Pract.cal Work 
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A TRANSCRIPT 
OF 1HE 
OBJECT LESSONS ON THE HUMAN BODY 
GIVEN IN PRIMARY DEPARTMENT, 
GRAMMAR SCHOOL No. 49, 
NEW YORK CITY. 
NEW YORK: 
A. LOVELL & COMPANY. 
1884. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by 
Sarah F. Buokei.kw and Margaret W. Lewis, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
J. S. Cushing & Co., Printers, 115 High Street, Boston, NOTES TO THE TEACHEK. 
I. Children should learn these lessons on the Human Body, 
that they may better value and take care of “the house they 
live in.” Each lesson should he very carefully developed iclien 
taught. No intelligent teacher will permit the recitation of 
the formulas to degenerate into rote-work. Children are not 
parrots. 
II. The following plan has been observed in the preparation 
of this work : — 
First, A model lesson, as given in our own class-rooms, to 
show how each subject should be developed and taught. 
Second, A formula, embodying the principal facts, etc., given 
during the development and teaching. 
Third, Questions for the formula, intended to aid in concert 
or individual recitation of the summaries it contains. 
Fourth, Directions for* touching. These are given very 
minutely, because we think appropriate touching, or pointing 
to the part under description, when convenient, adds much 
interest to the recitation ; it makes the facts seem more real to 
the children. 
Fifth, Questions on the lesson, designed to recall instructions, 
given during its development, which may or may not be found 
in the formula. 
These questions are important; therefore, do not omit them. 
Use them frequently. The pupils may reply in their own words 
if this method is deemed preferable. NOTES TO THE TEACHER. 
Lastly, A blackboard outline, which may be used with ad- 
vantage in review lessons. 
III. In the recitation of the formulas : — 
Be careful about the wording of the Questions for the 
Formulas. 
Do not permit sing-song. 
Be careful about the touching of the parts. 
Use the required apparatus, charts, etc., in developing and 
reviewing. 
Do not review by rote. Take time for explanations, for 
criticism of tone, pronunciation, etc., when necessary. 
Remember, “ What is worth doing at all is worth doing well,” 
especially in teaching. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
PAGE. 
Notes to Teachers iii 
Plan of Lessons viii 
Part I. — Introductory Lessons 1 
“ II. — The Limbs 18 
“ III. — The Bones of the Body 31 
“ IY. — The Organs of Sense 39 
“ V. — The Description of the Bones . . . .55 
“ YI. — The Muscles 65 
“ VII. —The Skin 73 
“ VIII. — The Heart and the Circulation ... 81 
“ IX. — The Lungs and Respiration . . . .89 
“ X. — The Digestive Organs 97 
“ XI. — The Nervous System 109 
APPENDIX I. 
The Story about Alcohol 121 
Uses of Alcohol 122 
Uses of Alcohol — concluded 123 
About Fermentation 125 
Distillation 127 
Harm Done by Alcohol 129 
Stories about Harm Done by Alcohol 140 
Stories about the Right Way to Treat Ale, etc. . . 144 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
APPENDIX II. 
Introductory Lesson 149 
The Story about Tobacco 150 
The Poison in Tobacco and the Harm it Does . . . 152 
Opium and other Narcotics 157 THE HUMAN BODY.  
Sixth or 
Alphabet Grade. 
Fifth Grade. 
Fourth Grade. 
( Touch and name parts 
Review Gth Grade 
Rev. formula and 
1st Week 
< of the head and 
formula and ques- 
questions of 6th 
( face. 
tions. 
and 5th Grades. 
( Touch and name parts 
Touch and name 
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Touch the parand 
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joints of the arm, 
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with formula. 
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Rev., with formula 
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PLAN OF LESSONS ON  
Third Grade. 
Second Grade. 
First Grade. 
1 Rev. formulas and 
Rev. formulas and 
Rev. formulas and 
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THE HUMAN BODY. 
IX PART I. 
INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
1. The Parts of the Body.—We touch the various parts 
of the head, the children naming what is touched ; then the 
class touches and names the same parts according to the for- 
mula. The remaining parts of the body are touched and named 
in the same way, until all are familiar with the name and posi- 
tion of each part. In Review Lessons, the children use the 
formula. 
2. The Head, Trunk, and Limbs.—We show two jointed 
wooden dolls; take off the head, arms, and legs of one, and 
then ask the name of its remaining part, “the body.” What 
do you call the large part of a tree which rises out of the 
ground above the root?—“The stem, the trunk.” We give 
the name trunk to that part which you have just called “the 
body,” that is, to all the body except the head, arms, and legs. 
When we speak about the body, we mean the whole body, from 
the top of the head to the sole of the foot. You may tell what 
we mean by the trunk of the body. — ‘ ‘ All the body except 
the head, arms, and legs.” Of what other trunk do you know, 
beside the trunk of the body? — “ A trunk to put clothes in.” 
Of what are such trunks made? — “Of wood, covered with 
paper; of wood, covered with leather.” Of what is the trunk 
of the body made? — “Of bones, flesh, and skin.” For what 
do you use the wooden trunks? — “ To put clothes in.” What 
is in the trunk of the body?—The children do not know, so 
we explain that the heart, the lungs, and stomach are inside 
the body. 2 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
We talk about the trunk of a tree ; make on the blackboard 
a sketch of one, with its branches, and ask what the latter are 
called. — “ Sticks of the tree, branches, limbs of the tree.” 
We bid a child take the unbroken doll and point to its trunk, 
then stretch out its arms and legs. The children perceive that 
the arms and legs extend from the trunk of the body as the 
limbs from a tree, and give the term limbs to these parts; 
the}’ also discover, by counting, that the body has four limbs 
fastened to its trunk. 
AYhat has the doll’s body beside the trunk and limbs?— “ A 
head.” Name the parts of the doll’s body. — “Head, trunk, 
limbs.” Touch and name the parts of your own body. — “The 
head, the trunk, the limbs.” Lastly, we teach the children to 
say, “The parts of the body are the head, the trunk, the 
limbs.” 
3. The Bones, Flesh, and Skin.— Those who have seen men 
building houses may raise the hand. Of what do they build 
houses? — “ Of wood, of stone, of bricks.” For what do they 
build houses?—“For people to live in.” How man}7 of you 
would like a house of your own ? Hands are raised in reply, 
and the children are told that they do possess a house of their 
own, not made of wood or stone, but very wonderful, because 
it can move from place to place ; that they live in it all the time, 
wherever they are. Soon some bright little thinker discovers 
that we mean the body, and when we ask, Who lives in your 
body? answers with an air of conscious ownership, “My- 
self.” 
If a picture of a frame house in process of building can be 
obtained, it is shown and talked about; then we ask, Of what 
is your body-house built?— “ Of bones, flesh, and skin.” 
We next call upon some child to tell about the body, and re- 
ceive in reply the sentence, “ My body is built of bones ; ” this 
statement is repeated by the class. 
We tell the pupils that we intend to print what they have 
said on the blackboard. We ask for the first word, “My”; INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
when printed, they read it. Thus each successive word is given 
and read by the children until the sentence is completed. 
Other questions lead them to give the additional clause, 
“ covered with flesh and skin,” which is also printed and read. 
The entire sentence is read and memorized by the class. “ My 
body is built of bones covered with flesh and skin.” 
Do we expect our abecedarians will learn to spell each of the 
words and recognize them readily at sight? No ; some ma3T do 
so, but our object, in this blackboard work, is not to teach 
spelling or reading. We 011I3- desire to awaken more intense 
interest, and assist the memory of the children to receive the 
formulas we wish them to remember; for, while opposed to 
parrot-like repetition, we are equally averse to pursuing the 
other extreme, which allows the memory to weaken b3’ inaction 
lest it be overburdened. We firmly believe this facult3r is 
strengthened In- use, and should be trained to work dail3T. So 
we give our scholars definitions and formulas to memorize, as 
occasion requires. 
4. The Use of Food. — Those who ate breakfast this morning 
ma}' raise the hand. Well, what did you have for breakfast? 
— “Meat, coffee, bread, etc.” How did you eat 30111- food? 
Did 3 0U put your head down to the plate and take your meat 
dog-fashion? Amused at the allusion, the3r promptly answer, 
“We took it up with a fork.” Did you put all the large piece 
of meat into your mouth at once? — “ No, we cut it into little 
pieces with a knife.” IIow did you carry it to }Tour mouth? — 
“ With a fork.” When it was in the mouth, what did you do 
with it? — “We chewed it.” What then?—“We swallowed 
it.” What then?— “ We did not do anything else with it.” 
True, when 3-011 have swallowed your food you can do noth- 
ing else with it, but that is not the last of what 3'ou have eaten ; 
without your help it passes through some wonderful changes, 
after going down your food-pipe, which leads from your mouth 
to a strangely-shaped bag of flesh called the stomach. Here 
we exhibit a chart representing the Digestive Organs, or draw 4 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
an outline showing the parts named. Then we call upon one 
of the children to describe the journey of the food from the 
plate to the stomach. 
We next tell them that the little food-ball rolled from the 
mouth into the stomach does not rest in that fleshy bag, but is 
changed by a juice which the stomach pours upon it,— a wonder- 
ful kind of juice which can melt meat, bread, apples, or any- 
thing good to eat; that the stomach presses upon the food and 
pushes it along, changing it so much that if there were a little 
door through which they could look into the stomach, and they 
were to peep through it, soon after the food had been swallowed, 
they would find it impossible to decide which was meat, or 
apples, or bread, etc. 
Lastly, we explain that the melted and mixed food passes 
out from the stomach, and, by and by, is changed into blood; 
that the blood goes through the body and makes bones, flesh, 
skin, hair, and nails. 
But why this talk about the process of digestion and the use 
of the blood ? Because we wish to teach the little folks as early 
as possible why they eat, why they should masticate their food 
thoroughly, and why the}7 should avoid improper food and drink. 
5. Against Alcoholic Liquors. — We also explain that what 
we drink goes into the stomach, and, if not poisonous, helps to 
make good blood. We let the class mention different kinds of 
drinks, and place the names given upon the blackboard, 
thus:— 
1. 
Water. 
Milk. 
2. 
Tea. 
Coffee. 
Chocolate. 
Cocoa. 
3. 
Root-beer. 
Soda-water. 
Lemonade. 
Ice-water. 
4. 
Wine. 
Cider. 
Beer. 
Brandy, etc. 
When these lists have been prepared, we let the children 
several times repeat the names they contain, as we point to each 
column respectively ; then we talk about pure cold water. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
5 
Water, the drink which God has made for people and animals ; 
which is so delicious and refreshing to ns when we are thirsty; 
the only drink which the birds, fishes, and beasts use ; which 
helps to keep them alive, and strong, and healthy. 
Next, we refer to milk, which most children like to drink, 
and which is so healthful and pleasant as a kind of food. 
Thirdly, we talk about the tea, coffee, etc., named in the 
second column, and caution against drinking too much, if any, 
of these beverages. We lead the children to notice that water 
forms the greater part of all these favorite drinks, as it does 
also of those mentioned in the third column of our list. 
The pupils know that lemonade and soda-water ‘ ‘ taste good,” 
but will not do to drink every day ; they like ice-water, but we 
warn them that it must be used sparingly, and never when they 
are very warm. 
Lastly, we talk about rum, brandy, whiskey, etc., and teach 
about the terrible foe to health, goodness, and happiness which 
is hidden in these liquors, —viz., Alcohol. 
The health}' stomach is glad to get bread, meat, potatoes, 
water, etc., which help to make good blood; but when anything 
enters it which contains alcohol, it tries to get rid of it right 
away, and hurries it into the liver, which lies under the lungs, 
on the right of the stomach. 
Some of the alcohol passes from the liver through the heart 
into the lungs, and the lungs send it out through the nose and 
mouth so quickly, that very soon after any one has taken even 
a small quantity of the poison, the breath tells the story, and 
we know they have been drinking something stronger than 
water. 
But all the alcohol does not come out thus easily. Some 
stays in the blood, and goes with it through the arteries and 
veins, doing much mischief and no real good as it passes through 
the bod}'. It makes believe keep the body warm, but really 
makes it colder than it should be ; it makes the stomach sore ; 
it takes some of the goodness out of the blood; it makes the 
heart work hard in beating too fast; it reddens the face, and THE HUMAN BODY. 
makes the nose a bad color; it takes the bright, good look out 
of the eyes, and makes them too red. But it does the most 
mischief to the head. It makes it ache; makes it unfit to 
think ; and when people drink much of any vile stuff which has 
alcohol in it, they lose their good sense and goodness, and often 
do very terrible and wicked deeds. 
The children have seen drunkards, and all know how strangely 
these act; but perhaps they think that only those who drink 
rum, whiskey, brandy, or gin get drunk. We teach them that 
the same serpent of evil is found in all kinds of wines, beer, 
lager beer, ale, and cider; so that the only way to be safe from 
it, is not to drink anything which has Jire-water or alcohol in it. 
We explain that alcohol is made from the juice of rotten fruits, 
grains, or vegetables, and is found in gooseberry, blackberry, 
or any other home-made wine as well as in the liquors sold in 
the grog-shop. Even root beer and cider, if left long enough, 
will get full of alcohol. 
So let all alcoholic drinks alone, for the only good part of 
them is the water they contain, which is best to quench the 
thirst and keep us healthy. 
INTRODUCTORY LESSONS — continued. 
6. The Blood and the Heart. —If you cut your foot, what will 
flow from it?—“Blood.” If you prick your finger, what will 
flow out? — “Blood.” Where does the blood come from? 
Some think from the head, none can tell correctly ; so we direct 
them to imitate our movements, as we place our hand upon the 
chest, near the breastbone, toward the left side. What do you 
feel? — “ Something moving, something shaking.” What is it 
that is moving? Usually some one replies, “ The heart” ; if 
not, we tell them, and give them the word heating for moving, 
to describe its action ; then we explain that the heart acts like a 
pump, sending the blood to different parts of the body. When 
we again ask, Where does the blood flow from? the children 
promptly reply, “From the heart.” INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
Again we let them notice the beating of the heart, and bid 
them show with the hand how it beats, which they do by moving 
the right hand back and forth, keeping time with the motion of 
the heart; we also inform them that the heart pumps out blood 
at every beat. When do }’ou think the heart beats? — “All 
the time.” Does your heart beat when }tou are asleep? They 
think it does not; so we ask, How many of you have seen a 
baby asleep ? Did its heart beat while it slept ? If they do not 
know, we advise them, when they see a baby or a person asleep, 
to walk on tiptoe, place the hand very gentl}" over the heart of 
the sleeper, and notice whether it beats or not. 
Although they cannot tell decidedly whether the heart beats 
during sleep, yet they answer promptly “ We die,” if asked, 
What happens when the heart stops beating? Do }rou die 
when you go to sleep ? They know they do not; so readily 
infer that the heart beats all the time, whether we are awake or 
asleep. 
We show or talk to them about a watch, let them see its 
hands move, and listen to its ticking. What happens when 
the watch stops ticking?—“The hands stop moving; the 
hands will not move.” If the heart stops beating, can people 
move their hands or any part of the body? — “ They cannot.” 
What is done to keep the watch ticking? — “ Somebody winds 
it.” What do they wind the watch with?—“With a watch- 
key.” How often should a watch be wound to keep it going? 
— “Everyday.” Does anyone wind your heart every da}r to 
keep it going? They laughingly reply, “No.” We quiet their 
mirth, and ask, But who does keep our heart beating? With 
reverent tone, they tell us “ God”; and we speak of the good- 
ness of God, who made our wonderful bodies, made our hearts 
beat, and keeps them beating every dajr without our help; of 
His great wisdom in giving us hearts which go on beating, 
sometimes for a hundred years, without stopping to rest. These 
thoughts of God, as our Creator and Preserver, are naturally 
suggested, and not soon forgotten by the interested listeners. 
Next, we pour water from a glass, and explain that when we 8 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
wish to speak of water moving, we say, Water flows. The 
children readily understand that blood moves like water, and 
tell us “Blood flows.” We print these words as in the first 
lesson. Where does the blood flow? — “Through the body.” 
This answer is placed upon the board, and the children repeat 
the five words, “Blood flows through the body.” We show 
that we can say this in four words, by using a little word of 
two letters, it, if we do not want to say, the body; we then 
change the sentence to “ Blood flows through it.” 
You say the heart beats all the time, and we have told you 
that blood flows from it every time it beats ; then when does the 
blood flow through the heart? — “ All the time.” Where does 
the blood flow from? — “From my heart.” This clause com- 
pletes the second part of the formula which is memorized by 
the class. The children are taught to place the right hand over 
the heart when they repeat the word heart. 
What do you see on the back of the hand beneath the skin ? 
“Blue marks, lines, veins,” are the usual replies. What have 
you seen in the garden that looks something like the veins in 
shape? — “The sticks of a tree; the branches of a tree.” 
Where are the veins? — “ On the back of my hand.” We ex- 
plain that the veins are in every part of the body. How many 
of you have seen water pipes? When water is thrown into the 
sink, where does it go?—“Down the water pipes.” What 
kind of pipes carry away the dirty water?—“Waste pipes.” 
Look at the veins on your hands and wrists. In your body you 
have good blood and bad blood; the bad blood flows through 
the veins ; some of these you can see because they are so near 
the surface of the skin. What kind of blood is in the veins? 
“Bad blood.” What are the veins?—“Pipes.” Pipes for 
what? — “Pipes for the bad blood to pass through.” What 
kind of blood is in the body beside good blood ?— “ Bad blood.” 
Do you think that it would be well for the good blood to pass 
through the same pipes as the bad blood? Why not? “It 
would be made bad.” There are other pipes which carry the 
good blood through the body ; these are called arteries. These INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
9 
A, the heart; B, the lungs ; light cross lines, arteries; 
heavy lines, veins. 10 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
pipes are stronger than the veins, because the good blood in 
them conies directly from the heart, and moves as fast as the 
heart beats ; if the arteries were not very strong, they would 
burst, and then the heart-pump would soon be emptied of blood ; 
the}’ are placed deep below the surface of the body, to keep 
them from getting hurt; for, when an artery is cut, the good 
blood flows out so fast we should soon bleed to death, if no one 
were near to tie up the artery, so that the blood could not come 
out, or spurt out, as we say when we talk about the way the 
blood flows from the arteries. 
Lay the finger of your left hand on your right wrist. What 
do you feel?—“Something moving.” Who sometimes puts 
his finger on your wrist when you are ill? — “The doctor.” 
Why does he place his hand on your wrist ? — “ To find how 
sick I am ; to find my pulse.” The last answer is usually given 
by some child ; if not, we tell about the pulse, giving its name, 
as we explain that it is a large artery in the wrist, so near the 
surface that we can easily feel its beatings; that it beats as 
fast as the heart, and helps the doctor to find out how fast the 
heart beats, when he places his finger on the wrist, although he 
does not touch the heart. Put your hand on your temples ; 
what do you feel? — “Something beating.” That something 
is an artery, and you will feel another if you place your finger 
on the side of your head, in front of the upper part of your ear. 
Touch the artery in your wrist; the arteries of your temples ; 
the arteries near the ears. What kind of blood is in the 
arteries?—“Good blood.” Grown people use the word pure 
for good, so what may you call the good blood? — “Pure 
blood.” What carries the good or pure blood through the 
body?—“The arteries.” What are the arteries? — “Pipes 
for the good blood to pass through.” What carries the bad 
blood through the body? — “ The veins.” What kind of blood 
is in the veins?—“Bad blood.” Grown people call the bad 
blood impure, blood. What do you call bad blood? — “Impure 
blood.” What do you mean by impure? — “Bad.” Then 
what do you mean by impure blood? — “ Bad blood.” INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
11 
We explain that the good blood passes through the arteries 
to every part of the body, giving to each part something to 
make it grow. For instance, some of the blood goes to the 
arm and hand; as it passes along it gives something to the 
bones to make them grow; something to the flesh to make it 
grow ; something to the skin to make it grow. In the fingers 
it gives something to the nails to make them grow. Then what 
does the blood make in the body?— “ Bones, flesh, skin, hair, 
and nails.” 
In making bones, flesh, skin, hair, and nails the blood becomes 
very poor, because it has given away its goodness, so it is not 
fit to make the body grow and keep it alive; it also becomes 
bad or impure. Raise your hands, move them ; yon have worn 
out some parts of your hands and arms in moving them. When 
you move an}’ part of your body you wear out some of its 
particles, or little parts finer than the chalk dust which you can 
take up with your fingers. 
These fine little parts of bones, flesh, and skin, which are 
worn out, are dead, and of no use to the body, so the blood 
helps to carry them away; this makes the blood dark and 
thick; the blood has also given away its goodness to make 
bones, flesh, hair, skin, and nails ; it is no longer bright and 
good blood, so it goes into the veins, where it moves more slowly 
than it did in the arteries ; it goes through the veins to the right 
side of the heart, but the heart does not want bad blood, so it 
sends it to the lungs to be made good. In the next lesson we 
will tell you what makes the bad blood good in the lungs. 
A chart representing the Circulatory Organs is generally 
shown to the class during these explanations of the heart, arte- 
ries, and veins, but the lessons can be given without this aid. 12 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
INTRODUCTORY LESSONS — concluded. 
6. The Air and its Use. — Put your hand before your mouth; 
what do you feel?—“Wind, breath.” How does it feel? — 
“ Hot.” Where does it come from? — “ From the nose ; from 
the mouth.” We here explain more fully about the lungs, 
letting the children cross their hands on their chest, to feel the 
motion produced in this part of the body, as the}’ draw a deep 
breath and suddenly let it out of the mouth and nose. 
To give'them the idea of air, we ask, Why do we open the 
windows in our class-room?—“For the wind to come in.” 
We tell them that what they call wind is air moving. How 
does the air come into the room?— “ It blow’s in.” By refer- 
ring to the word used to tell how water moves, they soon learn 
to say, “ Air flows.” 
AVhere is the air? — “Out doors.” Where else? Finding 
them ignorant of the presence of air in the room, we direct 
them to move their hands rapidly, or to fan with their aprons ; 
thus they quickly perceive that wind, or air, is in the room. 
We show them two boxes, one filled, the other empty. What 
is in this empty box? — “Nothing.” Nothing which you can 
see, but there is air in it. We fill a glass with water ; then ex- 
plain that the air must go out as the water is poured into the 
tumbler. We empty the glass and ask, What has taken the 
place of the water? — “The air.” Thus they obtain the idea 
that air fills all vacant places, and give the correct answer, 
“ Everywhere,” when we ask, Where is the air? 
To teach them that air is easily moved, we let them stir water 
in a glass or pail, which shows that this fluid is easily moved; 
then we let them move through the air, rising, sitting, or walk- 
ing. according as we signal. They are pleased to learn that 
they move the air when they walk or run, and that birds move 
it when they fly, as really as the fishes move the water when 
they swim. 
How many of you have seen a river? What is in a river? 
What can you tell about the water of a river? — “ It moves.” INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
When does it move?—“All the time.” Just so the air is 
always moving, although you cannot see it as you can the water 
in a brook or river. Fishes swim about in the water which is 
always moving, so people walk and move about in the great 
ocean of air which is always moving around them. When do 
you feel the air move? — “When the wind blows hard ; when 
I fan myself ; when I move very fast; when any one moves fast 
where I am.” What have you learned about where the air is? 
— “Air is everywhere.” What have you learned about the 
way air moves?— “ It moves easily ; it moves all the time.” 
The presence of the air, its easy and constant motion, and 
the word employed to express the motion having been taught, 
they readily understand that the ever-moving air which they 
cannot see flows through the open doors of the nose, and 
enters the back of the mouth. 
We next tell them of the windpipe, with its little trap-door to 
keep food or drink from entering the lungs; that the lungs are 
the parts into which the heart sends the bad blood, and into 
which the air goes to make the bad blood bright, red, good 
blood ; that the air is made bad or impure while it is doing this 
work for the blood, and that the lungs send it out through the 
wind-pipe, the nose, and the mouth ; that the bad air mixes 
with the air around us and makes it impure, so we must open 
the window’s and doors for ventilation, and take recesses, that 
the air in the room may be well purified. 
What do you breathe through?—“My nose and mouth.” 
‘ ‘ I breathe through m3’ nose and mouth ’ ’ is printed on the 
board. Into what do 3*011 take the air? — “Into 1113’ lungs.” 
‘ ‘ And take the air into m3’ lungs ” completes this portion of 
the formula, which is repeated by the children, who touch the 
nose and mouth with the right hand, and cross the hand upon 
the chest over the lungs, as nose, mouth, and lungs are men- 
tioned. 
In the last lesson, you learned that the heart sends the bad 
blood to the lungs. What makes the bad blood good in the 
lungs? — “ The air.” Yes, the air gives the blood something to 14 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
make it pure; the lungs send it back to the heart; then the 
heart sends the good blood to the different parts of the bod}T. 
7. Against Tobacco.— The children have been taught the 
injurious effects resulting from drinking alcoholic liquors ; they 
are now' ready to understand what we teach about tobacco 
poison. 
They recognize the tobacco, snuff, cigars, and cigarettes 
which wre show, for many of them are but too familiar with the 
use made of these vile articles. 
If they do not already know, the}' are taught from what 
tobacco is obtained, and how it came to be used by civilized 
people; of the poison it contains, and what harm it does to all 
who chew, snuff, or smoke, especially if they are children. See 
teachings about Tobacco in the Appendix. 
At the conclusion of these lessons, the children are ready to 
give intelligent answers to the questions of this grade. After- 
ward, wre teach them the w'ords we have chosen them to use in 
their replies, and, by frequent repetitions of the questions, help 
them not only to remember, but to be prompt and accurate, 
when examined concerning the facts they have learned. 
FORMULA FOR INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
1. My body is built of bones covered with flesh and skin; the blood 
flows through it, all the time, from the heart. I breathe through my 
nose and mouth, and take the air into the lungs. 
2. The parts of my body are the head, the trunk, the limbs. 
3. My head. My nose. My two hands. 
The crown of my head. My two cheeks. My trunk. 
The back of my head. My mouth. My back. 
The sides of my head. My chin. My two sides. 
My face. My two ears. My chest. 
My forehead. My neck. My two legs. 
My two temples. My two shoulders. My two knees. 
My two eyes. My two arms. My two feet. 
I am sitting erect. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
15 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Tell about your body. 
2. Name and touch the parts of the body. 
3. Name and touch the parts of the head, trunk, and limbs. 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The teacher always touches with the hand opposite to that which 
the children are required to use. 
The right hand of each child is placed over the heart, as the latter 
is mentioned ; also upon the nose and mouth, as these are named. 
The hands are crossed over the lungs. 
Both hands are used to touch the head, trunk, and limbs; also to 
touch each part of these members, as it is mentioned. 
N.B. — Section 1 of Formula begins with “ My head, the crown of 
my head, etc.” Section 2 with “ The parts of my body, etc.” Section 
3, “My body is built of bones.” Section 4, “ I breathe through, etc.” 
Tn review recitations, these sections are recited in the order given in 
the Formula for Introductory Lessons. 
QUESTIONS ON THE INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
Of what is the body built ? — “Of bones.” 
What covers the bones ? — “ Flesh.” 
What covers the flesh ? — “Skin.” 
What flows through the body ?— “ Blood.” 
Where does the blood flow from ?— “ The heart.” 
When does the blood flow from the heart ?— “ Every time the heart beats.” 
Show with your hand how the heart beats. 
When does the heart beat ? — “ All the time.” 
What happens when the heart stops heating ?— “We die.” 
What do you see on the hack of your hand, beneath the skin ? — “ Veins.” 
What is in the veins ? — “ Bad blood.” 
What are the veins ?— “ Pipes for the had blood to pass through.” 
Where do the veins carry the had blood ?— “ To the lungs.” 
What happens to the bad blood when it is in the lungs ? — “It is made 
pure.” 
What makes the bad blood pure ?— “ The air.” 
How does the air get into the lungs ? — “ Through my nose, mouth, and 
windpipe.” 
What is breathing ? — “ Letting the air into and out of my lungs, through 
my nose, mouth, and windpipe.” 
When do you breathe ? — “ All the time.” 16 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
What do you breathe ? — ‘1 Air.” 
What do you breathe through ? — “ My nose, mouth, and windpipe.” 
Where do you get the air ?— “ Everywhere.” 
Where do the lungs send the pure blood ? — “ To the heart.” 
Where does the heart send the pure blood ? — “ All through the body.” 
How does the heart send the pure blood through the body ? — “ Through 
pipes called arteries.” 
What kind of blood passes through the arteries ? — “ Pure blood.” 
What kind of blood passes through veins ?— “ Impure blood.” 
What carries the pure blood through the body ? — “ The arteries.” 
What carries the impure blood through the body ? — “ The veins.” 
What makes blood ? — “ Food and drink.” 
What is food ? — “ Anything good to eat.” 
What is drink? — “ Anything good to drink.” 
Name some kinds of wholesome food. — “ Meat, potatoes, oranges, apples, 
etc.” 
Name some kinds of wholesome drink. — “Water, milk, lemonade, etc.” 
What do you mean by wholesome food ? — “ Food that will make good 
blood.” 
What do you mean by wholesome drink ? — “ Drink that will make good 
blood.” 
What does the blood make ? — “Bones, flesh, skin, hair, nails, and carti- 
lage.”* 
What use is the blood to the body ?— “ It makes the body grow, and keeps 
it alive.” 
Name some kinds of poisonous drinks. — “ Rum, brandy, ale, cider, etc.” 
What do you mean by poisonous drinks ? — “ Drinks which hurt or poison 
the body.” 
Why do you say that rum and the other drinks you have named are poison- 
ous ? — “ Because they do harm to every part of the body.” 
Which part do they hurt most ? — “ The head or brain.” 
What harm do they do to the brain ?— “ They make it unfit to do its work.” 
What work does the brain do ?— “ Thinking.” 
Then what harm do rum, brandy, wine, and these other drinks do to the 
brain ? — “ They make it unfit to think.” 
What other poison do some people use ? — “ Tobacco.” 
When do children use tobacco ? — “ When they chew tobacco ; when they 
smoke cigars or cigarettes.” 
How much does tobacco poison hurt children ? — “ More than it hurts any- 
body else.” 
In what way does it hurt children ? — “ It keeps children from growing 
fast; from being strong and healthy; and from learning as well as they ought.” 
How does it do all this mischief to children?—“It poisons their lungs, 
their heart and blood, and their brain.” 
* Cartilage is not mentioned in the Introductory Grade. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
OF THE HEAD: 
The crown of the head; 
The hack of the head; 
The sides of the head; 
The face; the two temples; 
The two eyes; the nose; 
The two cheeks; the mouth; 
The chin; the two ears. 
built of : 
Bones; 
Flesh; 
Skin. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
2. THE PARTS. 
1. THE BODY. 
OF THE TRUNK: 
The neck; 
The throat; 
The back; 
The two sides; 
The chest. 
has: 
A heart; 
Two lungs, 
Red blood. 
