Great Aristotle's s Picture view,
All other’s false, this only true.

ARISTOTLE’s 
BOOK OF 
PROBLEMS, 
With other 
ASTRONOMERS, 
ASTROLOGERS, 
PHYSICIANS, 
AND
PHILOSOPHERS. 
Wherein is contained divers 
QUESTIONS and ANSWERS 
Touching the 
State of MAN’s Body. 
Together with 
The Reasons of divers Wonders in the 
Creation: The Generations of Birds, 
Beasts, Fishes, and Insects; and many 
other Problems on the most weighty 
Matters, by Way of Question and Answer.
The Twenty-Seventh Edition. 
LONDON: 
Printed for J. W.  J. K.  D. M.  A. B.  E. R.  M. 
R.  T. L.  B. M. and A. W. 

READER, 
THESE Problems have been printed 
very often, and finding so general an 
acceptance, diverse Books have been hoisted into
the World under the Name of Aristotle, so 
that many People have bought them, thinking 
they had the right sort, by which the Publick 
has been injured as well as the Proprietors. 
The Matter it contains is necessary for all 
People to know; and as Man is said to be a 
Microcosm (or little World) and in him the 
Almighty has imprinted his own Image so live- 
ly, that no Power whatsoever is able to blot 
it out; so this Image and Similitude is the Soul 
and Understanding. And notwithstanding all 
the Perfections which Man hath in himself;
few or none take Delight in the Study of him- 
self, or is careful to know the Substance, State, 
Condition, Quality, or use of the several Parts 
of his own Body, altho' he be the honour of 
Nature, and more to be admired than the 
strongest and rarest Wonder that ever hap- 
pened. I have therefore published this little 
Book wrote by Aristotle and the deepest Phi- 
losophers, who teach the Use of all Parts of 
the Body, their Nature, Quality, Property, 
and Substance, and question not but it will 
afford both innocent, necessary, and useful 
Knowledge, and prove profitable to both 
Sexes.
Farewel. 

[5]
ARISTOTLE's PROBLEMS. 
Q. AMONG all living Creatures, why hath 
Man only his Countenance lifted up towards 
Heaven? 
A. Unto the Question there are divers Answers. 
First, It proceeds from the Will of the Creator. 
And although the Answer be true, yet in this our 
purpose it seemeth not to be of force, because that 
so all Questions easily might be resolved. 
Secondly, I answer, that for the most part every 
Workman doth make his first work worse, and 
then his second better, and so God creating all 
other Beasts before Man, gave them their Face 
looking down to the Earth. And then secondly, 
he created Man, as it doth appear in Genesis, unto 
whom he gave an honest Shape, lifted up unto 
Heaven, because it is drawn from divinity, and 
doth also derogate from the Goodness of God, 
who maketh all his Works perfect and good. 
Thirdly, It is answered, that Man only among 
all living Creatures is ordained to the Kingdom of 
Heaven, and therefore hath his Face elevated, and 
lifted up to heaven. because that despising worldly 
and earthly things, he ought to contemplate on 
heavenly things. 
Fourthly, That the reasonable Soul is like unto 
Angels, and finally ordained towards God; as it 
appeared by Averrois, in the first de Anima; and, 
therefore he hath a Figure looking upward. 
A3 Fifthly,

6 The PROBLEMS 
Fifthly, that Man is a Microcosm, that is, a 
little World, as it pleaseth Aristotle to say in the 
Eight of this Phys. and therefore he doth command
all other living Creatures, and they obey him. 
Sixthly, It is answered, that naturally there is 
unto every thing and every work, that form and 
figure given which is fit and proper for its motion: 
As unto the Heaven, roundness, to the fire a py- 
ramidical form, that is, broad beneath, and sharp 
towards the top: which form is most apt to ascend;
and so Man had his face up to Heaven, to behold 
the wonders of God’s works. 
Q. Why is the Head of Beasts hairy?
A. The Answer, according to the Opinion of 
Const. is, that the hairs are an ornament of the head, 
and of the brain; and the brain is purged and eva- 
cuated of gross humours by the growing of the hair, 
from the highest unto the lowest parts: which pass 
through the pores of the exterior flesh, and do be- 
come dry, and are converted into hairs. This ap- 
pears to be true, because that in all Man’s body 
there is nothing dryer than the hairs; for they are 
dryer than the bones. as Albertus Magnus doth af- 
firm, because that some Beasts are nourished with 
bones, as Dogs. but no Beasts can digest feathers, 
or hair, but do void them undigested; and they 
are not for nutriment. 
Secondly, It is answered, that the brain is purg- 
ed four manner of ways: First, of superfluous wa- 
try humours, by the Eyes; from melancholy, by 
the Ears; and of choler, by the Nose; flegm, by 
the Hair; and that is the intent of the Physician. 
Q. Why have Men longer Hair on their Heads than 
other living Creatures? 
A. Arist. de Genrat. Anim. says, that Men have 
the moistest brain of all living Creatures, from the 
which the seed proceedeth, which is converted 
into the long hair of the head. 
Secondly,

7 of ARISTOTLE. 
Secondly, It is answered, that the humours of 
Man are fat, and do not become dry easily, and 
therefore the hair groweth long in him: in other 
Beasts the humours are easily dryed, and therefore 
the hair groweth not so long. 
Q. Why doth the hair take deeper root in Man's
skin, than in other living Creatures?
A. Because they have greater store of nourish-
ment in Man. and therefore grow more into the 
inward parts of Man. And this is also the reason 
why in other Creatures the hair doth alter and 
change with the skin, and not in Man, unless it be 
sometimes a fear or wound. 
Q. Why have Women longer hair than Men? 
A. Because Women are moister than Men, and 
flegmatick, and therefore there is more matter 
of hair in them, and by consequence, the length 
also of their hairs doth follow. And further more, 
this matter is more increased in Women than in 
Men from their interior parts, and especially in the 
time of their Monthly Terms, because the matter 
doth then ascend, whereby the Humour which 
breedeth the hair doth increase. And Albertus 
doth say, that if the hair of a Woman in the time 
of her Flowers be put into dung, a venomous 
Serpent is engendered of it. 
The second answer is, because Women want 
Beards, and so the matter of the Beard doth go 
into the matter of the hair. 
Q. Why have some Men soft hair, and some hard? 
A. We answer with Aristotle, that the hair hath 
proportion with the skin, of which some is hard, 
some thick, some subtle and soft, some gross; 
therefore the hair which groweth out of a thick 
and gross skin, is thick and gross, and that which 
groweth of a subtle and fine, is fine and soft, and 
when the Pores are open, then cometh forth much 
humour, and therefore hard hair is engendered; 
A and

8 The PROBLEMS 
and when the pores are strait, then there doth 
grow soft and fine hair. And this doth Aristotle, 
shew in Men, in whom we have an eminent token, 
because Women have softer hair than they, because 
that in Women the Pores are shut, and are strait 
by reason of their coldness. 
Secondly, because that for the most part chole- 
rick Men have harder and thicker hair than others; 
by reason of their heat, and because the pores are 
ever open in them, and therefore also they have 
Beards sooner than others. Whereupon the Philo- 
sopher saith, that those beast which have hard 
hair are the boldest, because such hair proceedeth 
of heat and choler, which choler maketh Men 
fight. Aristotle also giveth example in the Bear and 
the Boar; and contrariwise those beasts that have 
soft hair are fearful, because they be cold, as the 
Hare and Hart. Aristotle doth give another reason 
of the softness and hardness of the hair, drawn 
from the Climate where a Man is born; because 
that in hot Regions hard and gross hair is ingen- 
dered, as it appears in the Ethiopians, and the con- 
trary is true in the cold Country, as towards the 
North. 
Q. Why have some Men curled Hair and some 
smooth? 
A. The answer is. That the cause of the curl- 
ing of the hair is great adundance of heat; so that 
if there be much heat in a Man, then the hair 
doth curl and grow upward. And a sign of this 
proved true. because that sometimes a Man doth 
enter into a Bath smooth haired, and afterwards by 
the Bath becometh curled. And therefore the 
Keepers of Baths have often curled hair, as also 
the Ethiopians and cholerick Men. But the cause of 
the smoothness is the abundance of moist humours 
which tend downwards; and a proof of this is, 
because they have much humidity in them, and 
small heat. 
Q. 

9 of ARISTOTLE. 
Q. Why do Women shew their ripeness by their hair 
in their Privy Parts, and not elsewhere, but Men in
their Breasts? 
A. We answer Physician like, because in Men 
and Women there are abundance of humidity in 
that place, but more in Women, because in Men 
have the mouth of the bladder in that place where 
the Urine is contained, of which the hair is the 
breasts is ingendered, and about the Navel. But of 
Women it is said, that the humidity of the Bladder, 
and of the Matrix or Womb, is joined, and meet- 
eth in that low secret Place; and therefore is dis- 
solved and seperated in that place through much 
vapours and fumes, which are the cause of hair. 
And the like doth happen in other Places where 
hair is, and under the arms. 
Q. Why have not women Beards? 
A. Because they want heat, as appeareth in some 
effeminate Men, who are beardless for the same 
cause, because they are of the complexion of 
Women. 
Q. Why doth the hair grow in them that are hanged?
A. Because their bodies are exposed to the Sun, 
the which through its heat doth dissolve all the 
moisture into a fume or vapour, of which the hair 
doth grow and increase. 
Q. Why is the hair of the Beard thicker and grosser
than elsewhere, and the more Men are shaven, the 
harder and thicker it groweth. 
A. Because according to the rule of the Physi- 
cians, by how much more the humour or vapour 
of any liquor is dissolved and taken away, by so 
much the more the humour remaining doth draw 
to the same; and therefore how much the more 
the hair is shaven, so much the more the humours 
gather thicker; and of them hair is ingendred, and 
doth there also wax-hard. 
Q. Why are women smooth and fair in respect of 
Men? 
A5 A.


10 The PROBLEMS
A. The answer is, according unto Aristotle de 
Generat. Animal, Because that in Women all hu- 
midity and superfluity, which are the matter and 
cause of the hair of the body, is expelled with 
their Monthly Terms; the which superfluity re- 
maineth in Men, and through vapours do pass into 
the hair. And a sign of this is, because Women 
have any running at the Nose, or Imposthume or 
Ulcer, but such matter is expelled also. And we 
see some old Women begin to have beards in their 
old age, that is, after forty or fifty Years of Age, 
when their Flowers are ceased: as Aristotle doth 
teach, de animal lib. 9
Q. Why doth Man only, above all other Creatures, 
wax hoary and grey, as Pythagoras and Aristotle
affirm?  
A. The answer, according unto the Philoso- 
phers is, because Man hath the hottest heart of all 
living Creatures: And therefore nature being more 
wise, left a Man should be suffocated through the 
heat of his heart, hath placed the heart, which is 
most hot, under the Brain, which is most cold; to 
the end, that the heat of the heart may be tempe- 
red with the coldness of the brain, and contrariwise 
that the coldness of the brain may be heated with 
the heat of the heart, and thereby there might be 
a temperature in both. A sign to prove this is, be- 
cause that of all living Creatures Man hath the 
worst breath, if he come to his full age. Further- 
more, Man doth consume half his time in sleeping, 
which doth proceed from the great access of the 
coldness and moisture of the brain, and by that 
means doth want natural heat to digest and con- 
sume that moistness; the which heat he hath suf- 
ficiently in his Youth; and therefore in that age is 
not grey, but in his old age, when heat faileth: 
and therefore the vapours ascending from the Sto- 
mach remain undigested and unconsumed for want 
of natural heat, and then putresies, of which pu- 
trifaction

11 of ARISTOTLE. 
trifaction of humours, the whiteness doth follow, 
which is called greyness, or hoariness. Whereby
it doth appear, that hoariness is nothing else but a 
whiteness of hair, caused by the putrifaction of 
humours about the roots of the hair through the 
want of natural heat in old age. Sometimes also 
greyness is caused by the naughtiness of the com- 
plexion, which may well happen in youth, and 
sometimes by reason of the moisture undigested, and 
sometimes through over great fear and care, as it 
appeareth in Merchants, Sailors, Thieves; from 
whence cometh this verse. 
Cura facit canos, quam vis homo non habet annos. 
Q. Why doth red hair grow white sooner than other? 
A. Accord to the opinion of Aristotle, because 
redness is an infirmity of the hair, for it is ingendred 
of a weak and infirm matter; that is to say, of 
matter corrupted with the Flower of the Women and
therefore they wax white sooner than back hair. 
Q. Why do wolves grow grisly? 
A. The better to understand this question, not 
the difference between greyness and grisliness; be- 
cause that greyness is caused through the defect of 
natural heat, but grisliness through devouring and 
eating, as Aristotle witnesseth. 7 de Animal. The 
Wolf being a devouring beast, and an Eater, he 
letteth it down gluttonously without chewing, and 
that at once enough for three days, of which meat 
gross vapours are ingendered in the Wolf’s body: 
and by consequence grisliness. Secondly, greyness 
and grisliness do differ, because greyness is only in 
toe head. and grisliness over all the body. 
Q. Why do Horses grow grisly and grey?
A. According to Aristotle, because they are for 
the most part in the Sun: And in his opinion also, 
heat doth accidentally cause putrifaction; and there 
of that kind of heat the matter of hair doth putri- 
fy; and by consequence they are quickly pill’d 
Q


12 The PROBLEMS
Q. Why do men become bald, and trees fall their 
Leaves in the winter. 
A. Aristotle doth give the same reason for both; 
because that the want of moisture in both, is the 
cause of the want of the hair, and of the leaves; 
and this is proved, because that a Man becometh 
bald through Venery, because that lechery it let- 
ing forth of natural humidity and heat. And so by 
that excess in carnal pleasure, moisture is consumed, 
which is the nutriment of the hair, and therefore 
baldness doth ensue. And this is evidently proved 
in Eunucks and Women, which do not grow bald, 
because they do not depart from their moistness. 
And therefore Eunucks are of the complexion of 
Women. But if you ask why Eunucks be not bald 
nor have not the Gout, as Hypocrates saith, the 
Answer is according unto Galen, because the cause 
of baldness is dryness, the which is not in Eunucks 
because they want their stones, the which do mi- 
nister heat unto all the parts of the body, and the 
heat doth open the pores, which being open, the 
hair doth fall.
Q. Why are not women bald?
A. Because they are cold and moist, which are 
the cause that the hair remaineth, for moistness 
doth give nutriment to the hair, and coldness doth 
bind the pores. 
Q. Why are bald men deceitful according to the 
verse?
Si non vis falli, fugius consertia calvi. 
A. Because baldness doth witness a cholerick 
complexion, which is hot and dry; and cholerick 
Men are naturally deceitful, according to the verse. 
Hirsutus, fallax, irascens, prodigus audax. 
And therefore it followeth, a primo ad ultimum 
that bald Men are deceitful and crafty. 
Q. Why are not blind Men natural bald?
A. Because

13 of ARISTOTLE. 
A. Because that according unto Aristotle, the 
Eye hath most moisture in it, and that moisture 
which should pass through by the substance of the 
Eyes, doth become a sufficient nutriment of the 
hair and therefore they are seldom bald. 
Q. Why doth the Hair stand an end, when Men 
are afraid? 
A. Because in the Time of fear, the heat doth 
go from the outward part of the body, unto the in- 
inward, to the intent to help the heart, and so the 
Pores, in which the hair are fastened, are shut up; 
after which stopping and shutting up of the Pores, 
the standing up of the hair doth follow, as it is seen 
in beasts, as Dogs, wild Boars, and Peacocks. 
Of the Head.
Q. WHY is a Man's Head round? 
A. Because this is most fit to receive 
any thing into it, as Aristotle doth affirm, Lib. de 
Cael. and the Head doth contain in it five Senses. 
This is also seen in a material Sphere. 
Q. Why is the Head round? 
A. Aristotle saith, because it doth contain in it 
the moistest parts of the living Creature and also 
because the brain may be defended thereby, as 
with a Shield. 
Q. Why is the Head absolutely long, but some- 
what round? 
A. To the end the three Creeks and Cells of the 
Brain might the better be distinguished: that is, 
the fancy in the forehead, the discoursing or rea- 
sonable part in the middle, and the memory in the 
hindermost part. 
Q. Why doth a Man lift up his Head towards the 
Heavens when he doth imagine? 
A. Because the Imagination is in the fore part 
of the Head, or Brain; and therefore it lifteth up
itself  


14 The PROBLEMS 
itself, that the Creeks or Cells of the Imagination 
may be opened, and that the Spirits which help the 
Imagination, and are fit for that purpose, having 
their concourse thither, may help the Imagination. 
Q. Why doth a Man when he museth, or thinketh 
on things past, look down towards the Earth? 
A. Because the Cell or Creek which is behind, is 
the Creek or Chamber of Memory, and therefore 
that looketh towards Heaven when the Head is 
bowed down; and so that Cell is opened to the 
end that the Spirits which perfect the Memory 
should enter in. 
Q. Why is not the Head fleshy, like unto the other 
parts of the body? 
A. Because that according to Aristotle, the Head 
would be too heavy, and would not stand stedfastly; 
and therefore it is without flesh. Also a head loaden
with flesh, doth betoken an evil complexion. 
Q. Why is the Head subject to achs and griefs? 
A. According unto Constant, by reason evil hu- 
mours which proceed from the stomach, ascend up 
to the head and disturb the brain, and so cause the 
pain in the Head. And sometimes it proceeds from 
overmuch filling the stomach, because, according 
unto the opinion of Galen, two great sinews pass 
from the brain to the mouth of the stomach, and 
therefore these two parts do suffer grief always to- 
gether. Sometimes the ach doth proceed of drink- 
ing strong Wine, of fuming Meats, as Garlick, or 
Onions; and sometimes of slegm in the stomach, 
whereof spring Quotidian Fevers. 
Q. Why have Women the head ach more often than 
Men?
A. Albertus saith, that it is by reason of their 
Monthly Terms, which Men are not troubled with, 
and so a moist, unclean and venomous fume is 
dissolved, the which seeking passage upward, doth 
cause the head ach. 
Q. Why

15 of ARISTOTLE.  
Q. Why is the Brain white? 
A. There are two answers; the first, because it 
is cold, and coldness is the mother of white. The 
Philosophers do teach the second, because it may 
receive the similitude and likeness of all colours, 
which the white colour can best do, because it is 
most simple? 
Q. Why are all the Senses in the Head? 
A. Because (as Albertus saith) the brain is there 
on which all the Senses do depend, and are directed 
by it, and by consequence it maketh all the spirits 
to feel, and by it all the Membranes are governed.
Q. Why cannot a Man escape death, if the brain 
or heart be hurt? 
A. Because the Heart and the Brain are two of the 
principal left parts which concern Life; and therefore 
if they be hurt, there is no remedy left for cure. 
Q. Why is the Brain moist? 
A. Because it may easily receive an impression, 
which moisture can best do, as it appeareth in 
Wax, which doth easily receive the print or the 
seal when it is soft. 
Q. Why is the Brain cold?
A. This is answered two ways: First, because 
that by this coldness it may clear the understand- 
ing of a Man, and make it subtile. Secondly, 
that by the coldness of the Brain the heat of the 
heart may be tempered; and this is Aristotle's in- 
tent, Lib. de Animal.
Of the Eyes.
Q. WHY have you one Nose and two Eyes? 
A. Because our light is more necessary 
for us than the smelling: And therefore it doth 
proceed from the goodness of Nature, that if we 
receive any hurt or loss of one Eye, that yet the 
other should remain: Unto the which, the spirit 
with which we see, called Spiritus Visus, is directed 
when


16 The PROBLEMS 
when the other is out, as it is plain in the com- 
mon perspective. 
Q. Why have Children in their youth great Eyes, and 
why do they become smaller and lesser in their age? 
A. According to Aristotle de Generat. It proceed- 
eth from the great humidity of the Brain, and for 
the same cause children are very sleepy. 
Q. Why do black Eyes see well in the day time, and 
bad by night? 
A. According to that opinion of Aristotle, it 
proceedeth from the want of fire, and from the as- 
sembling and meeting together of light and humor, 
the Eyes, which are lightened by reason of the 
Sun, which doth lighten the easy humour of the 
eye. and purge it. and in the absence of the Sun 
those humours become dark and black, and there- 
fore the sight not so good. 
Q. Why doth the blueish grey eyes see badly in the 
day time, and well in the night? 
A. Because (saith Aristotle) greyness is light and 
shining of itself, and the spirits with which we see 
are weakened in the day time, and strengthened in 
the night. 
Q. Why be Men's Eyes of divers colours? 
A. This proceedeth, saith Aristotle, by reason of 
the diversity of the Humours. The Eye therefore 
hath four coverings and three Humours: The first 
covering is called Consolidative, which is the utter- 
most, and is strong and fat. The second is called 
an horny skin and covering to the likeness of an 
horn, and that is a clear covering. The third is 
colled Uvea, of the likeness of a black Grape. The 
fourth is called a Cobweb. But according to the 
Opinion of some, the Eye doth consist of seven co- 
verings or skins, and three humours. The first hu- 
mour is called Abugines for the likeness unto the 
white of an Egg. The second Glarial, that is clear 
like unto Ice, or Cristalline. The third Vitreous, 
that

17 of ARISTOTLE. 
that is clear as Glass. And the diversity of hu- 
mour causeth the diversity of the Eyes. 
Q. Why have Men which have but one Eye, good 
Archers? And why do good Archers commonly shut one 
Eye? And why do such as behold the Stars, look 
through a Trunk with one Eye? 
A. This matter is handled in the perspective 
Arts. and the reason is, as it doth appear in the 
Book of Causes, because that every virtue and 
strength united and knit together, is stronger than 
itself dispersed and scattered. Therefore all the 
force of seeing dispersed in two Eyes, the one 
being shut, is gathered into the other; and so the 
light is fortified in him; and by consequence, he 
doth see better and certainly with one Eye being 
shut, than both being open. 
Q. Why do such as drink much, and laugh much, 
shed tears? 
A. Because that whilst they drink and laugh with 
out measure, the Air which is drawn in doth not 
pass out through the Windpipe, and so with force is 
directed and sent to the Eyes; and by their pores 
passing out doth expel the humours of the Eyes; the 
which humours being so expulsed do bring tears. 
Q. Why do such as weep much, urine but little? 
A. Because (saith Aristotle) the Radical humi- 
dity of a Tear, and of Urine, are of one and the 
same nature. And therefore where weeping doth 
increase, their Urine doth deminish; and that 
they be of one nature; is plain to the taste, because 
they are both salt. 
Q. Why do some that have clear Eyes see nothing 
at all? 
A. By reason he oft Oppilation and naughtiness 
of the sinews with which we see. For the Temples 
being destroyed, the strength of the light cannot 
be carried from the Brain to the Eye, as the 
philosopher doth teach, lib. de Sen. & sensatio. 
Q Why


18 The PROBLEMS 
Q. Why is the Eye clear and smooth like unto glass? 
A. Because the things which may be seen, are 
better beaten back from a smooth thing than other 
wise, that thereby the sight should strengthen. 
Secondly, I answer, it is because the eye is very 
moist above all parts of the Body, and of a water- 
ish nature; and as the water is clear and smooth, 
so likewise is the Eye. 
Q. Why do Men which have their Eyes deep in their 
head, see well afar off, and the like in Beasts? 
A. Because (saith Aristotle 2 de Gener. animal) 
the force and power by which we see is dispers’d in 
them, doth go directly to the thing which is seen. 
And this is proved by a similitude, because that 
when a Man doth stand in a deep Ditch, or Well, 
he doth see in the day time, standing in those 
places the slats of the Firmament: as Aristotle doth 
teach in his Treatise de forma specula; because that 
then the power of the sight and of the beames are 
not scattered. 
Q. Wherefore do those Men which have their Eyes 
far out, and not deep in their heads, see but meanly, 
and not far distant?
A. Because (saith Aristotle) the beams of the 
sight which pass from the eye, are scattered on e- 
very side, and do go directly unto the thihg that is 
seen, and therefore the sight is weakened. 
Q. Why are many Beasts born blind, as Lions, 
Whelps, and Dogs Whelps?
A. Because such Beasts are not as yet of perfect 
ripeness and maturity, and the course of nutriment 
doth not work in them. And this is proved by a 
similitude of the Swallow, whose Eyes, if they 
were taken out when they are little ones in the 
Nest, would grow again, and this is plain in many 
other Beasts, which are brought forth before their 
time, as it were dead, as Bears Whelps. And this 
reason


19 of ARISTOTLE 
reason doth belong rather to the Perspective than 
the Natural Philosopher. 
Q. Why do the Eyes of the Women that hath her 
flowers stain a new Glass, as Aristotle saith, de Some- 
no & Virgil, and this is the like Problem, Why doth a 
Basilisk kill a Man with his Sight? 
A. To the first I answer, that when the Flowers 
do run from a Women, then a most venomous Air 
is dissolved in them, which doth ascend unto the 
Women’s Head: and she having grief of her Head, 
doth cover it with many Veins and Kerchiefs; and 
because the Eyes are full of small insensible holes, 
which are called Pores, there the air seeketh a 
passage, and so doth infect the eyes, which are 
full of blood. And their Eyes do appear also 
drooping and full of tears, by reason of the evil 
vapour that is in them. and those vapours are in- 
corporated and multiplied, until they come unto 
the Glass before them and by reason that such a 
Glass is sound, clear and smooth, it doth easily 
receive that which is unclean. 
To the second it is answered, that the Basilisk is 
a very venemous and infected Beast, and that there 
pass from his Eyes venomous vapours, which are 
multiplied upon the thing which is seen by him, 
and even unto the Eye of Man: The which veno- 
mous vapours of humours entering into the body, 
do infect him; and so in the End the Man dieth. 
And this is also the reason why the Rasilisk looking 
upon a Shield perfectly well made with fast clammy 
pitch, or any hard smooth thing, doth kill himself 
because the humours are beaten back from the 
smooth hard thing unto the Basilisk, by which beat- 
ing back he his killed. And the like is said of a 
Woman when she hath her monthly disease, where 
of it followeth,that some old Women do hurt them- 
selves when they look upon glasses or other firm 
and solid things, in the time of their Terms.
Q. Why 

20 The PROBLEMS 
Why is not sparkling Cat’s Eyes and Wolves Eyes 
seen in the light, and not in the dark? 
A. Because that the greater light doth darken the 
lesser, and therefore in a greater light the sparkling 
cannot be seen but the greater the darkness, the 
easier it is seen, and is made more strong and shining 
because it is not then hindered by a greater external 
light which might darken it.
Q. Why doth a Man beholding himself in a Glass, 
presently forget his own disposition? 
A. Answer is made in Lib. de forma speculi. That 
the Image seen by the glass, doth represent it weak- 
ly and indirectly to the power of the sight; and be- 
cause it is represently weakly, it is also weakly ap- 
prehended, and by consequence is not long retained. 
Q. Why is the sight recreated and refreshed by a 
green colour, as this Verse sheweth? 
Fens, speculum gramen oculis sunt aleviamen. 
A. Because the green colour doth meanly move 
the instrument of sight, and therefore doth comfort 
the Sight; but this doth not black nor white colours 
because the colours do vehemently stir and alter the 
Organ and Instrument of the light, and therefore 
make the greater violence, but by how much the 
more violent the thing is which is felt or seen, the 
more it doth destroy and weaken the sense, as A- 
ristotle doth teach, Lib 2 de animal. 
Of the Nose. 
Q. WHY doth the Nose stand out farther than 
other parts of the Body? 
A. There are two Answers: The first, because 
the Nose is as it were the sink of the Brain, by 
which the flegm of the Brain is purged: and there- 
fore it doth stand forth, left the other parts should 
be defiled. The second (according to Constant.) 
is because the Nose is the beauty of the Face, and 
therefore it doth shew itself, and shine. It doth 
smell

21 of ARISTOTLE.
smell also, and adorn the Face; as Bœtus saith, 
de discip. School. 
Q. Why hath Man the worst smell all other living 
Creatures, as it doth appear, Lib. de Animal? 
A. Because the Man (as the Commentator saith) 
in respect of his Quantity hath the most brain of all 
Creatures. And therefore by that exceeding cold- 
ness and moistness, the Brain wanteth a good dis- 
position and by consequence the smelling, seeing 
Instrument is not good, as Aristotle and Themistocles 
do teach, Yea, some Men there be which do not 
smell at all. 
Q. Why do the Vulture or Cormorant smell very 
well, as the Commentator doth say? 
A. Because they have a very dry brain, and there- 
fore the Air carrying the smell, is not hindered by 
the humidity of the Brain, but doth presently touch 
his Instrument: And therefore he saith, That the 
Vultures, Tygers, and other Beasts, came five hundred 
Miles to the dead Bodies, after a battle in Greece. 
Q. Why did Nature make the Nostrils?
A. For three commodities. First, because that 
the Mouth being shut, we draw breath in by the 
Nostrils to refresh the Heart with, the second com- 
modity is, because that the Air which proceedeth 
from the Mouth, doth favor badly, because it doth 
favor of the vapours which rise from the stomach, 
but that which we breath from the Nose, is not 
noisom. The third is, because the flegm which doth 
proceed from the Brain is purged by them. 
Q. Why doth Men sneeze? 
A. Because that the expulsive virtue or power, 
and the sight, should thereby be purged, and the 
brain also from superfluities, because that the lungs 
are purged by coughing, so is the sight and brain by 
sneezing, and those which sneeze oft, are said to 
have a strong Brain, and therefore the Physicians 
give sneezing Medicaments to purge the brain, and 
such

22 The PROBLEMS 
such sick Person as cannot sneeze, die quickly, 
because it is a Sign their Brain is wholly stuffed 
with evil Humours, which cannot be purged.  
Q. Why do such as are Apoplectick sneeze; that is, 
such as are subject easily to bleed? 
A. Because the passages and ventricles of the 
brain are stopped in them; and if they could sneeze, 
their Apoplexy would be loosed. 
Why doth the heat of the Sun provoke sneezing, 
and not the heat of the Fire? 
A. Because the heat of the Sun doth now dissolve 
and not consume; and therefore the Vapour dis- 
solved is expelled by sneezing, but the heat of the 
Fire doth dissolve and consume, and therefore ra- 
ther doth hinder sneezing than provoke. 
Of the Ears. 
Q. WHY do Beasts move their Ears and not Man? 
A. Because there is a certain Muscle 
near unto Jaw, which doth cause motion in the 
Ear; and therefore that Muscle being extended 
and stretched, Men do not move their Ear, as it 
hath been seen in diverse Men; but all Beasts do 
use that Muscle or fleshy Sinew, and therefore do 
move their Ears. 
Q. Why is Rain prognosticated by the pricking up of 
the Asses Ears? 
A. Because the Ass is a very melancholy Beast, 
and it proceedeth from Melancholy that he doth 
foresee Rain to come. In the time of Rain all 
Beasts do prick up their Ears, and therefore the 
Ass perceiving that it will Rain, doth prick up his 
Ears before it come. 
Q. Why have some Beasts no Ears? 
A. Aristotle doth answer and say, that Nature 
doth give unto every thing that which is fit for it; 
but if she should have given Birds Ears, their flying 
would have been hindered by them. Likewise Fish do 
want


