A 
OF 
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC 
BOTANY. 
WITH*PLATES. 
BY GEORGE SUMNER, M. D. 
The beauties of the wilderness are HIS, 
That make so gay the solitary place 
Cowper. 
HARTFORD, 
OLIVER D. COOKE. 
1820. DISTRICT OF CONNECTICUT, ss. 
*L*S% BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the fifth day of 
**♦■* May, in the forty-fourth year of the Independence of the 
United States of America, Oliver D. Cooke, of the said District, 
hath deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right where- 
of he claims as Proprietor, in the words following, to wit : “ A 
Compendium of Physiological and Systematic Botany, with plates, 
by George Sumner, M. D.” in conformity to the act of the Con- 
gress of the United States, entitled, “ An act for the encourage- 
ment of learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and 
Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the 
times therein mentioned.” 
CHAS. A. INGERSOLL, 
Clerk of the District of Connecticut. 
A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me, 
CHA6. A. INGERSOLL, 
Clerk of the District of Connecticut. 
P. B. GOODSELL, PRINTER. TO 
THE RIGHT REVEREND 
THOMAS C. BROWNELL, DD. LLD. 
BISHOP OF CONNECTICUT, 
THIS LITTLE VOLUME 
IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
BY HIS OBEDIENT SERVANT 
AND FRIEND, 
THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. 
OF the elementary works on Botany to which the student 
finds easy access, the Introduction of Dr. Smith, with the notes 
of the American editor, is justly preferred to every other. It 
comes from the pen of a lively writer, who ranks pre-eminent 
among the botanists of the present day ; and it teaches us, as 
we pursue the path of science, to cull the flowers on the way : 
but it is made “ the vehicle for many observations, criticisms, 
and communications,” which are uninteresting to most of his 
readers. Its numerous references to expensive English works, 
and to foreign plants, which are alike unknown in this country, 
add rather to the expense than to this excellent Introduction. 
The Principles of Botany, by Professor Willdenow, of Berlin, 
and the Physiological Botany of Mr. Keith, maintain a high rank 
among the elementary works of their kind, but having never 
been republished in this country, they are comparatively rare. 
The author deems it necessary to observe, that many of the 
following pages have been selected from these and other works, 
and that the arrangement which he has pursued is very similar 
to that of Dr. Smith, though several alterations are adopted, 
which it is thought will be regarded as improvements. The 
“ Imperfect plants” are arranged in a separate chapter, the 
natural orders of Jussieu are explained, and a general summary vi. 
taken chiefly from Mirbel constitutes the concluding chapter. 
The technical English terms, which occur in the several Floras 
recently published in the this country, are defined and illustra- 
ted by a reference to well known plants, but the Latin terms, 
and the criticisms which are found in most elementary works 
of this kind have been omitted. 
This Compendium was designed as an Introduction to the 
3tudy of American plants, and it is published for the convenience 
of those who wish to pursue it. 
It was designed as a substitute for the more expensive volumes 
of Smith, Barton, Willdenow and Keith, and it has been com- 
piled for the convenience of those who wish to consult the 
Floras which have, within a short time, been published in various 
sections of the United States; other merits it does not claim. 
PREFACE. 
Botanical students who wish to obtain an accurate 
knowledge of the various plants th it meet their view, 
will oftenfind it necessary to compare them with others, 
to which they are nearly allied. Hence the indispen- 
sable utility of an herbarium which shall contain a 
collection of dried plants, usually arranged according HERBARIUM. 
viu 
to the system of Linnaeus or Jussieu. The student 
who wishes to form such a collection will require some 
instruction. 
When their flowers are fully expanded, the plants 
should be gathered, placed between folds of paper, 
and subjected to a moderate pressure until they are 
thoroughly dry. When the specimens are numerous 
or juicy, the papers should be frequently removed, 
and others are to be substituted for those which have 
imbibed the moisture of the plants, and the more faith- 
fully this direction is followed, the more perfectly will 
the specimens retain their original colour. Most plants 
should be gathered when they are entirely dry, but 
the Mosses may be collected at any season, thrown into 
a vessel of water and then laid between the folds of mois- 
tened writing paper, and subjected to pressure as in 
other cases. The Mushrooms are preserved with the 
greatest difficulty, and hence some have resorted to 
models, and some to coloured engravings for the illus- 
tration of that obscure class of vegetables. When the 
specimens are thoroughly dry they are to be arranged 
according to some method, and the papers to which 
they are attached should contain the name, locality, 
time of flowering, and whatever else is interesting res- 
pecting the plants which are in this way preserve d. 
An herbarium L frequently injured by insects as well 
as by moisture ; and it is remarkable that plants of an viii. 
PREFACE. 
acrid nature, are of all others most frequently devour- 
ed. Some essential oil is one of the best preservatives 
against this misfortune ; and we thus resort to the same 
armature which nature employs for the preservation of 
the tender flower. And with all his care it is necessary 
to caution the student against disappointment. Many 
plants turn black in spite of our exertions, while others 
retain their freshness with comparatively little care. 
Yellow, scarlet, and green, are among the lasting col- 
ours ; but the blue, the pale red, and the white, part 
with their beauty and their freshness together. 
The student should also be provided with a magnifi- 
er, which will enable him to inspect the flowers of the 
Grasses, and others equally minute ; and a close tin 
box of any convenient size and shape, will enable him 
to preserve the specimens which he gathers, several 
days ; and even then, they do not wither, but become 
black and mouldy. 
But instruments will be of little use, unless he re- 
sorts to books, for instruction. The Plants of Boston, 
by Dr. Bigelow ; the Manual of Botany, for the Nor- 
thern States, by Mr. Eaton ; the Flora of Philadelphia, 
by Dr. Barton ; the American Genera, by Mr. Nutall, 
and the Botany of the Southern States, by Dr. Elliott, 
have all been recently published in the United States. 
Nor should I omit to mention the Catalogue of North 
American Plants by the late Dr. Muhlenburg, and the BOTANICAL WORKS. 
ix, 
Grasses, which he has more fully described. The last 
mentioned work, however, as well as the Flora of Mr. 
Pursh, are in Latin. The student who wishes to ex- 
amine the productions of our Forests, in a more allur- 
ing dress, will derive much gratification from the pe- 
rusal of the splendid volumes of Michaux, entitled the 
American Sylvei. CONTENTS. 
PAGE, 
Introduction, ...... 1 
Chapter I. Vegetable Life, ... 23 
Chapter II. Germination, ... 30 
Chapter III. Vegetation, ... 39 
Chapter IV. Texture of Vegetables, . . 5^ 
Chapter V. Sap and Secretions, . . 74 
Chapter VI. Duration and Surface, . . 92 
Chapter VII. Roots, .... 97 
Chapter VIII. Trunks, . . . .112 
Chapter IX. Leaves, .... 120 
Chapter X. Appendages, . . . 153 
Chapter XL Flower Stalk and Inflorescence, 163 
Chapter XII. Flower, .... 167 
Chapter XIII. Functions of the Stamens and 
Pistils, 188 xii. 
CONTENTS. 
FAflJE. 
Chapter XIV. Fruit, . . ■ . 201 
Chapter XV. Imperfect Plants, . . 220 
Chapter XVI. Classification and Nomenclature, 232 
Chapter XVII. System of Linnaeus, . . 240 
Chapter XVIII. System of Jussieu, . . 252 
Summary. INTRODUCTION. 
THOSE who are about to commence a study 
which has hitherto been regarded merely as an orna- 
mental branch of education, may reasonably enquire 
what advantages they are to derive from their botani- 
cal pursuits ; what reward for the fatigue of patient 
and long continued research ? 
It is scarcely necessary to point to the examples of 
many illustrious men, who have devoted their time to 
the cultivation of botanical science. They have erect- 
ed a noble fabric, and the student who enters its por- 
tals, feels interested to know, by whom the materials 
were collected, and by whose exertions they have been 
thus judiciously arranged. He is surrounded by monu- 
ments of their ingenuity, and pauses to enquire, in 
what section of the world, and at what period, lived the 
men whose names are thus honorably preserved from 
oblivion. 
Of these men, some have been distinguished for the 
accuracy of their descriptions, some for the extent of 
their acquirements, and some for the intrepidity, with 
which they braved danger and endured privations. 
Those only who have most successfully endeavoured 
to advance the interest of our science, and to promote  
(he welfare of mankind, will claim from us the tribute 
of a brief, yet respectful notice. 
Like other branches of natural history, this is com- 
paratively of modern origin. Previous to the sixteenth 
century, a few plants only were known, and these were 
such as the credulity of'former ages had endowed with 
extraordinary virtues, and many of them were regarded 
with a degree of veneration to which they were poorly 
entitled. The wisdom of him, whose knowledge ex- 
tended from the proud Cedar of Lebanon, to the hum- 
ble moss which invested the walls of Judea, had not 
been revealed to his successors, and it was long, long 
before the mantle of Theophrastus, the father of the 
science, rested on the shoulders of a worthy son. 
About the middle of (he sixteenth century, several 
works were published, in which were delineated ma- 
ny of the European plants, and their authors are still 
distinguished in the annals of botany. Among them we 
recognize Fuschius of Germany, and Lobel of Eng- 
land ; names associated in the mind of the florist, with 
some of the most splendid of his treasures.* Among 
them Clusius also ranks preeminent. He is said to 
have been one of the greatest men of his age, who 
prosecuted the study of botany w ith more zeal and 
perseverance than any of his predecessors ; and with 
a diligence which his followers have never surpassed. 
He visited almost every section of Europe, encounter- 
ed many hardships, suffered much from sickness, and 
at last fell a victim to his bold and untimely exertions. 
“ His works shew us the great botanist, being enriched 
INTRODUCTION. 
* The Cardinal flower Lobelia Cardinalis is universally ad- 
mired for the rich hue of its blossoms ; and on account of the 
beauty of the Fuschia, it has been introduced into the gardens 
of Europe. They are both American plants. HISTORY. 
3 
with neat distinct figures, and masteily descriptions, 
it was that a man of so great merit, should have 
suffered so much, and even become the first martyr for 
botany.*” 
Contemporary with these lived Conrad Cesner, a 
native of Switzerland. At an early age Gesner turned 
his attention to the charms ofhis native mountains, whose 
romantic scenery, whose rich and varied productions, 
have excited the admiration of every beholder. Every 
year did the persevering Gesner visit some portion of 
the Alps, collecting the plants which fell in his way ; 
and frequently did he receive from his distant friends 
and admirers, the useful and the rare productions of 
other countries. In this way his herbarium became 
rich and extensive. He it was, who first described the 
tobacco plant, which was soon afterwards introduced 
into Europe by Sir Walter Raleigh, and has since be- 
come an important article of luxury and of commerce. 
But this skilful observer of uature is more particularly 
distinguished, as the first who proposed to divide plants 
into classes, so as to secure the advantages of system ; 
and Cassalpinus should be remembered as the first, 
who carried into effect the proposal of Gesner. His 
system however was too imperfect to gain many adher- 
ents, and botanists continued to describe plants, with- 
out order, and very often without precision. 
About two hundred years since, lived John and Cas- 
par Bauhin. These brothers were natives of Lyons in 
France, and “ the effect which their skill and assidui- 
ty had on the state of the science, was such as to form 
an era in its history. The sagacity of the elder broth- 
er detected the errors of his predecessors, and his 
* Wildenow. 4 
INTKODUCTION. 
General History of Plants, containing the result of hfj} 
years patient and acute observation, was enriched 
with masterly descriptions, declared by the immortal 
Haller to have been at that day unequalled.”* 
The younger Baukin soon pursued the steps of his 
brother, with the same praise worthy diligence, but 
with greater facilities for acquiring information ; and 
though less critical, and less accurate, he was more 
popular than his brother, and his career was more 
brilliant than that of any preceding botanist. He per- 
formed a most acceptable service, by designating the 
different names which other writers had applied to the 
same plant, and his work is still a key to the reposi- 
tories of ancient botany. 
But the extensive writings of the Bauhins did not 
give to botany the regular form w’hich it has since 
assumed, for the system of Caesalpinus, memorable 
only as the first production of its kind, had been ne- 
glected, perhaps forgotten by his successors, and the 
subject was entirely overlooked, till revived by Mor- 
rison of Scotland. He was soon followed by Rivinus 
a German botanist, whose system, founded upon the 
number and regularity of the petals, was so simple and 
so easily learned, that it found several adherents on 
the continent of Europe. It had been the practice 
of the systematic writers who preceded Rivinus, to 
separate trees from herbs, and to aim at an arrangement 
purely natural ; but he rejected the former, because 
it marred the uniformity of his plan, and renounced 
the pursuit of affinities as uncertain and abstruse. The 
simplicity of this system was one of its greatest excel- 
lencies ; but unfortunately, the variableness of the or- 
* Edinburgh Encyclopedia. HISTORY. 
5 
gans on which it was founded, was an insurmountable 
objection to its general use. 
And though it was received by some of the German 
botanists, that of Ray, possessing still greater excellen- 
cies, was more generally adopted in England. Its au- 
thor, who was a clergyman of the English Church, was 
equally distinguished for his piety and learning, for his 
very eminent talents and indefatigable industry ; a hap- 
py combination of excellencies, from which great im- 
provements might be confidently expected. He pub- 
lished a General History of Plants, embracing nearly 
20,000 species and varieties, and at the commencement 
of the eighteenth century, completed a system, “ in 
which the order of nature where it could be traced, is 
carefully pointed out, and the affinities of plants delin- 
eated with a masterly hand.”* 
The merits of his arrangement vrere unquestionably 
very great, and when we compare it with those of an 
earlier date, we shall not wonder that it was generally 
adopted in the native country of its author. 
Contemporary with Ray lived Tournefort of France, 
who at an early age manifested a partiality for the same 
pursuits, and was afterwards distinguished for the in- 
trepidity with w hich he collected plants, and the suc- 
cess with which he arranged them. After investigating 
the natural productions of Aix and the neighbouring 
Alps, he was led by the spirit of discovery to the 
summit of the Pyrenees, and over the hills of Spain, 
where he twice encountered the robbers, who had 
sought in those sequestered retreats, an escape from 
justice, and a repository for their plunder. Finding 
him loaded with dried herbs and poor bread, they wil- 
* Smith, te 
INTRODUCTION. 
lingly relinquished their spoil, and permitted the en- 
terprising traveller to return without further moles- 
tation to his native country. Under the patronage of 
Louis his king, he visited Greece and many of the 
provinces of Asia, and as he rambled over classic 
ground, he gathered the same treasures, which had 
centuries before been described by Theophrastus. 
After this he returned to Paris where he published his 
Institutions, an excellent work requiring no higher 
praise, than that“ it became the torch which illumined 
the early path of Linnaeus, and was the source of that 
more powerful light which the writings of the latter 
afterwards diffused.” 
But we must pass by the names of Kaempfer, Celsius, 
Dillenius, and Vaillant, names long distinguished in 
the annals of botany, though eclipsed by the superior 
splendour of one who was about to appear. His name 
was Charles Linnaeus ; and it commands more than cold 
respect, it has the veneration of the scientific world. 
He was born at a small village in Sweden, on the 3d of 
May 1707, and exhibited, during the first years of his 
life, a prediction for those studies which he after- 
wards pursued with unequalled success. His father 
being himself a clergyman destined him for the church, 
but 
“ Lightly he rambled over meadow and mount, 
And neglected his task for the flowers on the way.” 
The consequent deficiency of his academical ac- 
quirements soon became known, and the father, disap- 
pointed by the perverseness of his wayward son, w'as 
about to devote him to a more humble occupation, when 
the interposition of a neighbouring physician placed 
the young Linnaeus in the road of usefulness and glory. 7 
HISTORX. 
The friendship of Rothman enabled him to pursue his 
studies three years at Wexico, after which, poor and 
without a friend, he entered the university of Upsal. 
But merit like his could not be overlooked, and it 
wa3 not long ere Celsius, the first botanist in Sweden, 
was charmed with his zeal and intelligence, and re- 
lieved him of the burden of poverty with which he 
was encumbered. He was afterwards invited by the 
Academy of Sciences at Upsal, to explore the cold re- 
gions of Lapland, and the alacrity with which this pro- 
posal was accepted, and the faithfulness with which the 
objects of his journey were secured, were equally 
creditable to the zeal and perseverance of Linnaeus. 
Previous to his Lapland tour, the inhabitants of Torneo 
were frequently distressed by the loss of their cattle, 
two hundred of which are said to have annually per- 
ished on a single mountain. He went to their pastures 
to ascertain the cause of this calamity, and found it to 
proceed from the young leaves of the Water Hemlock, 
a poisonous plant, which grew abundantly in the marshy 
grounds of that country. He told the inhabitants how 
the loss of which they complained might be avoided 
without difficulty or expense, nor is it surprising that 
he should consider this as the most interesting event of 
his journey. What better compensation for its fatigues, 
what more heartfelt satisfaction could he receive, than 
that which he derived from the consciousness of saving 
the impoverished Laplander from the loss of his cattle 
and the horrors of famine. 
After his return to Sweden, he visited Holland for 
the purpose of receiving a medical degree, and there 
he became acquainted with Boerhaave, the most eminent 
physician of his age, and with Clifford,, scarcely less 
distinguished for the extent of his botanical treasures. 8 
INTRODUCTION. 
By the latter he was employed as an assistant, and du 
ring the years which he spent in this happy situation, 
he planned the system, which with some variations has 
been received by most of his successors, and publish- 
ed among other works, a description of the plants which 
he had formerly gathered in Lapland, and also of those 
which were collected in garden of his friend. 
Having in the mean time visited the most richly stored 
gardens of England and France, he returned after an 
absence of nearly four years, to his native country ; 
where through the kindness of an eminent Swedish 
statesman, he at length obtained the great object of his 
ambition, the botanical chair at Upsal. In this situa- 
tion he was unusually popular, and his increasing fame 
attracted students from every cpiarter, among whom 
were several, who imbibed, and diffused throughout 
the civilized world, a taste for the science over which 
Linnasus presided. 
“ The father who had been so often grieved at the 
perverseness of his son’s disposition for hunting after 
plants and worms, and who had therefore concluded 
that he was fit only to be a maker of Swedish brogues, 
fortunately lived to see him, not only professor of bot- 
any, but dean of the College of Physicians at Upsal, 
caressed by the grandees of Sweden, and honored by 
all the literati of Europe.” 
At the age of forty-six, by the government of his 
own country he was created knight of the P-lar Star, 
and soon afterwards, he was elected a member of the 
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and of the Roy- 
al Society at London. “ Botanical studies we have 
seen, were the first to engage the youthful mind of 
Linnaeus ; in these he persevered through life with de- 
light, and on the advancement which he lent to the 9 
science of Botany, will his future fame chiefly rest. 
So ardent did his passion for plants remain even after 
his health had began to decline, that disease was some- 
times pot to flight by the mere acquisition of botanical 
treasures. He was lying ill of the gout, and unable to 
move, when Kalm arrived from America ; but the 
sight of the transatlantic rarities brought home by 
this zealous collector, so much roused his spirits that 
he soon found the use of his limbs and conquered the 
malady. ”* 
And when in consequence of the infirmities of old 
age and sickness he was unable to perform the duties 
of his office, he found in his only son an able assistant, 
and a worthy successor. The brilliant career of the 
latter however was of short duration, and the Linnaean 
treasures, since his death, have been transferred from 
Sweden to England ; and fortunately for the science, 
they are in the possession of the most distinguished 
botanist! of the Island. 
T o trace the progress of systematic botany from the 
days of Linnaeus, would be to transgress the limits of 
this Introduction. It will scarcely be deemed neces- 
sary to mention the names of Thunberg his successor, 
Vahl his favorite pupil, Gmelin, and Pallas of Russia, 
Wildenow the very distinguished professor at Berlin, 
Murray, and Hoffman of Germany, Curtis, Withering, 
and Smith, of England, Decandolle of Geneva, Jussieu, 
Lamark, and Desfontaines of France. Much credit is 
due to these, and also to the worthy president of the 
Royal Society, for his early zeal in promoting a sci- 
ence, of which, he is at once the most judicious and the 
most liberal patron. Nor should we omit the names of 
HISTORY. 
* Edinburgh Encyclopedia, 
t Sir J. E. Smith, President of the Linnsean Society. 10 
IMTB.ODUCTION. 
the unfortunate Loetling, who fell a victim to his exer- 
tions in South America, of Jacquin and Swartz, who 
visited the West India Islands in order to investigate 
their natural productions ; of Brown, who with the 
same view resided several years at New-Holland, and 
of Humboldt and Bonpland, two enterprising travellers, 
who spent five years exploring the fertile regions of 
equinoctial America. 
I turn from these men, learned and respected, to 
speak of those botanists, who have investigated the 
productions of our own land. Among them I notice 
with pleasure the venerable name of John Bartram. 
His occupation was that of an industrious farmer, but 
he pursued with equal diligence the avocations of a 
naturalist. His inquisitive eye was always exercised 
in the examination of vegetables, which he surveyed 
through the various stages of their growth, and the 
beauty of their structure did not fail to impress his re- 
flecting mind. Not satisfied with the survey of his 
own paternal fields, he visited most of the provinces of 
this country, and in this favorite pursuit, was neither 
discouraged by difficulties, nor impeded by danger. 
He explored forests marked by no human footstep but 
of the savage warrior, and extended his researches to 
Florida, where even at this day, danger treads on the 
heel ofthe bold adventurer who dares pursue the steps 
of the persevering Bartram. He returned, and on the 
banks of the Schuylkill three miles from Philadelphia, 
commenced the formation of his garden. It was the 
first effort of the kind wffiich had ever been made on 
this side the Atlantic, and it was eminently successful. 
There he collected in the compass of a few acres, 
those plants which he had sought with so much dili- 
gence and fatigue, and enjoyed the luxury of a para- 11 
dise which his own hands had formed. Mr. Bartram is 
represented by one who knew him best, as “ a man of 
modest and gentle manners, frank, cheerful, and of 
great goodnature, a lover of justice, truth and charity. 
He was himself an example of filial, conjugal and paren- 
tal affection. His humanity, gentleness and compassion 
were manifested on all occasions, and were even ex- 
tended to the animal creation.”* 
The name of Bannister should not be omitted ; for 
Ray has termed him a most learned man, and consummate 
botanist. He resided in Virginia, where he formed a 
catalogue of plants, with descriptions generally correct 
and sometimes elegant, and one of his successors has 
given perpetuity to his name by associating it with a 
family of climbing plants. 
He was soon followed by Clayton, the correspondent 
of the learned in Europe, and the author of the Flora 
of Virginia. This was one of the earliest works which 
was arranged by Gronovius according to the Linnaean 
system, and the student, who has an opportunity to 
compare it with those of a more recent date, will ac- 
knowledge his obligation to the Swedish reformer for 
the introduction of specific names. 
We are reminded of Houston, who first described 
many of the Canadian plants, by the humble but very 
common Bluetts,! which during the spring months 
whiten the hilly pastures of New England. Kalm, 
though a gleaner in the same field of discovery, was 
equally meritorious and perhaps still more fortunate. 
He was the pupil of Linnaeus, who having spent three 
years on this continent, returned with those treasures 
HISTORY. 
Barton’s Medical and Physical Journal, 
t Houstonia Cerulia frequently named Eye-bright, 12 
INTRODUCTION. 
which so animated his master as to dispel the anguish of 
his malady and relieve him from a tedious confinement 
Kalm was a Swedish divine, who was afterwards elec- 
ted professor at Abo, and the American Laurel * which 
has been dedicated to his memory, is a splendid monu- 
ment of his worth as a botanist. 
Many of the plants of the New England states were 
first enumerated by Cutler, while those of the south and 
west were brought to light by the labours of Walter 
and Fraser. 
We may well feel gratified to gaze on forests which 
excel all others in the variety and usefulness of their 
productions. They had charms to tempt the intrepid 
Michaux, from a climate the most salubrious, a soil 
the most productive, from the pleasures of refined so- 
ciety, from the bosom of his family, and the circle of 
his friends. They had allurements to retain him 
twelve years in this happy exile, during which time he 
explored every recess from Georgia to Maine, at one 
time investigating the productions of nature, at another 
the improvements of art, always seeking and always 
ready to communicate useful information. From him, 
probably for the first time we learn that the single fam 
ily of Oak comprehends within the limits of our own 
country, more species than the whole amount of the 
trees of Europe. One hundred and forty trees have been 
enumerated in our forests, of which ninety-five are em- 
ployed in the arts, wrhile those of Franee contain less than 
twenty, only seven ofwhich hare been used for building. 
The vain champion of reason and philosophy, whose 
name deserves not to be remembered, once rested an 
argument on the diminutive productions of our soil 
* Kalmia. HISTORV. 
13 
He little knew how much it surpassed in many respects 
the favourite abode of his kindred philosophers. Micbaux 
has not only told us what trees enrich the different sec- 
tions of our country, but he has mentioned the various 
uses to which they are appropriated, on which account 
his work is one of the most interesting, as well as most 
valuable, in the whole range of botany. His object in 
visiting this country, was to ascertain what of its vast 
productions might with advantage be transferred to 
France, and when this was accomplished he returned 
to Europe. The publication of his work was entrust- 
ed to his son,* who had accompanied him in these re- 
searches, and he soon afterwards fell a victim to his 
exertions, while exploring the fruitful regions of Mada- 
gascar. The diligent enquirer after truth, the devot- 
ed patriot may imitate but will never surpass the ex- 
ample of the elder Michaux. 
Among American botanists none have ranked higher 
than the late Dr. Muhlenburg of Lancaster. While 
performing his parochial duties this venerable clergy- 
man is said to have been extensively useful to his poor 
parishioners, by teaching them the healing efficacy of 
their native plants. How delightful must have been 
his employment, whose life was devoted to the attain- 
ment of useful information, which diffused the smiles 
of gladness around the abode of misery, and made him 
the ever welcome visitor of his friends. Such was 
the employment of a man whose works—whose opin- 
ions—whose hints—whose very doubts have contribu- 
ted to the advancement of botanical science. 
* F. A. Michaux, whose splendid work on the forest trees of 
North America has been recently published in Philadelphia. 14 
INTRODUCTION. 
As a public teacher however, he was less distinguish- 
ed than the late Professor Barton of Philadelphia. 
Like the pupils of Linnaeus, his were numerous ; and 
many of them having imbibed his spirit, have cultiva- 
ted, with zeal and success, the science which contribu- 
ted to the usefulness and pleasure of their benevolent 
instructor. 
But while these men were employed in collecting, 
describing, and arranging the plants of different coun- 
tries, and accelerating the progress of systematic bota- 
ny, others with equal zeal, devoted their time to the 
study of vegetable physiology. 
Among them were Grew of England, and Malpighi 
of Italy ; both distinguished for the originality and cor- 
rectness of their observations, which were for a long 
while adopted, without alteration or improvement. 
They were succeeded b}f Dr. Hales, a clergyman of 
the English Church, and a member of the Royal So- 
ciety, whose work is described as a perfect model of 
experimental investigation, and whose character is at 
least equally excellent ; for he was “ pious, modest, 
indefatigable, and born for the discovery of truth.” 
He was soon followed by Duhamel of Paris, and 
Bonnet of Geneva, the former a most worthy botanist, 
whose physiological observations are ingenious and 
instructive ; the latter, distinguished for his luminous 
experiments on the uses of leaves. 
Nor should we omit to mention the excellent Gaert- 
ner, a German physician, whose work is a monument 
of the author’s accuracy and patience, and a repository 
of information respecting the structure and physiology 
of the seed. And it would be equally unjust to pass by 
the names of Mirbel and Knight, for in the following 
pages, we shall have frequent occasion to derive in- 15 
struction from their publications, and to refer to their 
discoveries and opinions. 
Mr. Knight is a worthy English gentleman, residing 
near London, nor is he less distinguished for his prac- 
tical improvements in the culture of plants, than for 
the philosophical opinions which led to their adoption. 
Mirbel, the equally worthy professor of botany at 
the Athenaeum in Paris, has published a treatise on 
vegetable physiology, which is altogether the most in- 
teresting, as well as the most complete, in this depart- 
ment of our science. 
Let us close this rapid sketch of its advancement, 
with a few observations respecting the utility of the 
Science, which so many illustrious men have made at 
once, their “ time’s employment, and their leisure’s 
charm.” 
The objects, to which our attention is invited, are 
both interesting and important ; interesting, for they 
clothe the earth with verdure and beauty ; and impor- 
tant, because from them we derive all the comforts and 
conveniences of life. Nor is it necessary to prove, for 
it has been established by the experience of ages, that 
the science, which reveals the nature and uses of ob- 
jects like these, may be of great practical utility. 
More important, and more deserving our attention 
at the present time, is its influence on the mental pow- 
ers ; giving energy to the weak, purity to the vicious, 
and contentment to the troubled mind ; at once the 
source of innocence, tranquillity, and joy. Many have 
attempted to delineate the most eligible course of edu- 
cation, and the claims of history to enlighten, of poetry 
to charm the human mind, and of the sciences to give it 
capacity and strength, have long been duly estimated 
and improved. All have their peculiar excellencies, 
ADVANTAGES. 16 
INTRODUCTION. 
which become more or less conspicuous, according as 
they promote the enjoyment of their respective pur- 
suers, and enable them to accomplish with facility the 
duties of life. 
More recently chemistry has become a favourite 
branch of instruction, and it has strong claims to our at- 
tention. Its intimate connection with the arts, the pre- 
cision of its language, and more especially the brillian- 
cy ofits experiments, exhibiting little less than creative 
power, have thrown around the labratory of the chem- 
ist, a lustre and a charm, sufficient to arouse the most 
listless observer. 
But while chemistry unfolds the latent energies of 
creation, and arms us with the power of the elements, 
natural history displays the treasures of a world, and 
makes them subservient to our enjoyment and use. 
Interesting in all its relations, whether we pursue it for 
pleasure, or employment, for amusement, or instruc- 
tion, we are sure of our reward. And especially when 
we turn our attention to the vegetable kingdom, whose 
magnificent treasures give life and gaiety to millions of 
animated beings, treasures, without which plenty has 
no overflowing cup, and joy no flowery wreath, we 
shall no longer despise the science which displays them 
to our view. Then we shall justly value it, as the 
source of innocent amusement, of practical information, 
and of mental improvement. 
As an innocent amusement, it will afford recreation to 
the man of business, and employment, happy employ- 
ment to the man of leisure. To both it will yield that 
serene satisfaction, that cheerful independence, which 
look for happiness, not to fickle worms of the dust, but 
to the great source of light and life. And having once 
learned to read the volume of nature, it is always open ADVANTAGES. 
17 
and before them ; and every plant becomes a monu- 
ment of pleasure, displaying its interesting organs, re- 
vealing its useful properties, and associated with pleas- 
ant recollections. A single example will serve to illus- 
trate the truth of this observation. In almost every 
section of the United States, is found a weed, which to 
the eye of a common observer, presents no idea of 
usefulness or beauty ; but it reminds the botanist of 
the same plant, which, presented by the Roman war- 
rior, became the sacred pledge of friendship, the same 
Vervain with which their sacrifices were garnished, the 
same which formed a garland for their priests, and a 
wreath for their temples. Heremembers, that gather- 
ed on a moonless night, it was employed by the Druids 
to remove diseases, conciliate friendships, and secure 
the accomplishment of every wish ; and though as an 
amulet it has lost its charm, and its reputation as a rem- 
edy, it is still a welcome intruder for the ideas which it 
recalls. Associations of this kind render botany at all 
times pleasing and instructive. But as the source of 
useful information, it has still stronger claims. Perhaps 
the victim of disease is at this moment, trampling under 
feet the very plant, which if properly applied would 
restore him to health. I need not say how pleasant it 
is to know the properties of those plants, by which we 
are immediately surrounded. Their history and ap- 
plication to the various purposes of domestic economy, 
should be investigated by every man who would be ex- 
tensively useful to those around him. 
By the botanic researches of Bartramand his compan- 
ions, the Magnolia and the Azalea, as well as numer- 
ous other ornaments of our forests, were transferred to 
the princely gardens of Europe. By the labours of 
Michaux his country was enriched with resources more 18 
INTRODUCTION. 
valuable and more lasting, than the monuments of Ital- 
ian and Grecian art, which victory enabled her armies 
to transfer to Paris. 
But plants cannot be successfully cultivated without 
a knowledge of their natural habitation and wants, and 
therefore we find that gardening, the most elegant, and 
agriculture the most useful of all arts, are improved on- 
ly in those countries in which botany is made subservi- 
ent to their advancement. And when a knowledge of 
this science is more generally diffused throughout our 
own country, we may expect to see it more frequently 
enriched with fields, and adorned with gardens, which 
while they bestow honor on their possessors, shall 
prove a pleasant recreation to the old, and a useful 
study to the young, exerting their salutary influence on 
both. Nor should its influence on the moral charac- 
ter be entirely disregarded. The late President 
Dwight was an eminent champion of the virtue which 
he practised. Often did he direct the attention of his 
pupils to Sweden, to point out the influence of natural 
history on the moral character of man. In that coun- 
try botany is taught in the schools, and the habitation 
of her excellent children presents a heart cheering pic- 
ture of domestic felicity, combining the piety of her 
divines with the patriotism of her undaunted heroes. 
Their piety and their patriotism both flow from the 
same source, for while they examine the productions 
of their country, they become attached to its soil, and 
while they contemplate the works of their Maker, they 
inspire the glowing spirit of devotion. 
Botany deserves our highest regard as the source of 
mental improvement. Nothing so powerfully attracts 
the notice of the young observer, as the various, the 
gay, though fleeting beauty of flowers; yet these inter- ADVANTAGES. 
19 
eating objects, like the characters of Algebra, serve to 
produce an accuracy of discrimination, which is the 
foundation of correct taste, the essence of sound judg- 
ment, and the object of every judicious system of edu- 
cation. And an intimacy with natural objects serves to 
cherish those finer feelings, which give delicacy to 
taste, and brilliancy to fancy, feelings which are often 
buried amidst the rubbish of severer sciences. On this 
account it is peculiarly suited to the culture of the fe- 
male mind. There we look for the glow of fancy, 
sprightliness of thought, correctness and delicacy of 
taste, and there, if properly cultivated, we are sure to 
find them. 
Such are the benefits which may be derived from the 
culture of botanical science. It relieves from the 
weariness of an idle, the fatigue of a busy, and the 
troubles of a contentious world. Its pleasures pure, 
rational, and lasting, are meted out with a liberal hand, 
neither stained by passion nor deformed by guilt.— 
Pure, for they flow fromthe contemplation of sinless ob- 
jects, monuments of goodness and power, whose perfec- 
tions in the the language of the Lyric Bard, perpetually 
“ Offer notes divine, 
To our Creator’s praise.” 
They are also abundant. He must be rich to whom 
the world pays tribute, rich indeed if that tribute be 
happiness. Such is the wealth of the Botanist, and 
there is no field so barren but it yields fruits for him, 
no plant so contemptible but he views it with pleasure. 
He finds animation and intelligence wherever he goes, 
new charms in every object, and new beauties in every 
scene. Earth teems with gladness, and in the solitude 
of the wood he finds interesting companions, untarnish- 
ed by the rude touch, unknown to the vulgar eye. 20 
INTRODUCTION. 
Called to visit distant lands, familiar objects like the 
companions of his childhood greet his arrival on the 
foreign shore, where new scenes introduce new pleas- 
ures, and give to the fatigue of his journey the fascina- 
ting form of amusement. Animated by the spirit of 
Linnaeus he climbs the highest mountains with alacrity, 
with glowing zeal penetrates the untrodden forest, and 
returns with cheerfulness to his home ; but his journey 
is not yet ended, for he has there collected materials 
which will yield him pleasure and employment, while 
the cold blast of winter is whistlinground his dwelling. 
Thus we shall find, whatever be our situations and 
pursuits, whatever be the trials and the pleasures that 
await us, that natural history, and especially our own 
favourite science, multiplies the sources of innocent en- 
joyment, extends our bounds of usefulness, and enables 
us to encounter the storms of life with fortitude and 
success. 
These are not the visionary speculations of youth 
and inexperience, for experience and wisdom have uni- 
ted their testimony in favour of Botanical pursuits. 
“ The study of Natural History has been for many year6 
the occupation of my leisure moments, and it is a mer- 
ited tribute to say that it has lightened for me many a 
heavy, and smoothed many a rugged hour; that beguil- 
ed by its charms, I have found no road rough or diffi- 
cult, no journey tedious, no country desolate or bar- 
ren. In solitude never solitary, in a desert never 
without employment, 1 have found it a relief from the 
languor of idleness, the pressure of business, and the 
unavoidable calamities of life.” 
The author of our Southern Flora has here spoken 
the language of every lover of natural science, and his 
pleasures are within the reach of every individual in ADVANTAGES. 
21 
society. And there is not an individual who will not 
find them uniformly connected with some practical ad- 
vantage. Is he a disciple of Hume ? let him forsake 
the wretched dogmas of his master, turn from the soph- 
istries of reason, the cold and cheerless realms of infi- 
delity, to contemplate the works of his God ; and he 
will be compelled to acknowledge it was truly said, the 
Botanist cannot be an Atheist. Is he a minister of the 
Gospel ? the Bible is his book, the volume of nature 
its best appendix. Both proceed from the same source, 
and we are required by the same authority to search the 
scriptures, and to consider the lillies of the field. Is 
he a physician ? I need only remind him of the language 
of the beloved Rush, to arouse his attention to the veg- 
etables of his country. Is he pursuing the pleasures 
of youth ? how many of our amusements at that inter- 
esting period of life have an intimate connexion with 
natural objects, and when those objects are consecra- 
ted by science and friendship, the fields become more 
verdant, the flower garden more inviting, and every 
scene more charming. 
If such be its happy influence on youth, what may 
we not expect when old age has folded us in his man- 
tle. In the evening of life, when the horizon of friend- 
ship is illumined by here and there a solitary star, mem- 
ory shall invite us to scenes of past enjoyment, where 
every flower will excite the recollection of some hap- 
py event, or reflect the image of some absent friend, 
absent perhaps in the regions of immortality, contem- 
plating the more splendid works of the same Almighty 
hand. 
The object of this work is to present a compendious 
view of the science which is recommended by such 
powerful examples and by its own intrinsic worth. It 22 
THE OBJECT OF THIS WORK. 
will involve the consideration of the life, growth, tex- 
ture and secretions of plants. It will involve an account 
of the different organs whose presence is required in 
the constitution of an individual plant. It will involve 
a particular examination of those organs which are ne- 
cessary for the perpetuity of the race : and lastly, it 
will present an explanation of those systems, which are 
to be our guide in studying the plants which meet our 
view, and in the investigation of their natural affinities. COMPENDIUM 
OF 
BOTANY. 
CHAPTER I. 
VEGETABLE LIFE 
AND 
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 
Natural History is the name of the science which 
examines and developes the nature, properties, and mu- 
tual relations of natural objects, comprehending the 
Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, under the 
three divisions of Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology. 
Minerals are readily distinguished, being destitute 
of organization and life, subject only to chemical and 
mechanical laws. But the other kingdoms of nature 
are so intimately blended, possessing properties which 
like the colours of the rainbow emerge into each other, 
that many have attempted to define their respective 
limits without success. They are both organised, and 
equally under the controul of a living principle, whose 
laws, the greatest efforts of human ingenuity have not 
been able to expound. This principle of life, it is 
said, consists in a power to resist putrefaction, and to 
a certain extent to maintain a temperature different 
from that of surrounding bodies. It is obvious that 
this definition is alike applicable to animals and plants. 
Both possess the power to resist chemical agency, both 
preserve their own temperature, which is sometimes 
higher and sometimes lower, than at of the surround- 24 
VEGETABLE LIFE. 
ing atmosphere. It is needless to mention that the 
temperature of animals is commonly greater, though it 
is equally true that it is sometimes less than that of the 
air they inspire. Plants though in an inferior degree 
possess the properties which distinguish them from in- 
animate matter. He who has escaped from the almost 
intolerable heat of paved streets, knows how* much the 
green and living grass, can contribute to his comfort. 
Near a volcano in the island of Tauna, the surface 
of the earth which is but 10 degrees below that of boil- 
ing water, is decorated with leaves and flowers com- 
paratively cool ; and the roots of the Chaste tree were 
discovered by Sonnerat, receiving nourishment from a 
rivulet which was nearly as warm. Yet the source 
from which it derived its nourishment, had little or no 
effect on the temperature of the plant. Under differ- 
ent circumstances, especially during the impregnation 
of their flowers, plants possess the property of genera- 
ting heat. And from the simple elements which are 
absorbed by their roots, they form combinations which 
transcend, if they do not subvert, the established laws 
of chemical action. Thus by a process which we can 
neither imitate nor explain, they convert the insipid 
fluid which they derive from the earth, into substances, 
as distinguished for their various yet peculiar qualities, 
as for the important uses to which they are subservi- 
ent. 
Darwin, whose exuberant genius too often soared 
above the field of sober observation, has attributed to 
vegetables a sensibility capable of enjoyment and suf- 
fering, with the power of volition, subject to the pas- 
sion of love and the necessity of sleep. 
The irritability of vegetables, on which depends the 
absorption and circulation of their fluids, was ingenious,- IRRITABILITY. 
25 
iy demonstrated by an experiment of Von Uslar. He 
destroyed the life of a plant by electricity, without af- 
fecting its organization, after which an incision of its 
branches was not followed by an effusion of fluids, 
though previous to the experiment it bled abundantly. 
It may also be exhibited by two transverse sections of a 
twig, from each extremity of which a fluid may be ob- 
served to escape. 
Sensibility differs from the preceding property of 
vegetable life, by its supposed association with pleas- 
ure and pain. A little attention to this subject will 
convince us, that plants distinguish heat from cold, 
darkness from light, and the other sensible properties 
of the atmosphere which promote, from those which 
retard vegetation. Thus when plants are placed by 
our windows, we see them present the upper surface 
of their leaves to the light; and when their position is 
reversed, a new arrangement of the leaves takes place, 
by which the same surface is again exposed to the rays 
of the sun. Some flowers which shine with distinguish- 
ing lustre in the morning, shrink from the dazzling 
brightness of a noon day sun ; some court his meridian 
glory, while others at the approach of darkness, expand 
their tender blossoms, loading with perfume the breez- 
es of evening. Thus too, we find the leaves of some 
plants closing around their tender blossoms, to protect 
them from the injurious effects of cold and moisture ; 
and others exquisitely sensible to the touch of extrane- 
ous bodies. The flowers of the Barberry, a shrub 
which grows abundantly in every section of the United 
States, evince a susceptibility of impression from exter- 
nal objects, at once curious and surprising. The 
leaves of the Sensitive, so often the innocent source of 26 
MOTION AND HABIT. 
interest and amusement, exhibit the same phenomena 
in a still more remarkable degree. 
Dr. Smith, to whom I shall frequently have occasion 
to refer, and from whom on a subject like this it is gen- 
erally unsafe to differ, thinks that vegetables possess 
some degree of sensation, and consequently an inferior 
degree of happiness. He says that such a supposition, 
accords with all the best ideas we can form of the 
Divine Creator, nor could the consequent uneasiness 
which plants must suffer, no doubt in a very inferior 
degree from the depredations of animals, bear any 
comparison with their enjoyment on the whole. 
Whatever opinions we adopt on this subject, until our 
knowledge is more extended, sensibility must not be 
regarded as the peculiar attribute of either kingdom. 
Some have attempted to draw the line of distinction, 
by limiting to animals the power of locomotion ; but 
they forget that while the corals are attached to the 
rocks of the ocean, thefuci are seen to swim on its 
waters. 
Plants like men are much under the power of habit. 
The following examples are sufficient to evince the ex- 
tent of this power. Several plants which are natives 
of warm climates wffiere their existence is prolonged for 
several successive years, have been removed to less 
temperate regions. They are unable to endure the 
cold of their new situations, and consequently must 
change their habits of growth ere they can be cultivated 
with success. To secure this object some of them 
pass through the successive stages of their existence 
with astonishing velocity, and accomplish rn a single 
summer what they had been accustomed to require 
years to perform. Our garden Nasturtion was origin- 
ally a shrub which flourishes without cultivation on 27 
HABIT. 
the banks of the Peruvian streams ; yet, transferred to this 
country, it has become an annual plant, which arrives 
at maturity in a few short months. The habits of other 
tender plants are with more difficulty subdued, and they 
to be successfully cultivated must be gradually transfer- 
red from their native soil. In the latter case the habit 
and the power they acquire to accommodate themselves 
to their new situation, overcome' the natural impedi- 
ments to their growth, which under different circum- 
stances would have been irresistible. Therefore it is, 
that plants whose seeds were ripened in northern lat- 
itudes, are less liable to injury from frost, than they 
would have been if their seeds had been brought from 
a temperate climate. By thus gradually accustoming 
it to a diminution of temperature. Rice was at one time 
cultivated with advantage in New Jersey, though with- 
out these precautions it rarely comes to maturity even 
in Virginia.* The habits of the Indian corn aided by 
climate and culture have suffered still more remarka- 
ble changes. After having been for several years rais- 
ed in Canada it arrives at perfection in a few weeks, 
and on that account is employed by us as an early corn. 
But that which has been repeatedly cultivated in Vir- 
ginia will not ripen even in New-England, yet origin- 
ally the small early Canadian, and the luxuriant Virginia 
corn were the same, both in habit and in every other 
known property. They probably originated from the 
same identical seed. Numerous other examples might 
be mentioned, but enough has been done to justify the 
conclusion, that vegetables as well as animals are under 
the dominion of habit. 
Vet some there are, who deny the existence of vege- 
* Barton’s Medical and Physical Journal. 28 
CRITERION OF MIRBEL. 
table life, who attribute the phenomena of which we 
have been speaking to a power which the artist possess- 
es, to the agency of chemical and mechanical causes. 
We have seen that they possess most of the properties 
which distinguish living from inanimate matter, and 
that like animals they owe their existence to a power 
which we can neither comprehend nor explain. 
This analogy might be traced still further, and we 
at last should be obliged to resort to a criterion which 
for want of a better has of late been defended with great 
ingenuity by Mirbel, and adopted by the most eminent 
naturalists of Europe. The food of animals is found to 
consist of organized materials, whose peculiar proper- 
ties were produced by the action of life. With the 
single exception of salt, which is used as a condiment 
and not as food, 1 believe this is a rule of universal ap- 
plication, and that there is not an article of food which 
has not been the tenement of life. Vegetables on the 
other hand are nourished by inorganic materials, by 
earth, by air, and by water. They constitute the great 
manufactory of life, in which the dead elements of cre- 
ation are converted into living solids, capable of sus- 
taining the lives of animals. In this respect the former 
possess a power denied to the latter, and if they could 
speak, they would tell us how entirely, how immedi- 
ately we are dependent on them for existence. Is not 
then the position tenable, that life is the same wherev- 
er it is found, and that it derives its peculiar modifica- 
tions from the form and structure of the tenements 
which it inhabits ? Even in the same body it assumes 
a great multiplicity of forms, and enables the eye to 
see, the ear to hear, and the tongue to taste and tell, 
while other organs equally important and equally alive 
are almost denied the power of sensation. 29 
DEFINITION OF PLANTS. 
To a person accustomed to contemplate only the 
higher orders of plants and animals, it will appear easy 
to draw the line of distinction and to point out the char- 
acteristics of each. To him the criterion of Mirbel 
will appear as hypothetical as it is really just, and he 
will never find it necessary to resort to such an expe- 
dient, to determine whether he is examining the organi- 
sed remains of animal or vegetable life. But when he 
descends to the inspection of those inferior orders of 
beings, in which simplicity of organization is combined 
with powers of life almost extinguished, he then finds 
it difficult to determine to which kingdom, those or- 
gans and that life belong. 
In such cases the resources of modern chemistry 
have furnished us with an additional guide. The pe- 
culiar phosphoric odour exhaled during the combustion 
of animal substances, indicating the presence of nitro- 
gen, has been rarely detected during the decomposi- 
tion of vegetables, and we may safely infer the animal 
nature of those organs by whose combustion it is pro- 
duced. Plants then are organized and living beings, 
springing from seeds or gems, and nourished by inor- 
ganic substances which they absorb from the atmos- 
phere and the earth. Medicine reveals their healing 
efficacy—chemistry detects the elements of which they 
are composed, and agriculture and gardening teach 
how they may be cultivated with the greatest advan- 
tage. 
But Botany assumes a more elevated station, and 
points out to her enquiring followers the great variety 
of their external forms, the curious arrangement which 
their internal structure presents, their habits, their 
history, their mutual relations and natural affinities- CHAPTER 11. 
GERMINATION. 
The living principle whose character can be traced 
only in its operations, sometimes remains inactive for 
years. Such at least is its situation while enclosed in 
the seed, where it continues inert till aroused by ttie 
application of external agents, or wasted by the des- 
troying agency of time. The former process is term- 
ed germination, and it is the source of all that variety 
and beauty, which plants exhibit, to charm the eye and 
make glad the heart of man. 
Reserving for a future chapter a more minute ac- 
count of the seed, it will be sufficient at this time to ob- 
serve, that its coats enclose an embryo or corcle destin- 
ed to become a living plant, usually lying betwixt two 
lateral lobes or cotyledons, and frequently accompani- 
ed by a farinaceous substance denominated the albumen. 
The latter, which exists abundantly in most kinds of 
grain, is designed entirely for the sustenance of the 
young plant, and the lobes, exhibiting more evident, 
traces of organization are chiefly subservient to the 
same end. In most cases however during germination, 
they grow out of the earth, assuming the appearance 
of leaves, but readily distinguished from those of a sub- 
sequent growth by their peculiar shape, clothing and 
duration. In others, they remain beneath the surface 
of the earth, or are elevated on the side of the young. PHENOMENA. 
31 
stalk, but in the latter case, they never assume a leaf- 
like appearance,* 
The embryo, to which these parts are merely ac- 
cessory, consists of two portions, one named the ros- 
tel and becoming the root, while the other, termed 
plumelet, ascends above the surface, to form the stem 
and the herbage. 
If we observe the order of these changes it will be 
found that the seed first swells from the absorption of 
moisture ; its coats burst and decay, the rostel being 
enlarged by the sustenance which it receives from the 
lobes, descends and becomes attached to the ground; 
after which the cotyledons are elevated above the sur- 
face, and at last the plumelet appears emanating from 
the base of the seminal leaves. 
But a better idea of these successive changes may 
be derived from the following examples, the former 
being seeds with two cotyledons and the latter with 
one which remained beneath the earth’s surface. 
At a season favourable to vegetation, Malpighi plant- 
ed some seeds of the Gourd, and the following were his 
observations respecting the developement of the young 
plants. 
At the end of the first day, the seeds were consider- 
ably enlarged—their coats were moist—a small orifice 
was discernible at their summit, through which the 
fluids seemed to have been absorbed, and the cotyle- 
dons, had already begun to assume the appearance of 
seminal leaves. At the end of the second day, the em- 
* Wildenovv describes three kinds of germination peculiar to 
perfect plants ; in the first the cotyledons, usually two in 
number, are converted into seminal leaves as in radish; in the 
second they remain beneath the surface as in lilies and grasses; 
and in the third, they are elevated on a young stalk, having the 
plumelet at their side as in some species of rush grass, 32 
GERMINATION. 
bryo was somewhat enlarged, the traces of its organiza- 
tion were more evident, and its radicle was distinctly 
visible. At the end of the third day, the exterior raem- 
braneshad become brown, the rostel bad burst through 
it, and the plumelet had begun to expand. At the end of 
the fourth day, the young plant had considerably en- 
larged, and the nerves of the seminal leaves which 
were still enclosed by the coats of the seed, had be- 
come very perceptible. At the end of the ninth day 
the plant had wholly escaped from the seed, though 
the plumelet was still enveloped in the seminal leaves, 
yellowish in its appearance but generally assuming a 
tinge of green. At length its extrication was effected 
and the rostel converted into a root ; the rudiments of 
a stem developed ; and on the twentieth day the plant 
was complete. 
The other example will serve to illustrate the 
growth of seeds with one cotyledon. Some Rye was 
planted in good soil, and at the end of the second hour 
its radicle was discernible. At the end of twenty four 
hours the embryo had escaped from its integuments. 
On the second day the fibres of the root had augmented 
but the leaves had not appeared. On the fourth day 
the first leaf began to appear above ground, at which 
time its colour was red. On the fifth day it had grown 
to the length of an inch, and its colour was now green, 
and on the sixth day the second leaf had appeared.* 
These effects are produced by the united influence 
of air, water and heat. 
Homberg, a distinguished philosopher of Europe, 
planted a variety of seeds under the exhausted receiver 
of an air pump ; they rarely germinated, and in this 
* Keith 33 
situation never continued to grow. The experiments 
of Homberg have been repeated with great fidelity by 
others, who infer that in the cases of germination men- 
tioned by him the vacuum must have been very in- 
complete. Seeds which have remained for years 
unchanged buried deep in the earth, are often seen to 
germinate when raised within the influence of the at- 
mosphere ; and the chesnut and acorn are found to 
grow better on the surface of the earth than when 
buried beneath it. Achard proved that seeds grow 
more luxuriantly in compressed than in rarefied air, 
and the successors of the illustrious Scheele, have by 
a series of ingenious experiments ascertained that it is 
the oxygen of the atmosphere which excites their ger- 
mination. 
Water and heat are also agents of primary impor- 
tance. The arid sands of Africa are scarcely embel- 
lished by a single plant, and the cold of our winter 
most effectually prevents the germination of the seeds 
which are scattered over the earth ; but let the rain 
descend and it will cause the desert to blossom as the 
rose, and when spring returns diffusing cheerfulness 
and warmth, it will revive the energies which slumber 
within the coats of the seed. 
The moisture which causes the first enlargement of 
the seed is chiefly absorbed through the scar (a small 
point by which it was originally connected with the 
fruit, and easily discernible on the surface of most 
seeds) but it is also imbibed by the integuments, for 
the entire exclusion of water from the scar, retards but 
does not arrest the process of germination. In either 
case the water which is absorbed passes through the 
vessels of the cotyledons to the rostel of the infant plant, 
which exhibits the first indications of vitality. Hence 
CAUSES. 34 
TERMINATION. 
we learn how these vessels are tinged when the germi- 
nating seed is placed in a coloured fluid, and why the 
young plant inevitably dies if the cotyledons are pre- 
maturely removed. 
But the fluids thus imbibed by the seed do not reach 
its embryo unchanged. They dissolve the farina of the 
albumen or lobes, a quantity of carbonic acid gas is 
disengaged, and a fermentation is thus begun which ter- 
minates only in the evolution of the new plant, or in 
the destruction of its vitality. If no oxygen gas be 
present, the latter consequence ensues, for whether it 
stimulates the vital principle, supplies the embryo with 
food, or converts the farina of the cotyledons into a 
mild and nutritive substance resembling sugar, whatev- 
er be its mode of operation, the importance of this 
agent, nay its necessity to germination has been most 
fully established. 
By removing even a minute portion of its carbon, the 
farina of seeds is converted into sugar, and from the 
very luminous experiments of the younger Saussure it 
has been reasonably inferred that oxygen promotes the 
germination of seeds, only as it combines wuth their car- 
bon, and enables it to escape. Thus by a process near- 
ly allied to that of malting, the infant plant is supplied 
with food, and it is probable that in the former as well 
as in the latter case, a small portion of heat is disengag- 
ed. “I conceive” says Dr. Smith, “ the evolution of 
this heat may powerfully further the progress of vege- 
tation, by stimulating the vital principle of the embryo, 
till its leaves unfold and assume their functions.”— 
Whether this conceit be true or not, it is certain that 
germination may be much advanced by the application 
of artificial heat, and seeds have in this way been made 
to vegetate in three hours, which under ordinary cir- CAU3ES 
35 
eumstances, require twelve. Adanson found that many 
seeds which were transported from Paris to Senegal 
germinated three days earlier than in their native coun- 
try. And wherever it is desirable to obtain the earli- 
est productions of the season, seeds ripened in a north- 
ern climate should be selected, for though less luxuri- 
ant, plants which are thus obtained, reach maturity with 
a less degree of heat. Since the agency of oxygen be- 
came known, it has been ascertained that it may be 
employed to excite the vegetative power of seeds, 
which under common circumstances refuse to grow. 
At least those substances which yield it with facility and 
in abundance, have been employed with the greatest 
success to produce this very desirable effect. One of 
the most effectual of these is, the chlorine of modern 
chemistry. Humboldt,* to whom we are indebted for 
this discovery, planted some Cress seeds in sand, and 
moistened some of them with pure water, and others 
with water impregnated with chlorine ; the latter vege- 
tated in six, the others in thirty-six hours. Jacquin 
employed the same agent to excite the action of seeds 
which he had received from the cape of Good Hope, 
and though every other effort had proved ineffectual, 
this was crowned with the most flattering success. 
It has been a question whether light promotes or re- 
tards germination. However important it may be to 
the luxuriance of the growing plant, I am inclined to 
believe that its influence on the germinating seed is 
comparatively trifling. It seems to have been the de- 
sign of nature, that this operation should be performed 
in the bosom of the earth, secluded from the light of 
* Humboldt mixed about four parts water with two of manga- 
nese and one of common muriatic acid, and placed the seeds in 
this mixture until the rostel was evolved. 36 
GERMINATION. 
day ; and observation has taught us, that in some instan- 
ces, it proceeds most rapidly in the dark. 