OF THE LIMBS: 
The two shoulders; 
The two arms; 
The two hands; 
The two legs; 
The two knees; 
The two feet. 
its parts: 
The head; 
The trunk; 
The limbs. PART II. 
THE LIMBS. 
Tiie development of this section proceeds somewhat as fol- 
lows: The children are asked, IIow man}' limbs have }Ton? — 
‘‘Four.” Which are your limbs?—“My arms and legs.” 
How many arms and legs have you? — “Two.” Then what 
may you say are your limbs?— “ My limbs are my two arms 
and my two legs.” 
1. The Arm and its Parts. —The attention of the class is 
directed to a jointed doll, and asked, Why do you like a jointed 
doll?—“ Because it can be bent; because its arms and legs 
can be bent.” — llow many pieces or parts has the doll’s arm? 
— “Two.” How many parts has your own arm?—“Two 
parts.” What may you say about your arm when asked about 
its parts? — “ My arm has two parts.” What would you name 
the part near the shoulder? — “The top arm.” What do you 
call the top story of a house?— “ The upper story.” Why do 
you call it the upper story? — “ Because it is up stairs.” Yes, 
upper means up; what may you call your top arm? — “The 
upper arm.” Why do you call it the upper arm? — “Because 
it is at the top part of the arm.” If the top part of the arm is 
called the upper arm, what may you call the other part of the 
arm?—“The lower arm.” We bid the children bend the 
right arm at the elbow, and move it backward and forward in 
front of the chest; then lead them to notice that this part of 
the arm is always in front, never turned backward at the elbow 
joint, so it is named “ forearm,” which means the arm in front 
of the upper arm. THE LIMBS. 
19 
IIow man}' parts did you say your arm has ? —‘ ‘ My arm has 
two parts.” This statement is printed upon the board. You 
may touch the parts of your right arm with your left hand, and 
name each part as you touch it. — “My upper arm, my fore- 
arm.” This clause is added to the one already printed, and 
completes the portion of the formula : ‘ ‘ My arm has two parts : 
my upper arm, my forearm.” 
Tell again why you like a jointed doll ? — “ Because its 
arms and legs may be bent.” In how many places may the 
arm of the doll be bent? — “ In two places.” Where are these 
places?—“At the shoulder and the elbow.” What do you 
call these places where the arm may be bent?— “ Joints.” If 
the class cannot give the term “joints,” we ask what name is 
given to the place where two pieces of wood are joined together, 
and usually receive the desired answer, — “A joint.” Then 
what may you call the place where two parts of the arm are 
joined together? — “A joint.” Where are the upper arm and 
the forearm joined?—“At the elbow.” What name will you 
give to the joint at the elbow? — “ Elbow joint.” 
Where is the upper arm joined to the trunk? — “At the 
shoulder.” What name will you give to the joint at the 
shoulder? — “Shoulder joint.” How many joints has the doll’s 
arm? — “Two joints.” Name them, beginning at the top 
joint. — “ The shoulder joint, the elbow joint.” What may be 
done with the arm at these joints?—“ It may be bent.” Of 
what use are the joints of the arm?—“To bend the arm.” 
How many of you would like an arm without any bending 
places? Not any one ! Why not? — “ It could not be bent.” 
Hold 3'our arm out without bending it at the elbow ; raise it 
above your head ; touch the top of your head without bending 
your wrist or elbow. These experiments help the children to 
realize how useless an arm with no joints (that is, an arm having- 
only one part) would be to them, and make them feel that even 
the joints of their arms are something for which to be thankful 
to God their Creator. 
What may you do with your arm at the joints? — “ Bend it.” 20 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
What are these joints?—“Places where we bend the arm; 
bending places.” How many joints or bending places has the 
doll’s arm?—“Two.” How many has your own arm? The 
children look at their own arms and tell us, “ Three.” How 
many more joints has your arm than the arm of the doll ? — 
“ One more.” Where is the joint on your arm which is not on 
the doll’s arm?—“At the wrist.” What name will you give 
to this joint? — “ Wrist joint.” What may you say about your 
arm when you tell about the number of its joints ? — “ My arm 
has three joints.” This statement is printed upon the board. 
Touch the joints of your right arm with the fingers of your 
left hand, beginning at the top joint, and name each joint as 
you touch it. The children give the names, which are added to 
the words already printed. You may read from the board what 
you have told about your arm. — “ My arm has two parts : my 
upper arm, my forearm ; and three joints : my shoulder joint, 
my elbow joint, my wrist joint.” Again we show the class how 
to touch when the parts of the arm and the joints are named; 
then let the children repeat the formula, with the appropriate 
touching, until it is perfectly memorized by them. 
2. The Hand and its Parts. —We place a ball in a child’s 
hand, saying, Tell what yon can do with this ball?—“ I can 
throw it, I can catch it, I can hold it.” How can }'ou move a 
pail of water with your hand?—“1 can lift it.” What can 
you do with a bell-rope? — “ I can pull it.” What can you do 
with your hand when you place it upon different things? — “I 
can feel with it.” If you can hold with your hands, for what 
may you say your hands are used?—“ My hands are used for 
holding.” For what else may your hands be used? — “For 
throwing, catching, lifting, pulling, pushing, feeling.” From 
these replies the formula is constructed : “ My hand is used in 
holding, throwing, catching, and feeling,” which is repeated as 
the children extend the right hand, and hold the right wrist 
with the left hand. 
The children are taught to name the front part of the hand, THE LIMBS. 
21 
the palm of the hand, and to clap when it is mentioned; also 
to touch the back of the hand gently without making any 
sound. 
What are at the ends of your hands ? — “ My fingers.” How 
many fingers have you on one hand ? — “ Five.” Look at what 
you call your five fingers, and notice whether they are alike or 
different. What do you think about them?—“They are not 
all the same length.” What is the shortest one called? — 
“The thumb.” IIow many are always called fingers? — 
“Four.” Then what have you on each hand? — “A thumb 
and four fingers.” 
We next let the children pass their thumbs in front of each of 
their fingers, then try to do the same with their other fingers, 
which they find to be impossible. We explain that this pecu- 
liarity about the thumb makes it possible for us to use our 
hands in many different wavs, especially in picking up objects 
and holding them ; that without the thumb we could not button 
or unbutton gloves or anything else ; indeed, the hand would 
be quite useless if we had no thumb. 
How many thumbs has a dog?— “ None.” Can a dog pick 
up things with his paws? What does he use to take hold of 
things? — “His mouth and teeth.” What does an elephant 
use for hands?—“His trunk.” What does a monke}’ use to 
hold on with when he is climbing? — “His four feet.” The 
children are surprised when they learn that what they have 
called feet are the four hands of the monkey, each having a 
thumb similar to that on our hands, so that the monkey can 
take hold with its four hands somewhat as we do with two. 
The name of each of the fingers is next given, according to 
the formula; the forefinger, because it is in front of the other 
fingers in the line between the thumb and fingers; the middle 
finger, because in the middle of the fingers; the ring finger, 
where the ring is placed ; the little finger, the smallest of the 
fingers. In naming the fingers, the children place the left hand 
at the thumb of the right hand, and pass it around the outside 
of all the fingers to the thumb again, as they say, “My fin- 22 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
gers ” ; then they touch and move the thumb and each finger 
successively. 
Raise jour hands, open and close them very quickly. What 
do you name the parts of the fingers where you can bend them ? 
— “ Finger joints and knuckles.” What do you call the end 
of a pointer? — “ The point, the tip.” What may you call the 
ends of your fingers? — “The tips of my fingers.” What do 
3Tou see on the back of }’our hands beneath the skin? — 
“Veins.” Look at the lower part of your thumb; what do 
you notice about it?— “It is fat, it is thick.” We show them 
a portion of the surface of the ball, and lead them to call the 
flesh}* part at the base of the thumb, the ball of the thumb, 
because it is curved somewhat like a part of a ball. 
Why would you not like to wear veiy tight kid gloves all the 
time?—“They would hurt; we could not move our hands 
every way.” Why not?—“We could not bend our fingers 
without tearing the glove.” Look at your hand ; what is under 
the flesh and skin?—“Bones.” Yes, and the flesh and skin 
cover these bones somewhat as a glove covers the hand. What 
would be the trouble if the flesh and skin were drawn very 
tightly over the bones of the hand?—“ I could not move my 
fingers very easily.” What do you see on the palms of the 
hands? — “Lines.” On what other parts of the hand do you 
see lines?—“On the fingers.” Upon which part of the fin- 
gers?— “On the joints.” Partly close your hands; what do 
you notice about these lines? — “ The flesh is bent at the lines.” 
What may you say when you tell about the lines?— “ The lines 
show where the flesh is bent.” We teach that God has given 
us our wonderful hands to enable us to help ourselves ; that 
they should be kept clean ; that they must not be used in fight- 
ing or stealing, but in doing acts of kindness and usefulness. 
“ Hands were made to be useful, 
If you teach them the way; 
Therefore for yourself or neighbor 
Make them useful every day.” THE LIMBS. 
23 
3. The Parts of the Leg and Foot. — The parts and joints of 
the leg and foot are taught in about the same manner as those 
of the arm and hand; then touched and named according to the 
formula. A shoe is very useful for illustrating the parts of the 
foot, and a jointed doll for those of the limbs. 
THE JOINTS. 
(The following Lesson is usually taught after the Lessons on the Bones.) 
How many parts has the arm?— “ Two.” How many joints 
has the arm? — “Three.” How many parts has the leg? — 
“Two.” How many joints has the leg? — “Three.” What 
are joints? — “Bending places.” liaise your right hand; move 
it backward and forward at the wrist. Move your arm up and 
down at the elbow. Open the desk; move the lid up and 
down. What enables you to move the desk lid?—“Its 
hinges.” What has the arm instead of hinges?—“Joints.” 
How can you move the desk lid? — “Up and down.” How 
may you move the door?—“Backward and forward.” How 
can you move your hand at the wrist, or your arm at the elbow ? 
— “Up and down, backward and forward.” What enables 
you to move your arm at these places?— “ The joints.” What 
are the joints like in the way they work?—“Hinges.” We 
talk about the formation of the wrist joint, illustrating the fit- 
ting of the bones together and their motions upon each other, 
by fitting the fingers together and moving them backward and 
forward; then ask, What will you call the wrist joint because 
of the way you can move it?— “ A hinge joint.” 
Which of the other joints of the body are hinge joints ? After 
thinking awhile the children reply, “ The finger joints, the knee 
joints, the ankle joints, the toe joints.” Why do you call 
these joints hinge joints?— “Because they move like hinges.” 24 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
How may 3*011 move 3*our arm at the shoulder? — “Up and 
down, backward and forward, round and round.” A few ex- 
periments show the children that the arm may be moved at the 
shoulder as it cannot be at the wrist and the elbow. Then we 
show them a cup and ball, and an old-fashioned jointed 
wooden doll; with these we explain the formation of the upper 
part of the upper arm, also the cavity of the shoulder which 
receives it; we ask, What kind of a joint is the shoulder joint? 
— “A ball-and-cup joint,” is the ready reply. After substi- 
tuting the word socket, we obtain the amended answer, “A 
ball-and-socket joint.” 
How can you show that the shoulder joint is a ball-and-socket 
joint?— “ By moving my arm in every direction.” 
Then why do 3*011 call the shoulder joint a ball-and-socket 
joint?—“ Because it moves like a ball in a socket.” Which 
are the ball-and-socket joints?—“The shoulder joint, the hip 
joint.” 
From the explanation already given, the children are pre- 
pared with a little assistance to describe the two kinds of joints 
of which they have learned. See Questions on the Joints and 
Parts of the Limbs. 
The positions of the various parts are easily obtained from 
the children; it is not necessaiy, therefore, to show the method 
of development; the result will be found in the replies to the 
Questions to which we have referred. 
FORMULA FOR THE PARTS AND JOINTS OF 
THE BODY. 
1. My limbs are my two arms and my two legs. 
2. My arm has two parts : 
my upper arm, my fore-arm; 
and three joints: 
my shoulder joint, my elbow joint, 
my wrist joint. THE LIMBS. 
3. My hand is used in holding, throwing, catching, and feeling : 
the palm of my hand, my little finger, 
the back of my hand, my knuckles, 
my fingers, my finger joints, 
my thumb, my nails, 
my forefinger, the tips of my fingers, 
my middle finger, the veins, 
my ring finger, the ball of my thumb, 
and the lines where the flesh is bent. 
4. My leg has two parts : 
my thigh, and my lower leg; 
and three joints: 
my hip joint, my knee joint, 
my ankle joint. 
5. My foot is used in standing, walking, running, skating, and 
jumping: 
my instep, the hollow, 
my toes, the heel, 
the sole of my foot, my toe joints, 
the ball, and my toe nails, 
which protect my toes. 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Which are your limbs ? 
2. Tell about your arm. 
3. Tell about your hand. 
4. Tell about your leg. 
5. Tell about your foot. 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The hands are crossed to touch the arms, and not crossed when the 
legs are touched. 
In describing the arm, the left arm is extended, and its parts and 
joints are touched with the right hand as each is mentioned. 
The left hand is extended and held at the wrist with the right hand 
as the use of the hand is described. 
The children clap when the palm is named; turn the hack of the 
hand upward and touch it; pass the right hand around the fingers of 26 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
the left hand, beginning with the thumb, and touch each finger with 
the right index finger. The knuckles, finger joints, nails, tips of the 
fingers, veins, ball of the thumb, and lines where the flesh is bent are 
also touched with the same index finger as each is named. 
Before describing the leg and foot, the children, at a given signal 
from the teacher, place the left leg over the right knee, then put the 
left hand in the lap, and touch with the right hand as each part and 
joint is mentioned. 
They sit erect as they tell the use of the foot, then bend very slightly 
forward to touch its parts with the right hand, which is passed down 
the instep, across the toes, along the sole, over the ball, in the hollow, 
around the heel, and across the toe nails. As the clause “ which pro- 
tect my toes ” is repeated, the children resume the erect posture. 
QUESTIONS ON THE LIMBS AND JOINTS OF THE BODY. 
Touch and name the parts of your body. — “The head, the trunk, the 
limbs.” 
Touch and name the parts of your head. 
Touch and name the parts of your trunk. 
What is the trunk of your body ? — “ All the body but the head and limbs.” 
Which are your limbs ? — “ My two arms and my two legs.” 
How many limbs have you ?— “ Four.” 
How many parts has your arm? — “Two parts: my upper arm and my 
forearm.” 
How many parts has your leg ? — “ Two parts: my thigh and my lower leg. ’ ’ 
How many joints has your arm ? — “ Three joints: my shoulder joint, my 
elbow joint, my wrist joint.” 
How many joints has your leg?— “Three joints: my hip joint, my knee 
joint, my ankle joint.” 
What are joints ? — “ Bending places.” 
How many kinds of joints have you ? — “ Two: hinge joints, and ball-and- 
socket joints.” 
What kind of a joint is the shoulder joint ?— “ A ball-and-socket joint.” 
Why do you call the shoulder joint a ball-and-socket joint? — “ Because at 
the shoulder the arm may move in any direction.” 
Tell how the shoulder joint is made. — “ The upper end of the bone of the 
upper arm is rounded and fastened in a hollow place called a socket.” 
Which of the joints of the arm and hand are hinge joints? — “ The elbow 
joint, the wrist joint, the thumb joint, the finger joints.” 
Which of the joints of the leg and foot are hinge joints ? — “ The knee 
joint, the ankle joint, the toe joint.” 
Which of the joints of the leg is a ball-and-socket joint ? — “ The hip 
joint.” THE LIMBS. 
27 
Where is the heel ? — “At the back part of the foot.” 
Where is the ball of the foot? — “ On the sole of the foot, behind the great 
toe.” 
Where is the hollow of the foot? — “ In the middle of the sole of the foot.” 
Where is the sole of the foot ? — “On the bottom of the foot.” 
Where is the instep? — “Between the ankle joint and the toes.” 
Where is the lower leg? — “Between the knee joint and the ankle joint.” 
Where is the thigh ? — “ Between the hip joint and the knee joint.” 
Where is the upper arm? — “Between the shoulder joint and the elbow 
joint.” 
Where is the forearm ? — “Between the elbow joint and the wrist joint.” 
Where are the toe joints ? — “ Between the parts of the toes.” 
Where are the finger joints ? — “ Between the parts of the fingers.” 
Where is the ankle joint? — “Between the lower leg and the foot.” 
Where is the knee joint ?— “ Between the thigh and the lower leg.” 
Where is the hip joint ? — “ Between the trunk and the thigh.” 
Where is the wrist joint?—“ Between the forearm and the hand.” 
Where is the elbow joint ?—“ Between the upper arm and the forearm.” 
Where is the shoulder joint ? — “ Between the trunk and the upper arm.” 
Where are the tips of the fingers ? — “At the ends of the fingers.” 
Where is the ball of the thumb ?— “On the palm of the hand below the 
thumb.” 
Where is the palm of the hand ?— “ On the inside of the hand, between the 
wrist and fingers.” 28 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
The instep, 
The toes, 
The ball, 
The hollow, 
The heel, 
The toe joints, 
The toe hails. 
HOW MADE. 
(See Question on the Parts and 
Joints of the Limbs.) 
Standing, 
Walking, 
Running, 
Skating, 
Jumping. 
THE FOOT. 
Used in 
Parts 
The thigh, 
The lower leg. 
The hip joint, 
The knee joint, 
The ankle joint. 
THE LEG. 
WHY SO CALLED. 
(See Question on the Parts and 
Joints of the Limbs.) 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
1. THE LIMBS. 
2. JOINTS OF THE LIMBS. 
Parts 
Joints 
The palm, 
The back, 
The knuckles, 
The finger joints, 
The nails, 
The tips of the fingers, 
The veins, 
The ball of the thumb, 
The lines where the flesh 
is bent. 
KINDS. 
Hinge joints. 
Ball-and-socket joints. 
THE HAND. 
Holding, 
Throwing, 
Catching, 
Feeling. 
.2 
fi 
m 
P 
GO 
i 
3 
Ph 
THE ARM. 
j The upper arm, 
} The forearm. 
NAMES. 
Finger joints, toe joints, 
Wrist joints, ankle joints, 
Elbow joints, knee joints. 
Shoulder joint, hip joint. 
Parts 30 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
THE SKELETON. 
1. The skull. 
2. The spine. 
3. The ribs. 
4. The breastbone. 
5. The shoulder blades. 
6. The collar bones. 
7. The bone of the upper arm. 
8. The bones of the forearm, 
9. The bones of the wrist. 
10. The bones of the lingers. 
11. The bone of the thigh. 
12. The bones of the lower leg. 
13. The bones of the ankle. 
14. The bones of the toes. 
15. The kneepan. PART III. 
THE BONES OF THE BODY. 
1. Introductory.—Of what is your body built? — “Of 
bones.” How do your bones feel to the touch? — “Hard.” 
You may make a sentence telling about your bones. — “My 
bones are hard.” 
These words are printed on the board. Are your bones all 
of the same size ? A correct answer to this question is obtained 
after the children have felt the bones of their fingers and arms. 
Are all your bones of the same shape ? After feeling those 
of the head and arms, they usually reply, “ Some are curved, 
some are like a cylinder.” Of what use do you think your 
bones are to your bod}’?—“The}7 make my body strong.” 
The answer is printed as given, and the children read the entire 
sentence, “ My bones are hard ; they make my body strong.” 
2. Bones of the Head.—We show the class a dog’s or a 
sheep’s skull, and ask, What is this?—“ A skull.” Of what 
is it made?—“Of bone.” To what part of the dog or sheep 
did it belong? — “ To the head.” Touch your skull. What is 
your skull?— “ The head ; the bony part of my head.” What 
other bone belongs to your head ? liy placing the hand upon 
the chin, while opening and closing the mouth several times, 
some of the children discover what they usually call “ the chin- 
bone.” If we find they know no other name for the bone, we 
say, This chinbone is called the jawbone. 
What is in your jaw?— “ My teeth.” How many jaws have 
you? — “Two.” What do you call this one? we ask, as we 
point to the upper jaw. “ The top jaw.” Give another name 
for top. — “Upper.” Then what may you call the top jaw? 32 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
“ The upper jaw.” If the top jaw is called the upper jaw, what 
may you call the other? — “The under jaw, the lower jaw.” 
We accept the latter name, and bid them name and touch the 
bones of the head. — “ The bones of the head are my skull and 
my lower jaw.” We tell them that there are about two hundred 
bones in the body, not including the teeth; fourteen of these 
are in the face, four small bones are in the ears, and one at the 
root of the tongue. Then we show the pupils how to touch as 
they give an account of the bones of the head and face. 
3. The Bones of the Trunk.—What do you feel along the 
middle of the back?—“ The backbone.” Yes, the backbone, 
or the spine. In what part of the body do you find the spine? 
— “In the trunk.” What other bones do you find in the trunk? 
— “ The side bones ; the ribs.” 
We bid them feel the short, upright boue in front, and give 
them its name, breastbone; then direct them to place the right 
hand at the upper part of the left shoulder, and move the left 
arm in different directions; this leads them to notice the pro- 
jecting bones which they usually name “ shoulder bone.” We 
give them the name shoulder blade, and after a similar experi- 
ment with the right arm, ask, IIow many shoulder blades have 
you? — “ We have two shoulder blades.” 
The children find the two bones crossing the top of their chest 
from the tip of the shoulder to the breastbone, and learn the 
name collar bones; the number of these, two ; the shape, some- 
what like the Italian / placed in a lying position, is shown by 
making this letter on the board. Lastly, we assist them to 
construct and memorize the Formula for the Bones of the 
Trunk. 
4. The Bones of the Arm and Hand.—We tell the children 
there is only one bone in the upper arm, and two in the fore- 
arm ; that the bones of the forearm are so arranged that we are 
able to turn the hand at the wrist from side to side; also, that 
there are two rows of bones in the wrist, four in each row, eight 
in all, forming the wrist joint. THE BONES OF THE BODY. 
33 
We let a child spread his hand upon the blackboard, and 
trace its outline with chalk; then bid the class draw the fore- 
finger of the left hand down over the bone leading from the 
thumb knuckle to the wTist. A line corresponding to this bone 
is drawn within the traced hand. In the same way the children 
discover and represent all the bones of the middle of the hand, 
and thus learn the position and number of these bones, so that 
they can readily give the statement, “From my wrist to my 
knuckles are five bones.” B}' looking carefully at the thumb, 
the children are able to tell us the number of its bones, for 
which two marks are made within the thumb part of the picture. 
In like manner, the number and position of all the bones of 
each finger is noted and represented. 
All the lines made within the picture are -counted and num- 
bered, to prepare the class to touch and count the bones of the 
hand, as well as to give a correct answer to the question, How 
many bones in your hand? Lastly, they are taught to repeat 
the Formula for the Bones of the Arm and Hand. 
5. The Bones of the Leg and Foot. — We teach the number 
of the bones of the leg by reference to those of the arm; then 
bid the children place the left leg over the right knee, and touch 
the thigh with the right hand as they say, ‘4 My thigh has one 
bone.” They touch the lower leg as they say, “ My lower leg 
has two bones.” 
We ask, How many bones are in the wrist?—“Eight.” 
There is one less bone in the foot near the heel. How many 
bones are there in the foot in that place? — “ Seven.” We tell 
them that the missing bone seems to have taken its place over 
the knee joint, which it covers and protects; then let them 
count as many balls on the numeral frame as there are bones 
near the heel. How many bones from the wrist to each finger? 
— “ One.” Yes, and there is one from the heel to each of the 
toes. How many bones in the middle of the foot?—“Five.” 
Five more balls are counted on the numeral frame. There are 
the same number of bones in the great toe as in the thumb. 
How man}' balls shall we count for them?— “ Two.” 34 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Each of the other toes has as many bones as each of the fin- 
gers. How many balls shall we count for the bones of the 
second toe? — “Three.” How many for the third toe? — 
“Three.” For the fourth? — “Three.” For the fifth? — 
“Three.” For the sixth? — “None; we have not six toes.” 
We let the children count the whole number of balls which have 
been moved, to find the number of bones in the foot; then 
require them to look at the balls as the}r say: — 
In my foot, near my heel, are seven bones; 
In the middle of my foot are five bones; 
My great toe has two bones ; 
Each of my other toes has three bones ; 
Making twenty-six bones in my foot. 
This lesson is taught more rapidly if we use for illustration a 
chart representing the Osseous System. 
FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE BONES OF 
THE BODY. 
1. My bones are hard; they make my body strong. There are 
about two hundred bones in my body. 
2. The bones of my head are 
my skull and my lower jaw; 
my face has fourteen bones ; my ear has four small bones; at the 
root of my tongue is one bone. 
3. The bones of my trunk are 
my spine, my breastbone, 
my ribs, my two shoulder blades, 
• and my two collar bones. 
4. My upper arm has one bone; my forearm has two bones; my 
wrist has eight bones; from my wrist to my knuckles are five bones ; 
my thumb has two bones; each finger has three bones, making nine- 
teen bones in my hand. 
5. My thigh has one bone ; my lower leg has two bones; my knee- 
pan is the cap which covers and protects my knee; in my foot, near 
my heel, are seven bones; in the middle of my foot are five bones; 
my great toe has two bones; each of my other toes has three bones; 
making twenty-six bones in my foot. THE BONES OF THE BODY. 
35 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Tell about your bones. 
2. Tell about the bones of the head. 
3. Tell about the bones of the trunk. 
4. Tell about the bones of the arm and hand, beginning with the upper arm. 
5. Count the bones of the hand. 
6. Tell about the bones of the leg and foot, beginning with the thigh. 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The Head. — The hands are placed above and around the skull, 
and down each side of the lower jaw. The right hand is passed down 
the face when the number of its bones are given; the index finger 
points to the left ear as the number of the bones in the ear are men- 
tioned. 
The Trunk. — Both hands are passed to the back to touch the 
spine; around the ribs, and on the breastbone, as they are named. The 
shoulder blades are touched from above the shoulders, and both hands 
are brought forward to indicate the position of the collar bone. 
The Arm and Hand. — The left arm is extended and the right 
hand used to touch its parts, as the bones of the arm are enumerated. 
The same hand is used to touch the wrist, also from the wrist to the 
knuckles. The thumb and fingers are touched by the right index fin- 
ger as the number of their bones is given. 
The method of counting the bones of the hand is described here- 
after. 
The Leg and Foot.— The directions for touching the bones of the 
leg are the same as those given for touching its parts. 
The right hand is used to touch the left heel, and the middle of the 
foot, when the number of the bones in these parts are named. As the 
bones of the toes cannot be easily felt through the shoe, the children 
sit erect when they tell about them, and quietly replace the left foot 
upon the floor at the conclusion of the clause, “making twenty-six 
bones in my foot.” 
QUESTIONS ON THE BONES. 
How many bones in the body ? — “ About two hundred.” 
Of what use are the bones to the body ?— “They make the body strong; 
they form the framework of the body.” 
How many bones in the face ?— “ Fourteen bones.” 
How many bones in the ear ? — “ Four small bones.” 36 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
How many bones at the root of the tongue ? — “ One.” 
How many bones in the upper arm ? — “ One.” 
How many bones in the forearm ? — “ Two.” 
How many bones between the wrist and the knuckles ? — “ Five.” 
How many bones in the thumb ? — “ Two.” 
How many bones in each of the fingers ? — “ Three.” 
How many bones in the whole hand ? — “Nineteen.” 
How many bones in the hand and arm ? — “ Thirty.” 
How many bones in the thigh ? — “ One long bone.” 
How many bones in the lower leg ? — “ Two.” 
How many bones in the heel? — “ Seven.” 
How many bones in the middle of the foot ?— “ Five.” 
How many bones in the great toe ? — “ Two.” 
How many bones in each of the other toes ? — “ Three.” 
How many bones in the whole foot ? — “ Twenty-six.” 
How many bones in the foot and leg ? — “ Thirty.” 
How many bones in two arms and two hands ? — “ Sixty.” 
How many bones in two legs and two feet ? — “ Sixty.” 
How many bones in the limbs ? — “ One hundred and twenty.” 
Where is the kneepan ? — “ Over the knee joint.” 
Where is the longest bone in the body ?— “ In the thigh.” 
Where are the smallest bones of the body ?— “In the ear.” 
Touch the collar bones. 
Touch the shoulder blades. 
How many collar bones have you ? — “ Two.” 
How many shoulder blades have you ? — “ Two.” 
Touch the spine. 
Touch the breastbone. 
Touch the skull. 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING THE BONES OF THE HAND. 
I. 
1. Close both hands. 
2. Raise the forefinger of the right hand, as the index or pointing 
finger. 
3. Place the index finger upon the lower thumb joint of the left 
hand. 
4. Draw the index finger down to the wrist, over the bone between 
the thumb knuckle and the wrist, and count “One.” 
5. Place the index finger on the knuckle of the first finger. 
6. Draw the index finger down to the wrist, over the bone leading 
from the first finger to the wrist, and count “ Two.” 
7. So on, for each of the three other bones of the hand. Repeat 
until no mistake is made in touching or counting. THE BONES OF THE BODY. 
37 
II. 
1. Raise the thumb, and place the index finger of the right hand on 
the middle of the upper part of the thumb for bone “ Six ”; then 
2. On the lower part of the thumb for bone “ Seven.” Repeat from 
the beginning, until the children can touch and count each bone 
properly. 
III. 
1. Keep the thumb erect; raise the first finger of the left hand. 
2. Place the index finger on the bone between the tip and the first 
joint of the first finger for bone “ Eight.” 
3. Between the first and middle joint for bone “Nine.” 
4. Between the middle and third joint for bone “Ten.” Review, 
from the beginning, until the class can touch and count every bone as 
directed. 
IY. 
1. Keep the thumb and forefinger erect; raise the second finger and 
touch, as in the lesson on the first finger bones, “ Eleven,” “ Twelve,” 
and “ Thirteen.” Review. 
2. Proceed in the same manner for the third and fourth fingers, 
always beginning with the bone nearest the tip of the finger, and 
touching that at the lowest part last. 
If the exercise has been properly performed, every child will say 
“ Nineteen ” as its index finger touches the lowest bone of the little 
finger, and all the fingers of every left hand will be outspread. 
Sometimes the children have an amusing and profitable pantomime 
exercise on the bones of the body, as follows: We say to them, I will 
touch the different parts of the body, and you may show with your 
fingers how many bones in each. Two or three attempts will enable 
them to go through these motions with accuracy, and prepare them to 
answer the questions on bones with rapidity. Unless using a Chart 
of the Osseous System, we ask about the bones of the leg and foot, 
instead of pointing to these parts on the chart. The children answer 
by signs, as before. 38 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Note. — To obtain from the children the number of the bones in the body, 
we ask for those of the head, the trunk, the upper limbs, the lower limbs, 
and the number of each. The several replies appear on the blackboard as 
follows : — 
OF THE HEAD: 
Skull 8 
Face, including the ) 
lower jaw j 
Tongue 1 
Ears 8 
31 
THE BONES 
OF THE TRUNK.- 
Spine 24 
Ribs 24 
Breastbone 8 
Shoulder blades ....... 2 
Collar bones 2 
60 
OF THE UPPER LIMBS: 
Upper arms 1X2=2 
Forearms 2X2=4 
Wrists 8X2 = 16 
Hands 19X2 = 38 
60 
OF THE LOWER LIMBS : 
Thighs 1X2=2 
Kneepans 1X2=2 
Lower legs 2x2=4 
Feet 26X2 = 52 
60 
Total, 211, not including the teeth. 
