capable of distinguishing very minute 
objects individually, when they are placed close together; 
thus, fine particles of blue and of yellow powder, when mixed 
together, give a green color; and black substances when 
mixed with white, give a gray color. If these mixtures be 
examined under a microscope, the color of the different 
grains is easily distinguished. 
12. Impressions made upon the retina by any object remain 
for a short time after the object is removed ; thus, when a 
stick, lit at one end, is moved rapidly around in a circle, 
the impression remains long enough to give it the appear- 
ance of an unbroken ring of fire; and when a wheel with 
spokes moves around rapidly, it appears to be solid. 
13. The distinctness of vision depends upon the crystalline 
lens converging the rays of light to a focus, just at the surface 
of the retina. If the lens be too convex, it will bring the rays 
to a focus before they reach the retina, causing dimness and 
confusion of vision. If the lens be too flat, the rays will 
reach the retina before being collected into a focus, also 
causing dimness and confusion of vision. This condition of 
the crystalline lens is remedied by the use of spectacles with 
glasses more or less convex or concave to suit the case. The 
rays of light must come to a focus exactly at the retina, or 
the sight will not be clear. 
14. We cannot see two objects at different distances from ns 
at the same time; therefore, whenever the sight is directed 
from one object to another, a change must take place in the 
eye by which it is adapted to view that object; but how this 
change is effected has given rise to much discussion. The SENSORY APPARATUS. 
151 
usual explanation is, that the ciliary ligament and ciliary 
muscle change the convexity of the lens by compressing its 
edges, and thus adapt it to the ever varying distances of 
objects. The lens is made more convex for near objects, 
and less convex for those far awTay. When an object is 
within six inches of the eye, it is imperfectly seen; but 
from six inches even to millions of miles away, as in the 
fixed stars, the eye can perfectly adapt itself to the dis- 
tance. 
15. The field of vision is the circle within which objects 
may be seen without changing the position of the eyes. It 
is small, near the eye, but increases in size the farther it is 
removed from the organ of sight. 
16. The eyeball is protected by the eyelids, which may 
be closed and thus keep out all foreign particles, such as dust, 
ashes, and sand. When any of these adhere to the conjunc- 
tiva, they are quickly removed by the eyelids, which are 
continually winking while we are awake. The tears, which 
are constantly secreted by the lachrymal gland, lubricate the 
front of the eye and keep the conjunctiva moist and trans- 
parent, so that' the rays of light freely pass through it. Any 
irritating substances under the eyelids increase the flow7 of 
the tears; and mental emotions, whether of joy or sorrow, 
cause them to overflow and roll down the cheeks. 
17. The sense of Hearing is confined to the ear. It 
depends upon the vibrations or waves excited in the atmos- 
phere, called the waves of sound. These vibrations, or 
waves of sound, enter the external ear and strike against 
the tympanic membrane; they are then carried along the 
chain of bones to the labyrinth, and are brought in contact 
with the auditory nerves, where the sense of sound is pro- 
duced. 
18. The sense of hearing, like that of sight, requires the inter- 
vention of a third agent, which is usually the atmosphere; but 
it may he a liquid, or a solid body. A bell rung in vacuum 
does not produce any noise; hence, a medium of some kind 
is needed before a sound can be produced. 152 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
19. The variety of sound which can be distinguished by the 
human ear is very great; for it can detect various degrees in 
the quality, intensity, pitch, duration, and direction of 
sound. The ear, however, may become accustomed to 
sounds so as not to notice them; this is often the case with 
the ticking of a clock, the rumbling of a wagon, and the 
rattling of machinery. 
20. The five special senses are all capable of education; the 
touch may be so trained that the blind can read by means 
of raised letters, which they feel with their fingers; the ear 
may be educated so as to distinguish various musical notes 
and other sounds; the eye may be taught the finer variations 
of color, size, and shape, which are not observed by ordinary 
vision ; the tongue soon learns to judge of teas and wines by 
their taste; and the nose can acquire the habit of correctly 
judging many articles by their odor. This education, how- 
ever, does not depend upon the organs of special sense, but 
rather upon the perceptive and discriminating faculties cen- 
tred in the brain. 
21. The sense of Touch is possessed by nearly all parts of 
the surface of the body; but it is more acute in the hands 
than elsewhere. They are provided with the papillae of 
touch, which have been estimated to number not less than 
twenty thousand to the square inch on the palmar surface of 
the fingers. 
22. When two needles, touching the ends of the fingers, 
are one-twentieth of an inch apart, two impressions are felt, 
but when nearer together than this, only one impression is 
perceived. The needles must be twice as far apart on the 
palm of the hand, four times as far on the lips, twenty times 
as far, or one inch, on the forehead, and not less than two 
inches on tha back part of the body, in order that each 
needle may produce an impression. 
23. The sense of touch is the simplest of the senses; yet it 
brings us into the most intimate relations with external ob- 
jects, by which we learn whether they are hot or cold, hard SENSORY APPARATUS. 
153 
or soft, rough or smooth, at rest or in motion; and it aids the 
sense of sight by proving the reality of its perceptions by 
actual contact. 
24. The skin, besides being the organ of touch, serves a most 
useful purpose as a covering for the body. It aids in keeping 
the tissues and organs in their places; it protects the delicate 
nerves, lymphatics, and blood-vessels found eveiywhere be- 
neath it; it is so admirably arranged that delicate im- 
pressions are easily made upon the sensitive nerves in the 
dermis; and yet its external layer, the cuticle, is of such a 
structure as mostly to remain uninjured, even when brought 
in contact with foreign bodies. 
25. The sweat, or perspiration, is a clear, colorless, watery 
liquid, secreted by the sweat glands in the skin. The per- 
spiration is a constant secretion, but it is so gradual, when 
the body is in repose, that it is immediately carried off from 
the skin by evaporation, and is, therefore, called insensible 
perspiration. When it is increased by bodily exertion, or 
by an elevated temperature of the air, it collects in drops 
on the skin, and is then called sensible perspiration. 
26. One office of the perspiration seems to be to regulate the 
temperature of the body; for when exercise quickens the 
circulation, and increases the animal heat, the perspiration 
is exuded in greater abundance upon the skin, where its 
evaporation reduces the temperature, and keeps the system 
from being overheated. This evaporation is one of the most 
fruitful sources of colds, which are almost sure to follow 
whenever the body is quickly reduced much below its 
natural temperature. 
27. A person can bear a very elevated temperature, so long 
as the atmosphere is dry, and evaporation takes place freely 
from the surface of the body; but when the air is moist, and 
evaporation from the skin is retarded, the system cannot 
bear so high a temperature. A temperature from 400° to 
600° has been borne for a time, without serious inconvenience. 
In these cases, the temperature of the body is but little, if 
any, increased. 154 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
28. The shin exhales both carbonic acid and animal matter 
from its surface, and absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, 
having, in this respect, a function very similar to that of the 
lungs. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION IV. 
1. What is said of the sense of taste ? Why must the substance tasted 
be in a state of solution ? 
2. To what kind of impressions are the parts of the tongue most 
sensitive ? 
3. How does the taste act as a guide in selecting food ? How may it 
be perverted ? 
4. What is necessary to excite the sense of smell ? 
5. How does smell aid in the choice of food ? In regard to gases ? 
6. How is the sense of smell in man compared with other animals ? 
7. What is remarked of the sense of sight? From what other source 
may these impressions come ? 
8. What is needed to excite the sense of sight? 
9. Where are all impressions of objects made ? 
10. How is the retina protected by the eyelids and the iris ? 
11. How do minute objects placed close together affect the retina? 
12. Do impressions upon the retina remain there ? 
13. Upon what does the distinctness of vision depend ? How can the 
dimness be remedied ? 
14. What is remarked of seeing objects at different distances ? How is 
the lens adapted to the distance of objects ? 
15. What is said of the field of vision ? 
16. How is the eyeball protected from dust and sand ? What is said 
of the tears ? 
17. Upon what does the sense of hearing depend ? How do the waves 
of sound reach the auditory nerves ? 
18. What third agent is needed in the sense of hearing? 
19. What is said of the variety of sound ? To what may the ear be- 
come accustomed ? 
20. What is remarked of the education of the special senses? Upon 
what does this education depend? 
21. What is said of the sense of touch ? 
22. How far apart must objects be to make distinct impressions upon 
different parts of the body ? SENSORY ‘APPARATUS. 
155 
23. Of what use is the sense of touch ? 
24. What are the functions of the skin ? 
25. What is remarked of the perspiration ? 
26. How does the perspiration regulate the temperature of the body ? 
27. What elevation of temperature can be borne by the human body ? 
28. What substances are exhaled from or absorbed by the skin? 
Development of Tissues. 
The starting point from which the human being is devel- 
oped, is the primitive organic cell. This cell is more or less 
changed or modified in shape, so as to form the different 
tissues of the body. These tissues make up the liquids 
and the solids of the whole system. Some of the solids are 
composed of a single tissue, while others are formed from two 
or more tissues united together; but every organ in the body 
is composed of one or more tissues, which, in turn, are com- 
posed of organic cells. This may be understood by the 
following. 
' Tissue of cells, floating 
in a liquid. 
Blood. 
Lymph. 
Tissue of cells, arranged 
in layers. 
Epidermis. 
' Cuticle of hair. 
Nails. 
Epithelium. 
Pigment. 
Enamel. 
The 
Primitive 
Organic 
Cell is 
developed 
into 
tissues. 
Adipose tissue. 
Marrow. 
Gray nerve tissue. 
Every or- 
gan in the 
body is 
formed 
from one 
or more of 
these 
tissues. 
Tissue of cells, collected 
in masses. 
Nerve fibres. 
Muscular fibres. 
Capillaries. 
Lymphatics. 
Dentine. 
Tissue of cells, in the 
form of tubes. 
Tissue of cells, in the 
form of filaments. 
[ Fibrous tissue. 
(Elastic tissue. 
Tissue of cells, im- 
[_ bedded in a solid. 
Cartilage. 
Bone. 156 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Grouping of Organs. 
The following exhibits the natural grouping of the parts 
or organs which compose the human body. 
Bones. 
Muscles. 
}- Muscular System. 
Osseous System. 
Motor Apparatus. 
Serous Mem- 
branes. 
Mucous mem- 
branes. 
Membranous System. 
Salivary glands. 
Gastric glands. 
Pancreas. 
Liver. 
Spleen. 
Kidneys. 
Glandular System. 
Mouth. 
Palate. 
Tonsils. 
Tongue. 
Teeth. 
Pharynx. 
(Esophagus. 
Stomach. 
Intestines. 
Digestive System. 
Nutritive Apparatus. 
Heart. 
Arteries. 
Capillaries. 
Veins. 
MAN 
Circulatory System. 
Lymphatic ves- 
sels. 
Lymphatic 
glands. 
Lymphatic System. 
Larynx. 
Trachea. 
Lungs. 
Respiratory System. 
Cerebrospinal 
nerves. 
Sympathetic 
nerves. 
Nervous System. 
Tongue. 
Nose. 
Eye. 
Ear. 
Skin. 
Organs of Special 
Sense. 
Sensory Apparatus. SENSORY APPARATUS. 
157 
GENERAL QUESTIONS. 
1. What is the starting point in the formation of a living being? 
2. From what are all tissues formed ? 
3. Into what two classes are the tissues divided ? 
4. Which substances in the body are composed of cells floating in a 
liquid ? 
5. Which are composed of cells arranged in layers ? 
6. Which of cells in masses ? 
7. Which of cells in the form of tubes ? 
8. Which of cells in the form of filaments? 
9. Which of cells in a solid substance ? 
10. What is the blood ? What is its function ? 
11. What is the lymph ? What is its function ? 
12. What is the epidermis? What is its use? 
13. What part of the hair is the cuticle ? 
14. Where are the nails placed ? 
15. What is epithelium ? 
16. What is pigment? Where does it occur in the body? 
17. What is enamel ? What is its use ? 
18. What is adipose tissue? What is its use ? 
19. What is cartilage ? What is its use ? 
20. What are nerve-fibres ? 
21. What are muscular fibres ? 
22. What are the capillaries ? What is their use ? 
23. What are the lymphatics ? Of what use are they ? 
24. What is fibrous tissue ? Of what use is it ? 
25. What is elastic tissue 9 Of what use is it ? 
26. From what is every organ formed? 
27. What are the bones? Where are they situated? What are their 
uses? Name the bones of the head. Of the trunk. Of the upper 
limbs. Of the lower limbs. 
28. What are the muscles? Where are they situated? What are 
their uses? Where are the flexor muscles situated? The extensor 
muscles ? 
29. What are the serous membranes ? What is their function ? Where 
are they found ? 
30. What are the mucous membranes ? What is their function ? 
Where are they found? 
31. Where are the salivary glands ? What is their function ? 
32. Where are the gastric glands? What is their function ? 
33. Where is the pancreas? What is its function ? 
31. Where is the liver ? What is its function ? 
35. Where is the spleen ? What is its function ? 158 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
36. Where is the mouth ? What is its function ? 
37. Where is the palate ? What is its function ? 
38. Where are the tonsils? What is their function? 
39. Where is the tongue ? What are its functions ? 
40. Where are the teeth ? What is their function ? 
41. Where is the pharynx ? What is its function ? 
42. Where is the oesophagus? What is its function? 
43. Where is the stomach ? What is its function ? 
44. Where are the small intestines ? What is their function ? 
45. Where are the large intestines ? What is their function? 
46. Where is the heart? What is its function ? 
47. Where are the arteries? What is their function? 
48. Where are the veins? What is their function ? 
49. Where is the larynx? What are its functions? 
50. Where is the trachea? What is its function ? 
51. Where are the lungs? What is their function? 
52. Where are the cerebro-spinal nerves? What is their function? 
53. Where are the sympathetic nerves ? What is their function ? 
54. Where is the nose ? What are its functions ? 
55. Where is the eye ? What are its functions ? 
56. Where is the ear ? What are its functions ? 
57. Where is the skin? What are its functions? 
58. Of what is the osseous system composed ? The muscular system ? 
The membranous system? The glandular system? The digestive 
system ? The circulatory system ? The lymphatic system ? The re- 
spiratory system? The nervous system? Which are the organs of 
special sense? 
59. Of what is the motor apparatus composed ? The nutritive appa- 
ratus ? The sensory apparatus ? 
60. Of what is Man composed ? CHAPTER V.—Hygiene. 
Section I. 
General Remarks. 
1. Much of the sickness which afflicts the human family is with- 
out doubt produced by a neglect of the general laws of health, 
or Hygiene. In very many cases these laws are imperfectly 
understood; hence, errors in diet, in clothing, in exercise, 
and in the ventilation of dwellings, are of daily occurrence, 
and are followed by diseases, many of which might be avoided 
by carefully observing the natural laws which aid in the 
preservation of our own existence. 
2. The object of Hygiene is to inquire into the influence 
which surrounding agents, both moral and physical, have 
upon the human body, and to present the best means for 
developing the system and for preserving its functions in a 
state of health. 
3 The human body is composed of various organs differing 
in structure and in function. When the function of any 
one organ becomes deranged, the effect is not confined to that 
organ alone, but it extends more or less to the whole system ; 
thus, when digestion is impaired, the blood receives less nour- 
ishment, and all the tissues and organs of the body suffer in 
a corresponding degree. Moral and physical agents, there- 
fore, act more or less upon the whole being, either directly 
or indirectly. 160 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
4. We have presented the whole subject of Anatomy and 
Physiology in the previous chapters, so that a knowledge 
of the structure and the function of each organ in the body, 
and the dependence of one organ upon another, may be fully 
understood. When pupils have studied these chapters, and 
have become acquainted with the functions of the different 
organs, they will be ready to take up the study of Hygiene, 
and to apply its laws to the preservation of their own exist- 
ence. 
5. The agents which have the most influence upon the 
human body, are air, water, clothing, food, sleep, and mental 
and physical exercise. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is said of the sickness in the human family? 
2. What is the object of Hygiene ? 
3. What is said of the dependence of one organ upon another ? 
4. Why has the whole subject of Anatomy and Physiology been pre- 
sented? When may pupils commence the study of Hygiene? 
5. What agents have the most influence on the human body ? 
SECTION i. 
Section II. 
Air. 
1. The air is composed oj three gases; oxygen, nitrogen, and 
carbonic acid gas. A due supply of oxygen is necessary to 
preserve the health; but a want of oxygen, or an increase in 
the amount of carbonic acid, will be injurious to the system. 
We have already seen that each person needs eight cubic feet 
of fresh air every minute, and four hundred and eighty cubic 
feet every hour; and this amount must be supplied, or the 
health will suffer. HYGIENE. 
161 
2. The sources of carbonic acid are from decaying animal 
and vegetable matter, from combustion, and from the respiration 
of animals. All of these furnish carbonic acid to the air, 
and tend to render it unfit for breathing. Means should, 
therefore, be taken to counteract their injurious effects. 
3. The decay of animal and vegetable matter is more rapid 
in summer than in winter. Moist air also hastens the process ; 
for it is well known that meats, fruits, and other vegetables, 
spoil more quickly during the damp days of summer than at 
any other time. Heaps of animal or vegetable matter, and 
ditches of stagnant water, which always contain vegetable 
substances, soon become putrid during the hot weather and 
give off carbonic acid among their other offensive and un- 
healthy gases. 
4. A residence in the vicinity of slaughter-houses, of estab- 
lishments for making bone-dust, of glue manufactories, of 
ponds or ditches of stagnant water, of sluggish streams, or 
of marshy meadows, is always unhealthy. During the day 
the hot sun hastens the decay of the animal and vegetable 
matter found in such places; and during the night, and in 
the morning, while the dew is being dissipated, the moist air 
increases their exhalations and thus adds to their unhealthi- 
ness ; hence, exposure to such places is more dangerous at 
night than during the day. 
5. All refuse matter, whether animal or vegetable, should be 
removed from the vicinity of our dwellings ; and all decayed 
fruit and other vegetables should be taken out of the cellars, 
in early spring. These underground rooms should then be 
well ventilated, and a coat of whitewash applied to their 
walls. This course will often save sickness in the family. 
6. The lights in a room help to render the air impure by 
consuming its oxygen and giving off carbonic acid. A full 
supply of oxygen causes them to burn brightly; but as the 
carbonic acid increases they grow more and more dim. 
7. Carbonic acid is apt to collect in wells and other covered 
places. These places should never be entered until they are 162 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
first tested by a lighted candle and found to contain air that 
will support life. When the candle burns brightly, the air 
is fit for breathing; when it burns dimly, the air is impure 
and unhealthy; and when it ceases to burn, the air will not 
support life. 
8. Carbonic acid is constantly formed in the body; and at 
every expiration from the lungs it is given off to the atmos- 
phere, which is, therefore, soon rendered unfit for breathing. 
Pure air must be constantly supplied; and this can only be 
done by a free ventilation in all the buildings occupied by 
human beings. 
9. When badly - ventilated rooms are occupied for a 
time, the effect of the carbonic acid in the air may be noticed 
in the more hurried breathing, the increased circulation, the 
headache, the dulness of the intellect, and in a sensation of 
fulness, which causes the strong and healthy to feel oppressed, 
and the weak and delicate oft-times to faint. 
10. When the air is not vitiated to so great an extent, it 
still produces depression and languor. Much of the head- 
ache, giddiness, dulness, sleepiness, yawning, and restlessness, 
felt by teachers and pupils in the school-room, by judges and 
juries in the court-room, and by all who remain long in 
poorly ventilated places, is due to the want of pure air. 
11. The exhalations from the body are increased by sickness, 
and they sometimes emit a very unpleasant odor. This is 
especially the case in low forms of fever, such as typhus, 
typhoid, and scarlet fever, and in small-pox. Fresh air in 
these cases is imperatively demanded, both for the sick, and 
for those who are in attendance. 
12. Many of the poisonous gases have an offensive odor, and 
thus our attention is directed to them. An example of this 
is in the gas used for illuminating cities. It is very inju- 
rious, and often fatal; but its disagreeable odor attracts 
attention to its presence, and enables us to make use of such 
means as will prevent its deleterious effects. 