The following table will serve to shew how various 
are the periods requisite for the germination of differ- 
ent seeds, some requiring a greater degree of heat, and 
some more moisture than others, and some also requir- 
ing a longer exposure to all the exciting causes of ger- 
mination. 
days 
Wheat and Millet require 1 
Spinage, Beans, Mustard 3 
Lettuce, Anise 4 
Melon, Cucumber, Cress seed 5 
Radish, Beet 6 
Barley 7 
Orach 8 
days 
Purslain 9 
Cabbage 10 
Hyssop 30 
Parsley, 40 or 50 
Almond, Chesnut, Peach 1 year 
Rose, Hawthorn, Filbert 2y’rs 
No seeds vegetate so rapidly as those of the grasses, 
and none require a longer period than those of the Rose 
and others of the same natural order. 
But from what has previously been said, we must 
expect to see a variation of these periods in conse- 
quence of the more or less favourable situations in 
which the seeds are planted. 
Philosophers have in vain attempted to determine 
why plants invariably assume an erect position, why as 
the rostel descends towards the centre of the earth, 
the plumelet always rises above its surface. Art may 
force a young shrub to the horizon but its branches will 
still ascend as if they spurned a contact with the earth 
which supports them ; and if a germinating seed be 
made very gradually to revolve, the spiral form of its 
rostel will show that it has uniformly aimed to descend. 
Delahire supposed that plants become erect in conse- 
quence of the volatile nature of their fluids, the expla- 
nation of Mr. Knight rests upon mechanical principles. PRESERVATION OF LIFE IN SEED. 
37 
while others have imputed it to the same inherent per- 
ceptive intelligence which leads the duckling to the wa- 
ter, and the young partridge to the w'ood. Mr. Knight 
found that if seeds be made to germinate on a rapidly 
revolving wheel, their plumelets converge towards its 
axis, while the radicles proceed in an opposite direc- 
tion, and therefore, he concludes that the same princi- 
ple which causes a heavy body to fall when unsupport- 
ed, gives to the rostel its descending direction. The 
subject however is still involved in obscurity, for it 
seems paradoxical to say, that the Oak towers above 
the horizon in consequence of the same gravity, by 
which, when decayed it is precipitated to the ground. 
The germination of the Misletoe is very different 
from the process which has here been described. 
Destined to live upon the resources of other vegetables, 
its rostel penetrates their bark, and according to the 
observations of Duhamel, its seed will vegetate even 
when its cotyledons have been removed. Nor does 
its rostel exhibit that invincible tendency downwards, 
which has been noticed among the phenomena of ordi 
nary generation, but its young stem and young roots 
grow in every direction, apparently with the same fa- 
cility. 
“The preservation of the vital principle in seeds, is 
one of those wonders of Nature which pass unregard- 
ed from being every day under our notice. Some 
lose their vegetative power by being kept out of the 
ground ever so little awhile after they are ripe, and in 
order to succeed, must sow themselves in their own 
way and at their own time. Others may be sent round 
the world, through every vicissitude of climate, or bu- 38 
GERMINATION. 
ried for ages deep in the ground, till favourable cir- 
cumstances cause them to vegetate.”* 
The forester who removes from his plains the Pines 
with which perhaps for ages they have been occupied, 
is surprised soon after, to behold them covered with 
the barren oak, for he knows not, where or how the 
germs of such a multitude of shrubs have been preserv- 
ed. And where other vegetables have been burnt, he- 
sees the Fire weed, which Phoenix-like, springs up and 
appears to thrive only on the ashes of the dead. The 
earth which is thrown from cellars and wells is soon 
covered with thistles and other plants, whose seeds 
have been deposited in such a situation as to prevent 
their growth-, during a period which no man can estimate. 
These and other examples of the kind, have led to 
the popular, though erroneous belief, that the vegeta- 
bles which thus appear, derive their existence from 
the earth, and not from the germination of seeds. 
“ Great degrees of heat, short of boiling, do not im- 
pair the vegetative power of seeds, nor do we know 
any degree of cold that has such an effect. Those 
who convey seeds from distant countries should be in- 
structed to keep them dry ; for if they receive any 
damp sufficient to cause an attempt at vegetation, they 
necessarily die, because the process cannot as they are 
situated go on. If therefore they are not exposed to 
so great an artificial heat as might change the nature of 
their oily juices, they can scarcely according to the ex- 
perience of Mr. Salisbury, be kept in too warm a place. 
By the preservation of many seeds so long underground 
it seems that long continued moisture is not in itself fa- 
tal to their living powers, neither does it cause their 
premature germination unless accompanied with some 
action of the air.”* 
* Smith. CHAPTER III. 
VEGETATION. 
As soon as it has escaped from the integuments of 
' he seed, the young plant becomes capable of abstrac- 
ting from the atmosphere and the earth, the nutriment 
necessary to its complete developement; and our next 
enquiry relates to the food which it absorbs, and to the 
agents by which its growth is affected. By the aid of 
chemistry the soil and the Atmosphere have been ana- 
lyzed, and when we compare the ingredients of which 
they are composed, with those which enter into the 
composition of vegetables, it will be found, that the lat- 
ter do not select the principles which the former con- 
tain in the greatest abundance. Carbon, oxygen and 
hydrogen, the two last by their union forming water, 
constitute the bulk of most plants. Yet it appears, 
that the proportion of these and the other ingredients, 
is various in different plants, and hence it is obvious, 
that they would not grow with equal luxuriance in the 
same soil, sustained by the same food, and exposed to 
the same privations. Hence we learn, why some veg- 
etables flourish in clayey, some in flinty earth, while 
others thrive better in a calcareous soil than in either 
of these : why some are found invariably on the mar- 
gin of the sea, while others shun, as the pestilence of 
death, the vapours of the “salt sea foam.” And hence 
we learn, why some thrive only in water, others on 
the dry and sandy plain, why some grow luxuriantly in 40 
VEGETATION. 
the valley, while others bud and bloom only on the 
mountain’s dreary summit. From water, air and the 
soil, plants derive their food ; heat and light enabling 
them to convert it to their own use. 
1. WATER.—Of the various substances by which 
vegetables are nourished, water is perhaps the most 
important. It preserves the vigour and freshness of 
plants, which droop and wither when deprived of their 
necessary supply, and it restores to health the leaf 
that fades in consequence of its privation. * “ Many 
plants will grow, and thrive, and effect the develope- 
ment of all their parts, if the root is merely immersed 
in water, though not fixed in the soil. Lilies, Hya- 
cinths, and a variety of plants with bulbous roots, may 
be so reared, and are often to be met with, so vegeta- 
ting ; and others will also vegetate, though wholly im- 
mersed. Most of the marine plants are of this descrip- 
tion. It can scarcely be doubted therefore, that water 
serves for the purpose of a vegetable aliment. 
But if plants cannot be made to vegetate without wa- 
ter ; and if they will vegetate, some, when partly im- 
mersed, without the assistance of soil; and some, even 
when totally immersed, so as that no other food seems 
to have access to them ; does it not follow that water 
is the sole food of plants, the soil being merely the ba- 
sis on which they rest, and the receptacle of their 
food ? This opinion has had many advocates ; and the 
arguments and experiments adduced in support of it; 
were at one time thought to have completely establish- 
ed its truth. It was indeed the prevailing opinion of 
the seventeenth century, and was embraced by sever- 
This chapter is selected chiefly from the Physiological Bota- 
ny of Mr. Keith. ATMOSPHERE. 
41 
al succeeding philosophers, that water, by virtue of the 
vital energy of the plant, was sufficient to form all the 
different substances contained in vegetables. 
But more recent experiments have proved that this 
opinion is untenable, for it appears that in those cases 
in which mere water supplies the wants of vegetation, 
its invigorating effects are partially owing to the sub- 
stances which it holds in solution. While we maintain, 
therefore, that water is not the sole food of plants, and 
is not convertible into the whole of the ingredients of 
the vegetable substance, even with the aid of the vital 
energy; we must at the same time admit that plants, 
though vegetating merely in water, do yet augment the 
quantity of their carbon. In this situation some plants 
thrive, others are feeble, and languish for the want of 
more solid nutriment; and in all cases it is desirable 
to know whether the vegetables we cultivate, grow 
most luxuriantly in a moist or in a dry soil. The tex- 
ture and form of their leaves and roots, and the pecul- 
iar situation, in which, when unrestrained by culture, 
they are found to delight, will furnish useful hints to 
those who are pursuing this enquiry. 
2. ATMOSPHERE.—'When it was found that wa- 
ter is insufficient to constitute the sole food of plants, 
recourse was next had to the assistance of the atmos- 
pheric air ; and it was believed that the vital energy of 
the plant, is at least capable of furnishing all the differ- 
ent ingredients of the vegetable substance, by means of 
decomposing and combining in different ways, atmos- 
pheric air and water. But as this extravagant conjec- 
ture is founded on no proof, it is consequently of no 
value. It must be confessed, however, that atmospher- 
ic air is indispensably necessary to the health and vig- 
or of the plant, as may be seen by looking at the differ- 42 
VEGETATION. 
ent aspects of plants exposed to a free circulation of 
air, and plants deprived of it; the former are vigorous 
and luxuriant; the latter weak and stunted. It may 
be seen also, by means of experiment, even upon a 
small scale. If a plant is placed under a glass, to which 
no new supply of air has access, it soon begins to lan- 
guish, and at length withers and dies ; but particularly, 
if it is placed under the exhausted receiver of an air 
pump, as might be expected from the failure of the 
germination of the seed, in similar circumstances.— 
According to the experiments of Saussure, plants of 
peas, though completely developed and furnished with 
their leaves, died in the space of three days, when put 
into the exhausted receiver of an air pump, whether 
in the shade or the sun. But even in this situation, 
plants with thick and succulent leaves, seem capable of 
supporting vegetation, at least if exposed to the sun. 
A plant of the Prickly Pear, Cactus opuntia lived more 
than a month in this state, without showing any symp- 
toms of decay, except that the epidermis seemed dry, 
which again recovered its freshness, however, in the 
atmospheric air. 
But although we admit the great utility of atmospher- 
ic air, and even its absolute necessity to the support of 
vegetable life, we must not attribute to it more than is 
due, and conclude without proof, that air, together with 
water, forms the whole of the vegetable aliment And 
yet in support of this doctrine, it has been said, that 
many plants do evidently effect the developement of 
their parts, without the aid of any other nourishment 
beyond that of air, rains, and dews ; and the Mosses 
and Lichens, and some other tribes of plants, have been 
quoted as affording examples. 
Tt must be admitted no doubt, that plants of slow VEGETABLE EXTRACT. 
43 
growth, and tenacious of life, such as many of the Moss- 
es, and some of the succulent plants, do indeed effect 
the developement of their parts, without the aid of 
any other nourishment beyond what they derive from 
the atmosphere. But plants of rapid growth, such as 
annuals, can never effect that developement, without 
the aid of nourishment derived from the soil. Saus- 
sure tried the experiment upon Beans, Peas, and cress- 
es, by placing them in pure sand, and moistening them 
with distilled water. They grew indeed, and some of 
them even flowered, but never produced perfect seeds. 
It is plain, therefore, that some essential principle of 
nourishment was wanting, which is furnished by the 
soil; and that atmospheric air and water, are not the 
only principles constituting the food of plants. 
3. VEGETABLE EXTRACT.—When it was found 
that atmospheric air and water are not, even conjointly 
capable of furnishing the whole of the aliment necessary 
to the developement of the plant, it wras then alledged 
that, with the exception of water, all substances con- 
stituting a vegetable food must at least be administered 
to the plant in a gaseous state. But this also is a con- 
jecture unsupported by proof; for even with regard to 
such plants as grow upon the barren rock, or in pure 
sand, it cannot be said that they receive no nourishment 
whatever besides water, except in a gaseous state. 
Many of the particles of decayed animal and vegetable 
substances, which float in the atmosphere and attach 
themselves to the leaves, must be suffered to enter the 
plant in solution with the moisture which the leaves im- 
bibe ; and so also similar substances contained in the 
soil must be supposed to enter it by the root; but 
these substances may certainly contain vegetable nour- 
ishment ; and they will perhaps be found to be takers 44 
VEGETATION. 
up by the plant in proportion to tlieir degree of solu- 
bility in water and to the quantity in which they exist 
in the soil. Now one of the most important of these 
substances is vegetable extract. 
When plants have attained to the maturity of their 
species, the principles of decay begin gradually to op- 
erate upon them, till they at length die and are con- 
verted into the dust from whence they sprang, thus 
resembling the animal to whom they afford support. 
The substance to which they are finally converted has 
been denominated vegetable mould. And this, as might 
be expected, constitutes a considerable proportion of 
the soil. The chance then is, that it is again convert- 
ed into vegetable nourishment, and again enters the 
plant. But it cannot wholly enter the plant because it 
is not wholly soluble in water. Fart of it, however, is 
soluble and consequently capable of being absorbed by 
the root, and that is the substance which has been de- 
nominated extract. But the quantity of extract that 
may be separated from pure mould formed by nature 
upon the surface of the globe is not in general very 
considerable. And yet it frequently seems to be more 
than sufficient for the purposes of vegetation ; for a 
mould containing an excessive quantity was found by 
Saussure to be less fertile than that which contains an 
ordinary share. But if the quantity of extract must 
not be too much, neither must it be too little. Plants 
that were put to vegetate in mould deprived of its ex- 
tract, as far as repeated decoctions could deprive it, 
tvere found to be much less vigorous and luxuriant 
than plants vegetating in mould not deprived of its ex- 
tract ; and yet the only perceptible difference between 
them is, that the former can imbibe and retain a much 
greater quantity of water than the latter. SALTS. 
45 
From this last experiment, as well as from the great 
proportion in which it exists in the living plant, it evi- 
dently follows that extract constitutes a vegetable food. 
4. SALTS.—Most plants are found by analysis to 
contain a certain proportion of salts ; such as nitre and 
muriate of soda or common salt. How do they acquire 
them ? In the earlier periods of phytological investiga- 
tion, when every effect was attributed to the agency of 
the vital principle as exerted upon the air and water, 
which the plant inhales or absorbs, it was thought that 
the salts contained in vegetables are formed in the pro- 
cess of vegetation ; but this is also one of those extrav- 
agant conjectures of which further research has expos- 
ed the absurdity. The salts which have been detected 
in vegetables are known to exist in the soil It is most 
likely therefore that the root absorbs them in solution 
with the water by which the plant is nourished. For 
the fact is already ascertained that plants are capable 
of taking up salts by the root, at least when presented 
to them in a state of artificial solution ; and if so, there 
is then reason to presume that they are also taken up 
by the roots of plants vegetating even in their natural 
habitations. 
But if salts are thus taken up by the root of the veg- 
etating plant, does it appear that they are taken up as 
food ? Some plants, it must be confessed, are injured 
by the application of salts, as is evident by the experi- 
ments of Saussure ; but others are as evidently bene- 
fitted by it. Clover and Lucern have their growth 
much accelerated by the application of gypsum, though 
many other plants are not at all influenced by its action. 
The Nettle, and Borage will not thrive except in such 
soils as contain nitre ; and plants inhabiting the sea 46 
VEGETATION. 
coast, as was observed by Duhamel, will not thrive in a 
soil that does not contain muriat of soda. 
It has been thought, however, that the salts are not 
actually taken up by the root, though converted to 
purposes of utility by acting as astringents in stopping 
up the orifices of the vessels of the plant, and prevent- 
ing the admission of too much water ; but it is to be 
recollected that the salts in question are found by anal- 
ysis in the very substance of the plant, and must con- 
sequently have entered in solution. It has been also 
thought that salts are favourable to vegetation only in 
proportion as they hasten the putrefaction of vegetable 
substances contained in the soil, or attract the humidity 
of the atmosphere. But gypsum is not deliquescent, 
and if its action consists merely in accelerating putre- 
faction, why is its beneficial effect confined but to a 
small number of plants ? 
Some writers have contended that the salts which arc 
found in vegetables are merely accidental in their oc- 
currence, and not necessary to the health or perfection 
of the individual ; because they are found to exist in 
but a very small proportion, both in the soil and plant; 
but as there are many species in which some salts are 
to be met with constantly and uniformly, at least if they 
have vegetated in a soil in which they are found to 
thrive, we can scarcely regard their occurrence as 
being merely accidental, or as producing no beneficial 
effect upon the plant. But the proportion of salts 
lodged in the soil, is not so small as is generally be- 
lieved ; and it is abundantly sufficient for all the pur- 
poses of vegetation. It may even in some cases con- 
tain too much ; for it is to be recollected that saline 
substances are beneficial to yegetation only when np- EARTHS. 
47 
.plied in very small quantities. If they are administer- 
ed in great abundance they destroy the plant. 
And the argument against their utility that has been 
drawn from the small proportion in which they are 
found to exist in the plant itself, is altogether inadmis- 
sible ; because it is very well known that some particu- 
lar ingredient may be essential to the composition of a 
body, and yet constitute but a very small proportion of 
its mass. 
5. EARTHS.—As most plants have been found 
by analysis to contain a portion of alkaline or earthy 
salts, so most plants have been found to contain also a 
portion of earths ; and as the two substances are so 
nearly related, and so foreign in their character to 
vegetable substances in general, the same enquiry has 
consequently been made with regard to their origin. 
it seems to have been the opinion of Lampadius that 
the earths contained in plants are merely the effect 
of vegetation, and altogether independent of the soil in 
which they grow ; and extravagant as the opinion is, it 
has been made to assume the semblance of resting upon 
experiment. Saussure has exposed the absurdity of 
this opinion, and the fallacy of the experiments which 
led to its adoption ; and it is at present more generally 
believed that the earths are absorbed with the water in 
which they are dissolved. 
It is probable, however, that plants are not indebted 
merely to the soil for the earthy particles which they 
contain. They may acquire them partly from the at- 
mosphere. Margray has shown that rain water contains 
silica in the proportion of a grain to a pound : which, 
if it should not reach the root, may possibly be absorb- 
ed along with the water that adheres to the leaves. 
Rut although the earths are thus to be regarded as 48 
VEGETATION. 
constituting a small proportion of vegetable food, they 
are not of themselves sufficient to support the plant, 
even with the assistance of water. Giobert mixed to- 
gether the different earths in such proportions as are 
generally to be met with in fertile soils, and moistened 
them with water. Several different grains were then 
sown in this artificial soil, which germinated indeed, 
but did not thrive ; and perished when the nourish- 
ment of the cotyledons was exhausted. It is plain, 
therefore, that the earths, though beneficial to the 
growth of some vegetables, and perhaps necessary to 
the health of others, are by no means capable of afford- 
ing any considerable degree of nourishment to the 
plant. 
6. MANURES.—As the object of the preceding pa- 
ges, has been that of exhibiting a brief view of the dif- 
ferent species of vegetable food, whether it be regard- 
ed as derived from the soil or the atmosphere ; so our 
next object will be to show how the food necessary to 
the support of the vegetating plant may be supplied 
when defective, or restored when exhausted. But 
this unavoidably involves the subject of manures, or 
artificial preparations of vegetable food, so important 
to the advancement of agriculture, and consequent in- 
terest of mankind. 
With regard to the food of plants derived from the 
atmosphere, the supply is pretty regular, for the pro- 
poi’tion of its elements is not found to vary on any part 
of the surface of the globe, and if human aid were even 
wanted, it does not appear that it could be of much 
avail. But this is by no means the case with regard to 
soils, which are less regular in their composition, and 
at the same time, more within the reach of human 
management. On this subject however, we can only 49 
MANURES. 
refer 10 those practices which have been pursued with 
advantage, both in this country and in Europe. If the 
soil be wet or marshy, it is drained and burned ; if ex 
hausted from the repeated culture of any vegetable, 
the crop is changed ; if still unproductive the earth is 
plowed and suffered to repose. If any one asks how 
the fertility of a soil is restored by these means, it will 
be sufficient for the object of this work to reply that, 
in the case of draining, the amelioration is effected by 
means of its carrying off all such superfluous moisture as 
may be lodged in the soil, which is well known to be 
prejudicial to plants not naturally aquatics, as well as 
by rendering the soil more firm and compact. In the 
case of burning, the amelioration is effected by means 
of the decomposition of the vegetable substances con- 
tained in the turf, and subjected to the action of fire, 
which disperses part also of the superfluous moisture, 
but leaves a residue of ashes favourable to future vege- 
tation. In the case of the rotation of crops, the fertility 
is not so much restored as more completely developed 
and brought into action ; because the soil, though ex- 
hausted for one species of grain, is yet found to be 
sufficiently fertile for another, the food necessary to 
each being different or required in less abundance. 
In the case of the repose of the soil, the restored 
fertility may be owing to the decay of vegetable sub- 
stances that are not now carried off in the annual crop, 
but left to augment the proportion of vegetable mould ; 
or to the accumulation of fertilizing particles conveyed 
to the soil by rains; or to the continued abstraction of 
oxygen from the atmosphere. 
In the case of fallows, it is owing undoubtedly to the 
action of the atmospheric air upon the soil, whether in 50 
VEGETATION. 
rendering it more friable, or in hastening the putrefac- 
tion of noxious plants ; or, it is owing to the abstrac- 
tion and accumulation of oxygen. And in the case of 
plowing and trenching, it is owing to the increased fa- 
cility with which the roots can penetrate to a proper 
depth. 
But it often happens, that the soil can no longer be 
ameliorated by any of the foregoing means, and in this 
case, there must be a direct and actual application made 
to it, of such substances as are fitted to restore its fer- 
tility. And hence the indispensable necessity of ma- 
nures, which consist chiefly of animal and vegetable 
remains, that are buried and finally decomposed in the 
soil, from w'hich they are afterwards absorbed by the 
root of the plant, in a state of solution.” 
7. HEAT.—Besides the qualities of the earth, there 
are other agents, which maintain an unbounded influ- 
ence over the vegetation of plants. One of these is 
heat, and w ithout it no plants have been made to grow, 
though some require a greater degree of it than others. 
They all require sufficient while vegetating, to pre- 
vent the congelation of their fluids, and the tempera- 
ture at which this takes place, their freezing point de- 
termines the extent of their power to resist the opera- 
tion of cold. The vital energy of equinoctial plants, is 
not calculated to resist its agency, and therefore they 
cannot endure the temperature of freezing water. 
They require to be protected during the winter, 
and if originally brought from the southern hemisphere, 
they ought to be exposed to a good degree of artificial 
heat, or they lose their native beauty and fragrance. 
But the vegetables of Polar regions possess an aston- 
ishing power of resisting the operation of cold, which 
enables them to brave the inclemency of every season LIGHT. 
51 
and to extend the empire of their existence beyond the 
limits of perpetual snow. They are furnished with 
buds, which guard the tender leaves and flowers from 
injury, till the period of their evolution arrives, after 
which their power of self preservation is lost, and they 
are injured by the cold which they are no longer pre- 
pared to resist. 
8. LIGHT.—Another agent is light; without which, 
plants may be made to grow, but no longer exhibit the 
verdure, the texture, or any of the properties of health. 
Hereafter we shall probably learn, that while the at- 
mosphere is contaminated by the respiration of ani- 
mals, its purity is restored by the vegetation of plants. 
But secluded from the light, vegetables are no longer 
capable of converting a portion of the fixed air to their 
own use, or of supplying the atmosphere with oxygen, 
on which its importance to animal life, chiefly, if not 
entirely depends. By the action of light, the carbon 
of the fixed air is interwoven with the very texture of 
the plant, whereby it acquires a greater degree of firm- 
ness, and becomes more valuable in the arts. Through 
its agency, the aromatic and essential secretions are 
formed, and hence we find them existing in perfection, 
only in countries which are favoured with the perpet- 
ual light of summer, or on elevated mountains, where 
the rays of light meet with no obstruction. There we 
find the Nutmeg, the Clove, the Cinnamon and the Pe- 
ruvian barks, all designed to increase the comforts, or 
diminish the sufferings of humanity ; and all owing 
their chief excellencies to the light of the sun. 
When prepared to investigate the geographical dis- 
tribution of the vegetable kingdom, we shall learn the 
powerful effects of these united causes. Feeble and ex- 
hausted in Polar regions, vegetation acquires strength 52 
VEGETATION. 
as we approach towards the equator; where its pow 
ers can be estimated, only by the magnificence of its 
productions. There the light of the sun is more vivid, 
its heat more permanent and intense, while the soil 
is equally fertile, and the atmosphere equally pure. 
In southern Georgia, an island of the frozen ocean 
only two plants have been discovered, and but thirty 
have been found to grow without cultivation, in the 
more temperate climate of Spitzberg. How contemp- 
tible are these productions, when compared with those 
of our own climate, or the still more fertile fields of 
Madagascar ! But deprive Madagascar of its heat, and 
it becomes a second Greenland. Exclude the light of 
the sun, and like the dark caverns of the earth, it will 
produce only a few plants, and those of a sickly hue. 
Destitute of rain, it will be like the deserts of Africa, 
and unsupplied with air, it will exhibit no vestige of 
life. We must therefore expect, as we recede from 
the equator, to meet with a constant succession of new 
plants, but as we advance, we shall find them less nu- 
merous snd perhaps of inferior beauty and size. And 
as we ascend above the surface of the ocean, we must 
be prepared for asimilar, though more rapid succession. 
This was long ago established by the observations of 
Tournefort, and it has more recently been verified, by 
the researches of Humboldt and Decandolle ; but an 
account of their observations must be reserved for a 
subsequent chapter. CHAPTER IV. 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
When we reflect upon the vast variety of produc- 
tions which the analysis of vegetables discloses to our 
view, and that even the same plant presents substances 
essentially different from each other-; it must be obvi- 
ous that for each of these substances there is an appro- 
priate system of vessels. And when we examine the 
transverse section of a woody stem, it presents sever- 
al varieties of structure, distinguished from each other 
by colour-taste—density and strength, embracing all the 
different arrangements which are to be found in the grow- 
ing plant, and some of theib in their most perfect form. 
It presents externally the BARK, composed of Epider- 
mis—Cellular Integument and Cortical Layers; it pre- 
sents the WOOD, exhibiting, especially in old trees, 
two distinct portions, which are readily distinguished 
by their peculiar density and colour ; and in the cen- 
tre of these it presents the PITH ; very abundant in 
young shoots, but gradually disappearing with age. 
This is the arrangement which we find, and this we 
shall adopt, in the prosecution of our enquiries respec- 
ting the texture of vegetables. 
SECTION l. 
EPIDERMIS. 
The exterior covering by which every part of a liv- 
ing plant is surrounded, is named itsCuticle or epidermis. 54 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
The various examples which it exhibits, some distin 
guished for their delicacy and others for their singular 
beauty, invite to an examination which the importance 
of the organ demands. 
“ In the root and trunk, it is ooarse and hard, or it 
is a crust of considerable thickness, forming a notable 
portion of the bark, and assuming some peculiar shade 
of colour which it seems to acquire from age ; while 
in the leaves, flowers, and tender shoots, it is a fine, 
colourless, and transparent film, not thicker than a cob- 
web. But its want of colour is discoverable only 
when detached ; for, when adherent, it is always ting- 
ed with some peculiar shade, which it borrows from the 
part immediately beneath it. Hence the green colour 
so prevalent in the leaf and tender shoot, which the 
epidermis merely transmits, and the beautiful variety 
of tints displayed in flowers and fruits. In the perma- 
nent parts of woody and perennial plants, the old ep- 
idermis often disengages itself spontaneously, as in the 
Currant, Birch, and Plane tree, in which it seems to be 
undergoing a continual waste and repair ; and in such 
plants it is again regenerated, even though destroyed 
by accident. But in herbaceous plants, and in the leaf, 
flower, and fruit of other plants, it never disengages 
itself spontaneously, and is never regenerated if once 
destroyed.”* 
According to the elder Saussure, who studied this 
organ chiefly in the leaves and flowers of the Jessa- 
mine and Foxglove, it is composed of two layers, the 
interior being a net work interspersed with numerous 
glands, the other consisting of a fine transparent mem 
* Keith EPIDERMIS. 
55 
brane, capabie of being partially detached but destitute 
of organization. 
The glands, noticed by Saussure, are regarded by 
Hedwig as mere apertures, or pores, perforating the 
pellicle that forms the epidermis. “ They are con- 
tained within a peculiar area, which is sometimes round, 
sometimes oval, and sometimes rhomboidal. [Figs. 1 
and 2 are designed to represent a magnified view of 
these areas as exhibited by the garden pink and li- 
ly.] They are generally oblong, though they are of- 
ten so much contracted as to change their form. The 
areas communicate with one another by means of cer- 
tain vessels originating in their circumference, and 
forming part of the general net-work which is compos- 
ed of two distinct but adherent layers. Finally, they 
are regarded as being organs of perspiration, and their 
peculiar areas, which consist also of two distinct but 
not adherent layers, are regarded as forming recepta- 
cles for perspirable matter.”* 
The magnitude and number of these pores is unques- 
tionably various in different plants, and by observing 
how soon the branches wither when removed from 
their original connexion, we can estimate the aggre- 
gate number and size of the orifices, through which 
their fluids escape. By observing also how soon the 
faded branch revives after it is plunged into water, we 
can determine the comparative magnitude and number 
of those orifices, through which its fluids are absorbed ; 
and we shall find that while our aquatic vegetables with- 
er in a few moments, owing to the rapid discharge of 
their fluids, others are so constructed as to retain their 
moisture several days. We shall likewise find that 
- Keith. 56 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
some which absorb water with facility, exhale it very 
sparingly, a fact, which renders them well adapted to 
sustain the privations which they were designed to en- 
counter. The Houseleek is a plant of this description, 
and thei'efore we frequently see it flourishing on walls, 
where other vegetables would wither and die. The 
Aloe and Ice plants, those splendid ornaments of the 
sandy desert are other examples, whose cellular tex- 
ture is filled with fluids, which the peculiar formation 
of their epidermis enables them to absorb and retain. 
The epidermis usually appears like a simple mem- 
brane, but those of the Paper Birch and Currant, are 
composed of several layers which may easily be sepa- 
rated from each other, and the number of its epider- 
midal coats has acquired for an American shrub, the 
popular name of Nine bark.* But there are cases in 
which the several layers are obviously so incorpora- 
ted as to form in the aggregate only an individual epi- 
dermis. This may be exemplified in the rind of an 
apple, of which the layers are two in number, the ex- 
terior being thin and transparent, the other being more 
succulent and tender, and tinged with a peculiar shade, 
giving colour to the fruit. In most cases when recent- 
ly formed, it is transparent as well as porous, so as to 
admit the free access of light and air, while it excludes 
every substance which would prove injurious to vege- 
tation. Not only does it protect the young tree from 
external injury, but it preserves our choicest fruit 
from premature decay, and without it the leaf would 
lose its verdure, the flower its fragrance, and their 
transitory beauty would become still more evanes- 
cent. 
* Barton’s Elements, 57 
To Wheat, to Rye, and to most kinds of grass, the 
epidermis is of still greater importance, for at once it 
supports their stalks, and secures them from injuries, 
to which, without this defence they would have been 
continually exposed. The beauty and strength of 
those straws which are employed in the manufacture 
of bonnets, and the durability of such as are used in the 
formation of thatched roofs, may be traced entirely to 
their exterior covering. In these, and still more abun- 
dantly in the epidermis ofthe Rattan and Scouring Rush, 
Sir Humphry Davy has discovered the existence of 
flinty earth, and in some cases the quantity is so great 
as to give fire when struck with steel. It is the flint 
which enters into its composition that renders the 
Rush so noxious to animals, so useful in the arts, and 
it is this which makes the ashes of burnt straw one of 
the best materials, which can be employed in giving its 
finest polish to marble. 
The epidermis is sometimes clothed with wool or 
down, when it becomes an effectual security against the 
extremes of heat and cold. Thus protected, a few 
plants linger around the ruins of the volcano, long af- 
ter they are deserted by their less fortunate compan- 
ions. The young leaf of the American poplar, Popu- 
lus grandidentata, affords a fine example of this downy 
covering, which disappears whenever the enclosed 
texture becomes so firm as no longer to require it for 
defence. The wooly covering of the Mullein is more 
generally known, and its very close analogy to the fur 
of animals, would warrant the inference that they are 
designed to answer the same important purposes. 
Thus various are the forms of the epidermis, an 
organ merely of defence, admirably designed to secure 
from harm the tender vessels which it encloses, and to 
EPIDERMIS, 58 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
form in the language of an interesting writer, “ a fine 
but essential barrier betwixt life and death.” Possess- 
ing in a very inferior degree the properties of organi- 
zation, and the powers of life, it is frequently the most 
durable portion of the vegetable structure, and serves 
to enclose the remains of those organs, for whose de 
fence, when living, it was chiefly designed. 
SECTION 2. 
CELLULAR INTEGUMENT. 
immediately beneath the epidermis of leaves and 
young stems, we find a soft juicy coat which is named 
cellular integument. It exists in all herbaceous plants, 
occurs in pulpy fruits, and is particularly conspicuous 
in the leaves and flowers. In the seed lobes, it is 
usually white, in the leaves it is green, while in the 
flowers and fruit it assumes almost every variety of 
hue. 
The organ in question has been examined with pe- 
culiar care by Mirbel, and no one else has delineated its 
structure with so much perspicuity, and minuteness. 
When divided by a transverse or vertical section it 
presents an assemblage of hexagonal cells, resembling 
those of the honey comb, each side being common to 
two cells, and the whole arranged with the most perfect 
symmetry. “ But if the cells happened to be com- 
pressed by any foreign force, the hexagon then assumed 
an elongated appearance. The partitions of the cells 
were found to be extremely thin and transparent, and 
their organization too fine to be distinguished even by 
the highest magnifiers. But they were generally per 59 
forated with holes or pores, forming the medium of 
communication between the dilferent cells, and border- 
ed with a sort of small and glandular ring. The whole 
of the tissue was extremely delicate, but particularly 
in the several parts of the flower, where the slightest 
touch stained it, and the slightest pressure destroyed it. 
It was also speedily destroyed by maceration in water. 
If the cells happened to be empty it was transparent 
and colourless, but if filled with juice it was generally 
green, though sometimes brown, yellow, or red, com- 
municating its acquired colour to the epidermis, wheth- 
er in the leaves, petals, or other parts of the plant.”* 
The mere empty cells form the cellular membrane, 
and the same cells when filled with their appropriate 
and frequently coloured juices, constitute the Paren- 
chyma or pulp, which foi’ms the great mass of succulent 
plants and pulpy fruits. No plants are destitute of 
this integument, for it is the seat of operations in- 
dispensably necessary to healthy vegetation ; but 
these operations will be more fully explained in our 
chapter on the uses of leaves. 
CELLULAR INTEGUMENT. 
SECTION 3. 
CORTICAL LAYERS. 
If a stem of the Currant or a branch of the Lime 
tree be divided transversely, vve find within the cellu- 
lar integument a series of concentric or Cortical Layers, 
corresponding in number to the age of the stem or 
branch we examine. In some instances they constitute 
* Keith. 60 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
the entire bark, and in all they are its most essential 
portion. 
The exterior and old “ layers are coarse and loose 
in their texture, exhibiting individually a conspicuous 
and indurated, but very irregular net-work, composed 
of bundles of longitudinal fibres, not ascending the stem 
directly but winding more or less around the axis of the 
plant. 
As the layers recede from the circumference, the 
net-work which they form is finer though still very ir- 
regular, and their texture more compact. But al- 
though irregular, the meshes of the different layers 
often correspond, forming an aperture that extends as 
far as the meshes coincide, but diminishing in size as 
it penetrates towards the centre. In the trunks of 
aged trees, such as the Oak and Elm, the apertures 
thus formed, widen into large gaps and chinks, exhibit- 
ing still in their distribution the rough traces of the 
net-work of the original layer, now laid bare by the 
decay of the epidermis and cellular integument.”* 
But in the bark of young trees and young branches, 
these apertures are occupied by a cellular substance, 
more or less indurated, which pervades the fibres of 
the net-work and binds them together, but these fibres 
being less perishable than the intervening substance 
remain entire long after it has wasted away. 
The inner layer, that which lies contiguous to the 
wood is termed Liber, from its having been employed 
in ancient manuscripts. It is more delicate than the 
others and also more important; whether we regard 
its uses in the economy of vegetation, or its subservi 
ency to the wants of man. 
' Keith. CORTICAL LAYERS. 
Gi 
From the inner bark of the Mulberry, the natives of 
Otaheite manufacture their garments, and though 
whimsical in their appearance, they are wrought with 
great ingenuity. By a more refined process, the Liber 
of the Flax is converted into fine linen, the “ white 
robe of innocence,” which in the natural as well as in the 
moral w7orld, is obtained only through the exertions of 
man and the bounty of his Creator. But even in its 
natural state this organ is sometimes extremely beauti- 
ful ; of this we have a remarkable example in the Lace 
bark of Jamaica, whose net-work is scarcely inferior to 
the finest lace ; and at the same time soft, flexible, 
and shining as silk. It is obtained from a shrub* which 
grows in the West India Islands where it is said to be 
employed as an article of dress. 
We see therefore that the cortical layers are com- 
posed of two distinct portions—longitudinal fibres 
forming a network—and cellular substance occupying 
the intervening spaces. The texture of the former 
varies from the delicate fibres of the lace bark, to the 
coarse meshes of the oak, but in all cases the net-work 
is more durable than the intervening pulp, and more 
capable of resisting the operation of chemical agents. 
But the cortical layers of the Pine tribe present no 
net-work, the Liber being composed of parallel adher- 
ing fibres and the outer layers appearing like plates of 
dried cellular integument, each separated from the oth- 
er by an intervening membrane or epidermis. 
The cellular texture which is so easily destroyed 
by the action of air and water appears to contain the 
peculiar secretions of plants frequently in their most 
perfect state. Of this we have a very common exam- 
* Daphne Lagetio. 62 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
pie in the bark of the Oak, whose layers in a living state 
are closely connected with each other by the cellular 
texture, but in consequence of long exposure this tex- 
ture is destroyed and the separate layers only remain. 
But with this substance, the astringency of the Oak is 
gone. And if the bark of the Cinnamon be fora while 
subjected to the action of boiling water; the woody 
fibres of the net-work remain uninjured but it loses its 
exquisite flavour which probably resides in the inter- 
vening pulp. 
SECTION 4. 
WOOD. 
The texture of the Wood which constitutes the 
great mass of trees and shrubs, was investigated with 
peculiar care by Duhamel, and the same subject has 
been more recently pursued by Mirbel and Knight, 
with their usual ingenuity and success. 
An old stem of the Currant, when transversely di- 
vided, exhibits a series of concentric layers intersected 
by plates which diverge from the pith to the bark, 
like the rays of a circle.* A transverse section of the. 
Oak presents a similar arrangement, but here the cir- 
cular layers are considerably thicker and the divergent 
plates far more conspicuous than in the preceding ex- 
ample. And if we would pursue the examination still 
farther, the Ash, the Elm, and the Lilac, will serve to 
shew that the arrangement so obvious in the Oak, pre- 
vails also in other woody stem?. The central layers 
are usually most durable and complete, for those of the 
circumference being still under the control of a living 
principle, retain a portion of their peculiar juices, 
* Figs. 7 and 8. 6o 
which can be suddenly dissipated only by the applica- 
tion of heat. This external portion of wood which is 
named sap by the workmen, is for obvious reasons to 
be rejected whenever durability and strength of mate- 
rials are required. By Duhamel it was named Alburnum 
inconsequence of its being uniformly white, whereas 
the central layers are frequently of a different colour. 
In the Guiacum they are black, in the Oak and Labur- 
num they are brown, and in other examples they are 
of a reddish hue. The exterior and unripe portion is 
converted into perfect rvood, much sooner in vigorous 
trees than in others, and this change is sometimes ef- 
fected earlier on one, than on the other side of the 
same tree, inconsequence of its more vigorous growth. 
The term Alburnum which Duhamel employed in a 
more extensive sense, is usually restricted to the exter- 
nal layer, whose texture is softer and more abundantly 
stored with juices than the others. From this pecul- 
iarity of external character, it was at one time thought 
to be a substance essentially different from that of the 
layers it invests. By the ancients it was regarded as 
analagous to the fat of animals, and intended perhaps to 
serve as nutriment during the winter. But it is now 
known to be merely wood in a less condensed state, 
being yet lighter and softer than the interior layers, 
but acquiring strength and solidity with age. It does 
not however acquire its utmost degree of solidity till 
after a number of years ; but vvhen divested of its bark 
it is converted into perfect wood in a single summer.* 
It is generally believed that each of the concentric 
layers is the growth of a single year, and that the age 
of a tree may be known by the number of circular lay- 
WOOD. 
* Keith, Vol. I. p. 331. u4 
texture of vegetables. 
ers which compose its trunk. It has even been assert 
ed that we may know what winters have been pecul 
iarly severe, by the hardness of the annual plates, and 
what summers have been mild and serene by their su- 
perior thickness. Duhamel having discovered some 
exceptions to the truth of this general proposition was 
led to reject it entirely, but his observations are not 
deemed sufficient to invalidate an opinion which most 
botanists have adopted. “ It is very true that there 
may be occasional interruptions in the formation of the 
wood from cold or fickle seasons, and in some trees the 
thin intermediate layers, hardly discernible in general, 
which unite to form the principal or annual ones, may, 
from such fluctuation of seasons, become more distinct 
than is natural to them. Such intermediate layers are 
even found more numerous in some trees of the same 
species and age than in others. But as there is always 
a most material difference between summer and winter, 
so I believe there will always be a clear distinction 
between the annual rings of such trees as shew them 
at all. Trees of hot countries indeed, as Mahogany, 
and evergreens in general, have them but indistinctly 
marked ; yet even in these they are to be seen.”* 
The divergent plates sometimes termed silver grain 
m allusion to their singular brightness, are particularly 
numerous in the Maple and large in the Oak. They 
seem to bind together the annual circles, and to increase 
the strength of timber which without these connecting 
bands, would have been easily shattered to pieces : 
nor is it uncommon to see the former separated from 
each other, in consequence of the destruction of their 
silver grain. Each of these concentric layers is divisi- 
* Smith. WOOD. 
65 
ble into others, which at last may be reduced to a net- 
work of longitudinal fibres similar to those which exist 
in the bark. The Hemlock tree Pinus Canadensis, 
after a long exposure to the atmosphere exhibits a good 
specimen of layers thus subdivided, nor is it easy to dis- 
tinguish the component layers from the annual circles. 
The same thing may be observed in the stem of the 
Cabbage, which has been exposed to the weather until 
its divergent plates are decomposed ; leaving its con- 
centric layers distinct from each other like the tubes 
ofa telescope. 
When minutely examined, the plates of silver grain 
sire found to be composed of parallel fibres closely 
crowded together, and appearing like compressed cel 
lular membrane. We see therefore, that wood is com 
posed of longitudinal fibres forming a net-work, and cel- 
lular tissue extending in a transverse direction, the two 
sets of fibres being interwoven so as to make the entire 
structure very compact, and thus corresponding to the 
description of Grew, who compared one to the warp 
and the other to the woof ofa web. 
After it was ascertained that a new layer is annually 
deposited, it became a question whether it was formed 
by the bark, the wood, to the specula- 
tions of Linnaeus from the pith. But the experiments 
of Duhamel and Hope, have put this question forever at 
rest. The former introduced plates of tinfoil between 
the bark and wood of growing trees, carefully bind- 
ing up their wounds, and suffering them to remain sev- 
eral years without further molestation. He found in 
all cases, the layers of new wood exterior to the tin. 
Dr. Hope’s experiment is equally decisive. He made 
a longitudinal incision on the branch of a Willow, so as 
to detach the wood from the bark, leaving the latterin titi 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
the form of a hollow cylinder, by the side of the nak- 
ed stem, and both portions retaining their original con- 
nexion with the trunk and superior branches. After 
a few years this tree was examined, and “the cylinder 
of bark was found lined with layers of new wmod, whose 
numbers added to those of the wood from which it had 
been stripped, made up the number of rings in the 
branch above and below the experiment.” But the 
stem from which the bark had been removed remained 
unaugmented. It appears therefore that two layers are 
annually deposited on the inner surface of the bark, 
similar at first and closely united, but gradually assu- 
ming a distinct character, and at last receding from 
each other in the form of wood and bark. At the com- 
mencement of a second Spring, they are contiguous 
but readily detached from each other, but ever after- 
wards are they separated by the intervention of the 
more recent layers. 
SECTION 5. 
PITH. 
The pith is a soft spongy substance occupying the 
centre of the stem, and extending from the root to the 
extremity of the young branches. In the Ash it is un 
interrupted and compact, in the Garget Phytolacca de- 
candra, it is composed of transverse partitions inter- 
secting the tube of the stem, which in that plant is un- 
usually large ; and in some of the Thistles, it more re- 
sembles the web of a spider attached to the sides of the 
tube, but neither regularly disposed nor so large as to 
occupy its entire cavity. In the Hemlock and other PITH. 
67 
Umbelliferous plants it forms a fine delicate lining, re~ 
markable in some cases for its brilliancy, and in many 
of the grasses it presents a similar appearance. But in 
the Zizania or wild Rice, one of the largest grasses in 
New-England, it forms in addition to this lining, distant 
partitions which interrupt the cavity of the stem.— 
When young the pith is usually green, becoming of a 
snowy whiteness when old, though in a few cases it 
becomes yellow or brown. 
Its texture is precisely similar to that of the cellular 
integument, being composed of cells which are seen to 
the best advantage in the centre, for there they are 
least compressed by the surrounding layers of wood. 
These cells, which are unusually large in the Elder, 
are filled with fluids when young, but in old branches 
the fluids are gone and the empty cells only remain. 
The pith is sometimes interspersed with fibres of a 
very different texture. They occur in the old stems 
of the Elder, and are still more conspicuous in the stalk 
of the Indian Corn. In the former case, they are dis - 
tinguished by their peculiar colour from the pith in 
which they are imbedded, and the formation of these 
fibres has been regarded as the commencement of the 
process, by which the pith is converted into perfect 
wood. 
Of its uses in the economy of vegetation, but little is 
known. Its structure being similar to that of the cel- 
lular tissue, it is probably subservient to the same pur- 
poses, though some writers have assigned to it more 
important functions. Among them was Linnaeus, by 
whom it was regarded as the source of nutriment, and 
the seat of vegetable life. Others, and among them is 
Mr. Knight, regard it as a reservoir of moisture, to 
supply the leaves when exhausted by excessive exha- 68 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
lation. But it has been observed that the pith of a 
whole branch does not in many cases, contain sufficient 
moisture to supply an hour’s perspiration of a single 
leaf; and an opinion, whose absurdity is thus easily 
demonstrated, must be forever relinquished. 
SECTION 5. 
VEGETABLE FIBRE. 
In the pith of the Indian Corn, we have seen a num- 
ber of large insulated fibres, passing longitudinally 
throughout its whole extent. In the leaf stalk of Cel- 
lery, in the stem of the common Brake, and also in 
most herbaceous plants, we meet with similar fibres. 
Viewed with a microscope, they are found to be a bun- 
dle of very slender fibres firmly connected together, 
and forming a thread, which is usually elastic and fre- 
quently strong. This thread is capable of repeated 
subdivisions, but no art can divide the component fibres 
to which it may easily be reduced. 
In a similar way the net work of fibres which com- 
pose a portion of the wood, and those of the silver- 
grain, by which the former are intersected, maybe re- 
peatedly subdivided, and it is found that they differ not 
only in structure and arrangement, but also in their de- 
gree of strength. “ This is obvious, from the well 
known fact that wood may be easily split, in the direc- 
tion of its longitudinal fibres, but notin the direction of 
the transverse plates, owing evidently to the strong 
and tough fabric of the former and to the slender and 
delicate contexture of the latter.”* 
* Keith. VEGETABLE FIBRE. 
69 
The firmness of wood, and consequently its value as 
timber, depends on the number and density of its lon- 
gitudinal fibres. In the Guiacum and Mahogany they 
are numerous and compact, in the Poplar they are few, 
and the wood of the former is extremely hard, while 
that of the Poplar is soft and spongy. But even in the 
same plant these fibres are not uniform throughout, ac- 
quiring their utmost degree of solidity only by age, 
and being soft and tender in the more recent layers of 
wood and bark. And the delicate fabric of these re- 
cent layers, exhibits a difference, equally worthy of 
observation. If for example, the bark is wounded, its 
fibres will soon reunite, and no traces of the wound are 
perceptible ; but when the wood is injured, its fibres 
are never reunited and the injured part is never regen- 
erated. We here see one of those admirable provis- 
ions of Nature, which it is impossible to contemplate 
without delight. The bark being exposed to frequent 
injuries, is capable of restoring itself to health, but the 
wood being comparatively secure, needs not and pos- 
sesses not this preservative power. 
But even these fibres, so slender that the naked eye 
can scarcely detect them, are found to be tubular, and 
they constitute the channel through which the fluids of 
the vegetable pass from one organ to another. They 
form in the aggregate bundles of hollow cylinders of 
which Mirbel has given a very satisfactory description, 
accompanied with some instructive hints relative to the 
peculiar functions of each variety. 70 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
SECTION 7. 
VESSELS. 
1. Simple Tubes.—Fig. 4 a. These are larger than 
the other varieties, and have no lateral perforations. 
They occur chiefly in the bark, sometimes in the albur- 
num or in the fibres of herbaceous plants, but they are 
particularly obvious in vegetables which contain thick 
and resinous juices. The peculiar colour of these jui- 
ces, which on account of their consistence could not 
readily pass through a channel of less diameter, will 
frequently enable us to detect the simple tubes. 
2. Porous Tubes.—Fig. 4 b. These resemble’the 
preceding in their general aspect, but the membrane 
which forms them is not in this case entire; being 
pierced with small pores which are arranged in parallel 
transverse rows. They occur chiefly in woody plants, 
and are particularly abundant in the hard texture of the 
Oak, but their uses are not very satisfactorily deter- 
mined. 
3. Spiral Tubes..—Fig. 4 c. If a young shoot of the 
Elder or Snowball is gently broken, its two fragments 
will appear to be connected by transparent fibres, 
which when closely examined, even to the naked eye 
exhibit a spiral form. Fig. 5. 
These are the coats of the spiral tubes uncoiled by 
the separation of the fragments, and if the latter are 
still farther separated, these fibres at last are broken, 
retract and assume their original form. In this state 
they have been compared to the Trachea or windpipe 
of animals, but they more closely resemble the elastic 
wire of suspenders which forms a complete tube ex- 
cept when forcibly extended and then it represents the 
spiral vessels in their uncoiled state. These tubes oc- VESSELS. 
71 
cur chiefly in the stems of herbaceous plants, in young 
shoots of trees and shrubs, and in leaves of every 
description. They have rarety been detected either 
in the mature wood or in the root, and the stems and 
leaf-stalks of Liliaceous vegetables exhibit them to the 
best advantage.* Of the nature and uses of these ves- 
sels, but little is known. Some have described them 
as the tubes through which the sap is propelled. Oth- 
ers as air vessels which accompany the tubes through 
which the sap passes in its ascent towards the leaf. 
We know that healthy vegetation requires the pres- 
ence of atmospheric air and it is reasonable to suppose, 
that like the other substances by which plants are nour- 
ished, this is furnished with an appropriate system of 
vessels, and surely nothing could be better calculated 
to answer this intention, than the spiral tubes which 
we have seen in the leaves and their appendages. 
4. False Spiral Tubes—Fig. 4 c. These appear 
somewhat intermediate between the two preceding, 
having transverse fissures, analogous to the pores ot 
the one and between these fissures rings which are not 
unlike the spiral coat of the other. They occur more 
frequently in herbaceous plants, and are particularly 
abundant in the soft texture of the Vine, and it is proba- 
ble that they are formed by the partial union of the 
Spiral rings. This idea has been confirmed by inspect- 
ing the Flowering Rush in which they are of a mixed 
character the same vessel exhibiting the arrangement 
of each variety being at once porous, spiral, and also in- 
tersected by transverse fissures. Fig. 4 d. 
5. Small Tubes are the only ones which remain to be 
* No plants which I have examined, exhibit them so distinct- 
ly, as the Skunk’s Cabbage, which is well named and figured in 
the American Medical Botany of Dr. Bigelow. 72 
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
noticed. They are composed of an assemblage of 
elongated cells which have collectively been compared 
to a bundle of tangent reeds, and individually to a straw 
of wheat whose cavity is occasionally interrupted by 
the joints. “ The membrane of which they are formed 
is often pierced with a great number of pores ; but is 
at the same time thick and strong, being cut with diffi- 
culty in a transverse direction, though in a longitudinal 
direction it is divisible without effort. M. Mirbel says 
the solidity of the vegetable depends upon the number 
ofinterrupted or cellular tubes. They are not discov 
erable in the embryo, nor even in the young plant at a 
very early period, but only when the parts have been 
fully developed, in which stage they are discoverable 
in most plants without much difficulty, pervading the 
ramifications of the branched Lichens, and the stems of 
the Mosses; surrounding the fibrous tubes of herba- 
ceous plants, and constituting also longitudinal fibre ; 
and intermingling themselves even with the fibrous 
tubes of woody plants, and constituting part of the lig- 
neous layers, as well as the prominent ridges with which 
the surface of vegetables is marked. In the finer and 
more delicate parts of the plant they are also equally 
prevalent, but here they assume a different aspect, 
and acquire a degree of consistence resembling that of 
the cellular tissue.”* 
Thus it appears according to the observations of Mir- 
bel and others that the structure of vegetables is en- 
tirely vascular being an assemblage of tubes and cells 
which are formed by the foldings of a membrane so col- 
ourless, transparent and fine that no one has been able 
to discover any traces of its organization. The form 
* Keith. VESSELS. 
73 
of the cells is somewhat diversified, varying in conse- 
quence of the pressure of the juices with which they 
are filled, as well as of the more substantial organs bv 
which they are surrounded ; usually, however, they 
are hexagonal, and the student who has no other means 
of gaining an adequate idea of their form and arrange 
ment may profit by the illustration of Grew, who hap 
pily compared them to the hubbies that float on the 
surface of fermenting liquors.1 CHAPTER V. 
SAP AND SECRETIONS. 
L\t a former Chapter we have enumerated the vari- 
ous substances by which plants are nourished, 
and we have now seen through what pores this nutri- 
ment is absorbed, in what cells it is elaborated, and 
through what vessels it passes from one organ to anoth - 
er. We are next to trace this food, which is abstract- 
ed from the soil only in a fluid state, through its various 
changes, to learn in what way it contributes to the 
developement of new organs, and to the formation of 
the vegetable secretions. 
The water in which the roots of a plant are immers- 
ed is gradually absorbed, and during the season of ve- 
getation, it ascends through the vessels of the stem 
with great rapidity and with great force, but still lim- 
pid, tasteless and inert, possessing only the properties 
of the pure water from which it was derived. This 
fluid constitutes the Sap. In some plants and at certain 
seasons it is particularly abundant. If wounded in the 
spring previous to the expansion of their buds, the sap 
of the Vine, Maple or Birch, flows profusely, but at 
mid-summer, after the leaves are fully developed, the 
tears of the Vine” are comparatively few. It is not 
unusual in this country to collect one or two hundred 
pounds of sap from a single Maple of ordinary size, and 
we are told that a Birch tree when wounded, has been 
known to discharge a quantity equal to its own weight. CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 
75 
Yet, at mid-summer when the whole energies of the ve- 
getable are exerted, these trees scarcely bleed at all. 
The flowing of the sap is usually regarded as the ef- 
fect of its accumulation in the vessels, at a season when 
there are no leaves through which, in the form of va- 
pour it may escape. Dr. Smith however regards it as 
the effect of heat, operating on the irritability of the 
plant, and he considers it as the first step towards the 
revival of vegetation from the torpor of winter. To 
this hypothesis there are very serious objections, for 
many trees bleed in the autumn after the leaves begin to 
fade and fall, as well as in the spring before the buds 
are open. 
During the season of vegetation, the motion of the 
sap is uninterrupted, and the energy with which it 
moves, is in some cases very great. Dr. Hales found 
that it ascends in the stem of the Vine, with force suffi- 
cient to elevate a column of water more than forty feet. 
By what means is it thus forcibly propelled ?The capilla- 
ry attraction of the tubes, the influence of temperature 
and the winds, have all been regarded as the agents 
by which the sap is elevated, but they all appear inad- 
equate to produce the effect. Nor is the hypothesis 
of Mr. Knight in any degree satisfactory. Having as- 
certained that the silver grain of the Oak is susceptible 
of quick changes from variations of temperature, he 
thinks that these changes may alternately contract and 
enlarge the diameter of the tubes, and thus forcibly 
propel the fluids which they contain. But the action 
of heat operating on the silver grain, would as much 
promote circulation through a dead and leafless branch 
as any other. The inherent irritability of the vessels, 
furnishes the only satisfactory explanation, for it is the 
only adequate cause of the sap’s ascent. And of the 70 
SAP. 
sufficiency of this, there can scarcely be a doubt, tor 
we have already learned,* that when the life of a plant 
is destroyed by electricity, though its texture is unin- 
jured, it ceases to bleed, and its fluids remain stations 
ry. But still they are exposed to all the other agents 
which have been thought to accelerate their motion. 
