OUTLINES 
IN 
Anatomy, Physiology, 
AND 
HYGIENE. 
BY J. C. ARMENTROUT, 
Instructor in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, in the 
lowa City Academy. 
lOWA CITY, IOWA: 
Published by the Author. 
1881. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, by 
J. C. ARME«TKOET, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
l&rpublican .Steam anh Bfnherg, 
JEoiua ttitj), JEotna. PREFACE. 
My only excuse for the publication of this little work, is 
the earnest request of many of my pupils, to whom I have 
presented, in the class-room, this system of instruction, and 
the desire to render my own work lighter, yet more effective, 
in the future. The work has been prepared under many 
inconveniences, and with many interruptions. For this we 
ask the allowance of the critic. 
With a few slight modifications, these Outlines are 
printed just as pupils copied them from the blackboard. They 
are not Topic Lists prepared to accompany any particular 
text-books, but are a simple classification and systematic 
arrangement of the subjects of which text-books of the kind 
treat; hence they are equally applicable to any text-book, 
thus causing a variety of books to be an advantage, rather 
than an obstacle,—a fact to which all who have taught by 
this method will testify. Enough subject matter has been 
given, however, so that a clear and practical knowledge of 
these important sciences may be obtained. 
I am indebted to Dr. J. R. Townsend, a practicing 
dentist of lowa City, for the short dissertation on the Teeth/ 
also to Dr. Gf. O. Morgridge, of Muscatine, for valuable 
assistance in preparing the outline on the Eye. 
The objects of instruction in the school-room are to lead 
pupils to acquire habits of self-reliance in study, and the Preface. 
ability to use text-books as means of self-culture; also to 
arouse a spirit of investigation, to develop in the pupil a 
power to separate things important from things unimportant, 
and to arrange the result of all work in systematic and 
logical order. If the presentation of this little work will 
assist my fellow teachers in reaching these ends, and create a 
greater thirst for knowledge and a higher idea of the work in 
which we are employed, then I will have realized my 
purpose. 
J. C. Armentrout. 
lowa City, lowa. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
1. Assign short lessons. 
2. Preface the lesson of the preceding day with a few 
remarks upon each part of the outline assigned, and cite the 
parts of the text-book in which the required information can 
be found. 
3. Require a pupil to write upon the board, from mem- 
ory, the portion of the outline discussed, and allow the class 
to criticize his work. 
4. Assign a member of the class an important question, 
the answer of which he is to determine and report at next 
recitation. Let the question be one that you desire to im- 
press upon the minds of the class. The teacher may supple- 
ment the answer given by whatever is needed to a correct 
and a complete understanding of it. 
5. Assign different pupils different parts of the outline 
from which to report. These reports may be given as review 
lessons, and the class should be allowed to criticize the work 
done. 
6. Each day review the preceding lesson. ERRATUM. 
Page 30, fourth paragraph, second line, read “right,” in- 
stead of “left,” side. CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER I. 
Physiology, ....... 9 
CHAPTER 11. 
Bones, ....... .11 
Skeleton, ...... ,13 
Articulations, . . . . . . 14 
CHAPTER HI, 
CHAPTER IV. 
Muscles, . . . . . . . 27 
CHAPTER V. 
Food, 19 
CHAPTER VI. 
Digestion, ••..... 22 
CHAPTER VII. 
Absorption, ...... .33 
CHAPTER VIII. 
Blood, 36 
Circulation, ....... 49 
CHAPTER IX. Contents. 
CHAPTER X. 
Arteries, . . . . . . . 45 
Capillaries, ....... 46 
Veins, ........ 47 
CHAPTER XI. 
Respiration, . . , . . , 49 
Animal or Vital Heat, . . . . . 67 
CHAPTER XII. 
Nervous System, ...... 59 
Spinal Cord, . . . . . . 62 
Brain, ........ 64 
Sleep, 68 
CHAPTER XIII. 
Sight or Vision, ...... 72 
CHAPTER XIV. 
Ear, 82 
CHAPTER XV. 
Olfaction, ....... 87 
Taste, 88 
CHAPTER XVI. 
Secretion and Excretion, . . , . 90 
Kidneys, ........ 95 
Glossary, . . . . , . . 99 
Index, ........ 11l Q-yTLIiV^ 
IN 
Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
CHAPTER I. 
PHYSIOLOGY. 
Physiology- 
Definition. 
Natural Divisions 
Animal 
Human. 
Comparative. 
Vegetable. 
Definition. Physiology is the study of the work, mo- 
tions, operations, or acts of the different parts of organized 
bodies, either animal or vegetable. 
An organic body is one made up or composed of organs, or 
it is one which has been produced by life. An inorganic hody 
is one not composed of organs, or one which has not been 
produced by life. 
All the parts of an organized hody are mutually dependent, 
while each part of a mineral exists for itself. 
Physiology is naturally divided into two parts, viz., Ani- 
mal and Vegetable. Vegetables are nourished by absorbing 
and assimilating food by the external surface; the surface is 
greatly increased by leaves and roots. Both animals and 
vegetables require oxygen for their support the former, 
however, exhale carbonic acid and retain some oxygen; the 
latter yielding the oxygen retain the carbon. Animals re- 
ceive their nourishment through a mouth, into an internal 
digestive or alimentary canal. 10 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The absorbents of animals are distributed along the walls 
of a digestive.cavity, while of plants they are external. 
Animal Physiology is divided into Human and Compara- 
tive. While Human Physiology treats of the phenomena 
presented by man, Comparative Physiology treats of those 
presented by the lower animals. 
Human Physiology, because of its connection with disease 
and its alleviation and cure, is of more importance to us than 
comparative physiology, yet a good understanding of the 
structure and work of the various organs of the lower animals 
is essential to our physiological knowledge of the human 
body. 
Many of the vital phenomena are common to all animals, 
and an acquaintance with these assists us in properly under- 
standing the special physiology of the human body. Many 
experiments and observations can be made only upon the lower 
animals. 
To Human Physiology belong certain vital phenomena 
which take place in the hum,an body. First, those that are me- 
chanical in their nature; as the action of the elastic ligaments, 
the play of the articulating surfaces of bones upon each other, 
and the movements of the heart. Those of a chemical nature 
take place in the interior of the body, as the formation of the 
tissues of the body from the elements of the food, fibrine, 
albumen, etc. 
The nervous phenomena are such as belong to the nervous 
system, and are peculiar to it. 
They bring the animal body into relation with the external-world, 
and preserve it from external dangers, by means of sensation, movement, 
consciousness, and volition.— Dalton. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
11 
CHAPTER 11. 
BONES. 
Definition. 
Structure. 
Color. 
Composition— 
Animal or Organic Matter, 
Mineral or Inorganic Matter. 
Bones— 
Marrow. 
Coverings. 
Long. 
Irregular. 
Divisions, according to form— 
Blood-vessels. 
The Bones are the organs of support of the animal frame. 
Structure hard, opaque, and possessing a certain degree of 
toughness and elasticity. 
Nerves. 
In a section of bone, two kinds of tissue will be found,— 
one, dense and compact in texture; the other, like lattice-work, 
hence called cancellous. 
In a long hone, the shaft is composed of the dense and com- 
pact tissue, while the extremities are composed mainly of the 
cancellated structure. 
Color.—In a fresh state, pinkish-white externally, and a 
deep red internally. 
Composition.— The animal or organic constituent forms 
about one-third; the mineral or inorganic, about two-thirds. 
The animal matter is composed of gelatine and blood-vessels; 
the principal part of the mineral matter is made up of phos- 
phate and carbonate of lime. 
There seems to be a difference in the amount of the two 
constituents of bone at different periods of life. 
In childhood, the animal matter predominates; the bones 
are flexible, easily bent, and a fracture is not so common as Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
12 
later in life. If a fracture does occur, however, the bones 
more readily knit together, and union quickly follows. 
In old age, the mineral matter is in the ascendancy; the 
bones lose their toughness and elasticity, become more brittle, 
fractures readily occur, and are less liable to make a speedy 
and favorable union. 
Coverings.— Periosteum, medullary membrane, or endos- 
teum (sometimes called internal periosteum). The periosteum 
adheres closely to the surface of the bones, except at the 
articulating extremities, and where tendons or ligaments are 
attached directly to the bone. 
The medullary or cylindrical caned, found in the bones of 
the limbs, is lined by the endosteum, a highly vascular areolar 
membrane. 
Marrow.—A fatty, oleaginous substance, of a yellow color, 
in adult long bones; while, in young bones, it is a transparent 
reddish fluid. 
Bones are divided, according to form, into long, short, fiat, 
and irregular. 
A long bone consists of a shaft and two articulating extrem- 
ities. The shaft is a hollow cylinder, the walls of which con- 
sist of dense, compact tissue. The extremities are somewhat 
expanded, for the purpose of articulation and giving greater 
surface for muscular attachment. The long bones are hu- 
merus., radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpal and 
metatarsal, phalanges, and clavicle. 
Short hones are found where but slight and limited motion 
is required, and yet great strength is needed. They are the 
ca/rpus and tarsus. 
Flat bones are intended for the protection of certain parts, 
or to form broad surfaces for muscular attachment. These 
bones are composed of three layers, which, in the cranial 
bones, are known as the tables of the skull. These tables are 
known as the outer, thick and tough; the inner, thinner, 
denser, and more brittle; and the middle, cancellous (called 
also the diploe). The occipital, parietal, fronted, ribs, nased, 
lachrymal, vomer, scap'ulos, sternum and ossa-innominata are 
the flat bones. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
13 
The irregular hones are the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, tem- 
poral, sphenoid, ethmoid, superior and inferior maxillary, 
palate, turbinated, and hyoid. 
Blood-vessels of bone are very numerous. 
Nerves are distributed freely to the periosteum, 
SKELETON. 
Frontal. 
Two Temporal. 
Two Parietal. 
Occipital. 
Ethmoid. 
Sphenoid. 
Definition. 
Cranium, 
8 bones —- 
Head or 
Skull - 
Two Malar or Cheek bones. 
Two Lachrymal, 
Two Palate. 
Two Turbinated. 
Two Nasal. 
Two Superior Maxillary. 
Inferior Maxillary. 
Vomer. 
Face, 
14 bones 
Spinal Column, 
or Vertebrae 
Seven Cervical. 
Twelve Dorsal. 
Five Lumbar. 
Natural Divisions. 
Thorax 
Seven True. 
Three False. 
Two Floating. 
Skeleton. 
Ribs —- 
Trunk— 
Sternum or Breast-bone. 
Os-Hyoid. 
Two Ossa-Innominata or name- 
less bones. 
Sacrum. 
Coccyx. 
Pelvis— 
Shoulder 
Clavicle. 
Scapula. 
Extremities. 
Upper—-< 
Arm —Humerus. 
Fore Arm 
Radius. 
Ulna. 
Wrist —Carpus, eight in number. 
Hand 
Metacarpus. 
Phalanges. 
Femur, or thigh bone. 
Tibia, or shin bone. 
Patella, or knee pan. 
Fibula, or small bone of the leg. 
Tarsus, or instep bones seven in number. 
Metatarsus five in number. 
Phalanges fourteen in number, 
Lower— 14 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
Skeleton (“dried up”)—ls the bony frame work of an 
animal, designed for the support of the soft parts, and which 
sustains, by its physical solidity, the other organs. It also 
gives its general form or resemblance to the entire body. 
Kinds of Skeletons.—Natural Skeleton.—One in which 
the bones are connected and held together by their own 
ligaments. 
Artificial Skeleton.— One held together by wires or plates 
of silver, etc. 
Endo or JVeuro Skeleton.— One situated inside of the body, 
surrounding and protecting nervous matter. Found in verte- 
brate animals. 
Exo or Dermo Skeleton (the skin).—The outward covering 
of many animals, such as the lobster, tortoise, crocodile, etc. 
The teacher should give the name, situation, and a brief description of 
each bone of the Skeleton. 
CHAPTER 111. 
ARTICULATIONS OR JOINTS. 
Structures which enter into 
composition of a Joint—■< 
Bone. 
Cartilage, 
Fibro-cartilage. 
Ligament. 
Synovial membrane. 
Articulations ob Joints. 
Sutura ■ 
Harmonia. 
Coronal. 
Sagittal. 
Lambdoidal. 
Squamous. 
Synarthrosis 
Classes —■< 
Gomphosis. 
Amphiarthrosis. 
Arthrodia. 
Enarthrosis. 
Ginglymus. 
Diarthrosis 
Motions of Joints 
Gliding. 
Angular. 
Circumduction. 
Rotation. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
15 
By an Articulation or Joint is meant the fastening or 
joining together of the various hones of the skeleton. 
Bone is the principal element entering into the composition 
of a joint. 
Cartilage.— Description.— Firm, opaque, of a pearly- 
white or bluish-white color. In some varieties it is yellow, 
highly elastic, and readily yields to pressure. 
Of cartilage there are two varieties,—that which constitutes 
the original frame work of the body, known as temporary, 
which, in time, becomes ossified throughout the greater part 
of its extent. 
The permanent is that which remains unossified during the 
whole of life. Where this cartilage forms thin incrustations 
over the joint-surfaces of bones, it is known as articular/ it 
also becomes a part of the solid framework of the body,— as 
the costal cartilage. 
The yellow or reticular variety of cartilage is arranged in 
the form of plates or lamellae of greater or less extent. Found 
in the external ear, nose, eyelids, eustachian tube, larynx, 
and windpipe. 
Ligaments are found in nearly all the movable articula- 
tions. 
Function.—To connect together the articular extremities 
of bones. 
Composition.— Mainly of bundles of white fibrous tissue, 
placed parallel with one another. 
Properties.—Ligament presents a white, shining, silvery 
aspect. It is pliant, flexible, strong, tough, and inextensile. 
Some ligaments consist of yellow elastic tissue, as the liga- 
menta subflava. 
Synovial membrane is thin, delicate, composed of white 
inelastic fibrous tissue, with a few elastic fibers, and lines the 
inner surface of the joint cavity. 
Synovia. Colorless, or of a pale yellowish tinge. It is 
viscid, like the white of an egg, and is a secretion of the syno- 16 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
vial membrane, being -found in the joint cavity, intended for 
lubrication of the joint. 
The Synarthroses are immovable joints, and are found be- 
tween the bones of the skull. 
Sutura (a seam). The sutura harmonia is found in the 
articulation between the two superior maxillary bones. 
Coronal suture is between the frontal and parietal bones. 
The sagittal suture is between the parietal bones, and its 
projecting articular processes are tooth-like in form. 
Lambdoidal suture between the occipital and parietal 
bones. 
Squamous or scale-like suture between the temporal and 
parietal bones. 
A Gomphosis articulation is one where a conical process is 
inserted into a socket; as the teeth, in the alveolar processes. 
Motions of Joints.—The simplest kind of motion that can 
take place in a joint is the gliding movement. It is common 
to all movable joints. 
Angular movement, takes place in four directions,— for- 
ward and backward, constituting flection and extension / or 
inward and outward, constituting adduction and abduction. 
Found in the hip and shoulder. 
[Definitions of the difficult words used in the diagram of Articula- 
tions will be found in the Glossary, at the close of this work.] Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
17 
CHAPTER IV. 
MUSCLES. 
Definition. 
Situation. 
Formation. 
Kinds of Muscular Tissue— 
Voluntary or animal life. 
Involuntary or organic life. 
Fasciculi. 
Primitive fibrile. 
Color. 
Elasticity. 
Contractility or Irritability. 
Sensibility. 
Muscles 
Properties— 
Divisions according to the 
arrangement of their fibers 
Fusiform. 
Radiate. 
Orbicular or Sphincter. 
Penniform. 
Bipenuiform. 
Perimysium. 
Blood-vessels. 
How muscles are named. 
The Muscles are the moving organs of the animal frame, 
and constitute what is known as the lean meat of the body. 
In a man, well proportioned, this system equals about two- 
fifths of the weight of the body. 
Situation.—Around the bones in the limbs investing and 
defending them. In the trunk, they are spread out to inclose 
cavities and constitute a defensive wall. 
F'o'rmation —Of bundles of reddish fibers. These bundles 
are inclosed in a delicate web of areolar tissue and consist of 
numerous smaller bundles, which are made up of primitive 
fasciculi. The primitive fasciculi consist of a number of fila- 
ments inclosed in a tubular sheath called the sarcolcmma. 
The voluntary or muscles of animal life are striped, and are 
under the control of the will. The involuntary or unstriped 
muscles of organic life are those not under the control of the 
will. They form sheets or membranes in the walls of hollow 
organs, and by contracting simply modify the capacity of the 
cavities which they enclose. 18 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The primitive fibrils of the voluntary muscles are marked 
by transverse striae. These striae are also found in some of the 
involuntary muscles, but are not so distinct. 
Color.—The voluntary muscular tissue is of a deep red 
color, while that of the involuntary muscle is paler and not so 
characteristic. The property of irritability, under normal 
conditions, is always present during life, and persists for a 
certain period after death. 
A muscle detached from the living body continues for a 
time to respond, by contraction to proper stimulus. 
By the sensibility of muscles imparted to them by the 
nerves, we are enabled to appreciate the power of resistance, 
immobility, and elasticity of substances with which we come 
in contact. 
An orbicular or sphincter muscle is circular in outline, 
serving to contract the aperture to which it is attached. Ex- 
amples : Orbicularis pal-pe-bra-rum and sphincter oris. 
The muscles are abundantly supplied with blood-vessels. 
Muscles are named—l, from their situation, as the tibialis 
o/nticus/ 2, from their direction, as the rectus abdominis/ 3, 
from their uses, as flexors, extensors, etc.; 4, from their 
shape, as the deltoid ; 5, from the number of divisions, as the 
biceps and triceps, which are fusiform muscles; 6, from 
their points of attachment, as the sterno-cleido-mastoid. 
An Aponeurosis is an expansion of a tendon, or tendons, 
into a fibrous membrane. 
Fascia (a bandage).— Found in all parts of the body, 
beneath the integument investing the muscular tissue. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
19 
CHAPTER V. 
FOOD. 
Definition. 
Definition. 
Oxygen. 
Water. 
Chloride of Sodium. 
Phosphate of Lime. 
Carbonate of Lime. 
Divisions. 
Inorganic— 
Examples 
Definition. 
1, From animal kingdon. 
2, From vegetable kingdom. 
— 
Divisions. 
Nitrogenous 
Food. 
N on-nitrogenous. 
Examples— 
1, Albumen, Fibrine, Muscullne, 
2, Gluten and Legumine. [etc. 
3, Sugars, Fats, and Starch. 
Sensations which demand 
the ingestion of food 
Hunger. 
Thirst. 
Respiratory Sense. 
Amount required per day. 
Amount of excretions per day. 
Under the name of Aliment or of Food are included all 
articles containing elements in a form, enabling them to be used 
for the nourishment of the body. This may be done by the 
elements becoming a part of the organism, by merely assist- 
ing the process of nutrition, or by rendering disassimilation 
less speedy. 
Oxygen is a transparent, colorless, odorless, and tasteless 
'gas, forming about twenty per cent of the atmosphere, and 
by union with hydrogen forming water. Its rapid combina- 
tion with bodies produces combustion; if this action takes 
place slowly, it is termed oxidation. It serves to support life, 
and is heavier than atmospheric air. 
Water.—One of the most important and most abundant 
proximate principles of the organism, found in every tissue 
and part, without exception, introduced with all kinds of food. 20 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
It constitutes, by weight, four-fifths of the vegetable kingdom, 
and three-fourths of the animal kingdom. 
Properties.—When pure, colorless, odorless, and nearly 
tasteless. ‘ ‘ Pure water does not exist in nature. ”—Flint. It 
may be rendered pure by distillation. 
Solvent Powers.—One pound of cold water will dissolve 
two pounds of sugar, two ounces of common salt, two and one- 
half ounces of alum, or eight grains of lime. 
Function of Water in the System.— In the blood it acts as 
a solvent for the salts and excrementitious matters. It gives 
to cartilage its elasticity, to tendons their pliability, and in 
hones it is necessary to their peculiar power of resistance. 
Amount required per day, about four and a half pounds. 
Chlor ide of Sodium—where fmmd. —By mining, by evapo 
rating the water of salt springs; found also in sea water, which 
contains about four ounces in every gallon of water. Exists 
in animal bodies. Excites the secretion of the digestive 
fluids. An adult consumes about four and a half ounces per 
week. 
Phosphate of Lime is found in all the solids and fluids of 
the body. It is the principal constituent of bone, where it 
exists in the proportion of about five hundred parts to the 
thousand. 
Starch.—A non-nitrogenous principle, not crystallizable, is 
contained in abundance in a great number of vegetables. 
It is also found in the cereals (wheat, rye, corn, barley, rice, 
and oats), in leguminous plants (beans, peas, etc.), and in the 
sweet potato. It is most abundant in rice, which contains, 
after desiccation, about eighty-eight parts to the hundred. 
Starch is converted into sugar by boiling with dilute acid, 
by contact with certain animal and vegetable juices, and by 
the process of nutrition and digestion. 
Sugar, is converted into other substances by fermentatioyi. 
Fats— Varieties.— Oleine, margarine, and stearine,’ derived 
from both animal and vegetable sources. All are insoluble 
in water, but readily soluble in ether. Outlines in Anatomy, Phyisology, and Hygiene. 
21 
In the 'adipose tissue of the animal body the oils are found 
most abundantly. 
Hunger.—A sensation which induces the ingestion of nutri- 
tive principles. 
Situation.—A want of the general system. The appetite 
is modified by occupation, age, sex, climate, alcohol, tobacco, 
etc. 
Thirst.—A special sensation which induces the ingestion 
of water. It can only be effectually relieved by fluids enter- 
ing the circulation. 
Modificatio7is.— Occupation, febrile diseases, etc. 
The Respiratory Sense is the want felt by the system 
which induces the respiratory movements. 
[This sense will be discussed under the head of “Respiration.”] 
The length of time that life continues after complete de- 
privation of food and drink is very variable. In general 
terms, death occurs after from seven to ten days of total absti- 
nence from food. 
The amount of food required per day is greatly modified 
by habit, climate, the condition of the muscular system, age, 
sex, etc. Bearing in mind these facts, it may be stated that 
the adult male requires about seven pounds of ingesta a day. 
The Excretions thrown off, consisting of urea, carbonic 
acid, water, salts, etc,, amount to about seven pounds per day. 
The chemical results of change of tissue are modified by ex- 
ercise. 
[A remarkable case of long deprivation of food is reported at the 
close of the chapter on Digestion.] 22 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
CHAPTER VI. 
DIGESTION. 
Definition, 
Situation. 
Description. 
Boundaries. 
Lining membrane. 
Gums. 
Mouth 
Temporary. 
Permanent 
Incisors. 
Cuspids. 
Bicuspids. 
Molars, 
Teeth 
Divisions of a Tooth 
Crown. 