13. Continued exposure to a vitiated atmosphere will always 163 
HYGIENE. 
disturb and depress the vital powers, and will sooner or later 
bring on some disease to hurry its victim to an untimely 
grave. The respiration, the circulation, and the digestion, 
all become deranged when the system suffers from want of 
pure air; and through them the brain, the nerves, the mus- 
cles, and indeed every part of the body, cease properly to 
perform their functions, and disease must be the result. 
14. The continued breathing of impure air depresses the sys- 
tem, giving rise to many diseases, but particularly to scrofula 
and consumption. This is the case, not only with man, but also 
with the inferior animals, which when confined in ill venti- 
lated places, very often die of the latter disease. The best 
means of preventing consumption is to have an unlimited 
supply of pure air, to eat plenty of nutritious food, and to be 
well protected by clothing from the vicissitudes of the climate. 
15. Animals are everywhere consuming the oxygen of the 
air and giving off carbonic acid to it; but plants are every- 
where consuming the carbonic acid, and giving off oxygen. 
In this way, the proportion of these gases in the air is kept 
unchanged from one generation to another. How clearly 
may we behold in this the dependence of the animal and 
the vegetable kingdom upon each other! Carbonic acid 
causes the death of animals, but sustains the life of plants; 
while oxygen sustains the life of animals, but causes the 
death of plants. 
16. There is no agent, moral or physical, more productive of 
sickness and suffering to the human family, than a vitiated 
atmosphere; and until this is exchanged for air that is pure 
and good, all other means for preserving or restoring the 
health, will avail but little. This fact cannot be impressed 
too strongly upon all, so that more attention may be given 
to the ventilation of all places occupied by human beings. 
17. Persons accustomed to warm, unventilated rooms, 
where the atmosphere is vitiated, have their respiratory and 
other functions depressed, and, therefore, feel the less need 
for fresh air. Habit and the depressing influence of the foul 164 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
air dull their senses, so that they do not recognize, either by 
smell or by a sense of increasing infirmity, the effect of the 
impurities which they are breathing; hence, they are apt to 
continue in the practice of breathing the vitiated air until 
they are overtaken by some serious disease. 
18. The sleeping apartments should be well ventilated. There 
is but little danger of taking cold when a person is accus- 
tomed to having his sleeping-room freely supplied with fresh 
air. In a room, well ventilated, the sleep is more refreshing, 
and the vigor and strength of the whole system is more fully 
restored by the night’s rest. The dry mouth and throat, the 
headache, and the languor felt in the morning, would often be 
prevented by sleeping with an open door or an open window. 
19. The best means for ventilation are bgproperly constructed 
flues. When heaters are used, and the warm air, which 
should always be pure, is introduced into the room by means 
of a pipe, there should be two flues on the side of the room 
opposite to where the warm air enters; one near the floor, 
and the other near the ceiling, so as to remove the impure 
air. 
20. When a stove is used for heating a room, there should 
be some means provided near the ceiling for introducing 
fresh air into the part of the room where the stove is placed. 
The flues for the escape of the impure air should be opposite 
to the stove; thus insuring a constant circulation in the air 
of the apartment. 
21. As a means of ventilation, the open fireplace comes next 
in value to the flues. It should always be kept open, and 
will be found a most excellent means for removing the 
impure air of a room. It is particularly valuable in a sleep- 
ing-room where there is no fire; because it does not create 
draughts of air to injure the sleeper. Too often, however, 
the fireplace is boarded up for the sake of appearance ; but 
if its full value as a health preserver could be comprehended, 
it would always be left open. 
22. When a room has neither flues nor fireplace, recourse HYGIENE. 
165 
must be had to the doors or windows; but these should never 
be opened so that a draught of cold air will blow upon the 
inmates. The admission of fresh air through a hall or un- 
occupied room by means of a door, is better than the direct 
introduction of the external air through a window. 
23. The air we breathe should contain a due supply of mois- 
ture ; but when it is heated by artificial means, it is apt to 
become dry, and then absorbs too much of the moisture 
from the lungs and the skin, producing a dry and feverish 
condition of the system. A vessel containing water should, 
therefore, be kept upon the stove, or other heating appa- 
ratus, so that it may give off moisture to the heated atmos- 
phere of the room. 
24. The air acts upon all inflamed surfaces by evaporating 
their moisture; hence, they should be kept covered. Wounds, 
sores, burns, scalds, erysipelas, and poisons, should all be 
covered, so as to exclude the air. It is probable that salves, 
ointments, and other dressings, do much good by excluding 
the air, and thus keeping the parts soft and moist. 
25. The density of the air has an influence upon the respi- 
ration. As we descend into mines in the earth, the air be- 
comes more dense, and contains more oxygen, and the respi- 
ration is slower; but when we ascend mountains, the air 
becomes more rare, and contains less oxygen, and the respi- 
ration is more hurried. The human body may become ac- 
customed to these changes of density, so as to experience but 
little, if any, inconvenience from them. This is the case 
with the inhabitants of the city of Quito, which is 9,540 feet 
above the level of the sea. 
26. The range of temperature within which human life can 
be maintained is very great; for there is a wide difference 
between the burning heat of equatorial climes and the cold 
air of the regions of perpetual snow; yet, both are inhabited, 
and men frequently pass from one place to the other. Even 
the temperature of the air, in many parts of our own 
country, varies from 100° to 120° between the extremes of 
winter and of summer. 166 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
27. The temperature of the air favors certain kinds of disease. 
In warm climates the tendency is to inflammations of the mu- 
cous membrane of the stomach and intestines, giving rise to 
diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, and diseases of the liver. Heat 
also acts upon the nerve centres of the brain, producing 
languor and listlessness, and a general disposition to avoid 
physical and mental labor. 
28. In cool climates the tendency is to diseases of the respira- 
tory organs, such as pleurisy, pneumonia, bronchitis, and 
consumption. Cold is a depressing agent, and it acts most 
injuriously upon the young, whose vigor is not fully devel- 
oped ; upon the old, whose powers are on the decline; and 
upon the invalid, whose system is enfeebled by disease. 
29. The air always contains moisture, but the amount is 
continually changing. Sometimes it is so dry as to quickly 
evaporate all the exhalations of the body; but at other 
times it is so loaded with moisture, that evaporation almost 
ceases, and the skin is bathed in perspiration. Moist air is 
always depressing; but a pure, dry air, is exhilarating to 
the svstem. 
30. Sudden changes in the condition of the atmosphere can 
be endured by the robust without much injury; but the young 
and the old, the feeble and the delicate, often suffer greatly. 
It is not so much the heat or the cold, the moisture or the 
dryness of the air, that causes disease, as it is the sudden 
changes, before the system can accommodate itself to them. 
Regulating the temperature of our houses by means of fire, 
and the temperature of our bodies by suitable clothing, are 
our best means for protection. 
31. Changes from heat to cold can he endured much better 
than those from cold to heat. When any part of the body is 
benumbed with cold, it should not be exposed directly to the 
fire, or inflammation will almost surely follow. If the whole 
system is much depressed, the person should be taken into a 
cold room, and rubbed with towels so as to excite the circu- 
lation, while the temperature of the room is gradually in- HYGIENE. 
167 
creased ; but if only a part is benumbed, it should be placed 
in cold water, and should be gently rubbed until sensibility 
is restored. This is the best means for preventing frost-bite. 
32. A change of air from town to country often proves bene- 
ficial, particularly during the warm weather. Even a week 
or two at the seaside, on the mountains, or at the quiet farm- 
house, will produce a buoyancy of the feelings, an augmented 
appetite, and an increased weight. It is the change of soci- 
ety, of scenery, and of the other surroundings, which acts 
upon the nervous system, producing the good results. 
33. Children reared in the country are generally healthier 
and stronger than those in large cities. The fresh air of the 
country seems more invigorating than that of the city; and 
parents should send their children into the country, at least 
during the summer season, where they may enjoy such free 
exercise in the open air, as will tend to improve their health 
and develop their strength. 
34. Constant breathing is necessary for the support of human 
life, and, under ordinary circumstances, the breath cannot 
be held for more than half a minute; but if five or six. deep 
expirations and inspirations be taken, so as to empty the 
lungs as completely as possible of the impure air, and then 
a full inspiration be taken, from one to two minutes may 
elapse without breathing. This fact becomes useful when 
passing through places filled with smoke, or poisonous gases, 
and in diving into the water to save others from drowning. 
The pearl-divers of Ceylon are able by long practice to sus- 
pend the process of respiration for three or four minutes at 
a time. 168 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Of what gases is the air composed ? How much fresh air is needed 
by a person ? 
2. What are the sources of carbonic acid ? 
3. How is the decay of animal and vegetable matter hastened ? 
4. What places are unhealthy as a residence ? Why are they more 
unhealthy at night ? 
5. What should be done with all refuse matter ? 
6. What effect do the lights in a room have upon the air ? 
7. How can the air in wells and other places be tested ? 
8. What becomes of the carbonic acid formed in the lungs ? 
9. What are the effects from breathing impure air ? 
10. What does air slightly vitiated produce ? 
11. What is said of the exhalations from the body in sickness ? 
12. What of the odor of poisonous gases ? 
13. How are the vital powers affected by a vitiated atmosphere? 
14. What diseases are produced by breathing impure air? What are 
the best preventives of consumption ? 
15. What keeps the proportion of oxygen and carbonic acid in the air 
unchanged ? 
16. What agent probably produces the most sickness and suffering to 
the human family ? 
17. Why do we not recognize the impurity of the air while breathing it ? 
18. What is said of ventilating sleeping-rooms ? 
19.1\ hat are the best means for ventilation ? How can a room be ven- 
tilated when heaters are used ? 
20. What is the best arrangement for the flues when a stove is used ? 
21. What is remarked of the fire-place as a ventilator ? 
22. What of the doors and windows as ventilators ? 
23. Why should the air contain moisture? How may moisture be sup- 
plied to the air in a room ? 
24. How does air act on inflamed parts of the body ? 
25. How does the density and rarity of air affect the respiration ? 
26. What is said of the range of temperature within which human life 
can be maintained ? 
27. What diseases are produced by warm climates ? 
28. What diseases by cold climates? 
29. What is said of dry and of moist air ? 
30. How are human beings affected by sudden changes in the weather? 
31. What is the best treatment for persons benumbed with cold ? 
32. How does a change of air from town to country prove beneficial ? 
33. Why should children spend the summer in the country ? 
34. What is remarked of suspending the process of breathing? 
SECTION II. HYGIENE. 
169 
Section III. 
Water. 
1. Water forms nearly three-fourths of the weight of the body, 
and is the solvent for all substances before they can enter 
the circulation. All articles used as food, contain water; 
but the system does not obtain enough from this source, and, 
therefore, requires a further supply in the form of drink. 
The average amount of water, needed by an adult man, is a 
little more than four pounds in a day. 
2. Death soon occurs when a person is deprived of either 
food or drink. In the cases recorded, a few persons have 
lived twenty days on water only; but seven days is the longest 
period when deprived of both food and drink. 
3. In sickness, water shoidd ahvays be given in moderate 
quantity to the patient, so as to prevent suffering from thirst. 
To the dry lips, the feverish mouth, and the parched tongue, 
it is often most grateful, and it helps to allay the nervous 
excitement so common in all fevers. Little children, too 
young to make their wants known, often suffer very much 
for want of a drink of water. 
4. Water is seldom found pure in nature; for it mostly 
contains more or less foreign matter in solution. These 
matters so change the character of the water, that they give 
rise to the two varieties, known as soft water and hard water. 
5. Rain water, where it falls in the open country, is a good 
example of soft water, and is the purest water found in nature. 
It is not entirely free from foreign substances ; for it collects 
organic matter, dust, and other impurities from the atmos- 
phere. While falling, the rain-water absorbs a portion of 
air, which it retains while flowing through the earth. It is 
this that imparts to spring water its agreeable taste. Soft 
water is always to be preferred to hard water, for cooking as 
well as for drinking purposes. 
6. Rain water penetrates the earth, and there meets with 170 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
many substances which it dissolves. The most common of 
these are the carbonate and the sulphate of lime. Owing to 
the presence of these mineral substances, the water is called 
hard water, and is more or less unwholesome. 
7. Pure water is very essential for drinking and for cooking 
purposes, and every means should be taken to have it as 
pure as possible. People in the country usually obtain 
good water, at all times, from the springs and wells dug in 
the earth; but people in cities are generally supplied with 
water from the rivers or lakes in their vicinity. 
8. During the summer months the water from the lakes 
and rivers contains more or less organic matter, and should 
be filtered before being used. This may readily be done by 
letting the water pass through a barrel, filled with sand or 
gravel, or with coarsely powdered charcoal. Rain or snow 
water, when kept for drinking purposes, should be filtered 
in the same way, during the warm weather. The addition 
of ice renders the water more palatable, and is not injurious, 
when used in moderate quantities. 
9. The use of water free from organic impurities, for the 
purposes of drinking and cooking, is as essential to good health 
as pure air. Whenever any doubt exists as to the character 
of the drinking-water, it should be carefully filtered. Im- 
pure water, by slowly introducing organic matter into the 
system, may poison the blood and lower the standard of 
health, so that the body is more subject to the influence of 
disease. These impurities are sometimes increased in amount, 
until the water becomes a poisonous instead of a healthful 
drink. 
10. Water is very useful as a means for cleansing the body. 
It is important that the skin should be kept free from accu- 
mulations of grease and dirt, so that the perspiration may 
freely escape through the open pores ; for “he who keeps the 
skin clean and soft, shuts many gates against disease.” Fre- 
quent ablutions with soap and water are necessary to preserve 
the skin in a healthy state; and when these are neglected, HYGIENE. 
171 
painful diseases of the skin, or of the internal organs, are apt 
to follow. 
11. The vigor of the system may be promoted by a judicious 
course of bathing; and it, consequently, becomes an important 
means of strengthening the feeble powers of the invalid. 
When the bath is used for the purpose of strengthening the 
body, it should be taken once every day; but when it is simply 
to cleanse the skin, one or two baths a week will be sufficient. 
12. The bath should never be entered while the body is in a 
state of perspiration. The contact of the water prevents the 
escape of the animal heat from the body, and its accumula- 
tion gives rise to internal inflammations, often of the most 
serious kinds. So great is this shock to the system, that it 
sometimes produces death in a few hours. 
13. The temperature of the bath demands our careful con- 
sideration; for bathing will prove injurious when the amount 
of heat is not suited to the requirements of the system. The 
body receives a greater or less shock upon entering a bath; 
but reaction should soon follow. When this is not the case, 
the body should be rubbed with coarse towels until a “ glow” 
is produced. Unless the shock is followed by reaction, the 
bath cannot be beneficial. 
14. The best time for bathing is in the morning before break- 
fast ; in the forenoon, from one to three hours before dinner; 
or in the evening, before retiring to sleep. A bath will 
probably be most beneficial when taken in the fore part of 
the day; yet any time will answer except the three hours 
after a meal, while digestion is taking place. When taken 
immediately after eating, the shock is apt to derange the 
digestive organs, and should, therefore, be avoided. 
15. The length of time for remaining in a hath must he 
determined by circumstances. Much will depend upon the 
kind of reaction which follows. When this is vigorous, a 
half an hour will not be too long a time, and when very- 
agreeable to our feelings, it may even be prolonged for an 
hour; but when the reaction is feeble, ten or fifteen minutes 172 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
should be the full extent of time. When the water is cold, 
five or ten minutes will be long enough. 
16. The cold hath should range in temperature from 50° to 
75° Fahrenheit. It is better adapted to the robust and 
strong, than to the delicate and weak. The direct effect of 
a cold bath is to depress, and when the system is already in 
a feeble state, it may be depressed so that reaction will fail 
to take place. The coldness of the bath must, therefore, 
depend upon the amount of vigor in the system, and should 
not be used when the body is suffering from fatigue. Unless 
the system promptly reacts, and a glow of warmth is felt 
soon after taking the bath, we may rest assured that its con- 
tinued use will prove injurious. 
17. The tepid hath should range in temperature from 75° to 
90°. When the cold bath is too depressing, that is, when 
reaction and a glow of warmth in the body is too long in 
returning, then the tepid bath is to be preferred. It is less 
depressing in its effects, and the nervous system receives less 
shock from its use; it should, therefore, be used by those 
who are delicate; and if regularly employed day by day, 
and followed by a vigorous reaction, it will tend to invigorate 
and strengthen the system. 
18. The warm hath should range in temperature from 90° 
to 96°. This bath is grateful to persons with a languid 
circulation, and in whom the powers of life are depressed. 
It is the bath most commonly used for removing the accumu- 
lations of dirt and other substances from the surface of the 
body. It calms nervous excitement, and disposes to sleep; 
hence, when one is tired, and excited from a journey, from 
overwork, or from an enfeebled constitution, the warm bath, 
at a temperature of about 90°, is well suited to calm the 
excitement, and induce refreshing sleep. It may be used by 
the young, the middle-aged, and by those advanced in life ; 
and when it is regularly continued, it will help to strengthen 
and invigorate the system. The hot hath is stimulating, and 
should never be used unless advised by a physician. HYGIENE. 
173 
19. Sea-bathing seems to be more invigorating than bathing 
in fresh water; but this is probably due in a great measure 
to the cheerful company, the swelling surf, and the exhila- 
rating scenes always attending a plunge into the ocean at 
any of our sea-side resorts. A salt bath is less depressing to 
the system, and a person is less liable to take cold from a 
bath in salt water than from one in fresh water. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION III. 
1. What is said of the amount and use of water in the body? 
2. How long have persons lived without food and water ? 
3. Why should water be given to the sick ? 
4. What is said of the purity of water in nature? 
5. What is remarked of rain, or soft water ? 
C. What is the cause of hard water? 
7. How is pure water obtained in the country and in cities? 
8. What should be done with the river and the rain water in the 
summer season ? 
9. What should be done with all impure water ? How does it affect 
the system ? 
10. What is remarked in regard to keeping the skin clean? 
11. What good results came from bathing? Iiow often should baths 
be taken ? 
12. Why not enter a bath when in a state of perspiration ? 
13. What is remarked of the temperature of the water used for bathing ? 
14. What of the best time for bathing ? 
15. What of the length of time for remaining in the bath ? 
16. What is remarked of the use of the cold bath ? 
17. What of the use of the tepid bath ? 
18. What of the use of the warm bath ? 
19. What is said of sea-bathing ? 174 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Section IV. 
Clothing. 
1. All bodies without life are constantly losing or gaining 
heat, so that they are kept at the same temperature as the 
surrounding atmosphere. Living plants and animals also 
receive and give off heat; but they have a means of generat- 
ing heat within themselves, thus resisting the effects of the 
temperature of the external air. In plants, this power is 
very feeble; but in animals, it is more strongly marked. 
2. The temperature of animals is usually higher than that of 
the air or water in which they live; hence, heat is continually 
given off from their bodies to the surrounding air or water. 
The lower orders among animals are provided with a natural 
covering of hair, of fur, or of feathers, by which the animal 
heat of their bodies is prevented from escaping too rapidly; 
but man is compelled to resort to clothing of some kind for 
this purpose. 
3. The temperature of the human body is from 98° to 100°; 
while the temperature of the climate in this country varies 
from that of the blood to 20° below zero, making a range of 
120°. During the cold weather the body must be well pro- 
tected by clothing so as to be kept at a uniform temperature. 
When the heat of the body is reduced to 80°, the individual 
perishes from the depressing effects of the cold; and when 
reduced to any point between 98° and 80°, the system receives 
more or less injury, corresponding with the reduction of the 
temperature. 
4. When the animal heat generated in the body, is pre- 
vented from passing off by means of impermeable clothing, 
or of a coat of varnish applied to the skin, sickness is the 
result; and when, from any cause, the temperature of the 
body is elevated to llO3, the individual perishes from being 
overheated. HYGIENE. 
175 
5. The power of generating heat and of resisting the depress- 
ing effects of cold, is less in young children arid in the aged, 
than it is in the middle period of life. Hence, the greater 
necessity for the protection of the young and the old, by 
means of clothing and of artificial warmth. The feeble and 
the sick, whose powers of life are depressed below the 
healthful standard, cannot well bear the cold, and they 
should shelter themselves near the fire as well as wear 
warm clothing during the winter season. Cold is the chief 
cause of mortality among the young, the feeble, and the 
aged; and it is to them the great enemy of life. 