23 of ARISTOTLE. 
want Ears, because they would hinder their swim- 
ming; and have only certain little holes thro’ which 
they hear, as Aristotle declares by the Sea-Calf. 
Q. Why have Bats Ears, seeing they seem to be Birds?
A. Because they are partly Birds in Nature, in 
that they do fly, by reason whereof they have Wings 
and partly they are hairy, because they are Mice, 
therefore Nature, as being wise, gave them Ears. 
Q. Why hath Man only round Ears? 
A. Because the Shape of the whole and of the 
parts should be proportionable and especially in all 
things of one Nature; for as a Drop of water is 
round, so the whole Water, John de sacro Bosco doth 
prove. And so because a Man’s Head is round, 
the Ears incline towards the same Figure;  but the 
Heads of Beasts are somewhat long, and so the 
Ears are drawn into length also. 
Q. Why did Nature give living Creatures Ears? 
A. For two Causes. 1. Because with them they 
should hear. 2. Because that by the Ears cholerick
superfluity is purged; for as the Herd is purged of 
flegmatick superfluity by the Nose, so from chole- 
rick by the Ears. 
Of the Mouth. 
Q. WHY hath the Mouth Lips to compass it? 
A. According to Const. because the Lips 
do cover and defend the Teeth, it were unseemly 
that the Teeth should always be seen. Another 
answer is, that the Teeth are of a cold nature, and 
would therefore be soon hurt, if they were not 
covered with Lips. Another moral Reason is, 
because a Man should not be too hasty of Speech. 
Q. Why hath a Man two Eyes, two Ears and 
but one Mouth? 
A. Because a Man should speak but little, and see 
and hear much. And withal, Aristotle doth say, that 
the hearing in the Light doth shew us the difference 
of

24 The PROBLEMS 
of many things, and Seneca doth agree unto this 
affirming, that Nature environ’d the Tongue with 
a double cloyster, and Teeth and Lips, and has 
made the Ears open and wide, and has given us but 
one Mouth, to speak little, tho’ we hear much. 
Q. Why hath a Man a Mouth?
A. For many commodities. 1. Because the Mouth 
is the gate and door of the stomach. 2. Because the 
Meat is chewed in the Mouth and prepared and 
made ready for the first digestion, altho’ Avicen. 
doth hold, that the first digestion is made in the 
Mouth. 3. Because that the Air drawn into the 
hollow of the Mouth, for the refreshing of the 
Heart, is made more pure and subtile. And for 
many other causes, which shall hereafter appear. 
Q. Why are the Lips moveable? 
A. Because of forming the Voice and Words, 
which cannet be perfectly done without them. For 
as without a, b, c, there are no writing, so without 
the Lips no Voice can be well formed. 
Q. Why do Men gape? 
A. This gloss upon the last part of Hippocrates's 
Aphorisms saith, That it proceeds of Wearisomness, 
as when a Man fitteth among such as he doth not 
know, whose Company he would willingly be rid 
of. Besides, Gaping is caused of the thick fume
and vapours which fill the Jaws, by the expulsion 
of which is caused the stretching out and expulsion
of the Jaws, and opening of the Mouth, which is 
called gaping. 
Q. Why doth a Man gape, when he seeth another 
Man gapes? 
A. This proceedeth of imagination. And this 
is proved by a similitude, for an ass is animal valde
sensibile, by reason of his Melancholy, because he 
doth retain his superfluity a longtime, and would 
neither eat nor piss, unless he should hear another 
piss. And so a Man doth gape thro' imagination 
which another Man doth gape.  
Of


25 of ARISTOTLE. 
Of the Teeth. 
Q. WHY do they only, amongst all other Bones, 
feel the sense of feeling? 
A. Because (as Avicen. and Galen do say) they 
might discern of heat and cold which hurts them, 
which other bones need not. 
Q. Why have Men more teeth than Women? 
A. By reason of the abundance of heat and 
blood, which is more in Men than in Women. 
Q. Why do the teeth grow to the end of our life, and 
not the other bones? 
A. Because otherwise they would be consumed 
with chewing and grinding. 
Q. Why do teeth only come again when they fall, or 
be taken out, and other bones taken away grow no more? 
A. Because that according unto Aristotle, all other 
bones are ingendered of the humidity which is 
called Radical, and so they breed in the Womb 
of the Mother, but the teeth are ingendered of 
nutritive humidity, which is renewed and increa- 
sed from day to day. 
Q. Why do the foreteeth fall in Youth, and grow 
again and not the Cheek teeth? 
A. This proceedeth of the defect of matter, and 
of the figure, because the foreteeth are sharp, and 
the other broad. But according to Aristotle, there 
is another answer; that is, that it is the office of 
the foreteeth to cut the meat, and therefore they 
are sharp; and the office of the other to chew the 
meat, and therefore they are broad in fashion, 
which is fitted for that purpose. 
Q. Why do the fore teeth grow the soonest? 
A. Because we want them sooner in cutting than 
the other in chewing. 
Q. Why do teeth grow black in the old age of living 
Creatures?
B A. The 

26 The PROBLEMS 
A. This proceedeth of the corruption of the 
meat, and the corruption of flegm, with a naughty 
cholerick humour. 
Q. Why are Colts teeth yellow, and of the colour of 
Saffron when they are young, and wax white when 
they be old? 
A. Aristotle saith, that a Horse hath abundance 
of watry humours in him, which in his youth are 
digested and converted into grossness; but in old 
age heat is diminished, and the watry humours re- 
main, whose proper colour is white. 
Q. Why did nature give living Creatures Teeth? 
A. Aristotle saith (lib de Generat animal) to some 
to fight with, and for defence of their life, as unto 
Wolves and Bears; unto some to eat with, as unto 
Horses; unto some for the forming of their voice, 
as unto Men, as it appeareth by the Commentary 
in the Book de animal. 
Q. Why do horned beasts want their upper Cheek teeth? 
A. According to Aristotle in his book de animal. 
Horns and Teeth are caused of the self same mat- 
ter, that is of nutrimental humidity, and therefore 
the matter which passeth into Horns turneth not in- 
to Teeth, consequently want the upper Teeth. 
And such beasts, according unto Aristotle, cannot 
chew well; whereupon for want of Teeth they 
have two Stomachs by consequence, and so do chew 
their meat twice; and they do first convey their 
meat into the first Stomach or Belly, and then re- 
turn it from whence it came and chew it. 
Q. Why are some Creatures brought forth with teeth, 
as Kids and Lambs, or some without as Men? 
A. Nature doth not want in things necessary, 
nor abound in things superfluous; and therefore 
because these beasts not long after they be fallen 
do need teeth, are fallen with teeth; but Men are 
nourished with their mothers dugs for a time; and 
therefore for a time want teeth. 
Q. Why

27 of ARISTOTLE. 
Q. Why have not birds teeth? 
A. Because the matter of teeth passeth into their 
beak, and therefore there is their digestion: or else
it is answered, that although they do not chew with 
teeth, yet their head in digestion doth supply the 
want of teeth. 
Of the Tongue. 
Q WHY is the Tongue full of Pores? 
A. According to Aristotle de animal. be- 
cause the Tongue is the means whereby we taste; 
and through the mouth, in the pores of the tongue, 
the taste doth come into the sense of tasting. O- 
therwise it is answered, that frothy spittle is sent 
into the mouth by the tongue from the lungs, 
moistening the meat, and making it ready for the 
first digestion; and therefore the Tongue is full of 
Pores, because many have passage through it. 
Q. Why doth the tongue of such as are sick of A- 
gues judge all things bitter? 
A. Because the stomachs of such Persons is filled 
with cholerick humours; and choler is very bitter; 
as it appeareth by the gall, and therefore this bitter 
fume doth infect the tongue; and so the tongue be- 
ing full of these tastes, doth judge them bitter, altho'
the bitterness be not in the meat, but in the tongue. 
Q. Why doth the tongue water when we bear sour 
and sharp things named? 
A. Because the imaginative virtue or power is 
of greater force than the power and faculty of 
tasting, and when we imagine a taste, we conceive 
it by the power of tasting as by a mean, because 
there is nothing felt by the taste, but by means of 
that spittle the tongue doth water. 
Q. Why do some stammer and some lisp? 
A. This happeneth from many causes, sometimes 
through the moistness of the tongue and brain, as 
in Children, which cannot speak plainly, nor 
B2 pronounce

28 The PROBLEMS 
pronounce many letters. Sometimes it happeneth 
by the reason of the shrinking of certain sinews, 
which are corrupted with flegm: for such sinews 
there be which go to the Tongue. 
Q. Why are the Tongues of Serpents and mad Dogs 
venomous? 
A. Because of malignity and tumosity of the ve- 
nomous humour which doth predominate in them. 
Q. Why is a Dogs tongue fit and apt for medicine, 
and contrariwise and Horse's tongue pestiferous? 
A. ’Tis by reason of some secret property; or 
else it may be said the tongue of a Dog is full of 
Pores, and so doth draw and take away the viscosi- 
ty of the wound. Some say that a Dog hath by 
nature some humour in his tongue, with the which 
by licking he doth heal; the contrary is in a Horse. 
Q_ Why is spittle white? 
A. By reason of the continual moving of the 
tongue, whereof heat is engendered, which doth 
make white this superfluity, which is spittle; as it 
is seen in the froth of Water. 
Q. Why is spittle unsavoury and without taste? 
A. If it had a certain determinate taste, then 
the tongue would not taste at all, but should only 
have the taste of spittle, and so could not receive 
other tastes. 
Q. Why doth the spittle of one that is fasting heal 
an Imposthume? 
A. Because (according to Avicen.) it is well di- 
gested, and made subtile. 
Q. Why do some abound in spittle more than others? 
A. This doth proceed of a flegmatic complex- 
ion, which doth predominate in them, and there- 
fore the Physicians doth say, that such should take 
heed of a quotidian Ague, which ariseth from the 
predomination of flegm; the contrary in those 
that spit little, because heat abounds in them, 
which consumes the humidity of the spittle; and 
so

29 of ARISTOTLE. 
so the defect of spittle is a sign of Fever. 
Q. Why is the spittle of a Man that is fasting more 
subtil than of one who is full? 
A. Because that the Spittle is without the visco- 
sity of meat, which is wont to make the spittle of 
one who is full, gross and thick. 
Q. From whence proceedeth the Spittle of Man?
A. From the froth of the Lungs; which accord- 
ing to the Physicians, are the seat of flegm. 
Q. Why are such beasts as often go together for ge- 
neration very full of foam and froth? 
A. Because that when the Lights and the Heart 
are in a great motion of Lust, therefore there is in- 
gendered in them much frothy matter. 
Q. Why have not birds spittle? 
A. Because they have very dry lungs, according 
unto Aristotle in his fifth book de Animal
Q. Why do such as are called Epileptici, that is, 
such as are overwhelmed, and as it were drowned in 
their own Blood, and are diseased, favour badly and 
corruptly? 
A. The answer, according to the Physicians: is 
because the peccant matter lieth in the head; but 
if he do vomit, then the matter is in the stomach, 
but if he piss much, then the matter is in the pas- 
sage of the Urine; but if they begin to have seed, 
then it is in the vessels of the seed, and according 
to this the Physicians do Purge them. 
Q. Why doth the Tongue loese sometimes the use of 
speaking? 
A. The answer is out of Hippoc. that this doth 
happen thro’ a Palsy or Apoplexy, that is a sudden 
effusion of blood, and of a grpss humour, and 
sometimes also by infection of Spiritus animalis in 
the middle Cell of the brain, which hinders that 
Spirits not carried to the Tongue, and so is Galen’s 
meaning, for by the expression of the tongue many 
actions of divers passions are made manifest. 
B3 Of


30 The PROBLEMS 
Of the Roof of the Mouth. 
Q. WHY are the fruits, before they be ripe, of a 
naughty relish, or bitter, and after sweet?
A. A naughty relish in taste proceedeth of cold- 
ness, and want of heat in gross and thick humidity, 
but a sweet taste proceedeth of sufficient heat, and 
therefore in the ripe Fruit the humidity is subtil 
thro’ the heat of the Sun, and therefore such Fruits 
are commonly sweet, but before they be ripe, and 
humidity is gross or subtil for want of heat, and 
therefore the Fruit is bitter and sour. 
Q. Why are we better delighted with sweet tastes 
than with bitter or any other? 
A. Because Nature is delighted with sweetness. 
The reason is, because a sweet thing is hot and 
moist, and through his heart doth dissolve and 
consume superfluous humidities, and by this humi- 
dity immundicity is washed away, but a sharp eager 
taste, by reason of the cold which predominates 
in it, doth bind over much and prick and offend 
the parts of the body in purging. And therefore 
we do not delight in that taste, because the Physi- 
cians councel us to eat nothing that is bitter in the 
Summer, nor in a great heat; and the reason is, 
because bitterness doth breed heat; but we shall eat 
bitter things in Winter only. And therefore Aristotle 
doth say, that sweet things are grateful unto Na- 
ture, and do greatly nourish. 
Q. Why doth a sharp taste, as of Vinegar, provoke 
appetite rather than any other? 
A. Because it is cold, and doth cool. Now it is 
the nature of cold to desire and draw, and therefore 
is cause of Appetite. Mark, that there are nine 
kinds of tastes; three which proceeds from heat, 
three from cold, and three from a temperate mean. 
Q. Why do we draw in more Air than we breath 
cut?
A. Aristotle

31. of ARISTOTLE. 
A. Aristotle and Albertus in his Book de motu cordis,
do answer, that much Air is drawn in, and so con- 
verted into nutriment, which together with the vital 
spirits is contained in the lungs. Wherefore a beast 
is not suffocated, so long as he receives air with the 
lungs, in which some part of the air remaineth also. 
Q. Why doth the air seem to be expelled and put 
forth, seeing that indeed the air is invisible, by reason of 
its variety and thinness? 
A. Because the air which is received in us, is 
mingled with vapours and fumosity of the Heart, 
by reason whereof it is made thick, and so is seen. 
And this is proved by experience, because that in 
winter we see our breath, for the coldness of air doth 
bind the breath mixed with fumosities, and so it is 
thickened and made gross and by consequence is seen. 
Q. Why have some Men stinking breath? 
A. The answer is, according to the physicians, 
because there rise evil fumes from the stomach; and 
sometimes it doth proceed from the corruption of 
the airy parts of the body, as of the lungs. And 
the breath of lepers is so infected, that it doth poi- 
son the birds that are near them, because the in- 
ward parts are very corrupt, as appears by Const. 
de sin. Now the Leprosy is a nourishment of all 
the parts of the body together with a corrupting 
of them; and it doth begin in the blood, and ex- 
terior Members of the body. 
Q Why are Lepers hoarse? 
A. Became that in them the Instruments vocal 
are corrupted, that is the Lights.
Q. Why do Men become hoarse?
A. Because of the Rheum desending from the 
brain, filling the conduit of the lights; or some- 
times through some imposthumes of the throat or 
Rheum gathering in the Neck. 
Q. Why have Females of all living Creatures the 
shrillest Voice, a Crow only excepted, and a Woman
B4 shriller 


32 The PROBLEMS 
shriller than a Man, and smaller? 
A. According to Aristotle, by reason of the com- 
position of the veins and vocal arteries of voice is 
formed, as appears by a similitude, because a small 
pipe sounds shriller than a great. And also in 
Women. because the passage where the voice is 
formed, is made narrow and strait, by reason of cold, 
it being the nature of cold to bind; but in Men that 
passage is open and wider through heat, because it 
is the property of heat to open and dissolve. It 
proceedeth in Women through the moistiness of the 
lungs, and weakness of heat. Young Men and 
diseased have sharp and shrill Voices for the same 
cause. And this is the natural cause why a Manchild 
at his birth time doth cry, a. i. which is a bigger 
sound, and the Female e. which is a slender sound 
as it pleaseth Libertinus, when he saith, Masculas a
profert. 
Q. Why doth the Voice change in Men and Women? 
in Men at 14, in Women at 12, in Men when they 
begin to yield Seed, in Women when breasts begin to 
grow, as Aristotle says, L. de Animal. 
A. Because then saith Aristotle, the beginning of 
the Voice is slackened and loosened; and he prove 
this by a similitude of a string of an Instrument 
let down or loosed, which gives a great sound. He 
proves it another way, because Creatures which 
are gelded, as Eunuchs, Capons, &c. have softer 
and slenderer Voices than others, by reason that 
they want Stones. 
Q. Why is not a Wolf hoarse when a Man looks on him? 
A. Because a Man is not so cold as a Wolf, nor 
of so malignant a quality. 
Q. Why doth a Man which is slain bleed when he is 
seen of him who killed him? 
A. This proceedeth of divine cause, and not of 
a natural, because his blood calleth for Vengeance 
against the Murderer; but if there be any natural 
cause

33 of ARISTOTLE. 
cause of it, ’tis this: The committer of this wick- 
ed fact calling it to mind, is very sorry for it, and 
repents him of it, is in anguish of mind, and in a 
great heat through the Imagination he hath con- 
ceived, and by that means all his Spirits do stir and 
boil, and repair into the Instruments of the sight, 
and so go out by the beams of the sight of the 
Eyes, unto the wounds which are made, which if 
they be fresh, do presently fall a bleeding. Besides, 
this is done by the help of the Air then breathed 
in, which being drawn from the wound, caused it 
to bleed. 
Q. Why do small Birds sing more and louder than 
great ones, as appears in the Lark and Nightingale? 
A. Because the spirits of small birds are subtil 
and soft, and the Organ conduit strait, as appear- 
ed in a Pipe, and therefore follow easily any De- 
sire, and so do sing very soft. 
Q. Why doth the Male sing more than the Female, 
as appeareth in all living Creatures? 
A. It proceedeth from the desire of carnal Co- 
pulation, because that then the spirits are moved 
throughout all the body with the aforesaid appetite 
and desire. And, generally speaking, the Females 
are colder than the Males. 
Q. Why do Bees, Wasps, Flies, Locusts, and many 
other such like Insects make a noise, seeing they have no 
Lungs, nor Instruments of the Voice? 
A. According to Aristotle, there is in them a cer- 
tain small Skin, which when the air doth strike, it 
causeth the sound, and there is a strange sound. 
Q. Why do not Fish make a sound? 
A. Because according to Aristotle, they have no 
Lungs, but only Gills, nor yet a Heart; and there- 
fore they need not the drawing in of the air, and 
by consequence they make no noise, because that 
(according to Aristotle) a Voice is a percussion of 
the Air which is drawn.
B5 Of 

34 The PROBLEMS 
Of the Neck. 
Q. WHY hath a living Creature a Neck? 
A. Because the Neck is the supporter of 
the Head, as Aristotle teacheth and therefore the 
Neck is the middle between the Head and the 
Body, to the intent that by it, and by its Sinews, 
as by certain means and ways, motion and sense 
of the body might be conveyed throughout all the 
body; and that by means of the Neck, as it were 
by a distance, the Heart, which is very hot, might 
be separated from the brain. 
Q. Why do some beasts want Necks, as Serpents and 
Fishes? 
A. Because such beasts want a heart, and there- 
fore they want that distance which we have spoken 
of; or else we answer, they have a Neck in some 
inward part of them, but 'tis not distinguished out- 
wardly from the Heart to the Head. 
Q. Why is the Neck full of Bones and Joints?
A. Because it may bear and sustain the Head 
the stronger: also because the back bone is joined 
to the brain in the Neck, and from thence it receives 
Marrow, which is of the substance with the brain. 
Q. Why have some Beasts long Necks, as Cranes, 
Storks, and such like? 
A. Because such beasts do seek their living in 
the bottom of the Water, and therefore have such 
Necks; and some beasts have short Necks; as 
Sparrow-hawks, &c. because such as ravenous 
beasts, and therefore for strength have short Necks; 
as appeareth in the Ox, which hath a short Neck, 
and therefore strong. 
Q. Why is the Neck hollow, and especially before 
about the Tongue? 
A. Because there be two passages, whereof the 
one doth carry the Meat unto the nutritive Instru- 
ment, as to the Stomach and Liver, and is called 
of

35 of ARISTOTLE 
of the Greeks Oesaphagus; and t’other is the Wind-
pipe. 
Q. Why is the artery made with rings and circles? 
A. The better to bow and give a good sounding 
again. 
Q. Why doth a Chicken move a good space after his 
Head is off, and a Man beheaded never stirreth? 
A. Because a Chicken, and such like, have 
streight Sinews and Arteries, and therefore Spirit 
of moving continueth long after the Head is off:
but Men, and many beasts, have long and large 
Sinews and Arteries, and therefore the motive spi- 
rits do quickly depart from them, and so by conse- 
quence cannot move their bodies. 
Of the Shoulders and Arms. 
Q. WHY hath a Man Shoulders and Arms? 
A. To give and carry burdens, accord- 
ing to Aristotle. 
Q. Why are his Arms round? 
A. For the swister and speedier work, because 
that Figure is fittest to move. 
Q. Why are his Arms thick? 
A. Because they should be strong to lift and 
bear burthens, or thrust and give a strong blow; 
so their bones are thick, because they contain much
marrow, for fear they should be easily corrupted, 
and marred; but marrow cannot so well be con- 
tained in small bones, as in great. 
Q. Why do such as are diseased and in grief, uncover 
and cover their arms, and such also as are in agony? 
A. Because such are near unto death; and it is 
a sign of death by reason of great grief, which cau- 
seth that uncovering, as Hippocrates doth teach lib. 
Prognost. 
Q. Why do the arms become small and slender in 
some sickness, as in Madmen, and such as are sick of 
the Dropsy? 
A. Because

36 The PROBLEMS 
A. Because all the Parts of the body do suffer 
the one with the other, and therefore one member 
being in grief, all the humours do concur and run 
thither to give succour and help to the aforesaid 
grief. For when the head doth ach, all humours 
of the Arms do run into the head, and therefore 
the Arms become small and slender, because they 
want their proper nutriment. 
Q. Why have brute beasts no Arms? 
A. Their fore feet are instead of Arms, and in 
their place. Or else we may answer more fitly, be- 
cause all beasts have some part for their defence 
and to fight with, as the Wolf his feet, the Cow her 
horns, the Horse his hinder feet, Birds their beak 
and wings, but only Man hath his arms. 
Of the Hands. 
Q. FOR what use hath a Man Hands, and an Ape 
also, which is like unto a Man? 
A. The hand is an instrument which a Man doth 
especially make use of, because many things are 
done by the hands. and not by any other part, as 
Aristotle doth teach. 
Q. Why are some Men Ambo dexter, that is, using 
the left hand as the right? 
A. By reason of the great heat of the heart, and 
for the hot bowing of the same, for that it is which 
makes a Man as nimble of the left hand as of the 
right; and without doubt are of good complexions. 
Q. Why are not Women Ambo dexter as well as 
Men. Hid. ult. Aphoris. 
A. Because as Galen saith, a Woman in health 
that is most hot, is colder than the coldest Man in 
health, I say, in health, for if she have an Ague, 
she is accidentally better than a Man. 
Q. Why are the fingers full of Joints?
A. To be more fit and apt to receive, and keep 
the things received.
Q. Why

37 of ARISTOTLE. 
Q. Why hath every finger three joints, and the 
thumb hut two? 
A. The thumb hath three, but the third is join- 
ed unto the arm therefore is stronger than the o- 
ther fingers: and is better in strength, seeing it is 
also in quantity: and is called pollox a polleo, that 
is, to excel in strength. 
Q. Why are the fingers of the right hand nimbler 
than the fingers of the left, as Ægidius saith. 
A. It proceedeth from the heat which doth 
predominate in those parts, which causeth great 
agility. 
Q. Why are the fingers thicker before meat than 
after; as Albertus saith? 
A. According to the Physicians, because a Man 
which is fasting is full of bad humour, and diverse 
fumosities, which puffs up the parts of the body, 
and the fingers also: but when those humours are 
expelled through meat, the fingers become more 
slender. And for the same reason, a man which 
is fasting is heavier than when he hath Meat in his 
belly, as is most plain in fasters. Another reason 
may be given, that is, because that after Meat 
the heat is departed from the outward Parts of the 
body into the inward, to help digestion, and there- 
fore the outward and external parts become slender; 
but after the digestion is made, the blood turneth 
again to the exterior parts, and then they become 
great again. 
Q. Why are some Men left handed? 
A. Because the heart sendeth out heat unto the 
right side but more unto the left; and doth also 
work a slenderness and subtility on the left side. 
Of the Nails. 
Q. FROM whence do Nails proceed?
A. Of the fumosity and humours, which are 
resolved, and go into the extremeties of the fingers,
and 

38 The PROBLEMS 
and they are dried through the power of the ex- 
ternal air. and brought to the hardness of a horn. 
Q. Why do the Nails of old Men grow black and pale? 
A. Because the heat of the heart decayeth, 
which decaying, their beauty decayeth also. 
Q_ Why are Men judged to be good or evil Com- 
plexion by the colour of their Nails? 
A. Because they give witness of the goodness or 
badness of the heart, and therefore of the Complexi- 
on for if they be somewhat red, they betoken cho- 
ler well tempered; but if they be inclined to red, 
and somewhat to blackness, they betoken a sanguine 
Complexion; but if they be yellowish or black, 
they signify Melancholly. 
Q. Why do white spots appear in the Nails? 
A. Through mixture of flegm with the nutriment. 
Of the Breast. 
Q. FOR what reason is the Breast hollow? 
A. Because there is the seat of the spiritual 
and aerial Members, which are most noble, as the 
Heart and Lights; and therefore because these 
might be kept from hurt, it was necessary the 
breast should be hollow. 
Q. Why hath a Man the broadest breast of liv- 
ing Creatures? 
A. Because the spirits of Men are weak and 
subtile, and therefore do require a spacious place 
wherein they are contained as the breast is. 
Q. Why are the breasts of Beasts round?
A. Because they be in continual motion, and that 
figure is fittest for motion, as Arist. saith 4 Phy. 
Q. Why do we draw those things we love to our breast? 
A. Because the first and chiefest part of the heart 
is under the breast; and therefore that which the 
heart doth love, we draw to the breast, by reason 
of the neighbourhood it has with the heart, so ap- 
plying the thing loved unto the Lover.
Q. Why

39 of ARISTOTLE. 
Q. Why have Women narrower breasts than Men? 
A. Because there’s more heat in Men, which doth 
naturally move to the uppermost part of them, ma- 
king those parts great and large; and therefore a 
great breast is a token of courage, as Arist. saith, 
declaring this to be true by the Lion and Bull, but 
in Women cold predominates, which naturally tends 
downwards, and therefore saith Arist. Women oft 
fall on their Tail, because the hinder parts are 
gross and heavy, by reason of cold ascending thi- 
ther; but a Man commonly falls on his breast, by 
reason of his greatness and thickness. 
Of the Paps and Dugs. 
Q. WHY are the Paps placed upon the breast? 
A. Because the breast is the seat of the 
heart, which is most hot, and therefore the Paps 
grow there, to the end that the Menses being con- 
veyed thither, as being near to the heat of the 
heart, should the sooner be digested and perfected, 
and converted into the matter and substance of Milk.
Q. Why are the Paps below the breasts in beasts,
and above the breast in Women? 
A. Because a Woman goes upright, and has two 
legs only; and therefore if her Paps should be be- 
low her breasts they would hinder her going; but 
beasts have four feet, and therefore they are not 
hindered in their going. 
Q. Why have not Men as great Paps and Breasts as 
Women? 
A. Because a Man hath no monthly Terms, and 
therefore hath no Vessel deputed for them. And 
yet Aristotle saith, that Men have small Paps, and 
Women have little small Stones. 
Q. Which Paps are best for Children to suck, great 
ones or little ones, or the mean between both? 
A. In great ones, the Heat is dispersed, and there is 
no good Digestion of the Milk; but in small ones the
power

40 The PROBLEMS
Power and force is strong, because a vertue united 
is strongest, and by consequence there is good work- 
ing and digestion of the Milk, and therefore the 
small are better than the great ones, but yet the mean 
one’s are best of all, because every mean is best. 
Q. Why do the Paps of young Women begin to grow
great about 13 or 14 Years of age as Albertus saith? 
A. Because that then their Terms begin to have 
Course and encrease, and Aristotle saith, Mens seed 
and Womens flowers begin to encrease at one age. 
Q. Why do the Paps of such Women as cast their Child 
wax soft, as Hippocrates saith, Part 2. Aphor. 
A. Because then the flowers have no course to the 
teats, by which the young one is nourished, but fol- 
low their ordinary course; and therefore wax soft. 
Q. Why hath a Woman which is with Child of a 
Boy the right Pap harder then the left? 
A. Because the Male Child is conceived in the 
right side of the Mother, as Hippocrates saith; and 
therefore the Flowers do run to the right Pap, and 
make it hard. 
Q. Why doth it shew weakness of the Child when
the Milk doth drop out of the Paps before the Woman 
be delivered? 
A. According to Aristotle, because the Milk is 
the proper nutriment of the Child in the Womb of 
the Mother; and therefore if the Milk run out, it 
is a token that the Child is not nourished, and 
therefore is weak. 
Q. Why doth the hardness of the Paps betoken the 
Health of the Child in the Womb? 
A. Because the Flowers are converted into Milk, 
and that Milk doth sufficiently nourish the Child, 
and thereby the Strength is signified.
Q. Why hath a Woman but two Paps, and some 
brute Beasts ten or more? 
A. Because for the most part, a Woman hath but 
one child, either Boy or Girl, and therefore one pap 
is

41 of ARISTOTLE. 
is sufficient, or two, but beasts have many young 
ones and therefore so many teats. 
Q. For why are Womens Paps hard when they be 
with Child, and soft at other times? 
A. They swell then, and are puffed up, because 
the much moisture which proceeds from the flowers 
doth run into the Paps, which at other seasons re- 
maineth in the Matrix or Womb, and it is expelled 
by the Place deputed for that end. 
Q. By what means doth the Milk of the Paps come 
to the Matrix or Womb? 
A. According to Hippocrates, because there is a 
certain knitting and coupling of the Pap with the 
Womb, and there are certain Veins which the Mid- 
wives do cut in the time of the birth of the Child, 
and by those Veins the Milk doth flow in at the 
Navel of the Child, and so it receives nutriment 
by the Navel. Some say the Child in the Womb 
is nourished at the Mouth, but that is false, because 
that so he should void Excrements also; but that is 
false, because it is not seen where. 
Q. Why is it a Sign of a Male-Child in the Womb 
when the Milk that runneth cut of the Womans breast is 
thick and not much, and of a Female when it is thin? 
A. Because a Woman that goeth with a Boy hath 
great heat in her, which doth perfect the Milk and 
make it thicker, but such as go with a girl have not 
so much heat, and therefore the Milk is undigested, 
and unperfected, and watry, and thin, and will 
swim above the water if it be put into it. 
Q. For why is the Milk white seeing the Flowers 
are red which it is engendered of? 
A. Because blood which is well purged and con- 
cocted becometh white, as appeareth in Flesh, 
whose proper colour is red, and being boiled is white. 
Another answer is, because every humour which is 
ingendered of such part of the Body, is made like 
unto that part in colour where it is ingendered, as  
near

42 The PROBLEMS
near as it it can be; but because the Flesh of the Paps 
is white, therefore the colour of the Milk is white. 
Q. Why doth a Cow give Milk more abundantly than 
other beasts?
A. Because she is a great eating beast; and where 
is much monthly Superfluity ingender’d, there is 
much Milk, because it is nothing else but that blood 
purged and try’d; and because a Cow has much 
of this monthly blood, she has much milk. 
Q. Why is not Milk wholesome, as Hippocrates 
saith, Par. 2. Aphor. 
A. According to the opinion of Galen, for di- 
verse Reasons: First, because it doth curdle in the 
Stomach, whereof an evil breath is bred. But to 
this Hippocrates gives this remedy; saying, if the 
third part of it be mingled with running Water, then 
it is not hurtful. Another reason is, because the 
Milk doth grow four in the stomach, where evil 
humours are bred, which infect the breath. 
Q. Why is Milk bad for such as have the Head-ach? 
A. Because it it easily turned into great fumosi- 
ties, and hath much terrestrial substance in it, the 
which ascending do cause the Head-ach. 
Q. Why is Milk fit Nutriment for Infants? 
A. Because ’tis a natural and usual Food, and 
they were nourished by the same in the Womb. 
Q. For what reason are the white meats made of a 
new milk'd Cow good?
A. Because milk at that time is very spungy, ex- 
pel many fumosities, and does as it were purge at 
that time. 
Q. Why is the Milk naught for the Child, if the 
Woman uses carnal Copulation. 
A. Because in time of carnal Copulation the best 
part of the Milk goes to the Seed vessels, and to 
the Womb, and the worst remains in the Paps, 
which doth hurt the Child. 
Q. Why is the Milk of brown Women better than 
that of white? 
A. 