The ascending sap is usually insipid and inodorous 
being according to the experiments of the French 
chemists but slightly impregnated with those substan- 
ces, by which plants are nourished, and from which 
their secretions are formed. 
As soon as the leaves expand, this excess of moisture 
is exhaled, chiefly through the pores of their epider 
mis, and the fluid thus perspired appears scarcely dif- 
ferent from pure water, being the residue of sap de 
prived of the elements of those secretions which are 
formed during vegetation ; and though it escapes unseen 
its amount is in some cases very considerable. A 
small plant of the Sunflower was found to exhale more 
than a pound in the course of a day, and the Corneil 
tree of Europe, perspires still more freely. 
But the sap does not ascend indiscriminately, through 
every portion of the stem. A tree may be divested of 
its bark, and it will produce its usual supply of leaves, 
and an increased quantity of fruit. Mr. Knight remov- 
ed the pith from a young shrub, and it continued to 
grow with its former luxuriance. The nutriment there- 
fore does not ascend through the bark or pith. Nor 
does it pass through the central portion of the woody 
stem, for its vessels are nearly consolidated, and they 
are not, even during the bleeding season, filled with a 
limpid fluid. But one channel remains, and it is the 
alburnum of trees and shrubs, or the analagous por- 
tions of herbaceous plants, and hence we learn why the 
* Page 25. CAMBIUM. 
77 
operation of girdling, by which the vessels of their al- 
burnum are divided, not only arrests the vegetation, 
of trees but destroys their life. 
This opinion is also confirmed by experiments with 
coloured infusions, which tinge the vessels through 
which they pass, and give us a better opportunity of 
tracing their progress. In this way Mirbel ascertained 
that the small tubes are the channels through which the 
sap ascends, because they and they only are tinged with 
the infusion, and he adds in confirmation of his 
own correctness, that they are filled with a limpid fluid 
during the bleeding season. 
Mr. Knight has pursued this enquiry still further, 
and finds that the sap enters the leaf-stalk, through the 
centre of those fibres by which it is attached to the 
branch, and that it passes on to the surface of the leaf, 
through vessels which appear to be a continuation of 
the small tubes of Mirbel. In the cellular tissue of the 
leaf, the sap is renovated, its superfluous moisture es- 
capes through the pores of the epidermis, and the pe- 
culiar juice of the vegetable, sometimes denominated 
Cambium, is formed. It is green in the Periwincle, 
orange in the Bloodroot, and white in the Poppy and 
Milkweed, being the great principle from which the 
various organs of the plant are developed, and ofttimes 
the seat of its medical virtues. Like the sap it passes 
in an appropriate set of tubes, which arise from the 
expanded surface of the leaf, pass through its footstalk 
exterior to the central tubes, and penetrate the stem or 
branch to which the leaf is attached. From the ex- 
periments of Mr. Knight, we learn through what por- 
tion of the stem, and through what system of vessels, 
it descends to the root. Having detached a ring of 
bark from the trunk of a young tree, he found that the 78 
SAP. 
sap continued to rise, and the portion above the incise 
ion augmented as usual, while the portion below the 
ring scarcely augmented at all. “ But if a bud was pro- 
truded under the ring, and the shoot arising from it 
allowed to remain, then the portion of the trunk below 
that bud began immediately to augment in size, while 
the portion between the bud and incision remained 
nearly as before. When two circular incisions were 
made in the trunk so as to leave a ring of bark between 
them, with a leaf growing from it, the portion above 
the leaf died, while the portion below the leaf lived ; 
and when the upper part of a branch was stripped of 
its leaves, the bark withered as far as it was stript. 
Whence it is evident that the sap which has been 
elaborated in the leaves and converted into proper 
juice, descends through the channel of the bark, or 
rather between the bark and alburnum to the extremi- 
ty of the root, effecting the devclopement of new and 
additional parts. 
But not only is the bark thus ascertained to be the 
channel of the descent of the proper juice, after enter- 
ing the trunk ; the peculiar vessels through which it 
immediately passes, have been ascertained also. In 
the language of Mr. Knight they are merely a continua- 
tion of the external tubes already noticed, which after 
quitting the base of the footstalk he describes as not 
only penetrating the inner bark, but descending along 
with it, and conducting the proper juice to the very 
extremity of the root. In the language of M. Mirbel, 
they are the large or rather simple tubes so abundant 
in the bark of woody plants, though not altogether con- 
fined to it ; and so well adapted by the width of their 
diameter, to afford a passage to the proper juice.”* 
* Keith. DESCENT OF THE CAMBIUM. 
79 
The practice which was adopted by Mr. Knight for 
the illustration of vegetable physics, has been pursued 
both in Europe and in this country for a very different 
object. If a ring of bark is detached in the spring from 
the trunk of the Olive, the quantity of its fruit is very 
considerably increased. If a branch of the Vine 
is treated in a similar way, it has been ascertained that 
its fruit arrives at maturity, three or four weeks earlier 
than usual. By adopting this plan, those tender Grapes 
which could not otherwise be cultivated with success 
at Paris, have been brought to perfection.* The 
practice has also been adopted in this country, and it is 
not uncommon to see Apple and other fruit trees, with 
a portion of their bark detached. It has indeed super- 
ceded the old rude practices, of filling their trunks 
with nails, and boring to their pith, in order to increase 
the quantity of their blossoms and fruit. 
The observations of Mr. Knight teach us in what 
way the removal of a small portion of bark, may add to 
the fertility of the fruit tree. By intercepting the de- 
scent of the Cambium, a larger supply of food is collect- 
ed in the extreme branches, and thus the fertility of 
the tree, and the luxuriance of its young branches, 
are at once promoted. And the same observations 
teach us, that whatever impedes the descent of the 
Cambium, will sooner or later interrupt the progress 
of vegetation, for the root being deprived of its custom- 
ary nourishment, loses its vigour and ceases to abstract 
from the earth, an adequate supply of those materials, 
by which old organs are nourished, and new ones are 
formed. They also teach us that the fluids of a leafless 
* Desfontaine’s Arbres, Sir. 80 
SECRETIONS. 
tree, cannot circulate, except through the lateral orifi- 
ces of its vessels ; for the small tubes through which 
the sap is elevated, and the simple ones through which 
the Cambium descends, have no direct communication 
with each other, except on the leaf’s expanded surface. 
It is obvious, therefore, that the vascular system, at 
least that portion of it through which the fluids circu- 
late, must in every case be co-existent with the leaf, 
annual in deciduous trees, and perennial in all others. 
But the renovated sap as it descends from the leaf, 
contains not merely woody fibre for the increase of the 
vegetable : it has acquired other substances on which 
its flavour and medical virtues depend. We shall enu- 
merate those only which are most important. 
STARCH, whose properties are well known, is a very 
common product of vegetable secretion, being partic- 
ularly abundant in every kind of grain, and existing in 
large quantities in Potatoes and other nutritive roots. 
In the form of Sago, it is obtained from the pith of some 
of the East Indian Palms, and Salop which also is a pe- 
culiar modification of starch, is procured from the roots 
of various species of Orchis. 
GLUTEhi.—After the Starch is extracted from flour, 
there remains a darkish adhesive substance, named 
gluten, or vegetable glue. Exposed to a moderate de- 
gree of heat, it yields large quantities of fixed air, which 
renders the pastry of flour porous and light ; and hence 
its utility in the manufacture of bread. Yeast, in w hat- 
ever mode it is formed, contains gluten, w?hose decom- 
position affords fixed air and whose tenacity retains it. 
GUM.—Another product of vegetable secretion is 
mucilage or gum. It is commonly procured from those 
trees and shrubs which, in their uncultivated state, 
are armed with thorns. These organs are their ODly 81 
security against the attacks of animals, whose fondness 
tor mucilage, would cause them to wound the trees 
Which afford it. The different species of Mimosa, the 
Astragalus Tragacantha, as well as the Plumb, in their 
native situations, are in this way defended, and from 
them the most perfect examples of gum are obtained. 
It is also procured from the Lichens which cover some 
tracts of land, and abound on the bark of decaying trees ; 
and the gum which is thus obtained, has been substitut- 
ed for the more costly productions of Arabia and Crete. 
The leaves of various species of Mallow’s, and the seeds 
of Quinces, furnish familiar examples of mucilage near- 
allied to the preceding. 
SUGAR.—To the secretion of plants, we owe the 
existence of Sugar. It has long been employed by the 
Chinese, and previous to their invasion by the Span- 
iards, the natives of this continent, were in the habit of 
extracting it from the stalk of the Corn, which they 
cultivated for food, and from the Virginian Aloe, Agave 
Virginica, which grows spontaneously at the South. In 
one of the Mexican cities, the Spaniards found a large 
supply of sugar which had been in this way procured. 
It was unknown in Europe until the fifth century, when 
one of the Fathers describing the province of Choras- 
san, mentioned among its charms the “ valley of 
Saporem, where the precious sugar was made.” It 
has now become an essential article of food, employed 
to a greater or less extent by all the nations of Europe, 
and by all the civilized world. In tropical countries 
it is commonly obtained from the expressed juice of the 
Saccharum Officinarum or Sugar Cane, but the Maple of 
the North, yields it equally pure and scarcely less abun- 
dant. It exists also in the roots of some, and in the 
SUGAR. 82 
esculent fruit of many plants, communicating a sweet 
and usually an agreeable taste. 
ACIDS exist in many plants, and when sufficiently 
abundant, they communicate their own peculiar taste 
to the organs which contain them. Thus for example 
the leaves of the Sorrel, and the fruit of the Lemon 
tree, are both sour. Chemistry has ascertained the 
existence of several peculiar acids, which exist in the 
leaves and other parts of different plants ; they have 
usually a sour, sometimes an astringent taste, but they 
are better known by their effects on the vegetable col- 
ours. The Prussic acid, which may be obtained by 
distilling the leaves and kernel of the Peach tree, pos- 
sesses the flavour of bitter almonds, and is, when used 
to excess, a poison of the most virulent kind. This 
should teach us caution in the use of the distilled water 
of the Peach, which possesses to a greater or less ex- 
tent, the dangerous properties of the acid in question. 
The Tartaric acid exists in the juice of the grape, and 
constitutes the principal ingredient of the well known 
salt, Cream of tartar. It is deposited on the bottom of 
wine casks, where it is found in sufficient abundance to 
supply the apothecary with a very important medicine. 
The Malic acid exists in the juice of Apples, Bar- 
berries, Plumbs, Currants and Strawberries, and it is 
essentially different from those which communicate a 
sour taste to the Sorrel and Lemon. Jellies contain 
the peculiar acids of the fruit from which they are 
procured, united with sugar, and in some cases with 
mucilage or starch, and the agreeable healthy qualities 
of most fruits depend on the vegetable acid which they 
contain. 
TANNIN.—If nutgalls or grape seeds are pulverized 
and dissolved in cold water, the solution when evapo- 
SECRETIONS- EXTRACT. 
83 
rated, presents the tannin principle in a very pure 
state. It is yellowish, very astringent, brittle, and 
abundantly soluble either in alcohol or water. Its 
combinations with iron are black, and by its union with 
gelatine, it forms an insoluble compound. On account 
of its astringency, it is of very great utility in medicine, 
and the virtues of the Peruvian bark, Cinchona Officin- 
alis, so celebrated as a febrifuge and tonic, are supposed 
to reside chiefly in this principle. Its combinations 
with iron form the basis of writing ink, and by its union 
with gelatine, leather is formed, and hence we perceive 
the utility of those barks which the tanner employs ; 
they being in all cases strongly impregnated with the 
tannin principle. In this country the bark of the 
Hemlock, Pinus Canadensis, is preferredto every other, 
but various species of Willow and Oak are scarcely less 
valuable, in the manufacture of leather. 
EXTRACT.—That portion of the vegetable which 
13 soluble in water, but becomes insoluble when expos- 
ed to the atmosphere, is denominated extract. It is 
a very common product of vegetable analysis, and it 
appears that its properties are not well defined, for the 
extracts which are obtained from different plants, do 
not appear to be precisely the same. Some of them 
are employed in medicine, others in the arts. They 
supply us with most of the colours used in dyeing, and 
having a powerful affinity to the fibres of linen and cot- 
ton, they communicate an almost indelible tinge to the 
various textures with which they unite. The most 
frequent of these colours are blue, red, yellow and 
brown. 
BLUE.—Indigo presents a beautiful example. It is 
obtained from the leaves of the Indigo plant, Indigofera 
'/»ctoria, which is cultivated extensively in India and 84 
SECRETIONS. 
at the south. When the plant is about six months old. 
these leaves are gathered and macerated in water, till 
they begin to ferment; they are then removed, and 
the colouring material, which is extracted by the wa- 
ter, is soon afterwards deposited. It is green at first, 
but in consequence of exposure to the atmosphere, it 
gradually becomes blue. Similar to this is the Woad, 
Isatis tinctoria, with which the ancient Britons stained 
their bodies, that they might appear more terrible to 
their enemies in battle. The culture of this plant has 
been strongly recommended to the American farmer, 
and as a dyeing material, it is scarcely inferior to the 
preceding. 
RED colours exist in various plants. Madder, which 
is obtained from the dried roots and stems of Rubia 
tinctorum, is not only beautiful but very penetrating, 
for it tinges the bones of animals, when mixed with 
their food. From different species of Lichen a similar 
colour is obtained ; and this is the origin of the Litmus, 
much celebrated as the chemical test of alkalies and 
acids. From the flowers of the Carthamus tinctorius, 
usually but improperly named Saffron, a red colour is 
extracted, from which rouge is manufactured, by mix- 
ing it with the powder of talc. The celebrated Cam- 
peachy, and Brasil woods, whose names allude to the 
countries from which they are imported, are well 
known, and important colouring materials. 
YELLOW is also obtained from different, plants, par- 
ticularly from the bark of Quercitron, and some species 
of Sumach. The Anatto of commerce, “is obtained 
from the Bixa orellana, a tree that grows in South 
America, and produces fruit twice in a year. The 
seeds are bruised and kneaded with a little oil into a 
paste, known by the name of rocov, from the decoction lib 
ot which m water, it is precipitated by alum with 
which it forms a yellow lake.” 
The BROWN colour of vegetables, is ecpially abun 
dant. It is obtained very frequently from the bark of 
the Butternut and Walnut trees, from the Sumach and 
various species of Oak, as well as from the nutgalls 
which are found on the leaves of the latter. 
VEGETABLE OILS.—Fixed oils are usually ex 
tracted from the seeds, sometimes from the pulpy fruits 
of their respective plants. Some of them are used as 
food, some as medicine, and others in the preparation 
of the most durable paints which the artist employs. 
OLIVE OIL is extracted from the pulpy fruit of the 
Olive Olea Europea, a shrub which grows naturally in 
the south of Europe, and the Almond which also grows 
in Italy and Spain, yields an oil equally well known, 
though perhaps less extensively employed. The se- 
cretions of the same vegetable are frequently various, 
but it is worthy of observation, that the cotyledons of 
its seeds are always nutritive and mild. The Poppy, 
so famed for its narcotic properties, will serve to ex- 
emplify the truth of this remark, for the oil which is 
extracted from its seed, is tasteless, inodorous and mild, 
being used like Olive oil for food, and possessing noth- 
ing of the narcotic properties of the plant from which 
it is obtained. 
VOLATILE OILS are also extracted from various 
plants. They exist in the bark of the Cinnamon, in 
the leaves of Mint, Partridge-berry and Geranium, and 
in the flowers of Clethra, Jasmine and Rose. From 
these they may usually be obtained by distillation or 
expression, but the fiagranceof the Jasmine is best 
preserved by steeping its flowers in fixed oil, till it has 
acquired their rich perlume. 
OILS. 86 
SECRETIONS. 
“ The odour of plants,” says Dr. Smith, “ is un- 
questionably of a resinous nature, a volatile essential 
oil, and several phenomena attending it well deserve 
our attentive consideration. Its general nature is evin- 
ced by its ready union with spirits or oil, not with wa- 
ter, yet the moisture of the atmosphere seems, in 
many instances, powerfully to favour its diffusion. 
This I appi'ehend to arise more from the favourable 
action of such moisture upon the health and vigour of 
the plant itself, thus occasionally promoting its odorous 
secretions, than from the fitness of the atmosphere, so 
circumstanced to convey them. Both causes, howev- 
er, may operate. A number of flowers which have no 
scent in the course of the day, smell powerfully in the 
evening, whether the air be moist or dry, or whether 
they happen to be exposed to it or not. This is the 
property of some which Linnaeus has elegantly called 
flores tristes, melancholy flowers, belonging to various 
tribes as discordant as possible, agreeing only in their 
nocturnal fragrance, which is peculiar, very similar 
and exquisitely delicious in all of them, and in the pale 
yellowish, greenish, or brownish tint of their flowers. 
The sweet smell of new hay, (sometimes termed the 
gramineous flavour) is found not only in several Grass- 
es, but in Woodruff, Mellilot, and other plants widely 
different from each other in botanical characters, as 
well as in colour and every particular except smell. 
Their odour has one peculiarity, that it is not at all 
perceptible while the plants are growing, nor till they 
begin to dry. It proceeds from their whole herbage, 
and should seem to escape from the orifices of its con- 
taining cells, only when the surrounding vessels, by 
growing less turgid, withdraw their pressure from such RESIN 
87 
orifices. When this scent of new hay is vehement, it 
becomes the flavour of bitter almonds.” 
Both the fixed and volatile oils become concrete in 
consequence of the absorption of oxygen, constituting 
Wax in the former case and Resin in the latter. Wax 
is found under various modifications, communicating a 
glossy surface to many leaves, and existing in the form 
of a yellow powder on the anthers of almost every 
flower. From the latter, bees extract it, and though 
at first yellowish and somewhat aromatic, it soon be- 
comes white and inodorous, if exposed in thin layers 
to the influence of the atmosphere and light. Wax as- 
sumes various degrees of solidity, and different terms 
have been employed to express the peculiar hardness. 
Thus when obtained from the Chocolate Plant, Theo- 
Iroma Cacaco, it is yellow and soft, forming the butter 
of Cacao, and this is the substance from wrhich the pe- 
culiar flavour of Chocolate is derived. But when ob- 
tained from the Bayberry, Myrica cerifera, it assumes a 
more concrete form, and constitutes the well known 
bayberry tallow, which, in this section of the country, 
is frequently employed as a substitute for bees wax. 
Wax is extremely inflammable, and exposed to a mod- 
erate degree of heat, it is dissipated in the form of va- 
pour. In consequence of its disengagement in this 
invisible shape, it sometimes forms a combustible atmos 
phere around the plant that yields it, and if in a dry seas- 
on, a candle is brought near to the Fraxinella, its at- 
mosphere is immediately inflamed, and the wax, which 
is particularly abundant in that plant, furnishes a satis- 
factory explanation of the phenomenon. 
RESIN. From the various species of Pine, there 
exudes a balsam, which concretes in the form of tears. 
It differs somewhat according to the peculiar tree from 88 
SECRETIONS. 
which it is obtained, and by distillation it is separa 
ted into two distinct ingredients : Oil of turpentine, 
which is volatile, and Resin, which is not. If a quan 
tity of pine wood is collected, covered with turf, and 
then set on fire, the resinous juice which would have 
been dissipated in the open air, may be collected in 
a suitable receptacle beneath. In this way, tar and 
pitch, two well known articles of commerce, and both 
of a resinous nature, are usually procured. 
Some of the most common examples of resin, are 
Copal from a species of Sumach, Mastick from the Pis- 
racea, a tree which grows in the island of Chios, and 
Sandarach from the common Juniper. From the Amyns 
Gileadensis, a shrub which grows in Palestine and Arabi- 
a, is obtained a resin long celebrated for its medical vir- 
tues. It is the Balm of Gilead, so frequently alluded to 
in sacred historjr, and it is still highly prized by the 
Turks, who prohibit its exportation. 
On the epidermis of many vegetables, we find a soft 
blueish powder which may easily be removed. It is 
denominated the Bloom, and occurs on Plumbs, Cab- 
bage leaves, and several other plants, always resisting 
the action of water, but like the other resins readily 
soluble in alcohol. 
No kind of wood is so durable as that in which the 
resinous secretion abounds. It is rarely injured by 
those insects which devour the hardest timber, and 
the insolubility of resin most effectually secures it 
from the destroying agency of water. As a proof 
of this fact, it has been observed that the Cypress 
gates of Constantinople, erected by the Emperor Con- 
stantine, were found undecayed a thousand years after 
they were built. It is owing to this secretion that 
Pine is more durable than the hardest Oak, though at NARCOTIC PRINCIPLE. 
89 
the same time it contains much less of the woody fibre, 
on which the value of timber usually depends. 
The BITTER PRINCIPLE is afforded by many of 
our native plants. Two species of Gentian, whose 
flowers are the brightest ornaments of our meadows, 
and the bark of several of our forest trees, possess bit- 
ter qualities, and have been successfully employed as 
medicines. The beautiful Coplis, whose yellow roots 
have acquired the name of Gold-thread, has been long 
in use as a domestic remedy, and it owes its efficacy 
and colour to this secretion. 
The NARCOTIC PRINCIPLE.—There is a class of 
plants, which the Botanist recognizes by their lurid as- 
pect, and the physician, by their narcotic and poison- 
ous qualities. Opium, which is extracted from the 
Poppy is most frequently employed; but Henbane, 
Nightshade, Belladona and Stramonium, all product 
their “ drowsy syrups,” equally powerful, and equally 
to be avoided on account of their noxious qualities. 
But these poisons shrink into insignificance, when 
compared with the reputed properties of the Upas tree 
of Java. In the midst of a desert, several leagues from 
the habitation of man, it was approached by none but 
the condemned criminal, whose punishment was remit- 
ted, if he returned with a branch of the fatal tree.— 
"Nothing could sustain its noxious exhalations, not even 
a kindred plant, so that for twelve miles around, the 
earth was a barren waste, and occasionally, as if to ren- 
der the prospect more cheerless, the bones of other 
victims served to remind the unfortunate visitor of his 
approaching fate. Such were its reputed properties 
but since Java has been frequently visited by Europe- 
ans, the Upas tree has been approached with impuni- 
ty, and examined with care, and it appears to abound 90 
SECRETIONS. 
in a poisonous secretion, but no longer capable of dif- 
fusing pestilence over an extensive territory. 
CAMPHOR, is obtained by distilling the wood and 
bark of Laurus camphora, and according to Sir Hum- 
phry Davy, it exists in Sassafras, Marjoram and Sage. 
Its properties and appearance are well known. 
The ELASTIC GUM, more frequently termed In 
dia rubber, is obtained from the Urceola, Jatropha, and 
other trees of warm climates. When their bark is 
wounded, it exudes in the form of a milky juice, which 
becomes black in consequence of being dried in the 
smoke. The fluid which exudes so abundantly from 
different species of Silk weed Asclepias, is said to be a 
variety of elastic gum. 
When wood is exposed to the action of an open fire, 
it burns with a yellow flame, and disappears in the form 
of vapour and smoke, or remains in the form of ashes, 
but exposed to an intense close heat, it is converted 
into charcoal. From the latter product, wood derives 
its strength as timber, and its value as fuel; the soil 
its fertility, and the growing plant its food ;—but it can- 
not with propriety be classed with the vegetable secre- 
tions. The same remark is applicable to the alkalies 
and earths which are found in the ashes of plants, and 
in the soil by which they are nourished, constituting 
in essential ingredient of both ; and formed with the 
•‘primaeval mountains of the globe,” but not as has 
beenfondty imagined, a product of vegetation. 
We have now examined the most important of the 
vegetable secretions, and the examination is one of the 
deepest interest. It has presented to our view the 
root, absorbing from the earth, a tasteless, limpid, and 
inodorous fluid, possessing the properties of mere wa- 
ter ; it has enabled us to trace this fluid through an ap- SECRETIONS. 
91 
propriate system of vessels, till it reaches the leaf, to 
observe the new properties which it there acquires, 
and the various substances into which it is converted, 
at once yielding the flinty earth of the epidermis for its 
own protection, and the grateful perfume of its flowers 
for our delight; to see it forming resin, a security from 
moisture and decay, and gum, which is soluble and ea- 
sily converted into the food of plants and animals ; 
forming at one time, medicines to relieve, ai another, 
the poison to destroy ; to see it yielding the sweetest 
as well as the most bitter draught, and contributing to 
the formation of organs, which delight us with every 
variety of colour, and beauty, and fragrance. CHAPTER VI. 
DURATION, SURFACE, &c. 
In the preceding chapters, we have seen the embryo 
(of the seed unfolded, and by the combined influence of 
air, water, and heat, assuming the form of a perfect 
plant. We have learnt by what agents its growth is 
promoted, by what substances it is nourished, through 
what vessels its aliment passes, and into what produc- 
tions this aliment is converted. It is impossible to 
pursue this inquiry without interest, for it reveals the 
nature and extent of those operations which are con- 
stantly going on in the tender vegetable frame, conver 
ting the dust of the earth into wholesome nutriment, 
and supplying us w'ith the ordinary comforts of life. 
But the paths of Systematic Botany, are equally de- 
lightful, for they lead us to an acquaintance with those 
plants, which frequently fall under our observation, 
and teach us how to discriminate and how to arrange 
them. The delineation of an entire vegetable, pre- 
sents to our view, the root, the stem, and its branches, 
the leaves and their various appendages, organs which 
assume almost every shape, and enable us by attending 
to their varieties, to discriminate between kindred 
plants. It also exhibits the flower and fruit, with 
their respective appendages, organs by which the per- 
petuity of the vegetable kingdom is ensured, and on 
which the Botanist establishes characters, of the most 
unquestionable nature. 93 
It is oar design, to present an isolated view of these 
various organs, accompanied with a few observations 
respecting the utility of each, in the economy of vege- 
tation. The terms with which this portion of our sub- 
ject is beset, present a formidable aspect to the eye of 
the student, especially if he has been taught to consid- 
er the language of Botany, as a burden of pedantic 
learning, which may without inconvenience be spared. 
In order to avoid an unnecessary repetition, those 
terms which are equally applicable to different organs, 
and sometimes employed to express the general char- 
acter of the plant we examine, will be here defined and 
illustrated, by a reference to well known examples. 
They relate chiefly to duration, surface and numbers, 
but embrace others of a miscellaneous nature, which 
do not fall within the limits of the succeeding chapters. 
DURATION.—With respect to duration, plants are 
annual, Q* when they live only one year ; biennial, % * 
when they live only two years, producing flowers and 
fruit but once ; and perennial, 2/* when they produce 
flowers and fruit several years in succession. The Sun 
flower is an example of the first variety, the Foxglove 
of the second, and trees and shrubs are all included un- 
der the last division. These distinctions are not al- 
ways absolute ; for a biennial plant may be made to 
live several years, by removing the flower-buds before 
they expand, and a perennial plant of warm climates, 
frequently becomes annual, when transported to les3 
temperate regions. If the stem of a perennial plant 
annually dies to the ground, it is said to be herbace- 
ous, and ranks with annuals, from which it is some- 
DURATION. 
* These signs are frequently employed, instead of the terms 
to which they are annexed, in order to express the particular 
duration of any plant 54 
SURFACE. 
times with difficulty distinguished. If its stem is sinali; 
woody, and subdivided into numerous branches, from 
the summit nearly to the ground, it is said to be fru- 
ticose or shrubby, and the Lilac is a very common ex- 
ample. When the branches annually perish, leaving 
the main stalk alive, and when the whole shrub is ex- 
tremely slender, as in Pyrola, and Partridge berry, it 
is said to be sujfruticose. If a plant extends itself late- 
rally, and covers the earth so as to form a turf, it is 
cxspitose or turfy, and the Moss-pink Phlox subulata, is 
an example. 
It its cellular texture is abundant, and filled with 
juices, as in the Ice plant it is said to be succulent. 
If it thrives only in water it is said to be aquatic, and 
the Pond Lilly is an example ; if on the margin of the 
sea, it is maratime, and the Marsh Rosemary is an ex- 
ample ; if in sea water, it is marine, and the numerous 
Sea weeds are examples. Those plants are said to be 
native, which have flourished in any particular district, 
without the aid, and beyond the recollection of man, 
and those are exotic which were brought from a for- 
eign country, and cannot be preserved except by cul- 
tivation. When a foreign plant thrives, and extends 
itself without culture, it is said to be naturalized. 
The Dandelion, which is a native of Europe, has be- 
come extensively naturalized on this continent, and ne 
plant is more common or better known. 
SURFACE.—When the surface of a plant is smooth, 
without visible hairs or bristles, it is said to be glabrous, 
and the leaves of Snake head, Chelone glabra, and also 
of the Elder, are good examples. The term even also 
denotes smoothness, and is opposed to roughness and 
irregularity of surface. 
When the surface is so smooth as to glitter or shine, PUBESCENCE. 
95 
it is said to be polished : the leaves of the Holly and the 
stalk of the Maiden hair furnish examples. 
When the surface is covered with a resinous or ad- 
hesive substance, such as occurs on the stem of some 
species of Catchfly, Silene, and on the flowers of the 
White Honeysuckle, Azalea viscosa; it is said to be 
viscid. 
When covered with soft tubercles like the Ice plant, 
it is papillose, and verrucose or warty when these tuber- 
cles are large. 
When covered with a resinous secretion, sometimes 
denominated bloom, it is said to be glaucous, and the 
stem of the Raspberry, and the fruit of the Plumb tree 
furnish examples. 
Some plants are hoary, either from the presence of 
close silky hairs, or of a scaly powder analagous to 
bloom, communicating in either case a whitish appear- 
ance. Wormwood and Hoary Basil, Pycnanthemum 
incanum are examples. Where the surface is beset 
with numerous fine glossy hairs, it is said to be Silky, 
and Villous when these hairs are white, long and soft. 
It is termed Tomentose, or downy, when covered with 
soft hairs so interwoven as to be scarcely discernible, 
as in Velvet Leaf, Sida Abutilon. When these hairs 
are of a rust colour, the plant is sometimes termed/er- 
ruginous. 
It is pilose, or hairy,when beset with long, single hairs, 
as, in Norway Cinquefoil, Potentilla Korwegia. It is 
woolly, as in the Mullein, hispid as in Borage, hirsute as 
in Ground Laurel, Epigea repens, and Scabrous or rough 
to the touch from inequality of surface, as in the leaves 
of the Black Mulberry and Elm. 
It is striated, when marked with fine parallel lines, 96 
surface. 
as in the straws of many grasses, and it isfurrowed, when 
these lines or depressions are deeper as in the stem of 
wild Parsnip, and other umbelliferous plants. 
It is often desirable so express the number of par- 
ticular organs, and no terms occur more frequently 
than those which are employed for this purpose. Like 
other technical names, they are sometimes derived 
from the Greek, and sometimes from the Latin lan- 
guage ; Thus 
A plant with A flower cup with 
One leaf is uni-foliate One leaf is mono-phyllou9 
Two leaves bi-foliate Two di-phyllous 
Three leaves tri-foliate Three tri-phyllous 
Four leaves quadri-foliate Four tetra-phyllous 
Many leaves multi-foliate Many poly-phyllous 
These terms conjoined with others to be hereafter 
explained, occur in the technical description of almost 
every plant, and the student who has once learned 
them, will have removed a very formidable impediment 
to his future researches. CHAPTER VII. 
“ The root, is that part of a plant by which it attach- 
es itself to the soil in which it grows, or to the substance 
on which it feeds, and is the principal organ of nutri- 
tion.” This definition does not apply to those plants 
which float in the water without any attachment, but it 
embraces every kind of root, which the student, whose 
observations are not extended to aquatic vegetables, 
will probably find. 
It applies to the branching root, by which trees, 
shrubs, and many perennial plants are nourished and 
supported. Like the stem, it is subdivided into numer- 
ous branches, some of which penetrate deep into the 
earth, and others creep extensively beneath its surface. 
But in whatever way it is subdivided, its branches al- 
ways terminate in minute filaments or radicles, which 
alone abstract nutriment from the earth. 
It applies to the fibrous root, Fig. 9, which consists 
merely of slender fibres, that convey nourishment to 
the basis of the stem, as in most grasses and annual 
plants. 
It applies to the creeping root, Fig. 15, which ex- 
tends horizontally beneath the earth’s surface, occa- 
sionally sending up stems at a distance from the parent 
plant, as in Mint. 
It applies also to other varieties. One of these is 
the tuberous root, which consists of one or more fleshy 
THE ROOT. 98 
THE ROOT. 
knobs, like the Artichoke and Potatoe. When two or 
more of these knobs are connected at their base, they 
constitute the palmate root, Fig. 13, and the fascicula- 
ted. when several are bundled together. Various spe- 
ties of Orchis present examples of the two last varieties. 
When the root descends perpendicularly, gradually 
tapering downwards, as in the Radish, Carrot, and Par- 
snip, it is termed fusiform or spindle-shaped. 
When it terminates abruptly, as if its lower extremi- 
ty were bitten off, it is termed abrupt or prcemorse, and 
when several small knobs or grains, are strung togeth- 
er along the sides of radical fibres, as in the English 
Saxifrage, and Wood Sorrel, Fig. 10, they constitute 
the granulated root. 
BULBS, are subterranean organs, somewhat anala- 
gous to buds, having numerous radical fibres attached 
to their inferior surface, and constituting the bulbous 
root. Bulbs themselves do not exactly fall within the 
limits of the definition which stands at the head of this 
chapter. But as they are usually regarded and describ- 
ed as roots, it will not be improper to mention the three 
varieties which most frequently occur. The first is 
scaly, as in the Lily, Fig. 11, the second is tunicate or 
coated, as in the Onion, Fig. 12, the third is solid, as 
in Crocus, or English Saffron. 
Of these several varieties, the fibrous root is most 
-ample, consisting merely of fibres, which diverge in 
every direction in search of nourishment, and to se- 
cure a firm attachment to the soil. Most annual 
plants are furnished with a fibrous root of this descrip- 
tion, and by a wise provision of Nature, the more they 
are stripped of their leaves, the more vigorous will be 
the growth of their roots. In this respect they are pe- 
culiar, for all other vegetables, when robbed of their FIBROUS ROOTS. 
99 
foliage, not only suffer, but frequently perish in conse- 
quence of their privation. Were it otherwise, the gra- 
zing cattle would destroy the verdure of the pastures, 
which they now contribute to beautify and adorn, by 
rendering the turf more compact and close. Fibrous 
roots sometimes creep extensively under the surface 
of the earth, whereby their opportunities of receiving 
sustenance, as well as their tenacity of life, are much 
increased. Sometimes they are remarkably downy, 
which also secures the double object, of a firm attach- 
ment to the ground, and a rapid absorption of its fluids. 
It will be recollected that these downy fibres, are but 
extensions of those vessels, through which the sap is 
conveyed from the root to the leaf; and observation 
has taught us, that they are appropriated to those grass- 
es, which inhabit barren plains, where other plants 
would be unable to exist. The sandy shores of Hol- 
land, once as much disturbed by the winds as the 
waves they enclose, have, through the agency of these 
roots, been converted into a fertile soil, which furnish- 
es the inhabitants of the low lands with the fruits of the 
earth, and forms an effectual barrier against the waters 
of the ocean. 
The fibres of some parasitical plants, “ are peculiar- 
ly thick and fleshy, not only for the purpose of imbib 
ing more nourishment, but also to bind them so strong- 
ly to the branches of trees, as to defy the force of winds 
upon their large and rigid leaves.”* 
The roots by which trees and shrubs are supported, 
appear to be merely elongations of their stems, subdi- 
vided into numerous branches, and terminating in mi- 
nute radicles or absorbents. These extremities re- 
V: Smith. 10U 
semble the fibrous roots of grasses, and are subservx 
ent to precisely the same ends, for the main body as 
'veil as its large branches, serve only to convey to- 
wards the leaf, the nourishment, which its minute ex 
tremities have derived from the earth. Like the stein 
to which it is attached, the former is composed of con- 
centric circles corresponding to the age of the tree, and 
contains the same vessels which pervade the other 
parts of the vegetable texture ; but the extreme radi- 
cles are always of annual growth, and the delicacy of 
their texture, renders it difficult to transplant vegeta- 
bles after they are formed. The proper period there- 
fore to remove trees and shrubs, is late in autumn, af- 
ter the radicles have ceased to absorb moisture from 
the earth, or in the spring, before a new system of ab- 
sorbents is formed. It may be done with safety in 
mid-winter, when the whole energies of the vegetable 
are torpid, but during the season of vegetation, which 
requires the constant abstraction of nutriment from the 
earth, it is a work of more difficulty and danger. The 
analogy between the ascending stem and the brandi- 
ng root, is more close, and better established, than at 
first view, we should be prepared to expect; and 
their only difference is derived from the different or- 
gans with which they are connected. This is estab- 
lished by an experiment which has frequently been 
performed, and may without difficulty be repeated. 
\ shrub was bent to the horizon in such a manner that 
half of its branches were covered with earth, and a 
similar proportion of its roots were exposed to the ac- 
tion of air and light, without any protection but that of 
a thin coat of Moss, which was removed in a few days. 
In this position the shrub remained for a considerable 
w hile, after which, the remainder of the stem was bu- 
THB ROOT. ABRUPT ROOTS. 
101 
ried beneath, and the whole root raised above the sur- 
face of the ground. Thus reversed, it continued to 
grow, the former roots being crowned with leaves, and 
in a few years decorated with flowers, while the former 
branches put forth radical fibres, whereby the shrub 
derived its nourishment from the earth. 
It is obvious that when a plant is thus reversed, the 
course of its fluids must be changed, for the sap still 
continues to ascend through the wood, and the cambi- 
um to descend through the vessels of the bark ; though 
according to the observations of Mr. Knight, the new 
wood is deposited above the leaf-buds, and not as in 
ordinary vegetation below them. In this case it is prob- 
able that the plant retains a portion of its original dis- 
position, which however, gradually wears away with 
age, and at last the fluids circulate, and the plant grows 
exactly as in its natural position. 
If any one will take the pains to examine the roots 
of many of our native Violets, he will find that they 
terminate abruptly, appearing as if they had been bit- 
ten or broken off ; and he will then have a correct 
idea of the abrupt root, which is by no means peculiar 
to the Violets. An English plant, furnished with a 
similar root, is termed DeviVs-bit ; and from an old 
writer whose name is recalled by some of the most 
beautiful of our late flowers,* we learn why it bears 
so singular an appellation. He says upon the authority 
of “ old fantasticke charmers, that the divel did bite it 
for envie, because it is an herbe that hath so many 
good vertues and is so beneficial to mankinde.” Un- 
fortunately for the patients of the present day, the en- 
* Gerardta, dedicated to the memory of Gerard, whose Her 
bal is a monument of his industry and zeal.. 
* 10 102 
THE ROOT. 
vious spirit of the devil has been so much gratified as 
to leave in the remainder of the herb, no healing vir- 
tue for them. 
Bulbs are by some writers classed with roots, while 
others regard them as an interesting variety of subter- 
ranean bud. Certain it is, that they enclose the em- 
bryo of future plants, till the period of their evolution 
arrives, and in this respect they perform the office of 
buds. Many of them are also composed of concentric, 
scales, nearly allied to those which secure the tender 
leaves and flowers ofnorthern trees, from thecold of the 
winter to which they are exposed. But it is equally true 
that they bear a close analogy to the tuberous root, and 
whatever opinions we adopt respecting their nature 
and rank, whether we class them with roots or with 
buds, the plants to which they are attached will always 
be regarded with peculiar interest. They are amongst 
the earliest harbingers of spring, and certainly the most 
splendid ornaments of the garden. Among them are 
the Lily, Snowdrop, Tulip, Hyacinth, with about forty 
more interesting plants, equally deserving the fostering 
care of the cultivator. While examining the internal 
arrangement of these roots even at mid-winter, we can- 
not fail to observe with what care the plants of another 
season, already conspicuous and perfect, are preserved 
from injury. From their inferior surface, radicles 
descend into the earth, which like the fibrous extremi- 
ties of other roots, are designed for the immediate ab- 
sorption of nourishment. The bulbs are evidently 
designed to preserve the living powers of the plant, 
and to supply it with sustenance when its other resour- 
ces are exhausted. Their structure would lead to this 
opinion, and their habits w’ould confirm it. Thus the 
root of the common Herds grass, Phleum prateuse. BULBOUS ROOTS. 
103 
when growing in pastures that are uniformly moist, 
is merely fibrous, but in dry situations, or such as are 
occasionally wet, it becomes bulbous, and thus secures 
a store of nutriment by which its vital powers are sup- 
ported, while the fibrous roots are deprived of their 
usual supplies. If once more transferred to a soil uni- 
formly and thoroughly moist, it again becomes fibrous 
and resumes its former luxuriant growth. In this case 
it has been supposed that “ the herb being in the first 
instance starved, by a failure of the nutrimental fluids 
hitherto conveyed by the water of the soil, its growth 
would be checked, and when checked, the same growth 
could not, as we know by observation on vegetation in 
general, be instantaneously renewed. A sudden fresh 
supply of food would therefore cause an accumulation 
of vital energy in the root, which would consequently 
assume a degree of vigour and a luxuriant mode of 
growth not natural to it, and become bulbous. Thus 
it acquires a resource against such checks in future, and 
the herb is preserved alive, though in a very far less 
luxuriant state than when regularly and uniformy fur- 
nished with its requisite nourishment.”* And accord- 
ingly we see that those plants which in their native situa- 
tion find only a precarious supply of water, are suppli- 
ed with bulbous roots for their preservation. Like 
the thick-leaved plants, many of them were brought 
from Africa, and their texture is happily designed to 
encounter the privations of those countries which they 
are intended to adorn. 
Nearly allied to bulbs are the tuberous roots which 
consist of a single knob, or of several, connected by in- 
tervening radicles. These knobs preserve the vital 
energy as well as the nutritive fluids which they re 
* Smith 104 
THE ROOT. 
ceive from the leaves of their respective plants, till 
the former is aroused into action, and the latter are de- 
manded for use. Like that of the alburnum their growth 
depends on the renovated sap, which has passed and 
repassed through the vessels of the stem. We see 
therefore the intimate connexion betwixt the leaf and 
the root, and perceive why the luxuriance of the one 
should indicate the comparative size and fruitfulness of 
the other. 
Bulbous and tuberous plants are usually propagated 
by separating their roots, and this is the easiest, but 
not in all cases the most eligible mode of cultivation. 
When it is pursued, the roots are to be transplanted 
either in autumn or spring, for at these seasons having 
no radical fibres to connect them w'ith the earth, their 
removal does not impede the process of vegetation. 
There is an exception to this rule, which it would not 
be deemed necessary to mention, if it did not relate to 
some of the most interesting of our native plants.—The 
Orchis, and others of the same natural order, have 
been named as furnishing examples of the palmate or 
bituberous root. These roots are usually biennial, 
the oldest portion, bearing the herb and flower of the 
present season, while its young companion is preparing 
to succeed it, and to produce the leaves and flowers of 
another year. When the plant is in full bloom, it may 
be removed with entire safety, for at this time the ra- 
dical fibres of the youngest bulb are not formed, and 
consequently it has no necessary connection with the 
earth. After this however, as the flower fades, the 
oldest portion of the root decays and then new fibres 
are formed, (and the other bulb) which are to supply 
the plant with nourishment until it blooms again, and 
these fibres are in all cases an insuperable barrier to ROOTS OF THE ORCHIS. 
105 
removal. Still more difficult is it to transplant others 
of this family which have three pairs of these bulbs that 
flower in succession, and it is probable that such plants 
have never been removed except in connexion with 
their native earth.* 
“ Ifapair ofthese knobs is separated, and then immer- 
sed in water, the one will be found to sink and the oth- 
er to swim. This is a phenomenon that seems to 
have puzzled the simplists of antiquity not a little ; and 
to have given rise to many idle and superstitious con- 
jectures. Jt was thought that the knob that swims 
must necessarily have possessed some peculiar and po- 
tent properties, and accordingly some potent properties 
were ver}’ liberally ascribed to it. If prepared in a 
particular manner and worn about any one’s person, it 
was believed to have the singular property of exciting, 
by means of proper management, a violent attachment 
to the wearer in the breast of any one he pleased. And 
this belief is still a vulgar error among the ignorant and 
superstitious ; though the sinking of the one knob, and 
the swimming of the other, have been accounted for 
from the regular operation of natural causes, and the 
mystery and magic charm of the phenomenon altogether 
dissolved. 
From the swimming knob which was generated in 
the course &f the preceding year, the plant of the pres- 
ent year, together with the sinking knob, has sprung; 
but by this means the substance of the first has become 
exhausted, and specifically lighter than water, and on 
this account it swims. The other which is still firm 
* Dr. Smith observes, that they have “ not been found to sur- 
Mve transplantation,” but it has been stated in reply, that inclos- 
ed in a ball of their original earth, tliey may be removed with 
safety, and that the experience of Scotch gardeners has demon- 
strated the truth of the latter assertion. 106 
THE ROOT. 
and solid, is of course specifically heavier than the 
water, and on this account it sinks ; but in the succeed- 
ing year it also will produce a new plant and knob, and 
being itself exhausted it will swim, and fade and decay 
in its turn.”* 
With respect to direction, roots exhibit some vari- 
ations worthy of our attention. The spindle shaped 
are generally perpendicular, gradually tapering as they 
proceed downwards, but the fibrous and branching roots 
are more frequently horizontal, sometimes near the 
surface, and sometimes deep in the earth, accommo- 
dating themselves to the climate and soil in which they 
grow. An experiment has often been made of planting 
seed in sand over a bed of rich earth, and it is found 
that the root descends several inches below its usual 
situation, apparently in search of the more congenial 
soil beneath it. Wildenow placed a Strawberry plant 
in some sand close to the rich soil of a garden, and it 
exhibited some evidence of the same selective proper- 
ty, by growing towards the good soil in which it conti- 
nued to flourish long after the main plant had decayed. 
A more singular case has recently occurred in Scotland. 
A seed of the Plane tree was accidentally deposited on 
the ruinous wall of a monastery in Galloway, where it 
germinated, and the young tree grew for a while with 
considerable luxuriance, though the wall on which it 
stood was ten feet from the ground. Its small store of 
nourishment was soon exhausted, and the young tree 
ceased to grow, but as if it had perceived the rich sup- 
ply of food at the bottom of the wall, it sent down some 
strong fibres which soon reached the earth. When 
these roots had become attached to the surrounding soil 
so as to supply the young tree with nourishment, it 
* Keith 107 
again began to grow, and continued to flourish till it 
was blown over by the wind. Those who observed 
the singular situation of this tree, and marked its very 
unusual progress, have attempted to explain by what 
law of nature, or by what perceptive power inherent 
in the plant itself, the descent ofits roots, so necessary 
in this situation, was produced. 
Some have inferred that the young tree perceived the 
store of food at the bottom of the wall, and like Israel 
of old, sent its messengers to a distance, to avoid the 
famine by which it was threatened. Others have refer- 
red it to that general law of nature, by which all roots 
descend towards the centre of the earth, until they 
meet with resistance ; and those who have observed 
the descent of the radical fibres of Hyacinths, when 
growing in pure water, will be inclined to adopt the 
latter opinion. But still they will admire that wonder- 
ful provision, by which a Plane tree, on a high wall in 
Galloway, would provide for its own security, as suc- 
cessfully, as if it had been blessed with an ordinary 
share of human intelligence. And with respect to the 
experiment of Wildenow, it has been justly observed, 
that the Strawberry plant advanced towards t he rich 
soil in its neighbourhood, because in that direction, it 
met with a better supply of nourishment, for the rad- 
ical fibres thus situated, grew luxuriantly, while those 
which remained in the sand, soon perished from the 
want of sustenance. 
It seems almost unnecessary to observe, that roots 
are situated beneath the surface of the ground, but to 
this rule Parasitic plants furnish us with an exception, 
They either derive their nourishment from the air, or 
;n the true spirit of prodigality, subsist on the resour- 
ces of their neighbours, to which, in various ways they 
DESCENT OF THE ROOTS. 108 
THE ROOT. 
closely adhere. The Lichens which cover the epider- 
mis of many trees, the Blight which destroys the fruit, 
and the Beech drops which are attached to the roots of 
the tree whose name they bear, are all examples of 
parasitic plants. 
The seed of Dodder or Love-vine, easily recognized 
by the golden hue of its threadlike and leafless stems, 
first germinates in the earth, and as its plumelet rises, 
it seizes upon the first plant in its vicinity, sends forth 
fibres which penetrate the bark of its supporter, after 
which the root and Iow'er part of the stem die, leav- 
ing the vine to derive its sustenance entirely from the 
plant to which it adheres. Others of this class are 
never found on the earth, but their seeds are deposi- 
ted on living trees, where they germinate and grow'. 
The Spanish Beard is found loosely attached to the for- 
est trees of the South, to which it has been observed 
by travellers to communicate a melancholy aspect. 
This plant was named Tillandsia by Linnaeus, “for it 
brought to his mind the fate of the student, who in 
going by sea from Stockholm to Abo, experienced so 
severely the terrors of the deep, that he chose to 
walk back, rather than again trust himself to so cruel a 
deity as Neptune.” This was Tillands, afterwards 
professor of Botany at Abo, and Linnaeus named in hon- 
or of its prototype, this plant of tropical America, 
which cannot endure water.* 
The sacred Misletoe, once venerated for its all-heal- 
ing virtues, is another example. It never grows on 
the earth, and probably the observance of this fact, in- 
spired the superstitious Druid with a belief, that it was 
* Lapland Tour. HOOTS. 
ioy 
the immediate gift of Heaven, sent down to avert the 
calamities to which he was exposed. 
The observations of Duhamel, respecting the germi- 
nation of this singular parasite, have been formerly no- 
ticed. Equally interesting are the experimerts of De- 
candolle, instituted in order to ascertain the nature of 
its connexion with the trees on which it is found, and 
the degree of energy with which it absorbs their fluids. 
According to that learned naturalist, if a branch of the 
Apple tree to which the Misletoe is united, be intro- 
duced into coloured water, the latter becomes tinged 
even brighter than the portion of tree to which it ad- 
heres. By a reversion of this experiment, he found 
that the coloured fluid descended through the stem of 
the parasite, tinged its radical fibres, and penetrated to 
the wood of its supporter. His next object was to as- 
certain if the leaves of the Misletoe, like those of oth- 
er plants, had the faculty of elevating the sap through 
its stems, and he found that they increased this faculty 
in a six fold degree.* 
The last object of Decandolle, was to determine 
whether fluids were absorbed with the greatest rapidi- 
ty, w'hen they passed through a portion of the support- 
ing tree, or immediately into the stem of the shrub, and 
it appeared that in the latter case, unless the branch is 
uncommonly vigorous, no fluids are absorbed. 
Fruit trees are frequently invested with a minute 
tribe of parasitic plants, which are regarded as a sign of 
old age and decay. The experiments of Decandolle 
teach in what way they may prove destructive, and 
* The experiments were these ; two stems of nearly equal size, 
one naked and the other leafy, were introduced into tubes filled 
with water, closed, and sealed at their superior extremity, and 
having their bases plunged into mercury. The elevation of the 
mercury denoted the ratio of their absorption. 1 IQ 
point to the most effectual mode of preservation. Let 
the trees “mossed with age” be divested of those veg- 
etables which rob them of their nourishment, and has- 
ten their destruction, and they will recover their for- 
mer health and again become vigorous and productive. 
But there is a class of parasitic vegetables, whose 
roots do not abstract nourishment from their support- 
ers. One of the most extraordinary of these is the 
Epidendrum, or Flower of the Air, which grows abun- 
dantly on the banks of the Ganges. It is said to vege- 
ate for years, hung upon the ceiling of the Indian’s 
cottage, with no other nourishment than what it derives 
from the air of the room, to which its blossoms commu- 
nicate a most delightful fragrance. 
All these varieties of roots are formed to secure the 
same end, to fix the plant securely in the earth, to sup- 
ply it with food, and to preserve its vital though dor- 
mant energies, at a season when they could not be safe- 
ly aroused into action ; and at the same time, to secure 
its resources against the vicissitudes of moisture and 
dryness, to which the vegetables of many countries are 
perpetually exposed. And a small share of attention 
to the structure and form of each variety, will enable 
us to pursue the best mode of cultivation, and to desig- 
nate the quality of the soil to which they are respec- 
tively suited. Of those which descend deep into the 
earth, there are several varieties, and all require to 
have the ground deeply furrowed, before they can be 
cultivated with advantage. Barren and thin soils are 
best suited to the wide spreading roots, which creep 
extensively on their surface ; dry and sandy plains are 
adapted to those which penetrate deep for nourish- 
ment ; and are supplied with bulbs for its preserva- 
tion, or with downy radicles for its abundant absorp- 
THE ROOT. HOOTS. 
Ill 
tion. No one can advantageously introduce a new 
plant, till by the examination of its various organs, he 
has learned to what situation it is best adapted, nor can 
he be a successful florist, who is not at the same time 
an observing botanist. CHAPTER VIII. 
TRUNKS. 
A knowledge of the various kinds of stalks by which 
the herbage is elevated above the surface of the earth 
is often of great practical utility, for these varieties are 
the basis of botanical distinctions, always convenient 
and sometimes indespensable. 
1. STEM.—This term is strictly confined to that 
universal trunk, which sustains leaves, flowers and 
fruit ; being herbaceous in most annual stems, and 
woody in trees and shrubs. In the White Lily, it is 
simple and undivided, but in most vegetables, it is 
branched, and the arrangement which its branches as- 
sume, gives to every plant its peculiar habit and form. 
With respect to Direction and mode of growth, the 
stem is erect as in Sun-flower ; procumbent or trailing 
on the ground, as in Moss Pink, Phlox subulata and 
Carpet weed ; repent or creeping when it trails on the 
earth, emitting radical fibres from its inferior surface, 
as in Trailing Arbutus and Creeping Crowfoot, Ranun- 
culus repens ; reclined wdien the superior extremity 
of an erect stem is bent down so as to form an arch 
with the horizon, as in Raspberry ; ascending when 
the extremity of a procumbent stem is erect. When 
a creeping stem sends out roots only from its joints, 
as in Strawberry, it is termed sarmentose. Weak stems 
frequently attach themselves to other bodies for sup- 
port. The Vine and the Passion flower, Fig 20, climb 
by their spiral tendrils, and the common creeper by its 
radiating fibres. The last is properly a radicant or STEM. 
113 
rooting stem, Fig. 18. It sends out numerous fibres 
which penetrate, but derive no nourishment from the 
plant to which it adheres. The Poison Ivy, Rhus 
radicans, is a good example of this variety. The 
Voluble stem twines around other plants for support, 
and if it follows the apparent motion of the Sun, as in 
the Honeysuckles, Fig. 19, it is said to twine from left 
to right, and from right to left, when as in Bindweed 
Convolvulus Sepium, it pursues the opposite direction. 
Some stems are straight as in the Lily ; some diffuse, 
having irregular spreading branches ; and some are 
jlexucse or zigzag, forming obtuse angles at every joint, 
as in various species of Smilax or Green-Briar. When 
a stem is .regularly and repeatedly divided into pairs, 
Fig. 16, as in common Chickweed, and Stramonium, it 
is said to be dichotomous or forked. 
With respect to Form, the stem is usually terete or 
round ; sometimes it is compressed, having its two opposite 
sides flattened ; and sometimes it is ancipital, or two 
edged, forming two opposite and acute angles, as in the 
Blue-eyed Grass. In other cases it is triangular, 
square, or pentangular, but these terms require no ex- 
planation. When the angles of a stem are extended 
into a flat leafy border, as in the Sweet Pea and many 
of the Thistles, it is said to be winged, but sometimes a 
decurrent leaf causes the stem to appear winged when 
in reality it is not. 
The Branches of a stem are alternate, when be- 
tween two on one side there arises an opposite and 
intermediate branch ; and they are opposite, when 
two branches arise at equal distances from the base 
of a stem. When opposite branches alternately 
cross each other at right angles, af. in the Lilac, they 
are said to be brachiate or decimate. When several 114 
TRUNKS. 
branches arise from a common stem at the same dis- 
tance from its base, as in the Spruce and White Pine, 
they are termed verticillate. When the terminal buds 
produce flowers only, and the lateral ones leaves and 
branches, the stem is said to be abruptly branched. 
The American Honeysuckle, Fig. 17 is an example, 
and it is easy to tell how many times it has produced 
flowers, by ascertaining the number of its abrupt or 
determinate subdivisions. They are distichous, when 
the branches arise promiscuously from all parts of the 
stem, and spread only in two directions as in the Hem- 
lock tree and Silver-Fir, and they are fastigiate, when 
the branches arising from different parts of the stem, 
terminate at equal distances from the ground. 
In some plants the branches are few and scattered, 
in others they are crowded, so as almost to conceal the 
stem. 
When the extremities of the branches are inclined 
towards the main stem they are compact; when extend- 
ing in a horizontal direction, they are diverging; and 
when they form an obtuse angle with the superior por- 
tion of the stem, they are divaricate. Some branches 
are erect, as in the Lombardy Poplar ; others are pen- 
dant, as in the Weeping Willow and Elm, and their stems 
are said to be reflected. 