6. Sleep lowers the temperature of the body from one to two 
degrees; and all the functions, even those of the circulation 
and respiration, are at the same time reduced in activity; 
consequently, more covering is necessary during sleep, than 
when awake. The system seems to be most depressed during 
the latter part of the night; for it is between midnight and 
sunrise that the body has the most difficulty in resisting the 
effects of severe cold. We are all made aware of this fact 
by the necessity which we find for more covering towards 
morning. 
7. Exercise not only increases the feeling of warmth in the 
body, but it actually raises its temperature. The deeper parts 
of the body become only one or two degrees warmer; but 
the face, the hands, and the feet, may be raised many degrees. 
A much larger amount of animal heat is generated, when the 
body is exercised, than when it is in a state of repose. This 
extra heat causes the skin to be covered with perspiration, 
which evaporates, and carries the heat of the body off with 
it; thus preserving a nearly uniform temperature. 
8. The radiation of heat from the body, and the evaporation 
of the perspiration on its surface, must be regulated by the 
clothing, which, therefore, requires constant attention to suit 
the vicissitudes of a climate so varied and changeful as this. 
In no other way can the body he so well guarded against 
colds, as by a proper amount of clothing; the object being 
the prevention, rather than the cure of disease. 176 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
9. The principal object of clothing is to protect the body from 
heat and cold; therefore, we must select such fabrics for 
wearing apparel as will best accomplish this purpose. 
During warm weather, the clothing should be light, so that 
the heat of the body may readily escape; but in cold, moist 
weather, the clothing should be heavier, and of such a kind 
as to retain the heat ot the body, and at the same time to 
permit the exhalations to pass off freely from the skin. 
10. Clothing is made of hair, wool, silk, linen, or cotton. 
Furs and woollen materials furnish the warmest kind of 
clothing for the body; while fabrics, made of cotton or linen, 
are much cooler. 
11. Linen imbibes moisture from the body quickly, and 
in that way conveys the heat away very rapidly. It is Avell 
suited to a warm climate, where there are but few atmos- 
pheric changes; yet it should not be worn next to the skin, 
as it cools the surface too quickly, and is, therefore, a poor 
protection against sudden chills. Cotton absorbs moisture 
less rapidly, and is, therefore, a warmer covering for the 
body than linen. It is better suited for clothing, because it 
affords more protection against sudden changes. 
12. Woollen goods are slow to absorb moisture; and, as 
they contain considerable air among their particles, they are 
poor conductors, and retain much of the heat of the body. 
Woollen goods are often spoken of as being warm; but their 
warmth consists in preventing the escape of the heat from 
the body, and the entrance of the cold to the body. They 
are poor conductors of both heat and cold; and they furnish 
the best means for protecting our bodies against the changes 
so frequent in our climate. 
13. Woollen flannel, in the shape of waistcoat and drawers, 
should he worn next to the skin, at all times, except during 
the warmest weather of summer; and even then, the flannel 
should only be exchanged for similar articles of clothing, 
made of cotton. The advantage derived from wearing flan- 
nel is, that it prevents the surface of the body from being HYGIENE. 
177 
suddenly cooled, and thus lessens the liability to colds, and 
to other affections of the lungs. When flannel is too irri- 
tating to the skin, it may be lined with muslin. 
14. Very young children should wear flannel next to the 
skin, at all seasons of the year. It should not be taken off 
during the midsummer months, as it will even then afford 
protection from colds, and other diseases, generated by the 
chilly mornings and evenings. 
15. The aged and the infirm are particularly benefited hy 
the me of flannel. And those who suffer from rheumatic 
affections, who are scrofulous, or who are in any way pre- 
disposed to a weak breast, or to diseases of the chest, should 
be clothed in flannel from head to foot. It is the best means 
for preserving an equable heat in the body; and it protects 
against cold, as well as promotes the general comfort. 
16. The tvarmth of clothing depends upon its color, and its 
texture, as well as upon the material of which it is made. 
Clothing of a black color is warmer than that which is 
white; hence, dark clothes are usually selected for winter, 
and light clothes for summer wear. Coarse fabrics, with a 
long nap, are much warmer than those of a finer and closer 
texture; and garments fitting moderately close, are warmer 
than those which are very large and loose. 
17. The flannel underclothing should he frequently changed. 
Once or twice a week will suffice under ordinary circum- 
stances, during the winter; but, when the body perspires 
freely, they need changing more frequently. All clothing 
worn during the day, particularly in the summer season, 
should be removed before retiring to rest; and, during the 
night, it should be well aired in a dry room. 
18. The feet should he kept warm and dry at all times. Ex- 
posure of the feet to wet and cold is one of the most common 
causes of disease ; hence, all persons, and particularly those 
who are predisposed to affections of the lungs, or to rheuma- 
tism, should be careful to keep the feet well protected by 
cotton or woollen stockings, and by warm boots or shoes. 178 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
When gartei’s are worn, they should be elastic, and not too 
tight, or they will compress the veins of the skin and prevent 
the flow of blood toward the heart, often giving rise to a 
painful enlargement of the veins. 
19. The manner of dressing is as important as the materials 
used. All garments should be as light as is consistent with 
the warmth and comfort of the wearer. Two or three thick- 
nesses of flannel will often be warmer than double that 
weight made into a single garment, and should, therefore, be 
preferred. 
20. Tight-fitting garments are injurious in many ivays. They 
are not so warm as those moderately loose; because they 
prevent the free circulation of the blood. They restrict the 
natural motions and the healthy exercise of the body, and 
thus check the amount of heat; and they prevent the free 
movement of the muscles, and, in this way, cause deformities 
that are apt to remain until the end of life. 
21. Tight clothing obstructs the circulation of the blood, and is 
often the cause of serious diseases. When the clothing presses 
tightly against the neck, it prevents the return of venous 
blood from the head, and sometimes produces congestion of 
the brain, and even apoplexy. The small neck-ties, now in 
use, are a very great improvement over the old-fashioned 
stocks in vogue a few years since. 
.22. Tight lacing about the chest is productive of much mis- 
chief It cramps the action of the muscles, prevents the 
expansion of the lungs, compresses the heart and large blood- 
vessels, contracts the cavity of the chest, and generates a 
multitude of diseases. All clothing should he so loosely worn 
as to allow the lungs full opportunity for expansion, so that 
neither the respiration nor the circulation will be impeded. 
23. When the chest is compressed, it induces diseases of the 
uiost serious character. A full and free expansion of the 
lungs is necessary for maintaining the health; and when this 
is prevented by tight clothing, the amount of air inspired is 
too small for the wants of the system, so that the venous HYGIENE. 
179 
blood is imperfectly changed into arterial blood. The air 
then brings too little oxygen to the blood and carries away 
too little carbonic acid; hence, the body suffers from the 
Fig. 52. 
Fig. 53. 
Fig. 52. The Shape of a Waist not deformed by tight-lacing. 
Fig. 53. The Shape of a Waist deformed by tight-lacing. 
want of fresh air, the same as it does when confined in an 
ill ventilated dwelling; and it becomes subject to all the 
evils induced by a vitiated atmosphere. 
24. In children, while the bones are soft and yielding, 
tight lacing not only produces all these evils, but it forces 
the chest out of its natural shape, and prevents its natural 
growth. When this is the case, the organs within the chest 
cannot be developed; and the lungs, the heart, and the 
blood-vessels, never attain their full size. Good health never 
can be enjoyed by those who persist in the practice of tight 
lacing, or in any other way of constricting the free move- 
ments of the chest. 180 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
25. When the foot receives the weight of the body, as it does 
in walking, it spreads out a little at the sides, and becomes 
somewhat longer. The boot or the shoe should always be 
large enough to permit these movements. It is the length- 
ening of the foot that makes it so painful to walk when the 
boots or shoes are too short. When they are too narrow, 
they compress the toes and the joints, producing corns, 
bunions, and the ingrowing of the nails. Gum overshoes 
should be worn in wet weather, but they should always be 
removed while in the house; because they prevent the exha- 
lations of the feet from being evaporated. Boots and shoes 
should be made heavy enough to support and protect the 
feet; and fashion should, in this respect, yield to health and 
comfort. 
26. When clothes become wet, either from the perspiration of 
the body, or from other causes, they should be exchanged for 
dry woollen garments. The woollen clothes check the rapid 
evaporation, and thus prevent the body from being cooled 
below its natural temperature, so that neither colds, nor 
rheumatism, are apt to result. But when dry clothing can- 
not be had, the person should remain near the fire until the 
clothing is entirely dry; or he should continue to exercise 
the body, so that it will not become chilled while the clothes 
are wet. 
27. The amount of clothing worn must, in all cases, be ac- 
cording to the weather; but the young, the feeble, and the 
aged, need more clothing than those who are in the full 
vigor of life. For persons who are advanced in years to 
refuse an extra garment for fear of seeming to be old, is an 
act of folly; and for the young to be unprovided with suf- 
ficient clothing, is often simply to lay the foundation of 
permanent and fatal diseases. 
28. Persons are more liable to take cold during the after part 
of the day, than in the morning; because the atmosphere is 
then more cool and damp, and the energy of the system is 
more exhausted. The custom of putting on light and thin HYGIENE. 
181 
clothing, for an afternoon and evening, has often laid the 
foundation of serious diseases. Instead of thinner clothing, 
an extra garment towards evening would be more likely to 
promote both health and comfort. 
29. When heated, we shoidd never stand nor sit in a draught 
of wind from the door or window, as this is one of the most 
fruitful sources of colds. When thus heated, instead of 
throwing off a part of our clothing in order to get cool, we 
should put on an additional garment, so as to protect the 
body from being cooled too rapidly. When this is done, a 
cold will seldom result. 
30. When clean clothing is to be put on, we should be caref ul 
to have it dry, and well aired. Many a person has contracted 
a severe cold from putting on clean clothing that was not 
entirely dry. It would be better to expose all articles of 
clothing to the fire for a few minutes before they are needed. 
31. The different parts of the body should be clothed accord- 
ing to their requirements. The face is usually left exposed at 
all seasons ; but the ears and the hands are covered when it 
is cold. The head contains a large proportion of blood, and 
needs only a light covering. The neck and throat are easily 
overheated, and the covering for them should be light. 
Muffling the neck and throat of children with furs, or with 
woollen fabrics, is the common cause of sore throats, coughs, 
and croups. These parts become overheated when thus 
wrapped up; and when the covering is removed, and the 
neck left bare, as is usually the case upon entering a house, 
they are chilled so rapidly that sickness results. 
32. The upper and the lower limbs often go unprovided with 
proper clothing. During the winter season they should never 
be exposed without covering; and when the child passes into 
the open air, both the upper and the lower limbs should be 
well protected with woollen garments. 
33. It is entirely wrong to suppose that children can be 
hardened by exposure. Attempts of this kind too often end 
in disease or death. A strong child may bear up against 182 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
them; but the weak and the delicate will surely die. 
Clothing, food, bathing, and fresh air, are needed to pro- 
mote the health and growth of children ; and these must be 
supplied in sufficient amount, and according to sound judg- 
ment. Fashion and folly in dress should give way to those 
things which will produce health and happiness. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION IV. 
1. How are bodies without life affected by heat? How are living 
bodies affected ? 
2. How does the temperature of animals correspond with that of the 
air ? How are animals protected from the cold ? 
3. What is remarked of the temperature of the body and of the climate ? 
How much may the human body be depressed in temperature ? 
4. How much may it be elevated ? 
5. How does cold affect the young and the aged ? How does it affect 
the feeble and the sick ? 
6. How does sleep affect the temperature of the body? 
7. How does exercise affect the temperature of the body ? 
8. How can the heat of the body be regulated ? 
9. What is the object of clothing? When should light and when 
should heavy clothing be used ? 
10. Of what materials is clothing made? 
11. What is said of linen as an article of clothing? What of cotton ? 
12. What of woollen goods ? 
13. What is remarked of wearing flannel ? 
14. Why should children wear flannel ? 
15. What other classes should wear flannel ? 
16. Upon what does the warmth of clothing depend ? 
17. What is remarked of changing the underclothes? What of the 
clothing worn during the day ? 
18. What is remarked of the use of stockings ? 
19. What of the manner of dressing? 
20. How are tight-fitting garments injurious ? 
21. What is the effect of tight clothing about the neck? 
22. What of tight lacing about the chest ? 
23. Why is a free expansion of the lungs necessary? 
24. How does tight lacing affect the young ? The adult ? HYGIENE. 
183 
25. How are the feet affected by pressure ? By gum shoes ? 
26. What should be done with wet garments ? 
27. What is said of the amount of clothing needed ? 
28. What is remarked of dress in the after part of the day ? 
29. When overheated, how can we prevent taking cold ? 
30. What care is needed in regard to clean clothing ? 
31. What is remarked of clothing the different parts of the body ? The 
neck and throat? 
32. The upper and lower limbs ? 
33. What is said of hardening children by exposure ? 
Section V. 
Food. 
1. The food of living creatures varies considerably. Some 
of them feed entirely upon vegetables, and are called herbiv- 
orous ; some feed upon animals, and are called carnivorous; 
and others live upon a mixed food consisting of vegetables 
and animals, and are called omnivorous. 
2. Man may live upon vegetables exclusively, as is fre- 
quently the case in tropical climates where animal food is 
not so easily procured, and where it is but little relished by 
the system ; or he may live upon animal food alone, as is done 
in the frigid zones where vegetables can scarcely be obtained. 
It is only in temperate climates that man feeds regularly 
upon both animal and vegetable food. 
3. Much care in the selection of food is necessary, whether it 
be from the animal or the vegetable kingdom; for each contains 
substances destructive to human life. Even food that is 
eminently wholesome at one season of the year, is unfit to be 
eaten at another season ; and while one part of a plant may 
be eaten with impunity, another part of the same plant must 
be rejected, because it is injurious. 
4. All substances used as food may be placed in one of the 
three classes; the albuminoids, the fats, or the sugars. The 
albuminoid substances constitute a large part of the human 184 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
body, and must, therefore, be furnished by a large part of 
the food. They are found in meats, fish, eggs, milk, flour, 
and in vegetables generally. 
5. The fats, or oils, are furnished by animals and vege- 
tables. They contain a large amount of carbon, and tend to 
increase the heat of the body. On this account they are 
largely consumed by persons living in cold climates, and to 
a great extent enable them to resist the depressing effects of 
the cold. 
C. The sugars are mostly of vegetable origin, and their sweet 
taste makes them favorite articles of food with all nations. 
The sweet taste of fruits is from the grape-sugar they con- 
tain. The sugar consumed in this country is mostly obtained 
from the sugar-cane; but large quantities are obtained from 
the sugar-maple trees. More than one million tons of sugar 
are annually consumed by the human family. 
7. A mixed diet is the one best suited to man. All experi- 
ments tend to prove that when omnivorous animals are con- 
fined to a single article of food, they become diseased, and 
sooner or later die. When the system is long deprived of 
any one of the three classes of food, disease is-apt to be 
generated ; consequently, a diet which contains sugar, fat, 
and the albuminoid substances, in due proportion, is the 
healthiest, and the best. 
8. Meats contain a large amount of nourishment, and are 
the most nutritious articles of food. They vary much in 
quality, in different animals; and much depends upon the 
age, the sex, and the condition of the animal when killed, 
as well as upon the kind of food on which it was fed. 
Cattle fattened upon grass or grain furnish the finest beef, 
and corn-fed hogs, the best pork. 
9. The flesh of young animals contains more water than the 
flesh of old ones; consequently, it is more tender and juicy, 
but not so nutritious. The meat of young animals is gen- 
erally paler and softer, and is more readily digested, than 
that of older animals; except that veal is less digestible 
than beef. HYGIENE. 
185 
10. All kinds of fresh meat are better during the cold 
weather, and some kinds are unfit for use at any other season. 
Fresh pork should not be eaten in warm weather; and oysters 
and clams are a fruitful source of disease during the summer 
months. 
11. Many kinds of fish are used for food. Their flesh is 
very similar to the meat of animals, although it is not so 
easily digested. Fish undergo decomposition rapidly, and, 
when tainted, are very injurious, and even poisonous to the 
system. They are never improved by keeping, and should 
be eaten as soon after being caught as possible. Winter 
and spring are the best seasons for fish, as the cold water 
seems to improve their flesh. 
12. Beef, pork, and fish, are preserved by salt, so that they 
may be kept for summer use. Salt renders them less nu- 
tritious, and less digestible, by absorbing their juices, and 
hardening their fibres; yet, a due proportion of salt-meat 
agrees well with the system in warm weather. 
13. Milk is very nutritious, is easily digested, and is well 
adapted as nourishment for the sick and the convalescent. 
Eggs are about one-third pure albumen and fat, and are 
most wholesome when soft-boiled. When fried in the fat of 
ham, they are very indigestible, and seldom agree with per- 
sons having dyspepsia. 
14. Vegetables enter largely into the food of man ; but they 
are not so easily digested as the flesh of animals. The vege- 
tables most used for food, are included in the fruits, the garden 
vegetables, and the grains from which bread is made; and those 
taken as drink along with the food, are coffee, tea, and cocoa. 
15. Among the grains used for making bread, wheat is the 
most valuable. Bread made from the flour of wheat is the 
main article of daily food in most households, and is often 
called “the staff' of life.” In grinding the wheat, the bran, 
or husk of the grain, is separated from the flour by a process 
called “ bolting.” This makes the flour whiter, but rather 
less digestible. 186 
ANATOMY, PH YSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
16. Bread should not be eaten when warm, because it forms 
a heavy mass in the stomach, and is not well masticated 
before being swallowed. Rye bread is less nutritious and 
less digestible than wheat bread, and sooner becomes sour. 
17. Indian corn contains more fat than any of the other 
grains. In preparing it for food, long cooking is necessary; 
then it becomes an excellent article of diet. Rice is very 
digestible, and is particularly adapted to those whose powers 
of digestion are weak, as in cases of convalescence. 
18. Potatoes are much used for food. They contain but 
little fat, and are usually associated with meat; — the three 
articles, bread, meat, and potatoes, forming an excellent diet, 
upon which human beings may subsist for a long time. In 
the spring, when the potatoes “ sprout,” they are unfit for 
food. They are best cooked by roasting or boiling, and 
should then be dry and mealy. 
19. Fruits are prized more for tlieir delicious taste than 
for their nourishing properties. When entirely ripe, they 
are moderately digestible, and are Avell suited for food. 
They may be cooked in many ways, and then afford excel- 
lent substitutes for other kinds of food. Unripe fruits con- 
tain starch, which renders them indigestible; but the sun 
converts the starch into sugar during the process of ripening. 
20. Some substances give relish to other kinds of food. 
Among these are salt, pepper, mustard, and horse-radish. 
Salt is needed by the system, and should be taken in mod- 
erate quantities. Pepper is a powerful stimulant of the 
digestive organs, and should be used sparingly. Mustard is 
a gentle stimulant in small quantities. Horse-radish is an 
excellent relish during the winter and spring. 
21. Coffee and tea when moderately used are beneficial, par- 
ticularly to adults. They are gentle stimulants to most 
persons, and, in this way, assist in the digestion of other 
food. One half pint of this beverage at a meal is as much as 
should be taken. Most people prefer coffee in the morning, 
and tea in the evening, the latter having a tendency to 
induce sleep. A cup of coffee seems to strengthen the mind, HYGIENE. 
187 
and the better to fit it for mental labor; hence, it is highly 
esteemed by most persons engaged in literary pursuits. 
Cocoa and chocolate are nutritious; but they are less easily 
digested than either coffee or tea. 
22. Alcoholic drinks should never be used unless prescribed 
by a physician. They are seldom needed when in a state of 
health, and frequently do much harm; and they should not 
be resorted to in cases of sickness unless directed by the med- 
ical attendant. The action of alcohol is at first to stimulate, 
and in this way it gives relief to some conditions of the 
system ; but its habitual use invariably leads to the destruc- 
tion both of body and mind. 