43 of ARISTOTLE.  
A. Because brown Women are hotter than others, 
and heat purges the Milk, and so ’tis better. 
Why do Physicians forbid the eating Fish and Milk 
at the same time? 
A. Because they produce a Leprosy, and because 
they are both flegmatick. 
Q. Why have not Birds and Fish Milk and Paps? 
A. Because Paps would hinder, the flight of Birds. 
Fish also have neither Paps nor Milk, as Aristotle 
saith, but the Females cast much Spawn, on which 
the male touches with a small Gut, which causes 
their kind to be infinite in succession. 
Of Backs. 
Q. WHY have Beasts Backs? 
A. According to Aristotle for three causes. 
First, because the back should be the way and mein 
of Body from which are extended and spread through 
out all the sinews of the back bone, as it appears 
in such as are hanged, because when they are in 
pieces, or without flesh, the sinews hang whole in 
the chine or back bone. The second, because it 
should be a guard and defence for the soft parts of 
the body, as of the stomach, liver, lights, and such 
like. The third, because it should be the founda- 
tion of all the bones, because we see other bones, 
as the ribs, fastened to the back bone. 
Q. Why hath Man above all other Creatures, a broad 
hack which he can lye upon, which no beast can do? 
A. Because a broad back doth answer a broad 
breast; if therefore a Man should have a sharp back 
like unto a beast, that would be of an unseemly 
shape; and therefore it is requisite that he have a 
broad back. 
Q. Why hath a Man that lieth on his back horrible 
Visions? 
A. Because the Passage or sign of the fantasy is 
open, which is in the sore part of the brain, and so  
the


44 The PROBLEMS 
the fantasy is destroyed, and then those Visions follow. 
Another reason is, because when a Man lieth on his 
Back, the humours are disturbed and moved upward 
where the fantasy is, which by that means is disturbed. 
Q. Far why is it naught to lie on the back? 
A. Because as the Physicians say, it disposes a 
Man to Leprosy, Madness, and to an Incubus, 
where you may note, that Mania, or Madness, is the 
hurt or disturbance of the sore part of the brain, 
with taking away or depravation of the Imaginati- 
on: but Incubus (i. e. the Night mare) is a Passion 
of the Heart wherein a Man thinks himself to be 
strangled in his sleep, and something lies heavy on 
his Stomach, which he would put off. 
Q. For why hath the back bone so many Joints or 
Knots call'd Spondelia by the Physicians? 
A. For the moving and bending it, without which 
Joints that could not be done: and therefore they 
say amiss that alledge Elephents have no such Joints 
for without them they could not move. 
Q. Why do Fish die after their back bone is burst? 
A. Because in Fish the back bone, is instead of 
the Heart. Now the Heart is the first thing that 
lives, and the last that dies, and therefore when 
the bone is broke, Fish, can live no longer. 
Q. Why does a Man die soon after the Marrow is 
hurt or perished? 
A. Because the Marrow proceeds from the brain, 
which is a principal part of a Man; as appears, 
first because the Marrow is white, like the brain; 
and secondly, because it hath a thin Skin or Rind, 
which that called Nucha has not, which differs from 
the Marrow, because Nucha has two coverings like 
the Brain, call’d Pia Mater and Dura Mater. 
Q. Why have some Men the Piles? 
A. Those Men are cold and Melancholy, which 
Melancholy first passes to the Spleen, its proper Seat 
but


45 of ARISTOTLE. 
but there cannot be retained for the abundance of 
blood; for which reason ’tis convey’d to the Back- 
bone, where there are certain Veins which terminate 
in the back, and receive the blood. When those 
Veins are full of melancholy blood, then the Con- 
duits of Nature are opened, and the blood issues 
out once a month, like Womens Terms. Those 
Men who have this course of blood are kept from 
many Infirmities, as Dropsie, Plague, &c. 
Q. Why are the Jews much subject to this Disease? 
A. Divines say, because they cry’d at the Death 
of Christ, Let his blood fall upon us and our Children: 
Therefore ’tis said in the Psalm, Percussit tot Deus 
postertora dorsi. Another reason is, because the Jews 
eat much flegmatick and cold Meats, which breed 
melancholy blood, but ’tis purged with this flux. A 
third reason is, motion causes heat, and heat di- 
gestion; but strict Jews neither move, labour nor 
converse with Men: besides, they are in continual 
fear we should revenge the Death of our Saviour, 
which likewise breeds a coldness in them, and hin- 
ders digestion, causing melancholy blood, which is 
by this means purged out. 
Of the Heart.
Q. WHY are the heart and lungs called lively parts 
of the body, in Latin Spirituala membra? 
A. From the Word Spiritus, which signifies breath, 
life or soul; and because the vital Spirits are engen- 
dered in the Heart. Yet that’s no good answer, for 
the liver and brain might be so called, because the 
liver giveth Nutriment, and the brain Sense and 
Life: The Consequence is clear, for the vital Spi- 
rits are engendered in the Liver, and the sensible 
and animal Spirits in the brain. 
Q. Why are the lungs light spungy and full of holes? 
A. That the Air may the better be received in 
them for cooling the Heart, and expelling Humours, 
because


46 The PROBLEMS 
because the Lungs are the Fan of the Heart; and 
as a pair of a bellows is raised up by taking in the 
air, and shrunk by blowing it out, so likewise the 
Lungs draw the air to cool the Heart and cast it 
out, left thro’ too much heat of the air drawn in, 
the Heart should be suffocated. 
Q. Why is the flesh of the lungs white? 
A. Because they are in continual motion. 
Q. Why have those beasts only lungs that have hearts? 
A. Because the lungs be no part for themselves, 
but for the heart: and therefore it were superfluous 
for those Creatures to have lungs that have no 
hearts; but Nature’s never wanting in things ne- 
cessary, nor abounds in superfluities. 
Q. Why do such Creatures as have no lungs want a 
bladder? 
A. Because such drink no water to make their 
Meat digest, but only for the tempering their food, 
and therefore they want a bladder and Urine: as 
appears in such birds as do not drink at all, viz. 
the Faulcon and Sparrow hawk. 
Q. Why is the heart in the midst of the body? 
A. Because it should impart Life to all the parts 
of the body, and therefore ’tis compared to the 
Sun, which is placed in the midst of the Planets, 
to pour light into them all; therefore the Pythago- 
reans stiling the Heavens a great living Creature, 
say, the Sun is the Heart thereof. 
Q. Why only in Man is the heart on the left side? 
A. To the end the heat of the heart should miti- 
gate the coldness of the Spleen, for the Spleen is 
the seat of Melancholy, which is on the left side also. 
Q. Why is the heart first engenderd, for according to 
Aristotle, the heart doth first live, and die last? 
A. Because, as Aristotle saith, de juvent & senect. 
the Heart is the beginning and original of life, and 
without it no part can live. According to the Phi- 
losopher, of the Seed retained in the Matrix there 
is

47 of ARISTOTLE.
is first engendered a little small skin, which compas- 
ses the Seed, whereof first the Heart is made of the 
purest blood: then of blood not so pure, the Liver: 
and of thick and cold blood the marrow and brain. 
Q. Why are beasts bold that have little Hearts? 
A. Because in a little Heart the heat is well uni- 
ted and vehement, and the blood touching it doth 
quickly heat it, and is speedily carried to the other 
parts of the body, which gives courage and boldness. 
Q. Why are Creatures with a little Heart timorous, 
as the Hare? 
A. The Heart is dispersed in such a one and not 
able to heat the blood which cometh to it, and so 
fear is bred. 
Q. How comes it the Heart is continually moving?
A. According to Aristotle de motu cordis, and Galen, 
it is because in it there’s a certain Spirit which is 
more subtle than Air, which by reason of its thick- 
ness and rarefaction seeks a larger space, filling the 
hollow room of the Heart, whereof the dilating 
and opening of the Heart doth follow: and because 
the Heart is earthly, the thrusting and moving cea- 
sing, its parts are at rest. tending downwards. Galen 
giveth an Experiment of an Acorn, which if put 
into the Fire, the heat dissolves its humidity into 
smoak, which is thinner than the humidity, therefore 
doth occupy a greater place, so that the rind can't 
contain it, but puffs up and throws it in the Fire. 
The like of the Heart; therefore note that the 
Heart of a living Creature is triangular in a man- 
ner, having its least part towards the left side, and 
the greatest towards the right, and doth also open 
and shut in the least part, by which means ’tis in 
continual motion; the first motion is by the Physi- 
cians called Diastole, that is extending the breast 
or heart; t’other Systole, i. e. shutting of the heart; 
and from these two all the motions of the body pro- 
ceed, and that of the Pulse which Physicians feel. 
Q. Why are great Beast lean? 
A.

48 The PROBLEMS 
A. The natural heat proceeding from the Heart 
consumes that natural humidity which should be 
converted into Fat. And for the most part Women 
are hotter than Men, because they have much hu- 
midity in them, and a moister heart than Men. 
Q. How comes it the Flesh of the Heart is so compact
and knit together? 
A. ’Tis because in a thick compacted Substance 
heat is strongly received and united, as appears in 
other things. And because the heart with its heat 
should moderate the coldness of the brain, it’s 
made of that fat Flesh, apt to keep a strong heat. 
Q. How comes the Heart to be the hottest part of all 
living Creatures? 
A. It is so compacted as to receive heat best, and 
because it should mitigate the coldness of the brain. 
Q. Why is the heart the beginning of life? 
A. ’Tis plain in it the vital Spirit is bred, which 
is the heat of life; and therefore, according to the 
Opinion of August de different spirit & anima the 
Heart hath two Receptacles, i e. the right and the 
left; the right hath more blood than Spirits, which 
Spirit’s engendered, to give life and vivify the body. 
Q. Why is the heart long and sharp like a Pyramid? 
A. The round figure hath no Angles, therefore 
the Heart is round, for fear any Poison or hurtful 
Matter should be retained in it; and as Aristotle 
affirms, because that Figure is fittest for motion. 
Q. How comes the blood to be chiefly in the heart? 
A. The blood is in the Heart as in its proper or 
efficient place, which some attribute to the liver; 
and therefore the Heart doth not receive blood of 
any other parts, but other parts of it. 
Q. How happens it some Creatures want a heart? 
A. Altho’ they have no Heart, yet they have 
somewhat answers it, as appears in Eels and Fish 
which have the back-bone instead of the Heart. 
Q. Why does the heart beat in some Creatures when 
the head is off, as appears in Birds and hens? 
A.


49 of ARISTOTLE. 
because the Heart is what lives first, and dies last, 
and therefore beats more than other parts. 
Q. Why do all Creatures which want a Heart 
want Blood likewise, as in Flies? 
A. The Heart is the beginning of the Blood, 
and therefore the cause failing, the effect ceases. 
Q. How comes the Pulse of the Heart more certainly 
thought in the right side than in the left. 
A. The heat of the Heart is more lively there 
than in the other side, consequently more felt there. 
Q. Why doth the heat of the Heart sometimes fail of 
a sudden, as in those who have the falling sickness? 
A. This proceeds, according to Constant, from 
a Defect of the Heart itself, and of certain small 
skins with which ’tis covered, the which being in- 
fected and corrupted the Heart falleth on a sudden; 
and sometimes it happens by reason of the parts ad- 
joining, and therefore when any venomous humour 
goes out of the Stomach that hurts the heart and parts 
adjoining, that causes this fainting. The dispo- 
sition of the Heart is known by the Pulse, because 
a swift beating Pulse shews the heat of the Heart, 
and a slow beating one denotes coldness. There- 
fore a Woman that is in health has a flower and 
weaker Pulse than a man, as shall appear hereafter. 
Of the Stomach. 
Q. FOR what reason is the Stomach large and wide?  
A. Because in it the Food is first concocted
or digested, as it were in a Pot, to the end what is 
pure should be separated from them which is not, 
as Aristotle saith; and therefore according to the 
quantity of the Food the Stomach is enlarged. 
Q. How comes it the Stomach is round? 
A. Because if it had angles and corners, as Const. 
says, Food would remain in them and breed ill hu- 
mours, so a man would never want ague, the which 
humours nevertheless are evacuated, lifted up, and 
C consumed


50 The PROBLEMS 
consumed, and not hid in any such corners, by rea- 
son of the roundness of the Stomach. 
Q. How comes the Stomach full of Sinews? 
A. As Aristotle saith, because the sinews can be 
extended and enlarged, and so is the Stomach when 
’tis full; but when empty, ’tis drawn together; and 
therefore Nature provides those sinews. 
Q. How comes the Stomach to digest? 
A. Because of the heat which is in it, and comes 
from the parts adjoining, i. e. the Liver and Heart. 
For we see in Metals, the heat of the Fire takes a- 
way the rust and dross from Iron, the Silver from 
Tin, and Gold from Copper; so that by digestion 
the pure is separated from the impure. Digestion 
is of four sorts, according to Physicians. 
Q. For what reason doth the stomach join the liver? 
A. Because the Liver is very hot, and with its 
heat helps digestion, and provokes appetite. 
Q. For why are we commonly cold after dinner? 
A. Because then the heat goes to the Stomach to 
further digestion, and so other parts become cold. 
Q. For why is it hurtful to study soon after dinner? 
A. Because when the heat labours to help the I- 
magination in study it ceases from digesting the Food, 
and so that remains undigested; so that people should 
walk some time after Meals. 
Q. How comes Women with Child to have an inor- 
dinate desire of eating coals, ashes and such like? 
A. Because such are the humours of the stom- 
ach, such a Nutriment they desire; and because 
Women with child have corrupt humours, therefore 
they desire the like things. 
Q. How comes the stomach slowly to digest fat meat?
A. Because it swims in the Stomach. Now the 
best digestion is in the bottom of the Stomach, the 
fat descends not there; Such as eat fat meat are 
very sleepy, by reason digestion is hindered. 
 Q. For why is all the Body worse when the Stomach 
is uneasy? 
A. Because

51 of ARISTOTLE. 
A. Because the stomach is knit with the brain, 
heart, and liver, which are the principal parts in 
Man; and therefore when it is not well. the other 
are evilly disposed. Another answer is, that if the 
first digestion be hindred, the others are also hindred, 
for in the first digestion is the beginning of the 
infirmity that is in the stomach. 
Q. For why are young Men sooner a hungry than 
old Men? 
A. Young Men do digest for three causes, first for 
growing, then for the restoring of life, and lastly for 
conservation of the life, as Hippocrates and Galen do 
say; else we answer, that young Men are hot and 
dry, and therefore the heat doth digest more; and 
by consequence they desire more. 
Q. For why do Physicians prescribe that Man should 
eat when they have an appetite? 
A. Because much hunger and emptiness will fill 
the stomach with naughty rotten humours, which 
he draws unto himself instead of meat; which do 
easily appear, because that if we fast over night, 
we have an appetite to Meat; but in the Morning 
none. That’s therefore a token that the stomach is 
filled with naughty humours, and especially its 
mouth, which is no true filling, but a deceitful one. 
And therefore after we have eaten little. our stomach 
comes to us again; and then the Proverb is, One 
morsel draweth down another; for the first morsel 
having made clean the mouth of the stomach, doth 
provoke the appetite. 
Q. For why do Physicians prescribe be that we should 
not eat too much at a time, but by little and little? 
A. Because when the stomach is full, the meat 
doth swim in it, which is a dangerous thing. Ano- 
ther reason is, that as very green wood doth put out 
the fire, so much meat choaks the natural heat and 
puts it out. And therefore the best Physick is, to 
use temperance in eating and drinking. 
C2 Q. Why

52 The PROBLEMS 
Q. Why do we desire change of meats according to the 
change of times; as in Winter, Beef Pork, Mutton; 
in Summer light meats, as Veal, Lamb, &c. 
A. Because the complexion of the body is alter’d, 
and change according to the time of the year. Ano- 
ther answer is, that this proceeds from the quality 
of the season, because the cold Winter doth cause 
a better digestion, because the Stomach and Belly 
is hotter in Winter by reason of the compassing 
cold, as Hippocrates and Aristotle doth teach. 
Q. Why the Meat we eat should not be too hot; as 
Pepper and Ginger.
A. Because hot Meat doth burn the blood, and dis- 
pose it to a leprosy. So contrariwise, meat too cold 
doth mortify and conjeal the blood. And our Meat 
should not be over sharp.’cause it procureth old age, 
and too much sauce doth burn the entrails, and pro- 
cureth often drinking, as raw meat doth; and over 
sweet meats do constipate and cling the Veins together. 
Q. Why is it a good custom to eat Cheese after dinner, 
and Pears after all Meat? 
A. Because Cheese by reason of its earthliness and 
thickness, tendeth down toward the bottom of the sto- 
mach, and so putteth down the meat, and the like of 
Pears. Note, that new Cheese is better than old, and 
the old dry soft Cheese is very naughty and procureth 
the head ach, and stopping of the liver; and the 
older the worser. Whereupon it is said, that the 
Cheese is naught and digesteth all things but itself. 
Q. Why be Nuts good after Fish, as the Verse is? 
After Fish, Nuts; after Flesh, Cheese. 
A. Because Fish is of a hard digestion, and doth 
easily putrify and corrupt; and Nuts help digestion, 
because they be somewhat hot; Fish is poisoned 
sometimes, and Nuts are a remedy against a poison. 
And note, the fish should be of a clear stony water, 
and not of a cold standing muddy water, and should 
be so in Wine and Parsley, and so it hurteth least.
Q. Why 

53 of ARISTOTLE. 
Q. Why is it unwholsome to stay long for one dish after 
another, and to eat of diverse kinds of meat? 
A. Because the first meat begins to digest when the 
last is eaten, and so the digestion is not equally made, 
and therefore the meat digested beginneth to corrupt. 
But yet this rule is to be noted touching the order of 
meat, that if there be any dishes whereof some are 
light of digestion, as Chickens, Kid, Veal, soft Eggs, 
and such like, these meats should be first eaten; but 
gross meats, as Venison, Bacon, Beef, roasted Pork, 
hard Eggs, and fryed Eggs, should be eaten last. 
And the reason is, because that if they should be first 
served and eaten and were digested, they should hin- 
der the digestion of the others; and the light meats 
not digested should be corrupted in the stomach, and 
kept in the stomach violently, whereof there would 
follow belching, loathing, head-ach, belly-ach, 
and great thirst. And by consequence it is very 
hurtful too, at the same meal to eat Milk, and drink
Wine because they dispose a Man to a Leprosy. 
Q. Which is best for the Stomach, meat or drink? 
A. Drink is sooner digested then meat, because 
meat is of greater substance, and more material 
than drink, and therefore meat is harder to digest. 
Q. Why is it good to drink after dinner? 
A. Because the drink should make the meat rea- 
dier to digest. For if a pot be filled with Fish or 
Flesh without liquor, then both the Pot and the 
Meat is marred. The stomach is like unto a Pot 
which doth boil meat, and therefore Physicians do 
council to drink at Meals. 
Q. Why is it good to forbear a late Supper? 
A. Because there is no moving or stirring after 
Supper, and so the Meat is not sent down to the 
bottom of the stomach, but remaineth undigested, 
and so breeds hurt. And therefore a light and short 
Supper is best, as the old Verse doth shew. 
Q. Why is it naught to drink Wine fasting? 
C3 A. Because

54 The PROBLEMS 
Q. How comes some Men to evacuate clear Meat? 
A. By reason of the Weakness of Nature and 
Expulsion; which Disease is called leinteria. 
Of the Blood. 
Q. WHY is it necessary every living thing that 
has blood, have also a Liver? 
A. According to Arist. because the blood is first 
made in the liver its seat, and is drawn from the stom- 
ach by certain principles Veins, and so engendered. 
Q. For what reason is the blood red? 
A. First it is like the part in which it was made, 
i. e. the Liver, which is red, then ’tis likewise 
sweet, because it is well digested and connected; 
but if it have a little earthy matter mixt with it, 
that makes it somewhat salt, as appears in Arist. 
lib. Meteor. 
Q. How comes Womens blood thicker than Mens? 
A. Their Coldness thickens, binds, conjeals, 
and joins it together. 
Q. How comes the blood to all parts of the body, thro'
the Liver and by what means? 
A. Through the principal Veins, as the Veins of 
the Head, Liver, &c. to nourish all the Body. 
Of the Urine. 
Q. HOW doth the Urine come into the Bladder, 
seeing the Bladder is shut. 
A. Some say by sweating, and it seems to be 
true. Others say it comes by a small Skin in the 
bladder, which opens and lets in the Urine: Phee- 
phylact says, Urine is a certain, and not a deceitful 
Messenger of the health or infirmity of Man. Hip- 
pocrates says, that Men make white Urine in the 
Morning, and before Dinner red, but after Din- 
ner pale, and likewise after Supper; for there’s 
diverse colours. 
Q. How doth the leprosy proceed from the liver? 
C4 A. Because

55 of ARISTOTLE. 
A. Because it doth greatly ingender the brain, 
and breed the falling sickness and Apoplexy. 
Q. For why is it hurtful to drink much cold water?
A. Because one contrary doth hinder and expel 
another; for water is very cold, and lying so in the 
Stomach, hinders digestion. 
Q. For why is it unwholesome to drink new wine? 
And why doth it very much hurt the Stomach. 
A. One reason is, it cannot be digested, therefore 
it causes the belly to swell, and in some sort the 
bloody flux; secondly it hinders making water; but 
to drink good is wholesome. 
Q. For why do Physicians forbid us to labour pre- 
sently after Dinner? 
A. For three reasons; first, because motion hin- 
ders the virtue and power of digestion; secondly, 
because stirring immediately after dinner cause the 
parts of the Body to draw the Meat raw to them, 
which often breeds sickness; and thirdly, because 
motion makes the Food descend before it is digested; 
but after Supper ’tis good to stir, by reason we soon 
after go to sleep, therefore should walk a little, that 
the food may go to the bottom of the Stomach. 
Q. For why is it good to walk before Dinner? 
A. It makes a Man well disposed, fortifies and 
strengthens the natural heat, causing the superfluity 
in the stomach to descend, wherefore Avicen says, 
such as neglect this exercise fall into inflammation 
of the Heart. 
Q. For why is it wholesome to vomit as some say? 
A. Because it purges the stomach of all naughty 
humours, expelling them, which would breed agues 
if they should remain in it. Avicen says, a Vomit 
purges the Eyes and Head, clearing the Brain. 
Q. How came sleep to strengthen the stomach and 
the digestive Faculty? 
A. Because in sleep the heat draws inwards, and 
helps digestion; but when we awake the heat remains, 
and is dispersed throughout the Body. 
Q.


56 the PROBLEMS 
A. Because (says Const.) the digestive power in 
the liver cannot convert the thick substance in the 
four Humours, but it is converted into Water only, 
which swells and puffs up a Man's belly especially. 
Of the Gall and Spleen. 
Q. HOW came living Creatures to have a Gall? 
A. Because cholerick Humours are receiv- 
ed into it, which thro’ their acidity help the Guts 
to expel superfluities, also it helps digestion. 
Q. How comes the Jaundice to proceed from the Gall? 
A. The humour of the Gall is blueish and yellow, 
therefore when its Pores are stopt, the Humours can- 
not go into the Sack thereof, but is mingled with 
the blood, wandring throughout all the Body, and 
infecting the Skin. 
Q. Why hath not a Horse, Mule, Ass, or Cow a Gall? 
A. Trough those Creatures have no Gall in one 
place, as in Purse or Vessel, yet they have one 
dispersed in small Veins. 
Q. How comes the Spleen black? 
A. It is occasioned by a terrestrial and earthy 
matter of a black colour, as Aristotle says. Another 
reason is, according to Physicians, the Spleen is 
the receptacle of Melancholy, and that is black. 
Q. Why is he lean, who hath a large Spleen? 
A. Because the Spleen draws much Water to it- 
self, which would turn to fat; therefore contrari- 
wise Men that have but a small Spleen are fat. 
Q. Why does the Spleen cause Men to laugh, as says 
Isidorus, we laugh with the Spleen, we be angry with 
the Caul, we are wise with the Heart, we love with 
the Liver, we feel with the Brain, and speak with the 
Lungs, that is, the cause of laughing, anger, love, wis- 
dom, speech, and feeling proceeds from the spleen, gall, 
liver, lungs and brain?
A. The reason is, the spleen draws much melan- 
choly to it, being its proper seat, the which melan-
choly 


57 of ARISTOTLE. 
choly proceeds from sadness, and is there consumed, 
and the cause failing, the effect doth so. And by the 
same reason the Gall causes anger; for cholerick
Men are often angry, because they have much Gall. 
For the better understanding of this, note, that 
there are four humours in Man, viz. Blood, Choler, 
Phlegm, and Melancholy; each hath its particular 
receptacle. Of a hot and dry substance Choler is 
engendered, which goes to the Gall; but of a cold 
and dry humour Melancholy is engendered, and 
goes to the Spleen; of a cold and moist humour 
Phlegm is engendered, and goes to the lungs for its 
reception, or (as Physicians say) to the spleen; but 
the blood which is the most noble humour, is en- 
gendered in the Liver, which is its proper Place. 
Of Carnal Copulation. 
Q. WHY do living Creatures use carnal Copulation? 
A. Because it is the most natural work 
that is in them to beget their like, for if Copulation 
were not, all procreation had e’er now sunk. 
Q. What is this carnal Copulation? 
A. It is a mutual Action of Male and Female, 
with Instrument ordained for that purpose to pro- 
pagate their kind; and therefore Divines say it is 
a Sin to use that Act for any other end. 
Q. Why is this action good in those who use it law- 
fully and moderately? 
A. Because, says Anvicen and Const. it eases and 
lightens the Body, clears the mind comforts the 
head and senses, and expels melancholy. There- 
fore sometimes through the omission of this Act, 
dimness of sight doth ensue, and giddiness; besides 
the Seed of a Man retained above its due time, is 
converted into some infectious Humour. 
Q. Why is immoderate carnal Copulation hurtful? 
A- Because it destroys the sight, dries the body, 
and impairs the Brain; it often causes Fevers, as 
C5 Avicen

58 The PROBLEMS
Avicen and Experience shew: It shortens Life too, 
as is evident in the Sparrow which by reason of its 
often coupling lives but three years. 
Q. Why doth carnal Copulation injure melancholy 
or cholerick Men especially thin Men?
A. Because it dries the bones much, which are 
naturally so. On the contrary; ’tis good for the flegma- 
tick and sanguine, as Avicen says, because they abound 
with that substance which by nature is necssarily ex- 
pel'd. Tho’  Aristotle affirms, that every fat Creature 
has but little Seed, because the substance turns to fat. 
Q. Why don't female brute Beast covet carnal Copu- 
lation after they be great with Young. 
A. Because then the Womb or Matrix is shut, 
and desire doth cease. 
Q. Why should not the act he used when the body it 
full? 
A. Because it hinders digestion, and ’tis not good 
for a hungry belly, becuuse it weakens him. 
Q. Why is it not good after a Bath? 
A. Because then the Pores are open, and the heat 
disperses thro’ the Body; yet after bathing it cools 
the Body very much. 
Q. Why is it not proper after Vomiting or Loosness? 
A. Because ’tis dangerous to purge twice in one 
day; but so it is, in this Act the Reins are purged, 
and the Guts by the Vomit. 
Q. Why are wild Beasts furious when they couple, as 
appears in asses, which bray; and Harts who are mad 
almost, as Hippocrates says? 
A. Their Blood is kindled with desire, and Na- 
ture also labours to expel Superfluities in them, 
which dispose to anger and madness: therefore the 
act done, they are tame and gentle. 
Q. Why is there such delight in the act of Venery?
A. Because this Act is a base and contemptible 
thing in itself, insomuch that all Creatures would na- 
turally abhor it, were there no pleasure in it, and 
there-