Neck. 
Fang. 
Organs 
Structure. 
Digestion. 
Tongue. 
Salivary Glands 
Parotid. 
Submaxillary, 
Sublingual. 
Pharynx, 
(Esophagus. 
( Duodenum 
Jejunum. 
( Ileum. 
Stomach. 
Small 
Intestines 
Csecum. 
Ileo-csecal Valve. 
Ascending Colon. 
Transverse Colon. 
Descending Colon, 
Sigmoid Flexure. 
Rectum. 
Liver. 
Large 
Pancreas. 
Description. 
Specific gravity. 
How produced. 
Amount per day. 
Saliva— 
Juices of 
Digestion 
Gastric. 
Pancreatic. 
Bile. 
Intestinal. 
Notice the same points 
as in Saliva. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
23 
Digestion.— It is the process that the food undergoes in 
the alimentary canal, which reduces it to a form in which it 
can be absorbed and taken up by the blood-vessels. 
Organs.— The Mouth.—At commencement of the alimen- 
tary canal, below the cavity of the nose. It is nearly an oval- 
shaped cavity, in which mastication takes place. 
Boundaries.—ln front, by the lips; laterally, by the cheeks 
and the ramus of the lower jaw; above, by the hard palate, 
below, by the tongue, and by the mucous membrane lining 
the floor of the mouth; behind, by the soft palate and fauces. 
The mucous membrane lining the mouth is of a rose-pink 
tinge. At the free margin of the lips, it is continuous with 
the integument. Beneath this membrane and the sphincter 
oris, round the orifice of the mouth, are situated the labial 
glands. The buccal glands are placed between the mucous 
membrane and buccinator muscle. 
Gums.— Composed of a dense, fibrous tissue, surrounding 
the necks of the teeth. 
The Teeth.—An intelligent understanding of the teeth, 
both as to their anatomical and physiological relation to the 
human system, and a diligent care of the same, would save a 
vast amount of suffering. Serving as they do to properly 
prepare our food for digestion, give expression and symmetry 
to the features, proper articulation in speaking, their 
care and preservation becomes of the utmost importance. A 
word, then, as regards their structure, growth, cause of disease, 
and a few suggestions relative to their preservation, cannot 
fail, if heeded, to result in good. 
The table below will indicate the period of eruption, and 
also the number of both first and second sets: 
First or Deciduous Set (20 in number). 
NO. MONTH. 
Central Incisors 4 7th. 
Lateral Incisors 4 Bth. 
First Molar 4 13th. 
Canine --j Tee*\ ~ \ 4 16th. 
I Stomach Teeth, ) 
Second Molar 4 24th. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
Second ok Permanent Set (32 in number.) 
NO. YEAR. 
Anterior First Molar 4 6th. 
Central Incisors 4 7th. 
Lateral Incisors ~. 4 Bth. 
Bicuspids 8 9th to 10th. 
Canine i Eye Teeth’ I 4 11th. 
Uamne stomach Teeth, ) 
Second Molar 4 12th. 
Third Molar (Wisdom) 4 17th to 25th. 
( Crown. ( Enamel. 
Divisions of a Tooth—- Neck. Structure Dentine. 
( Fang. ( Oementum. 
The crown is the portion above the gum. The neck, is 
embraced by the gum, and the -fangs occupy the alveolar 
sockets. The largest portion of each tooth is composed of 
dentine. The crown is covered by enamel, the hardest struct- 
ure in the body. Investing the dentine of the roots, is a thin 
layer of true bone, named cementum, crusta retrosa, or corti- 
cal substance. The lower teeth generally erupt a short time 
before the upper. Upon the proper treatment of the teeth, 
during first and second dentition, very largely depend the 
beauty and symmetry of the dental arch. Very much 
depends upon the diet during the eruptive period, as also per- 
fect cleanliness of the mouth and teeth. It is of the utmost 
importance to see to the timely removal of a deciduous tooth, 
which may be impeding the growth of a permanent one, and 
very often it is of equal importance to preserve by filling, 
until the proper age for replacement by the permanent tooth. 
The wisdom teeth frequently give much pain during eruption, 
for want of room. They are early attacked with decay, in 
which event extraction is advisable. 
The Tongue is a muscular sensitive organ, situated in the 
floor of the mouth. It serves many purposes, assisting in the 
prehension, mastication, and swallowing of food, being also 
an organ of taste, touch, and speech. The framum linguae 
(bridle of the tongue) is a fold of the mucous membrane lin- 
ing the mouth at the under surface of the tongue. Children 
are said to be tongue-tied when the framum is very short, or 
continued too far forward toward the tip of the tongue. Its Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
upper surface is covered with minute prominences, called 
papillae, which are arranged in lines. 
The muscles of the tongue are the genio-hyo-glossus, hyo- 
glossus, stylo-glossus, and lingualis. 
The f unction of the tongue, in mastication, is to prevent 
the escape of the solid food from between the teeth, and by its 
constant movement to roll the food over and over, passing it 
at times from one side to the other, so that it may undergo 
thorough trituration. After mastication has been completed, 
the mouth is closed, and the tongue, with the bolus of food 
behind it, is pressed from before backward against the roof 
of the mouth. By this movement, the food is passed back- 
ward to the isthmus of the fauces. 
In man, the tongue is attached at its base, and along 
the mesial line on the under surface, while its apex is free 
and movable. In the frog, the tongue is rooted in front, and 
and free behind It is very extensile, covered with a slimy, 
viscid mucus, and is used in procuring food. It is thrown 
forward with great rapidity, thus enabling the frog to seize 
its prey, which is quickly swallowed, without mastication. 
The Salivary Glands are the parotid, submaxillary, and 
sublingual. These glands communicate with the mouth, and 
pour their secretions into its cavity. 
The Parotid Gland is situated in front of and below the 
external ear. It is the largest of the salivary glands, and 
weighs from half an ounce to an ounce. Its fluid passes into 
the buccal cavity through Stand's duct, which is about two 
and a half inches in length, and opens by a small orifice 
opposite the second molar tooth in the upper jaw. This duct 
is about the size of a crow’s-quill. 
The Submaxillary Gland is situated below the inferior 
maxillary bone, in the anterior part of the submaxillary 
triangle of the neck. It is smaller than the parotid, but its 
minute structure is the same. Its excretory duct, called 
Wharton’s, is about two inches in length, and opens beneath 
the tongue in a small papilla by the side of the framum. 26 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The Sublingual Glands are situated under the tongue, be- 
neath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth, and 
on either side of the fraenum. They are the smallest of the 
salivary glands. Here we find a number of excretory ducts, 
from eight to twelve in number, which open into the mouth 
by the side of the fraenum. 
Saliva.—A thick, glairy, and generally frothy and turbid, 
fluid. 
Specific gravity, from 1002 to 1007. 
Composition.—Water, 995.16; epithelium, 1.62; organic 
matter, 1.34; chloride of sodium, chloride of potassium, etc. 
The secretions of the various salivary glands are all 
transparent, yet the mixed saliva, as it comes from the buccal 
cavity, is a grayish, viscid, mucus, containing a number of 
leucocytes and epithelial scales. These characters are given 
to it on account of the secretions of the labial, buccal, and 
lingual glands, which form a constant and essential part of 
the mixed saliva. During sleep, the discharge of fluid into 
the mouth is much diminished. Upon the introduction of 
food, the quantity of saliva is enormously increased. The 
sight, odor, and, at times, even the thought, of agreeable 
articles, will produce a notable increase in the flow of saliva. 
Amount per day, about two and a half pounds. The 
quantity of saliva must necessarily be subject to great vari- 
ations, and it should be remembered, however, with refer- 
ence to this and the other digestive secretions, that this im- 
mense quantity of fluid is at no one time removed from the 
blood, but is reabsorbed nearly as fast as secreted, and in a 
normal condition none of it is discharged from the organism. 
Functions.—First, to moisten the food, and to assist in 
mastication and deglutition. Second, to convert starch into 
sugar; though this is done in ordinary digestion only to a 
limited degree. The saliva has also a remarkable tendency 
to entangle bubbles of air in the alimentary mass. The 
abundant secretion of the parotid glands becomes most com- 
pletely incorporated with the food during mastication, while Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
the secretions from the submaxillary and sublingual glands, 
being more viscid and less in quantity than the parotid secre- 
tions, have a tendency to form a glairy coating on the ex- 
terior of the alimentary mass, thus facilitating deglutition. 
Pharynx.—Placed behind the mouth and larynx, and 
extends from the under surface of the skull to the fifth cer- 
vical vertebra. It is a musculo-membranous sac, in form 
somewhat conical, the apex downward and the base upward, 
and about four and a half inches in length. At the upper 
part of the anterior wall of the pharynx, just behind the 
uvula, are two large apertures—the posterior naves,—while 
the eustachian t übes open, one at each side, of the upper part 
of the pharynx. 
Coats.—The mucous coat, which is continuous with that 
lining the eustachian tubes, nares, mouth, and ' larynx; 
the muscular coat; and the fibrous coat, which is placed be- 
tween the mucous and muscular layers. 
(Esophagus. Reaches from the pharynx to the stomach, 
or from opposite the fifth cervical vertebra to the tenth 
dorsal vertebra, and in the adult is about nine inches in 
length. 
Coats.—The oesophagus has an external or muscular and 
an internal or mucous coat. The mucous coat is connected to 
the muscular by fibrous tissue, and may bo termed a third 
coat. The muscular coat is composed of two layers of 
muscular fibers, an external longitudinal and an internal 
circular layer. The longitudinal fibers shorten the tube, 
while the circular fibers, by a progressive peristaltic con- 
traction from above downward, propel the food into the 
stomach. 
Stomach.— In man, the most dilated portion of the 
alimentary canal, and is somewhat conical or pear-shaped. It 
is situated in the upper part of the abdominal cavity, with its 
greater or splenic end toward the left side of the body. 
It is held in its position by folds of the peritoneum and by 28 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
the oesophagus. When empty, it is flattened, and its op- 
posite walls in contact. 
Length—When moderately distended, about twelve inches; 
its widest diameter, about five inches. 
Capacity, about five pints. 
The orifices or openings of the stomach are two in number, 
—the oesophageal or cardiac, communicating with the oesoph- 
agus, and the pyloric, communicating with the duodenum. 
Coats.—l, Serous—Derived from the peritoneum. 2, 
Muscular—Consisting of three sets of fibers [a) longitudi- 
nal, {h) circular, (c) oblique. 3, Cellular—Connects the 
mucous and muscular coat. 4, Mucous—Thick, surface 
smooth, soft and velvety; color, during adult life, a pale 
straw or ash-gray. 
In the mucous coat are found the gastric or peptic glands. 
Mucous glands are also found in the lining membrane, which, 
during the intervals of digestion, constantly cover it with a 
thin, transparent, viscid mucus. On the introduction of food 
into the stomach, the lining membrane changes its appear- 
ance from a pale to a distinctly red color, drops of gastric 
juice begin to appear in various parts, and gradually increase 
in size, until the fluid may be seen trickling down the sides in 
small streams. 
Gastric Juice.—Clear, a faint yellowish or amber tint, 
almost colorless, with a sour taste and odor. Specific gravity, 
1005 to 1009. 
Composition.—Water, 975.00; mineral matters, about five 
percent; organic or “ferment,” also called pepsin, about 
17.00; free acid, about 3.00, 
Amount secreted per day, about fourteen pounds. 
Function.—Digests the albuminoid substances. 
Duration of Stomach Digestion.— It is now understood 
that the stomach is not the most important organ of diges- 
tion. Comparatively few articles are completely dissolved in 
the stomach, so that less interest is attached to the length of Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
29 
time required for the action of the gastric juice upon different 
articles of food than formerly. While the time varies in 
different individuals, and is modified by the kind and quantity 
of food taken, conditions of the nervous system, exercise, 
etc., yet the average duration of food in the stomach after an 
ordinary meal may be said to be from two to four hours. 
Vomiting.—This act, as a rule, is preceded by nausea, 
also by an increase in the flow of the saliva. It is not an 
action of the stomach, but of the muscles of the abdominal 
cavity. While the action takes place, the cardiac orifice is 
dilated, and the contents of the stomach pressed upon by the 
contraction of the abdominal walls in an expiratory effort. 
These acts cause the contents of the stomach to be ejected 
through the oesophagus and the mouth. 
The most important division of the digestive system is the 
Small Intestine. It extends from the pyloric extremity of the 
stomach to the ileo-ccecal valve, and is held to the spinal 
column by the mesentery, a double fold of the peritoneum. 
In this part of the alimentary canal the food is converted into 
chyle, and is mixed with the bile, pancreatic juice, and the 
intestional secretions. The length of the intestine, in situ, 
is from fifteen to twenty feet; its diameter is about one and 
a quarter inches. 
The Duodenum, so called from the fact that it is about the 
length of twelve finger breadths, is from eight to ten inches 
in length. 
The Jejunum, usually found empty after death, includes 
the upper two-fifths of the rest of the small intestine; the 
remaining three-fifths, called the Ileum (to twist), forms numer- 
ous, coils or convolutions. 
Coats of Small Intestine.— Serous, muscular, and mucous. 
The serous coat is derived from the peritoneum. 
The muscular coat consists of two layers of fibers,—an 
external or longitudinal and an internal or circular, both 
of which are concerned in the peristaltic movement of the 
intestine. 30 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The mucous coat is highly vascular, soft and velvety in 
appearance, and its color, during digestion, is a vivid red. 
It is folded upon itself,—the folds called the vmmlm conni- 
ventes. We find in it also the glands of Brunner, or duodenal 
racemose glands; follicles of Lieherkuhn, or intestinal 
tubules/ the intestinal villi, solitary glands, and agminated 
glands or Beyer’s patches. 
Intestinal Juice. Colorless and glassy in appearance, 
viscid, with an alkaline reaction. Secreted by the follicles of 
Lieberkuhn and the glands of Brunner. 
Function.— Converts starch into sugar and aids the gen- 
eral process of digestion as it takes place. 
Liver.—The largest gland in the body. Situated princi- 
pally on the left side of the body, in the abdominal cavity, 
close to the diaphragm. 
Weight.—From three to four pounds, or fifty to sixty 
ounces avoirdupois. 
Diameter.—Transverse, from ten to twelve inches; antero- 
posterior, from six to seven inches. 
Structure.—The substance of the liver is made up of 
lobules, of a somewhat ovoid or rounded form, and about 
one-twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter. Between the lobules, 
in the inter-lobular spaces are found blood-vessels, nerves, 
and ramifications of the hepatic duct, all enclosed in a fibrous 
sheath. 
Functions of the Liver.— The secretion of bile and the 
formation of sugar. 
The vessels distributed in the liver are—the portal vein, 
the hepatic artery, and the hepatic duct—which enter at the 
transverse fissure. The vessels coming from the liver are 
the hepatic veins, which originate in the lobules. 
The hepatic duct is formed by the union of two ducts, one 
from the right and the other from the left lobe of the liver. 
It is about an inch and a quarter in length, and joins with the 
cystic duct. The common duct is about three inches in length, 
of the size of a goose-quill, and enters the duodenum. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
31 
The Gall-Bladder.—An ovoid or pear-shaped sac, the 
reservoir for the bile. 
Length, about four inches; breadth, about one inch at 
its widest portion. 
Capacity, from eight to ten drachms. 
Held in its position by the peritoneum. It communicates 
with the common bile duct by the cystic duct, which is about 
an inch in length. 
Bile.—Somewhat viscid, the color varying according to 
the species of animal from which it is taken. It is also varia- 
ble within the limits of health of the same animal. In man 
it has a dark, golden-brown color. It is usually dark green 
in the carnivora, and greenish yellow in the hcrbivora. 
Specific gravity of human bile is about 1018. It has an ex- 
cessively bitter taste, and a soap-like foam when shaken in a 
test tube. 
Coloring Matter.—Bilirubin or biliverdine. 
Amount per day, about two and a half pounds. The 
discharge is continuous, but very much increased during 
digestion. 
Function.—While the function of the bile in digestion is 
essential to life, very little is known of its mode of action. 
In cases where the bile is kept out of the duodenum of the 
inferior animals, there is in the processes of digestion and 
absorption a most serious interference, and a rapid loss of 
strength. Emaciation, and finally inanition, follow, when 
there is a persistence in the exclusion of bile from the system. 
Pancreas.—A glandular organ, situated transversely in 
the upper part of the abdominal cavity. It is narrow and 
flattened in shape, with an enlarged thick portion,— called 
the head— a body, and a pointed extremity. The head is at- 
tached to the duodenum. 
Length, from six to eight inches; greatest breadth, about 
an inch and a half; weight, from four to five ounces. 
Pancreatic Juice.—A clear, colorless, somewhat viscid Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
fluid, with a specific gravity of 1008 to 1010. The most im- 
portant ingredient is the organic matter or pancreatine. 
Amount per day, about one and three-fourths pounds. 
Function.—Digests the fats and converts starch into 
sugar. 
The following remarkable case of abstinence from food is reported by 
Drs. Cowperthwaite & Caldwell, of lowa City; 
“ Miss Hattie Deuell, a resident of lowa City, aged fifty-two years, 
ate her last meal Wednesday noon, February 23d, 1881. She died on 
the afternoon of April 11th, not having tasted food for a little more than 
forty-seven days. Clear water was freely drank during the whole 
period. Insanity was the cause of her fast. The autopsy revealed 
thickening, congestion, and minute perforations of the dura mater on 
the vertex over the longitudinal sinus. Albumen-like clots were found 
in the arachnoidean space, and softening of a spot as large as a walnut 
in the right half of the posterior lobe of the brain. Extensive adhesions 
of the pleurae existed, as also did hepatization in different portions of 
both lungs. Another item worthy of notice, though not necessarily 
associated with the dementia or the fast, was the peculiar shape of her 
stomach. It presented two clearly-defined large pouches, of nearly 
equal size; the one at the pyloric end being somewhat larger than that 
usually called the greater pouch.” 
During the whole period of starvation above reported, there was no 
muscular exertion, and water was freely taken, which circumstances 
have an important influence in prolonging life. For several years prior 
to the commencement of Miss Deuell’s fast, she had been confined to 
her bed, and on one occasion had deprived herself of aliment for a 
period of three weeks. 
It is stated that death from starvation usually occurs after a loss of 
four-tenths of the weight of the body. Hence, when a man weighing 
one hundred and fifty pounds, has, by abstinence from food, reduced his 
weight to ninety pounds, death occurs. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
33 
CHAPTER VII. 
ABSORPTION. 
Definition. 
Processes 
Endosmosis. 
Exosmosis. 
Imbibition. 
Blood-vessels. 
Villi. 
Lacteals. 
Receptaculum-chyli. 
Thoracic duct. 
Lymphatic Glands. 
Absorption 
Organs 
Fluids 
Lymph. 
Chyle. 
Causes of the movements of 
Lymph and Chyle. 
Absorption is the process by which the digested materials 
are taken into the blood. 
Endosmosis and exosmosis, liquid diffusion, or osmotic 
action, are properties of animals and vegetable membranes. 
If water and alcohol, two liquids which are capable of mix- 
ing with each, other, be separated by an animal membrane, 
the one liquid being suspended in a bladder in the other, 
the liquid in the bladder will pass through the bladder 
into the other, giving exosmosis, or the liquid without will 
pass into the bladder giving endosmosis. Both actions will 
take place at the same time. Plants absorb carbonic acid gas 
principally through the stomata of their leaves, and both by 
the upper and under surface of the leaf. They also derive 
nourishment from their roots, absorption taking place most 
rapidly at the extremities of their fibrils. The latter pro- 
cess may be termed capillary attraction or endosmosis. The 
phenomena of endosmosis and exosmosis are due to the attrac- 
tion that different liquids have for each other, and for the 
membrane separating them. 34 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
Imbibition is a property common to all animal structures, 
by which the membrane itself is capable of taking up a cer- 
tain portion of the liquid, and may be considered the starting 
point of absorption. All solutions are not imbibed by the 
tissues with the same degree of activity. 
The Villi are the active agents of absorption. They are 
conical vascular eminences, thickly set over the whole inter- 
nal surface of the lining membrane of the small intestine. 
On the external surface of a vilus is found a layer of epithelial 
cells, then a plexus of blood-vessels, and in the central part 
of the vilus, originating by a blind extremity, is the com- 
mencement of the lacteal tube. 
The Lacteals are the lymphatics of the small intestines, 
and pass through several sets of lymphatic or mesenteric 
glands on their way to the receptaculum-chyli. They absorb 
the fatty matters from the intestinal canal. The fluid they 
contain, during the intervals of digestion, and also that found 
in the thoracic duct at this time, is ordinary lymph; but, 
during digestion, certain nutritive principles are taken up by 
these vessels, and their contents are known as chyle. This is 
a white, opaque, milky fluid, with a specific gravity less than 
that of the blood. When it is removed from these vessels, it 
speedily undergoes coagulation. 
The Receptaculum-chyli is situated upon the front of the 
body of the second lumbar vertebra, and is simply a dilata- 
tion of the lower end of the thoracic duct. 
The Thoracic Duct extends from the second lumbar verte- 
bra to the root of the neck. Through the first part of its 
course, it lies irt front of the bodies of the vertebrae; but 
opposite the fourth dorsal it inclines toward the left side, and 
ascends behind the arch of the aorta to the left side of the 
oesophagus. Opposite the upper border of the seventh 
cervical vertebra, it curves downward, forming an arch 
terminating in the left subclavian vein, near its angle of 
junction with the internal jugular. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
35 
The great majority of the lymphatic vessels empty into the 
thoracic duct. Its walls are exceedingly delicate; the diam- 
eter of the vessel is about that of a goose-quill. Near its 
termination is a pair of semilunar valves, which effectually 
prevent the entrance of blood from the venous system. 
The Right Lymphatic Duct is a short trunk, about an inch 
in length. It carries the lymph from the right side of the 
head and neck, right trunk, right upper extremity, and 
empties it into the right subclavian vein at its point of junc- 
tion with the right internal jugular vein. 
Lymphatic Vessels are so delicate, and their coats so 
transparent, that the fluid they contain is readily seen through 
them. 
Lymphatic Glands are small, flattened, oval bodies, vary- 
ing in size from a bean to a pin-head. The lymphatic vessels 
pass through these glands on their way to the great lymphatic 
trunks. Those vessels which enter the gland are known as 
rasa afferentia, and those leaving the gland as rasa efferentia. 
In its interior, the gland is soft and pulpy. 
Causes of the Movements of Lymph and Chyle.—l, Influ- 
ence of the forces of endosraosis and transudation. 2, Influ- 
ence of the contractile walls of the vessels. 3, Influence of 
pressure from surrounding parts. 4, Influence of the move- 
ments of respiration,—Flint. 36 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
CHAPTER VIII. 
BLOOD. 
Definition. 
Quantity. 
, 
' Opacity. 
Odor. 