23. The preparation of food by cooking is the common custom 
among nations. The object is to render it more digestible ; 
to develop its flavor; and to increase its temperature so as 
to be more agreeable to the palate. Nearly all kinds of 
food are cooked before they are eaten; but there are some 
exceptions, such as raw oysters, raw beef, and a few vegetables. 
24. The best modes of cooking meats are by roasting and 
broiling; and the poorest modes are by boiling and frying. 
In roasting and in broiling meats the juices are preserved, 
and the meats are rendered more digestible than by any 
other way of cooking. In boiling meat a portion of the nu- 
trient juices pass into the water and is wasted. Frying is the 
worst way of cooking, as the heated fat penetrates the meat, 
rendering it dry and hard, and making it very indigestible. 
25. Ham, sausages, and other forms of pork, should never be 
eaten without cooking. The flesh of the hog often contains a 
slender worm, called trichina spiralis; which, when taken 
alive into the human stomach, multiplies rapidly and gives 
rise to a very painful and often fatal disease. When the 
pork is thoroughly cooked, this worm is destroyed, and the 
meat may then be eaten with impunity. 
26. The quantity of food required, varies greatly according to the 
person and his habits of life. A person engaged in fatiguing 
physical labor requires more nutritious food, and larger quan- 
tities of it, than one who leads a sedentary life. The young, 188 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
who are mostly active, can digest more food than the old and 
feeble. The robust are able to digest food entirely unfit for 
the weak and the delicate; and the inhabitants of cold climates 
need more food than those whef reside where it is warm. 
27. Dyspeptic 2jersons, and those of feeble digestive powers, 
shoidd eat such food only as is easy of digestion, and this should 
be small in amount. All kinds of food should be taken in 
moderate quantities, so that the stomach may not be over- 
loaded. Even digestible food becomes indigestible, when un- 
duly forced upon the stomach. Habit often induces us to eat 
too much, but seldom too little. When any article of food 
is found to disagree with the stomach, it should be avoided. 
28. When food is not obtained in sufficient amount, the vital 
powers are loivered and the functions depressed. The mind 
loses its vigor, the muscles their energy, the stomach its 
powers of digestion, and the blood its richness; and the vi- 
tality of the system is lowered, so that it becomes peculiarly 
liable to low forms of fever, or to other wasting diseases. In 
childhood, the want of proper food not only depresses the 
system, but also prevents its development and growth, and 
leads to serious diseases which seldom fail to hurry the vic- 
tim to an early grave. 
29. The food taken by children serves the double purpose of 
repairing the waste of the body and providing for its develop- 
ment. This requires a nutritious and easily digested diet. 
Milk, and fat and lean meat, should always compose a part 
of the diet. Pastry, unripe fruit, salted provisions, and acid 
drinks, should generally be avoided. Children may be per- 
mitted to eat more frequently than adults do; yet they 
should be restrained from eating too much at one time. 
30. Regularity in eating should be observed. Three meals 
a day, and these from five to six hours apart, will be most 
conducive to health. The last one, or evening repast, should 
be the lightest, and should be taken three or four hours be- 
fore retiring to sleep. A hearty supper should be avoided 
because it disturbs the sleep and produces restlessness and 
dreams. HYGIENE. 
189 
31. Eating too rapidly, without fully masticating the food, is 
productive of much injury. When the food is swallowed in 
large lumps, the time required for its digestion is much pro- 
longed; but when it is finely triturated by the teeth, the 
digestion goes on more rapidly; because the gastric juice can 
at once act on all parts of the food. A confirmed habit of 
eating rapidly is one of the most fruitful causes of dyspepsia. 
32. A hearty meal should 'not be taken immediately before or 
after severe mental or physical labor. Severe exercise of body 
or mind tends to draw the blood away from the stomach, 
and thus lessen its functional powers. After severe labor, 
from thirty to sixty minutes should be allowed for rest, be- 
fore eating ; and after a meal, from one to two hours should 
elapse before proceeding to hard work, so that the stomach 
may properly perform its work. 
33. The state of the mind has much influence on the process 
of digestion. Sudden news, whether joyful or sad, is apt to 
destroy the appetite, by exciting the mind so that the wants 
of the stomach are not noticed. Light conversation about 
pleasant things, and a cheerful state of mind, sharpen the 
appetite and promote the powers of digestion, and should 
therefore be encouraged while eating. 
34. Pure air increases the appetite by invigorating the whole 
system. It purifies the blood and thus stimulates the func- 
tion of every organ. Children, after being confined all day 
in a poorly ventilated school-room, and persons after sleeping 
in rooms not well ventilated, have little or no appetite. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION V. 
1. How may animals be classified by their food? 
2. What is remarked of the food of man ? 
3. Why is care so necessary in selecting food? 
4. What are the three classes of food? What is said of the albumi- 
noids ? 190 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
5. What of the fats ? 
6. What of the sugars ? 
7. What is said of a mixed diet ? 
8. Upon what does the nourishment in meats depend? 
9. What is remarked of the flesh of young animals? 
10. How are fresh meats aft'ected by the season ? 
11. What is said of fish as an article of food ? 
12. What is said of salting meat and fish ? 
13. What is said of milk for food ? What of eggs ? 
14. What is said of vegetables for food and drink ? 
15. What is remarked of wheat bread ? 
16. Why is warm bread unwholesome? What is said of rye bread? 
17. What is said of indian com ? What of rice ? 
18. What of potatoes as food? 
19. What is remarked of fruits ? 
20. What of substances used as relishes to other food ? 
21. What is said of the use of coflee, tea, and cocoa? 
22. What of alcoholic drinks ? 
23. What is said of preparing food by cooking ? 
24. What is said of the different modes of cooking meats ? 
25. What of the trichina spiralis ? 
26. What is said of the quantity of food required by a person ? 
27. What is said of the food for dyspeptic persons ? What does habit 
often induce us to do ? 
28. How is the system affected when it does not receive enough nour- 
ishment ? How does the want of food affect children ? 
29. What is said of food for children ? 
30. What is said of regularity in eating ? 
31. What of eating too rapidly ? 
32. Why not take a hearty meal just before or after severe labor? 
33. How does the mind influence digestion ? 
34. How does pure air affect the appetite ? 
Section VI. 
Sleep. 
1. The brain, which is the centre of the nervous system, is 
constantly in a state of activity during the day. Even when 
not engaged in mental labor, it is still subject to impres- 
sions from surrounding objects; lienee, it is never quiet HYGIENE. 
191 
while the individual is awake. From this continued excite- 
ment during the day, the nervous system becomes exhausted 
and needs repose. This it obtains by sleep ; during which 
time its functional powers are renewed, and it is prepared 
for the work and the pleasures of another day. 
2. Although the mind is inactive, and the muscles are in a 
state of rest during sleep, yet the important vital processes are 
still going on in the body. During the active exercise of the 
system, the vital force is consumed more rapidly than it is 
produced, so that both body and mind become weary towards 
the close of day; but during the season of sleep, the nutri- 
ent vessels continue at work supplying life force, so that the 
morning finds the system refreshed and fully restored to its 
usual vigor. 
3. The functions of the vital organs continue during sleep, 
yet they are less active than when we are awake. The voluntary 
muscles are in a state of repose, the respiration and circulation 
are reduced, the body is somewhat lowered in temperature, 
and the process of digestion is less vigorous, so that every 
part of the system is partially, or wholly in a state of rest. 
4. When the amount of sleep is insufficient, this building up 
process is not completed; yesterday’s labor is not fully com- 
pensated for, and the drain it made upon the life force is not 
entirely replenished; thus the individual enters upon the 
work of another day, below the proper standard of life and 
strength, and must, as a matter of course, be so much the 
more depressed by the time that night comes again. If this 
system be continued, it is easy to understand how the powers 
of life will surely ebb away, and the body, once so full of 
life and vigor, be shorn of its strength, and reduced to a 
hopeless wreck. 
5. Diseases, both physical and mental, folloiv the continued 
loss of sleep. Debility of the system, nervous excitability, 
disturbed breathing, palpitation of the heart, and dyspepsia, 
with its long train of evils, are a few of the diseases of the 
body; while insanity, particularly in those who are perform-  ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
ing excessive mental labor, is not an uncommon result to the 
mind. 
6. Diseases, both physical and mental, result from too great 
indulgence in sleep. The whole nervous system becomes 
dull, the sensations are blunted, the mind acts sluggishly, 
the memory is impaired, the physical energy is depressed, 
and the functions of all the organs become more or less 
torpid, when we indulge in sleep to excess. 
7. About eight hours out of the twenty-four is the time usually 
assigned for sleep. The amount of time, however, required 
for restoring the wasted energies, must depend upon the 
activity, the health, and the habits of the person. Women 
require more sleep than men, and persons advanced in age, 
need more sleep than those in middle life. 
8. Children require more sleep than adults. Their nervous 
systems are more excitable, and while awake, they are 
scarcely ever at rest, so that they become more fatigued 
during the day, and need a longer period of repose, in which 
to renew their exhausted energies. 
9. Night is the proper period for sleep; yet it is too often 
the habit to convert the night into day, by those who indulge 
in the social customs of society. A regular hour for retiring 
to rest should be adopted. This should not be later than 
ten o’clock, as there is truth in the old adage, that “ one 
hour’s rest before midnight is worth two after.” It is prob- 
able, however, that irregularity in the hours of rest, is the 
prominent cause of mischief. 
10. A full supper just before retiring to rest is apt to disturb 
the sleep, and to produce dreams. When the digestive powers 
are somewhat feeble, a light meal will always prove more 
wholesome, than to fill the stomach with solid food. Apples, 
shellbarks, and walnuts, are often eaten just before retiring ; 
but such a course cannot be recommended. 
11. The sleeping-room should be large, airy, and well venti- 
lated, so that the atmosphere in it will not become much 
vitiated during the night. In the morning, the doors and HYGIENE. 
193 
windows should be opened, so as to admit the fresh air, and 
the sunlight; but they should, however, except such as are 
needed for ventilation, be closed two or three hours before 
sunset, even in the most favorable weather. 
12. The kind of bed depends in a great measure upon the 
custom of the individual. Any change in this custom, whether 
it be for a harder or a softer couch, will disturb the rest. A 
mattress is best for warm weather, and a feather bed for 
cold weather; yet many prefer a hair mattress for both 
winter and summer. Sleeping with the head too low, or 
without pillows, is often the cause of unpleasant dreams. 
13. A change of beds during the winter season is a fruitful 
source of colds. The “ spare bed,” which may not have been 
occupied for days or weeks, is generally offered to the visitor. 
It is usually damp and cold; and when this is added to the 
damp and cold atmosphere of the room, a more unhealthy 
place for sleeping could scarcely be found. 
14. More covering is needed for the body when asleep, than 
when awake. During sleep, the temperature of the body is 
lowered, and the skin relaxed, so that it is more susceptible 
to cold. The covering should be light, but warm, hence, 
woollen blankets are far preferable to the old-fashioned quilt 
or coverlet. 
15. Children shoidd not sleep in beds placed upon or too 
near the floor. The portion of air near the floor of a room is 
always the most impure and unhealthy. When an apart- 
ment is occupied by older persons, it becomes still more inju- 
rious for children to sleep in a low bed, in the same room. 
Two or three beds should never be crowded in the same room 
when it can be avoided. 
16. Persons who are well should not sleep in the same bed 
with those whose constitutions are much enfeebled by disease. 
This applies more particularly to children, who should not 
sleep with persons advanced in age, or who are suffering 
from chronic diseases of the lungs, stomach, or other organs. 
A disregard of this rule has been the cause of much sickness. 194 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION VI. 
1. Why is sleep required ? 
2. How does sleep renew the vital energies of the body ? 
3. How does sleep affect the functions of the vital organs? 
4. What effect does the want of sleep have upon the body ? 
5. What diseases follow the want of sleep ? 
6. What is the result of too much sleep ? 
7. How much sleep does the body need ? 
8. Why do children need more sleep than adults ? 
9. What time is best suited for sleep ? 
10. Why is a full supper injurious just before sleep? 
11. What is said of the size and ventilation of a sleeping-room? 
12. What kind of a bed is best? How are dreams often produced? 
13. Why are “spare beds” usually unhealthy? 
14. What is remarked of the covering during sleep ? 
15. Why are beds on or near the floor unhealthy ? 
16. What is said of the sick and the well sleeping in the same bed ? 
Section VII. 
Exercise. 
1. A knowledge of the material things of earth seems to be 
necessary to the comfort and happiness of the human family. 
These present such a broad field for study, that the finite 
mind of man is unable to grasp it all; hence, we have the 
present diversified system of the division of labor among 
men. By this system, individuals are restricted to particular 
pursuits, so that the result of their work may be the more 
effective. Very few of these pursuits, however, call into 
action all parts of the body and the mind ; consequently, 
while some parts are in daily use, others are scarcely used 
at all. 
2. The object and aim of all exercise should be to bring into 195 
HYGIENE. 
action those parts, either of the mind or of the body, which are 
not sufficiently exercised in the pursuits of life. Any plan of 
exercise based upon this view will be appropriate and bene- 
ficial ; therefore, the means used for exercise must vary 
according to the individual; and in each case should be di- 
rected by wisdom and intelligence. When properly used, 
there is no means of more importance in developing and 
strengthening both body and mind, than that of exercise; 
and, Avhen improperly used, none more injurious. 
3. Exercise of the body may be active or passive. Active 
exercise is made by calling into action the voluntary muscles 
of the body, as in running and A\7alking; but passive exer- 
cise is that occasioned by the movements of other bodies, as 
Avhen riding in a carriage, or sailing in a boat. 
4. Active exercise, in proper amount, adds to the firmness 
and elasticity of the muscles, and increases them in size and in 
strength. To be of much use, it must be continued for a long 
time; because the process of restoring strength to Aveak and 
exhausted muscles, goes on very sloA\dy. 
5. Active exercise increases the movements of the heart, and 
causes a greater flow of blood through all parts of the body. 
Thus, an increased supply is sent to renew the strength of 
the muscles, and to carry away the Avaste material, and this 
corresponds with the amount of exercise. In diseases, where 
the passage of the blood is obstructed, as in some affections 
of the heart and the brain, exercise may be injurious by 
sending too much blood to the part affected. 
6. Active exercise invigorates the function of digestion. It 
increases the appetite and stimulates the digestive organs, so 
that a larger amount of food is digested, and the system re- 
ceives an increase of nourishment, which adds to the weight 
of the body and gives tone and strength to all parts of the 
system. This is the case when the exercise is moderate; but 
when it produces great fatigue, the digestive organs partake 
of the general depression of the system, and are less able to 
perform their functions. 196 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
7. Exercise not only quickens the pidse, but hastens the breath- 
ing. When this takes place in pure air, a larger amount 
of oxygen will be supplied to the blood, and the carbonic 
acid will be more effectually removed ; thus will the system 
be invigorated, and all parts will respond, by an increased 
energy of action. 
8. Active exercise of every kind must be followed by a season 
of repose; therefore, some physiologists have recommended 
that eight hours be allotted to sleep, eight hours to work, 
and eight hours to recreation. When the hours for work 
are spent in manual labor, at least a portion of those for re- 
creation should be employed in improving the mind; but 
when the working hours are devoted to mental labor, a 
portion of the period for recreation should be used to develop 
the physical strength. 
9. Exercise will prove of but little use, unless continued for 
some time; because health and strength are the result of a 
very gradual growth. The amount of exercise at any one 
time, must be such as to suit the strength of the individual; 
it must always stop short of great fatigue, and it should be 
regular every day, or it will not produce beneficial results. 
10. The beneficial results from exercise in the open air, 
are, that it accelerates the respiration, thus furnishing more 
oxygen to the blood; it quickens the circulation; it in- 
vigorates the nervous system; it stimulates the digestive 
powers to increased function, thus furnishing a large amount 
of nourishment, which the blood conveys to every organ of 
the system. These being stimulated by the presence of the 
richer blood, become more active in function, and are in- 
creased in size and vigor, so that the health and strength of 
the whole being are promoted. 
11. Excessive labor wears out the system by overtaxing its 
strength. A limited amount of power only is supplied to 
the body by the food and drink; and when labor takes more 
from the body, than the body receives in the way of nourish- 
ment, such labor is always excessive, and will, if continued, 
destroy the life of the system. HYGIENE. 
197 
12. When young persons are required to labor hard, their 
vital energies are quickly exhausted. The nourishment they 
receive from food and drink, is all consumed in performing 
their work, and none is left to develop and strengthen the 
organs of the body ; consequently, they are stunted in their 
growth, and remain dwarfed in intellectual and physical 
strength. 
13. No child should ever be compelled or permitted to labor 
to its full capacity, whether that labor be physical or intel- 
lectual ; but a part of the vital, or life force, daily supplied 
by the food and drink, should be reserved in the system, so 
as to develop it to the highest degree of which it is capable. 
14. Whenever the vital energies of an individual, whether 
youth or adult, are overtaxed, the result is the same. The 
system is depressed below the standard of health ; thus pre- 
paring a foundation for numerous diseases, which, when once 
seated, continue to sap still more and more the health and 
strength of the body while life remains. 
15. All exercise should be taken in the open air; for when 
the air is vitiated, the exercise is of but little value. More 
air may be inhaled; but when it does not contain a good 
supply of oxygen, it will impart but little vigor to the system. 
16. Children shoidd have freedom of exercise in the open air. 
This should be in such harmless yet exhilarating sports as 
walking, running, riding, sailing, playing ball, spinning tops, 
and trundling hoops, which give motion to every part of the 
body without requiring much exertion of the mind. 
17. Walking is one of the cheapest, yet most beneficial means 
of exercise, and is within the reach of nearly all persons. It 
brings into action the muscles of the neck, the trunk, and 
of the upper and the lower limbs. It is entirely under the 
control of the individual, and may be made either gentle or 
active, to suit the case. 
18. Jumping, as an exercise, is too violent, and when long 
continued, as in “jumping the rope,” is injurious. It is only 
adapted to the period of youth when the cartilages are 198 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
elastic, and the shock or jar to the system is, therefore, not 
so great. In jumping, the muscles of the legs are most used. 
19. In running, nearly every muscle of the body is brought 
into active exercise; therefore, it very soon produces fatigue. 
It is most enjoyed by children; but it is so violent that they 
are apt to indulge in it to excess. 
20. When out-door exercise cannot be enjoyed, a substitute 
may be found in the “physical exercises,” such as are adopted 
in many schools, and in the discipline of the gymnasium. 
The object of these exercises should be to call into activity 
all parts of the body, so as to continue it in a state of health; 
or, when diseased, to promote the cure. Every possible 
means of amusement should accompany these exercises, so 
that both body and mind may receive the fullest benefit. 
21. Wherever physical exercises have been introduced into 
our schools and colleges, the testimony is that they not only 
increase the physical activity of the students, but they also 
improve their mental condition, so that there is a more rapid 
advancement in their studies. A system of physical training 
should, therefore, be introduced into every educational insti- 
tution, and the result would undoubtedly prove beneficial. 
22. In the public schools of our cities, the amount of time de- 
voted to exercise, or to drills of any kind, is not sufficient to pre- 
serve the health ; and, indeed, the most of such exercises are 
not of a kind that serve to strengthen the muscles, or give 
vigor to the frame. They tend rather to relieve the monot- 
ony of the school-room, to relax the mind for a few moments, 
and to rest certain muscles by a change in the position of 
the body; and in this way they are productive of much good. 
23. The erect position is the best for the body; whether sitting, 
standing, or walking. It requires less muscular exertion to 
keep the body erect than to retain it in any other upright 
position; for when it is bent forward, or backward, or to 
either side, many of the muscles are kept in a state of con- 
tinued tension, causing more or less fatigue. An erect posi- 
tion not only favors the free movement of the muscles, but HYGIENE. 
199 
it also affords the internal organs the fullest opportunity to 
perform their functions. 
24. A stooping habit shoidd be overcome, if possible, while 
the person is young. When the body is distorted from its 
natural shape in youth, it is apt to remain so through life, 
much to the disadvantage, if not to the positive injury, of the 
individual; but every possible means should be used by a 
regular system of training to correct the deformity. 