59 of ARISTOTLE. 
therefore nature readily uses it, that all kind of 
living things should be maintain’d and kept. 
Q. Why do such as use it oft take less delight in it 
than those that come to it seldom? 
A. For three reasons, first, because the passages 
of the Seed is over large and wide, therefore it 
makes no stay there, which would cause the de- 
light. Secondly, because that through often eva- 
cuation there is little Seed left, therefore no delight. 
Thirdly, because such, instead of Seed, cast out 
blood undigested and raw, or some other watry 
substance, which is not hot, and therefore affords 
no delight. 
Q. Whether can this carnal Copulation be done by 
the mouth, so that Beasts may conceive thereby, as some 
say of Pigeons that by kissing do it, and conceive. Some 
lay that is true in the Wesel or Ermine? 
A. According to Aristotle it is false, for tho’ Pige- 
ons do kiss by the beak, yet they don’t couple toge- 
ther this way, nor conceive. And because the Wesel 
carries his young ones from place to place in his 
Mouth, they are of that opinion; wherefore Arist. 
says, whatever goes in at the mouth is consumed by 
digestion, and if the Seed should go in at the mouth 
then that would be consumed by digestion. The 
major part is plain, the conclusion doth hold in Darii.
Of the Seed of Man or Beasts. 
Q. HOW, and of what cometh the Seed of Man?
A. There are diverse opinions of Philo- 
sophers and Physicians in this point. Some say ’tis a 
superfluous humour of the fourth digestion; others 
say, that the Seed is pure blood flowing from the 
Brain, concocted and whiten’d in the Testicles; and 
some say ’tis the superfluity of the second or third 
digestion; but, because Sweat, Urine, Spittle, 
Phlegm, and Choler are the like, Aristotle says, the  
Seed is always the superfluity of the last Nutriment,
that 


60 The PROBLEMS 
that is, of Blood dispersed throughout the Body 
and comes chiefly from the heart, liver, and brain 
An argument of this is, because those parts are 
greatly weakened by casting Seed; and therefore it 
appears that carnal Copulation is not profitable or 
good. But some think this to be true by over vehe- 
ment practice in this act; but moderately used, it 
is very wholesome, as is said before. 
Q. Why is a Man's Seed white, and a Woman's red? 
A. ’Tis white in Men by reason of his great heat 
and quick digestion, because rarified in the Testicles, 
but a Woman’s is red, because ’tis the superfluity of 
the second digestion, which is done in the Liver. 
Or else we may say, 'Tis because the Terms corrupt 
undigested blood, and hath its colour. 
Q. Doth the Seed of a Man come from the parts of 
the Body, or from the Humours? 
A. Some say, from the parts of the Body, and 
that we prove, because we find a lame Man begets 
a lame Child, and if the Father hath a Scar, the 
Child hath one also, as Aristotle alledges. Lib de 
Animal, which could not be if the Seed did not fall 
from the parts of the Body. Some say it comes from 
the humours, by reason ’tis made of the least nutri- 
ment, and that is no part but a Humour. As for 
lameness or scars, that proceeds from the Imagina- 
tion of the Mother at the time of carnal Copulation; 
as Aristotle saith, Lib. de Generat Animal. 
Q. How comes the Imagination of the Mother to bring 
forth a Black-a-moor, as Albertus Magnus reports of 
a Queen, who in the act of carnal copulation imagined, 
a Black being printed, and being in her sight? 
A. Avicen says, the imagination of a Fall makes 
a Man tall, and the Imagination of a Leprosy makes 
a Man a Leper. So in this the Imagination is above 
the forming Power, and therefore the Child born 
followeth the Imagination, and not the power of 
forming and shaping, because ’tis weakest.
Q. Doth 

61 of ARISTOTLE. 
Q. Doth the Man's Seed enter into the substance of 
the Child?
A. The Seed of both Father and Mother go into 
the substance of the Child in the Womb, as cream 
goeth to the substance of the Cheese. Yet this Opi- 
nion doth not seem to be of Force; therefore accord- 
ing to our Author and other Philosophers we say the 
Seed doth not go into the substance of the Child; 
and it is proved thus because that so the matter and 
the efficient cause should be all one, which is against 
the Philosopher. The consequence is good, because 
the seed is the efficient cause of the house, and there- 
fore is not the material cause of the Child. This is 
proved another way, as there is the self same mate- 
rial cause of nourishment and generation, 2 de anima 
so we have our being and nourishment of the same 
matter; but the seed cannot be the material cause of 
nourishment, according to Averrois, therefore not of 
the being: And as both Seeds are shut up in the 
Womb, so that of the Man disposeth and prepares 
the Woman’s to receive the Form, Perfection, or 
Soul. which being done, it is converted into a humi- 
dity that is breathed out by the Pores of the Matrix. 
Q. Why doth the Matrix of a Woman draw greedily 
the Seed of a Man? For, as Averrois saith, there was 
a Maid in a Bath where some seed had been cast, which 
the Maid drawing she conceived with Child? 
A. Averrois says, the Womb and Nature draws 
the Seed as the Loadstone doth Iron, but she draws 
it for the perfection of herself. 
Q. How comes Females to have monthly Courses?
A. Because they are cold in respect of Men, and 
because ail their nourishment can’t be converted in- 
to blood, a great part whereof turns to Menses, 
which are monthly expelled: I mean every Woman 
in health, and of 13 years, seldom any before; nay, 
some distempered, Women hath ’em not at all. 
Q. For what reason don't they come before thirteen?
A. Because young Women are hot, and digest all
their 


62 The PROBLEMS 
their Nourishment, therefore have them not before 
that age. 
Q. For what reason do they leave at about Fifty? 
A. Some answer that old Women be barren, 
and therefore they cease; but a better answer is, 
that then Nature is weak in them, and therefore 
they cannot expel them by reason of weakness; 
there is great store of Immundicities bred in them, 
which lies in a lump; this makes them troubled 
with Coughs and other Infirmities. Men should 
refrain their Use at those times. 
Q. Why have not breeding Women the Menses? 
A. Because that then they turn into Milk, and 
into the Nourishment of the Child; for if a Woman 
with Child have ’em, ’tis a Sign she’ll miscarry. 
Q Why have not Females of brute beasts the same? 
A. Because (as Aristotle and Albertus say) in Qua- 
drupeds they turn into hair, in Fish to scales, in Birds 
to feathers; wherefore you may observe in Beasts 
the female is more hairy than the male, female Fish 
fuller of scales, and female Birds fuller of feathers. 
Q. Why are the termed Menstrua, from the Word 
Mensis, a Month? 
A. Because ’tis a space of Time which measures 
the Moon, as she ends her course in 29 days and 
14 hours. Now the Moon hath dominion over 
moist things, and by reason the Menses are humid, 
they are called Menses profluvium; for moist things 
encrease ana decrease as the Moon does. 
Q. Why do they continue longer with some than others, 
as with some 6 or 7, but commonly with all 3 days?
A. The first are colder, therefore they encrease 
most in them, and consequently are longer in ex- 
peling; other Women are more hot, and therefore 
they have fewer, and are soon expelled. 
Q. Why is the Terms retained before they run? 
A. Some say in the Matrix or Womb; but A- 
verrois says, the Matrix is the Place for Generation, 
and

63 of ARISTOTLE. 
and that those terms further Generation not at all. 
Therefore he asserts, that there are certain Veins 
about the Back bone which retain ’em; a sign of 
which is, those Women (at that time) have great 
pain in their Backs? 
Q. Whether are the Menses which are expelled, and 
those which the Child is engendered of, all one?
A. No; because the one are unclean, and unfit 
for that purpose, but the other very pure and clean, 
therefore fittest for Generation. 
Q. Why do those got with Child when they have the 
terms upon 'em, bring forth weak and leprous Children? 
A. Because they are venomous; so the cause ap- 
pears in the Effect, as Philosophers say, the Effect 
carrieth the likeness, or the cause; therefore such 
a Child must needs be ill disposed of Body. 
Q. Why have not Women these at one and the same 
time, but some in the New-moon, some in the full, and 
others at the wain?
A. By reason of their several Complexions, and 
tho’ all Women (in respect of Men) are flegmatic, yet 
some are more sanguine than other, some more cho- 
lerick: as months have their quarters, so have Wo- 
men their Complexions, the first sanguine, the second 
cholerick. One of a sanguine Complexion hath 
her terms in the first quarter, a cholerick in the se- 
cond, a melancholy in the third: add so in the rest. 
Q. Why have the sanguine theirs in the first quarter? 
A. Because saith Galen, every such thing added
to such a thing doth make it more such; therefore 
the first quarter of the Moon encreaseth Blood, in a 
sanguine Complexion, and then she expels it. 
Q. How do they come in the end of the month?
A Because most Women then are flegmatick, and 
the last quarter is Phlegm. Or else it proceeds from 
defect, and therefore Cold works then to multiply 
the matter, and so multiply’d is then expelled. 
Q. How happens pain and grief at that time?
A. Because


64 The PROBLEMS 
A. Because its like the pain of the Stranguary, in 
making water drop by drop: for the Stranguary by 
reason of the Drink undigested offends the subtile 
passage of the Urine, as happens after bathing; so 
the Menses undigested and of an earthy substance, 
hurt the passage by which they go. 
Why do Women easily conceive after their Menses? 
A. Because the Womb being cleansed, they are 
better prepared for Conception. 
Why do Women look pale when they are upon them? 
A. Because then the heat goes from the outward 
part of the Body to the inward, to help Nature, 
and expel their Terms, which depravation of heat 
doth cause a paleness in the Face. Or else it is 
because that flux is caused of raw humours, which 
when they run, they make the Face colourless. 
Q. Why do they at that time abhor their Meat? 
A. Because Nature labours more to expel their 
Terms than to digest, and therefore if they should 
eat it would remain raw in the Stomach. 
Q. Why are some Women barren and can't conceive? 
A. According to Physicians, for diverse reasons; 
first, because it proceeds sometimes of the Man, 
who may be of a cold Nature, so his seed unfit for 
generation; secondly, because it is waterish, and 
so doth not stay in the Womb: thirdly, by reason 
the Seed of them both has not a like proportion; 
as, if the Man be melancholy and the Woman
sanguine, or the Man cholerick and the Woman 
flegmatick; for it is evident in Philosophy, that 
the Agent and the Patient ouoht to have the same 
proportion, else the Action is hindered. 
Q. Why do fat Women seldom conceive with Child? 
A. Because they have a slippery Womb, and the 
seed will not stay in; or else because the mouth of 
the Matrix is very streight, and the seed can’t enter 
in, or if it do, ’tis very slowly, that it grows cold in 
the mean time, so is unfit for Generation, and is 
desolved to any fleshy substance. 
Q.

65 of ARISTOTLE.
Q. Why do those of very hot Constitutions seldom con- 
ceive with Child? 
A. Because the Seed in them is extinguished or 
put out as Water cast into Fire; whereof we find 
Women that vehemently desire the Flesh seldom 
conceive with Child. 
Q. Why are Whores never with Child? 
A. By reason of divers Seeds, which corrupt and 
spoil the Instruments of Conception, for it make 
them so slippery that they cannot retain Seed. Or 
else ’tis because one Man’s Seed destroys another.
so neither is good for generation. Albertus says, the 
best thing to help Conception, is to make the ma- 
trix of a Hare beat to powder, so put in Drink. 
Q Why doth a Woman conceive a Male Child? 
A. If the seed fall on the right of the Matrix a 
male Child is begotten, for that side is hotter than 
the other, and heat chiefly works to the begetting 
a male Child. Albertus says, if the right side of a 
Women swells, ’tis a sign she goes with a Male. But 
some alledge another reason, viz. when the Seed of 
the Father exceeds that of the Mother then a Male 
Child is begotten; if the contrary, then a Female. 
Q. Why doth a Woman conceive a Female Child? 
A. Because the Seed is fallen into the left side 
of the Matrix, and that is colder than the right, by 
reason of the Spleen joining to it which helps cold, 
as Albertus saith, When the Woman after the Act 
of Copulation doth lie on the right side, ’tis a Boy; 
when on the left side a Girl; for the Seeds run to 
the side on which the Woman lieth. 
Q. Why have some Women long and slender children 
and others short and thick?
A. Because as Galen and Averrois say, the Child 
is formed according to the dimension of the Womb, 
wherefore because some Women have a long and 
narrow Womb, their children are long and slender, 
others on the contrary short and large, therefore 
their Children be short and thick. 
Q.


66 The PROBLEMS 
Q. For why doth a Woman sometimes conceive Twins? 
A. According to Galen, because there are several 
Cells or Receptacles in the Womb, wherefore we 
may naturally have so many Children at once as 
there falls Seed in those Cells: There are three in 
the right side, and three in the left; in the right 
side Boys are engendered, in the left Girls; 
and in the midst of these Cells or Chambers there’s 
another, where the Ancients assert Hermaphrodites 
to be engendered: If a Woman should have more 
than 7 Children at once, it should be rather mira- 
culous than natural. 
Q. Why are Twins but half Men, and not so strong
as other Men? 
A. By reason the Seed which should have been 
for one, is divided into two, and therefore they are 
weakly, and in truth do not often live long. 
Of Hermaphrodites. 
Q. How are Hermaphrodites begotten? 
A. There are three Cells in the Womb, 
one on the right side, another on the left, and a 
third in the centre, into which when the Seed falls, 
an Hermaphrodite is said to be begotten in this 
manner; because Nature doth always tend to that 
which is best, therefore she doth always intend to
beget the Male, and not the Female, because the 
Female is only for the Male’s sake: Therefore the 
Male is some time begotten in all principal parts, 
and yet thro’ the evil disposition of the Womb and 
object, and inequality of the Seed, when Nature 
cannot perfect and end the Male, she brings forth
the Female too. And therefore the natural Philo- 
sopher; says an Hermaphrodite is impotent in the 
privy parts of Man, as appears by Experience. 
Q. Why doth not Nature dispose in him two secret 
parts of Man, or two of a Woman; but one of a 
Man, and one of a Woman? 
A. Because

67 of ARISTOTLE. 
A. Because nature should then make one of them 
in vain; but that is against the Philosophers, who 
say that God and Nature make nothing in vain. 
Q. Is an Hermophrodite accounted a Man or Woman? 
A. It is to be considered in which Member he is 
fittest for the Act of Copulation; if he be fittest in 
the Woman’s, than it is Woman: if in the Man’s, 
he is a Man. 
Q. Should she be baptized in the name of a Man or 
a Woman? 
A. In the Name of a Man, because Names are 
given ad placitum, and therefore he should be bap- 
tized according to the worthiest Name, because 
every agent is worthier than its patient. 
Q. Shall he stand in Judgment in the Name of a 
Man or Woman? 
A. According to the law he should first swear, 
before he be admitted to Judgment, which secret 
part he can use, and so is to be admitted according 
to the use and power of that part. 
Of Monsters. 
Q. DOTH Nature make any Monsters? 
A. She doth, for if she did not, she would 
then be deprived of her End. For of things possi- 
ble she doth always purpose to bring forth that 
which is most perfect and best; but in the End, 
through the evil disposition of the matter, and in- 
fluence of some special Constellation. not being 
able to bring forth that which she intended, she 
brings forth that which she can. As it happened 
in Albertus's Time, when in a certain Village 
a Cow brought forth a Cow half a Man, then the 
Countrymen suspecting a Shepherd, would have 
burnt him with the Cow, but Albertus being skilful 
in Astronomy, said, that this did proceed from 
speciai Constellation, and so delivered the Shepherd 
from their Hands. 
Q. Be they one or two?  
A. Aristotle

68 The PROBLEMS 
A. Aristotle saith, you must look into the Heart 
and if there be two Hearts, there be two Men. 
Q. Why is a Man born sometimes with a great head 
and six fingers on one hand, or with four? 
A. Aristotle saith, it proceeds of superfluity and 
abundance of matter; when there is too much mat- 
ter, then he is born with a great head, or six fing- 
ers; but if there be want of matter, then there is
some part too little, or less than it ought to be. 
Of Infants. 
Q. WHY are some Children altogether like the 
Father, some like the Mother, some to both, 
and some to neither?
A. If the Seed of the Father do wholly over- 
come that of the Mother, the Child doth wholly 
resemble the Father; but if the Mother’s predomi- 
nate, then it is like the Mother; but if he be like 
neither, that doth happen for many causes; some- 
times through the four qualities, some through the 
influence of some heavenly Constellation. Albertus 
gives an Example, and saith, that there was on a 
time a good Constellation for begetting of Hogs, 
and a Child was then begotten and brought forth 
which had a Face like a Hog, and according to 
this, diverse sorts of Monsters are brought forth. 
Q. Why are Children oftner like the Father than 
the Mother? 
A. That proceeds of Imagination of the Mother 
in the act of Copulation, and therefore by reason 
of the strong Imagination in the time of Concep- 
tion, the Children get the disposition of the Father; 
as it appears before of the queen which had her 
Imagination on a Blackamoor, and of an Ethiopian 
queen which brought forth a white Child, because 
her imagination was upon a white colour. And is 
seen in Jacob's Skill in casting Rods of diverse co- 
lours into the Water when his Sheep went to Ram.
Q. Why 

69 of ARISTOTLE.
Q. Why do Children sometimes resemble more the 
Grandfathers and great Grandfathers than their Parents?
A. Because the vertue and force of the Grandfa- 
ther is grafted in the Heart of the Begetter and it 
may be said that sometimes it doth proceed of the 
similitude of the nutriture, and then the Child is 
formed by the similitude of the Grandfathers. 
Q. Why are the parts of a Child's body of diverse 
qualities? 
A. This proceeds of the predomination of diverse 
Elements, because the Bones are made of a terresti- 
al matter, therefore are hard, but the Brain and the 
marrow are made of a more watry matter, therefore 
more soft, the vital and animal Spirits are engender- 
ed of an aerial Substance, and are principally in- 
the Liver and Heart. 
Q. Why do Children according to the common course 
and use of Nature, come out of the Mother's Womb in 
the ninth Month? 
A. Because the child is then fully perfect, or else 
because some benign Planet doth reign, as Jupiter, 
who is a Friend of Nature; for according to Astro- 
nomers, he is hot and moist and therefore doth temper 
the malice and naughtiness of Satan, which is cold 
and dry, and therefore for the most part Children 
born in the ninth Month are healthful. 
Q. Why do Children born in the eighth Month, for 
the most part, die quickly? And why are they called 
the Children of the Moon? 
A. Because the Moon is a cold Planet, Which has 
Dominion over the Child, and therefore doth bind it 
with its coldness, which is the cause of its death. 
Q. Why doth a Child cry as soon as it is born? 
A. Because of the sudden change from heat to 
cold, which cold doth hurt its tenderness. Another 
reason is, because the Child’s soft and tender Body is 
wring’d and put together, coming out of the narrow 
and strait passage of the Matrix, and especially the 
Brain

70. The PROBLEMS 
Brain being moist, and the head prest and wringed 
together, is the cause that some humours do distil
by the Eyes which are the cause of tears and weep- 
ing. The Divines say, it is for the Transgression
of our first Fathers, and Original Sin. 
Q. Why doth a Child put his finger into his Mouth 
when he cometh first into the world? 
A. Because that coming out of the womb, he 
cometh out of a hot Bath, and entering in the cold 
puts his fingers into his Mouth for want of heat. 
Q. How doth a Child come into the world out of 
the womb? 
A. He cometh forth with the head forward: 
for if he should come with the Thighs or Arms 
forward he would kill himself and the Mother. 
Of the young One in the Womb. 
Q. HOW is the young one ingendered in the womb? 
A. The first six days the Seed hath the 
colour of Milk, but in the six days following a red 
colour, which is near unto the disposition of Flesh; 
and then it is changed into a thick substance of 
blood, but in 12 days following this Substance is 
made so thick and sound, that is able to receive shape 
and form, because a fluid or running substance keep- 
eth on until his birth. And how he is governed every 
month by the planets, Boetius doth us elsewhere. 
Q. Doth the Child in the Womb void Excrement or 
make Water?
A. No, and the reason is, because he hath the 
first digestion which is in the stomach, he receives  
no food by the mouth, but it comes to him at the 
Navel, he therefore makes no urine, but sweats,
which at best is but little, and is reserved in a Skin 
in the Matrix, and at his Birth is cast out. 
Q. Why doth the Child come out of the Matrix 
easily after seven, eight or nine Months? 
A. Because, saith Galen, when the fruit is ripe, 
when the Ligaments are broken, and so it fall out.
Of


71 of ARISTOTLE.
Of Abortion and untimely Birth. 
Q. WHY do women that eat unwholsome Meats 
easily miscarry? 
A. Because it breeds putrified Seed in them, 
which the Mind abhorring, doth cast it out of the 
Womb, as unfit for the most noble Shape, which 
is adapt to receive the Soul. 
Q. Why doth wrestling or leaping cause the casting 
of the Child, as some subtile women use to do on 
purpose? 
A. The Vapour is burning, and doth easily hurt 
the tender substance of the Child, entering in at the 
Pores of the Matrix. Albertus says, if the Child 
is near delivery, lightning or thunder will kill it. 
Q. For why doth thunder & lightning rather cause 
young women to miscarry than old? 
A. Because the bodies of young women are ful- 
ler of Pores, and more slender, and therefore the 
Lightning sooner enters into their Body; but old 
one’s have a thick Skin, well compacted, therefore 
the Vapour cannot enter. 
Q. Why doth much joy cause a woman to miscarry? 
A. Because in the time of joy a woman is des- 
titute of heat, and so miscarriage doth follow. 
The same reason doth cause fear to breed it, for 
then the Heat runs to the heart, and forsakes the 
Matrix. 
Q. Why do women easily miscarry when they are 
first with child, viz. the first, second, or third month? 
A. As Apples and Pears easily fall at first, be- 
cause the Knots and Ligaments are weak, so it is 
of a Child in the Womb. 
Q. Why is it hard to miscarry when they are come 
to the midst of their Time, as three, four, five, or six 
months? 
A. Because then the Ligaments are stronger,
and well fortified, is not easily broken. 
Of

72 The PROBLEMS 
Of diverse Matters. 
Q. WHY have some women greater grief than 
others in Child birth? 
A. For three reasons, First, for the Largeness of 
the Child. Secondly, the Midwife being unskil- 
ful. And, thirdly, because the Child is dead, and 
cannot be bowed. For the contrary Causes some 
have less Pain. 
Q. Why has not a Man a Tail like Beasts? 
A. Because man is a noble Creature, whose pro- 
perty is to fit; so a Beast cannot that hath a Tail. 
Q. Why does such as keep hot Houses expel the heat 
of the Furnace better with cold water than hot?
A. By reason they are contrary qualities, which 
work strongly one against the other, therefore the 
heat is easier expelled from the stone. 
Q. Why does hot water freeze sooner than cold? 
A. Because hot water is thinner, and gives bet- 
ter entrance to the frost.  
Q. Why is every living Thing dull after Copulation? 
A. By reason the act is filthy and unclean, and 
so every living Creature abhors it, when Men do 
think upon it, they are ashamed and sad. 
Q. Why cannot drunken men judge of Tastes as well 
as sober ones? 
A. Because the Tongue being full of Pores, and 
spungy it receives great moisture in it, and more in 
drunken men than sober, therefore the Tongue 
(through often drinking) is full of bad humours, 
and because it is so the Faculty of Taste is ren- 
dered out of order; therefore through the thick- 
ening of the mean, i. e. Taste itself, Drink taken 
of Drunkards is not presently felt, for to due feel- 
ing there is requisite to have a due proportion of 
the Mean. And by this also is understood why 
Drunkards have not a perfect Speech then. 
Q. Why have melancholy beasts long Ears? and why
are


73 of ARISTOTLE.
are not those Men wise for the most part that have long 
ears, but those with short ones? 
A. The ears proceed from a cold and dry sub- 
stance called a Gristle, which is apt to become a
Bone; and because melancholy Beasts do abound 
with this kind of substance, they have long Ears. 
Q. How comes the other to be half-witted? 
A. Because the minds and souls follow the Bodies, 
for if the Senses of the Body be subtile, the Soul 
exercises subtile operations, as well active as specu- 
lative; and the contrary is in a gross Body. 
Q. How is the intellectual Soul joined to a Child in the 
womb of the Mother? and how does the Man who be- 
gets it make the matter apt and fit to receive the Soul? 
A. Divines say, that into a substance sufficiently 
disposed and made fit, God doth infuse the intellec- 
tual Soul; and St. Augustine says the like. The Soul 
in creating is infused. and, in infusing, is created. 
Q. Why do Hares sleep with their Eyes open? 
A. Because they have their Eyes standing out, 
and their Eyelids short, therefore never quite shut. 
Another reason is they are timorous, and as a safe- 
guard to themselves, sleep with their Eyes open. 
Why don't Crows feed their Young till they be 
nine Days old?
A. Because seeing them of another colour, they 
think they are of another kind; mean while God 
feeds ’em with heavenly Dew; as the Psalmist saith. 
He who doth give Beasts their Food, and Young Crows, 
which call upon him. 
Q. Why are Sheep and Pidgeons mild Creatures?
A. Because they want Galls, which stir Anger. 
Q. Why have Birds their Stones inward? 
A. Because if they were outward, they would 
hinder their flying and lightness. 
Q. How comes it Birds don’t piss? 
A. Because that superfluity which would be con- 
verted into Urine is turn’d into Feathers, for there 
D is


74 The PROBLEMS	
is much moisture in the Feathers. Another reason 
is, they are in continual motion, therefore moisture 
in them is dried up by Air or Wind. 
Q. How comes a sign and cause of the Male, and flat 
short Eggs of the Female? 
A. Hippocrates says, it is the property of heat to 
ascend from the center to the circumference of cold. 
Therefore if there be any long Eggs, it is a sign they 
have great heat, and therefore pass into the substance 
of the Male, for in every kind the Male is hotter 
than the Female, as Philosophers say. If the eggs be 
short and flat, it is a sign the heat is small and undis- 
persed, and goeth into the substance of the Female. 
Q. How do we hear better by Night than by Day? 
A. Because (as Aristotle saith) there is greater qui- 
etness in the night than in the day, for the Sun doth 
not exhale the vapours by night, but it doth in the  
day, therefore the mean is more fit than ready, and 
the mean being fit, the motion is better done by it, 
which is said to be done by a sound. Another rea- 
son is there are motions of the air and sounds in
the day, more than in the night, which hinders one 
another; in the hight there is silence, which is op- 
posite to sound, and opposites put one against the 
other, shew the better. 
Q. For what reason doth a Man laugh sooner when  
touched in the Armpits, than in other parts of the body? 
A. Because there is in that place a meeting of 
many sinews, and the mean we touch by (which is 
the flesh) is more subtil there than in other parts, 
and therefore a better feeling. And this is true if
that place be not touched too roughly, if you do 
so, then there is not that delight: When a Man is 
moderately and gently touched there, the spirits 
that are there dispersed, run into the Face and 
thence is caused laughter. 
Q. How comes wood burnt converted into a black 
coal, and a bone burnt into a white Substance? 
A. Because

75 of ARISTOTLE.
A. Because the Wood before it was burnt was 
moist, and so after burning getteth heat accidentally, 
and that heat is not able to consume all the moisture 
of the Wood, and therefore there remaineth some 
after the burning, and is converted into a black 
substance, because the humidity of the Wood was 
slimy, and could not altogether be consumed by the 
fire. But a bone of its own nature is cold and dry, 
having but small moisture in it, which the burning 
doth wholly consume, and so accidentally, the 
moisture being consumed, the body waxeth white. 
 Q. Why do some Women love white Men, and some 
Black?
A. There are two answers: Some Women have 
a weak sight, and such delight in black, because 
white doth hurt the sight more than black. The 
second reason is, because like delight in the like:
but some Women are of a hot nature, and such
are delighted with black, because blackness doth 
follow heat. And others of a cold nature, and 
these are delighted with white, because cold is the 
Mother of whiteness. 
Q. Why do living Creatures sleep? 
A. For necessity, because the Instruments of diverse 
actions are wearied by being long awake, and by rest 
which is in sleep they are comforted as Aristotle saith. 
Q. Why are Students ready to sleep after Dinner, if 
they go about to study, or if thy solace by themselves? 
A. Because when a Man doth apply his mind to 
study the natural heat goes from the outward parts 
of the body to the inward,and there it strengtheneth, 
because there cometh much of it together, and causeth. 
a fume to ascend from the meat to the head which 
is the cause of sleep. Or else we may answer, that 
when the power or virtue with which we sleep is 
strongest, the natural power is weakened; but when
a man doth solace himself by this pleasure, the natural 
heat is spread abroad, and suffereth no Vapour to 
D2 ascend

76 The PROBLEMS 
ascend unto the brain, and so sleepeth not, but is 
kept from sleep by reason that the heat is dispersed 
Q. Why do men willingly sleep after labour? 
A. Because that thro’ continual moving, the heat 
is dispersed to the external parts of the body, which 
after the labour is past, gathereth together to the in- 
ternal parts of digestion, there to digest; and from 
digestion, vapours do arise from the heart to the brain, 
which do stop the passages, by which the natural heat 
should be dispersed to the external part; and then 
the external parts being cold and thick by reason 
of the coldness of the brain, sleep is procured. 
And by this it appeareth, that such as eat and drink 
much, do sleep much and long, because great store 
of humours and vapours are bred in such, which 
cannot be digested and consumed of the natural heat. 
Q. Why are such as sleep much, evil disposed and 
ill-coloured? 
A. Because that in sleep much moisture is gather- 
ed together, which cannot be consumed, which is 
expelled in making, and so it doth covet to go out 
through the superficial part of the body, and espe- 
cially it resorts to the face, and so is the cause of 
a bad colour, as it appeareth in such as be flegma- 
tick who desire more sleep than others. 
Q. Why doth it appear unto some in their sleep, that 
they eat and drink sweet things? 
A. Because the flegm drawn up by the jaws doth 
distil and drop to the throat, and this flegm is after 
a sort sweet, and therefore that seemeth so to them. 
Q. Why do some dream in their sleep that they be in 
the water and drowned, and some that they be in water 
and not drowned; and this doth happen especially in 
sucb as are flegmatic?
A. The reason is (as Aristotle saith) because the 
flegmatic substance doth run to the high parts of 
the body, and then they think they are in the water 
and drowned; and when that substance draweth un- 
to


