SKELETON. 
THE OUTER LINES SHOW THE FORM OF THE HUMAN BODY WHEN THE SKELETON 
IS CLOTHED WITH FLESH. Health Lessons 
Ifuv I?£0i uutxs. 
A PRIMER OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, AND 
SIMPLE TREATISE ON THE EFFECTS OF 
- STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 
UPON THE HUMAN 
SYSTEM. 
BY 
ORESTES M. BRANDS, 
Author op “Lessons on the Human Body,” Principal op Grammar 
School, Paterson, N.J. 
LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN, 
BOSTON AND NEW YORK. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by 
ORESTES M. BRANDS, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
•J. S. Cushing & Co., Printers, Boston. 
PRESSWORK BY BERWICK & SMITH. PREFACE. 
Nothing that the author could say by means of 
prefatory remarks would either add to or subtract 
from the merits of this little book. My fellow- 
teachers and the intelligent public will form their 
own opinions of its worth. It must speak for itself. 
Acknowledgment is due to Dr. Herman Ben- 
dell, the eminent oculist of Albany, N.Y.; to Dr, 
A. W, Calhoun, Professor of Diseases of the Eye, 
Ear, and Throat in the Atlanta Medical College; to 
Dr. E. M. Hunt, Secretary of State Board of 
Health, N.J., Dr. Wm. K. Newton, Inspector of 
Health, Paterson, N.J., for valuable data; and to 
other eminent medical authorities, to whose kind 
favor the author is indebted. 
Last, but by no means least, to his fellow-teachers, 
and to school officers in many States, the author 
expresses his gratitude for the kind reception given 
his former work, “ Lessons on the Human Body,” and 
trusts that they may find this still more easy book 
worthy of continued favor. 
O. M. B. CONTENTS. 
THE FRAMEWORK. 
LESSON. 
I. The Bones 1 
PAGE. 
111. Care of the Framework 10 
11. More about the Bones 6 
IV. The Teeth and their Health ..... 12 
Questions 107 
DIGESTION. 
I. Why we need Food 15 
111. Hints about Eating .21 
11. How Food is digested 18 
IY. The Water we drink 23 
V. Stimulants and Narcotics 20 
Questions . . - . 108 
THE BLOOD. 
I. Blood and what it does ...... 30 
11. The Heart and other Blood-Vessels ... 31 
111. Health and the Circulation . ■ . . . .35 
Effects op Narcotics, etc. 37 
Questions 110 
I. The Organs of Breath 40 
BREATHING. 
11. The Air we breathe 43 
111. Why we breathe. How to breathe ... 46 
Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco .... 47 
IV. Ventilation and Heating ...... 48 
V. Buildings. Location, Construction, etc. . . 52 
Questions .11l CONTENTS. 
THE MUSCLES. 
LESSON. 
I. What Muscles are, etc. ...... 55 
PAGE. 
111. Muscular Exercise and Health .... 63 
11. What Muscles ho.—Classes 57 
Alcohol and the Muscles 67 
Questions 112 
THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
I. The Brain and its Work 68 
111. Laws of Health of the Brain and Nerves . . 74 
11. The Nerves and their Office .... 70 
Effects op Narcotics 76 
Questions 113 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
I. The Eye, and how we see 77 
11. Care op the Eye. Abuse.— Disease ... 81 
Effects of Tobacco 86 
111. The Ear, and how we hear 87 
IV. Care of the Ear. Injury to Hearing . .89 
V. The Skin. Sense of Touch 92 
Effects of Tobacco 90 
VI. The Skin and Health. Bathing .... 96 
VII. Clothing and Health 98 
VIII. Taste and Smell. Narcotics 102 
Questions , . 114 THE FRAMEWORK. 
LESSON I. 
THE BONES. 
(a) Nature and Uses of the Bones. —l. The 
bones are the framework of the body. They are to 
our bodies what the timbers are to a house, for they 
give shape and firmness, and support the other parts. 
We could not stand up if we had no bones, nor could 
we walk, but would have to crawl like worms. To 
fit the bones for their uses, the all-wise Creator has 
made them of two substances, one of which makes 
them firm, the other, tough. 
2. If we burn a bone in a fire, nothing is left but 
brittle lime; and if we soak a bone in acid, the hard 
lime in it dissolves, and leaves a substance like glue. 
The earthy matter, or lime, makes the bones firm and 
hard, and the glue-like part makes them tough and 
slightly elastic. Thus, you see, that if the bones had 
uo earth in them, they would bend like gristle; and, 2 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
if they had only earth in them, they would be as brit- 
tle as in the case of the burnt bone, and would soon 
be broken in many places. You would not dare to 
run, jump, or play as yon do now, for you would 
not risk the certainty of being broken into small 
pieces! But your bones have less earthy matter than 
those of old people, and are not so brittle. When 
broken, they unite more quickly than the broken 
bones of the aged do. 
3. Bones are of many forms; some are round and 
long, others broad and flat, and still others short, thick, 
and irregular. The long hones of your limbs are hol- 
low. They are stronger than the same bone would 
be if it were solid. 801 l a narrow strip of paper into 
a long tube, or “ lamp-lighter,” and notice how much 
stronger it is in that form than when folded into a 
slender, solid stick. The fiat hones, as in the skull, 
have two hard plates with a spongy layer of bone 
between. These give much better protection to the 
brain than a single thick plate would. Jars from 
blows do not shock the brain so much through the 
two plates. The short, thick hones are found where 
much strength in small space is needed. Everywhere 
you will notice how nicely every part is fitted in the 
best possible way to do what is required of it. All 
are joined together for protection and for motion. 
(h) Joints. —l. The bones of the skull are joined 
together so that they do not move. These bones are 
fitted together by a kind of notched joint. These 
joints are called sutures, and they aid in protecting THE FRAMEWORK. 
3 
the brain from sudden jars. Fig. 2 shows the joints 
at the top of the skull. 
Explanations op Fig. 2. 
b, the sagittal suture. 
c, the lambdoidal suture. 
a, a, the coronal suture. 
d, d, ossa triquetra, small ragged 
bones, occasionally found in some 
skulls, lying in the last-mentioned su- 
ture. 
e, e, portions of the temporal bone, 
overlapping the walls. 
1, the frontal bone. 
2, 2, the parietal bone. 
3, the occipital bone. 
Fig. 2. 
2. There are movable joints in almost all parts of 
the body, so that the muscles may move one bone 
upon another. These joints are so contrived that 
they may not wear out in a long lifetime, and often 
they are nearly as good at the end of seventy or eighty 
years as when they were first used. In machines 
made by men the joints wear out even when con- 
stantly oiled. Our bony joints need no such care 
from us, for they keep themselves oiled. In order 
that the bones may move easily and smoothly, their 
ends are covered with very smooth gristle, which is 
kept constantly moistened by the “joint water.” 
Strong cords or bands of a very tough substance, at 
or about the ends of the bones, bind them together 
quite firmly. The joints may be wrenched and the 4 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
bones put out of place by falls, sudden jars, or by 
blows. Rough twisting of the bones sometimes tears 
the ligaments and soft parts attached to the bones at 
the joints, and such an injury is called a sprain. 
Children who are rough in their play may sprain 
joints; and a sprain is often more painful and serious 
than a broken bone. 
3. Some joints are formed by the rounded head of 
one bone fitting into a socket in another. Your 
shoulder-joint and hip-joint are of this kind, and are 
called hall-and-socket joints. These joints allow 
motion in almost every direction; but for this very 
reason the bones slip out of joint more frequently 
than in other joints. Fig. 3 shows the shoulder-joint. 
Explanation or Pig. 3. 
In this cut is seen the union of the head of the 
humerus with the shallow socket of the scapula. 
These bones are represented as detached from the 
body, and the view is a front one. 
a, the humerus, or arm-bone. 
h, the scapula, or shoulder-blade. 
c, the head or ball of the humerus. 
d, rim of the socket of the scapula. 
e, processes of bone that overlap and protect 
the joint. 
Fig. 3. 
It is easily put out of joint because the socket is so 
shallow; but if it were deeper, the arm could not 
move so freely. In Fig. 4 you have a picture of the 
hip-joint. Here the socket is deeper, and the move- THE FRAMEWORK. 
5 
ment is not quite so free as in the shoulder; but it 
is very secure. 
Explanation of Fig. 4. 
We have here an excellent representation 
of the upper end of the femur, or thigh- 
bone, and half of the pelvis. The hall, or 
head, of the femur, supported by a neck 
which forms an obtuse angle with the body 
of the bone, is fixed in the socket of the os 
innominatum, filling the cavity, but not all c 
enclosed by it. The depth of the socket is 
only about half the diameter of the ball. 
a, the os innominatum, or hip-bone. 
b, the head of the femur, or thigh-bone. 
C, the rim of the socket. 
d, the femur. 
e, the sacrum. 
f, the point of bone on which we sit. 
Fig. 4. 
4. In your elbows, knees, fingers, and toes are 
joints that move like a binge. They allow the bones 
to move back and forth on the same line, just as a 
door swings on its hinges. These joints are called 
hinge-joints. Fig. sis a picture of the bones of an 
arm. There are two bones, you notice, in the arm 
below the elbow: one of these rolls over the other in 
such a way that you can turn the palm of your hand 
up or down, etc. In the wrist are two rows of irreg- 
ular bones, four in each row. In the thumb there 
are two bones, while each finger has three. The 
varying length of our fingers and their numerous 
joints make our hands wonderful instruments for 
handling. No other animal lias so perfect an instru- 
ment for this purpose. To his brain and his hands 
man owes his superiority over all the lower animals. 6 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
Explanation of 
Fig. 5. 
All the bones of the arm, 
fore-arm, and hand, are here 
exhibited in connection, with 
reference to impressing it on 
the mind, after having read a 
short description of the indi- 
vidual parts of the upper ex- 
tremity. 
a is the head of the arm- 
bone, articulated to the shoul- 
der. 
h, the joint, or elbow, 
formed by the ulna and lower 
end of the arm. 
c, the shaft of the os hu- 
meri, or arm. 
d, the radius, or handle of 
the hand, united solely to the 
wrist. 
e, the ulna, which alone 
forms with the arm the joint. 
Fig. 5. 
LESSON 11. 
MORE ABOUT THE BONES. 
(a) The Chest, etc. —l. Notice the cone-shaped 
set of bones that form the bony cage called the chest. 
The slender ribs, twelve on each side, go round it 
like the hoops of a barrel. They are joined to the 
backbone behind and to the flat breast-bone in front, 
except the two lower ones on each side, which are 
free in front. They are joined front and back in 
such a way as to move up and down when we breathe. A Back View of the 
Skeleton. 
a, the parietal bone. 
b, the occipital bone. 
c, the temporal bone. 
d, the cheek-bone. 
e, the lower jaw-bone. 
The Head. 
Keck and Trunk. 
a, the bones of the neck. 
b, the bones of the back. 
c, the bones of the loins. 
d, the hip-bone. 
e, the sacrum. 
Upper Extremity, 
a, the collar-bone. 
b, the blade-bone. 
c, the tipper bone of the arm. 
d, the radius. 
e, the ulna. 
/, the bones of the wrist. 
g, the bones of the hand. 
h, the first row of finger-bones. 
i, the second row of finger-bones. 
k, the third row of finger-bones. 
l, .the bones of the thumb. 
Lower Extremity. 
a, the thigh-bone. 
b, the large bone of the leg. 
c, the small bone of the leg. 
d, the heel-bone. 
e, the bones of the instep. 
/, the bones of the toes. 
Fig. 6, 8 
HE AL TH LESSONS. 
Inside of this cage of bone are the heart and lungs. 
See Fig. 9. 
2. The backbone, as it is called, is not a single 
bone. It is a pile of twenty-four bones placed one 
above another like a column of spools. These 
bones are very irregular in shape, having pointed 
ends or spines to which muscles are fastened. You 
may plainly feel some of these spines in your back, 
and see where they are in the back of another person. 
If it were all one bone, you could not twist and bend 
your body as you can now. In the centre of each 
bone is a hole, and as the bones stand one upon 
another, these holes form a long tube in which the 
spinal marrow is found. This “ marrow ”is really a 
great nerve extending down from the-brain through 
the bones. Here is a picture of one of these bones. 
Explanation of Fig. 7. 
This is an accurate drawing of one of 
the bones of the spine, at the neck. 
a is the body of the bone. 
b, the spinous process, or handle, which 
gives the name of spine to the whole col- 
umn. 
c, c, the transverse pirocesses, to which 
the muscles adhere, producing motion. 
d, d, round holes, through the arms of 
the bone, for safely lodging an artery, which 
Fig. 7. 
carries blood to the brain. 
e, e, the upper, and /, /, the under sur- 
faces, which make a joint with the blocks 
above and below it. 
g, the hole through which the spinal marrow, or pith of the back, passes in 
safety from the head, through the whole chain of twenty-four vertebrae. THE FRA ME 1 YORK. 
9 
3. Between each two of these bones is a pad of 
gristle. These pads are the springs, as it were, of 
the back. They allow considerable motion also. If 
it were not for them the head and brain would suffer 
greatly from the jar of walking, etc. These pads 
grow slightly thinner from the weight they bear 
during the day, so we are not quite as tall in the 
evening as in the morning; they recover their thick- 
ness while we rest at night. For the same reason 
the backbone becomes a little shorter in old age. 
The pads do not recover their thickness, or they 
shrink a little. The backbone is not straight. It 
has four curves, two forward and two backward. 
(h) The Legs and Feet. —l. One long bone 
forms the thigh. This is the longest bone of your 
body. The knee-joint is covered in front by a 
chestnut-shaped bone which protects the joint. Be- 
low the knee you notice two long bones, one on the 
inner and the other on the outer side of the leg. The 
inner and larger one is the shin-bone. The more 
slender, outer bone seems to be a kind of brace for 
the other, and it offers a place for fastening muscles. 
The lower ends of these two bones may be felt at the 
ankle. 
2. The foot is formed of bones much like those of 
the hand. There are as many bones in it as there 
are in the hand, but it does- not have as much variety 
of motion. Its arched form serves to break the force 
of falls or jars, and it also gives spring when we 
step. 10 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
Fig. 8. 
Explanation of Fig. 8. 
By this diagram the skeleton of the foot will he clearly understood, even 
without the aid of the bones. Twenty-six hones are here so curiously grouped 
together, that an arch is made bet ween the heel and ball of the great toe. 
a shows the five bones of the metatarsus. 
d, e, g, and h point out the five bones of the instep, or tarsus, 
b and c indicate the phalanges, or toes. 
LESSON 111. 
CARE OF THE FRAMEWORK. 
(a) Exercise. —l. The health of the bones, as 
much as that of any other portion of the body, de- 
pends upon their proper nourishment and exercise. 
2. When a child is feeble and unhealthy, or when 
it grows up without exercise, the bones do not be- 
come firm and hard as they do when healthfully 
developed by exercise. 
3. The size and strength of the bones, to a con- 
siderable extent, depend upon exercise and good 
health. THE FRAMEWORK. 
11 
(h) Dress and Deformity.—l. Distortion of the 
spine and bones of the chest may be caused by tight 
clothing about the waist. Tight clothing presses the 
lower ribs inward, prevents their free movement, and 
interferes with the full expansion of the chest and 
lungs in breathing. It also distorts the liver, and 
interferes with its healthy action. When worn by 
young people, before the bones have become hard, 
tight clothing prevents the growth of the chest, and 
changes its natural form. Clothing should be suffi- 
ciently loose and easy to allow free movement and 
growth of the bones enclosing the vital organs. 
2. You should learn to sit and stand erect. If 
you get a bad habit of stooping over or leaning too 
much to one side while sitting at your desks or while 
standing, you may become deformed. The pads of 
gristle in your backbone will be pressed thin on one 
side and remain thick on the other. This gives them 
the shape of a wedge. They sometimes harden in 
this wedge shape, and then you could not straighten 
up. You would either have a stoop forward like an 
old person, or your backbone would be bent sidewise, 
and one shoulder would be higher than the other. 
Your desk should not be so high that it causes you 
to sit with one shoulder raised higher than the other. 
3. Our feet should be as free from pain and dis- 
ease as our hands. They would be, if we did not 
cramp the bones and joints and make them centres 
of pain by wearing shoes too short, or too narrow, 
and sometimes both. Five toes are often crowded 12 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
into space not large enough for three. The joints of 
the great toe are pressed out of place, and the bones 
and joints of the smaller toes become bent and twisted. 
The nails are caused to grow down into the flesh, 
and corns and bunions give us distress when we 
unwisely wear shoes that pinch the feet. Very high 
heels, too, throw our weight forward upon the 
cramped toes, and strain the joints of the foot and 
leg. 
4. No doubt many people have died of consump- 
tion from want of exercise in the open air, not be- 
cause they were lazy, but because their feet hurt 
them when they tried to walk. Your shoes should 
be perfectly easy. 
LESSON IV. 
THE TEETH AND THEIR HEALTH 
(a) Temporary and Permanent Teeth.—-1. The 
teeth which appear in infancy begin to be shed about 
the seventh year. These are called temporary or 
milk teeth, and there are twenty of these, ten in 
each jaw. They give place to the stronger perma- 
ment teeth, thirty-two in all, sixteen in each jaw. 
The teeth are composed of bone-like material, cov- 
ered at the crown, or exposed part, by a thin, hard 
enamel. Blood-vessels and nerves extend into the 
bony part of the teeth. THE FRA ME WORK. 
13 
2. Do you wonder why the first teeth are shed? 
Well, the bones grow larger, but the teeth do not. 
The bones of the jaws grow larger, and if the first 
teeth were not shed, they would be too small for the 
jaws. They would stand far apart, look very strange, 
and would not be as useful as at first. So they 
begin to be shed as the jaw-bones grow, and the new 
set of larger teeth come instead. 
(&) Care of the Teeth. —l. After each meal the 
teeth should be well cleaned, using a brush, or a bit 
of flannel, and water. Particles that lodge between 
the teeth should be removed by a thread or a wooden 
toothpick; for, if allowed to remain, they putrefy, 
make the breath offensive, and cause decay of the 
teeth. Decayed teeth, if “filled” before toothache 
sets in, may still be preserved for many years. 
2. To brush the teeth well, place the points of 
the upper and lower front teeth together, and use 
the brush up and down. The back teeth need more 
brushing than the front ones. Brush the inner sides 
of the teeth as well, and give the gums a little 
brushing to toughen them. 
3. Use a brush that has just as stiff bristles as 
may be used without making the gums bleed. A 
soft brush is not much better than none, for the 
bristles bend and fail to clean the teeth. 
4. Strong tooth-soaps contain much alkali and 
are injurious. It is not best to use any powder or 
mixture that leaves the mouth parched and drawn. 
Hot as well as cold water may crack the enamel. 14 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
Tepid water is best always. A very good tooth- 
powder is composed of orris root, English prepared 
chalk, and powdered Eucalyptus leaves. 
5. The teeth are not intended to be used in 
cracking nuts, breaking thread, and tearing cloth; 
and whether false or natural, the same care of them 
is required for cleanliness and health. DIGESTION. 
LESSON I, 
WHY WE NEED FOOD. 
(a) Food and Hunger. —l. Waste and worn-ont 
material is constantly being cast out from our bodies. 
The lungs and the pores of the skin are busily en- 
gaged in this work. 
2. If new material be not supplied to take the 
place of the worn-ont substances, the body would 
dwindle and die. Without food, a man will starve 
in a few days. 
3. When the body needs material to take the 
place of that which is worn out, the nerves of the 
stomach become active in a peculiar way; and, when 
the sensation is carried to the brain, we recognize it 
as hunger. 
(h~) Food and Force. —l. All the strength of 
our bodies comes from the food we eat. After the 16 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
food has gone through the different processes of 
digestion, it gives up to the blood properties that 
supply the body with nourishment and strength. 