We teach the children to say “ about two hundred,” because there are not 
always the same number of bones in the body. In some parts two or three 
bones unite and form one bone. For example : the breastbone of a child is 
made up of eight pieces ; some of these unite as it becomes older, so that when 
fully grown it has but three pieces in this bone. PART IY. 
THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
The Eye.—What do you see with?—“My eyes.” Hold 
your heads perfectly still; look at the ceiling ; look at the floor ; 
towards the right side of the room ; towards the left; in front 
of you. This exercise is repeated until every child of the class 
can look in these various directions without moving the head. 
Then we take our box of forms, and, holding a cube before the 
children, ask : What shape is this? — “ A cube.” How many 
of you would like eyes shaped like cubes? No hands are raised, 
showing the}r do not think the shape desirable. Why do you 
not wish cube-shaped eyes? — “They would not look nice; 
they would not be pretty; they would not look well.” What 
other reason have you against this shape for an eye ? If the 
children do not reply correctly to this question, we repeat the 
exercise of rolling the eyes without moving the head, and soon 
obtain the desired answer, “ They could not be rolled about.” 
What reasons have you given for not wishing eyes shaped 
like cubes? — “ They would not look well; they could not be 
rolled about.” The children, for the same reasons, object to 
having eyes shaped like prisms or pyramids. We show them a 
cylinder. They are better pleased with this shape, and seldom 
say of it, “ It does not look well.” Some think it will do, but 
others discover that it cannot be rolled up or down, which con- 
vinces them that cylinder-like eyes would not be very conven- 
ient. For similar reasons they decide against the hemisphere, 
cone, and spheroid. 
When called upon to choose the proper shape for an eye, 
they unhesitatingly select a ball, or sphere, “ Because it looks 
well; because it can be moved in every direction,” and reply 40 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
correctly to the question, What shape is your eye? — “ My eye 
is shaped like a ball.” 
We place before them the skull of a dog, and let them find 
where the eyes of the animal were placed. In what were the 
eyes placed? — “In holes; in hollow places.” What word 
have you learned which means a hollow place?—“Socket.” 
Of what was the socket made in which the dog’s ej'e was 
placed? — “Of bones.” 
We next tell the children to feel around their own eyes; this 
act leads them to perceive that their eyes are also placed within 
a deep, bony socket, and the class is ready to answer, “ My 
eye is like a ball in a deep, bony socket,” when we ask about 
the shape and position of the eye. 
We direct the attention of the pupil to the position of the 
eye, — in the upper part of the face, instead of in the hand, or 
in the back or sides of the head, and quiet the mirthfulness 
excited by the thought of C3*es in these inconvenient and ludi- 
crous situations, by alluding to the goodness and wisdom of 
our kind ITeaventy Father, as displayed in the position and 
shape of our e3Tes. 
Why do the eyes not stand out from the face as the nose 
does? — “ They would get hurt.” Then why are the3T placed 
in the deep, bon37 socket? — “To keep them from getting hurt; 
to protect them.” 
Look into the C3*es of the child next to you. What do you 
see in them?— “ A black spot; something blue ; a white part.” 
Of what shape is the black spot?—“Round.” Round like 
what?—“Round like a circle.” Where is it?—“In the 
middle of the e37e.” Pointing to the window, we ask, Of 
what shape is the window? — “Oblong.” Of what use is it? — 
“ To let the light in ; to see through.” We then explain that 
the little black spot in the e37e is an opening in the e3’eball 
through which the light enters, and out of which the mind sees 
the world. What, then, is the e3Te to the body? — “The 
window.” We tell the children that this window is called the 
pupil of the eye. THE OKGANS OF SENSE. 
41 
We talk to them about the camera which the photographer 
uses when he makes pictures ; telling them that the inside of 
the camera-box is like the glassy part of the eye, — for the light 
to pass through; a portion of the inside of the eye is ready to 
receive the picture the light paints on it, as the glass the artist 
places in the camera receives the picture, when they sit or 
stand, during a few seconds, where he has placed them in front 
of the camera-tube. 
We bid them look at different things, informing them that as 
the}’ turn from an object its picture passes as quickly from the 
picture-plates of their eyes, and that of the next thing at which 
they look takes its place. Light, the great picture-maker, is 
alwa}’s at work, giving views of things near and far away, 
according as the eyes are ready to receive its pictures. If they 
hurt their eyes they cannot see through them ; if their eyes are 
injured by accident or disease, they must be deprived of the 
pleasant sights so freely given to all who can see. We counsel 
them to use their eyes, illustrating our meaning by the familiar 
story of “Eyes and no eyes,” which tells of two travellers 
passing through the same scenes, the one seeing nothing to 
interest him, the other adding to his store of knowledge through 
his habit of careful observation; we also lead them to under- 
stand how necessary it is to take care of these seeing-balls, 
remind them to be thankful to the Giver of light and eye-sight, 
and teach them of His omniscience by the familiar words, “ He 
that formed the eye, shall He not see?” 
Lastly, the class construct and memorize the sentence, “ The 
black circle in the centre is the pupil or window of my eye.” 
What do you see around the pupil of the eye?—“A ring.” 
Of what color?—“Gray; light brown; dark brown; blue.” 
We ask the color of the same part of the eye in the cat, rabbit, 
or other animals ; give the name iris, then proceed to show its 
use to the eye as follows : Close the shutter of the window. 
What do we do when we close the shutters?—“ Shut out the 
light.” When we open it a little? — “Let in a little light.” 
When we open it wide?— “ Let in all the light that will come THE HUMAN BODY. 
in through the window.” What do we sometimes use instead 
of shutters?—“Shades, curtains.” What shaped shutters, 
shades, or curtains would you use for an oblong window? — 
“Oblong.” 
We bid a child stand where the class can look into its eyes 
as the bright light shines into them ; the other children see the 
small pupil and enlarged colored ring; we then let the same 
child stand in a dark corner where the rest can see the pupil 
enlarge, the iris becoming smaller. The children soon learn 
that the iris has something to do with letting in and keeping 
out the light, and thus acts as a curtain to the eye; that be- 
cause the eye-window, or pupil, is round, its curtain must be 
round, but ring-shaped, that it may not completely cover the 
pupil. This portion of the lesson is concluded with the formula, 
“ The colored ring is the iris or curtain.” 
What else do you notice in the eye beside the pupil and the 
iris?—-“A white part.” What shape is it?—“Curved.” 
What is the curved part? After thinking awhile, some of the 
children reply, “The front part of the eyeball,” and give the 
statement, “ The white part is the eyeball.” 
We say to the children, Bend your head down ; bend it back- 
ward. Why did your eyes not fall out? — “ They are in tight.” 
What holds them in so tightly? None can tell us; so we in- 
form them of the six little elastic cords of flesh, which have 
power to make themselves long or short, and not only hold the 
eye in the socket, but turn it in any direction we wish to look. 
What cover your eyes?—“The eyelids.” Of what use are 
they?—“They cover the eye; they keep the dust out; they 
keep the eyeball from getting hurt; they protect the eye,” are 
the various answers given, as the class is led to imagine what 
would be the consequence if we had no eyelids. 
How many eyelids have you?— “ Two.” What do you name 
them? — “ Top e}’elid, upper eyelid, under e}*elid, lower e}relid.” 
We accept the terms, upper eyelid and lower eyelid, then assist 
the class to construct the formula, “ My upper and lower eye- 
lids cover and protect my eyes.” THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
43 
What have you above the eyelids ? — “ Eyebrows.” Of what 
are the eyebrows composed ? — “Of little hairs; of short 
hairs.” Of what use are the eyebrows? The children do uot 
know. We help them to infer the use of these parts by asking, 
IIow would you look without eyebrows? — “Strange, queer.” 
Then of what use are the eyebrows ? — “ To make us look nice ; 
to make us look pretty ; to make us look beautiful.” We teach 
them to express the same idea by the words, “M3' e3'ebrows 
are for beaut}'.” What comes out upon the forehead when }Tou 
are very warm? — “Sweat.” Perspiration is substituted as a 
preferable word, and we explain that the eyebrows keep the 
perspiration of the forehead from rolling into the e}Tes. The 
children touch the e}'ebrows as the}' repeat the formula, “The 
eyebrows are for beauty, and keep the perspiration from rolling 
into my eyes.” 
What are on the edges of the eyelids?—“The eyelashes.” 
Of what are the eyelashes made? — “Of short hairs.” IIow 
would people look without eyelashes? — “Queer, strange.” 
Then of what use are the eyelashes? — “ They make us look 
nice ; they make us look pretty.” What did you say about the 
eyebrows because they make you look better than you would 
without them? — “ My eyebrows are for beauty.” Then what 
may you say about your eyelashes because they add to your 
good looks? —“My eyelashes are for beauty.” What do you 
see in the street when it is very windy?—“ Dust.” The air is 
always moving, and the dust is always flying about, though you 
may not see it; the little eyelashes sweep away the dust when 
it comes near the eyes, and prevent it from entering the eyes. 
In repeating the formula which follows the conversation 
about the eyelashes, the children touch these parts as they are 
named: “ My eyelashes are for beauty, and brush away the 
dust from my eyes.” 
We bid all raise the right hand who have seen a sewing- 
machine, and ask, Why do people put oil on different parts of 
the machine?—“ To make it go fast; to make it go easily.” 
We say to the children, You may look up ; look to the right; 44 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
to the left; look in front of you. What do you do with your 
eyes as you look in these different directions?—“ I move my 
eyes.” Does it hurt the eyeballs to move them? They reply 
in the negative, and we explain that the eyeballs are washed by 
the tears, which are made back of the eyebrows, and rubbed 
over the eyeball b}’ the motion of the eyelids; that these tears 
make the eyeballs move easily in the sockets, without hurting 
or wearing out; that they pass from the eyes through little 
openings which lead from the eyes to the nose. When we feel 
very unhappy or sad, the tears are made so rapidly in the eye- 
factoiw that they cannot pass into the nose fast enough, so they 
roll down the cheeks when we cry. 
The lessons on the eye end with the talk about the tears, and 
the formula, ‘ ‘ My eyes are washed bjT teardrops every time I 
wink my eyelids,” which is repeated without touching. 
THE ORGANS OF SENSE, — continued. 
The Ears. —Of what use are your ears? — “ To hear with.” 
Where are they placed?—“One on each side of the head.” 
We bid the children feel and bend the ears, then tell of what 
these are made, which leads to the discovery that the outer ear 
is made of something different from flesh and bone. We ask 
the name of the hard, tough, smooth substance they find in 
some meat, and from the replies given obtain the word gristle; 
then tell them that the outer ear is made of gristle, or, as some 
people call it, cartilage; lastly, teach them to define cartilage 
as, “A smooth, elastic substance, harder than flesh and softer 
than bone.” 
Allusion is made to the difference in the position of the ears 
of various animals, and the children are led to notice that those 
of animals which pursue their prey point forward to catch 
sounds in front of them, while those of others which are liable 
to be pursued turn backward to hear sounds from behind them. 
The ears of the cat and the rabbit are good and familiar illus- 
trations of these facts. THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
45 
Next, the parts of the outer ear are touched and named by 
the class, — the outer edge is designated as the rim, and the 
lower part through which an earring may be placed, as the flap 
or lobe of the ear. 
We speak of the trumpet-like shape of the ear as best adapted 
for catching and holding sounds ; then explain that sounds pass 
through the opening of the ear, along a short tube, and strike 
against a thin skin stretched tightly across a hollow place inside 
of the ear, called the drum-head; that the four bones of the 
ear, the smallest bones in the body, are placed across the drum 
cavity, and help to carry sounds to the brain. 
We talk about the ear-wax, and the fence of short, stiff hairs 
stretched across the tube of the ear in front of the thin skin, to 
keep insects from entering the drum of the ear. 
We counsel the children to endeavor to preserve their hear- 
ing, by taking care to avoid colds, and caution them against 
putting an}' hard, sharp-pointed instrument, such as a pin, into 
the ear, by which the delicate parts of the ear may be injured. 
Lastly, the Formula for the Ear is prepared and memorized. 
The Nose. —Of what use is the nose?— “ To smell with ; to 
breathe through.” Where is the nose? — “Between the two 
eyes; between the forehead and the mouth; in the middle of 
the face.” By measuring the face from the top of the forehead 
to the chin, and across the face from ear to ear, the children 
are led to perceive that the nose is in the middle of the face. 
Why is the nose placed above the mouth ? — “ To enable us 
to smell quickly what we put into the mouth.” Why is it 
placed in the middle of the face?—“Because it looks best 
here.” How queer the nose would look at the back of the head 
or the forehead ! 
What name do }rou give to the upper part of the nose between 
the e}Tes?— “ The bridge of the nose.” What is the lower end 
of the nose called?—“The tip of the nose.” What else do 
you notice about the nose? — “Two holes; two openings.” 
What are they called? — “The nostrils.” Of what use are 46 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
they?— “ For the air to pass through.” We explain that these 
nostrils lead to two openings through which the air enters the 
back of the mouth on its way to the lungs. 
What is between the nostrils? From what they have learned 
about the substance of the outer ears, the children readily dis- 
cover that the division between the nostrils is formed of carti- 
lage, and tell us this cartilage divides the nostrils into two 
parts. We give them the word separates as used in the formula 
for this section of the lesson. 
We conclude with the repetition of the formula, teaching the 
children to touch the bridge and the tip of the nose with all the 
fingers of the right hand, to point to the cartilage with the fore- 
finger, and to the nostrils wdtlx the thumb and forefinger of the 
same. 
The Mouth. — Of what use is the mouth? — “ To speak with ; 
to eat with.” Its position is alluded to, and its parts, the lips, 
are mentioned. What is inside of the mouth?— “ The tongue ; 
the upper teeth ; the lower teeth.” 
In what are the teeth placed?— “ In the jaw.” How many 
jaws have }’ou? — “Two.” What are they called?—“Top 
jaw, under jaw,” are the names the children usually give, 
which we correct to upper jaw and lower jaw. 
What covers the jaws? — “Flesh.” Of what color is this 
flesh? — “Red.” What is it called? If no child can reply 
correctly, we give the name “ gum,” and then teach the form- 
ula, instructing the children to touch only when they name the 
lips. 
The Teeth.—Of what use are the teeth?—“ To eat with.” 
Of what other use are they? None of the class know, so we bid 
the children make the sounds of twro or more of the vowels ; 
then those of b, p1 d, t, v. After several repetitions of their 
sounds, the}* readih’ perceive that the vowel sounds are made 
by different positions of the mouth as the voice passes through 
it; that b and p are made with the lips, while to make f, v, t, 
d, they must use the teeth. Our second question is repeated, THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
47 
and we receive the correct reply: “To speak with; to help 
speak with.” 
Of what are the teeth made?—“Bones.” Comparison is 
made between the teeth and the other bones of the body; some 
of the children think they are exacth' alike, others that they are 
different. “The teeth are white, smooth, and shiny.” We 
explain that this is because they are covered with a smooth, 
hard substance, called enamel, which keeps them from wearing 
out, as paint and varnish help to preserve the wood they cover. 
We teach the class to spell the word enamel, and to define it as 
“ a smooth, glossy, white substance, harder than bone.” 
When you take a bite of apple, between which teeth do you 
place the apple?—“Between the front teeth.” Why? —“To 
bite the apple.” In what other way could 3'ou take a piece 
from the apple?— “ I could cut it with a knife.” Then what 
do you use your front teeth for when you eat?— “ For biting ; 
for cutting.” What may you call them because they are used 
for cutting? — “ Cutting teeth ; cutters.” 
What kind of teeth have }rou noticed on the sides of a cat’s 
jaws? — “ Sharp, pointed teeth.” What does the cat use these 
teeth for?—“To tear meat with.” What may you call the 
teeth with which the cat tears its meat? — “Tearing teeth; 
tearers.” You may feel or look at your own teeth and notice 
whether you have any teeth which resemble the tearing teeth of 
the cat. — “ We have ; on each side of the front teeth.” Then 
what kind of teeth have you besides cutting teeth?— “ Tearing 
teeth; tearers.” 
If you wish to crack a nut with your teeth, where do you 
place it? — “ Between the back teeth.” Why? — “Because 
they are the thickest; because they are the strongest.” Yes, 
and best fitted for breaking and grinding hard substances ; but 
wise people do not crack nuts with their teeth. What may you 
call the double back teeth because they are used iu grinding the 
food? — “ Grinding teeth ; grinders.” 
Name the kinds of teeth we have been talking about. — 
“ Cutting teeth, tearing teeth, grinding teeth.” Where are the 48 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
cutting teeth, or cutters? — “In the front part of each jaw.” 
Where are the tearing teeth, or tearers? — “ On each side of 
the cutting teeth.” Where are the grinding teeth, or grinders? 
— “At the back part of each jaw; on each side of the tearing 
teeth.” 
We tell the class that children do not have as many teeth in 
a full set as adults, or grown people, and give them the number 
of the milk teeth, also of the permanent teeth. The little ones 
know by7 experience that they lose their first teeth, and are sup- 
plied with a second set. We explain that the second teeth 
are formed in the jaw, below the first set, and will push the lat- 
ter out if these are not extracted soon enough to give the new 
teeth room. The formula for the teeth is taught and repeated 
without any touching. 
The Preservation of the Teeth.—We begin the lesson on 
this subject by asking the children how they use anything which 
tliej7 do not wish to wear out. ‘ ‘ We try to keep it; we take 
care of it.” Usually7 some one replies, “ We try7 to preserve 
it”; if not, we give the class the word preserve, and develop 
its meaning by referring to preserved flowers and fruits. What 
do you think you must do to preserve your teeth?— “We must 
keep them clean.” We explain that anything which injures the 
enamel destroys the teeth, because the soft inner portion of the 
teeth soon decays when not protected by the hard enamel ; then 
lead the class to understand why7 tartar should not be allowed 
to collect about the teeth; why very hot or very cold food aud 
drink should be avoided ; why7 thread should not be cut or nuts 
cracked with the teeth ; and why tobacco and cigars should be 
kept out of the mouth, — because all these may injure the enamel 
more or less. After these explanations, the children are 
assisted to construct the rules for the preservation of the teeth, 
which are soon memorized. 
The Process of Eating. — By holding the lower jaw, and 
simulating the process of eating, the children learn that the 
lower jaw only is moved in the act of chewing. They tell us THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
49 
that the cutters cut the food, the tearers tear it, and the grind- 
ers grind it. We ask what change takes place in a dry piece of 
bread or cracker when it is in the mouth. — “It is made wet.” 
We give the word moistened for “ made wet.” What moistens 
the bread? — “The spit.” Saliva is substituted for “spit,” 
and they tell us, “The saliva moistens the bread.” A little 
reflection helps them to understand that all food put into the 
mouth is moistened by the saliva. AVe instruct them about the 
work of the tongue, as it moves in the mouth during eating, 
bringing the food between the teeth, and helping to throw the 
food-ball down the food-pipe when we are ready to swallow. 
The formula for this portion of the lesson is constructed in 
the usual manner, and memorized; it is repeated without any 
touching. 
FORMULAS FOR THE LESSONS ON THE ORGANS OF 
SENSE. 
1. The Eyes.— My eyes are to see with. 
My eye is like a ball in a deep, bony socket. The black circle in 
the centre is the pupil or window of my eye; the colored ring is the 
iris or curtain ; the white part is the eyeball. 
My upper and lower eyelids cover and protect my eyes. 
My eyebrows are for beauty, and keep the perspiration from rolling 
into my eyes. 
My eyes are washed by teardrops every time I wink my eyelids. 
2. The Ears.—My ears are to hear with : 
the rim of my ear, the flap of my ear, 
the drum of my ear. 
The drum of my ear is protected by a fence of short, stiff hairs, and 
by a bitter wax about the roots of these hairs. 
3. The Nose. — My nose is to smell and breathe with; it is in the 
middle of my face : 
my two nostrils, the cartilage, 
the bridge of my nose, the tip of my nose. 
My nostrils lead to a passage back of my mouth through which 1 
breathe. 
The cartilage separates my nose into two parts. 50 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
4. The Mouth.— My mouth is to speak and breathe with : 
my upper lip, my lower lip. 
In my mouth are : 
my tongue, my upper teeth, 
my lower teeth, and my upper and lower jaws, 
covered with flesh called yum. 
5. The Teeth. — My teeth are used in eating and talking. 
My teeth are bones covered with enamel. 
I have three kinds of teeth: cutting teeth, tearing teeth, grinding- 
teeth. 
A young child has twenty teeth, ten in each jaw. 
A grown person has thirty-two teeth, sixteen in each jaw. 
6. To preserve my teeth : 
I must keep them clean. 
I must not scratch the enamel. 
I must not eat or drink anything very hot or very cold. 
I must not use them for scissors or nut-crackers. 
I must not burn them with tobacco or cigars. 
7. About Eating. — When I eat I move my lower jaw only. 
My tongue brings the food between my teeth, 
the cutters cut it, the tearers tear it, 
the grinders grind it, the saliva moistens it, 
and my tongue helps me to swallow it. 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULAS. 
1. Tell about your eyes. 
2. Tell about your ears. 
3. Tell about your nose. 
4. Tell about your mouth. 
5. Tell about your teeth. 
6. Wliat is necessary if you would preserve your teeth ? 
7. Tell about eating. 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The Eyes.— The hands are placed upon the eyes as these are named. 
The right forefinger is passed around the socket of the left eye as the 
word bony is repeated. 
The upper and lower eyelids and eyebrows and the eyelashes are 
touched with the fingers as each of these parts is mentioned. THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
51 
The Ears.— The ears are touched when named in the first sentence 
of the formula. The rim and the flap of the ear are each touched 
with the right forefinger, which is also used in pointing to the drum 
of the ear. 
The Nose.— The fingers of the right hand are used to touch the 
nose and its parts, excepting the nostrils, which are touched by the 
thumb and index finger of the same hand. 
The Mouth.— The mouth is touched with the fingers of the right 
hand, and each lip with the right forefinger. 
The Teeth, Manner of Eating, Preservation of the Teeth. — No touch- 
ing is necessary in these sections. 
QUESTIONS ON THE DESCRIPTION OF THE EYES. 
Of what shape is the eye ? — “ It is round like a ball.” 
In what is it placed ? — “ In a deep, bony socket.” 
What is a socket ?— “A hollow place.” 
Why is the eye placed in a deep, bony socket ?— “ To keep it from getting 
hurt.” 
Why would not an eye shaped like a cube do for ns? — “It would not look 
well; it could not be rolled about.” 
Why would not an eye shaped like a cone or cylinder do for us?—“It 
could not be rolled in every direction.” 
Why is the ball-shape best for the eye ? — “It looks best, and may be rolled 
in every direction.” 
What part of the eye do we see through ?— “The black spot in the centre.” 
What is it called ?— “ The pupil.” 
What shape is the pupil ? — “ Round like a circle.” 
What color is the pupil?— “Black.” 
Of what use is the pupil ?— “To let light into the eye; to see through.” 
What is around the pupil ? — “A colored ring.” 
What is the colored ring called ? — “ The iris.” 
Of what use is the iris ? — “It acts like a curtain to the eye; it lets in and 
keeps out light from the pupil.” 
Of what shape is the iris ? — “ Round like a ring.” 
Of what color is the iris ? — “ Sometimes blue, sometimes brown, some- 
times gray.” 
Does the iris always appear the same in size ? — “It does not: sometimes 
it looks large, sometimes small.” 
When is it the largest ? — “ When it rolls over the pupil to keep out the 
strong light.” 
When is it the smallest ? — “ When it rolls backward, to let light into the 
pupil.” 
When is the pupil the largest ? — “ When we are in the dark.” 52 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
When is the pupil the smallest ? — “When we are in a bright light.” 
What color is the eyeball ?— “ White.” 
What shape is the eyeball ? — “ Round like a hall.” 
How is the eyeball held in its socket ? — “ By cords made of flesh.” 
Where are the eyebrows ? — “ Above the eyelids.” 
Of what use are the eyebrows ? — “ To keep the perspiration from rolling 
into the eyes.” 
Where are the eyelids ? — “ Over the eyes.” 
Of what use are they ? — “ They cover my eyes and keep them from getting 
hurt.” 
Where are the eyelashes ? — “ On the edges of the eyelids.” 
Of what use are the tears ? — “ They keep the eyes clean; they make the 
eyes move easily in their sockets.” 
Where are the tears made ? — “ Back of the eyebrows.” 
When do the tears wash the eyes ? — “ Every time we wink our eyelids.’ ’ 
QUESTIONS ON THE EARS. 
Touch the parts of the ear. 
Where are your ears ? — “On the sides of my head.” 
Which is the rim of the ear ? — “ The edge of the ear.” 
Which is the flap of the ear ? — “The lower part of the ear.” 
Where is the drum of the ear ? — “ Inside of the ear.” 
How is the drum protected ? — “By stiff hairs and a bitter wax at its 
entrance.” 
QUESTIONS ON THE NOSE. 
Where is the nose ?— “ In the middle of the face.” 
Touch the parts of the nose. 
Where is the tip of the nose ?— “At the end of the nose.” 
Where is the bridge of the nose? —“At the top of the nose between the 
eyes.” 
Where is the cartilage ? — “In the middle of the inside of the nose.” 
Of what use is the nose ? — “To smell and breathe through.” 
What are the nostrils ? — “ The openings inside of the nose.” 
Of what use are the nostrils ? — “To let the air into and out of the opening 
back of the mouth.” 
QUESTIONS ON THE MOUTH, ETC. 
Where is the mouth ? — “ In the lower part of the face, between the nose 
and the chin.” 
Touch the mouth. 
Of what use is the mouth?— “ To breathe, speak, and eat with.” 
What is in the mouth ? — “My tongue, my upper teeth, my lower teeth, 
and my upper and lower jaws.” 
What covers the jaws ?— “ Red flesh, called gum.” 
Of what are the jaws composed ? — “Of bones.” THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
53 
Of what are the teeth made ? — “ Of bones covered with enamel.” 
What is enamel ? — “A smooth, white substance, harder than bone.” 
Of what use are the teeth ? — “To eat and talk with.” 
What kinds of teeth have you? — “Cutting teeth, tearing teeth, grinding 
teeth.” 
Describe the cutting teeth. — “ The cutting teeth have broad and flat edges.” 
Describe the tearing teeth. — “ The tearing teeth are sharp and pointed.” 
Describe the grinding teeth. — “The grinding teeth are the thick, hack 
teeth.” 
Which jaw is moved in eating? — “ The lower jaw.” 
What work do the teeth perform ? — “ They cut, tear, and grind the food.” 
How many teeth has a child in a full set?— “ Twenty teeth: ten in each 
jaw.” 
How many teeth has a grown person in a full set ? — “ Thirty-two: sixteen 
in each jaw.” 
What does the tongue do in eating ? — “It rolls the food between the teeth, 
and helps in swallowing.” 
What is the saliva ? — “A kind of liquid, sometimes called spit.” 
Of what use is it in eating ?— “ It wets and softens the food.” 
What do you mean by preserve ? — “To keep from injury.” 
What do you mean by injury? — “ Hurt.” 
How do you preserve your teeth ? See Formula. 
How do very hot or very cold drinks hurt the teeth ? — “ They crack the 
enamel.” 
What happens if the enamel is cracked ? — “ The teeth decay.” 
Then what must you do to preserve your teeth ?— “I must try to keep the 
enamel from being cracked or injured in any way.” 54 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
1. THE EYES. 
POQTTTOTC 
PARTS. 
COLOR OF 
SHAPE OF 
RULES FOR 
ruoii lun • 
USE. 
PARTS. 
PARTS. 
UOPJ V/A A Jx.JLU 1 O. 
HEALTH. 
Below the fore- 
To see with. 
The pupil or win- Black. 
Circle. 
To see through; to let light The eyes must 
head ; each 
dow. 
in. 
not be used 
side of the 
The iris or curtain. Blue, brown, 
Ring. 
To let in and keep out 
in too strong 
nose; in a 
or gray. 
light from the pupil. 
light. 
deep, honj 
The eyeball. 
White. 
Ball. 
To move in the socket; to The eyes must 
socket. 
hold the seeing parts. 
be rested when 
The eyebrows. 
Black, brown, 
Crescent. 
For beauty, etc. (See For- 
tired. 
etc. 
mula.) 
The eyelashes. 
Black, brown, 
Fringe. 
For beauty, etc. (See For- 
etc. 
mula.) 
The eyelids. 
Flesh color. 
Curved. 
To cover and protect the eyes. 
2. THE EARS. 
In the middle of 
To hear with. 
The rim. 
Flesh color. 
Curved. 
To catch sound. 
The ears must be 
each side of 
The flap. 
Flesh color. 
kept clean. 
the head. 
The drum. 
Flesh color. 
To hear with. 
3. THE NOSE. 
In the middle of 
To breathe and 
The bridge. 
Flesh color. 
To breathe through and 
the face. 
smell with. 
The two nostrils. 
Flesh color. 
smell with. 
The tip. 
Flesh color. 
To separate the nostrils. 
The cartilage. 
Flesh color. 
4. THE MOUTH. 
Between the 
To breathe, 
,:The lips. 
Red. 
Crescent. 
To breathe and speak with. 
nose and the 
eat, and 
1 ( The tongue. 
Red. 
Oblong. 
To speak and taste with. 
chin. 
speak with. 
| | The jaws. 
Red. 
Curved. 
To hold the teeth. 
5. THE TEETH. 
In the jaw, in- 
To eat with, and 
The crown. 
White. 
Pointed. 
To chew with. 
(See Formula.) 
side of the 
help in talk- 
The root. 
White. 
To hold the tooth in the jaw. 
mouth. 
ing. 
(The enamel.) 
White. 
To preserve the teeth. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. — The Organs of Sense. PART V. 
DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 
1. The Skull. — We show a sheep’s or dog’s skull to the 
children, and let them examine it carefully, to discover how its 
parts are put together; then, two pieces of paper, each shaped 
more or less like a carpenter’s saw, or two pieces of wood pre- 
pared for dovetailing, are placed together, to help the class 
illustrate and describe the mode of joining. Attention is called 
to the parts of the human skull, and how they are united; also, 
to the use of the skull, its shape and strength ; after which the 
formula which describes it is prepared and memorized. 
2. The Spine. — Where is your spine? — “ In the middle of 
the back.” Where does it begin? — “ At the lower part of the 
skull.” What word do 3'ou sometimes use which means lower 
part?—“Base.” This word, familiar to those who have 
studied about a cone, in the lesson on form, is substituted for 
lower part; the meaning of extends illustrated and taught, then 
the position of the spine is described by the children, in the 
words of the formula they have assisted to make. 
They are accustomed to think of the spine as one long bone. 