When a stem is occasionally intercepted by knots, as 
in the Garden Pink, it is said to be jointed; but if these 
joints are much contracted, as in some species of Cactus, 
Fig. 25, the stem is articulated ; when the firm texture 
of the exterior portion extends to the centre, it is solid; 
when filled with pith, it is termed pithy ; and when it 
forms a complete cavity, it is fistulous, or hollow. 
Plants whose leaves and flowers spring immediately 
from the ground, Fig. 22, are termed stemless, and the BRANCHES. 
115 
Dandelion and many of the Violets, furnish us with ex- 
amples. The latter being allied to other species, that 
are furnished with stems are said from occasional lux- 
uriance, to assume the character of their allies, but the 
former remains stemless in every situation. 
Stems are usually garnished with leaves, and termed 
leafy ; and occasionally beset with scales, and termed 
scaly, Fig. 21 ; but in a few instances, having neither 
leaves nor scales, they are said to be naked, as in Dod- 
der and Glasswort. In the latter case the succulent 
stem supplies the place of leaves ; in the former the 
living vegetable to which it clings, furnishes the para- 
site with food, already prepared for its own nourish- 
ment. 
The student who examines these forms, will not fail 
to observe the various sizes of stems, some being slen- 
der and umesisting, others large and powerful. He 
will notice without the aid of botany, the magnitude of 
the Oak, the majestic form of the Elm, and the towering 
height of the Tulip tree, and as he compares them with 
those humble herbs that scarcely raise themselves a- 
bove the surface of the ground, he will see how man- 
nifold are the productions, which he is to examine. 
But in southern latitudes, we find trees more majestic 
than the Elm, and more lofty than the Tulip tree ; for 
there, vegetation is more rapid, and new organs are de- 
veloped without interruption. 
The Adansonia w'hich grows on the banks of the 
Senegal in Africa, is said to be thirty feet in diameter, 
and to require a chain six rods in length to enclose it. 
—Its branches spread sixty feet in every direction, 
and when excavated by old age and decay, its hollow 
trunk becomes the abode of several families. 
A still more singular stem is presented by the Rhi- 116 
TRUNKS. 
zophora, which grows within the tropics of Asia and 
America. It sends forth its numberless branches which 
descend perpendicularly to the ground, where they 
take root. From these, other branches arise and pur- 
sue the same course, as if to extend the dominion of 
the tree from which they all originate, and at last it 
covers the country for a mile around, with a forest of 
numberless branches, having the appearance of a close 
clipped bower.* 
Those who have observed the progress of the vege- 
table growth, and seen trees of various sizes produ- 
ced by the annual deposition of a thin layer of wood ; will 
be prepared to find a correspondence between the magni- 
tude and age of the stems they examine. And unless the 
growth has been particularly rapid, this may be consider- 
ed as a correct criterion, for the Oaks and the Elms are 
among the oldest of our forest trees, and the Adansonia 
is probably not merely the largest, but the oldest 
vegetable in existence. Indeed, the only limit to 
the growth of woody stems, is found in their per- 
ishable nature, which prevents them from retaining, 
beyond a limited period, strength sufficient to support 
their own weight. The centre or heart wood being 
dead, will in the course of a few centuries at least, be- 
gin to decay, but at the same time, new layers of albur- 
num are deposited as before. The progress of decay 
is more rapid than that of renovation, and at last, the 
hollow trunk being unable to support its own branches, 
is precipitated to the ground by their growing weight, 
or overturned by the winds, which it has buffeted prob- 
ably for ages. The durability of the perfect wood, and 
the strength of the alburnum, mu«t therefore deter- 
mine the age to which any tree can arrive. 
* Wildenow. 117 
TEXTURE OF STEMS. 
We have noticed the articulated stem of the Cqctus, 
from the summit of which, new branches arise, readily 
distinguished by the intervening and contracted joints, 
and furnishing an example of the proliferous stem.— 
These are mostly tropical plants, though one species 
occurs frequently in New-England, and others thrive 
on the banks of the Missouri. Destitute of leaves, 
they are beset with rigid spines, and form, when prop- 
erly arranged, an impenetrable hedge ; but in spite of 
their armature, the wild antelope of the plains, finds 
means to render them subservient to its wants.* 
The arrangement presented by the transverse sec- 
tion of a woody stem, the annual layers, the silver 
grain by which they are intersected, the vessels through 
which the fluids pass, and the cellular texture which 
binds them together, rendering the whole solid and 
compact, have been already noticed. The arrange- 
ment presented to our view, by the transverse section 
of annual stems is somewhat different, their cellular 
texture being more abundant, and the vessels through 
which the sap passes being variously arranged, but as- 
suming in each plant a determinate form, peculiar to its 
tribe. A transverse section of the Date Palm, exhib- 
its “ over the whole surface, a great number of black 
spots, dispersed without any regular order, upon a 
white ground, larger in the centre and smaller in the cir- 
cumference, but the largest not being more than the 
third of a line in diameter. These spots are the divi- 
ded extremities of bundles of longitudinal fibres, pass- 
ing from the base to the summit of the stem, in a di- 
rection parallel to its axis.”! Such is the arrangement 
presented not merely by the Date Palm, but by an ex- 
* Nuttall. 
t Keith. 118 
TRUNKS. 
tensive tribe of plants, easily recognized by their pe- 
culiar features, and furnishing, by their solitary seed 
lobes, a discriminate character on which the botanist 
chiefly relies. 
No forest trees are more lofty than the Palms, and 
few attain a greater age ; yet they are regarded as pe- 
rennial herbaceous plants, and exhibit the same inter- 
nal structure. Their leaves spring immediately from 
the ground, and those which are most recent, being 
interior to the others, must of course rise above them, 
before they are unfolded. When one system of these 
leaves has performed its office, another appears above 
it, and thus its power of lateral extension being limited 
by the exterior and old bundles of leaf-stalks, all the 
energies of the plant are directed to the elongation of 
its stem ; which being unbranched and very lofty, gives 
a peculiar cast to the scenery of those countries in 
which the Palm trees abound. In northern latitudes 
they never occur, but the White Lily, which belongs 
to the same natural division of plants, may serve to elu- 
cidate this subject. “ Its stems, though of only an- 
nual duration, are formed nearly on the same principle 
as that of the Palm, and are really congeries of leaves, 
rising one above another, and united by their bases in- 
to an apparent stem.”* 
2. CULM.—This term is applied to the stems of grass- 
es and grass-like plants. They are usually tubular and 
jointed, the joints being larger than the intervening 
straws, and interrupting the continuity of the cavity 
which they form. 
When they form an angle at each of the joints, they 
are termed geniculate, as in the Bent and White top, 
* f?mith. CULM. 
119 
Agrostis alba; but when radical fibres are emitted 
from these joints, and attach themselves to the earth, 
as in the Fiorin grass, Agrostis stolonifera, the culm is 
said to be stoloniferous. Compared with other stems, 
these are more frequently triangular, jointed, and hol- 
low, and in this climate, they are almost without ex- 
ception, of annual duration. 
The flint which exists in the stems of grasses, and 
their consequent utility in the arts, has been formerly 
noticed. The primary design of this deposition, is 
probably to secure the flower and the seed from de- 
struction, for while animals greedily devour the her- 
bage of grasses, they leave the culm and consequently 
the seed unmolested. 
From the Leghorn straw, hats of a most durable kind 
are made, and recently, one of the most common of our 
grasses, has been made subservient to the same useful 
purposes. 
In northern countries, grasses are never large, being 
always destroyed at the approach of winter, but as we 
proceed towards the equator, they attain to a greater 
size and a greater age. There we find the useful Cane 
and the still more lofty Reed, both surpassed by an 
Asiatic grass, Panicum arborescens whose culm we are 
told, is sometimes eighty or an hundred feet in length.* 
The peculiar stem of the Palm tree was formerly re- 
garded as a distinct variety, and denominated Stipe, but 
as the term has been restricted to other organs and other 
plants, there is no reason why it should retain a place 
in this chapter. The peculiar stalks of leaves and 
flowers are rather to be regarded as appendages, and 
as such they will be described. 
* Barton’s Elements. CHAPTER IX. 
LEAVES. 
Leaves are membraneous or succulent organs, usu- 
ally of a green colour, arising immediately from the 
root, or attached to the stem and its branches. The 
point by which a leaf is attached to the plant is 
termed its base, the opposite extremity is the summit, 
the intermediate portion of the leaf is its expansion, 
and the boundary of the expansion is its margin. The 
superior surface is more even, and usually of a deeper 
green ; and the other exhibits more prominently the 
fibres of the diverging vessels. 
PETIOLE.—The base is frequently prolonged into 
a footstalk or Petiole, by which the leaf is removed 
to a greater or less distance from the place of its 
attachment. The leaf stalk of the Vine is nearly 
cylindrical, but we more frequently find its superior 
surface compressed or channelled, and this circum- 
stance will enable the student to distinguish the foot 
stalks of compound leaves, from the young branches 
with which, without regarding this distinction, he 
would be liable to confound them. The interesting 
St. Pierre, has with his usual ingenuity, attempted to 
prove, that the channel of the petiole is designed to 
convey the water which falls on the leaves, towards 
the roots of their respective plants. He even says 
that the form and capacity of this groove, will indicate 
the quantity of moisture which any individual plant POSITION. 
12»J 
may require, and his hypothesis is supported by many 
plausible arguments. The motion of the trembling 
Aspen, when every thing around it is quiet and at rest, 
has caught the attention of many an observing eye. 
The leaves of this and other species of Poplar, have 
their petioles so compressed, as to admit of a lateral 
tremulous motion when exposed to the slightest breath 
of air. 
We discriminate between the Orange and the Lemon 
by the winged leaf stalk of the former, and it is not 
merely a convenient but a necessary mark of distinc- 
tion. 
The petiole of the Grasses forms an entire sheath, 
{vagina,) and the late Dr. Muhlenburg in his Grasses 
of America, has rarely failed to describe it undeF the 
latter denomination. 
The leaf-stalks of the common Pea terminate in a 
tendril, and those of the Traveller’s Joy, Clematis Vir- 
ginia, perform the office of tendrils, by twining like 
them around their supporters. 
The continuation of the petiole through the leaf is 
termed its midrib, and its various ramifications, which 
are most conspicuous on the under surface, constitute 
the nerves and veins. 
In the examination of leaves we are to learn their 
different positions and modes of insertion, as well as 
the varieties of form, texture, and surface. 
1. POSITION. 
Radical Leaves spring immediately from the root, 
as in the Dandelion and English Cowslip, Fig. 22. 
The leaves of the Stem, sometimes differ from those 
of the Branches, and then it is necessary to distinguish 122 
LEAVES. 
them by terms which denote their respective inser- 
tions. The flower is sometimes accompanied by leaves 
of a different size or shape from the others, and these 
are termed Floral leaves. The stalk of Parnassia, 
having only a solitary leaf is said to be Unifoliate, and 
the Lily of the Valley having two is Bifoliate, but it is 
rare to see leaves so few, or their number so invari- 
able. 
When the petioles are inserted into opposite points 
of a stem, as in the Lilac, they are said to be Opposite, 
and when they arise successively from the different 
sides of a stem, as in the Cherry and Pear trees, they 
are said to be Alternate. 
Stellate or Verticillate leaves, Fig. 45, grow in a cir- 
cle around the stem, as in the common Red Lily, Indian 
Cucumber, and Galium. 
When several leaves are inserted together as in the 
Hackmatack, they are said to be Fascicled or Tufted ; 
and Imbricated when they overlap and enclose each 
other, like tiles on a house top, as in White Cedar and 
Juniper. 
When opposite leaves alternately cross each other 
at right angles as in Bone-set, they are Decussated. 
Distichal or Two-rauked leaves spread in two direc- 
tions, as in the Hemlock tree, but if leaves thus dispos- 
ed arise from two opposite points of a stem, they are 
said to be Bifarious. 
Those leaves are Floating, which we see on the 
surface of the water, as in Pond Lilies ; those are Im- 
mersed which are beneath it, as Water Violet and Valis- 
neria ; and those are Emersed, which are seen rising 
above its surface. 
Some leaves are Appressed towards the stem, some 
Depressed close to the ground, as in the Carpet weed ; INSERTION. 
123 
some Erect ; some obliquely Ascending; some Hori- 
zontal ; and some Relining downwards ; but these 
are distinctions which are rarely observed. 
2. INSERTION. 
A Petiolate leaf has a footstalk inserted into its base, 
as in the Maple, Poplar and Vine, Figs. 31, 32 and 48. 
When the Petiole is inserted into the inferior sur- 
face of a leaf, at a greater or less distance from its mar- 
gin, it is said to be Peltate, as in Nasturtion and Water 
shield, Fig. 27. 
A Sessile leaf arises immediately from a stem, branch 
or root, without the intervention of a footstalk, as in 
the clustered and two leaved Solomon’s seal. 
Clasping leaves embrace the stem with their base, 
as in the New England Aster, and Clasping Bell-flower. 
When two opposite leaves are united at their base, 
as in Fever-root and Bone-set, they are said to be Con- 
nate ; and Perfoliate when a stem passes through a 
solitary leaf, as in most of the Bell-worts. Fig. 26. 
Sometimes we find examples which appear interme 
diate between the two preceding, but all necessary pre- 
cision is obtained in these cases, by using the term 
Connate-perfoliate. To the leaves of the Bone-set 
and Chlora perfoliata, Fig. 16, such a term is strictly 
applicable. 
When leaves form a sheath for each other or for the 
stem, as in the Iris, and some of the Grasses, they are 
said to be Sheathing. In the latter, however, the 
sheath is usually an expanded petiole, and not according 
to the common acceptation of the term, a portion of the 
leaf itself. 
When the base of a leaf is extended down the side of 124 
LEAVES. 
a stem, so as to form a leafy border or wing, it is said 
to be Decurrent, and the Mullein, some of the Thistles 
and Peas are familiar examples. Fig. 23. 
3. FIGURE. 
With regard to form, leaves are Simple, as in the 
Lilies and Grasses, or they are Compound, as in the 
Parsley and Rose. The petiole of the simple leaf 
terminates in a single expansion, which is either entire 
or divided, but in the latter case the incisions never ex- 
tend to the midrib. The footstalks of compound leaves 
are more frequently subdivided, and the expansions or 
leaflets in which they terminate, are distinguished like 
simple leaves by their peculiar form. Of these forms, 
the following with annexed examples, are more particu- 
larly important. 
An Orbicular leaf, whose entire margin is in the cir- 
cumference of a circle is of rare occurrence, and 
“ precise examples are scarcely to be found.” When 
there is but a slight deviation from this form, leaves 
are said to be Subrotund, or roundish, and the Round 
leaved Winter green is a good example. 
The Ovate or Egg shaped leaf, Fig. 28, occurs more 
frequently, having its base broader than its summit as 
in the Periwincle and Sage. 
The Obovate is also egg-shaped, but has its summit 
broader than its base as in the fragrant Clethra. 
The Eliptic or oval leaf, is intermediate between 
the two preceding, having its two extremities equally 
broad, as in the Lily of the Valley and Water shield. 
Fig. 27. 
The term Oblong, is somewhat indefinitely applied to 
those leaves which are several times longer than broad, FIGURE OF LEAVES. 
125 
The Spatulate leaf, Fig. 29, so named from its resem- 
blance to a well known instrument of the surgeon, has 
a round and somewhat broad extremity, with a long 
slender base. The Rose Campion and Marsh Rose- 
mary are well known examples. 
A Cuneate or Wedge shaped leaf, has a broad ex- 
tremity tapering to a point at the base as in Carpet 
Weed and Purslane. 
An oblong leaf tapering towards each extremity, as 
in our field Lilies is termed Lanceolate. Fig. 30. 
Linear leaves are narrow, having their sides parallel, 
as in the common Garden Pink and most Grasses. A 
short acute linear leaf, is termed Subulate or Awlshap- 
ed, and the Moss Pink is a good example ; very slender 
linear leaves are also called setaceous, capillary, or 
filiform, from their resemblance to bristles, hair or 
thread. 
Acrose or Needleshaped leaves are linear, riged, 
and generally evergreen, as in the Pines. 
A Deltoid or Triangular leaf has three prominent 
angles, one of which is formed by its acute summit, as 
in the Lombardy Poplar and White Birch. 
A Rhomboid or Diamond-shaped leaf has four pro- 
minent but somewhat oblique angles, its opposite sides 
being nearly parallel, as in Purple Trellium and Al- 
thea. 
Other leaves are Angular, as in the Moon-seed and 
Colts-foot, but in these cases it is seldom necessary to 
ascertain the exact number of angles, nor are they 
sufficiently constant to furnish marks of distinction. 
The Cordate, or Heart shaped leaf, Fig. 31 occurs fre- 
quently, and its figure is well known. When its two lobes 
approach each other so as to form an apparent cavity 
above, it is then termed Cuculate or hooded, and one 126 
LEAVES. 
of our common Violets, Viola cucullata, whose specific 
name alludes to this circumstance, will serve as an ex- 
ample. When the petiole is inserted into the pointed 
extremity of a heart shaped leaf, it is said to be obcor- 
date, as in the Wood sorrel. Fig. 42, though the equiv- 
alent term, inversely heart-shaped, is frequently em- 
ployed. 
A Reniform or kidney shaped leaf has a rounded ex- 
tremity, and usually a circular excavation at its base, 
as in Canada Snake-root and Gill. Fig. 32. 
The Crescent form, of rare occurrence, and happily 
illustrated by a reference to the figure of the new 
moon, may have its stem inserted into the concave or 
opposite portion. 
The Arrow shaped or Sagittate leaf, Fig. 34, has 
two lobes projecting from its base, one on each side of 
the petiole to which they are nearly parallel, as in Ar- 
row-head and Scratch-grass Polygonum sagittatum. 
The Halbert or Hastate leaf, Fig. 33, has also two 
projecting lobes, which are nearly at right angles with 
the leaf stalk, as in Sorrel, and Polygonum hastatum. 
By Wildenow the Auricled leaf is regarded as a pe- 
culiar variety of the ha-tate, having its lobes smaller 
and round, but Dr. Smith speaks of them as the two 
lateral leaflets, liable occasionally to be united to the 
terminal cne of a compound leaf. Wildenow’s appli- 
cation of the term is most usually adopted. 
A leaf is Unequal, Fig. 35, when the midrib does not 
divide it into two equal portions. Such are the leaves 
of the Elm and Lime trees, which last are also describ- 
ed as Oblique. 
The leaves of a stem not unfrequently present a dif- 
ferent form from those of the branches, and sometimes 
they are different on the same branch or stem. The FIGURE OF LEAVES. 
127 
Chinese Mulberry is a very striking example of this 
diversity, having scarcely two leaves of the same form. 
Students should be aware of this, or they will not un- 
derstand why the Leaves of the Sassafras are describ- 
ed as ovate and lobed, while those of the Moon-seed 
are cordate and angular. 
The following varieties of simple leaves are divided 
by incisures, more or less deep, into several lobes or 
segments, forming a connecting link betweeu the en- 
tire and the compound leaves. 
In the Sinuate or Scolloped leaf, Fig. 36, these in- 
cisures are curved, and the segments are either round- 
ed or acute. The Oaks furnish us with numerous ex- 
amples. 
A Runcinaie leaf Fig. 37, is cut into numerous trans- 
verse acute segments, which point towards its base as 
in the Dandelion. 
The segments of a Lyrate leaf are transverse, the 
terminal one being rounded and much larger than the 
others. It occurs in the wild and cultivated Radish. 
The Palmate leaf, Fig. 38, so named from its re- 
semblance to the open hand, has five or seven project- 
ing segments or fingers ; as in the Castor-Oil plant and 
Blue Passion flower. 
The Lobed leaf, Fig. 39, has curved or rounded seg- 
ments, with incisures less deep than in the succeeding 
variety. The Noble Liverwort and Sassafras are good 
examples. 
The Cleft leaf has straight incisures and segments ter- 
minating acutely ; and the Parted has incisures extend- 
ing very nearly to its base. Fig. 40. The Cranes- 
bill will serve to exemplify each variety. 
In using these terms, it is often necessary to express 
the number of lobes or segments, and hence we have 128 
LEAVES 
trilobate or three-lobed, trifid or three-cleft, and mul- 
tijid, or many-cleft. 
Laciniate leaves are irregularly divided into numer- 
ous lobes or segments. In consequence of their ir- 
regular and indeterminate form, they are also called 
jagged or incised. 
It has been observed that those submersed leaves 
which are exposed to the action of running water, are 
frequently subdivided, while those which float on its 
quiet surface are large and entire. 
Pinnatifid leaves, Fig. 41, are transversly divided 
into several oblong, parallel segments, which are grad- 
ually smaller, as we proceed from the base to the sum- 
mit of their respective leaves. When these segments 
are also transversely divided, as in Yarrow, the leaf is 
said to be Bipinnatifid. When these segments are ex- 
tremely narrow, and like comb teeth, the leaf is term- 
ed Pectinate. 
4. COMPOSITION. 
A Compound leaf is Digitate, when several leaflets 
arise from the summit of a simple petiole, as in the 
Horse Chesnut, and Hemp. 
It is Binate or Conjugate, when the number of these 
leaflets is two ; if they are three, as in the Clover and 
Strawberry, it is Ternate, Fig. 42, and if they are five 
as in Five fi-.ger, it is Quinate. 
It is Pinnate, Fig. 43, if several leaflets arise from 
the side of a petiole, as in the Rose and Sensitive plants. 
In the first there is an odd or terminal leaflet, in the 
last there is none, and the Rose is said to be oddly, and 
the Sensitive abruptly pinnate. These leaflets are 
sometimes opposite and sometimes alternate, and hence 129 
.MARGIN OF LEAVES. 
we find leaves, alternately or oppositely pinnate. If 
these leaflets alternate with others of a smaller size, 
as in Agrimony, the leaf is interruptedly pinnate. Fig. 44. 
When a leaf stalk is divided, and the leaflets arise 
only from the superior side of its two branches, the 
leaf is said to be Pedate, Fig. 46, Viola pedata and 
Arum dracontium are examples. 
When a petiole is divided, and each division supports 
a compound leaflet, it is said to be Decompound. Such 
leaves are usually Biternate, Fig. 50, or Bipinnate. 
When the secondary branches of a petiole support 
compound leaflets, it is said to be Thrice compound, and 
if the leaflets are ternate, as in Panax trifolium, the 
leaf is thrice ternate. 
5. SUMMIT. 
The Summit of leaves is Acute, as in the Willows, 
or Acuminate being still more slender and pointed, as 
in the Lombardy Poplar, or it is obtuse as in the round, 
ovate and wedge shaped leaves, which terminate in the 
segment of a circle. 
The Truncate leaf terminates abruptly, as if its ex- 
tremity had been removed by a transverse incision ; 
and the Tulip tree, Fig. 48, is a good example. 
If the extremity of a leaf is tipped with a bristle-like 
point, as in Marsh Rosemary, it is said to be Mucron- 
ate, and if it is tipped with a tendril it is Cirrhose. 
If it has a small acute notch at its summit, it is Emar- 
ginate, but if the notch be broad and shallow it is 
Retuse. 
6. MARGIN. 
The margin of leaves is Entire, as in Lilies ; Spinous 130 
LEAVES. 
or beset with prickles, as in the Holly and Thistle ; 
Ciliate or fringed like the eye lashes, as in Moss Pink ; 
and Dentate or with numerous distant teeth, as 
in the Arrow-wood, Viburnum dentaium. The leaves 
of the Beech tree are both Ciliate and Dentate. Ser- 
rate leaves are beset with teeth like a saw, all of which 
point toward their summits. The Rose, Apple and 
Peach leaves are examples. 
Crenate leaves are like the edge of a common dining 
plate, having rounded projections inclining to neither 
extremity, as in Penny wort and Gill. Fig. 32. 
When the teeth or projections are very minute, the 
terms Denticulate,Serrulate and Crenulate are employed. 
When the projections of a serrate leaf are beset with 
minute serratures, it becomes Doubly-serrate, and 
the same rule is extended to the dentate and crenate 
leaves. 
A Rcpand leaf, Fig 47, is bordered by numerous an- 
gles, which appear as if formed by the excision of a 
small segment of a circle. 
Sometimes a leaf appears as if it had been irregularly 
cut, notched or eaten, and then it is termed Erose. 
When the margin is rolled backwards a leaf is said 
to be Revolute, and Involute when its border is turned 
towards its superior surface. 
7. SURFACE. 
With respect to Surface, Leaves are Dotted, or 
as they are sometimes termed Punctate, as in the Or- 
ange, Lemon, and different species of Hypericum. 
When the veins are tighter than the intermediate sub- 
stance of a leaf it is said to be Rugose or wrinkled, as 
in the Foxglove aDd Sage. If the inequalities thus SURFACE OF LEAVES. 
131 
produced, are greater than in the last named example, 
as in the Cabbage, a leaf is said to be Bullate or blis- 
tery. 
A Plaited leaf is folded like a fan, and the American 
Hellebore is a good example. When the surface of a 
leaf near its margin is waved obtusely up and down, it 
is said to be Undulate ; and Curled when the border 
is so much expanded as to be in regular folds, as in the 
Curled-leaved Mallows. 
When the middle of a long and narrow leaf is furrow- 
ed or depressed it is said to be Chanelled, as in Narcis- 
sus and Hyacinths. And when the midrib is prominent, 
on the inferior surface of a leaf, as in the Indian Corn, 
it is said to be Keeled. 
A leaf is Veined when the vessels arise from it midrib, 
as in the Cherry and Elm. 
It is Nerved, when arising from the petiole, its vessels 
are continued from the base to its summit, as in Ladies 
Slipper and Solomon’s seal. When these nerves are 
three, a leaf is termed three-nerved or three-nerved at 
the base, when as in the Burdock and Sunflower, the 
two lateral nerves pass for a considerable distance 
along the margin of the leaf. When these nerves arise 
above the base of a leaf it is said to be triply-nerved, as 
in Ceanothus Americanus. 
When the vessels of a leaf intersect each other so as 
to form a net-work, a leaf is said to be Reticulate. 
This is well seen in the Rattle snake Plantain, Neottia 
pubescens, whose white veins present a very obvious 
contrast with the dark green colour of the interven- 
ing cells. 
The surface of a Lineate leaf is slightly marked lon- 
gitudinally with depressed parallel lines. 
When no vessels are apparent on the surface of a leaf 
it is said to be Nerveless or even, as in Marsh Rose- 
mary. 132 
LEAVES. 
All leaves that are not green are said to be Coloured, 
as in the Three-coloured Amarantbus, and Beet. 
Variegated.—Dr. Smith applies this term to the 
white and yellow spots which are the effect of disease. 
The Ladies Striped-grass, so well known in almost ev- 
ery garden, loses it variegated appearance when trans- 
ferred to the fields, though its luxuriant growth in the 
former situations, seems to indicate that it is not exclu- 
sively the effect of disease. The same observations 
are applicable to the Aucuba or Golden Plant of Japan, 
and therefore it is probable, that an unnatural exposure, 
perhaps to the action of light, may have produced this 
effect. 
An Aculeate leaf is covered with spines as in Rhexia. 
When the serratures of a leaf terminate in sharp prick- 
les it is said to be aculeate-serate. 
A leaf destitute of every kind of pubescence is said to 
be Naked. 
8. SUBSTANCE. 
With regard to Substance, Membranaceous leaves 
are thin, flexible and almost transparent, as in Penny 
wort. Coriaceous are thick and firm like leather, as in 
Laurel and Oleander, and Succulent or fleshy leaves are 
filled with pulp, as in the Ice plant and Aloe. 
The Onion is an example of a Tubular leaf, and that 
of the Water Lobelia, has two contiguous cavities or 
cells. Fig. 51. 
A thick oblong blunt leaf with a cartilaginous margin 
is said to be Lingulate or Tongue-shaped. It occurs 
but rarely. 
An Ensiform or sword-shaped leaf, is two-edged, 
erect, tapering to a point, with two convex or gibbous MAGNITUDE OF LEAVES. 
133 
surfaces, neither of which can be said to be superior. 
The Blue flag, and other species of Iris furnish ex- 
amples. 
Sempervireut leaves retain their verdure through 
one or more winters, as in the Laurel, Pine, and other 
evergreens, but in Northern countries, leaves are more 
usually Deciduous, falling at the approach of winter. 
When the character of a leaf cannot be otherwise 
precisely delineated, botanists qualify or combine the 
terms which have been thus briefly defined. It is not 
uncommon, for example, to find leaves which are in- 
termediate between the ovate and the lanceolate forms, 
and they are said to be ovate-lanceolate. Nor is it 
unusual to find them with foot-stalks so very short, 
that a student is unable to decide whether they are Ses- 
sile or not; but here the term sub-petiolate or sub-ses- 
sile is used, and in this, as well as in all cases, the term 
sub, implies that the character in question is obscure 
or not well defined. 
“ By the judicious use of such means,” says Dr. 
Smith, “ all necessary precision is attained. Perhaps 
no mind, though ever so intent on the subject can re- 
tain all the possible terms of description and their vari- 
ous combinations, for ready use at any given moment. 
There are few natural objects, to which a variety of 
terms are not equally applicable in description, so that 
no two writers would exactly agree in their use. 
Neither is Nature herself so constant as not perpetual- 
ly to elude our most accurate research. Happy is that 
naturalist, who can seize at a glance what is most char- 
acteristic and permanent, and define all that is essential, 
without trusting to fallacious though ever so specious 
distinctions.” 134 
LEAVES, 
9. MAGNITUDE. 
The Magnitude of leaves varies almost as much 
as their forms. In the mosses which abound in cold 
climates, they are extremely minute ; and the forest trees 
of the North are adorned with leaves which appear 
diminutive, when compared or rather when contrasted 
with the foliage of Equatorial plants. There we find 
the leaves of the Banana, perhaps the same which were 
employed by our first parents, to supply the w ant of a 
more artificial dress ; they being in the opinion of 
many writers the “ Fig leaves” of sacred history. In 
Ceylon, a country alternately exposed, for many 
months in succession, to the rays of a vertical sun, and 
the inclemencies of an unceasing storm, is found the 
singular Talipot, a single leaf of which is sufficiently 
large to shelter twenty men from the vicissitudes of 
the climate in which they dwell. This tree is venera- 
ted by those who find beneath its branches so kind a 
shelter, and travellers consider it, as the greatest bless- 
ing which Heaven has bestowed on the country. And 
when we regard its subserviency to the wants of the 
human race, it is not surprising that by the ancients, 
the wide spreading tree, decorated with leaves and oc- 
casionally beautified with flowers, should have been 
held sacred as the very temple of the deities they 
worshipped. 
10. DURATION. 
The Duration of leaves is also various. In this 
climate they are mostly deciduous, and every autumn 
return to their original dust, and enrich the soil from 
which they derived their own nourishment. But the TEXTURE OF THE LEAF. 
135 
trees of Equinoctial regions are perpetually verdant, 
and the same leaves which have been noticed as unusu- 
ally large, are equally remarkable on account of their 
longevity, as they rarely fade till they are six years 
old ; yet these very trees, when removed to a colder 
region, are in some cases annually stripped of their 
foliage. In its native country, the far famed Cydon, 
and also when cultivated in the South of Europe the 
Quince tree is evergreen, though here, as we have had 
an abundant opportunity to see, it annually parts with 
its leaves. On the other hand the Currant, which was 
originally an inhabitant of the northern countries of 
Europe, when transferred to the Island of St. Helena 
was soon crowned with perennial leaves, but it there 
produces less fruit than in its native country. 
11. TEXTURE OF THE LEAF. 
in examining the texture of the leaf, we shall find 
the vessels of its petiole diverging in various directions, 
imbedded in cellular substance, and enclosed by an ex- 
terior membrane or Epidermis. The latter is trans- 
parent and delicate, but at the same time sufficiently 
firm to answer the object for which it was designed, to 
secure from injury the vessels of the leaf, and to ex- 
pose its fluids to the necessary agency of air and light. 
It is sometimes covered with wool or hair, which seems 
to afford an additional security against the vicissitudes 
of climate. Plants thus protected are capable of endu- 
ring a greater degree of heat than any others, and they 
abound chiefly in the hottest sections of Europe and 
America. More frequently, however, the epidermis 
of leaves is covered with a transparent varnish, which 
adds to their brilliancy, and secures them from the 136 
■LEAVES 
destructive influence of moisture. The trees of Abys- 
sinia are furnished with leaves of this description, for 
they are exposed to the violence of long continued 
rains, which nothing but this armature could enable 
them to resist. But whether covered with varnish 
or down, it contains minute orifices or pores through 
which vegetables discharge the excess of their fluids, 
and abstract nourishment from the air. 
Beneath the epidermis, we find the vessels of the 
leaf, the tubes which ramify in every direction, and the 
cells which occupy the intervening spaces. Two sys- 
tems of the former are always to be found, one to dis- 
tribute the fluids which descend through the petiole, 
and another, to re-convey the elaborated sap to every 
portion of the vegetable structure. 
Between these vessels, which are usually most pro- 
minent on its inferior surface, we find the cellular sub- 
stance of the leaf, w'hich is not merely the seat of vege- 
tation, but the source of those charms, which render 
the summer’s landscape more interesting and more 
lovely, than the bleak scenery of winter. The green 
substance of the leaf consists entirely of these cells, 
which are filled with fluids here exposed to the action 
of different agents, acquiring new properties and form- 
ing the vegetable secretions. In this texture, the me- 
dicinal and nutritive qualities of leaves reside, and they 
supply cattle with their daily food, and insects, which 
usually manifest a partiality for the leaves of one plant, 
and avoid every other. Thus the Cochineal insect 
thrives only on the Cactus, and the silk worm clings to 
the leaf of the Mulberry, but they both die when denied 
access to the leaves or cellular texture of their respec- 
tive plants. These vessels constituting the cortical 
net, consist of two layers corresponding to the two USES OF LEAVES. 
137 
surfaces of the leaf. Holman detected and separated 
them in the leaf of the Pear tree, and Linnaeus pursuing 
the same inquiry discovered their points of union, and 
ascertained that the fabric of the inferior layer is more 
delicate than the other. It is said that Hedwig discov- 
ered similar layers in the mosses which he examined, 
and moreover, that in the leaf of the Orange tree, he 
detected an additional layer. “ But no language is 
able to convey an adequate idea of the delicacy and 
intricacy of the web. It must be inspected as it exists 
in the contexture or rather in the decay of the leaf, 
whole leaves being found reduced to a skeleton of 
fibres in the winter or spring, lying at the roots of 
trees in situations where they have not been dispersed 
by the wind.”* Figs. 57 and 58 represent the cor- 
tical net. 
12. USES OF LEAVES. 
Wearied with the examination of the diversified 
forms of leaves, the student turns with delight to the 
contemplation of their uses, and in the pursuit of the 
latter inquiry, he finds an adequate compensation for 
the fatigue of the former. 
It was the opinion of an ancient writer, that leaves 
were designed to protect fruit from the intense heat of 
summer. In proof ofits correctness, he observed that 
leaves always appear before the fruit, continue till it 
ripens, when they fall, as if the sole end of their exist- 
ence was accomplished. If however, a branch be 
prematurely stripped of its leaves, its green fruit will 
never arrive at maturity. It was also observed, that in 
* Keith. 138 
LEAVES 
those countries where the heat is always intense, trees 
never part with their leaves. The correctness of an 
opinion, confirmed by arguments like these, was for a 
while unquestioned, but subsequent observations have 
shewn, that leaves are subservient to other and more 
important ends. It is true, they defend the fruit from 
the intense heat of summer, and at the same time, pro- 
tect animals and even men from the parching rays of 
noon-day. And in cultivating the plants of warm cli- 
mates, naturally pleased with a greater degree of heat, 
it is often expedient to remove the leaves, so as to ex- 
pose the flowers and fruit to the full influence of the 
sun. This practice, fatal if carried too far, when ju- 
diciously adopted, will restore to their native flavour, 
the Melon, the Orange, and the Grape. 
It has long been known, that leaves are organs of 
Exhalation, from which an invisible vapour continually 
escapes, capable of being collected, condensed, and 
accurately examined. The fact is illustrated by a 
very simple experiment, and we all know that when a 
branch is separated from its parent stock, it will shortly 
droop, wither and die. Its weight is diminished, for it 
is no longer filled with those fluids on which its firmness 
and elasticity depend. They have been discharged 
through the pores of the leaves, which, being cut off 
from all further supply, are sooner or later entirely ex- 
hausted. But if a leafy stem be placed in a small ves- 
sel of water, its freshness will be preserved a much 
longer time, though the perceptible and rapid diminu- 
tion of the water, will prove that the leaves have been 
the outlet, through which it has escaped. If the same 
branch be placed in a close tin box, its fre9hneas will 
be still longer preserved. Here are no fluids for the 
stem to absorb, but by confining the air which is al- USES OF LEAVES. 
139 
ready saturated with vapour, we prevent its further 
escape from the leaves, which must of necessity cease 
to transpire. They retain the same fluids with which 
they are already supplied, and though they perform 
none of the actions, they exhibit the appearance of per- 
fect health. Thus they may be preserved for weeks, 
and thus the botanical traveller, who expects to de- 
rive every advantage from his journey, will collect 
and preserve the plants that meet his eye, till he has 
leisure to examine them. 
The quantity of vapour thus exhaled, though various, 
is commonly greater than at first view we should be 
prepared to expect. When the sun is bright, and the 
atmosphere dry and warm, leaves perspire more copi- 
ously, than when clouds obscure the brightness of the 
one, and diffuse a moisture through the other. In the 
former case, the mown grass is converted into hay in a 
few hours, in the latter, it is so tenacious of its fluids 
as to baffle every effort of the farmer to hasten the 
process. 
In general, succulent plants exhale more sparingly 
than others. It seems to have been the design of Na- 
ture, that they should inhabit the burning sands of the 
Torrid Zone, and the peculiarity of their native situa- 
tion, makes it necessary for them to preserve the 
fluids, which, with so much difficulty they procure. 
But plants with thin membranaceous leaves which 
generally occupy moist situations, where they are sup- 
plied with an abundance of water, perspire very copi- 
ously. The Sunflower, which is very frequently met 
with in the United States, was found to exhale two 
pounds in the course of a day ; and in the same space 
of time the Cornelian Cherry, a shrub with thin and 
almost transparent leaves, growing in the hedges ot 140 
LEAVES. 
Europe, is said to lose a quantity equal to twice its own 
weight. On a warm summer’s day, at a time when 
there had been no rain for several weeks, Dr. Watson 
placed some grass under a large vessel, and in two min- 
utes it was covered with moisture which ran down its 
sides. By collecting it on muslin, he ascertained the 
amount of this exhalation; and from the result of his 
experiments, he was led to conclude, that in the course 
of a day, an acre of land transpires nearly two thousand 
gallons of water. The rapidity with which plants 
wither, will teach us how fast their roots absorb, or 
their leaves exhale, and in cultivating rare plants, this 
simple experiment will enable us to determine, what 
quantity of water they require. But in the perform- 
ance of this experiment, the condition of the atmos- 
phere, must be taken into consideration. Nor should 
it be entirely overlooked by the practical gardener, 
whose operations frequently fail, because they are 
performed at an untimely hour. Every person who 
has been engaged in transplanting, knows it may be ac- 
complished with more success, on some days than on 
others. If removed when the air is warm and dry, 
plants are apt to wither, and unless carefully managed, 
they will shortly perish beyond the power of recovery : 
but under different circumstances, and at a proper time, 
the same thing is performed without difficulty or dan- 
ger. 
The fluid which is exhaled by the leaves, may be col- 
lected. by introducing a branch into a capacious glass 
vessel, but it possesses no very peculiar properties. 
In all plants it is nearly uniform, being the residue of 
the sap, after the separation of its more essential secre- 
tions. Occasionally it is combined with a volatile oil, 
which communicates to the atmosphere around, the pe- USES OF LEAVES. 
141 
culiar fragrance of tne plant which exhales it. When 
the temperature suddenly changes, the insensible per- 
spiration is sometimes condensed, in the form of tears. 
This was observed by the Roman Poet, whose my- 
thology had transformed the mournful sisters of Phae- 
ton into Poplars, and the fluids which glittered on their 
leaves, were the tears which bespoke their anguish. 
It may frequently be observed on the leaves of those 
plants, which delight in moist shady situations, and fade 
rapidly whenever they are removed. The Impatiens 
fulva, termed on account of its elastic capsules Touch- 
me-not, is one of this kind. I have frequently seen it 
when every other plant around was dry ; yet its leaves 
glittered with the vapour, which in the form of tears, 
had been condensed on their surface. 
Very different from condensed vapour, are the exu- 
dations, which frequently appear on the leaves of dif- 
ferent plants ; and which are either an effusion of heal- 
thy secretion, or an indication of disease. The Honey- 
dew, which is seen on the leaves of the Beech, is oc- 
casioned by dampness of the atmosphere, and denotes 
its unhealthy condition ; but Manna frequently covers 
the leaves of the healthy Ash, from which tree it is 
usually obtained, as we procure sugar from the Maple, 
Sometimes this effusion possesses adhesive properties, 
sometimes it is intensely bitter, and in some cases highly 
inflammable. 
Leaves are organs of Absorption. The use of a tin 
box to preserve their freshness has already been noticed. 
If it contains a minute quantity of water, it will restore 
to the vigour of health, the fading and the dying leaf. 
This renovation arises from its power to imbibe mois- 
ture from the atmosphere ofthebox in which it is con- 
fined ; a power which most leaves possess, though in 14* 
LEAVES. 
very different degrees. This was abundantly proved 
by the experiments of Bonnet. He placed the leaves 
of various plants on the surface of water, in order to 
ascertain the relative absorbing power of different 
leaves ; and also, of the different surfaces of the same 
leaf. His experiments, so easily performed, have been 
repeated by others, and their results are too curious to 
be unknown. A singular difference has been observed, 
between the leaves of trees and herbaceous plants, the 
former absorbing chiefly by their inferior, and the latter 
by their upper surface. One of the plants which Bon- 
net employed, was the Purple-leaved Amaranth ; and 
though it lived not a week, with its inferior surface ou 
the water, it retained its vigour several months, when 
its position was reversed. On the other hand he placed 
the upper surface of the Mulberry leaf on the water, 
and it continued healthy about six days, when it began 
to droop. He placed by its side another leaf, from the 
same tree, with its inferior surface on the water, and in 
that position it remained six months, before it lost its 
vigour and health. To prove that absorption really 
converts the vapour of the atmosphere to its own use, 
we have only to place one of two leaves, which are 
connected together, in a proper situation to imbibe 
moisture, and the fluid absorbed, is frequently sufficient 
to support them both. When speaking of Parasitic 
plants, 1 mentioned the Epidendrum or Flower of the 
Air, which trails over the walls of the Indian’s cottage, 
and is prized by him for the perfume of its blossoms. 
Yet this plant is sustained entirely by the moisture 
which its leaves imbibe from the air of the same room, 
through which it diffuses its delightful fragrance. 
A knowledge of the exhaling, and absorbing power 
of leaves, is often of great practical importance. It USES OP LEAVES 
1425 
teaches us that plants droop, in consequence of the ex- 
cess of the former, and are to be revived by diminish- 
ing their discharge, or increasing their absorption. 
The former is accomplished by confining the air around 
them ; and the latter, by sprinkling water over the 
leaves ; and when plants have recently been removed, 
such management is frequently required. 
Leaves are Organs of Respiration. By the aid of the 
microscope, Dr. Grew ascertained the existence of air 
cells in the substance of leaves. He also observed the spi- 
ral coated vessels, which are particularly numerous in the 
leaf, as well as in the substance of the alburnum. His dis- 
coveries led to the conclusion, that leaves absorb air, that 
their cells receive, and their vessels convey it, to every 
part of the growing plant. The next experiments were 
performed with an Air-pump ; by which abundance of air 
was procured from the leaves, and other parts of vegeta- 
bles, and the truth of former speculations, more firmly 
established. It was also demonstrated by Bonnet, whose 
experiments on absorption, we have already mention- 
ed, that when leaves are placed in water, and exposed 
to the influence of the sun, air escapes from their sur- 
face. But we owe to the labours of Priestly more than 
to all others. Aided by the resources of modern chem- 
istry, this distinguished veteran of science, first exhi- 
bited in its true light, the influence of vegetation on the 
air we breathe, and presented to the scientific world, 
a simple yet satisfactory explanation of phenomena, 
which had eluded the investigations of all his prede. 
cessors. 
It is well known, that when animals cease to breathe, 
they immediately perish. The air by which they are 
sustained, is no less essential to the healthy existence 
of plants. But to comprehend and explain this subject, 144 
LEAVES. 
in all its interesting relations, we must premise a tew 
observations respecting the constitution of the atmos- 
phere. It is composed of three invisible fluids, two of 
which possess very peculiar properties. One of these 
is oxygen or vital air, the great supporter of combustion 
and animal life, without which neither can for a moment 
exist. Combustible bodies introduced into a portion of 
this gas, burn with increased splendour; its volume is 
diminished, and they acquire an additional weight, pro- 
portioned exactly to the quantity of gas absorbed. Its 
union with inflammable bodies, is usually attended with 
an evolution of heat and light, constituting in ordinary 
language, combustion or fire ; but sometimes this union 
is effected without the appearance of flame. 
If 30 grains of powdered charcoal are inflamed in 100 
cubic inches of this gas, both the charcoal and the oxy- 
gen disappear, a combination of their elements is ef- 
fected, and a new product is formed, possessing very 
different properties from either. This is carbonic acid 
gas, or fixed air, and it constitutes an essential, though 
a very small portion of the atmospheric air. The res- 
piration of animals is one of its most fruitful sources, 
and hence we find that the atmosphere of a close and 
crowded room soon becomes contaminated, and unfit to 
sustain the ordinary functions of life ; and this contami- 
nation arises entirely from the repeated respiration of 
confined air, by which it is deprived of its oxygen, and 
impregnated with carbonic acid. 
A diligent inquirer after truth, would ask how the pu- 
rity of the atmosphere is preserved, while millions of 
animals are continually breathing out their noxious ex- 
halations. Even the light which guided the immortal 
Priestly through his evening labours, was contaminating 
the air, while it enabled him to point out the renovat- USES OF LEAVES, 
14u 
ing cause—while it assured him and us, that every part 
of the creation is controlled by the Wisdom of an Infi- 
nite Mind. By a series of experiments conducted with 
his accustomed ingenuity, he ascertained that growing 
plants imbibe carbonic acid and expire oxygen gas. The 
leaf of a Vine was introduced into a phial of the former, 
and in less than two hours the fixed air disappeared, and 
oxygen gas was found in its place. If leaves be intro- 
duced into an inverted tumbler of water, and exposed 
to the influence of the sun’s rays, bubbles of air will 
appear on their surface. They consist of nearly pure 
oxygen gas, but if the same experiment is performed in 
the dark, the air evolved does not possess the same 
degree of purity. Thus we learn the mutual depend- 
ence of the two living kingdoms of nature upon each 
other, the beauty and harmony of creation : Man ex- 
pires the food of plants—plants exhale what has been 
emphatically denominated the breath of life. 
After the experiments of Priestly, it was supposed 
that respiration deprived the air of that oxygen, which 
is restored by the vegetation of plants. This theory, 
so satisfactory, and apparently so well established, has 
been received till lately without a doubt. Within a few 
years, however, Mr. Ellis has performed some experi- 
ments, which lead him to reject the opinions of Priest- 
ly, and to insist on the one effect of organized living ex- 
istence ; and he maintains that the germinating seed, the 
vegetating plant, and the respiring animal, all produce 
the same changes, all increase the carbonic acid and di- 
minish the oxygen of the atmosphere. Whatever credit 
is due to this gentleman for the ingenuity of his experi- 
ments, they do not appear to justify his conclusions, and 
his opinions are yet to be established by additional 
proof, or else entirely rejected ; for they are not con- 146 
LEAVES. 
sistent with the observations of many of his predeces- 
sors, and of some who have succeeded him. They 
do not explain why the air we breathe is constantly pure, 
notwithstanding the unequivocal and decidedly bad ef- 
fects of respiration. They point to no renovating 
cause ; and if true, they must subvert one of the most 
beautiful explanations of modern science ; one which 
has long been sanctioned by high authority, and will 
long be remembered with delight, even if it should be 
proved erroneous. Speaking on this subject, Sir Hum- 
phry Davy makes the following observations. “ It can- 
not be supposed that the production of oxygen from the 
leaf, which is known to be connected w'ith its natural 
colour, is an exertion of diseased action, or that it can 
acquire carbon in <he day time, during its most vigorous 
growth, and when all its powers for obtaining nourish- 
ment are exerted, merely for the purpose of exhaling 
it at night.” He concludes that in proportion to the ex- 
igencies of any plant, will be the rapidity of its absorb- 
ing carbon ; that if one be made to grow in pure water, 
and another be placed in carbonaceous earth, the leaves 
of the former will derive from the atmosphere, what 
the roots of the latter absorb from the ground ; and 
finally that when the leaves of vegetables perform their 
healthy functions, they purify the air. And their in- 
fluence on the temperature of the atmosphere, is one 
of those extraordinary provisions of Nature, which 
claims the attention and the gratitude of man. Were it 
not for this, the summer’s wind would become a Siroc- 
co, and the breeze of health would be converted into 
a pestilential blast. We have already recited the ob- 
servations of Sonnerat, who found plants comparatively 
cool, although the heat of the earth from which they USES OF LEAVE'S. 
147 
derived their nourishment, was scarcely less than that 
of boiling water. 
But to promote these effects, Light is an agent of in- 
dispensible importance. We already know that when 
it is excluded, leaves become sickly and pale, their 
stems lose their natural elasticity and strength, for the 
former derive no nourishment from the air, and the lat- 
ter no sustenance from the leaf. The fluids are retain- 
ed, no oxygen escapes, there is a deficiency of alkali, 
on which the green colour of the leaf is supposed to de- 
pend, and of carbon, which alone gives firmness to the 
wood. But when light is admitted, it enables the leaf 
to convert the carbon of the air to its use, which as it 
descends through the vessels of the bark, becomes al- 
burnum, and at last forms perfect wood. It also ena- 
bles the leaf to exhale its excess of fluids, and of oxy- 
gen, thereby increasing the proportion of that alkali, 
on which its green and healthy colour depends. But 
the beneficial influence of light upon leaves is confined 
entirely to their superior surface, which always courts 
the full influence of the sun, and turns as if to welcome 
his congenial rays. Those who have cultivated plants, 
must have observed how uniformly they mantain this 
position, and if disturbed, how soon they resume it; 
and if a Vine leaf be suspended by a thread, it is still 
susceptible of impression from the sun’s light, and re- 
tains the power to follow him in his course. 
The pinnate leaves are more under the dominion of 
light than any others. They expand in the morning, 
and at the approach of darkness close around each 
other, and sometimes around the full blown flow>er, as 
if for mutual protection and support. This is the sleep 
of plants, but w? at analogy it bears to the sleep so es- 
sential, and so refreshing to the animal kingdom, is left 148 
LEAVES. 
for others to determine. These are the leaves which 
have already been mentioned, to prove that sensibility 
is one of the properties of vegetable life. The Sensi- 
tive plant, which shrinks from the slightest touch, is 
nearly allied to several others which possess similar 
degrees of this extraordinary power. The leaves of 
the Fly-trap Dioncea muscipula, Fig. 53, exhibit no 
marks of sensibility until the unfortunate fly ventures 
to light on its surface, when it instantly closes and con- 
fines the insect prisoner, as long as he continues to 
struggle for escape. On the banks of the Ganges is 
found a plant exhibiting such powers as to excite the 
astonishment of every beholder. It is the Hedysarum 
gyrans or the Moving plant of India. If as he passes 
by the playful Indian impedes its motion, no sooner 
does it regain its liberty than its operations are renew- 
ed with increased activity, as if it were necessary to 
redeem the time which had been lost. I have seen this 
plant in a green-house, and though no breath of air 
disturbed the peace of its companions, its winged 
leaves disdained to rest, but exhibited the most aston- 
ishing example of industry I ever saw. 
The degree of vapour in the atmosphere has a pow- 
erful effect upon the leaves of some plants, so that they 
indicate with almost unerring certainty the approach of 
rain. We are yet on the threshhold of discovery. 
When we shall have advanced a few steps farther, those 
plants which now appear to have been formed in vain, 
will display their useful qualities, they will enable the 
physician to combat disease, and the traveller to avoid 
the impending storm. 
The leaf of Sarracenia* Fig. 54 presents one of those 
- The Sarracenia purpurea frequently named Adam’s Cup, or USES OP LEAVES. 
149 
anomalies which excite the attention of the most indiffer- 
ent observers. It is tubular, and the lid which is attach- 
ed to its dilated margin, is covered with rigid hairs, uni- 
formly projecting towards its base. If we examine the 
interior of this leaf, we shall find it partially filled with 
water, and stored with insects, which having been en- 
tangled by its marginal hairs, were precipitated into 
the cavity, where they perished. What is the design of 
this singular arrangement ? By Catesby who resided 
several years in South Carolina, it was said to furnish 
insects and flies with a secure retreat against the at- 
tacks of birds and reptiles, but unfortunately for his 
. hypothesis, it was rather a fatal than a safe retreat. 
By Linnaeus it was supposed to preserve a supply of 
water in its cavity, till a dry season rendered its ex- 
penditure necessary for the growth of the plant. It 
has been replied to this, that the old leaves which re- 
quire the least water, are furnished with the largest 
supply, and that even in the dryest season, this quanti- 
ty is never entirely exhausted. 
Abandoning the opinions of Catesby and Linnasus, 
Dr. Smith has adopted another which seems to have 
been founded on a single observation, made in the 
Botanic garden at Liverpool. An insect was observed 
by the gardener, drawing the flies which he could 
manage, into the tube of the leaf, where he supposed 
they were deposited as food for the aggressor, for it 
was found that the other leaves were also partially fill- 
ed with water, and contained several dead or drowning 
flies. In most cases I am persuaded they are not forced 
into their hollow tomb, but having ventured too far 
Side Saddle flower, is occasionally found in the low marshy 
grounds of New-England. 150 
LEAVES. 
upon the hairy border, they are unable to return, and 
at last fall into the water, where they perish. Here 
unquestionably they may be of use to the plant, by 
furnishing it with nourishment, which is absorbed by 
its hollow leaf, for the air evolved by decaying insects 
is favourable to vegetation. Dr. Smith therefore con- 
cludes that the design of this singular construction is 
to entrap and retain the small insects which become 
food for their larger companions, and nourishment for 
the plant which contains them, and he thinks it curious, 
“ that an European insect should find out an American 
plant in a hot house, in order to fulfil that purpose.”* 
It would be useless to find fault with this hypothesis, 
©r to mention others which have been defended with 
equal ingenuity, for none of them rest on the substantial 
basis of observation and experiment. It remains to 
be ascertained, whether the water which the leaf con- 
tains is derived from its root or from another source, 
whether it is pure, or impregnated with any of the veg- 
etable secretions, whether the insects with which it is 
stored, are forced into its cavity or become victims to 
their own temerity, whether they furnish birds and in- 
sects with food, and whether the plant is less vigorous, 
when all foreign substances are excluded from the cav- 
ity of its singular leaves. When these questions are all 
answered, there will be time enough to speculate ; but 
until the subject is more thoroughly investigated, no 
theory can rest on a substantial foundation. 
The leaf ofthe Nepenthes distillatoria, Fig. 55, a plant 
that grows among the bogs of India, presents a similar 
anomaly. A pitcher-shaped appendage attached to its 
superior extremity is partially filled with water, but the 
* Smith’s Introduction, cavity being furnished with a moveable lid apparently 
designed to exclude the rain, there can be no doubt that 
the fluid it contains is derived from the vessels of the 
leaf and not from any foreign source. 
Frond.—When the leaf and stem are so incorporated 
as to form but one organ, whose parts do not even in 
decay spontaneously separate, they present by their 
union an example of the Frond. Such examples are 
rare, unless we descend to the inspection of the inferi- 
or classes of plants, and its various arrangements as 
exhibited by them will be noticed in a subsequent 
chapter. 
As applicable to the more perfect plants, it is pecul- 
iar to the Palms, and the tall Palmetto of the south, will 
serve to exemplify this singular arrangement. But its 
application to them has of late grown into disuse, and 
as the stalk of the Palm, formerly denominated the 
stipe, now ranks with stems, so must its peculiar foliage 
be regarded as a variety of leaves. 
USES OF LEAVES. 
151 CHAPTER X. 
APPENDAGES. 
There are various appendages to the parts already 
enumerated, which are either organs of defence or 
support. Sometimes they are evidently designed to 
defend the leaf and tender shoot from cold. Some- 
times they are a security from other injuries, but in a 
few cases their uses in the economy of vegetation, re- 
main to be ascertained. Their forms are much diver- 
sified, and they all occasionally furnish discriminative 
characters, to which the botanist often finds it neces- 
sary to resort. 