Taste. 
Specific Gravity. 
Color. 
Temperature. 
General Characters 
Water. 
Fibrine. 
Albumen. 
Fatty Matter. 
Chloride of Sodium. 
Chloride of Potassium. 
Phosphate of Lime. 
Carbonate of Lime. 
Blood 
Plasma, or Li- 
quor sanguinis— 
Composition— 
Globules or 
Corpuscles— 
Red. 
White or Leucocytes. 
Coagulation 
Causes. 
Divisions of Coagulated Blood. 
Benefits. 
The Blood is a circulating, nutritive fluid, and the most 
abundant and complex of the animal fluids. 
Quantity.—lt is a difficult matter to estimate, with abso- 
lute precision, the amount of blood in the human body; but 
as the result of various experiments given by Flint and Dal- 
ton, the weight of the blood, in proportion to the entire 
weight of the body, is as one to eight. In the body of a 
healthy man, weighing one hundred and thirty-five pounds, 
would be found, therefore, on an average, fifteen pounds of 
blood. 
General Characters.—The blood, while circulating in its 
normal condition in the vessels, is an opaque fluid, consisting 
of elements having different refractive powers. 
Odor.—Faint, but characteristic. By adding to a speci- Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
37 
men of blood a few drops of sulphuric acid, the odor peculiar 
to the animal from which the blood is taken is brought out 
and becomes very marked. 
Taste.—On account of a small portion of chloride of 
sodium found in its composition, the blood has a faintly 
saline taste. 
Specific Gravity.— Defibrinated, from 1052 to 1057 
(Robin). Different conditions of digestion have much to do 
with the variations of its density. 
Color.—Varies from a brilliant scarlet to a dark purple, 
and is due to the corpuscles contained in it. The coloring 
matter of the red corpuscles is termed haemaglobine. In the 
arteries the blood is usually red; in the veins generally dark 
blue,—the principal exception being the pulmonary circula- 
tion. 
Temperature.—The normal temperature is generally given 
as from ninety-eight to one hundred degrees Fahrenheit, 
although it varies considerably in different parts of the body. 
Benard found the highest temperature of the blood in the 
hepatic veins, where it ranged from one hundred and one to 
one hundred and seven degrees Fahrenheit. 
Globules or Corpuscles—red.—Constitute a little less than 
one-half of the mass of blood. They give the blood its red 
color and its opacity. They are circular, biconcave, flattened 
disks, with edges thicker than the center. They have the 
property of elasticity, so that if their form is changed by 
pressure they immediately resume it again when the pressure 
is removed. 
Diameter—Of human globule, about one-thirty-five-hun- 
dredth of an inch; of the horse, one-four-thousandth; pig, 
one - forty - two - hundredth; cat, one - four - thousandth; dog, 
one-forty-one-hundred-and-fiftieth. Number of globules in 
a cubic millimeter, about four million. 
Function.—The presence of the red corpuscles enables the 
blood to absorb from ten to thirteen times as much oxygen as 
an equal bulk of water. The tissues of the body are con- 38 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
stantly absorbing oxygen and giving off carbonic acid. A 
very important function of the red corpuscles is to carry 
oxygen to all the tissues. This is their principal work, 
although, to some extent, they take up carbonic acid, which 
takes the place of the oxygen after the blood has been 
brought by the capillaries into contact with the tissues. 
White Corpuscles or Leucocytes.—Found also in lymph, 
chyle, pus, etc. Are much larger than the red corpuscles. 
Irregular in form. Have a tendency to adhere to the walls 
of blood-vessels, moving along slowly, sometimes remaining 
entirely stationary. Their number, as compared to the red, 
is as one to four hundred. 
Diameter, about one-twenty-five-hundredth of an inch. 
Function, not understood. 
Coagulation is the thickening of the blood into a jelly-like 
mass. 
Causes.—But little is known as to the cause of the coagu- 
lation of the blood. Coming directly in contact with the 
atmosphere, the blood coagulates, but it will also coagulate 
in a vacuum. It coagulates if there is a stoppage of circula- 
tion; but when removed from the body, and violently 
agitated, or if artificial circulation is kept up, it still coagu- 
lates. Lowering of the temperature is said to cause 
coagulation; and yet, if sufficiently lowered, it prevents it. 
Circumstances which favor exposure of the blood to the air 
seem to hasten coagulation; hence, the blood flowing slowly 
from a small orifice coagulates more rapidly than when it 
comes in a full stream from a large orifice. If placed in a 
shallow vessel, it coagulates much more rapidly than when 
placed in a deep vessel. If the sides of the vessel are un- 
even or rough, it coagulates more rapidly than if they are 
smooth or polished. If the blood be allowed to flow on a 
cloth or a bundle of twigs, it coagulates almost instantane- 
ously. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
39 
Divisions of Coagulated Blood. 
First-Clot, containing- ] corpuscles. 
Second—Serum—Containing all which, do not belong to the clot. 
Benefits.—It arrests hemorrhage, and thereby often saves 
life. 
The blood cannot coagulate while the normal circulation is 
maintained, and while it is undergoing the constant changes 
which are necessary to the healthy nutrition of the body. 
The teacher may obtain a specimen of blood from a slaughter-house, 
and placing it in a glass goblet, allow it to coagulate into a jelly-like 
mass. It can then be turned upon a plate and cut into halves. The 
external surface of the clot will be a dark color, while on its interior it 
will be a bright red, becoming darker by contact with atmospheric air. 
To show the fibrine, take a portion of the clot and whip it with a bunch 
of twigs, when the fibrine will adhere to the twigs in the form of white 
shreds. This is a simple process, and will enable the pupil to get a 
good idea of coagulated blood. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
Tendinous Apparatus—Chordae Tendinae. 
Muscular Apparatus—Carnae Columnae. 
Superior cava. 
Inferior cava. 
Coronary. 
Auriculo-ventricular. 
Pulmonary Artery. 
Auriculo-ventricular. 
Aortic. 
Auriculo-ventricular. 
Four Pulmonary. 
Auriculo-ventricular. 
Tricuspid. 
Semi-lunar. 
Mitral. 
Semi-lunar, 
Tendinous Apparatus. 
Muscular Apparatus. 
V alve—Coronary. 
Openings 
Openings 
Valves— ■ 
Openings 
Valves— • 
Auricle—Openings— 
CHAPTER IX. 
CIRCULATION. 
Auricle 
Ventricle 
Ventricle 
Definition. 
Coats or Tunics. 
Forces of Arterial Circulation, 
< Male. 
( Female. 
'Eight Chamber- 
Left Chamber 
Weight 
Length. 
Diameter. 
Shape. 
Description 
Situation. 
Divisions 
Coverings. 
Movements. 
Arteries 
Capillaries. 
Veins. 
Sounds. 
Pulmonic. 
Systemic. 
Heart 
Vessels 
Definition, 
Divisions 
Organs 
CUMULATION. Out Zincs in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
41 
Circulation was discovered by Harvey, in 1616. 
Definition.—It is the continuous circuit of the blood 
through the blood-vessels to the entire system, and is the 
means of transportation of the elements necessary for the con- 
struction of the tissues. 
In the puhnonic or lesser circulation the blood passes from 
the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery to the 
lungs, and returns through the pulmonary veins to the left 
auricle of the heart. 
In the systemic or greater circulation the blood passes 
from the left ventricle to the aorta; from thence to all parts 
of the system, through the arteries and capillaries, collected 
by the veins, and by them returned to the right auricle of the 
heart. 
The Heart is a hollow muscle, and the great central organ 
of circulation. From it there is a constant flow to all the 
tissues and organs of the body, and a constant return of the 
blood to it after passing through these parts. 
The weight of the heart in the male is from ton to twelve 
ounces, and in the female from eight to ten ounces. In pro- 
portion to the weight of the body in the male as 1 to 169, and 
in the female as 1 to 149. 
Shape.—The heart is pear-shaped or in the form of a cone, 
with the apex pointing downward and forward, the base 
or larger end pointing upward and backward and to the right. 
Length, about five inches. Diameter, about four inches. 
The under surface is flattened, and rests upon the tendi- 
nous portion of the diaphragm. The upper side is rounded 
and convex. 
Situation.—ln the thoracic cavity, the base about the 
median line, and the apex at the fifth intercostal space, about 
two inches to the left of the sternum. 
Divisions.—The partition between the two chambers of 
the heart is called the septum. In man the heart is double,— 
the chambers on the one side arc entirely distinct, and sep- Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, ITygicnc. 
arated from those on the other. The action, however, of the 
two sides is simultaneous. At the same time that the blood 
is sent from the right side to the lungs, it is also sent from 
the left side to the system. 
In the outline, the openings of the chambers of the heart are given. 
If the pupil becomes familiar with the names of the veins which enter 
the auricles, and of the arteries which originate at the ventricles, it is 
an easy matter to remember the names of the openings of the differ- 
ent cavities. 
All orifices into the heart, and all communications between 
chambers, are guarded by valves, except where the venae cav® 
and the pulmonary veins enter the auricles. The valves of 
the heart are so arranged that the current of blood is always 
in one direction. 
Tricuspid Valve.— Situation —At right auriculo-ventri- 
cular opening. 
Shape.—lt has three points, being composed of three 
segments or triangular-shaped curtains. These curtains are 
attached at the base around the opening, while the free 
borders are attached to the chordae tendine®. These, in their 
turn, are attached to the column® came®, which are the 
rounded muscular columns projecting from nearly the whole 
of the inner surface of the ventricle. 
Mitral Valve.—This is sometimes called the bicuspid 
valve. It is situated at the left auriculo-ventricular opening. 
In structure and arrangement it presents no difference from 
the tricuspid valve; but, as its name implies, it has two cur- 
tains instead of three. 
The Aortic Semilunar Valves are situated at the opening 
of the aorta. They somewhat resemble a half-moon or cres- 
cent, and are attached around the opening of the aorta. 
They arc strong, membranous pouches, with their concavity 
opening toward the aorta. During the contraction of the 
aorta, their free margins meet in the center, and prevent the 
regurgitation of the blood. 
The Pulmonic Semilunar Valves.—ln structure similar Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
43 
to those of the aorta, are situated at the opening of the 
pulmonary artery, during the contraction of which they 
oppose the regurgitation of the blood into the right ventricle. 
Action of the Mitral and Tricuspid Valves.— The auricu- 
lar systole, which, when completed, distends the ventricles to 
their utmost capacity, is immediately followed by the systole 
of the ventricles. During the passage of the blood through 
the auriculo-ventricular openings, the valves are open, and 
at the first part of this action they hug closely the walls of 
the heart, thus offering no obstruction to the free passage of 
the blood from the auricle to the ventricle; but, as this action 
is completed, and the ventricles entirely dilated, the valves 
are floated out, and by the systole of the ventricles are 
closed, so that no regurgitation can take place toward the 
auricles. 
Coverings.—The heart is enveloped in a fibrous membrane 
called the pericardium. Like all other serous membranes, it 
is a shut sac. It is attached above to the great vessels, about 
two inches above their origin from the base of the heart. It 
is lubricated by a drachm or two of fluid, which serves to 
facilitate the movements of the heart, within the pericardium. 
The lining membrane of the heart is termed the endocardium. 
Movements.—Diastole or dilitation, which is mostly a pas- 
sive act, and systole or contraction an active movement. A 
revolution of the heart is the filling and emptying of all of its 
cavities including the period of repose. 
Sounds.—The first sound is exactly simultaneous with 
the beating of the apex of the heart against the walls of the 
chest. It is long, low, dull, and booming in tone. It has 
three elements,—-first, a valvular clement caused by the clos- 
ing of the mitral and tricuspid valves; second, a muscular 
element, which is due to the heart as a muscle; third, the 
beating of the apex of the heart against the walls of the chest. 
The second sound is high, quick, and sharp in tone. It 
occurs during the ventricular diastole of the heart. It has 44 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
but one element, which is purely valvular, caused by the 
closing of the aortic and the pulmonary semilunar valves. 
A careful study of the following diagram will assist the student in 
understanding the heart’s sounds, and their relations to the diastole and 
systole of the heart. 
There are eight abnormal sounds of the heart. A mitral 
and tricuspid, regurgitant, which would occur during the 
ventricular systole. 
The mitral and tricuspid direct may occupy the entire 
time from B to A with the greatest intensity during auricular 
systole. 
Pulmonary and aortic regurgitant occur during the second 
sound—usurp its place. Pulmonary and aortic direct occur 
during ventricular systole. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
45 
CHAPTER X. 
ARTERIES. 
Ascending Part 
Right Coronary. 
Left Coronary. 
R. 0. Carotid. 
E. Subclavian. 
Innominate 
Arch - 
Transverse Part 
Left Carotid. 
Left Subclavian. 
Descending Part. 
Aokta— 
Thoracic Aorta. 
Abdominal. 
The Aorta arises at the upper part of the left ventricle of 
the heart. From its origin it passes upward for a short dis- 
tance, then arches backward to the left side, descends on 
the left side of the vertebral column, passes through the aortic 
opening in the diaphragm, and in the abdominal cavity op- 
posite the fourth lumbar vertebra divides into the right and 
left common iliac arteries. The common iliacs are about two 
inches m length, and divide into two branches—the internal 
and external iliac arteries—supplying blood to the walls of the 
abdomen, the pelvis, and lower extremities. From the arch 
of the aorta are given off, first, the right and left coronary 
arteries, which convey blood to the substance of the heart. 
The next branch of the aorta is the innominate, which divides 
into the right subclavian and right common carotid. The 
subclavian supplies blood to the upper extremity, and the 
carotid is distributed to the neck and head, supplying not 
only the muscular tissue, but also the inner surface of the 
sensorium and the brain. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The Arteries are cylindrical tubes, or tubular vessels, 
which convey the blood from both ventricles of the heart to 
every part of the body. They are strong, highly elastic, and 
dense in structure. When empty they preserve their cylin- 
drical form. 
The arteries have three coats or tunics Internal serous 
or epithelial coat, middle fibrous or circular coat, and an 
external cellular coat. 
When an artery is cut, the blood flows from it in intermit- 
tent jets, caused by the pulsations of the heart. The wave- 
like movement of the blood in the arteries is termed the 
pulse. 
Causes of the Circulation in the Arteries.— The primary 
cause of the motion of the blood in the arteries is the con- 
traction (vis a tergo) of the heart. 
The Elasticity of the Arteries have much to do with the 
flow of blood through them. The aorta, being elastic, is 
distended during the ventricular systole, and then reacts, 
after the distending force ceases, and compresses its fluid 
contents. The aortic semilunar valves instantly close, which 
renders regurgitation with the heart impossible. The influ- 
ence, then, can only be exerted onward toward the capillaries. 
The arteries are also contractile, which is another force of the 
circulation of the blood through these vessels. The small 
vessels, by virtue of this power, regulate the distribution of 
the blood. • 
CAPILLARIES. 
The Capillaries are connecting links between the arteries 
and veins, being continuous with the terminal ramifications 
of the arteries on the one hand, and with the commencing 
rootlets of the veins on the other. They have but a single 
coat or tunic, which is a continuation of the inner coat of the 
arteries. Their average diameter in the human is about ono- 
three-thousandth of an inch. They are smallest in the ner- Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
47 
vous and muscular tissue, where they are from one-six-thou- 
sandth to one-four-thousandth of an inch in diameter. The 
capillaries form a true plexus of vessels branching and 
inosculating in every direction. Their function is to bring 
the blood into intimate contact with the substance of the 
tissues, so that its fluid portions slowly transude through the 
walls of the vessels, and arc absorbed by the tissues in such 
proportion as is requisite for their nourishment. 
VEINS. 
After the blood has been brought into contact with the 
tissues by the capillary system, it is then collected by the 
Veins and carried to the auricle of the heart. 
The Pah nonary Veins, four in number, return the blood 
from the lungs to the left auricle. They carry arterial in- 
stead of venous blood. They are destitute of valves. 
Systemic Veins return the blood from the body generally, 
to the right auricle of the heart. 
The Portal Vein, found in the abdominal cavity, conveys 
the blood from the abdominal viscera to the liver. This may 
be called the portal venous system. The superior mesenteric, 
inferior mesenteric, and splenic veins unite to form one large 
trunk called the vena portae, which enters the liver, and 
ramifying its substance, emerges from that organ by the 
hepatic veins, three in number, which enter the inferior vena 
cava,—this vessel terminating in the right auricle of the 
heart. 
Superficial or Cutaneous Veins.—These veins return the 
blood from the integument and superficial structures. They 
pass inward, and terminate in the deep veins. 
Deep Veins.—Situated among the deeper structures of the 
body, convey the blood from the capillaries of the deep 
structures. 48 
Outlives in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The veins have three coats—an internal homogeneous mem- 
which is continuous with the single coat of the capil- 
laries; a middle fibrous coat, and an external coat. The ex- 
ternal coat is composed of white fibrous tissue. 
The Valves of the Veins are little membranous folds, or 
reduplications of the middle and inner coats, semilunar in 
form, similar to the aortic and pulmonary valves. Usually 
they are arranged in pairs; sometimes, however, they are 
found in groups of three, and, occasionally, but one is found 
at a place. 
Function.—The great function of the valves is to prevent 
a reflux of the blood toward the capillary system. When 
circulation is arrested, from any cause, in the veins, the 
valves offer an obstruction, which tends to force the blood 
onward toward the heart. 
The following named veins have no valves; Vena? cavte, 
hepatic, portal, pulmonary, and common iliac. Valves are 
also absent in the very small veins. 
The great motor power which is the consequent of the 
constant and steady flow of the blood through the veins, is 
the contraction of the heart. 
Muscular Contraction is one of the principal causes of 
venous circulation. In order that this be a force to assist 
the flow of blood through the veins, two things are essential— 
the contraction must be intermittent, and there must be no 
possibility of a retrograde movement. The action of the 
thorax in respiration exerts a suction force operating on the 
veins in the immediate neighborhood of the chest. 
The blood makes the entire circuit of the body in about 
twenty-three seconds. After death, the arteries are found 
empty, and all the blood in the body accumulates in the 
venous system and the capillaries. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
49 
CHAPTER XI. 
RESPIRATION. 
Definition 
Larynx 
Vocal Cords. 
Cartilages 
Thyroid. 
Cricoid. 
Arytenoid. 
Epiglottis. 
Trachea. 
Bronchi. 
Bronchial Tubes. 
Definition. 
Situation. , 
r>- 
if? 
Left* 
Organs 
Divisions - 
Weight. ’ 
Color. 
Lungs - 
Tissue. 
Structure 
External Serous Coat. 
Sub-serous Areolar Tissue. 
Pulmonary Substance. 
Respiration. 
Pleurae 
Pleura Pulmonalis. 
Pleura Costalis. 
Auxiliary Organs. 
Movements 
Inspiration. 
Expiration. 
Kinds of Respiration 
Abdominal. 
Thoracic. 
Volumes of Air 
Residual. 
Reserve. 
Tidal. 
Gomplemental. 
Changes in the Air during Respiration. 
Changes in the Blood during Respiration. 
Definition.—Respiration is the act by which the various 
tissues receive and appropriate oxygen, and by which the 
venous blood is arterialized and renovated. 
Organs.—Larynx, the organ of the voice, situated at 
upper and fore part of the neck, between the trachea and base 
of the tongue. It is somewhat conical in form, with the base 
or broad extremity above. 50 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The Vocal Cords extend across the superior opening of 
larynx from before backward. The superior or false vocal 
cords arc not concerned in the production of the voice. The 
inferior or true vocal cords are attached anteriorly at the 
middle of the thyroid cartilage, posteriorly to the movable 
arytenoid cartilages. The true vocal cords are composed 
largely of elastic fibers, and are covered by a delicate, thin, 
and closely adherent mucous membrane. The opening be- 
tween the vocal cords is called the rirna glottidis. 
Cartilages. Thyroid (a shield)—Consists of two lateral 
portions united in front, forming a projection which is quite 
prominent above, and called the ■ pornum Adami, or Adam’s 
apple. The posterior borders terminate above in the superior 
cornua, and below in the inferior cornua. 
Cricoid Cartilage, resembling, a signet ring. It is thicker 
and stronger than the thyroid cartilage, being placed below 
it, and is narrow in front and broad behind. 
Arytenoid Cartilages are so called from their resemblance 
to the mouth of a pitcher, and are situated on the posterior- 
part of the larynx, at the upper border of the cricoid carti- 
lage. 
Epiglottis.— A leaf-shaped organ, composed of yellowish 
fibro-cartilagc. It is placed behind the tongue, being attached 
to the anterior portion of the larynx. During ordinary 
respiration, the epiglottis projects upward, its free extremity 
curving toward the base of the tongue. During the occur- 
rence of deglutition, when, for the time, respiration is inter- 
rupted, the epiglottis is carried backward, completely closing 
the opening of the larynx. 
Trachea or Air-Tube.—A cartilaginous and membranous 
cylindrical tube. It extends from the fifth cervical vertebra 
to opposite the third dorsal, the length being about four 
and a half inches, and the diameter from three-quarters of an 
inch to an inch. The cartilagineous rings, which extend 
about two-thirds around its cylinder, are from fifteen to 
twenty in number, and leave an imperfect space behind, Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
51 
which is filled up with fibrous tissue. In the chest the 
trachea divides into the right and left bronchi. The right 
bronchus is about an inch in length, and is made up of from 
six to eight cartilages. The left bronchus is about two 
inches in length, and contains from nine to twelve cartilages. 
The primitive bronchi, after penetrating the lungs, break up 
into numerous ramifications called the bronchial tubes. The 
Avails of the trachea and bronchial tubes are lined with a 
mucous membrane, in which are found numerous mucous 
glands. This lining membrane is smooth, covered by 
ciliated epithelium,—the cilia always moving from within 
outward. 
The Lungs are the chief organs of respiration, and are 
placed one in each lateral half of the thoracic cavity. They 
are separated by the heart and the mediastinum. Each lung 
is conical in shape, with the apex upward, and extending 
about an inch above the first rib; the base is broad, somewhat 
concave, and rests upon the diaphragm. The weight of both 
right and left lung is about forty-two ounces, the right being 
about tAvo ounces heavier than the left. The right lung has 
throe lobes, and is larger and broader than the left; the left 
lung has tAvo lobes, and is narrower and longer that the 
right. 
The Color of the Lang, at birth, is of a pinkish-white; in 
adult life it is mottled in patches of a dark slate color, and 
the surface is smooth and shining. 
The Tissue of the Lung is of a light, porous, spongy tex- 
ture. It is highly elastic and floats in water. 
If a portion of lung substance be taken between the 
fingers, and pressed upon, a crackling or rattling sound is 
produced, on account of the cells being broken up, and the 
air contained in them escaping. 
The External Goat invests the entire lung, and is thin and 
transparent. It is derived from the pleura. 
The Sab-serous Areolar Tissue is somewhat elastic, in- Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
52 
vesting the entire surface of the lung, and is found extending 
inward between the lobes. 