This error is corrected by bidding them notice what they feel 
as they pass the fingers over the upper part of the spine. 
“Little round lumps,” the}' tell us, and we explain that the 
lumps or knot-like parts are little, round, perforated bones, 
twenty-four of which make the spine; that these are placed 
one above the other, like cups turned upside down. We ask, 
How are the lumps or bones of the spine placed?— “One on 
top of the other.” Allusion to a pile of slates or books obtains 
the desired word, piled, which expresses the position de- 
scribed. We tell them about the cartilage between these bones, 56 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
explaining its use in preventing injury to the brain when we 
walk or move about. Their knowledge of the terms, elastic and 
flexible, help them to understand that these layers of cartilage 
enable us to bend the back, and then assume an upright posi- 
tion, at will. 
You have learned that “ the spine is made up of little bones 
piled one upon the other, with cartilage between every one of 
them.” What do you think is the reason why these bones and 
pieces of cartilage do not fall apart, as slates do, when you strike 
against a pile of them ? — “ They are fastened together.” Show, 
with your right forefinger, in what position the spine of a horse 
is placed; show that of your own spine as you sit or stand; 
what do }’ou call this position?—“Vertical.” Yes, but you 
do not talk about standing or sitting in a vertical position ; 
what other word do you use? — “Erect; up straight.” “Up 
straight” is corrected to upright, and the word column taught 
by reference to a column of words or figures; also, to pillars 
they may have seen in school or elsewhere. The backbone of 
a fish helps the children to understand something of the con- 
struction of the spine. 
3. The Ribs.—What name do you give to the bones on 
your side? — “Ribs.” If possible, we show a picture of the 
ribs ; let the children count those on one side, and notice the 
form and position of each: otherwise, we let them find these 
bones in their own bod}’, and describe the form, and tell where 
fastened at the back and in front. We talk about the use 
of the ribs, — to be as a wall around the lungs, heart, and 
stomach; therefore, they must be strong; each must also be 
light, because, if heavy, twenty-four of them would weigh too 
much for our comfort. 
4. The Shoulder Blades. — A picture of a shoulder blade is 
shown to the class, and the children feel for their own shoulder 
blades ; they are instructed as to the shape and use of these 
bones, and assist, as usual, in constructing the descriptive 
formula. DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 
57 
5. The Collar Bones. — The position and shape of the collar 
hones are best taught from a chart representing the Osseous 
System. If we have no chart, we let the children feel for 
them, on the upper part of the chest, and try to discover their 
shape ; also, where the}’ are joined. We also show, on the 
blackboard, that a collar bone resembles an Italian f placed in 
a horizontal position. The use of these bones in keeping the 
arms in place is easily explained. 
6. Hygiene of the Bones.—Why should we not let young 
babies stand too often?—“Because it will make them bow- 
legged; their legs will grow crooked.” Why will their legs 
become crooked? — “ Because their bones bend easily.” What 
word may you use when you wish to tell that the bones bend 
easily?— “ Flexible.” Then what may you say about a baby’s 
bones, when you wish us to understand that they may be easily 
bent? — “ They are flexible.” How do the bones of a baby feel 
to the touch?— “ Soft.” How do those of an old person feel? 
— “Hard.” Which bones break the more easily, those of a 
child, or those of a grown person ? After thinking awhile, 
some of the children reply, “ Those of an old person.” What 
word would you use to describe the bones of an old person, so 
as to tell that they are easily broken?—“ Brittle.” 
When the difference in the quality of the bones of childhood 
and age is understood by the pupils, they are prepared to tell 
us why it is necessary for old people to be very cautious against 
falling, and why children and young persons must be careful to 
sit and stand erect; also, why they must not wear tight cloth- 
ing. The formula for this portion of the lesson is repeated 
without touching. 
From what are bones made?—“From the blood.” From 
what is blood made? — “From the food I eat.” What kind 
of bones would you like to have? — “ Strong bones ; health}’ 
bones.” What kind of blood is needed to make strong, healthy 
bones? — “ Good or pure blood.” What kind of food makes 
pure blood? — “Wholesome food.” Then what kind of food 58 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
must you eat if you would have strong, healthy bones? — 
“Wholesome food.” As soon as the children understand that 
wholesome food is necessary to make good bones, they help in 
the preparation of the formula we desire them to memorize. 
Of what use is the air to the blood ? — “It makes the blood 
pure.” What kind of bones will pure blood make? — “Good 
bones ; strong bones.” What kind of bones will bad blood 
make ? — “ Bad bones ; weak bones ; poor bones.” What should 
you not breathe if you wish strong, health}’ bones?— “ Impure 
air.” Why should you not breathe impure air? — “Because 
impure air makes bad blood, and bad blood makes poor bones.” 
How many of you have a canary at home? What happens 
to its feathers in the spring? — “The old ones fall out, and new 
ones come in their place.” What may you say about a canary, 
when you think of this change of its feathers? — “ A canary is 
not always covered with the same feathers.” Are you always 
covered with the same skin? Amused at this question, the 
children quickly reply in the affirmative. We tell them their 
answer proves how easily people may make mistakes when they 
only guess at things; then proceed to prepare them to answer 
our question correctly and intelligently. If you put on a new 
pair of shoes, and walk in them through the streets, why should 
not the shoemaker take them back if you wish him to do so ? — 
“ Because they are dirty ; because they are worn a little.” If 
you keep on wearing the shoes every day for several weeks, 
what happens to them? — “They are worn out.” If a child 
walks barefoot do his feet wear out? — “ They do not.” 
Again we show that guessing does not always give correct 
answers, and explain that bones, flesh, and skin wear out, little 
by little, as we use the different parts of the body ; that the 
little, worn-out particles, finer than chalk-dust, are removed, 
and their places constantly supplied by new particles of bone, 
flesh, and skin made from the wonderful blood ; that this wear- 
ing out and repairing is going on continually, so that the body 
is constantly changing; some portions very often, and others 
more slowly and less frequently. DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 
59 
Conclusion. —We conclude the lesson with the formula con- 
cerning this change in the substance of the body; then review 
the Description of the Bones, by the repetition of the several 
formulas which have been prepared during the lesson on this 
subject. 
FORMULA FOR DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 
1. My skull is formed of several bones united, like two saws with 
their toothed edges hooked into each other. 
2. My spine extends from the base of the skull behind, down the 
middle of my back. 
It is composed of twenty-four short bones, piled one upon the other, 
with cartilage between them. 
These bones are; fastened together, forming an upright and flexible 
column, which makes me erect and graceful. 
3. My ribs are curved, strong, and light; there are twenty-four of 
them, twelve on each side; they are fastened at the back to my spine, 
in front to my breastbone, forming a hollow place for my heart, lungs, 
and stomach. 
4. My shoulder blades are flat, thin, and like a triangle in shape ; 
they are for my arms to rest upon. 
5. My collar bones are fastened to my shoulder blades and my 
breastbone ; they keep my arms from sliding too far forward. 
6. The bones of old people are hard and brittle; those of children 
soft and flexible; so I must sit and stand erect, that mine may not be 
bent out of shape. I must not wear tight clothing, or do anything 
that will crowd them out of their places. 
7. My bones are made from my food, after it has been changed into 
blood; so I must be careful to eat good, wholesome food, that they 
may be strong and healthy. 
8. I must not breathe impure air, because impure air makes bad 
blood, and bad blood makes poor bones. 
9. The body of every person is changing all the time, because the 
skin, flesh, and bones are always wearing out, and the blood is always 
repairing and building them again. 60 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Tell about the skull. 
2. Tell about the spine. 
3. Tell about the ribs. 
4. Tell about the shoulder blades. 
5. Tell about the collar bones. 
G. Tell about the difference between the bones of old people and those of 
children. 
7. Of what are your bones made ? 
8. If you wish your bones to be strong, why should you not breathe impure 
air? 
9. What have you learned about the change which is always taking place 
in the body ? 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The Skull. — The hands are placed above and around the skull as the 
name is mentioned. As the word hooked is repeated, the fingers of 
the right hand are interlaced in those of the left to show how the 
skull bones are united. 
The Spine. — Both hands are placed at the back to touch the spine ; 
the right hand is placed at the base of the brain, and passed down the 
middle of the back, to indicate these parts. The average length of the 
bones of the spine is measured on the left forefinger with the right 
forefinger as the word short is repeated; piled is shown by placing the 
right forefinger upon the left; upright, by holding the right forefinger 
in a vertical position; and flexible, by bending it up and down several 
times. Each child should sit as erect as possible when the word erect 
is mentioned. 
The Ribs.— As the clause, “ twelve on each side,” is repeated, the 
hands are placed on the sides; both hands are used in touching the 
spine and the breastbotie; to show hollow places, the hands are put 
together at the wrist and the tips of the fingers, and held so that the 
opening shall be in a vertical position; care is taken to keep the 
thumbs close to the fingers. The right hand is used to touch the 
heart; the hands are crossed upon the lungs; finally, the right hand 
is again used to indicate the position of the stomach. 
The Shoulder Blades.— These are touched from above the shoulders 
when named. Their shape is illustrated by closing all but the first 
finger of the left, and the first and second fingers of the right hand; DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 
61 
the left forefinger is held vertically to form one side of a triangle, 
which is completed by using the right forefinger as the base, and the 
middle finger as the third side of the figure. 
Collar Bones. — A hand is placed on each side of the collar bones as 
they are mentioned ; then upon the shoulder blade, to show where the 
collar bones are fastened: both hands touch the breastbone when it is 
named. 
Hygiene. — As the children repeat the words, “ So I must sit and 
stand erect,” they assume a very erect posture, to give emphasis to 
what they are repeating. 
QUESTIONS ON THE DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 
Touch the skull. 
Of what is it made ? — “ Several hones united together.” 
How are the skull bones united ? — “ Like two saws with their toothed edges 
hooked into each other.” 
What do you mean by, toothed? — “ Having points, like teeth.” 
What covers the skull ? — “ Flesh, skin, and hair.” 
Of what use is the skull ? — “It protects the brain.” 
What is the brain ?— “ That part of my body in which the thinking is done.” 
Where is the spine ? — “It extends from the base of my skull behind, down 
the middle of my back.” 
What do you mean by extends ? — “ Goes from.” 
What do you mean by base ? — “ The lower part of anything.” 
Of what is the spine made? — “Of about twenty-four short bones, with 
cartilage between them.” 
What is cartilage ? — “An elastic substance, harder than flesh, but softer 
than bone.” 
How are the bones of the spine placed ? — “ They are piled one upon the 
other.” 
What do you mean by forming ? — “Making.” 
What do you mean by upright ? — “ In a vertical position.” 
What do you mean by flexible ? — “Easily bent.” 
What do you mean by column? — “A pillar.” 
What do you mean by erect ? — “ In a vertical position.” 
Why is cartilage placed between the bones of the spine ?— “To make the 
spine flexible ; to keep the brain from injury when we walk or run.” 
What do you mean by elastic ? — “ Springing back after having been 
stretched, squeezed, twisted, or bent.” 
Tell about your ribs. — “ My ribs are curved, strong, and light.” 
Where are your ribs ? — “ On each side of my trunk.” 
How many ribs have you ? — “ Twenty-four ; twelve on each side.” 62 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
How are your ribs fastened ? — “At the back to my spine ; in front to my 
breastbone.” 
What do your ribs form? — “A hollow place for my heart, lungs, and 
stomach.” 
Where are your shoulder blades ? — “In the upper part of my back.” 
What shape are they ? — “ Flat, thin, and like a triangle.” 
Of what use are your shoulder blades? — “ For my arms to rest upon.” 
Touch your collar bones. 
Where are they fastened ?— “To my shoulder blades and my breastbone.” 
Of what use are your collar bones ? — “ They keep my arms from sliding 
too far forward.” 
Of what are your bones made ? — “Of food after it has been changed into 
blood.” 
Why should you eat wholesome food ? — “ That my bones may be strong and 
healthy.” 
How does impure air hurt the bones ?— “ Impure air makes bad blood, and 
bad blood makes poor bones.” 
Why should you sit and stand erect?— “Because my bones are easily bent 
out of shape ; if I do not sit and stand erect, they will grow crooked.” 
Why is it wrong to wear tight clothing ? — “ Because tight clothing crowds 
the bones out of shape.” 
Whose bones are the more brittle, those of a child, or those of an old per- 
son ? — “ Those of an old person.” 
What do you mean by brittle? — “Easily broken.” 
Whose are the more flexible ? — “ Those of a child.” 
What do you mean by flexible ? — “ Easily bent.” 
What repairs the worn out bones, flesh, and skin of the body?—“The 
blood.” 
What do you mean by repairs ? — “ Mends.” 
What causes the bones, flesh, and skin of your body to change often ? — 
“ The bones, flesh, and skin are always wearing out, and the blood is always 
building and repairing them again.” 
What are alcoholic liquors ? — “ Liquors which have alcohol in them.” 
Name some alcoholic liquors.— “ Beer, wine, rum,” etc. 
Whose bones mend the more easily when broken, the bones of those who 
drink alcoholic liquors, or those of the people who do not use these poisons? — 
“ The bones of those who do not use alcoholic liquors.” 
What other poison hurts the bones ? — “ Tobacco.” 
How do alcohol and tobacco hurt the bones ? — “ They make bad blood, and 
bad blood makes poor bones.” DESCRIPTION OF THE RONES. 
COMPOSED OF 
POSITION. 
SHAPE. 
USE. 
RULES FOR HEALTH. 
f Several bones, with 
Thi> Cttitt t J saw-toothed edges, 
1HE skull < hooke(j int0 each 
[ other. 
At the top part of 
Somewhat like a 
To hold the brain, 
I must sit, stand, and 
the body. 
hollow sphere. 
the eyes, the ears, 
and the nose. 
walk erect, that my 
bones may not be 
bent. 
f Twenty - four short 
From the base of 
An upright joint- 
To support the head 
I must not wear tight 
| hones, piled one 
The Spine -{ upon the other, 
| with cartilage be- 
[ tween them. 
the skull, down the 
middle of the back. 
ed column. 
and other parts of 
the body. 
clothing, or do any- 
thing to crowd them 
out of their places. 
I must eat wholesome 
f Twenty-four bones, 
Around each side of 
Somewhat like a 
To hold the heart, 
food to supply them 
The Ribs.. curved, strong, and 
] light, — twelve on 
[ each side. 
the trunk, fastened 
to the spine and 
breastbone. 
hollow cone. 
lungs, and stomach. 
with good blood. 
I must not breathe im- 
pure air, because im- 
The f Two bones, flat, thin, 
Shoulder 1 and triangular. 
Blades [ 
At the upper part of 
the back, near the 
shoulders. 
Triangular. 
For the arms to rest 
upon at the shoul- 
ders. 
pure air makes bad 
blood, and bad blood 
poor bones. 
The f Two long, doubly 
At the top of the front 
Somewhat like 
To keep the arms 
I must not poison my 
Collar •( curved bones. 
part of the trunk, 
an Italian /. 
from sliding too far 
blood with alcohol or 
Bones { 
below the throat; 
fastened to the 
shoulder blades and 
the breastbone. 
forward. 
tobacco, because poi- 
soned blood makes 
unhealthy bones. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES 64 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES OF THE BODY. PART YI. 
THE MUSCLES. 
1. Introduction. — You may stretch your arm to its full 
length; place your left hand on the front part of your upper 
arm, half way between the shoulder and the elbow ; what do 
you feel? — “Thick flesh.” Move your right forearm up and 
down ; as your left hand rests on your upper arm, what do you 
feel?— “ Something moving.” Move your right thumb several 
times in front of the other fingers of the right hand ; move each 
thumb in front of its own hand ; what do you feel ? — “ Some- 
thing moving under the skin ; the flesh moving.” What do you 
say your bones are covered with? — “Flesh.” What you call 
flesh, grown people name muscles; then with what may you say 
your bones are covered?—“ With muscles.” Of what use do 
you suppose these muscles are to the body ? — “ They hide the 
bones; they make the body look better.” What did you find 
some of them do when you moved your arm and thumbs ? — 
“They moved.” What do you think they move? The chil- 
dren cannot tell, so we explain that the muscles move the 
bones, and may be called “the bone-movers” of the body; 
also, they hold, or support the bones. 
Open and shut the eyelids. What moved the eyelids? — 
“ Muscles.” How many bones are there in the eyelids ? — “ Not 
any.” Hold your chin so as not to move the lower jaw, while 
you open your lips and give the first sound of the letter u. 
What moved the lips? — “Muscles.” How many bones are 
there in the lips? — “Not an}’.” What move the different 
parts of your face when you laugh? — “ Muscles.” What move 
your face when you cry? — “ Muscles.” Through these ques- 66 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
tions, the children are led to notice that the muscles move all 
parts of the body, whether bony or not bony. 
2. Description of Muscles.—How many of you have seen 
muscles?—“Nobody.” Why! have you never seen meat? 
Never eaten boiled beef or chicken? Did not what you eat 
cover bones? Now how many think they have seen muscles? 
What part of the body is muscle ? — “ The part we eat; the 
lean part; the lean meat.” Yes; the word muscle means 
“ lean meat.” What color are the muscles? — “ Red.” 
We explain that the muscles are made up of a number of fine 
threads, or fibres of flesh, just as a piece of cord is made up of 
many threads of cotton or linen ; that these are put together in 
bundles of various shapes; some spindle-shaped, some fan- 
shaped, some feather-shaped; that the spaces between the 
bundles are filled with fat, when the body is healthy and strong ; 
and that the muscles are joined to the bones by a stronger kind 
of fleshy cord, called tendon, — a whitish substance, softer than 
bone, but harder than muscle ; also that there are about four 
hundred and fifty muscles in the bod}7. A piece of india-rubber 
cord, connecting the parts of a jointed doll, may be used, to 
help the children understand the elasticity of the muscles. 
Where are the muscles?—“All over the body.” What are 
the parts of the bod}7?—“The head, the trunk, the limbs.” 
What may you call these different muscles, because of their 
place, or position in the body?—“The muscles of the head, 
the muscles of the trunk, and the muscles of the limbs.” 
3. How the Muscles are Moved.—Some move when we will 
to move them, as those of the hands and feet. Others do their 
work without our help. We often wink the eyelids, not know- 
ing they have moved ; and the heart, which is only a hollow 
muscle, is continually beating, beating, without our having any- 
thing to do with it. 
4. Hygiene of the Muscles.—The effect of exercise upon 
the muscles is easily comprehended when we allude to the arms 
of a blacksmith, and ask the children why their own are not as THE MUSCLES. 
strong. The effect of habit is also understood, when we lead 
them to compare the shoulders of those who sit and stand in a 
stooping posture, with those of well-trained soldiers who walk 
and stand erect. 
How do you feel when you have walked a long distance ? — 
“ Tired.” What should you do when you are tired from walk- 
ing?— “Sit and rest.” We explain that different sets of 
muscles are employed in the different motions of the body ; for 
instance, some are used when we walk, others when we stand, 
or sit; that muscles become tired when used too long a time 
without rest, which accounts for our fatigue, when we have 
walked too far, or sat too long in one position; and that 
nothing helps tired muscles but rest, either by change of 
employment or in sleep. 
Muscles need good blood, and enough of it, to make them 
strong; so if we would have strong muscles, we must eat 
enough good, wholesome food to make good blood ; we must 
also breathe pure air, and live in the sunlight, that they may be 
supplied with pure, health}- blood. If through illness, want of 
food, or over-fatigue, our muscles do not receive enough nour- 
ishment from the blood, they shrink in size, and lose strength, 
and we become thin, or, as we sometimes say, “ lose flesh” — 
which means that we lose muscle. 
Some people think alcoholic drinks make the muscles strong, 
but this is a mistake. Beer, wine, brandy, etc., weaken the 
muscles, and sometimes make those who use them unfit to work 
or walk, as you know is the case when a person is drunk. 
FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE MUSCLES. 
1. Muscles are the red, elastic bands and bundles of thread-like 
substance, called flesh, which cover the bones and make the eyeballs, 
the eyelids, the tongue, the heart, the lungs, and various other parts 
of the body. 
2. There are about four hundred and fifty muscles in my body. 
3. The work of the muscles is to support and move my bones, and 
different parts of the body. 68 
THE HITMAN BODY. 
4. The muscles may be named the muscles of my head, the mus- 
cles of my trunk, the muscles of my limbs. 
5. The muscles of my head cover and move the parts of my head 
and face. The muscles of my trunk cover and move the parts of my 
neck and trunk. The muscles of my limbs cover and move the parts 
of my arms and legs. 
6. Those muscles are the weakest which I use least; those muscles 
are the strongest which I exercise most in work or play. 
7. If I would be strong and healthy, 
my muscles must be used, 
my muscles must be rested, 
my muscles must be supplied with good blood. 
I must exercise in work and play to make them strong; I must 
sleep, or change my kind of work or play, to give them rest, when 
they are tired; I must breathe pure air, take wholesome food and 
drink, and live in the sunlight, to supply them with good blood ; I 
must not weaken them by using alcohol or tobacco. 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Tell about the muscles. 
2. How many muscles have you in your body ? 
8. Of what use are the muscles ? 
4. How may the muscles be named ? 
5. Tell about the muscles of the head, truuk, and limbs. 
G. Which muscles are the weakest, and which are the strongest ? 
7. What is necessary if you would have strong and healthy muscles ? 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The hands are crossed and passed very rapidly down the arms, 
trunk, and legs, while the clause cover the hones is being repeated. A 
hand is placed on each eye to point to the eyeball and touch the eye- 
lids; the tongue is touched by the tip of the right forefinger, the right 
hand is passed over the heart, and the hands crossed over the lunys, as 
each is mentioned. Both hands are used in touching the head, trunk, 
and limbs. 
QUESTIONS ON THE MUSCLES. 
What are the muscles ? — “ The lean flesh of the body; bands and bundles 
of fleshy threads which cover the body.” 
Of what use are the muscles to the body? — “ They cover the bones; they 
support and move the bones and different parts of the body.” THE MUSCLES. 
Name some parts of the body which are made of muscles. — “The eyeballs, 
the eyelids, the tongue, the heart, the lungs.” 
What color are the muscles ?— “Red.” 
How do the muscles move the bones ? — “By shortening themselves accord- 
ing to the way the bones are to be moved.” 
Tell how the muscles move your arm at the elbow. — “ The muscles in the 
front part of the arm shorten themselves, to draw my forearm toward the 
shoulder; wlieu I wish to stretch out the forearm these muscles lengthen, 
while another set of muscles shorten, to draw the forearm away from the 
upper arm.” 
What do you say about the muscles because they have the power to shorten 
and lengthen themselves ?— “ They are elastic.” 
About how many muscles are there in your whole body?—“About four 
hundred and fifty.” 
How may these be divided as you study about them? — “They may be 
divided into the muscles of my head, the muscles of my trunk, and the muscles 
of my limbs.” 
Of what use are the muscles of your head ? — “ They cover and move the 
parts of my head and face.” 
Of what use are the muscles of your trunk? — “They move the parts of 
my neck and trunk.” 
Of what use are the muscles of your limbs ?— “ They move the parts of my 
arms and legs.” 
How can you make your muscles strong? — “By using them.” 
How can you make your muscles weak ? — “ By not using them.” 
What is necessary to make your muscles strong and healthy?—“They 
must be used; they must be rested when tired; they must be supplied with 
pure blood.” 
How should the muscles be used ?— “ They should be exercised in work or 
play.” 
How may they be rested ? — “I may rest my muscles by changing position; 
by changing my kind of work or play; or by going to sleep.” 
Explain what you mean by changing your position. — “If I am standing, 
I must sit or lie down to rest them; if they are tired, because I have been sit- 
ting too long, I must rest them by standing, walking, or running.” 
What do you mean by changing the kind of work or play?—“If, in my 
work or play, my arms become tired, I must do something in which my arms 
may rest, though other parts of my body may be in exercise.” 
How may you help supply your muscles with good blood ?— “By breathing- 
pure air; by taking wholesome food and drink, and by living in the sunlight.” 
How does drinking alcoholic liquors hurt the muscles? — “It makes them 
weak, and unfit to move the parts of the body.” 
What wonderful muscle moves without your will ?— “ The heart.” 
How does alcohol hurt the heart ? — “It makes it beat too fast.” 
How does “beating too fast” hurt the heart? — “It makes it tired, and 
sometimes wears it out.” See Appendices on Alcohol and Tobacco. 70 
THE HUMAN BODY, 
RULES FOR HEALTH. 
The muscles must be used. 
The muscles must he rested. 
The muscles must be supplied 
with good blood. (See 
Formula.) 
Head, — to cover and move the parts of the head and face. 
Trunk, — to cover and move the parts of the trunk. 
Limbs, — to cover and move the parts of the limbs. 
USE. 
To support and 
move the bones; 
to move the dif- 
ferent parts of 
the body. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
USE. 
THE MUSCLES. 
NUMBER. 
About four hundred 
and fifty (450). 
FORM THE 
Coverings for the bones; 
the eyelids, the eye- 
balls, the tongue, the 
heart, the lungs, etc. 
NAME. 
Muscles of the 
ARRANGED IN 
Bands and 
bundles. 
ABB 
Red, elastic 
threads of 
flesh. 72 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
— (From Walker’s Physiology, 1884.) 
the skin (very highly magnified). 
A, arteries; V, veins; N, nerves; F, fat cells; E, the outer skin; CL, the color 
layer: D, the true skin; PT, a perspiratory tube; HF, a hair and hair sac; 
EP, muscles; SG, oil glands; TC, tactile corpuscles; CT, connective tissue. PART VII. 
THE SKIN. 
1. Introduction. Qualities of the Skin. — What name do 
we give the outside covering of a tree?— “ The bark.” What 
covers the muscles, or flesh of your body, as the bark covers 
the tree? — “ The skin.” We lead the children to notice that 
their skin is thin, by comparing it with that of the pig or the 
elephant; that it will spring back after it has been stretched, 
squeezed, twisted, or bent, as they readily perceive by experi- 
menting, and, therefore, it must be elastic; that it must be 
porous, because the perspiration oozes through it; that it will 
absorb ointment, and other substances applied to its surface in 
a more or less liquid form, and, therefore, must be absorbent. 
2. The True Skin.—We bid them take a pin and put it 
through the surface of the skin on the palm of the hand, as 
they sometimes do in play. They notice that the blood does 
not flow, nor do they suffer pain from this experiment; but 
they would experience both effects if they pierced through 
what we teach them is the inner or true skin. We explain 
that the blood flows from the exceedingly fine blood-vessels of 
this skin; and pain is caused by touching the little nerves 
which send the message concerning their injury to the brain ; 
still further, we tell the class that their blood-vessels are very 
close to each other, and when seen through a microscope, make 
the true skin look very much like a piece of delicate net-work. 
3. The Color of the Skin. —Of what color is the skin of an 
Indian? of a Chinese? of a Negro? The children are sur- 
prised to learn that the true skin is of the same color in them- 
selves as in the Indian, Chinese, Negro, or any other race of 74 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
men. They listen with interest as we explain that the differ- 
ence in color is supposed to be caused by a jelly-like substance, 
which is found between the inner and the outer skin. 
4. The Thickness of the Skin, etc. —They readily discover 
the difference in the thickness of the skin, as very thin and 
delicate on the lips, thick on the palms of the hands, and very 
thick and tough on the soles of the feet. 
If you cut or scratch your finger, how long before it will 
heal? — “A few days.” When thoroughly healed, how will 
the skin appear where it was scratched?—“The same as it 
was before it was scratched.” What do you learn from this 
about the outside skin ? — “ That the outside skin will grow 
again after it has been cut or scratched.” Of what color is the 
skin where it was cut or scratched ? — “ The same color as the 
rest of the skin.” What does this show? — “ That the jelly- 
like substance has come back.” If you have a severe burn, 
what do you notice after it is healed? — “A scar where the 
burn was.” We explain that the true skin has been destroyed, 
and in its place a sort of patch has been made by the blood ; 
this patch is called a scar: 
5. The Pores of the Skin. —What do you see on the sur- 
face of the skin when you are very warm?—“Sweat.” We 
give the preferable word, perspiration, and ask how the per- 
spiration comes out on the skin. From what they have already 
learned, the children tell us, “Through its pores.” Yes, we 
reply; and you will wonder when you hear about the number of 
these pores. 
We mark off an inch square on the blackboard, or place a 
piece of paper of this size on the palm of the hand, and tell 
the class that the number of pores in such a space on the bod}’ 
of an adult has been estimated and found to be 500 on the 
lower limbs; 1,000 on the forehead, head, neck, forearm, back 
of the hand and foot, and on the trunk ; and 2,700 on the palm 
of the hand and sole of the foot; that each pore is the mouth 
or opening of a little pipe one-fifteenth of an inch long ; that THE SKIN. 
75 
the length of these tubes, all together, amounts to more than 
153,000 inches, or 4,250 yards, — equal to between 2 and 3 miles 
of tubing to be emptied of perspiration. What an uncomfortable 
thought for boys and girls who do not wash very often! 
6. Perspiration and Hygiene of the Skin. —What is per- 
spiration, and why must it pass through the pores of the skin? 
We will see. When your mother is preparing for dinner, what 
does she do with the potato-parings, the corn-husks, and other 
things she does not wish to keep? — u She puts them into the 
garbage-barrel.” Why?—“Because they are of no use for 
food.” What do we sometimes call that which is of no use? — 
“Waste.” Usually some child gives the word ; otherwise we 
write it on the board for the class to read. 
Does your mother let the waste remain in the room, or cel- 
lar, or does she have it removed from the house? — “ She has 
it removed from the house.” Why would it not do for the 
garbage to be kept in the house all the time?—“It would 
decay; it would smell bad ; it would make the air impure ; it 
w’ould make us sick.” You know the food you eat makes 
blood, but some of that which you give to the stomach is of no 
use for blood-making; what would you call it? — “Waste.” 
What do you think should be done with it? — “ It should be 
thrown away from the body.” You have learned that little 
particles of the bone, flesh, and skin, wear out; what should 
be done with them? — “ The}’ should be thrown away from the 
body also.” 
There are several ways by which the body becomes rid of 
these useless particles and the waste portion of the food; one 
of these is through the perspiration, which is always passing- 
out of the pores of the skin, when we are in health, although 
we cannot always see it; and thus carries away more than half 
of the waste substance of the body, through the three millions 
of little openings intended for its escape. 
We convince the children that the perspiration comes through 
the surface of the skin, though the}’ may not perceive it, by 
letting them place their apparently dry hands upon the surface 76 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
of a mirror, or a piece of highly-polished wood or steel; they 
notice the surface is dimmed with moisture ; this, we tell them, 
is caused by the unseen perspiration, which is really passing 
through the pores of the skin in very line portions, and mixing 
with the air around us, making it impure, and not fit to be 
breathed. If these pores are closed, what do you think will be 
the result?—“The perspiration will be kept in the body; the 
perspiration will not come out.” True ; and if it is allowed to 
remain in the body, it will create disease in your body-house, 
as surely as the filthy garbage will cause disease in your 
mother’s house, if she does not have it removed. What do 
you think of people who keep the pores of their skin closed 
with dirt? — “They are very foolish; they will get sick.” 