Just as new fuel feeds the fire, so does food keep up 
the forces of the body. 
2. The waste of bodily substance varies in differ- 
ent persons, and in the same person under different 
circumstances. Great bodily action causes great 
waste or wearing-out of the particles. 
(c) What Digestion is. —l. Food is not in con- 
dition to be taken into the blood from the stomach 
as soon as it reaches that organ. 
2. The food must be changed in various ways to 
prepare it for the use of the body. These change's 
are called digestion. 
(d) The Digestive Machinery or Organs. —l. 
The organs of digestion are, 
1. The mouth and salivary glands. 
2. The stomach. 
3. The 'pancreas. 
4. The liver. 
5. The intestines. 
2. These organs, together with the passages that 
connect them, form the alimentary canal. Fig. 9. 
Explanation op Fig. 9. 
This figure represents the organs of the chest and abdomen in natural posi- 
.ion, the breast bone and ribs being removed. 
B, the trachea (windpipe). 
C, oesophagus (gullet). 
K, diaphragm. 
F, liver. 
I, spleen.. 
D, stomach. 
G, intestines. 
11, heart, the pericardium being 
laid open. 
A, lungs. 
J, bladder. 18 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
LESSON 11. 
HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED. 
(a) Work of the Month. —l. When food is put 
into the mouth, the tongue rolls it about and keeps 
it in place between the teeth, and the teeth cut and 
grind it to a lineness suitable to the stomach. 
2. While the food is being moved about by the 
tongue, saliva or spittle is poured into the mouth 
from little glands or sacs situated in the cheeks and 
under the tongue The saliva moistens the food, 
brings out its taste, and changes starchy particles 
into a kind of sugar, and thus begins the work of 
digestion. 
3. When the food has been acted upon by the 
teeth and saliva, it is pushed backward and passes 
into the gullet or upper opening of the food-tube, 
which leads downward to the stomach This tube, 
called the oesophagus, is covered by layers of mus- 
cles, one of which extends lengthwise, while the 
other winds around it from end to end; and when 
food enters it from the mouth, the uppermost band 
of muscle closes upon it and forces it downwards. 
Each successive band repeats the act of the first, till 
the food is finally deposited in the stomach. 
(6) Work of the Stomach. —l. The stomach 
is situated mainly on the left side of the abdomen, 
just within the lower ribs. Its shape is like that of 
a shot-pouch, and it is composed of three coats, the DIGESTION. 
19 
outer one being tough and strong, the middle one 
muscular, and the inner one loose and spongy. 
2. When food enters the stomach, a liquid called 
gastric juice pours out from the inner coat; the mus- 
cular coat contracts and expands, and keeps the food 
in constant motion, mixing it with the gastric juice. 
This juice dissolves the albumen of the food, and 
changes the mass into a pulp, called chyme. The 
chyme is now ready to pass out of the stomach, 
through an opening at its right end, into the 
intestines. 
Explanation of Fig. 10. 
1, the oesophagus. • 
2, the left opening of the diaphragm. 
3, the cardiac orifice of the stomach. 
■ 4, the small curvature of the stomach. 
5, the great curvature of the stomach. 
6, the fundus of the stomach. 
7, the pyloric orifice. 
8, S, 10, the duodenum, divided into 
three portions. 
Fig. 10. 
(<?} Work of tlie Intestines, etc. —l. When the 
chyme enters the intestines from the stomach, the 
liver pours into it a bitter liquid,—the bile; and 
another organ, called the pancreas, pours in pan- 
creatic juice. These two juices act upon fatty atoms 
of the chyme, and upon starch or sugar not changed 20 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
by the saliva. The chyme is thus changed into a 
milky liquid called chyle. 
2. Passing along, the chyle is absorbed through 
the inner lining of the intestines, and is conveyed 
by countless numbers of tiny tubes into a larger 
tube. This larger tube carries the chyle upward, 
and pours it into a vein under the left collar-bone, 
where it mingles with the old blood and passes into 
the heart. 
Explanation of Fie. 11. 
A portion of the thoracic duct 
marked TD above, and TD below, 
lying in front of and in contact with 
the spine, S. 
By the side of II is seen a por, 
tion of intestine attached to the 
mesentery, a kind of membranous 
ruffle, around the border of which 
the entire tube of the intestine is 
fastened. 
LL show a lacteal vessel run- 
ning from the inside of the intes- 
tine, charged with a milky fluid 
which is conducted into the mesen- 
teric glands, seen lying between 
the two folds of that membrane. 
In these the chyle is essentially 
changed in character, and perhaps 
receives additional fluid from the 
gland itself. From these the fluid 
Fig. 11. 
next passes on through the excretory ducts, MM, which join the main trunk of 
the thoracic duct. DIGESTION. 
21 
LESSON 111. 
HINTS ABOUT EATING. 
(a) When to eat.— 1. Meals should be eaten 
at regular hours. If we eat at irregular hours and 
between meals, the stomach is kept almost con- 
stantly busy, and may become so weak as to be 
unable to do its work. It is best to take three meals 
a day, five or six hours apart. 
2. The stomach does its work best when the mind 
is at ease and the body is rested. Children should 
not take a meal when they are heated and excited by 
play. It is best to give the body a short rest, and 
the nerves a chance to become quiet, before eating. 
Again, it is best to keep the body quiet for a time 
after a meal. Moderate exercise will do no harm; 
but running, leaping, jumping rope, etc., should not 
be engaged in for at least a half-hour after eating. 
A meal should not be eaten just before going to bed, 
for rest may be disturbed in this way. 
(b) How to eat. —l. We should not eat 
hurriedly. The food should be well chewed and 
mixed with the saliva. “Food well chewed is half 
digested; ” and the stomach cannot do the chewing. 
2. We should guard against eating more food at 
one time than the stomach can change into chyme. 
If food is not properly digested, it becomes sour and 
even putrefies in the digestive organs. 22 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
3. It is not best to take a swallow of tea, coffee, 
or water, with every morsel of food. These liquids 
dilute the saliva and gastric juice, and in this way 
interfere with digestion. If cold liquids are swal- 
lowed, the temperature of the stomach will be 
lowered, and digestion delayed till the stomach 
regains its warmth. It is best to quench thirst 
between meals, as a rule. 
(c) What to eat. —l. Our bodies are composed 
of about' fifteen simple substances or elements, and 
our food should be of a kind that will supply all 
of these. No one article of food contains enough 
of all of these elements to properly nourish our 
bodies; and so it is best to eat a few articles 
together, and not to depend too much upon a single 
kind. 
2. A mixed diet is best, and this consists of 
animal, vegetable, and mineral food. Thus, eggs, 
milk, lean meat, etc., supply the body with the 
nitrogen it needs; the fruits and vegetables, such as 
wheat, rye, rice, beans, and potatoes, contain starch 
and sugar, and supply carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- 
gen; butter, milk, meat, and certain vegetables, con- 
tain fats and oils, and supply carbon and hydrogen 
abundantly; while minerals, such as salt, lime, etc., 
supply needed elements. In very cold climates the 
people eat food that contains much fat, in order to 
keep their bodies warm. In very warm climates the 
people live mainly upon fruits and vegetables, be- 
cause these are not so heating. In a variable climate DIGESTION. 
like that of our country, we find a mixed diet best 
suited to our wants. 
3. Food is often made unhealthful by bad cook- 
ing. Sour or “ heavy ” bread, fat mixed and cooked 
with flour, and food too highly seasoned, are inju- 
rious. Food with few mixtures in cooking it is 
more easily digested and more healthful. 
4. When our food causes discomfort we should 
omit first one article and then another, till the one 
that troubles us is discovered, and then omit that 
altogether. Constant carelessness in our habits of 
taking food will cause us to pay the penalty of dys- 
pepsia, with its long train of evils. We should 
begin early in life to form good, sensible habits. 
LESSON IY. 
THE WATER WE DRINK. 
(a) Danger of Impure Water.— 1. Good drink- 
ing-water is of the utmost importance to health. If 
we drink impure water, we may be attacked by fevers, 
dysentery, or cholera, as these are known to be fre- 
quently caused by bad drinking-water. There is 
scarcely a well to be found in any of the older cities 
or villages, the water of which it is safe to drink. 
And yet people go on drinking the water of these 
wells and becoming sick, never thinking of the real 24 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
trouble until an epidemic of deadly fever or cholera 
carries off scores or hundreds. 
2. We cannot always detect impure water by its 
taste or smell. It is only when it is extremely foul 
that this can be done. Water may appear- pure; 
and yet, when examined by those who know how to 
test it, it may be found unfit for use and dangerous 
to health. But we may all easily learn what causes 
water to become unfit for drinking. 
(h) Sources of Impurity. —l. Streams, springs, 
and wells may be made impure by filth washed into 
them from the surface of the ground by rains, or by 
filth soaking down through the soil and finding its 
way into them with the water that feeds them. Just 
as a ditch fills with water from a wet field, so does a 
shallow well drain water from the surrounding 
ground; and if the ground near the well is soaked 
with filthy matter, much of it will get into the 
water. 
2. When wells are first dug in country districts, 
the water is pure, and many remain so a long time if 
cesspools, closets, and stables are not near, and if 
kitchen slops, wash-water, etc., are not thrown upon 
the ground in the vicinity. In cities and towns 
where there are many sources of filth sometimes 
leaky sewers and drains, or no drains at all the 
ground becomes filth-soaked, deeper and deeper, and 
the impure matter at last appears in the water of the 
wells. 
3. It is not pleasant to think that, when we are DIGESTION. 
25 
careless about cleanliness and good drainage, we are 
drinking water that is both filthy and dangerous to 
health. And still, when cities and villages are with- 
out sewers, or when our wells are surrounded by out- 
houses, cesspools and slops, refuse matter collects 
without end, and the wells are sunk in filthy ground. 
When other good water can be obtained, the water 
of such wells should not be drunk. There is a lesson 
that should be learned by all, that there is disease 
and death in cesspools and filth, and safety in good 
drainage and cleanliness. “It should be distinctly 
understood that no amount of artificial ‘ disinfection ’ 
can ever take the place of pure air, good water, and 
proper drainage; and these cannot be had without 
prompt and thorough removal of all filth.” 
4. The terrible epidemic of fever that recently 
caused the death of scores of people in one of our 
towns, gave a fearful example of the dangers that 
may, at any time, come from carelessness or igno- 
rance. The slops from the sick-room of a person 
having a deadly fever were thrown upon the ground 
and washed into a stream, poisoning its water and 
carrying death or disease to all who drank it. 26 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
LESSON Y. 
STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
(a) What Stimulants are.— Stimulants are sub- 
stances that, when received into the body, excite the 
brain and nerves, make the heart work faster and the 
blood flow more rapidly, and cause intoxication. 
Many poisons are stimulating in their effects. 
(5) What Narcotics are. Narcotics are sub- 
stances that have the power to relieve pain, cause 
sleep or stupor, and, when taken in sufficient quan- 
tity, cause death. They produce these effects by 
numbing the brain and nerves, or by paralyzing them 
completely. Narcotics, when improperly used, not 
only injure the brain and nerves, but also the stom- 
ach, heart, and other organs of the body, making 
them unable to perform their work. Some of these 
drugs are both stimulant and narcotic; that is, they 
stimulate at first, and then this effect is followed by 
the stupefying effect just described. 
(je) Some Stimulants and Narcotics. Alcohol, 
opium, tobacco, and chloral are a few of a large num- 
ber of stimulants and narcotics; and we shall speak 
of these particularly, because they are the ones that 
many people have formed the habit of using, to the 
great injury of health, character, and happiness. 
They are much alike in some of their bad effects, 
and the common use of one may lead to the use of 
the rest. DIGESTION. 
27 
Alcohol is a clear water-like liquid, of a hot, biting 
taste. It is very useful in many ways, but is very 
harmful when used as a common drink, as in brandy, 
whiskey, rum, gin, beer, etc. It gives to these liq- 
uors their power to intoxicate or make drunk. 
Opium is the dried juice of the white poppy. It 
has great power to relieve pain and cause sleep, and 
is a deadly poison. One grain of it may kill a per- 
son. It is often put into cordials and syrups. 
Tobacco is the dried leaves of a poisonous plant. 
Its harmful effects when smoked or chewed are 
caused by a substance in it called nicotine, which is 
a rank poison. Five drops of it have been enough 
to kill a dog. 
Chloral is an oily liquid formed from alcohol by 
passing chlorine gas through it. Mixed with a little 
water it forms a white crystal. Like opium, it is a very 
dangerous drug. People are frequently killed by it. 
(d} Appetite for Stimulants and Narcotics. 
These medicines for they are such have a strange 
property that causes a craving for more of them, 
when people foolishly use them without the doctor’s 
advice. Soon this appetite for them grows so strong 
that it can hardly be resisted, and often not at all. 
When once this tierce appetite is formed, people find 
that they are obliged to increase the dose of the 
drug, or to take it oftener, to satisfy the appetite; 
and thus the habit grows from day to day. When 
the effect of one dose passes off, they are miserable 
till another is taken. You will see that it is ex- 28 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
tremely dangerous to tamper with any of these pow- 
erful substances. 
(e) Alcohol and Digestion. —l. Alcohol ab- 
sorbs moisture from the lining of the stomach, and 
leaves it parched and inflamed. This causes a terri- 
ble thirst called “Drunkard’s Thirst.” When much 
alcohol is drank it thickens the lining of the stom- 
ach, destroys some of the glands that prepare the 
gastric juice, and sometimes causes ulcers in the 
stomach. It hardens and toughens some articles of 
food in the stomach so that the juice cannot dis- 
solve them; and besides, it changes the nature of 
the juice itself, and unfits it to dissolve food properly. 
In these and other ways it makes a diseased stomach, 
spoils appetite for food, and injures health. 
2. All this is bad enough; but it does more harm 
still. It sometimes inflames both Ihe liver and the 
kidneys; or it clogs them with fat and interferes 
with their work. It has been known to shrink the 
liver into a hard, lumpy mass. This is called 
“Drinker’s Liver.” When the kidneys become clog- 
ged up, they cannot cast out waste matter from the 
blood, and this causes disease. Anything that inter- 
feres much with their work will cause disease and 
death. The terrible “Bright’s disease” may be 
caused by drinking liquor. 
(/) Tobacco ami Digestion. Smoking and 
chewing tobacco weaken the glands that pour out 
the spittle, and make it flow too freely. This is inju- 
rious because the spittle is needed to aid in digesting DIGESTION. 
29 
our food, to moisten it, and keep the mouth moist. 
When it is wasted in being spit out, it can do none 
of these things. Besides, tobacco lessens the appe- 
tite for food and weakens the stomach. It may cause 
diseases of the mouth, tongue, and throat, too. Many 
tobacco-users suffer from dyspepsia. Tobacco is most 
harmful to young people. It does all the harm we 
have mentioned, and, besides, it stops their growth, 
stunts them, injures the brain and mind, and 
makes the body weak. 
00 Opium and Chloral. Both of these drugs 
when commonly used destroy appetite for food and 
interfere with its digestion. They check the flow of 
the juices that dissolve the food. Both are very 
stealthy. They fix a terrible appetite for themselves 
upon the foolish person who begins to use them, and 
before he knows it he is bound to keep on using 
them or to be almost or quite crazy when he does not 
take his regular dose. They should never be used 
unless by the doctor’s orders, and then just as he 
directs. They often cause the death of people who 
had no intention to commit suicide. THE BLOOD. 
LESSON I. 
THE BLOOD. —WHAT IT IS AND DOBS. 
What anti where. —l. The blood is the liquid 
that circulates through the various parts of our 
bodies, and conveys material to build up and make 
good the wear and waste. It is made out of the 
food we eat, the water we drink, and the air we 
breathe. If we would have pure, rich blood, we 
must eat good food, drink pure water, and breathe 
pure air. 
2. It contains, or should contain, all the materials 
for making every organ of the body. When it does 
not contain the proper building-material, something 
is wrong. Either the food is not of the right kind, 
the water is bad, or the air breathed is not good. 
3. The blood consists of a colorless liquid, called 
plasma, in which countless numbers of little circular 
bodies, or corpuscles, float. The greater number of 
these are red, others are white. The red ones are 
about -gaVo' of an inch in diameter, and it would THE BLOOD. 
31 
require 12,800 of them to make a little column an 
inch high. The white ones are a little larger. The 
corpuscles carry the oxygen of the blood, which they 
receive while in the lungs. 
4. The blood moves constantly while we live. A 
current is always flowing from the heart to all parts 
of our bodies, and from these a current is returning 
to the heart. These movements are called the circu- 
lation of the blood. The organs of the circulation are 
the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins. 
LESSON 11. 
THE HEART AND OTHER BLOOD-VESSELS. 
(a) Position. —l. The heart is the organ which 
propels the blood, and is situated just to the left of 
the centre of the chest. 
(b) Construction.—1. The heart is a hollow, 
muscular organ, shaped like a strawberry, and sus- 
pended with the point downwards. Its size is 
roughly estimated to be equal to that of the fist. 
2. It is surrounded by a loose sack of membrane, 
the pericardium (peri, about; kardia, the heart). The 
pericardium is as smooth as satin, and gives out a 
liquid which keeps it moist and pliable. 
3. The heart is partitioned into four chambers. 
The two upper ones are called auricles Qaures, ears), 
because of the shape of the flaps on their outside Fio. 12. 
Explanation of Fig. 12. 
The double heart of man. 
q, the descending vena cava, 
o, the ascending vena cava, 
n, the right auricle. 
return what the artery sent in, to r. 
the left auricle. 
a, the left ventricle. 
b, the right ventricle, 
k, the pulmonary artery. 
c, e, f, the aorta, or great artery of 
the body, rising out of the left heart. 
g, the arteria innominata. 
I, I, the right and left branches of 
this artery, going to the lungs on either 
side of the chest. 
h, the left common carotid artery,go- 
ing up the side of the neck to the head. 
m, m, the veins of the lungs, which 
i. the left subclavian artery, going 
to the left arm. 
Note. The arrows show the course the blood moves in each of the vessels 
demonstrated with the heart: n, the right auricle; m, m, veins of the lungs; 
s, the left coronary artery; p, the veins returning blood from the liver and 
bowels. THE BLOOD. 
33 
walls. The lower chambers are called ventricles 
(ventriculus, the belly). 
4. The auricle and the ventricle on the same side 
communicate with each other by means of openings 
(valves') ; but the right and left sides of the heart 
are entirely separated by a muscular partition in 
which there is no opening. 
5. The walls of the ventricles are thicker than 
those of the auricles. This is a wise provision; for 
it is by the powerful action of the ventricles that the 
blood is forced to the remotest regions of the body. 
6. The auricles need much less power, for they 
simply discharge their contents into the ventricles, 
which are near at hand, and their walls are not so 
thick. 
(c) Work. —l. The action of the heart consists 
of alternate contractions and dilations. During con- 
traction, the walls come forcibly together, and thus 
the blood is driven out. In dilation or expansion, 
the walls open or separate, and thus make room for 
a new supply of blood. 
2. The contraction of the right auricle drives the 
blood into the right ventricle : the right ventricle then 
contracts, and forces the blood through the pulmonary 
artery into the lungs. 
3. Leaving the lungs where the blood is purified, 
it returns by four pulmonary veins to the left auricle; 
the contraction of the left auricle drives the blood 
into the left ventricle; the left ventricle contracts, 
and drives the blood into a large artery called the 34 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
aorta, the branches of which convey it to all parts of 
the body, except the lungs, to which it is returned, 
as first described, after circulating throughout the 
entire body. 
(cT) Arteries. The arteries are the tubes that 
conduct the blood from the heart. One great 
artery, the aorta, is given off directly from the heart, 
and its branches extend to all parts of the body. 