The Parenchyma or Pulmonary Substance of the lung, is 
made up of lobules, varying in size. In each lobule is found 
one of the ramifications of the bronchial tube, with its accom- 
paning air cells. The air cells are about one-seventy-fifths of 
an inch in diameter, and are separated from each other by a 
thin septa. They open into the spaces or air sacs between 
the cell walls. The spaces communicate with the lobules, 
and the lobules with the bronchial tubes. All these ramifica- 
tions of the bronchi are lined with a thin, delicate, mucous 
membrane. 
Pleura. —An exceedingly delicate serous membrane, 
which completely encloses each lung as far as its root, 
where it is reflected upon the inner surface of the thorax. 
This is called the plura. It is divided into two layers,—the 
pleura puhnonalis, which is the portion next to the surface 
of the lung, and is also called the visceral layer; the second 
layer is the pleura costalis, or parietal layer, and lines the 
inner surface of the chest. Between these two layers is found 
a cavity or space, which is termed the cavity of the pleura. 
The pleura* of the lungs are separated from each other by a 
fold or duplicating of the pleura of each lung. This septum 
completely divides the cavity of the thorax into two parts,— 
the rijht half containing the right pleural sac, and the left 
half the left pleural sac. These two sacs do not communi- 
cate with each other. In the cavity of the pleura is found a 
serous fluid, which serves to lubricate the inner surface of 
the membrane, and gives to it a smooth and polished appear- 
ance. 
The Auxiliary Organs of Respiration, in man, are the 
diaphragm and ribs and intercostal, sub-costal, and abdominal 
muscles. 
The Diaphragm is a musculo-fibrous partition, in form of 
a vaulted arch or dome, between the thoracic and abdominal 
cavities. It is concave below and convex above. In an ordi- 
nary respiration, the diaphragm descends, approximating to Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
53 
a plane; in its downward movement it pushes before it the 
viscera of the abdominal cavity, thereby causing a protrusion 
of the abdomen. The diaphragm is supplied by the phrenic 
nerve, which arises from the third and fourth cervical nerves, 
receiving a communicating branch from the fifth. From this 
o O # 
origin it descends to the root of the neck, passes through 
the chest, penetrates the diaphragm, and is distributed to its 
under surface. The section of this nerve almost completely 
paralyzes this muscle. 
As the ribs are elevated by the action of the muscles, the 
thoracic cavity is enlarged. The seven true ribs are attached 
to the vertebne behind, and, by the intervention of the costal 
cartilages, to the sternum in front. From their origin they 
pass outward, forward, and downward, and as they are 
elevated and become more nearly horizontal, they push for- 
ward the lower end of the sternum, thereby increasing the 
antero-posterior diameter of the thoracic cavity. 
Movements of Respiration.— Inspiration is the act by 
which the lungs are filled with air, and is effected by the 
descent of the diaphragm and the elevation of the ribs. 
An ordinary Expiration is a simple and nearly a passive 
process, by which the air is expelled from the lungs. 
Surrounding the air cells of the lungs are found a great 
many elastic fibers, which give to the lung tissue a great 
degree of elasticity. The lungs are encased in an air-tight 
cavity. If they are removed, they immediately collapse, 
becoming many times smaller than the cavity in which they 
are contained. 
The walls of the thoracic cavity are also very elastic. 
After the muscles concerned in inspiration have ceased their 
action, the elasticity of the costal cartilages and the tonicity 
of the muscles will restore the chest to its passive dimensions. 
Expiration, then, depends upon the passive influence of the 
elasticity of the lungs and thoracic walls, also upon the action 
of certain muscles, by which the ribs are depressed, and the 
dimensions of the chest are diminished. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
Kinds of Respiration.—ln children under three years of 
age, respiration is chiefly carried on by the diaphragm, and 
is termed the abdominal type of respiration. At a variable 
period after this age, a difference in the kinds of respiration 
in the sexes begins to show itself. In the male, the abdominal 
type is predominant, and continues through life. In the 
female, the thoracic typo predominates. This distinction in 
the sexes becomes apparent at about the age of maturity. 
Different writers have designated different stages in the life 
of man. Perhaps the most usual division is the five periods, 
as follows:— 
1. Infancy, extending to about the seventh year, or to 
the second dentition. 
2. Childhood, extending from the seventh to the four 
teenth or fifteenth year. 
3. Adolescence, or Youth,, reaching, in males, from about 
the age of fifteen to twenty-five; in females from thirteen 
to twenty-one. 
4, Adult Age, or Manhood, extending from the close of 
youth to about the fiftieth year. 
5. Old Age, which includes the declining portion of life. 
Volumes of Air.—The lungs, together with the heart, 
great blood-vessels, and other organs, completely fill the 
cavity of the chest. By the contraction of certain muscles, 
the cavity of the thorax is enlarged. This causes the pres- 
sure of the air to be greater on the outside than on the inside, 
consequently the air rushes through the trachea into the 
lungs, until the pressure on the outside is equal to the pres- 
sure on the inside. 
A respiration includes both the inspiratory and expiratory 
act. 
The amount of air changed at an ordinary expiration and 
inspiration is call the tided or e/rdinory breathing air. 
During a forced expiration, a certain amount of air is 
expelled over and above that of an ordinary expiration; this Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, rmc/ Hygiene. 
55 
is the reserve or supplemental air. But, after a forced 
expiration, a considerable quantity of air (the residual air) 
still remains in the lungs. It is because the lungs, in a 
natural condition, are partly distended, and that they are 
placed in the air-tight chest, that this amount of air cannot lie 
expelled. If, by a puncture of the chest-walls or diaphragm 
air is introduced into the pleural chamber, the chest ceases 
to be air-tight, and the air thus admitted causes a partial 
collapse of the lungs, and forces out a considerable portion 
of the residual air through the windpipe. 
There is also an excess over the ordinary breathing air 
(the complemental air) which may be introduced by a forcible 
inspiration. 
In a healthy adult male, the residual and the reserve air 
each amount to about one hundred cubic inches, the tidal air 
to twenty cubic inches, and the complemental air to one 
hundred and ten cubic inches. This makes the lung capacity 
amount to three hundred and thirty cubic inches. Deducting 
the residual air, gives the extreme or vital breathing capacity. 
The frequency of the respirations vary according to age, 
sex, muscular exercise, condition of the nervous system, etc., 
the average number, however, as determined from the most 
numerous and convincing collection of facts, is from eighteen 
to twenty-four per minute. There seems to be a relation of 
the respiratory acts to the pulse, which in health is quite con- 
stant. This proportion, as a rule, is ope respiratory act to 
every four pulsations of the heart. During sleep, the num- 
ber of respiratory acts is diminished. 
Composition of the Atmospheric Air.—ln all climates, in 
the darkness, as well as in the sunlight, everywhere about us, 
existing all over the earth’s surface, is found a mechanical 
mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in just the proportion to 
enable it to sustain life. In this mechanical mixture, the 
oxygen forms about twenty-one parts and the nitrogen about 
seventy-nine parts. It is a question of great physiological 
interest to determine the quantity of oxygen which is removed 
from the air by the process of respiration. The air, when 56 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
taken into the system, contains about twenty-one parts of 
oxygen to the hundred; when it is exhaled, it contains only 
about sixteen parts to the hundred. This would make the 
volumn of oxygen absorbed in the lungs live per cent, or 
one-twentieth of the volume of air inspired. If the number 
of respirations per minute be eighteen, and the ordinary 
breathing air be twenty cubic inches for each respiratory act, 
then eighteen cubic inches of oxygen are consumed in one 
minute, which represent three hundred and sixty cubic inches 
of pure air. Continuing our calculations, we find, that, in 
twenty-four hours, fifteen cubic feet of oxygen are consumed, 
representing three hundred cubic feet of pure air. In cases 
of ventilation, or the regulation of the supply of oxygen for 
churches, school-houses, hospitals, or wherever many persons 
are assembled, these facts are of inestimable value. Besides 
the loss of oxygen during respiration, there is also a marked 
elevation in the temperature of the air after it has passed 
through the lungs. 
While the air in the respiratory act has given up oxygen 
it has gained in carbonic acid, so that the expired air contains 
about four per cent more carbonic acid than the inspired air. 
This amount, however, is greatly modified by age and sex, 
activity or repose of the digestive system, form of diet, sleep, 
muscular activity, etc. The expired air contains watery 
vapor, which is derived from the entire surface traversed in 
respiration. 
Changes of the Blood in Respiration. —As the blood is 
passing from the arteries to the veins, its color changes from 
a bright red to a dark purple. This change is due to the 
physiological decomposition of the tissues. In the lungs its 
color changes again to a bright red, which is due to the 
action of the air. While the blood is coming in contact with 
the tissues, it gives up its oxygen, and becomes impregnated 
with carbonic acid; it also loses some of its important consti- 
tuents,—hence venous blood is not so rich in organic and most 
inorganic elements. Arterial blood contains a larger propor- 
tion of corpuscles and is more coagulable than venous blood. Otitimes in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
57 
The Respiratory Sense.—Breathing, under ordinary con- 
ditions, takes place without our knowledge; but if there is an 
interruption in the respiratory process, there immediately 
follows a distressing sense of suffocation. It has been 
demonstrated, that, if the want of air felt by the system bo 
effectually supplied, the respiratory movements will not take 
place. The respiratory sense operates upon the respiratory 
nervous center, and gives rise to the involuntary movements 
of respiration. Recent experiments lead to the conclusion that 
the sense of want of air is due primarily to a deficiency of 
oxyginated blood in the medulla oblongata. The respiratory 
acts will still take place if all the encephalic centers, except 
the medulla oblongata, arc destroyed. 
VITAL OR ANIMAL HEAT. 
Limit of Variation in Norm at., Temperature oe Man. 
In the axilla, the maximum temperature is about 99.5 degrees; the 
minimum about 97.7 degrees. 
Under the tongue, about 98 degrees. 
Variations in Different Parts of the Body. 
Aorta, 98% to 105% degrees. 
Portal Vein, 100.04 to 106.34 degrees. 
Hepatic Vein, 99.86 to 107 degrees. 
Average temperature of body, from 98 to 100 degrees. 
Variations at Different Periods of Life, 
During Infancy, 1 to 2 degrees more than in adult life. 
During Adult Life, 98 to 100 degrees. 
During Old Age, about one-half degree below adult life. 
Diurnau Variations in the Temperature of the Body. 
Periods of maximum j rM‘ 
Minimum, always at night. 58 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
During the periods of digestion, there is a slight increase 
in the temperature of the body. Under all conditions of 
climate the general heat of the body is equalized. 
By Animal Heat is meant the persistent and uniform 
elevation of temperature. The absence of this heat is an 
indication of death. So important is this to the animal econ- 
omy, that but slight variation from the normal temperature 
is possible without producing serious derangement. 
Alcohol seems always to produce a fall in temperature.—Foster. 
The use of alcohol does not enable men to endure a very low tem- 
perature for a great length of time.—Flint. 
Dr. Hays, a scientific Arctic explorer, says: “While fresh animal 
food, and especially fat, is absolutely essential to the inhabitants and 
travelers in Arctic countries, alcohol is, in almost any shape, not only 
completely useless, but positively injurious.” 
Exercise, as in fast walking or riding, produces a constant 
elevation in the general temperature, amounting to between 
one and two degrees. This elevation, according to Flint, is 
produced in the muscular tissue itself. That the heat of the 
body is regulated by the perspiration is proven by the fact, 
that, if the skin is covered by an impenetrable coating, death 
occurs in a very short time. Such a coating covers up the 
pores of the skin, so that its function is suppressed, followed 
by a lowering of the animal temperature. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
59 
Cerebro-spinal or Nerves of Animal Life. 
Sympathetic or Nerves of Organic Life. 
Cervical, 
Dorsal. 
Lumbar. 
Sacral. 
Coccygeal. 
Special Sense. 
Motion. 
General Sensibility. 
' Mode of origin. 
Divisions 
fH 
d 
I a 
I 
o.S:-i 
' Cranial 
Spinal 
CHAPTER XII. 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Nerve Cells. 
Nerve Fibers. 
Divisions of a Single Nerve 
General divisions of Nerves 
Divisions of Nerves 
according to place of origin 
Brain. 
Spinal Cord. 
Anatomical divisions of Nervous Tissue 
Definition. 
Cerebrospinal 
Center or Axis 
Plexus. 
Nerves 
Ganglia. 
Purpose. 
Organs 
Nervous System. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
Purpose of the Nervous System.—To produce the harmo- 
nious action of the different organs of the body. 
Nerve Cells.—Parts capable of generating nerve force. 
Nerve Fibers act only as conductors. 
Nerves are round, flattened cords, connecting the cerebro- 
spinal center with the ganglia and the various textures of the 
body, and by which sensation, volition, or vital influence is 
conveyed to and from the sensorium. 
General Divisions.— Cerebro-Spinal or Nerves of Ani- 
mal Life.—Distributed to the organs of the senses, the skin, 
and the active organs of locomotion—the muscles. 
Sympathetic or Nerves of Organic Life.— Distributed 
chiefly to the viscera and blood-vessels. Each nerve is com- 
posed of motor and sentient fibers. The motor fibers convey 
stimulus from within outward; the sentient fibers, from with- 
out inward. 
Parts or a Single Nerve.—The Axis-Cylinder exists in 
all the nerves, and is the central, thread-like portion, the 
diameter of which is about one-half or one-third that of the 
tube in which it is contained. 
The Myeline is the medullary substance filling the tube 
and surrounding the central band. It is a transparent, semi- 
fluid, and homogeneous medulla. 
The Neurilemma is the tubular sheath surrounding the 
axis-cylinder and myeline. 
A Plexus or Netwo'rk is the communication or intertwining 
and intercrossing of nerves. 
Cranial Nerves, so called because they take their origin 
in the brain and pass out from the cranial cavity. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
61 
Anatomical and Physiological Classification of the Cranial 
Nerves, 
Special 
Sense. 
First Pair—Olfactory; the special nerve of smell. 
Second Pair—Optic; the special nerve of sight. 
o-i -p • j Auditory or Portio Mollis; the soft root of the 
* '( Seventh, and the special nerve of hearing. 
Nerves of 
Motion. 
Third Pair - Motor Ocnli Communis; a nerve of motion of the 
I eyeball. 
Fourth Pair Patheticus; motor nerve. 
Sixth Pair—Abducens. 
Seventh Pair Facial orPortio Dura; hard root of the Seventh, 
I and sometimes called the nerve of expression. 
Ninth Pair—Hypoglossal; motor nerve of the tongue. 
Nerves of 
General 
Sensibility. 
Fifth Pair Trifacial; general sensibility of the face. 
Eighth Pair— Glosso-pharyngeal, Pneumogastric and Spinal 
" ‘ I Accessory; three mixed nerves. 
Spinal Nerves.—There are thirty-one pairs of spinal 
nerves,—eight cervical, twelve dorsal, five lumbar, five sacral, 
and one coccygeal. Each spinal nerve takes its origin from 
the spinal cord by two roots,—an anterior (motor) and a 
posterior (sensory) root. Upon each posterior root is de- 
veloped a ganglion of an oval form. Just beyond this gang- 
lion the two roots unite in a single mixed nerve, and leave 
the spinal canal through the intervertebral foramen. The 
nerve thus formed divides into two branches,—anterior and 
posterior,—both containing motor and sensory filaments. 
That part of the body in front of the spine, including the 
limbs, is supplied by the anterior branches. These are larger 
than the posterior branches, each nerve is connected by a 
slender filament to the sympathetic. The anterior branches 
in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions form plexuses 
prior to their distribution. 
The posterior branches are distributed to the muscles and 
integument behind the spine. 
All the cerebro-spinal nerves anastomose with the sym- 
pathetic. 
The Sympathetic System consists of ganglia and nerves. 62 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The ganglia are arranged in the form of a double chain, on 
either side of the spinal column, running parallel with one 
another until they reach the sacrum, when they converge and 
communicate together in front of the coccyx through the 
ganglion impar. 
The sympathetic filaments are generally distributed to 
mucous membranes, to the fibers of the involuntary muscular 
tissues, and particularly to the muscular coat of the arteries. 
The general process of nutrition is influenced by the sym- 
pathetic. It also seems to have a controlling power over the 
secretions. 
A Ganglion is an enlargement or a knot in the course of a 
nerve, composed of the vesicular neurinc, distinct from the 
brain and spinal cord. 
SPINAL COED. 
Situation. 
Dura Mater. 
Arachnoid. 
Pia Mater. 
Membranes or Tunics 
Sub-Arachnoid Space. 
Cerebro-Spinal Fluid. 
Spinal Ookd 
Length. 
Weight. 
Fissures. 
Columns. 
Structure. 
Function. 
The Spinal Cord is situated in the spinal canal, and is 
continuous with the brain. It is cylindrical in form, and 
does not fill the canal in which it is contained. 
Membranes.—- Dura Mater.—A loose covering or sheath 
which surrounds the cord, and is not adherent to the bones. 
This membrane is attached to the margin of the foramen 
magnum, and is continuous with the dura mater of the brain. 
It consists of white fibrous tissue, and is sparingly supplied 
with blood-vessels. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
63 
Arachnoid.—A thin, delicate, serous membrane. Consists 
of a parietal, or outer, and a visceral, or inner, layer. It 
invests the outer surface of the cord, and is reflected upon the 
inner surface of the dura mater. 
Pia Mater.—A delicate vascular membrane, continuous 
with the pia mater of the brain. 
The Sul)-Arachnoid Space is situated between the inner 
layer of the arachnoid and the pia mater. In this space is 
contained the cerebrospinal fluid, which is perfectly trans- 
parent, colorless, and free from viscidity. If this fluid is 
evacuated, it is speedily reproduced. 
Length. The spinal cord is from eighteen to twenty 
inches in length, commencing at the foramen magnum and 
extending to the first lumbar vertebra. Its weight is about 
an ounce and a half. The cord terminates below the first 
lumbar vertebra with a slender gray filament which is called 
the filum terminate. 
Fissures.—The Anterior Median Fissure is wider but not 
as deep as the posterior, and penetrates the anterior portion 
of the cord for about one-third of its thickness. 
The Posterior Median Fissure is deeper than the anterior, 
and extends into the cord to about one-half of its depth. 
These fissures divide the cord into two lateral halves. Each 
half of the cord is divided into an anterior, lateral, and pos- 
terior column; the lateral column is included between the 
origin of the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal nerves. 
Structure.—The spinal cord consists of gray and white 
nervous matter. The white substance constitutes the greater 
part, and is situated externally. The gray substance occupies 
the center, and is in the form of two crescents, their convex 
surfaces connected by the gray commissure. 
The spinal cord conveys to and from the brain efferent 
and afferent impulses, and is the means of communication 64 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
between the body and the sensorium. It is also a gang- 
lionic center, and is capable of receiving and transmitting 
impressions. It is, therefore, the center of pure reflex action. 
BEAIN. 
Membranes 
Dura Mater. 
Arachnoid. 
Pia Mater. 
Sub-Arachnoid Space. 
Cerebro-Spinal Fluid. 
Pi;ain on 
Encephalon 
Weight. 
’ Situation. 
Weight. 
Description. 
Composition, 
Function. 
Cerebrum 
Cerebellum. 
Divisions 
Pons Yarolii. 
Medulla Oblongata. 
Olfactory Ganglion. 
Optic Lobes. 
The Dura Mater is a dense, fibrous membrane. It lines 
the interior of the skull, and is intimately adherent to the 
inner surface of the cranial bones. It is composed of two 
layers, which at certain situations become separated and 
form the venous sinuses. This membrane also sends pro- 
longations or processes inward, for the support and protection 
of different parts of the brain. One of these descends vertic- 
ally in the longitudinal fissure between the two hemispheres 
of the cerebrum, and is called, from its shape, the falx cerebri. 
Another is formed between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and 
is known as the tentorium cerehelli. At the border of the 
foramen magnum the dura mater is closely attached to the 
bone. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
65 
The Arachnoid Membrane is a delicate serous coat. Like 
other serous membranes it is a shut sac, and consists of a 
parietal and a visceral layer. This membrane does not follow 
the convolutions and fissures of the brain, but merely covers 
their surfaces. Between it and the pi a mater is found the 
sub-arachnoid space. This space contains the cerebro-spinal 
fluid. The chief use of this fluid, as far as known, is to 
afford protection to the nerve centers, and by equalizing the 
pressure in the varying condition of the blood-vessels, to 
serve as protection to the cerebro-spinal axis. 
Pia Mater.—A vascular membrane, consisting of a minute 
plexus of blood-vessels. It invests the entire surface of the 
brain, dipping down between the convolutions and laminae. 
Weight of the Brain, in the male, average, about 49| 
ounces; female, average, 44 ounces. Up to the sixth or seventh 
year, the weight of the brain increases rapidly—after this period 
more slowly, until about the fortieth year, when it reaches it 
maximum. The human brain is heavier than that of any of 
the lower animals, except the elephant and the whale. The 
brain of the former sometimes approximates nine or ten 
pounds, and of the latter about five pounds. 
Divisions.—Cerebrum.—Situated in the upper and anterior 
portion of the cranial cavity, occupying the anterior and 
middle fossie of the base of the skull. It is separated from 
the cerebellum by the tentorium. It constitutes about four- 
fifths of the encephalic mass. Its upper surface is ovoidal in 
form, broader behind than in front. This surface is covered 
by tortuous eminences or convolutions, separated by the sulci 
or furrows, depressions of various depths,—generally about 
one inch. 
The cerebrum is divided by the longitudinal fissure into 
right and left hemispheres or lateral halves. The sides of the 
longitudinal fissure form the inner surfaces of the cerebrum. 
The 1 ;wo hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, 
which is a broad, transverse commissure of white matter. 66 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The dura mater does not dip down between the convolutions 
of the cerebrum. 
The cerebrum is composed of gray and white matter. 
The Gray Matter, or cortical substance, is situated externally, 
follows the convolutions, and is from one-twelfth to one- 
eighth of an inch in depth. This layer of gray matter in 
each of the principal divisions of the brain is continuous, 
there being no anatomical division between its different parts. 
It also follows the cerebral surfaces of the great longitudinal 
fissure throughout its entire length. The gray matter is 
composed of a mass of nerve cells, and hence is capable of 
generating nerve force. 
The White Matter is situated internally, and is made up of 
fibers or nervous filaments, running nearly parallel with each 
other. 
The function of the Nerve Fibers is to transmit or con- 
duct impressions which are to be received by a nervous 
center or a ganglion. This center may again send out im- 
pulses by the nerve fibers which are conducted to distant 
organs. 