What must you do if you would have a health}* skin? — “I 
must keep my body clean ; I must wear clean clothing.” 
What makes the skin?—“ Blood.” What does the air do 
for the blood? — “Makes it pure.” Then what kind of air 
should you breathe if you would have a healthy skin? —“ Pure 
air.” We teach that pure air is even more needful for the 
health of the skin than clean water is for its cleansing. 
Most of the little folks know that plants kept in dark places 
become pale and sickly, and readily tell us we must also have 
enough sunlight, if we wish to have a health}* skin. We lead 
them to understand this need more fully, by explaining that the 
sun acts upon the blood in the body as really as it does upon 
the juices in the plants and trees. 
Directions for Recitation.—The several portions of the 
“Formula on the Skin ” are prepared and memorized as the 
formulas in other lessons ; — the children give their thoughts in 
their own language, and we help them to express the same in 
the words we have chosen for them. In reciting the formula, 
they touch only when “ the palms of the hands and the soles 
of the feet ” are mentioned. THE SKIN. 
77 
FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE SKIN. 
1. My skin covers my body. 
2. It is thin, elastic, flexible, porous, and absorbent. 
3. I have two skins; the inner skin is the true skin. 
4. My true skin is elastic, and like a net-work of blood-vessels and 
nerves. My true skin is covered with a jelly-like substance which 
gives color to my skin. 
5. My outside skin is not the same thickness over my whole body. In 
some parts, as on the palms of my hands and the soles of my feet, it 
is very thick and tough. 
6. If my outside skin be destroyed, it will grow again; if the jelly- 
like substance-be destroyed, it will re-appear; but if my true skin be 
destroyed, it will never be perfectly renewed. 
7. More than half of the waste substance of my body passes from 
it through the pores of the skin, in the form of perspiration. 
8. If I would have a healthy skin, 
I must perspire freely all the time, 
I must keep my body clean, 
I must wear clean clothing, 
I must breathe pure air, 
and live in the sunlight. 
QUESTIONS FOE THE F ORMULA. 
1. Where is your skin ? 
2. Tell about the skin. 
3. How many skins have you ? 
4. Tell about the true skin. 
5. What difference is there in the thickness of your outside skin ? 
6. What happens if the different skins be destroyed ? 
7. What passes through the pores of the skin ? 
8. What is necessary if you would have a healthy skin ? 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The children touch the palm of the left hand with the fingers of the 
right, and the sole of the left foot with the same fingers, as these parts 
are mentioned. 
QUESTIONS ON THE SKIN. 
Of what use is the skin ?— “ It covers the muscles of the body.” 
What can you tell about it? — “It is flexible, elastic, porous, and absor- 
bent.” 
Why do you say it is flexible ? — “ Because it is easily bent.” 78 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Why do you say it is porous ? — “ Because it is full of little holes, or pores.” 
Why do you say it is elastic? — “Because it will spring back after it is 
stretched, squeezed, twisted, or bent.” 
Why do you say it is absorbent ? — “ Because it will soak up liquids.” 
How many skins have you ?—“ Two; an outside skin, and an inner skin.” 
Which is the true skin ?— “ The inner skin.” 
Of what is the inner skin composed?—“Of blood-vessels and nerves.” 
How do you know that the outer skin has no blood-vessels ? — “ Because if 
1 put a pin through the outer skin the blood does not flow out, as it would if 
I had cut a blood-vessel.” 
How do you know the outer skin has no nerves ? — “Because if I put a pin 
through my outer skin it does not make me suffer pain, as it would if I had 
touched a nerve.” 
What gives color to the skin ? — “A jelly-like substance between the inner 
and the outer skin.” 
What have you learned about the true skin ? — “ That it is of the same 
color in people of every nation.” 
What difference is there in the thickness of the outer skin? [See For- 
mula.] 
What passes through the pores of the skin ? [See Formula.] 
What is this waste called when it comes from the surface of the skin ? — 
“ Perspiration.” 
When does the perspiration flow through the pores of the skin? — “ All the 
time, if the skin is healthy.’ ’ 
Why do we not always see the perspiration which passes through the 
pores ? — “ Because it does not always form drops on the surface of the skin; 
it generally passes off in very fine particles.” 
What becomes of the fine or minute portions of perspiration which pass 
from the body ? — “ Some of these portions are absorbed by the clothing; some 
pass into and mix with the air around us.” 
What effect does the perspiration produce on the air and the clothing ? — 
“ It soon makes the air unfit to be breathed, and the clothing unfit to be worn.” 
What is necessary if you would have a healthy skin ? [See Formula.] 
Why must you wear clean clothing ? — “That there may be nothing impure 
in the clothing for the pores of the skin to absorb.” 
Why should you breathe pure air ? — “ Because pure air purifies the blood, 
and pure blood is necessary to make a healthy skin.” 
How does drinking alcoholic liquors hurt the skin ?— “It makes the blood 
impure, and impure blood makes unhealthy skin.” 
In what other way does drinking these liquors hurt the skin? — “ It gives 
the skin too much work to do.” 
How does it give it too much work to do ? — “It makes more waste sub- 
stance to pass from it through the pores, in the form of perspiration.” 
In what other way does drinking alcoholic liquors hurt the skin? — “It 
makes it a bad color.” 
Why does it make the skin a bad color? — “ Because it stretches the little 
blood-vessels of the skin, and makes them too full of blood.” See Appendix. THE SKIN. 
POSITION. 
On the surface of 
the body. 
CONSISTS OF 
1. The outer or scarf skin, — has 
no blood-vessels or nerves. 
2. The inner or true skin, — is a 
network of blood-vessels and 
nerves. 
3. The coloring substance, — is 
different in the different 
Races of Men. 
(Perspiratory pores) — about 2900 
to a square inch. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
THE SKIN. 
QUALITIES. 
Thin. 
Elastic. 
Porous. 
Absorbent. 
USE. 
To cover the flesh. 
To protect the body. 
To beautify the body. 
RULES FOR HEALTH. 
I must keep my body clean; 
I must wear clean clothing; 
I must eat wholesome food; 
I must drink wholesome drink; 
I must exercise in work or play; 
I must breathe pure air; 
I must live in the sunlight; 
I must not drink alcoholic liquors; 
I must not snuff, smoke, or chew 
tobacco. THE HUMAN BOL>l'. 
A, the right ventricle ; B, the left ventricle ; C, the right auricle 
D, the left auricle ; E, the aorta; F, the pulmonary artery. 
THE HEART. PART Till. 
THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION 
OF THE BLOOD. 
The lessons on the Heart and Circulation of the Blood are 
prefaced by reviewing the Questions on the Introductory Les- 
sons. 
1. The Heart.— Of what shape is your heart? — “Like a 
cone.” This question is answered correctly, when we refer the 
children to the shape of the heart of an ox or calf, which many 
have seen, or when we show them a picture of this organ on a 
chart of the Circulatory System. 
When the chart is before them they readily see the position 
of the heart; otherwise, we explain where it is. In either case, 
they place their hands on the chest, over the heart, when they 
have learned its position. They try to count how many times 
the heart beats in a minute, though not often successful in 
obtaining the correct number of pulsations. We ask, How does 
your heart beat when you run fast?—“Very fast.” How 
when you are frightened? — “ Very fast.” Then does the heart 
always beat the same number of times a minute?—“ It does 
not.” We explain that the heart beats very fast when a person 
is in a high fever, and very slowly in some cases of disease, or 
extreme weakness ; that the heart of a child beats faster than 
that of an adult, but the usual number of beats is about seventy 
or seventy-five a minute. 
You have already learned that the heart sends or pumps the 
blood into the arteries. When does the heart pump blood into 
the arteries?—“ Every time it beats.” We tell the class that 
the heart sends out about two ounces of blood at each beat; 
then let the children proceed to construct the formula in the 
usual manner. 82 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
2. The Blood.— If you cut jTour Anger what will come out? — 
“Blood.” How does the blood come out? — “It Aows out.” 
How does it Aow out? — “In drops.” What may you say 
about the blood because it Aows in drops? — “It is a liquid.” 
Of what color is the blood?— “ Red.” From what is it made? 
— “ From the food I eat.” Where does it Aow from? — “ From 
the heart.” Through what does it Aow?—■“Through pipes 
called arteries.” How are these arteries arranged?—“Like 
the branches of a tree,” the children will tell us, if a chart is 
used in giving the lesson ; without a chart we are obliged to 
explain about the appearance and arrangement of the arteries, 
by allusion to the veins on the back of the hand. 
What does the blood make? — “ Bones, Aesh, skin, hair, nails, 
and cartilage.” When does it make these substances?—“ As 
it Aows through the body.” We explain that in making bone 
and the other materials of the body, the blood gives away its 
goodness, and thus becomes poor; that the body is constantly 
wearing out, as they learned in a previous lesson, and the blood 
does its share in carrying away the waste, bad or impure sub- 
stances it meets, and thus becomes dark and impure itself, so 
that it is no longer At to strengthen and build up the body. 
What becomes of the bad blood?—“It goes into the veins.” 
Where do the veins carry it? — “ Back to the heart.” Where 
does the heart senrl it? — “ To the lungs.” What happens to 
the bad blood in the lungs ? — “It is made pure.” What makes 
it pure ? — “ Pure air.” 
We call upon a child to show us, from the chart, the course 
of the blood from the heart to the Angers of the right hand ; 
from the Angers back to the heart. Another shows it for 
the left hand; others show it for the left foot and the right 
foot. This exercise is repeated until all the class understand 
the way the blood journeys through the bod}7, “ from the heart 
through the body, back to the heart; from the heart to the lungs 
and back again to the heart.” We teach them that this way of 
moving is called circulation, and lead them to notice that it 
requires a double circulation to make one complete circulation 
of the blood. THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
83 
If you bind a cord tightly around one of your fingers, how- 
does the finger appear after a short time ? — “ Dark red.” Why 
does the finger appear dark red ? — “ Because the blood does not 
move fast enough through it.” Why does not the blood move 
fast enough through it?—“Because the finger is tied up.” 
What do you tie up in the finger beside bone?—“ Flesh and 
skin.” What pipes are in flesh and in skin?—“Veins and 
arteries.” Then what are tied up, or pressed upon beside bone, 
when you tie up your finger?—“Veins and arteries.” What 
do you think happens when the blood comes to the arteries and 
veins which have been tied up? — “It is stopped; it cannot 
flow fast.” Suppose you fasten a belt veiy tightly around your 
waist, what do you do to the blood-vessels of the wTaist, beneath 
the belt?—’“Tie them up; press against them.” Can the 
blood move as fast as it should when the arteries and veins are 
pressed against? — “ It cannot.” 
We explain some of the effects produced by the stoppage of 
the free circulation of the blood; then ask, How must the blood 
circulate if you would have a healthy body? — “ It must circu- 
late w-ithout stopping.” We give the term freely. How must 
your clothing fit, if you do not wish it to stop the circulation of 
the blood? — “ It must fit loosely.” 
How does the blood move when you run fast?— “ It moves 
fast.” When you are still? — “It moves slower than when I 
am running.” Whose blood circulates the most freely, that of 
a child almost too lazy to move, or that of one who is industri- 
ous and quick at work or play? — “That of one who is quick 
at work or play.” We call upon a child to “ exercise ” its class- 
mates in moving the hands and arms in various directions, first 
very slowl}’, then very rapidly. This leads them to notice the 
increased heat produced when the body is in action, which, we 
explain, is caused by the rapid movement of the blood through- 
out its parts. What do you sometimes see coachmen and car- 
drivers do in winter when their hands are cold, and they cannot 
get near a fire to warm themselves? — “ They rub their hands; 
they throw their arms backward and forward across the chest 
very fast.” Why do the}r do this? — “ To get warm.” How 84 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
does this make them warm? — “It makes the blood move 
faster.” Then why is exercise in work or play of use to the 
body?—“It makes the blood move fast; it makes the blood 
circulate freely.” 
The efficacy of “rubbing” to warm the body or to soothe 
pain is explained, and our lesson is concluded with the reading 
of the formulas which have been constructed and written upon 
the board during the progress of our conversations about the 
heart and circulation of the blood. 
FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE HEART AND 
THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
1. My heart is shaped like a cone, and placed in my chest near my 
breastbone, with its apex pointing downward to my left side. It 
beats about seventy times a minute, sending out about two ounces of 
blood at every beat. 
2. The blood when pure is of a bright red color; it is a liquid 
made from food and drink. 
3. It passes from my heart to all parts of my body, through pipes 
called arteries; these arteries spread out through the body like 
branches from a tree. 
4. As the blood flows from the heart, through the arteries, it gives 
nourishment to every part of the body, and carries away the impuri- 
ties it meets, which makes it black and thick; when it comes through 
the veins, back to the heart, it is not fit to be used, so it goes to the 
lungs to be purified by the fresh air; then it returns to the heart to 
be sent again throughout the body; this happens once, in from three 
to eight minutes, and is called the circulation of the blood. 
7. If I would be healthy, 
my blood must be pure and circulate freely all the time. 
8. It will not circulate freely, 
if I wear tight clothing, 
if I do not exercise in work or play, 
if I do not keep my body warm. 
9. It will be impure, 
if I breathe bad air, 
if I eat unwholesome food, 
if I drink alcoholic liquors, 
if I snuff, smoke, or chew tobacco. THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Tell about the heart and where it is placed. 
2. Tell about the blood and of what it is made. 
3. Where does the good blood pass after it is sent out from the heart ? 
4. Tell what the blood does as it flows through the body. 
5. What is this flowing of the blood to and from the heart called ? 
G. How often does it happen ? 
7. What is necessary if you would have pure blood ? 
8. When will the blood not circulate freely ? 
9. When will the blood be impure ? 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The Heart. — In describing the position of the heart, both hands are 
placed upon the chest, and the right hand is used to touch the left side 
and the breastbone, as each is named. The same hand is moved back 
and forth to illustrate the beating of the heart. 
The Blood. — As the clause, it passes from my heart, is repeated, 
the children place the right hand upon the heart, and move it quickly 
away as they say, to all parts of my body. 
The same hand is placed upon the heart, each time the latter is 
named; the hands are crossed upon the chest to show the position of 
the lungs. 
QUESTIONS ON THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION OF THE 
BLOOD. 
Of what shape is your heart ? — “ My heart is shaped like a cone.” 
Where is it placed ? — “ In the chest, pointing toward my left side.” 
What bone is it near ? — “ It is near my breastbone.” 
Of what use is the heart ? — “It contains the blood and sends it to the dif- 
ferent parts of the body.” 
How much blood is sent from the heart at each beat? — “About two 
ounces.” 
What is the blood ? — “A liquid made from food and drink.” 
Of what color is the blood?—“Bright red, when pure ; dark red, when 
impure.” 
How does the heart send the blood through the body?—“ Through pipes 
called arteries.” 
What do the arteries resemble in the way they are arranged?—“The 
branches of a tree.” 
What makes the blood impure?—“As the blood flows, it gives nourish- 
ment to every part of the body ; this makes it poor. It also takes up the old 
worn-out particles ; this makes it impure.” 86 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Where do the arteries carry the impure blood? — “To the veins.” 
Where do the veins carry the impure blood? — “To the heart.” 
Where does the heart carry the impure blood ? — “ To the lungs.” 
What happens to the impure blood in the lungs ? — “ It is made pure.” 
What makes it pure ?— “ Pure air.” 
Where do the lungs send the blood after it is made pure ? — “ Back to the 
heart.” 
Where does the heart send the pure blood ? — “ Throughout the body.” 
What is the journey of the blood to and from the heart to the different 
parts of the body called ? — “ The circulation of the blood.” 
What is the circulation of the blood? —“The circulation of the blood is 
its journey from the heart to the different parts of the body, and from the dif- 
ferent parts of the body back to the heart.” 
How often does this circulation take place ?— “ Once in from three to eight 
minutes, according as the heart beats fast or slowly.” 
What kind of blood is necessary to health ? — “Pure blood.’’ 
How should the blood circulate ? — “ Freely, all the time.” 
What do you mean by freely ? — “Without anything to hinder.” 
What is necessary for the free circulation of the blood? — “I must wear 
clean clothing; I must exercise in work or play; I must keep my body warm.” 
How does tight clothing hinder the free circulation of the blood?—“By 
pressing upon the arteries and veins; and when about the waist, causing the 
ribs and other parts of the body to press upon the heart.” 
How does exercise help the free circulation of the blood?—“Exercise 
makes the heart beat faster, which causes the blood to move faster through 
the arteries and veins.” 
Why does keeping the body warm help the circulation of the blood? — 
“ Because the blood moves faster when it is warmest; cold chills the blood, and 
makes it move slowly.” 
What harm do alcoholic liquors do to the heart?—“They make it tired, 
and sometimes wear it out.” 
In what way do they make it tired ? — “ They make it beat too fast.” 
Why does it beat too fast?—“Because it is hurrying to drive the alcohol 
out of the body.” 
In what other way do alcoholic liquors hurt the heart? — “They produce 
disease in it.” 
Tell one way by which the heart becomes diseased through alcoholic 
liquors ? — “ Alcohol softens the fibres of the muscles of the heart, and fills 
them with fat.” 
What harm does this do to the heart? — “It makes it too weak to do its 
work, which is to pump the blood through the body.” 
What sometimes happens when the heart is thus weakened? — “It stops 
beating, which causes sudden death.” 
What harm does alcohol do to the blood?—“It uses up the water of the 
blood; it destroys the goodness of the red part; it makes the blood thin, im- 
pure, and unfit to do its work. See Appendices on Alcohol and Tobacco. THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
87 
FLOWS 
From the 
heart. 
SHAPE. 
Somewhat 
like a 
cone. 
WHEN? 
Every time 
the heart 
beats. 
POSITION. 
In the chest, to- 
wards the left 
side, near the 
breastbone. 
THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
MADE 
FROM 
Food and 
drink. 
BEATS 
About seventy times 
a minute; as long 
as we live. 
MAKES 
Bones, 
Flesh, 
Skin, 
Hair, 
Nails. 
KINDS. 
Good blood, 
Bad blood; 
or, 
Pure blood, 
Impureblood. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
M 
W 
t"1 
O 
O 
U 
SENDS OUT 
Two ounces 
of blood at 
each beat. 
BLOOD VES- 
SELS. 
Veins, 
Arteries, 
Capillaries. 
ITS CIRCULATION. 
The veins carry the had 
blood to the heart; the 
heart sends the had 
hlood to the lungs; in 
the lungs the air 
makes the bad blood 
good; the lungs send 
the good blood back 
to the heart; the heart 
sends the good blood 
all through the body. 
MADE OF 
Very strong 
muscles. 
DIVIDED INTO 
Four parts (two auricles 
and two ventricles), 
with little doors or 
valves between them. 
USE. 
To make the 
body grow; 
to keep the 
body alive. 
TO HAVE GOOD 
BLOOD. 
Eat wholesome 
food; drink whole- 
somedrink; drink 
no alcoholic liqu- 
ors ; neither snuff, 
smoke, nor chew 
tobacco; breathe 
pure air; keep the 
body clean; exer- 
cise in work and 
play. 
USE. 
To hold the hlood, 
and send it to all 
parts of the body. 88 
THE HUMAN liODl\ 
THE LUNGS. 
1. The windpipe. 
5. The right bronchial tube. 
6. The left bronchial tube. 
3. The trachea. 
7. Outline of the right lung. 
8. Outline of the left lung. PART IX. 
THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 
1. Introduction.—Where does the heart send the impure 
blood?—“Into the lungs.” Why does the heart send the 
impure blood into the lungs? — “To be made pure.” What 
makes the blood pure?—“Pure air.” How does the air get 
into the lungs?—“ Through the nose, mouth, and windpipe.” 
How many lungs have you?—“Two.” What are they 
called?—“The right and the left lung.” Where are the 
lungs placed? — “ In the chest.” In which part of the chest? 
— “In the upper part.” 
When convenient, we show the position of the lungs from a 
chart representing the respiratory system ; otherwise, we point 
to their location in the body. We explain why the chest and 
armpits, also the back, between and about the shoulder blades, 
should be well protected by clothing. 
The substance and appearance of the lungs are next de- 
scribed, — soft flesh filled with tubes and air-cells, which 
make them resemble sponge or honey-comb; the children 
are told that these air-cells and tubes are sometimes closed by 
disease and become solid, in which case the air cannot pass 
through them. 
2. The Use of the Lungs. —We draw upon the blackboard 
the outline of a common bellows, and call upon the pupils to 
point out and name its parts, as the handle, the box, and the 
nose or nozzle ; also to explain the use of each. We let them 
take several long, deep, and full inspirations, and lead them to 
notice the alternate expansion and contraction of the chest 
during respiration. To help them understand the process of 90 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
breathing, we compare the lungs with the bellows, and show 
that, as the box of the bellows swells out when the air rushes 
into it through its nozzle, so the lungs become larger when the 
air rushes into them, through the nose, mouth, and windpipe, 
down into the tubes and air-cells ; and, as the box of the bel- 
lows becomes smaller when its handles are drawn together, 
and the air rushes out through its nozzle, so the lungs contract 
and become smaller when the air flows out of the air-cells and 
tubes, through the windpipe, mouth, and nose, into the atmos- 
phere. 
Can you live without breathing? Why not? — “ The air will 
not get into the lungs.” What happens when pure air does 
not enter the lungs?—“We die.” This is illustrated by 
referring to the appearance of persons who have been drowned, 
and asking why we cannot live long under water. — “ Because 
we cannot get air; because the water fills the mouth and 
throat.” What happens to the blood when we cannot get [jure 
air? — “ It is poisoned.” What happens to the body when the 
blood is poisoned? — “It dies.” Then why must we breathe? 
— “ That the lungs may have pure air to make the blood pure, 
so that we may not die.” 
3. Hygiene of the Lungs.—By familiar conversation we 
obtain from the class nearly all the rules found in the formula 
for keeping the lungs in a healthy condition. 
FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE LUNGS AND 
RESPIRATION. 
1. My lungs are the bellows or breathing machines of my body. 
2. They are composed of a soft, fleshy substance, full of small air- 
cells and tubes. They are porous and spongy when healthy, but in 
some diseases become an almost solid mass, through which the air 
cannot pass. 
fl. I breathe by drawing the air through my windpipe, along the 
tubes into the cells of my lungs, swelling them out, and causing my 
chest to expand; then the chest contracts, and the impure vapor in THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 
91 
my lungs is pressed out through the same tubes, windpipe, nose, and 
mouth, into the atmosphere. 
4. I cannot live without breathing, because if the air does not go 
down into my lungs, the dark blood in them is not changed into pure 
red blood, and goes back through my body dark blood, which cannot 
keep me alive. 
5. If I would have healthy lungs, 
I must breathe pure air, 
I must live in the sunlight, 
I must keep my body clean, 
I must wear loose clothing, 
I must wear clean clothing, 
I must sit and stand erect, 
I must keep all parts of my body warm, 
I must not change my winter clothing too early in the spring, 
I must avoid draughts of cool air, 
I must not rush into the cold when I am in a perspiration, 
I must not poison my lungs with alcohol or tobacco. 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Wliat are the lungs ? 
2. Describe the lungs. 
3. How do you breathe ? 
4. Why can you not live without breathing? 
5. What is necessary if you would have healthy lungs ? 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The children place the right hand over the left lung, and the heart; 
the left hand over the right lung, and both hands over the chest, as 
each is mentioned. 
In describing the process of breathing, they touch the nose and 
mouth with the right hand, which they also use in pointing to the 
location of the windpipe; the hands are crossed upon the chest to indi- 
cate the position of the lungs; both hands are moved outward to illus- 
trate the word “ expand,” and downward toward the lungs for “ con- 
tract ”; the tcindpipe is pointed towrard, and the mouth and nose 
touched, with the right hand, which is also moved backward and 
forward, to show where the atmosphere may be found. 92 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Of what are the lungs composed ? — “Of a soft, fleshy substance, full of 
small air-cells.and tubes.” 
Of what use are the lungs ? — “ They are the breathing machines of the 
body.” 
How do the lungs appear when healthy ?— “Porous and spongy.” 
How does the air get into the lungs? — “The air flows through the nose 
and mouth, into the windpipe and along the air-tubes, into the air-cells of the 
lungs.’ ’ 
What does the air do in the lungs ? — “It swells the lungs and causes the 
chest to expand.’ ’ v 
What do you mean by expand? — “ To increase in size.” 
IIow is the air expelled from the lungs ? — “ The chest contracts and sends 
the impure air through the tubes and windpipe, the nose and mouth, into the 
atmosphere.” 
What do you mean by contracts ?— “ Becomes smaller.” 
What do you mean by atmosphere ?— “ The air.” 
Of what use is the air when it is in the lungs ? — “It makes the blood pure.” 
Why can you not live without breathing ? — “ Because, if I do not breathe, 
pure air cannot get into the lungs to make the bad blood pure, and I cannot 
live if the dark, impure blood is sent back again through my body.” 
Why must you live in the sunlight? — “Because the sunlight helps to 
purify the blood and strengthen the body.” 
Why must you wear loose clothing?—“Because tight clothing stops the 
circulation of the blood.” 
Why must you avoid tight-lacing ? — “ Because tight-lacing crowds the 
ribs against the lungs, so that the lungs cannot move freely.’ ’ 
Why should you wear clean clothing? — “That nothing impure may pass 
into the body through the pores of the skin.” 
Why should you keep the body clean ? — “ That the pores of the skin may 
not be closed, but remain open to let the perspiration pass through.” 
What has the cleanliness of the body to do with the health of the lungs ?— 
“ If the body is not kept clean, the perspiratory pores become clogged.” 
What happens when the perspiratory pores are clogged? — “The impure 
particles which should pass through them stay in the body, and cause disease 
in the lungs or other parts.” 
Why should you sit and stand erect ?— “Because, if I am in the habit of 
stooping, my lungs will be crowded, and will not have enough room to move 
freely.” 
Why should you keep all parts of the body warm?—“Because chilling 
any part of the body causes the blood to chill in that part, and thus hinders its 
circulation.” 
Why should you not change your winter clothing too early in the spring of 
the year ? — “ I may take cold if not warmly clothed during the cool days of 
early spring.” 
QUESTIONS ON THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 
93 
Why should you avoid draughts of cool air ? — “ Because the cool air blows 
upon some parts of the body and closes the pores of the skin, checking the 
perspiration, and hindering the circulation of the bipod.” 
Why should you not rush suddenly from a warm to a cool place? — “Be- 
cause when warm the pores of the skin are open; if I rush suddenly into the 
cool air, these pores are closed too quickly.” 
Why does stopping the perspiration hurt the lungs more or less? — “The 
impurities it ought to carry away remain in the body, make the blood impure, 
and produce disease in some part; very often that part is the lungs.” 
What harm does alcohol do in the lungs ? — “It fills the lungs with impure 
blood.” 
What harm does it do to the air-cells ?— “It hardens the walls of the air- 
cells of the lungs.” 
What harm is done by the hardening of these air-cells?—“1. The lungs 
cannot take in enough of the gas called oxygen to purify the blood perfectly. 
2. The gases or vapors in the lungs cannot pass freely through the hardened 
air-cells.” 
What happens from this ?— “ The lungs become diseased.” 
From what disease do some hard drinkers suffer? — “Alcoholic consump- 
tion, for which there is no cure.” THE HUMAN BODY. 
IV. USE. 
To receive air; to hold the blood 
while it is being made pure. 
RULES FOR HEALTH. 
See Formula. 
III. QUALITIES. 
Porous and spongy. 
THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
1. THE LUNGS. 
2. RESPIRATION. 
II. QUALITIES OF 
A fleshy substance full of air- 
cells and tubes. 
HOW WE BREATHE. 
See Formula. 
I. POSITION. 
In the chest, below the collar- 
bone. 96 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
1. The upper jaw. 
2. The lower jaw. 
3. The tongue. 
4. The roof of the mouth. 
5. The food-pipe. 
6. The windpipe. 
7. 8. Where the saliva is made. 
9. The stomach. 
10. The liver. 
11. Where the bile is made. 
12. The duct through which the bile passes 
to the small intestine. 
13. The upper part of the small intestine. 
14. Where the pancreatic juice is made. 
15. The small intestine. 
16. The opening of the small into the large 
intestine. 
17-20. The large intestine. 
21. The spleen. 
22. The spinal column. . PART X. 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND 
DIGESTION. 
1. Introduction. — We refer to tlie Lesson on the Teeth, and 
ask, What can you tell about the way you eat? — “ When I eat 
I move my lower jaw only ; my tongue brings the food between 
my teeth ; the cutters cut it; the tearers tear it; the grinders 
grind it; and my tongue helps me to swallow it.” What be- 
comes of the food after it is chewed? — “It goes down the 
food-pipe; it is rolled by the tongue down the food-pipe.” 
2. The (Esophagus. — We show the position of the food-pipe, 
from a diagram on the blackboard, or from a chart of the Diges- 
tive Organs; we also tell about the little valve, or fleshy door, 
which covers the windpipe, to prevent the food-ball from rolling 
into the latter; and caution the children against speaking or 
laughing when food or drink is in the mouth. We also explain 
about the worm-like movement of the oesophagus during the act 
of swallowing. 
3. The Stomach. — To explain the substance of the stomach, 
we show a piece of tripe, a preparation of the largest stomach 
of a cow or sheep ; to teach about its shape, we point to a 
representation of this organ on the chart or in a diagram. 
The words extending, composed, membrane, and resembles are 
fully explained to the class before they are used in the formula. 
4. The Coats of the Stomach and their Use.— The outer and 
inner coats of the stomach are described by reference to the 
tripe ; the outer coat as smooth, thick, and tough; the inner 
coat as smooth, thick, spongy, and wrinkled. We have no 
difficulty in explaining about the middle coat. The children 98 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
listen eagerly as we talk about its fibres, some placed length- 
wise, others circularly, each set having its work to perform in 
churning the food, pressing upon it, pushing it along as it 
becomes changed, until, finally, it is sent out of the stomach 
through the little fleshy door, which is ready to open, when the 
food is in a proper condition to go through it, into another part 
of the bod}' sometimes called the second stomach. 
The words fibres and contracting are defined by the class from 
knowledge gained in other lessons. 
The use of the first or outer coat of the stomach is illustrated 
by reference to the outer skin of an orange or other kind of 
fruit. Strengthens and supports are defined by the pupils, as 
they give these words in the construction of the formula. 
The use of the delicate, inner coat, in which the liquids which 
melt the food are made, is next explained. The children know 
that saliva moistens the food, and when asked how the saliva 
gets into the mouth, reply, “ It comes there.” We talk about 
the glands, where the saliva is made, which always do their 
work well when healthy and properly used; of the use of the 
saliva, not only to soften and change the food, but to keep it from 
hurting the inside of the mouth during the process of chewing. 