25. The period of youth should be devoted partly to mental 
culture; but most attention should be given to developing 
and strengthening the system. The body needs much care 
during this period of growth, and other things should be 
made to serve its purpose. During the first six years of 
life, no study should be required; in the seventh year, two 
hours daily may be devoted to books; in the eighth year, 
three hours; in the ninth year, four hours; in the tenth year, 
five hours; and after that, six or seven hours daily may be 
spent in study. 
26. Seats for children, whether at home or in the school- 
room, should have a resting-place for the feet, or should be low 
enough for the feet to rest upon the floor. This will support 
the weight of the legs, and will add much to the comfort 
and the health of the child. All seats, whether for children 
or for adults, should have backs as a support for the body. 
27. Riding on horseback requires more exertion than any of 
the other passive kinds of exercise. All the muscles of the 
body are brought into use to preserve the equilibrium of the 
rider during the different movements of pacing, galloping, 
and trotting. For a moderately strong person, it is one of 
the best means of exercise, admitting of an agreeable change 
of air and scenery, and keeping the mind pleasantly occu- 
pied. For the weak and feeble, it is not so well suited, and 
should not be attempted by them unless the horse is very 
gentle and can be easily managed. 
28. The exercise from riding in a vehicle depends upon the 
character of the vehicle used. A rough, jarring wagon will 200 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
give exercise to most of the muscles; but it is only suited 
to those who are comparatively strong; while an easy 
carriage, by its gentle motions, is suited to the convalescent, 
the feeble, the delicate, and the aged. 
29. Sailing or riding in a boat is a very pleasant, as well 
as useful means of exercise, on account of the continued 
change experienced. Frequent excursions on the water, 
during the summer season, afford a most delightful re- 
creation to all who are confined much within doors; and ai’e 
always very invigorating, particularly to the women and 
the children of our large cities. 
30. Active exercise is not advisable after a full meal, as it 
tends to draw the strength from the digestive organs to the 
muscles, which are brought into action; but when the food 
is partly digested, and the stomach is, in a measure, relieved 
of its burden, labor may then be performed without disad- 
vantage. 
31. When a person neglects to take proper exercise, all parts 
of the system languish. The muscles lose their firmness and 
strength, the nervous system becomes easily excited, the 
vital functions act sluggishly, the powers of digestion and 
nutrition become feeble, and thus, the foundation for pro- 
longed nervous disorders is laid as the result of sedentary 
habits. 
32. Literary occupations are not especially injurious to health, 
unless they he pursued to excess, and the other means, which 
are always essential to the preservation of the health, be 
neglected. Sedentary occupations of all kinds, are apt to 
induce dyspepsia; but the addition of mental labor does not 
seem to increase the tendency to that disease. 
33. Few persons perish from pure mental exhaustion alone; 
and it is very doubtful whether the pupils of our schools 
suffer so much from this cause, as is sometimes imagined. 
During an experience of nearly twenty years in the school- 
room, we have met with but a limited number of cases 
injui’cd by overstudv; yet we have seen very manv whose HYGIENE. 
201 
systems have been more or less broken, by the neglect of a 
proper hygiene, both in and out of the school - room, and 
during the hours of sleep. 
34. The amount of study required in our institutions of learn- 
ing is not too great, unless the pupil is already enfeebled by 
disease ; providing the proper care is used to preserve the 
health by regular habits of eating, sleeping, and by using 
such exercise as the case needs. Without these, the body 
will not long remain in health, even when the mind is un- 
employed ; with them, the mental labor will seldom prove 
injurious. 
35. Continued application to study, without recreation or 
amusement, will in time produce nervous disorders. Mental 
labor, like everything else, becomes a vice, when carried to 
excess. The mind needs repose as well as the body; there- 
fore, it is the part of wisdom frequently to join in cheerful 
company, and to engage in such exercises as will divert it 
from its ordinary channels of thought; for in this diversion 
the mind finds appropriate rest. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is remarked of the study of material things? 
2. What should be the object of all exercise ? 
3. What two kinds of exercise may be used ? 
4. How does exercise affect the muscles ? 
5. How does exercise affect the circulation ? 
6. How does exercise affect digestion ? 
7. How does exercise affect the breathing? 
8. What should always follow active exercise ? How may the twenty- 
four hours be divided ? 
9. What is said of regular exercise ? 
10. What are the results of exercise in the open air? 
11. How does excessive labor affect the body ? 
12. How does hard labor affect the young? 
13. Why should the labor of a child be limited in amount ? 
SECTION VII. 202 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
14. What always results from overtaxing the vital energies? 
15. Why should all exercise be taken in the open air ? 
1G. What is said of the sports of children ? 
17. What is remarked of walking, as a means of exercise? 
18. What of jumping? 
19. What of running ? 
20. hat substitute is there for out-door exercise ? What should be 
the object of all physical exercises? 
21. How are physical exercises in schools beneficial? Why should 
they be introduced into all institutions of learning? 
22. hat is said of exercises in the public schools of cities ? 
23. Why is the erect position the best for the body ? 
24. What is remarked of a stooping habit? 
25. To what should the period of youth be devoted? What is said of 
the time for study during youth ? 
26. What is remarked of seats used by children ? 
27. What is said of riding on horseback as a means of exercise ? 
28. What of riding in a vehicle? 
29. What of riding in boats ? 
30. What is said of exercise after a full meal ? 
31. How does a neglect of exercise affect the system? 
32. What is remarked of literary occupations ? What of sedentary 
occupations of all kinds ? 
33. What is remarked of overstudv in schools ? 
34. \V hat is always needed for health, whether the mind is employed 
or not ? 
35. What is the effect of continued application to study ? 
Section VIII. 
The Teeth and other Organs. 
1. The teeth should be cleansed after each meal, so as to re- 
move all particles of food from the mouth and the teeth. 
This may be done by the tooth-brush, aided by tooth-picks, 
made of wood or the common goose-quill. When the particles 
of food are not removed, they soon putrefy, and in that state 
render the breath offensive, as well as hasten the decay of the 
teeth. HYGIENE. 
203 
2. The enamel is a natural protection to the body of the 
tooth. When any portion of it is destroyed, the part of the 
tooth thus exposed to the air soon decays. Very hot or very 
cold substances crack the enamel, and should be avoided, as 
well as all substances that break or scratch it, such as gritty 
tooth-powder, the shells of hard nuts, and metal tooth-picks. 
3. When the permanent teeth are irregular from being too 
much crowded, one or more of them should be removed. This 
will improve their appearance, and will prevent them from 
pressing so closely together as to cause injury to the enamel. 
When any part of the enamel is injured, and the tooth has 
commenced to decay, it should be filled with gold-foil. In this 
way a tooth partly decayed may be preserved for many years. 
4. The eye, like all other organs of the body, needs rest. 
When too long used, it becomes wearied, the retina is ex- 
hausted of its sensibility, and the clearness of vision is 
obscured. This is particularly the case when the eye is 
much used by lamp-light, as when we are engaged in read- 
ing, and in sewing at night. The black and white colors of 
a printed page, exhaust the eye more quickly than when it 
is engaged upon the softer colors, such as yellow, blue, or 
green. 
5. Sudden changes in the amount of light should be avoided. 
The iris contracts or dilates, so as to regulate the quantity 
of light falling upon the retina; but when the change from 
a dim to a very strong light is made before the iris can con- 
tract, the retina is overpowered ; and when this is continued, 
the loss of sight sometimes follows. 
6. The eyes should he bathed in tepid or cold water, so as to 
remove the dust and the secretions from their inner angles, 
and also from the roots of the eyelashes. When the eyes 
are inflamed, they may be frequently bathed in tepid or cold 
water, or the water may be constantly applied to them ; but 
no eye-washes, of any kind, should ever be used, unless pre- 
scribed by a physician; because permanent injury to the 
eyes has frequently followed their use. 204 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
7. When the hearing is impaired, a skilful physician slioidd 
be consulted, and his advice followed. All nostrums for the 
cure of deafness should be ignored. When the external ear 
is dry, and the wax in it becomes hard, which is frequently 
the case with persons who are confined much within dooi’s, 
relief may be obtained by putting one or two drops of rab- 
bit’s fat, goose-grease, sweet-oil, or glycerine, in the ear. 
8. The tympanic membrane between the external and the 
middle ear entirely closes the external auditory canal, and 
thus prevents insects and other things from passing to the brain. 
When an insect crawls into the external canal, a few drops 
of oil or fat should be dropped into the ear. This will kill 
the insect immediately, by preventing respiration; and it 
may then be removed from the ear. 
9. The head should not be kept too warm. The custom of 
wearing the hat while in the house, is believed by many 
physicians to produce baldness. In children, the hair should 
be kept short and thin; because a luxuriant growth of hair 
invites an undue amount of blood to the brain, causing weak- 
ness of the eyes, headache, and other diseases. 
10. Hemorrhage from wounds should be checked as soon as 
possible. When the blood conies from a vein, it will flow in 
a regular stream; but when it conies from an artery, it will 
flow in successive jets. In either case it may be checked, by 
means of pressure, until a surgeon can be obtained. 
11. When the bleeding artery is small, a piece of muslin or 
linen shcndd be folded up and bound firmly on the wound; 
but when the artery is larger, pressure should also be made 
on its main trunk, either by grasping the parts so that the 
lingers will press on the artery, or by using a key padded at 
one end. When the pressure is to be continued, a handker- 
chief may be used in the following manner: First, make a 
knot in the middle of the handkerchief; then tie it loosely 
around the limb, so that the knot will press upon the 
artery. Next, place a short stick under the handkerchief; 
then twist it until the bleeding is stopped. 
12. When the hemorrhage is from the small vessels, an im- HYGIENE. 
205 
portant part of the treatment is the formation of a clot in 
the wound, which serves to check the further flow of blood. 
This may generally be accomplished by binding several 
thicknesses of muslin or linen, or a quantity of lint, tightly 
on the wound; or by applying to it lint wet with very cold 
water, or with a solution of alum and water. Powdered 
alum may also be applied. 
13. Sunlight is needed for the healthy development of the 
human frame. It is as essential to the vigor of animal as of 
vegetable life. Our dwelling-houses should be built so as to 
admit plenty of sunlight; for when the sun’s bright rays are 
excluded from a room, it becomes dark and damp, and serves 
to generate disease in those who occupy it. When children 
are cou fined in dark places, such as mines and manufactur- 
ing establishments, they are pale and sickly-looking, and are 
often stunted in their growth, or are otherwise deformed. 
When adults are deprived of light, the skin becomes 
blanched, so as to present a white appearance; and they lose 
more or less of their vigor and activity. 
14. Persons in feeble or delicate health, will be invigorated 
by spending a part of each clear day where the sun’s rays 
can shine upon them. During the warm weather of summer, 
it would be far better for invalids to sit in the sun’s rays 
than to seclude themselves in darkened rooms, under the plea 
of keeping cool. During the pleasant weather of winter, 
they should put on plenty of clothing and sit for an hour or 
two each day on an open portico in the sun; and when the 
weather is very severe, they should sit in a comfortable room 
so that the sun can shine through a window on them. 
15. The human body is a complicated piece of mechanism, 
most admirably adapted by an All-wise Creator to the 
duties required of it; and the more we investigate and 
rightly come to know of our own existence, and of these 
frail bodies, which must soon return to dust again, the more 
will we desire to offer up to Him, who is Ruler over all, the 
homage of a grateful heart! 206 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION vill. 
1. What is remarked of cleansing the teeth ? 
2. What is remarked of the enamel of the teeth ? 
3. What of the teeth when too much crowded? What of fillirig the 
teeth ? 
4. How does continued use affect the sight? Why does reading ex- 
haust the eye ? 
5. How do sudden changes of light affect the eye ? 
6. Why is bathing the eye in water beneficial ? What is said of the 
use of eye-washes ? 
7. What should be done when the hearing is impaired ? How may 
dryness in the ear be remedied ? 
8. What is remarked of insects in the external ear? 
9. Why should the hat be removed while in the house ? Why should 
children have their hair kept short and thin ? 
10. What is remarked of hemorrhage from wounds? 
11. How may hemorrhage from large vessels be checked? 
12. How may hemorrhage from small vessels be checked ? 
13. What advantage is derived from plenty of sun-light ? 
14. How may feeble persons be invigorated? Where should they sit 
in summer ? In winter ? 
15. What remarks are made about the human body ? CHAPTER VI. — Development and Death. 
Section I. 
Growth and Development. 
1. The average weight of the human infant at birth is 
from six to seven pounds, and the height about eighteen 
inches. The growth of the body, in height, is rapid at first, 
but it afterwards becomes more gradual. During the first 
three years the body of the child reaches to one-half the 
height of the adult; but eighteen or twenty years are after- 
wards required before the full stature is attained. The 
average height of men in the United States, is about five 
feet seven inches, and of women, about five feet two inches. 
The growth of the body, in weight, continues until about 
the thirtieth year, at which time the average weight of men 
is about one hundred and forty-four pounds, avoirdupois, and 
of women about one hundred and twenty-three pounds. 
2. At first the infant is entirely helpless; it takes no notice 
of the things about it, and it spends most of the time in 
sleep ; but as it grows older, it takes more and more notice 
of surrounding things, and it soon learns to communicate its 
wants to others. At six months of age the child can lisp a 
little, and by the end of the first year it can imitate a few 
simple sounds of one or two syllables. 
3. The skeleton of an infant is soft and yielding; hence, 
it has but a limited amount of strength. Many of the bones 208 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
are in the form of cartilage; but they continue to ossify, or 
change into bone, and thus add to the strength of the child. 
When three months old, the healthy infant has strength 
enough to support its head, and keep it from falling forward 
upon the chest; when four months old, it can sit upright; 
when nine months old, it can crawl about the room; when a 
year old, it can stand alone by taking hold of a chair, or 
other support; and at various periods, between one and two 
years of age, it becomes able to walk, and even to run alone. 
4. At birth, the bones of the skull are very thin and 
flexible, and their edges are not yet united, so as to form the 
sutures. The bones are held together by fibrous membranes, 
and by the skin, so that the skull is comparatively soft and 
yielding, and is not a solid, bony case, like that of the 
adult. 
5. In the line of the sutures are several membranous 
spaces, covered by the skin and other soft tissues, and these 
spaces are called Font'anels. The most important of these 
is the anterior fontanel, which is situated at the top of the 
skull, where the angles of the frontal and the parietal bones 
come together; and the posterior fontanel, which is situated 
at the crown of the head, where the angles of the parietal 
bones meet with the occipital bone. These fontanels are not 
entirely closed until the child is about four years of age. 
6. Each vertebra is developed from three points of ossi- 
fication, one of which is in the body of the vertebra, and one 
to each side of the arch. At birth, however, the vertebrae 
are composed almost entirely of cartilage; and the spinal 
column is then too weak to maintain the bod}" in an upright 
position. 
7. The pelvis is at first mostly cartilaginous, and the hip- 
bone on each side is composed of three separate pieces. 
These meet in a triangular union in the acetabulum, or 
cavity of the hip-joint. The bones of the upper and the 
lower limbs are ossified only in their middle portion, at the 
time of birth; hence, they are soft and flexible, and are unable DEVELOPMENT AND DEATH. 
209 
to sustain the weight of the body, or to bear much muscular 
exertion. 
8. The function of respiration is at first very imperfectly 
performed; the lungs are not fully expanded, and the air 
does not find its way into all the air vesicles until the child 
is several days old. The skin, however, is very thin and 
delicate, and it is probable that respiration takes place 
through it. At first, the number of respirations is from, 
forty to fifty per minute; at the age of five years, about 
twenty-six per minute; and in the adult, about eighteen per 
minute. 
9. The junction of digestion is exceedingly active in chil- 
dren. They need nourishment, not only for the support but 
also for the growth and development of their bodies; hence, 
their powers of digestion and of assimilation are very strong. 
They eat unripe fruit and other unpalatable articles of food 
with considerable relish, and they require more food and at 
shorter intervals than when they become adult men or 
women. 
10. The teeth begin to appear within the first year. The 
front, or incisor teeth, both upper and lower, are usually 
through the gums at the age of seven or eight months; and one 
molar tooth is through, on each side of each jaw, by the end of 
the year. At eighteen months the canine, or stomach and 
eye teeth, appear; and at two years of age, four other molar 
teeth are added to each jaw, making twenty teeth in all. 
The teeth then consist of four incisors, two canines, and four 
molars in each jaw. They are called the temporary or milk 
teeth, and are followed by the second set, or permanent teeth. 
11. The rudiments of the second as well as of the first set of 
teeth exist in the jaw at the time of birth, although they are 
not visible. The second set of teeth grow very slowly until 
about the sixth year, when they increase more rapidly in 
size, and soon push their way towards the surface of the 
gum; thus pressing against the milk teeth, which become 
detached and fall from their sockets in the jaw. The per- 210 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
manent teeth are harder in texture and mostly larger in size 
than the temporary set. They are also more numerous, and 
number thirty-two, instead of twenty; and the jaws have both 
increased in size so as to accommodate this larger number. 
12. The permanent teeth usually appear in the following 
order : In the sixth and seventh years, the first molar teeth, 
and in the seventh and eighth years, the incisor teeth appear. 
In the ninth and tenth years, the two molars of the first set 
give place to the two bicuspids of the permanent set; and 
in the twelfth year, the canine teeth of the first set are re- 
placed by the canines of the second set. In the thirteenth 
and fourteenth years, the second molar teeth protrude from 
the jaw; and from the seventeenth to the twenty-second 
year, the last molar, or wisdom teeth, appear and complete 
the permanent set. 
13. Human life has been divided into periods which may 
be thus distinguished. From birth to the appearance of the 
first tooth, in the seventh month, is the period of infancy; 
from the appearance of the first tooth to the time when the 
temporary or milk teeth begin to fall out, in the sixth or 
seventh year, is the period of childhood; from the time 
when the temporary teeth begin to fall to the final comple- 
tion of the stature, in the eighteenth or twentieth year, is the 
period of youth. Then comes the period of maturity, or the 
prime of life; after which the powers decline, and the last 
period of human life, that of old aye, is reached. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION I 
1. What is the weight and height of the human infant ? What is said 
of the growth of the body in height ? What of its growth in weight ? 
2. What is the condition of the infant at first ? What of its learning 
to talk ? DEVELOPMENT AND DEATH. 
211 
3. What is said of the skeleton of an infant ? What of its increase in 
strength ? 
4. What is said of the bones of the skull ? 
5. What is said of the fontanels ? 
6. What of the development of the vertebrae ? 
7. What of the development of the pelvis? 
8. What is said of the respiration in children ? 
9. What of the digestion in children? 
10. What is said of the appearance of the first set of teeth ? 
11. What of the development of the second set of teeth ? 
12. What of the time and order of cutting the second set ? 
13. What are the periods into which human life has been divided ? 
Section II. 
Decay and Death. 
1. The loss, from the “ wear and tear ” constantly going 
on in the living body, must be repaired, and the parts de- 
stroyed by accident must be reproduced, so that the functions 
of life can be properly performed. Reparation is necessary 
to the existence of every living organism, animal and vege- 
table. As a general rule, the lower the type of animals, the 
greater is the inherent power of reparation ; yet all animals 
possess this power in a greater or less degree. 
2. In some of the lowest orders this power is very great; 
for when the hy'dra, a species of jelly-fish, is cut into pieces, 
each piece becomes developed into a perfect hydra; and this 
process may be repeated again and again with similar results. 
The Crusta’cea, which include the lobsters, crabs, and 
shrimps, and the Arach'nida, which include the spiders and 
the scorpions, can, when fully developed, reproduce their 
limbs; and the common snail, it is asserted, can reproduce 
its head if the cerebral ganglion be preserved uninjured. 
The newt, a small lizard, can readily reproduce an eye, an 
entire limb, or its tail, whenever it loses any of these organs. 212 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
3. This process of reparation is most active in animals 
during the earlier periods of existence; and it gradually 
diminishes as life advances, so that parts which are lost or 
injured in old age are imperfectly repaired or reproduced, 
although the same injury might easily be repaired in the 
young. 