77 of ARISTOTLE. 
to the internal parts, then they think they escape. 
Another reason may be overmuch repletion and 
drunkenness: and therefore when a man is over- 
much fill’d with meat, the fumes and vapours as- 
cend and gather together, and therefore they think 
that they are drowned and strangled; but if they 
cannot ascend so high, then they seem to escape. 
Q. May a man procure a dream by an external cause? 
A. Aristotle holdeth that it may be done, if a man 
do speak softly at a man’s ear, and awake him, 
then of this stirring of the spirits there are thun- 
drings and buzzings in the head and so dream of 
that. And so some men have dreams by divine re- 
velation, when it pleaseth God to send any. 
Q. How many humours are there in man's body? 
A. Four, whereof every one hath its proper place 
in man’s body. The first is choler, which phisici- 
ans call flava bilis, as is placed in the liver. The 
second is melancholy, call’d atra bilis, whose seat is in 
the spleen. The third is flegm, whose place is in the 
head. The fourth is blood whose place is in the heart. 
Q. What condition and quality hath a man of a 
sanguine complexion? 
A. He is fair and beautiful, he hath his hair for 
the most part smooth; he is bold, he retaineth that 
which he hath conceived; he is shamefaced, given 
to musick, a lover of sciences, liberal, courteous, 
and desires no revenge. 
Q. What properties do follow a flegmatic complexion 
A. They are dull or wit, their hair never curls, 
they are seldom very thirsty, they are much given 
to sleep, they dream of things belonging to the wa- 
ter, they are fearful, covetous, given to heap up 
riches, are weak in the act of venery. 
Q. What properties do follow the choleric man? 
A. He is furious and angry, quarrelsome, given to 
war, pale coloured and unquiet; drinks much, sleep 
little, and desires much the company of women. 
D3 Q. What


78 The PROBLEMS 
Q. What properties do follow the melancholy man? 
A. He is unquiet, brown in complexion, his 
veins hidden, he eateth little, and digesteth less; 
when he dreameth, it is of dark confus’d things; 
he is sad, fearful, exceeding covetous and incon- 
tinent, unless he bridle his affection. 
Q. What dreams do follow these complexions? 
A. Pleasant merry dreams do follow the sanguine 
complexion, fearful dreams the melancholy, the cho- 
leric dream of children, fighting and fire, and the 
flegmatic dream of water. And this is the reason why 
a man’s complexion is said to be known by his dreams 
Q. What is the reason that if you cover an egg over 
with salt, and let it lie, in a few days, all the meat 
within is consumed?
A. The great dryness of the salt doth consume 
the substance of the egg: but in sand some say they 
may be kept as long, as the mariners do practise. 
Q. Why is the melancholy complexion the worst of all? 
A. Because it is the dregs of blood, which is an 
enemy to mirth, and farthest from the beginning 
of man’s life, and bringing old age and death, 
because it is cold and dry. 
Q. Why is the flegmatic for the most part dull of wit? 
A. Because that the vivacity of wit proceedeth 
of heat, so of cold the contrary, which they are 
subject unto. 
Q. Wherefore doth it proceed that some men die with 
extreme joy, and some with extreme grief? 
A. Over great joy doth overmuch heat the in- 
terial parts of the body: and overmuch grief doth 
drown and suffocate the heat, the which failing, 
a man dieth. 
Q Why hath a man so much hair on his head? 
A. The hair of the head proceedeth of the va- 
pours which ariseth from the stomach, and ascend to 
the head, and a!so of the superfluities which are in 
the brain; and those two passing thro’ the pores of
the

79 of ARISTOTLE. 
the head, are converted into hair, by reason of the 
heat and dryness of the head. And because man’s 
body is full of humours, and hath more brains 
than other creatures, and also more superfluities in 
the brains, which the brain expelleth, it followeth 
that he hath more hair than other living creatures. 
Q. How many ways is the brain purged, and other 
hidden places of the body? 
A. Four, the watery and gross humours are purg- 
ed by the eyes, melancholy by the ears, choler by 
the nose, and flegm by the hair. 
Q. What is the reason that some blush and change colour 
when they bear that which they would not? 
A. Shamefacedness is a kind of anger, displea- 
sure and fear joined together, as when a man is 
offended against himself, or against another; and 
therefore when we se or hear something to be 
discovered which ourselves have done naughtily, 
or would not have known, the anger that we con- 
ceive is greater than the fear, and therefore the 
blood runneth to and fro, and in the end remain- 
eth in the highest parts of the body, until the spirits 
be pacified, and the passion gone. 
Q. What is the reason that such as are very fat in their 
youth, are in danger to die on a sudden? 
A. Such have very small and close veins, by rea- 
son of their fatness, for that the air and the breath 
can hardly have free course in them; and thereup- 
on the natural heat wanting some refreshment of 
the air, is put out, and as it were quenched. 
Q. Why doth garlick and onions grow after they are 
gathered?  
A. It proceedeth of the great humidity which is 
in them. 
Q. Why do men feel cold sooner than women? 
A. Because that men being more hot than women 
have their pores more open, and therefore the cold 
doth sooner enter in them, than into women. 
D4 Q. Why

80 The PROBLEMS 
Q. Why are not old men so much subject to the plague 
as young men and children? 
A. They are cold, and therefore the pores are 
shut up, and not so open as in youth; and there- 
fore the infecting air doth not penetrate so soon as 
when they are open, as in youth by reason of heat. 
Q. What is the reason that lime is set on fire, and on 
a greater heat, by casting water on it? 
A. Lime is hot of nature, and therefore when water 
is cast on it, it sleeth from the cold, and by uniting 
of its force, gathereth a greater heat and strength, 
and so is set on fire. And that is also the reason that 
a candle doth burn faster in winter than in summer 
for then, by reason of the encompassing cold, the 
heat uniteth itself, and gathereth the closer to the 
tallow or wax, and so doth consume it the faster. 
Q. Why do we cast water into a man’s face when he 
swooneth? 
A. Because that through the coldness of water, 
the heat may run to the heart, and so give strength. 
Q. Why are those waters best and most delicate which 
run towards the sun rising. 
A. Because they are soonest stricken with the sun- 
beams, and made pure and subtile, because the sun 
hath them long under him, and by that means 
take off the coldness and gross vapours, which they 
away their ground they run through. 
Q. Why have women such weak small voices? 
A. Because their instruments and organs of 
speaking by reason they are cold, are small and 
narrow; and therefore receiving but little air, 
causeth the voice to be small and effeminate. 
Q. Whereof doth it proceed that want of sleep doth 
weaken the brain and the body? 
A. Much watching doth engender choler, the 
which, being hot, doth dry up and lessen the hu- 
mours which conserve the brain, the head, and 
other parts of the body. 
Q. Whereof

81 of ARISTOTLE.  
Q. Whereof doth it proceed that vinegar doth stench
blood? 
A. It proceedeth of its cold virtue, for all cold 
naturally is binding, and vinegar being cold, hath 
the like property. 
Q. Why is the sea water salter in summer than in 
winter?  
A. This proceedeth from the heat of the sun, 
seeing by experience that a salt thing being heated, 
becometh more salt. 
Q. Why is smoak contrary to the eyes? 
A. Because in the eyes there is a delicate and 
Pure crystalline humour and the eye is also cold and 
without any colour at all, and the smoak is gross and 
hot and by that means doth pierce the humours 
of the eyes and hurt them; and if the eye had any 
colour in it, all things set before it would seem to be 
of the same colour. And because the eyes are cold, 
and the smoak hot, it doth cause the vapours which 
are contained in the eyes to drop and distil, which
is hurtful to the eyes. 
Q. Why do men live longer in hot regions than in cold? 
A. Because they be more dry, and by that means 
the natural heat is better conserved in them than in
cold countries, because the cold doth extinguish 
the heat. 
Why is well-vater seldom or never good? 
A. All water which standeth still in the spring,
and is never heated by the sun beams, is very hea- 
vy, and hath much earthy matter in it; and there- 
fore wanting the heat of the sun is naught.
Q. Why do we sleep better and more at ease on the right 
side than on the left? 
A. Because when we lye on the left, the lungs do 
lye upon and cover the heart, which is on that side 
under the pap. Now the heart, the fountain of 
life, being thus occupied and hindered with the 
lungs, cannot exercise its own proper operations as 
D5 being

82 the PROBLEMS
being overmuch heated with the lungs lying on i 
and therefore wanting the refreshing of the air which 
the lungs do give it, like the blowing a pair of bel- 
lows, is choaked and suffocated; but by lying on 
the right side, these inconveniencies are avoided. 
Q. Whereof doth it proceed that the holding of the breath 
doth cause yexing to cease? 
A. Because the holding the breath doth heat the 
internal parts of the body. and this heat chaseth
away the yex, being nothing else but a cold air 
within the body. 
Q. What is the reason that old men sneeze with 
difficulty? 
A. Because that thro’ their coldness their arteries 
are very narrow and close, and therefore the heat 
is not of force to expel the cold; for I think, sneez- 
ing is like the combate in the air made by thun- 
der, which s caused by heat and cold. 
Q. Why doth a drunken man think that all things about 
him doth turn round? 
A. Because the spirits which serve the sight are 
mingled with vapours, fumes, and the wine: and 
then the overmuch heat causeth the eye to be in 
a continual moving; and the eye being round, 
causeth all things about it to seem to go round. 
Q. Wherefore doth it proceed, that bread which is
made with salt is lighter than that which is made without 
it, considering salt is very heavy of itself?
A. Although bread is heavy of itself, yet the salt 
dry it, doth make it light by reason of the heat 
which it hath, which heat doth dry, and the more 
heat there is in it, the better the bread is, the 
lighter and more wholsom for the body. 
Q. Why is not new bread good for the stomach? 
A. Because it is full of moistiness, and thick and 
hot vapours, which do corrupt the blood, and hot 
bread is blacker than cold, because heat is the mother 
of blackness, and because the vapours are not gone 
out of it. 
Q.


83 of ARISTOTLE. 
Q. Why doth lettuce make a man sleep? 
A. Because they engender gross vapours. 
Q. Why do the dregs of wine and oil go to the bot-
tom, and those of honey swim uppermost? 
A. Because the dregs of wine and oil are earth- 
ly and no way purged before, and, therefore being 
of the nature of earth do go to the bottom; but 
honey is a liquor which cometh from the stomach 
and belly of the bee, and there in some sort purified 
and made subtile; and by that means that which re- 
mains is light and hot, and therefore goes upwards. 
Q. Why do cats and wolves eyes shine in the night, 
and not in the day? 
A. The eyes of these beasts are by nature more 
chrystalline than the eyes of other beasts, and there- 
fore do shine as they do; but the brightness of the 
sun doth hinder them to be seen in the day time. 
Q. What is the reason that some men when they see 
others dance, do the like with their hands and feet, or 
by some other gesture of the body? 
A. the answer is, because the sight having car- 
ry’d and represented unto the mind that action, 
and judging the same to be pleasant and delight- 
ful, and therefore (desiring it) the imagination 
draweth the likeness of it in conceit, and stirring 
up the body by the gestures. 
Q. Why do much sleep cause some to grow fat, and 
some lean? 
A. Those which are of ill complexion, when 
they sleep, do consume and digest the superfluities 
of that they have eaten, and therefore become fat. 
But such as are of good complexion, when they 
sleep, are much more cold and so digest less. 
Q. How, and for what cause do we suffer hunger 
better than thirst? 
A. When the stomach hath nothing to consume
it consumeth the flegm and humours which it find- 
eth most ready and most at hand; and therefore we 
suffer

84 the PROBLEMS 
suffer hunger better than thirst, because the heat 
hath nothing to refresh it withall. 
Q. Why doth  the hair fall after a great sickness?
A. Where the sickness is long, as an ague, the 
humours of the head are dryed up thro’ overmuch 
heat, and therefore wanting nourishment they fall. 
Q. Why do the hair of the eyebrows grow long in 
old men?
A. Because that thro’ their age the bones of the 
Eyelids are thin, by reason of the want of heat, 
and therefore the hair doth grow there, by reason
of the rheums of the eyes. The like doth happen 
in such as imagine much, because that with their 
heat they draw up many humours to the forepart 
of the head, where the imagination is placed. 
Q. Whereof proceedeth gaping? 
A. Of grois vapours which occupy the vital 
spirits of the head, and the senses are cold, mak- 
ing them ready to sleep. 
Q. What is the reason that some flowers do open 
with the sun rising and some with the sun setting? 
A. Cold doth close and shut as hath been said, 
but the heat of the sun doth open and enlarge. 
Some do compare the sun to the soul of the body; 
for as the soul giveth life, and when it departeth, 
death followeth. So the sun doth give life, and 
vivicate all things; the cold bringeth death, 
withering and decaying of all things. 
Q. Why do grief cause men to grow old and grey? 
A. Age is nothing else but a dryness, and want 
of humours in the body: grief then causeth alte- 
ration, and alteration heat, and heat dryness; 
age followeth immediately, and greyness. 
Q. Why are gelded beasts weaker than such as are 
not gelded?
A. Because they have lesser heat, and by that 
means lesser force and strength. 
Marcus

85 of Antonius Zimaras. 
Marcus Antonius Zimaras Sanctipertias's.
PROBLEMS.
1. WHY is it esteemed in the judgment of the most
wise, the hardest thing to know a Man's self?
It is because nothing can be known, of its form 
and perfection cannot be found? to know the form 
and perfection of a Man’s self, as it seemeth unto the 
Philosopher, is a matter hard enough, and a Man, 
by the authority of Plato, either is nothing, or if he 
be any thing, he is nothing but his Soul. Or, is it 
because it cannot be done by a reflected Action, 
and to reflect and look unto himself is a token that 
he is separated by the flesh: For he who would 
know himself, should be drawn from sensible af- 
fections, and how hard this is, no Man is ignorant 
of. Or, is it because a Man liveth by understand- 
ing? but the understanding of a Man cannot con- 
ceive himself, but after the understanding of Senses 
which is very hard. 
2. Why was Socrates esteemed the wisest of all 
Greece by the Oracle of Apollo, seeing that by the 
Opinion of Aristotle, he was conversant and busied 
only about morality, and nothing about nature? 
Whether it is because it is more expedient for 
the common Commodity and use of Men to live 
well, than to contemplate: or because it seemeth 
to Plato, that was usually professed of him every 
where, I know one thing, that I know nothing. 
3. Why do Men especially contend and strive in 
things of Wit? 
Is it because they think that other things which 
are called Goods, are in the power of another, as the 
Gifts of the Body are Natures, and external and 
worldly Goods are subject unto the Rule of For- 
tune? whereof it cometh to pass, that every Man 
can easily suffer himself to be overcome in such 
things

86 The PROBLEMS 
things, as things not happening through his fault 
of occasion, but they think wit to be in their own 
power. Or, it is because they think that the Goods 
of the Mind do excel all other Goods, and there- 
fore do think it is a thing most natural to contend 
for that which is most excellent? Or, is it because 
it is a common disease of all Men, as it seemeth 
unto a certain wise Man, that every Man doth think 
himself more learned than he is, and therefore doth 
desire to perform that which he believeth without 
study and labour. 
4. Why is the cause that few Men take the Pains in 
attaining of Sciences, seeing that all men desire to know? 
Whether it is because the Gods have put Virtue 
to be begotten with sweat and labour, as Hesiodus 
saith? Or, because the Pleasures of the Body do 
draw a Man’s Mind from the searching out of the 
Truth. It is requisite for him who desireth to live in 
Mind, that he think and meditate of the Earth of 
the Body, as the divine Plato doth think: Or, is it 
because the nature of a Man is forced to serve many 
ways, whereof it fall out, that when things necessary 
do fail, the natural Desire is not brought into Acti- 
on, for Nature of herself is able to contemplate. 
5. Why do Men say that Philosophy is naked? 
Is it because truth is naked, and that there needs no 
colour of words when we hand a matter of Truth; 
for it belongeth to Sophisters to dispute of Terms, 
when the sincere Truth is sought? Or, is it because 
they do not play the Philosopher well, which seek 
Philosophy for gain and ambition, and not for her- 
self? Or, is it because he should be void from all 
worldly Affections, who desireth to endeavour him- 
self in the Study of Philosophy; for Aristotle doth 
say, the Soul is made wise by Rest and Quietness. 
And it were easy for Philosophers to become rich if 
they would, as it appeareth by the Example of Thales.
6. Why


87 of Antonius Zimaras.
6. Why do Men desire to be had in memory after 
their Death, and therefore some make Pyramid, Statues, 
Images, and diverse other Tokens and Monuments which
they build and leave behind them. 
It is because all things, as seems unto Aristotle, 
do desire to anticipate of some Perpetuity and Di- 
vine Being, as much as they can; and therefore if 
they cannot remain in Nature and Being, yet they 
endeavour at the least to continue in the Opinion 
and Conceit of Men? Or else hath custom brought 
it in so, to stir up such as come after, to the End 
they should not degenerate from their Parents. 
7. What is the Canse why Men's desires gross with- 
out Measure about Fortune's Goods? 
It is because natural Desires, as Seneca saith, 
have an End, and such Desires which proceed of 
false Opinion, have no where to end. 
8. Why do Poets always assign and appoint some 
wise Men to be familiar with Princes: as Homer doth 
Neston with Agamemnon: Euripides, Tiresias
with Creon: Hesiodus, Prometheus with Jupiter: 
and Maro, Achates with Æneas? 
It is because, that by the law of Nature, as Plato 
doth say, Wisdom and Power doth direct our Ac- 
tions to one end, and effect the same thing, love 
it. and seek it. 
9. Why doth Homer, when he makes mention of 
Ambassadors, talk always of the Embassy of a comman- 
der in bare Words? 
It is because it is the Duty of Ambassadors to 
declare the bare Will of the Commander, and put 
his Sentence in Execution; and therefore ’tis cer- 
tain he should add nothing; nor take away nothing: 
Or else, it is because the Commandment of him 
who doth rule, that is, of a wise Man, it is put in- 
to good order, and is presumed to be most perfect? 
And therefore there should be nothing changed, 
but his Decrees and Constitutions are to be judg’d 
absolute and perfect. 
10.


88 The PROBLEMS 
10. Why doth Aristotle use exceeding brevity in most 
hard Matters? 
Whether is it because it is the custom of wise Men 
to load their Words with Sentences, or else to the 
end that he would be obscure, to fear and keep off 
rude Wits from reading of his Works, as it seemeth
to the expositors? Or, whether it is because that in 
a hard matter, and in a matter of truth many words 
are suspected, because that truth doth consist in a few
words? Or, is it because it seemeth to the wise Men, 
in many Words there is error often committed. 
11. Why do famous Men in any Science, when they 
do err in any matter, err more dangerously than those 
which are less famous? 
Is it because that such, trusting to the skill of their 
own wit, are drawn far from their own senses, and 
therefore must needs be deceived? Avicen may serve 
for a proof of this, who for all his fame in Philoso-
phy, said, that a Man might naturally be brought 
forth of the earth. And that famous great Averrois,
who thought that a Maid might conceive with child 
in a Bath, without knowledge of Man. 
Out of ARISTOTLE.
Q. Why is Man, being endued with reason, the 
most unjust of all living Creatures? 
A. It is because thro' conceit he is much given to 
pleasures, and therefore seeks out and weighs what 
felicity is, which none can obtain without injury. 
12. Why do Men desire rather to seem good, than to 
be and not seem? 
It is because Man only is desirous of honour, so 
it comes to pass that every one covets to seem
good, and yet naturally shuns labour, tho' he at- 
tains no virtue but by it: Or else it is because the 
nature of a Sophister is rather to seem, than to be 
and not seem; but very few to attain to true virtue. 
13. Why do some in their Youth beget Girls and in 
their middle age or when old, beget Boys? 
It

89 of Antonius Zimaras. 
It is because the Seed waxeth cold in such as 
use carnal Copulation too oft, and therefore in their 
middle age, when they grow tired, their Seed is 
hotter, and so produceth Males. 
l4. Why have Children or Boys, pleasure in the Act
of Venery, seeing they do not cast forth seed? 
It is as the Philosopher saith, because there is cer- 
tain tickling in letting out the Spirit of breath, as 
it is in such as are of Age by casting forth Seed. 
15. Why have those least pleasure who use the Act 
of Copulation oft? 
By oft using carnal Copulation the Spirit and 
Seed doth increase and wax cold, therefore not so 
itching or tickling, which is of delight. 
16. Why doth immoderate Copulation do mere hurt 
than immoderate letting of Blood? 
’Tis because the Seed is fuller of Spirit and Nu- 
triment. better disposed and prepared for the nature 
of the Body than the Blood, for, says Galen, the 
Seed is the cause of the substantial parts of the body, 
and of it the Body grows, and is nourished. And 
as he who is hungry is hurt more by taking away 
of bread than flour, so the Body is more weakened 
by taking away Seed, than by evacuating Blood. 
17. What is the reason such as have a very long 
Yard, cannot beget Children? 
Whether is it because the Seed is going along 
distance, the Spirit doth breath out, and therefore 
is cold, and unfit for generation. 
18. Why do such as are corpulent cast forth little 
Seed in the Act of Copulation, and are often barren? 
It is because the Seed of such goes to nourishing 
the Body; for the same reason corpulent Women 
have but few Menses. 
19. How comes Women prone to Venery in the Sum- 
mer time, and Men in Winter? 
It is because at that time his Testicles hang down 
and are feebler than in Winter; or else because hot 
natures

90 The PROBLEMS 
natures become lively; for a Man is hot and dry, a 
Woman cold and moist, and therefore in Summer 
the strength of Men decays, and that of Women 
encreases, and she grows livelier by the benefit of the 
contrary quality. And for the same reason some 
beasts of a cold nature lie in dens and holes, and 
thro’ the frigidity of the air receive little or no nou- 
rishment, but revive again when heat comes. 
20. How comes Man proudest of all living creatures? 
Whether it is by reason of his great knowledge, 
or that (as the Philosophers say) all intelligent beings 
having understanding, nothing remains that escapes 
Man’s knowledge in particular? or, it is because he 
hath rule over all earthly creatures. and all things 
seems to be brought to his arbitrement? or, shall I 
answer, that the pride of Man proceeds from his not 
knowing himself; for truly would he remember that 
he is but Dust and Ashes, came naked into the 
World, born to eat his Bread in the Sweat of his 
brows, and after all born to die, he would abhor pride. 
21. How comes one Man to understand one thing 
and do another?  
Is it because there is the same science of contrary 
things? or because the office of the mind is to reach 
at many things, and the appetite tends to one only? 
And so a Man chiefly lives by understanding and 
reason, but beasts are governed by appetite, anger, 
and pleasure. 
Out of ARISTOTLE.
22. Why is a Man wisest of all living Creatures? 
Because he hath a very little Head in respect to 
the proportion of his Body; or else because he is 
of a most perfect Nature, and therefore the habits 
of virtue are more perfect in him. Or is it because 
the blood of a Man is most subtile, pure and clean? 
The Blood is the Nutrituse, and therefore there is 
great difference, whether cold or hot, thin or thick, 
muddy or clear; for it is by reason that through its 
own

91 of Antonius Zimaras. 
own constitutions he hath a most perfect sense of feel- 
ing, as experience shews in Men? For because they 
have soft flesh they are endued with a sharp and 
quick Wit; and they whose flesh and skin is thick 
and gross aie dull and slow; wherefore the temper 
of Man seems more adapt to prudence and wisdom:
For this reason in a soft and tender Body, the first
and motherlier Spirit of the Soul is easier infused, 
and doth more willingly and speedily discourse: on 
the contrary, the hardness and thickness doth stop, 
and therefore is a hindrance that the pure blood, 
whereof the Spirits are enger'd, is not carried from
place to place; for to every Man is given a certain 
portion of Spirit to work withal. 
23. How comes most Womens wits unapt in good 
things, and most prompt to naughty, as says Euripides? 
Because of a Privation, which seems to be cou- 
pled and joined to her Nature: for as a Woman is 
a Man's hurt, so the faculty of a Privation is al- 
ways to do mischief. 
24. Why do Men say a Woman's first  Counsel should 
be chosen? 
Because (as we see in Things that want Reason) 
their actions and motions are guided to their proper 
Ends by a superior Power; for I think that's very 
true which is said, that there's a Providence which 
puts into a dishonest heart the desire of honesty: and 
in a poor man, the desire of wealth, as far as sufficient. 
So a Woman's understanding, tho' she knows not 
the reason of good and evil, is sometimes directed 
by an infallible truth, to take some things in hand; 
but some things they undertake of themselves are to 
be let alone, as weak, and subject to many Errors. 
25. How comes it Women desire to go fine, and deck 
themselves rather than Men? 
It is because by Nature they are imperfect. so they 
endeavour to supply their Imperfection by Art: or 
else 'tis because they want the beauty of the Mind, 
so

92 The PROBLEMS 
so study to adorn their Bodies. 
25. How comes it a tall Man is seldom wise? 
By reason the largeness of its Body proceeds 
from excess of heat, and abundance of humidity. 
Some wise Men think the Perfection, accomplish- 
ment, and goodness of the Operation is perfected 
by dryness, which doth always go on and increase 
till it brings us to our End; for the Constitution of 
the Body originally sprung from the last humidity, 
but the vehemence and excess of heat overthrows 
the Judgment, and hinders Quietude. 
26. Why is a multitude of Princes or Rulers naught 
as Homer saith? 
Is it because if the Government should dwindlein- 
to Tyranny, 'tis better to be under the Yoke of one 
than many? Or because a multitude of Rulers seldom 
regard the good of the publick: Hence it proceeds 
that, if once they disagree, great hurt is like to befal 
the Commonalty, ’tis easier for one Man to be well 
given than many, in the Government of many there 
wants not Strife, Debate and Envy. Wherefore 'tis 
justly said, that a multitude of Rulers are naught: 
for which reason let there be but one Prince at a time. 
27. Wby have Beasts their Hearts in the midst of 
their Breast, and Man inclining towards the left side? 
It is because it should moderate the cold on that 
side, for Aristotle says, Man hath only the left side 
cold. Or is it as Physicians say, because it should 
give place to the liver which is on the right side. 
28. Why doth a Womnn love that Man best who had 
her Maidenhead? 
Is it because that the matter doth covet a form or 
perfection, so doth a Woman the Male? Or is it by 
reason of shamefacedness; for, as Plato saith, Shame- 
facedness doth follow love. Or is it because the be- 
ginning of great pleasure doth bring a great alterati- 
on in the whole, whereby the Powers of the Mind 
are much delighted, and stick and rest immoveable 
in the same? Hesiod advises to marry a maid. 
29.