5. Mastication and Chyme-making. — To show that the saliva 
changes some of the food, we tell the children to take a spoon- 
ful of boiled starch, a thick, sticky, and tasteless substance, 
and hold it in the mouth a short time, then notice how sweet it 
becomes. Why? Because the saliva has changed the starch 
into sugar. As soon as the use of the saliva is understood, we 
proceed to explain that the food, when it reaches the stomach, 
finds a slimy substance, which keeps it from irritating the thin, 
delicate, inner skin ; and a kind of fluid, called gastric juice, by 
which it is changed and dissolved. 
Our talk of the use of the gastric juice is somewhat as fol- 
lows : — If it were possible to have a window made in your 
chest, so that you could look into your stomach, how surprised 
you would be to find the meat, potatoes, bread, or whatever 
you may have put into it, so mixed together and changed you THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 
99 
could not distinguish them from each other. What has done 
this? The gastric juice lias been at work, doing for the food 
what water does to salt or sugar, i.e., has melted it; or, as 
grown people would say, “ The gastric juice has dissolved the 
food.” What shall we say the gastric juice does to the food? 
— “It melts the food ; it dissolves the food.” 
The inner coat of the stomach prepares the slim}’ substance 
and the gastric juice to act upon the food in the stomach, as the 
salivary glands in the mouth prepare the saliva to moisten and 
change the food put into the mouth. By what is the food 
changed after it enters the mouth ? — “By the teeth; by the 
saliva.” How does it appear? — “Soft and wet.” What do 
you call the soft part of an orange?—“Pulp.” The same 
name is given to the food after it has been chewed, and the 
work of chewing is called mastication, — a long word, but one 
you can easily remember. 
What changes the food in the stomach ? — “ The gastric 
juice.” What presses upon it and pushes it along?—“The 
fibres of the middle coat.” Yes, these fibres work somewhat as 
the teeth and tongue do in the mouth, moving the food in the 
stomach and changing it into another pulp, to which we give a 
queer name, chyme, pronounced as though it were spelled Tcirne; 
the work which the stomach does to the food is called cliymifica- 
tion or chyme-making. 
6. Chyle-making.— In explaining about the intestines, we 
use a chart, or picture, and tell the children that the queer- 
looking, coiled, cylinder-like organ is divided into two parts, 
the small intestine, sometimes called the second stomach, and 
the large intestine; the former twenty-five, and the latter five 
feet in length. No wonder you ache after you have eaten unripe 
fruit or any unwholesome food, when it must travel thirty feet, 
or ten yards, to get out of the body, after it leaves the stomach. 
In this strange part of the body the chyme is changed by’ two 
kinds of liquid, one of which is called pancreatic juice, the other, 
bile, a yellowish fluid, with a bitter, unpleasant taste, which 
sometimes makes you suffer by getting into your stomach, giv- 100 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
ing you no ease till it is removed. In the small intestine, that 
portion of the chyme which will make good blood is separated 
from the good-for-nothing part, or w’aste. What do you do 
with waste things? — “Throw them away.” So your body 
throws aw a}' the waste portion of the chyme, or changed food, 
through the opening at the lower end of the large intestine; 
and you must be careful to have this done regularly, every day, 
if you do not wish to suffer from ill-health. 
The good part of the chyme will help to make the bod}T grow, 
so we call it the nourishing part, and give it a name so nearly 
like chyme that you will surely make a mistake, if you are not 
careful to remember it is chyle. Can you tell, from what you 
have learned, which is made first, the chyle or the chyme? — 
“ The chyme.” Which letters are alike in the name? — “ The 
first three, c-h-y, and the last, e.” Which is different? — “The 
next to the last; one name has an m, the other has an l in it.” 
Which has the Z, the name of that made in the small intestine, 
or that which is made in the stomach ? — “ That which is made 
in the intestines.” What letter begins the word last?—“ Z.” 
What letter in the word chyle is different from the letters in the 
word chyme ?—“ l.” Then what will help you to remember 
which is made in the small intestine, chyme or chy le ?— “ I can 
remember that the word which has an l in it is the name of that 
which is made last.” What is made in the stomach?—“Chyme.” 
What is made in the small intestine?— “ Chyle.” 
7. Blood-making.— But the chyle cannot make bones, flesh, 
skin, nails, hair, or cartilage; into what, then, must it be 
changed? — “Into blood.” How this change of chyle into 
blood is made nobody knows but the great and wise God, who 
made us and keeps us alive. We only know that the chyle 
finds its way into a large vein back of the collar bone, and 
flows into the lungs, where it meets with the air, and by and by 
reaches the heart, good, red blood, fit to be used in building 
and strengthening the body. 
In familiar conversation about food and the manner of eating, 
we draw from the children the simple but important hygienic THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 
101 
rules with which we conclude our lessons on the Digestive 
Organs and the Process of Digestion. These rules are re- 
peated at the close of the formulas which have been prepared 
during the progress of the lessons. 
FORMULA FOR THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 
1. When my food is chewed, it is rolled by my tongue into the 
oesophagus, or food-pipe, which is back of my windpipe, and leads 
from my mouth down along the side of my spine, to the left and 
upper end of my stomach. 
2. My stomach is an oblong, soft, and fleshy bag, extending from 
my left to my right side, below my lungs and heart. 
3. It is composed of three coats or membranes, and resembles tripe. 
4. The outer coat is smooth, thick, and tough. It supports and 
strengthens the stomach. 
5. The middle coat is fibrous. Its fibres have the power of con- 
tracting, sometimes pressing upon the food, and sometimes pushing it 
along toward the opening which leads out of the stomach. 
0. The inner coat is soft, thick, spongy, and wrinkled. It prepares 
a slimy substance and a fluid. The slimy "substance prevents the 
stomach from being irritated by the food. 
7. Food passes through several changes after it enters the mouth. 
8. It is changed into .pulp in the mouth, by the action of the teeth 
and the saliva. This is called mastication. It is changed in the 
stomach, by the action of the stomach and the gastric juice, into 
another kind of pulp called chyme. The chyme is changed by the bile 
and another kind of juice, called pancreatic juice; these separate the 
nourishing from the waste substance. The nourishing, milk-like 
substance is called chyle. The waste substance passes from the body. 
The chyle is poured into a vein behind the collar bone, and passes 
through the heart to the lungs, where it is changed into blood. 
9. If I would have a healthy stomach, 
I must be careful what kind of food I eat, 
* I must be careful how much I eat, 
I must be careful how I eat, 
I must be careful when I eat. 102 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
10. I must eat wholesome food, good bread, ripe fruits, rather than 
rich pies or jellies. 
11. I must eat enough food, but not too much. 
12. 1 must eat slowly, 
I must masticate my food thoroughly, 
I must masticate and swallow my food without drinking. 
1 -5. I must take my food regularly but not too often, 
I must rest before and after eating, if possible, 
1 must not eat just before bedtime. 
14. I must breathe pure air, 
I must sit, stand, and walk erect, 
1 must not drink alcoholic liquors, 
I must not snuff, smoke, or chew tobacco. 
QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 
1. Describe the process of eating.* See page 50. 
2. Where does the food go after it is chewed ? 
3. Describe the stomach. 
4. Of what is the stomach composed ? 
5. Describe the outer coat of the stomach, and tell its use. 
0. Describe the middle coat of the stomach, and tell its use. 
7. Describe the inner coat of the stomach, and tell its use. 
8. What happens to the food after it enters the mouth ? 
9. Tell about these changes. 
10. What is necessary if you would have a healthy stomach ? 
11. What kind of food must you eat ? 
12. How much food must you eat ? 
13. How must you eat ? 
14. When must you eat ? 
15. What other rules must you obey ? 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The position of the cesophagus is indicated by passing the right 
hand from the mouth down the side of the spine, then to the left and 
upper end of the stomach. The position of the stomach by passing the 
same hand from the left to the right side, and laying it upon the heart, 
then crossing the hands over the lungs. 
* See Formulas on the Organ of Sense. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 
103 
QUESTIONS ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 
What happens to the food after it is chewed ? — “It is rolled by my tongue 
into the oesophagus or food-pipe.” 
•Where is the oesophagus or food-pipe ? — “It passes from the mouth down 
the left side of the spine.” 
What is the stomach ? — “A fleshy hag which receives and changes the food 
we eat.” 
Where is the stomach ? — “In the front part of the chest, below the heart 
and lungs.” 
Of what is the stomach composed? — “Of three coats or membranes.” 
What do you mean by composed ? — “ Made of.” 
What do you mean by membrane ? — “A thin skin.” 
What are the coats of the stomach called? — “The outer coat, the middle 
coat, the inner coat.” 
Describe the outer coat of the stomach. — “ The outer coat is smooth, thick, 
and tough.” 
Of what use is the outer coat of the stomach ? — “It strengthens and sup- 
ports the stomach.” 
What do you mean by supports ? — “ Holds.” 
Describe the middle coat of the stomach. — “ The middle coat is composed 
of fleshy fibres, which have the power of making themselves long or short.” 
What do you mean by fibrous ?— “Composed of threads.” 
What do you mean by fibres ?— “ Threads.” 
Of what are the fibres of the stomach composed ? — “Of flesh.” 
Of what use are the fibres of the stomach ? — “ They press upon the food, 
and push it toward the opening which leads out of the stomach.” 
Describe the inner coat of the stomach. — “ The inner coat is soft, thick, 
spongy, and wrinkled.” 
Of what use is the inner coat of the stomach ? — “It prepares a slimy sub- 
stance and a fluid.” 
Of what use is the slimy substance ? — “It prevents the stomach from being 
irritated by the food.” 
Of what use is the fluid ? — “It dissolves the food.” 
What do you mean by slimy ? — “ Soft, moist, and sticky.” 
What do you mean by irritate ? — “ To produce unhealthy action.” 
What do you mean by dissolves ? — “ Melts.” 
Where is the food changed after it is taken into the mouth?—“First, it 
is changed in the mouth; second, it is changed in the stomach; third, it is 
changed after leaving the stomach; fourth, it is changed in the lungs.” 
By what is it changed in the mouth ? — “ By the action of the teeth and the 
saliva.” 
By what is it changed in the stomach ? — “ By the action of the stomach 
and a kind of fluid called gastric juice.” 
By what is it changed after leaving the stomach? — “By the action of the 
bile and the pancreatic juice.” 
By what is it changed in the lungs ? — “ Nobody knows.” 104 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
, Into what is it changed in the mouth ?— “ Into pulp.” 
Into what is it changed after leaving the stomach ? — “ Into chyle and waste 
substance.” 
Into what is it changed in the lungs ?— “ Into blood.” 
What is the change in the mouth called ? — “ Mastication, or chewing.” 
What is the cliafige in the stomach called ? — “ Cliymification, or chyme- 
making.” 
What is the change after leaving the stomach called ?— “ Chylification, or 
chyle-making.” 
What is necessary if you would have a healthy stomach? — “I must he 
careful what kind of food I eat; how much I eat; and when I eat.” 
What kind of food must you eat ?— “ Wholesome food,” etc. See Formula. 
How much must you eat ? — “ Enough, hut not too much.” 
How must you eat ? — “ Slowly.” 
How should your food be masticated ? — “ Thoroughly.” 
When must you eat ? — “ Regularly, but not too often.” 
When should you avoid eating ? — “ Just before bedtime.” 
What kind of air should you breathe ? — “ Pure air.” 
How should you sit, stand, and walk ? — “ Erect.” 
Why should you not eat too much food? — “Because, if I eat too much 
food, my stomach will have too much work to do in changing it into chyme.” 
Why should you eat slowly ? — “ That I may have time to masticate the 
food thoroughly.” 
Why should you masticate your food thoroughly ?— “ That it may be well 
prepared to enter the stomach.” 
Why should the food be well prepared to enter the stomach?— “ Because, 
if it is not well prepared in the mouth, the stomach will have too much work 
to change it into chyme.” 
Why should you eat regularly, but not too often ? — “ Because the stomach 
needs rest, which it cannot have, if I eat too often.” 
Why should you avoid eating just before bedtime ? — “ Because, while I 
am asleep the stomach cannot do the work of changing the food as it ought to 
be changed ; because the stomach should rest with the other parts of the 
body.” 
Why should you breathe pure air ? — “ Because pure air helps to make pure 
blood, which the stomach needs to make it strong and healthy.” 
Why should you sit, stand, and walk erect ?— “ That the stomach may not 
be crowded out of its place, or pressed upon by other parts of the body.” 
In what way does tobacco hurt the stomach ? “ It poisons the saliva and 
prevents it from preparing the food to enter the stomach.” 
What harm does tobacco do inside the stomach ? — “It weakens the stomach 
and makes it unfit to change the food into chyme.” 
How will wise children treat tobacco ? — “ Let it alone. They will not 
chew, snuff, or smoke the vile weed.” 
Is alcohol food or poison ? — “ It is poison.” 
How do we know it is not food ? — “ Because it cannot be changed into 
blood.” THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 
How has this been proved ? — “ Alcohol has been found in the brain, and 
other parts of drunkards, with the same smell and the same power to burn 
easily which it had when it was taken into the mouth.” 
How do you know it is a poison ? — “ Because it does harm to every part of 
the body, beginning in the stomach.” 
AYliat harm does alcohol do in the stomach?—“It hinders the stomach 
from doing its work; it burns the coats of the stomach; it destroys the gastric 
juice; it hardens the food, so that it cannot be dissolved by the gastric juice.” 
What does the stomach do with alcohol ? — “ Drives it out as soon as 
possible.” 
Where does the stomach send it ? — “ Into the liver.” 
Where does the liver send it ?— “ To the heart; and the heart sends it to 
the lungs.” 
What do the lungs do with the alcohol ?— “They drive it out as soon as 
they can.” 
Where do the lungs send some of it ? — “ Through the nose and mouth, into 
the air.” 
What harm does the alcohol do in the breath? — “It poisons the air; it tells 
that some kind of alcoholic liquor has been taken into the stomach.” 
From what you have learned about alcohol, what do you think is the only 
safe rule to obey concerning cider, beer, wine, and all alcoholic liquors? — “,I 
must not drink them if I wish to have a strong and healthy stomach.” 106 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
COMPOSED OF 
Three coats or membranes, viz., the outer coat, the 
middle coat, the inner coat. 
USE. 
Supports and strengthens the stomach. 
Presses upon and pushes the food along. 
Prepares a slimy substance, and a fluid called gastric juice. 
CALLED 
Chewing or masticating. 
Chyme-making or chymification. 
Chyle-making or chylification. 
Blood-making or sanguification. 
WHEN I EAT. 
Regularly. 
Not too often. 
Not just before bedtime. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. — The Digestive Organs and Digestion. 
HOW I EAT. 
Slowly. 
Masticate thoroughly, and 
use no liquid while eating. 
2. THE COATS OF THE STOMACH. 
3. THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION. 
INTO 
Pulp. 
Chyme. 
Chyle and waste. 
Blood. 
4. RULES FOR HEALTH. 
I MUST BE CAREFUL 
1. THE STOMACH. 
SHAPE. 
Oblong and baglike. 
BY THE 
Teeth and the saliva. 
Middle coat and the gastric juice. 
Bile and the pancreatic juice. 
(We know not how.) 
HOW MUCH I EAT. 
Enough, but not too much. 
DESCRIPTION. 
Smooth, thick, and tough. 
Fibrous. 
Soft, thick, spongy, and wrinkled. 
WHAT I EAT OK DRINK. 
Wholesome food; not rich pies, jellies, etc. 
Wholesome drink; not anything with 
alcohol in it. 
POSITION. 
In the chest, below the heart and the 
lungs. 
WHERE ? 
1. In the mouth. 
2. In the stomach. 
3. After leaving the stomach. 
(4. In or near the lungs. 
NAMES. 
The outer coat. 
The middle coat. 
The inner coat. 108 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
—(From Walker’s Physiology, 1884.) 
1. The large brain. 
2. The small brain. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
3. The spinal cord. 
4, 5. Nerves. PART XI. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Introduction.—What is 3Tour mind?—“My mind is that 
part of me which thinks, remembers, reasons, and wills.” In 
what part of your body is your mind supposed to be ? — “ In 
my head.” Why do you think your mind is not in your hands 
or feet? — “Because if my hands and feet were taken off I 
could still continue to think.” What do you call the part of 
the head where the mind is supposed to be?— “ The brain.” 
What covers the brain? — “The skull.” Of what use is the 
skull? — “ It holds the brain ; it protects the brain.” 
The Brain.—A chart of the Nervous System, or a picture 
representing the brain, is shown to the children, who are told 
that the brain is divided into two unequal parts, which ma}T be 
called the large brain and the small brain ; that these parts are 
divided into halves, alike in shape, so that we have a pair of 
brains, just as we have a pair of e}Tes and a pair of ears. 
How many of you have seen marrow? Well, when you see 
marrow, remember that it looks very much like the substance 
of which 3'our brain is composed. Sometime 3-011 ma3T see a 
pig’s brain; that will give you a veiy good idea of the appear- 
ance of your own brains. The brain of a grown person is 
about six inches long, five inches wide, and four inches thick. 
Arteries and veins run through it in every direction, for it has a 
great deal of work to do, and needs a great quantity of blood 
to nourish and strengthen it. 
The brain is covered and held together by three coats of 
skin, called membranes; the outer coat supports it, and makes 
it strong, and is therefore thick and firm; the middle mem- 
brane, which is very thin, resembles a spider’s web; 
inner membraile is a network of blood-vessels. 110 
THE HUMAN 1501)V. 
The Nerves. —How many of you have had a toothache? 
How many have heard about the nerve of a tooth? We stop 
to hear what the class has to say about nerves, aud talk about 
neuralgia, as pain of the nerves, or nerves suffering; then pro- 
ceed to explain the subject more fully, somewhat as follows : 
If you could look at your brain, you would see white or red- 
dish-gray cords of flesh passing through it; these are soft and 
pulpy ; they are the nerves which give you so much trouble 
when you suffer from neuralgia. But do not wish you had no 
nerves, for, though the}' do torment you, you could not live if 
you had none. Suppose you were to place your hand accident- 
ally upon a hot iron, what would you feel? — “ Pain.” What 
would you do? — “ Move my hand away from the iron.” How 
would you know the iron was hot? — “ By the sense of feeling, 
or touch.” AVe explain that it is the nerves which enable them 
to have the sense of feeling, and prompts the removal of the 
hand as soon as the pain is felt. 
How many of you have seen the telegraph wires ? Of what 
use ate they?—“To carry messages from one place to an- 
other.” We converse with the children about the telegraph 
machine and the way telegraphing is done ; then, by comparing 
the brain to the machine, and the nerves to the wires, help the 
attentive listeners to understand something of the work of the 
nervous system in carrying news to the mind. 
The Kinds of Nerves. —AAre further explain that there are 
two kinds of nerves, — one which causes us to feel, the other 
which causes the muscles to move; thus, when the hand is 
placed on a hot iron, a nerve of feeling carries the message to 
the brain quicker than lightning, and the brain as quickly sends 
back word through the nerves of motion, which causes the hand 
to draw itself away from the heated substance. Two anec- 
dotes also help to illustrate the use of the nerves. A gentle- 
man who was suffering from brain and spinal disease lost the 
power of feeling in his lower limbs. His physician upon one 
occasion directed him to use a warm foot-bath. He obeyed, 
and was surprised, when he removed his feet from the water, to THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
111 
find them completely blistered. The water was boiling hot, but 
he did not know it until he saw its effect, because the nerves of 
feeling in his feet had not sent an}’ 
message of pain to his brain. 
A lady had a stroke of paralysis 
which affected her very strangely. 
Upon one side the nerves of feeling 
were destroyed; on the other the 
nerves of motion had lost their power. 
She could carry her child upon one 
arm, but could not know it was there 
without keeping her eye upon it; 
while, if it were placed on the other 
arm, she could feel its presence, but 
could not move it. 
From these illustrations the children 
are able to explain why the}’ feel pain 
when they prick their finger with a 
pin, and what causes them to move 
the finger in obedience to their will. 
The Spinal Cord. — Where is your 
spine?— “My spine extends from the 
base of my skull, behind, down the 
middle of my back.” Of what is the 
spine composed?—“It is composed 
of about twenty-four short bones, 
piled one upon the other, with carti- 
lage between them.” After receiv- 
ing these replies from those who 
have studied the lesson on the 
“ Description of the Bones,” we pro- 
ceed to explain that the spine is also 
called the spinal column; that the 
bones of which it is composed are 
hollow, and through them a bundle of 
nerves, called the spinal cord, passes 
THE SPINAL CORD. 
C, the large brain (cerebrum); 
B, the little brain (cerebel- 
lum); S, the spinal cord. 112 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
from the base of the brain down the whole length of the spine ; 
that the thirty-one pairs of nerves pass from this spinal cord to 
different parts of the body. 
The Brain Nerves.—Next we tell the children about the 
pairs of nerves which proceed from the brain, and describe the 
work of each; as, the first pair pass to the nose, and tell 
the mind about the odor of things, whether pleasant or disa- 
greeable, and are called the nerves of smell; the second pair 
pass to the eyes, and send news to the brain concerning the 
appearance of objects, and are called the nerves of sight; the 
third, fourth, and sixth pairs move the muscles of the eyes; 
the fifth pair are divided into three branches, the first passing to 
the forehead, eyes, and nose; the second to the eyes, the teeth 
of the upper jaw, and different parts of the face; the third 
branch to the ear, the tongue, and the muscles and teeth of the 
lower jaw ; the seventh pair to different parts of the face ; the 
eighth pair, called the nerves of hearing, to the ears ; the ninth 
pair to the mouth, tongue, and throat; the twelfth pair to the 
tongue; the eleventh pair to the neck; and the tenth pair to 
the neck, throat, lungs, stomach, and other different parts of 
the body. 
Conclusion. —The effect produced by destroying a nerve, 
also, by pressing upon it, is explained. See Formula for this 
part of the lesson. Lastly, we talk of what the brain needs, 
— pure blood, work, and rest, either in sleep or by change of 
employment. 
Directions for Recitations. —When each portion of the For- 
mula which has been constructed during the progress of the 
lesson is perfectly memorized, the whole is repeated with 
appropriate gestures. See Directions for Touching. 
FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
1. My brain is a soft gray-and-white mass resembling marrow. 
2. It is placed in a bony box called the skull; it is covered and 
held together by three coats or membranes. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
113 
3. The outer membrane is thick and firm; it strengthens and sup- 
ports the brain. 
4. The middle membrane is thick, and somewhat like a spider’s 
web in appearance. 
5. The inner membrane is a network of blood-vessels. 
6. From the brain, white or reddish gray pulpy cords, called 
nerves, pass to all parts of the body. These nerves are of two kinds: 
nerves of feeling, and nerves of motion. 
7. If I prick my finger, a nerve of feeling carries the message to 
my brain; if I wish to move my finger, a nerve of motion causes my 
finger to obey my will. 
8. Twelve pairs of nerves pass from the base of the brain: the 
first pair, called the nerves of smell, to my nose; the fourth pair, called 
the nerves of sight, to my eyes; the fifth pair, called the nerves of taste, 
to my mouth, tongue, and teeth. One pair pass to my face; another 
to my ears. The ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth pairs to my 
tongue and parts of my throat and neck.1 
9. The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves extending from the base 
of my brain, down through the whole length of my spine, or back- 
bone. It is the lai’gest nerve in my body. 
10. From the spine, thirty-one pairs of nerves, called spinal nerves, 
pass to different parts of my body; some to the lungs, some to the 
heart, some to the stomach, some to the bones, and some to the mus- 
cles and skin. 
11. If a nerve be destroyed it cannot carry messages to and from 
the brain. Before filling a tooth, the dentist sometimes destroys its 
nerve. 
12. If a nerve be pressed upon too long it cannot perform its duty. 
If I press upon the nerve passing to my foot, I stop it from communi- 
cating with the brain; the foot loses its feeling, or, as I say, “ is 
asleep.” 
1 Note. — A fuller description of the Nerves of the Brain: Twelve pairs of nerves 
pass from the base of the brain; the first pair, called the nerves of smell, to my nose; the 
second pair, called the nerves of sight, to my eyes; the third, fourth, and sixth pairs to 
the muscles of my eyes; the fifth pair to my forehead, eyes, nose, ears, tongue, teeth, 
and different parts of my face; the seventh pair to different parts of my face; the eighth 
pair, called the nerves of hearing, to the inner part of my ear; the ninth pair to my mouth, 
tongue, and throat; the twelfth pair to my tongue; the eleventh pair to my neck; the 
tenth pair to my neck, throat, lungs, stomach, and different parts of my body. 114 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
13. If I drink alcoholic liquors, or snuff, smoke, or chew tobacco, 
my brain and nerves cannot do their work well; because alcohol and 
nicotine are very poisonous to the brain and nerves. 
14. The brain must be supplied with good blood; 
The brain must be used; 
The brain must be rested ; 
I must drink wholesome drink, eat wholesome food, take 
enough exercise, and breathe pure air, that my brain may be supplied 
with pure blood; 
I must study and think, that my brain may grow and be strong 
for work; 
I must rest my brain when it is tired, either by changing my 
employment, or by going to sleep; 
I must not poison my brain with alcohol or tobacco. 
QUESTIONS ON THE FORMULA. 
1. Describe the brain. 
2. Where is the brain placed ? 
3. Describe the outer membrane of the brain. 
4. Describe the middle membrane of the brain. 
5. Describe the inner membrane of the brain. 
6. Tell about the nerves. 
7. Tell about the use of the two kinds of nerves. 
8. Tell about the nerves which pass from the brain. 
9. Tell about the spinal cord. 
10. Tell about the nerves which pass from the spinal cord. 
11. What happens if a nerve be destroyed ? 
12. What happens if a nerve be pressed upon too long ? 
13. What happens if you drink alcoholic liquors, or snuff, smoke, or chew 
tobacco ? 
14. What is necessary if you would have a healthy brain ? 
DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. 
The skull is touched with both hands when it is named. The chil- 
dren prick the left forefinger with a pin, in describing the use of the 
nerves of feeling, and move the right forefinger forward and backward 
in showing that of the nerves of motion. They indicate the position 
of the spinal cord by passing the right hand from the base of the brain 
down the length of the spine. 
In describing the nerves which pass from the brain, they touch the 
base of the brain with the right hand, and the nose with the same hand; THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
115 
pass the right hand down the face, and place a hand upon each ear; 
then point to the tongue with the tip of the right finger, and pass the 
hands around the neck and throat as the nerves of these various parts 
are mentioned.1 
In telling about the spinal nerves, the hands are crossed over the 
lungs, and the right hand is placed upon the heart and over the stom- 
ach, as each of these organs is named. 
QUESTIONS ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Where is your brain ? — “In my skull.” 
What color is the brain ? — “ Gray and white.” 
What does the brain resemble ? — “ Marrow.” 
How is the brain protected ? — “ By three coats or membranes.” 
What may you name these membranes?—“The outer membrane, the 
middle membrane, and the inner membrane.” 
Describe the outer membrane. See Formula. 
Describe the middle membrane. See Formula. 
What are the nerves ? — “White ashen-gray pulpy cords, which are found 
in the brain.” 
Where do they go from the brain? — “To every part of the body.” 
How many kinds of nerves have you ? — “ Two.” 
What names are given to the two kinds of nerves? — “Nerves of motion 
and nerves of feeling.” 
Which is the largest nerve in the body ? — “ The spinal cord.” 
Where is the spinal cord?—“It extends from the brain throughout the 
whole length of the backbone.” 
How may you describe the spinal cord ?— “It is a bundle of nerves,” etc. 
See Formula. 
Where are the spinal nerves ? — “ They pass from the spinal cord to different 
parts of the trunk and limbs,” 
How many pairs of nerves pass from the base of the brain ? — “ Twelve.” 
Where do the first pair go?— “To the nose.” 
What are they called ? — “ The nerves of smell.” 
Where do the second pair go ?— “To the eyes.” 
What are the second pair called ? — “ The nerves of sight.” 
1 Note.— When the fuller description of these nerves is used: For the first pair 
touch the nose with the right hand; for the second pair touch the eyes with both hands; 
for the third, fourth, and sixth pairs touch the eyes with both hands; for the fifth pair 
point to the forehead, eyes and ears, tongue and teeth, and touch the whole face with 
both hands; for the seventh pair touch the face with both hands; for the eighth pair 
touch the ears with both hands; for the ninth pair point to the mouth, tongue, and throat 
with the right hand; for the twelfth pair point to the tongue with the right forefinger; 
for the eleventh pair touch the neck with both hands; for the tenth pair point to the 
neck, throat, lungs, stomach, and whole body with both hands. 116 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Which move the muscles of the eyes? — “The third, fourth, and sixth 
pairs.” 
Where do the fifth pair go?—“To the forehead, eyes, nose, ears, tongue, 
teeth, and different parts of the face.” 
The seventh pair ? — “To the different parts of the face.” 
The eighth pair? — “To the inner ear.” 
What are the eighth pair called ?— “ The nerves of hearing.” 
Where do the ninth pair go ? — “To the mouth, tongue, and throat.” 
Where do the twelfth pair go ? — “ To the tongue.” 
Where do the eleventh pair go ? — “ To the neck.” 
Where do the tenth pair go?—“To the neck, throat, lungs, stomach, and 
different parts of the body.” 
What happens if a nerve be destroyed? — “ It cannot carry messages to the 
brain.” 
What happens if a nerve be pressed upon too long? — “It cannot carry 
messages to the brain.” 
What is necessary if you would have a strong, healthy brain ? — “ My brain 
must be used; my brain must be rested; my brain must be supplied with pure 
blood.” 
How must you use your brain ? — “ In thinking and studying.” 
How may the brain be rested ? — “ By sleep.” 
In what other way may the brain be rested ?— “By thinking of something 
different from that which made it tired.” 
What two brain-poisons have you learned about? — “Alcohol and tobacco.” 
With what may you show the harm done by alcohol to the gray part of the 
brain? — “With alcohol and the white of an egg.” 
How could you show it with these ? — “I would pour the alcohol upon the 
white of the egg.” 
What would then happen?— “The white of the egg would harden as if it 
had been boiled.’ ’ 
What is in the white of an egg? — “ Water and albumen.” 
Where else may we find albumen ? — “In some seeds, and in the gray part 
of the brain and the nerves.” 
What harm does alcohol do to the nerves? — “It takes away their moisture 
and hardens them.” 
AATiat harm does this do to them ? — “It paralyzes them, or makes them lose 
their power.” 
AVliat happens when nerves are paralyzed ? — “ They lose their power over 
the muscles; they are unfit to carry messages to and from the brain.” 
AVhat harm does alcohol do to the gray part of the brain? — “It hardens it, 
as it hardens the white of an egg.” 
AVhat harm does this do to the brain ?—“It paralyzes it, or makes it lose its 
power.” 
AVhat then happens? — “It cannot properly do its work of thinking, and 
cannot control the nerves.” 
AATiat disease is sometimes caused by this hardening of the brain by alcohol ? 
— “ Paralysis, which often ends in death.” THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
117 
What harm does alcohol do to the blood-vessels of the brain ?—“ It fills 
them with impure blood.” 