The arteries nearly all lie deep so as to be out of 
danger, for, when cut, the flow of blood from them 
cannot be stopped as easily as from a vein. Their 
walls are thick and elastic, and aid in keeping up the 
movement of the blood. Their ends are extremely 
small. When an artery is cut, the blood spurts out 
at every beat of the heart; but blood from a vein 
flows out slowly and steadily. 
(e) Capillaries. —At the ends of the arteries and 
the beginnings of the veins there are exceedingly 
small tubes, finer than the finest hair. They form a 
network between the arteries and veins. They are 
called capillaries, and are everywhere in the body. 
Those in the skin, when very full of blood, give the 
red or pink color to it and to the lips. The walls of 
these little tubes are very thin. The oxygen and the 
nourishing materials in the blood soak through them 
and build up the muscles, bones, etc. 
(/) Veins. The veins are the tubes that convey 
the impure blood back to the heart. They begin as 
tiny tubes in the capillaries, but they unite and 
become larger and fewer. At last they form two THE BLOOD. 
great veins, one of which brings the blood back from 
the head and arms, and the other from the trunk and 
lower limbs. Both of these empty into the right 
upper chamber of the heart. The blood in the arte- 
ries is red, but that in the veins is dark. It regains 
its bright color when the air in the lungs comes in 
contact with it. It is supposed that all of the blood 
passes once through the heart in about two minutes. 
LESSON 111. 
HEALTH AND THE CIRCULATION. 
(a) Bad Effects of Improper Clothing.— 
1. While good food and pure air make good blood, 
it must circulate freely if we are to have good health. 
This being true, no article of clothing should fit so 
closely or be worn so as to prevent the blood from 
flowing freely through every organ of the body. 
2. Tight clothing about the neck, tight collars, etc., 
press upon the blood-vessels that convey the blood 
to and from the head. The flushed face, feeling of 
fulness and pressure, headache, or giddiness and 
fainting are often caused by pressure upon the veins 
about the neck. The impure blood is prevented 
from flowing back to the heart, and the pressure may 
cause the blood-vessels to give way, in which case 
paralysis or death from apoplexy may occur. 36 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
3. Tight clothing and tight lacing about the waist 
obstruct the movements of the blood at this point, 
and interfere with full breathing. “If a foolish girl,” 
says an author, “ by squeezing and lacing secures a 
wasp waist, she is tolerably certain to gain an addi- 
tion she did not bargain for, and that is a red nose, 
which, in numberless instances, is produced by no 
other cause than obstructing the circulation and 
causing stagnation of the blood in that feature.” No 
less harmful is the custom among men and boys of 
buckling vest or pantaloons tightly about the waist. 
It is much better to suspend the clothing from the 
shoulders. 
4. Tight bands about the limbs interfere with the 
circulation of blood, and may cause enlargement and 
rupture of the veins. At least, discomfort and pain- 
ful limbs are caused by them. 
5. Tight shoes and tight gloves obstruct the flow of 
the blood and cause cold feet and cold hands. Be- 
sides, they make the body generally uncomfortable, 
and lead to irritation and ill-nature. 
G. Insufficient clothing of any part of the body 
allows cooling or chill, which drives the blood away 
from the surface of the part exposed. 
(b) The Mind affects the Circulation. 
1. Anger and other exciting passions increase the 
force of the heart’s action, frequently to an alarming 
extent. There have been instances of the bursting 
of blood-vessels from a fit of passion. 
3. Narrow and grief cause the blood to move too THE BLOOD. 
37 
slowly, and then the power to resist disease is ranch 
less. 
3. Good nature and cheerfulness keep the circula- 
tion regular, and in this way aid in maintaining good 
health. 
(c) Bathing and Muscular Exercise. —l. Bath- 
ing and friction of the skin cause the blood to circu- 
late freely toward the surface of the body, and keep 
the skin in healthy condition. 
2. Muscular exercise increases the movements of 
the heart. The contraction of the muscles, by press- 
ing upon the veins, forces along the current of the 
blood, and in this way supplies the demand for new 
material, while the waste particles are taken up and 
removed more rapidly by the lungs, skin, kidneys, 
etc. 
(d) What to avoid. —l. Avoid all things which 
tend to obstruct the natural and free movements of 
the blood, as these must always result in disease and 
shortening of life. 
2. Avoid all causes which unduly excite the heart 
to overwork, for the heart, like any other muscle, may 
be weakened and made unable to perform its ordinary 
work. For both of these reasons, avoid all narcotics 
and stimulants. 
(e) Effects of Alcohol on the Blood, etc. —l. 
One effect of alcohol is to make the blood too thin 
and to unfit it to nourish the body. Another is to 
shrink the little corpuscles, and then they cannot 
carry enough oxygen to purify the blood and keep 38 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
the body properly warm. It makes the blood impure, 
and induces fevers and inflammations. It is well 
known that yellow fever, and some others, are nearly 
always fatal to those who drink much liquor. Im- 
pure blood is the ready-made ground for the seeds of 
disease. 
2. Alcohol makes the heart work too fast and 
tires it. This overwork weakens the heart and 
wears it out. Worse than this, alcohol has the 
power to change muscle into fat. When this takes 
place in the heart, it becomes so soft that it may 
burst when it is made to work a little faster than 
usual. If the muscles of the blood-vessels of the 
brain change into fat, the pressure of the fast-flowing 
blood may burst them, and this would cause apoplexy, 
and end in sudden death. 
3. People imagine that alcohol will keep them 
warm in cold weather. This is a great mistake. At 
first it hastens the flow of the blood, and the little 
blood-vessels near the surface of the body become 
crowded with the warm blood. This causes a feeling 
of greater warmth there for a short time. But soon 
the blood ceases to be urged along so fast, and it 
does not rush to the surface as it did. Then the body 
is chilled and cannot bear the cold. Alcohol does 
not protect any one from severe cold. Those who 
use it cannot bear the cold as well as those who do 
not drink it. 
(/) Effects of Tobacco.—The poisonous nicotine 
of tobacco being absorbed into the blood causes it to THE BLOOD. 
39 
become thin. Like alcohol, it tends to fatten and 
weaken the heart, and causes it to palpitate and act 
irregularly. Very many tobacco-users suffer from 
disease of the heart. We sometimes hear of a “to- 
bacco heart.” BREATHING. 
LESSON I. 
THE ORGANS OF BREATH. 
(a) Tlic Air-Passages. Air gets into the lungs 
through the nose and mouth, the larynx, the trachea or 
windpipe, and branches of the windpipe, called bron- 
chial tubes. 
(1)) The Larynx, or “Adam’s Apple.”—l. It is 
the upper end of the windpipe. Its form is seen as a 
bulge in the front of the throat. It is composed of 
pieces of cartilage which move upon each other. It 
opens into the windpipe by a narrow chink, called 
the glottis, which is open except when we swallow 
anything. It has a small, spoon-shaped trap-door 
which closes down when we swallow, so that food 
may glide over it into the food-tube, which is 
back of it. This little lid is the epiglottis. If we 
attempt to breathe when we swallow, particles of 
food drop into the windpipe because the door is 
open. BREA THING. 
41 
2. The larynx is the instrument of voice. The 
opening, or glottis, consists of lips of membrane with 
very thin edges. These are called “vocal chords.” 
These lips, or chords, spread apart when we breathe, 
and leave a Y-shaped opening; but when we make 
sounds, they narrow or widen the chink, and thus the 
sounds made are high or low, etc. The air passing 
between them causes them to vibrate and make 
sounds. At about the fifteenth year, the larynx of 
boys nearly doubles in size, and the voice becomes 
manly. 
(c) The Trachea, or Windpipe. —l. This main 
air-tube extends down to the lungs. It is composed 
of tough membrane, and its sides are kept apart by 
stiff rings of gristle. These may be felt in the front 
of the throat. At the lungs it sends off two large 
branches, one into each lung. These large branches 
send out smaller ones, and these still smaller ones. 
The tiny branches end in clusters of little air-cells. 
2. The air-tubes and passages are lined with a 
very delicate skin, called mucous membrane. This 
lining is very sensitive and be injured in various 
ways. 
(fT) The Tilings.—l. The lungs are situated in 
the chest, one on the right and the other on the left, 
with the heart between them. They are spongy and 
elastic, but not muscular, being composed mainly of 
small tubes and air-cells. They are of a grayish- 
rose color. No doubt you have seen the lungs, or 
“ lights,” of sheep, pigs, or cattle. These have given 42 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
you a better idea of the lungs than a written descrip- 
tion of them can. They have no power to move for 
themselves in breathing, but are pressed upon by the 
walls of the chest, moved by muscles. After the air 
has been forced out of them in this way, the chest is 
made to expand again, and the air rushes into the 
lungs by means of the air-tubes, and fdls them. 
Explanation op 
Fig. 13. 
a, the left lung. 
b, tlio right lung. 
c, the windpipe. 
d, the heart. 
e, the great artery 
carrying blood to 
the lungs. 
f, the great vein. 
g, the great artery 
carrying blood to 
the body. 
Fig. 13. 
2. The oxygen of the air passes through the thin 
walls of the air-cells and is absorbed into the blood. 
It mingles with the dark, impure blood, and changes 
it to a brilliant red. Carbonic gas and watery vapor 
come out from the blood through the same thin 
walls, and are cast out when next the air is breathed 
out. The work of the lungs, then, is to supply oxy- BREA THING. 
43 
gen, which is necessary to life, and to remove waste 
matters that would destroy it. 
LESSON 11. 
THE AIR WE BREATHE. 
(a) Of what composed. —l. The air we breathe 
is composed mainly of two gases, oxygen and nitro- 
gen, there being about twenty-one parts of the 
former and seventy-nine of the latter. If the air 
consisted of oxygen alone, it would be too strong; 
and as nitrogen is a harmless gas, it serves to dilute 
the oxygen and make it fit to support life. 
2. Oxygen is necessary to both animal and vege- 
table life. Animals die when the air they breathe 
has lost much of its oxygen; and, without it, the 
warmth of our bodies could not be kept up. 
(h) Pure Air and Health. —l. Whether the 
blood shall carry life-giving oxygen to every part of 
our bodies, or whether it shall return to the lungs 
without absorbing the needed oxygen, will depend 
entirely upon the kind of air we breathe. 
2. So long as the blood continues to be properly 
purified, or aerated, as it is called, in the lungs, 
everything goes on well; but if the air breathed be 
impure, then uneasiness about the chest increases to 
distress, is followed by headache, and may end in 
fainting. If we breathe very foul air, the effect is 44 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
the same as by not breathing at all, only that in the 
first instance death would not be caused quite so 
rapidly as in the second. There are few persons 
who have not suffered, more or less severely, in hot, 
crowded rooms; and, in these cases, the foul air 
received into the lungs is the cause of the suffering. 
3. Whatever, then, deprives the lungs of pure 
air, sows the seeds of disease. Pure air aids in 
making pure blood ; and pure, rich blood gives nour- 
ishment and strength to the entire body. But im- 
pure air air that contains but little oxygen and 
much carbonic gas and other foul matter makes 
the blood impure, starves it, and causes consumption 
or other diseases. 
(<?) How Air becomes Unwholesome.— 1. We 
take into our lungs about twenty cubic inches of air 
at each breath; and air that has been in the lungs 
comes out charged with carbonic gas, and deprived 
of much of its oxygen. The air of a room, your 
school-room for instance, soon becomes impure be- 
cause so many persons have breathed it one or more 
times. The fire in the stove, or the lamps and gas 
lights, are all devouring the oxygen and giving off 
carbonic gas even more rapidly than your lungs do. 
2. Sometimes poisonous gases from sewers and 
cesspools find their way into our rooms through the 
drain-pipes; again, foul air arises from decaying 
vegetables in the cellar, from garbage and slops, if 
thrown near the house, or from stagnant pools of 
water. When filth from the streets or other source BREA THING. 
45 
is dried or pulverized, it finds its way into our apart- 
ments, and is kept circulating by our every move- 
ment. These are some of the ways in which the air 
of our living-rooms, sleeping-rooms, and schools may 
become unwholesome, and dangerous to health. We 
must learn to guard ourselves against this danger by 
careful attention to cleanliness, and by letting in the 
pure, fresh air. 
3. Too many people seem to think there is little 
occasion to raise windows, except to wash them or to 
close the blinds; and so the lungs and skin are dried 
and baked in the hot, dry, unwholesome air, and 
people breathe, over and over, the cast-off air from 
each other’s lungs. 
4. We should not fail to caution our boys and 
girls against the habit of sleeping with the head 
under the bed-clothes, in this way breathing the 
breath again and again. Such unwholesome air will, 
assuredly, cause them to grow pale, weak, and sick. 
Serious disease in children before healthy has been 
caused by this habit, and health returned when the 
habit stopped. 
Better a nightcap than head under clothes; 
For, surely, no such cap e’er covered the nose ! 46 
HE AL TH L ESSONS. 
LESSON HI. 
WHY WE BREATHE. —HOW TO BREATHE. 
Bad Effects of Alcohol and Top.acco. 
(a) Why we breathe.— 1. While food is needed 
to supply our bodies with material, air is needed to 
supply the greater amount of oxygen to purify the 
blood and to kindle the slow fire that warms the 
body. 
3. The oxygen we breathe is carried to every part 
of the body in which blood circulates, and every- 
where unites with particles and burns them, causing 
warmth. The product of this burning is the same 
as that of oil burned in a lamp, viz., carbonic gas 
and watery vapor; and these are sent out from the 
lungs. If a man is struck down by a blow, or a poi- 
son, or an apoplexy, so that he hardly breathes, his 
body becomes cold; the fire is almost extinguished. 
If he exercises, or has a fever, he breathes more 
rapidly than usual, and becomes heated; the fire is 
increased. 
3. We breathe, then, that our bodies may be 
warm, and that the gases from the fire that keeps us 
warm may be cast out from the blood; in short, that 
Ave may live. 
(b) How to breathe. —l. In breathing it is 
best to breathe through the nose. In this way the 
air passes over the Avarm lining inside the nose, 
and becomes heated before it goes into the lungs. BREA THING. 
47 
Air should not be breathed through the mouth, as a 
habit, because it does not become so well warmed 
in that way ; and cold air taken into the lungs some- 
times causes colds, sore throat, and sore lungs. 
2. We should breathe sufficiently. That is, we 
should draw in sufficient air, at each breath, to fill 
the lungs and supply the air they need. If we do 
not take in enough air at each breath, we must 
breathe oftener, and this tires the muscles that move 
the lungs. Besides, the air is not held long enough in 
the lungs to do its work, to give up its oxygen, and 
to take up carbonic gas. 
3. We cannot breathe properly if we wear tight 
clothing about the chest and waist, nor if we stand, sit, 
or lie in bad positions. We should stand and sit 
upright, lie so that the lungs may be filled with 
air, and may not be pressed upon and cramped so 
that they cannot work. A healthy person, breathing 
quietly,fills his lungs about fifteen times per minute; 
but from bad habits of dress or posture, many people, 
young and old, only partly fill their lungs at each of 
the twenty or twenty-five short breaths they take per 
minute. 
(e) Bad Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco. 
1. The effect of alcohol is to thicken the delicate 
lining of the cells of the lungs, and this makes it 
difficult for the oxygen of the breath to pass through 
it into the blood, and for waste matter to get out. 
A “ cold ” then becomes a very serious thing, and 
inflammation of the lungs is very hard to cure in those 48 
HE AL TH LESS ONS. 
who drink much liquor. Alcohol, then, interferes 
with the purifying of the blood. 
2. Tobacco-smoke irritates the lungs and does much 
harm. A physician says, “ I lost a young man seven- 
teen years of age, who died of lung consumption 
caused by smoking.” 
Cigarettes are more injurious than pipes or cigars. 
The poor tobacco of which most of them are made 
(sometimes soaked in opium) and the burning paper 
increase the bad effect. 
LESSON IV. 
VENTILATION AND HEATING. 
(a) What Ventilation is. —l. The long word 
ventilation comes from the Latin word ventus, which 
means air, or wind; and to ventilate a room or place 
means simply to cause a change of air in it, or to 
cause the air to pass through it. When we can pro- 
duce this much-needed change by admitting pure air 
from out of doors, without dangerous draught, we 
have good ventilation. 
2. In the former lesson you were told how the air 
of our living-rooms, sleeping-rooms, school-rooms, 
etc., may become unwholesome and dangerous to 
health and life. Yet how often we are careless about 
the ventilation of these places ! It is not only in the BREA THING. 
49 
small and crowded houses of the poor, but also in the 
more spacious houses of the rich that the same care- 
lessness is seen. 
3. Many people have so great dread of draughts 
and catching cold, that they scarcely ever open a win- 
dow ; and so, when we enter such houses, the air 
feels oppressive, smells musty and offensive, and 
sometimes turns' us sick. Other people throw every 
door and window open, and the house is blown 
through and through by draughts of air. This, in- 
deed, makes the air pure and fresh; but it is danger- 
ous to health if these cold currents blow upon those 
in the room; but we must have some way to change 
the air constantly, and thus keep it quite pure all the 
time. 
(6) Pare Air in Bed-Rooms, etc. —l. In any 
room that does not communicate freely with the 
outer air we soon consume much of the oxygen ; 
every breath we draw in such a room is injurious to 
health. 
2. We spend about one-third of our lives in sleep- 
ing-rooms, breathing the air of them, good or bad; 
and some pass this large part of their lifetime in small 
bed-rooms with windows and doors closed, and without 
other arrangement to admit fresh air while they 
slumber. They arise in the morning feeling dull 
and unrefreshed, often without appetite for breakfast, 
and frequently with headache. Do you wonder that 
this is so? It is of the utmost importance that fresh 
air be allowed to enter our sleeping-rooms, by night 50 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
as well as by day; and this can be managed so that 
we shall not take colds. 
(<?) How to ventilate. —l. Men have devised 
many plans to ventilate rooms. Sometimes these 
methods are costly, and for that reason are not used. 
How may we ventilate our rooms when they are not 
supplied with patent ventilating apparatus, and when 
we must depend upon window ventilation ? 
2. To admit fresh air into our rooms, one simple 
and good plan is to fit boards under the lower sashes 
of the window raised a few inches. Air will then 
enter upward between the two sashes, not causing a 
draught upon any in the room. Another good plan 
is to tack a piece of cloth, a few inches wide, across 
the lower part of the window frame, from side to 
side, and then raise the lower sash not quite as high 
as the upper edge of the cloth. Still another is to 
fix an upward-sloping board across the upper part of 
the window-frame, six or eight inches below the top, 
and then lower the upper sash a few inches, but not 
lower than the board. In all these ways, the in-flow- 
ing air is directed upward, and there is little or no 
danger from draught. Any clever boy can, in these 
simple ways, ventilate his bed-room, the sitting- 
room, or his school-room. 
(t?) Heating- Rooms. —l. Rooms in which we 
sit, our sitting-rooms, school-rooms, churches, etc., 
should have a warmth of 68° to 70°. Rooms in 
which we are required to move about or work should 
not be so warm. Often, through thoughtlessness, BREA THING. 
51 
rooms are allowed to become uncomfortably warm; 
and then, for instant relief, the windows and doors 
are thrown wide open, causing sudden and great 
reduction of the temperature, chill, and colds. This, 
too, may happen many times a day. An even 
warmth should be kept. The thermometer should 
be our guide in this, and it should be consulted 
frequently. If we keep our rooms too warm, we 
soon become very sensitive to cold air, and are chilled 
when we go outside, even though the air is not very 
cold. In this way children sometimes become so 
tender that their parents fear to allow them to leave 
the over-heated rooms, and they are thus deprived 
of health-giving exercise in the fresh, pure air. 
2. When stoves or furnaces are used, great care 
should be taken that gases from the burning coal do 
not escape into the rooms. As a rule, they should 
not be filled with fresh coal while the rooms are 
occupied. Again, the air of rooms, to be healthy, 
must contain a certain amount of moisture; and as 
stoves and furnaces cause the air to become very 
dry, some means of moistening it should be employed. 