4. In man and other warm-hlooded animals the power of 
reparation is limited to certain tissues. The epidermis of the 
skin, the epithelium of the mucous membranes, and also the 
red corpuscles of the blood, are constantly undergoing decay 
and reparation in the nutritive processes which are going on 
in the body all through life. 
5. The tissues of the body, which are simple in structure 
and low in vitality, are capable of reparation ; and these are 
the bones, and the elastic, the fibrous, and the connective 
tissues. Besides these, the blood-vessels, the lymphatic 
vessels, and the nerves, are also endowed with this power. 
6. Tissues which are complex in structure, or are endowed 
with peculiar functions, such as true cartilage, muscles, and 
gray nerve-substance; and the special organs, such as the 
dermis and its glands, and the secreting and excreting glands 
or organs of the body, have not the power of reparation. 
7. Cartilage, when broken across, or when removed by 
accident, is not repaired; but the separated parts become 
united by strong, fibrous or bony belts. Bones, when injured 
or broken, are repaired with remarkable facility. When the 
fibres of a muscle are divided, and the cut ends are not too 
far from each other, they are united by a band of connective 
tissue, and thus its functions are re-established; but when the 
ends are kept too far apart to be thus united, the muscle 
decreases in size, and soon undergoes fatty degeneration. A 
divided nerve is quickly united by connective tissue ; and 
nerve-fibres are afterwards formed in this so as to establish 
the nervous connection. 
8. Life and death are continually taking place in every 
organized being. Every tissue, every organ, and indeed DEVELOPMENT AND DEATH. 
213 
every part of the body is subject alike to decay. The cells 
from which they are developed have their allotted period of 
existence, and must then be removed from among the living 
where they can be of no further use. Other cells must be 
formed to take their places, and thus preserve the life of the 
individual. In these respects the body, which is made up 
of many parts, is like a community of persons. Death is 
constantly at work in the community, and one by one they 
pass from the stage of existence, while life is equally busy 
bringing others upon the stage of action to occupy their 
places. 
9. The relative powers of life and death vary with the 
different periods of human existence. In childhood and 
youth, the powers of life are so strong and the nutritive sys- 
tem so full of vigor, that the natural waste and decay in the 
system is repaired, and new material for the growth and de- 
velopment of the individual is abundantly furnished; there- 
fore, all parts of the body increase in size and strength 
during these periods of life. 
10. In the prime of life, the skeleton has become strong 
and solid, the full stature of the individual has been attained, 
the system has reached its fullest development, and the in- 
tellectual powers their highest perfection. The powers of 
waste and assimilation are now evenly balanced, and the 
individual neither gains nor loses for a term of years. 
11. As we pass the meridian of life and approach the pe- 
riod of old age, the powers of life become more and more 
feeble; they no longer keep pace with the powers of death, 
and, therefore, are unable to repair the natural loss sustained 
by the tissues and organs of the body. These organs, conse- 
quently, undergo a degeneration, their functional powers are 
daily diminished, and life ebbs slowly away until at last the 
body, having lost all vitality, is laid in the “ narrow house ” 
appointed for the dead, and the immortal soul returns to 
Him from whence it came! 214 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION II. 
1. What is said of the loss from the wear and tear in the body ? 
2. What is said of reparation in the lower order of animals ? 
3. What is said of reparation at different periods of life ? 
4. What of it in man and other warm-blooded animals ? 
5. What parts of the body are capable of reparation ? 
6. What parts are without the power of reparation ? 
7. What is said of repairing cartilage ? Of repairing bones ? Of re- 
pairing muscles ? Of repairing nerves ? 
8. What is said of life and death in organized bodies ? 
9. What is said of these powers in childhood and youth ? 
10. What of them in the prime of life? 
11. What of them in old age ? CHAPTER VII.—Appendix. 
Section I. 
Care of the Sick. 
1. Good nursing is an important part in all cases of sick- 
ness. Intelligence, good judgment, and a willingness to do, 
are among the requisites of a good nurse. Kindness and 
gentleness towards the sick, and a disposition to soothe and 
comfort, by giving attention to the patient’s wants, whether 
real or imaginary, will do much to allay the nervous con- 
dition, so common in cases of severe illness. 
2. Near and dear friends sometimes render themselves almost 
unfit for nursing, on account of the anxiety they exhibit for 
the welfare of the sick. In all cases, a nurse should pre- 
serve a calm demeanor, and without any outward exhibition 
of fear or sorrow, perform the duties needed by the patient, 
trusting to that higher “ Arm of Power ” upon which we 
must all lean for support amid the many trials in this life! 
3. The most comfortable and cheerful room in the house 
should be selected for the sick. A large, airy room, as far 
from noise as possible, and one in which the sunlight can 
enter, will be best. Superfluous furniture should be re- 
moved, so as not to incommode the attendants. 
4. The temperature of a sick-room should he kept between 
sixty and seventy degrees. The room should be well venti- 
lated, so as to be kept free from all unpleasant odors, and 216 
ANATOM Y, PII YSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
from all impurities. An open fire-place, or chimney-place, 
is an excellent means of ventilation. Currents of air should 
never be permitted to blow upon the patient. Offensive 
matters should be removed immediately, and every precau- 
tion taken to keep the air of the room pure. For warming 
the room, wood is preferable to coal. 
5. The best means for lighting a sick-room at night, is by 
sperm candles, or by tapers which burn in sperm-oil. Coal- 
oil, and most other preparations used for giving light, emit 
an unpleasant odor, often very disagreeable to the patient. 
6. In all cases of sickness, the patient needs rest, and the 
sick-room shoidd be kept quiet. No more of the attendants 
should enter the room than can be of service while there. 
Visitors more or less disturb those who are sick; hence, 
their admission, or otherwise, should be as directed by the 
physician. All bustling, all confusion, and all unnecessary 
talking, should be avoided; and stillness should reign in the 
sick-room. 
7. Cleanliness is important in every sick-room. Cups, 
tumblers, and other vessels containing food, drink, or medi- 
cine, should be frequently washed. Both the dress of the 
patient and the bed-linen become soiled sooner in sickness 
than in health, and should, therefore, be more frequently 
changed. 
8. Those who wait upon the sick shoidd take their meals 
regularly through the day ; and during the night they should 
also partake of some light food. They should wear plenty 
of clothing, so as not to feel cold, particularly towards morn- 
ing, when the system is exhausted. 
9. Those who nurse through the day should not watch at 
night; because the system is then too much wearied for want 
of sleep. It is important that the watcher keep awake, so 
as to attend to the wants of the sick; she should, therefore, 
obtain plenty of sleep during the day. 
10. Whatever is likely to be needed during the night, 
should be brought into the sick-room before the family APPENDIX. 
217 
retires to rest; then, neither the slumbers of the patient, nor 
of the family, will be disturbed by a search for needful 
articles during the night. 
11. The nurse should he careful to folloiv the directions of 
the physician, both in giving medicines, and in giving food 
and drink. Medicines must be given properly, or they will 
often fail in their beneficial effects. Pood and drink also 
have much influence on those who are sick, and should be 
given with judgment. The preparation of food is of so much 
importance, that we add a few modes for preparing nourish- 
ment for the sick and the convalescent. 
12. Toast Water. Toast a slice of stale bread until brown, 
without scorching, put it in boiling water, and cover closely 
until it is cool. Ice may be put in if desirable. 
13. Bice Water. Take one tablespoonful of rice and one 
quart of water, boil them for an hour, and add a little salt, 
or some nutmeg and sugar. 
14. Limewater and Milk. Mix equal quantities of lime- 
water and fresh milk. One tablespoonful is a dose. 
15. Chicken Broth. Take part of a chicken, with the skin 
removed, and place it in cold water along with some salt and 
a little rice. Boil slowly two hours and skim well. 
16. Panada. Toast two slices of stale bread until brown, 
lay them in a dish and sprinkle with salt. Pour on a pint 
of boiling water, add a little nutmeg, and leave until cool. 
17. Arrowroot. Stir a tablespoonful of arrowroot in a 
pint of boiling water, and boil a few minutes. Sweeten to 
the taste. A little lemon-peel to flavor, and wine or brandy 
to strengthen, may be added when needed. Milk may be 
substituted for the water. 
18. Essence of Beef. Cut a quantity of lean beef into 
small pieces, put it into a strong bottle, without water, cork 
it loosely so that the steam can escape, and immerse the 
bottle to its neck in a vessel of cold water. Place on the fire 
and boil for two hours; then pour off the essence. 218 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
19. Beef Tea. Take a pound of lean beef, cut in very 
small pieces, add a pint of cold water, and boil slowly for 
half an hour. Skim off the fat, salt to taste, and pour off as 
needed. 
20. Wine Whey. Add a wineglassful of Sherry or Ma- 
deira wine to half a pint of fresh milk while boiling. Strain 
through thin muslin, and add sugar and nutmeg. 
21. Brandy Punch. Sweeten a tumblerful of fresh milk, 
aud add a tablespoon ful of brandy. 
22. The treatment for asphyxia, or suspended breathing, 
whether from drowning, coal-gas, or other causes, is much 
the same. 
1st. If the weather be not too severe, treat the patient in- 
stantly on the spot and waste no time in moving him. 
2d. Loosen everything about the neck and the chest. 
3d. Turn the patient on his face, and draw the tongue 
gently forward so as to clear the mouth. Cleanse the nost rils. 
4th. Lay the patient on his back; raise bis arms above 
the bead, and at the same time draw up the shoulders; then 
bring them both down again. This should be repeated from 
fifteen to twenty times in a minute. Blow into the mouth, 
or nostrils, through a tube or a quill, or without them, as is 
available. Continue this as long as there is hope of exciting 
respiration. 
5th. Pass a vial containing hartshorn under the nostrils, at 
intervals, so as to excite nervous action. 
6th. When respiration is established, endeavor to induce 
warmth and circulation by rubbing the patient vigorously, 
and always one way, from the extremities towards the 
heart, so as to aid the return of the venous blood. The 
applicatien of mustard, of bottles of hot water, and of heated 
Asphyxia from Drowning. APPENDIX . 
219 
bricks to the feet and legs, and rubbing these parts with hot 
liquor, will be found useful. 
7th. Cover the patient with dry clothing as soon as pos- 
sible ; dry blankets are preferable, so that friction may be 
continued under them. 
Disinfectants. 
23. Ventilation and cleanliness are the best means of pre- 
venting the spread of infection. Unhealthy places may, 
however, be purified temporarily by disinfectants. 
24. Dwelling-houses may be purified by thorough ventila- 
tion, by whitewashing the walls, and by sprinkling the floors 
with a solution made of half a fluidounce of carbolic acid 
and two quarts of water, or, by placing the solid chloride 
of lime, or common unslaked lime, in shallow vessels in the 
rooms. Pieces of charcoal are also useful by absorbing 
gases and other impurities. 
25. The following disinfectants are the best for all other 
places that need purifying. A liquid composed of one fluid- 
ounce of Labarraque’s solution of chlorinated soda, and one 
quart of water; or a solution made by adding ten grains of the 
permanganate of potassa to one quart of water; or one made 
of half a fluidounce of carbolic acid and two quarts of water; 
or a pound of the sulphate of iron dissolved in a gallon of 
water; or a pound of the chloride of lime, well mixed with a 
gallon of water, and used freely. Tar and the common 
petroleum are also good disinfectants. 
26. Articles of clothing from patients should be thor- 
oughly boiled. A solution of an ounce of the permanganate 
of potassa to three gallons of water is frequently used for 
this purpose. Clothing and bedding that cannot be washed, 
should be kept for several hours in an oven heated to a tem- 
perature of over two hundred degrees. In bad cases of con- 220 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
tagious disease, the clothing and bedding should either be 
burned or buried. 
27. Heaps of filth should be removed; and when this can- 
not be done, they should be covered with charcoal two or three 
inches deep. Sewers, drains, and gutters, may be disinfected 
by using chloride of lime, which should be placed in them 
in small quantities. One pound of the chloride of lime will 
disinfect a thousand gallons of running filth. 
Poisons and their Antidotes. 
28. Cases of poisoning occur so frequently, that the more 
common antidotes for them should be generally known. 
As prevention is always better than cure, it would be well 
if every package, box, and bottle, were plainly labelled, so 
that its contents could be positively known. Care in this 
respect would prevent many cases of accidental poisoning. 
29. In all cases where poison has been swallowed, the stomach 
should be relieved of its contents as soon as possible. Vomit- 
ing may be speedily produced by drinking one or two 
tumblerfuls of warm water containing a tablespoonful of 
ground mustard, or of common table-salt. Copious draughts 
of warm water should be continued, and the throat may be 
irritated by the finger, or by a feather, so as to induce vomit- 
ing. After vomiting has commenced, warm mucilaginous 
drinks, such as flaxseed-tea, gum-arabic water, and slippery- 
elm water, should be taken, so as to continue the vomit- 
ing until there is reason to think the poison has all been ex- 
pelled. A stomach-pump may be used for the same pur- 
pose. 
30. After the vomiting, the strength of the person may be 
supported, if necessary, by wine or brandy. But in all cases 
of suspected poisoning, the services of a physician should be 
obtained as quickly as possible. APPENDIX. 
221 
POISONS. 
ANTIDOTES. 
Nitric acid (aquafortis). 
Muriatic acid (spirits of salt). 
Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). 
Calcined Magnesia is the best; but 
chalk, soda (saleratus), lime, or 
soap, may be substituted. Take 
them in copious draughts of warm 
water, and take them quickly. 
Oxalic acid. 
}■ Give lime-water freely. 
Prussic acid. 
Oil of bitter almonds. 
Laurel water. 
Drink one teaspoonful of the water 
of ammonia in one pint of water. 
Ammonia (hartshorn). 
Potash. 
Strong lye. 
Soda. 
Lemon juice or weak vinegar. Th ese 
may be followed by sweet-oil, cas- 
tor-oil, linseed-oil, or thick cream. 
Nitrate of Potassa (saltpetre). 
Iodine. 
An emetic of warm water and mus- 
tard, followed by oil or cream. 
Alcohol. 
Spirituous liquors. 
An emetic of warm water and mus- 
tard ; or use the stomach-pump. 
Arsenic. 
Cobal t (fly-poison). 
Scheele’s Green. 
Use a stomach-pump quickly. Give 
an emetic of warm water and mus- 
tard, and follow this by large doses 
of Calcined Magnesia. The anti- 
dote for arsenic is hydrated per- 
oxide of iron. 
Antimonial wine. 
Tartar emetic. 
A solution of nutgall, tannin, or oak- 
bark, is an antidote. 
Sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) 
Acetate of copper (verdigris). 
Milk, the white of eggs, or baking 
soda, is an antidote. Give mild 
drinks freely. 
Use an emetic of water and mustard, 
or common salt, and follow by 
Epsom Salts. Sulphuric acid is 
an antidote. 
Acetate of lead (sugar of lead). 
White lead. 
Give a teaspoonful of common salt in 
a tumblerful of water. 
Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic). 
Corrosive Sublimate (bug poison) 
Red Precipitate. 
White Precipitate. 
Vermilion. 
Give the white of four or Jive eggs; 
or, as a substitute, give wheat flour 
mixed with soap-suds, or with milk 
and water. 
Phosphorus. 
Matches. 
I Large doses of Calcined Magnesia, 
f followed by mucilaginous drinks. 222 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Opium. 
Laudanum. 
Paregoric. 
Morphine. 
Godfrey’s Cordial. 
Carminatives. 
Aconite (monkshood). 
Belladonna (nightshade). 
Hemlock. 
Lobelia. 
Stramonium (Jamestown Weed). 
Camphor. 
Tobacco. 
Nux Vomica (strychnine). 
POISONS. 
ANTIDOTES. 
Produce vomiting by means of mus- 
tard and warm water, which should 
be continued for some time. Use 
the stomach-pump as quickly as 
possible. Keep the patient awake. 
Give an emetic of warm water and 
mustard, or common salt. 
Poisonous food. 
Sting of Insects. 
Ammonia (hartshorn) may be ap- 
plied, or baking-soda made into a 
paste with water may be kept on 
the part. 
Suck the part strongly; burn out 
with caustic potassa, or a red-hot 
iron ; cut out the bitten part. 
Bite of Rabid animals. 
Bite of Rattlesnakes and other 
Serpents. 
Drink freely of whisky. This is one 
of the best remedies known. Tie 
a ligature above the wound when 
it is on one of the limbs. Suck 
the part strongly with the mouth. 
Poisonous gases. 
J- Fresh air and artificial respiration. 
QUESTIONS. 
SECTION I. 
1. What is said of good nursing ? What of kindness to the sick ? 
2. Why are friends sometimes unfit to be nurses ? How should a nurse 
always appear when in the sick-room ? 
3. What kind of a room should be selected for the sick? What is 
said of the furniture in it? 
4. What should be the temperature of a sick-room ? What is said of 
ventilation in a sick-room ? 
5. What is said of lighting a sick-room at night ? 
6. What is said of keeping the sick-room quiet ? APPENDIX 
223 
7. What of cleanliness in the sick-room? What of changing the 
dress of the patient? 
8. What is said of food for the nurse ? What of clothing ? 
9. What is remarked of the watchers at night? 
10. What preparation should be made before retiring to rest? 
11. What is remarked of the directions given by the physician ? 
What of the preparation of food ? 
12. How is toast water made? 13. Rice water? 14. Lime water and 
milk? 15. Chicken broth ? 16. Panada? 17. Arrowroot ? 18. Essence 
of beef? 19. Beef tea? 20. Wine whey? 21. Brandy punch? 
22. What is the treatment for asphyxia ? 
23. What is said of ventilation and cleanliness? 
24. IIow may dwelling-houses be purified ? 
25. How may other pi aces be purified or disinfected ? 
26. What should be done with the clothing from patients ? 
27. What with heaps of filth near dwelling-houses? 
28. What is said of cases of poisoning ? What care should be used to 
prevent accidental poisoning? 
29. What should be done in all cases of poisoning ? How may vomit- 
ing be produced? How may it be continued? 
30. How may the patient’s strength be supported ? 
Section II. 
Glossary of Diseases. 
Anse'mia. Poverty of blood. 
An'eurism. A soft tumor formed in the course of an 
artery, by the dilatation of its coats. The rupture of these 
coats produces death by hemorrhage. 
Ap'oplexy. Sudden loss of consciousness; usually pro- 
duced by pressure .upon the brain from an increased supply 
of blood. 
Asphyxia. Suspended breathing from drowning, the in- 
halation of gases, chloroform, or ether. 
Asth'ma. Difficulty of breathing, caused by a spasmodic 
constriction of the bronchial tubes. 224 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Bronchi tis. An inflammation of the mucous membrane 
of the bronchial tubes. 
Car'buncle. An inflammation similar, but more extensive 
than a boil. 
Cat'aract. A disease of the crystalline lens of the eye, 
causing dimness, and even loss of vision. 
Catarrh'. Influenza. An epidemic disease, with the ordi- 
nary symptoms of “ a bad cold,” but often more severe. 
Chil'blain. Frost-bite, particularly of the feet. 
Chicken-pox. Varicella. A mild, contagious disease, 
attended with an eruption on the skin. The time between 
the exposure and attack, lasts four or five days. 
Chore'a. St. Vitus’s Dance. A disease causing incessant 
and irregular movements of the voluntary muscles, without 
the control of the will. 
Chol'era. Asiatic Cholera. An epidemic disease, attended 
with diarrhoea, and with cramps in the limbs. Often very 
fatal, but not contagious. It first visited this country in 
1832; and a second time in 1849, lingering until 1854. 
Chol'era Infant'um. The summer complaint of young 
children; and mostly confined to cities. 
Chol'era Mor'bus A disease attended with vomiting and 
diarrhoea; often produced by eating stale or unripe fruit. 
Col'ic. Pain in the abdominal region, often attended with 
cramp. 
Congestive Fever Pernicious Fever. A fever occurring 
in marshy places, especially near the rice plantations of the 
Southern States. About one in eight cases die. 
Conjunctivitis. Inflammation of the conjunctiva of the 
eye. 