What disease is caused by the blood-vessels of the brain being filled with 
impure blood ? — “ Congestion of the brain, or apoplexy, which ends in death.” 
What else frequently happens to those who drink alcoholic liquors ? — 
“ They become crazy, or insane.” 
If you wish to have a strong, healthy brain, what should you do about these 
liquors ? — 
“ Never put them into my mouth, 
To steal away my brains.” 
Tell of what dreadful disease people die who are bitten by a mad dog. — 
“Of hydrophobia.” 
Of what dreadful disease do people sometimes die who are bitten by the 
serpent in alcoholic liquors ?— “Of delirium tremens.” 
Which is the more dreadful, hydrophobia or delirium tremens ? —“ One is 
as dreadful as the other.” 
How can you be sure never to have delirium tremens? — “By drinking- 
nothing which has alcohol in it.” 
Will a little beer or wine hurt you ? — “ Yes, it may make me love the taste 
of alcohol.” 
What harm is there in loving the taste of alcohol ?— “ I may love it so much 
as to become a drunkard.” 
Tell once more how you should treat alcoholic liquors. — “I should never 
drink a drop of them.” 
For questions on Tobacco, see Appendix II. THE HUMAN BODY. 
IV. USE. 
Supposed to he the part of the body in 
which the mind thinks. 
To carry messages to and from the brain. 
III. WHERE GO. 
To the head, face, and neck. 
To the heart, lungs, stomach, and 
different parts of the body. 
III. THE SPINAL NERVES. 
To the lungs, the heart, the stomach, the bones, 
and the muscles of the trunk and limbs. 
III. USE. 
To strengthen and support 
the rest of the brain. 
To contain the blood. 
The brain must be supplied with good blood, 
The brain must not be poisoned with alcohol or tobacco. 
II. NUMBER. 
Twelve pairs. 
Thirty-one pairs. 
A. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
B. THE COATS OF THE BRAIN. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
III. COMPOSED OF 
Three coats or membranes. 
Fleshy, grayish-white cords. 
D. THE SPINAL CORD. 
RULES FOR HEALTH. 
II. DESCRIPTION. 
Thick and firm. 
Thin and web like. 
A net-work of blood-vessels. 
C. THE NERVES. 
II. CONSISTS OF 
Thirty-one pairs of nerves, called 
spinal nerves. 
I. NAME. 
Nerves of the brain. 
Nerves of the spine. 
II. PLACE. 
In the skull. 
In the brain and throughout the body. 
KINDS. 
Of feeling,—to see, feel, smell, taste, and hear 
through. 
Of motion, — to cause the body to obey the mind. 
The brain must be used, 
The brain must be rested, 
I. NAME. 
The outer coat. 
The middle coat. 
The inner coat. 
I. PROCEEDS FROM 
The brain through the whole length 
of the spine. 
I. INCLUDES 
The brain 
and 
The nerves. APPENDIX I. 
ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC LIQUOKS. ALCOHOL. 
THE STORY ABOUT ALCOHOL. 
Several hundred years ago many people were trying to dis- 
cover something that would keep them young and strong, and 
prevent them from dying. It is said by some that a man named 
Paracelsus, in making experiments, discovered alcohol. He 
called it “ the water of life,” and boasted that he would never 
be weak and never die ; so he went on drinking alcoholic liquors 
until at last he died in a drunken tit. 
What is this alcohol which has done and is doing so much 
mischief in the woxld? I will show you some. What does it 
look like?—“Water.” Yes; and if you were to smell it you 
would say it has a somewhat pleasant odor; if you were to taste 
it, that it has a hot, biting taste, i.e., is pungent. If you put 
a lighted match to it you would notice that it burns easily, and 
with a flame, and may therefore be said to be combustible and 
inflammable. 
What does it come from? Is it one of the drinks God has 
given us ? Some of the class think it is; we will try to learn 
whether this answer is correct or not. If we study about it 
very carefully we shall discover that it is not a natural drink, 
that it is not found except where it has been made from decayed 
or rotten fruits, grains, or vegetables. 
If you take some apples, and squeeze the juice out of them, 
you will find it sweet and pleasant; let that juice stand for 
several days and what will happen to it?— “It will get bad.” 
Yes ; or, as grown people say, it will ivork or ferment; that is, 
the sugary part of the juice will be separated into a kind of gas 
and a liquid. The gas is called carbonic acid gas; the liquid 
is alcohol. Both the gas and the liquid are poisonous. 
Alcohol may also be obtained from other fruits, as grapes, 
and from some grains and vegetables. But all these must first 
become rotten before alcohol will come out of them. This is 122 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
one reason why we think that God, who gives us good, whole- 
some food, did not intend alcohol to be a drink for man, else 
He would have put it into the delicious ripe fruit, and not made 
it impossible to get until they decay. 
Now let us put upon the blackboard something which will 
help us remember what we have learned about 
ALCOHOL. 
Discovered by 
Paracelsus. 
Water-like; with a pleas- 
ant odor; a hot, biting 
taste; and will burn 
with a flame. 
Description. 
Made from 
Fruits, 
Grains, or 
Vegetables. 
Rotten 
Called 
“ The water of life.” 
USES OF ALCOHOL. 
We put some sugar into water ; the children see that it melts ; 
then some glue or shellac is placed in the same liquid; they see 
that this is not melted, but that, when alcohol is used instead 
of water, the glue or shellac is dissolved. From this experi- 
ment the}' learn that alcohol is used in making varnishes. 
Some water is poured into one saucer, and alcohol into 
another; a lighted match is applied to each; the class notices 
that the alcohol takes fire and burns, while the water does not. 
Next, we fill a lamp with alcohol, and put a wick into it; 
when the wick becomes wet with the fluid it burns steadily and 
without smoke, as may be seen by holding a clean white saucer 
over the flame. This shows why jewellers and others, who 
wish to use a lamp to make things very hot, prefer alcohol to 
kerosene, which, as the children know, smokes lamp-chimneys, 
or anything else, so easily. 
We show a thermometer; the children are told its use if they 
are not already familiar with the instrument; we talk about the 
quicksilver in the tube, about its rising or falling according to 
the degree of heat or cold; then we inform the class that in ALCOHOL. 
some countries where it is very cold quicksilver freezes ; for this 
reason alcohol, which does not freeze, is colored red and put 
into the thermometer tube to be used in these Arctic regions. 
Another use for alcohol is to keep or preserve substances. 
This we illustrate by placing a piece of meat into some alcohol. 
We explain that the water in the meat is that which causes it 
to decay. Alcohol has the power to take up or absorb water ; 
so when meat is put into this liquid the water from the meat is 
absorbed by it, and the meat does not become bad. Those who 
wish to preserve insects a long time, and doctors who desire to 
keep any portion of a human body after death, put these into 
alcohol, in which they may be kept for a long time. 
Lastly, we let the children smell cologne or other perfumery, 
and tell them this is made from different oils mixed with alcohol. 
At the close of this lesson the class is ready to help us make 
the following 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
Facts about Alcohol. 
It melts gums. 
Burns with a flame. 
Burns without smoke. 
Will not freeze. 
Likes water. 
Mixes with oils. 
Goon Uses of Alcohol. 
To melt gums. 
To make varnishes. 
To burn in lamps. 
To make camphene, etc. 
To put into thermometer tubes. 
To preserve meats, etc. 
To make perfumery. 
In making jewelry. 
USES OF ALCOHOL — concluded. 
You see alcohol is very useful for some purposes ; but do 
people ever drink it? Some of the children think not, and we 
grant that no one is foolish enough to drink rate alcohol, 
because it is too strong. It would take only a little to make 
them drunk, and only a few ounces to kill them instantly. 
We ask the pupils if they have ever seen a drunken person, 
and what made that person drunk? We soon obtain an answer, 124 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
and place upon the board “ Rum, gin, whiske}', brandy,” as 
the names of drinks which will take away the good sense of 
those who drink them. To these are added “ Wine, beer, ale, 
lager, and cider.” 
We explain that all these have alcohol in them, as may be 
known by smelling them, or b}T smelling the breath of those 
who have drunk even a little of them ; and that because they 
contain alcohol they are called alcoholic liquors. If a person 
drinks any one of them he will be poisoned, more or less, 
according to how much he takes. The children are astonished 
at the word poisoned, but we explain that the very word, intoxi- 
cated, means poisoned. So a drunken man is a poisoned man. 
If enough alcohol, or alcoholic liquor, is drunk by any one, he will 
drop down dead as quickly as if lie were shot by a cannon ball. 
When told that alcohol is not a food, but a poison, the class 
readily understands what we mean, and we have no difficulty 
in having the following statements prepared and memorized: 
FOOD. 
That which makes the body grow, and helps to keep it alive. 
POISON. 
That which hurts the body, and makes it die. 
ALCOHOL. 
Qualities. 
AVater-like, looks like water. 
Transparent, may be seen through 
clearly. 
Odorous, has a smell. 
Pungent, has a hot, biting taste. 
Liquid, will flow in drops. 
Poisonous, hurts the body. 
Intoxicating, takes away the senses; 
makes drunk. 
Absorbent, takes up or absorbs water. 
Inflammable, burns with a flame. 
Uncongealable, will not freeze. 
Innutritious, not good for food. 
Good Uses. 
To melt gums. 
To make varnishes. 
To burn in lamps. 
To make campliene, etc. 
To put in thermometer tubes. 
To preserve meats, insects, etc. 
To make perfumery. 
In making jewelry. 
Bad Use. 
To drink. ALCOHOL. 
125 
ABOUT FERMENTATION AND 
FERMENTED LIQUOR. 
Alcohol. — Alcohol may be obtained from any substance 
which contains sugar or starch, or both sugar and starch, as 
apples, pears, grapes, potatoes, beets, rice, baric}', maple, 
honey, etc. 
Alcohol can be obtained only by fermentation. By fermenta- 
tion we mean the change which takes place when a juice con- 
taining sugar decays, or goes to pieces. You know decay 
always makes things fall to pieces. 
You ask, wdiat pieces is sugar made of? Ver}', very little 
pieces, called atoms. There are different kinds of sugar. In 
that made from grapes, called grape sugar, there are six atoms 
of carbon, twelve of hydrogen, and six of oxygen. What are 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen? Oxygen is the kind of gas 
which keeps animals alive, and makes things burn. Hydrogen 
is another kind, which you have smelled perhaps when water has 
been spilled on a hot stove; the gas burned in street-lamps is 
hydrogen that has been driven out of coal. Carbon you see in 
charcoal and soot; the black lead of your lead-pencils is mostl}' 
composed of carbon and iron; lamp-black is pure carbon, 
without form or shape. 
We will let these circles of colored paper stand for the atoms 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in grape sugar, —the largest, 
which are red, for the oxygen; the second size, which you 
notice are black, will represent atoms of carbon ; while the little 
blue ones will make you think of hydrogen. 
If you remember that it takes one atom of carbon and two 
of oxygen to make carbonic acid gas; also, that two atoms of 
carbon, one of oxygen, and six of hydrogen to form alcohol, 
you can easily find that two atoms of carbonic acid gas and two 
atoms of alcohol may be formed from an atom of sugar. So 
the more sugar a juice contains the more alcohol may be formed 
from it. 126 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Cider. — Cider is made by pressing the juice out of apples. 
This sweet eider ferments, and the sugar part of it changes into 
carbonic acid gas and alcohol. People who do not understand 
this go on drinking cider, not knowing that it makes drunkards 
of those who drink much of a beverage which seems so pleasant 
and harmless. 
Wines.—Wines are made from the juices of fruits which 
have sugar in them, especially grapes. Sometimes people have 
what the}’ call home-made wines, which the}’ make from black- 
berries, currants, elderberries, gooseberries, cherries, or other 
fruits. They may ask you to take some, saying, “ This will do 
you no harm ; we did not put any alcohol into it.” They do not 
know what you have learned, that alcohol is always formed in 
decayed juices which contain sugar. It does not wait to be put 
into the home-made wines ; it quietly comes in as they are getting 
made, at home or any other place, and will make people drunk 
as surely as when it is found in brandy or any other liquor. 
Some of the wines in the stores are made from grape juice, 
but many more are made by mixing hurtful and poisonous 
things together to make the liquor strong, and give it what is 
called a fine color and good taste. 
Beer and Ales.—These are made from grains and hops, 
which contain no sugar, it is true, but are composed of starch, 
which may be changed into sugar. When a seed of grain is 
put into the ground and begins to grow, the starch in it becomes 
sugar, which feeds the young plant. When a brewer wishes to 
make beer, he takes some grain, puts it in a dark place, wets it, 
and leaves it to sprout, or begin to grow. Then he puts it into 
an oven to dry it, and make it stop growing. This makes what is 
called malt. The malt is mashed and soaked in warm water to 
get the sugar out of it; this forms a liquid called sweet wort. 
The wort is separated from the mashed grain and boiled ; yeast 
is mixed with it to help it to ferment more quickly; it soon 
becomes changed ; a dirty yellow scum filled with bubbles comes 
to the top, which we know is the poisonous carbonic acid gas : ALCOHOL. 
127 
the other poison, alcohol, stays in the liquid and makes the beer 
taste good to those who like it. 
Liquors made from grain are called malt liquors. Lager beer, 
and all kinds of ales and porters, are malt liquors. They make 
people dull, sluggish, and stupid who drink much of them. 
The}' do much mischief in the body, though it takes a larger 
quantity of any one of them to make a person drunk than it 
does of whiskey or brandy. 
AN ATOM OF 
Grape Sugar. 
Carbon, 6 atoms. 
Oxygen, G atoms. 
Hydrogen, 12 atoms. 
Carbonic Acid Gas. 
Carbon, 1 atom. 
Oxygen, 2 atoms. 
Alcohol. 
Carbon, 2 atoms. 
Oxygen, 1 atom. 
Hydrogen, 6 atoms. 
Decayed Grape Sugar makes 
2 atoms of carbonic acid gas and 2 atoms of alcohol. 
ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS 
MADE FROM 
Cider. 
Apples. 
Perry. 
Pears. 
Fruits. 
Wines. 
Beer, Ales, etc. 
Grains. 
Grapes, 
Currants, 
Blackberries, 
Gooseberries, 
Elderberries, 
Cherries, etc. 
Barley, Oats, 
Wheat, Peas, etc. 
Corn, (with hops). 
DISTILLATION. 
How does the sugar in grapes and other fruits become alco- 
hol?— “ By fermenting.” Yes, and liquors made by ferment- 
ing are called fermented liquors. What other alcoholic drinks 
have you heard about beside cider, wines, beer, and ales? — 
“ Gin, whiskey, brandy, rum.” These are stronger than the 
fermented liquors, that is, they contain more alcohol; they are 
made by what is called distillation. 
If you boil water, and let the steam from it fall upon a cold 
plate, the steam will change back into liquid and become 128 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
distilled water. Making a liquid boil, catching the vapor or 
steam and cooling it, is what we mean by distillation. 
If two or more liquids are mixed together, the one that boils 
with the least heat will be drawn off first. The alcohol of beer, 
cider, and wdnes is mixed with water; it boils at a lower heat 
than water, so can be drawn off from it very easily. This does 
not make more alcohol, it only makes the alcohol stronger by 
separating it from the water. 
When beer or any other alcoholic liquor is to be distilled, it is 
poured into a large copper boiler, called a still, and boiled. A 
tube carries the vapor from the boiler into a cask filled with 
cold water. This tube is coiled like a spiral line or worm 
through the cask; it is called the worm of the still, and the cask 
is the worm-tub. As the vapor passes through the tube, it cools 
and drops out at the end into the worm-tub, changed into a 
liquid stronger in alcohol than that from which it was drawn or 
distilled. 
In this way gin is made from beer, brandy from wine, and 
rum from fermented molasses. These are very strong drinks, 
and only hard drinkers like them. But very few people begin 
by taking these ; they first learn to like alcohol by drinking 
cider, beer, or wine, and end with gin, whiskey, or rum when 
they have become drunkards. 
DEFINITIONS. 
Distillation. Drawing the vapor from a boiling liquid and cooling it. 
Still. Machinery for distilling; the boiler which holds the liquid. 
The Worm of the Still. The tube which passes from the still to a cask, in 
which it coils like a worm. 
Worm-tub. The cask which holds the tube or worm, and receives the 
distilled liquid. 
Distilled Liquid. A liquid formed by cooled steam. 
Distilled Liquors. Liquors made by distilling alcoholic liquors. 
Fermented. Changed by decay. 
Fermented Liquors. Liquors which have been fermented or changed by 
decay, and contain alcohol. 
Unfermented. Not decayed. 
Un fermented L quors. Liquors which contain no alcohol. ALCOHOL. 
129 
KINDS OF LIQUORS 
Unfermented. 
Grape juice, 
Sweet cider, 
Root beer, 
Ginger beer, 
Perry. 
Fermented. 
Hard cider, 
r Beer, 
Lager beer, 
j Ale, 
[ Porter, 
Wine. 
Distilled. 
Gin, 
Brandy, 
Whiskey, 
Rum. 
Malt liquors 
HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL 
In Various Parts of the Body. 
Raw alcohol does not do much harm to people because it is 
too strong for them to drink much of it; but the alcohol hidden 
in cider, ale, wine, whiskey, and other alcoholic drinks kills not 
less than sixty thousand persons in this country every year, 
besides those who die from its use in other parts of the world. 
There is great excitement when there is a mad dog around ; 
and, if any one is bitten and dies from the dreadful hydrophobia, 
people are ready to destroy all the dogs of the neighborhood; 
but when a drunkard dies from delirium tremens or alcohol 
craziness, how few take any notice of the cause of his death, or 
do all they can to wage war against the use of alcoholic liquors. 
But why do we sa}’ such hard things against these liquors 
which some people love so well and think so harmless? In 
what wa}' do they hurt and kill people? Let us see. Where 
does what we drink go after it has been put into the mouth ? — 
“ Into the stomach.” If it were the right thing to go into the 
stomach, into what would it be changed?—“Into something 
which helps to make good blood.” 
Learned men, who have examined and carefully studied 
about these things, tell us that the stomach is hurt b}' alcohol, 
1 These soon become fermented ; they then contain alcohol. 130 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
because the fiery fluid is uot food, but poison which makes the 
stomach very sore, and gives it hard work to do. The veins of 
the stomach take it up and send it into the liver. The liver, 
which is a large organ weighing about four pounds, lies on the 
right side below the lungs; its work is, to help make the blood 
pure. It can do nothing with alcohol, so it drives it along to 
the heart; the heart sends it to the lungs; the lungs throw 
some of it out through the breath, which smells of the vile stuff 
that has been poisoning every part it has passed through since 
it entered the mouth. 
Some of the alcohol does not get out of the lungs through 
the breath, but goes with the blood back to the heart, and from 
the heart is sent through the arteries to every part of the body. 
No part of the body wants it. 
The Skin drives some of it out, through its little pores, with 
the perspiration. 
The Kidneys, which lie in the back below the waist, on each 
side of the spine, send off some of the poison. 
Yet some of it gets into the brain, and there does very much 
mischief, of which you will learn more b}’ and by. You know, 
if the brain is hurt, the mind cannot do its work of thinking 
properly; thus, alcohol does great harm to the mind through 
the brain. 
The muscles and the bones are hurt by not being supplied with 
pure blood; the heart gets tired out with overwork, and the 
lungs become diseased through this same terrible alcohol. 
Therefore, if you would be strong and healthy, have nothing 
to do with alcoholic liquors ; for 
ALCOHOL POISONS 
The stomach, 
The heart, 
The bones, 
The liver, 
The lungs, 
The muscles, 
The blood, 
The brain, 
The skin, 
And every part of the body. ALCOHOL. 
131 
In the Stomach. 
Children who have learned the Lesson on Digestion, and 
know about the coats of the stomach, about mastication and 
chyme-making, are easily made to understand why anything 
which has alcohol in it is unfit to go into the stomach. 
If we touch a drop of alcohol to the eye, it will make it sore; 
so alcohol in the stomach irritates its coats and makes them sore. 
Alcohol poisons the gastric juice. If we get some of this 
juice from the stomach of a calf which has just been killed, 
and mix alcohol with it, the alcohol will separate the wateiy 
part from the pepsin or white part. This is what alcohol does 
in the stomach. It takes up water from the gastric juice, 
which prevents the pepsin from mixing well with the food, and 
hinders the change of the food into chyme, which cannot take 
place without pepsin. 
The children have already learned that alcohol keeps meat 
from decaying, or going to pieces. We explain that food in 
the stomach must go to pieces to prepare it to make blood; 
when mixed wfith alcohol, it is preserved, and the gastric juice 
cannot melt or dissolve it. Thus the stomach is hindered from 
doing its work until it gets rid of the alcohol. 
A true story we have read will help you to remember how 
troublesome alcohol is to the stomach. Some men in Edin- 
burgh were paid their Wages, one Saturday, soon after they 
had eaten their dinner. They got drunk and remained so till 
the next day at noon. When they became sober they had a 
headache and were so ill that they sent for a doctor; he gave 
them some medicine which brought up their Saturday’s dinner 
just as it had gone down into the stomach. The poor stomach 
could do nothing with dinner mixed with whiskey or rum, be- 
cause these liquors are half alcohol. 
You have already learned that the stomach hurries to drive 
out the alcohol into the liver; the liver sends it with the blood 
into the heart; the heart pours it into the lungs ; the lungs 
breathe it out through the nose and mouth, and tell that some 
kind of alcoholic liquor has been taken into the stomach. 132 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
Remember, that the alcohol which comes out in the breath is 
a part of that which went into the mouth. It could uot be 
changed. It did nothing but mischief in its journey, which 
shows that it is not food, but poison. God, who created the 
body, has not given any part of it power to change alcohol into 
blood. 
People sometimes take ale or wine because the}7 think it gives 
them an appetite. This is a great mistake. When any alco- 
holic liquor goes into the stomach, there is such hard work to 
get it out that the pain of hunger is not felt; when it is out, 
the stomach is tired and does not tell the brain that it is hungry. 
When alcohol is poured into it, day after day, it loses its desire 
for good, wholesome food, and wants more and more alcoholic 
liquor. It has an appetite for alcohol. 
Alcohol makes the stomach sore and full of disease; people 
who take much of it in liquors always suffer much from dys- 
pepsia. 
So, if the stomach could speak, it would say: “Don’t pour 
any alcohol into me, though you mix it and call it ale, cider, 
wine, or any other name that makes folks think it will do me 
no harm. You cannot deceive me. I know alcohol as soon as 
it comes down, and it always makes me suffer.” 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
Alcohol — 
Burns or inflames the coats of the stomach. 
Spoils the gastric juice. 
Makes the food hard to be dissolved. 
Makes the stomach tired and weak. 
Takes away the appetite for wholesome food. 
Makes an appetite for alcoholic liquors. 
Causes disease in the stomach and other digestive organs. 
QUESTION ON BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
What harm does alcohol do in the stomach ? ALCOHOL. 
133 
To the Bones, Muscles, and Skin. 
To the Bones.—You have already learned that the bones 
require to be supplied with good blood to make them strong 
and healthy, and that alcohol does not make good blood, so we 
need spend no time in deciding that alcoholic liquors do injury 
to the bones, and that the bones of those who drink these 
liquors are less likely to heal, when broken, than those of 
persons whose blood has not been poisoned by alcohol. 
To the Muscles. — The muscles, as you know, cover and 
move the bones; good blood makes them grow, and keeps them 
healthy and strong. People like to have plenty of good 
muscle, for this not only gives them strength, but makes them 
look plump and well. 
Alcohol poisons the blood by killing many of the very little, 
round, red parts in it, called by a long name, which you can 
learn if you try. This hard name is corpuscles [kor'pussls] ; 
corpuscle means a little body. 
These little bodies float in the fluid portion of the blood, and 
go to every part of the body to help keep it alive and healthy. 
When alcohol hurts them, they turn into a poor kind of fat, like 
suet, and cannot do any good. They stay in different parts 
and do much harm. Sometimes they lodge between the muscles, 
and make a person look strong because plump; but he is not 
strong, for his muscles are filled with fat. 
Sometimes the liver or the heart, which are only large 
muscles, become so heavy and soft with fat that they cannot do 
their work properly; they become weak and diseased, wear out, 
and cause the death of their owner, who has poisoned them with 
ale, wine, or other alcoholic drink. 
To the Skin. — Alcohol hurts the skin also, by feeding it with 
poisoned blood, bjr giving the pores extra work in carrying off 
some of the alcohol in the perspiration, and by making the 
little blood-vessels larger than they should be in a way you will 
learn more about by and by. These little blood-vessels become 
very full of blood, and cause the red face and blue nose which 134 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
mark the drinker of alcoholic liquors. This redness of the skin 
tells of the mischief which alcohol is doing inside of the body. 
It is the danger-signal which warns against the use of the fiery 
poison. 
ALCOHOL HURTS 
The Bones, 
By supplying them 
with bad blood. 
The Muscles, 
By supplying them with 
bad blood; 
By loading them with 
fat which makes them 
weak. 
The Skin, 
By supplying it with 
bad blood; 
By over-working the 
perspiratory pores. 
To the Blood. — The wonderful fluid which is the life of the 
body consists of a water-like liquid in which floats millions of 
the very little, circle-shaped, red particles which you have been 
taught to call corpuscles. You have also been told that alcohol 
kills these little bodies, and thus takes some of the life out of 
the blood, and fills it with useless, suet-like fat. 
The blood, }7ou know, flows everywhere through the bod}7, 
giving its goodness to make every part grow and live, and 
carrying away the worn-out particles it meets. Blood, when 
poisoned with alcohol, goes through the body, giving disease 
and death instead of health and life. So, if you want good, red 
blood, do not let alcohol get into it. 
To the Heart.— When alcohol comes with the blood from 
the liver, the heart begins to beat fast to get rid of the fire- 
water ; this makes it very tired, for it always has enough to do 
in carrying bad blood to the lungs, and pumping good blood 
into the arteries, without having the extra trouble of driving 
out alcohol. Wise people will not give it this extra work to do. 
Besides, we told you, in the talk about the harm done by 
alcohol to the muscles, that the heart,—which is only a large 
To the Blood, tiie Lungs, and the Heart. ALCOHOL. 
135 
muscle, or rather many muscles fastened together so as to 
pear-shaped organ about the size of your fist, —is hurt 
in another way by alcohol. It gets too much of the poor kind 
of fat from the blood, which fills between the muscles, and after 
awhile makes the walls of the heart so soft and weak, that we 
could almost push through them with a finger, if we could get 
at them. 
Very often the tired, overworked, weakened heart suddenly 
scops beating, and the person who would keep on drinking beer, 
wine, brandy, or rum falls down dead. “Died from heart 
disease,” people say, when the truth is, died from drinking 
alcoholic liquors. 
To the Lungs.— What are the lungs?—“The breathing- 
machines of the body.” What do they throw out?—“Bad 
air.” What do they take in?—“Fresh air.” In pure air 
there is a good kind of gas which is necessary to keep us alive; 
this gas is called oxygen. 
When air is taken into the lungs, the oxygen mixes with the 
blood in them and makes it pure. If alcohol is in the lungs, it 
hardens the walls of their air-cells, and keeps out the oxygen or 
good gas ; at the same time it keeps in the impure gas, called 
nitrogen, which ought to come out through the nose and mouth 
into the air. Thus the blood in the lungs cannot be properly 
purified, and goes back to the heart impure blood which is unfit 
to be used. 
The lungs are also obliged to work faster when alcohol is in 
them, because with the heart they are striving to drive out the 
enemy. This makes the lungs tired, sore, and inflamed. They 
are not as strong to do their work, and are more likely to 
breathe in any contagious disease than are the lungs of people 
who do not drink alcoholic liquors. 
Some people go on drinking these poisons for many years, 
and seem not to be hurt by them ; but at last they suffer from 
what is called Alcoholic Phthisis, a kind of consumption which 
doctors cannot cure. 136 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL 
TO THE 
Heart. 
Overworks it. 
Makes it tired. 
Loads it with fat. 
Softens and de- 
stroys it. 
Blood-vessels. 
Hurries the blood through 
them. 
Stretches the small arteries 
and makes them unfit to 
work. 
Poisons the blood in the 
h air -1 ike blood - vessels 
(capillaries). 
Lungs. 
Makes them work too 
fast. 
Ileats and inflames 
them. 
Hardens the walls of 
their air-cells. 
Keeps in the poison- 
ous gas. 
Keeps out the good 
gas (oxygen). 
Weakens them and 
makes them diseased. 
Consists of 
TIIE BLOOD (“The life ... is in the blood”) 
A colorless liquid (plasma), and 
Little, red, circle-shaped bodies (corpuscles). 
ALCOHOL (a blood-poison) 
Mixes with the colorless liquid, and takes away some of its goodness. 
Smaller. 
Change shape. 
Lose color. 
Lose oxygen. 
Die, and change into useless fat. 
Makes some of the corpuscles 
To the Brain and Nerves. 
Where is your brain? — “ In my skull.” What color is it? 
— “ Gray and white.” What does it resemble? — “ Marrow.” 
What work is done in the brain?—“The work of thinking.” 
You may repeat what you have learned about the membranes 
of the brain. (See Formula for the Lesson on the Nervous 
System.) ALCOHOL. 
137 
You say “the inner membrane is a net-work of blood- 
vessels.” If these are blood-vessels in the membranes, what 
fills them?— “ Blood.” Do }*ou think alcohol can get into the 
brain?—“Yes.” How can it get there? — “It goes there 
with the blood.” How can we know that alcohol does mischief 
in the brain? You cannot answer? Did you never see a 
drunken man? Now tell me how you might know his brain 
has been hurt by alcohol. — “ He talks funny ; he acts strange- 
ly ; he is very cross; he does not know what he is doing; he 
walks crookedly; he falls down; sometimes he falls asleep, 
and is almost like a dead man; he is dead drunk.” 
Let us study to learn why the drunken man does such strange 
things. The alcohol in this bottle, and this egg which you see, 
will help us find the cause of the mischief. You may tell what 
is in the egg. — “A white liquid and a yellow liquid.” How 
could they be made hard ? — “ By making the egg hot; by boil- 
ing.” We will try what alcohol will do to the white part. 
You see when it is poured upon the white of the egg it hardens 
this part as boiling would harden it. This white portion is 
composed of water and something called albumen. The alcohol 
dries up the water and thickens the albumen. 
Albumen is found not only in eggs but in some seeds, as 
beans, peas, corn, etc., also in the gray part of the brain and 
in the nerves. 
We will talk first of the harm alcohol does to the nerves. 
You know they are the grayish-wliite cords which pass from the 
brain and the spine to every part of the body. What do they 
act like in the kind of work they do?—“ Like telegraph wires.” 
What is their work? — “To carry messages to and from the 
brain.” What kinds of nerves have you learned about? — 
“ Nerves of feeling and nerves of motion.” 
When alcohol touches a nerve, it draws away the moisture or 
water from it, and hardens the white part or albumen; this 
makes the nerve shrivel as if it had been burned; it loses its 
power to feel and move, or, to use a long word, is paralyzed. 