A shallow pan of water placed on the stove or over 
the heat-register will, if properly heated, send out 
vapor and moisten the air. Sometimes these water- 
holders do not become heated, and then are of no 
use. 52 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
LESSON V. 
BUILDINGS.-LOCATION, CONSTRUCTION, LIGHT, ETC. 
(a) Where to build. —l. School-houses and our 
homes should be built on dry ground or on ground 
that is well drained. If the ground is such that a 
cellar would be damp, it is best to build on a founda- 
tion high enough above the level to permit air to 
move freely underneath. 
2. The ground should be made to slope in all 
directions from the house, so that water may run off 
instead of soaking in near the foundation and causing 
dampness. 
3. Buildings should not be closely surrounded by 
trees, or by other buildings, on the sides where there 
are windows. Houses covered by vines, whose win- 
dows are choked by shrubs, and whose roofs are 
overhung by branches of trees, will be damp. A 
free circulation of air should be allowed all about 
the house, and shade trees so placed as to leave 
openings for light and sun to enter. Too much sun- 
light may be prevented by blinds, outside or inside. 
The best light is usually obtained when the corners 
of the house point east, west, north, and south. 
Such facts should be kept in mind when you build 
houses, and when you plant trees and shrubs about 
them. Slops of no kind should be thrown near the 
building. BREATHING. 
53 
(b} Something about liow to build. —l. The 
material used in building school-houses should be as 
good as that used in the best dwellings, and the size 
of the rooms should be governed by the number of 
pupils that must occupy them. Air or breathing- 
space must be considered as of first importance. 
The best authorities say that a room 38 by 23 feet, 
with ceiling 12 feet high, is suited to about 40 pupils, 
but not more. If the space for each pupil is less 
than 300 cubic feet, the danger to health and life is 
great, unless there is good ventilation. 
2. Windows should be placed 3J or 4 feet above 
the floor and extend nearly to the ceiling. It is best 
to have light enter above the level of pupils when 
seated. The ceiling should be white, that it may 
reflect the light downward; and the walls should be 
gray, or of a tint that will not cause a strong reflec- 
tion or glare. 
3. Light should not enter directly in front of 
where the pupils sit, and therefore the desks should 
not face the windows. The light should enter from 
the left, and so particular are the Germans about 
this, that they place windows on the left side of the 
room only. Eyesight is injured by exposing the eye 
to glaring light, and the sun should not shine directly 
upon the book or work. Blackboards situated be- 
tween windows receive the light very unfavorably, 
and should not be placed there, if it can be avoided. 
If placed between windows, the inner blinds should 
be arranged to shift out glaring light. In short, HEALTH LESSONS. 
there should be plenty of light in every part of the 
room, but no eye-injuring glare. We should all 
learn to be very careful in managing the light, for 
eyesight is too often injured, little by little, in our 
school-rooms. 
4. Doors should be wide and open outward. In 
case of tire or panic, this is very important. Tran- 
som windows over the doors are useful in ventilating, 
and should be provided with cords to open and close 
them easily. Stairs should be wide and of easy 
rise. Much stair-climbing is, for many, not good 
exercise. 
5. School desks should not be placed near a heat- 
register or stove, against the walls, nor facing the 
windows. A line dropped from the edge of the desk 
should just strike the edge of the seat, and each 
pupil should be able to place his feet upon the floor, 
or upon a foot-shelf. Proper posture, comfort, and 
health demand this. When too high or too low, 
desks are unfit for use. 
6. Outer garments, wet clothing, lunch-baskets, 
etc., should not be kept in the school-room. There 
should be a room for these, and pegs or hooks in 
plenty, so that the clothing may air and dry. This 
room should be well ventilated. A wash-stand and 
basin, too, should be placed here, for there is nothing 
more vulgar than uncleanliness and untidiness. THE MUSCLES. 
LESSON I. 
WHAT MUSCLES ARE, ETC. 
(a) What Muscles arc. —l. The muscles are the 
instruments of motion. While the body owes its gen- 
eral form to the bones, its power of motion and its 
beautiful proportions are given by the muscles. 
2. The muscles and tendons are to the human body 
what the ropes and sails are to the masts and spars 
of a ship. As a ship without sails and ropes would 
be a very unmanageable thing, so the body without 
muscles and tendons would have no power to move 
or direct its position. 
,3. In the bones of the body we find the columns, 
levers, and pulleys of a complex machine; and in 
the muscles and tendons we have the cords, belts, or 
springs, which move the bony levers and pulleys. 
4. The muscles of an animal body are the lean 
meat. Lean beef, the deep-red flesh of the cow or ox, 
is the muscular part of the animal’s body. There 
are more than five hundred muscles in the human 
body. HEALTH LESSONS. 
(£} Position. —l. The muscles are situated in 
all parts of the body. The great mass of flesh cover- 
ing the skeleton is mainly composed of them, while 
the organs situated in the cavities of the body are 
either muscles, or have muscles connected with them. 
Among the muscles situated within the framework 
are the heart, the diaphragm, the muscular coat of 
the stomach, and the tongue. 
(e) Construction. —l. The muscles are com- 
posed of fine fibres or strings held together by a 
connecting network of tissue, and bound up in 
smooth, silky casings. 
2. The muscles are laid one over the other, sepa- 
rated by layers of fat that enable them to move with- 
out interfering with each other. These layers of fat 
give a plumpness of form which the body would not 
otherwise have. 
,3. In shape and in length, the muscles vary greatly. 
Some are round ; others flat, square, or triangular. 
Some of the muscles of the larynx are only about 
one-eighth of an inch in length, while the sartorius, 
or “ tailor’s muscle,” by which the legs are crossed, 
is nearly three feet in length. 
4. Muscles are large and thick in the middle, but 
small at the ends. The middle part is called the 
body, or swell, and it possesses the power of contrac- 
tion. The extremity of the muscle attached to the 
bone which is moved is called the insertion, or free 
end of the muscle: the extremity towards which it 
draws in contraction is called the origin, or fixed end THE MUSCLES. 
57 
of the muscle. Generally the origin of a muscle is 
nearest the trunk. 
5. At the ends, the threads or fibres of the muscle 
change into strong, tough tendons, of a bluish-white 
color, which are firmly fastened to the bones. The 
tendons have no power of contraction, and are 
merely the ropes, as it were, by which the body of 
the muscle is fastened to the bone, or other part, 
which is moved by the contraction. 
6. At least one artery enters each muscle, and 
supplies it with blood for its nutrition. A nerve 
also penetrates each muscle, and connects it with 
that great central office of the nerves, the brain, so 
that it may be subject to the will. 
LESSON 11. 
(a) How Muscles contract. —l. All movements 
of the different parts of the body are caused by the 
contraction of muscles. 
WHAT MUSCLES DO. —CLASSES. 
2. The cells which compose the muscles are 
elastic, and have the power to widen out, making 
each fibre of the muscle shorter and thicker. This 
power of these cells is the source of the contraction 
of the muscles which produces all bodily movements. 
The contracting muscle shortens and thickens, and 
pulls the movable part to which it is attached with 58 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
it. A good illustration of this action is found in the 
work of the muscles that bend the arm. The biceps 
Explanation op 
Fig. 14. 
In this figure the 
hiceps muscle is 
shown at C, and the 
two tendons which 
attach it to the 
shoulder are seen 
at G, the point of 
origin. 
Fig. 14. 
The attachment of 
the muscle to the 
radius is shown at 
A, the point of in- 
sertion. 
The Bones of the Upper Extremity and the 
Biceps and Triceps Muscles. 
The triceps muscle is represented at F, and the tendon by which it is attached 
to the radius is shown at B. These two muscles are antagonistic muscles. 
muscle contracts, and pulls the bones of the lower 
arm upward, toward the shoulder: the triceps con- 
tracts, and pulls the bones of the lower arm back 
again, thus straightening the arm. If both of these 
muscles contract at the same instant, there can be no 
movement of the elbow-joint, and thus we see the 
antagonistic nature of these two muscles. Muscles 
which bend a joint, or move any part, are called 
flexors; those that restore the parts to their former 
position are called extensors. Figs. 15 and 16 present 
front and back views of the fore-arm in which the 
long flexors and extensors are represented. 
3. More than two hundred muscles are arranged 
in pairs, one to draw a part in one direction, and the 
other to restore it to its former position, or to hold it Explanation of Fig. 15. 
f, the muscle that straight 
ens the fingers. 
h, the muscle that straight- 
ens the little finger. 
i, the muscle that assists 
in straightening the wrist. 
I, the muscle that assists 
in extending the fore-arm. 
d, the muscle to extend 
the second bone of the 
thumb forward. 
e, the muscle to extend the 
fore-finger. 
k, the muscle to draw the 
little finger outward. 
m, the muscle to roll or 
turn the fore-arm, and turn 
the hand. 
g, the ligament which 
hinds down the muscles at 
the wrist. 
Explanation of Fig. 16. 
a, the muscle to turn the 
hand inward. 
b, the muscle to bend the 
wrist. 
c, d, the muscles to bend 
the hand. 
e, the muscle to assist in 
bending the hand. 
g, the muscle to bend the 
thumb. 
Fig. 16. 
Fig. 15. 60 
HEAL Til LESSONS. 
motionless at any required point in the range of its 
motion. These pairs are called antagonists. 
4. All muscles do not move bones and bend joints ; 
but some have quite different work to perform. The 
heart, which is a muscle, exerts its powers in forcing 
the blood through the arteries. The stomach and 
other muscles of the digestive organs exert their 
force in mixing, churning, and moving the food in 
preparing it for the nourishment of the body; and 
the muscles of the eye move that organ. 
5. In the human face, all the various expressions 
that indicate the emotions of the mind—joy, sorrow, 
hatred, affection, pleasure, and pain are caused by 
the contraction and swelling of the muscles which 
produce the lights and shadows of the countenance. 
6. Strong bands of ligament bind down the mus- 
cles, keep them in place, and add to their strength. 
The muscles at the wrist and ankle are thus firmly 
held in place, and prevented from flying from the 
bones when strongly contracted. 
(h) Voluntary and Involuntary Muscles. —l. 
The voluntary muscles are those that are under the 
control of the will. They move, or cease to move, 
when the mind wills it. The muscles of the fingers, 
limbs, trunk, and many others, belong to this class. 
2. The involuntary muscles are those that act 
independently, and are not under the control of the 
will. The muscles of the stomach, heart, and those 
that move in sneezing, coughing, and shivering as 
from a chill, are among the muscles of this kind. Fig. 17. 
Explanation op Fig. 17. 
A closes the eye; B raises the eyebrows, and wrinkles the forehead; Craises 
the lower jaw; D closes the lips; E compresses the wings of the nose; Fdraws 
the corner of the mouth downward. Each muscle has a name given to it because 
of the work it performs, its shape, or size. 62 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
(c) Why Muscles contract. —l. The muscles 
receive their power from the brain and nerves. 
Fig. 18. 
In this figure the muscles of the lower part of the leg and of the foot are 
represented. Those used in extending the toes, and bending the foot upward, 
are situated in front of the leg and upper part of the foot; while those that bend 
the foot downward, and bend the toes, are located at the back of the leg and 
on the sole of the foot. These muscles are attached to the toes by round, cord- 
like tendons, that may be plainly felt, and their form seen, when the toes are 
extended or drawn upward. 
Explanation op Eh;. 18. 
a, the broad ligament that binds down the muscles at the ankle. 
2. When the mind wills to move a muscle, the 
brain sends out a mysterious agent through the nerves 
to the cells of each fibre of that muscle, and it con- 
tracts. This is all that is known of that strange 
stimulus by which bodily movement is directed. 
3. If a nerve be cut anywhere between the spinal 
cord and the muscle to which it belongs, the muscle 
instantly loses its power of motion. THE MUSCLES. 
63 
LESSON 111. 
MUSCULAR EXERCISE AND HEALTH, 
(a) Exercise of the Muscles. —l. It is a general 
law of the body, that exercise is necessary to the 
health of all its parts. Tie up a blood-vessel, and 
it becomes a withered, useless thing. The hones 
become weak, and dwindle away, when deprived of 
exercise; and so it is with the muscles. Lack of 
proper exercise causes softness, weakness, and in- 
ability to perform the work for which they are de- 
signed. This is not only true of the muscles that 
bend the joints, and move the limbs, but also applies 
to those employed in breathing, and to the vocal 
muscles. 
2. Care must be taken that exercise be not too 
severe, nor continued so long as to produce exhaus- 
tion: muscle is weakened, rather than strengthened, 
by undue exertion. Six-day walking and skating 
matches are not the best way to improve health and 
strengthen the muscles. Such over-exertion has 
recently caused the death of some foolish young per- 
sons who took part in them. 
(5} Exercise aids the Circulation. —l. When 
a muscle contracts, some of the veins are compressed, 
so that the blood cannot flow freely onward, and 
the valves of the veins forbid a backward flow. The 
arteries continue to force the blood along, and the 
veins become swollen. As soon as the contraction 64 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
of the muscle ceases, the blood rushes onward with 
greatly increased speed. 
2. Now, when a number of muscles are employed 
in strong, quick action, many veins are affected in 
this way, and the whole circulation is quickened. 
The heart must work faster to send the blood to the 
lungs, and the lungs must work quicker to suppty 
the oxygen required by the greater quantity of blood 
sent to them. The purified blood is carried back to 
the heart with greater speed. 
(p) Exercise aids Appetite and Digestion. 1. 
When the blood reaches the capillaries, the quick- 
ened flow causes them to do their work faster, and 
the worn-out matter is removed more quickly. The 
organs call for new material, and the stomach de- 
mands more food to supply new blood to the system. 
Thus it will be seen that muscular exercise gives 
vigor to every part of the body. 
(dj Hints about Exercise. —l. Exercise should 
he taken in pure air; it calls for a full supply of 
oxygen to satisfy the increased demand. 
2. Exercise should not he taken just before nor soon 
after severe mental labor, nor immediately after a 
hearty meal. In this latter instance the stomach 
requires the blood which would thus be called away 
from it, and its work. 
3. Exercise taken daring daylight is most beneficial. 
It has been found that people can endure labor with 
much less fatigue in the sunshine than in the shade 
or at night, the temperature being the same. THE MUSCLES. 
65 
4. Exercise should he of a hind that will employ the 
largest possible number of muscles. In order to do 
this, the body must take a great variety of positions, 
and be caused to perform many different movements 
to distribute the exercise to all its muscles. 
5. Exercise should be taken regularly. It will do 
but little good to take exercise to-day and not again 
till next week or next month. And it should be 
gradual, increasing with the strength that it pro- 
duces. Sudden and extreme efforts, such as lifting 
heavy weights to exhibit strength, should be avoided, 
as they not only injure the muscles, but may rupture 
blood-vessels and the walls of the abdomen. Many 
people have had reason to sorely repent foolish 
attempts to show great strength. 
O. The mind should be pleasantly employed while 
we exercise the muscles. Exercise taken for the mere 
sake of exercise, or as an unpleasant task, fails to do 
great good. If the mind is pleasantly employed, the 
muscles will work long and actively without fatigue; 
but if the mind is gloomy or inactive, the muscles 
soon grow tired. You have already learned, from 
experience, how irksome any work is in which you 
are not interested and do not find pleasure. 
(e) Kinds of Exercise. —l. Walking is an excel- 
lent exercise to develop and strengthen the muscles 
of the lower part of the body. The trunk should be 
kept erect, the shoulders back, and the head up, in 
this way allowing full breathing. Shoes should be 
easy and broad enough to give the foot free play. HEALTH LESSONS. 
Many people are prevented from taking this kind of 
exercise because of the shoes that hurt the feet. 
2. Running being really a succession of slight 
leaps, is a more vigorous exercise than walking, and 
brings into play a larger number of muscles. When 
moderately practised it strengthens the power of the 
lungs. 
3. Swimming exercises a very large number of 
muscles of the limbs, chest, and abdomen. Probably 
no one form of exercise employs more of the muscles. 
When not indulged in too long or at an improper 
time, swimming is a most strengthening exercise. 
Besides, it is a safeguard to life. 
4. Rowing employs the muscles of the arms and 
back principally. Without care is taken, it may 
cause round shoulders and hollow chests. It is best 
to bring the trunk to an erect position when rowing 
is practised as a means to health. 
5. Gymnastics and the use of light dumb-bells 
bring into play a great variety of muscles. The latter 
exercise the muscle of the trunk and arms, and de- 
velop the chest. Our girls as well as our boys should 
have proper exercise. And for the more especial 
object of strengthening the arms, muscles of the 
shoulders and the chest, and increasing its capacity, a 
pair of very light dumb-bells may be used, but never 
so long as to weary the arms. If dumb-bells are not 
to be had, a pound or two-pound weight in each hand, 
throwing them backward and forward, in the same 
way as the dumb-bells, will give the same exercise. THE MUSCLES. 
67 
6. In all forms of exercise the clothing should he 
sufficiently loose to permit free movement of the mus- 
cles, limbs, and body generally. Clothing which 
interferes with free movements should not be worn 
at any time. 
(e) Alcohol and the Muscles.—Alcohol benumbs 
the nerves, and then they cannot direct and control the 
muscles. Movements then become very uncertain. 
When a man has drunk much liquor, he staggers and 
reels because he cannot control his muscles. In course 
of time his nerves would be so much injured that they 
could not control his muscles very well, even when 
he was sober. He would tremble, and could not use 
his hands so exactly as he should. He would have 
to give up delicate work that requires a steady hand 
and nice touch. But alcohol does more than this. 
It weakens muscle by changing it into fat. Muscle 
then becomes soft, feeble, and easily torn. If it is a 
muscle in a blood-vessel of the brain, it may, and 
often does, break; then the blood pours out through 
the torn vessel, and causes death by apoplexy. THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
LESSON I. 
THE BRAIN AND ITS WORK. 
(a) Position. —l. The brain, the principal organ 
of intelligence, is situated in the head, and is sur- 
rounded and protected by the bones of the skull. 
Fig. 19. 
This figure represents the left half of the brain. CE, the cerebrum ; CER, 
the cerebellum; MO, the medulla oblongata; OP, optic nerve ; SC, spinal cord. 
Explanation op Fig. 19. THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
2. The brain is divided into two parts. That 
which occupies the cavity of the skull above the 
level of the ears is called the cerebrum, or great brain: 
the part which fdls the cavity below the level of the 
ears, at- the back of the head, is called the cerebellum, 
or little brain. A membrane, tightly stretched, sepa- 
rates the two parts, and relieves the lower brain from 
the weight and pressure of the upper one. 
(b) Construction. —l. When the bones are re- 
moved, a thick, shining membrane is seen. This is 
the dura mater, or firm coat of the brain, and its 
office is to assist in keeping the brain together, and 
to protect it. Beneath the outer coat lies the arach- 
noides, or transparent coat, which is a very delicate, 
transparent membrane. It so much resembles a 
spider’s web, that it receives its name from that fact, 
arachnoides, “ the spider’s web.” This membrane 
lies over the surface of the brain. The third and 
inner coat is called the pia mater, or soft coat. It is 
a thin network of blood-vessels. 
2. The substance of the brain consists of two 
kinds of matter; viz., gray and white. The gray 
matter forms the outside of the brain, and the white 
the inner portions. So extremely soft is the sub- 
stance of the brain, that it would fall apart from its 
own weight if it were not surrounded by its mem- 
branes. The outer surface of the brain is not smooth 
and regular, but consists of worm-like ridges inter- 
spersed with hollows; in other words, it is furrowed. 
(c) Work of the Brain. —l. The brain is the 70 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
seat of thought, of intelligence, of sensation, and of 
motion. It is there that we think, reason, and will. 
2. It is believed that the cerebrum is the chief 
organ of the mind, the thinking part. Various kinds 
of work have been attributed to the cerebellum. Ex- 
periments seem to prove, that, if the cerebellum be 
injured or removed, a confusion of movement of the 
muscles is caused, like that produced by alcoholic 
intoxication. It is believed, therefore, that this 
organ is the regulator of muscular motion. 