93 of Antonius Zimaras.  
29. How comes the Night in the Full Moon, some- 
what warm, since (according to the Mathematicians) 
the Moon is cold by night? 
Whether it is because the Opinion of the Peri- 
pateticks ought to be preferred, which says, every 
light heats in that respect it is reflected. 
30. How comes the Night in Autumn colder than 
in Spring? 
It is because the Air is very thin, and bodies that 
are rarified are very apt to receive heat or cold; as it 
is seen in water easily, for water heated doth sooner 
freeze than cold, because it is rarified by heat. 
31. How are Bodies sooner hurt with cold in 
Autumn than in Spring? 
It is because the Bodies which are accustomed to 
cold do in Spring receive heat, and therefore the 
moving or mutation is natural, and not surprizing. 
But in Autumn they hasten from heat to cold, not 
being accustomed, and without any mean. Nature 
doth not endure sudden change. Galen says. 
32. How comes hairy People more lustful than others? 
Because in them is supposed great store of Excre- 
ments and Seed, as Philosophers assert.
33. How comes it that Men which have small 
Heads, are naturally angry and resty. 
Because when the Head is little, (the Brain so of 
course) the heat of the heart cannot be moderated 
with the heat of the Brain as it ought to be, and 
anger proceeds of the boiling of the Blood about 
the Heart, though something vexatious. 
34. How comes the Fundament of a Man to close after 
he hath made Water? 
Because the Air runs presently to fill that which 
is empty, and so the parts of the Body are altered 
by the coldness of the Air, which causes trembling. 
35. Why have some Men died through grief, some 
through joy, but more through anger? 
Because


94 The PROBLEMS 
Because joy cools the very inward guts, grief or 
sorrow do suffocate and choak the inward parts, 
and cool the outward, but anger heats both, while 
heat remains, life and nature doth so too, because 
the soul is counted the life and natural heat. 
36. How doth the Voice change in People when they 
begin to have Seed? 
It is because that heat is the beginning of veins 
and blood, as Aristotle saith against the Physicians; 
and thereupon it raiseth, that because the change of 
the excrements of Seed is made in the highest part 
of the Body, the voice being above, makes it mani- 
fest. And thereupon it is that the voices both of Men 
and Women do change when they begin to have seed. 
37. How comes it that when a Pot full of boiling 
Liquor is seething, yet the bottom is cold? 
It is because the hot vapours ascend upward, 
and therefore when the uppermost water is hot, 
the bottom at the same time is cold, by reason of 
the coldness of the Water adjoined into it. 
38. Why is the Grain which we find in the Ants holes, 
and gathered in Summer time, gnawn at one end? 
It is because they are directed of nature to gnaw 
and consume that end, where the vertue of feeding 
is, for fear it sprout again, left by the sprouting and 
growing, they would be deprived of the nutriment 
belonging necessary unto themselves. 
39. Why do Children love their Mother more fre- 
quently than the Father? 
It is because they take great pains with them,  
or because of the great certainty which they have 
of themselves as Aristotle saith. 
40. Why is not the Father as well beloved of the 
Son, as the Son is of the Father?
It is, as the Wiseman say because love does not go 
backward, but always forward, because love doth 
by nature serve such a life to continue the kind; 
where it comes to pass, that our natural desire neg- 
lecting

95 of Antonius Zimaras. 
lecting things past, looking to things to come. Or, 
it is (as the Philosopher saith) because the Father 
hath somewhat of his in the Son, the Son nothing 
of his Father. 
41. Why do Children, for the most part, rather re- 
semble the Mother than the Father seeing (as Aristotle
saith) the Mother doth not concur activity in the be- 
getting of the Child? 
Whether it is because all similitude and likeness in 
mankind and nature are virtually contained in the 
seed of the father; whereby it is, for the most part, 
the son is like neither, but the grandfather, or great 
grandfather, and sometimes like none of the family? 
or, is it because this doth proceed of a strong imagi- 
nation, in such as are wont wonderfully to love their 
wives; for, as Avicen doth affirm, the body is some- 
what changed by affections, which are called affectus 
animalis, for they do print deep impressions in natural 
things, as it doth happen that the child doth repre- 
sent him whose portraiture and image was fore con- 
ceived in the act of carnal Copulation of Men and 
Women. But some of the vulgar sort, who know 
not the causes of things, are not content with this 
doctrine, but the wise agree and send unto it. And 
therefore it cometh also to pass, that the blood run- 
neth and goeth to the external parts in him who 
calleth conceit of red things into his Mind. And 
so Men’s teeth are set on edge when they see another 
eat sower things; and when we see another diseased
or grieved in any part, the same part in us doth lan- 
guish and grieve, and often also the constitution of 
the body is changed through excessive fear. 
42. Why are Asses more nimble, as the Proverb is, 
when they are young, than at any other time? 
Whether is it because their nature and constitution
being melancholy from the beginning, it is requisite
there should be a temperance with the recompence 
of contrary qualities; for melancholy by nature is 
cold

96 The PROBLEMS 
cold and dry, but when they are young, they are 
hot and moist? This also we see in melancholy 
Children; they which in their Childhood are of 
great Wit, and before it be looked for are of great 
Wisdom, insomuch that you may hope and promise 
any thing in time to come, whose Wit nevertheless 
in progress of time, doth decay and fade. Be there- 
fore (saith the Greek) naught, to the end that thou 
may’st live, for the nature of such is most short. 
43. Why be there no Asses in Pontus and Scythia? 
It is because their Nature is most impatient of 
cold, as the Philosophers do say? 
44. Why are Clergymen and Women most covetous?
Is it because the habit of Virtue is bred of many 
Actions, and therefore seeing that Priests want wives 
and Children, they are forced no ways to spend their 
Goods, and yet are accustomed to take and receive, 
and so become covetous? For as the Philosopher 
doth say, such as every Man’s Actions are, such doth 
he become. The Nature of Women (as we have 
often said) is imperfect, therefore they think it im- 
possible fully to satisfy themselves; and therefore they 
gather together and keep that by which means they 
may help their need; and by Industry and Art they 
covet to get that which Nature does not give them. 
And for the same reason (I suppose) old Men give 
themselves to Covetousness; for wanting, and being 
destitute of Helps by Age and Nature, they gripe 
after the Goods of Fortune, that with them they 
may provide for themselves against all wants. 
45. Why do Wounds grieve less in war than out 
of war? 
Is it because the Powers of the Soul bend another 
way; for as the Philosopher doth say, if our Mind 
be strongly fixed on other matters, we do not see 
those things which are before our Eyes; or, whether 
is it by reason of anger, which, as wise Men say, 
doth heat the internal and external Part; and, as 
Aristotle


97 of Antonius Zimaras.   
Aristotle affirms, with the heat the Soul works all 
things? and therefore it happens that the angry 
Man grows but slowly after his Wound, and there- 
fore also doth less grieve and heat. 
46. Why do we wonder at an Eclipse of the Sun 
and Moon, and not at all the Generation of Planets 
and Beasts by Seed?
Whether is it because our Admiration ceaseth in 
things which are usual, and our Mind neglected to 
search out the truth in such things, but that which 
happens seldom, doth stir us up to wonder; and in- 
duceth the Understanding to search out the cause. 
47. How comes it that the Head ach, dulness of Me- 
mory, and an evil disposition of Imagination, doth fol- 
low the long detaining of the Seed? 
Is it because it doth hinder and make heavy the 
Brain by excess of Seed? or because the Seed long 
kept, getting some venomous quality, and there- 
fore the fume and vapour of it doth hurt the Head. 
48. How comes it that Priests and Monks fear and 
abhor death more than any Men? 
Is it because they are by Nature cold and me- 
lancholy? Or, because they perceive themselves to 
perish utterly? For when they are out of this World, 
they neither continue in their own Nature, nor in 
Posterity. 
49. Why if Trees fall their Leaves, and Beasts
their Hair and Feathers, they receive them again, and 
if a Man become bald, his Hair groweth no more? 
Is it because the time of the Year doth bring that 
change of Bodies; so that in the first change there 
followeth an interchangeable course one after another? 
and Beasts receive their Feathers and Hair, and Trees 
their Leaves; bur baldness cometh to a Man through 
Age, and Nature giveth no coming again to Age. 
50. Why doth Summer end all Diseases? 
If Force and Nature be strong it shall find Air 
most fit for Resolution and Digestion, and Expulsion 
E of 


98  The PROBLEMS 
of Superfluities, if weak and overthrown, the heat 
doth overthrow it more. It doth loosen weak Bo- 
dies, and therefore there cometh nothing unto the 
sick Body but Death. 
51. Why if a Man put his Hands into the Water in 
Summer, is he colder if the water be moved, than when 
it standeth still? 
Is it because that part of the Water which touch 
his hands, is hot by the heat of his hands: For every 
agent which doth communicate with the Patient in 
the things whereon he worketh, in doing doth suffer 
again, and the Water being moved, it is necessary 
that the parts of it which are rarified, be scattered 
abroad, and others more cold succeed them. 
52. Why are some which have an evil Complexion 
and Constitution of Body, live longer than some others 
which are of a sanguine and better Nature? 
Whether is it thro’ bad Government and Order? 
Or because there is some hidden cause in those dis- 
positions? for as Averrois saith, the number of the 
Elements is infinite in Works of nature, the which 
none besides the Author of nature doth understand. 
53. What is the cause, as Physicians say, that the 
suffocation of the Matrix, which happens to Women 
through Strife and Contention, is more dangerous than 
the detaining of the Flowers? 
Whether is it because that by how much the more 
an Excrement is perfect, so long as it doth continue 
in its natural Disposition, by so much the more it 
is worse when it is removed from that, and drawn 
to the contrary quality; as it is seen in Vinegar, 
the which is sharpest when it is made of the best
Wine. And so it happens, that the more Men 
love one the other, the more they hate when they 
fall to Variance and Discord. 
54. Why doth the Land which standeth still seem to 
move unto such as sail by Sea? 
Is it because the nutriment of the Sense of see- 
ing is accidently moved when the Ship is moved,
whereby


99 of Antonius Zimaras.  
whereby the likeness and similitude of things per- 
ceived and received with the moving. 
55. Why do we love our Sight above our Senses? 
Whether is it (as Aristotle doth say) because it 
both shews us the difference of things, or because 
its Knowledge is more drawn from material Sub- 
stance? Or, is it because the divine force of Love 
is placed in that Sense, as Plato saith. 
56. Why do we not judge a Staff to be broken in the 
water, seeing it doth so appear in the Sense of Sight? 
Whether is it because we perceive by the Sense 
of feeling and touching, that the Sight doth err? 
Or, is it because we do not judge with the same pow- 
er as we do imagine with? An argument of this, 
because the Sun doth seem to be but a foot round. 
And by a trick and moving of the finger, one finger 
doth seem two, yet we do not yield they be two. 
57. Why do we put our Hands over our Eyes when 
we will see any thing afar off? 
Is it because the Light should not be dispersed? 
and so Aristotle saith, that those which have their 
Eyes standing out cannot see far? and contrary such 
as have them hollow in their Head, can see far, 
because the moving of the Sight is not scattered. 
58. Why can some see the Object before their Eyes 
afar off, better than if it be near to the Eye? 
Is it because things which may be seen, cannot be 
seen but by the mean of the bright Eyes; and weak 
eyes do want more plenty of light than strong eyes. 
But the object being put afar off from the Sense of 
the Sight in the distance from the thing seen, doth 
require a greater light than good eyes need; and the 
further the object is, the more light there is in the 
distance betwixt the object and the Sight; or else 
because the motion which proceedeth from an object
far distant unto a weak Sense is weak, which the 
sense can well endure: But the motion which is hard 
by, is strong, which a weak eye cannot suffer; which 
is easily seen in old Men. which by reason of their 
E2 weakness

100 The PROBLEMS 
Weakness do see afar of, and can read small let- 
ters in the light of the Sun, which notwithstanding 
cannot hard by them see, nor read at the light of 
a Candle, not the Moon. 
59. How do some People discern Things near them
and not at a distance?
It is through the Weakness of the Sight, for in 
such the power of seeing is very weak; therefore 
they do need a strong moving; as it is also in such as 
have their Eyes standing out, who cannot see far. 
60. Why do such would shoot aright wink with 
one Eye? 
Because the sight is more strengthened and uni- 
ted, and so fitter to perform this Action. 
61. Why are such as have been long in the dark, if 
on a sudden they come into the light, half blind? 
It is because Nature cannot endure those sudden 
mutations: or because the spirit of the sight is small 
and weak. and therefore is glad of the like, and so 
dissolves when they come into the light? Or else is 
it because of the desire of that light they wanted 
before, which when they behold too earnestly, their 
sight is weakened, as it happens in some who have a 
long time endured Famine, and then eating greedi- 
ly take more than they can digest, and so perish. 
62. Why do such as are purblind for the most part 
write small, when (one would think) it is a property 
belonging chiefly to strong Eyes? 
Because things hard by seem great, and such are 
wont to write with their Eyes close to the Paper; 
or else they always write winking, or if they write 
with their Eyes wide open, their sight being dis- 
persed would wax dim, and so by winking they 
discern more readily, and since through winking 
the passage of the sight is rendered narrow, they 
must of necessity make a small letter. 
63. For what reason doth a Man see better in the 
Night if he bows his Head towards the Ground, than 
if he stood upright? 
Because


101 of Antonius Zimaras.  
Because the obscure Vapours which makes the 
Air dark are thicker above than near the Earth, and 
so hinder the sight more being distant than near the 
Ground. Or is it because the light of the Stars be- 
ing dispersed thro’ the Air, cause a reflection near to 
the Earth, tho’ weakly, and, so by that means doth 
reflect a light on the surface of the Earth. 
64. What is the cause that if a Man has committed 
an evil Fact, he cannot dissemble it in his Countenance? 
For the Poet says, O how hard is it not to bewray a Fault 
with the Countenance? 
Is it because the Eye is messenger of the Heart, as 
a Glass in the Mind, wherein all things do shine: 
Or as ’tis the weakest part of the Body, and fullest 
of passages; for which reason all alterations which 
begin in the Heart, go directly to the Eyes. 
65. How comes gaping to stop the hearing? 
Because the Instrument of hearing ends at some spi- 
ritual parts, whereby it comes to pass that it is shaken 
or moved together as that spiritual parts as oft as it moves 
the air. Or, ’tis because much air doth enter in at our 
ears when we gape, therefore sense and motion can’t be 
perceiv’d for its thrusting at the Ear. The Nose is the 
air, so that when the air within the air is weaken’d and 
that without doth enter of necessity one hinders t’other. 
66. Why can nothing be the cause of its own gene- 
ration and corruption? 
Is it because the mover must be before the thing 
moved, and the engenderer before the things engen- 
der’d, or that it is impossible to be before itself. 
67. How comes Women's Bodies looser, softer and 
lesser than Men’s?  And why do they want Hair? 
By reason of their Menses for with them their 
superfluities go away which would produce Hair, 
and where the Flesh is filled, consequently their 
Veins are more hid than Mens. 
68. What is the reason that when we think upon 
an horrible thing we are stricken with fear? 
E3 It


102 The PROBLEMS 
It is because the conceit, thinking and understand- 
ing of things, have Force and Virtue? For Plato 
saith, the reasons of things have some affinity with 
the things themselves: for the image and represen- 
tation of cold and heat, is such as the Nature of 
the Things are, as the Philosopher had said. Or is 
it because when we comprehend any dreadful Mat- 
ter, the Blood runneth to the internal Parts, and 
therefore the external Parts are cold, and shake 
with fear. 
69. Why cannot a company or multitude of Women 
be led under a Captain without a tumult? 
Is it because they are unconstant by Nature, and 
for the same reason the Philosopher would appoint 
no shepherd over Goats, because they are unstable 
by nature: Or, is it because a Woman is more prat- 
ing, worse tongued, and more backbiting; also com- 
plaining and less wise, and more lying than a Man? 
70. Why doth a Raddish root help digestion, and yet 
itself remain undigested? 
Whether is it because its substance consisteth of 
diverse parts, for there are some thin parts in it, 
which are fit to digest meat, the which being dissol- 
ved, there doth remain some thick and close sub- 
stance in it, which the heat cannot digest. 
71. Why do such as cleave wood cleave it easier in 
length than athwart? 
Whether is it because in wood there is a grain, if 
it be cut in length, as it is to follow the hair in cloth, 
which doth go in length, whereby in the very cut- 
ting, one part draweth another fast by it? 
72. What is the reason, that if a spear be stricken on 
the end, the Sound cometh sooner to one which standeth
at the ether end, than to one which standeth near to 
him which striketh? 
Whether it is because (as it hath been said) there 
is a certain long grain in Wood directly forward fill- 
ed with Air; but cross, or on one side there is none?
And

103 of Antonius Zimaras.  
And therefore a beam or spear stricken on the end, 
the air which is hidden receiveth a sound in the afore- 
said grain, which serveth for the passage of the air. 
And therefore seeing the sound cannot go easily out, 
it is carried unto the Ear of him who is opposite to 
him, and those passages do not go from side to side, 
and therefore the sound cannot be distinctly heard. 
73. Why be there not famous Men in every faculty 
in our Age? 
Is it because the nature of Man decayeth in our 
age? and as Solinus saith, Succession being corrupted 
the progeny of our age is worse bv birth? or is it 
because such are not esteemed of Princes; for take 
away the reward due unto virtue, and no Man will 
embrace it? or is it ordaineth by Nature, that Men 
do always complain of the present time. 
74. Why are Flatterers in great credit with Princes? 
Is it as Plutarch saith by the Authority of Plato, 
because they love themselves? too much immoderate 
love of themselves causeth them to admit Flatterers, 
and to give them credit? or whether is it, as I 
think, because they want the light of reason, for 
among birds, some through the corruption of their 
nature, delight in stinking meat, and whom the 
day doth blind, the night doth lighten. 
75. Why have Philosophers, for the most part, in 
these days evil Conditions? 
Is it because they are esteemed of Princes? Or is 
it because of the Philosophy itself, they are accused 
of Crimes, and think therefore they are compelled 
to forsake Virtue, and follow Vice? or else deceived 
through error, they think they have chalenged all 
the garments of Philosophy, when they have snatched 
to themselves some of her rags; and therefore they 
are by us rather called Sophisters than Philosopher 
for certainly, a Philosopher should be of a stout 
courage in all respects, and in all fortunes, for they 
E4 reason

104 The PROBLEMS 
reason badly, and therefore they should give them- 
selves unto Philosophy, because they would be hon- 
oured of Princes. And their desire is not ruled by 
nature, but by errors, and they are thrust forward 
with streams of false credulity. 
76. Why do such as are angry wax pale in the be- 
ginning and afterwards red? 
It is through the desire of revenge for that which 
grieveth, that the heat and blood are called unto 
the Heart, and therefore of necessity the external 
Parts are pale: when they are determined to put 
that in Execution which they desire, the heat and 
blood do run into the outward parts, and then they 
are greatly to be feared and taken heed of. 
77. Why do Serpents want a Yard and Stone? 
Is it because they want thighs, and therefore do 
want a yard, and then want stones because of the 
length of the Body. 
78. Why can Serpents turn their Heads backwards, 
and the rest of their Body stand still? 
Is it because (like unto those creatures which are 
called Infecta) they are made of a winding composi- 
tion, and have their Joints flexible, and made of 
gristles; and this is the reason in serpents, and also 
because they may void all those things which hurt 
them, for having no feet, and being long in body, they 
cannot easily turn them, whilst they bow against those 
things which are behind them. It were to no purpose 
to lift up their head if they could not exercise anger. 
79. Why is a Camelion changed into many colours? 
Whether is it, as seemeth unto the Philosopher, 
because he is the slenderest of all footed beasts en- 
gendered of Eggs, and is stark cold for want of 
Blood, the cause is to be referred unto the quality 
of the mind: Thro’ overmuch coldness he is of so
many colours; or it is the property of fear to bind 
fast through want of blood and heat. 
80. Why


105 of Antonius Zimaras.  
80. Why are the thighs and calf of the legs of Men 
fleshy seeing the thigh of Beasts are not so? 
Is it because Men only go upright and therefore 
nature hath given the lower part corpulency, and 
hath taken it away from the upper? and therefore 
she hath made the Buttock, the thighs, and calf of 
the legs fleshy. 
81. Why doth very fat Beasts wax old quickly, and 
soon die? 
Is it because they have but little Blood, seeing 
much of it is drunken up with the fat; and those 
which have but a small store of Blood, are aptest
to die; for death is want of Blood. 
82. Why doth Man only go upright?
Is it because he is most hot of nature; or is it be- 
cause his Substance is divine? The part of divine 
things is to understand and be wise; which could not 
easily be, if a Man had a great massy Body, for 
heaviness doth make the understanding and the 
Sense slow. 
83. Why is the flesh nearest the Bone sweetest? 
Whether is it because it receiveth temperature 
through the quality of the contrary? for the nature 
of flesh is hot and moist, and the nature of the 
bone is cold and dry, and therefore betwixt con- 
trary extreams there must needs be a mean. 
84. Why is it forbidden to talk when we eat? 
Whether is it that before the Wezon, by the 
which we eat and drink, the artery is put, by the 
which air and breath goeth into the lungs, and this 
artery is molested with meat or drink molested into 
it? Yea, Nature hath provided for this a little flab
which doth cover the artery, the which opens when 
we speak; and therefore meat cannot easily get 
into it, whereof followeth choaking and coughs: 
Or whether is it because speaking doth hinder the 
chewing of the Meat, and therefore the Meat is 
not well digested?
E5 85. Why

106 The PROBLEMS 
85. Why doth Wine mingled with Water make a 
Man drunk? 
Whether is it because the water doth cause the 
wine to run hither and thither, penetrate the more; 
and that is the reason it must, as Avicen doth say, 
doth sooner make a Man drunk than wine; because 
that the water mixed with it doth make it penetrate. 
86. Why are Noblemen, and such as are placed in 
high dignity troubled with the Gout? 
is it because they cram diverse sorts of meats 
even to the full? And the Physician doth affirm, 
that there is nothing worse than at one time to take 
diverse sorts of meat, and then to be a long time 
in eating and drinking of them: for the first is half 
digested before the other come, and therefore such 
as remain long undigested, breed raw and naughty 
humours, which run into the Joints? Or whether it 
is by reason of overmuch pure wine, and too much 
idleness, and exercise done out of due season; or 
is it through the overmuch use of letchery, which 
killeth digestion? 
These things are greatly to be feared, Plotinus 
saith, left we become stocks of brute beasts; for 
like unto the brute beasts they are given to glut- 
tony and the Belly. 
87. Why are they taken with sudden Death which 
are loaden with overmuch fat, and especially when 
they are young? 
Whether is it because their Veins be streight, and 
therefore are stopt with the fat, that the Spirits can- 
not have free course; whereupon the heat which is 
bred within them doth kill them, because they can- 
not receive the cooling of the Air. And therefore (as 
the Physicians say) they would greatly fear left their 
Veins break, or their natural heat be suffocated. 
88. Why can such be hardly let Blood that are very 
fat, and not without great danger? 
Is it because they have very slender Veins, and 
those

107 of Antonius Zimaras.  
those hidden? Or because all fat is without Blood,
it seemeth unto the Philosopher. 
89. Why (as Aristotle doth affirm) are the sensible 
powers in the heart, yet if the hinder parts of the brain 
be hurt, the memory payeth for it; if the sore parts, the 
Imagination; if the middle, the cogitative part? 
Is it because the Brain is appointed by Nature to 
cool the heat of the Heart. whereof it is, that in 
diverse of its parts it serveth the powers and Instru- 
ments of their Heart, for every Action of the Soul 
doth not proceed from one measure of heat. 
90. Why doth it happen for the most part that Chil- 
dren which are not lawfully begotten, are whiter, and 
subtiler, and more like the Parents than others? 
Is it because of the powers of the Mind of the 
Parents are vehemently bent in the Act of Copula- 
tion? Such do love exceedingly, and therefore 
seeing that their Affections be not distracted, the 
Child by Nature shall not vary from them, and 
this is most true, whhn they go together with tran- 
quility of Mind; for if it be with Fear or Grief,
the Children be unlike. 
91. What is the reason seeing Death is hy Nature, 
yet it is more terrible unto Men than unto all other liv-
ing Creatures? 
Is it because the Nature of Man, as the Philo- 
sopher saith, hath purchased the mean, not only 
of living, but also of well living? For Mankind 
only is partaker of supernatural things; other liv- 
ing Creatures have regard unto that only which they 
see, wherein, as Pliny doth say, the Goodness of 
Nature doth suffice, which is to be preferred before 
all other things; and therefore they do not think 
of Glory, Wealth, Ambition, nor of Death, where- 
fore seeing that Man is deprived of a more noble 
Life, when he dieth, Death is unto him, above all 
other, most grievous: Or, is it because all other 
living Creatures regard only things present, and 
Man only forseeth things to come? 
92. If

108 The PROBLEMS 
92. If Death comes by Nature, why is it judgedth
last of all terrible things? 
Whether is it, as seemeth unto the Philosopher, 
because it is the last and nothing else do seem good 
or bad unto mortal Men? Or, is it because we in- 
veigh against nature, who is the beginning of neces- 
sity, and not the nature of the form, or the end from 
which that which is good is deprived, the which 
all things do desire? Or peradventure, doth Death 
seem the most terrible of all things, because they 
mean not to live, that they thought to be immortal? 
Or doth it strike a fear only to them which lead a 
naughty life? For unto such as live a virtuous life, 
Death is not grievous; as the Poet saith, Death is 
the end of a Prison obscure. Or, be they grieved be- 
cause they are seized with a violent and untimely 
Death? For such as die when they come to old age, 
do for the most part die without Fear and Grief; 
for truly Nature is a Candle ready to be put out. 
And as Plato doth say, of all Sorts of Deaths, that 
which doth come by Nature is most light, which 
happeneth rather with pleasure than colour. 
93. Why seeing that a Man is the end of Nature, 
is be of so short life in respect of other living things, 
as Poets do complain by the Example of the Crow?
Whether is it because that those, or Makers, con- 
sulting of our kind, the perfection of frail things is 
not measured at all by continuance of time as the 
Philosopher saith, is it far better to be very joyful for 
a short space, then a long time meanly or lightly 
glad? Or, whether is it because that nature of things 
possibly doth always make that  which is best? and
it could not be that the Constitution of Man’s body 
could be convenient and fit for long continuance, 
and the operations of the Soul: For by the authori- 
ty of the wise there is required another temperature, 
first for Life, and then for the Works of Life. 
Whether should they make use of a long Life, and 
the


109 of Antonius Zimaras.  
the worse; or of a shorter, and the better? It seem- 
eth good unto them, saith Plato, to prefer a short 
Life and a good, before along Life and a bad. 
94. Why doth Nature bring forth Men naked, and 
without defence? 
Is it because Nature doth nothing without reason, 
or in vain? seeing that a Man is most wise he can 
use many Instruments to help him withal: the 
Hand is not one Instrument but many. And there- 
fore they think amiss as the Philosopher affirmeth, 
which saith that Man is noblest of all Creatures, and 
yet in worse case than all, because he is naked and 
weaponless, for other Creatures keep their common 
help, and cannot change it by any means, but man 
can change his Weapon, at his pleasure; for the 
Hand is a Hoof, a Horn, a Spear, a Sword, and e- 
very other kind of Weapon, seeing then a Man is 
endued with understanding and hath a Hand given 
him by nature; he cannot complain of his Naked- 
ness and Condition. Whether was the Excellency 
of the Substance of which Mankind was made, fit 
and convenient for Horns, and such like. 
95. Why is Wine put in a Vessel of Water mingled 
with Saltpetre, very cold? 
Because Saltpetre is presently actu cold, tho’ it 
have power to be hot, and the Water mingled with 
it is colder than the Wine. Now a thing which is 
more cold doth make a thing less cold than it was; 
and therefore the Wine put into such a Vessel is 
cooled the better. I have sometimes answered, that 
it proceeds of the Antiperistasis, that is, by a repulsi- 
on, whereby heat or cold is made strong and every 
contrary by its contrary: but Saltpetre is not hot 
actu, but in potentia; and therefore having power 
only to be hot, and is not hot indeed, it cannot 
work by that contrariety; for it is actu cold, as 
the feeling can judge. 
96. Why 

110 The PROBLEMS 
96. Why hath Philosophy seemed a wonderful and a 
divine thing to some? 
Whether is it because that as Medicine is the 
perfection of the Body, so Philosophy is the per- 
fection of the Soul; as Themisteus saith? Or, is it 
because the body of Philosophy doth increase and 
further us in our Duty towards God, and make 
our Zeal more servent? For those things being 
perfectly known which God hath done, they turn 
Mens minds and hearts to praise and admire him; 
this Admiration, Faith, Hope and Charity do fol- 
low: Or, is it because it affords pleasure and de- 
light through the certainty and sincerity of it. 
97. How comes Tyrants to hate learned Men? 
It is by reason of the unlikeness of manners; 
for so it hath always been, that Wisdom hath been 
injured by bad manners.  Or do they suspect their 
somenting Sedition and Tumults in the Cities 
where their Doctrine comes? Or because they re- 
prehend their Faults? For, as Plato saith, Poets 
have great Force and skill either to praise or dis- 
praise; and every Man that has any regard to his 
credit should take heed how he offends a Poet. 
Alexander Aphrodiseus’ PROBLEMS. 
1.  WHY did Homer call Men Polycropatius; 
of the hoariness of the Temples? 
Because their chiefly his grey Hairs begin; for 
the forepart of the Head hath more moisture and 
flegm in it than the hinder. 
2. Why is only the fore-part of the Head bald? 
Because it is loose and soft; and therefore seeing 
the hair wants nourishments by reason of its natural 
dryness, it easily falls into those parts; it doth not 
stick as behind, where the head is moist and thick. 
3. From what doth baldness proceed? 
From

111 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
From dryness, whereof such as have curled hair 
are soonest bald, and are grey headed very late, by 
reason of the dryness which consumes the superfluous 
Phlegm: They are watchful beyond others, because 
sleep cometh of humidity; as is plain in Children, 
who are moist and sleepy, and full of Excrements. 
Such as have softer hair, as these with a moist head, 
are of a contrary disposition, being seldom (or never) 
bald. Sometimes baldness happens thro’ some Distem- 
pers, as the Gout and others; and such are soon bald, 
sleepy, and have much superfluity. The hoary hairs 
be the whitest, because they follow the Colour of 
Phlegm, whence they proceed; they are sometimes 
yellow, when the Phlegm is mingled with Choler. 
4. Why are cold Men full of Excrements, and very 
watchful? 
Because they are cold and weak by nature, have 
a bad digestion, and so gather many Excrements 
by the Pores and open Passages of the body; since 
they are dry, they are likewise very watchful, by 
reason their bodies are hard and stiff. Children, 
notwithstanding the interlacing of the Pores, and 
soundness of their bodies, are moist. 
5. Why have Children, which are moist by Nature, 
and full of Excrements, no hoary hairs? 
Because they are moist and hot, and Phlegm is 
moist and cold, and have the forepart of the head 
as it were fleshy and thin, whereby superfluities are 
voided; and that with age doth grow hard, boney, 
and thick; and therefore Nature doth afterwards 
give it seems, by which superfluous Vapours should 
breathe out and evaporate. 
6. Why do Women and Eunuchs grow hoary and grey? 
Women, because they are cold by nature having 
little Exercise, do gather more Superfluities, espe- 
cially when they cease childing. And Eunuchs, be- 
cause they yield no seed, but superfluity that should 
breed it, the which with the blood spreads itself all 
over 


112 The PROBLEMS
over the Body, and the nature of Phlegm. 
7. But why do they want Hair? 
Women, because they be cold, and have thick 
passages in their Bodies, for cold doth thicken, and 
therefore there is no way by which Hair should pass. 
Eunuchs, because they are moist, and above mea- 
sure full of Excrements; and therefore as no Hair 
can grow in such moist places, so neither in dry 
and stoney; whereupon baldness doth ensue. 
8. How comes Eunuchs for the most part bandy leg'd? 
By reason of their superfluous humidity they have 
soft and wet bodies, and therefore weak; and as 
things can’t bear the burthen of the body, they are 
wreathed and crooked, as the Bulrush doth bend if 
a weight be put on it; for that which is hard and 
dry is strong, and can resist, but the soft and moist
cannot as is evident by Wood, Osiers, and Men. 
Also by Baths and Drink Men are much weaken’d, 
but by a moderate Diet dry’d, and become strong 
and active. Eunuchs are most like Women, weak, 
given to Wine, and phlegmatick; for being cold, 
they covet to induce the contrary quality, and 
Wine by nature is hot. The Ethiopians being of a 
dryer nature, have curled Hair, and are lean and 
strong to work. 
9. But why have they a sharp and shrill Voice? 
Because much humidity filling up the Artery, 
does strain it, and the breath having a narrow pas- 
sage, causes a sharpness in the Voice. It is plain 
they abound with humidity, because they be light, 
their Paps grow great like Women, have swelling 
Eyelids, and soft whitish Hair. 
10. For what reason do they sometimes covet Wo- 
men, and love the act of Venery? 
Because some are not perfectly castrated, some 
have a hot liver, with large seed vessels, so imagine 
the use of carnal Copulation. They cannot perform 
what they desire, because their Privities want liveli- 
ness; for that spirit which puff’em up doth always 
fail

113 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
fail and is weak; so that the Spirit arising from 
the Seed is carried thro’ its respective passages from 
those parts that are about the Loins. In Children 
those Conducts of Seed are stopt up. 
11. Why, seeing there be three simple uniform Hu- 
mours, do they not breed three simple Diseases but more? 
There are double in every one continual or whole 
and broken; for the Difference of Diseases do not 
proceed of the Humours only, but also of the places; 
for a hot thing, and sharp Humour breeds a sharp, 
and short Fever; a cold and thick Humour, a long 
and dull one. So of Wood, that which is hot and 
dry, as Bays, Olive trees, &c. causeth a great flame, 
and is quickly consumed, but green or wet wood 
makes a small smoky fire, and is long a burning. 
Again, if the place be large and spacious, it sooner 
(and that greatly) enflames the humours, because 
when heapt together, being full rotten, ’tis put on fire. 
But if the place be narrow and small, seeing it cannot 
contain all the Humour but in piece-meal, and so 
can’t ripen all together, it will stir up the small fever 
but such a one as shall burn long. But then the na- 
ture of the humour unto the place, so shalt thou find 
the difference of Agues which arise of the corruption 
of the Humours. If yellow Choler doth putrify in 
great receptacles, as the Veins and Arteries, seeing 
it is hot, it doth kindle a most sharp, hot, and short 
Ague, which is called a burning or heat: But if cold 
Phlegm doth putrify in the small Veins and Arteries 
which are about the flesh, it causes a long and languish- 
ing Ague, which they call a Quotidian. And if yellow 
Choler corrupts in small receptacles, it causeth a small 
or short Ague, but yet somewhat longer than a heat, 
which we call a Tertian or short Ague: But if Phlegm 
does putrify in great places ’twill cause a shorter Ague 
than a Quotidian; and likewise black Choler, if it 
putrify in great Veins, because ’tis burnt almost at 
once, causeth a short Ague by fourtus; if in small, it 
breeds