Function of the Cerebrum. There can lie no intelligence 
without brain-substance, hence destruction of brain-substance 
produces loss of intellectual power. The cerebral hemispheres 
preside over the intellectual faculties, of memory, judgment, 
reason, etc.,—i. e., they are the instruments through which 
these faculties act, or manifest themselves. If these instru- 
ments be imperfect in structure or be injured by disease or in 
any manner whatever, the operations of the intellectual 
faculties must be correspondingly impaired. 
Cerebellum {or little brain).—Situated at the posterior part 
of the cranial cavity beneath the posterior lobes of the cere- 
brum. Its weight is from five to seven ounces. It is oblong and 
flattened from above downward. The surface of the cerebel- 
lum is traversed by numerous curved furrows or sulci, vary- 
in depth at different parts. The gray matter of the cerebel- 
lum is somewhat darker than that of the cerebrum, and is Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
situated externally. In proportion to its size the cerebellum 
contains a much larger quantity of gray matter than the 
cerebrum. Its function is the power of associating or co- 
ordinating the different voluntary movements. 
If, from a pigeon, the cerebellum be removed, all power of 
assuming or retaining any natural position is gone. His 
actions, which are voluntary in character, are altogether 
irregular and confused. In the human subject, any sudden 
injury inflicted upon the cerebellum is immediately followed 
by a disturbance of the co-ordinating power. 
The Pons Varolii (Bridge of Yarolius) is situated above 
the medulla and between the hemispheres of the cerebellum. 
It is a band of union of the different parts of the brain, con- 
necting the cerebrum above, the medulla below, and the 
cerebellum behind. This ganglion is connected with the 
functions of sensation and voluntary motion. 
The Medulla Oblongata is the upper and expanded part 
of the spinal cord, resting on the basilar groove of the oc- 
cipital bone, and extends from the upper border of the atlas 
to the lower border of the pons. It is pyramidal in form, 
with its broad extremity upward. 
Length, about one and one-fourth inches; breadth, three- 
fourths of an inch at widest part; thickness, one-half inch. 
At the middle and posterior portions of the medulla is 
found the nucleus of gray matter, called the nucleus of the 
jynewmogastric, from which the pneumogastric nerve takes its 
origin. So essential is this part of the brain to the preserva- 
tion of life, that it has received the name of the vital knot, 
and destruction of it is immediately followed by death. 
The medulla serves as a conductor of sensory impressions 
and of motor stimulus to and from the brain. It also pre- 
sides over the functions of respiration. 
The Olfactory Ganglion is situated at the side of the 
crista galli, on the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. It 68 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
is oblong, of a gray color, and soft in texture. It is composed 
of a grayish-white substance. From its under surface are 
given off from fifteen to twenty nervous filaments, which pass 
through the ethmoidal foramen and are distributed to the 
mucous membrane of the nose. 
The Optic Lobes, or Tubercula Qaadrigemina, are situated 
at the base of the cerebrum, immediately behind the third 
ventricle. They consist of four small rounded eminences, 
placed in pairs,—the two in front being largest, and of a 
grayish color externally. All the lobes contain gray nervous 
matter in the interior. 
The Optic Nerves take their principal origin in the optic 
lobes. 
SLEEP. 
Sleep may be defined as that state of the body in which 
the functions of sensation and volition are suspended, and the 
operations of the mind, if not at perfect rest, are disconnected 
with external objects. Although there is a modification in 
the vital functions, the two most important muscular acts, 
viz., those concerned in circulation and respiration, are never 
entirely interrupted. All animals possessing a well-developed 
nervous system, must, time after time, obtain that rest which 
brings a renewal of the vital force expended by the activities 
of the mind or the body. It is evident that a study of this 
condition is important, when we remember that about one- 
third of our lives is spent in sleep. Anything causing an 
excessive expenditure of the so-called nerve force, such as 
continued and severe mental exertion, or long and vigorous 
muscular effort, makes sleep an imperative necessity. When 
the nervous system is not over-excited, sleep follows moderate 
effort as a natural consequence, and it is the only real brain 
rest. No torture is more severe nor more refined than long- 
continued deprivation of sleep. Physicians recognize sleep- 
lessness as one of the most important predisposing causes of Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
69 
certain brain diseases. As a rule, we sleep loss in summer 
than in winter. 
Sleep is preceded by certain well-known phenomena; first, 
a feeling of drowsiness is experienced, and also an indisposi- 
tion to mental or physical exertion; the muscular system 
becomes relaxed, the eyelids close, wo no longer appreciate 
the ordinary impressions of sound, and pass into a dreamless 
condition, in which all knowledge of our existence is lost. 
No active mental exercise should be indulged in just 
before retiring to rest. Let the hour of retiring be preceded 
by something which does not require the expenditure 
of severe mental force, as some light reading, some inno- 
cent game, or pleasant conversation. If possible, before 
retiring, banish all thought of the arduous labors of the day, 
and the obstacles which may have presented themselves, thus 
inviting a natural and healthy cessation of the activity of 
mind and body. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
TABLE OF CRANIAL NERVES. 
Name. 
Origin. 
Foramen Trans- 
mitted. 
Branches. 
Distribution. 
Remarks. 
1st— Olfactory. 
Inferior and internal 
portion of the an- 
terior lobe of the 
cerebrum. 
Corpus Striatum. 
Island of Reil. 
Ethmoidal. 
From the Oifac- 
factory Bulb, 
about twenty 
in number. 
Mucous mem- 
brane of the nose. 
Gray matter in in- 
terior—Soft and 
pulpy. 
2d — Optic. 
Optic thalami. 
Tubercula Quadri- 
gemina. 
Optic. 
None, 
Retina. 
Perforated by the 
arteria centralis 
retinas. 
3d — Motor Oculi 
Communis. 
Crus Cerebri. 
Yalve of Yieussens. 
Sphenoidal 
fissure. 
Superior. 
Inferior. 
All the muscles 
of the eye-ball, 
except the Ex- 
ternal Rectus, 
and Superior 
Oblique. 
4th — Patheticus 
or Trochlear. 
Floor of fourth 
Ventricle. 
Yalve of Yieussens. 
Sphenoidal 
fissure. 
A recurrent. 
Superior Oblique 
Muscle. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
5th — 
-Trifacial. 
Lateral portion of the 
Pons Yarolii, 
Lateral tract of the 
Medulla, just be- 
hind the olivary 
body. 
Gasserian ganglion. 
1st division thro’ 
Sphenoidal fis- 
sure. 
2d division thro’ 
Foramen R o - 
tundum. 
3d division thro’ 
Foramen Ovale. 
Ophthalmic. 
Superior Maxil- 
lary. 
Inferior Maxilla- 
ry. 
The great sensi- 
tive nerve of 
the face. 
6th — 
-Abducens. 
Posterior part of the 
Medulla. 
Floor of fourth Ven- 
tricle. 
Sphenoidal 
fissure. 
None. 
External Rectus 
muscle. 
" Auditory. 
Floor of fourth Ven- 
tricle. 
Meatus Audito- 
rius Internus. 
Cochlear. 
Vestibular. 
The parts of the 
internal ear. 
Destitute of Neu- 
rilemma. 
7th — 
Facial. 
Floor of fourth Ven- 
tricle ; also lower 
border of the Pons 
Varolii. 
Stylo-mastoid. 
Numerous. 
Muscles of ex- 
pression of face; 
also Platysma 
and Buccinator. 
Glosso- 
pharynges 
A nucleus of gray 
matter at lower part 
of floor of the fourth 
Ventricle. 
Jugular. 
Carotid, pharyn- 
geal, muscular 
tonsilar, lingual. 
Pharynx, fauces, 
tonsil, and tongue 
A nerve of sensa- 
tion, of motion, 
and of special 
sense. 
8th—< 
Pneumo- 
gastric. 
Lower part of floor 
fourth Ventricle. 
J ugular. 
See outline. 
Organs of Voice 
and Respiration. 
Pharynx, (Esoph- 
agus, # Stomach. 
Composed of mo- 
tor and sensitive 
fibers. 
- 
Spinal 
accessory. 
Lower half of the 
Medulla Oblongata. 
Upper two-thirds of 
the cervical portion 
of the Spinal Cord. 
Jugular. 
Internal or Anas- 
tomotic, 
External or Mus- 
cular. 
Muscles of the 
Neck. 
The internal 
branch communi- 
cates with the 
Pneumogastric. 72 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
CHAPTER XIII. 
SIGHT OR VISION. 
' Situation. 
Dimensions. 
Definition. 
Coats or 
Tunics— 
Sclerotic and Cornea. 
Choroid and Ciliary Processes. 
Eetitva. 
Hyaloid Membrane. 
Ball or 
Globe 
Iris. 
Capsule. 
Canal of Petit. 
Sight or Vision. 
Ciliary Muscle. 
'Eye—- 
Eefracting Media 
or Humors 
Aqueous. 
Crystalline Lens. 
Vitreous. 
Levator Palpelme Muscle. 
Organs. 
Adjusting 
[ Machinery— 
Superior Bectus. 
Inferior Bectus. 
Internal Bectus. 
External Bectus. 
-Straight Muscles.- 
Superior Oblique. 
Inferior Oblique. | 
Orbital Arch. 
Brows. 
Lids, 
Lashes. 
Conjunctiva. 
Lachrymal Apparatus 
Tears. 
Protecting 
Organs - 
Lachrymal Gland. 
Puncta Laclirymalia.' 
Canaliculi. 
Lachrymal Sac. 
[Nasal Duct. 
Hypermetropic. 
Myopic. 
Emmetropic. 
Types of Eyes Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
73 
Definition.—Vision is the faculty by which we perceive 
the form and outline of things. 
f 
Organs.—The Eyes are only the instruments of seeing. 
They receive the impressions which, by the optic nerves, are 
conveyed to the perceptive center—the optic lobes of the 
brain—where the true seat of vision lies. 
The Ball or Globe of the Eye is situated in the cavity of 
the orbit, resting upon a cushion of fat. 
The Orbit is pyramidal in shape, the apex directed in- 
ward, the base directed outward, and corresponding to the 
free margin. It is about one and four-fifths inches deep. At 
its posterior and inner part is the optic foramen, through 
which pass the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery. 
Dimensions of the Eyeball.—Antero- posterior diameter, 
about one inch; transverse diameter, about eleven lines or 
eleven-twelfths of an inch. 
At the central part of the cornea is situated the anterior 
pole; directly opposite, and at the back part of the eyeball, is 
the posterior pole. A line passing from one pole to the other 
is the axis of the eye. The equator of the eye passes vertically 
through the central portion, and divides the eye into the 
anterior and posterior hemispheres. 
Coats orr Tunics.—The external covering of the eye con- 
sists of the sclerotic and cornea. The sclerotic is composed 
of white fibrous tissue; it is dense, firm, unyielding, and 
thicker behind than in front. It occupies the posterior five- 
sixths of the globe of the eye, and serves to maintain its 
globular shape. 
Color.—Externally, the sclerotic is smooth and white; 
internally, it is stained brown, and grooved by the ciliary 
nerves. The sclerotic is pierced at its posterior part, and a 
little to the nasal side, by the optic nerve; its anterior part 
is connected to the cornea, and is in intimate relation to the 
conjunctiva. This coat is sparingly supplied with nerves and 
blood. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, cm<7 Hygiene. 
The Cornea occupies the anterior fifth of the eyeball. It 
is clear, transparent, firm, and resisting. It is convex in 
front and concave behind. Blood-vessels do not pass into the 
cornea, but form loops in the most peripheral portion. On 
account of the transparency of the nerves, they are found all 
over the cornea, and thus render it very sensitive, so that a 
slight scratch on it will cause great pain. 
The Choroid, together with the ciliary processes, form 
the second coat of the eye. It occupies the posterior five- 
sixths of the eyeball, and is distinguished from the other 
coats by its dark color. It is very vascular, and is perfo- 
rated posteriorly by the optic nerve. In this coat are found a 
number of irregular cells, containing a pigment varying from 
a brown to a jet-black color. This gives to this coat its char- 
acteristic dark drown or chocolate color. The pigment is 
darker and more abundant in the negroes and colored races 
than in blonde persons. It is almost entirely wanting in the 
albinos. The choroid coat makes a dark chamber of the 
eye, and absorbs the unnecessary rays of light, thus aiding in 
perfect vision. 
The Iris has received its name from the varied color it 
presents in different individuals. It is a membranous, circu- 
lar-shaped, contractile curtain, suspended in the aqueous 
humor of the eye, and divides the portion in front of the 
crystalline lens into two parts,—the one is called the anterior 
chamber, and is in front of the iris; the other, the posterior 
chamber, and is behind the iris. The aqueous humor passes 
readily from one chamber to the other. 
Color.—The anterior surface is variously colored in differ- 
ent individuals; the posterior surface is a deep purple, and 
covered with pigmentary cells. 
The diameter of the iris is about half an inch; its perfo- 
ration in the center, the pupil, is from one-eighth to one-sixth 
of an inch in diameter. 
The function of the iris is to regulate the amount of light 
that enters the eye during the act of vision, and to shut off Outlines, in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
75 
the rays of light going through the periphery of the lens. 
The amount of light entering the eye, and the sensitiveness 
of the retina, causes the pupil to dilate or contract. This 
action is plainly seen by placing the hand over the eye and 
shutting out the light, then suddenly admitting it again, 
when the mobility of the iris is plainly discernible. The iris 
differs in color according to the quantity of pigment it con- 
tains. if the pigment accumulates in spots, it gives to the iris 
a dotted appearance. In albinos it is entirely wanting. The 
iris is plentifully supplied with blood-vessels. 
Ciliary Processes.—-Formed by the plaiting or folding 
inward of the middle and internal layer of the anterior por- 
tion of the choroid. They form a regular circle of plaits or 
folds, usually about seventy in number, and are of two 
kinds,—large and small. The large are about one-tenth of 
an inch in length, and constitute about two-thirds of the 
entire number. Between the larger folds are found the 
smaller kind, which make up the remaining one-third. 
The Ciliary Muscle is the muscle of accommodation or 
tensor of the choroid. It is about one-eighth of an inch in 
width, and surrounds the anterior margin and outer surface 
of the choroid. 
The Retina is the third coat of the eye, and is a delicate, 
nervous membrane. It is clear and transparent in life, but 
becomes opaque and wrinkled after death. Upon this coat 
the objects of vision are made, and a little to the outer or 
temporal side of the optic disc is the seat of the most acute 
vision, called the fovea centralis. The retina is very sensi- 
tive to light, and, if pressed upon, the sensation of flashes of 
light is produced. 
The Optic Nerve penetrates the retina a little within and 
below the antero-posterior axis of the globe. 
The Hyaloid Membrane is extremely delicate and trans- 
parent, enveloping the vitreous humor of the eye. In front 
it is continuous with the suspensory ligament of the lens. 76 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The Capsule of the Lens is a thin, transparent sac, contain- 
ing the crystalline lens. 
Refracting Media or Humors.—The Crystalline Lens 
is situated immediately behind the pupil, in front of the 
vitreous body. It is transparent, exceedingly elastic, color- 
less, and firm in texture. In shape it is double-convex, the 
greater convexity being on its posterior surface. 
Dimensions.—Antero-posterior diameter, about one-fourth 
of an inch; transverse diameter, one-third of an inch. 
The lens is composed of layers of fibers which form the 
outer or delicate softer portion, and, later in life, the nucleus, 
which becomes apparent at about the fortieth year. 
The function of the lens is to bring the rays of light 
passing through it to a focus upon the retina, thus producing 
distinct perception of form and outline. 
Surrounding the border of the lens is the Canal of Petit, 
formed by the separation of the two layers of the suspensory 
ligament. This canal is triangular in form, and is about 
one tenth of an inch wide. 
The Aqueous Humor is situated in the aqueous chamber of 
the eye, which is bounded in front by the cornea, and poste- 
riorly by the crystalline lens and its capsule. This fluid is 
clear, perfectly colorless, with a specific gravity of about 
1005, and is chiefly composed of water. It is a secretion 
of the membranes surrounding the anterior and posterior 
chambers of the eye, and if, from any cause, it escapes from 
its cavity, it is speedily reproduced. Its removal renders the 
eye sensitive to light, and obstructs perfect vision. If, dur- 
ing this period, it receives proper treatment, normal vision is 
again restored. 
The Vitreous. LLumor occupies the posterior two-thirds 
of the globe, and is a clear, transparent, gelatinous substance, 
being enveloped by the hyaloid membrane, which presents a 
cup-shaped depression in front to receive the lens. The Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
77 
specific gravity of this humor is about 1005. It is not sup- 
plied with blood-vessels and nerves, but receives its nutrition 
from the ciliary body and retina. This humor is not affected 
by heat or alcohol. The acetate of lead will cause it to 
coagulate. 
Adjusting Machinery.-—The Levator Palpebrce Muscle 
arises in front of the optic foramen, and is inserted by a 
broad expansion into the upper eyelid. It is thin, flat, trian- 
gular in shape, and at its origin is narrow and tendinous, 
becoming broad and fleshy as it passes forward. This mus- 
cle, when it contracts, raises the upper eyelid. 
The Superior Pectus arises from the upper margin of the 
optic foramen, and is inserted in the sclerotic coat at its upper 
surface, about three-quarters of an inch from the margin of 
the cornea. The action of this muscle, when contracting 
alone, is to turn the eye upward. 
The Inferior, Internal, and External Recti Muscles arise 
from round the circumference of the optic foramen, and are 
inserted in the sclerotic coat in a manner similar to the 
superior rectus. These muscles, acting singly, turn the 
eye either downward, inward, or outward, as their names 
imply. 
The Superior Oblique Muscle arises just above the inner 
margin of the optic foramen, and passes forward to the inner 
angle of the orbit; here it terminates in a rounded tendon, 
which passes through a ring or pulley, formed by fibro-carti- 
laginous tissue attached to a depression in the bone at the 
upper and inner portion of the orbital cavity. The tendon 
then passes backward and outward, under the superior rectus, 
and is inserted into the sclerotic coat, midway between the 
margin of the cornea and entrance of the optic nerve, and 
between the superior and external recti. 
The Inferior Oblique Muscle is situated near the anterior 
margin of the orbit. It arises from the inner corner of the 
eye, external to the lachrymal groove. From this origin it 78 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
passes outward and backward, beneath the inferior rectus, and 
between the eyeball and the external rectus, and is inserted 
in the sclerotic coat between the superior and external rectus. 
The action of the oblique muscles is to rotate the eyeball on 
its antero-posterior axis. 
Protecting Organs.—The Orbital Arch surrounds the 
cavity of the orbit, forming its upper and lower boundary, 
anti affords considerable protection to the eye, owing to the 
sharpness and prominence of the bone. 
The Eyebrows are situated upon the superciliary ridge 
which forms the upper border of the orbit. These short, 
stiff hairs serve to shade the eye from excessive light, and 
prevent the perspiration from running from the forehead 
upon the lids. 
The Eyelids, two in number, are covered by integument, 
which is here very thin, and are lined by the conjunctiva. 
The lids are of the greatest importance in the protection of 
the eyeball. When the upper and lower lids approximate, 
they close the orbit, preventing any sudden blow or force 
from injuring the eyeball. 
At the borders of the lids are the Eyelashes or Cilia—short, 
stiff, curved hairs. These are arranged in two or more rows, 
and are curved from the eyeball. They protect the surface 
of the conjunctiva from dust and other foreign matter. 
The Palpebral Fissures are the openings between the free 
margins of the lids. The upper lid is larger than the lower. 
Between the skin and the mucous membrane of the eyelids 
are found the Tarsal Cartilages, of dense, hard, fibrous tissue. 
They are small and elongated, and extend from the edges of 
the lids toward the margin of the orbit. The one in the 
upper lid is semi-lunar in form, with its convexity upward. 
These cartilages serve to give the lids their proper shape. 
Along the free edge of the upper lid, near its inner margin, 
may be seen a row of tine dot-like openings, which are the 
excretory ducts of the Meibomian glands. They secrete an Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
79 
oily fluid, which smears the edges of the lids and prevents 
the overflow of the tears. 
The Conjunctiva is a mucous membrane, lining both the 
upper and lower lids, and covering the anterior portion of 
the eyeball. At the inner circumference of the lids this 
membrane is reflected forward to the eyelids, forming a fold 
of transmission. The conjunctiva is well supplied with 
blood-vessels, very sensitive and easily irritated, especially 
near the free margin of the lid, where the nerves terminate 
in great abundance. 
The (Rands of the Conjunctiva arc numerous, and their 
secretion serves to moisten the eye to a greater extent than 
the tears. 
The conjunctiva is continuous with the mucous membrane 
of the nose, by the lining of the lachrymal canals. 
Lachrymal Apparatus.—The Lachrymal Gland is situ- 
ated in a shallow depression in the roof of the orbit at its 
outer portion. It is ovoid, flattened, and in shape and size 
resembles a small almond. The secretion of this gland—the 
tears —is a thin, watery fluid, perfectly clear and colorless, 
of a saltish taste, and is distributed over the globe by the 
movements of the lids and of the eyeball. The secretion is 
constant, but may be increased by various circumstances. 
The excess of this secretion passes toward the inner canthus 
of the eye, enters the lachrymal sac through the canaliculi 
and lachrymal duct, and is conveyed into the nose by the 
nasal duct. During sleep the amount of the secretion is 
much diminished. The tears pass from the lachrymal gland 
through seven small ducts to the upper portion of the upper 
lid, where the ducts open into the conjunctival sac. 
The Puncta Lachrymalia are the minute orifices opening 
into the canaliculi. 
The Canaliculi arc little canals, two in number, which 
convey the tears into the lachrymal sac. 80 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The upper and dilated extremity of the nasal duct is 
termed the Lachrymal Sac. Above, it is rounded in form, 
and, below, continuous with the nasal duct. 
The Nasal Duct is about three-fourths of an inch in length, 
and extends from the lachrymal sac to the inferior meatus of 
the nose. 
Both the lachrymal sac and the nasal duct are lined with a 
mucuous membrane. 
Types of Eyes.—A Hypermetropic or Long-Sighted Eye 
is one in which the focal distance of the refracting media is 
longer than the axis of the eye. Such a condition of the eye 
is termed hypermetropia, and there is no clear vision at any 
distance except by the exercise of accommodation. 
A Myopic or Short-Sighted Eye is one where the focal 
distance of the refracting media is less than the axis of the 
eye. Such a condition is known as myopia. The far point 
of the myopic eye is at some finite distance, as two feet or 
three feet; the near point is nearer than in the normal eye. 
In the Emmetropic or Normal Eye, the focal distance of 
the refracting media, is the same as the visual axis of the 
eye,—i. <?., the globe and the refractive media are in such 
relation to each other and to the retina that parallel rays of 
light come to a focus at the seat of direct vision. This point 
is known as the macula lutea. The far point of the em- 
metropic eye is at infinite distance; the near point at a dis- 
tance determined by its power of accommodation. 
The normal eye is capable of a great variety and amount of use. 