1. BUDS. 
About mid-summer, the progress of vegetation seems 
to be suspended, and for several days, the vital energies 
of the tree, are exerted in the formation of buds. We 
no longer observe the vigorous growth of spring, but 
if we examine the young branches, we shall find the 
newly formed buds at the base of the leaf stalk, imme- 
diately above the place of their insertion. After the 
fall of the leaves, they are more conspicuous, and du- 
ring the winter we may perceive a gradual enlarge- 
ment, corresponding to the developement of the tender 
germs which they enclose. Their situation like that 
of the leaves, is either alternate or opposite, there 
being in the former case a solitary bud at the summit 
of the branch, and in the latter three terminal buds, the central one being larger than the others. Their 
form is not unlike that of a Pear, and their organization 
exhibits a happy combination of utility and beauty, 
well meriting the attention of the student. On their 
exterior surface we find a series of concave scales, 
enclosing each other like the tiles of a house. The 
outer of these are hard and dry, the other more delicate 
and resembling in their texture the leaves which they 
enclose. These scales are frequently connected to- 
gether by a resinous substance, which water is unable 
to penetrate, and this armature is particularly obvious 
on the large buds of the Horse-Chesnut. Having re- 
moved the scales we find the leaves or flowers, or per- 
haps both enclosed in down, which like the fur of ani- 
mals is designed as a security against the influence of 
cold. 
The buds of the Walnut and Horse-Chesnut are un- 
usually large, and the examination of either of these 
will enable us to form an accurate idea of their general 
structure and use ; one of the latter was dissected by a 
German botanist for whose patience I have great res- 
pect, at the time when it did not exceed the size of a 
pea. He found it covered externally by about 20 
scales, which were cemented together by the resinous 
adhesive substance so conspicuous in the buds of that 
tree. Within the scales he found the embryo envel- 
oped in down, and pursuing the inquiry he distinctly 
saw twenty-eight leaves surrounding a spike of sixty 
flowers. The scales, resin and down, all conspire to 
produce the same effect, though the first appears par- 
ticularly designed to guard against external injury from 
birds and animals, while the down serves as a protection 
from cold, and the resin from moisture and air. 
United, they enable the tender embryo to brave the 
BUDS. 
153 154 
APPENDAGES. 
vicissitudes of a northern climate, and protect it from 
other injuries till the period of expansion arrives. In 
the northern section of the United States, we find but 
few trees or shrubs capable of enduring the cold of 
winter without this security. 
In Sweden we are told there is but one shrub desti- 
tute of buds, and that from the peculiarity of its situa- 
tion, is always protected from the inclemencies of the 
Swedish winter. But in warmer climates, the tender 
shoots do not require this protection, and accordingly, 
we find that the Orange, Lemon and Mimosa, and other 
shrubs, natives of tropical regions, are not furnished 
with the “ winter cradles” of northern plants. If they 
are, whatever may have been their natural situations, 
whatever may be the degree of heat to which they have 
been accustomed, they will probably endure the cold of 
our winters and flourish without protection in the open 
air. 
Botanists distinguish three vaiieties of buds, one to 
enclose the leaves and their branches, one to contain 
the rudiments of the future flower, while the other 
possesses an intermediate or rather combined character, 
anc performs the office of both. The flower and leaf 
buds are easily distinguished by their forms, the 
former being round and short, the latter slender, long 
and pointed. The Peach presents examples of each 
variety, the leaves and flowers being distinct; and the 
buds of the Lilac enclose them both together. The 
leaf bud will grow luxuriantly when placed on the 
earth, but in the same situation the other uniformly 
dies. 
It has been recently discovered, and it is a discovery 
of no small practical importance, that these varieties of 
buds are convertible into each other. Mariotte de- BUDS. 
15b 
prived a Hose tree of its branches and leaves, suffering 
nothing to remain but the buds, which would have pro- 
duced flowers, the ensuing spring. They continued to 
grow, but when the period of their expansion arrived, 
instead of flowers they put forth branches and leaves. 
An accident which occurred in one of the Royal gar- 
dens of England first demonstrated the possibility of 
increasing the proportion of flower buds. A West 
India plant* which had for several years been culti- 
vated in the green house grew luxuriantly, but refused 
to produce flowers. “ At length it was accidentally 
left without water, in the dry stove at Kew, and in con- 
sequence of this unintentional neglect, the luxuriant 
growth of its branches was greatly checked, and a flow- 
er came forth at the extremity of each. By a similar 
mode of treatment, the same effect has since frequently 
been produced. Several plants, especially with bul- 
bous roots, which blossom abundantly in their native 
soils, have hitherto defied all the art of our gardeners 
to produce this desirable effect; yet future experience 
may possibly place it within our reach by some very 
simple means. In general, whatever checks the luxu- 
riant productions of leaf-buds, favours the formation 
of flowers and seeds. That variety of the Orange Li- 
ly which is most prolific in buds, seldom forms seeds, 
or even those organs of the flower necessary to their 
perfection. So likewise the seeds of Mints, a tribe of 
plants which increase excessively by roots, have hardly 
been detected by any botanist ; and it is asserted by 
Doody, that when the elegant little Ornithopus perpu- 
sillus does not produce pods, it propagates itself by 
grains or tubercles of its root, though in general the 
* Solandragrandijlortt. 166 
APPENBAGE3. 
root is annual. But such propagation is only the exten- 
sion of an individual, and not a re-production of the 
species as by seed. Accordingly, all plants increased 
by buds, cuttings, layers, or roots, retain precisely the 
peculiar qualities of the individual to which they owe 
their origin. If those qualities differ from what are 
common to the species, sufficient to constitute what is 
called a variety, that variety is perpetuated through all 
the progeny thus obtained. This fact is exemplified in 
a thousand instances, none more notorious than the dif- 
ferent kinds of apples, all varieties of one common 
stock.”* 
The Bulbs which have been formerly described are 
closely allied to Buds. This affinity is less obvious, 
when the bulb occurs in its most usual position, beneath 
the surface of the ground, than when it arises from the 
bosom of the leaves, or in the vicinity of the flowers. 
The Bulb-bearing Loose-strife presents an example of 
the first, and the Meadow-garlic of the second variety ; 
and in both cases it remains attached to the parent plant, 
till the embryo it encloses has reached maturity. It 
then falls to the ground, strikes root, and a new plant 
is developed. In their situation these bulbs are anala- 
gous to buds ; in their destiny they appear more like 
bulbs, and are to be regarded as a connecting link between 
the buds of trees, and the radical bulbs of herbaceous 
plants. 
2. STIPULES. 
The leaves and their petioles are frequently accom- 
panied by small leaf-like appendages, which, in the 
* Smith. STIPULES. 
157 
■technical language of the botanist, are termed Stipules. 
They are usually found in pairs at the base of the peti- 
ole, Fig. 20, and this Dr. Smith regards as their most 
natural position. 
In the Myrtle-leaved Pea-vine they are semi-sagit- 
tate, resembling a section of the arrow-shaped leaf; in 
the Willow, they are frequently lunulate, having the 
appearance of the crescent-shaped leaf; in the Silver 
weed they are ovate ; in the common Pea they are 
round ; and in other plants they assume other figures 
designated by terms w hich have been defined in a for- 
mer chapter. 
In the examples which have been enumerated, the 
stipules are in pairs, exterior to the leaf; and in some 
of them, and also in the Rose, they are laterally united 
to the petiole at its base, In other plants, the stipules 
are internal and simple, as in the Knot-grass, and other 
species of Polygonum. In these it is frequently tubu- 
lar, forming a sheath for the stem above the insertion 
of the petiole ; and to this peculiar variety of the sti- 
pule, those who are fond of minute distinctions have 
applied the term Ochrea. 
In the natural order of Grasses it is also solitary, form- 
ing a membranous scale, which arises from the summit 
of the sheath, and like it encloses the culm. This 
form of the stipule is denominated ligula, a term which 
Dr. Smith regards as superfluous, and of course to be 
rejected. It is however still retained by several wai- 
ters, and not unfrequently occurs in the delineations of 
American grasses. Usually the stipules are persistent, 
and fall only with the leaves, but in the Tulip-tree they 
are deciduous and fall as soon as the leaves are fully 
expanded. The presence and figure of this organ are 
often the basis of botanical distinctions and Jussieu 158 
APPENDAGES. 
in distributing the vegetable kingdom into natural or 
ders, has frequently derived from them his secondary 
characters. 
■ In their functions these organs are auxiliary to the 
leaves, serving like them for the elaboration of the sap : 
and in some of the Pea vines it has been observed that 
the latter occasionally disappear, leaving only the sti- 
pules to supply their place. 
3. TENDRILS. 
These are filiform appendages by which weak stems 
are attached to their supporters. They usually arise 
from the branches, being opposite to the leaves in the 
Vine, and axillary in the Passion flower. In a few in- 
stances they arise from the leaf, and very rarely from 
the petiole and flower stalk. In the Traveller’s Joy, 
Clematis Virginica, the petiole itself performs the of- 
fice of tendrils, and twines like them around other ob- 
jects for support, and in the jinnona hexapetala, the 
flower stalk forms a hook and grasps the neighbouring 
branches serving to suspend its very heavy fruit. The 
young tendril usually proceeds in a straight direction 
till it has found something to cling to, after which it as- 
sumes its spiral form and brings the young vine closer 
to the objects which sustain it. Some turn from right 
to left, some from left to right, while a few possess the 
property of twining in either direction. In the Ivy, 
Fig. 18, they are not spiral, being merely fibres which 
arise from the stem and penetrate the bark of the 
neighbouring trees, or if denied access to other vege- 
tables they cling to the naked wall, “ attaching them- 
selves firmly as the stem elongates, which thus often 
climbs to the summit of the loftiest trees or to the bat- PUBESCENCE. 
159 
dements of the loftiest towers, covering the decayed 
trunk with a borrowed foliage, and giving beauty even 
to the mouldering ruin.”* 
Those of the common Creeper are branched, and 
their minute extremities cling powerfully to the hard- 
est, smoothest rocks, and therefore it is admirably 
calculated to screen the cheerless wall from our view. 
It is in fact, the only Ivy of which we can boast, for 
that of which the poets sing, is not an American plant. 
The tendrils of the laughing Vine, have long been con 
sidered the fittest emblem which joy could wear, 
probably because some votary of cheerful mirth, had 
associated the juice of the grape with the tendril which 
supports it. 
4. PUBESCENCE. 
This term includes all the down and hairs with which 
the surface of plants is invested. Sometimes it appears 
like dust or powder scattered over the surface of the 
vegetable ; sometimes like fine silky down, communi- 
cating a silvery whiteness as in the common Silver-weed. 
Potentilla anserma ; sometimes it is velvet like, as in 
the leaf of Sida Abutilon ; and sometimes it assumes a 
woolly appearance, the hairs being curled and matted 
together, as in the leaf of the Mullein ; sometimes 
these hairs are few and scattered as in leaves of Noble 
Liverwort; sometimes they are long and shaggy, some- 
times they are short and pungent, arising from small 
eminences as in many of the rough-leaved plants. 
None of the appendages are more affected by culti- 
vation than these, and therefore it has been established 
* Keith. 160 
APPENDAGES. 
as a general principle, that except in cases of necessity, 
no marks of specific distinction should be drawn from 
them. They enable us by observing the peculiar ar- 
rangement which they assume in some of the Mints to 
discriminate between species, which we should other- 
wise be apt to confound. Nor is it uncommon for wri- 
ters to notice as one of the striking features of the plants 
they describe, whether it be pubescent or not ; that 
term being employed to express the different kinds of 
hairs which have been enumerated in the present 
section. 
5. GLANDS. 
These are minute organs of various forms usually 
attached to the leaf or its foot stalk. They occur in 
the substance of the leaves of the Myrtle, Lemon, and 
common St. John’s-wort, causing them to appear dot- 
ted when exposed to the light. They occur on the pe- 
tioles of the Nectarine, Snow-ball, and Passion-flower, 
between the serratures of the leaf in the Almond, and 
on its superior surface in the Sun-dew. In the latter 
they are filiform, and tipped with a clear transparent 
secretion, which glitters like dew in the sun. In 
Roses, Fig. 59, particularly in the Moss Rose, these 
glands are elevated on a slender stalk, and contain a 
secretion, which communicates to many species of that 
interesting family of plants, their peculiar and delight- 
ful perfume. Glands sometimes furnish marks of spe- 
cific distinction, to which it is often convenient and 
sometimes necessary to resort. They enable us to 
discriminate betwixt the Almond and the Peach, the 
leaves of the former being glandulous while those of 
the Peach are not. 161 
ARMATURE. 
6. ARMATURE. 
In addition to the preceding, there are appendages, 
which seem more evidently designed for the security 
of the plants on which they occur. One of these is 
the Sting of the Nettle, a plant which thrives around 
the dwellings of man, as if to defy his attacks, it being 
admirably prepared to resist them. The hairs or 
stings by which the Nettle is covered, are tubular, 
very slender and pointed, but expanding towards their 
base, so as to form a receptacle for the secreted fluid, 
Fig. 60. By this sting we are wounded, but the pain 
which ensues, is caused by the venomous fluid, which 
is conveyed through the cavity of the sting into the 
wound. 
Another variety of armature is the Prickle. It arises 
from the bark being sometimes straight, sometimes 
hooked, and sometimes forked. The Rose, the Bram- 
ble and the Raspberry furnish examples of these seve- 
ral varieties. 
Some plants are guarded by Thorns, which in many 
instances appear to be diminutive stems, assuming 
their peculiar form, from the want of cultivation. The 
wild Pear tree is covered with thorns, but when trans- 
ferred to the more congenial soil of the garden, they 
are found to disappear. Linnaeus imagined that such 
trees were divested of their natural ferocity, and 
therefore in the pursuit of his favourite analogy, he 
said they were tamed. Certain it is that they fall un- 
der the more immediate protection of man and no 
longer require their original armour, and whenever 
they disappear by culture, it may be presumed they 
are abortive buds, which in a more favourable situation 
would have been converted into luxuriant branchef 162 
APPENDAGES. 
But in some cases the thorns do not disappear even un- 
der circumstances favourable to vegetation. Such are 
the spines which beset the Gooseberry, and such are 
the thorns of many shrubs which are used in the con- 
struction of hedges. CHAPTER XL 
FLOWER STALK AND INFLORESCENCE. 
The stalk which bears the flower and fruit, springs 
immediately from the earth, as in Dandelion, or arises 
from the stem and its branches. In the former case it 
presents an example of the Scape which like the radical 
leaves, is appropriated chiefly to stemless plants. In 
the Hyacinth it is naked, in the Colts foot it is scaly, 
in the Valisneria it is spiral, in the Dandelion it is 
tubular, and in the sweet flag it terminates in a leaf- 
like expansion, and is denominated leafy. 
When the flower-stalk arises directly from the stem 
or its branches it is named the Peduncle. When it 
arises from the side of the stem it is lateral, when from 
the summit it is terminal, and when from the bosom of 
the leaves it is axillary. It is one-flowered in the Tu- 
lip, two-flowered in Linncea, and many flowered as in 
the Cowslip Fig. 22 and Lilac. 
In the latter, and indeed in numerous other examples, 
the flower-stalk is branched, and the peculiar arrange- 
ment which the flowers assume, technically named the 
Inflorescence depends on the number, proportion and 
distribution of these pedicels or branches. If the flow- 
ers are solitary, or in pairs, their origin alone will oc- 
cupy our attention, “ but when many grow together, 
their aggregation forms a feature in the habit of the 
[dart, peculiarly striking and peculiarly interesting to 
the botanist, as forming the most elegant and the most 
of all specific distinctions. 164 
INFLORESCENCE. 
1. The UMBEL Fig. 62.—The umbel is a mode of 
flowering in which a number of flower-stalks issuing 
from a common centre diverge like the rays of an 
umbrella, bearing their flowers on the summit, and 
raising them about the same height. The Carrot; 
Parsnip, and Hemlock, are familiar examples, which 
with all other plants affecting this mode of inflorescence 
are denominated umbelliferous or umbellate. 
If the rays of the umbel are undivided so that each 
individual ray supports but a single flower, as in the 
Silkweeds Asclepias, the umbel is said to be simple, 
but if the rays of the primary umbel are themselves 
subdivided, so as to form and support secondary umbels, 
as in the preceding examples, the umbel is then said 
to be compound.”* 
2. CYME. Fig. 63—The flowers of the cyme are 
supported on peduncles, which issue from the common 
centre and rise to the same height; the intermediate 
subdivisions being irregular. The Elder, Snow-ball and 
other species of Viburnum present familiar examples 
of the cyme. 
3. CORYMB. Fig. 64.—In the preceding varieties 
of inflorescence, the flower stalks proceed from the 
same point, in which particular they differ from the 
corymb. The flower-stalks of the latter arise from 
the sides of a common stem, being proportionably 
shorter as they originate near its extremity, so that its 
flowers are finally disposed on a level with each other. 
It is easy for the student who has the examples before 
him, to become acquainted with these varieties, by 
observing wherein they differ, and how they corres- 
pond with each other, by observing the flower-stalks 
* Keith, CORYMB AND SPIKE 
16o 
of the umbel proceeding from the same point, and, if 
at all, regularly subdivided ; by observing those 
of the cyme, also arising from the same point but irre- 
gularly branching, while those of the corymb, arise 
from a common stem, some nearer to its extremity than 
others, but terminating on the same level. And if he 
will examine the flowers of the Apple and Pear, 
he will find they differ only in their respective ar- 
rangements, the Apples being disposed in an umbel, 
and the Pear furnishing a good example of the 
Corymb. 
4. FASCICLE.—An assemblage of flowers more 
densely arranged than in the corymb, but otherwise 
disposed in a similar way, constitutes the fascicle. The 
Sweet-William presents examples which correspond 
with the above definition, but they might be conven- 
iently classed with the corymbose flowers. 
5. SPIKE. Fig. 65.—The spike is an assemblage of 
flowers arising from the sides of a common stem. In 
some cases the flowers are sessile, as in the Herds- 
grass, but the term applies also to flowers which stand 
on short stalks as in Common Lavender, and different 
species of Orchis. “ The spike generally grows erect. 
Its mode of expansion is much more progressive than 
that of the raceme, so that a long period elapses be- 
tween the hiding of the lowest flowers, and the opening 
of the upper ones. The flowers are Commonly all 
crowded close together, or if otherwise they form 
separate groups, perhaps whorls, when the spike is 
said to be either interrupted or whorled ; as in some 
Mints.” 
The spike is either simple and undivided, as in Agri- 
mony, or it is compound, as in some species of Laven- 
der. 16b 
INFLORESCENCE. 
The term Spikelet, is applied exclusively to grasses, 
that have many florets in one calyx, and the filiform 
receptacle to which these florets are attached is de- 
nominated the Rachis. 
6. RACEME. Fig. 66. A Raceme or cluster differs 
from the spike only in the length of its individual flower- 
stalks which are also in this case attached to the sides of 
•a common stem. The Currant is a fine example of a 
cluster, which more frequently than any other falls 
within our observation. It is unilateral in the Scull- 
cap Scutellaria lateriflora; terminal in the Cohush Ac- 
tiea Americana ; lateral in the Currant, and compound 
in the Woody Nightshade. 
7. HEAD. Fig. 67.—This is an assemblage of flow 
ers upon the extremity of the branch of stem, and ar- 
ranged in a globular, oval or cylindrical form. It oc- 
curs in the Globe Amaranth, and in several species of 
the Trifolium or Clover. 
8. WHORL. Fig. 68.—An assemblage of flowers sur- 
rounding the stem or its branches constitutes the whorl. 
It occurs in the Mint, and in many of the Labiate plants. 
9. PANICLE. Fig. 69.—When the flowers are ar- 
ranged on a stalk variously and repeatedly subdivided, 
as in the Oat, their inflorescence constitutes the Pani- 
cle. In the grasses the branches of the panicle are some- 
what verticillate, being diffuse or loosely spreading, or 
dense and crowded ; sometimes nodding and sometimes 
erect. 
10. THYRSE.—The flowers of the Thyrse are ar- 
ranged like those of the panicle, the branches of the 
pedincle being short and the flowers more compact, as 
in the Lilac and Prim. 
11. AMENT or CATKIN. Fig. 71.—Like the Spike, 
the flowers of the Catkin are arranged along the side SPADIX. 
167 
of a common filiform receptacle, as in the Walnut and 
Birch. In the Ament the flowers stand on chaffy scales, 
which scales are deciduous in the White Birch, and per- 
sistent in the Pine, growing with the seed, and forming 
the cone, Fig. 72. In the Plane tree the catkins are 
globular, in the Hop they are oval, in the Birch they 
are cylindrical ; being sometimes covered with wax, 
sometimes smooth, and sometimes hairy. The Euro- 
pean and the American forests present numerous exam- 
ples of the catkin, while the spike usually occurs in 
the herbaceous plants. 
12. SPADIX.—A columnar receptacle, usually ari- 
sing from a sheath, and supporting a number of sessile 
flowers, constitutes the Spadix. In Dragon root Arum 
triphyllum, the flowers are attached only to its base ; 
in Pothos foetida, they crown the summit of the column 
which sustains them. 
In each of the above examples, the Spadix rises from 
the bosom of a singular spathe, Fig. 101 ; but in the In- 
dian corn it is enclosed by leaves, popularly denominat- 
ed the husks ; in the Sweet-flag it is naked, and in the 
Palms it is branched. CHAPTER XII. 
FLOWER. 
By Linnaeus the Flower and Fruit were classed to- 
gether, and defined to be a temporary part of vegeta- 
bles, destined for the reproduction of the species, ter- 
minating the old individual, and beginning the new. 
These constitute the reproductive organs, by which 
the species have been hitherto preserved from extinc- 
tion, and by which alone they will be renewed, so long 
as seed time and harvest continue. “ A plant may be 
destitute of stems, leaves, or even roots, because if 
one of these parts be wanting, the others may perform 
its functions, but it can never be destitute of those or- 
gans by which its species is propagated. Hence, though 
many individual plants may be long without blossoms, 
there are none, so far as nature has been thoroughly 
investigated, that are not capable, in favourable circum- 
stances, of producing them, as well as seeds ; to whose 
perfection the blossoms themselves are altogether sub- 
servient.”* No part of the vegetable displays such a 
variety of colours, or exhales a more pleasant perfume 
than the flower : it gives to most ornamental plants their 
greatest charm, and is the peculiar object of the flor- 
ist’s attention. But as we require notthe aid ofBotany 
to discover that the perfume is delightful, and the colour 
rich or gay, so we need not the aid of technical names 
to express their very obvious qualities. It is conven- 
* Smith, 169 
CAL VX 
ient for the student who wishes to gain any adequate idea 
of these organs, to dissect different flow ers, and be- 
stow upon each part a separate examination. He will 
find externally the calyx usually of a green colour, and 
often wanting ; the Corolla, or as it is sometimes term- 
ed, the Blossom, assuming various shades of colour, 
exhibiting a more delicate texture than the preceding, 
and like it sometimes wanting ; the stamens, which are 
filiform organs arranged interior to the corolla, and are 
never wanting ; and the pistils, arising from the centre 
of the flower, and containing the rudiments of the 
fruit. 
1. CALYX. 
The external covering of the flower, which often 
serves the purpose of a temporary bud, is denominat- 
ed the calyx. It secures the more tender organs with- 
in it from injury, and probably like the leaves serves to 
elaborate the sap w hich goes to the nourishment of the 
flower stalk. The following are the most important 
varieties of calyx. 
Monophyllous, when it is composed of a single leaf, 
as in the English Cowslip, Fig. 22. 
Parted, when divided into segments, by incisions 
which extend nearly to its base, as in the Lime tree. 
Cleft, when divided as in the preceding case, but 
with incisions less deep, as in the Cherry and Peach 
trees. 
Toothed, when the margin of the calyx is beset with 
teeth, as in the Soapwortand Pink. 
Polyphyllous, Fig. 76, when the calyx is composed of 
several distinct leaves or scales, as in the Magnolia. 
In all these cases, it is necessary to ascertain the num* 170 
FLOWER. 
ber of the teeth, segments, or leaves, unless they 
are numerous and indeterminate. 
Double, Fig. 84, when it is composed of two distinct 
rows of leaves or scales which enclose each other, as 
in the Mallows. If the exterior scales are very small, 
the calyx is said to be calyculale. 
Common, Fig. 73, w'hen it encloses several florets, 
as in the Dandelion and Sun flower. 
The calyx is cylindrical, as in the Garden Pink ; 
prismatic, in the Monkey-flower ; urceolate, as in the 
Rose ; ventricose or inflated, as in the Catch-fly ; turbi- 
nate or top-shaped, as in the Syringa ; imbricate, Fig. 
73, as in the Asters ; dry and scariose, as in Everlast- 
ing ; hooked, as in the Burdock ; and spinous, in the This- 
tles. It is persistent, in the Syringa, and remains attach- 
ed to the fruit; deciduous, in the Lime-tree, falling with 
the other parts of the flower, and caducous, in the Pop- 
py, falling before them. 
GLUME. Figs. 82, 83.—The peculiar Calyx of grass- 
es is denominated glume, and the pieces of which it is 
composed are termed its valves. 
In studying tlje grasses it is necessary to observe the 
number of the valves w7hich compose the calyx, and 
the number of flowers which the calyx encloses. 
SCALE.—In some cases the calyx consists of a mere 
scale to which the more essential parts of the flower 
are attached, and by which they are protected previous 
to their expansion. Several of these scales being at- 
tached to a filiform receptacle, constitute the catkin, 
Fig. 71, and when permanent, they at last form a cone, 
as in the Pines, Fig. 72. 
For the sake of accurate discrimination, it is some- 
times necessary to observe the form of the scale, and 
also its peculiar arrangement and duration. CALYX. 
171 
The knowledge of the uses of leaves,” says Dr. 
Smith, “ may throw some light upon that of the calyx. 
Besides protection of the flower from external injuries, 
which is one evident use of this part, it appears highly 
probable, that it may often contribute to the growth and 
strength of the stalk which supports it, as the leaves 
do to that portion ofthe branch below them. The stalk 
often swells considerably during the growth ofthe flow- 
er, especially just below the calyx, becoming more 
woody ; an alteration frequently necessary for the sup- 
port of the ripening fruit. When the calyx falls very 
early, as in the poppy tribe, I cannot find that the 
flower-stalk is subsequently enlarged, nor in any man- 
ner altered ; while in genera without number, whose 
calyx is permanent, the stalk becomes not only more 
woody, but often considerably thickened.” 
Involucre Fig. 62. Nearly allied to the calyx are 
those leaf-like appendages, which frequently enclose 
the rays of the Umbel. To these leaves, botanists 
apply-the term Involucre ; and by Linnaeus they were 
regarded as a common calyx, placed at a distance from 
the flowers. He adopted this opinion from necessity 
rather than choice, being compelled to resort to the 
involucre, for those characters which are usually de- 
rived from the calyx ; but this necessity has been re- 
moved, and the involucre now ranks as a floral leaf, 
being restricted by some writers to the umbelliferous 
plants, and applied by others to similar organs occurring 
in some of the Cornels and Grasses. 
When the leaves arise from the base of the primary 
branches of the umbel, they constitute the general in- 
volucre, but when they arise from the base of the 
secondary branches and enclose the partial umbels, the 
involucre is said to be partial. In Lovage both are m 
FLOWER. 
present, in Parsnip neither ; and when present, they 
either entirely invest the peduncle, or are dimidiate, 
being attached to one side, leaving the other naked. 
Spathe Fig. 101.—“ The Spathe is a floral leaf issuing 
from the upper extremity of of the stem or scape, and 
enveloping one or more flowers by the union or convo- 
lution of its edges, which open as the flower expands. 
The term is restricted by some Botanists to such plants 
only as produce their fructification on a spadix, as the 
Arum or Palms ; but by others it is used with greater 
latitude, being applied also to the sheath which invests 
the unexpanded flowers of the Narcissus and similar 
liliaceous plants, in which application of the term there 
seems to be no impropriety. Linnceus indeed regarded 
and arranged the Spathe as a species of calyx ; but 
for reasons analogous to those excluding the involucre 
from the rank of calyx, the spathe is excluded from 
that rank also.”* 
In Narcissus, it encloses a solitary flower, in Jonquil 
several, and in Arum, it contains an assemblage of ses- 
sile flowers surrounding the base of the spadix. 
In most cases the spathe consists of a single leaf, 
which in Arum triphyllum is inflected and striped, in 
Calla palustris white and spreading ; spongy and spot- 
ted in Skunk’s Cabbage ; and membranaceous in Snow 
drop and in most liliaceous plants. 
The leaves which enclose the ears of Indian Corn, 
(in New England termed the husks) are to be regarded 
as a singular variety of spathe closely investing the 
spadix until its seeds are mature. 
Bracte or Floral leaf. This is a leaf-like appendage 
to the Peduncle or flower. When it closely invests 
* Keith. COROLLA. 
173 
the flower and assumes the appearance of the calyx, it 
is somewhat difficult to decide, whether it be a bracte 
or not. In such cases if it falls with the other parts of 
the flower ; it is to be regarded as a calyx, but if it re- 
mains attached the the fruit till the leaves begin to fide 
as in the common Fennel flower Nigella Damascena, it 
is considered to be a bracte. 
This organ assumes a great variety of forms, being 
green in the Orchis, yellowish in the Lime tree, purple 
in Clary, and scarlet in Rartsia coccinect or Painted 
cup. The coloured bracte of the latter is very con- 
spicuous in our meadows during the spring months, and 
is usually mistaken for the blossom, which in that plant 
is without beauty and secluded from our view. 
The floral leaf of the Lime tree, Fig. 104, serves to 
distribute the seed ; that of the Atractylis cancellata, 
Fig. 61, is spinous, and encloses and protects the calyx. 
2. COROLLA. 
This term is applied to the interior covering of’ the 
flower, which is more conspicuous than the calyx, 
more slender in its fabric, and more richly coloured. 
It is white in the Blood-root ; yellow in the Butter- 
cups ; orange in the Pleurisy-root and Orchis ciliata ; 
scarlet in the Cardinal flower ; purple in the Crane’s- 
bill ; and blue in Borage and Spider-wort. 
If the calyx invests a single corolla, as in the Peach 
and Convolvulus, the flower is said to be simple ; but 
when it encloses an assemblage of corollas, as in 
the Dandelion and Thistle, the flower is said to be com- 
pound ; and the individual coralla3 are denominated 
florets. 
The corolla is monopetalous or composed of one 174 
FLOWER. 
coloured leaf as in Stramonium, oris polypetalous being 
composed of several as in the Pond Lilies and Magno- 
lia. In the former case, we find the tube, the orifice, 
and the border ; in the latter, the claw by which the 
petal is attached to the receptacle, and the border, 
which corresponds to the expansion of the monopeta- 
lous corolla. In either case, we find flowers that are 
regular, Figs. 76 and 77, the petals being equal in size 
and similar in form ; flowers that are unequal, the pe- 
tals being similar, but of different sizes ; and flowers 
that are irregular, Figs. 79 and 81, the petals or their 
segments being unequal and dissimilar. The tube is 
long and slender, as in the sweet-scented Mirabilis, or 
it is twisted as in Periwincle ; the throat is closed as 
Borage and Comfrey, or it is naked as in Gromwell, and 
the border or limb is plaited, as in Convolvulus, and re- 
flected as in the Lilies. Petals furnished with a claw 
as in the Pink and wall flower, are said to be renguicu- 
late. 
A monopetalous corolla is, 
Campanulate or bell-shaped as in the Bell-flowers. 
Funnel-shaped as in the Stramonium. 
Ovate as in Uva-ursi and Partridge berry. 
Urceolate or Pitcher shaped, as in Whortle-berry. 
Salver-shaped, having a slender tube and flat border, 
as in Moss Pink and Lichnidia. 
Rotate or wheel shaped, as in Loose strife and 
Borage. 
Tubular as in Fever-root and Trumpet Honeysuc- 
kle. In the Rotate corolla, the tube, if present, is very 
short, and in the tubular corolla, there is a deficiency 
of the border. 
Labiate or Ringent, Fig. 81, when the segments are 
irregular resembling the lips of an animal. If these COROLLA. 
175 
lips are closed, as in Snap-dragon and other species of 
Antirrhinum, the Corolla is termed personate. In these 
cases the upper lip is usually concave or vaulted, the 
other being larger and frequently cleft, but when this 
arrangement is reversed as in Figwort, the corolla is 
said to be resupinate. 
A polypetalous corolla is 
Cruciform, when composed of four petals which are 
arranged in the form of a cross, as in Cabbage and 
Wall-flower. 
Liliaceous, Fig. 77 when it is composed of six petals, 
usually naked, and so arranged as to appear bell- 
shaped. 
Rosaceous, when it consists of five petals which are 
(usually) inserted into the Calyx, without the interven- 
tion of claws, as* in the Apple and Rose. 
Papilionaceous, Fig. 79, when it consists of four pe- 
tals, irregular and assuming the shape of a butterfly. 
The Pea furnishes an example, and the large petal 
which encloses the others is the Standard, the two lat- 
eral petals are the Wings, and the other which is inte- 
rior and appearing in some instances like the keel of a 
boat, is denominated the Keel. 
The florets of a compound flower are Tubular as in 
Cacalia, Fig. 73, and Ligulate or strap shaped as in 
Dandelion. They not unfrequently both occur in the 
same flower, as in the Asters. 
The petals are usually deciduous and fall with the 
other parts of the flower, sometimes they remain in a 
■withered condition, as in the Orchis and Cucumber, 
sometimes they continue fresh and are termed persis- 
tent, and sometimes they are caducous dropping as soon 
as the flower expands. 
“ The whole use and physiology of the Corolla have 176 
FLOWER. 
not yet been fully explained. As a protection to the 
tender and important parts within, especially from wet, 
its use in many cases is obvious, but by no means in all. 
Linnaeus imagined it to serve as wings, to waft the flow- 
er lip and down in the air, and so to promote the func- 
tions of the Stamens and Pistils, as will hereafter be 
described ; nor is this opinion unfounded. 
Sprengel has ingeniously demonstrated, in some 
hundreds of instances, how the Corolla serves as an 
attraction to insects, indicating by various marks, and 
perhaps by its scent, where they may find honey, and 
accommodating them with a convenient resting place or 
shelter while they extract it. This elegant and ingen- 
ious theory receives confirmation from almost every 
flower we examine. Proud man is disposed to think 
that 
“ Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,” 
because he has not deigned to explore it ; but we find 
that even the beauties of the most sequestered wilder- 
ness are not made in vain. They have myriads of ad- 
mirers, attracted by their charms, and rewarded with 
their treasures, which very treasures would be as use- 
less as the gold of a miser to the plant itself, were they 
not thus the means of bringing insects about it. The 
services rendered by such visitants will be understood 
when we have described all the parts of a flower. 
Besides the above purposes, I have always conceived 
the Corolla to fulfil some important office to the essen- 
tial parts of the flower with respect to air, and especial- 
ly light. It not only presents itself in a remarkable man- 
ner to the sun-beams, frequently closing or drooping 
when they are withdrawn, but it is so peculiarly dis- 
tinguished by beauty or brilliancy of colour, that one 
cannot but think its functions somewhat different from COROLRA. 
177 
those of the leaves, even with regard to light itself. 
And when we consider the elaborate and peculiar se- 
cretions of a flower, the elastic and inflammable pollen, 
the honey, and the exquisitely volatile perfume, as we 
know from the curious discoveries of modern chemistry 
how great a share light has in the production of such, 
we cannot but conclude that the petals mast be of pri- 
mary importance with respect to their secretion by its 
means. ”* 
Like the calyx, the corolla is sometimes wanting, and 
hence we have the distinction of naked and apetalous 
flowrers. But it is not always easy to determine when 
a flower has but one envelope, whether it be a calyx or 
corolla. The green colour and coarse texture of the 
former, and the vivid hues and slender fabric of the latter, 
appear in most cases abundantly sufficient to decide the 
question. But the calyx is not always green, nor is the 
corolla always gay and lively ; and the exceptions are 
so numerous as to invalidate every rule established on 
such a variable basis. 
“ Another rule of distinction suggested by Ray was, 
that the corolla is deciduous, and the calyx permanent; 
and the rule is, no doubt, of pretty general applica- 
tion ; but is loaded with far too many exceptions to be 
a good one. In the Poppy the calyx falls before the 
blossom, and in the Hyacinth and Star of Bethlehem 
the corolla is persisteut. 
It had been an opinion of Caesalpinus, that the calyx 
is merely a continuation of the outer bark of the plant 
or flower-stalk ; and upon this foundation Linnaeus es- 
tablishes a test, apparently sufficient to distinguish the 
calyx from the corolla in all doubtful cases. For, im- 
proving upon the notion of Caesalpinus, he apprehend- 
# Dr. Smith* 178 
FLOWER. 
ed that as the calyx is a continuation of the outer bark 
of the flower-stalk, so the corolla is a continuation of 
the inner bark. And hence, if of these two organs 
only one is present, we have but to ascertain in what 
part of the bark it originates, in order to say which it 
is. This summary and decisive test looks indeed very 
beautiful in theory ; but the observations of the acute 
and sagacious Hedwig have shown that it is not found- 
ed in fact. 
Linnaeus does not indeed impose it as a rule of prac- 
tice, being furnished with what he might, perhaps, re- 
gard as a better ; though the distinction is both clearly 
and confidently stated in his work. But it has been 
since adopted, with all its imperfections upon its head, 
as the grand test of discrimination in this doubtful case, 
even by the celebrated Jussieu himself, the first botan- 
ist of the present age. In consecpience of the adoption 
of this opinion, Jussieu has been led to regard as a ca- 
lyx, the beautiful blossom of the Tulip, and other lili- 
aceous plants, which has been, by the common consent 
•fall other botanists whatever, regarded asa corolla.”* 
The student therefore, who in the study of natural 
orders, seeks the guidance of that learned naturalist, 
will bear in mind, that what other writers term the co- 
rolla, is the petaloid calyx of Jussieu. By applying 
his own terms as he has defined them, we shall avoid 
much unnecessary confusion ; and it becomes immate- 
rial whether the splendid blossoms of liliaceous plants 
rank with the calyx orcorolla.t And indeed it has been 
* Keith. 
t Jussieu has defined the corolla to be that covering of a flow- 
er which is invested by the calyx ; rarely naked, being a contin- 
uation of the liber or inner bark of the flower-stalk, not of the 
epidermis ; crowning, but not united to the fruit; its petals or 
segments usually equalling, and alternating with the stamens 179 
justly observed, that in these plants the two organs are 
usually united into one, the exterior being green and 
coarse like the calyx, and the other delicate and colour- 
ed as in the Bethlehem Star. 
NECTARY.—This term is applied to that part of the 
flower “ which contains, or which secretes honey.” In 
some instances, it is merely a depression or groove in 
the tube of the corolla ; in others it is distinct from the 
petals, being attached to different parts of the flower, 
and assuming a great variety of shapes. 
In the cruciform flowers, the nectary is glandular, 
and situated at the base of the stamens ; where it may be 
detected by its green colour. In the Violet and Orchis 
it is a production of the corolla, assuming the form of 
a spur. The petal to which the spur-shaped nectary 
is attached is termed calcarate. 
In Ranunculus it is a scale attached to the base of the 
petal ; and in Nasturtion it is a production of the colour- 
ed calyx. 
In the Monk’s hood the situation as well as the form 
of these organs is very singular ; one of its petals being 
concave conceals a pair of hooded nectaries, Fig. 88, from 
which a slight pressure causes the honey to exude. 
Other appendages are regarded as nectaries, though 
it has not been ascertained that they secrete or contain 
honey. One of these is the arch or vault, which closes 
the orifice of the tubular corolla, as in Borage and 
Comfrey ; another is the beard, which is very conspic- 
uous in the Iris, Menyanthes and Partridge-berry, ari- 
sing in each case from the inferior surface of the corol- 
la ; another is the corollet, which surmounts the blos- 
soms in the form of a crown. In Narcissus this crown 
is bell-shaped, its border being in some of the species 
beautifully tinged with red. The nectary of the Pas- 
NECTARY. 180 
FLOWER. 
sion-flower, Fig. 20, is composed of several filiform 
appendages, which arise from the base of the flower in 
three concentric circles, and form a triple “ crown of 
glory.” 
In the Grasses the nectary is very delicate and often 
transparent, being filiform in many of the Rushes, Figs. 
74 and 75, and resembling a scale in other examples. 
These are the Involucellate filaments, (Setce) frequently 
described by Mr. Nuttall in his “ Genera of North 
American plants”. The same writer has used the 
term Lepanthium to designate the petaloid nectaries of 
Linnaeus. He applies it to the crown of the Narcissus, 
to the hooded nectaries of the'Silkweeds, Fig. 87, to 
the hornlike appendages of the Columbine and Lark- 
spur, and to the singular organs which have been al- 
ready noticed in the concave petal of the Monk’s hood. 
He also applies it to the nectaries of Parnassia, which 
arise from the petals, and terminate in three filaments, 
as in Parnassia Caroliniana or in several Fig. 80, as in 
Parnassia palustris. Each of these filaments is tipped 
with a yellow summit, which the inexperienced botanist 
would be apt to confound with the adjacent stamens, 
but if he traces them to their origin his mistake will be 
at once corrected. The nectary furnishes a receptacle 
for the honey which is secreted by the flower ; but 
there has been much diversity of opinion respecting 
the uses of this secretion. Some regard it as the food 
by which the surrounding organs are nourished, or by 
which the unripe seeds are perfected ; but others, and 
among them Dr. Smith, believe “ that the sole use of 
the honey with respect to the plant is to tempt insects 
who in procuring it scatter the dust of the anthers, and 
fertilize the flower.” FLOWER. 
181 
3. STAMENS. 
These are the slender filiform organs, which occur 
immediately within the corolla. In the Mountain 
Balm there are two ; in the Holly there are four ; in 
the Lily Fig. 58 there are six ; in the American 
Laurel there are ten ; and in the Peach, Magnolia and 
Rose, there are numerous stamens ; and the number 
of these, often determines to which of the Linnasan 
classes any plant belongs. Examined separately, each 
stamen is usually found to consist of two parts ; the 
summit or anther, and the filament, by which it is ele- 
vated above the calyx, corolla, or base of the flower ; 
the former being essential, and the latter a subservient 
organ, which like the corolla is occasionally wanting. 
The Filaments are usually smooth and slender ; but 
in Spider wort ihey are covered with down ; in Beth- 
lehem star they are lanceolate, and in some few plants 
they are so expanded as to resemble petals. The 
broad filaments of one species of Clematis, have by 
some writers been mistaken for the narrow petals of 
an Atragene, but its plumose seeds, and the whole as- 
pect of the plant, establishes its identity with the for- 
mer. When the filaments are enclosed in the tube of 
the corolla, they are said to be inserted, as in Lichni- 
dea ; exserted, when they pass beyond it; and declinate 
when they curve towards the inferior side of the flow- 
er, as in the Hemerocallis or Day Lilies. 
In the Barberry, the filaments are sensitive, spring- 
ing forwards towards the centre of the flower, when 
touched on their inner surface near .the base. In all 
cases they are evidently designed to elevate the anthers 
above the base of the flower, to expose them to the 182 
FLOWER. 
winds, and like the petiole of the leaf, to facilitate the 
motion of the organs with which they are connected. 
The anther, which is the only essential part of the 
stamen is generally of a membranous texture ; consist- 
ing of two cells which open laterally, as in the Lily, or 
at the summit as in the Pyrola and the Heaths. In the 
stamens of most flowers, each filament is tipped with a 
solitary anther ; but in Fumaria, there are three an- 
thers to each filament, and in the Theobroma, (the 
plant from which chocolate is procured) there are five. 
When the stamen is destitute of a filament, the anther 
is said to be sessile. In Parnassia when the flower 
first expands, the anthers are all sessile ; but they 
gradually and successively rise above the germen, in 
consequence of the growth of their respective fila- 
ments. The anthers are said to be connivent, when 
they approach and even come in contact with each 
other, as in Violets ; adnate when they are firmly 
united to the filament ; and versatile, when loosely at- 
tached to its summit, and turning with the slightest 
breath of air. 
“ The Pollen or dust, is contained in the Anther, 
from which it is thrown out chiefly in dry warm weath- 
er, when the coat of the latter contracts and bursts. 
The Pollen, though to the naked eye a fine powder, 
light enough to be wafted along by the air, is so cu- 
riously formed, and so various in different plants as to 
be an interesting and popular object for the micro- 
scope. Each grain of it is commonly a membranaceous 
bag, round or angular, rough or smooth, which remains 
entire till it meets with any moisture, being contrary 
in this respect to the nature of the anther ; then it 
bursts with great force, discharging a most subtle 
vapour. In the Orchis family, and some other plants, PISTIL, 
183 
the pollen is of a glutinous nature, very different frorft 
its natural aspect. This forms yellow elastic masses, 
(Pollinia) often stalked, in each cell of the anther, and 
the cells are either parallel and close together, or re- 
moved from each other to the opposite sides ofthe style. 
In Asclepias, the pollen is borne in 5 pair of glutinous 
masses, exactly as in the Orchis, by 5 glands upon the 
stigma. Some obscurity arises from each mass of pol- 
len being received into a cell, (' Anthcridium) formed 
by a peculiar valvular apparatus that encircles the 
organs of impregnation, and bears a great resemblance 
to stamens.”* 
4. PISTIL. 
Between the stamens we find the pistils, equally es- 
sential in the economy of vegetation, and equally neces- 
sary to the completion of the flower. In the Lily there 
is one, and the flower is monogynous ; in grasses, and 
in the garden Pink, there are two, and the flower is 
digynous ; in the Elder there are three, and the flower 
is trigynous ; and in the Magnolia there are several, 
and the flowers are polygynous. Each pistil consists 
of three distinct portions, the Ovary or Germen, the 
Style and the Stigma. 
“ The Ovary or Germen is the lower extremity 
of the pistil, supporting the style and stigma ; and con- 
taining the rudiments of the future seed. If it is situ- 
ated immediately upon the base or receptacle of the 
flower, as in Arbutus, it is said to be sessile ; if it is 
support >d upon a pedicle elevating it above the base 
of the flower, as in the Poppy and Caperbush, it is 
* Smith-. 184 
SLOWER. 
said to be stipitate ; if it is situated below the insertion 
of the calyx, as in the Rose and Apple it is said to be 
inferior ; if it is situated above the insertion of the calyx 
and enclosed within it, it is said to be superior, as in the 
Primrose ; and if it is situated partly above and partly 
below the insertion of the calyx, it is said to be semi- 
superior, as in Saxifraga nivalis. In the genus Adoxa 
it is inferior with regard to the corolla, and half inferior 
with regard to the calyx. 
The figure of the germen is roundish, as in the 
Cherry ; or egg-shaped as in the Pink ; or oblong, as 
in the Goat’s-beard ; or prism-shaped, as in Wall-flow- 
er ; or turbinated, as in Fescue-grass ; or compressed 
as in the Vetch. In its structure it is simple, as in the 
Apple and Pear ; or double, as in Galium ; or divided 
into four, as in Labiate flowers. It consists also of one 
cell, as in the Hazel ; or of two, as in Wall flowers : 
or of several, as in the Spurge and Beech. The sur- 
face is generally smooth or slightly pubescent; but 
sometimes it is set with rough hairs, and sometimes 
with glands. 
The Style, which is a prolongation of the germen, 
generally arises from its summit, as in the Lily ; and 
sometimes from its side, as in the Rose. It is either 
simple, as in the Tulip ; or multiplicate, as in the 
Grasses ; in which two styles usually arise from a sin- 
gle germen. In the Cherry it is deciduous, falling 
with the petals, but in the Geranium it remains attach- 
ed to the fruit, and is said to be persistent. 
At the summit of the style we find the Stigma ; 
which is plumose, in the Grasses, Fig. 82 ; petaloid, 
in the Iris ; peltate, in Water Lilies ; and radiate, as 
* Keith. 185 
in the Poppy. In the two last examples it is sessile, 
the style being wanting ; but the stigma as well as the 
germen is essential. 
RECEPTACLE. 
5. RECEPTACLE. 
That part of the flower by which the others are con 
nected, and to which they are often immediately attach- 
ed, is denominated the receptacle or base. In simple 
flowers it is inconspicuous and cannot be seen with 
advantage, until the calyx, the petals, and the other 
organs are removed ; and it is interesting only as the 
connecting point in which they are all united. 
The receptacle of the compound flowers, Fig. 100, 
is more interesting, and in studying the plants of that 
natural family, we shall find a knowledge of its several 
varieties very convenient, and often indispensable ; 
for the most satisfactory generic characters have been 
established on the peculiarity of the common recepta- 
cle. It may be examined after the seeds have been 
scattered by the wind, or if the florets are for- 
cibly removed, the base to which they were attached 
becomes exposed to our view ; the central portion 
which is more frequently occupied by tubular florets, 
being called the disk, while the margin whose florets 
are more frequently ligulate, constitutes the ray. It 
is conical and naked as in the Daisy ; chaffy and flat 
as in the Sun-flower ; convex as in Tansey ; cellular 
as in the Cotton Thistle ; dotted as in the Dandelion ; 
and villose or hairy as in common Thistles. 
When the calyx is inserted into the receptacle be- 
neath the Germen, as in the Parnassia, Fig. 85, it is 
said to be inferior or detached ; and when it is inserted 
above the germen, Fig. 66 as in the Apple and Mock- 
Orange, it is said to be adherent or superior. 
* 17 186 
FtOWER. 
When the Corolla is inserted into the receptacle be- 
neath the germen, as in Foxglove and Stramonium, it is 
termed hypogynous. When it is inserted into the calyx 
and surrounds the germen, as in the Currant, it is 
termed perigynous, and when it is inserted upon the 
germen, as in the Trumpet honeysuckle, it is termed 
epigynous. 
The stamens are hypogynous as in the Poppy and 
Tulip tree ; perigynous as in the Currant and Rose ; 
and epigynous as in Sassaparilla and in the umbellifer- 
ous plants. When they arise from the corolla they 
are said to be epipetalous. 
A flower furnished with both calyx and corolla is 
said to be complete ; destitute of a calyx it is said to be 
naked ; and without a corolla it is apctalous or incom- 
plete. When the stamens and pistils both occur in 
one flower it is perfect or united; when they occur 
only in different flowers of the same species as in the 
Indian Corn, the flowers are separated or diclinious, 
that which bears the stamens being unfertile or barren 
and that with pistils being fertile and bearing the seed. 
When barren and fertile flowers both occur on the 
same plant, they are said to be monoecious, if they grow 
on two separate plants as in the Poplar they are dioe- 
cious ; but when united and separated flowers occur in 
the same species “ making a sort of compound house- 
hold,” they are said to be polygamous. 
A compound flower has numerous sessile florets sit- 
uated on a common receptacle and enclosed in a com- 
mon calyx. These florets are monopetalous and su- 
perior, each standing on the germen or seed, and usual- 
ly five cleft at the summit. They enclose five stamens 
whose anthers are united into a cylinder, and hence the 
compound flowers are usually termed Syngenesious. RECEPTACLE. 
187 
An aggregate flower has a common receptacle whose 
florets are usually on short stalks and are enclosed in 
a partial calyx and have their anthers separate. The 
Scabious, well known in the gardens,*and the Teasel, 
whose hooked seeds are employed by clothiers, furnish 
examples of the aggregate flower. 
The filiform receptacle (rachis) of the Grasses, and 
the common base to which the scales of the catkin are 
attached, have b’een noticed in a former chapter ; and 
the columnar i eceptacle of the Arum (spadix) furnishes 
an example of a peculiar variety of inflorescence but 
not of an aggregate flower. CHAPTER XIII.* 
FUNCTIONS OF THE STAMENS AND PISTILS. 
“ The Stamens and Pistils of flowers have, from the 
most remote antiquity, been considered as of great im- 
portance in perfecting the fruit. The Date Palm, from 
time immemorial a primary object of cultivation in the 
more temperate climates of the globe, bears barren and 
fertile flowers on separate trees. The ancient Greeks 
soon discovered that in order to have abundant and well- 
flavoured fruit, it was expedient to plant both trees 
near together, or to bring the barren blossoms to those 
which were to bear fruit; and in this chiefly consisted 
the culture of that valuable plant. Tournefort tells us 
that without such assistance dates have no kernel, and 
are not good food. The same has long been practised, 
and is continued to this very day in the Levant, upon 
the Pistacia and the Fig. 
About the year 1676, Sir Thomas Millington, Savil- 
ian Professor at Oxford, is recorded to have hinted to 
Dr. Grew that the use of the Stamens was probably to 
perfect and fertilize the seed. Grew adopted the idea, 
and the great Ray approved it. Pontedera, however, at 
Padua, ar university long famous, but then on the de- 
cline, and consequently adverse to all new inquiry and 
information, in 1720 published his Anthologia, quite on 
the other side of the question. 
Linnaeus, towards the year 1732, reviewed all that 
had been done before him, and clearly established the 
* This chapter with a few alterations is taken from the 
w Introduction” of Dr. Smith, 189 
tact so long in dispute. He determined the functions 
of the Stamens and Pistils, proved these organs to be 
essential to every plant, and thence conceived the hap- 
py idea of using them for the purpose of systematical 
arrangement. In the latter point his merit was alto- 
gether original ; in the former he made use of the dis- 
coveries and remarks of others, but set them in so 
new and clear a light, as in a manner to render them 
his own. 
We have already mentioned, the two modes by 
which plants are multiplied, and have shown the im- 
portant difference between them. Propagation by 
seed is the only genuine reproduction of the species, 
and it now remains to prove that the essential organs 
of the flower are indispensably requisite for the per- 
fecting of the seed. 
Every one must have observed that the flower of a 
plant always precedes its fruit. To this the Meadow 
Saffron, Colchicum autumnale, seems an objection, the 
fruit and leaves being perfected in the spring, the blos- 
soms not appearing till autumn ; but a due examination 
will readily ascertain that the seed-bud formed in au- 
tumn is the very same which comes to maturity in the 
following spring. A Pine-apple was once very unex- 
pectedly cited to me as an instance of fruit being formed 
before the flower, because the green fruit in that in- 
stance, as in many others, is almost fully grown before 
the flowers expand. The seeds however, the essence 
of the fruit, are only in embryo at this period, just as in 
the germen of an Apple blossom. 
It was very soon ascertained that flowers are invari- 
ably furnished with Stamens and Pistils, either in the 
same individual, or two of the same species, however 
defective they may be in other parts ; of which Hippu~ 
FUNCTIONS OF THE STAMENS AND PISTILS. 190 
FUNCTIONS OF THE 
ris, the most simple of all blossoms, is a remarkable ex 
ample. Few botanists indeed had detected them in 
the Lemna or Duckweed, so abundant on the surface 
of still waters, and Valisneri alone for a long time en- 
grossed the honour of having seen them. In our days 
however they rewarded the researches of the indefati- 
gable Ehrhart in Germany, and on being sought with 
equal acuteness, were found in England. 
Plants indeed have occasionally abortive stamens in 
one flower and barren pistils in another, and the Plan- 
tain-tree, Musa, is described by Linnaeus as having five 
out of its six stamens perfected in such blossoms as ri- 
pen no fruit, while those with a fertile germen contain 
only a single ripe stamen, five being ineffective. This 
only shows the resources, the wisdom, and the infinite 
variety of the creation. When the roots are luxuriant- 
ly prolific, the flowers are in some measure defective. 
Nature, relaxing as it were from her usual solicitude, 
and allowing her children to repose, and indulge in the 
abundance of good things about them. But when 
want threatens, she instantly takes the alarm ; all her 
energies are exerted to secure the future progeny, 
even at the hazard of the parent stock, and to send 
them abroad to colonise more favourable situations. 
Most generally the access of the pollen is not trusted 
to any accidental modes of conveyance, however nume- 
rous, elaborate, and if we may so express it, ingenious, 
such modes may be ; but the Stamens are for greater 
security lodged in the same flower, under the protec- 
tion of the same silken veils, or more substantial guards, 
which shelter their appropriate pistils. This is the 
case with the majority of our herbs and shrubs, and 
even with the trees of hot countries, whose leaves being 
always present might impede the passage of the pollerv STAMENS AND PISTILS. 
191 
On the contrary, the trees of cold climates have gen- 
erally separated flowers, blossoming before the leaves 
come forth, and in a windy season of the year ; while 
those which blossom later, as the Oak, are either pe- 
culiarly frequented by insects, or, like the numerous 
kinds of Fir, have leaves so little in the way, and pollen 
so excessively abundant that impregnation can scarcely 
fail. 
The pollen and the stigma are always in perfection 
at the same time, the latter commonly withering and 
falling off a little after the anthers, though the style 
may remain to become an ufeful appendage to the fruit. 
The Pansy, the Martynia, and many plants besides, 
have been observed to be furnished with a stigma 
gaping only at the time when the pollen is ripe. The 
beautiful Jacobean Lily, Amaryllis formosissima, is 
justly described by Linnaeus as provided with a drop of 
clear liquid, which protrudes every morning'from the 
stigma, and about noon seems almost ready to fall to the 
ground. It is however re-absorbed in the afternoon, 
having received the pollen whose vapour renders it 
turbid, and whose minute husks afterwards remain up- 
on the stigma. The same phenomenon takes place 
several successive days. 