114 The PROBLEMS 
breeds a long Quartan; for there doth concur a cold 
and thick Humour not fit for alteration, and a nar- 
row place, which will not suffer the Melancholy 
and Anger to be consumed at once. 
12. Why do some when they are ashamed sweat un- 
der the Armpits? 
Because the Pores are thin in that place: Nature, 
when any thing is worthy of Reverence and Ho- 
nour doth flee with the blood into the Veins and 
Arteries, and they being full, do distill; as happens 
in such as are merry, their body being thin, espe- 
cially under the Armpits. 
13. Why do such as are afraid wax pale? 
Because Nature and that Power which hath the 
care of our Body will suffer nothing done extreamly 
to us; and as we run into any place to skreen our- 
selves from danger, so Nature looking to her safe- 
ty, conveys herself into the Body as much as she 
can, carrying the blood with her, and that the best
too, which is what dies our Skin with a red colour. 
14. How come they to tremble also? 
Because that virtuous Animal (i. e. certain Spirits 
which arise about the Heart by Nature’s consent) 
do forsake their sinew which before they kept, and 
they are what keeps the body from trembling; and 
hence it comes that some are loose in the belly, and 
unawares make water; for those Muscles and Si- 
news which stop the course of Excrements being 
become weak give leave for superfluities to pass. 
15. How comes such as are ashamed to wax red? 
Because Nature of herself (like a noble Virgin, 
reverencing that which is worthy of honour) draws 
herself into the secretest part of the body, whereby 
the Blood is moved about, and therefore the Skin 
is dy’d with its colour. Others say. the Blood is 
cast over them by Nature, like a Veil, as one put 
his hand before his Face. 
16. How comes some to die with Fear?
Because


115 of Alexander Aphrodiseus. 
Because the natural power fleeing above measure 
with the blood into the inward parts of the body, 
choaks and puts out the natural liveliness which is 
bred near the Heart, and therefore brings Death. 
By this rule when Oil is put into the flame of a 
Lamp, it puts it out; and Blood which is in the 
Heart is compared to the flame of a candle or lamp. 
Some, for the same reason, have died with grief; as 
Fire covered with a cover is put out, so the inward 
motion of the natural heat is resolved. 
17. Why are some overcomn and dismay'd by drunkenness?
Because much Wine suffocates and choaks with 
its heat our natural and lively virtue. It happens 
chiefly where natural heat is weak, that which is 
strong can consist much, and in time overcome and 
digest the abundance, as a great flame can endure 
much Oil to be poured on it. 
18. How comes old Men to shake and tremble? 
Because the nerves and sinews of the body, when 
they receive not sufficient motion, do not endeavour 
to bear the burden of the body; The shaking is be- 
cause the weight of the body draws part of the bo- 
dy downward; and another power, which is called 
Animalis, upward; when this is done, without inter- 
mission and one after another, it causeth quaking, 
then cometh bowing and stooping towards the 
ground, and so instead of a Raster to uphold the 
Fabrick, they get a Staff. 
19. Why doth not Peper and Mustard heat the belly if 
they be swallowed whole, but if they be broken they do?
Those things which have their qualities in power 
only, and not in action, want external help to bring 
their virtue and power into action; and therefore 
being bruised and made small, and entering into the 
passages of the body, do work their effect thro’ their 
inherent heat: The like of other qualities. There 
be some things that have their qualities in action, as 
the water Atisan and Milk, which are to be drank 
pre-

116 The PROBLEMS 
presently; they are moist and cold, and want no o- 
ther external help to cool and moisten, but do work 
immediately. Likewise the Salt and the Earth both 
virtually and presently, and in the sight are dry: 
Linseed and Bread are dry in imagination and sight, 
but moist in virtue and act: the Sea also, and Brine
pickle and aqua vitae, are moist in Imagination 
and sight, but dry in virtue and action. 
20. Why do some see nothing in the Night, and see 
in the Day? 
Because they have a thick spirit of seeing, and 
white cannot pierce the Air unto the thing which is 
seen, and in the Night groweth more thick, because 
it is made cold with the absence of the Sun. Or else, 
as others say, because that in the Day-time it is 
made fine and attenuated with the pure and hot Air, 
and is thickened in the Night. The contrary unto 
this doth happen in a Cat and an Owl; they discern
nothing in the Day, and see very well in the Night, 
for they have a very clear and thin sight the which 
when it doth thicken in the Night-time, is most 
fit to receive its object in the Day-time; and in 
a clear Light, being exceedingly attenuated and 
made thin, is resolved and scattered. Whereupon 
Lions, which are almost of the like nature, can- 
not go in the Sun; and if they see fire in the Day- 
time, they flee from it. A Man may see the Ball 
of their Eyes very bright, and they have the moist
parts of their Eyes very clear. 
21. Why doth a sudden vehement Joy somewhat dis- 
may a Man, and astonish him? 
Because when the vital virtue and inward natural 
heat is immoderately carry’d to the outward parts, 
it is cast out and resolved; and therefore such sweat 
and grow red, because the Blood is present. The 
natural heat and fire, both by reason of its heat and 
fire, and also because it is out of its place, moves 
upward, and then, for want of Food and Nutriture,
down-

117 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
downward again. And when one of these movings do 
perish and fail, the Man perisheth and faileth also. 
22. Why do such as are in Grief, and in Love, and 
in Anger, sigh very often? 
Because that the Mind of such as are grieved is 
turned into the cause of Grief and Sorrow, and the 
mind of such as covet to that which they do covet; 
and the mind of the angry unto that which causeth 
the anger. Then the Mind being intent upon that 
whether she moveth, doth after a Sort neglect and 
forget to give motion, virtue, and power unto the 
Muscles of the Breast; therefore the Heart not re- 
ceiving Air by the opening of the Breast, and by 
consequence neither blowing nor cooling, nor yet 
casting forth, by shutting, closing aad sighing, su- 
perfluities are bred of the Adustion of Blood, whilst
it doth fear Suffocation: The Heart (I say) doth 
force the mind, and give warning that he would 
give more motion to the Muscles, and cause greater 
breathing in and out, and that he would take in 
more store of cold Air, and thrust out more Excre- 
ment, and that by often small breathings he would 
perform that which one great one doth effect. And 
therefore the Men of old Time called the Word 
Suspiro, sighing of the straitness of the Breast. 
They sigh long and often, because the Mind is 
always upon that which causeth the passion; 
Nature doth force the Soul to send in by the Heart 
more motive virtue to the Muscles of the Breast. 
It is most evident that we do breathe in and out 
by the Arteries. Under the name of Pulse, the 
opening and shutting, the receiving and casting 
out Breath is comprehended. 
23. Why is a Sausage hardly digested? 
Because that through its lightness it doth swim in 
the belly above the light Meat, and doth not con- 
join with that Meat where concoction is made, but 
swimming at the Gizzard, where appetite is, and not 
Digestion. If you call it into water out of a Man’s 
body,

118 The PROBLEMS
body, it will not sink, but swim above the water;
for whilst meat is minced in it, it receiveth a light
Air, which causeth it to swim above moist things;
and therefore it is limber and flaggy, because it is 
participent of Air. 
24. Why do we make hot Water before we go into 
the Bath, and after that we have been long in the 
Bath, our Urine is cold? 
Urine is of a lukewarm quality, and moderately 
hot; therefore out of the bath, because our body 
is cold, the Urine we make is as it were in Com- 
parison hot; yet in the Bath because the Body is 
much hotter than the Urine, therefore the Urine 
doth seem cold, though it be hot after a sort. The 
which doth appear by that he who goeth into the 
bath to get heat, if he only go into hot Water, it 
seemeth very hot, but if already heated to go into 
it, it doth not seem so hot. 
25. How comes it that we find sweet fresh Water 
when we dig near the Sea? 
Because in the Sea that water which is thinnest 
and purest, is fresh; that which is thick, is salt; 
the thin water therefore which runneth through the 
passages of the Earth, is hidden in the Earth; the 
which we find, when we dig, is fresh ; because 
that in the Water it is drawn up into the Air, the 
thick and dried Water doth become salt; but in 
the Sea-shores, because the passages be broad and 
wide, fresh Water is found. 
26. Why is Well-water warm in Winter and cold 
in Summer? 
Because every thing doth flee from its contrary, 
as from an Enemy; it is manifest that cold is con- 
trary to heat, and doth destroy it; anc therefore in 
Summer, because the Heat doth occupy the Air, 
the Cold doth flee into the bowels of the Earth, and 
so causeth the Water to become cold. But in the 
Winter, because the cold hath greater sway in the 
Air than the heat, the heat fleeth to the same place,
and

119 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
and so doth heat the Water. For, it is against the 
Law of Nature, that contraries should dwell to- 
gether in the same place and time. 
27. How comes it that Men of small Stature are 
commonly wiser than the tall? 
Because in small Men the Soul is well joined and 
compacted together in the whole Body, in tall 
Men it is extended in length. And therefore Ho- 
mer doth describe Ulysses to be short and wise, and 
Ajax tall and a Fool. 
28. Why do we cast water in a Man's Face when 
he doth swoon, to make him come to himself again? 
Because that through the coldness of the Water, 
the heat may repair to the Heart to give Strength. 
29. Why do many Fools beget wise and strong Children? 
Because Fools, when they are in the act of Copu- 
lation, yield very much unto pleasure and have their 
Mind drowned in the body; whereby it cometh to 
pass, that their Seed being participent of great virtue, 
as well reasonable as natural, doth cause such as are 
begotten to be wiser. But it happens otherwise to 
such as are wise and learned; for their Seed wanteth 
much natural virtue, and the force of Wisdom ma- 
keth them to think on some external Cares, which 
weakeneth their intentions in the Act of Venery. 
30. Why doth not the Dung of wild Beasts stink 
so much as the Excrements of Men? 
Because they use dry superfluous Meats, and have 
a great exercise; yea, the Dung of some Beasts is of 
good favour. But of all other the Dung of a Man 
doth favour worst, because Men do use many moist 
meats out of season, and more than is needful: Also, 
they are less not than other living Creatures, and not 
so much exercised: and seeing that it is not full di- 
gested and evaporated by reason of the abundance, 
but doth corrupt, therefore it is of bad favour. 
31. Why doth Mustard and such like sharp things, 
blister and exulterate the Skin, if it be put upon it, and 
when it is swallowed, doth not exculterate the Belly? 
Because


120 The PROBLEMS 
Because they are dissolved with the moisture of 
the Body, and because they are changed and di- 
gested before they work, but upon the skin, which 
is thin, they have more time to work. 
32. Why doth Barley, Bran, seeing that is cold, 
dissolve Phlegm? 
Seeing all cold doth make thick, and hinder Re- 
solution, truly I think, not because it doth cool, 
therefore it doth loose and dissolve, but because it 
doth cast out, it hath a virtue of dividing, and ex- 
pelling humours. And there are diverse such kinds, 
which work contrary unto themselves, accidentally 
and by chance, not principally; as the Nature of 
Bees, which are hot, (far the like doth increase his 
like) but because they do expel naughty Humours 
from the Veins, and do provoke Urine. So Flower- 
de Luces and Hyssop are good for the Pleurisy; altho’ 
they be hot, yet they do cut those Humours which 
breed betwixt the skin, and which gird the side. So 
the Disease which is called Tetanus is cured with hot 
Water poured on it, which is bred of cold Hu- 
mours; it doth heal it, not principally of its own 
nature, but because it is heated. 
33. Why do some Men puff and blow when they 
make Water? 
Because the bladder when it is full of Water doth 
swell and straiten the Gut which is called the right 
Gut; and when it is emptied; a Wind which is in 
the Gut desireth a passage out: Some think there 
is an avoiding of the Urine. 
34. Why do some Men gape when they see others gape? 
Because the Nature of living Creatures, and es- 
pecially of such as want Reason, hath a likeness 
of Consent and Affections; and therefore when an 
Ass pisseth, the others do stale likewise. 
35. How comes it that one which is bleer ey'd doth 
infect on that which is whole, and yet be which is whole 
cannot heal the blear ey'd?
Because

121 of Alexander Aphrodiseus. 
Because the Eyes are soft and moist, and exposed 
to affection; health receives an alteration of a small
cause, and sickness of a great and vehement, and that 
which is in a mean is easier changed of that which is 
vehement, than contrariwise the vehement and great of 
the temperate and mean. And there foreblearness being 
a vehement and great Disease doth easily turn Health 
which is a temperate and moderate State of the Body. 
36. Why do Money and an Apple seem greater if in 
the Water than they be?
Because the Water doth receive the sight, and the 
Water about them maketh them seem of one colour. 
So the Sun, the Moon, and the Planets, when they 
are seen near unto the point of their rising or falling, 
seem to be of greater bigness than at other times:
for they alter the Air about them with their quality. 
37. Why, when a Man doth give a blow with a 
staff far off, see we the blow presently, but we hear the 
sound after, altho’ the sound and the blow be together? 
Because we have a sharper and quicker sight than 
hearing, and therefore the sight doth anticipate the 
strokes, and the hearing, which is grosser, doth hear 
the sound slower. And by the same reason we may 
resolve the doubt of Thunder and Lightning? for 
we see the Lightning before we hear the Thunder, 
altho’ the thunder be first, or at the least, together 
with the Lightning; and yet the sight being more 
subtile than the hearing, doth see the Lightning 
before the Ear doth hear the Thunder. 
38. What is the reason, seeing we are naked on our 
Face, and cloathed over all the Body, yet we can en- 
dure Cold better on our Face than on our Body? 
Use is the Cause of it. 
39. What is the reason that yellow Choler, which all 
a Man’s Life time is contained in a place called the Blad- 
der of Choler, doth not eat out the said Bladder, seeing 
it is subject to many alterations; and yet if it fall into,
a Tooth but a small time, which is a Body that cannot 
F easily


122 The PROBLEMS 
easily suffer, it will presently eat it out? 
Because Nature hath so wrought, that it would 
only remain in that Body and not hurt it. The name 
of nature is a great remedy against grief as by many 
Examples it can be proved. The infant is in the 
Womb of the Mother nine Months, and giveth no 
grief of Heart unto her; but if a light Wind should 
breed there, it would presently cause a sharp disease. 
The rough Artery is only a receptacle of Wind; 
but if a Crumb should go amiss in it, it causeth ei- 
ther choaking or a vehement cough; which could 
not be so, if Nature had not so prescribed. 
40. Why do some Men go into a Bath a thirst and 
come out without thirst, and some contrariwise go in 
not a thirst, and come out a thirst? 
Such as are dry do wax moist in the Bath, and 
quench their thirst, for this cometh of dryness, but 
those which are moist, and not thirsty, if they stay 
long in hot Air, are a thirst, because their moisture 
is dissolved and spent with sweat. 
41. Why do some belch unfavourily after the eating 
of a Radish, and some not? 
They whose stomach and belly doth not abound in 
naughty and superfluous Humours, tending to flegm, 
they have a sweet breath; but they whose stomach 
doth abound, have no unfavory breath. A Radish 
is hot, and doth cut and attenuate the grossness of 
Humours which it doth cast out by belching: so dirt 
which is not stirred, doth not favour at all: but if it 
be stirred, it yieldeth a strong stench. Those which 
think that a Radish is of a stinking quality, of itself, 
because it doth stink out of the body if it be long kept 
without doubt are deceived; for all Men which eat 
of them, would have unfavory breaths if it were so. 
42. Why in every great Cold doth the Fingers and 
superficial parts of the body wax black and decay? 
Because extream cold doth drive in the natural heat 
into the body, and  so the outward part of the body 
doth

123 of Alexander Aphrodiseus. 
doth first grow wan, then black, and almost like a 
Corpse. They fail and decay because that Nature 
being intent on the other parts of the body, doth join 
unto itself that which is hot, and doth drive away and 
cast out that which is decay'd and naught. The su- 
perficial parts are alter’d, because they be not very 
fleshy, nor very hot; for in Trees, those Leaves fall 
soonest in the Winter which are least hot in Nature, 
and therefore are weaker and thinner. Those which 
say that the natural heat doth presently, in the begin- 
ning, flee from the cold, as it were from an Adver- 
sary, into the internal parts of the body, and then 
gather itself again, and strengthen itself, and as it 
were with a Supply, help those parts which are al- 
ter’d, and either because it was on a sudden, or be- 
cause great store of heat doth run back again, and 
so burn the utmost parts of the body, because that 
staying, there is much of it gathered together. Those 
I say, without doubt, do thing amiss which say this. 
43. Why are such in great pain which being very cold, 
do heat their fingers ends, or uttermost parts of the body? 
Because of the sudden change of quality, much cold 
doth change into much heat. Whatever is done, doth 
bring grief to nature, and whatsoever suddenly agree- 
ing unto nature, doth delight nature, for man’s nature 
doth consist much in the manner of this Disposition. 
44. Why do such as eat Pepper, or great Morsels
of Bread, yex? 
There is a proportion in them with those things 
which do outwardly overcharge us, or cause us to 
have pain. Pepper and Choler hath a proportion 
with Thorns, but Phlegm and Bread with a heavy 
Stone. Such as have a Stomach not full of Super- 
fluities, nor hot and sensible, they are quickly bitten. 
with the sharpness of Pepper, they do stir the Sto- 
mach to avoid and cast out that which grieveth, and
so do yex. But such as have a cold Stomach and 
full of Phlegm, and feed not so well, they do not
F2 yex

124 The PROBLEMS
yex so soon. The like hath happened unto them 
which swallow great goblets of bread, the Stomach 
is opprest with the abundane and greatness of bread, 
and Nature doth not suffer her parts to be idle, when 
she feeleth any thing that doth hurt her; and there- 
fore Pepper with its biting quality, which hath a 
proportion with yellow Choler or Flegm oppressing 
within, do cause yexing.  
45. Why do such Pains as be in the Nails grievously 
torment us? 
Because that the sinews which are in the Fingers, 
with a peculiar kind of superfluity do breed the nails, 
as the Teeth are in the Gums. Therefore when the 
sensible virtues of the sinews goeth to the extreme 
parts, and is there gathered together, like Water 
flowing into a Valley, without doubt, the greater 
the alteration is, the greater the grief is. 
46. Why doth a great deal of bread devoured hastily,
by not staying for breathing, drive away the yex? 
Because that pressing the Stomach and driving it 
into a narrow room, it causeth the Meat which is 
hardened in it to be prest out into the belly; and the 
Stomach being dischanged doth stay the yex. 
47. Why do such as yex, give up yexing when, they 
hear of any sorrowful matter? 
Because they are intentive upon the sorrowful 
News which is brought, and therefore neglect to 
move their Breasts: And again, seeing we do then 
hold our breath, and so cause it to grow great in us, 
it doth stay the yex. 
48. Why do Pictures, to them which are near them 
shew their colours plain, and to those which stand afar 
off, shew  some hollow, and some bending and hanging? 
Because the force of seeing is dissolved and stretch-
ed in a long Distance, and therefore we cannot see ex- 
actly the skill of colours, but do see the white colours 
bending, and the black hollow: For white doth shine 
outwardly, and moveth itself unto that which is 
bright; but black, as being dark inwardly. 
49.

125 of Alexander Aphrodiseus  
49. Why if cold Water be an enemy to the Sinews, 
is not Water a Friend, and good? but yet that is also 
hurtful? 
For if such a thing is hurtful, the contrary-is pro- 
fitable; for contraries cannot work the same way un- 
to the same thing: but in truth hot, as hot in its own 
nature, is not hurtful to the sinews, but in that it is 
hot and moist. Such as have their sinews hurt, the 
sinews, because they are quick of feeling, want much 
fattening and hanging; for they are dry of their own 
nature, but the moistness which is contrary doth mo- 
lify them, and stacken and putrify them. And so it is 
plain, that heat itself is not hurtful by nature; a draught 
of hot Oil is good, because it hath a binding nature. 
50. Why if apple be naught because they be cold and 
moist, is not water so too, being of the same quality? 
Because Water is more subtile than Apples, soo- 
ner purged, and therefore it doth not hurt so much; 
yea, it doth sometimes strengthen the Body. 
51. What is the reason that some things which are 
of hard concoction, and of gross humour, are more easily 
digested, as Beef, than those which are of an easier di-
gestion, and not of so gross humour as Fish? 
Some attribute this unto Custom; some think the 
cause to be in some secret hidden quality of nature: 
Meats which are most digestive than is requisite, as 
being more mutible, or burnt and consumed through 
the great force of heat; and those Meats which are 
not apt to digest, as being hard to changed, see- 
ing they be not much changed, are only digested. 
So straw, as being apt to be altered with great fire, 
turneth into Ashes presently, but the like is not in 
the Oak, which is orderly burnt. 
52. Why are such as are sick in pain, pale outwardly?
Because that Nature as we have said doth pene- 
trate even unto the Heart, together with the Blood, 
and it is the blood which doth heat the Superficial 
parts, and makes them thin and clear. 
F3 53. Why

126 The PROBLEMS 
53. Why doth cold wine grow in Egypt, which 
is a hot Country?
For the same Reason. Again, the Cold doth 
flee to the Roots of the Vines, and maketh them 
cold; for the Vines are more apt to receive altera-
tion than other Trees. 
54. Why doth hot water, cast into a well, cause 
the water to be cold? | 
Because the cold which is in the Well doth resist 
the heat, and because it is greater than the heat, it 
doth prosecute the heat by all means, and doth flow 
into the hot water very much, and so makes it cold. 
55. Why, when a small thing doth fly in our Eyes, 
shut we the other when we pull it out? 
Because that the Spirit of seeing cannot go out 
by the Eye which is shut; but gathering itself to- 
gether, goeth with abundance unto the Eye which 
is open, and doth fill it, making it swell outward, 
and so that is driven out and expell'd that is in them. 
56. Why do such as are buffetted see Fire?
Because the Sight being made thin and slender by 
the blow, doth wax fiery, and so going into the air, 
becomes as it is. The like happens when two stones 
or two pieces of Iron are knocked together, for the 
Air between them is rarified and made thin, so be- 
comes fire. The like happens in the Clouds. 
57. Why doth not the striking two Stones together 
cause Fire? 
Because some of them yield too much, are too 
light, and as it were full of holes; for all striking 
of the Air doth make it alike, thin, so through 
its lightness it enters every Pore, and doth not al- 
ways fire. The like in Wood when struck. 
58. Why do such as itch desire hot things? 
Because the Phlegm, through whose Grossness
Cold and Itching doth arise, doth numb the flesh. 
59. Why are they then also glad of Baths? 
Because

127 of Alexander Aphrodiseus. 
Because heat disperses the Phlegm, and the nails 
also to dissolve it. 
60. Why do the Shoulders often itch much? 
Because they are colder than the fore-parts, and 
therefore have much Phlegm in them; which is 
the reason old Men (being cold) are much troubled 
with the Itch. 
61. Why is the coming down a Ladder more easy 
than the going up? 
Because in Descending the weight of the Body 
doth of itself tend downward; in ascending the 
strength labours in lifting up the weight of the 
body; so a Stone is easier thrown down than up. 
62. Why do Children cry when they are first born? 
Because nature and sense do as it were wander in 
a strange Country, for they come out of a warm 
soft body into the Air, perhaps the Light may of- 
fend them. 
63. Why do Bees, Emmets, Flies, &c. die in Oil? 
By reason their breathing hole is very narrow, 
so Oil stops it, and so they die. 
65. Why will flesh putrify in the Night under the 
full Moon? 
Because then the Air is hot and moist, which fur- 
thers putrifaction, whence it comes that if the heat 
and moisture besmall, concoction is wrought; if great 
consuming; if heat prevails, then burning. The 
Moon also hath four dispositions, the middle seems 
to be moist and in a manner hot, the full hot and dry, 
the wane dry and cold, and when she is without light, 
cold and dry, for she wanteth then the Sun-beams. 
66. Why are such pale as are in pain and grief? 
Because Nature, remembring that which vexes 
her fleeth with the blood to the inward parts, and 
so affects the flesh, but it happens less to those 
than to such as fear. 
67. Why are such red as are glad?
Because Nature doth meet that which delighteth  
F4 of

128 The PROBLEMS 
of her own accord, if it be without, as we do our 
Friends or Children; the Blood doth follow Na- 
ture, which dieth the Flesh red. Paleness comes of 
the contrary. 
68. What’s the reason that in a dead Sleep we often 
open our Eyes and see light? 
The Force and Spirit being gathered together in 
sleeping, and increased, do rush out through the 
dark in great abundance; and being bright, itself 
doth see like unto the like. 
69. Why do such as are ashamed cast down their eyes? 
Because the Eyes are the Glass of the Mind; for 
we see the affections of the Mind by the Eyes, as 
grief, anger, shame; because the Mind cannot bear 
what is not worthy of honour, for conscience fake 
it causes the muscles of the Eyes to tend down- 
wards, as if hiding themselves. 
70. How comes the Ear to endure all Moistness, 
Water excepted?
The reason is plain; Water being cold, is presently 
carried to the Organs of hearing, to which all cold is 
hurtful. Again, why before a great Wind are there 
as ’twere some running Stars or Lighting foretelling 
it, especially in a dry and clear element? Because that 
it began to blow before, and yet it appearing not unto 
us, because we have gross thick bodies of hard Sen- 
ses, and therefore blowing the upper Air, which is 
more thin and pure, it doth become fire, and so we 
perceive some of its sparkles. When it hath gotten a 
greater force, it moveth the grosser Air which is a- 
bout the Earth, and so is heard, felt, and perceived. 
71. Why cannot some see very great things afar 
off, yet see things near, tho very small? 
Truly, I think the force and spirit of seeing is very 
thin and pure, therefore when distanc’d, ’tis dissolved 
and cannot reach the object; for it doth hardly see 
things near, because of its thinness and pureness. 
There are some which discern very small things afar 
off,

129 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
off, and old Men too; these have a thick sight, and 
reaches a great distance, by which it is attenuated, 
made thin, and fitted to receive things visible; and 
thus two opposites are dissolved. 
72. How comes Dogs so fasten when they copulate? 
By reason the neck of the Matrix is very narrow, 
and the Dog’s Yard doth swell when in it, and the 
Seed cleaving in them thro’ their dryness, straitens 
their passage, when moisture acts the contrary. 
73. Why are Dogs mad only in Summer? 
They are very dry by nature, and chiefly in Sum- 
mer; wherefore when their humidity is heated or 
dry’d they are set on fire and become mad, like to 
frantick Men. They foam at the mouth, and that 
is dry and venomous; which is discovered by their 
panting, fiery Eyes, or open mouth, which they do 
to take in Air to cool them; besides, their tail be- 
comes crooked, and falls away. The most dry ones 
are most raging. Some say, that the Dog-star (thro' 
its influence) makes ’em grow mad. 
74. Why are those less grieved that become blind of 
a sudden than those be election? 
Because the former have their mind turn’d ano- 
ther way, but the latter have theirs wholly upon the 
thing which is out, know what they suffer, there- 
fore endure the greater torment. 
75. Why do such as carry great burthens go singing? 
As the reasonable Soul is delighted with musick, 
and is naturally turn’d for it, it feels the less weight. 
So in Funerals where Drums, Flutes, &c. are used,  
the Mind being intent upon the harmony, the spi- 
rits sustain less grief, wherefore Comedies and Stage- 
plays were invented formerly to divert the Senses.
76. How comes Ethiopians for the most part to die 
of Agues? and why are those that are blear ey'd ul- 
cerated?
The Ethiopians are hot and dry, and that little. 
Humour which is in them being exhausted, it hap-
F5 pens 

130 The PROBLEMS 
pens the other Elements are dissolved; the heat goes 
away for want of food, and cold arises thro’ its ab- 
sence. Drought reins thro’ the consumption of mois- 
ture, and for that cause dead Carcases are cold and 
dry. Wherefore Homer says, that in dead bodies two 
Elements flee away, i. e. the highest and thinnest, 
and two remain; there goes away Fire and Air, the 
Water and Earth remain, i. e. dryness and cold. 
Others are ulcerated in blearness of their Eyes, be- 
cause the blood is full of Choler by the Inflamati- 
on, which eat the Eyes by its Acidity. 
77. How comes dropsical People always a thirsty? 
By reason the moisture is salt and goes not away, 
but putrifies and dries the mouth of the stomach; 
and they have small Fevers with it. Besides, by how 
much the belly is puft up, by so much the more the 
rest of the body is dry’d: ’tis not naturally nourish-
ed, so grows feeble; for the Food becoming Wa- 
ter, it increases the Disease. 
78. Why do we in the beginning of a Banquet sit
close, and when we become satisfied take more room, 
and think ourselves oppressed? 
Because in the beginning all have an appetite to 
the Meat, and therefore have an Eye to what is on 
the Table, to fall to; but after they are well satis- 
fied, one bloweth this way, another that, and take 
no care at all of what is before them; by this 
means after Meat we take more room. 
79. How comes our Hair to grow grey, wherever 
it is except in the Armpits? 
By reason the place is hot, and thick of Arteries, 
Sinews and Veins, likewise thin, and therefore al- 
ways voids the flegmatick Excrements by Sweat. 
86. Wherefore, if Phlegm be cold, thick and clammy, 
and likewise black Choler cold and thick (but much less 
than Phlegm) is a quartan Ague longer than a quotidian?
Because Phlegm, tho’ it is cold, and much of it, 
yet ’tis moist, and moistness is soon alter’d. Black
Choler