LESSON 11. 
THE NERVES AND THEIR OFFICE. 
(a) Location of the Nerves. —l. Verves spring 
from the brain and spinal cord, and extend to every 
part of the body. 
2. Certain nerves start from the base of the brain, 
within the skull, and extend to the eye, ear, tongue, 
nose, throat, stomach, heart, etc. These are named 
cranial nerves, because they begin in the cranium or 
skull. 
3. The spinal cord, which is an extension of the 
substance of the brain, extends downward through 
' o 
the tube or canal of the backbone. Between the 
points of the bones of the spine, the spinal cord 
sends out branches, which are named spinal nerves. 
These extend to the arms, the chest, the abdomen, 
the legs, etc., and have various names. Fig. 20, 72 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
Explanation op Fig 
A, A, the cerebrum. 
B, B, the cerebellum. 
8, 8, the branches of the spinal 
nerves that extend to the arms and 
fingers. 
C, C, the union of the fibres of the 
cerebrum. 
4, 4, 4, 4, the dorsal nerves that ex- 
tend to the walls of the chest, back, 
loins, and abdomen. 
X), D, the union of the fibres of the 
two sides of the cerebellum. 
E, E, E, the spinal cord. 
1, 1, the cranial nerves. 
5, 5, the lumbar nerves that also 
extend to the chest and abdomen. 
2, 2, the branches of the spinal 
nerves that extend to the neck and 
organs of the chest. 
6, 6, the sacral nerves that unite, 
and form the great sciatic nerve of the 
legs. 
4. The nerves branch out from the spinal cord pre- 
cisely like the limbs and smaller branches of a tree. 
(6) Construction. —l. The nerves branch off in 
pairs from the brain and spinal marrow, through lit- 
tle openings in the bones. Twelve of these pairs 
spring directly from the brain, and thirty of them 
from the spinal cord, sending their branches and 
twigs to every muscle, blood-vessel, or other organ of 
the body. The nerves, although so widely distributed 
through the body, have a tendency toward the sur- 
face, and countless numbers of twigs, so small as to 
be invisible to the naked eye, terminate under the 
skin: hence the skin is the principal organ of touch. 
The brain, spinal cord, and nerves constitute the 
7iervous system. 
Work. —l. The nervous system has distinct offi- 
ces to perform. While one portion (the brain) is 
engaged in thinking, and in receiving pleasant or 
painful sensations, or in sending out its commands to 
the body, another portion (the nerves) is engaged in 
conveying information and in carrying orders to the 
different organs. THE TRAIN AND NERVES. 
73 
2. The nerves are divided into two classes; viz., 
the sensory nerves and the motor nerves. The sen- 
sory nerves are connected with the organs of taste, 
smell, hearing, sight, and touch. They carry impres- 
Fig. 21. 
2, the optic nerve, nerve of sight connected with the eyeballs 
3, the motor oculi, used to move the eyes. 
Explanation op Fig. 21. 
4, the trochlear is, which rolls the eye downward. 
5, the tri-gemini, whose three branches extend to the upper part of the face, 
to the upper jaw and teeth, to the lower jaw and teeth (this nerve is affected in 
toothache), to the tear-gland of the eye, and to the nose. 
O, the nerve of the tongue and of taste. 
P, a branch of the nerve of taste, going to the ear. 
Q, the nerve of the teeth of the under jaw, which finally comes out on the chin 
to supply the muscles of expression. 
7, the auditory nerve, being the nerve of hearing. 
sions to tire mind of the effects produced upon them 
in these organs. The motor nerves are connected 
with the muscles. When the brain wills that a mus- 
cle shall move, a message with power is sent to that 74 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
muscle through its motor nerve, and it moves. Thus 
every muscle is moved by a nerve of motion, while 
beside it, in the same sheath, is the nerve of sensation. 
If the mind wills that a finger be placed on any- 
thing, the motor nerve moves the muscles of the fin- 
ger, and the sensory nerve instantly reports to the 
brain whether that thing is cold or hot, rough or 
smooth. So when we smell, taste, or see anything, 
or hear a sound, the nerves of sensation tell the brain 
whether it is sweet or sour, red or white, loud or low, 
etc. 
The nervous system is like a great telegraphic 
system. If a nerve or a wire be severed, communi- 
cation instantly ceases. 
LESSON 111. 
LAWS OF HEALTH OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
1. Healthful food, a clean skin, and daily exercise 
in the open, pure air, are, first of all, necessary, if we 
would have heal thy brains and strong nerves. 
2. Have regular hours for work and for amuse- 
ment ; and let there be variety, else one set of nerves 
will be wearied by too much action, and another set 
be unemployed when they should have exercise. 
3. Loss of sleep weakens the brain and nerves. 
Take seven or eight hours sleep by night; and go to 
bed at the same hour, as a habit. When wearied by THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
75 
hard brain-work, by care, or sorrow, sleep as much as 
you can. Sleep is “tired Nature’s sweet restorer”; 
and during it, the brain and nerves recover strength. 
The brain, when excited, as much needs rest as a 
broken limb or an inflamed eye; and sleep is one of 
the best cures for severe headache. Care should be 
taken that the pillow is not so soft that the head 
sinks into it and becomes overheated, as this may 
cause headache. 
4. Hard study at night before going to bed excites 
the brain and delays sleep. An hour’s study in the 
morning is worth two at night. 
(a) Alcohol and the Brain and Nerves. —l. The 
brain is greatly injured by alcohol. It causes the 
blood-vessels there to become crowded with blood. 
Such pressure may cause them to burst, and then 
death would be very sudden. Continual use of alco- 
hol sometimes causes softening of the brain and 
insanity. 
2. When it touches the nerves it benumbs them 
and unfits them for their work. When the stomach 
becomes diseased, the brain inflamed, and the nerves 
injured by alcohol, drunkard’s craziness or delirium 
tremens sometimes sets in. One who has this disease 
cannot sleep. He trembles from head to foot and 
becomes wild. He imagines that snakes and other 
horrible creatures are about him. The delirium may 
continue till he sinks exhausted and dies. 
3. The most serious effect that alcohol produces is 
to destroy the power of the will. The drinker loses 76 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
control of himself. He cannot stop drinking and 
will do almost anything to obtain liquor. His mind 
becomes weak, and he is careless about his good 
name. He neglects his business and loses his prop- 
erty. It leads him to be dishonest and to commit 
crime. Volumes might be filled with accounts of 
terrible deeds done by people whose brains have 
been injured by drinking. Only the other day a 
young lad shot down two innocent men while his 
brain was wild from drink. Thus you see that it is 
terribly dangerous to tamper with liquor. 
(6) Opium and Tobacco.— 1. In many of its 
effects opium is like alcohol. It injures the brain 
and nerves and destroys self-control. Those who are 
so foolish as to meddle with it soon become slaves to 
it, and are almost crazed when they cannot get their 
regular dose. When the usual dose has been with- 
held, the users have become crazed, and have died in 
a few days. Its effects are even worse than those of 
alcohol. 
2. Tobacco is also a brain poison. It injures the 
brain and weakens the nerves. When much used 
it causes a loss of memory. It makes many who use 
it peevish and dissatisfied when for any reason they 
are without it for a short time. Like the other nar- 
cotics, appetite for it grows strouger constantly, and 
the more the appetite is satisfied, the worse is the 
tobacco-user’s condition. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
THE EYE. 
LESSON I. 
THE EYE, AND HOW WE SEE. 
(a) Position.—The eye, the organ of sight, is sit- 
uated in the upper part of the front of the skull, in 
hollows of the bones. It is surrounded, and pro- 
tected from blows and accidents, by the bones of the 
socket in which it is placed. 
(h) Construction. —l. The eyeball has three 
coats ; viz., the sclerotic or outer coat; the choroid or 
middle coat, and the retina or inmost coat. These 
coats lie one within another, like the layers of an 
onion, and hold the humors in globular shape. 
2. The sclerotic (that is, hard') coat, like tire dura 
mater of the brain, is thick, strong, and not sensitive. 
It has an opening in front, in which the cornea is 
placed. This coat gives great security to the delicate 
portions of the eye, and affords attachment to the 
muscles. The choroid coat (choroides, fleecy) is very 
fleecy and soft, and is filled with minute arteries and 
veins, which form a web about the eye. Fio. 22. 
Explanation of Fie. 22. 
To the outer surface of the sclerotic coat are attached six muscles. Four of 
these are called straight muscles, two of which roil the eye upward and down- 
ward : the other two give it a sidewise motion to the right and left. The 
remaining two are called oblique muscles, and serve to roll the eye inward and 
downward. 
1, the muscle which raises the upper 
lid. 
10, inferior oblique muscle, 
2, the superior oblique muscle. 
3, the pulley through which its ten- 
11, the optic nerve (nerve of sight). 
12, cut surface of cheek-bone. 
13, opening of the nose, or nasal 
don plays. 
4, 5, 6, straight muscles. 
orifice. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
79 
The retina (that is, a net) resembles ground glass 
in color, and is so very delicate that it cannot bear 
its own weight. It is really an extension and expan- 
sion of the optic nerve. It receives the rays of light, 
and is the immediate seat of sight. 
3. The cornea (cornu, a horn} covers the front of 
the eye and aqueous humor. In form and appear- 
ance it resembles a watch-crystal. It is composed of 
thin, transparent plates. 
4. The iris (that is, the rainbow) is that portion of 
the middle coat of the eye which lies back of the 
cornea. The coloring-matter of the eye is spread 
over its inner surface, black, blue, or brown, as the 
case may be. In the iris is a circular opening called 
the pupil of the eye. The iris has the power of 
expanding and contracting, and thus enlarges or 
diminishes the size of the pupil (pupilla, a little 
puppet). 
5. The crystalline lens, the “ magnifying glass ” of 
the eye, is found between the two humors, just back 
of the pupil. It resembles a circular glass button, 
convex on both sides. It is held in place by a deli- 
cate, transparent envelope, which connects it with 
the coats. It focuses the rays of light. 
6. The aqueous humor lies directly back of the 
cornea, and fills the front chamber of the eye. It is 
a perfectly clear, water-like fluid (aqueous, like 
water). It sustains the cornea, and keeps it always 
at the same distance from the pupil of the eye. The 
vitreous humor (vitreous, glassy) occupies the back 80 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
chamber of the eye. It consists of a substance like 
the uncooked “white” of an egg, which is transpar- 
ent, and allows light to pass through it to the retina. 
T. The optic nerve springs from the brain, passes 
through a bony canal, enters the back of the eye, and 
branches off through the globe. The small fibres of 
the nerve within the ball assume the form of a web, 
and constitute the retina. It is about three-fourths 
of an inch long, and somewhat larger than a straw. 
8. The lachrymal gland (lachryma, a tear), is a 
small sac in the upper and outer socket of the eye, 
just above the ball. It prepares the tears and con- 
stantly pours out enough of its contents, b}r pressure 
of the lids and rolling of the eye, to moisten the sur- 
face of the eye, and prevent shrivelling. The tears 
finally find their way to the inner corner of the eye, 
and there enter little openings (lachrymal canola), 
from which they flow into a bony tube (nasal canal'), 
and thence into the nose, whose inner surface they 
moisten. 
Explanation op Fig. 23. 
a, the lachrymal, or tear-gland, 
lying beneath the upper eyelid. 
b, h, the situation of the openings 
through which the tears flow into 
the tubes that convey them into the h 
nasal sack and duct. 
c, c, the tubes continued from the d 
openings. 
d, the nasal sack. 
e, the nasal duct, continued from 
the nasal sack. 
/, little canals that convey the 
tears to the eye from the gland. 
Fig. 23. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
81 
How we see.— 1. As yet, no one lias been able 
to explain precisely hoio or why we see. 
2. We know that light is reflected from objects; 
that it enters the eye through the transparent cornea, 
passes through the aqueous humor, and enters the 
pupil; that it passes through the pupil, and reaches 
the crystalline lens, where its rays are bent from a 
direct course. After the rays reach the retina, a 
picture of the object is formed upon it, and the 
impression is conveyed by the optic nerve to the 
brain, where it is understood or seen, but how, we do 
not know. 
3. The iris expands and contracts independently 
of the will. When the quantity of light is too great, 
it contracts, diminishes the size of the hole in its 
centre, and shuts out some of the rays. When we 
leave a well-lighted room, and enter another where 
there is less light, the iris expands, and enlarges the 
pupil, in order to admit as many rays as possible. 
LESSON 11. 
CARE OF THE EYE. ABUSE. DISEASE. 
(a) Care of the Eye. 1. Care should be taken, 
in working or reading by lamp or gas light, that the 
rays do not strike the eye directly. The light should 
fall upon the work or the book, and not upon the 
eye. Allow the light to fall from above the level of 
the eye, or over the left shoulder, but do not face it. 82 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
2. The nerves and muscles of the eye become 
fatigued by long-continued work, and may become 
permanently weakened by lack of rest. Care should 
be taken to give them a few minutes’ rest occasion- 
ally, when they are employed in reading fine print, 
sewing, etc. 
3. In all instances, try to have plenty of clear, 
steady light, especially when you read, write, draw, 
sew, or in any work that is “ trying to the eyes ” ; 
and give the eyes rest for a short time occasionally, 
by looking away from the work at more distant 
objects. Do not continue the work so long as to 
tire the eyes, as this weakens them, and will cause a 
loss of good eyesight. When the eyes are used so 
steadily that the sight begins to blur, the danger- 
point is more than reached. 
4. Avoid all glaring light. The sun should not 
shine directly upon your work; and, when you read, 
study, sew, etc., at night, use a shaded lamp. 
5. Close use of the eyes by twilight or in a dimly 
lighted room is very injurious. Fine work, and that 
upon dark surfaces, such as sewing dark or black 
cloth, etc., should be done by daylight. 
(>. We should not make a habit of reading while 
walking or riding. The eye and its muscles are 
strained in trying to follow the unsteady print. We 
should not read when lying down ; for the book can- 
not easily be held in proper position, and, in the 
endeavor to accommodate itself, the eye is over- 
strained, and its muscles weakened. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
83 
7. In reading, many children hold the book nearer 
to the eyes than is necessary, or, by bending over 
their work, bring the eyes too near it. These habits 
injure the eyes, and, if they are not already near- 
sighted, may cause them to become so. 
(£>) Near-sightedness. —l. Near-sightedness is a 
very common disorder of the eye; and you would 
be surprised to know how many children, in every 
school, are more or less near-sighted. Much of it is 
caused, doubtless, by using the eyes in deficient light, 
and bending the head over, so as to bring the eyes 
close to objects, as in reading, writing, etc. 
2. Great care should be taken in our schools, 
both by pupils and teachers, to secure good light, 
and to avoid a habit that may cause near-sightedness. 
While concave glasses relieve this disorder, proper 
care may avoid it altogether. 
(c) Far-sightedness.— People who are far-sighted 
cannot see near objects distinctly. In reading, they 
hold a book at arm’s length in the effort to see dis- 
tinctly. Far-sighted children may acquire a squint 
in trying to see things near by. Convex glasses give 
relief in this disorder of the eyes. 
(6?) Color-blindness. People who are “ color- 
blind ” are unable to distinguish the difference 
between certain colors. Red and green are the two 
colors which the color-blind are least able to distin- 
guish. Seeing a plant at a distance, they cannot 
detect the difference between the red flower and the 
green leaves; or, seeing two colored lights, one red 84 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
and the other green, they cannot tell which is red or 
which green. Children should be taught early to 
attend to colors, as this sense may be improved by 
training. 
(e) The Use and Selection of Glasses. —l. 
Many people think that the use of glasses, when 
really needed, can be safely postponed. This is an 
error. For near-sighted children to keep up their 
school-work without the aid of proper glasses is to 
make them more near-sighted, and also to increase 
the danger of other diseases of the eye. People are 
often misled by the belief that defects of sight can 
be corrected without the use of glasses; and they 
try so-called “cures” that do much harm. Many 
defects cannot be cured, but only relieved; and the 
good effects of the use of proper glasses in near-sight 
and far-sight cannot be overestimated. 
2. Caution should be used in selecting glasses. 
The selection of proper glasses should be entrusted 
only to those who, by study and experience, have 
obtained a knowledge of safely correcting poor eye- 
sight by the use of glasses. It is unwise and dan- 
gerous to entrust the selection to travelling pedlars 
and quack doctors, who do not understand our 
defects of sight; and it is just as unwise to think 
that we can, unaided, make a proper choice. Glasses 
must be accurate in their measurements and curves, 
be properly framed, and free from imperfections. 
Many of the glasses commonly sold are unfit for use. 
Glasses that do not give complete ease and relief to THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
85 
the eyes are an injury and not a benefit. But, when 
good glasses should be worn, do it; for your eyesight 
is of much more importance than mere “ looks.” 
(/} Size of Type and Tint of Paper. —l. The 
size of the type in books should be such that young 
children need never hold a book nearer than ten 
inches, and adults never farther than eighteen inches, 
from the eyes. As soon as perfectly distinct sight 
cannot be obtained and maintained at these distances, 
glasses should be used. The finer the type the closer 
the book has to be brought to the eyes, and in this 
way the eye and its muscles are strained. The long- 
continued use of the eyes upon objects brought close 
to them is one of the most fertile causes of near- 
sightedness. Again, too coarse print with a wide 
page requires undue exertion of the muscles that 
move the eye from side to side, and is apt to cause 
confusion in finding the next succeeding line, thus 
proving wearisome to the eye. 
2. The tint of the paper has an influence upon 
the ease with which we see in reading. It is impor- 
tant that there be no dazzling glare of the page, and 
for this reason pure white paper, such as is commonly 
used, or paper that has a gloss and bluish tinge, should 
not be employed. It has been found that a very 
light yellow tinge, like that of unbleached muslin, is 
best for the eyes. 
Qg) Diseases of the Eyes, etc.— I. Whenever 
your eyes become diseased, have them treated im- 
mediately by your doctor or by another whom he 86 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
recommends. Never tamper with homemade cures, 
for the eye is too delicate and precious to be trifled 
with by unskilful persons. 
2. In diseases of the eye in which matter forms, 
care should be taken to prevent matter from the dis- 
eased eye getting into the well one. All articles 
used in cleansing the eyes should be destroyed bjr 
burning, particularly the cloths and sponges. Towels 
and handkerchiefs used in case of sore eyes should 
not be washed among other articles, and it is danger- 
ous to use the same towel and basin used by one who 
has sore eyes. 
3. Cinders, or other small atoms, may be safely 
and easily removed from the eye by a small camel’s- 
hair brush dipped in water and passed over the eye- 
ball, on raising the lid. When lime gets into the 
eye, very serious injury may be prevented by at once 
bathing the eye with a little weak vinegar and water, 
which must be applied to the eyeball itself, between 
the lids, and any little particle of lime be carefully 
removed with a feather or carael’s-hair brush. 
(li) Tobacco-Smoking-. Smoking, in the ex- 
treme degree, causes dilation of the pupil of the eye, 
confusion of sight, bright lines, cobweb specks, etc. 
(Richardson.) The cigarette affords the most injuri- 
ous kind of smoking. More of the hot smoke finds 
its way into the air-passages, and more of the acids 
and alkalies come in contact with the delicate linings 
of these and of the mouth, and enter the blood, than 
in pipe or cigar smoking. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
87 
THE EAR. 
LESSON 111. 
THE EAR, AND HOW WE HEAR. 
Fig. 24. 
Explanation of Fig. 24. 
a, the external ear, 
b, the canals of the labyrinth. 
k, the middle ear {tympanum), in 
which the little bones are placed. 
g, the tympanic membrane. 
c, the auditory canal, 
e, the anvil-bone. 
i, the Eustachian tube. 
/, the cochlea. 