In opposition to similar facts, proving the synchro- 
nous operation of these organs, Pontedera has, with 
more observation than usual, remarked that in the um- 
belliferous tribe the style frequently does not appear 
till the anthers are fallen. But he ought t© have per- 
ceived that the stigma is previously perfected, and that 
the style seems to grow out afterwards, in a recurved 
and divaricated form, for the purpose of providing 
hooks to the seeds. It is also observable that in this 
family the several organs are sometimes brought to per- 192 
FUNCTIONS OF THE 
fection in different flowers at different times, so that 
the anthers of one may impregnate the stigmas of anoth- 
er, whose stamens were abortive, or long since wither- 
ed. The same thing happens in other instances. Lin- 
naeus mentions the Jatropha urens as producing flowers 
with stamens some weeks in general before or after the 
others. Hence he obtained no seed till he preserved 
the pollen a month or more in paper, and scattered it on 
a few stigmas then in perfection. There can be no 
doubt that, in a wild state, some or other of the two 
kinds of blossoms are ripe together, throughout the 
flowering season, on different trees. 
A similar experiment to that just mentioned was made 
in 1749 upon a Palm-tree at Berlin, which for want of 
pollen had never brought any fruit to perfection. A 
branch of barren flowers was sent by the post fromLeip- 
sic, twenty German miles distant, and suspended over 
the pistils. Consequently abundance of fruit w'as ri- 
pened, and many young plants raised from the seeds. 
Tournefort and Pontedera supposed the pollen to be 
of an excrementitious nature, and thrown off as super- 
fluous. But its being so curiously and distinctly organ- 
ized in every plant, and producing a peculiar vapour 
on the accession of moisture, shows, beyond contra- 
diction, that it has functions to perform after it has left 
the anther. The same writers conceived that the sta- 
mens might possibly secrete something to circulate from 
them to the young seeds ; an hypothesis totally subvert- 
ed by every flower with separated organs, whose sta- 
mens could circulate nothing to germens on a different 
branch or root ; a difficulty which the judicious Tour- 
nefort perceived, and was candid enough to allow'. 
Both the conjectures just mentioned vanish before 
one luminous experiment of Linnaeus, of all others the STAMENS AND PISTILS. 
193 
most easy to repeat and to understand. He removed 
the anthers from a flower of Glaucium phceniceum ; 
stripping off the rest of that day’s blossoms. Another 
morning he repeated the same practice, only sprink- 
ling the stigma of that blossom, which he had last de- 
prived of its own stamens, with the pollen from anoth- 
er. The flower first mutilated produced no fruit, but 
the second afforded very perfect seed. His design was 
to prevent any one in future from believing that the re- 
moval of the anthers from a flower was in itself capa- 
ble of rendering the germen abortive. 
The usual proportion and situation of stamens with 
respect to pistils is well worthy of notice. The former 
are generally shortest in drooping flowers, longest in 
erect ones. The barren blossoms usually stand above 
the fertile ones, (and no plant is better calculated to ex- 
hibit this arrangement than the Indian Corn) that the 
pollen may fall on the stigmas. This is the more remark- 
able, as the usual order of Nature seems in such plants, 
as well indeed as in compound, and even in umbellif- 
erous flowers, to be reversed, for the pistils are in- 
variably central, or internal, in every simple flower, 
and would therefore, if drawn out into a monoecious 
spike, be above the stamens. 
Many curious contrivances of Nature serve to bring 
the anthers and stigmas together. In Gloriosa, the 
style is bent, at a right angle from the very base, for 
this evident purpose. In Saxifraga, and Parnassia, 
the stamens lean one or two at a time over the stigma, 
retiring after they have shed their pollen, and giving 
place to others ; which wonderful economy is very 
striking in the garden Rue, whose stout and firm fila- 
ments cannot be disturbed from the posture in which 
they may happen to be, and evince a spontaneous move? 194 
IRRITABLE PARTS OF FLOWER!. 
ment, unaffected by external causes. The five fila 
ments of the Cock’s-comb, are connected at their lower 
part by a membranous web, which in moist weather is 
relaxed, and the stamens spread for shelter under the 
concave lobes of the corolla. When the air is dry, the 
contraction of the membrane brings them together, to 
scatter their pollen in the centre of the flower. The 
elastic filaments of Parietaria, for a while restrained 
by the calyx, as those of the lovely Kahnia, are by the 
minute pouches in the corolla, relieve themselves by 
an elastic spring, which in both instances serves to dash 
the pollen with great force upon the stigma. 
But of all the flowers, that of the Barberry-bush is 
most worthy the attention of a curious physiologist. In 
this the six stamens, spreading moderately, are shel- 
tered under the concave tip of the petals, till some ex- 
traneous body, as the feet or trunk of an insect in search 
of honey, touches the inner part of each filament near 
the bottom. The irritability of that part is such, that 
the filament immediately contracts there, and conse- 
quently strikes its anther, full of pollen, against the 
stigma. Any other part of the filament may be touched 
without this effect, provided no concussion be given to 
the whole. After a while the filament retires gradually, 
and may again be stimulated ; and when each petal, with 
its annexed filament, is fallen to the ground, the latter 
on being touched shows as much sensibility as ever. 
I have already mentioned that any moisture causes 
the pollen to explode, consequently its purpose is lia- 
ble to be frustrated by rain or heavy dews. Linnaeus 
observes that husbandmen find their crops of rye to suf- 
fer more from this cause than barley, because in the 
latter the anthers are more protected by the husks ; and 
the Juniper-berries are sparingly, or not at all, pro- PROTECTION OF THE POLLEN. 
195 
duced in Sweden when the flowering season has been 
wet. The same great observer also remarks, what 
yearly experience confirms, that Cherry-trees are more 
certainly fruitful than Pear-trees, because in the for- 
mer the opening of the anthers is, in each blossom, 
much more progressive, so that a longer period elapses 
for the accomplishment of the fertilization of the ger- 
men, and there is consequently less chance of its being 
hindered by a few showers. 
To guard against the hurtful influence of nocturnal 
dews or drenching rains, most flowers either fold their 
petals together, or hang down their heads, when the sun 
does not shine ; by which, their internal organs are 
sheltered. In some which always droop, as the Snow- 
drops, the Fritillary, the Crown Imperial, various spe- 
cies of Campanula, and others, while the over-shad- 
owing corolla keeps off rain, the air has free access 
underneath to blow the pollen to the stigma. Nor is 
this drooping caused by the weight of the flowers, for 
the fruit in most of them is much heavier, and yet 
stands erect on the very same stalk. The papilionace- 
ous flowers in general spread their wings in fine weath 
er, admitting the sun and air to the parts within, where- 
as many of them not only close their petals at night, 
but also derive additional protection from the green 
leaves of the plant folding closely about them. The 
common Bindweed, as well as the Anagallis arvensis. 
and many others, are well known to shut up their flow- 
ers against the approach of rain ; whence the Anagal- 
lis has been called the Poor Man’s Weather-glass. It 
has been observed by Linnseus that flowers lose this 
fine sensibility, either after the anthers have perform- 
ed their office, or when deprived of them artificially; 
nor do I doubt the fact. I have had reason to think that, 196 
EXPERIMENTS ON HEMP. 
during a long continuance of wet, the sensibility of the 
Anagallis is sometimes exhausted ; and it is evidentthal 
very heavy thunder-showers often take such flowers by 
surprise, the previous state of the atmosphere not hav- 
ing been such as to give them due warning. 
That parts of vegetables not only lose their irritabil- 
ity, but even their vital principle, in consequence of 
having accomplished the ends of their being* appears 
from an experiment of Linnajus upon Hemp. This is 
a dioecious plant, and Linnaeus kept several fertile- 
flowered individuals in separate apartments from the 
barren ones, in order to try whether they could per- 
fect their seeds without the aid of pollen. Some few 
however remained with the barren-flowered plants, 
and these ripened seed in due time, their stigmas hav- 
ing faded and withered soon after they had received 
the pollen. On the contrary, the stigmas which had 
been out of its reach continued green and vigorous, as 
if in vain expectation, nor did they begin to fade till 
they had thus lasted for a very long while. Since I 
read the history of this experiment, I have found it 
easy in many plants to tell by the appearance of the 
stigma whether the seed be fertilized or not. The 
above experiment is the more important as the abbe 
Spallanzani has recorded one made by himself upon 
the same species of plant, with a contrary result. 
But as he has said nothing of the appearance of the 
stigmas, his experiment must yield to that of Lin- 
naeus in point of accuracy ; and even if his account 
be otherwise correct, the result is easily explained. 
Hemp, Spinach, some Nettles, &c. naturally dioecious, 
are occasionally not completely so, a few latent barren 
or fertile flowers being frequently found among those 
of the other sort, by which provision is made against accidents, and the perfecting of a few seeds, at any 
rate secured. 
In general, germens whose stigmas have not received 
the pollen wither away without swelling at all, but 
some grow to a considerable size, and in such the sub- 
stance of the seed, its skin, and even its cotyledons, 
are often to be found, the embryo only being wanting. 
In a Melon or Cucumber it is common to find, among 
numerous perfect seeds, many mere unimpregnated 
husks. Gardeners formerly attempted to assist Nature 
by stripping off the barren flowers of Melons and Cu- 
cumbers, which, having no germen, they found could 
not come to fruit, and were, therefore, as they suppos- 
ed, an unnecessary encumbrance to the constitution of 
the parent plant. But finding they thus obtained no 
fruit at all, they soon learned the wiser practice of ad- 
mitting air as often as possible to the flowering plants, 
for the purpose of blowing the pollen from one blossom 
to the other, and even to gather the barren kind and 
place it over that destined to bear fruit. 
The ceconomy of various aquatic plants throws great 
light upon the subject before us. Different species 
of Potamogeton Pondweed, float entirely under water, 
often at some considerable depth, till the flowering 
season arrives, when they rise near the surface, and 
throw up their flowering spikes above it, sinking after- 
wards to ripen and sow their seeds at the bottom. 
The White Water Lily Nymphosa alba, is very truly 
described by Linnaeus as closing its flowers in the af- 
ternoon and laying tnem down upon the surface of the 
water till morning, when it raises and expands them, 
often, in a bright day, to several inches above the wa- 
ter. And to use the language of Alpinus the celebra- 
ted stories of the Lotus turning to the sun, closing its 
MELONS, &C. 
197 198 
(ECONOMY ©F AQUATIC PLANTS. 
flowers and sinking under water, at night, and rising 
again in the morning, are conformable to what every 
body has observed in the Nymphoca. 
But the most memorable of aquatic plants is the Va- 
lisneria which grows at the bottoms of ditches in Italy, 
and is not unfrequently found in the rivers of the Uni- 
ted States. In this the fertile flowers stand on long 
spiral stalks, and these by uncoiling elevate them to 
the surface of the water, where the calyx expands in 
the open air. In the mean while plenty of barren 
flowers are produced on a distinct root, on short 
straight stalks, from which they rise like separate 
white bubbles, suddenly expanding when they reach 
the surface, and floating about it in such abundance as 
to cover it entirely. Thus their pollen is scattered 
over the stigmas of the first-mentioned blossoms, whose 
stalks soon afterwards resume their spiral figure, and 
the fruit comes to maturity at the bottom of the water. 
All this Micheli has described, without being aware of 
its final purpose ; so different is it to observe and to 
reason ! 
Some aquatic vegetables, which blossom under 
water, seem to have a peculiar kind of glutinous pol- 
len, destined to perform its office in that situation. 
The fertilization of the Fig is accomplished in a strik- 
ing manner by insects, as is that of the real Sycamore, 
Ficus Sycomorus. In this genus the green fruit is a 
hollow common calyx, or rather receptacle, lined with 
various flowers seldom both barren and fertile in the 
same fig. This receptacle has only a very small ori- 
fice at the summit. The seeds therefore would not in 
general be perfected were it not for certain minute 
flies continually fluttering from one fig to the other, all 199 
ASSISTANCE OP INSECTS IN IMPREGNATION. 
covered with pollen, and depositing their eggs within 
the cavity. 
The stamens and pistils of the Aristolochia Clematitis 
are enclosed in its globular base, the anthers being 
under the stigma, and by no means commodiously situa- 
ted for conveying their pollen to it. This therefore is 
accomplished by an insect, which enters the flower by 
the tubular part. But that part being thickly lined with 
infixed hairs, though the fly enters easily, its return is 
totally impeded, till the corolla fades, when the hairs 
lie flat against the sides, and allow the captive to escape. 
In the mean while the insect, continually struggling 
for liberty, and pacing his prison round and round, has 
brushed the pollen about the stigma. 
The ways in which insects serve the same purpose 
are innumerable. These active little beings are pecu- 
liarly busy about flowers in bright sunny weather, 
when every blossom is expanded, the pollen in per- 
fection, and all the powers of vegetation in their great- 
est vigour. Then we see the rough sides and legs of 
the bee laden with the golden dust which it shakes off, 
and collects anew, in its visits to the honeyed stores 
inviting it on every side. All Nature is then alive, and 
a thousand wise ends are accomplished by innumera- 
ble means that “ seeing we perceive notfor though 
in the abundance of creation there seems to be a waste, 
yet in proportion as we understand the subject we 
find the more reason to conclude that nothing is made 
in vain.” 
It is well known that in consequence of cultivation, 
the stamens are often converted into petals, and the 
preceding observations teach us why full or double 
flowers are so rarely fertile. They teach us too, why 
the botanist, who studies the character of the plant in 200 
DOUBLE FLOWERS. 
the essential organs of the flower, flies from the gaudy 
productions of the garden, in which those organs are 
obliterated, to the modest but more interesting orna- 
ments of the field. It has been observed that the flow- 
ers of Grasses and other plants, whose seeds are em- 
ployed as food, though nourished by the richest soil, 
never become double. In this respect they are very 
unlike those blossoms which are cultivated for orna- 
mental purposes. CHAPTER XIV. 
FRUIT. 
After the fertilization of the flower, the calyx, pe- 
tals, stamens, and style, usually begin to fade. The 
germen however remains attached to the plant, contin- 
ues to expand until it reaches maturity, and then it 
Constitutes the Fruit. This term, which in common 
language is employed in a more limited sense, denotes 
seed vessels of every description, and seeds, whether 
naked or enclosed in a pericarp. It is either simple, as 
in the Currant; or multiplicate, as in the Labiate plants. 
Its covering is merely a thin epidermis, as in the Apple, 
a bark, as in the Orange, or a shell, as in the Filbert. 
1. SEED VESSELS. 
The Pericarp or seed vessel is designed to convey 
nourishment to the seed, to enclose and defend it from 
injury, while recent, and when ripe to liberate, and of- 
ten to scatter its contents to a distance. 
It often separates spontaneously into several distinct 
portions or valves, whose number, though constant in 
the same species, is various in different plants. When 
the valves are detached, we find a central pillar or col- 
umn, which is denominated the axis of the fruit, and 
is sometimes the receptacle of the seed. These valves 
when united, either form one entire cavity, as in the 
Garden Pink ; or several, as in the Stramonium, whose 
seed vessels are divided by several transversq partitions. 202 
FRUIT. 
and form four distinct cells. The partitions sometimes 
arise from the margin of the valves, sometimes from 
the inner surface, sometimes from the central column, 
and sometimes they are formed by the inflection of the 
borders of the valves. 
When the cell or the seed vessel contains one seed, 
it is monospermous ; if two, it is dispermous ; if many, 
it is polyspermous. 
The following are the most important varieties of the 
pericarp. 
Capsule, Fig. 89 This is a dry membranaceous or 
woody seed-vessel, usually separating when ripe into a 
determinate number of valves. The Iris furnishes au 
example. The peculiar capsule of the Ash and Ma- 
ple, Fig. 90, which is winged, but destitute of valves, 
is denominated by Gaertner, Samara ; and the capsule 
of the Silk-weeds having one cell and a solitary valve, 
is denominated follicle ; both terms however are con- 
sidered unnecessary. 
Silique, Fig. 97. This is a long dry seed vessel, form- 
ed of two valves separated by an intervening mem- 
branous partition, to which the seeds are attached, as 
in cruciform flowers. When the silique is very short, 
as in Shepherd’s-purse, Fig. 75, it is denominated si- 
licle. 
Legume, Fig. 99. This is composed of two oblong 
valves without any intervening partition, and its seeds 
are usually attached to one of its margins, as in the 
common Pea. In the Tamarind it is filled with pulp, 
in which the seeds are enveloped. When a legume is 
internally divided by several transverse partitions into 
cells, and has valves which do not finally separate, as 
in Hedysarum, it is denominated a Loment. But many 
writers do not employ the latter term. SEED VESSELS. 
203 
Pome, Fig. 93. The Pome or Apple is a pulpy seed 
vessel, without valves, and enclosing a capsule. The 
Apple and Pear are examples. 
Berry, Fig. 91. This is a pulpy seed vessel, contain- 
ing one or more seeds enveloped in the pulp. It be- 
comes soft and juicy, as it approaches maturity, in 
which respect it differs from the capsule ; and though 
when young it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them, 
the distinction is made with ease when they have be- 
come fully ripe. The Orange and Lemon are regard- 
ed as berries with a thick coat; and the Melon, Cu- 
cumber, and Gourd, are usually considered as varieties 
of the Berry ; though Gsertner separated them, and 
applied a different name, (Pepo.) 
Externally the Apple and Berry are alike, but in the 
interior of the latter we find no capsule to separate 
the seeds from the pulp of the fruit, they being imbed- 
ded in its substance as in the Gooseberry and Currant. 
Such is the texture and arrangement of most berries 
but in the Linnaea and Trientalis the berry is dry and 
juiceless, and is distinguished from the capsule only 
by its want of valves. When several berries each 
with one seed are united together as in the common 
Raspberry, they constitute the compound berry. 
There are several spurious kinds of berries whose pulp 
is not properly a part of the fruit, but originates from 
some other organ. Thus in the Mulberry as well as 
in the Strawberry Spinach, the calyx after flow- 
ering becomes coloured and very juicy, investing 
the seed like a genuine berry. 
In the Juniper a few scales of the fertile Catkin be- 
come succulent and coalesce into a globular berry with 
thr or rr ore seeds, and in the Yew ; some have 
thought it a calyx, others a peculiar kind of receptacle, 204 
which becomes red and pulpy embracing the seed. In 
the Strawberry, Fig. 96, what is commonly called the 
berry, is a pulpy receptacle studded with naked seeds. 
In the Fig, the whole fruit is a juicy calyx, or rather 
common receptacle, containing in its cavity innumera- 
ble florets, each of which has a proper calyx of its own 
that becomes pulpy and invests the seed, as in its near 
relation, the Mulberry. The paper Mulberry of China 
is indeed an intermediate genus between the two, being 
as it were a Fig laid open but without any pulp in the 
common receptacle.”* 
Nut, Fig. 94.—The nut is distinguished by its hard 
firm texture from the preceding varieties of seed ves- 
sels. It rarely separates into valves, and never spon- 
taneously separates into more than two pieces. The 
Filbert and Chesnut are well known examples of nuts, 
one enclosed in a leaf-like and the other in a prickly 
calyx. 
Drupe, Fig. 92.— Sometimes the nut is enclosed in 
pulp, forming a seed vessel which externally resembles 
the berry, and is denominated the drupe. The Cherry 
and Peach furnish examples. Sometimes the shell of 
the Drupe is separable into distant parts, each enclos- 
ing a seed ; each division is termed Pyrena ; and 
hence we find fruit described as dipyrenous, tripyrenous 
kc, according to the number of parts into which it 19 
subdivided. 
Strobile, Fig. 72.—The Strobile or cone is the com- 
mon receptacle and scales of the Catkin, indurated and 
much enlarged as in the Pine, being usually conical, 
ovate or spherical. “ In the mature state of the fruit, 
the scales, which are now closely imbricated, cover the 
FRUIT. 
■ Smith. SEEDS. 
205 
seeds or nuts so completely as to assume the appearance 
of forming only one compact whole, and thus the stro- 
bile hangs upon the tree during the whole of the winter 
season, protecting the enclosed scales ; but the heats 
of the succeeding summer have no sooner arrived than 
the scales, formerly close and compact, begin now to 
shrink and separate, detaching themselves from one 
another by the whole of their connected surface, and 
thus forming a passage for the discharge of the seeds.” 
Occasionally the pericarp is wanting, when the seeds 
are said to be naked. This however is not in all cases 
strictly true, for they are frequently enclosed in the 
permanent calyx; which supplies the deficiency of an 
additional capsule. 
2. SEEDS. 
We have in the course of our inquiry seen the bud, 
designed during the winter to protect the rudiments of 
the flower ; we have seen all the efforts of the last 
named organ directed to the security and fertility of 
the germen, and we have seen how admirably this 
germen is planned for the protection of the unripe 
seeds. 
The seed therefore, to which all the other parts of 
the fructification are subservient, next presents itself to 
our view. On this subject, botanists look to the ex- 
cellent Gaertner for instruction ; for his work “ pre- 
sents a most finished model of analysis, and at the same 
time exhibits the most durable monument that could 
have been erected, of the indefatigable industry and 
profound research of its author : so minute in his inves- 
tigations that nothing has escaped him, and so faithful 
in his delineations that no one has ever surpassed him,” The unripe seed is attached to its receptacle by a 
system of vessels which convey to it nourishment suf- 
ficient to effect the developement of its different parts. 
When the seed reaches its maturity these vessels are 
broken, and the place to which they were attached 
remains conspicuous on the surface of most seeds. It 
is denominated the Scar, (Hilum,) and near it we fre- 
quently find a minute orifice through which the water 
is absorbed during germin ition. 
The exterior coat of the seed (Testa) is usually firm ; 
and being formed previous to the internal organs, it com- 
municates to them it* peculiar figure. In the mature 
Apple it is brown, in the common Bean it is white, in 
ihe Indian corn it is straw-coloured and glossy, in the 
Rice it is pellucid, and in the Fumitory it is black and 
shining. During germination this integument bursts 
in consequence of the enlargement of its contents. It 
is not unfrequently lined with a delicate membrane 
which more immediately invests the enclosed organs, 
being in some cases entirely distinct from the exterior 
covering of the seed, and often inconspicuous, in con- 
sequence of its intimate union with the adjacent parts. 
In examining the internal structure or kernel of the 
seed, we find, what botanists denominate, the Albumen, 
Vitellus, Cotyledons and Embryo. 
The Albumen, so named from its resemblance to the 
white of a boiled egg, occurs in many seeds, and is 
particularly abundant in the Grasses, Lilies and Palms. 
It often encloses the Embryo, and has, by some writers, 
been denominated the Perisperm, in allusion to its 
peculiar situation, but in many cases this name is not 
appropriate. During germination the albumen is dis- 
solved, and converted into the first aliment of the 
young plant. It is according to Gaertner, always dis- 
206 
FRUIT. SEEDS 
201 
iinct from the embryo, and easily detached from it, 
being external in the umbelliferous plants, internal us 
in Mirabilis, and unilateral as in Knotgrass and Pink. 
It is farinaceous as in Mirabilis and in most of the 
Grasses, and constitutes the nutritive portion of grain. 
Seeds with this kind of albumen frequently have the 
embryo external, and as they contain no oil, they never 
become rancid. More frequently the albumen is car- 
nose or fleshy, as in the Lime tree ; and sometimes it is 
corneous, being very hard, and resembling a horn. 
“ It is wanting in several tribes of plants, as those 
with compound or w’ith cruciform flowers, and the 
Cucumber or Gourd kind, according to Gaertner. 
Some few leguminous plants have it, and a great number 
of others which, like them, have cotyledons besides. 
We are not however to suppose that so important an 
organ is altogether wanting, even in the above men- 
tioned plants. The farinaceous matter, destined to 
nourish their embryos, is unquestionably lodged in 
their cotyledons, whose sweet taste as they begin to 
germinate, often evinces its presence, and that it has 
undergone the same chemical change as in Barley. 
The albumen of the Nutmeg is remarkable for its 
eroded variegated appearance, and aromatic quality ; 
the cotyledons of this seed are very small.”* 
Vitellus.—This occurs between the embryo and al- 
bumen, and is so closely connected with the former, 
that it cannot easily be detached. It does not escape 
from the shell during germination, nor does it become 
a seminal leaf, but like the albumen it is entirely con- 
verted into the nourishment of the young plant. In 
some of the aquatic plants Ceratophyllum and Nelvmbe 
* Smith. 208 
FRUIT. 
it more resembles the cotyledons, but as it remains en 
cldsed in the seed during germination it is regarded as 
a vitellus. 
“ The hypogean or sub-terrestrial cotyledons, are not 
to be passed over unnoticed ; for although on account 
of their regular form, and the radicle being always 
placed without the lobes, and not covered by their 
substance, they neither can, nor ought to be separated 
from the rest of the true cotyledons ; yet on account 
of their incapacity for germinating and the coalition of 
their lobes into one body, as in the Horse Chesnut, they 
differ so very little from the vitellus, that there is the 
closest bond of affinity between these parts ; and in 
general, nature, in producing these parts of the seeds, 
seems to proceed from the very simple texture of the 
albumen, insensibly to the more organic structure of 
the vitellus, and from this to the more perfect fabric of 
the cotyledons.”* 
In the Grasses, this organ assumes a different form ,* 
and appears like a mere scale, to which the embryo is 
attached on one side, and the albumen on the other. 
The Cotyledons, are that portion of the seed which 
encloses the embryo, and during germination, appear 
in the form of leaves above the surface of the ground, 
Fig. 110. Each seed is usually furnished with two 
cotyledons, but in the Hemlock, Pinus Canadensis, there 
are three, and in other species of Pine they are still 
more numerous. In some cases the seed is said to 
contain but one cotyledon, and the Grasses and Lilies 
are referred to as examples ; in others it is said to be 
without lobes, and the Mosses, and other imperfect 
plants are of the number. On this subject, however, 
* Gaertner SEEDS. 
209 
botanists maintain very discordant opinions. Willde- 
novv defines the cotyledons to be the entire substance 
of the seed ; not including the embryo. “ Nature” he 
says “ provided plants with their cotyledons, that they 
might nourish the young plant in its tender infancy. 
Never yet have I noticed a single instance where this 
wise measure of nature was omitted. I examined 
purposely all those plants which were said to want the 
cotyledons, and always met with them. That in some 
plants the existence of the cotyledons was altogether 
denied, and others were said to have one only, others 
two, and several plants more than two, arose partly 
from inaccurate observation, partly from mistaking a 
plant of the embryo for a cotyledon.” 
Willdenow obviously includes in his idea of cotyledons 
the vitellus which most writers regard and describe 
as distinct. They rarely occur in the same seed, and 
it is probable that the latter is designed to supply the 
place of the former, until the first leaf of the young- 
plant is unfolded ; and that the number of cotyledons, 
though constant in the same, is various in different 
seeds. 
The Embryo, by Linnaeus denominated the Corcle 
is the most essential part of the seed, to which the oth- 
ers are subservient, and without which it cannot be 
made to vegetate. It is usually central, being enclosed 
by the lobes or albumen, as in the umbelliferous plants, 
or it is excentric as in Coffee, and external as in the 
Grasses ; it is straight as in the Apple ; curved as in 
the Kidney Bean, Fig-. Ill ; erect as in the Dandelion ; 
reversed as in Parsnip ; oblique as in Persimmon, Fig. 
108 ; and horizontal as in the Date Palm. Each embryo 
is composed of two portions, the rostel or radicle which 
is first evolved during germination, and the plumule or 210 
FRUIT. 
plumelet which rises above the ground and forms the 
stem and the herbage. . 
There are various appendages to the seed, of which 
the following are particularly worthy of notice. 
Pellicle.—This adheres closely to the surface of 
some seeds so as to conceal their colour entirely from 
our view, as in Convolvulus. 
Jlrillus.—This is a partial or entire covering of the 
seed attached merely to its base. It is soft and pulpy 
inEuonymus, membranaceous and elastic in the Sorrel, 
cariaceous and divided in the Nutmeg, and like paper 
in Coffee. Mace which envelopes the Nutmeg forms a 
partial arillus, but the minute seeds of the Orchis are 
completely invested by a similar coat, giving them a 
light and chaffy appearance. To this head Dr. Smith 
refers the loose husky covering which invests the 
seeds of Carex which has besides this, an additional 
coat not found in the seeds of other grasses. 
Pappus or Down.*—This term is applied to the 
chaffy, feathery or hairy crown of many naked seeds 
arising from the partial calyx, and remaining till the 
blossom has faded. 
In the Dandelion and Salsify it is elevated on a stalk 
and termed stipitate ; in the Thistle it is sessile ; in 
the Cacalia it is pilose resembling hairs ; and in Salsify 
it is plumose or feathery. In Burr Marygold it is formed 
of several barbed bristles which cling to our clothes 
as soon as the seeds are mature. “ The use of this 
organ,5'says Dr. Smith, “ is evidently to transport seeds 
to a distance from their native spot, either by resign- 
ing them to the power of the wind, or by attaching them 
* The French, and some English writers copying them, term it 
Aigrette. SEEDS 
211 
to tbe shaggy coats of animals. In due time the feath- 
ery down separates and leaves the seed behind it, which 
happens sooner in the Thistle than in most other 
plants, and hence the vacant down of that genus is fre- 
quently seen wafted in light masses over a whole coun- 
try, which has not escaped the notice of Poets.” 
Some writers apply the same term to the feathery 
crown of seeds which are enclosed in a capsule, as in 
the Oleander and Silk-weeds, and to the down which 
envelopes the seeds of the Cotton grass and Willows. 
Similar to these is the down which covers the seeds of 
the Cotton Plant, and is enclosed like that of the Silk- 
weed in a Capsule, w hich opens as the seeds are ma- 
tured. 
Tail, Fig. 105.—This is the permanent style which 
remains attached to some seeds, and assumes a feathery 
or hairy appearance as in the Traveller’s Joy and oth- 
er species of Clematis. 
Beak, Fig. 102.—This term is applied to an elonga- 
tion of the seed vessel, as in Geranium, Crane’s-bill, 
and to the slender summit of some naked seeds as in 
Sweet Cicily and other umbelliferous plants. 
Awn, Fig. 63.—The awn is usually an appendage to 
the flower and seeds of grasses, but is sometimes ap- 
plied to the beak of naked seeds. It is usually attach- 
ed to the corolla, and arises from its base as in Foxtail 
Grass, or from its extremity as in Rye ; being straight 
as in Hair-grass, contorted and spiral as in the Oat, 
and plumose in the Feather-grass. The contorted 
Awn possesses the property of an hygrometer, coiling 
in dry weather and again extending itself when the at- 
mosphere is filled with vapour. 
Wing.—This is a membraneous appendage to seeds 
or their capsules, Fig. 90. The Catalpa furnishes an 212 
DISPERSION OF 
example of the latter, and the Ash and Maple of the 
former. The seeds of Bignonia, present still more 
perfect examples of winged seeds, enclosed in a cap- 
sule, and the naked seeds of many umbellate plants 
have an alated or winged margin. 
Seeds are sometimes furnished with spines, hooks, 
and various other appendages all designed for their se- 
curity while living, and for their subsequent dispersion. 
“ In general, however, smoothness is characteristic 
of a seed, by which it best makes its way into the soft 
earth, though it is sometimes barbed, or at least its 
covering, as in the Feathergrass, that it may not easily 
be withdrawn again by the powerful feathery appen- 
dage of that plant, which after having by its circum- 
volutions forced the seed deeper and deeper, breaks 
off a joint, and flies away.”* 
The Dispersion of seeds is so intimately connected 
with these appendages, that the examination of the one 
imperceptibly leads to the contemplation of the other. 
Destitute of this inherent power, they would fall 
around the parent stem in such a situation as to pre- 
vent their growth, and probably to terminate the exis- 
tence of the tribe. The means of dispersion are all 
too curious, and the subject is too important to be pass- 
ed by unnoticed. 
Water is one of the vehicles by which they are con- 
veyed to a distance from their original habitation. 
By the currents of the ocean, the seeds of West 
India vegetables are frequently conveyed to the coast 
of Norway where they refuse to grow merely in con- 
sequence of the unfavourable climate in which they 
are deposited. 
* Smith. SEEDS 
213 
In this way the plants of Germany find access to 
Sweden, and those of Spain and France are scattered 
over the shores of England. 
In these cases the difference of climate is not so 
great as to prevent the growth of seeds which have 
thus emigrated from their native country. On the 
banks of the Connecticut we frequently meet with 
plants which probably descended with its current from 
the mountains among which it tabes its rise ; plants 
whose seeds ripened in Canada, and emigrated to a 
more temperate climate. 
Winds also contribute to the dissemination of seeds. 
We have seen how well many of them are adapted to 
expose a large surface to its action, and we have often 
observed them sailing through the air, in pursuit of a 
new and distant home. It is scarcely necessary to 
refer to the winged capsules of the Maple and the 
Ash, which, in connexion with the seeds are pro- 
pelled by the wind to a distance from their respective 
trees. Nor is it necessary to say how effectually the 
same object is secured by the winged seeds of the 
Catalpa and Pine, which, in a similar way are elevated 
and propelled through the air. 
Some seeds, like those of the Staphylea, are enclos- 
ed in an inflated calyx, more resembling a balloon than 
a sail, but equally effectual in diffusing over the globe 
the seeds which they enclose. But the feathery 
crown which invests the seeds of Compound flowers 
affords a more beautiful specimen of mechanism than 
any of these, and it is brought into operation through 
the agency of dry air at the very moment best suited 
for their dispersion. Aided by this, the Erigeron of 
Canada has travelled from America to Europe, and 
thence it has been diffused over the eastern continent. 214 
Aided also by this, the Dandelion, a native of Europe* 
has diffused itself over every part of our country ; 
neither impeded by the broadest rivers nor intercep- 
ted by the loftiest mountains, it has already passed the 
Allegany and become a tenant of the woods of Ohio. 
The minuteness of some seeds facilitates their disper- 
sion by the wind, and it is found that those which are 
most minute are most extensively diffused. It is 
chiefly on this account that Mosses and Ferns are more 
widely scattered than those whose seeds are large, 
Swartz found in Jamaica the same Moss which he had 
been accustomed to gather when climbing the mountains 
of Europe, and there too the same Ferns which be had 
frequently seen in France, though the other plants 
were all new and peculiar. 
Indeed, it seems that there is no place so remote, but 
seeds like these are capable of reaching it ; no moun- 
tain so high, but they lodge on its very summit; no 
cavern so deep, but they penetrate its unmeasured re-" 
cesses ; where, surrounded by many impediments to 
vegetation, they germinate, and at last fill the atmos- 
phere with the seeds of another race. 
When the seeds of Balsamine are ripe, the capsule 
suddenly opens, and scatters its contents abroad ; and 
the seeds of the common Crane’s-bill are thrown to a 
distance, by the elasticity of the beak, to the base of 
which they are attached. 
The seed-vessels usually open when the atmosphere 
is dry, and the sky unclouded, that no vapour may'' 
collect on the wings of the seed, and impede its pro- 
gress. But to this rule the Ice-plant furnishes a re- 
markable exception. The ornament of a sandy desert, 
where few other plants are capable of existence, its 
seeds would be planted in vain, if at an untimely sea- 
DISPERSION of 3EEDS. 
215 
son ; and accordingly its capsules open, when the rain 
would cause others to close ; and its seeds are disper- 
sed at the only time when their germination could be 
effected. 
Here too we should mention the seed of the Walk- 
ing or Animated Oat, Avena sterilis, whose awn is made 
to move by the slightest variation of atmospheric va- 
pour. It is not unfrequently found at a distance from 
where it was originally deposited, marching with con- 
stant step till it has penetrated the earth ; and even 
then its progress is arrested only by the equal moisture, 
which causes its seed to germinate, and fixes it to the 
soil. 
Allied to the Walking Oat—equally alive to the vari- 
eties of moisture, is the beak of the Erodium moscha- 
tum, or Musk Geranium. While it remains attached to 
the style, it is straight, but coils up after it is ripened, 
whenever it is placed in a dry situation ; but w-ater has 
the power of extending it to its former shape. The 
hairs with which the seed is invested, facilitate its en- 
trance into the earth, and prevent its return ; so that 
the whole economy of the seed is too curious to be 
overlooked. 
The fruit ofmany plants being the food of animals, they 
in various ways scatter the seeds abroad. The Squirrel 
fills his storehouses with a stock of winter’s food ; but 
he is either destroyed, or forgets where his treasures 
were deposited, till they are no longer desirable food. 
Here his nuts are permitted to germinate, and the very 
means which threatened to destroy, are made to pre- 
serve the trees to which they belong. Birds also lay 
up a store of food for themselves and their young. 
While the Hollanders were in possession of the Spice 
Islands, they endeavoured to destroy the Nutmegs 216 
DISPERSION OF 
which they could not defend ; and before they relin- 
quished any of their possessions, they carefully rooted 
out this, their most valuable production. But notwith- 
standing the vigilance and the jealousy of the Dutch, 
birds disseminated the seeds of the Nutmeg over these 
very islands, evidently indicating, that nature will not 
acknowledge the improper restrictions, which man 
would make supreme. 
The hooks of the Saniele and Cleavers attached to the 
fleeces of the flock, are frequently carried to a distant 
town, where they germinate and grow. “ When 
young,” says Mirbel, “ I accompanied Raymond in his 
excursion to the Pyrenees, where that learned natural- 
ist pointed out to me these deserters from the plains be- 
low. They grew on the remains of ruined hovels, 
where they kept their stations in defiance of the seve- 
rity of the winters, and remained as memorials to at- 
test the former presence of man and his flocks.” 
The seeds of aquatic vegetables adhere to the feath- 
ers of the birds who visit them, till at last they are de- 
posited in some distant lake. There is no place so re- 
mote, but the Water Lily gains access to it; though its 
seeds cannot, like those of other vegetables, gradually 
extend their dominion from one place to another. 
But more than birds and animals—more than wind 
and tide, man contributes to the dispersion of seeds. 
Of this we shall be convinced, as we learn the history 
of many well known vegetables, as we trace them from 
one country to another, and observe in what way they 
have been thus extensively diffused. The wars which 
led many of the European nations to the Holy Land, 
brought back many of the esculent vegetables which are 
seen on our tables, and many of the flowers which 
adorn our gardens. Commerce has enriched different SEEKS. 
2i« 
nations by an interchange of their most valuable pro 
ductions, and science has discovered in the remotest 
sections of the earth, vegetables which are now diffus- 
ed through countries where they were formerly un- 
known. The common Stramonium, now a weed 
throughout all Europe and in various parts of the 
United States, was brought from Abyssinia by a class 
©f empyrics who pretended that its seeds were a 
sovereign remedy for various diseases. Buck-wheat 
and most kinds of grain were received through Ttaly 
from the eastern nations, while the various kinds of 
cultivated fruit were derived from Greece, ultimately 
perhaps from the provinces of Asia. Persia is the na- 
tive country of the Peach ; Arminia of the Apricot; 
and from these nations they have travelled through 
Europe and at last reached this country. The Potatoe 
was carried from America to Ireland by Sir Walter 
Raleigh, and from thence it has found its way to almost 
every section of the eastern continent. These are 
but a few of the many examples which might be men- 
tioned, to prove how much man has contributed to the 
dissemination of seeds. The fertility of the vegetable 
kingdom will warrant the conclusion, that its numerous 
species have all been preserved in the midst of the dan- 
gers which assailed them ; dangers too, which they have 
no eyes to see, and no voluntary power to avoid. 
The patience of Ray enabled him to ascertain the 
number of seeds, which were produced by a single 
plant of the Tobacco, and they amounted to 300,000. 
Dodart with a perseverance equally worthy of our ad- 
miration, ascertained that in one year a single Elm 
produced more than half a million of seeds, yet com- 
pared with the fertility of other plants, the Tobacco 
and Elm are unproductive, for it exceeds the powers 218 
DISTRIBUTION OF 
of man to estimate the number of seeds which are en- 
closed in a capsule of a Moss or on the single leaf of a 
Fern. 
Whenever they are less numerous, they are defend- 
ed from injury by the hardness of their external coat, 
by the thorns with which they are invested and by the 
acrimony of their juices. 
Thus productive, and thus defended, it is probable 
that no family of plants now in existence, will prema- 
turely cease to be. We now see how various and 
yet how essential are the means which nature em- 
ploys for the dissemination of plants. Seeds are liter- 
ally scattered over the whole face of the globe, but 
their dispersion is neither the effect of accident or 
chance. The mountain has its favourite plant whose 
seeds are endowed with the power of reaching its 
summit, while those which delight in the valley, are 
carried by opposite means to their destined abode. 
The seeds of mountain plants are sometimes the food 
of birds, through whose agency they reach the place 
most favourable to their germination. Sometimes 
they rise on the wings of their feathery crown, sail 
through the air, till they reach their final home, on 
the brow of some neighbouring hill. And is it not de- 
lightful to observe the various means which are em- 
ployed for their dispersion, to see some furnished with 
wings which enable them to fly more like things of life 
than tenements in which it slumbers; to see those do- 
mestic plants which linger around the dwellings of man 
furnished with seeds whose hooks attach them to the 
dress of every visitor, by which they are scattered at 
a distance from their original locality, though near 
the walks and around the habitations which they de- 
light to honor ; to see the seeds of aquatic plants en- SEEDS. 
219 
closed in a shell by which they can swim, or covered 
with an adhesive substance by which they are attached 
to the birds who visit them, in short, to see that 
neither plant nor sparrow will fall without the notice 
of Him who gave them life and existence. CHAPTER XV, 
IMPERFECT PLANTS. 
There is an extensive tribe of plants to which the 
foregoing terms do not apply. Linnaeus, finding their 
flowers invisible, at least to the naked eye, denominated 
them Cryptogamia ; and other writers, in consideration 
of their simple and often defective structure, term them 
Imperfect. They are usually distributed into Ferns, 
Mosses, Hepaticce, Algce, and Fungi, which we shall 
examine in the above mentioned order. 
1. FERNS. 
These are usually distinguished with ease from the 
more perfect plants, having their leaves, branches, and 
stems so united, as to constitute one organ, and usually 
having the fructification on the back of the leaf. That 
part which is analagous to the stem of other plants, or 
perhaps to the petiole of a compound leaf, is denomi- 
nated the Stipe; and the various parts united, whether 
in a Fern or in other plants, constitute a Frond. 
Their floral organs are very minute, and entirely 
unlike the gay blossoms which adorn the landscape and 
beautify the shrubs that bear them. The existence of 
these organs, taken collectively, is established by the 
production of seeds which grow on the back of the frond, 
or on a separate spike, or at the base of the stipe, or 
in the axils of the leaves, When the fructification is in scattered patches, on the 
back of the leaf, as in Polypodiurn, Fig. 24, the Fern is 
said to be dorsiferous, in allusion to the situation of the 
floral organs. Examined with a microscope, the fruit 
is found to consist of a capsule usually surrounded by an 
elastic transverse ring, which opens when ripe for the 
discharge of the seeds. These capsules are usually 
accompanied by an additional integument, named Indu- 
sium. It is a thin membrane, Fig. 113, enclosing the 
unripe fruit, and originates sometimes from the veins, 
and sometimes from the margin of the leaf. In distin- 
guishing the genera of Ferns, Linnaeus resorted to the 
situation and shape of the capsules ; but Dr. Smith has 
found the presence of the indusium, and the mode in 
which it bursts, the best criterion for determining the 
genera of Ferns ; and in connexion with the other 
characters, it is “the only sure ground on which the 
botanist can rely.” 
But the floral organs are not always confined to the 
back of the frond, nor are the leaves and stems always 
thus intimately incorporated. In Equisetum or the 
Horsetail, Fig. 114, the fruit is attached to peltate re- 
ceptacles, Fig. 115, which are collected into a spike, 
and terminate the stem ; and its numerous seeds are 
enfolded by four pollen-bearing filaments, Fig. 116, 
somewhat analogous to those which occur in the flowers 
of the more perfect plants. 
In Lycopodium or Ground Pine the capsules are some- 
times found in the axils of the leaves and sometimes at 
the summit of the stem. This family of plants is en- 
tirely unlike those ferns whose herbage constitutes a 
frond, and it ranks with them, only because no one has 
been able to detect those organs which serve to char- 
acterize the more perfect plants. In most of the 
FERNS. 
221 IMPERFECT PLANTS. 
Floras which have been published in the United States 
Ferns alone, of the cryptogamic plants are included. 
Their herbage is frequently very beautiful ; and 
the polished Stipe of the Maiden Hair presents an ex- 
ample of the glittering surface which is not surpassed 
by any of the more perfect plants. The Lycopodium 
is an interesting trailing vine, which retains its verdure 
during the winter when it is often employed to decorate 
our dwellings and our churches, serving at least to dis- 
pel the gloom of one season, by reminding us of the 
gaiety of another. 
2. MOSSES. 
Mosses constitute a second order. Though too mi- 
nute to attract the notice of the passing observer, when 
examined wfith attention, they exhibit a beauty of struc- 
ture which we cannot fail to admire. They are fur- 
nished with leaves and stems presenting a miniature of 
the lofty forest trees, and like them usually having 
their floral organs distinct. Sometimes however the 
stem is wanting ; and when present, it has been ob- 
served to sink into the soil, and as the old root decays 
and is converted into mould, so the old stem annually 
descends into the eaith, emits radical fibres, and is con- 
verted into a root. 
The leaves of Mosses are very minute, being often 
transparent. They arise from every side of the stem, 
and are linear, oval, lanceolate, pointed, and imbricate, 
varying like other leaves, and having their different 
forms designated by the same terms. According to 
Hedwig, the floral organs of the Mosses usually occur 
on separate plants, but in some cases they are monoe- 
cious, having barren and fertile flowers distinct, but MOSSES. 
223 
on the same plant* The former are the stars, which 
terminate the branches Fig. 130, or the buds that sit 
in the bosom of the leaves ; and the latter are the 
urn shaped capsules, Figs. 117 and 129 which are usu- 
ally elevated above the rest of the plant, and concealed 
when young, by an exterior membrane. 
The fertile flowers of Mosses present an arrange- 
ment well worthy of our attention. “ They are not 
furnished with any integument that can be decidedly 
called a calyx, though the leaves immediately sur- 
rounding them, are generally different both in size and 
structure from the other leaves of the plant ; in the 
genus Hypnum, they are so very obviously different, 
as to have obtained the proper appellation of the Peri- 
chcetium, or fence, being an assemblage of loose imbri- 
cated scales, rather than real leaves. 
But if they are not to be regarded as the real calyx, 
or part of the real leaves, they are at least to be re- 
garded as floral ieaves, both from their contiguity to the 
flower, and analogy to the floral leaves of other plants. 
In their original distribution, they form a peculiar bud, 
from the centre of which the flower issues, present- 
ing when first visible, the appearance of a fine and 
minute poiut, projecting from the bosom of the leaves. 
As the process of fructification advances, the parts 
of the flower begin to assume a different appearance ; 
the fine and pointed substances expanding into a cone, 
invested by a thin membranaceous integument, which 
is adherent at the summit and base, and finally sepa- 
rates into two distinct portions. The under portion, 
which is placed within the periclicetium, remains as be- 
fore attached to the base of the fructification, and is 
termed the sheath; while the upper portion adheres to 
the summit of the capsule, and invests it, in the form 224 
IMPERFECT PLANTS. 
of an extinguisher, Fig. 129 a. In this state it has been 
called a calyx by some botanists, and by others a corol- 
la ; but its resemblance to either is so slight, as scarcely 
to justify the terms. It is more generally known, how- 
ever, by the appellation of the Calyptra, or veil ; a 
term sufficiently expressive, of at least part of its func- 
tions, masking as it does a globular or urn-shaped ves- 
sel, which is the capsule of the Mosses. In some spe- 
cies this capsule is sessile, but in most cases it is eleva- 
ted upon a fine slender foot-stalk ; and is erect or droop- 
ing, smooth or striated ; being in a young state green 
or white, but at maturity becoming yellow, or red, or 
brown. The mouth of the capsule is externally cover- 
ed with a lid, (operculum) Fig. 129 d, assuming in dif- 
ferent species a variety of forms, and detaching itself 
horizontally when ripe. When this lid is removed, the 
mouth of the capsule is seen, invested with a fringe 
(peristomium) Fig. 118, which is usually double, occa- 
sionally single, and very rarely wanting ; Fig. 129 c. 
The number of the teeth of this fringe, though varia- 
ble in different genera, is uniform in the same ; and it' 
is worthy of observation, that this number is in all ca- 
ses a multiplicate of 4, being 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64. 
Within the urn, there is a slender column, which pass- 
es through its whole extent, and perforates both the lid 
and the veil. This organ was regarded by Hedvvig as 
the style of the Mosses. As the urn and column are 
concentric, there is an intermediate and cylindrical 
cavity, filled with a powder usually brown or yellow, 
and sometimes dotted or prickly. By sowing this pow- 
der, Hedwig reared a crop of young Mosses, in all 
respects similar to the parent plants , thus proving be- 
yond the possibility of a doubt, the nature of the dust 
which he planted. iiOSSES. 
Such is a short sketch of the herbage and fructifica- 
tion of the Mosses, according to the observations and 
discoveries of Hedwig, and of the theory founded upon 
them, namely : That the Mosses are formed with all the 
organs necessary to the constitution of a flower, and 
producing perfect seeds ; a theory that seems at least 
to be founded in fact, and that has obtained the appro- 
bation of most succeeding botanists. 
Mosses are very tenacious of life, and flourish in the 
coldest climate and at the coldest season of the year ; 
and it is said that after they have been preserved a cen- 
tury, their freshness may be restored by the mere ap- 
plication of water. Their uses in the economy of ve- 
getation, are greater than is commonly suspected. “ Na- 
ture,” says Willdenow, “ always takes care to use one 
plant for the benefit of another and those which de- 
cay are taxed to support those which are to succeed 
them. This remark is peculiarly applicable to the 
Mosses. They vegetate on naked barren rocks, to 
which their seeds have been wafted by the wind, de- 
riving their nourishment from the atmosphere, and 
preparing the way for plants of a greater magnitude. 
Sometimes they flourish only on the summit of lofty 
mountains abstracting moisture from the clouds which 
encircle them, contributing to the formation of foun- 
tains, rivulets, and at last majestic streams. Wher- 
ever they vegetate Mosses improve the soil, and when 
it becomes capable of sustaining other plants, these 
disappear as if the sole end of their existence was to 
fertilize the ground. They overspread the trunks of 
trees which in the winter they protect from cold and 
in the summer from the parching rays of the sun, nor 
do they, like other parasitic plants, derive nutriment 
from the trees which support them, Shrubs covered IMPERFECT PLANTS. 
226 
with Moss can be removed to a distance with greatei 
safety than when protected in auy other way, and ac- 
cording to the observations of Gleditsch, they grow with 
as much luxuriance when nourished merely by Moss 
as when in the most fertile soil. Some Mosses thrive 
only in marshy situations which they annually enrich 
by the deposition of new mould. The L’ercynian for- 
est, once an impenetrable morass, has through the 
agency of the Grey Moss Sphagnumpalustris, been con- 
verted into a fertile soil, and the yellow corn now 
waves over the fields which have been forming for 
ages. Thus we owe to insignificant mosses the largest 
rivers, the draining of extensive marshes, and the fertil 
itv of some barren fields.* 
3. HEPATICjE. 
These are small herbaceous plants whose herbage 
constitutes a frond, and whose fruit like that of the 
Mosses is enclosed in a capsule. The veil, however, 
by which this capsule is sometimes enclosed, usually 
opens at the summit, nor is it furnished with a lid, 
analagous to the one we have seen in the fructification 
of Mosses. This is a small and by no means interest- 
ing tribe of plants. The student who wishes to gain 
an idea of their singular structure, will find the com- 
mon Brook Liverwort, Marchantia polymorpha an ex- 
ample well calculated to exhibit the frond, but the 
peltate receptacle on which its fructification is borne is 
very different from the capsules of the other genera. 
In Jungermannia, Fig. 119, the capsule is four-valved, 
and when the seeds are mature, these valves separate 
* Willdenow. ALGjfc. 
227 
for their escape. They are not at present of much 
utility in medicine Or the arts, but their name confirms 
the opinion that they were formerly employed as med- 
icines in affections of the liver. 
4. ALGiE. 
This term, originally applied to marine plants, has 
been employed in a more extensive sense, and embra- 
ces among others, the Lichens which cling to the rock, 
and the Byssi which appear chiefly to delight in the 
damp atmosphere of the cellar. The Lichens, consti- 
tuting a very extensive order, have been investigated 
with great success by the learned Acharius of Sweden, 
whose works “ form a new aera in this department of 
our science, and will probably be the basis of all sub- 
sequent improvement.”* The Lichens have nothing 
analagous to the root, unless we are willing to regard 
as such, the fibres which issue from the inferior sur- 
face of the frond. And in many cases the place of these 
fibres is supplied by a cement which attaches the plant 
so closely to the smooth rock, that we can separate 
them only with difficulty. The frond, Fig. 121, (de- 
nominated thallus by Acharius,) is either a leaf-like 
expansion, or it is branched, and like a shrub in minia- 
ture, or it is a mere crust or powder, presenting in 
each case a simple structure and consisting chiefly of 
gelatine and mucilage. With regard to the fructifica- 
tion of Lichens, Hedwigand Gaertner, both men of pri- 
mary authority, maintain very different opinions. 
The former contends that he has detected in the in- 
terior of the frond, small cells, which contain particles 
■ Smith. IMPERPHCT ?LANTS. 
of pollen, and in the shields or targets, Fig. 122, he 
found a number of oval bodies, arranged in perpen- 
dicular columns, which were regarded as seeds. But 
Gaertner maintains, that these substances are a peculiar 
kind of gem, which he denominates propago, and de- 
scribes as being “ simple gems without leaves, or re- 
gular form, sometimes naked, and sometimes covered 
with an envelope, which separating at length from the 
parent plant,” are dispersed like seeds. Gaertner’s 
views of the subject are most probably correct. 
Lichens are described by Acharius as forming a natu- 
ral order, distinct from the other imperfect plants ; in 
which the whole body performs the functions of an uni- 
versal receptacle or thallus, of various shapes, without 
distinct root or stem, and furnished with vegetative or- 
gans, by which the species is propagated. These or- 
gans abound in the substance and on the surface of the 
flowers, being sometimes scattered and sometimes col- 
lected in nests, and existing in a separate organ (apo- 
thecium) Fig. 122, which he regarded as a partial re- 
ceptacle, and to which other writers have applied the 
terms saucer, shield, and cup. 
“ The aquatic or submersed Algos form a distinct and 
peculiar tribe. Some of them abound in fresh water, 
others in the sea, and hence the latter have been de- 
nominated sea-weeds. The chief genera are Ulva, 
well defined by its seed organs being dispersed un- 
der the cuticle throughout the membranous or gelati- 
nous substance of the frond ; Fucus, whose seeds are 
collected together in tubercles, or swellings of various 
forms and sizes ; and Conferva, commonly known by its 
capillary and jointed frond. They are in general mere- 
ly fixed by the roots, their nourishment being imbibed VWNGI. 
229 
by their surface ; many of them float without any at- 
tachment.”* 
These plants, notwithstanding their simple structure, 
and humble aspect, are all, important in the economy of 
vegetation. Like the Mosses, they abstract nourish- 
ment from the atmosphere, and by their decay enrich 
the soil over which they spread, and cover with a fer- 
tile mould, the rocks to which they are attached. 
The Rein Deer of the North is supported by the 
branched coralline lichen, Cenomycerangiferina which 
grows luxuriantly beneath the Lapland snows, at a 
season when the vegetation of all other plants is abso- 
lutely arrested. 
The Iceland Moss, Cetraria Icelandica thrives in a 
country where no kind of grain reaches maturity, and 
is pulverized by the inhabitants who use it as food. It 
is indeed the best food which consumptive patients can 
use, and for them, it is imported into the United States. 
Probably some of our own Lichens might answer the 
same valuable purposes. We know that the Lungwort 
Pulnionaria has possessed a high reputation, and fur- 
ther investigation may establish its efficacy as a medi- 
cine. 
Many of the Lichens have been employed in the 
arts ; some as affording colouring materials and others 
as yielding mucilage, which has been substituted for 
the more costly gums of Crete and Arabia. 
5. FUNGI. 
The only remaining order of imperfect plants em- 
braces the Fungi or Mushrooms. Destitute of leaver 
■ Smith. 230 
IMPERFECT PLANTS. 
and flowers, they appear to want every property 
which would entitle them to rank with other vegetables. 
In taste, they approach near to the lower tribe of ani- 
mals, and by many writers they have been arranged 
with zoophites, and regarded as animated beings. But 
more enlightened observation and more accurate re- 
search, have pointed out their analogy to some of the 
preceding orders. The names of Micbeli, Hedvvig 
and Persoon, rank high among the botanists who have 
devoted their time to the investigation of this depart- 
ment of botany. They have in the language of a late 
writer, demonstrated that Mushrooms are organized 
vegetables which consist of fibres, vessels and roots, 
that they have organs appropriated to the formation of 
seeds (or gems) and that without these no reproduc- 
tion can take place. In short, they spring up, flourish, 
and decay, like other organized beings, after having 
transmitted the principles of that vitality which they 
possess, to a new race exactly similar to themselves. 
The examination of Fungi presents to our view the 
-wrapper Fig. 127, which envelopes the fungus when 
young and in its mature state remains close to the 
ground ; the cap or summit, Fig. 125 which is usually 
oval, and supported on the peculiar stem of the Fungus, 
which stem is denominated the Stipe. The inferior sur 
face of the cap is beset with gills as in Jlgaricus Fig. 125 ; 
with pores as in Boletus 123 ; and with prickles as, in 
Hydnum, Fig. 128 ; and these gills, prickles and pores, 
are the seat of the reproductive organs. The stipe is 
either central or lateral, solid or hollow, sometimes 
connected with the gills and sometimes separate, and 
these are characters to which it is often necessary to 
resort. 