Convulsions. The involuntary contraction of the muscles, 
during which the body is rigid, and the consciousness absent. 
Cornei'tis. Inflammation of the cornea of the eye. 
Coxal'gia. Hip-disease. 
Delirium Tre'mens. Mania a potu. Caused by the ex- 
cessive use of alcoholic stimulants. APPENDIX. 
225 
Diphthe'ria. Putrid sore throat, often very fatal among 
children. Epidemic, and probably contagious in the ma- 
lignant forms. It was epidemic in this country from 1856 
to 1862. Washington died of diphtheria. 
Dys'entery. An inflammation of the large intestine, often 
becoming endemic, and then more dangerous. 
Dyspep'sia. Indigestion of food, usually produced by 
irregular habits of living. 
Ear'ache. Otalgia. Pain in the ear. Three drops of 
sweet-oil, or rabbit’s fat, and two drops of laudanum, dropped 
into the ear, will generally relieve it. 
Endocarditis. Inflammation of the lining membrane of 
the heart. 
Ep'ilepsy. Periodical convulsions, with unconsciousness 
during the attacks. 
Erysip'elas. St. Antony’s Fire. An inflammation of the 
skin, usually beginning in the face, and spreading to other 
parts. Sometimes epidemic. 
Eel'on. Whitlow. An inflammation of a finger or thumb, 
often causing a loss of one or more of the bones. 
Gastritis. Inflammation of the stomach. 
Gout. Pain, mostly in the small joints, which frequently 
become swollen, red, and very tender. 
Hem’orrhage. Bleeding from any part of the body. 
Hem'orrhoids. Piles. Tumors at the lower extremity of 
the rectum. 
Hydroceph'alus. Water in the head; dropsy of the brain. 
Hydropho'bia. A disease produced by the bite of a mad 
or rabid dog. 
Hyste'ria. A morbid excitability of the nervous system, 
more or less uncontrollable. 
Intermit'tent Fever. Chills and Fever. Ague. It oc- 
curs mostly in spring or autumn, and in the vicinity of 
marshes, ponds, or slow streams of water. Seldom fatal. 
Jaun'dice. A disease of the liver, attended by a yellow- 
ness of the skin. Sometimes epidemic. 226 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Laryngi'tis. Inflammation of the larynx. 
Lock-jaw. Tetanus. A disease in which there is a con- 
tinued contraction or stiffness in the voluntary muscles. 
This usually begins in the muscles of the jaws. Most cases 
die within a week. 
Measles. Rubeola. A contagious disease, attended with 
an eruption on the skin. The time between the exposure 
and attack, lasts from ten to fifteen days. 
Meningitis. An inflammation of the meningeal mem- 
brane of the brain. 
Mumps. A contagious inflammation of the parotid gland. 
Neural'gia. Pain in a nerve, without inflammation. It 
is called tic douloureux, when in the face, and sciatica, when 
in the hip. 
Pal'sy. A paralysis or loss of motion, more or less com- 
plete, in the muscles of one side. 
Pericardi'tis. An inflammation of the membrane invest- 
ing the heart. 
Peritoni tis. An inflammation of the peritoneum, or 
serous membrane lining the abdomen. 
Pharyngi'tis. The ordinary sore throat. Inflammation 
of the pharynx. 
Phthisis Pulmonal'is. Consumption of the lungs. A 
disease which continues to destroy the substance of the lungs, 
until there is not enough left to support life. 
Pleu risy. An inflammation of the pleura, or membrane 
covering the lungs. 
Pneumo'nia. An inflammation of the substance of the 
lung. 
Pleu'ro-pneumo'nia. Pleurisy and pneumonia. An in- 
flammation, both of the lung and the pleura covering it. 
Qaiin'sy. Tonsillitis. An inflammation of the tonsil 
glands. 
Remit'tent Fever. Bilious Fever. Occurring mostly in 
spring or autumn, and in the vicinity of marshes, ponds, or 
slow streams of water. More severe than Intermittent 
Fever. Often fatal. APPENDIX. 
227 
Ulieu'matisni. Pain confined mostly to the larger joints, 
which frequently become swollen, red, and very tender. 
Rick'ets. A disease, attended with a curving of the spinal 
column, or of the limbs, in young children. 
Scar let Fever. Scarlatina. A disease attended with sore 
throat, and a bright red eruption on the skin. Most writers 
consider it contagious. Often very fatal. The time between 
the exposure and attack, lasts about five days. 
Scrofula. A disease which causes a wasting of the sub- 
stance of the body, and which is produced by hereditary 
transmission, or by the want of proper food, clothing, and 
fresh air. It is apt to end in Consumption of the lungs. 
Scur'vy. Scorbutus. A disease attended by swelling and 
bleeding of the gums, lowness of - spirits, and general de- 
bility ; and produced by want of fresh, vegetable food. 
Small-pox. Variola. A contagious disease, attended with 
an eruption on the skin, and often very fatal. The time be- 
tween the exposure and the attack, lasts about twelve days. 
The best preventive is vaccination. 
Spot'ted Fever. Cerebro - spinal Fever. A very fatal, 
epidemic fever; but probably not contagious. More than 
half the cases die. 
Sun'stroke. ' Heatstroke. Occurs suddenly from over- 
exertion when the heat is excessive, and is attended with 
unconsciousness. 
Tooth'-ache. Odontalgia. When the nerve is exposed, 
creosote will stop the aching. Place a small piece of cotton, 
wet with creosote, in the tooth. Oil of cloves is a good 
remedy, used in the same wray. 
Ty'phus Fever. Ship Fever. Camp Fever. Jail Fever. 
A contagious fever, caused by living in overcrowded and 
filthy places. About one case in twenty dies. 
Ty'phoid Fever. Nervous Fever. A very slow fever 
produced by foul air, fatigue, and other depressing causes. 
Not contagious. About one case in twenty dies. 
Whooping-cough. Pertussis. A contagious disease, at- 228 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
tended with a cough, which causes a whooping sound. The 
time between the exposure and attack, lasts about six days. 
Yellow Fever. A very fatal epidemic fever, not usually 
considered contagious. It occurs most frequently in warm 
climates. About one case in three dies. 
Glossary of Words. 
Ab do' men. The large cavity in the front part of the 
body, between the chest and the pelvis. It contains the 
stomach, liver, and other digestive organs. 
A ce tab' u lum. The cup-like cavity in the hip-bone. 
It receives the head of the thigh-bone. 
A ch.il' les. The name of the tendon which joins the large 
muscles of the calf of the leg to the heel. 
Ad' i pose Tis' sue. Tissue composed of fat. 
A1 bu' men. An animal substance resembling the white 
of an egg. 
A1 bu' mi noid Substances. A class resembling albumen, 
and obtained from both the animal and vegetable kingdom. 
Al' ve o lar. Pertaining to the sockets of the teeth. 
A nas' to mose. To communicate with each other, as one 
artery with another. 
A nat' o my. The study of the structure and the position 
of the organs of the body while in a state of rest. 
A ort' a. The largest artery of the body. 
A rach' noid. One of the membranes covering the brain. 
Ar' te ry. A tube which conveys blood away from the 
heart. 
Ar tic u la' tion. A joint. 
At' las. The first vertebra next to the head. 
A ryt' e noid. One of the cartilages of the larynx. 
Aud' i to ry Nerve. The nerve of hearing. APPENDIX. 
229 
Ah' ri cles. The two cavities of the heart next to its base. 
Ax il' la. The armpit. 
Bi cus' pid. A tooth having two points or two fangs. 
Bile. The secretion of the liver. 
Brach' i al. Belonging to the arm. 
Bron' chi. The two divisions or branches of the trachea. 
Cae' cum. The name given to the commencement of the 
large intestine. 
Ca nine'. Like a dog. 
Cap' il la ry. A small blood-vessel. 
Car' di ac. The orifice of the stomach next to the oesoph- 
agus. 
Car niv' o rous. Feeding upon flesh. 
Ca rot' id. The large artery on each side of the neck. 
Car' pus. The wrist. 
Car' ti lage. Gristle. An elastic substance softer than 
bone, but harder than a ligament. 
Cas' ein. The substance which coagulates in milk. 
Cer e bel' lum. The lower and smaller division of the 
brain ; the little brain. 
Cer' e brum. The upper and larger division of the brain; 
the large brain. 
Ce ru' men. Ear-wax. 
Cer' vi cal. Relating to the neck. 
Chlor' ide of So' di um. Common salt. 
Cho' roid. One of the coats of the eyeball. 
Chyle. A milky-looking .fluid consisting of food in a 
digested state. 
Cil' ia ry. Belonging to the eyelids. 
Clav' i cle. The collar-bone. 
Coch' le a. A part of the internal ear. 
Co' Ion. A portion of the large intestine. 
Con junc' ti va. The mucous membrane lining the eye- 
lids, and covering the front of the eyeball. 
Cor' ne a. The name of a membrane in the front part of 
the eveball. 230 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Cra' ni um. The skull. 
Cri' coid. A cartilage of the larynx. 
Crys' tal line Lens. A double convex lens in the front 
part of the eyeball. 
Cu' ti cle. The external layer of the epidermis. 
De cus sa' tion. A crossing of fibres from side to side. 
Den' tal. Pertaining to the teeth. 
Den' tine. The ivory of the teeth. 
Derm' is. The deeper layer of the skin. 
Di' a phragm. A muscle separating the cavity of the 
chest from the abdomen. 
Di ges' tion. The process by which food is changed, so 
as to be absorbed into the system. 
Dor' sal. Relating to the back. 
Du o de' num. The part of the small intestine next to the 
stomach. 
Du' ra Ma' ter. The external membrane of the brain. 
En am' el. The hard substance covering the crown of 
each tooth. 
E11 do car' di um. The membrane lining the interior of 
the heart. 
Ep i derm' is. The external layer’ of the skin. 
Ep i glot' tis. A cartilage covering the glottis. 
Ep i the' li um. The free surface of serous and mucous 
membranes. 
Eu stach' i an. A tube or canal leading from the middle 
ear to the throat. 
Fas' cia. The sheath of a muscle. 
Fas cic' u li. Bundles of muscular fibres. 
Fern' o ral. Pertaining to the femur, or thigh-bone. 
Fib' u la. The small bone of the leg. 
Fi' brin. The substance in the blood which coagulates, 
or forms a clot. 
Fo ram' en. An aperture in a bone. 
Gan' gli on. An enlargement in the course of a nerve. 
Gas' trie. Pertaining to the stomach. APPENDIX 
231 
Gas troch ne' mi us. The name given to the large mus- 
cle forming the calf of the leg. 
Gland. An organ which secretes and pours forth a liquid 
from one or more ducts. 
Glos' so - pha ryn' ge al. The nerve of taste. 
Glot' tis. The narrow opening at the top of the larynx. 
Hem' or rhage. Bleeding from any part of the body. 
Her biv' or ous. Feeding on plants. 
Hu' mer us. The arm-bone next to the shoulder. 
Hy' a loid. A thin membrane of the eye. 
He pat' ic. Relating to the liver. 
Hy' gi ene. The study of the best means for preserving 
the body in a state of health. 
Hy' oid. The bone at the root of the tongue. 
II' e um. The lower portion of the small intestine. 
In ci' sor. The name of a front tooth. 
In ter cost' al. Between the ribs. 
In tes' tine. The part of the alimentary canal below the 
stomach. 
I' ris. The ring surrounding the pupil of the eye. 
Je ju' num. A portion of the small intestine. 
Ju' gu lar. The large vein on each side of the neck. 
Lab' y rinth. The internal ear. 
Lach' ry mal. Pertaining to the tears. 
Lac' te als. The vessels which absorb chyle from the 
small intestine. 
Lar' ynx. The upper part of the windpipe. 
Lig' a ment. A strong, fibrous membrane giving strength 
to the joints. 
Liv' er. A large gland in the right side of the abdomen, 
just beneath the diaphragm. 
Lymph. The colorless fluid in the lymphatic vessels. 
Mar' row. A soft, fatty substance in the cavities of the 
bones. 
Mas ti ca' tion. The act of chewing. 
Med' ul la ry. Pertaining to marrow. 
Me dul' la Ob Ion ga' ta. That part of the nervous cord 
which joins the spinal cord to the brain. 232 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Met' a - car' pus. The part of the hand between the fingers 
and the wrist; the palm of the hand. 
Mi' tral. The valve between the left auricle and the left 
ventricle. 
Mo' lar. The name of a back tooth, or grinder. 
Mo' tor. Causing motion. 
Mu' cous Mem' brane. A membrane lining all cavities 
which open externally. 
Mu' cus. The fluid secreted by a mucous membrane. 
Mus' cles. The fleshy or lean parts of the body. 
Na' sal. Pertaining to the nose. 
Neu ri lem' ma. The sheath of a nerve. 
Oc cip' i tal. Relating to the back part of the head. 
(E soph' a gus. The tube extending from the throat to 
the stomach. 
01 fac' to ry. Pertaining to the sense of smell. 
0 ment' um, A fold of serous membrane covering the 
intestines; the caul. 
Op' tic. Pertaining to the sight. 
Or' gan. Any part of the body capable of a special 
function. 
Os' se ous. Pertaining to the bones. 
Os' si fy. To change into bone. 
Pal' ate. The roof of the mouth. 
Pal' mar. Relating to the palm of the hand. 
Pal' pe bral. Relating to the eyelids. 
Pan' creas. A gland behind the stomach. 
Pa pil' la. A minute prominence. 
Pa rot' id. The largest of the salivary glands. 
Pa tel' la. The knee-pan ; the cap of the knee. 
Pec' to ral. Pertaining to the chest. 
Pel' vis. The basin formed by the hip-bones, the sacrum, 
and the coccyx. 
Per i car' di um. The membrane enclosing the heart. 
Pe ri os' te um. A fibrous membrane covering the bones. 
Per i to ne' um. The serous membrane investing the 
stomach, intestines, and abdomen. APPENDIX. 
233 
Phar' ynx. The throat. 
Phys i ol' o g'y. The study of the functions of the organs 
of the body ; or the study of the phenomena of life. 
Pi' a Ma' ter. The inner membrane of the brain. 
Plas' ma. The liquid part of the blood. 
Pleu' ra. A serous membrane covering the lung and 
lining the chest. 
Plex' us. A network of nerves. 
Pneu mo gas' trie. The principal nerve of respiration. 
Pons. A division of the brain in front of the cerebellum. 
Prim' i tive Cell. The starting point in the formation of 
a living body. 
Pill' mo na ry. Belonging to the lungs. 
Pu' pil. The opening in the eye through which the rays 
of light pass to the retina. 
Py lor' us. The orifice of the stomach next to the small 
intestine. 
Ra' di us. A bone of the forearm. 
Rec' turn. The lower portion of the large intestine. 
Res pi ra' tion. The breathing of air into and out of the 
lungs. 
Ret' i na. The coat of the eye formed by the expansion 
of the optic nerve. 
Sa' crum. A bone of the pelvis. 
Sa li' va. The fluid secreted by a salivary gland. 
Scap' u la. The shoulder-blade. 
Scie rot' ic. A membrane of the eye. 
Se ba' ceous. Pertaining to fat. 
Sem i lu'nar Valves. The valves at the commencement 
of the pulmonary artery, and of the aorta. 
Se' rum. The watery part of the blood; also, the fluid 
secreted by serous membranes. 
Se' rous Mem' brane. A membrane lining all cavities 
which do not open externally. 
Sin' ew. A cord by which a muscle is attached to a bone. 
Skel' e ton. The bones, or frame-work of the body. 234 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
Stern' um. The breast-bone. 
Stom' ach. A large pouch in the left side of the abdo- 
men, just beneath the diaphragm. 
Sub cla' vi an. Situated under the clavicle. 
Sub lin' gual. Situated under the tongue. 
Su' tures. The joints between the bones of the skull. 
Syn o' vi a. The fluid which lubricates the joints. 
Tar' sus. The bones forming the heel and the instep of 
the foot. 
Ten' don. The cord by which a muscle is attached to a 
bone. 
Tho' rax. The chest. 
Tib' i a. The large bone of the leg; the shin-bone. 
Tis' sue. The texture of which any part of the body is 
composed. 
Ton' sil. A gland in the throat. 
Thy' roid. A cartilage of the larynx. 
Trach' e a. The windpipe. 
Tri cus' pid. The valve between the right auricle, and 
the right ventricle. 
Tym' pa num. The middle ear; the drum of the ear. 
Ul' na. A bone of the forearm. 
U' vu la. A soft body attached to the palate. 
Vas' cu lar. Containing blood-vessels. 
Vein. A tube which conveys blood towards the heart. 
Ven' tri cles. The two cavities of the heart next to its 
apex. 
Vert' e bra. The name given to each bone of the spinal 
column. 
Vest' i bule. A part of the internal ear. 
Vil' li. Elevations in the mucous coat of the small intes- 
tine. 
Vit' re ous. A humor of the eye. Index. 
A 
PAGE 
Abdomen 63 
Abdominal viscera 63 
Abdominal aorta 83 
Abducent nerve 120 
Absorption 95 
through the skin 96 
Accessory nerve 121 
Acetabulum 31 
Achilles, tendon of. 17 
Active exercise. 195 
Adam’s apple 99 
Air, atmospheric 160 
upon inflamed surfaces 165 
amount of, used inbreathiug, 107,160 
composition of. 105 
density of. 165 
impure, in wells 161 
moisture in 165 
sudden changes in. 166 
temperature of. 165 
Air-cells of the lungs 102 
Albinoes 139 
Albumen 17 
Albuminoid substances 18, 183 
Albuminose 70 
Alcoholic liquors. 187 
Alimentary canal 59 
Anastomosis of arteries 78 
of nerves 121 
of veins 79 
Anatomy, Definition of 12 
of the bones 22 
of the muscies ' 41 
of the joints 38 
PAGE 
Anatomy of the circulation 75 
of digestion 59 
of respiration 99 
of the nervous system Ill 
of the organs of special sense 139 
Animals 12,136 
warm-blooded 119 
cold-blooded HO 
temperature of. 171 
Animal heat 108 
Animal matter 107,161 
Ankle joint 10 
Antidotes for poisons 221 
Aorta 19 
Aponeurosis 12 
Apoplexy 178 
Apparatus, Definition of. 11 
Aqueous humor 110 
Arachnoid membrane 119 
Areolar tissue — 20 
Arrowroot 217 
Arterial blood 89 
Arteries 78 
of forearm 82 
of lower limbs 83 
bleeding from 201 
Articulation at the joints 38 
Articulation of words 101 
Arytenoid cartilages 100 
Asphyxia 218 
Associated sensations 129 
Atlas and axis 29 
Auditory nerve 120 
Auricles of the heart 76 
Auricle of the ear Ill 236 
INDEX. 
B PAGE 
Hack-bone 37 
lialdness 204 
Hall and socket joints 39 
Bathing 171 
time for 171 
Haths, temperature of 171 
Heds, change of. 193 
Beef, essence of 217 
Beef-tea 218 
Bicuspid teeth 62 
Bile 66,71 
Biliverdin 18, 71 
Bitter taste 148 
Bleeding, how checked 204 
Blood 86 
arterial 89 
composition of... 86 
coagulation of. 86 
quantity of 87 
velocity of 89 
venous 89 
Body, tissues of 19 
Bones 22 
in birds 23 
in fishes 23 
of the ear 28 
of the face 27 
of the head 26 
of the trunk 28 
anatomy of 22 
animal matter in 23 
classes of 23 
color of 23 
growth of 26 
mineral matter in 23 
number of 22 
ossification of. 26 
physiology of 36 
structure of 37 
uses of 36 
Bone-black 24 
Brain 113, 115 
convolutions of 116 
motor parts of 130 
sensitive parts of 130 
Brandy punch 218 
Bread 185 
Breast bone 30 
Breathing 167 
Bronchi 100 
Broth, Chicken 217 
c 
Ctecum 65 
Canals, Semicircular 142 j 
PAGE 
Canine teeth 62 
Capillaries 78 
circulation in 89 
Carotid arteries gl 
Carpus 32 
Carbonate of soda. 16 
of lime 16 
of potassa 16 
Carbonic acid in the air... 106, 163 
from the lungs 162 
in wells 131 
sources of 161 
Cartilage 20, 100 
of larynx. 99 
palpebral 136 
cricoid 100 
thyroid 99 
Cart/ilagin 17 
Casein 17 
Cell, nerve 112 
primitive 13, 155 
Cellars under houses 161 
Cells of cartilage 20 
Cellular layer 54 
Cement in teeth oi 
Cerebellum 117 130 
Cerebrospinal system 113, 124 
Cerebrum 115,130 
Changes from heat to cold. . 166 
from town to country 167 
Chest 3o 
Chicken-broth 217 
Childhood 210 
Children, seats for 199 
Chloride of potassium 16 
of sodium ig 
Chocolate igo 
Chords, Vocal 100 
Choroid coat of the eye 139 
Chyle 7! 