(a) Location.— The ear, the organ of hearing, 
consists of three parts; viz., the external ear, the 
middle ear, and the internal ear. The external ear 
is on the outside of the head, and the middle and 
internal portions are in the bones, at the base of the 
skull. 88 
HE AL TH LESS ONS. 
(b~) Construction. —l. The external ear is a thin, 
elastic cartilage, concave on one surface, and convex 
on the other. Its concave surface consists of grooves 
which finally form one large basin at the entrance of 
the opening into the head. From the opening, a 
passage or tube, called the auditory canal, extends to 
the middle ear, or drum. This canal is about an inch 
in length, and its inner end is closed by a thin, 
tightly drawn membrane, called the tympanic mem- 
brane. 
2. The middle ear (tympanum), or drum, is a 
small cavity which is separated from the auditory 
canal by the tympanic membrane. The air within 
the drum communicates with the outside air by a 
passage called the Jdustachian tube, which leads to the 
back part of the throat. Within the drum is a col- 
lection of four small bones, one joined to the extrem- 
ity of another. From their shape, they have been 
named the mallet, the anvil, the stirrup, 
the round hone. Fig. 25 represents these 
bones in their natural size, excepting the 
last one, which is magnified. 
fig. 25. 
3. The internal ear, or labyrinth, con- 
sists of winding passages in the solid bone. The 
auditory nerve is spread over these passages like a 
lining, and they are filled with a watery liquid. One 
of these winding passages is named the cochlea, or 
snail-shell. 
(c) How we hear. —l. All things which pro- 
duce sound vibrate in doing so, and communicate THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
89 
these quiverings to the air around them. The waves 
of air reach the external ear, which, like a funnel, re- 
ceives as many of them as it can, and causes them to 
flow along its channels into the auditory canal. 
2. The air-waves beat upon the membrane of the 
drum, and cause it to vibrate just as the head of an 
ordinary drum does when it is struck. The vibra- 
tions of the membrane cause the air within the drum 
(tympanum} to vibrate, and to set the little bones to 
vibrating and swinging, at the same rate. All these 
shakes and vibrations produce similar ones in the 
watery liquid in the labyrinth, and these produce 
some kind of an impression on the auditory nerve, 
which lines the inner ear. This nerve carries the 
sensation to the brain, which recognizes it, we know 
not how, as a sound, and we hear. 
LESSON IV- 
CARE OF THE EAR.— INJURY TO HEARING. 
1. Draughts of air from open windows, especially 
when riding in swift-moving cars, may chill the ear 
and cause inflammation and earache. 
2. In bathing in cold water, care should be taken 
not to allow the water to enter the ears, as it chills 
and injures the sensitive membrane. Again, the 
weight and pressure of the water upon the drum- 
head injures it. If water gets into the ears, care 
should be taken to remove it, and this may be done 90 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
by holding the head over, sidewise, and then hopping 
on the foot on the same side, if necessary. 
3. Diving from a height without having the ears 
plugged, to prevent the sudden entrance and shock 
of the water, may cause deafness. 
4. Blows upon the ears boxing the ears with 
the hand or with a book, etc. cause concussion 
that injures the internal ear, and may cause the loss 
of hearing. The ears are not intended to be boxed. 
It would be as wise to poke one’s finger into an eye, 
to inflict punishment, as to strike a blow upon the 
ear. 
5. The firing of cannon and other loud sounds 
made close to the ear may cause lasting deafness. 
Gunners open their mouths, and in this way relieve 
the ears from shock that would otherwise injure 
them. The dangerous trick of clashing stones 
together while bathing with the head under water 
causes an almost deafening sound, injures the ear, 
and impairs the hearing. 
C. The smoking of tobacco, and the habit of breath- 
ing through the mouth, both injure the ear and hear- 
ing by making the delicate mucous lining of the air- 
passage leading into the ear from the back chamber 
of the mouth dry. 
7. Ear-wax keeps the lining of the tube of the ear 
soft and pliable. When it becomes dry, the wax 
usually falls out in the form of thin flakes or scales. 
Sometimes it forms in hard lumps, stops the opening, 
and interferes with hearing. It may then be re- THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
91 
moved by gently syringing the ear with warm water, 
but never by scraping the ear with pin-heads, pen- 
holders, match-ends, ear-picks, etc. These scraping 
things injure the lining, and may rupture the drum- 
head and cause deafness. Besides, instead of re- 
moving the wax, they sometimes pack it against the 
drum, and thus injure hearing. 
8. If an insect gets into the ear, it may be killed 
by pouring in a few drops of sweet oil, and then 
removed by gently syringing the ear with warm 
water. If this does not remove the insect, do not 
probe the ear, but go to your doctor, and let him 
remove the intruder. 
9. Children sometimes poke peas or beans into 
their ears. In this case no syringing with water or 
any other liquid should be resorted to, as it would 
cause the pea or bean to swell and become firmly 
lodged. Dry heat alone must be employed. The 
doctor should be sought immediately. If, however, 
a haul body, such as a button or bead, be pushed 
into the ear, syringing may bring it out. The head 
should be laid over so that the ear in which the 
button or bead is be undermost, and in this position 
the water may be thrown up; but the nozzle of the 
syringe must not enter the ear, for it may prevent 
the article from dropping out. 92 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
THE SKIN. 
LESSON V. 
THE SKIN.—SENSE OF TOUCH. 
(a) Location. The skin is the outer covering, 
or envelope, of the body. 
(J>) Structure.— 1. The skin consists of two 
layers, viz., the outer, or scarf skin, and the inner, 
or true skin. 
2. The scarf skin consists of layers of flat, trans- 
parent scales, which are constantly being cast off 
and renewed. The dandruff of the head, and the 
white scurf that deposits itself on the clothing, are 
portions of the worn-out scarf skin. This part of 
the skin has neither nerves nor blood-vessels, and, 
when cut or punctured, suffers no pain. It is very 
thick over those parts of the body that are exposed 
to friction in working. This is especially true of 
the palm of the hand and sole of the foot. 
3. The true skin is a dense, thick membrane, con- 
sisting of strong fibres that are arranged like those 
of felt cloth. This part of the skin is filled with 
small blood-vessels, which give it a bright-pink color. 
Besides the blood-vessels, the true skin contains 
nerves, lymphatic-tubes, oil-tubes, and perspiration- 
tubes. 
4. The arteries, veins, and capillaries branch out 
all over the skin in a fine network. The nerves are 
so numerous that a needle cannot pierce the skin THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
without touching one of them. The lymphatics are 
little tubes which open outwardly, on the under sur- 
face of the scarf skin, while inwardly they connect 
with the veins. The oil-tubes are very abundant. 
Their mouths open upon the outer surface of the 
skin, and may be plainly seen at the edges of the 
eyelids and about the nose. 
(c) Work of the Skin. —l. The skin, being 
tough and elastic, protects the tender flesh from 
injury. It also serves as an outlet for much of the 
worn-out or waste matter of the body, some of 
which is carbonic acid, some of an oily nature, and 
much of it perspiration. 
2. The perspiration-tubes gather up, from the cap- 
illaries, waste matter in the form of water, salts, 
acids, etc., and carry it to the surface of the skin. 
The little mouths of these tubes are so numerous, 
that more than three thousand of them have been 
counted in one square inch of the skin. The work 
of these tubes goes on constantly. When their 
action is much hastened, they pour out the perspi- 
ration in so large a quantity that it may be seen 
on the skin, and this is called sensible perspiration. 
When the tubes do not discharge so rapidly as to 
cause the fluid to be seen on the skin, it is called 
insensible perspiration. 
3. The oil-tubes (sebaceous glands) carry an oily 
substance from the blood, which, passing out over 
the surface of the skin, keeps it from becoming hard 
and dry, and also affords a natural oil, or dressing, for 94 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
the hair. The mouths of these little tubes, upon the 
forehead and about the nose, are liable to become 
closed with hardened sebaceous matter, which ap- 
pears as small, black dots, improperly called “ skin- 
worms.” 
4. The lymphatics absorb certain substances with 
which the skin may come in contact, carrying them 
into the blood-vessels. It is known that the body 
absorbs water through the skin, and that many drugs 
when applied to tender parts of the skin produce the 
same effects as when taken into the stomach. 
5. The nails and hair are outgrowths from the 
skin. The nails protect the ends of the lingers, ena- 
ble us to pick up small objects, and assist the sense 
of touch. The hair of the head protects the brain 
from extremes of heat and cold; the eyebrows pre- 
vent perspiration from running into the eyes; the 
eyelashes, and hairs of the nose and ears, are a pro- 
tection from dust, insects, etc. 
C. The coloring-matter is spread over the true skin, 
and this gives the variety of complexion noticed in 
different people and in the various races of men. 
7. The skin regulates the warmth of our bodies. 
When from any cause the body becomes too warm, 
the pores of the skin open wider, and the blood flows 
more freely to the surface of the body. The sweat 
immediately appears, and the loss of heat caused by 
its change into vapor cools the skin and the blood 
that flows through it; and thus the warmth of the 
body is kept from becoming too great. But when THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
95 
the body is exposed to cold, the pores of the skin 
close, and the perspiration does not pass off so freely. 
The skin remains dry, and this helps to keep the 
body as warm as it should be. 
8. The sense of touch belongs particularly to the 
skin. Many portions of our bodies are quite insen- 
sible to touch, and, except when diseased, are nearly 
destitute of feeling, having but few nerves. The 
skin is not everywhere equally sensitive to the touch. 
The tips of the fingers have a very large number of 
nerves, and for this reason they are especially em- 
ployed in finding out whether things are rough or 
smooth, hot or cold, and in aiding the eyes to form 
correct impressions of the size and shape of objects. 
9. The sense of touch is very keen in the blind, 
and they become accustomed to obtain much of their 
knowledge of the outside world by it. Very recently 
a lad fifteen years of age, and blind from birth, had 
an operation performed on his eyes, and received 
sight. At first his sight was of no use to him, for he 
could not recognize the most familiar objects until 
he could touch them. He did not know a key from 
a book by the sense of sight alone, until he became 
familiar with the difference by both seeing and touch- 
ing them. 96 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
LESSOJf YI. 
(a) Closed Pores cause Disease. —l. Learned 
men, by curious experiments, have found that the 
skin casts out more waste matter from the body than 
any of the other organs do. If, then, the skin has its 
perspiration-tubes closed up by chill, or by allowing 
them to become varnished over by the matter which 
they carry out from the blood, the poisonous particles 
that should be thrown out by them must be cast out 
either by the lungs, kidneys, or bowels. 
THE SKIN AND HEALTH. —BATHING. 
2. When these organs are strong and healthy, 
they may bear this extra labor for a time, without 
being greatly injured; and still they become, little 
by little, weakened by this extra task. If the lungs, 
kidneys, or bowels are not very strong, they will 
be unable to take up and empty out all of this im- 
pure matter from the blood. The air-vessels of the 
lungs may become clogged and inflamed by it, or it 
may cause inflammation of the bowels and kidneys. 
We have learned that the skin regulates the warmth 
of the body. If the pores become closed, the heat of 
the body will be much increased, and we shall have 
“fever.” If we would have good health, we must 
keep the skin clean and its pores open by proper 
bathing, clothing, and warmth. 
(J) Bathing. —l. In summer time or warm 
weather, bathing, as a means of cleansing the skin, 
should be practised two or three times a week, or THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
97 
oftener. It is not best to bathe before breakfast, or 
just before or just after a hearty meal, nor when tired 
and overheated. About midway between meals, or 
before going to bed, is a suitable time for most 
persons. 
2. Bathing must not be entered on or persisted in 
carelessly, or it may do great mischief. If the bather 
do not feel a glow of warmth after leaving the water, 
or if he have a headache, or feel languid or chilly, 
then he may be sure the bath has been taken at an 
improper time or in an improper way, and that it has 
not done him good. 
3. Care should be taken as regards the tempera- 
ture of the water in which we bathe. Hot-water 
baths, while more cleansing than cold water, are 
more weakening. Once a week is often enough to 
use a hot bath for cleanliness. It should be borne in 
mind, that on leaving a warm bath, the person should 
not expose himself to a current of cold air, which, by 
checking the action of the perspiration-tubes and 
closing the pores, will cause “ cold,” or inflammation. 
4. “ A ‘ cold bath ’ is not necessaril}r a bath in 
water of the temperature of the air. A bath is truly 
and really cold when it causes a slight, momentary 
shock, followed by a pleasant return of warmth. 
This effect for most people is obtained by bathing in 
water of about 65° or 70° warmth. Bearing this in 
mind, we can enjoy our ‘cold’ bath as safely and 
pleasantly at Christmas as at midsummer, and there 
is no occasion for the most timid or weakly to give 98 
HEALTH LESSONS 
up liis bath because the summer weather is over. 
When the water is colder than 60°, let it be heated 
to about that degree, and we shall still have our cold 
bath. To bathe in unwarmed water, all the year 
round, whatever the temperature of the water may 
be, is uncalled for and unwise.” 
5. Whatever the kind of bath, the body should be 
rubbed with a hard towel till a gentle glow is felt, 
and then polished with a brush. This will soon not 
only be easily borne, but will afford pleasure. 
Sponging the chest and arms on arising is a very 
good substitute for a bath. 
O. Soap may be used to assist in removing oily 
matter from the skin, but care must be taken not to 
use very strong soap, in which there is much alkali, 
lest it remove the oil so completely as to leave the skin 
too dry, in which case it would become chapped and 
rough. Finally, the bath should not be indulged too 
long. Young people sometimes remain in the water 
from half an hour to an hour. This is injurious. 
Ten to. fifteen minutes is long enough to secure all 
the good from a bath. 
LESSON VII. 
CLOTHING AND HEALTH. 
(d) Quantity, of Clothing. —l. The object of 
clothing, in its relation to health, is to protect the 
body from too sudden change of temperature, and to THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
99 
aid the skin in regulating the warmth of the body. 
We may wear clothing that keeps the body too warm 
and causes the perspiration to flow too freely. This 
causes the skin to become very sensitive to slight 
changes in the temperature of the air. Again, we 
may be too thinly clothed, and thus permit the 
warmth of our bodies to pass out too freely, causing a 
chill and closing the pores of the skin. We should 
try to avoid both of these extremes. 
2. There can be no exact rule given for the quan- 
tity of clothing. It must be regulated to suit our 
habits, health, and exposure, and should be sufficient 
to keep the body comfortably warm. It is best that 
the amount worn should vary with the weather, and 
be increased or diminished with the temperature of 
the air. 
3. When the appetite for food becomes poor and 
we eat but little, or when the food is not good and 
nourishing, the fire within the body burns low. We 
then need more clothing and more warmth from the 
outside. It is neither cheap nor health-giving to eat 
poor food. When poorly fed and poorly clothed, the 
becomes weak and unhealthy. Well-clothed 
people require less food in cold weather than those 
thinly dressed. 
4. Those who always clothe themselves heavily 
retain, in part, their summer constitution through 
the winter. They are tender when cold weather 
comes, and cannot bear what others do without suf- 
fering. Many children wear heavy coats, tippets 100 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
about the neck, and often forget to remove them 
while in the warm school-room. As soon as they go 
out of doors, the neck becomes chilled. In this way 
tippets have caused more sore throats than they have 
prevented. Never wear a tippet while in doors; and 
it is generally best not to wear one unless it is very 
cold. 
(£} Qualities of Clothing-. —l. Woolen clothes, 
being coarse and porous, detain within their meshes 
considerable quantities of air, and this causes them 
to conduct heat slowly. They are the kind best 
adapted to prevent the heat of the body from escap- 
ing rapidly, and are best suited to cold weather. 
2. Cotton clothing is a better conductor of heat 
than woolen, and is therefore not so warm. Cotton 
does not absorb moisture from the body as rapidly 
as linen does, nor so slowly as wool does. It is the 
best for under-garments, because it is desirable to 
prevent the too sudden cooling of the body by rapid 
evaporation of the perspiration. 
3. Linen clothing is a rapid conductor of heat. It 
also quickly absorbs perspiration, and allows it to 
evaporate freely. In this way, its cooling effect is 
very rapid; and while it cools the body, it does not 
properly protect it from sudden chill or change of 
the temperature ‘of the air. It should never be 
worn next the skin. 
(c) Care of Clothing, and Cleanliness.— 1. All 
clothing should he kept clean. Under-clothing, espe- 
cially, absorbs perspiration, and becomes fdled with THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
101 
the waste from the skin. Some of this matter may- 
be absorbed and carried back into the blood, or at 
least prevent air from passing as freely through the 
clothing as it should. A neglect to change clothing 
frequently is not only a filthy habit, but is one cause 
of disease in uncleanly persons. 
2. There should he an entire change of clothing on 
going to led. The clothing worn during the day 
should be allowed to air and dry, and be well shaken 
before being put on again. 
3. The night-clothing and the hed-clothes and beds 
should he thoroughly aired every day. If this is not 
attended to, they will remain damp from the moisture 
they absorb, and will cause chill when next used. 
Besides, the night-clothing as well as the day-cloth- 
ing becomes charged with impurities from the body, 
and may become a source of disease. 
4. Wet clothing should he changed immediately. It 
chills the skin and thus prevents the perspiration 
tubes from performing their work. When the gar- 
ments cannot be changed at once, the person should 
not sit still and shiver, but should exercise moder- 
ately, and in this way keep up the warmth of the 
body. Children frequently come to school in stormy 
weather, and sit with wet clothing and wet feet. 
This should be prevented. 
5. Sudden change from thick to thin clothing is 
dangerous. It is far better to make the change grad- 
ually, allowing the body to become accustomed to it 
safely. 102 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
TASTE AND SMELL. 
LESSON VIII. 
TASTE AND SMELL. NARCOTICS. 
(a) The Tongue. —l. The tongue, the organ of 
taste, consists of muscles, some of which attach it to 
a bone at its root, to the lower jaw, etc. The 
fibres of its muscles interlace so curiously that it is 
capable of a great variety of motion. It can raise or 
lower itself, shrink or expand, narrow its end to a 
point, bring its sides together so as to form a tube or 
canal, or carry its tip to any part of the mouth in 
which food may become lodged. 
3. The tongue has three large nerves, one of 
which gives it motion, and the other two are the sen- 
sitive nerves of taste. The mucous membrane which 
covers the tongue is raised into great numbers of lit- 
tle points, and to these go the fine threads of the 
nerves of taste. When substances which dissolve 
more or less are placed on the tongue, they cause a 
peculiar effect, each in its own way. The sensation 
is carried by the nerves to the brain, and is known 
by it as taste, sweet, sour, bitter, salt, pleasant or 
disagreeable. Food and drink must remain in the 
mouth for a certain time in order that their full fla- 
vor may be known. For this reason people keep 
pleasant-tasting things in their mouths awhile before 
swallowing them ; but when disagreeable medicine is 
taken, how quickly they try to have it pass over the THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
103 
tongue and escape the nerves of taste, lest they re- 
port unpleasant news of it I 
(&) The Nose. —l. The sense of smell is located 
in the delicate lining (mucous membrane) of the 
upper portion of the air-passages of the nose. This 
portion of the lining contains a fine network of 
branches of the nerve of smell. The ends of these 
little nerves extend directly to the surface of the lin- 
ing, so that the particles of the substances we smell 
may come in very close contact with them. 
3. Substances that can be smelled give off atoms 
so very small that they cannot be weighed or meas- 
ured. These little particles are breathed in with the 
air in which they float, and come in contact with the 
fine nerve-ends, and produce an effect upon them. 
The nerve of smell then conveys the impression to 
the brain, and there it becomes known as an odor or 
smell. 
(c) Uses of Taste and Smell. —l. The senses of 
taste and smell are our chief guides in choosing food. 
They are very closely related, and the sense of taste 
is greatly aided by the sense of smell. When for 
any reason the sense of smell becomes blunted, taste 
becomes less delicate and keen. They are twin 
senses, and most things that are disagreeable to one 
are so to both. 