Objects can be seen near and far with the same ease, and with equal 
clearness. But because the eyes can see minute objects distinctly, and 
without difficulty, is no reason that they should be kept almost con- 
stantly looking at small objects. Like any other organ of the body, 
they may be enfeebled or injured by any kind of exercise, too long con- 
tinued. 
Teachers should not allow their pupils to keep their eyes too con- 
tinuously fixed upon their books. Too close application of the eyes is 
liable to produce lasting injury to the refractive powers. Pupils should 
be taught to think, as well as remember, and instead of having them Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
81 
spend all their time in school, and often out of school, and frequently by 
artificial light, in acquiring a parrot-like faculty of repeating lessons 
which they do not comprehend, show them how to study and how to fix 
in the mind the useful portions of the lesson. 
Serious harm may be done the eyes by looking at bright objects, as 
the sun, or any brilliant or glaring light. Looking at small objects 
during twilight, attempting to read, write, etc., may result in injury 
to the eyes. 
No requisite is of more importance for the use of the eyes, than a 
favorable and sufficient light. School-rooms should not be so arranged 
that a flood of light will fall on the faces of the pupils whose eyes have 
no protection against the dazzling brightness. The light should be 
allowed to fall over the shoulder, upon the book or paper, while reading 
or writing, especially in the evening, when artificial light is used. More 
harm is done by too little than by too much light. Light, to be agree- 
able to the eyes, should be soft, steady, and abundant. 82 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
CHAPTER XIV. 
EAR. 
Helix. 
Anti-Helix. 
Tragus. 
Anti-Tragus. 
Concha. 
Lobe. 
Parts 
Pinna or 
Auricle 
Muscles— 
Attollens Aurem. 
Attrahens Aurem. 
Retrahens Aurem. 
External 
Blood Vessels. 
Function. 
Meatus Auditorius Externus. 
Membrana Tympani. 
Cavity or Drum, 
E“- 
Middle or 
Tympanum 
Openings. 
Ossicles 
Malleus. 
Incus. 
Stapes. 
Communications— 
With the Pharynx. 
With the Mastoid Cells. 
Lining Membrane. 
Internal or 
Labrynth 
Vestibule. 
Semi-circular Canals. 
Cochlea. 
Auditory Nerve. 
The Pinna, or Auricle of the Ear, is that portion project- 
ing from the head. In shape it is something like a funnel. 
It is made up largely of flexible fibro-cartilage, which is 
known as yellow or reticular, and is termed permanent 
cartilage. The cartilage is covered by perichondrium. 
The outer edge or ridge of the pinna is called the helix. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
83 
This ridge is more or less distinct in different individuals and 
varies somewhat in breadth. 
The groove just beneath the helix is called the fossa of 
the helix, and the anti-helix is the prominent ridge just in 
front of this fossa. 
The Tragus is the thickened triangular projection of 
cartilage just in front of the opening into the auditory canal. 
A similar eminence, the anti-tragus, is situated just op- 
posite, across the opening of the external meatus. 
The Conch,a is the deep fossa immediately surrounding the 
opening of the meatus. 
The fleshy pro jection or tip of the pinna is called the Lobe. 
This portion it not very sensitive, because sparingly supplied 
with blood and nerves. 
The Muscles of the Par, in man, are usually rudimentary, 
and of little importance. 
The Blood-Vessels of the Pinna come from the external 
carotid. They are the posterior and the anterior auricular, 
and the auricular branch of the occipital. 
The External Auditory Canal extends from the concha to 
the membrana tympani. 
Length,, about an inch and a quarter. 
This canal is lined with integument, which is a continua- 
tion of that covering the external ear. In the inner portion 
of the canal are found the coiled tubes, known as ceruminous 
glands. 
The Cerumen or Ear - Wax is the secretion of these glands. 
It is of a smeary consistency, yellowish in color, and exceed- 
ingly bitter in taste. Its function is to lubricate the external 
meatus, and, on account of its bitter taste, prevents the 
ready admission of insects. Sometimes the cerumen becomes 
hardened, and is impacted upon the external surface of the 
membrana tympani. This inspissated cerumen will often 
cause sudden impairment of hearing, dizziness, a ringing 84 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
noise, and severe pain in the ears. The removal of it should 
at once receive attention. Tepid water and a syringe, in the 
hands of a careful and skillful operator, will usually effect its 
removal. But as the hardening of the ear-wax is rarely an 
independent affection, it is by no means a simple and harm- 
less disease. 
It sometimes happens that foreign bodies become lodged 
in the external auditory tube, and the forcible and fruitless 
attempts of the inexperienced to remove them only ends in 
disaster to the delicate membrana tympani, or in serious 
inflammatory conditions. Improper attempts of the unskill- 
ful or indiscreet, to remove a foreign body from the ear, 
have often cost the life of the patient. When we remember, 
that, even where a careful examination is made, a correct 
diagnosis is sometimes impossible, the importance of consult- 
ing a competent physician, before the ear has been meddled 
with, becomes apparent. By the use of the speculum and 
otoscope, combined with experience and skill, unpleasant 
results, both to patient and operator, may be avoided, and 
the fame of surgical science remain unblemished. 
The middle ear presents a narrow, bony cavity, irregular 
in shape, lined with a mucous membrane, and situated in the 
substance of the temporal bone. It is separated from the 
external ear by the membrana tympani, or drum-head. In 
the adult, this membrane does not lie in a horizontal direc- 
tion, but the upper and posterior borders are about six- 
twenty-fifths of an inch nearer to the entrance of the external 
auditory canal than the anterior and lower. This membrane 
is about as thick as fine letter-paper, and to its inner surface 
is attached the long process, or head of the malleus. 
Cavity or Drum of the Ear.—This is the space lying 
between the membrana tympani and internal ear. Into this 
space air is admitted through the Eustachian tube, which 
communicates witli the cavity at the upper part of the an- 
terior wall. 
At the upper part of the posterior wall are found the 
openings of the Mastoid Cells, which also contain air, and Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, Hygiene. 
85 
are found in the mastoid portion of the temporal bone. 
These cells are lined with a mucous membrane, which is con- 
tinuous with the lining of the tympanum. The membrana 
tympani forms the greater portion of the outer wall of the 
middle ear. The boundary between the labyrinth and the 
middle ear forms its inner walls. In this are two small 
aperatures, which are closed by membranes. 
The Ossicles of the Ear are the malleus or hammer, the 
incus or anvil, and the stapes or stirrup. The malleus is 
attached by its handle or manubrium to the membrana 
tympani, and the long process is attached to the Glaserian 
fissure of the temporal bone. It articulates with the incus. 
The incus articulates with the malleus and the stapes. The 
stapes is the most internal bone of the ear, and articulates 
with the incus by the head of the bone. This part of the 
bone is what some authors call the orbicular or round bone. 
The stapes is the smallest bone of the ear, and indeed of the 
entire body. These bones form a chain, stretching from the 
membrana tympani to the fenestra ovalis, where the base or 
foot of the stirrup is applied. The bones of the ear conduct 
the sonorous vibrations through the tympanum to the 
labyrinth. 
The tympanum communicates with the pharynx through 
the Eustachian Tube. This tube is about one and two-fifths 
inches in length, and from its tympanic end runs forward, 
inward, and downward. It is lined by a mucous membrane, 
continuous with that lining the pharynx. This lining is 
covered by ciliated epithelium, the motion of which is toward 
the pharynx. 
The functions of the Eustachian tube are to admit air into 
the cavity of the tympanum and to conduct away the secre- 
tions of its lining membrane. 
The internal ear is called the Labyrinth, on account of it 
winding passages and complex structure. Its bony cavities 
are formed by the petrous bone, and in these cavities is con- 
tained a membranous portion, separated from the bony 
part by a clear fluid. 86 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The Vestibule is the central, irregular cavity of the bony 
portion, and is the essential part of the internal ear. The 
diameter of the vestibule, from above downward, as also from 
behind forward, is about one-fifth of an inch. Its inner wall 
is perforated for the passage of a portion of the filaments of 
the auditory nerve. Here also is found the opening of the 
aquoeductus vestibuli. At the posterior portion of the vesti- 
bule are the five openings of the semicircular canals, and in the 
anterior wall is a large oval aperature—the opening of the 
cochlea. 
The Fenestra Oralis is in the outer wall of the vestibule 
and is closed by a delicate membrane. 
The Semicircular Canals are C-shaped, and start at the 
vestibule and return to it again, thus forming a semicircle. 
These canals are three in number, of unequal size, and com- 
pressed from side to side. One lies in a horizontal position 
with its convexity in a lateral direction; the other two have a 
vertical position, at right angles to each other. The verticle 
canals have one common opening into the vestibule. 
The functions of the semicircular canals, according to 
ancient physiologists, are to preserve the equilibrium of the 
head, and consequently of the body. By some physiologists 
they are not considered essential to the sense of hearing. 
The Cochlea is a bony canal, and so named from its resem- 
blance to a common snail. It forms two and a half turns 
round an axis or central pillar. Of its function little is 
known; but, according to recent investigations, one is to 
discriminate between sounds. 
By the lining membrane of the parts of the internal ear is 
secreted a clear fluid known as Perilymph. In this fluid is 
contained the membranous labyrinth, which is a closed sac, 
containing a fluid called the Pndolymph. The terminal fibers 
of the auditory nerve are freely distributed to the membra- 
nous labyrinth. 
The Auditory Nerve A—This is the special" nerve of the 
* For origin, see table of Cranial Nerves, page 70. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
87 
sense of hearing, and is distributed exclusively to the internal 
ear. From its origin it enters the meatus anditorious interims, 
in company with the facial nerve. They run together to the 
bottom of the internal auditory canal, where the facial nerve 
enters the Fallopian canal, and the auditory nerve divides into 
two branches, which are distributed to the cochlea, vestibule, 
and semicircular canals; hence called cochlear and vestibular 
branches. 
The pinna of the ear collects the waves of sound, and 
through the external meatus conveys them to the membrana 
tympani, which causes it to vibrate. These vibrations are 
conducted by the chain of bones to the liquid of the labyrinth, 
and by it to the terminal filaments of the auditory nerve. 
By the auditory nerve the vibrations are conveyed to the 
brain, the seat of the sense of hearing. 
CHAPTER XV. 
OLFACTION. 
The Nasal Fossce are situated in the middle of the face, 
extending backward from the nose to the pharynx. They 
are two irregular-shaped cavities, with a lining membrane 
called (from Schneider, its describer) the Schneiderian 
mucous membrane. This lining is continuous with that of 
the pharynx, the nasal duct, the Eustachian tube, the frontal 
and ethmoid sinuses, and the antrum of Highmore. These 
cavities all communicate with the nasal fossa?. The only part 
of this membrane capable of receiving odorous impressions is 
that lining the upper half of the nasal fossa?. This is the 
part receiving the terminal filaments of the olfactory nerves. 
[By reference to the table of Cranial Nerves, page 70, the 
principal part of the history of these nerves may be obtained.] 
Upon the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, by the 88 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
side of the crista galli, the olfactory nerve expands into an 
oblong mass of grayish-white substance, called the olfactory 
hull). From the under surface of this bulb are given off from 
eighteen to twenty nervous filaments. These filaments pass 
through the ethmoidal foramina, in the cribriform plate of 
the ethmoid bone, and are distributed to the mucous mem- 
brane of the nose. They endow the membrane of the nasal 
fossae with the sense of smell. 
The olfactory nerves possess the special sense of smell 
alone, and are entirely insensible to ordinary impressions. 
It is well known that, in the dog, the sense of smell is very 
acute.. An experiment is cited by Flint, where, in one of 
these animals, the olfactory bulbs were divided or extirpated, 
“After the animal had completely recovered, it was deprived 
of food for thirty-six or forty-eight hours; then, in its ab- 
sence, a piece of cooked meat was concealed in a corner of 
the laboratory. Animals, successfully operated upon, then 
taken into the laboratory, never found the bait; and, never- 
theless, care had been taken to select hunting dogs.” Such 
experiments are absolutely conclusive as regards the endow- 
ment of these nerves. 
TASTE. 
By Taste or Gustation is meant that sense which enables 
us to appreciate the quality or savor of any substance intro- 
duced into the mouth. The various portions of the mouth,— 
viz., the tongue, the lips, the inside of the cheeks, the palate, 
pharynx, etc.,—are all susceptible of impressions by contact 
with sapid bodies. Nearly all substances affecting these 
parts possess a certain odor, and the word savory often 
includes the quality of odor; hence taste and odor are inti- 
mately connected. Odoriferous substances are sometimes 
spoken of as having taste, such as the onion, wines, etc., 
when, in fact, the odor is only perceived by the olfactory 
nerves, as they are held in the mouth. This is clearly 
demonstrated by holding the nose, or when the nasal mem Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, Hygiene. 
89 
brane is rendered inert by a catarrh. Two nerves are con- 
cerned in the sense of taste—viz., the chorda tyrnpani and 
glosso-phary n geal. 
The Chorda Tympani is a branch of the facial nerve. 
Numerous pathological cases, in which lesion of this nerve 
occurred, and also many experiments upon living animals, 
leave no doubt of its connection with the sense of taste. If a 
section of the chorda tyrnpani be made, the sense of taste is 
abolished in the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. Certain 
it is, that, in the human subject, the gustatory properties of 
this portion of the tongue depend upon this nerve. 
The Glosso-Pharyngeal Nerve is the first of the eighth pair 
cranial nerves. Its origin, in common with that of the 
pneumogastric, is from the medulla oblongata, and it passes 
out from the cranium through the jugular foramen. It has 
an extensive distribution, sending out branches to the pneu- 
mogastric, which are connected with the sympathetic by 
branches which go to the carotid plexus. It is also connected 
with the labyrinth and tympanum of the ear by its tympanic 
branch, and when it reaches the base of the tongue supplies 
the mucous membrane covering the tonsils and soft palate, 
while the lingual branches penetrate the tongue, and are dis- 
tributed to the mucous membrane at its base. This nerve 
endows the posterior portion of the tongue with the sense of 
taste, and is also an ordinary sensory nerve. 
In man, the dorsal surface of the tongue is the principal 
organ of taste. This surface is covered with a mucous mem- 
brane, beset with vascular and nervous papillae. The sense 
of taste gives us impressions of only those substances which 
come actually in contact with sensitive surfaces, and does not 
establish communications with objects at a distance. The 
surfaces possessing the sense of taste are also endowed with 
general sensibility. In order that taste may be perceived, 
the sapid substance, when brought in contact with the mucous 
membrane of the mouth, must be in a state of solution. 
The sapid substance may possess a marked savor, yet, if in a 
solid state, it produces no other impression than that of 90 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
any foreign body which may come in contact with the 
sensitive surfaces. The liquid and soluble portions of our 
food, such as animal and vegetable juices and the soluble salts, 
alone possess the quality of taste. When sapid substances 
are in solution, they penetrate the papillae of the tongue by 
endosmosis, and come in actual contact with the terminal 
filaments of the nerves, thereby exciting their sensibility. 
CHAPTER XVI. 
SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 
Definition. 
True Secretions. 
Secreting Membranes 
Follicular Glands, 
Tubular Glands. 
, Serous. 
Mucous. 
[ Synovial. 
Secbetion. 
Organs 
Racemose Glands 
Simple. 
Compound. 
Ductless or Blood Glands. 
Serous. 
Synovial. 
Humors of tlie Eye, 
Perilymph. 
Oephalo-rachidian. 
Permanent 
Divisions of 
Secreted Fluids 
Mucous. 
Cerumen. 
Meibomian Fluid. 
Tears. 
Juices of Digestion. 
Transitory 
Excreted 
Perspiration. 
Bile. 
Definition.—Secretion is a natural function of the body 
by which various fluids or substances are separated from the 
blood, differing in different organs according to their peculiar 
function. 
When the fluids of the secretion are produced by special Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
91 
organs, and have important functions to perform, but are not 
discharged from the organism, they are known as true secre- 
tions. All the digestive fluids are examples of this class. 
Such fluids as are composed of water, holding in solution one 
or more characteristic principles, resulting from the physiolo- 
gical waste of the tissues, and having no function to perform 
in the animal economy, may be classed as excretions. 
The secretion of the kidneys is a type of these fluids. 
The Bile would seem to belong to both of these divisions, 
as it performs important functions as a secretion, and also 
contains certain excrementitious matters, which are dis- 
charged from the organism. 
Organs.— Secreting Membranes.—The serous membranes 
are the arachnoid, pleurae, pericardium, and peritoneum. 
They have a smooth, glossy surface, and line cavities which 
have no external communication. As a rule, they are in the 
form of shut sacs. From their inner surface is exuded a 
transparent serous fluid, from which they take their name. 
This fluid is usually small in quantity, and is contained in the 
cavities of the membranes. We have an exception to this 
rule in the arachnoid membrane, where the fluid is found 
beneath both layers. 
The Mucous Membranes line cavities or tubes communicat- 
ing with the exterior by the different openings of the body. 
The membrane lining the mouth, the lower part of the 
pharynx, the oesophagus, and the conjunctiva provided 
with pavement epithelium. A second variety, found in the 
alimentary canal below the cardiac orifice of the stomach, the 
biliary passages, the excretory ducts of all the glands, the 
nasal passages, the upper part of the pharynx, the bronchi, 
and the Eustachian tubes is known as columnar epithelium. 
This variety is furnished on its free surface with little hair- 
like cilia, which are in constant motion during life. This 
membrane everywhere secretes a smooth, viscid-like fluid, 
generally grayish and semi-transparent, and termed mucus. 
This fluid forms a coating for the mucous membranes, pro- 92 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
tecting them and enabling their surfaces to move freely upon 
each other. Some of the mucous glands are continually 
secreting this fluid, while others, as the follicles of Lieber- 
kuhn, only at particular times. 
The Synovial Membranes are found in the movable articu- 
lations, and in other parts of the body as closed sacs, sheaths, 
etc. Through these sheaths tendons of muscles pass, and the 
fluid secreted prevents inflammation and allows the tendons 
to move freely. 
The simple mucous follicles and the follicles of Lieber- 
kuhn are examples of the Follicular Glands. 
The Tubular Glands are similar to the follicles, except 
that the tubes are long and more or less convoluted. The 
kidneys are examples of these glands. 
The Compound Racemose Glands are composed of rounded 
follicles, arranged around the extremities of branching ducts, 
like bunches of grapes. In the simple gland, but a single 
excretory duct is found. 
The Ductless Glands are such as contain blood-vessels, 
lymphatics, nerves, and a peculiar pulpy structure. They 
are supposed to modify the blood as it passes through their 
substance, and hence are call blood glands. The spleen and 
thyroid gland are examples of this character of glands. 
The Permanent Secretions are such as have a more or less 
mechanical function. [See outline.] 
Reference has been made to the transitory fluids under their appro- 
priate headings. 
The general surface of the body is constantly lubricated 
by a small quantity of oily secretion or sebaceous matter. 
In all parts of the body provided with hair are to be found 
the true sebaceous glands. They are not found in the palms 
of the hands nor in the soles of the feet. These glands present 
a number of ducts, with their follicles, .opening by a common 
tube. This sebaceous matter is more abundant in some parts 
of the cutaneous surface than in others. The object of this Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
93 
secretion is to lubricate the general surface of the body and 
give to the hairs that softness which they possess when in a 
healthy condition. 
Exceetion. 
Fluids of Excretion 
Organs of 
Excretion— 
Definition. 
Kidneys, 
Skin 
Perspiration. 
Bile. 
Function. 
Layers 
Description. 
Epidermis or Cuticle— 
True or Cutis Vera— 
Deep or Reticulated Layer. 
Superficial or Papillary Layer. 
External or Horny Layer. 
Malpighian or Mucous Layer. 
The act of throwing off effete matter from the animal 
system, or of separating from the blood those fluids which are 
supposed to be useless, is known as Excretion. 94 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The Skin is the external membranous envelope of animal 
bodies. It is the principal seat of touch, forming a protec- 
tive covering for the deeper tissue of the body. It is an 
excretory and absorbing organ, and one of the most complex 
and important structures of the body. Over the parts of 
the body where pressure or friction is found, the skin is 
quite thick, and where the parts are movable, or liable to 
increase in size, it is elastic. In many situations it is covered 
with hair, which serves as an additional protection to the 
subjacent structures. In a man of ordinary size the cutane- 
ous surface amounts to sixteen or seventeen square feet. In a 
woman of medium size this surface equals about thirteen feet. 
The thickness of the skin is from one-twelfth to one-eighth of 
an inch. In the soles of the feet or palms of the hands, 
where it is exposed to constant pressure and friction, it 
becomes very much thickened; but in certain parts, as the 
external auditory meatus and the lips, it is frequently not 
more than one-one-hundredth of an inch. 
The True Skin, or Corium, is the inner layer of the skin 
proper, and is divided into two portions,—the deep or reticu- 
lated and superficial or papillary layer. The reticulated 
layer is much thicker than the papillary layer; it is dense, 
resisting, elastic, slightly contractile, and composed of 
bundles of white fibrous tissue. 
The papillae of the papillary layer are abundantly sup- 
plied with blood-vessels. 
The Epidermis, or External Layer of the Skin, does not 
contain blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, but is com- 
posed exclusively of cells. 
The external part of the epidermis is called the horny 
layer, and is composed of numerous strata of hard, flattened 
cells. 
The Malpighian Layer is composed of nucleated cells, 
containing a certain amount of pigmentary matter called the 
melanine. The characteristic color, and the peculiarities in 
the complexion of different races and of different individuals Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
95 
is due chiefly to the pigmentary layer. The more delicate 
structures of the true skin are protected by the epidermis. 
The skin is everywhere provided with numerous and 
important glands, known as sudoriparous glands, which 
secrete the sweat. These glands consist of a simple arrange- 
ments, presenting a coiled mass beneath the skin, and a tube of 
greater or less length, which is the excretory duct. The 
coiled mass is the sudoriparous portion, while the tube simply 
conducts the sweat to the surface of the body. 
The nervous system has a remarkable influence over the 
secretion of the perspiration. Mental emotions will fre- 
quently cause an abundant production of perspiration. The 
daily quantity of perspiration is about two pounds. During 
exercise, or whenever there is a tendency to elevation of the 
animal temperature, the blood comes toward the surface, 
accompanied with an increase in the secretion of the sweat. 
If the body is exposed to a high temperature, as working 
before a furnace, the perspiration is enormously increased, 
and it is only on account of the rapid evaporation upon the 
surface of the skin that persons can endure such extreme 
intensity of heat. A great many effete matters are carried 
off by perspiration, and it is now known that urea is a con- 
stant constituent of the sweat. A sudden check or stoppage 
of the perspiration, when it is in a perfect normal condition, 
is deleterious to life. But if the perspiration be enormously 
increased, caused by external heat, a sudden stoppage does 
not result disastrously to the animal economy. 
KIDNEYS. 