Alcohol paralyzes all the nerves it touches. It makes them 138 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
so stupid that they cannot understand what the brain says to 
them, and they do not carry the right messages back to it. 
For instance: when the nerves of the stomach are poisoned by 
the alcohol in beer, wine, etc., they do not feel the pain of 
hunger as much as they otherwise would, and they let the brain 
think the stomach is satisfied and does not need an}’ more food, 
when it is only stupefied by these liquors. 
Again, it is the work of some nerves to tell the muscles of 
the small arteries to tighten, or contract, when too much blood 
is coming into them. Alcohol so paralyzes these nerves that 
they do not carry their message; the arteries let in the blood, 
and become swollen and enlarged. They tell the mischief done 
to them, by causing the skin to be red or flushed. If people 
drink much of auy intoxicating liquor, and often, their skin is 
always a bad color, or, as grown folks say, becomes permanently 
discolored. All this because the nerves have been made unfit 
to do their duty by alcohol poison. 
The nerves also lose power over the muscles of the limbs. 
This is plainly seen in the trembling of the hands and the un- 
steady walking of the drunkard; but is equally true of those 
who drink only a little now and then. Their nerves are not as 
strong and wide-awake to control the machinery of the body 
as they would be if no alcohol were troubling them. 
Sometimes the nerves of hearing and sight tell the brain 
queer stories, and the poor brain believes them all, for it, too, 
is stupefied by the same fire-water which has hurt the nerves. 
Indeed, the harm done by alcohol to the brain is greater than 
that done to any other part of the body. It takes the water 
from the albumen, and makes the white part of the brain hard, 
as if it had been cooked. It kills the little, circle-shaped, red 
parts of the blood — the corpuscles ; these collect in the blood- 
vessels of the brain, and keep the blood from flowing as fast as 
it ought, which causes disease and very often death. Some- 
times the brain is so much injured by the poison that the 
drinker becomes crazy, and is a great deal of trouble to himself 
and everybody else. ALCOHOL. 
139 
Since all this is true, wise children will let cider, lager, ale, 
wine, and every other kind of alcoholic drink alone, and never, 
NEVER, 
“ Put an enemy into their mouths, 
To steal away their brains.” 
HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL 
Nerves. 
Takes away their moisture, and 
paralyzes them. 
Takes away their power to control 
the muscles. 
Makes them unfit to carry messages 
to and from the brain. 
to THE 
Brain. 
Fills or congests its blood-vessels 
with impure blood. 
Collects in it, and paralyzes it. 
Hardens its albumen. 
So hurts it as to cause craziness 
(insanity) and death. 
More About the Harm done by Alcohol. 
In the lessons you have learned you have been taught about 
the harm done by alcohol to the body and the mind; can you 
tell, from what 3 011 have seen of drunken people, in what other 
way alcoholic liquors hurt them?—“ The}' make people waste 
their mone}T; the}' make them waste their time ; they make 
them cross ; they make them fight; they make them say silly 
and wicked words; they sometimes make fathers and mothers 
hurt their children ; they make people lose their good name; 
they often make them do things for which they are sent to 
prison.” 
Yes, this is only some of the mischief done by alcohol. If 
you could fly around the world and see everybody who has been 
hurt in any way by this terrible poison, what a sad, sad sight 
you would behold! At least half the trouble in the world 
comes from strong drink. 
Are you, little girl, little boy, going to join the army of 
drunkards? No, indeed ! you think ; but probably no one who 
has become a drunkard ever intended to do so. They all began 140 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
with one glass, a few drops of some alcoholic liquor, — cider, 
wine, or beer perhaps, — and thus learned to love the taste of 
alcohol, and soon became its slaves. For this poison has the 
strange power of making those who drink it want more and 
more of itself , though they know it is doing them harm. 
The only safety is in letting alcoholic liquors alone, forever. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
Alcoholic Liquors Hurt 
The body, 
The mind, and 
The soul; 
And Make People 
Waste 
Money, 
Talents, and 
Time. 
Lose 
Strength, 
Health, and 
Good name. 
Unfit to 
Think, or 
Work. 
Unfit to Serve 
Themselves, 
Their neighbor, or 
God. 
STORIES ABOUT THE HARM DONE BY 
ALCOHOL.1 
A Young Beginner. — The hardest drinker I ever knew com- 
menced on cider when he was only five years old. lie would go to the 
barrel of cider in the cellar, which had been put there to make vinegar, 
and, getting a straw, would suck all the cider he wanted; and then, 
after he had played awhile, he would go back and get more. He kept 
on drinking alcoholic liquors of some kind, until he died a drunkard. 
Cider Delirium. — Dr. J. II. Travis, of Masonville, N.Y., was once 
called to a child six years old, who was raving in the wildest delirium. 
His symptoms were so peculiar that he questioned the family closely, 
and found that the day previous, at a raising, the child had drank 
freely of cider. After the men left he had procured a straw and gone 
to the barrel and drank till he was senseless, and after this the delirium 
1 From Juvenile Temperance Manual, by Julia Colman. ALCOHOL. 
141 
came on. He exhibited undoubted symptoms of delirium tremens. 
Cider was the common beverage of the family. Dr. Travis has been 
called to several other cases of delirium tremens from the use of cider. 
— Mrs. E. J. Richmond. 
A Caution to Mothers.—One of the first literary men in the 
United States said to a temperance lecturer: “ There is one thing 
which I wish you to do everywhere; entreat every mother never to 
give a drop of strong drink to a child. I have had to fight as for my 
life all my days to keep from dying a drunkard, because I was fed with 
spirits when a child. I thus acquired an appetite for it. My brother, 
poor fellow, died a drunkard.” 
A Girl Drunkard. — A young girl of eighteen, beautiful, intelli- 
gent, and temperate, the pride of her home, was recommended to take 
a little gin for some chronic ailment. She took it; it soothed the 
pain; she kept on taking it; it created an artificial appetite, and in 
four years she died a drunkard. — Medical Temperance Journal. 
“A Little Won’t Hurt Him.” — I was the pet of the family. 
Before I could well walk I was treated to the sweet from the bottom 
of my father’s glass. My dear mother would gently chide with him, 
“ Don’t, John, it will do him harm.” To this he would smilingly reply, 
“ This little sup won’t hurt him.” When I became a school-boy I was 
ill at times, and my mother would pour for me a glass of wine from 
the decanter. At first I did not like it; but, as I was told that it would 
make me strong, I got to like it. When I became an apprentice, I 
reasoned thus : “ My parents told me that these drinks are good, and 
I cannot get them except at the public-house.” Step by step I fell. . . . 
I have grown to manhood, but my course of intemperance has added 
sin to sin. My days are now nearly ended. Hope for the future I 
have none. — Dying Drunkard. 
Danger. — In one of Mr. Moody’s temperance prayer meetings at 
Chicago, a reformed man attributed a former relapse of drunkenness 
wholly to a physician’s prescription to take whiskey three times a day ! 
Killed by the Poison. — Many years ago, when stage coaches 
were in use in England, during a very cold night, a young woman 
mounted the coach. A respectable tradesman sitting there asked her 
what induced her to travel on such a night, when she replied that she 
was going to the bedside of her mother, of whose illness she had just 
heard. She was soon wrapped in such coats, etc., as the passengers 
could spare, and when they stopped the tradesman procured her some 142 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
brandy. She declined it at first, saying she had never drank spirits in 
her life. But he said, “ Drink it down; it won’t hurt jrou on such a 
bitter night.’-' This was done repeatedly, until the poor girl fell fast 
asleep, and when they arrived in London she could not be roused. 
She was stiff and cold in death, and the doctor, on the coroner’s in- 
quest, said that she had been killed by the brandy. — Mrs. Balfour. 
In Case of Shipwreck. — In the winter of 1790 a vessel was 
wrecked on an island of the Massachusetts coast, aud five persons on 
board determined to swim ashore. Four of them drank freely of 
spirits to keep up their strength, but the fifth would drink none. One 
was drowned, and all that drank spirits failed and stopped, and froze 
one after another, the man that drank none being the only one that 
reached the house at some distance from the shore, and he lived many 
years after that. 
It Exhausts Strength. — Concerning one cold winter when there 
were very severe snow-storms in the Highlands of Scotland, James 
Hogg, the poet, says: “ It was a received opinion all over the country 
that sundry lives were lost, and a great many more endangered, by the 
administration of ardent spirits to the sufferers while in a state of ex- 
haustion. A little bread and sweet milk, or even bread and cold water, 
proved a much safer restorative in the fields. Some who took a glass 
of spirits that night never spoke another word, even though they were 
continuing to walk and converse when their friends joined them. One 
woman found her husband lying in a state of insensibility; she had 
only sweet milk and oatmeal cake to give him, but with these she 
succeeded in getting him home and saving him ” — Bacchus. 
Shipmaster of the Kedron. — “ I was brought up in a temperance 
school, and when I shipped before the mast I stuck to my principles, 
though everyone else on board drank excepting two boys whom I 
persuaded to abstain. In a very severe storm off a lee-shore, when it 
was so cold they had to break the icicles off the ropes to tack the ship, 
all drank but myself and these two boys. The men would work very 
wrell for a few minutes, and then slack off and take another drink, 
until they were all keeled up, and w?e three boys had all wre could do 
to keep the ship from going ashore. If we had drank with the rest, 
all would have been lost, for the men were too drunk to save them- 
selves. Providentially, the storm abated before morning, and we were 
saved. Nour, for many years I have been captain of my own ship, and 
I never give out one drop of liquor.”— Captain Brown. ALCOHOL. 
143 
On the Plains. — Twenty-six men, travelling on one of the great 
Western plains in the United States, were overtaken by cold and night. 
They had food, clothing, and whiskey, but no fire. They were warned 
not to drink whiskey or they would freeze. Three did not drink a 
drop, and though they felt cold they did not suffer nor freeze. Three 
more drank a little, and though they suffered much they did not freeze. 
Seven others that drank a good deal had their toes and fingers frozen. 
Six that drank pretty strong were badly frozen and never got over it. 
Four that got very boozy were frozen so badly that they died three or 
four weeks afterward. Three that got dead drunk were stiff dead by 
daylight. They all suffered just in proportion to the amount of 
whiskey they took. They were all strong men, and had about the 
same amount of clothing and blankets; the whiskey was all that made 
the difference. 
The Red River Expedition in Canada, in 1870, is often quoted 
as one of the most laborious on record, 1200 troops travelling 1200 
miles through a very dense wilderness, and having all their supplies 
to carry. They were ninety-four days out, and none of them had liquor. 
They were constantly wet through, sometimes for days together, and 
all the while at the severe labor of rowing, poling, tracking, and por- 
taging, yet they were always well and cheery, and there was a total 
absence of crime. 
In Africa it is far safer to do without intoxicating drink. Living- 
stone says that he lived without it for twenty years. Stanley performed 
his wonderful journey without it. Bruce said more than one hundred 
years ago : “ I laid down as a positive rule of health that spirits and 
all fermented liquors should be regarded as poisonous. Spring, or 
running water, if you can find it, is to be your only drink.” 
Waterton, the great naturalist, who travelled so much in South 
America, says: “ I eat moderately, and never drink wine, spirits, or 
any fermented liquors in any climate. This abstemiousness has proved 
a faithful friend.” He died by accident at the age of eighty-three. 
Mr. IIuber, who saw 2160 perish of cholera in twenty-five days in 
one town in Russia, says that “ Persons given to drinking are swept 
away like flies. In Tiflis, containing 20,000 inhabitants, every drunkard 
has fallen.” Of 204 cases of cholera in the Park Hospital, New York, 
there were but six temperate persons, and these recovered. In Albany, 
where cholera prevailed with severe mortality for several weeks, only 
two of the 5000 members of temperance societies became its victims. THE HUMAN BODY. 
In Montreal, where the victims of the disease were intemperate, it 
usually cut them off. In Great Britain, those who have been addicted 
to spirituous liquors and irregular habits have been the greatest suf- 
ferers from cholera. In some towns the drunkards are all dead.— 
Bacchus. 
The Rumseller not a Good Citizen. — A liquor dealer was tried 
for some crime, convicted, aud sentenced by the judge. Some friends, 
in a subsequent plea, said that he was a worthy man and a good 
citizen. “ A worthy man,” said the judge, “ and make drunkards! 
A good citizen, and fill up our jails and almshouses, and cause men to 
commit murder and every iniquity! No, sir. Your request must be 
denied.” 
President Lincoln’s Murderer. — When Wilkes Booth had 
made up his mind to kill President Lincoln, he could not muster the 
courage to execute his plan without the aid of brandy. lie went to 
the bar and called for “ Brandy! brandy ! ” and then sought his victim, 
and did his bloody deed. 
Wife Murder. — A mechanic in New York city told me that when 
he had partaken freely, and was at home, he felt an almost superhuman 
desire to kill his wife. He loved her dearly as any man could, but 
several times while intoxicated he had caught himself with weapons 
in his hands preparing to take her life. He feared that he might some 
day commit the crime before he was aware of it. — Story. 
STORIES ABOUT THE RIGHT WAY TO 
TREAT ALE, BEER, Etc. 
The Right Side. — “ Boys, which is the right side of the public 
house ? Can you tell me ? ” — “ Yes, sir, the outside.” 
The Goat and the Ale. — Many years ago, when everybody drank 
freely, a Welsh minister named Rees Pritchard was at the ale-house 
drinking, when he took it into his head to offer some ale to a large 
tame goat. The animal drank till he fell down drunk, and the minister 
drank on till he was carried home drunk. The next day he was sick 
all day, but on the third day he went again to the ale-house, and began 
to drink. The goat was there, and he offered him more ale, but the ALCOHOL. 
145 
animal would not touch it. The minister, seeing the animal wiser 
than himself, was ashamed, and gave up drinking, and became a 
worthy minister. 
How the Monkey was Cured. — A monkey named Kees had been 
taught to drink brandy. At dinner every day he had his share like 
his more manly (?) neighbors, only that his was given to him in a 
plate. One day, as he was about to drink it, his master set it on fire, 
and he ran off frightened and chattering. No inducement could after- 
ward make him drink brandy. We have many stories of animals who 
would never drink again after they had once experienced its effects. 
The Keen Marksman does not poison his nerves and brain with 
alcohol. Angus Cameron, a Highlander, at the age of twenty, took 
the Queen’s prize for the best marksmanship, and when he was twenty- 
two (in 1869), he won in the same way a cup worth $1000. He made 
the best shot each time that ever had been made in the contest, and 
neither of them has been beaten by anyone else. Angus is a slight, 
modest, unassuming young man, who had been a Band of Hope boy. 
When he was announced as the winner, and all the friends made an 
ado over him, and offered him a generous glass of champagne, he 
quietly refused their mistaken kindness, and kept his pledge. 
Benjamin Franklin, when a printer boy in London, would drink 
no beer, and his companions called him the water American, and 
wondered that he was stronger than they who drank beer. His com- 
panion at the press drank six pints of beer every day, and had it to 
pay for. He was not only saved the expense, but he was stronger than 
they, and better off in every way. If he had gone to drinking beer at 
that time, like the other printer boys, it is likely we should never have 
heard of him. 
Oatmeal Drink. — “In Boulton and Watts’ factory we saw an 
immense workman at the hottest and heaviest work, wielding a pon- 
derous hammer, and asked him what liquor he drank. He replied by 
pointing to an immense vessel filled with water and oatmeal, to which 
the men went and drank as much as they liked.” This is made by 
adding one pound fine oatmeal to each gallon of water, and is much 
used in factories and at heavy work of all kinds in Government works, 
instead of the old rations of alcoholic liquors. Iron puddlers, glass 
blowers, and athletic trainers, all do their work now better without 
alcoholic liquors. 146 
THE HUMAN BODV. 
A Change in Affairs.— A poor boy was once put as an apprentice 
to a mechanic; and, as lie was the youngest, he was obliged to go for 
beer for the older apprentices, though he never drank it. In vain they 
teased and taunted him to induce him to drink; he never touched it. 
Now there is a great change. Every one of those older apprentices 
became a drunkard, while this temperance boy has become a master, 
and has more than a hundred men in his employ. So much for total 
abstinence. 
Books Better than Beer. — An intelligent young mechanic stood 
up in a temperance meeting and'said: “ I have a rich treat every night 
among my books. I saved my beer money and spent it in books. 
They cost me, with my book-case, nearly SI00. They furnish enjoy- 
ment for my winter evenings, and have enabled me, by God’s blessing, 
to gain much useful knowledge, such as pots and pipes could never 
have given me.” 
A Little Drummer-Boy was a favorite among the officers, who 
one day offered him a glass of strong drink. He refused it, saying that 
he was a Cadet of Temperance. They accused him of being afraid; 
but that did not move him. Then the major commanded him to 
drink, saying: “ You know it is death to disobey orders.” The little 
fellow stood up at his full height, and fixing his clear blue eyes on the 
face of the officer, he said: “ When I entered the army I promised my 
mother on bended knees that, by the help of God, I would not taste a 
drop of rum, and I mean to keep my promise. I am sorry to disobey 
orders, sir, but I would rather suffer than disgrace my mother, and 
break my temperance pledge.” He was excused from drinking. APPENDIX II. 
TOBACCO. TOBACCO. 
INTRODUCTORY LESSON. 
You have been learning about the poison alcohol, and what 
mischief is done by it; we will now study about another poison 
which thousands of persons are using every day. It is rolled 
in cigars and cigarettes, and hidden in snuff and pieces of 
tobacco, and does more harm to children and young people who 
use these things than to grown persons. 
Perhaps 3*011 know how a person feels who takes tobacco or 
smokes a cigar for the first time ; if not, we will tell you. lie 
begins to be dizzy, to tremble, to become faint, and to vomit; 
his head aches, and he is so sick for hours, often for several 
days, that he scarcely knows what to do. Why is he so sick? 
Because tobacco poison has been taken into his lungs ; also, 
some has mixed with the saliva and gone down into his 
stomach ; and each part it has reached is striving to drive it 
out, and is saying, by the pain it causes, “ You have given me 
poison; do not give me any more.” If he had taken enough it 
would have killed him. 
He recovers from this sickness and tries chewing or smoking 
again and again, until he becomes accustomed to the poison 
and can chew or smoke and it does not hurt him ; so he thinks, 
but he is very much mistaken. 
Tobacco is a poison, and hurts everybody who uses it every 
time they do so, although it does its evil work very slowly, 
unless taken in large quantities. To understand more about 
this we will try to learn how tobacco is obtained, what poison 
is in it, and in what way it harms people. 150 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
THE STORY ABOUT TOBACCO. 
How it Came to be Used. — Tobacco is the leaves of the 
tobacco plant, a native of America. It was used by the 
Indians of this country before Columbus came here in 1492. 
Some of the Spaniards who were with him on his second visit 
took some of it back with them to Portugal, and told the 
people the}’ had discovered a wonderful medicine. From Spain 
tobacco seed was sent to France by Jean Nicot, in 15G0. It is 
said that Sir Walter Raleigh carried it to England in 1586, 
when Elizabeth was queen. 
In a few years many civilized people were snuffing, chewing, 
and smoking tobacco, like the wild Indians, although it cost 
them a great deal of money to do so. King James does not 
seem to have liked it very much, for he said, “It is a custome 
loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, 
and dangerous to the lungs.” He called the smoke “ stinking 
fumes.” 
The Tobacco Plant. — This plant belongs to the same family 
as the deadly nightshade, henbane, belladonna, thorn-apple, 
Jerusalem cherry, potato, tomato, egg-plant, cayenne pepper, 
bitter-sweet, and petunia. Most of the plants of this Night- 
shade family liave more or less poison in their leaves or fruit. 
Tobacco is supposed to have been named from the pipe used 
by the Indians in smoking its leaves. 
The common tobacco plant grows from three to six feet high, 
and has large, almost lance-sliaped, leaves growing down the 
stems; its flowers are funnel-shaped and of a purplish color. 
When fresh the leaves have very little odor or taste. 
How Tobacco is Used. — When the plants are ripe, they are 
cut off above the roots and placed where tlie}T will become dry, 
sometimes in a building made for this purpose, called “a 
tobacco house.” After a short time they begin to smell strong 
and taste bitter. They are then stripped from the stems very 
carefully and sorted. The leaves nearest the root are con- 
sidered the poorest, those at the top generally the best. TOBACCO. 
151 
The different sorts are packed in separate hogsheads, and 
sent away to be sold to manufacturers of cigars, snuff, etc. 
The manufacturer has some leaves rolled into cigars, some 
pressed into cakes for chewing, or into little pieces to be smoked 
in a pipe ; while some are ground for snuff. While the dried 
leaves are being rolled, pressed, or ground, various substances 
are mixed with them to give them an agreeable odor and 
pleasant taste. 
Yet, however pleasant the manufacturer may make them as 
he rolls, presses, or grinds, he cannot take the poison out of 
them. It remains in its brown covering to do much harm to 
those who may smoke the cigars, use the snuff, or chew the 
tobacco. 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
The Tobacco Plant. 
Native of 
America. 
Found by 
Columbus, 1492. 
Taken to 
Portugal, 1496. 
France, 1560. 
England, 1586. 
Grows in the 
Torrid and tem- 
perate zones. 
(About 50 species.) 
Description. 
Height, 3 to 6 feet. 
Leaves, lance-ovate, and run- 
ning down the stem. 
Stem, hairy and sticky. 
Flowers, funnel-shaped and 
purplish. 
Family. 
The same as t'he Jerusalem Cherry, 
Petunia, 
Potato, 
Tomato, 
Egg-plant, 
Red pepper, etc. 
How Made Ready fob Use. 
(1) 
Cut-off above the roots. 
Dried. 
Stripped; sorted. 
Packed, and sold to the manufacturers. 
(2) 
Flavored and scented. 
Rolled for cigars. 
Pressed for chewing. 
Ground for snuff. 152 
THE HCMAN BODY. 
THE POISON IN TOBACCO AND THE 
HARM IT DOES. 
The Poison.— What is the poison in fermented liquors? — 
“Alcohol.” In distilled liquors?—“Alcohol.” True; and 
the strongest poison in tobacco is nicotine, named from the man 
who first sent it to France, Jean Nicot. Beside this it contains 
several others, some of which we shall tell you about when we 
make up our blackboard outline. 
Tobacco, like alcohol, is a narcotic; that is, it soothes pain 
and produces sleep. Alcohol acts first upon the nerves ; tobacco 
upon the muscles, which it weakens and causes to tremble. It 
often causes palpitation of the heart. 
If the skin is scratched or punctured, and tobacco poison put 
into the wound, it will do the same harm as if it were taken into 
the stomach. Tobacco is so dangerous that physicians do not 
use it much as a medicine. 
Harm done in the Stomach. — You remember that after alco- 
hol has been swallowed, the little mouths of the stomach take it 
up and carry it to the liver, which sends it with the blood to 
different parts of the body. 
Tobacco, as we have already told 3011, poisons more slowly. 
People do not swallow it purposely, yet some of it goes down, 
accidentally, into the stomach with the saliva, and makes trouble 
there, causing nausea and vomiting when taken for the first 
time. By and by the stomach seems to take the poison without 
being hurt, but it really suffers from dyspepsia or other diseases, 
and often loses its appetite for wholesome food. 
Harm done in the Mouth, Throat, and Lungs.— The mouth 
takes in some of the poison through the pores of the membrane, 
or skin, which lines it; those who smoke, sometimes have what 
is called “smokers’ sore throat”; besides this, the senses of 
taste and smell are more or less injured by nicotine and the 
other poisons in tobacco. 
The fumes, or smoke, from the weed fills the air with poison- TOBACCO. 
153 
ous vapor which irritates the lungs, not only of the smoker, but 
of all who are where they must breathe the same atmosphere. 
Lungs thus irritated are liable to become diseased. 
Cigarettes are still more injurious than cigars because of the 
smoke from their paper coverings; also, because from the way 
they are made, more of the tobacco poison goes into the lungs. 
The cheap cigarette which boys use is made from cast-away 
cigar stumps and other filthy things. 
Harm done in the Brain and Nerves. — The smoker feels so 
rested and comfortable, after his cigar, and his brain is so 
rested, that he does not think about the mischief that is going 
on among its blood-vessels and nerves; perhaps he has never 
heard that tobacco, snuffed, chewed, or smoked hurts the brain, 
and does not learn about it until he finds he is losing his mem- 
ory, that his mind is not so strong to think as it should be, and 
his will too weak to help him conquer his love for the snuff, 
tobacco, or cigar, when he wishes to stop using it. He has 
become the slave of tobacco, and it is not easy to get free from 
his cruel enemy. 
The nerves also lose their power, or become more or less 
paralyzed by nicotine and the other tobacco poisons. 
More about the Harm done by Tobacco.— Some persons who 
continue to use tobacco are strong enough to throw off the 
poison through the lungs, the skin, and in other ways ; but how 
much better it would be if they were not obliged to employ their 
strength in getting rid of that which does them no good, which 
only gives a little pleasure to nobody but themselves, and often 
makes those suffer who are compelled to remain where they are 
having “ a good smoke.” Beside, their breath and clothing 
have the tobacco odor, which not only makes the air impure, 
but is disagreeable to most people. 
If this be true of smoking, what shall we say about the filthy 
habit of chewing, and the utterly useless and disgusting practice 
of taking snuff, which injures the voice as well as the senses of 
taste and smell? 154 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
And what about spitting tobacco juice on the floors of cars, 
steamboats, churches, — any place where it is convenient for the 
man or boy who has lost his common politeness in his love for 
tobacco ? 
We must not forget that cigars, etc., cost money. No one 
who smokes, chews, or snuffs would throw away dollars and 
cents which might be put into the savings bank, or used in 
buying something worth having for himself or somebody else. 
Lastty, we would have you know that tobacco causes thirst, 
and this often leads to drinking alcoholic liquors. Some one 
who has studied this subject, says that “ nine out of ten of the 
boys and young men who become drunkards have first learned 
to smoke or chew tobacco.” A New York daily paper gave a 
list of 294 cases of insanity caused by drinking, in 246 of which 
the whiskey drinking followed tobacco chewing. 
Tobacco and alcohol make thousands of wretched homes, and 
send a great many people to prison or to the insane asylum; so 
we entreat you to turn from beer, wine, and all alcoholic liquors 
as you would from a serpent, and say No, when tempted to 
smoke a cigar or use tobacco in any form. 
Do this all the more decidedly because, as we have told you 
before, alcohol and tobacco hurt children and young persons in 
every way more than they injure any one else. If you have 
begun to use these poisons, give them up this very day, before 
the habit of using them becomes too strong for you to break. 
QUESTIONS ON THE USE OF TOBACCO. 
Of what poison beside alcohol have you been studying?—“ Tobacco.” 
How is tobacco used ? — “ Some take it in snuff; some chew it; some smoke 
it in a pipe; some smoke it in cigars or cigarettes.” 
What is the name of the strongest poison in tobacco ? — “ Nicotine.” 
What harm does tobacco poison do to the body?—See Blackboard Outline. 
What harm does it do to the mind ?—See Blackboard Outline. 
Whom does it harm most ? — ‘ ‘ Those who begin to use it when they are 
children or very young.” 
What happens to children or young people if they use tobacco in any way ? 
— “They are not healthy; they are not strong; they do not grow fast; they 
look pale and sickly.” TOBACCO. 
155 
How does the tobacco poison hurt their minds ?— “They cannot learn fast; 
they often forget what they have learned.’’ 
What often makes tobacco-chewers, snuffers, and smokers disagreeable to 
clean people? — “Their breath smells of tobacco; their clothes smell of 
tobacco; they poison the air with tobacco-fumes; some have the filthy habit 
of spitting tobacco-juice wherever they happen to be.” 
What other harm does the use of tobacco do to people ? — “It makes them 
waste time and money; it leads some to drink alcoholic liquors and to go with 
bad company.” 
If you are wise how will you treat tobacco?— “ I will let it alone.” 
If you have begun to use it what had you better do ? — “Give it up to-day.” 
Why to-day ?— “ Because the longer I use it the harder it will be for me to 
give it up.” 
If you keep on using it what will you be ? — “A tobacco slave.” 156 
THE HUMAN BODY, 
BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 
Tobacco. 
Poisons in Tobacco. 
Smoke. Effects of the Poisons. 
Carbonic acid Causes sleepiness and headache. 
Carbonic oxide 
Causes trembling of the muscles 
and heart. 
Ammonia 
Bites the tongue; makes too much 
work for the salivary glands. 
Nicotine See below. 
Nicotine 
Is 
Odorous, 
Pungent, 
Emetic, 
Poisonous, 
Pain-soothing, 
Sleep-producing, i.e. Narcotic. 
Causes 
Weakness, 
Nervousness, 
Dizziness, 
Nausea, 
Faintness, 
Loss of strength, 
Stupor, 
If taken in large quantities, Convulsions and Death. 
Some of the Harm done by Tobacco 
To the Body. 
Poisons the saliva. 
Injures the sense of smell, taste, 
sight, and hearing. 
Causes “ smokers’ sore-throat.” 
Injures the stomach, causing dys- 
pepsia, etc. 
Often takes away the appetite for 
wholesome food. 
Irritates the air-cells of the lungs. 
Causes palpitation of the heart. 
Weakens the muscles, causing 
trembling. Injures the eyes. 
Excites, then stupefies and para- 
lyzes the brain and the nerves. 
To the Mind, etc. 
Makes the memory poor. 
Lessens the power to think. 
Weakens the will. 
Makes people grow in selfishness 
and impoliteness. 
Makes people waste time and 
money. 
Often leads to drunkenness and 
bad company. 
Sometimes causes insanity. KABCOTICS. 
OPIUM AND OTHER NARCOTICS. 
Opium. — Opium is the juice obtained from the seed-vessels 
of the white poppy before they are ripe ; this is dried, and 
smoked in a pipe or chewed. It makes a person feel very 
pleasant and happy for a little while, then so horribly wretched 
that he takes more of the poison to forget his misery. So he 
keeps on until mind and body are a complete wreck. Now and 
then an opium slave gets free from the dreadful habit which 
has mastered him, but usually the slavery ends only in death. 
Laudanum and Morphine. — These soothe pain and cause 
sleep; but beware of them; they are made from opium, and 
like it, though more slowly, hurt mind and body. 
Beware also of chloral hydrate and chloroform, which physi- 
cians give to ease suffering and produce sleep. Endure pain 
rather than form the habit of using these narcotics. 
Hashish, etc. —This is prepared from the hemp plant grow- 
ing in hot countries, and is a terribly exciting poison. 
The areca nut, the seed from a kind of palm, pear-shaped, 
and resembling a nutmeg, is mixed with quick-lime and wrapped 
in a betel-leaf, which grows on a vine belonging to the pepper 
family. This mixture reddens the saliva and lips, and blackens 
the teeth. It is chewed by millions of people in India. 
The leaves of the coca, also of the thorn apple, are smoked 
or chewed by the South American Indian. 
All these poisons mean the same thing, — 
A little pleasure, disease, and DEATH. |1rcss of 
’Grrfoitk it Smitfj, 
Boston.