2. The sense of taste gives us a pleasure which 
we would not have without it in taking food. It 
becomes educated to warn us against swallowing 
many substances which would do great injury or 104 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
cause death if taken into the stomach. If the milk 
or the bread is spoiled and sour, the egg stale, etc., 
taste and smell give us the needed caution. 
3. The sense of smell gives us information, which 
we cannot obtain by any other sense, about sub- 
stances in the form of vapors or gases. This sense 
stands as a sentinel on guard, and examines all the 
in-coming air breathed by the nose. It warns us 
instantly of the presence of dangerous gases, or of 
other odors that are enemies to health, while it finds 
pleasure for us in every sweet-smelling flower. 
4. The senses of taste and smell are frequently 
injured and made less delicate by abuse of them, and 
by disease. 
(cT) How Taste and Smell may be injured. 
1. Tobacco and alcohol when habitually used benumb 
the nerves of taste, and they become unable to detect 
delicate flavors. The sense of taste sometimes is so 
deadened that plain food becomes insipid; and then 
those who use much tobacco or alcohol resort to 
strongly spiced or “ seasoned ” food, in order to ex- 
cite the taste. The highly seasoned food first sharpens 
and then still further benumbs the sense of taste. 
2. Dryness of the lining membrane of the air-pas- 
sages of the nose, or its frequent irritation by colds, 
tends to blunt the sense of smell. The smoke of 
tobacco contains many fine particles which lodge in 
the passages and dry and irritate them, and inflama- 
tion there may cause catarrh, which either injures or 
entirely destroys the sense of smell. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
105 
3. Of all our senses, smell is the one that soonest 
gets out of practice, so much so that numbers of 
people really do not perceive disagreeable smells at 
all. If they always accustomed themselves to take 
notice, and to use their noses, they would never con- 
sent to live in the horrid air they do. A stupid per- 
son takes no notice, and then his nose gets used to 
disagreeable smell, and leaves off perceiving it. TEST QUESTIONS. 
THE FRAMEWORK. 
Lesson I. (a), 1. What form the framework ? Why are the hones 
like the timbers of a house ? What if our bodies were boneless ? Of 
what is bone made ?—2. What happens when a hone is burned ? What 
when it is soaked in acid ? Of what use is the lime in the hones ? Of 
what use is the glue-like part? What if there were no lime in the 
bones? What if they were formed entirely of lime? What would 
you not then dare do ? Compare the hones of young people with those 
of the aged. —3. Mention the different forms of the hones. What do 
you know of the long hones ? Of the flat bones, as in the skull ? Of 
the short hones ? How is every part fitted, and for what purposes are 
all the hones joined ? (b), 1. Tell about the joints of the skull. What 
name is given the joints of the skull, and in what do they aid?— 2. 
Where are movable joints to be found ? How lasting are they ? Com- 
pare the joints of our body with those of machines. How are our 
joints fitted to move easily ? In what ways may our joints be injured ? 
What is a sprain, and what may cause it? What of injury by rough 
play ? 3. What are ball-and-socket joints ? What do you know of 
their motion? Why is the shoulder-joint easily “put out ” ? Describe 
the hip-joint. —4. Where are hinge-like joints ? How many bones are 
in the arm below the elbow, and what movement can one of them 
make ? How many bones are in the wrist ? How many in a finger ? 
In a thumb ? What makes the hand so capable of handling ? To what 
does man owe his superiority ? 
Lesson 11. (a), 1. What is the shape of the chest ? Tell about the 
ribs. What does the chest contain? —2. Tell what you know of the 
backbone. Why is it not a single bone ? Where and what is the spinal 
marrow ? 3. What is between each two of these bones ? Of what use 
are these pads ? Why are we not quite as tall in the evening as in the 
morning? What of the backbone’s length in old age ? Is it straight? 108 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
(b), 1. What of the hone of the thigh? By what is the knee pro- 
tected ? Tell about the bones of the leg below the knee. —2. How is 
the foot formed ? How many bones in it ? What of its motion ? Why 
is it arched ? 
Lesson 111. - (a), 1. Upon what does the health of the bones depend? 
—2. What if a child has no exercise, etc.?— 3. What gives the bones 
good size and strength? (b), 1. How may the bones of the spine and 
chest be distorted ? Tell about the bad effects of tight clothing about 
the chest. How should clothing be about the chest, and why ? 2. How 
should you sit and stand ? Tell about the bad effects of improper pos- 
ture. What of the height of your desk ? 3. Tell about the harm done 
by tight shoes. Why are high heels injurious? —4. What may have 
induced consumption in some people ? 
Lesson IV. (a), 1. When are the first teeth shed ? What are they 
called, and how many are there ? What takes their place ? Of what 
are the teeth composed ? 2. Why are the first teeth shed?—(b), 1. 
How should the teeth be cared for after a meal ? —2. Tell how to brush 
the teeth well. Which need most brushing? What of brushing the 
gums ?—3. What kind of brush is best, and why ? 4. What of strong 
soaps ? What of powders ? Of hot and of cold water ? Of tepid 
water? What makes a good tooth-powder? —5. For what were the 
teeth not intended ? 
Lesson I.— (a), 1. What are the lungs and pores of the skin con- 
stantly casting out ? 2. What if new material be not supplied the 
body? What of the nerves of the stomach when food is needed? 
(b), 1. From what does bodily strength come? What does the food 
furnish the body?— 2. How does bodily waste vary? (c), 1 and 2. 
What is digestion?— (d), 1. Name the organs of digestion.—2. What 
is the alimentary canal ? 
DIGESTION. 
Lesson 11. (a), 1 and 2. Tell about the work of the mouth in chang- 
ing the food. Tell about the saliva or spittle. —3. When the work of 
the mouth, etc., is completed, what happens? Tell about the oesopha- 
gus, and how food is swallowed. (b), 1. Where is the stomach? 
What of its shape and coats ? 2. What occurs when food enters the 
stomach ? Tell about the action of the gastric juice. What is chyme ? 
What becomes of it?—(c), 1. What occurs when the chyme enters the 
intestines? Upon what do the two juices act? What is chyle? —2. 
What becomes of the chyle ? Into what is it poured at last ? TEST QUESTIONS. 
109 
Lesson 111. (a), 1. When should meals he eaten, and why? How 
often? —2. When does the stomach work best? Tell about eating 
after play. Tell about exercise after eating. About a meal before 
going to bed.— (b), 1. What is said of eating hurriedly? What of 
taking too much food and its bad effect ? 3. What of taking frequent 
swallows of tea, coffee, etc., while eating? What effect have cold 
liquids on digestion? When is it best to quench thirst? (c), 1. Of 
what are our bodies composed ? What, then, should our food contain ? 
Why is it best to eat more than one article of food ?—2. What kind of 
diet is best ? Tell what different articles of food supply to the body. 
Tell the kinds of food eaten by people in various climates. 3. What 
often makes food uuhealthful ? What of mixtures in cooking ? What 
should be done when food causes discomfort ? What will result from 
carelessness in taking food ? 
Lesson IV. (a), 1. What is the danger of impure drinking-water? 
What is said of wells in old cities and villages ? 2. What is said of 
detecting impure water by taste and smell ? (b), 1. How may water 
become impure? What can you say of shallow wells and filthy 
ground?— 2. What of the purity of wells in the country? What of 
cesspools, slops, etc., about them ? What of filthy ground in cities 
making water impure ? 3. What is certain when there is carelessness 
about good drainage and cleanliness ? What lesson should be learned 
by all? What cannot be had if filth is not promptly removed?— 4. 
What recently caused a terrible epidemic of fever in one of our towns ? 
Lesson Y. (a). What are stimulants ? (b). What are narcotics ? 
How do they produce their effects? What injury do they produce? 
(c). What stimulants and narcotics are particularly mentioned, and 
why ? In what are these much alike ? What may the use of one of 
them lead to ? What is alcohol, and in what is it harmful ? What is 
opium ? Tell about its power. In what is it often used ? What is 
tobacco ? By what are its bad effects caused ? What is chloral ? 
What of its danger? (d). Tell about the appetite that these drugs 
arouse. (e), 1. How does alcohol injure the stomach ? How does it 
affect certain food articles in the stomach ? What of alcohol and the 
gastric juice ? What are its principal effects here? —2. How does it 
injure the liver and kidneys? What is “drinker’s liver”? Why is 
an injury to the kidneys serious ? (f). In what way do smoking and 
chewing of tobacco interfere with digestion ? What diseases may 
tobacco cause? How does tobacco injure young people?—(g). In 
what ways do opium and chloral interfere with digestion ? Tell about 
the appetite they fix upon people. When only should they be used ? HE AL TH LESSONS. 
THE BLOOD. 
Lesson I. —l. What is the blood, and what does it carry? Of what 
is it made ? What, if we would have good blood ? 2. What materials 
does the blood contain ? When it does not contain these, what may we 
conclude ? 3. What is the plasma ? What are corpuscles ? Tell about 
both kinds of corpuscles. What do they carry? —4. Tell about the 
general movements of the blood. Name the organs that circulate it. 
Lesson 11. (a), 1. What is the heart, and where is it?—(b), 1. 
Tell about its form and size. —2. What surrounds it ? Tell about this 
sack. —3. How many chambers has the heart, and what are their 
names ? 4. How are the chambers connected, and how separated ?—5. 
Tell about the walls of the ventricles as compared with those of the 
auricles. —6. Why do not the auricles need so much power? (c). Tell 
about the action of the heart, and the movements of the blood through 
it. Out of which chamber is the blood pumped into the great artery ? 
To what do this artery and branches carry it?—(d). What are arte- 
ries ? Tell about the aorta. Where are most of the arteries located ? 
Why do they lie so deep? Tell about the difference in the flow of 
blood from an artery and that from a vein.— (e). Tell about the capil- 
laries. What passes out though their walls, and for what purpose? 
(f). Tell about the veins. Into what do they finally become united? 
Tell about the kind of blood in the arteries as compared with that of 
the veins. How long does it take all the blood to pass once through the 
heart ? 
Lesson 111. (a), 1. Why must the blood circulate freely? What 
bad effect has tight clothing ?—2. Tell about the effects of tight cloth- 
ing about the neck.—3. Of tight clothing about the waist.—4. What 
of tight bands about the limbs? —5. Of tight shoes aud gloves? - 6. 
Of insufficient clothing?—(b), 1. What bad effect has anger, etc., on 
the heart’s action ? 2. How do sorrow and grief affect the movement 
of blood and the health? —3. Good nature?—(c), 1. Tell about the 
good effects of bathing and friction of the skin. —2. About muscular 
exercise and its good effects. (d), 1. What things should be avoided ? 
—2. Why should not the heart be unduly excited? (e), 1. How does 
alcohol treat the blood and its corpuscles ? Tell about fevers and 
liquor-drinkers. —2. How does alcohol affect the heart? What of fat- 
tening the heart and muscles of the blood-vessels ? Tell about alcohol 
as a protection against qold. Does it so protect?—(f). What is the 
effect of tobacco upon the blood ? —Upon the heart ? TEST QUESTIONS. 
BREATHING. 
Lesson I. (a). How does air get into the lungs?—(b), 1. Tell 
about the larynx, or “Adam’s apple.” Tell about the glottis and epi- 
glottis. What occurs if we attempt to swallow when we breathe ? 2. 
Tell about the larynx as the instrument of voice. At what time of life 
does it increase in size, and what follows?—(c), 1. Tell about the 
windpipe and its branches.—2. With what are the air-tubes lined? 
(d), 1. Where are the lungs? Tell about their substance and color. 
What causes them to act in breathing? Describe breathing by the 
lungs. 2. How does oxygen get into the blood, and what effect has it ? 
What comes out from the blood in the lungs ? What, then, is the work 
of the lungs ? 
Lesson 11. (a), 1. Of what is air composed ? What if it consisted 
of oxygen only?— 2. Tell about the value of oxygen.— (b), 1. What 
depends upon the quality of the air we breathe? —2. Tell about the 
effects of breathing pure and impure air.— 3. What results follow 
breathing of bad air? Of pure air? (c), 1. How much air is taken 
in at a breath ? What causes the air of a room to soon become impure ? 
—2. What of gases from cesspools, etc.? From decaying vegetables 
and slops, etc.? How shall we guard against these dangers ?—3. Tell 
about the bad effects of not raising windows. —4. Tell about the harm 
from sleeping with the head under clothes. 
Lesson 111. (a), 1. Why are food and air necessary?— 2. What 
becomes of the oxygen we breathe, and what does it do? —3. Why, 
then, do we breathe?—• (b), 1. Why is it best to breathe through the 
nose? —2. Tell about sufficient breathing. What results if we do not 
take sufficient air at each breath? —3. Tell what things prevent suffi- 
cient breathing. How frequently does a healthy person breathe? 
How often, and why, do some people partly fill their lungs? (c), 1. 
How does alcohol injure the lining of lungs? What trouble does this 
cause? What of a “ cold ” and of inflammation of the lungs in those 
who drink liquor? How does alcohol interfere with the blood?—2. 
How does tobacco-smoke harm the lungs ? What of the death of a 
young man from smoking ? Why are cigarettes most injurious ? 
Lesson IV. (a), 1. What is it to ventilate a room or place? When 
have we proper ventilation? 3. Why do many people fear to open 
windows ? What do we notice on entering a close room ? What must 
be guarded against in ventilating ? (b), 1. What is said of the danger 
of breathing air in close rooms ?2. Tell what is said of the time 
spent in sleeping-rooms, and of not allowing fresh air to enter them. 112 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
What bad effects follow ? What should be done ? (c), 1. Why are 
not some plans of ventilation employed? —2. Tell how a room may be 
safely ventilated by window ventilation. (d), 1. How warm should 
rooms in which we sit be ? Those in which we work ? Tell about 
allowing rooms to become too warm, and then throwing doors and win- 
dows open. Why is this wrong ? What is said of the guide for 
warmth ? What of going out from rooms that are too warm ?2. 
Tell about the management of stoves and furnaces. About moisture of 
the air of rooms, and how to keep it moist. 
Lesson V.—(a), 1. On what kind of ground, etc., should houses be 
built? What if the cellar would be damp? —2. How should the 
ground be make to slope, and why ? 3. What of trees near the house ? 
How should the trees be situated, and why? How is the best light 
obtained? What of slops thrown on the ground?—(b), 1. What 
quality of material should be used in school-buildings ? What of the 
size of rooms ? What is of first importance ? Tell about the size of 
room suited to forty pupils. —2. What of the windows, and of enter- 
ing light? Of the color of ceiling and walls, and why? —3. Where 
should the light not enter, and why ? Where should light enter, and 
why? What of sunlight? Tell about the position of blackboards, etc. 
What of the quantity of light ? Of glare ? What should we all learn 
as to this, and why ? 4. What of doors, transom windows, and stairs ? 
—5. What of the position and height of school-desks ? 6. What about 
outer garments, wet clothing, lunch-baskets, etc. ? 
THE MUSCLES. 
Lesson I. (a), 1. What are the muscles? What does the body 
owe to them? —2. To what are the muscles and tendons compared? 
3. To what parts of a machine are the bones similar ? The muscles ? 
4. What of lean meat?—-Of the number of muscles? (b), 1. Where 
are the muscles? Mention some within the framework. (c), 1. Of 
what are muscles made up, etc. ? 2. How are they placed, and how 
separated, etc. ? —3. Tell their shapes and lengths.— 4. Tell about the 
sivell, insertion, and origin of muscles. 5. Describe the tendons. —6. 
Tell about arteries and nerves of the muscles. 
Lesson 11. (a), 1. What causes all bodily movements? —2. Tell 
how the muscles produce motion. In what is a good example of this 
found? What are flexors and extensors? —3. How many are arranged 
in pairs, and why?— 4. Do all muscles move joints? Explain.—5. TEST QUESTIONS. 
Tell about the muscles of the face. —6. Tell about hands of ligament, 
and their uses.— (h), 1 and 2. Tell about voluntary and involuntary 
muscles.— (c), 1 and 2. Tell how the muscles are made to contract.— 
3. What if a nerve he cut? 
Lesson 111. (a), 1. What is the law regarding exercise ? Tell about 
the effects of lack of exercise. —2. What care must he taken in exercis- 
ing?— (h), 1 and 2. Tell how exercise affects the flow of the blood, the 
work of the heart, lungs, etc. (c), 1. Tell how exei’cise aids appetite 
and digestion. (d), 1. Tell about exercise and pure air.— 2. Exercise 
and mental labor. —3. What of daylight and exercise? —4. What of 
exercising a large number of muscles, and how? —5. What of taking 
exercise regularly and gradually? What should be avoided, and why? 
—6. What of pleasant state of the mind while exercising ? What of 
gloominess and exercise?—(e), 1. Tell about walking as an exercise, 
and how it should be engaged in. —2. What of running ? 3. Tell about 
the benefits of swimming. 4. Tell about rowing, and what it may cause. 
What is the best position, for health, in rowing? —5. Tell about the 
benefit of gymnastics and the use of light dumb-bells. 0. What about 
the clothing and exercise?— (e). How does alcohol cause us to lose con- 
trol of the muscles? How does this finally affect men, even when they 
are sober ? What about alcohol changing muscle into fat ? What dan- 
ger lies in this change ? 
THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 
Lesson I.— (a), 1. Where is the brain? —2. Tell about its two divi- 
sions.— (b), 1. Tell about the coats of the brain, and describe each.— 
2. Tell about the substance of the brain. —(c), 1. What of the brain 
and thought? —2. Tell about the work of the divisions of the brain. 
Which is supposed to regulate muscular movements ? 
Lesson ll. (a), 1. From what do the nerves spring?— 2. What are 
cranial nerves?— 3. Tell about the spinal cord. About the spinal 
nerves.—4. How do the nerves branch out?—(b), 1. Tell about the 
pairs of nerves. About the nerves of the skin. What form the ner- 
vous system ? 1. Tell about the work of the nervous system. 
2. What are sensory nerves ? Motor nerves ? Tell about their work. 
What is the nervous system like? 
Lesson 111. What things are first of all necessary to a healthy 
brain, etc.? —2. What of regular hours for work and play, and why? 
3. What of loss of sleep, and the nervous system ? Tell about hours 114 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
and time for sleep. What is best when we are wearied by brain-work, 
etc.? Tell about the brain needing rest. What about the kind of pil- 
low?— 4. Tell what is said of study at night. In the morning. —l. 
Tell what alcohol does to the blood-vessels of the brain. About soften- 
ing of the brain by alcohol. —2. How does alcohol affect the nerves? 
Tell about delirium tremens.—3. Tell how alcohol affects the will. 
How it affects the mind. Tell about its causing loss of good name, 
property, and business. Tell about alcohol leading to crime. (b), 1. 
What is opium like in many effects ? How does it affect the brain and 
nerves, and self-control? What is the condition of those who meddle 
with it? —2. Tell about tobacco as a brain-poison. How does it affect 
the memory and disposition ? Tell about appetite for tobacco. 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
THE EYE. 
Lesson I. (a). Where and how is the eye situated?—(b), 1. Tell 
about the coats of the eye, their names, etc. —2. Tell about the sclerotic 
coat and its office. About the choroid coat. About the retina, and 
how it is related to sight. —3. About the cornea.—4. What and where 
is the iris? The pupil, and how it acts? —o. Tell about the crystalline 
lens and its work. —6. Tell about the aqueous humor, and what it does. 
About the vitreous humor, and what it does.—7. Tell about the optic 
nerve, where it begins, etc. 8. Describe the tear-gland, and what it 
does. Tell about the canals that lead into the nose. (c), 1. Tell what 
we know of how we see. —2. Tell about the contraction of the pupil in 
strong light, and when there is little light. 