The kidneys are situated in the back part of the abdominal 
cavity, behind the peritoneum, one on each side of the verte- 
bral column, in the lumbar region. The one on the right 
side is a little lower than the one on the left. They are 
symmetrical organs, surrounded by more or less adipose 
tissue, and are held in their position by the blood-vessels. 96 
Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
They are bean-shaped, with the concavity looking inward 
toward the spinal column. The deep central portion of this 
concavity is called the hilum. 
The weight of the kidney is from four to six ounces in the 
male, and from four to five and a half ounces in the female. 
The left kidney is usually a little heavier than the right. 
They are about four inches long, two inches wide, and one 
inch in thickness. 
The kidney consists of two different substances; that 
which occupies the surface is known as the cortical substance; 
that situated internally, as the medullary substance. Outside 
of these two substances is a thin, smooth, and close net-work 
of white fibrous tissue, containing also some elastic fibers; 
this, the proper coat of the kidney, is continued inward at the 
hilum, in the form of a smooth membrane, forming little 
cylinders, or calices. 
The Cortical /Substance is about one-sixth of an inch in 
thickness, occupies the surface and forms about three-fourths 
of the gland. It is soft, reddish, granular, and less resisting 
than the pyramidal substance. 
The Medullary Substance is darker and denser in structure 
than the cortical substance, and is made up of reddish- 
colored, conical masses, called the pyramids of Malpighi. 
They are from eighteen to twenty in number, with their bases 
directed toward the circumference of the organ, and their 
apices received in the little cylinders formed by the continua- 
tion of the proper coat of the kidney through the hilum. 
Blood-Vessels of the Kidney.—The Renal Arteries are 
given off from the abdominal aorta, one on either side, and 
directed outward at almost right angles to it. As they enter 
the hilum of the kidney, they divide into four or five 
branches, and then, by numerous smaller branches, penetrate 
the substance of the kidney between the pyramids and ramify 
in the columns of cortical substance which occupy the spaces 
between the pyramids. Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
The Ferns 0/ the Kidney collect the blood from the vessels 
of the Malpighian bodies, and conduct it inward, where they 
enter into larger veins, finally emerging at the hilum in a 
single vein which terminates in the inferior vena cava. 
While the blood is passing through the kidneys it under- 
goes many changes in composition. It loses urea and other 
matters to be evacuated, found in the secretion of these 
glands. The blood of the renal veins is said to contain less 
water than the blood in any other part of the venous system. GLOSSARY. GLOSSARY. 
ABD 
Ab-do'men. (To “hide.”) The larg- 
est cavity in the body; the belly. 
The same region in the lower 
animals. 
Ab-noe ' mal. Contrary to the nat- 
ural condition; unnatural; not 
healthy. 
Ad'i-pose. (“Fat.”) Pertaining to 
or consisting of animal fat; fatty. 
Al-bu ' men, Al-bu ' min-is. The 
white of an egg. Found in the 
animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
Enters largely into the compo- 
sition of blood, muscles, etc. 
Al-bu ' min-ous. Containing or re- 
sembling albumen. 
Al ' i-ment. That which affords 
nourishment. [See Alitura and 
Pabulum.'] 
Al-i-tu'ea. (To “ nourish.”) The 
process of assimilation or nutri- 
trition; food or nourishment; 
aliment. 
Am-phi-ae-theo ' sis. A peculiar 
mixed articulation, permitting 
but slight motion. 
An-as-to-mo ' sis. The communica- 
tion of branches of vessels with 
each other. 
A-nat ' o-my. The science of or- 
ganization, or the dissection of 
organized bodies, whether hu- 
man, brute animal, or vegetable. 
• AXI 
An ' tkum of Highmoee. A cavity 
in the superior maxillary bone, 
described by Highmore. 
A-ee ' o-lae. (A “ small, open 
space.”) A name given to tissue 
containing small spaces or in- 
terstices. 
Ae-theo ' Di-A. An articulation ad- 
mitting of a gliding movement, 
as in the articulation of the 
sternum and clavicle. 
As-phyx'i-a. Apparent death, or 
suspended animation, particu- 
larly from suffocation or drown- 
ing, or the inhalation of irrespi- 
rable gases. 
At-tol ' lens Au' eem. (“ Raising 
the ear.”) The name of a mus- 
cle whose office it is to raise the 
ear. 
At'tea-hens Au'eis. The name 
of a muscle whose office it is to 
draw the ear forward and up- 
ward. 
Au'ei-cle, or Au-kic'u-la. The 
external portion of the ear. 
Au' top-sy. (The “ act of seeing.”) 
Ocular examination, or personal 
inspection. 
Ax-il'la. The armpit; the cavity 
under the upper part of the arm 
and shoulder. 102 
Glossary. 
B. 
BIP 
Bi-pen ' ni-form. Radiating from 
both sides, like the barbs of a 
feather. 
Buo'cal. (“Cheek.”) Belonging 
to the cheek. 
CRE 
Buo-ci-na ' tor. Name given to a 
flat muscle which forms the 
wall of the cheek; so called from 
its use in blowing a trumpet. 
c. 
Can ' OEL-iiOus. Pertaining to the 
lattice-work or cellular structure 
in bones. 
Cau 'da E-qui ' na. (“ Horse tail.”) 
The termination of the spinal 
marrow, giving off a large num- 
ber of nerves, which, when un- 
ravelled, resemble a horse’s tail. 
Can'thus; plural, Can'thi. The 
angle formed by the junction of 
the eyelids. 
CePH ' A-LO-RACH-ID ' I-AN, CEPH' -A- 
lo—spinal. Belonging to the 
head and spine. 
Oe-ru'men. (“Wax.”) Ear-wax. 
The wax-like secretion of the 
ear, given out by follicles of the 
inner surface of the meatus au- 
ditorious externus. 
Chor 'd® Ten-din ' e-m. (“ Ten- 
dinous cords.”) Attachments 
connecting the carnese columnse 
of the ventricles to the auricular 
valves of the heart. 
Cil'i-a; plural of CilT-um. The 
eyelashes, or hairs on the eye- 
lids. 
Cir-cum-duc ' tion. Circular move- 
ment of a limb. 
Ooch ' lb-a. (A “snail-shell.”) Any- 
thing of a spiral form. A coni- 
cal cavity of the internal ear. 
Com ' mis-sure, or Com-mis-su ' ea. 
(To “ put together.”) A joining 
together by an angular union of 
parts. 
Con-ges ' tion. (To “ carry or heap 
together.”) An excessive accu- 
mulation of the contents of any 
of the blood-vessels or ducts. 
Conch'a, konk'a. (“Shell.”) Ap- 
plied in anatomy to the hollow 
portion of the external ear. 
CoN-vo-nu' tion. Anything rolled 
together in an undulating man- 
ner. 
Cor'ne-a. (“A horn.”) A trans- 
parent, convexo-concave, nearly 
circular substance, forming the 
anterior part of the eyeball. 
Cor'pus Cal-lo'sum. The white 
medullary substance joining the 
hemispheres of the brain. 
Cor'o-nal. (A “crown”) The 
name of a suture uniting the 
frontal with the parietal bones. 
Cor ' nu. (“ Horn.”) Applied to a 
certain kind of warts on account 
their horny hardness. 
Crep'i-tant. Crackling or rat- 
tling. The noise produced by 
grating the ends of a fractured 
bone together, or by pressing 
between the fingers any portion Glossary. 
103 
CRI 
of cellular tissue in which air is 
collected. 
Cris 'ta Gal ' li. (“ Cock’s crest.”) 
The peculiar process on the eth- 
FIB 
moid bone to which the falx 
cerebri is attached. 
Cu-ta'ne-ous. (The “skin.”) Be- 
longing to the skin. 
I). 
Deg-lu-ti ' tion, (“To swallow 
down.”) The act of swallowing. 
Des-ic-ca'tion. The act of dry- 
ing. 
Di-ag-no ' sis. (To “ discern.”) The 
science of signs, or symptoms, 
by which one disease is distin- 
guished from another. 
Di-ar-thro'sis; pi., Di-ar-thro - 
ses. An articulation, permit- 
ting the bones to move freely on 
each other in every direction, 
like the shoulder and hip. 
Di-e-tet'ic. (To “feed.”) Belong- 
ing to the taking of proper food, 
or to diet. 
E. 
Em ' i-nence. An elevation. 
En-ar-thro ' sis. The ball and 
sockt joint; a variety of the 
class Diarthrosis. 
Ep-i-the ' li-itm. The cuticle cov- 
ering the lips, fauces, and the 
mucous membranes. 
E - bug -ta ' tion. (“ To belch. ”) 
Belching; escape of wind from 
the stomach. 
Eth'moid. Resembling a sieve; 
cribriform. 
Ex-cbe-men-ti ' tious. Relating to 
the alvine faeces, or waste mat- 
ter discharged from the bowels. 
F. 
Fal'ci-form. (A “scythe” or a 
“sickle.”) Resembling a scythe 
in shape. 
Falx Cer'e-bri. The falciform 
process between the hemispheres 
of the brain. 
Fas-cic ' u-lus ; pi., Fas-cic ' u-li. 
(A “bundle.”) Applied to a 
bundle of muscular or nervous 
fibers, etc. 
Fau'ces. The cavity at the back 
of the mouth from which the 
pharynx and larynx proceed. 
Feb-men-ta'tion. (To “leaven.”) 
The spontaneous changes which 
aqueous combinations of ani- 
mal and vegetable matter un- 
dergo when exposed to the air 
at an ordinary temperature. 
Fi-bril ' la. (A “ fiber.”) Applied 
to the extremely slender fila- 
ments seen by the microscope. 
Fi' bbo-Car ' ti-lage. Membrani- 
form cartilage. The substance, 
intermediate between proper 
cartilage and ligament, consti- 104 
Glossary. 
FLE 
tilting the base of the ear, deter- 
mining the form of that part; 
and composing the rings of the 
trachea, epiglottis, etc. 
Flex'i-ble. Capable of being 
bent, bowed, or twisted without 
breaking. 
Fos' sa. A groove, shallow cavity, 
or depression. 
Fo' ve-a Oen-tra ' lis. A pit or de- 
pression upon the retina, a little 
IMP 
to the outer or temporal side of 
the optic disc, and the seat of 
the most acute vision. 
Fung'tion. (To “fulfill an of- 
fice.”) Any action by which vi- 
tal phenomena are produced. 
Fu-nio'u-lus. A little cord; the 
central thread-like part, or axis- 
cylinder of a nerve, 
Fu'si-form:. (A “spindle.”) Re- 
sembling a spindle; tapering. 
G. 
Gas-se'ri-an Gan'gli-on. The 
semilunar ganglion. A ganglion 
of the fifth pair of nerves, first 
discovered by Gasser. 
Ge ' Ni-o—hy-o-glos ' sus. The name 
of a muscle arising from the 
chin, and inserted into the hyoid 
bone and whole length of the 
under surface of the tongue, 
Gin'gly-mus. A hinge-like artic- 
ulation, in which the bones 
move upon each other in two 
directions only, viz., forward and 
backward, as in the elbow and 
knee. 
Gland. An organ of secretion, 
consisting of blood-vessels, ab- 
sorbents, and nerves, for secret- 
ing or separating some particu- 
lar fluid from the blood. 
Gom-pho'sis. (To “drive in a 
nail.”) A variety of the synar- 
throdial joints, in which one 
bone is fixed in another like a 
nail in wood, as the teeth in 
their sockets. 
H. 
ELem-a-glo'bine. The coloring 
matter of the blood. 
He'lix. (To “ -wind about.”) The 
outer portion of the external ear. 
Hep-a-ti-za ' tion. (“ Liver.”) A 
change of structure in the lungs, 
or other texture, into liver-like 
substance. 
Ho-mo-ge ' ne-ous. Of the same 
kind or quality throughout. 
Hy-o-glos ' sus. A large muscle of 
the neck, connecting the os hy- 
oides with the tongue. 
I. 
Im-bi-bi ' tion. The act of drink- 
ing in or sucking up moisture. 
Im-mo-bil ' i-ty. The condition or 
quality of being immobile; flxed- 
ness in place or state, as a stiff 
joint. 
Im-pen ' e-tra-ble. Not capable of 
being penetrated or pierced; not Glossary. 
105 
IMP 
admitting the passage of other 
bodies. 
Im-pact'ed. To drive close; to 
press or drive firmly together, 
In-ges ' ta. Applied to the aliment 
taken into the body by the 
mouth. 
In-os ' cu-lat-ing. Opening into 
each other; anastomosing, as the 
tubes of some plants. 
MAN 
In-sol'u-ble. Not soluble; inca- 
pable of being dissolved, partic- 
ularly by liquids. 
In ' spis-sat-ed. Made thick by the 
evaporation of the thinner parts. 
Applied to vegetable juices. 
In-ter-mit ' tent. Applied to a dis- 
ease which disappears and re- 
turns again and again at regu- 
lar or uncertain intervals. 
L. 
La'bi-al. Belonging to the labi- 
um, or lip. 
Lach ' by-mal. Structures concern- 
ed in the secretion and trans- 
mission of the tears. 
Lamb ' doid, or Lamb-doid ' An. A 
name given to a suture uniting 
the occipital bone to the two pa- 
rietal bones; so called because 
of its resemblance to the Greek 
letter lambda (A). 
La-heb ' ba. A thin plate or scale 
of anything. 
Leg'time. A pericarp of two ob- 
long valves, in which the seeds 
are arranged along one suture 
only. 
Le-gu ' mi-nous. Having legumes. 
Leuc'o-cyte. (A “cell resem- 
blance.”) Cell-like. A term ap- 
plied to corpuscles, as those of 
the lymph, chyle, pus, blood, etc., 
which seem to resemble each 
other essentially in their chem- 
cal and microscopical charac- 
ters. 
Lig-a-men'ta Sub-fla'va. The 
ligaments occupying the inter- 
vals between the vertebrae, which 
thus complete the back part of 
the spinal canal. They are com- 
posed of dense, yellow, elastic 
fibers. 
Lin'gual [Lin-gua ' lisJ. A mus- 
cle belonging to the under sur- 
face of the tongue. 
Li' quob San ' gui-nis. (“Liquor of 
the blood.”) The colorless fluid 
which holds the globules of the 
blood in suspension during life. 
Lob ' u-lar. Belonging to a lobule; 
shaped like a lobe or lobule. 
Lob ' ule. A small lobe. 
Lu-bri-ca ' tion. The act of lubri- 
cating ; making slippery or 
smooth. 
M. 
Mao'u-la Lu'tb-ous. (Macula, a 
spot upon the skin or elsewhere; 
luteous, yellow.) A deep yellow 
spot. 
Ma-nu'bri-um. Literally, a “hilt” 
or “handle.” Applied in anat- 
omy to the uppermost part of 
of the sternum. 106 
Glossary. 
MAS 
Mas-ti-ca ' tion. (“ Chew.”) The 
act or process of chewing; also, 
the taking, chewing, and insali- 
vation of food. 
Ma-tu'ri-ty. The state of being 
mature; ripeness; a state of per- 
fection or completeness. 
Max ' il-la-ry. Appertaining to 
the jaw. 
Max'i-mum. (“Great.”) A term 
denoting the greatest possible 
quantity or effect, 
Me-a'tus. A passage. An open- 
ing leading to a canal, duct, or 
cavity. 
Me-di-a-sti ' num. (“ Standing in 
the middle.”) The septum or 
duplicature of the pleura, which 
divides the cavity of the thorax 
into two parts; the septum tho- 
racis. 
Med ' dl-la-ry. (“ Marrow.”) Be- 
longing to marrow or to pith. 
Mei -bo'mi - an Glands. Small 
glands between the conjunctiva 
and tarsal cartilages, so called 
from their discoverer. 
OSS 
Mem'o-ey. The faculty of the 
mind by which it retains the 
knowledge of previous thoughts 
or events; the actual and dis- 
tinct retention of past ideas in 
the mind. 
Mes ' i-al. (“ Middle. ”) Synony- 
mous with Median. 
Min'i-mum. (“Least.”) A term 
denoting the least possible quan- 
tity or effect. 
Mi'tral. (A “turban” or “mi- 
ter.”) Name of the left auriculo- 
ventricular valves of the heart. 
Mo'tor. (“Motion.”) To move; 
nerves upon which voluntary 
motion depends. 
Mu'ooxis. (“Mucous, or “gum.”) 
Belonging to, or resembling, 
mucus. 
My'e-line. (“Marrow.”) Applied 
by Yirchow to the medullary 
matter filling the space between 
the axis-cylinder and sheath of 
the nerve fibers. 
My-op'ic. Belonging or relating 
to near-sightedness. 
N. 
Ni-tbog' e-nous. Pertaining to, or 
containing, nitrogen, or sub- 
stances capable of being con- 
verted into blood, and of form- 
ing organic tissues. 
Nau'se-a. Sickness of the stom- 
ach without vomiting. 
Nett ' kin, or Next ' bine. The mat- 
ter of which nerves are com- 
posed. 
o. 
Oc-cip ' i-tal. Belonging to the 
occiput. The name of the bone 
forming the posterior part of the 
skull. 
O-le-ag ' i-nous. (“Oil.”) Oily; 
unctuous. 
01-eao ' tion. (“ Smell.”) The ex- 
ercise of the sense of smell. 
O' pal-ine. Having the milky and 
bluish tint, with the reflection 
of light of the opal. 
Os'si-cle. (“Bone.”) A small bone. Glossary. 
p. 
PAB 
Pab ' u-LTJM. [Prom pas' co, to 
“feed.”] Food; aliment; suste- 
nance. 
Pal'pe-bral. Belonging to the 
eyes. 
Pa-een ' chy-ma. The spongy and 
cellular tissue that connects 
parts. 
Pa-ei ' e-tal. [From pa' vies, a 
“ wall.”] Belonging to the pari- 
etes or walls of any cavity, 
organ, etc. 
Pa-thol ' o-gy. The doctrine or 
consideration of diseases. It 
treats of diseases, their nature 
and effect. 
Pen ' Ni-FORM. (“ Feather.”) Hav- 
ing the form of a. feather, 
Pee-fo-ea ' tion. A hole or aper- 
ture passing through any thing, 
or into the interior of a sub- 
stance. 
Pee-i-chon ' dri-um. (“Cartilage.”) 
A membrane forming the imme- 
diate covering of cartilage. 
Per ' i-lymph. (“Around,” “water” 
or “watery fluid.”) So named 
because poured around in the 
canals of the ear. 
Pee-i-mys'i-tjm. The delicate 
membrane immediately cover- 
ing the muscle. 
Pee-i-os ' te-itm. The thin deli- 
cate membrane forming the im- 
mediate covering of the bones. 
Pe-eiph ' e-ey. The circumference 
of a circle, ellipse, or other simi- 
lar figure. 
Peb-i-stal ' tic. Vermicular mo- 
tion of the bowels. 
PYE 
Pe'teous. (“Eock.”) Belonging 
to or resembling a rock or stone. 
Pin ' na. (A “ wing ”or “ feather.”) 
The ala, or lower cartilage of 
either side of the nose. Also, 
the broad portion of the exter- 
nal ear. 
Pit-u ' i-ta-ry. (“ Phlegm.”) Be- 
longing to phlegm. 
Phe-nom ' e-non. An appearance; 
anything remarkable. 
Phlegm. The thick, viscid mucus 
secreted by the respiratory and 
digestive passages. 
Pho-na'tion. (“Voice.”) The for- 
mation of the voice; also the 
physiology of the voice. 
Pla-tys'ma. (“Broad sheet,” and 
to “ dilate.”) An expansion, or 
dilatation. 
Pli'ant. Capable of plying or 
bending; easily bent; readily 
yielding to force or pressure 
■without breaking. 
Pee-hen ' sign. The act of grasp- 
ing or taking hold; a seizure. 
Psy-chol ' o-gy. A discourse or 
treatise on the human soul; the 
science of the human soul; spe- 
cifically the systematic or scien- 
tific knowledge of the powers 
and functions of the human 
soul, so far as they are known 
by consciousness. 
Py-eo'sis. Water-brash; a dis- 
ease characterized by pain in 
the stomach, with copious eruc- 
tation of a watery, insipid fluid. 108 
Glossary, 
R. 
RAO 
Ra-ceme'. Originally, a “cluster 
of grapes.” 
Rac-e-mose '. (“ Raceme.’ ’) Bear- 
ing or resembling racemes, 
Ra'di-ate. To emit or send out 
in direct lines from a point or 
points; as, to radiate heat or 
light. 
Rea ' son. The faculty or capacity 
of the human mind, by which it 
is distinguished from the infe- 
rior animals. 
Re-fract'ing Me'di-um. That 
which causes a ray of light to 
SNE 
deviate from its original direc- 
tion. 
Ren ' o-vatb. To make over again; 
to restore to freshness; to render 
as good as new; to renew. 
Re-tic ' u-lab. (“Net.”) Pertain- 
ing to or resembling a net. 
Ret'ra-hens. Drawing back; re- 
tracting. 
Ro-ta'tion. (To “turn round.”) 
The act of rotating or turning 
round. 
Ru-di-ment'a-ey. Relating to ru- 
diments, or the rude state or 
commencement of anything. 
s. 
Sag ' it-tal. Relating to, or shap- 
ed like, an arrow. The suture 
which unites the parietal bones. 
Sar-co'lem-ma. (A “covering.”) 
The sheath which surrounds the 
fibrils of muscles. 
Scle-bot'ic. Hard; tough. The 
hard, dense, fibrous membrane 
of the eye; sometimes called the 
white of the eye. 
Se-cre'tion. (To “separate,” or 
to “secrete.”) A natural func- 
tion of the body, by which vari- 
ous fluids or substances are 
separated from the blood. 
Sem-i-lu'nar. Resembling a half- 
moon or crescent. 
Sen-sa ' tion. (To “ perceive,” to 
“think,” or to “feel.”) The con- 
sciousness of an impression 
made by an external body on 
the organs of sense. 
Sen-so'ei-um. Center of sensa- 
tion; the brain; also the collec- 
tion of ganglia at the base of 
the brain. 
Sen-ti ' ent, sen' she-ent. (To “ per- 
ceive,” or to “feel.”) Having 
sensation or feeling. 
Septum. Applied to bony, car- 
tilaginous, or membranous par- 
titions in the human body. 
Sig'moud. Curved like the letter 
S. 
Si'nus. (A “cavity” or “wind- 
ing.”) In surgery, the cavity of 
a sore; also a long, narrow, hol- 
low track leading from some 
abscess, diseased bone, or the 
like. 
Snebz ' ing. A convulsive action 
of the respiratory muscles, caus- 
ed by the irritation of some 
part of the lining membrane of 
the nostrils. Glossary. 
109 
SON 
So-no'eous, Giving sound when 
struck; as, metals are sonorous 
bodies. 
Spasm. The sudden, involuntary 
contraction of muscles, or of 
muscular fibers; a convulsion, 
cramp. 