Persoon has arranged them according to the situa- FUNGI. 
231 
lion of the organs of fructification. In one order the 
seeds or gems are internal as in the common Puff-ball; 
in the other they are imbedded in an appropriate mem- 
brane, as in the Mushroom. 
These plants notwithstanding their simple organiza- 
tion have been converted to useful purposes. The 
powder of the Puff-ball, Lycoperdon, is employed as a 
styptic and is remarkable also for its property of 
strongly repelling moisture. If a vessel is filled 
with water and a little of the powder sprinkled over 
its surface, the hand may be plunged to the bottom of 
the vessel without coming in contact with the water. 
The Mushrooms are well known articles of seasoning 
and of food, which are frequently employed, and, with 
safety, unless gathered by an unskilful hand. 
We have now examined the various orders of the 
imperfect or cryptogamous plants. Some late wrtters 
apply the term agamous to some of the tribes which 
Linnaeus and others associated with the Mosses and 
Ferns. They apply it to those plants whose floral 
organs have never been detected, being propagated by 
peculiar gems (propagula) which shew themselves in 
the form of a powder on the surface of the plant ; are 
at no period enclosed within a germen, and have been 
deemed with great probability mere fragments of the 
external texture of the vegetable. They have no 
parts of an herbaceous nature, but include the Algae, 
the Hepaticae and the F ungi, * plants destitute of leaves, 
and often without a stem. 
* Mirbel. CHAPTER XVt 
CLASSIFICATION. 
By a recent publication it appears, that 50,000 plants 
have been collected, named and described ; a number 
so formidable, a subject so vast, that without the aid 
of science, it would be impossible for one mind to com- 
prehend the whole. No where else are system and 
knowledge so intimately blended ; for here they are 
so inseparable that he who denies the necessity of the 
one must relinquish all pretensions to the other. With- 
out system, all would be chaos and confusion ; and the 
study of plants and the investigation of their character 
and relations would be interesting only, as it led to the 
contemplation of beautiful objects. Without system, 
our subject would be no longer worthy of pursuit ; it 
would neither exercise nor enlarge the mind, nor would 
it strengthen the memory. Of the various modes of 
arrangement that of Tournefort is distinguished for 
its beauty ; that of Linnaeus for its simplicity ; that of 
Jussieu for its analogy to nature. 
Tournefort, the most learned botanist of his age, the 
favourite of Louis his king, the pride and the boast of 
his country, rendered himself immortal by reducing to 
order the plants which were at that time known. His 
classes are founded on the forms of the corolla, and 
they were more natural, more easily understood, and 
more usually studied than any others. 
Were it desirable, we might in a little while become 
acquainted with his classes, for each of them comprises CLASSIFICATION. 
233 
one of the various forms of the corolla which have al- 
ready been enumerated. But unfortunately for Tour- 
nefort and his system, the various forms were not suffi- 
ciently distinct, and it was frequently difficult to say 
under which class an individual plant should be arrang- 
ed It therefore received different names, some of 
which being extremely barbarous, would have deterred 
all but the most devoted lovers of natural history from 
pursuing this its most interesting portion. 
In a few years it would have been discarded had not 
Linnaeus appeared, its prince and its saviour, to re- 
deem it from the corruptions of former, and to guard 
against the innovations of future ages. With an eye 
which could at a single glance discern the peculiar 
features of any object; with firmness to encounter, and 
with talents to overcome, the greatest difficulties, he 
planned, he accomplished more than all his predeces- 
sors, and his works which remain at this day unrivalled, 
will probably long continue unequalled. 
The number, situation, and proportion of the sta- 
mens were the foundation of his primary divisions. 
These organs, so constant, so essential to the comple- 
tion of the flower, so necessary for the preservation of 
the vegetable kingdom, were happily selected to fur- 
nish each of his Classes with an obvious immutable 
character. The Orders into which his classes are 
subdivided, are established on a basis equally constant, 
on the number and situation of the pistils, or on some 
other circumstance equally obvious and invariable. 
But this system, like that of Rivinus is artificial, and 
though it enables us with great facility to learn the 
name of any unknown plant; it does n' t pursue the 
order of nature, nor does it, like that of Jussieu, exhibit 
the aflinities of the vegetable kingdom. 234 
CLASSIFICATION". 
“ Independently of all general method of classification; 
whether natural or artificial, plants, as well as animals, 
are distinguished into Genera, Species and Varieties. 
By Species are understood so many individuals, or, 
among the generality of animals, so many pairs, as are 
presumed to have been formed at the creation, and 
have been perpetuated ever since ; for though some 
animals appear to have been exterminated, we have no 
reason t® suspect any new species has been produced ; 
neither have we cause to suppose aDy species of plant 
has been lost, nor any new one permanently established, 
since their first formation notwithstanding the specula- 
tions of some philosophers. We frequently indeed see 
new Varieties, by which word is understood a varia- 
tion in an established species ; but such are imperfect- 
ly, or for a limited time, if at all, perpetuated in the 
offspring. 
A Genus comprehends one or more species, so es- 
sentially different in formation, nature, and often many 
adventitious qualities, from other plants, as to constitute 
a distinct family or kind, no less permanent, and found- 
ed in the immutable laws of the creation, than the dif- 
ferent species of such a genus. 
Thus the various species of Rose compose a beauti- 
ful genus, known to every one who ever looked at a 
plant, merely by a certain combination of ideas, but es- 
sentially distinguished by clear and decisive characters. 
The species of Iris form also a numerous genus, and the 
Willows another ; whild the interesting Linncea is too 
singular and distinct to be associated with any known 
plant besides and constitutes a genus by itself. 
The first great and successful attempt to define the 
genera of plants was made by Tournefort, and in this 
his transcendant merit will ever be conspicuous, though CLASSIFICATION. 
235 
his system of arrangement should be entirely forgotten. 
Not that he has excelled in verbal definitions, nor 
built all his genera on sure foundations ; but his fig- 
ures, and his enumerations of species undereach genus, 
show the clearness of his conceptions, and rank him as 
the father of this branch of botany. 
Linnaeus first insisted on generic characters being 
exclusively taken from the flowers and the fruit, and 
he demonstrated these to be sufficient for all the plants 
that can be discovered. He also laid it down as a 
maxim, that all genera are as much founded in nature 
as the species which compose them ; and hence fol- 
lows one of the most just and valuable of all his princi- 
ples, that a genus should furnish a character, not a char- 
acter form a genus; or, in other words, that a certain 
coincidence of structure, habit, and perhaps qualities, 
among a number of plants, should strike the judgment 
of a botanist, before he fixes on one or more technical 
characters, by which to stamp and define such plants 
as one natural genus. 
In methodical arrangement, whether natural or arti- 
ficial, every thing must give way to generic distinc- 
tions. A natural system which should separate the spe- 
cies of a good genus, would, by that very test alone, 
prove entirely worthless ; and if such a defect be some- 
times unavoidable iu an artificial one, contrivances must 
be adopted to remedy it ; of which Linnmus has set us 
the example, as will hereafter be explained. 
Generic characters are reckoned by Linnaeus of three 
kind, the factitious, the essential, and the natural, all 
founded on the. fructification alone, and not on the in- 
florescence, nor any other part. 
The first of these serves only to discriminate gene- 
ra that happen to come together in the same artificial 236 
CLASSIFICATION. 
order or section ; the second to distinguish a particular 
genus, by one striking mark, from all of the same natu- 
ral order, and consequently from all other plants ; and 
the third comprehends every possible mark common to 
all the species of one genus. 
The factitious character can never stand alone, but 
may sometimes, commodiously enough, be added to 
more essential distinctions, as the insertion of the pe- 
tals in Agrimonia, indicating the natural order to which 
the plant belongs, which character, though essential to 
that order, here becomes factitious. 
The essential character comprehends all the distinc- 
tions requisite to discriminate each genus from every 
other in the system, only avoiding a repetition at every 
step of the characters of the artificial class and order, 
which stand at the top of each page, and are not always 
essential to the character of the genus. This is the 
kind of generic character now universally adopted, and 
indeed the only one in common use. The learned Jus- 
sieu has given it the sanction of his approbation and 
adoption, as far as its plan is concerned, throughout his 
immortal work, subjoining in a different type such cha- 
racters and remarks as belong to the habit, or refer to 
other circumstances. 
The natural character seems to have been, at one 
time, what Linnaeus most esteemed. Its disadvantages 
are, that it does not particularly express, nor direct the 
mind to, the most important marks, and that it can ac- 
cord only with such species of the genus as are known 
to the author, being therefore necessarily imperfect. 
This kind of character is, however, admirable for the 
illustration of any difficult natural order. 
Specific characters should be constructed on similar 
principles to the generic ones, as far as regards certain- NOMENCLATURE. 
237 
iy, clearness and conciseness. The genus being first 
well defined, we are to seek for characters, not men- 
tioned among the generic marks, for distinguishing the 
species. A specific difference for the solitary species 
of any genus, is therefore an absurdity. Linnmus at 
first intended his specific definitions should be used as 
names ; but the invention of trivial names happily set 
aside this inconvenient scheme. On this account how- 
ever he limited each to twelve words, a rule to which 
all philosophical naturalists have adhered, except in ca- 
ses of great necessity. Nor is the admission of one 
or two words beyond the allotted number reprehensi- 
ble, provided the whole sentence be so neatly and per- 
spicuously constructed, that the mind may comprehend 
it, and compare it with others at one view ; but this 
can hardly be done when the words much exceed 
twelve. 
Nomenclature is no less essential a branch of me- 
thodical science than characteristic definitions ; for, un- 
less some fixed laws, or, in other words, good sense 
and perspicuity, be attended to in this department, 
great confusion and uncertainty must ensue. 
In all ages it has been customary to dedicate certain 
plants to the honour of distinguished persons. Thus 
Euphorbia commemorates the physician of Juba a Moor- 
ish prince, and Gentiana immortalizes a king of Illyria. 
The scientific botanists of modern times have adopted 
the same mode of preserving the memory of benefac- 
tors to their science ; and though the honour may have 
been sometimes extended too far, that is no argument 
for its total abrogation. Some uncouth names thus un- 
avoidably deform our botanical books ; but this is often 
effaced by the merit of their owners, and it is allowa- 
ble to model them into grace as much as possible. 238 
CLASSIFICATION. 
Linnaeus has in several instances drawn a fanciful 
analogy between botanists and their appropriate plants, 
thus— 
Bauhinia, after the two distinguished brothers, John 
and Caspar Bauhin, has atwo-lobed or twin leaf. 
Scheuchzeria, a grassy Alpine plant, commemorates 
the two Scheuchzers, one of whom excelled in the 
knowledge of Alpine productions, the other in that of 
Grasses. 
Dorstenia, with its obselete flowers devoid of all 
beauty, alludes to the antiquated and uncouth book of 
Dorstenius. 
Hematidia, an American plant, the most beautiful of 
all trees in its foliage, but furnished with trifling blos- 
soms, bears the name of a botanist highly favoured by 
fortune, and allowed an ample salary for the purpose 
of investigating the Natural History of the Western 
world, but whose labours have not answered the ex- 
pense. On the contrary 
Magnolia with its noble leaves and flowers, and 
Dillenia with its beautiful blossoms and fruit, serve 
to immortalize two of the most meritorious among bot- 
anists. 
Linnona, “ a depressed, abject, Lapland (and Ameri- 
can) plant, long overlooked, flowering at an early age, 
was named by Gronovius after its prototype Linnaeus.’9 
Specific names should be formed on similar princi- 
ples to the generic ones ; but some exceptions are al- 
lowed, not only without inconvenience, but with great 
advantage. Such as express the essential specific cha- 
racter are unexceptionable ; but perhaps those which 
express something certain, but not comprehended in 
that character, are still more useful, as conveying ad- 
ditional information, for which reason it is often useful NOMENCLATURE. 
239 
that vernacular names should not be mere translations 
of the Latin ones. 
Botanists occasionally adapt a specific name to some 
historical fact belonging to the plant or to the person 
whose name it bears, as Limited borealis from the great 
botanist of the north ; Murrcea exotica after one of his 
favourite pupils, a foreigner ; Browallia demisa and 
data, from a botanist of humble origin and character, 
who afterwards became a lofty bishop, and in whose 
work upon water I find the following quotation from 
Seneca in the hand-writing of Linnaeus : “ Many might 
attain wisdom, if they did not suppose they had already 
attained it.” In like manner Bujfonia tenuifolia is well 
known to be a satire on the slender botanical pretensions 
of the great French zoologist, as the Hillia parasitica 
of Jacquin, though perhaps not meant, is an equally 
just one upon our pompous Sir John Hill. I mean not 
to approve of such satires. They stain the purity of 
our lovely science. If a botanist does not deserve 
commemoration, let him sink peaceably into oblivion. 
It savours of malignity to make his crown a crown of 
thorns, and if the application be unjust, it is truly diabo- 
lical.”* 
' Smith’s Introduction. CHAPTER XVII. 
SYSTEM OF LINNA1US. 
The arrangement of Linnaeus, with some variations, 
to be hereafter explained, has been adopted by the 
most eminent botanists of the present age, and it is per- 
haps the most perspicuous, if not the most perfect sys- 
tem which has been presented to the world. 
CLASSES. 
This system is composed of 24 classes, distinguished 
from each other by the number, situation, proportion, 
and connexion of the stamens. The first eleven of 
these classes are distinguished merely by the number 
of the stamens. 
1. Monandria has 1 as in Canna and Strawberry Blite. 
2. Diandria 2 Collinsonia and Lilac. 
3. Triandria 3 Iris and Carpet weed. 
4. Tetranek-ia 4 Cornus and Partridge-berry. 
5. Pentrandria 5 Azalea and Currant. 
6. Hexandria 6 Amaryllis and Lily. 
7. Heptandria 7 Trientalis and Horse-Chesnut. 
8. Oclandria 8 Rhexia and Willow-herb. 
9. Enneandria 9 Laurus and Rhubarb. 
10. Decandria 10 Kalnxia and Pink. 
11. Dodecandria 11 to 20 Asarum and Mignonette. 
The twelfth and thirteenth classes embrace plants 
whose flowers have numerous unconnected stamens, 
and they are distinguished from each other by their 
insertion. SYSTEM OP LINNaCUS. 
241 
12. Icosandria has numerous stamens inserted into 
the calyx as in Spirea and Strawberry. 
13. Polyandria, has numerous stamens inserted into 
the receptacle, or base of the flower. 
The fourteenth and fifteenth classes are distinguish- 
ed by the number and proportion of the stamens. 
14. Didynamia has four stamens, of which two are 
long, and two are short, as in Gerardia and the Labiate 
flowers. 
15. T'etradynamia, has six stamens of which four 
are lunger than the two others, as in Iberis and Wall 
flower. 
In some flowers the stamens are connected into one 
or more parcels. 
16. Monadelphia has them united by their filaments 
into a tube, as in Geranium and Mallows. 
17. Diadelphia has its stamens united into two bun- 
dles, as in Vicia, Lathyrus, and most of the Papiliona- 
ceous flowers. 
18. Polyadelphia has its stamens united into several 
bundles, as in the Hypericum, and in the Orange and 
Lemon. 
19. Syngenesia has the stamens united by their an- 
thers into a tube, as in Cacalia and Dandelion. 
20. Gynandria has the stamens united to the pistil, 
and inserted either in the style or germen, as in Or- 
chis and Ladies’ slipper. 
In the preceding classes the stamens and pistils oc- 
cur in the same flower, but in some instances they are 
separated, either on the same or on different plants. 
21. Monoecia has stamens on the same plant with the 
pistil, but not in the same flower, as in Ricinus and 
Oak. 242 
ORDERS. 
22. Dioecia has stamens on one plant, and pistils on 
another, as in Valisneria and Poplar. 
23. Polygatnia has stamens and pistils either in the 
same flower, or in different flowers of the same plant, 
or in different plants, as in Ficus and Ash. 
24. Cryptogamia.—This class embraces the imper- 
fect plants whose floral organs are invisible or wanting. 
ORDERS. 
The orders of the first thirteen classes are founded 
on the number of pistils. 
1. Monogyniahas 
2. Digynia 
3. Trigynia 
4. Tetragynia 
5. Pentagynia 
6. Hexagynia 
7. Heptagynia 
8. Octagynia 
9. Enneagynia 
10. Decagynia 
11. Polygynia 
1 as in Lily. 
2 Pink and Grasses. 
3 Staphylea and Sumach 
4 Holly. 
5 Statice and Pear. 
6 Rare. 
7 Very rare. 
8 Rare. 
9 Rare, 
10 Poke. 
many Clematis & Columbine. 
The 14th class is subdivided into two orders, Gym- 
nospermia, having (usually four) naked seeds as in the 
Marjoram and Balm ; and Angiospermia having num- 
erous seeds in a capsule, as in Snapdragon and Fox- 
glove. 
The 15th class has two orders, distinguished like 
the preceding by the fruit. The seeds of the first, 
Siliculosa, are enclosed in a silicle, as in the Shep- 
herd’s-purse. The seeds of the second, Siliquosa, are 
in a silique, as in the Wall flower and Cabbage. 
The orders of the 16th, 17th and 18th classes are 
founded on the number of the stamens. LINNJEAN SYSTEM. 
243 
The orders of the 19th class are known by the inter- 
blending of florets, which are united or separate, fer- 
tile or barren. 
1. Polygamia Equalis has them all united, and all 
fertile. 
2. Polygamia Superflua, has united discal florets, while 
those of the ray produce pistils only, and all fertile. 
3. Polygamia Frustranea has united discal florets, 
while those of the ray, whether they produce pistils 
or not, are unfertile. 
4. Polygamia Necessariahas discal florets with stamens 
only, while those of the ray have only pistils. 
». Polygamia Segregate has several florets, each with a 
proper calyx and united anthers, all included in one 
common calyx. 
The orders of the 20th, 21st and 22d classes are dis- 
tinguished by the number of their stamens. 
The 23d class has three orders. Monoecia has the 
different kinds of flowers all confined to one plant. 
Dioecia has its several kinds of flowers on two plants, 
and Trioecia has them on three separate plants. 
The orders of the 24th class are Ferns, Mosses, 
Hepaticce, Algce including the Lichens, and Fungi. 
Monandria.—The class Monandria contains two orders 
exemplified in Salicornia and Blitum, both American 
plants. It is by no means extensive, and if vve ex- 
cept the Scitamineos natives of tropical regions it 
is by by no means an interesting or important class. 
Diandria has three orders, but one of which occurs in 
the United States, unless we choose to separate 
Anthoxanthum from the genus to which it belongs. 
It comprehends the Jasminece of Jussieu, and a 
few of the Labiate flowers such asRosemary and Sage. 244 
EXPLANATION OF THE 
Triundria has three orders ; Iris, Ixia and Crocus oc 
cur in the first;, as well as the Cyperoideoe; most of 
the Grasses occur in the second ; and Holosteum and 
Carpet-weed will exemplify the third. 
Tetrandria has four orders ; Houstonia, Mitchella, 
Linncea, and Frasera occur in the first, all dedicated 
to the memory of worthy botanists, two of whom re- 
sided in this country. Galium and Scabious will 
also serve to illustrate this order. The second and 
third orders are extremely rare, and in the fourth 
we meet with but few plants of interest. The Holly 
is one. 
Pentandria has seven orders. The first, (Monogynia,) 
is probably the most extensive in the system of Lin- 
nseus ; embracing more than sixty genera within the 
limits of the United States. Among these are the 
Lurid and the Rough-leaved plants, the former ex- 
emplified in Stramonium, and the latter in Borage. 
Azalea, Phlox, Convolvulus and Ipomcea are among 
the most interesting Genera which fall within the 
limits of this extensive order. In the second, we 
find the umbellate plants ; in the the third, the Elder 
and Viburnum; in the fourth, Parnassia ; in the fifth, 
Aralia, Marsh Rosemary and Flax ; and in the sixth, 
we have Zanthorhiza, or Yellow Root. 
liexandria has six orders. The first includes the 
Lilies ; the second has Oryza, or Rice ; the third 
has Trillium and Gyromia; the fourth has Saururus; 
the fifth has Wendlandia; and the sixth (Polyginia) 
has Alisma, or Water Plantain. 
Heptandria embraces but two genera within the limits 
of the United States, the Horse Chesnut and Trienta- 
lis, both of the first order. Africa furnishes a single 
genus with two, and another with seven pistils. The LINN.BAN CLASSES. 
£45 
class Heptandria is probably the smallest in the Lin- 
nsean system. 
Octandria has four orders. The first presents us with 
Vacciniurn and Cranberry ; Epilobium, or Willow 
herb, and the Maple. Chrysosplenium, or Golden- 
Saxifrage, occurs in the second order, and Polygo- 
num in the third. 
Enneandria has three orders. In the first, we find 
Laurus, a very important genus, from which Camphor 
and Cinnamon are obtained. The Sassafras, Spice- 
bush and several other species of Laurus occur in 
the United States. In the second order, (trigynia) 
we meet with Rhubarb, but of the third, (hexagynia) 
there is no American example. 
Decandria has six orders. In the first, we meet with 
Kalmia, Rhododendron, Pyrola and Arbutus ; in the 
second, we find Saxifrage Dianthus or Pink, and 
Hydrangea. Silene occurs in the third order, Mic- 
ropetalon in the fourth ; Sedum and Lychnis in the 
fifth, and Phytolacca or Poke in the sixth. 
Dodecandria.—By several late writers this class has 
been abolished, and the plants which were formerly 
arranged here have been transferred to other class- 
es. Some however have retained it. Lythrum, Eu- 
phorbia and Halesia are American examples. 
Icosandria has three orders. The Cherry, Plumb, and 
Peach wirh rosaceous flowers, together with the Myr- 
tle and Clove, occur in the first order. In the sec- 
ond, (Di pentagynia) Dr. Smith, and others following 
him include those plants which have from two to five 
styles. It is exemplified in the Apple, Pear and 
Ice-plant. The last order (Polyginia) includes the 
Rose, Strawberry and several plants of the same 
natural order. How admirably says Dr. Smith does 246 
EXPLANATION OF THE 
the fruit serve us in Rosa, Rubus, Dryas and Geum 
to discriminate those, whose leaves, flowers and hab- 
it all stamp them as distinct! A student cannot do 
better than to study this order and these genera as 
an introduction to the knowledge of more Obscure 
ones; and the beautiful plants which compose it, 
mostly familiar to every body, are easily obtained. 
Polyandria has three orders. In the first we find the 
Poppy, Bloodroot, Lime tree, Cistus and Nym- 
phcea. The second, (Di-pentagynia) has Larkspur, 
Monk’s hood, Columbine and Fennel flower ; and 
the third, (polygynia) has Magnolia, Tulip tree, 
Anemone, Clematis and Ranunculus, most of which are 
cultivated as ornamental plants. 
Didynamia has two orders. Gymnospermia, having four 
naked seeds; includes the Mints, Lavender, Marjoram 
and Basil ; anAngiospermia, having its seeds in a 
capsule, is exemplified in Gerardia, Bartsia and 
Trumpet-flower, all American plants. 
Tetradynamia.—The first order of this class having its 
fruit a silicle, is exemplified in Draba, Thlaspi or 
Shepherd’s Purse, Honesty and Candy-tuft; and the 
second, having its seeds in a silique, embraces the 
Cabbage, Mustard, Radish and Wall-flower, all of 
which are familiar examples. 
The class Monodelphia has eight orders. In Trian- 
dria we find Sisyrinchium and the Tyger flower : Pen- 
tandria is illustrated by the Musk Geranium, Erodi- 
um; Heptandria by the Cape Geraniums, Pelargonium ; 
Decandria by Acacia, and Crane’s-bill ; and Polyan- 
dria which is a very splendid order embraces the Mal- 
vacece of Jussieu. 
The class Diadelphia has four orders. Pentan- 
dria is illustrated by Petalostemon, Hexandria by LINNiEAN CLASSES. 
247 
Corydalis and Fumitory; Octandria by Polygala; 
and Decandria by Glycine, Vetch, Locust, and most 
of the Papilionaceous flowers. In this class the Le- 
gume presents the most indubitable marks of distinc- 
tion. A few genera have their stamens all united, but 
as they possess every other character, which would 
entitle them to rank in the present class, botanists have 
never ventured to separate them. 
The class Polydelphia has three orders, distinguished 
by the number and insertion of the stamens. This 
class has been rejected by many late writers, and most 
of the plants which it embraces, range under the 
twelfth and thirteenth classes of the Linnaean system. 
The class Syngenesia has five orders. In the first, 
(equalis) the florets are all perfect and fertile, being 
ligulate as in the Dandelion, and tubular as in the 
Thistle. The second order (superflua) contains dis- 
coid and radiate flowers. The marginal florets ofthe for- 
mer are either obsolete or inconspicuous, and the whole 
are so arranged as to form a flat or conical surface, as 
in Tansey, Everlasting, and Artemisia. The marginal 
florets of the latter are ligulate, forming conspicuous 
and diverging rays as in the Daisy, Aster and Chrysan- 
themum. The third order (frustranea) has its mar- 
ginal florets unfertile though sometimes furnished with 
the rudiments of pistils, and this alone will serve to 
distinguish it from the preceding orders. The Sun- 
flower, Sweet-Sultan, and Blue-Bottle are common 
examples. Dr. Smith is inclined to abolish this order 
and to rank those genera which have the rudiments of 
pistils in their radiant florets, with their near relations 
in the preceding order. 
The fourth order {[necessaria) has stamens in its dis- 
cal florets, and pistils in those of the ray, so that both 248 
EXPLANATION OF THE 
are indispensable to the production of fertile seed. It 
is exemplified in the Garden Marygold. Iva and Po- 
lymnia are American genera. 
The fifth order, ('Segregate/,) has its florets enclosed 
in a partial calyx, and all included in one general calyx. 
It is associated with the preceding orders by its united 
anthers, but distinguished with facility by the calyx, 
which is inferior, and not like the chaffy pappus supe- 
rior to the seed. Globe Thistle and Elephantopus are 
the only examples to which we can refer. This class 
includes the compound flowers, which are particularly 
abundant in the United States. The orders are with 
some difficulty distinguished by the inexperienced bot- 
anist, but the common calyx, the pappus, and the re- 
ceptacle furnish abundant marks for distinguishing the 
Genera. 
The class Gynandria, with stamens or sessile anthers 
united to the pistil, has seven orders ; only four of 
which occur in the United States. In the first, we 
find the Orchidece of Jussieu, whese glutinous pollen 
is found in yellow masses, pollinia, enclosed in two 
antheroid cells ; and these cells are either contigu- 
ous or removed from each other to the opposite sides 
of the style. The best division of the Orchidece is 
founded on the structure of the anther, “ which is 
sometimes parallel to an unadhering stigma, and fixed, 
and permanent, at others, crowning the column, and 
generally moveable, lid-shaped and deciduous.”* 
Some writers regard the column merely as a style, 
but Mr. Brown describes it as formed by the incorpo- 
ration of this organ with three filaments, two of which 
are usually sterile, as in Orchis. 
In the second order (diandria) we find Cypripcdivm 
* Journal of Science, &c. LINN-EAN SYSTEM. 
249 
distinguished from the preceding by its having a pair 
of very distinct double celled anthers, and by its large 
inflated nectary. In the order Hexandria we find 
Aristolochia; and the Virginia Snake root, well known 
throughout the country will serve as an example. 
Other species of this singular genus occur in the 
Southern states. 
Monoecia.-Several late writers have abolished this and 
the two following classes, and when the structure of the 
accessory parts of the flower is the same, Dr. Smith is 
inclined to admit the change as an improvement. “ But 
with respect to those Monoecious or Dioecious genera 
whose barren flowers are decidedly unlike the fertile 
ones, the former being in a catkin, and the latter not, 
as in the Chesnut and Oak, I conceive nothing more 
pernicious or troublesome can be attempted than to 
remove them to the classes of united flowers. They 
meet with no allies there, but, on the contrary, form 
so natural an assemblage by themselves, as to be unan* 
imously kept separate by the authors of every natural 
system that has appeared.”* 
In the first orders of this class we meet with a few 
aquatic plants and a few Grasses. In the fourth we 
find the Birch and Nettle, Amaranthus in the fifth, 
Zizania or wild Rice in the sixth, and in the remaining 
orders, the Oak and many other of the forest trees. 
The class Dioecia having eight orders is illustrated 
by Valisneria, Menispermum, Dioscorea, Persimmon 
and Poplar. 
The class Polygamia, having different flowers on 
the same, and on different plants, has been abolished 
by many writers. Dr. Smith proposed to unite it with 
* Smith’s Introduction, 250 
EXPLANATION OP THE 
the two preceding, and Pursh, adopting this* plan, has 
arranged them all in one class, termed Diclinia in allu 
sion to their separate flowers. 
“ Such are the principles of the Linnman Classes and 
Orders, which have the advantage of all other systems 
in facility, if not in conformity to the arrangement of 
nature ; the latter merit they do not claim. They are 
happily founded on two organs, not only essential to a 
plant, but both necessarily present at the same time ; 
for though the Orders of the 14th and 15th Classes 
are distinguished by the fruit, they can be clearly as- 
certained even in the earliest state of the germen. 
Like all human inventions, however, this system has 
its imperfections and difficulties. If we meet in gardens 
with double or monstrous flowers, whose essential or- 
gans of fructification are deformed, multiplied, or 
changed to petals ; or if we find a solitary barren, or 
fertile blossom only ; we must be at a loss, and in such 
cases could only guess at a new plant from its natural 
resemblance to some known one. But the principal 
imperfection of the System in question consists, not 
merely in what arises from variations in number or 
structure among the parts of a flower, against which 
system could provide, but in the differences which 
sometimes occur between the number of Stamens, 
Styles, &c. in different plants of the same natural ge- 
nus. Thus, some species of Cerastium have only 4, 
others, 5 Stamens, though the greater part have 10. 
Lychnis dioica has the Stamens on one plant, the Pistils 
on another, though the rest of the genus has them unit- 
ed in the same flower ; and there are several similar 
instances ; for number in the parts of fructification is 
no more invariable than other characters, and even 
more uncertain than such as are founded on insertion. ,LINN;EAN system. 
251 
or the connexion of one part with another. Against 
these inconveniences the author of this System has 
provided an all-sufficient remedy. At the head of 
every Class and Order, after the genera which proper- 
ly belong to them, he enumerates, in italics, all the 
anomalous species of genera stationed in other places, 
that by their own peculiar number of Stamens or Styles, 
should belong to the Class or Order in question, but 
which are thus easily found with their brethren by 
means of the index. 
It is further to be observed that Linnaeus, ever 
aware of the importance of keeping the natural affini- 
ties of plants in view, has in each of his artificial Or- 
ders, and sections of those orders, arranged the genera 
according to those affinities ; while at the head of each 
class, in his System, he places the same genera accord- 
ing to their technical characters ; thus combining, as 
far as art can keep pace with nature, the merits of a 
natural and an artificial system. 
From the foregoing remarks it is easy to compre- 
hend what is the real and highly important use of the 
Genera Planiarum of Jussieu arranged in Natural Or- 
ders, the most learned botanical work that has appear- 
ed since the Species Plantarum of Linnaeus, and the 
most useful to those who study the philosophy of bet 
anical arrangement.” 
* Smith, CHAPTER XVIII. 
.NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU. 
it is more than forty years since the arrangement of 
Jussieu was approved by the Royal Academy at Paris. 
Other systems had determined some of the natural affi- 
nities, but they offer at the same time numerous dis- 
parities which render them very defective. Linnasus 
and Adanson, one in his Fragments, and the other in his 
Families, had done much, and the elder Jussieu had 
arranged in natural groups the plants of the Royal 
gardens at Paris, but he was too diffident to publish 
an arrangement which he regarded as incomplete. 
Adopting the same principles, his relative and success- 
or has traced with unrivalled success the order of na- 
ture, and detected the affinities for which others had 
sought in vain. His three primary divisions are found- 
ed on the form of the embryo. The first embraces 
those plants whose seeds are destitute of lobes, and are 
named acotyledons ; the second includes all plants with 
a solitary lobe and termed monocotyledons, while 
plants whose seeds are furnished with a pair of lobes 
are comprehended in the third division. 
The number of the petals and the relative situation 
of the different parts of the flower, furnish a character 
for each of his classes ; while the orders into which 
these classes are distributed, are less determinate, 
being established on the structure of more variable 
organs. MONOCOTYLEDONS. 
253 
1. ACOTYLEDONS. 
The first division, containing but one class, is sub- 
divided into six orders, and includes in addition to the 
Imperfect or Cryptygamous plants, a few aquatics of 
very simple structure, associated together in the order 
Naiades, whose character is by no means well de- 
fined. 
2. MONOCOTYLEDONS. 
This division embraces three classes, the first hav- 
ing its stamens inserted beneath the germen, the sec- 
ond having them inserted into the calyx or corolla, and 
the third having them united to the pistils. 
Class 1. Stamens Hypogynous. 
Calyx inferior, Corolla wanting, Germen simple, 
Leaves alternate and sheathing. 
1. Aroidece.—Flowers on a spadix, usually situated on 
the summit of a leafless stalk ; exemplified in Arum, 
Calla, Pothos and Acorus. 
2. Typhce.—Flowers aggregate, monoecious ; calyx 
three leaved ; style simple. Examples, Typha and 
Spar ganium. 
3. Cyperoideos.—Flowers united or monoecious, each 
enclosed in calycine valves. Germen simple, sur- 
mounted by two or three stigmas. Seed naked or 
arillate, sometimes enclosed in bristles or hairs 
arising from its base. Culm terete, or three sided, 
usually knotless. Sheath of the leaves entire. 
This order embraces Grasses of a coarse texture, 
exemplified in the Rushes, Sedge, and Cypress 
grass. 254 
NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU. 
4. Graminece.—Flowers usually in a panicle or spike 
let, enclosed in a glume or valves. Stamens usually 
three. Germen simple, surmounted by two styles, 
and plumose stigmas ; Embryo minute, partially sur- 
rounded by a large farinaceous albumen. Roots 
fibrous and capillary. Culm cylindrical, hollow, 
jointed, simple and herbaceous, sheath of the leaves 
parted. The vegetable kingdom does not present a 
more natural or a more useful tribe of plants than 
the Grasses. They thrive in every section of the 
globe, clothing the earth with verdure, and supply- 
ing the cattle with herbage, and man with his daily 
bread.” 
Class 2. Stamens Perigynous. 
1. Palmcc.—Flowers diclinious arranged on a spadix. 
Calyx, six-parted, without a corolla. Stamens six 
or more. Germens, one or three. Fruit a drupe, 
of one or three monospermous cells. Seed hard. 
Embryo in the cavity of a large corneous albumen. 
The Palms have a simple cylindrical stem, terminated 
in a tuft of persistent, palmate, or pinnate leaves. 
2. Asparagi.—Calyx, (Corolla Desfontaines) six-part- 
ed. Stamens six. Germen simple, usually superi- 
or. Embryo at the base of a corneous albumen. 
Leaves usually alternate. This order is exemplified 
in the following American genera : Convallaria,* 
Trillum and Gyromia. 
3. Junci.—Flowers in a spathe. Calyx inferior six- 
parted, (the three interior segments usually large 
and petaloid.) Germen and fruit simple or com- 
pound, exemplified in Sw'iderwort, Arrowr-head and 
Alisma. MOXOCOTYLF.DONS. 
256 
4. Liliacece.—Corolla* naked, six-parted or hexapeta- 
lous. Stamens epipetalous. Germen superior, sur- 
mounted by one style and three stigmas. Capsule 
with three valves, and three polyspermous cells. 
Lilies and Tulips are examples. 
5. Bromelice.—Calyx six-parted, the three interior 
segments resembling petals. Stamens six. Ger- 
rnen simple, surmounted by a simple style, and three 
stigmas. Fruit three-celled. Leaves sheathing. 
Flcvers in a spike or panicle, each in a spathe. 
Agave, Bromelia and Tillandsia are examples. 
t>. Asphodeli.—Corolla six-parted, tubular. Stamens 
six. Germen superior, simple. Style one. Stig- 
ma simple or trifid. Capsule with three valves, and 
three polyspermous cells. Leaves alternate, usually 
radical. Aletris, Aloe and Hyacinthus are examples. 
7. Narcissi.—Stamens six. Germen inferior. Ama- 
ryliis, Snowdrop and Jonquil are examples, distin- 
guished from the Liliacere by the situation of the 
germen. 
?. bides.—Stamens three. Germen inferior. This 
order is distinguished from the preceding by the 
number of its stamens. 
Class 3. Stamens epigynous 
1. Musas.—Calyx superior, two-parted. Stamens six. 
Germen inferior. Fruit three-ceiled. No examples 
of this order occur in the United States. 
2. Cannce.—Stamen one ; filament attached to the base 
of the style. Germen simple. Style simple and 
filiform. Capsule inferior, polyspermous, with 
three cells, and three valves. This order includes 
* Desfontaines, 256 
NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU. 
Scitaminece or spicy plants, distinguished from the 
remaining Cannes by the structure of the anther. 
3. OrchidecB.—Corolla superior, organs of fructification 
connate. Pollen (in one or two anthers) accumulated 
in masses of determinate forms. Capsule one-celled, 
with three polyspermous receptacles attached to 
the axes of the valves. Seeds minute, with an al- 
bumen, but no vitellus.* Orchis and Cypripedium 
are examples. 
4. Hydrocharides.—This order is not sufficiently defin- 
ed, but embraces those plants with epigynous sta- 
mens, which could not be referred to the preceding 
classes. Valisneria and Hydrocharis are examples. 
3. DICOTYLEDONS. 
Class 1. Flowers apetalous. Stamens epigynous. 
1. Aristolochice.—Calyx of one leaf. Stamens deter- 
minate, attached to the germen. Style simple. Stig- 
ma divided. Germen inferior. Cells of the capsule 
polyspermous. Aristolochia and Asarum are Amer- 
ican examples. 
Class 2. Flowers apctalous. Stamens perigynous. 
1. JEleagni.—Stamens attached to the superior part of 
the tube of the calyx. Germen inferior. Style 
simple, surmounted by a solitary stigma. Fruit 
either a monospermous capsule, or a fleshy drupe. 
Nyssa or Tupelo is an American example. 
2. Thymelece.—Calyx of one leaf, tubular and coloured. 
Stamens attached to the superior part of the tube. 
Germen superior. Fruit monospermous. Embryo 
* Brown. DICOTYLEDONS. 
257 
without albumen ; radicle superior. Dirca and 
Daphne are examples. 
3. Protece.—Calyx four or five parted. Stamens four 
or five, inserted into the segments of the calyx. 
Germen simple, superior. Seed naked, or included 
in a capsule of one cell. Embryo without albumen ; 
radicle superior. This order embraces trees and 
shrubs of tropical regions, with alternate persistent 
leaves, and with flowers equally remarkable for 
their variety and splendour. No example of this 
order occurs in the United States. 
4. Lauri.—Calyx persistent, coloured. Stamens dis- 
posed in two rows, and adhering to the base of the 
calyx : anthers adnate. Germen superior. Fruit 
a monospermous drupe. Embryo without albumen ; 
radicle superior. Stems woody. Leaves alternate, 
usually perennial and aromatic. Sassafras and Spice- 
bush, both species of Laurus occur in the United 
States. 
5. Polygonece.—Calyx coloured and deeply parted. 
Stamens determinate, adhering to the base of the 
Calyx. Germen superior. Seed naked, or enclos- 
ed by the Calyx. Embryo surrounded by the farina- 
ceous albumen. Polygonum and Rumex are com- 
mon examples. 
6. Atriplices —Calyx deeply parted. Stamens attach- 
ed to the base of the calyx. Germen superior. 
Seed solitary, frequently naked. Embryo exterior 
to the farinaceous albumen. Atriplex, Blitum and 
Salicornia are examples. 
Class 3. Flowers apetalous. Stamens hypogynous. 
X. Amaranthi.—Calyx coloured, persistent, deeply part- 
ed, and enclosed by scales. Stamens distinct, or 258 
NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU. 
united by their filaments. Germen superior. Fruit 
a capsule of one cell. Embryo enclosing the farina- 
ceous albumen. Amaranthus, Celosia and Gomphre- 
na are examples. 
2. Plantagines.—Calyx of one leaf, tube petaloid. Sta- 
mens four, inserted into the base of the tube. Em- 
bryo enveloped by a corneous albumen. Plantago is 
the only example which this country affords. 
3. Nyctagines.—Calyx tubular, sometimes calyculate. 
Germen one. Seed one, often enclosed by the per- 
sistent base of the calyx. Albumen surrounded by 
the Corcle. Mirabilis and Boerhaavia are examples. 
4. Plurnbagines.—Calyx tubular. Corolla inserted 
with or upon the petals. Capsule monospermous. 
Embryo surrounded by the farinaceous albumen. 
Stem herbaceous or shrubby. Leaves alternate.- 
Plumbago and Statice are examples. 
Class 4. Corolla monopetalous, inserted beneath the 
germen. 
1. Lysimachice.—Corolla regular. Stamens commonly 
five, equal in number, and opposite the lobes of the 
corolla. Fruitwith one cell, polyspermous. Exam- 
ples. Lysimachia, Primula and Anagallis. Many plants 
which Jussieu referred to this order are included by 
Decandolle in the order Globularice. 
1. Pediculares.—Calyx monophyllous, persistent. Co- 
rolla irregular. Germen superior. Capsule with 
two cells and two valves centrally united to the par- 
tition. Seeds minute. Ex. Bartsia, Veronica and 
Poly gala. 
3. Acanthi.—Calyx monophyllous, persistent. Corol- 
la irregular. Capsule with two cells and two FLOWERS MONOPETALOUS. 
259 
valves, opening with an elastic spring. Ex. Acanthus 
Ruellia and Justicia. 
4. Jasmtnece.—Calyx monophyllous. Corolla regular. 
Stamens two. Fruit two-celled. Syringa, Chionan- 
thus, Fraxinus and Olea are examples. 
3. Vitices.—Calyx and Corolla tubular. Stamens us- 
ually four, didynamous. Seeds in a berry or cap- 
sule. Ex. Vitex, Verbena and Lantana. 
6. Labiatce.—Calyx tubular, five-parted or bi-labiate. 
Corolla irregular. Stamens didynamous. Germen 
four-lobed. Seeds four, naked, attached to the recep- 
tacle at the base of the calyx. Embryo straight with- 
out albumen. This order embraces thirty genera in 
the United States, exemplified in Mentha, Stachys and 
Teucrium. 
7. Scrophularice.—Corolla irregular. Stamens two ; or 
four, and didynamous. Capsule with two cells, and 
two concave valves, with the seed bearing partition 
united to their margin. Seeds numerous and small. 
Albumen fleshy. Digitalis, Gerardia and Mimulus 
are examples. 
8. Solanece.—Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corolla reg- 
ular five-cleft. Stamens five, epipetalous. Embryo 
curved or spiral. Albumen fleshy. Datura, Atro- 
pa and Solanum are examples. 
9. Borraginece.—Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corol- 
la regular. Stamens five. Germen simple or four 
lobed. Seeds four, naked, and attached to the base 
of the style, or enclosed in a vessel. Embryo with- 
out albumen. Leaves alternate and rough. Borage, 
Lycopsis and Lithospermum are examples. 
10. Convolvuli.—Calyx five-parted. Corolla regular. 
Stamens five epipetalous. Capsule with 2, 3 or 4 260 
Natural system ©f jussiev. 
cells. Embryo in a mucilaginous albumen ; radicle 
inferior. Stem sarmentose. Leaves alternate. 
11. Polemonia.—Corolla regular, five-lobed. Sta- 
mens five,* inserted into the tube of the corolla. 
Germen surmounted by one style, and three stigmas* 
Capsule enclosed by the persistent calyx, three' 
celled and three valved. Embryo in the centre of 
a corneous albumen, radicle inferior. Phlox, Can- 
tua, and Polemonium are American examples. 
12. Bignonice.—Calyx divided. Corolla irregular. 
Stamens four, didynamous, and accompanied by a 
sterile filament. Capsule two-celled, two-valved. 
Embryo without albumen. Chelone, Bignonia and 
Catalpa are American examples. 
13. Gentianoa.—‘Calyx monophyllous, divided. Corolla 
regular, its border parted. Stamens epipetalous 
equalling the divisions of the corolla. Capsule of 
one or two cells, and two valves, polyspermous, the 
seeds attached to the margin of the valves, and the 
partitions formed by their inflection. Leaves op- 
posite, entire, and sessile. Gentiana, Frasera and 
Spigelia are American examples. 
14. Apocynece.—Calyx five-parted. Corolla five lobed, 
(with an internal nectary or Lepanthium.) Stamens 
five, inserted into the corolla, and alternating with 
its lobes. Two seed vessels. Seed frequently 
comose. Embryo straight, surrounded by a minute 
fleshy albumen. Vinca, Neriurn and Asclepias are 
examples. 
15. —Sapotcc.—Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla 
regular. Stamens opposite the segments of the 
Corolla. Germen one. Fruit a berry or drupe, 
with one, or several monospermous cells. Seed 
hard and shining, marked by a lateral scar. Stem 261 
FLOWERS MOKOPETALOUS. 
shrubby. Leaves alternate and undivided. This 
order embraces milky plants, of which Bumelia is 
the only American example. 
Class 5. Flowers Monopetalous. Corolla Perigynous. 
1. Guaiacance.—Stamens adhering to the Corolla 
Fruit a capsule or berry of several monospermous 
cells. Embryo in a fleshy albumen. This order 
embraces trees and shrubs, with alternate leaves 
and axillary flowers. Halesia, Hopea, and Styrax are 
American genera. 
2. Rhododendra.—Calyx persistent, five-parted. Sta- 
mens determinate, inserted into the corolla, or at- 
tached to the base of the calyx. Germen superior. 
Capsule many-valved, each valve by the introflexion 
of its margins, constituting a polyspermous cell. 
This order embraces shrubs with alternate leaves 
and splendid flowers, most of which are natives of 
the United States. Kalmia, Azalea, Rhododendrum 
and Rhodora are of the number. 
3. Ericas.—Stamens adhering to the base of the corol- 
la or inserted into the calyx. Anthers crested. 
Fruit a capsule or berry, having numerous polysper- 
mous cells. Arbutus, Andromeda, Clethra and Pyrola 
are common examples. 
4. Campanulacece.—Calyx persistent. Corolla attached 
to its summit. Stamens usually five, inserted below 
the corolla. Capsule polyspermous. Cells numer- 
ous, opening by lateral pores. Campanula and Lo- 
belia are referred to this order. 
Class 6. Flowers monopetalous. Corolla epigynous. 
Anthers connate. This class embraces the com- 
pound flowers and is subdivided into three orders, 
distinguished by the structure of the florets, 262 
natural system OF JUSSIEU. 
1. Chicoracece.—Florets all ligulate and united or fer- 
tile. Leaves alternate, flowers commonly yellow7. 
Leontodon and Loctuca are examples. 
2. Cinarocephalce.—Florets all tubular. Leaves alter- 
nate, often spinous, colours of the flowers various. 
Carthamus, Arctium and Centaurca are examples. 
3. Corymbiferce.—Flowers mostly radiate, the discal 
florets being tubular, and those of the ray being ligu- 
late. This is a very extensive order, embracing 
more than fifty genera within the limits of the United 
States. Helianthus and Aster are examples. 
Class 7. Flowers Monopetalous. Corolla epigynous. 
Anthers distinct. Calyx monophyllous. Corolla 
monopetalous. Stamens determinate. Filaments 
inserted into the corolla. Germen simple, in- 
ferior. 
1. Dipsacece.—Capsule monospermous, resembling a 
single seed. Embryo without albumen. Radicle 
superior. Stem herbaceous. Leaves opposite. 
Flowers aggregate, enclosed in a common polyphyl- 
lous calyx. Dipsacus and Scahiosa are examples. 
2. Rubiacece.—Stamens four or five, alternating with 
the segments of the corolla. Fruit usually two 
naked seeds ; or two celled and polyspermous. Em- 
bryo small, slender, laterally involved in a large cor- 
neous albumen. Leaves entire, verticillate or op- 
posite with intermediate stipules. Galium, Housto- 
nia, Mitchella and Gardenia are examples. 
3. Caprifolia.—Stamens usually five, alternating with 
the divisions of the corolla. Fruit a berry or cap- 
sule, usually crowned by the persistent calyx. Em- 
bryo in a cavity at the summit of a fleshy albumen. 
Leaves opposite and without intermediate stipule** FLOWERS POLYPETALOUS. 
263 
Linneea, Triosteum and Diervilla are American 
examples. 
Class 8. Flowers polypetalous. Stamens epigynous. 
Calyx monophyllous, superior. Stamens alterna- 
ting with the petals. Germen inferior, simple. 
Styles two or more. Germen minute, oblong, in 
the summit of a hard or ligneous albumen. 
1. Jlralice.—Seeds in a capsule or berry. Aralia and 
Panax are American genera. 
2. Umbelliferce.—Stamens and petals 5. Styles and 
Stigmas two. Fruit parted by a perpendicular sec- 
tion into two naked seeds. Leaves alternate, and 
usually compound, with sheathing petioles. This 
order includes the umbelliferous plants. Exempli- 
fied in Parsley and Hemlock, 
Class 9. Flowers polypetalous. Stamens hypogynous. 
The arrangement of this extensive class into orders 
not merely natural in themselves, but exhibiting a grad- 
ual transition from one to the other, must have been a 
work of no ordinary difficulty. Stamens within a poly- 
petalous corolla, inserted beneath the germen, consti- 
tute the primary character of the class ; which em- 
braces more than twenty orders. Those marks which 
served as a guide in the distribution of many of the 
former classes, are here of comparatively small impor- 
tance. The stamens are variable in their number, 
union and proportion. The fruit which furnished a 
character for the monopetalous flowers, is here of less 
importance, nor will the number of the styles and 
cells, or the situation of the seeds, furnish invariable 
marks of distinction. The situation of the embryo in 
the seed, the presence, or absence, and nature of the 264 
NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU. 
albumen, afford characters remarkably constant, and 
abundantly adequate to the purposes of arrangement. 
By attending to these, Jussieu has subdivided one of 
the most extensive classes in his system, into orders 
which are usually well defined, and in most cases strict- 
ly natural. 
1. Ranunculacece.—Stamens indeterminate. Anthers 
adnate. Germens numerous. Embryo minute, 
placed at the summit of the corneous albumen. 
Leaves generally simple and palmate or lobed. 
Anemone, Ranunculus and Clematis are examples. 
2. Papavaracece.—Calyx usually two-leaved, decidu- 
ous. Petals four. Germen simple. Stigma sessile. 
Capsule one-celled, polyspermous. Seeds attached 
to a lateral receptacle, each partially invested by a 
membranaceous covering. Argemone, Papaver, and 
Sanguinaria, are examples. 
3. Cruciferce.—Calyx of four leaves. Petals four, cru- 
ciform, and alternating wiih the leaves of the calyx. 
Stamens six, two short. Style persistent. Fruit a 
silique. Seeds without albumen. Lunaria, Chei- 
ranthus, and Thlaspi, are examples. 
4. Capparides.—Germen simple. Fruit a berry or si- 
lique. Seeds attached to the sides of the fruit. Em- 
bryo without albumen, radicle curved. Leaves 
alternate. Cleome and Parnassia are examples. 
5. Sapindi.—Petals four or five, inserted into a disc 
beneath the germen. Stamens usually eight. Fruit 
a drupe or capsule, with two or three monospermous 
cells. Embryo without albumen. Lobes incurved. 
Cardiospermum and Sapindus are examples. 
6. Acera.—Petals and stamens inserted into a glandular 
disc beneath the germen. Fruit a many celled cap- 
sule, or two or three monospermous capsules, united FLOWERS POLYFETALOUS. 
266 
at their base. Embryo without albumen. JEsculus 
and Acer are examples. 
7. Malpighice.—The plants of this order rank with the 
Acera. 
3. Hyperica.—Stamens united into several parcels. 
Germen simple. Styles numerous. Fruit a cap- 
sule, with valves inflected, forming humerous cells. 
Seeds minute. Embryo straight, without albumen. 
Leaves opposite, simple and entire. Hypericum 
and Ascyrum are examples. 
9. Guttiferce.—Petals usually four. Fruit one celled. 
Embryo straight, without albumen. Leaves oppo- 
site, coriaceous, glabrous and veined. This order 
comprehends trees and shrubs, natives of tropical 
regions, and abounding in a resinous juice. Clusia 
is the only American example. 
10. Aurantia.—Fruit a berry or capsule, with one or 
many cells, each enclosing one or two seeds. Em- 
bryo straight without albumen. This order con- 
tains shrubs with dotted or glandular leaves, exem- 
plified in the Orange and Lemon. 
11. Melice.—Calyx monophyllous : petals four or 
five, filaments united. Germen simple. Fruit a ber- 
ry or capsule with many cells, each containing 
one or two seeds. Embryo straight, without albu- 
men. Stem shrubby, branches alternate. Leaves 
alternate, without stipules. Winteriana and Melia 
are examples. 
12. Vites.—Calyx monophyllous. Petals four or five. 
Stamens opposite the petals. Germen simple. Fruit 
a berry. Seeds hard, lobes plain. Embryo straight, 
without albumen. Stems sarmentose. Leaves 
without stipules. Tendrils and peduncles opposite 
the leaves. Cissus and Vitis are examples. 266 
NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEIT. 
13. Gerania.—Calyx persistent. Petals five. Stamens 
ten, filaments united. Germen simple ; style per- 
sistent ; stigmas five. Fruit, five capsules, or five 
cells, usually monospermous. Embryo without al- 
bumen. Stem jointed. Leaves with stipules. Ge- 
ranium, Erodium and Oxalis are examples. 
14. Malvaceae.—Petals five, attached to the column, 
formed by the union of the filaments. Capsules 
numerous and circularly arranged around the base 
of the style ; or simple and containing many cells. 
Embryo without albumen ; lobes incurved ; corru- 
gated. Leaves alternate, accompanied by stipules. 
Althaea, Gordonia and Malva are examples. 
15. Magnolice.—Stamens numerous, distinct. Anthers 
adnate. Germens numerous, placed on a common 
receptacle. Capsules numerous, each containing 
one or two seeds, sometimes coalescing and forming 
an aggregate seed-vessel. Embryo straight, at the 
base of the fleshy albumen. Stem shrubby. Leaves 
alternate, and accompanied by deciduous stipules. 
Magnolia and Liriodendron are examples. 
16. Annonce.—Calyx persistent, three-lobed. Petals 
six. Germens numerous. Berries or capsules nu- 
merous, each monospermous. The interior or mem- 
branaceous coat of the seed plaited, and enfolding a 
large solid albumen. Embryo very minute, at the 
scar or base of the seed. Annona and Porcelia are 
examples. 
17. Menisperma.—Germens numerous. Berries or 
reniform capsules monospermous. Embryo small, at 
the summit of a large incurved fleshy albumen. 
Stem shrubby, sarmentose. Leaves alternate, sim- 
ple and without stipules. Menispermum and Cissam- 
pelos are examples. 18. Berberides.—Stamens and petals equally numerous. 
Germen simple, fruit a capsule, or berry, of one 
polyspermous cell. Embryo straight, albumen fleshy. 
Radicle inferior. Lobes plain. Berbei'is, Epirne- 
dium and Hamamelis are examples. 
19. Tiliacece.—Petals alternating with the calycine leaf- 
lets. Stamens numerous ; filaments distinct. Ger- 
men simple. Fruit a berry or capsule, polysper- 
mous.—Embryo enclosed in a fleshy albumen. 
Leaves alternate, simple and accompanied • by sti- 
pules. Bixa and Tilia are examples. 
20. Cisti.—Calyx five parted.—Petals five. Stamens 
numerous. Germen simple, surmounted by one 
style and one stigma. Seeds, valves, and cells of the 
capsule numerous. Embryo incurved within a slen- 
der albumen. Stem shrubby or herbaceous. Leaves 
opposite. Cistus and Helianthemum are examples. 
21. Rutacece.—Stamens usually ten. Germen simple. 
Fruit composed of many capsules united. Seeds at- 
tached to the interior angle of the valves. Embryo 
enclosed in a fleshy albumen. Lobes foliaceous. 
Ruta and Fribulus are examples. 
22. CaryophyllecE.—Calyx tubular. Petals furnished 
rvith a claw, and alternating with the calycine seg- 
ments. Germen simple. Styles and stigmas nu- 
merous. Capsule polyspermous. Seeds attached 
to the central receptacle. Embryo incurved, placed 
around the central farinaceous albumen. Stem her- 
baceous and jointed. Leaves opposite and connate. 
Dianthus, Holosteum and Silene are examples. 
FLOWERS FOLYFETALOUS. 
267 
Class 10. Flowers polypetalous. Stamens perigynous. 
Calyx monophyllous. Corolla inserted into the 
Calyx. In this as in the preceding class, the cha- 268 
NATURAL SYSTEM OF .JUSSIEU. 
racter of the order is derived from the internal 
structure of the seed. 