Circulation, causes of. §9 
Circulatory system 75 
physiology of 86 
Clavicle. 32 
Cleanliness 216 219 
Clot of blood 87 
Clothing 174 
articles of 176 
change of. 177 
object of 175 
warmth of. 177 
in contagious diseases 219 
Coagulation of blood gg 
Coats of arteries 78 
of stomach 64 INDEX. 
237 
PAGE 
Coccyx 31 
Cochlea 142 
Cocoa 186 
Coffee 186 
Cold, diseases from 165 
mortality from 174 
Cold batl) 172 
Colds, cause of 179 
Collar bone 32 
Colon 65 
Colors 150 
Compact substance of bones 24, 33 
Composition of the blood 86 
of the body. 15 
Conjunctiva. 137 
Connective tissue 20 
Cooking food 187 
Cornea of eye 139 
Corns on feet 144 
Cotton clothing... 176 
Coughing 104 
Covering while asleep 193 
Cranial nerves 119, 131 
Cranium, shape of 37 
Crying 104 
Crystalline lens 140, 150 
Cuticle of hair 145 
of skin 144 
D 
Damp clothing 180 
Death from cold 174 
from heat 174 
from hunger... 169 
from thirst 169 
Decay and death 211 
Deformity from dress 178 
Density of the air 165 
Dentine in teeth 61 
Dentition of infancy 209 
Dermis 143 
Development of tissues 155 
Diaphragm 48 
Diet 184 
Digestion in animals 73 
in birds 73 
in infants 209 
in the stomach 69 
in small intestine. 71 
fluids of 68 
organs of. 59 
physiology of. 68 
Diseases from cold 166 
from dress 179 
from heat 166 
PAGE 
Diseases from impure air 163 
glossary of 223 
Disinfectants 219 
Doors, ventilation by 165 
Dreams ... 192 
Dress 179 
Drinking-water 170 
Drowning 218 
Dwelling-hmises 219 
Dwelling-places 161 
Duct, Hepatic 66 
Lymphatic.. 91 
Nasal 137 
Pancreatic... 66 
Thoracic 91 
Duodenum 65 
Dura Slater 119 
E 
Ear, anatomy of 141 
bones of 142 
hygiene of. 204 
insects in 204 
physiology of. 151 
Ear-wax 141 
Eating, regularity in 188 
Eggs 185 
Elastic tissue 21 
Elbow joint 40 
movements in 50 
Enamel of teeth 61 
Endocardium ■ 78 
Endosteum 26 
Epidermis 143 
Epiglottis 100,104 
Epithelium 54 
Essence of beef. 217 
Eustachian tube. 142 
Excitability in nerves 125 
Excretions 96 
Exercise 194 
in open air 197 
in schools 198 
neglect of 200 
physical 198 
use of. 196 
Exhalations from the sick 162 
Extension of the limbs 39 
Extensor muscles 50 
Extremities of the bones 23 
Eye, anatomy of. 136 
hygiene of 203 
physiology of 151 
tears in 138,151 
Eyeball 138, 151 
muscles of 138 238 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Eyebrows.... 136 
Eyelids 136, 151 
Eye-washes... 203 
F 
Face, bones of. 27 
Fascia 42 
Fat.. 17, 21, 94 
in food 183 
Feet, corns on 179 
hygiene of 177 
Femur... 32 
Fibres of muscles 21, 49 
of nerves 112 
Fibrin in blood 17,87 
Fibro-cartilage 20 
Fibrous tissue 19 
Fibula 33 
Field of vision 151 
Filth 219 
Fireplace 164 
Fish, as food 184 
bones in 23 
Flannel, for clothing 176 
Flexion of limbs 39 
Flexor muscles 50 
Fluids, in digestion 68 
Food 183 
cooking of 187 
digestion of. 72 
for the sick 217 
kinds of. 72,184 
quantity of, needed 187 
Fontanels 208 
Foramina, in bones 23 
Frost-bite 167 
Fruit, as food 186 
Furs, for clothing 176 
G 
Gall-bladder 66 
Ganglion, nerve 113 
Gas, odors from 149 
Gastric glands 64 
Gastric juice 69 
secretion of. 70 
use of 70 
Garters 177 
Glands, of the body 57 
convoluted 58 
gastric 64 
lachrymal 137 
lymphatic 91 
palpebral 136 
parotid 60 
PAGE 
Glands, pineal 117 
salivary. 60 
sebaceous 146 
sublingual 61 
submaxillary 61 
sweat 144 
tonsil 60 
Globules, in blood 80 
Globulin 17 
Glossary of diseases 223 
of words 228 
Glosso-pharyngcal nerve 120 
Gristle 20 
Grouping of organs 156 
Gullet 63 
Gum shoes, use of. 179 
II 
Hair 145 
hygiene of. 204 
papillae of 146 
Hard water 170 
Head, bones of 26 
Hearing, hygiene of 159 
organ of 141 
sense of 151 
Heart .75, 87 
beating of 88 
contraction of 87 
muscular fibres of. 77 
pulsation of 88 
valves of. 77 
weight of 75 
Heat, animal 108 
diseases from 165 
in birds 109 
in man 109,174 
production of. 109 
regulation of. 110. 174 
Heaters 164 
Hematin 18 
Hemorrhage. 204 
Hinge-joints 39 
Hip-bones 31 
Hip-joint 40 
Horse-radish 186 
Hot bath 172 
Human infant 207 
Humerus 32 
Hyoid bone 28 
Hypo-glossal nerve 121 
I 
Ileum 65 
Iliac arteries 83 239 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Immovable joints 38 
Impressions, nerve 128 
on retina of the eye 150 
Impure air 162 
Incisor teeth 62, 210 
Indian corn, as food 186 
Infancy 210 
Infant, human 207 
skeleton of. 207 
Inferior cava 84 
Insalivation 69 
Insensibility to pain 127 
Intellectual faculties 130 
Interior of heart 75 
Internal ear 142 
Intervertebral ligament 29 
Intestinal juice - 71 
Intestine, large 65, 72 
small 64, 72 
Involuntary muscles.. 44 
movements of. 51 
Iris 139,149 
Irritability of nerves 126 
Ivory, in teeth 61 
J 
Jejunum 65 
Joints 38 
kind of. 40 
ligaments of 39 
Jumping 198 
Juice, intestinal 71 
gastric 70 
pancreatic 71 
K 
Knee-cap 33 
joint. 40 
L 
Labor, excessive 197 
Labyrinth .142,151 
Lachrymal canals 137 
glands 137,150 
La deals 93 
Large Intestine 65 
walls of... 65 
Larynx 99, 103 
Laughing 104 
Lens, crystalline .140, 150 
Life and death 98, 212 
Life force 11 
Ligaments 30 
capsular „ 39 
of joints 39 
PAGE 
Ligaments of vertebras 29 
Light, impressions from 149 
in houses.. J. 161 
in sick-rooms 216 
from the sun 205 
Lime, carbonate of. .16, 169 
Lime-water 217 
Linen clothing 176 
Liquors, spirituous 187 
Liver . 66 
Lower jaw, movements of. 40 
Lungs.. 101,105 
carbonic acid from 162 
Lymph 93 
Lymphatic duct 91 
system 91 
M 
Marrow, of the bones 24 
Mastication . ... 69 
Meats 184 
Medulla oblongata ..118, 130 
Melanin 18 
Membranes, basement 55 
mucous 56 
of the body 54 
serous 55 
Milk 185 
Mixed nerves 128 
Moisture, in air we breathe 165 
Molar teeth 62 
Motor apparatus 19 
impressions 128 
nerves 125,131 
Mouth 59 
Movable joints 39 
Mucosin 17, 56 
Mucous membranes 56 
Mucus 56 
Muscles, of the body 41 
of the eye 138 
of the head.. 44 
of the limbs 47 
of the trunk 46 
back view of 45 
contractility of. ..21, 41, 49 
front view of 43 
insertion of 42 
loss of power in 52 
movement of.. 49 
names of.. 42 
number of 43 
origin of. 42 
physiology of 49 
relaxation of. 49 240 
I X D E X . 
PAGE 
Muscles, strength of 51 
tendons of 52 
voluntary 44, 51 
Muscular fibres 21 
tissue 21 
Mustard 186, 220 
N 
Kails 146 
Kasai duct 137 
Kerve centres 113 
communication between 125 
excitability of 125 
sensibility of 125 
Kerve fibres, decussation of. 128 
union of 126 
Kerves 112 
cerebro-spinal 113 
cranial 119 
of motion 131 
of sensation 131 
of special sense 131 
sympathetic „112,122 
termination of. 112 
Kervous system. Ill 
Kight watchers 216 
Kose 136, 147 
Kursing 215 
Kutrition 94 
Kutritive apparatus 54 
o 
Oculo-motor nerve.. 119 
Odors 148 
offensive 162 
(Esophagus 63 
Oils, for food 184 
Old age 210,213 
Olfactory nerves 119, 136 
Omentum 63 
Optic nerve 119, 139 
Organ, definition of. .... 14 
Orga ns of circulation 75 
of communication 125 
of digestion 59 
grouping of. 156 
of respiration 99 
Organic cells 12 
Organised bodies 11 
Orifice of stomach 63 
Ossification 26 
Ostein 17 
Out-door exercise 197 
Overstudy 200 
Oxygen. 105, 163 
P PAGE 
Pain 127 
Valate 60 
! Valpebral cartilages 136 
glands... 136 
Panada 217 
Pancreas 65 
Pancreatic juice 71 
Pancreatin 17 
Parotid gland 60 
Patella 33 
Pathetic nerve 119 
Pearl-divers .-. 167 
Pelvis 30 
in infant 208 
Pepper 186 
Pepsin 17 
Pericardium 77 
Periods of human life 210 
Periosteum 24 
Peritoneum 63 
Perspiration, office of 145,153 
Phalanges 32 
Pharynx 63 
Phenomena of life 12 
Phosphates 16,17 
Phosphorus 24 
Physical exercises 198 
Physiology, definition of 12 
of the bones 36 
of the circulation 86 
of the digestion. 68 
of the joints 38 
of the muscles 49 
of the nervous system 124 
of the organs of special sense 147 
Pin mater 119 
Pineal gland 117 
Plants 163 
Plasma, of blood 86 
Pleura 55,102 
Plexuses of nerves 122 
Pneumogastric nerve 120 
Poisons 220 
Pons, in brain 118 
Potatoes, as food 186 
Potassa 1G 
Prime of life 210 
Primitive cell ..12, 155 
Protein compounds 15 
Proximate elements 15 
Ptyalin 69 
Pulmonary circulation 88 
globules 102 
Pulse.. 83, 88 
1 Pupil, of the eye 138, 150 INDEX. 
241 
PAGE 
Pure air 160, 163 
Pure water 169 
s 
Sacrum 30 
Sailing„ 200 
Saliva 60, 69 
Salivary glands 60 
Salt 16,186 
taste 148 
Scapula 32 
Sclerotic coat of tlie eye 139 
Sea-bathing 173 
Seats for persons 199 
Sebaceous glands .. 145 
Secretions ... 96 
Sensation of pain 127 
Sense of hearing 151 
of sight 149 
of smell 136, 148 
of taste 147 
of touch .143, 152 
Sensibility 125 
Sensitive impressions 128 
nerves .125, 131 
Serous membranes 55 
Serum 55 
Shaft of hairs 145 
Shin bone 33 
Shock from injury 126 
Shoulder-blade 32 
Shoulder-joint . 40 
Sick, care of. 215 
Sick-room 215 
cleanliness of 216 
light for 216 
stillness of 216 
temperature of. 215 
Sighing 104 
Sight, sense of. 149 
Sigmoid flexure 65 
Sinews 42 
Skeleton of adult 22 
of infant 207 
Skin 143,154 
exhalations from 154 
Skull 26 
in infants 208 
shape of ... ..27, 37 
Sleep 175,191 
amount of.............. ... 192 
loss of 192 
rest during 191 
time for 192 
Sleeping-room 164, 193 
PAGE 
Small intestine 64 
walls of * . 65 
Smell, sense of 13G, 148 
in animals 149 
in selecting food 148 
Sneezing. 104 
Sobbing . 104 
Soda 16 
Soft water 169 
Sound, variety of 152 
Sour taste 148 
Spare beds 193 
Special senses 152 
nCrves of 131 
Spectacles 150 
Spinal column 28, 208 
use of 37 
Spinal cord 114,118 
Spinal nerves 121 
roots of. 128 
Spirituous liquors 187 
Spleen 66 
Spongy substance 24, 36 
Starch 17, 72 
Sternum ........... 30 
Stomach 63 
digestion in 69, 72 
walls of. 64 
Stoves 164 
Study, amount of 201 
injury from 200 
Sugar 17, 71, 184 
Sutures 27, 38, 208 
Sweat 145,153 
glands 144 
Sweet taste 148 
Sublingual gland 61 
Submaxillary gland 61 
Suffocation 218 
Sunlight 205 
Superior cava 84 
Sympathetic system..; 122 
Synovia 40 
Synovial bursae 42 
membranes 56 
System, definition of. 14 
Systemic circulation 88 
T 
Tactile papillae 143 
Tarsus 34 
| Taste 135 
papillae of 135 
sense of 147 
in selecting food 148 242 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Tea, effect of 186 
Tears 138,151 
Teeth 61 
care of. 203 
cutting the 209 
milk 62 
permanent 62 
Temperature of air ...153,165 
of animals 110, 174 
of bath 172 
of body 110,174 
increased by exercise 175 
lowered by sleep 174 
Tendons 42 
Tepid bath 172 
Thigh bone 32 
Thirst, death from 169 
Thoracic duct 91 
Thorax 30 
Throat 63 
Thyroid cartilage 99 
Tibia 33 
Tight dressing 178 
Time for bathing 171 
Tissues, definition of 13 
development of . 155 
of the body.. 19 
Toast-water 217 
Tongue 60, 135 
Tonsils 60 
Touch, sense of 151 
Trachea 100 
Trifacial nerve 120 
Trunk, bones of. 28 
Tympanum 142 
u 
TJlna 32 
Ultimate elements 15 
Unhealthy places 161 
Unorganized bodies 11 
Uses of water 170 
V 
Valves in the heart 77 j 
in the veins 79 
Vegetables 12,185 
Veins 79, S3 I 
of lower limbs 84 
of upper limbs.... S3 
Velocity of the blood 89 
Venous system 89 
PAGE 
Ventilation, best means of 164 
want of 162 
! Ventricles 77 
Vertebrae 29, 208 
, Vestibule of ear. 142 
Villi of the intestines 65, 93 
; Vision 149 
distinctness of 150 
extent of. 149 
field of 151 
; Vital force ] 1 
Vitreous humor of the eye 140 
Vocal chords 100 
membrane 99 
Voice 103 
Voluntary muscles 44 
education of 51 
movements of 51 
Vomiting 220 
W 
Walking 197 
Walls of arteries 78 
of heart 77 
of stomach 64 
of veins 79 
Woollen clothing 476 
Warm bath 172 
Warm-blooded animals 109 
Water, in the body 15,169 
in sickness 169 
purified by filtering 170 
uses of 170 
Weight of brain 113 
of heart 75 
of infant 207 
of liver 66 
of lungs 102 
of men and women 207 
of pancreas 65 
of spinal cord 117 
of spleen 67 
Wet clothing 179 
White globules in blood 86 
Windpipe 100 
Wine whey 218 
Wisdom teeth. 63, 210 
Wrist-joim 40 
Y 
Yawning 104 
Youth, period of 199, 210 Model Text-Books 
FOR 
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CHASE AND STTJAET’S CLASSICAL SERIES. 
EDITED BY 
THOMAS CHASE, A.M., GEORGE STUART, A.M., 
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This little book is intended for children not more than nine or 
ten years of age, and the compiler would feel it a good excuse for 
adding another book to those already extant, should the little ones 
find pleasure in it. 
IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM; or, Chapters in the 
-*• Philosophy of Education. By John S. Hart, 
LL.D., Principal of New Jersey State Normal 
School. Price by mail, postpaid, $1.25. 
This work gives the results of the experience and observation 
of the author “ in the School-x-oom ” for a period of years extending 
over more than one-third of a century. 
No teacher can afford to be without it. 
It is a teacher’s library in a single book. 
Descriptive circular sent on application. 
THE MODEL ROLL-BOOK, No. i. For the Use 
* of Schools. Containing a Record of Attendance, 
Punctuality, Deportment, Orthography, Reading, 
Penmanship, Intellectual Arithmetic, Practical Arith- 
metic, Geography, Grammar, Analysis, Parsing and 
History, and several blanks for special studies not 
enumerated. Price by mail, postpaid, $5.00. 15 
THE MODEL ROLL-BOOK, No. 2. For the use 
A of High Schools, Academies and Seminaries. Con- 
taining a Record of all the studies mentioned in 
Roll-Book No. i, together with Declamation, Elo- 
cution, Algebra, Geometry, Composition, Rhetoric, 
French, Latin, Philosophy, Physiology, and several 
blanks for special studies not enumerated. Price 
by mail, post-paid, $5.00. 
Since the first publication of the Model Roll-Books, they have 
been very materially improved. They have been made uniform in 
size and price; each page has been arranged to exhibit a record for 
one month, and space has been assigned for a monthly summary. 
These Roll-Books are in use in the leading schools in Boston, New 
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, 
and very extensively in Academies, Seminaries, and High Schools 
throughout the Country. They will, on examination, be found to be 
the most complete and practical yet published. All teachers who 
use them speak of them with unqualified approval. 
THE MODEL POCKET REGISTER AND GRADE- 
1 BOOK. A Roll-Book, Record, and Grade-Book 
combined. Adapted to all grades of classes, whether 
in College, Academy, Seminary, High or Primary 
School. Handsomely bound in fine English cloth, 
bevelled sides, crimson edges. Price by mail, post- 
paid, 65 cents. 
THE MODEL SCHOOL DIARY. Designed as an 
aid in securing the co-operation of parents. It con- 
sists of a Record of the Attendance, Deportment, 
Recitations, &c., of the Scholar, for every day in 
the week. At the close of the week it is to be sent 
to the parent or guardian for his examination and 
signature. Copies will be mailed to teachers for 
examination, post-paid, on receipt of ten cents. 
Price per dozen, by mail, post-paid, $1.05. 16 
THE MODEL MONTHLY REPORT. The genera 
A character of the Monthly Report is the same as tha 
of the Model School Diary, excepting that it is in 
tended for a Monthly instead of a Weekly Report of 
the Attendance, Recitations, &c., of the Pupil 
Copies will be mailed to teachers for examination 
postpaid, on receipt of ten cents. Price per dozen 
by mail, postpaid, $1.05. 
BOOK-KEEPING BLANKS. Consisting of si: 
** blank books, as follows : Day Book, Cash Book 
Ledger, Journal, Bill Book, and Book for Miscel 
laneous Exercises. Price for each book by mail 
postpaid, 15 cents; or the entire set of six books b\ 
mail, postpaid, 90 cents. 
These books have been prepared as a matter of practical con 
venience for students in Book-keeping. They can be used with an} 
treatise, and will be sold singly or in sets, as may be desired. 
Teachers corresponding with us are requested to supply us with 
a copy of the circular or catalogue of the school of which they are 
the Principal, or with which they are connected. 
Descriptive circulars of all our publications will be sent to any 
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Please address, 
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