Lesson 11. (a), 1. Tell how to care for the eye in working by lamp- 
light.— 2. How does long-continued work affect the eye ? Tell about rest- 
ing the eyes. Tell about having clear, steady light. About continuing 
eye-work too long. What, when the sight begins to blur ?4. Tell about 
glaring light. —5. Tell about twilight, and dim light, and the eyes. About 
work on dark surfaces. —6. What of reading while walking or while lying 
down? —7. Tell about holding the book close to the eyes, and bending 
over our work. (b), 1. Tell about near-sightedness, and how much of 
it is caused. —2. What about care in securing good light, and by whom ? 
What relieves near sight? What may prevent it?—(c). Tell about 
far-sightedness. What relieves it?—(d). Tell about color-blindness. 
Why should you attend to colors?— (e), 1, Tell about postponing the TEST QUESTIONS. 
115 
use of glasses. Tell about near-sighted children in school without 
glasses. Can poor sight always he corrected without glasses? Can 
poor sight always he cured? What of the good effect of glasses? —2. 
What caution should we use in selecting glasses ? To whom should we 
entrust their selection, and why ? To whom should we not entrust the 
selection of glasses, and why not? Tell how glasses should he con- 
structed to he of use. What of glasses that do not give ease to the 
eyes? Tell about the “looks” of wearing glasses.— (f), 1. Tell about 
the size of type, and the distance of the hook in reading. When 
should glasses be worn, then? What is the had effect of fine type? 
What is the most frequent cause of near-sightedness ? Tell about too 
coarse print with a wide page, and its had effects on the eyes. —2. Tell 
about the tint of the paper, and dazzling glare. What tints are not 
best? What tint has been found best for the eyes? (g), i; What 
should you do when your eyes become diseased ? What should you not 
do? —2. If matter forms, what care should be taken? What of all 
articles used about sore eyes? —3. How may cinders, etc., be removed 
from the eye ? Lime ? (h). How does tobacco-smoking affect the 
eyes? Why are cigarettes most injurious to the eyes? 
THE EAR. 
Lesson 111. (a). Of what does the ear consist?—(h), 1. Tell about 
the external ear. About the auditory canal. —2. Tell about the middle 
ear, or drum. About the Eustachian tube. About the little bones. 
3. Tell about the internal ear. (c), 1. What do things do that make 
sounds? Tell about the air-waves. —2. What of the air-waves and the 
drum-head? What do the little bones do, and what then? Where is 
part of the auditory nerve, and what does it do ? 
Lesson IV. —l. What bad effects from draughts of air? —2. Tell 
about cold water getting into the ears, and about its pressure. How 
may water be got out of the ears? —3. Tell about injury to the ear 
from diving. —3. Tell about blows upon the ears. —5. Tell about loud 
sounds made near the ear. About clashing stones while under water. 
G. Tell the bad effects of smoking tobacco, and of breathing through 
the mouth.—7. What is the use of ear-wax? What, when it becomes 
hard in the ear? How may it then be removed ? How should it not be 
removed, and why? —B. How may an insect be removed from the ear? 
What if this does not remove it? —9. What, when a pea or bean is 
pushed into a child’s ear? What, when a hard body —a button or 
bead —is in the ear ? How should the syringe be used in this case ? 116 
HEALTH LESSONS. 
THE SKIN. 
Lesson V. (a). What is the skin? (b), 1. Of what layers does it 
consist? Tell about the scarf-skin. —3. Tell about the true skin, and 
what it is filled with.—4. Tell about the arteries, veins, etc., of the 
skin. About the nerves. About lymphatics and oil-tubes.— (c), 1. 
Tell about the skin as a protector. For what is it an outlet? —2. Tell 
about the work of the perspiration-tubes. About sensible and insensible 
perspiration. —3. Tell about the work of the oil-tubes. Of the work of 
the lymphatic tubes. Tell about absorbing substances into the blood 
through the skin. —4. Tell about the nails, and hair, and their uses. 
5. Tell about the coloring-matter of the skin. —G. Tell about the skin 
regulating the warmth of the body. —7. To what does the sense of 
touch belong particularly? Are all portions of the body sensible to 
touch? Why not? Tell about the tips of the lingers and touch. —B. 
Who have very keen sense of touch ? Tell about the blind boy learn- 
ing to know things after his sight was recovered. 
Lesson VI. (a), 1. Tell about the quantity of waste matter the skin 
sends out. What if its pores become closed? What other organs 
would then have extra work? 2. How may the extra work affect the 
other organs? What bad effects would follow if they become unable 
to do the extra work? Tell how closed pores may cause fever. How 
must the skin be cared for if we would have good health? (b), 1. 
How often should we bathe in summer? What is the best time for a 
bath? When is it not best? —2. Tell about careless bathing. What 
effects tell us that we have bathed at an improper time or in an im- 
proper way, etc. ? 3. Tell about the temperature of the water for a 
bath. What of hot baths? Tell about exposure after a hot bath, and 
why care must be taken. —4. What is a cold bath ? What temperature 
in a “ cold ” bath is best for most people? Why is there no reason for 
giving up such a bath in winter? How may it be managed? —5. How 
should the skin be treated after a bath ? What is a good substitute for 
a bath ? 6. Tell about the use of soap in bathing. What of bathing 
too long a time? What length of time is best? 
Lesson VII.— (a). What is the object of clothing, as relates to 
health? What of too warm clothing? What of being too thinly 
clothed? What is to be avoided? —2. How should the amount of 
clothing be regulated? 3. What of the need for clothing when we eat 
but little, or when food, is not good? Is poor food cheap? What, 
when the body is poorly fed and clothed? What of well-clothed people, 
and the need of food? —4. Tell about people who clothe too heavily. TEST QUESTIONS. 
117 
About wearing tippets in warm rooms, and why this is harmful.— (b), 
1. Tell about the nature of woolen clothing. To what is it well 
adapted? —2. Tell about the nature of cotton clothing. For what 
garments is it best, and why ? 3. Tell about the nature of linen cloth- 
ing. About its cooling effect. Where should it not be worn? (c), 1. 
Tell about keeping clothing clean, and why. About changing clothing 
frequently. —2. About changing it on going to bed. —3. Tell about air- 
ing night-clothes and bed-clothes. —4. Tell about changing wet cloth- 
ing, and why. About exercise when the clothing is wet. About wet 
clothing at school. —5. What of changing from thick to thin clothing, 
and why ? 
TASTE AND SMELL. 
Lesson VIII.— (a), 1. What is the tongue, and of what composed? 
What movements can it make? —2. Tell about the nerves of the 
tongue. About the membrane that covers it. About the fine nerves in 
it. Tell how we taste. How is the full taste of things to be got? 
What of things that are disagreeable in taste? (b), 1. Where is the 
sense of smell? Tell about the fine nerves in the lining of the nose. 
Tell about substances that can be smelled. Tell how we smell. (c), 1. 
In what do taste and smell act as guides? Tell how they aid each 
other. What of the pleasure of taste ? How does it protect us from 
harm? —3. About what things does the sense of smell give us informa- 
tion ? In what does it act as a sentinel, and what warning does it give ? 
—4. How may taste and smell be injured? (d), 1. How do tobacco 
and alcohol affect the nerves of taste and smell ? How affect taste for 
plain food ? When the nerves become blunted, what about strongly- 
spiced and seasoned food? —2. How does dryness of the lining of the 
nose affect smell? Tell about the effects of tobacco-smoke upon the 
air-passages of the nose. What troubles may it cause here ? 3. 
Which of the senses gets out of practice soonest ? Tell about keeping 
the sense of smell in practice, etc. Pronunciation and Derivation of Terms. 
a, E, S, o, 11, y, long, as in ale, eve, 
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. 
g, as in gem, get 
n, as in link. 
a, e, 1, ft, ii, Jf, short, as in fst, met. 
it, sdd, Hs, cjst. 
ice, old, use, fly. 
ft, 6, as in son, order. 
§, as in hag, 
ft,, a, a, as in ask, arm, 
•e, as in cat, gell. 
ell = k, as in chorus. 
ph = f. as in phantom. 
S, e, as in Ermine, eight 
Ab do'men (Lat.), probably from abdere, to hide, and omentum, entrails, 
il bu'men (Lat.), from albus, white. 
AVche-my (Arabic), from al-kama, the substance or composition of things. 
AVco-hol (Arabic), from al-kohl, a powder of antimony. 
Al-l'meut'a ry (Lat.), from atere, to feed. 
Al'kft-llne (Arabic), from al-qali, the ashes of a plant called glass wort t 
having the properties of alkali. 
Al'kft-lolds from alkali and (Gr.) eidos, form; the active medicinal or poi- 
sonous principles of certair plants. 
A-nat'o my (Gr.), from ana, up, and temnein, to cut. 
A-or'tft (Gr.), from aeirei'' to lift, heave. 
Ap'pa ra'ti&s (Lat), from, apparare, to prepare. 
A'que-oiSs (a'kweßs), (Lat..), from aquosus, from aqua, water. 
Ar'tcr-y (Gr.). arteria, from aer, air, and terein, to carry. The ancients 
believed that the arteries were ai. ducts. 
Ar-thro'dl-ftl (Gr.), from arthrodes, well articulated. 
Ar tle'u-late (Lat.), from artus, a joint. 
(Gr.), from a, privative, and sphuxis, pulse. A stopping of 
pulse. 
A,ufdi-to-ry (Lat.), from auditorius, from audire, to hear. 
AtVri-clc (Lat), from auricula, diminutive of auris, ear. 
JSV£cps (Lat.), from bis, two, and caput, head. Lessons on the Human Body. 
119 
Bi-eiis'plds (Lat.), from bis, two, and cuspis, point. 
Bile (Lat.), from bilis, bile, anger. 
BrOn'rhi (Gr.), from brogchos, windpipe. 
Ca-ulue' (Lat.), from caninus, from cants, dog; canine teeth, the sharp, 
pointed teeth, like those of a dog. 
Cap 'il-la-rieg (rSz) (Lat.), from capillus, hair. 
Cup'sule (Lat.), from capsula, a little box or chest, from capsa, chest. 
Ciirhsiific (Lat.), from carbo, coal. 
Cilr'piis (Gr.), from karpos, the wrist. 
Ciir'ti-15§e (Lat.), from cartilago, gristle. 
(Lat.)diminutive of cerebrum, brain, the little brain. 
£er'e-briim (Lat.), the larger division of the brain. 
Chlo'r&l (Gr.), from chloros, pale green. 
Chlofrlue (Gr.), from chloros; a heavy gas, so named from its color, 
Cho'rotd (Gr,), from choroeidos, from chorion, skin, and eidos, form. 
Chyle (kil) (Gr.), from chulos, juice. 
Chyme (kim) (Gr.), chymos, juice. 
Clav'i-«le, (Lat.), from clavicula, a little key, from clavis, a key. 
(Lat.), from coccyx, cuckoo. So named from its resemblance to the 
beak of a cuckoo. 
CBn-§esftion (Lat.), from congestio, a gathering into a mass. 
C6r'ne-i (Lat.), from cornu, a horn. 
Cov'piis-£le (Lat.), corpusculum, a little body, from corpus, body. 
Crystal line (Lat.), from crystallinus, of crystal; from (Gr.) krystalios, 
ice, crystal. 
Cuti-ele (Lat.), from cuticula., diminutive of cutis, skin. 
De-llr'i-um tre'meng (Lat,), from delirare, to go out of the furrow, to 
wander in mind, and tremere, to tremble. 
hri phriigm (-frilm) (Lat), from din, through, and phragmn, fence. 
l>l-gestion (dt jCst'yun) (Lat.), from digestio, separation, dissolving. 
IHs'lo cate (Lat.), from dislocarc, from dis, apart, and locare, to place. 
l>ls-seet' (Lat.), dissecare, from dis, apart, and secure, to cut 
Ills till' (Lat ), from destillare, from de, from, and stillare, to drop. 
l»y-s-pep'si-& (Gr.), from duspepsia, from dus, ill, and pessein. peptein, to 
cook, digest. 
Ilftet (Lat.), from ductus, a conduit, from ducere, to lead. 
Dli'o-dt'nttm (Lat.), from duodeni, twelve each 120 
Pronunciation and Derivation of Terms• 
Dfi'rA. ma'tec (Lat.), from durus, hard, and mater, mother. 
£p'i glftt'tls (Gr.), from epi, upon, and glotta, tongue. 
Eu-sta'«hl 4u (yu-sta-kl-an), from Eustachi, the name of a learned Italian 
physician, who discovered the tube. 
Fe'miir (Lat.), the thigh bone. 
Fer-mcu ta'tiou (Fr.), from Lat./errere, to be boiling hot, ferment. 
Fi'bre (-bfir) (Fr.), from haX.fibra, a thread. 
Fib'd-ld. (Lat.), a clasp. 
Fumeg (Lat.), from fumus, vapor, smoke. 
FOnc'tion (Lat.), from functio, from fungi, to perform. 
(ias'trlc (Fr.), gastrique, from (Gr.) gaster, the belly. 
Gland (Lat.), from glans, an acorn. 
Glfit'tis (Gr.), from glotta, tongue. 
Ilu'me-riis (Lat.), the shoulder. 
Hu'mor (mfir) (Lat.), from humere, to be moist, liquid. 
Ily'dro §en (Fr.), from hydrogene, from (Gr.) udur, water, and genein, to 
beget, produce. 
( cn) (Gr.), from Ilygeia, the goddess of health. 
Im-pftv'er-Ish from prefix im, in, and O. French povere, poor; a corrupt 
form based on apovrir beggar. 
In -$ifgor (Lat.), from incidere, to cut in. 
In-nOm-i-na/ta (Lat.), from prefix in, not, and nominare, to name. 
Xn-sal'l-va'tion (Lat.), from prefix in, and saliva, spittle. 
In'ter-eOs'ial (Lat.), from prefix inter, among, between, and costa, rib. 
In-tes'tlne (-tin) (Lat.), from intus, on the inside, within. 
In-tflx'i-eate (Lat.), from intoxicare, to drug, to poison; from prefix in, and 
toxicum, poison. 
In-vftl'Qn-ta (Lat.), from involuntarius, from in, not, and voluntas, will. 
ifris (Lat.), rainbow. 
L.ab'y-rlnth (htb'a-rlnth) (Lat.), from labyrinthus, a maze. 
La«h'rj?.mal (ISk're-mal) (Lat.), from lacryma, a tear. 
liae'te-di (Lat.), from lac, milk. 
Larynx ( inx) (Gr.), from larugx, a whistle; the upper part of the wind- 
pipe. 
liig'A-ment (Lat.), from Kgamentum, from lignre, to bind. 
L))m-phatfi« (Lat.), from lymphn, a transparent fluid. 
Mas'tita'tiou (Lat.), from mastxcatio, from masticare, to chew. Lessons on the Human Body, 
121 
Hfe-dfil'l& (Lat.), narrow. 
Mem/brane (Lat.), from membraria, a delicate skin. 
Met'i-ear'pus (Gr,), from meta, after, and karpos, wrist. 
Met/A-tar'siis (Gr.), from meta, after, and tarsos, ankle. 
Mi'tral (Lat.), from mitra, a cap with two points or peaks. 
Mo'lar (Lat.), molaris, from mala, mill, from molere, to grind in a mill. 
M6r'pSii-& (Or.), from Morpheus, the god of dreams and sleep. 
Mo'tor (Lat.), from movere, motum, to move. 
Mii'eous (-kHs) (Lat.), mucosus, from mucus, slime. 
Muscle (mhs'sl) (Lat.), from musculus, a little mouse, from mus, a mouse. 
iVaf ciU'ic (Gr.), from nnrke, numbness, torpor. 
l\s/gal (Lat.), from nnsus, nose. 
Mi-trSg'e-noiis (Gr.), from nitron, nitre, and geneln, to beget, produce. 
jVofir'lsh in" (nilr ) (Lat.), from nutria, feed, support. 
Oe-sBpb'a-gtts (e-sbf'a-gils) (Gr.), from oiso, to carry, and phagein, to eat, 
Or'gan (Lat.), from orgamim, an instrument. 
§en (Gr.), from oxus, sharp, acid, and genein, to beget, produce, 
Pal'ate (Lat ), from palatum, the roof of the mouth. 
Pan'ere as (Gr.), from pan all, and kreas, flesh. 
Par's, lyze (-liz) (Gr.), from para, beside, and luein, to loosen. 
Pa-rSt'ld (Gr.), from para, beside, near, and ous, ear. 
Pa-tel'lS, (Gr.), diminutive of patina, a dish. 
PePvis (Lat.), a basin. 
Pep'sin (Gr.), from pepsis, a digesting. 
Per'i «ar'di-iim (Gr.), from pert, about, and Icardia, the heart. 
Plia lan'§s§ (Gr.), plural of phalanx, from phalagx, a rank. 
Pharrfnx (-Tnx) (Gr.), from pharugx, the gullet. 
i-61'o (Gr.), from phusis, nature, and logos, a description. 
Pi'a ma'ter (Gr.), from pia, tender, and mater, mother. 
Plag'mS, (Lat.), plasma, anything formed. 
PleiPra (Gr.), pleura, properly a rib, the side. 
Pnen mo'nl a (Gr.), from pneumones. the lungs, from pneuma, air. 
(Lat.), from pulmo, a lung. 
Pftr'gA-tlve (Lat.), from purgare, to make clean. 
(Gr.), pyloros, a gate-keeper, from pyle, a gate, 
Ra'dl tts (Lat.), a staff, a ray, a spoke of a wheel. 
Ret'i na (N. Lat), from Lat. rete, a net. 122 
Pronunciation and Derivation of Terms. 
SS'eriim (Lat.), from sacer, sacred. 
Sali'vi (Lat.), spittle. 
Seap'u. 1& (Lat.), the shoulder blade. 
Sele-rftt/Je (Gr.), from slcleros, hard. 
Se-ba/ceotls (-shHs) (Lat.), from sebum, tallow. 
Sen'sd-rJ’ (Lat.), from sentire, sensum, to perceive by the senses. 
Skel'e ton (Gr.), from slcellein, to dry up. 
Spine (spin) (Lat.), from spina, a tboru. 
Spore (spor) (Gr.), from sporos, a sowing, seed. 
Ster'niini (N. Lat.), from (Gr.) sternon, the breast. 
Stim'u-lant (Lat.), from stimulate, to spur on. 
StdmGleb (stdra'ak) (Lat.), from stomachus, (Gr.), stomachos, from stoma, 
Stn'pe-ly (Lat.), from stupere, to he struck senseless. 
a mouth, an entrance. 
Siib-lin'gual (-Im'gwal), from (Lat.) sub, under, and lingua, the tongue. 
Sttb-max'H-la ry (Lat.), from sub, under, and maxilla, the jaw-bone. 
Sut'iire (yur) (Lat ), from sutura, from suere, sutum, to sew or stitch. 
o'vi-iU (Gr.), from sun, with, and oon, an egg. 
(Gr.), from sun, together, and istemi, I place. 
Ten'dfin (N. Lat.), tendo, from Lat. tendere, to stretch out. 
Tho raf'ic (Gr.), from thorax, the chest. 
Thfi'rax (Gr.), the chest. 
Tib'i a (Lat.), the shin bone. 
Tra'the a (Gr.) from trachus, rough. 
Tri-etts'pid (Lat.), from tri, tris, three, thrice, and cuspis, cuspidis.a, point. 
(Lat.) tympanum, (Gr.) tympanon, a drum. 
tll'na (Lat.), the elbow. 
Valve (Lat.), from valvo, a folding door. 
Vein (Lat.), from vena, a blood vessel. 
Ven'tri-ele (Lat.), from ventriculus, from venter, the belly. 
V 8 bra (Lat.), from vertere, to turn. 
Wbrate (Lat.), from vibrnre, vibratum, to move to and fro. 
Vi'tal (Lat.), from vita, life. 
Vii/re oils (-tts) (Lat.), from vitreus, from vitrum, glass.