1. Sempervivce.—Petals and Calycine segments equally 
numerous. Stamens determinate. Germens nu- 
merous, accompanied by glandular scales at their 
base. Capsule with one cell and two valves polysper- 
mous. Embryo straight, placed around a fleshy 
albumen ; radicle inferior. Stem usually herbace- 
ous. Leaves succulent. Sedum and Cotyledon are 
examples. 
-• Sxifragos.—Calyx 4 or 5 parted. Petals arising from 
the summit of the calyx and alternating with its seg- 
ments. Stamens as numerous or twice as numerous 
as the petals. Germen simple, superior, surmoun- 
ted by two styles and stigmas. Capsule usually ter- 
minating in two beaks, the extremities of the two 
valves. Seeds numerous, attached to the base of 
the capsule or to the inflected margin of the valves. 
Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight; radicle inferior. 
Saxifraga and Chrysosplenium are examples. 
3. Cacti.—Segments of the calyx numerous. Petals 
numerous, attached to the summits of the calyx. 
Stamens indeterminate. Germen inferior, surmoun- 
ted by one style and several stigmas. Berry poly- 
spermous. Embryo curved, without albumen. Cac- 
tus is an example. The Grossularioe, originally in- 
cluded with the Cacti, have been separated by Des- 
fontaines, and distinguished by the number of petals 
and stamens, and by the internal structure of the 
seed, having an embryo accompanied by a fleshy al- 
bumen. Ribes is an example. 
4. Portulacece.—Petals and Stamens inserted into the 
base of the calyx.—Germen simple, inferior. Em- 2§P 
FLOWERS POLYPETALOUS. 
incurved, enclosing a farinaceous albumen 
Claytonia and Portulaca are examples, 
5. Ficoidece—Petals attached to the summit of the 
calyx. Stamens numerous. Germen simple, sur- 
mounted by several styles. Cells of the capsule or 
berry numerous, polyspermous. Seeds attached to 
the interior angle of the cells. Embryo placed 
around a farinaceous albumen. Sesuvium and Me~ 
sembryanthemum are examples. 
6. Onagrce.—Petals usually four, attached to the sum- 
mit of the calyx. Stamens determinate. Germen 
inferior. Capsule or berry polyspermous. Embryo 
straight without albumen. This order embraces a 
number of ornamental plants, among which are 
Epilobium, CEnothera and Gaura. 
7. Myrti.—Calyx urceolate or tubular. Petals deter- 
minate, alternating with the segments of the calyx. 
Stamens indeterminate. Embryo straight without 
albumen. Leaves simple and dotted like those of 
the Orange. Myrtua, Caryopliyllus and Philadelphus 
are examples. 
8. Melastomce.—Petals inserted into the summit of the 
calyx, and alternating with its segments. Stamens 
determinate and double the number of petals. Fila- 
ments bisetos, anthers beaked. Germen superior, 
enclosed by the urceolate or tubular calyx. Embryo 
incurved without albumen. Leaves opposite, sim- 
ple and nerved. Rhexia is an American example. 
9. Salicarice.—Petals inserted into the middle of the 
calyx. Stamens determinate. Germen simple superi- 
or. Capsule enclosed by the calyx polyspermous, 
seeds attached to the central receptacle. Embryo 
straight without albumen. Lythrum and Jsnardia 
are American genera. 270 
NATURAL SYSTEM OP JUSSIEU. 
10. Rosacece.—Petals usually five, inserted into the 
summit of the calyx and alternating with its segments. 
Stamens indeterminate. Styles arising from the 
side of the germen. Seeds attached to the base of 
the fruit, by a system of vessels which are inserted 
into a lateral scar near their summit. Embryo 
straight, without albumen. Leaves alternate, fur- 
nished with stipules. Pyrus, Rosa and Rubus are 
examples. 
11. Leguminosce.—In most cases the Corolla is papilio- 
naceous, the stamens united into two parcels, the 
fruit a legume ; the embryo curved and without al- 
bumen. Sometimes the flowers are regular, and the 
embryo straight, nor are the filaments always united 
in two bundles : but these are exceptions. The 
leaves are alternate, usually compressed and accom- 
panied by stipules. Glycine, Lupinus, Hedysarum 
and Mimosa are examples. 
12. Terebintacce.—Petals three or five, inserted into 
the base of the calyx. Stamens equally or twice as 
numerous as the petals, inserted with them. Ger- 
men superior. Cells of the fruit monospermous. 
Seeds without albumen usually enclosed in a hard 
nut. Radicle bent. Amyris and Rhus are American 
examples. 
13. Rhamni.—Divisions of the calyx, petals, and sta- 
mens, equally numerous. Germen superior, sur- 
rounded by a glandular ring, to which the petals and 
stamens are sometimes attached. Fruit a berry or 
capsule, with monospermous cells. Albumen fleshy. 
Embryo straight. Ceanothus, Ilex and Staphylea are 
examples. FLOWERS APETALOUS. 
271 
Class 11. Flowers apetalous, diclinious. 
This, which is the last class in the arrangement of 
Jussieu, embraces five orders, whose flowers are usu- 
ally separated and without petals. To many plants 
however, which the learned author included under 
this head, the essential character of the class does not 
apply. 
1. Euphorbia3.—Stamens inserted into the receptacle. 
Germen superior. Cells of the fruit numerous, each 
composed of two elastic valves, and enclosing one or 
two seeds, which are attached to the central axis, 
and partially invested by an arillus. Embryo plane, 
surrounded by a fleshy albumen. Euphorbia, Cro- 
ton, and Ricinus, are examples. 
3. Cucurbitacece.—Calyx (Corolla of Linnaeus and oth- 
ers) superior, five-parted, coloured, and withering. 
Filaments usually five, inserted into the calyx. Ex- 
terior coat of the berry hard. Seeds (if numerous) 
attached to the sides of the fruit. Embryo plane, 
without albumen. This order embraces plants with 
creeping, flexuose stems, axillary tendrils, and alter- 
nate leaves, which are usually rough and cordate, or 
palmate. Cucumis, Sicyos, and Bryonia are examples. 
Among the plants allied to the preceding, are the 
Passiflorce, which now constitute a distinct order. 
3. Urticce.—Flowers in a catkin, or enclosed in a com- 
mon involucre. Stamens attached to the base of the 
calyx. Germen superior. Seeds arillate, naked, or 
enclosed in the pulpy receptacle or calyx. Embryo 
without albumen. The Nettle, the Fig, and the 
Mulberry, are examples. 
4. Amentaceos.—Barren flowers in catkins ; fertile ones, 
solitary, aggregate, or in catkins. Germen superior. 272 
NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU. 
Embryo without albumen ; radicle straight. This 
order embraces trees and shrubs, with alternate sim- 
ple leaves, accompanied by stipules. Exemplified 
in the Birch, Willow, Oak, and numerous other for- 
est trees. 
5. Conifera.—Seeds enclosed in the persistent scales 
of the cone, or in monospermous capsules. Embryo 
cylindrical, placed in the centre of the fleshy albu- 
men. Seminal leaves divided, appearing as if there 
were several. Stem shrubby. Leaves persistent. 
Exemplified in the Pines, Juniper, and Cedar. 
Such is the outline of the system of Jussieu. Our 
limits would not permit us to transcribe his characters ; 
but it is thought that the preceding sketch, which hag 
been carefully compared with the original work, and 
with others of a more recent date,* will be equally 
satisfactory to those who wish to study this department 
of Natural Science. 
* The author whom I have most frequently consulted, is Des- 
fontaines, the learned associate of Jussieu, whose interesting 
volumes on Trees, Sic. well deserve an English translation. GENERAL SUMMARY. 
FROM MIRBEL’S VIEWS OF VEGETABLE NATURE. 
The food by which plants are nourished, and the 
agents by which their growth is promoted, have been 
examined in a former chapter.* To pursue the opera- 
tion of these causes united, and to exhibit a compre- 
hensive view of the influence of climate and soil on 
vegetation, requires the aid of extensive observation, 
and a knowledge of the productions of different coun- 
tries. The forms of vegetables are extremely various, 
and certain tribes are attached exclusively to different 
countries. Some species are confined to the narrow- 
est limits. The Origanum Tournefortii, discovered by 
Tournefort in 1700, in the little island of Amorgos, up- 
on one rock only, was found eighty years afterwards by 
Sibthorp, on the same island, and upon the same rock ; 
but no one has ever observed it any where else. Two 
of the Orchidece, grow upon the Table Mountain at the 
Cape of Good Hope ; and Thunberg, who has described 
them, found them on no other spot. 
Mountainous countries afford many of these local 
species ; such as dwell secluded on the heights, without 
ever migrating to the plains below. Thus wre find that 
the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Appenines, have their 
peculiar Floras, and that even some separate mountains 
of those great chains have species allotted to them alone, 
and which are not to be found on the adjoining sum- 
mits. 
Speculatively we might presume that all the individ- 
* Page 39 274 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
uals of one species would establish themselves under 
the same or nearly the same degrees of latitude, as they 
would find a nearly similar climate. But in reality, 
some species extend themselves in the direction of the 
longitude, and never swerve to the right or to the left. 
This is one of those anomalies of which it is not easy 
to trace the cause. 
It may be observed, with the exception of the 
Lichens, which bid defiance to all climates alike, that a 
vastly greater proportion of species is calculated to en- 
dure a very high degree of warmth, than is calculated 
to bear severe cold. The progressive course of the 
proportion demonstrates itself most clearly, if we di- 
rect our view from the polar, towards the equinoctial 
regions. 
The general face of the vegetation of a country does 
not depend solely upon the number, it depends also 
upon the more or less remarkable characters of the 
species found there. The chief part of these charac- 
ters, are fixed ; and are derived from primitive crea- 
tion, not from the effect of climate. As to the proposi- 
tion, that certain vegetable forms are necessarily co- 
existent and dependent upon certain other animal forms 
in a given climate, we do not presume to controvert it; 
but sound reasoning rejects its adoption, as a doctrine, 
while the connexion and reciprocal control of the phe- 
nomena of nature are unknown to us. Cautious and 
exact observers of those things which are the objects of 
our senses, let us leave to the fancy of the poet the 
bold task of unfolding the purposes of the Creator in 
his works ; while we confine ourselves to the less pre- 
sumptuous one of describing them as we find them. 
Vegetation within the tropics fills the European 
traveller with amazement, by the majesty and vigour of FROM MIRBEL. 
27S 
its aspect. The proportion of the woody to the her- 
baceous species, is vastly more considerable towards 
the Equator than in Europe ; and the difference is 
therefore in favour of the equinoctial regions, for trees 
give the character of grandeur to vegetation. Those 
of the dicotyledonous class within the tropics, are fre- 
quently conspicuous for the height and circumference 
of their stems, the richness and variety of their foliage, 
as well as the bright and well-contrasted colours of 
their blossom. By the irregularity of their forms, they 
set off to advantage the arborescent monocotyledons of 
the Palm tribe, which have in general the simple so- 
ber forms of our columns, of which they were the mod- 
els. It is towards the Equator, that the gigantic climb- 
ers, which grow to the length of several hundred yards 
are found ; as well as those magnificent herbs of the Scit- 
aminece and Musk, as tall as the trees of our orchards ; 
with flowers and foliage not less pre-eminent in their 
dimensions. For instance, the Corypha umbraculifera, 
an East Indian palm, with leaves in the form of an um- 
brella, and more than six yards across ; and the Jlristo- 
lochia, that grows on the river of La Madalena, the 
flowers of which, according to M. de Humboldt, serve 
the children for hats. The far greater part of the ar- 
omatic plants, belong also to the equatorial regions. 
By the side of this rich and varied vegetation, that 
of Europe appears poor and tame. Here the species 
of trees are few ; and all have a port and foliage in 
which much sameness prevails. Their flowers make 
so little show, that the generality of people, who think 
nothing of the flower except the corolla, being ignorant 
of the use and importance of the other parts, believe 
that most trees have none at all. 
The inferiority of the vegetation of Northern regions 276 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
will appear in a still stronger light, if we compare the 
species of the same genera or tribes which grow both 
in Europe and under the line. In South America, 
plants of the fern-tribe, with a foliage and frutification 
not very unlike our common Brake and Polypody, grow 
like Palms, and have a stalk in the form of a column. 
The heaths of the northern parts of Europe are low 
bushes, with feeble stems and small bloom; those of * 
the coasts of the Mediterranean have also a small 
bloom, but their stems are taller and more robust; 
those of the Cape fascinate by the form, splendour of 
colour, and size of the corolla. 
The Geraniums of Europe do not approach those of 
Africa in point of stature or beauty of flower. 
Most plants of the Mallow-tribe with us are herba- 
ceous ; those of hot climates, either shrubs or trees. 
A tribe, of so little account in these parts, holds a place 
among the vegetables of the most note in the equinoc- 
tial regions. There it counts among its species the 
Baobab and the Ceiba, the colosses of the vegetable cre- 
ation : besides the “ hand-tree” of Mexico, so called 
from the form and disposition of the stamens of the 
flower, which represent very tolerably a hand or paw 
with five fingers. 
The Leguminosce or pulse-tribe furnish Europe with 
many herbaceous species, several shrubs, and one mid- 
dle-sized tree ; all of which, however, have leaves 
composed of but few leaflets. The same tribe in the 
hot climates of Asia, Africa, and America teems with 
lofty trees, graced with leaves of the most delicate tex- 
ture, divided and subdivided into numberless leaflets, 
and playing in the wind like plumes. 
The Aroidew in Europe never exceed the height of 
a yard ; those of Mexico, the Brazils, and Peru some- 277 
times tower into the air like the Banana, of which they 
assume the appearance ; at others lengthening them- 
selves into supple climbers, they mount to the tops of 
the highest trees. 
Differences as strongly marked are exemplified in 
Orchidece. In Europe the species are low ; their flow- 
ers, although equally interesting to the botanist by the 
singularity of their structure as in other regions, are 
too insignificant to attract the attention of any who do 
not make plants an object of their study. In the tor- 
rid zone, the case is quite different in regard to this 
tribe ; the greater portion of which consists of species 
that excite our wonder by the size and brilliancy of 
their blossom ; and many, as the Vanilla, suspend their 
long branches covered with a foliage of shining green, 
and terminated by magnificent garlands of flowers from 
the summits of trees. 
The Apocynece, Boraginece, and many other tribes, 
are equally examples of contrasts of a like nature. 
The European nnturalist, whom the ardent thirst of 
science leads under the Equator, views with ecstacy 
those fertile regions, which exhibit at every step forms 
familiar to him, decked in the rich attire bestowed from 
the hand of a more bountiful and powerful nature. 
There are beauties in a land yet wild and savage, 
which disappear at the approach of civilization. In 
Europe the soil abounds only in plants which are of use 
to man. Domestic vegetables, by the aid and protec- 
tion of the cultivator, have so trenched upon the do- 
main of the wilderness, that space is scarcely left for 
the existence of those for which man has no call. The 
primeval forests of the Gauls and Germans have disap- 
peared. Forests at this time of day are mere formal 
plantations of large extent. They are intersected in all 
FROM MIRBEL. 278 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
directions by roads and paths, are explored without 
difficulty ; and the wild animals no longer find safe re- 
fuge in them. Generations of trees are renewed in 
quick succession, on a soil which the industry of the 
proprietor keeps in constant requisition, and it is mere 
chance, when a single stick is left to end its career by 
old age. Far in the north there are several forests 
which still preserve some traces of the primeval veget- 
ation of Europe. In these the oaks, spared by the 
axe, acquire an enormous size ; wffiile others, worn 
out by age, fall of themselves, are decomposed, and 
help unceasingly to augment the surface of the soil, 
covered with high Mosses and thick Lichens, that pre- 
serve a prolific moisture. 
None however approach in magnificence the forests 
W’hich shade the equinoctial regions of Africa and Ame- 
rica. One is never satiated in admiring there the end- 
less multitude of vegetables brought into near contact 
w ith each other, and mingled promiscuously together; 
so different among themselves, and often so extraordi- 
nary in structure and produce ; those enormous trees 
still exhibiting no symptoms of decay, though their age 
goes back to a period at but little distance from the last 
revolution of our globe ; those towering Palms, contras- 
ting by their simple forms with all that surrounds them ; 
those extensive climbers ; those Ratans which, knit- 
ting together their long and flexible branches by num- 
berless knots and turns, encircle as one group the 
whole vegetation of these extensive regions. To clear 
a path through these, neither fire not axe is sufficient; 
the one extinguishes for want of circulation in the air, 
the other is broken or blunted by the hardness of the 
wood it meets. The soil cannot afford place to the 
numberless germs w hich it developes. Each tree dis- 
putes with others, which press from all sides, the soil FROM MIRBEL. 
279 
it wants for its existence ; the strong stifle the weak ; 
while rising generations obliterate even the slightest 
trace of destruction and death ; vegetation never flags ; 
and the earth, so far from becoming exhausted, ac- 
quires new fertility from day to day. Hosts of animals 
of every kind, insects, birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, 
beings as diversified andtstrange as the vegetables of the 
place itself, retire themselves under the vast canopy 
of these ancient thickets, as into a citadel proof against 
the attack of man. 
North America, under the same degrees of latitude 
as France and England, and with a colder climate, pre- 
sents a far richer vegetation. There large trees, such 
as the Liriodendron and Magnolia, bear the most su- 
perb flowers. Those of many other trees and shrubs 
vie in beauty with the flowers of the torrid zone ; the 
light waving composite foliage of the Robinias and Gle- 
ditschias are the counterparts of the Mimosas of the 
tropics. The single genus of Oak comprehends within 
the United States more species than Europe reckons 
within the whole amount of its trees. 
In the northern parts of Asia vegetation differs but 
slightly from that of Europe. We meet with nearly 
the same genera, and similar types prevail. But in 
the southern parts the character of the country is 
changed. Without water, and swept by scorching 
winds, the drought is extreme. The carpet of soft ver- 
dure and the refreshing shade of its northern countries 
and of Europe are looked for in vain. Most of the 
plants have thinly-scattered long narrow arid leaves, 
entire at the edge, and of a gloomy green ; several have 
none at all, or at least, such, as instead of leaves may 
be truly termed thorns. Yet many of the trees and 
shrubs have a showy blossom. Of the former, the 280 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
largest in those parts belong to the myrtle tribe, and 
have a punctured foliage, diffusing an aromatic scent 
when bruised. There are likewise many shrubs of 
the pulse-tribe with a composite foliage ; but the leaf- 
lets of the leaves are only evolved on the plant’s first 
rising from the seed. As it advances to maturity, the 
naked footstalks widen into simple lanceolate blades, 
or become transformed into acicular spines, resembling 
the leaves of Asparagus. In New)Hollaad the Prota- 
ceoe abound ; so they do at the Cape of Good Hope ; 
but the Liliaceoe, which decorate the African pro- 
montory so profusely, are, on the contrary, rare in 
New Holland. It is a fact as notorious as surprising, 
that no one vegetable belonging to the countries to- 
wards the southern pole produces a single fruit for the 
food of man. 
There are divers conditions, without the perfor- 
mance of which the growth of the different species 
cannot proceed. An uninterrupted heat is requisite for 
some ; a moment’s decrease in it is fatal to them ; some 
withstand a considerable degree of cold while their sap 
is quiescent, but want a high degree of heat when that 
is once in motion ; some like a moderate temperature, 
and dread equalty the excess of both heat and cold. It 
is upon the observation of such appearances that the 
cultivator grounds his practice ; he knows that it would 
be in vain for him to attempt to grow, without shelter, 
either the Date or Orange, beyond the 43d degree of 
northern latitude ; that the Olive will do a little be- 
yond ; that the vine is barren beyond the latitude of 
50 degrees, or at least never brings its grape to per- 
fection. He is cautious of exposing in a southern as- 
pect, the species whose sap is readily set in motion by 
the first gleam of warmth ; he know6 that the late FROM MIRBEL. 
281 
frosts destroy them ; witness, the vineyards round 
Paris : the plantations there which escape the injuries 
of frost, are not those which look towards the south, 
but those that look towards the north. The sap of 
the latter is set in motion late, and when the heat 
reaches them the season is already settled, and no risk 
is run from the inroad of cold. 
Late frosts are peculiarly hurtful to the delicate 
American and Botany Bay plants, which we are at- 
tempting to naturalize in Europe. Many of these will 
bear a very sharp cold in the heart of wunter ; but no 
sooner does the spring advance, and a softer air prevail, 
than their roots begin to elaborate their juices under 
ground, their bark to fill with moisture, their buds to 
swell and open, and a fall in the temperature if but for 
one moment destroys them. 
In proportion as we advance towards the Pole, we 
are sensible of a change in the appearance of the vege- 
tation. The species which require a mild and tempe- 
rate climate, are supplied by others which delight in 
cold. The forests fill with pines, firs, and birches, 
the natural decoration of a northern land. The birch, 
of all trees, is the one that bears the severity of the 
climate the longest; but the nearer it approaches the 
Pole, the smaller it grows ; its trunk dwindles and be- 
comes stunted, and the branches knotty, till at last if 
ceases to grow at all towards the 70th degree of lati- 
tude, the point where man gives up the cultivation of 
corn. Further on, shrubs, bushes, and herbaceous 
plants only are to be met with. Wild Thyme, Daph- 
nes, Creeping Willows, and Brambles, cover the face 
of the rocks. It is in these cold regions that the ber- 
ries of the Rubus Rusticus acquire their delicious fla- 
vour and perfume. Shrubs disappear in their turn. 282 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
They are succeeded by low herbs, furnished with 
leaves at the root, from the midst of which rises a short 
stalk surmounted by small flowers. These pretty 
plants take up their quarters in the clefts of rocks, 
while the Grasses with their numerous slender leaves 
spread themselves over the soil, which they cover as 
with a rich verdant carpet. The Lichen, which feeds 
the rein-deer, sometimes mixes in the turf: some- 
times of itself covers vast tracts of country ; its white 
tufts standing in clumps of various forms, looking like 
hillocks of snow which the sun has not yet dissolved. 
If we go farther, a naked land, sterile soil, rocks, and 
eternal snows, are all we find. The last vestiges of ve- 
getation are some pulverulent byssi, and some crustace- 
ans Lichens, which cover the rocks in motley patches. 
The principal causes which induce this progression 
of changes are three : 1st, the excess of duration in 
the winters, a consequence of the obliquity and dis- 
appearance of the solar rays ; 2d, the dryness of the 
air, a consequence of the decrease of heat ; 3d, the 
prolonged action of the light, which illumines the hori- 
zon through the whole period of vegetation. I will 
resume, in as few words as 1 can, the effects of each of 
these three causes. 
It is well known that too great a degree of cold, by 
congealing the sap, occasions the rupture of the vascu- 
lar system in plants, and thereby destroys them ; but 
fhe deleterious action of cold is not confined to purely 
mechanical results ; it has been proved that heat is a 
stimulus that cannot be dispensed with in vegetation. 
Many species secrete juices in warmer regions which 
are unkhown in their economy in colder climates. The 
Ash yields manna in Calabria, but loses that faculty as 
it advances towards the north. The grape in the south FROM MIRBEL. 
283 
of Europe abounds in matter of a sweet quality ; in the 
north, it wmtains an excess of acid. So long as the or- 
ganic functions, which depend upon the degree or du- 
ration of heat, can be carried on, the Ash and the Vine 
continue to grow ; they grow even when those func- 
tions are performed incompletely ; but their growth is 
stinted. They finally disappear at that point where 
the portion of warmth in the atmosphere, though still 
equal to prevent the freezing of the sap, is no longer 
able to stimulate their organs or their frame into action. 
All other vegetables, whose dimension and duration 
subject them to the full severity of the frost, share the 
same destiny at a greater or less distance from the 
torrid zone, and in proportion as their constitutions re- 
quire a greater or less degree of heat. So that nothing 
is found near the Pole but such dwarf shrubs as are 
sheltered under the snow in winter, or annuals and 
herbaceous species, endowed with so quick a principle 
of life, as to rise, flower, and fruit within the space of 
three months ; or some agarnous and cryptogamous spe- 
cies, which adapt themselves to all degrees of temper- 
ature, and are consequently the last organic forms un- 
der which vegetable life is to be described. 
Heat and moisture united are highly favourable to the 
growth of plants. No countries are more abundant in 
herbaceous vegetables, or better wooded than Senegal, 
Guinea, and Cayenne, where both these props of ve_* 
fation are in the plenitude of their force. Experiments 
made with the hygrometer prove that the moisture of 
the atmosphere increases as we approach the Equator. 
In hot climates, when the sun sinks below the horizon, 
the watery exhalations condensed, are returned to the 
earth in the form of dew, that moistens the surface of 
the foliage, and feeds those vegetables in which the ab- 284 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
sorbing powers of the parts above ground suffice for 
their support. Of this number are the succulent plants, 
whose fibrous root only serves to hold them in their 
places ; and the moisture of the atmosphere is inhaled 
and retained by the spongy parts above. Thus in the 
vast plains that receive the waters from the eastern 
declivity of the Andes, when the scorching heat of 
summer has consumed the grasses and other herbaceous 
kinds which the rainy season had brought forth, we still 
find some lingering Cacti, which, under their dry, 
thorny coats, conceal a cellular system, by which an 
abundant sap has been imbibed and preserved. Butin 
countries where the atmosphere holds but little mois- 
ture in evaporation, either because the soil is wholly 
destitute of water, or by reason of the coldness of the 
temperature, we find no plants at all, or such only as 
are of dry, hard texture. The sands of Africa, water- 
ed by no river, are found to be utterly barren. Spitz- 
berg, Nova-Zembla, Kamschatka, &c. where the in- 
fluence of the sun is only felt for two months in the year 
at most, and where, consequently, the air is habitually 
dry, furnish a very scanty portion of herbaceous plants 
only, or some dwarf shrubs, with a narrow leathery fol- 
iage. It is true that drought is not in these instances 
the sole cause of the degenerated state of vegetation, 
but it would of itself be sufficient to produce it: for it 
is a fact, that plants acquire height of stem and breadth 
of foliage, only in proportion to the abundance of nu- 
triment they meet with in the atmosphere, and that nu- 
triment is water reduced into vapour, and held in sus- 
pension by the atmosphere. 
When vegetables are deprived of light, they extend 
in length, shoot up pale, lank stalks, are of a lax fibre, 
and of no substance : in short, they spindle themselves FROM MIRBEL. 
285 
out. The way that light acts upon this class of the 
creation, is principally in separating the elementary 
parts of the water and carbonic‘acid contained in them, 
and in extricating the oxygen of the latter. The car- 
bon of the acid, with the hydrogen and oxygen of the 
water, form the bases of the gums, and oils, 
which flow in the vessels or fill the cells. These juices 
nourish the membranes, and induce the woody state in 
them ; and they do this in proportion as the light is 
stronger and its action more prolonged. Thus we see 
that darkness and light have effects directly opposite up- 
on vegetables. Darkness favours the length of their 
growth by keeping up the pliancy of their parts ; light 
consolidates them, and stops growth by favouring nutri- 
tion. It should follow that a fine race of vegetables, 
one that unites in due proportion, size, and strength, 
depends in part upon the proper reciprocation of nights 
and days. Now in the northernmost regions, plants go 
through all the stages of growth at a time when the sun 
no longer quits the horizon ; and the light, of which 
they experience the unremitting effect, hardens them 
before they have time to lengthen. So their growth is 
quick, but of short duration ; they are robust, but un- 
dersized. 
The same plants, when transplanted into milder re- 
gions, where the atmosphere is moist, and light and 
darkness follow in regular succession ; if they are but 
endowed with a frame of sufficient pliancy to support 
their new mode of existence, are seen to lengthen their 
stems, expand thei*1 branches, as well as multipy, di- 
late, and soften their leaves. 
Vegetation, in ascending above the level of the sea, 
undergoes modifications analogous to those which attend 
its progress from the line to either pole ; with this 28t* 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
distinction, that in the last case the phenomena succeed 
by almost imperceptible gradations, while they crowd 
upon and follow each other <n rapid succession on the 
ascent of mountains. The height of 4 or 5000 yards 
in the hottest parts of the globe, produces changes as 
distinct as the 2000 leagues or more, which lie between 
the Equator and the polar regions. The three causes 
of the influence of which we have just spoken, all re- 
appear within this space ; the heat is diminished, the 
air is dry, and the duration of light is protracted. To 
these we must add two others ; a decrease of depth in 
the volume of the air, and a scarcity of those substan- 
ces which abound in carbon, and are produced by the 
decomposition of organic bodies. 
Many ofthe less perfect plants grow under circumstan- 
ces the most unfavourable to vegetation. Neither the 
total privation or the excess of light, nor the extremes 
of moisture or dryness, nor scorching heat or the fierc- 
est cold, nor want of mould or scantiness of carbon, 
prevent these rude species from developing their 
forms; neither are they of small importance in the ge- 
neral economy of nature. By them the soil is prepar- 
ed, and they lay the foundation of vegetation. 
The rudest of the Lichens, mere coloured crusts of 
the simplest structure, firstfix themselves on the smooth 
surface of the rock which they erode, break up, and 
scoop into hollows. These at last are turned into dust. 
Sorts a degree higher in the scale of organization, to- 
gether with some elegantly formed Mosses, resembling 
trees and shrubs in miniature, take their place. By 
the successive dissolution and regeneration of such ve- 
getation through a long series of years, a thin stratum 
of mould is formed upon the stone, in which Herbs and 
Grasses take root and grow. Generations succeed each 287 
FROM MIRBEL. 
other, and the mould deepens. Herbs of higher stat- 
ure, bushes, and even shrubs, take their stand on the 
newly fertilized rock. At last, the seeds of trees them- 
selves, carried either by animals, the water, or the 
wind, are seen to germinate, probably to become the 
first inhabitants of a forest that shall one day extend it- 
self over vast tracts of country. 
Lichens will not grow upon sands that are set in mo- 
tion by the wind ; but the Grasses which are nearly as 
unformed and rude, afford some turfy species with fine 
closely fibred roots ; by these they weave themselves 
together and bind down the sand, which every breeze 
had used to drive to and fro like the surge of the sea. 
The soil once made stable, vegetables of every size 
thrive in it. Hence the industrious inhabitant of Eu- 
rope has been taught, to use the sea lyme-grass and 
others of the same nature, to fix the sand of those 
beaches which threaten to encroach on his fields near 
the shores of the sea. 
The bottoms of the marsh and lake are gradually 
though slowly raised by aquatic plants. The water 
gaining in surface what it loses in depth, is sometimes 
made to overflow at one side or the other ; and even to 
disappear entirely, when the springs which feed it are 
no longer able to counterbalance the waste from evapo- 
ration, which increases with the surface. 
It sometimes happens that certain species, especial- 
ly of the Bog-Moss, float themselves on marshes and 
lakes, forming islets and small peninsulas, which are 
increased from day today, both in extent and depth, 
from the accumulated wreck, and remains of the plants 
which have grown on them. This factitious soil is 
sometimes clothed by meadows, sometimes by shrubs, 
and even trees: when now and then it breaks under the 288 
weight of the load, and sinks to the bottom of the wa- 
ter. These appearances are by no means uncommon 
in the north of Europe. The effect they hare in chang- 
ing the face of the soil is greater or less according to 
circumstances, and in certain districts they may even 
affect perceptibly the temperature and quality of the 
atmosphere ; but scarcely beyond the spot where they 
take place. In regard to forests, however, the case is 
very different; their influence is felt far around. Their 
usual effect is to'cool the atmosphere, to a greater extent 
even than the degree of latitude. When F ranee and Ger- 
many were covered with wood, Europe was much colder 
than at present; the winters of Italy were longer ; the 
Vine could not be cultivated on this sidefof Grenoble ; 
the Seine froze every year. The parts of the coast of 
Cayenne which have been cleared of their wood by 
Europeans, experience in summer in its full force the 
overwhelming heat of the sun of the torrid zone, w’hile, 
in the same season, the interior of the country is cool- 
ed to such a degree by forests, that a fire or shelter is 
found necessary in order to pass the night. 
The causes why forests thus lower the temperature, 
are plain. They detain and condense the clouds as these 
pass ; they pour into the atmosphere volumes of water 
dissolved into vapour ; winds do not penetrate into their 
recesses ; the sun never warms the earth they shade ; 
and the soil being porous, as formed in part of the de- 
cayed leaves, branches, and stems of trees, and coated 
over besides by a thick bed of brushwood and moss, is 
constantly in a state of moisture. The hollows in them 
serve as reservoirs for cold and stagnant waters, their 
declivities give rise to numberless brooks and rivulets ; 
and, as we see, the best wooded countries are ever 
those which are watered by the largest rivers. 
GENERAL VIEWS, FROM MIRBEL. 
28& 
In proportion as man, who finds himself cramped in 
countries of long standing civilization, extends the 
boundaries of his domain by stripping the soil of its 
ancient forests, so the wind and sun disperse the su- 
perabundant moisture ; the springs exhaust themselves ; 
the lakes dry up ; inundations cease altogether, or 
confine themselves to a smaller extent; the volume 
of water carried along by rivers diminishes ; and the 
atmosphere becomes warmer and drier. These are 
results that cannot be denied, and, without mentioning 
the numerous evidences which history offers, it will 
be sufficient to adduce the United States of America as 
a proof. It is a fact admitted by all, that the clearing 
of the woods began two centuries ago in the European 
colonies, and continued unceasingly to this day, has 
occasioned a very evident diminution in the quantity 
of water, and a perceptible elevation in the tempera- 
ture of the climate. But where, from improvidence 
or brutal selfishness, man has destroyed the woods of 
a country without reserve, the soil, bereft of the mois- 
ture requisite to the maintenance of vegetation, has 
been reduced to the most fearful sterility. The Cape 
Verd islands, once watered by numerous springs, and 
covered with lofty forests and luxuriant herbage, now 
present to our view only waterless gullies, rocks bared 
of their mould, with here and there a patch of parched 
herbs, some stunted bushes, and a few plants of the 
succulent kind. The Isle of France, formerly so 
fruitful, is at this moment threatened with the same 
sterility, if the wisdom of government does not hasten 
to set proper bounds to the improvident waste of the 
woods by the falls now carrying on. 
In mountainous countries, above all others, the des- 
truction of trees produces the worst effects. The for- 290 
GENERAL VIEWS, 
ests which encircle them above, are the protection of 
the fields below ; but when once the axe is used 
among them without a due discretion, the rain breaks 
up and carries off the layer of mould no longer consoli- 
dated by roots ; large and deep gullies are cut by the 
descending torrents on all sides ; the snow, accumula- 
ted on the summits during winter, slides down the de- 
clivities, and finding no dam that stops it, enormous 
masses are precipitated with a dreadful crash to the 
bottom of the valleys, destroying in their way the 
fields with their cattle, and the villages with their in- 
habitants. The rock once laid bare, the rain-water 
which penetrates its clefts, silently undermines it ; 
the frost cracks and crumbles it away ; it Tails in ruins, 
accumulating at the foot of the mountain mounds of 
rubbish. This is an evil which has no remedy ; the 
forests once banished from the highland tops are never 
replaced ; while the washings and rubble carried down 
yearly by the rain, soon transform into a desert the 
populous and flourishing valley below. 
The vegetable mould produced by herbaceous plants 
upon unsheltered land is destroyed by the action of 
light, heat and oxygen, while that which is formed in 
the shade of forests, defended from the effects of these 
destructive agents, increases from day to day, both by 
the remains of vegetables, as well as of the animals of 
all kinds which seek refuge in them. This is the reas- 
on why newly-cleared land is endowed with such pro- 
digious fertility. In this either rye or oats must be 
cultivated for the first years, its too abundant richness 
causing the more precious wheat to grow rank, and 
produce little grain. But sooner or later, the soil is 
exhausted, and recourse must be had to manure, to 
restore the nutritious particles carried off by success- FROM MIRBKL. 
291 
ive crops. If this is neglected, harvests begin to 
dwindle, briers and brambles and a thousand wild 
plants take the places of those which had been pro- 
duced by agriculture. The flocks diminish rapidly ; 
for the increase of flocks, and consequently of the hu- 
man race, depends above all things upon the prosperity 
of agriculture. 
All is connected in the vast system of the globe, and 
order emanates from the equipoise of conflicting phe- 
nomena. Animals carry off the oxygen of the atmos- 
phere, replacing it by carbonic acid gas ; and are thus 
at work to adulterate the constitution of the air, and 
render it unfit for respiration. Vegetables take up the 
fixed air, retain the carbon, and give out oxygen ; and 
are thus purifying the air tainted by animals, and re- 
establishing the necessary proportions between its ele- 
ments. In Europe, while our vegetables, stripped by 
the severity of the season of their foliage, no longer 
yield the air contributing to life, the salutary gas is 
borne to us by trade-winds from the southernmost re- 
gions of America. Winds from all quarters of the 
world intermingle thus the various strata of the at- 
mosphere, and keep its constitution uniform in all 
seasons and at all elevations. The substances which 
are produced by the dissolution of animal and vegetable 
matter, diluted with water, are absorbed by plants, and 
constitute a portion of the nourishment by which they 
are maintained ; plants, in their turn, become the food 
of animals, and these again the prey of others which 
subsist on flesh. In spite of this perpetual state of war 
and destruction, nothing perishes, for all is regenerat- 
ed. Nature has ordained that the two great divisions of 
organized beings should depend the one upon the other 
for support ; and that both the life and death of indi- 292 
GENERAL -VIEWS, &C. 
viduals should be equally serviceable in keeping up the 
races of them. 
If vve come to consider vegetation as it regards our- 
selves, we shall find that this great agent of nature, 
subjected in a certain degree to the control of man 
constituted in a state of society, is the main source of 
his prosperity or of his misery. How many countries 
have the greedy ambition of princes, and the degrada- 
tion and ignorance of the people, made barren ? Re- 
collect what Asia Minor, Judea, Egypt, the provinces 
at the foot of Mount Atlas have been, and behold what 
they are at this day. Recollect Greece, once the 
country of science and of liberty, now that of ignor- 
ance and of slavery ; she can be only recognized in 
her ruins, and her monuments of the dead. Man had 
denied his labour to the earth, and the earth her treas- 
ures to man : all vanished with agriculture. The 
traveller who passes that country of so great renown, 
finds in the place of the fine forests that crowned its 
mountains, or the rich harvests reaped by twenty busy 
nations, or the numerous flocks that enriched its fields, 
only naked rocks and sterile sands, with here and there 
a miserable village. He seeks in vain for several 
rivers recorded in history ; they are gone.* 
* The preceding summary “ from Mirbel,” has been abstract- 
ed from the Journal of Science, &c, EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
Plate I. Fig. 1. Represents the epidermis of the 
common Pink, so magnified as to exhibit the exhaling 
orifices. 2. The epidermis of the Lily magnified to 
shew the same. 3. The epidermis with areas which 
contain the evaporating pores of Hedwig. 4. A hori- 
zontal section of a woody stem exhibiting a magnified 
view of its vessels ; a represents the simple tubes ; b 
the porous tubes ; c the false spiral tubes ; d the mix- 
ed tubes. 5. Represents the spiral vessels. 6. The 
same magnified. 7. A transverse section of a woody 
stem. 8. The same magnified. 9. A fibrous root. 10. 
A granulated root. 11. A scaly bulbous root. 12. A tu- 
nicate or coated bulb. 13. A palmate root. 14. The 
root of Utricularia with numerous air cells, which pre- 
vent the plant from sinking in water. 15. A creeping 
root. 
Plate II. Fig. 16. Represents a dichotomous 
stem with connate perfoliate leaves. 17 Azalea with 
determinate branches. 18. The English Ivy with 
radicating tendrils. 19. A voluble stem twining from 
left to right. 20. A Passion flower climbing by the 
aid of spiral tendrils. Its leaves are cordate ; its 
stipules in pairs ; its tendrils axillary ; and its radiant 
nectaries filiform. 21. A scaly stem. 22. The Eng- 
lish Cowslip with radical leaves, having its flowei% 
on a scape which terminates in a simple umbel. 23. 
The winged stem of the Thistle with spinous leaves. 
24. Polypodium vidgare a dorsiferous fern whose 
stem furnishes an example of the Stipe. 25. An arti- 
culated stem of the Cactus. 26. Uvularia with a 
perfoliate leaf. 
Plate III. Fig. 27. Brasenm with a peltate leaf. 
28. Ovate leaf. 29. Spatulate leaf. 30. A lanceo- 
late leaf. 31. Dioscorea glauca has cordate leaves 
which are 9-nerved. 32. Gill has a reniform and 
crenate leaf 33. A hastate leaf, 34. A sagittate 
leaf. 35. An unequal leaf. 36. A sinuate leaf. 
37. A runcinate leaf. 58. A palmate leaf. 39. A 294 
Explanation of 
three-Iobed leaf. 40. A parted leaf with incised 
segments. 41. A pinnatafid leaf. 42. The leaves of 
wood-sorrel are ternate and obcordate. 43. A pinnate 
leaf of the Sensitive plant. 44. Interruptedly pin- 
nate. 45. Verticillate. 46. Pedate. 
Plate IV. Fig;. 47. Represents a repand leaf. 48 
The truncate leaf of the Tulip tree. 49. A ciliate 
leaf. 50. A doubly compound leaf. 51. A bi-tubular 
leaf. 52. A flower-bearing leaf. 53. The leaf of Sar- 
racenia purpurea. 54. The leaf of Nepenthes distilla- 
toria. 55. The leaf of Dioncea muscipula. 50. The 
linear leaf of grasses with a stipule arising from the 
summit of its sheath. 57. and 58. exhibit the cortical 
net ofletves. 59. Glands on the fruit of the Rose. 
60. The leaf of the common Nettle, covered with 
stings. 61 The flower of Atraciylis defended by 
thorns. 
Plate V. Fig. 62. Represents an umbel. 63. A 
cyme. 64. A corymb. 65. A spike. 66. A raceme. 
67. A head. 68. A whirl. 69. A panicle. 70. A 
spikelet, b, the involucellate filaments which surround 
thegermen in many of the Cyperoideee. 71. A Catkin. 
72. A Cone, a represents the scales so dissected as to 
exhibit the fructification within. 73. A compound 
flower with an imbricate calyx and tubular florets. 
74. The involucellate filaments of Scirpus. 75. The 
same organs in Scheenus. 
Plate VI. Fig. 76. Represents a monapetalous 
flower with a trumpet-shaped corolla, and a bell-shaped 
Calyx. 77. A naked flower of the Lily, with 6 petals, 
0stamens and one pistil. 78. The same flower with 
the petals removed , aaa are the anthers ; b the stigma. 
79. A papilionaceous flow'er. 80. The stamens and 
pistils of the same, the latter with a plumose or bearded 
stigma. 81. A labiate flower. 82. A flower of 
Agrostis w ith a valvular calyx, forked anthers, and plu- 
mose stigmas. 83. A flower of the Oat, with a spiral 
awn attached to the interior valves or corolla. 84. 
A double calyx. 85. Parnassia with its nectaries 
terminating in filaments and tipped with globose sum- 
mits. 86. A nectary of Parnassia palusiris. 87. The 
nectary or lepanthium of Asclepias. 88. Nectaries 
of Aconilum. 89. A three celled capsule. 90. A 
Samara or winged monospermous capsule. 91. Aber- 295 
ry. 92. A drupe. 93. An apple. 94. A filbert nut. 
Plate. VII. Fig. 93. Represents a section of the 
Cocoa nut. 96. A strawberry. 97. A silique. 98. A 
silicle. 99. A legume. 100. The receptacle of the 
Dandelion. 101. Arum Triphyllum, whose spathe en- 
closes a spadix. 102. The fruit of Geranium. 103. 
The pappus of Salsify. 104. The bracte of the Lime 
tree. 105. The seed of Clematis. 106. A seed 
shewing the scar, to which the vessels of the capsule 
are attached. 107. The filbert shewing the embryo. 
108. The Persimmon with an oblique embryo. 109. 
A germinating seed. 11C. The lobes converted into 
seminal leaves. 111. The incurved embryo of the 
Kidney bean. 
Plate VIII. Cryptogamia, Fig. 112. Represents 
a section of a fern whose organs of fructification are 
coveied by an indusium. 113. The indusium, and 
the capsule with its transverse ring. 114. Equisetum 
with its fructification on a spike. 115. One of its pel- 
tate receptacles. 116. Its unripe seeds, surrounded 
by four stamens. 117. The fertile flowers of Funaria 
hygrometica. 118. The capsule of a Moss magnified 
to shew its fringe and lid. 119. Herbage and flowers 
of Jungermannia complanata. 120. The sime magni- 
fied. 121. The herbage (thallus) ofParmelia stellaris. 
122. The shield (apothecium) of a Lichen magnified 
to shew the seeds or gems by which these plants are 
propagated. 123. Boletus, having pores beneath the 
cap of the Fungus. 124. Hydnum with prickles. 125. 
Agaricus with gills which contain the gems. 126. The 
fructification oi Marchantia. 127. Lycoperdon stellatum 
a fungus writh a stellate volva. 128. Bryum androgy- 
num, a moss wfith unfertile flowers. 129. Polytricium 
commune with its fructification concealed by a veil, a 
represents the veil ; b the capsule ; c the same with 
the lid removed ; d the lid. 130. The unfertile flow- 
ers of the same moss. 131 and 132 the barren and 
fertile flowers of Mosses according to the representa- 
tion of Pled w ig. 
THE PLATES. INDEX. 
Page. 
Abrupt, 98, 130 
Abruptly branched, 114 
Acerose, 125 
Acotyledons, 253 
Aculeate, 132 
Acuminate, 129 
Acute, 129 
Adnate 132 
jEqualis, 247 
Agamous, 231 
Aggregate, 137 
Albumen, 30,206 
Alburnum, 63 
Algae, 227 
Alternate, 113, 122 
Ament, 166 
Ancipital, 113 
Angiospermia, 246 
Angular, 125 
Annual, 93 
Anther 132 
A ntheridium, 183 
Apetalous, 186 
Appendages, 152 
Appressed, 122 
Arborescent, 
Arillus 210 
Armature, 131 
Articulated, 114 
Ascending, 112 
Auriculate, 132 
Awn, 21, 
Axillary, 163; 
Banner, 175! 
Barren, 186; 
Base, 185 
Beak, 211| 
Beard, 179 
Berry, 203 
Biennial, 93 
Bifarious, 122 
Binate, 128 
Bipinnatifid, 128 
Bipinnate, 129 
Biternate, 129 
Brachiate, H3 
Bracte, 172 
Buds, 152 
Bulbs, 98, 156 
Page. 
Bull ate, 131 
Caducous, 170, 178 
Calcarate, 179 
Calyculate, 170 
Calyx, ' 169 
Cambium, 77 
Campanulate, 174 
Capillary, 125 
Capsule, 202 
Camose or fleshy, 207 
Catkin, 160 
Cells, 202 
Cellular Integument, 58 
Channelled, 120, 131 
Ciliate, 130 
Cirrhose, 129 
Classes, 240, 253 
Clasping, 123 
Claw, 174 
Cleft, 127, 169 
ICluster, Raceme, 166 
Coloured, 132 
Column, 202 
Compact, 114 
Common receptacle, 185 
calyx, 170 
Compound, 124, 173 
Compressed, 113, 121 
Cone, 204 
Conjugate, 128 
Connate, 123 
Corcle, Embryo, 209 
Cordate, 125 
Coriaceous, 132 
Corneous, 207 
Corolla, 173 
Cortical layers, 59 
net, 136 
Corymb, 164 
Cotyledons, 30,208 
Creeping, 97 
Crenate, 130 
Crescent-shaped, 126 
Cruciform, 175 
Cryptogamia, 220 
Cuculiate, 125 
Culm, 118 
Cuneate, 125 
Curled. 131 Cuticle, epidermis, 53 
Cylindrical, 170 
Cyme, 164 
Decandria, 240 
Deciduous, 133, 170, 174 
Declinate, 181 
Decompound, 129 
Decurrent, 124 
Decussate, 113 
Deltoid, 125 
Dentate, 130 
Denticulate, 130 
Depressed, 122 
Diadelphia, 241 
Diandria, 240 
Dichotomous, 113 
Diclinia, 250 
Diclinious, 186 
Dicotyledons, 256 
Didynamia, 241 
Diffuse, 113 
Digitate, 128 
Digynia, 242 
Dimediate, 172 
Dioecia, 242 
Dioecious, 186 
Disk, 185 
Dispersion of seeds, 212 
Distichal, 114, 122 
Divaricate, 114 
Diverging branches, 114 
Dodecandria, 240 
Dotted, 130 
Double, 170 
Doubly serrate, 130 
Downy, or tomentose, 95 
Drupe, 204 
Duration, 931 
Eliptic, 12 tj 
Emarginate, 129 
Embryo, 30, 209 
Emersed, 122 
Enneandria, 245 
Ensiform, 132 
Entire, 129 
Epidermis, 53 
Epipetalous, 186 
Epigynous, 186 
Erect, 122 
Erose, 130 
Essential character, 236 
INDEX. 
Equal Corolla, 174 
Even, 194 
Evergreen, 133 
Exotic, 94 
Exserted, 181 
Farinaceous, 207 
Fascicle, 165 
F asciculated, 98, 122 
Fastigiate branches, 114 
F eras, 220 
Fertile flowers, 186 
Fibrous Roots, 97 
Filament, 181 
Filiform, 125 
Fistulous, 114 
Fleshy albumen, 207 
Flexuose stem. 113 
Floral leaves, 122 
Florets, 173 
Flowers, 168 
Flower stalk, 163 
Follicle, 202 
Food of Plants, 39 
Fringed leaves, 130 
Fringe, 114 
Frond, 151, 221, 224 
Fruit, 201 
Frustranea, 243 
Fruticose, 94 
Fungi, 229 
Funnel-shaped corolla, 174 
Furrowed, 96 
Fusiform root, 98 
Gems, 234 
General Involucre, 171 
Generic character, 236 
Geniculate, 118 
German, 183 
Germination, 30 
Glabrous, 94 
Glands, 160 
Glandular, 179 
ddaucous, 95 
Glossy, or polished, 95 
Glume, 170 
Granulated, 98 
Gyrnnospermia, 246 
lynandria, 241 
flairs, 95 
Hastate, 126 
Head, 166 
297 298 
INDEX. 
Hepaticae, 226 j 
Heptandria, 240 
Herbarium, App. vii. 
Hexandria, ,240 
H i 1 am, or Sc ar, 206 
Hirsute, 95: 
Hispid, 95 
Hoary, 95* 
Hollow, 114: j 
Hypogynous, 1861 
Icosandria. 241! 
Imbricated, 122, 170 j 
Imperfect, 220, j 
Incised, 128! 
Indigenous, or native 94 j 
Inferior, 184> 
Inflated, 170; 
Inflorescence, 163 j 
Involucre, 171 
Involute, 130' 
Involucellate filaments. 180 j 
Irregular, 174 j 
Jointed, 114; 
Keel, 175 j 
Labiate, 174 
Laciniate. 128 
Lanceolate, 125 
Leaves, 120 
Leaf-stalk?,. 120 
Legume 202 
Lepanthium, 180 
Liber, 60 
Lichens, 227 
Ligula 157 
Lingulate, 175 
Liliaceous, 175 
Linear, 125 
Lineate, 131 
Ligulate, 132 
Lobed, 127 
Loment, 202 
Lunulate orcresent form, IIS 
Lyrate, 127 
Maratime 94; 
Marescent or Withering, 175: 
Margin of leaves, 129' 
Membranaceous, 132( 
Midrib, 121| 
Monadelphia, 241! 
Moncspermous, 202j 
Monandria. 240| 
MonoeCia, 241 
Monoecious, 186 
Monocotyledons, 253 
Monogynia, 242 
Monopetalous, 173 
;M jiiophyllous, 169 
Mosses, 222 
iMucronate or Cuspidate, 129 
Multi plicate, 134 
Naked, 115, 132 
flowers, 186 
Native, 44 
Natural character, 236 
jNatural orders, 251 
jNaturalized 94 
Necessaria, 247 
(Nectary, 179 
Nerves, 121 
Nerved, 131 
Nut, 204 
(Oblique, 126 
(Oblong, 124 
jObovate, 124 
tObt.use, 129 
j Ochrea, 157 
Octandria, 246 
Opposite, 113, 122 
Orbicular, 124 
Orders, 242,353 
Orifice, 176 
Oval, 124 
Ovary xjr Germen, 183 
Palms, 117 
Palmate, 98, 127 
Panicle, 166 
Papilionaceous, 175 
Papillose, 95 
Pappus, 210 
Parasitic plants, 107 
Parted, 127, 169 
Partial, 171 
Partitions, 201 
Pectinate, 128 
jiPedate, 129 
ijPeduncle, 163 
! Pellicle, 210 
('Peltate, 123 
I (Pendent, 114 
IjPentandria, 240 
'\Pepo, 203 
(Perennial, 93 290 
Perigynous, 86 
Perfoliate, 123 
Perianth or calyx, 169 
Pericarp, 201 
Persistent, 170, 174 
Personate, 174 
Petal, 173 
Petaloid, 178, 184 
Petiole, 129 
Petiolate, 123 
Pilose, 95 
Pinnate, 128 
Pinnatifid, 128 
Pistil, 182, 183 
Pith, 66 
Plaited, 131 
Plumose, 184 
Plumelet or Plumule, 31 
Pollen, 183 
Pollinia, 183 
Polished, 95 
Polyadelphia, 241 
Polyandria, 241 
Polygamia, 242 
Polygamous, 186 
Polygynia, 242; 
Polypetalous, 174; 
Polyphyllous, 169; 
Polyspermous, 202 
Pome, 203: 
Praemorse, 98 
Prickle, 161 
Prismatic, 179 
Procumbent, 112 
Proliferous, 117 
Pubescence, 159 
Pulp, 59 
Punctate, 130 
Pyrena, 204 
Quinate, 129 
Raceme, 166 
Radical 121 
Radicant, 112 
Radicles, 97 
Ray, 185 
Reclined, 112, 123 
Reniform, 126 
Repand, 130 
Regular, 174 
Retuse, 130 
Reticulate, 13 i 
Revolute, 130 
INDEX. 
Ringent, 174 
Roots, 97 
Rosaceous, 175 
Rotate, 174 
Rugose, 130 
Runcinate, 127 
Sagittate, 126 
Salver-shaped, 174 
Samara, 202 
Sap, 74 
Sarmentose, 112 
Scabrous, 95 
Scale, 170 
Scaly, 98, 115 
Scape, 163 
Scar, 206 
Scariose, 170 
Secretions, 80 
Seeds, 205 
Segregate, 248 
Sempevuent, 133 
Serrate, 130 
Serrulate, 130 
Sessile, 123 
Setaceous, 125 
Sheath, 121 
Sheathing, 123 
Silique, 202 
Silicle, 202 
Siliculosa, 242 
Siliquosa, 242 
Silky, 95 
Silver grain, 64 
Simple, 124 
Sinuate, 127 
Solid, 98, 114 
Spadix, 167 
Spathe, 172 
Spike, 165 
Spikelet, 166 
Spinous, 126,170 
Spathe, 172 
Spatulate, 125 
Species, 234 
[Specific characters, 236 
Stamens, 181 
'Stameniferous, 186 
Standard, 175 
Stellate or Verticillate, 122 
(Stem, 112 
Stemless, 114 
Stigma, 184 300 
Sting, 101| 
Stipe, 220; 
Stipules, 156| 
Stoloniferous, 118| 
Striated, 95| 
Strobile, 204 
Style, 184 
Subrotund, 124 
Subulate, 125 
Succulent, 132 
Summit of leaves, 129 
Superflua, 247 
Superior, 184 
Surface, 94 
Syngenesia, 241 
Syngenesious, 186 
Tail, 211 
Tendrils, 158 
Terete, 113 
.Terminal, 163 
Ternate, 128 
Testa, 206 
Tetradynamia, 241 
Tetragynia, 242 
Tetrandria, 240 
Thorn, 161 
Three-nerved, 131 
Thyrse, 166 
Tomentose, 95 
Toothed, 168 
T riandria, 240 
Trigynia, 242 
Triply-nerved, 131 
Trunks, 112 
Truncate, 129 
Tube, 174 
INDEX. 
Tuberous, 97 
Tubular, 132, 174,175 
Tunicated, 98 
Turbinated, 170 
Turgid 170 
Two-ranked, 114 
Umbel, 164 
Umbellate, 164 
Undulate, 131 
Unequal, 125, 174 
Unilateral, 166 
United, 186 
Urceolate, 170, 174 
Utricles or cells, 72 
Valves, 170, 201 
Variegated, 132 
Varieties, 234 
Vegetation, 39 
Veil, Calyptra, 224 
Vegetable fibre, 68 
Veins, 121 
Veined, 131 
Ventricose, 170 
Verrucose, 95 
Verticillate, 114, 112 
Vessels, 70 
Villous, 95 
Vitellus, 207 
Voluble, 113 
Warty, 95 
Waved, 131 
Whorl, 166 
Wings, 175, 211 
Winged, 113 
Wood, 62 
Woolly, 95 
ERRATA. 
Preface, page vi, line 3, omit the 
Page 4 for Baukin read Bauhin 
125 acrose acerose 
174 renguiculate unguiculate 
202 Lamana Samara 
246 monodelphia monadelphia 
W ildenow W illdenow IV m. V VI. vir Yin