Sphe ' noid. Resembling a wedge. 
Sphinc ' tek. (To “ bind tight;” to 
close.) A circular muscle which 
contracts the aperature to which 
it is attached. 
Squa mous. Relating to, or re- 
sembling, a scale. 
Squa ' mous Su' tube. The suture 
which unites the squamous por- 
tion of the temporal bone to the 
parietal. 
Stim'u-lus; pi., Stim'u-li. (A 
“goad,” “sting,” or “whip.”) 
That which rouses or excites the 
vital energies, whether of the 
whole system or of a part. 
Sto ma; pi., Sto'ma-ta. A mouth. 
Also, a breathing pore; a mi- 
nute orifice in the epidermis of 
leaves through Avhich exhalation 
takes place. 
Stbi'a; pi., Stri m. Signifying a 
“ groove,” “ furrow,” or “ crease.” 
Applied in anatomy to longitu- 
dinal marks or lines. 
TON 
Sty'no Guos'sus, (“Tongue.”) A 
muscle arising from the styloid 
process and the stylo-maxillary 
ligament, and inserted into the 
root of the tongue. It moves 
the tongue laterally and back- 
ward. 
Su-do-bip ' ee-ous. Bearing sweat; 
serving to carry off sweat. 
Sun'cus. A groove, furrow, or 
trench. Applied in the plural 
(Sun' ci) to grooves on the sur- 
face of the brain and other or- 
gans. 
Su' per. Signifies “ above,” “ up- 
on,” “ beyond.” 
Su-per-cil T-a-ey. Belonging to 
the supercilium. 
Su - pee - oil 'i - um. [From supra, 
above, and cilium, the eyelid.] 
The eyebrow. 
Su-tu ' ea. (To “ sew together.”) 
A “ suture ”or “ seam.” Applied 
in anatomy to the junction of 
the bones of the cranium by a 
serrated line resembling the 
stitches of a seam. 
Syn-ae-thro ' sis. To Join togeth- 
er. An immovable joint or an 
articulation without sensible 
motion. 
Syn ' cheo-nous. Happening at the 
same time. 
T. 
Ten-to'ei-um. A tent or pavilion. 
Applied to the horizontal process 
of the dura mater between the 
cerebrum and cerebellum. 
Thee-a-peu ' tics. That branch of 
medicine which treats of the ap- 
plication of remedies, and the 
curative treatment of disease. 
Tin-ni ' tits. A ringing or tinkling. 
Tis' sue. (“ That which is woven 
a “ web.”) The texture or group- 
ing of anatomical elements of 
which any part of the body is 
composed. 
To-nig'i-ty. (“Belonging to or 
having tone.”) The quality of 110 
Glossary. 
TON 
muscular fiber in a state of ac- 
tion. 
Ton'sil. A small, oval, almond- 
shaped gland in the recess be- 
tween the pillars or arches of 
fauces. 
Ton-sie-ei ' tis. Inflammation of 
the tonsils; a species of sore 
throat. 
Teit-u-ea'txon. The process of 
reducing solid bodies to powder 
by continued rubbing. 
VOL 
Tba'gus. [A “goat;” because it 
is in many persons covered with 
hair.] A part of the ear. 
Tei-cus ' pid. [From tris, “ three,” 
and cuspis a “point.”] Having 
three points. 
Tub ' bi-na-ted. Bones. (“ Top- 
shaped bones.”) Two bones of 
the nostrils; so called from their 
being formed like a top. 
u. 
Un'du-late. Waved or wavy; 
fluctuation. 
Un ' gexs. The nail of a finger or 
a toe; also applied to the talons 
or claws of birds. 
Un'guis, Os. (“Nail bone.”) The 
name of a small, very thin, and 
semi-transparent bone at the 
inner side of the orbit of the 
eye. 
U-be'a. A principal constituent 
of the urine. It is a white, 
transparent, crystallizable solid. 
y. 
Vas'cu-eab. Having, or relating 
to vessels full of vessels. 
Ven'tbi-cle. Applied to certain 
cavities of the brain or heart. 
Yee'tex. The summit or top of 
anything. In anatomy, the top 
or crown of the head. 
Yis' cxjs; pi., Yis-ce 'ka. Any large 
organ contained in the cavity of 
the body. 
Yis'ce-bal. Belonging to the 
viscera. 
Yo-li ' tion. The act of willing, or 
choosing. The act of forming 
a purpose. INDEX. INDEX. 
A. 
Abdominal type of respiration, 54. 
Abducens, 70. 
Absorbents of animals, 10. 
Absorption, 33. 
Adipose tissue, 21. 
Adjusting machinery of the eye, 
77, 
Adolescence, 54. 
Adult age, 54, 
Air—Composition, 55. 
Alcohol, 58. 
Aliment, 19. 
Angular movement of joints, 16, 
Animal heat, 57, 58. 
Aorta, 45. 
Aortic semilunar valves, 42. 
Aponeurosis, 18. 
Aqueous humor, 76. 
Arachnoid membrane, 63, 91. 
Arteries—Definition, 45. 
Coats, causes of circulation 
in the arteries, elasticity, 
46. 
Articular cartilage, 15. 
Articulations, 14. 
Definition, 15. 
Artificial skeleton, 14. 
Arytenoid cartilages, 50. 
Auditory canal, 83. 
Auditory nerve, 70, 86. 
Auricle of the ear, 82. 
Auxiliary organs of respiration, 52. 
Axis of the eye, 73. 
Axis-cylinder of a nerve, 60. 
B. 
Ball of the eye, 73. 
Bicuspid teeth, 24. 
Bile Color, specific gravity, 
amount per day, function, 31, 91. 
Bipenniform muscle, 17. 
Blood, definition, quantity, odor, 
36. 
Taste, specific gravity, color, 
temperature, 37, 
Changes of in respiration, 
56. 
Changes of blood in the 
kidneys, 97. 
Blood-vessels of bone, 13. 
Blood-vessels of the kidney, 96. 
Blood-vessels of the pinna, 13. 
Bones—Definition, color, structure 
composition, 11. 
Coverings, divisions accord- 
ing to form, 12. 
As an element of a joint, 15. 
Bounderies of the mouth, 23. 
Brain—Outline, 64. 
Weight, divisions, 65. 
Breathing capacity of the lungs, 55. 
Bronchi, 51. 
Buccal glands, 23. 
c. 
Canal of Petit, 76. 
Canaliculi, 79. 
Canine teeth, 23, 24. 
Capsule of the lens, 76. 114 
Index. 
Cartilage Description, varieties, 
15. 
Causes of arterial circulation, 46. 
Causes of venous circulation, 48. 
Cavity of the ear, 84. 
Cementum, 24. 
Cephalo-rachidian fluid, 90. 
Cerebellum, 66. 
Cerebrum, 65. 
Gray and white matter, 
function, 66. 
Cerumen, 83. 
Childhood, 54. 
Chloride of sodium, 20. 
Chorda tympani-nerve, 89. 
Choroid, 74. 
Chyle, 34. 
Causes of movement, 35. 
Ciliary muscle, 75. 
Ciliary processes, 75. 
Circulation—Outline, 40. 
Discovery, pulmonic, sys- 
temic, 41. 
Classes of joints, 14. 
Classification of cranial nerves, 61. 
Coagulated blood—Divisions, ben- 
efits, 39. 
Coagulation—Causes, 38. 
Cochlea, 86. 
Columnar epithelium, 91. 
Comparative physiology, 9, 10. 
Concha of the ear, 83. 
Conjunctiva Description, blood- 
supply glands, 79. 
Convolutions of the cerebrum, 65- 
Corpus callosum, 65. 
Corpuscles, red—Diameter, func- 
tion, 37. 
Corpuscles, white—Where found, 
diameter, function, 38. 
Cornea, 74. 
Cortical substance of the kidney, 
96. 
Cranial nerves, 60, 87. 
Table of, 70. 
Cranium bones, 13. 
Cricoid cartilage, 50. 
Crown of a tooth, 24. 
Cutaneous veins, 47. 
D. 
Deprivation of the food, 21. 
Case reported, 32. 
Dermo skeleton, 14. 
Diaphragm, 52. 
Diastole of the heart, 43. 
Digestion—Outline, 22. 
Definition, 23. 
Duration of stomach diges 
tion, 28. 
Diploe, 12. 
Ductless glands, 92. 
Duodenum, 29. 
Dura mater of spinal cord, 62. 
Of brain, 64. 
E. 
Ear, 82. 
Emmetropic eye, 80. 
Enamel, 24. 
Endocardium, 43. 
Endolymph, 86. 
Endo skeleton, 14. 
Endosmosis, 38, 
Epidermis, 94. 
Epiglottis, 50. 
Equator of the eye, 73. 
Eustachian tube, 27, 85, 
Excretions, 21. 
Exercise, 58. 
Exosmosis, 33. 
Expiration, 53. 
Eyebrows, 78. 
Eyelids, 78. 
F. 
Facial nerve, 70, 71. 
Falx cerebri, 64. 
Far point of the eye, 80. Index. 
115 
Fascia, 18. 
Fats, 20. 
Femur, 12. 
Fenestra ovalis, 85, 86. 
Fissures of the spinal cord, 63. 
Flat bones, 12. 
Food—Outline, 19. 
Foreign bodies in external audi- 
tory canal, 84. 
Fovea centralis, 75. 
Frog’s tongue, 25. 
Inferior rectus muscle, 77. 
Influence of the nervous system 
over perspiration, 95. 
Ingesta, per day, 21, 
Innominate artery, 45. 
Inorganic bodies, 9. 
Inspiration, 53. 
Intestinal juice, 30. 
Involuntary muscles, 17. 
Iris—Function, 74. 
Irregular bones, 13. 
Irritability of muscles, 18. 
G. 
Gall-bladder, 31. 
Ganglia, 62. 
Gastric juice Composition, 
amount per day, function, 28. 
Gastric or peptic glands, 28. 
Glands of Brunner, 30. 
Glosso-pharyngeal nerve, 70, 89. 
Gomphosis joint, 16. 
Gums, 23. 
J. 
Jejunum, 27. 
K. 
Kidneys, 95. 
Weight of, 96. 
L. 
Labial glands, 23. 
Labyrinth, 85. 
Lachrymal gland, 79. 
Lachrymal sac, 80. 
Lacteals, 34. 
Larynx, 49. 
Levator palpebrse muscle, 77. 
Ligaments—Where found, func- 
tion, composition, properties, 15. 
Liver— Situa tion,weight, structure, 
function, 30. 
Long bone, 11,12. 
Lungs, 51. 
Capacity of, 55. 
Lymphatic glands, 35. 
H. 
Heart—Weight, shape, situation, 
division, 41. 
Helix of the ear, 82. 
Hepatic duct, 30. 
Hepatic veins, 30. 
Horny layer of the skin, 94. 
How animals are nourished, 9. 
How to use the eyes, 80. 
Human physiology, 10. 
Hunger, 21. 
Hyaloid membrane, 75. 
Hypermetropia, 80. 
I. 
Ileo-csecal valve, 29. 
Ileum, 29. 
Imbibition, 34. 
Incus, 85. 
Infancy, 54. 
Inferior oblique muscle, 77. 
M. 
Macula lutea, 80. 
Malleus, 85. 
Malpighian layer of skin, 94. 
Marrow, 12. 116 
Index. 
Mastoid cells, 84. 
Medullary canal, 12. 
Medulla, oblongata, 67. 
Medullary substance of the kid- 
neys, 96. 
Meibomian glands, 78. 
Melanine, 94. 
Membrana tympani, 84. 
Mesentary, 29. 
Mineral matter of bones, 12. 
Mitral valve, 42. 
Action of, 43. 
Motions of joints, 14. 
Motor oculi communis, 70. 
Mouth, 23. 
Mucous membranes, 23, 91. 
Muscles—Outline, definition, situ- 
ation, formation, 17. 
How muscles are named, 18. 
Myeline of nerves, 60. 
Myopia, 80. 
Optic nerves—Origin, 68, 70, 75. 
Orbicular muscle, 18. 
Orbit, 73. 
Orbital arch, 78. 
Organic constituent of bones, 11. 
Organic body, 9. 
Oxygen, 19. 
Amount consumed in twen- 
ty-four hours, 56. 
Oxygen required for animal and 
vegetable kingdoms, 9. 
P. 
Palpebral fissure, 78. 
Pancreas, 31. 
Pancreatic juice, 31. 
Parenchyma of the lungs, 52. 
Parotid gland, 25. 
Patheticus, 70. 
Pavement epithelium, 91. 
Pericardium, 43. 
Perichondrium, 82. 
Perilymph, 86. 
Permanent cartilage, 15. 
Permanent secretions, 92. 
Peyer’s patches, 30. 
Pharynx, 27. 
Phosphate of lime, 11, 20. 
Physiology-Definition, divisions, 
9. 
Pia mater, 63, 65. 
Pinna—Function of, 87. 
Pleura—Divisions, cavity of, 52. 
Plexus of nerves, 60. 
Pneumogastrio nerve, 70. 
Pomum Adami, 50. 
Pons Yarolii, 67. 
Portal vein, 30, 47. 
Posterior nares, 27. 
Primitive fasciculi, 17. 
Pulmonary veins, 47. 
Pulmonic semilunar valves, 42. 
Puncta lachrymalia, 79. 
Pupil of eye, 74. 
Pyramids of Malpighi, 96. 
N. 
Nasal duct, 80. 
Natural skeleton, 14. 
Neck of a tooth, 24. 
Nerve cells, nerve fibers, definition 
of nerves, 60. 
Nerves of bones, 13. 
Nervous phenomena, 10. 
Nervous system—Outline, 59. 
Purpose, general divisions, 
60. 
Neurilemma, 60. 
Nucleus of pneumogastric nerve, 
67. 
o. 
(Esophagus, 27. 
Old age, 54. 
Olfaction, 87. 
Olfactory bulb, 88. 
Olfactory ganglion, 67. 
Olfactory nerve, 70. 
Optic lobes, 68. Index, 
117 
R. 
Eeceptaculum chyli, 34. 
Renal arteries, 96. 
Reserve air, 55. 
Residual air, 55. 
Respiration Outline, definition, 
49. 
Movements of, 53. 
Number of respirations per 
minute, 56. 
Respiratory sense, 21, 57. 
Reticular cartilage, 15, 
Retina, 75. 
Right lymphatic duct, 35, 
Rima glottidis, 60. 
Starch, 20. 
Steno’s duct, 25. 
Stomach, 27. 
Length, capacity, orifices, 
coats, stomach digestion, 
28. 
Strife, 18. 
Sub-arachnoid space, 63. 
Submaxillary gland, 25, 
Sudoriparous glands, 95. 
Sugar, 20. 
Superficial layer of skin, 94. 
Superior oblique muscle, 77. 
Superior rectus muscle, 77. 
Sutura harmonia, 16. 
Sympathetic nerves, 60. 
Synarthrosis joints, 14, 16. 
Synovia, 15. 
Synovial membranes, 15, 92, 
Systemic veins, 47. 
Systole of the heart, 43. 
s. 
Sagittal suture, 16, 
Saliva—Description, specific grav- 
ity, composition, functions, 26. 
Salivary glands, 25. 
Schneiderian membrane, 87. 
Sclerotic coat, 73. 
Sebaceous matter, 92. 
Secreting membranes, 91. 
Semicircular canals, 86. 
Sensibility of muscles, 18. 
Serous fluid, 91. 
Short bones, 12. 
Sight—Outline, 72. 
Skeleton—Outline, 13. 
Definition, 14, 
Skin, 94. 
Sleep, 68. 
Small intestines—Coats of, 29. 
Sounds of the heart, 43. 
Abnormal sounds, 44, 
Sphincter oris muscle, 23. 
Spinal accessory nerve, 70. 
Spinal cord, 62. 
Structure, 63. 
Spinal nerves, 61. 
Squamous suture, 16. 
Stapes, 85. 
T. 
Tarsal cartilages, 78. 
Taste, 88, 89. 
Tears, 79. 
Teeth, !23. 
Temporary cartilage, 15. 
Thirst, 21. 
Thoracic duct, 34. 
Thyroid cartilage, 50. 
Tidal air, 54, 
Tongue, 24. 
Function, 25. 
Trachea, 50. 
Tragus, 83. 
Tricuspid valves—Action of, 43. 
Trifacial nerve, 70. 
True secretions, 91. 
Tubular glands, 92. 
y. 
Valves of veins, 48. 
Vegetables—How nourished, 9. 118 
Index. 
Yeins, 47. 
Of kidneys, 97. 
Vestibule of the ear, 87. 
Villi, 34. 
Vision, 73. 
Vital phenomena, 10, 
Vitreous humor, 76. 
Vocal cords, 50. 
Volumes of air, 54. 
Voluntary muscles, 17,18. 
Vomiting, 29. 
w. 
Water, 19. 
Properties, solvent powers, 
function of, 20. 
Watery vapor, 56. 
Wharton’s duct, 25. 
White corpuscles, 38. 
Wisdom teeth, 24. TESTIMONIALS. 
Davenpoet, lowa, July 9, 1881. 
I have examined the “ Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hy- 
giene,” written by J. C. Aementeout, and have no hesitancy in saying 
that the book will prove a great step in advance of most of the treatises 
on the subject for common school purposes,— concise, systematic, and 
lucid. The “ Outlines ” ought to lighten the labor of both teacher and 
pupil, and leave a much more lasting impression of the subject in young 
minds than is now commonly the case. 
W. D. Middleton, M.D., 
Professor of Physiology and Microscopic Anatomy, S. U. I. 
Mb. J. 0. Aementeout Dear Sir: I have examined some of the 
proof-sheets of your “ Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene,” 
and I want to say that I heartily approve of your plan; that I believe it 
to be a rational effort to present the essential facts of these sciences 
concisely, and divested of the useless matter that usually encumbers 
them; and that, so far as I have seen, your plan is very successfully 
carried out. Yours very truly, 
S. Calvin, 
Professor of Natural Science, S. IT. I. 
Des Moines, lowa, July 6, 1881. 
To Whom It May Concern: 
I have had the opportunity of examining the general plan and some 
of the proof-sheets of J. C. Aementeout’s text-book of Anatomy, Phys- 
iology, and Hygiene,” and am glad to say that I am sure it will be found 
of great service to teachers of those very important and much-neglected 
branches of study in our schools. Substantially the same plan was 
pursued by Mr. Aementeout in teaching those branches in lowa City 
Academy, when it was under the charge of my father, and with great 
success, so that I have no doubt that it will be found practical, and 
productive of excellent results in the hands of teachers who take an 
interest in the subject. Very truly, 
E. McClain, 
Resident Professor, Law Department, S. U. I. Testimonials. 
lowa City, June 30, 1881. 
Mr. J. C. Armentkout : I have examined the general plan of your 
“Outlines.” The matter seems to me well arranged, and sufficiently 
full for a popular treatment of the subject. 
Yours very truly, 
J. L. Pickard, 
President State University. 
Muscatine, lowa, July 18, 1881. 
J. 0. Armentkout—Dear Sir: I have carefully examined your 
“ Outlines in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene,” and must say, that, 
for simplicity, thoroughness, and practicability, they exceed anything 
in the text-book line for common schools that I have ever seen. Only 
an experience of many years in the school-room, presenting these sub- 
jects to beginners, could have enabled you to bring out all of the import- 
ant points in these sciences, and yet not render your work voluminous. 
In this you have succeeded admirably. I predict for your little work a 
hearty reception by educators everywhere. 
Yours truly, 
G. O. Morgridge, M.D. 
Having examined the text-book on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hy- 
giene, by J. C. Armenteotit, I cheerfully commend the same to school 
officers and patrons of schools in Johnson county, believing it to be the 
most thorough, condensed text-book published. The “ Outlines ” have 
been used very successfully in the Johnson County Normal Institute 
for the past four years. I feel confident that this work will be of great 
aid to the teachers of this county, in presenting these important 
sciences; also in making interesting and pleasant a subject whch has 
been considered dull and difficult by many of our teachers and pupils. 
W. Blaine, 
Superintendent of Schools, Johnson County, lowa. 
Mr. J. 0. Armentkout has used his “Outlines in Anatomy, Physiol- 
ogy, and Hygiene ” in lowa City Academy, during the past three years, 
with extraordinary success. We do not hesitate to pronounce it the 
most concise and thorough work of the kind published. We believe it 
will meet a want long felt in the public schools and academies. Mr. 
Armentkout has charge of the department of Physiology and Micro- 
scopic Anatomy, in our Academy, and we are glad to announce that 
hereafter his text-book will be used in our classes. 
Amos Hiatt, A.M., 
H. H. Hiatt, A.M.,8.D. 
Proprietors and Principals of lowa City Academy. Testimonials. 
121 
This certifies that I am familiar with the “ Outlines in Anatomy, 
Physiology, and Hygiene,” by J. C. Aementeout (having assisted him in 
reading proof), and that, in my judgment, the work is accurate and 
brief, yet comprehensive. In my opinion it will be a great assistance to 
both teacher and pupil. If, as I am informed, there has been a need 
of a work possessing these qualities, that need is supplied, and amply 
supplied, by the little volume which Mr. Aementeout is presenting to 
the public. 
O. T. Gxllett, M. D., 
Medical Department, State University of lowa. 
lowa City, July 21, 1881. 
Me. J. C. Aementeout— Dear Sir: I have been permitted to ex- 
amine some of the advance sheets of your work,—“Outlines in Anatomy, 
Physiology, and Hygiene,”— and am much pleased with the general 
arrangement and classification of the subjects treated of. As far as 
examined, it contains all the essentials to be found in our larger text- 
books, on these subjects, and I am satisfied it will supply a want long 
felt both by teachers and students. 
J. 0. Sheadee, M. D., 
Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women, S. U. I. 122 
Advertisements. 
lOWA CITY ACADEMY 
A.MT33 
Normal and Training School. 
INSTRUCTORS. 
AMOS HIATT, A.M., ) 
H H HIATT AM B D roPrietors an<t Principals. 
ASSISTANTS. 
Prof. H. J. Cozine, Mr. J. C. Aementrout, 
Prof. G. E. Whitmore, Miss S. F. Loughridge, 
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This is the largest and most thoroughly equipped school of the 
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and instruction than can be obtained in schools of less attendance. 
No examination to enter. 
Location Opposite northeast corner of University grounds. 
Fall term, fourteen weeks, . . Begins September 12, 1881. 
Winter term, twelve weeks, . . “ January 2, 1882, 
Spring term, eleven weeks, . . “ April 3, 1882. 
Summer term, six weeks, . . “ June 26, 1882. Advertisements. 
123 
AND 
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and Telegraphy. 
F. R. WILLIAMS, 
J. H. WILLIAMS, 
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Peopkietoes. 
This College is located on the corner of lowa Avenue and Dubuque Street, and is 
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lOWA CITY COMMERCIAL COLLEGE, 
lowa City, lowa.