131 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
Choler is cold and dry, therefore hard to change: 
They deceive therefore with the likeness of Cold and 
abundance of Choler, and hide some contrary qua- 
lity. Besides flegm is more agreeable to Nature than 
Melancholy; for when a Man’s health is impaired 
thro’ Hunger, Nature turns Phlegm into Nutriture; 
so that when ’tis a Quotidian Ague, she turns all the 
profitable Phlegm into Nourishment, and that 
which is unprofitable putrisies, and causes an Ague. 
81. Seeing there are four Humours which sometimes 
putrify, wherefore are there but three Agues only, 
and not four? 
Because blood is naturally the nutriment of the 
body, and when it doth abound, it causeth a repletion 
only; if it be corrupted, it remains blood no longer; 
for being heated, ’tis turn’d into yellow flegm, there- 
fore the other humours abounding, breed diseases, 
especially about the skin, as Ulcers, Cancers, two 
kinds of Leprosy, and (when corrupted) Agues. 
82 What is the reason the external parts of the bo-
dies of Lovers are sometimes cold, sometimes hot? 
Because when they conceive any Grief or Dolor 
against their Lover, the natural Heat passeth away 
with the blood into the internal parts of the body, 
and so the outward become cold, consequently pale 
and languid; but when they perceive their Lover 
angry, then the heat with the blood goes to the skin, 
and causeth blushing. For this reason Painters feign 
love to be sometimes sad and quiet, sometimes fleei-
ing or laughing; a Boy or Child, because Lust is 
vehement, but lasts not long. The affection in 
lawful Friends is durable, as Fathers towards their 
Children, and Wives towards their Husbands, but 
Love doth not last; and it falls out often among 
such as are unknown to each other. The other dis- 
position and affection is stable or firm and immedi- 
ately Love is vehement and like a Madman. The 
Poets feign Love to be a Firebrand, and to have 
Wings, 

132 The PROBLEMS 
Wings, because that the mind of Lovers are in sus- 
pence, and they are inconstant as Birds; then it is 
their Hearts burn with an incessant and vehement 
care of what they love. He holds a Sword in his 
right hand, and in the left a Quiver with many Ar- 
rows, because in the beginning he sees and desires at 
the same time, and as soon as he desires, the Lover 
sends beams of the Eye towards what he loves; and 
those beams are like arrows. As air lights a fire, so 
custom kindles Love. He is naked because Desire 
happens without meat; for no man loves by another 
not whom he knows not. And therefore Carvers do
sometimes carve kings and gods naked for honours 
sake, thereby to shew they have no hidden Vice 
lurking in their breast, but their Thoughts are open 
and sincere. Love hath Venus for his Mother, that is, 
Sensuality and Lust; and by the Image of Venus they 
feign unlawful Desire. Love is said to have been in 
love with Erynnis, a Fury of Hell, because many 
have loved wickedly, been enthralled to wicked 
Inclinations; as I have shewn in my Book of the 
Allegories which I wrote of their feign’d Stories. 
83. Why do some die in a Plague and some not? 
The proceeds of their Disposition of Body: for 
if a Man have a body full of evil Humours, the 
Air which is corrupted doth enter into and corrupt 
that little good Humour which is left in him, and 
so all the humours being corrupted, he must needs 
perish. But if a Man have not many superfluities, 
and doth abound with good Humours, he is not at 
all, or not much affected with the Plague. That 
the Disposition of the body, is the cause of effect, it 
doth appear by the Example of external Things. 
The Oak is not easily subject to alteration, nor is it 
easily set on fire; Reeds and Rushes are much more 
apt to receive fire, and Straw more than they. But 
if you take wet Straw, and green Reeds, and very 
dry Oak powdered over with Brimstone, you make
that

133 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
that fit to burn which is not fit. By this Example 
you may resolve another Question. How comes it to 
pass that Weariness doth rather breed a Quotidian 
Ague than that which breeds of putrefaction, or 
that which is called habitual; for we say. that this 
proceeds from the Disposition of the Body, for he 
had not any superfluous natural spirits or humours. 
All things which are sound and solid, are dry; and 
the cause is the same, why the heat of the Sun doth 
provoke sleep in some, and in some others not; for 
he in whom there is much Phlegm, which being 
dispersed, doth moisten the Head, and then he is in 
asleep, but such as have dry Heads, are kept more 
awake, because they are made more dry. 
84. Why doth Sun make a Man black, and make 
Dirt white; and make wax soft, and Dirt hard? 
By reason of the disposition of the substance that 
doth suffer. All Humours, Phlegm excepted, when 
they are heated above measure, do seem black about 
the Skin, but dirt being full either of Salt petre or 
salt Liquor, when the Sun hath consumed its dregs 
and filth, doth become white again, when the Sun 
hath drawn and stirred up the humidity of the wax, 
it is softened; but in Dirt the Sun doth consume 
the humidity which is very much, and so doth dry 
it, and make it hard. 
85. Why do such as are sick of the Jaundice go to 
sleep?  and why is their Excrement white? 
Because that yellow Choler is spread over all their 
Bodies, as their Eyes and their Skin do shew; for 
it doth not flow into the inward parts, as by nature 
it should, and for that reason their Excrements is 
not coloured, nor doth provoke them to stool with
its sharpness, which in the Guts it should do. And 
therefore Physick imitating Nature, as all other 
Arts do when the Patient is in Danger, doth help 
the part affected. 
86. Why have they such a very black Skin for a time
which

134 The PROBLEMS 
which have a continual Ague, after the time of judg- 
ment, which the Physicians call Crisis? 
That doth happen through continual yellow Cho- 
ler, the which being burnt and adust by the rigour 
of the Disease, is turned into black Choler. And 
so in that time of judgment being driven and re- 
pulsed by Nature to the Skin, it doth die it. As 
also the Skin is white in Leprosies; that colour is 
hardly dissolved by reason of the thickness. 
87. Why doth black Choler, coming into the Paps, or 
to the shank, work a corrosion, or gnawing, or wast- 
ing, and in those which are Melancholy, it doth not 
work the like altho' it fly into their Brain? 
Because there are many great Veins in the Paps by 
reason of ingendering of Milk, and therefore store of 
that humour doth run thither. And likewise to the 
Shank, because it goeth downward; but in the Brain 
because it is above, and also because it hath very small 
Veins, small store of Choler doth descend and which 
hath only power and force to prick, and not to gnaw 
and eat. Moreover the Brain is cold and moist, where 
by it is after a sort contrary to the disposition of black 
choler, which doth mortify it. That therefore which is 
properly called black choler doth breed an eating and 
gnawing Canker in the Paps; in the Shank a Bile or 
Sore hard to be cur’d, which of eating is called Nima- 
des. In the Brain it doth breed a mad fierce melan- 
choly; but that which is not properly black choler, 
but melancholy Humour, causeth a Swelling only, 
which is like a Canker, but doth not gnaw and eat, 
and doth also breed a quiet and peaceable melancholy. 
88. Why do these Vessels, which by the Greeks are 
called Bantralia (a kind of Vessel or Drinking glass with a 
narrow streight mouth) when they are filled with water 
make a certain noise proper unto themselves, and thereupon 
have their Names given them, as other feign'd Names of 
Sounds, as in the water, Plotsher, and such like?
Because that when such a Vessel is without water, 
it


135 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
it is filled with Air, which is a most thin body: And 
there when the water is on a sudden pour’d into it, 
with its heat it doth follow and beat out the Air, 
which is thin, and excludes it utterly; for they cannot 
both stay in the Glass or Vessel till it be full. For the 
Philosopher doth shew that two bodies cannot at one 
time possess and ocupy the same place. And there- 
fore when the air is on a sudden thrust upwards through 
straits, a sound or noise is made of necessity, and that 
not one but many, for then it is, as it were, affixt 
betwixt both, for the water doth press down the Air, 
and the Air lifteth up the water; and altho’ that be 
done successively, yet there is oftentimes a noise. 
89. What is the reason that when we put our Finger 
on the Mouth of a watering-pot, the water will not 
run out of the bottom, and the Finger being taken away, 
it runneth presently?
Because that when the Finger is taken away from 
the mouth of the Pot, the air entring in, doth trust
down the water, which of its own Nature doth go 
downward, and so goeth out at the bottom. And 
this is the reason of all Mechanical Engines and In- 
struments made by Air and Water, as Clocks and 
Hour Glasses made by Water. 
90. Why doth wine and water given out of season 
to the sick of an Ague, cause a good distemperance of 
the Brain; for these two are contrary, for the water 
is cold, and the wine is hot?
I say then, that the Wine being apt to ascend, 
doth hurn the Brain at the same time that it is di- 
sturbed and distempered with the Ague. And we 
see also many which are in health, if they use much 
Wine, to be scarce well in their Wits. But Water 
doth stop the passages of the Body, by which the 
Spirits (which are the Instruments of the Soul) are 
dissolved, and so cause them to become thick and 
gross, and more corrupt and putrified, which breeds 
the Ague. And oftentimes Water being overcome 
by

136 The PROBLEMS 
by the Ague, becometh its nourishment; as we see 
in a Smiths Forge where a little Water doth kindle 
the Fire, and make it burn more. 
91. Why have women and children, and gelded 
Men shrill and loud Voices? 
Because that through the abundance of humidity 
their Artery is not stretch'd wide; and therefore as 
a small Flute or Pipe giveth a small slender sound, 
so of the artery in them that is streight and narrow; 
for it is the property of Heat to make wide and 
loosen, but Women and Eunuchs are cold. 
92. Why are Children stricken with a Planet in 
Summer time? 
They are sick of a weak and lingering Ague, and 
their Eyes sink hollow in their Head, and they be- 
come weak and feeble, and sleep very little; and 
some of them have a Flux, because Children are 
tender, and do easily suffer, and have great store 
of flegm in the head, as we have said: And there- 
fore the flegm being over much heated with great 
Heats, and also putrified, doth inflame the Ague, 
whereupon the Gristles of the Brain are set on fire 
and therefore they sleep little; and that Fire des- 
cending by the Arteries of the Heart, and setting 
on Fire the lively Spirits, doth kindle an Ague 
without putrefaction. And seeing that much choler 
arises of an ague, whereby it falleth out, that the 
choler gnawing and eating the Belly. It is plain, 
that the Cause of that Alteration is in the Brain, 
because that cooling Medicines are applied unto 
the Head, and such as are good to quench that 
Fire. And some of ripe years are sick of the 
same Disease, that is, such as have flegm and 
choler heaped up in their Head, which doth putrify 
by the very breathing thereof, and, after a manner, 
by the fiery Air the Spirits are set on fire. 
93. Why are round Ulcers hard to be cured?
Because they are bred of a sharp Colour, which 
eats

137 of Alexander Aphrodiseus. 
eats and gnaws, and because it doth run dropping 
and gnawing it makes a round Ulcer, for which 
reason it requires drying Medicines, as Physicians 
assert. Natural Philosophers say, it comes to pass 
because there is the beginning where the mischievous 
Imposthume doth begin; for in a circle there is nei- 
ther beginning nor end. When they are burned by 
the Physicians they assume another kind of Shape.  
94. Why is honey sweet to all Men, and yet seemeth 
bitter to such as have the Jaundice? 
Because they have much bitter Choler all over 
their bodies, but abounds with the tongue, whence 
it happens when they eat honey the Humours are 
stirred, and the Taste itself, when it hath found the 
bitterness of Choler, causes an Imagination that 
the Honey is bitter. 
95. Why have very angry Men fiery Eyes? 
Because the Blood about the Heart is servent, 
and the Spirit hot, and so (being very subtile and 
pure) are carried upward; and by the Eyes (which 
are clear) they shine, and have bloody Vapours 
that ascend with them, which makes the Face 
red, which Homer not being ignorant of, says,
And his Eyes were like a burning flame. 
96. Why doth water cast upon serpents cause them 
to flee? 
Because they are cold and dry bv nature, having 
but little Blood, and therefore flee from excessive 
coldness. And that they be of this quality is plain, 
because they seek for dens and secret places in the 
Earth, as being warm; at Sun set shun the Air, 
as being cold. And again in Summer, because the 
Bowels of the Earth are cold, they find out the 
warmest places. 
97. Why doth an Egg break if it be roasted, and 
not if boiled? 
The reason is, when moisture comes near the fire 
it heats too much, and  so breeds much wind, which 
being

138 The PROBLEMS
being pent up in little room, forceth its way out, 
and so breaks the shell. 
The like happens in Tubs, or earthen Vessels, 
when new Wine is put in ’em. And too much flegm 
breaks the Shell of an Egg in roasting; the which 
doth happen in earthen pots too much heated; 
wherefore the common People wet an Egg when 
they intend to roast it. Hot Water through its 
softness, doth seperate the humidity by little and 
little, and so dissolves it through the thinness and 
passages that are in the Shells. 
98. Why do Men in the act of carnal Copulation, 
in a manner wink, and find a like alteration in all the 
other Senses? 
Because they being overcome with the effect of 
that Pleasure, do comprehend it the better winking 
as it were with their Eyes. They are not lifted, 
nor do carry the wind abroad into the Air with the 
Senses, whereby they would less discern those cor- 
poral Affections. 
99. Why have some Medicines of one kind contrary 
force, as Experience doth teach, Mastich doth expel, dis- 
solve, and also knit; Vinegar both cools and heals? 
Because they are some small invisible bodies of 
them, not by confusion, but by interposition; as 
Sand moistned doth clog together and seem to be but 
one body, tho’ indeed there are many small bodies 
in Sand. Since this is so, ’tis not absurd that contra- 
ry qualities and virtues should be hidden in Mastich, 
and Nature hath given the Law to these bodies. 
100. Why do our privities swell when we hurt one 
of our Toes?  
Nature warding for those things which belong to 
the body hastes to assist the part grieved; and because
she hath the most profitable and nourishing of all the 
humours, tis requisite when she doth descend to the 
Toe with the blood, that those veins be filled which  
are about the privy Members, called Adnes of the 
Greeks,

139 of Alexander Aphrodiseus. 
Greeks, which are little round kernels. Therefore 
immoderate constipation doth cause inflammation 
and standing up, and that privy-member is called In- 
guen, borrowing its denomination, of the place itself. 
101. Why hath not Nature given Birds a Bladder, 
or a receptacle for Urine? 
Because they did want much moisture to give the 
matter for feathers to grow, and that they consume 
with the exercise of flying; neither do they piss at 
all; and when they drink, they void very moist 
Dung. 
102. Why have Children Gravel breeding in their 
Bladder, and old Men in their Kidneys and Reins of 
the Kidneys? 
Because Children have streight passages in the 
Kidneys, and an earthy thick humour is thrust with 
violence by the urine from the fashion of the Moon, 
even to the bladder, which hath wide conduits or 
passages that give room for the urine and humour, 
whereof gravel is ingendered to wax thick and seat 
itself, as the custom of it is. In old Men it is the 
reverse, or they have wide passages of the Reins, 
Back, and Kidneys, that the Urine may pass away, 
and the earthy humour congeal and sink down; 
the colour of the Gravel shews the humour where- 
of the Stone comes. 
103. Why if the Stone do congeal and wax hard 
thro’ heat (Children are hot, and by the same reason 
'tis done in old Men for there is not so much cold to be 
granted as there is in Ice or Snow, thro’ which extream 
cold the Kidneys would perish) yet we use not contrary 
things to dissolve coldness, but light things, as Parsley, 
Fennel, and such like? 
They say then it falleth out that by exustion and 
scorching, the Stones do crumble into Sand, as in 
earthen Vessels, which when they were over heated 
or roasted, they become Sand. And by this means 
it happens that small Stones are voided together 
with

140 The PROBLEMS 
with sand in making water. Sometimes cold drinks 
thrust out the Stone, the Kidneys being stretched, 
and casting it out by a greater lask, and easing the 
belly of its burden. Besides it often happens that 
an immoderate Heat of the Kidneys or Reins of 
the back (through which the Stone doth grow) is 
quenched with coldness. 
104. Why is the curing an Ulcer or Bile in the kid- 
neys or Bladder very hard? 
Because the Urine being sharp, doth exulcerate 
the wound, which good and fit Medicaments cover 
and skin. Ulcers are harder to cure in the Bladder 
than in the Kidneys, because Urine stays in the 
former, but runs away from the latter. 
105. Why is the reason that in bathing Vessels the 
hot water, when it is stirred, seems the hotter to us, 
almost burning our Bodies?  
Because when we enter those sorts of Baths the 
Water itself doth sufFer; that is, when the Water 
heats our bodies, it is made colder by us. We have 
learnt, that whatever works in Generation of cor- 
ruption, the same (without all doubt) doth suffer: 
The Water then being in some sort cooled, doth 
not heat alike, and we being accustomed to it, do 
not feel the heat as we did in the Beginning, be- 
cause it is diminished. If by stirring the Water 
more heat is added, which neither hath yet wrought 
nor suffered any thing of the body which is in it, 
that will seem very hot and scalding, in regard 
that it suffers by something, and so by degrees 
loses its heat, as the first did. 
106. How is it if whatsoever be moved is the better 
for it, especially in a hot air and place, yet when the air is 
beaten and stirred, it doth seem colder to us, and especially
in Summer, when the heat of the Sun is most violent? 
This seems a contradiction to the other, for hot 
water did seem hotter to us by moving, and here the 
hot Air seem colder out by moving. Therefore it 
is

141 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
is a common thing for what is moist and principal 
in any thing, either in quantity or quality, it over 
comes and changes that which is less and weaker; 
and that which is strong doth somewhat suffer a- 
gain in doing. Wherefore the hot Water, when it 
is very hot, sticking to the hot body, cools, and 
does not retain the same Quality. The Air then 
which doth compass us about being hot in Summer, 
like the Water compassing our bodies, is somewhat 
heated by us, who are hot through the season, it 
heats us as linnen garments do, the which be first
cold, and then by our bodies made hot, heat as a- 
gain: When we do then stir the Air, that air which 
was before heated by us is driven away, and ano- 
ther not yet heated succeeds, and seems cold to us. 
107. Why do these Sores which breed in the ball of 
the Eye seem white when they have less growing and are 
cold, and others do not seem such as grow out of the ball? 
Because through the ball of the Eye the sight pro- 
ceedeth, the which is bright and clear; therefore in 
the white of the Eye, when the wound doth make 
thick that part of the covering which is like a horn 
the spirit of the sight cannot issue out, hence it comes 
to pass (much of it being got together) it makes the 
Wound light and clear, shewing it white; and be- 
cause of the thickness of the sight the Spirit can’t 
go out, it causes blindness. 
108. Why do Chaff and Straw keep Water hot, and 
Snow cold, which are seemingly contrarities? 
Because the nature of Chaff wants a manifest quali- 
ty, and is said of some to be without quality, seeing 
therefore that of their own nature they can easily 
be mingled, and consumed with that which they are 
annexed unto, they easily also take the same nature 
unto them; and therefore being put unto hot things, 
they are easily hot; and to heat again, and keep hot; 
and contrary being made cold of the Snow, and 
making the Snow cold, do keep in its coldness. So
Wax

142 The PROBLEMS 
Wax and Oil will easily be consumed, and made 
one with another thing, and are also without quality, 
and do help the quality of that which is mingled 
with them, as being made one with them. 
109. Why do the Stars and Heaven seem clearest in 
the bright Winter times? 
Because the Air, either which do compass us or 
that which is highest, is made thin, and purged with 
Winds and Showers of Rain, and by that means 
our Sight doth see both further and clearer. The 
like is manifesty seen in running Rivers; for such 
things as are in them are far better seen than in the 
thick standing Puddle-water, where either nothing 
is seen or else confusedly. 
110. Wby have we oftentimes a pain in making water? 
Because that sharp Choler issuing out, and prick- 
ing the Bladder of Urine, doth provoke and stir up 
the whole body to ease the part offended, and to 
expel the humour moderarely. This doth happen 
most of all unto Children, because they have most 
Excrements, by reason their often filling. 
111. Wherefore are Griefs greater in the Night 
than by Day? 
Because the Mind being then idle and at rest with 
itself, is neither busied with the Sight nor Hearing, 
nor occupied with any other Sense, and doth nothing 
at all, nor is urged to any external Action, and there- 
upon is much more touched with the feeling of any 
Trouble or Grief. It is very plain that the Mind 
doth less feel the grief or the body when it is drawn 
abroad by external work, seeing that in sickness and 
other like accidents, the company of familiarity of 
friends and communication, and tales telling, do
make their troubles griefs more light and to- 
lerable. Men have marked, that Nature doth least 
Work by day, in digesting of meats, in altering of 
humours, in making of blood, in growing, and such 
like operations; btu the mind is then most occupied 
in

143 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
in his Actions, as in the five Senses, the motions of 
the parts of the body, the Imagination in Thought, 
in Memory; and contrary in the night when nature 
worketh most, and mind least. 
112. Why are not Children, especially Infants so easily 
shaken and put out of Joint as Men? 
By reason of their softness, and yielding to the 
Earth, they do dissolve its hardness, that it can work 
no further: Men therefore having a hard body, be- 
cause they do resist the hardness of the Earth or 
Stone, they do increase the vehemency of the Blow, 
and force the stones to work against themselves, as 
being hard themselves. And for the same reason a 
Sponge yielding, is not broken; but glass, an ear- 
then Pot, or any such other hard Body is broken 
with a fall. And by this also we learn why a vehe- 
ment Blast of Wind doth overthrow an Oak, and 
not a Reed, because that the Oak being hard, and 
strong and great, doth resist the wind, and so makes 
its force more strong; but the Reed being light, 
and soft and small, yielding hither and thither to the 
Wind, doth break its force. So a Wrestler striving 
against his Companion doth increase his force, in 
yielding sometimes and bowing with him, doth 
sooner break his vehemency. 
113. Why do Infants hearing their Nurses sing, 
cease their crying, and sleep presently after? 
Because that the substance of Musick as being a 
Science (and all other Arts) are ingrafied naturally 
in the Mind, as heat is in the Fire. Plato doth say, 
Our Minds do remember Sciences, and not learn 
them. Ami therefore the Mind hearing such Song 
in that he doth remember, causeth the Infant to be 
quiet; and in that he taketh Pleasure, it doth draw 
on sleep. For net being infected with the Compa- 
ny or the Body, he perceives those Sciences very 
plainly and being somewhat drowned in the Body, 
falleth into some oblivion of them. 
114. 

144 The PROBLEMS 
114. Why do Nurses rock and move their Children 
when they would draw them to sleep? 
To the end that the Humours being scattered by 
moving, may move the Brains; but those of more 
Years cannot endure this. 
115. Why do some Drunkards see double?
Because the muscles of the sight being more or less 
fill’d, and by the self same means weak and feeble, 
do draw and wrest one Eye upward, and the other 
downward, and by that means the beams do not look 
that way at once, but towards divers places and bo- 
dies; and therefore each of the eyes using a private 
office and duty of seeing, doth cause a double sight. 
116. Why are Boys apt to change their Voices about 
fourteen Years of Age? 
Because that then Nature doth cause a great and 
sudden change of Age: Experience proveth this to 
be true, for at that time we may see that Womens 
Paps do grow great, to hold and gather Milk, and 
also those places that are about the Hips, in which 
the young Fruit should remain. Likewise Mens 
Breasts and Shoulders, which then bear great and 
heavy burthens. Also their Stones in which their 
Seed may increase and abide, and his privy Mem- 
ber, to set out the Seed with ease. Further, all the 
whole Body is made bigger and dilated, as the Al- 
teration and Change of every part doth testify, and 
the harshness of the Voice and Hoarseness; for the 
rough artery or Windpipe being made wide in the 
beginning, and the exterior and outward part with-
in unequal to the Throat, the Air going out at the 
rough unequal and uneven pipe, doth become un- 
equal and sharp, and after a short hoarse, like unto 
the voice of a Goat, wherefore it has its name Bronchus.
The same doth happen to them into whose rough
Artery and Distillation doth flow: It happens by 
reason of the drooping humidity that a light small 
Skin filled unequally causes the uneven going forth
of


145 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
of the Spirit and Air. Understand that the Wind- 
pipe of Goats is such. by reason of the abundance 
of humidity. The like doth happen unto all such 
as Nature hath given a rough Artery, as unto 
Cranes. After the year of fourteen they leave off 
that Voice, because the Artery is made wider, and 
reacheth his natural evenness and quality. 
117. Why doth Oil being drank, cause one to vomit,
and especially yellow Choler? 
Because that seeing it is light and ascendeth up- 
wards, it provoketh the Nutriment in the Stomach
and lifteth it up, and so the Stomach being griev’d, 
summoneth the ejective Virtue to vomit, and espe- 
cially Choler, because that is light, and consisteth of 
subtile parts, and therefore it is the sooner carried 
upward, for when it is mingled with any moist thing 
it runneth into the highest room. 
118. Why doth not Oil mingle with moist things? 
Because that being pliant, soft, and constipate in 
itself, it cannot be divided into parts, and so can- 
not be mingled; neither if it be put on the Earth, 
can it enter into it. 
119. Why is Water and Oil frozen in cold Weather,
and Wine and Vinegar is not? 
Because that Oil being without all quality, and 
fit to be compounded with any thing, is cold quickly, 
and so extreamly, that it is most cold. Water being 
cold of nature, doth easily freeze when it is made 
colder than its own nature. Wine being hot, and 
of subtile parts, is not so soon cold, but Vinegar 
being of most subtile parts, suffereth no freezing. 
120. Why do contrary things in quality, bring forth 
the same Effects? 
That which is moist is hardened and bound alike 
of heat and of cold. Snow and Liquid doth freeze 
with cold, a Plaster, and Gravel in the Bladder, are 
made hot with heat. That is so indeed, but by two 
divers Actions. The heat doth consume and eat the
G abundance

146 The PROBLEMS 
abundance of moisture; but the Cold stopping and 
shutting with its overmuch thickness, doth wring 
out the filthy Humidity, like as the Sponge wrung 
with the Hand doth cast out the Water which it 
hath in the Pores small passages. 
121. Why doth a shaking or quivering seize us of- 
tentimes when any fearful matter doth chance, as a 
great Noise or a Crack made, the sudden downfal of 
Water, or a great Tree?
Because that oftentimes the Humours being di- 
gested and consumed with time, and made thin and 
weak, all the Heat vehemently, suddenly, and 
sharply fleeing into the inward parts of the Body, 
consumeth the humours which causeth the Disease. 
So Treacle hath its effect, and many such like 
which are hot and dry, when they are taken after 
Concoction.
122 Why do such fall which do turn round, if 
they be not used to do it? 
Because they do disturb the animal Spirits which 
are in the brain, and toss them up and down toge- 
ther with the Humidities; they then be made less 
apt and fit to receive the sensible and motive power, 
and do not suffer any Action to go to the Muscles
and Sinews; whereby it falleth out, that the weight 
of the body, is not being born up and supported by 
the Soul, is thrown on the Earth; and for the same 
cause they seek darkness, because the Spirit of see- 
ing is disturbed and troubled, and cannot work 
like the other senses. But this doth not happen unto 
such as are accustomed to turn moderately, and by 
little and little custom doth breed this; for the Soul 
and Nature are not Strangers the one to the other, 
but in Time are as it were reconciled; for that 
which is done by little and little, and without inter- 
mission, is hidden from the same, and after that it 
hath often escaped, falleth not as a strange thing to 
Nature, who was wont to receive it.
123. Why

17 4of Alexander Aphrodiseus 
123. Why do Steal Glasses shine so clearly? 
Because they are lined in the inside with white 
lead, whose nature is shining, the which being put 
to the glass which is also shining, doth shine much 
more; and casting its Beams through the Passages 
of the Glass, doth double that which is in the su- 
perficial parts of the Glass, and without the Body 
of the Glass, and by that means the Glass is very 
shining and clear. 
124. Why do we see ourselves in Glasses and clear 
Water? 
Because the quality of the Sight passing into the 
bright bodies by reflection; doth return again by the 
beam of the Eyes, to the Image of him who look- 
ed on it. That qualities do go forth and pass from 
the Face, as it is not absur’d, they do shew which 
remain near unto Trees, because they are wont to 
look green; for the green quality of green Leaves 
passeth to the Face of itself: Likewise going unto 
the running Water, doth make it shew green. 
125. Why do hard Dens, hollow and high Places, 
send back the Likeness and Sound of the Voice? 
Because that in such Places also by reflection do 
return back the image of a sound, for the voice doth 
bear the air, and the air the place, which the more 
it is beaten, the more it doth bear, and therefore 
doth cause the more vehement sound of the Voice: 
Moist Places, and as it were soft, yielding to the 
stroke, and dissolving it, give no sound again, for 
according unto the quality and quantity of the stroke 
the quality and quantity of the voice is given, which 
is called an Eccho. Some do idle fable, that she is a 
Goddess: Some say that Pan was in love with her 
which without doubt is false. He was some wise 
Man who did first desire to search out the cause of 
that Voice, and as they which love, and cannot 
enjoy their Love, are grieved, so in like Manner was 
he very sorry until he found out the Solution of that 
G2 cause

148 The PROBLEMS 
cause: As Endymion also, who first found out the 
course of the Moon watching a nights and observing 
her course, and searching her Motion, did sleep in 
the Day time, and therefore they do fable that he 
was beloved of her, and that she came to him when 
he was asleep, because she did give to the Philoso- 
pher the solution of the course of herself. They say 
also, that he was a Shepherd, because that in the 
Desart and high Places he did mark the course of 
the Moon. And they give him also the Pipe, be- 
cause that the high Places are blown with Winds, 
or else because he sought out the consonancy of 
Figures. Promotheus also being a wise man, sought 
the cause of the Star which is called the Eagle in the 
Firmament, his nature and place; and when he was 
as it were, wested with the desire of Learning, then 
at the last he wrested, when Hercules did resolve unto 
him all Doubts with his Wisdom. 
126. What is the reason that if you cast a Stone in- 
to a standing water that is on the utmost parts of the 
Earth, it make many Circles; and not if the Water be 
deep in the Earth? 
Because that the stone, with the vehemency of the 
Cast, doth pursue and follow the Water from every 
part of it, until the Stone come to the bottom; but 
if there be a very great vehemency in the throw, 
the circle is the greater, the Stone going down unto 
the Earth, causeth many Circles. For first of all, it 
doth drive the overmost and superficial parts of the 
Water into many parts, and so going down always 
to the bottom, again dividing the Water, it maketh 
another Circle, and this done successively, until 
the Stone resteth, and because the vehemency of the 
Stone is slackened still as it goes down, of necessity 
the last Circle is lesser than the first, because that 
with the Stone, and also with the body the Water 
is divided. 
126. Why

149 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
127. Why do some think that laughter proceeds from 
the Spleen, affirming that it is not like that they laugh 
as much, whose Spleen is corrupted, as they whose 
Spleen is sound, but say that such are very sad? 
Truly, I think that the cause of Laughter is acci- 
dental, and not properly the spleen for if it be sound 
and perfect it doth draw from the Liver melancho- 
ly Humours whereof it proceedeth, that when the 
pure blood, without any dregs, doth go both thro’ the 
whole body, and also in the Brain, it doth delight 
both Nature and Mind, and doth make Men merry 
like unto Wine, and bring them to a Quietness and 
Tranquility, and so that of Laughter is moved. 
128. Why do not Males bring forth young ones? 
Because they proceed of a diverse kind of Beasts, 
and so then the mixtion of seed differing of quality 
and quantity, begetting a certain other thing besides 
that which is first, doth mar and abolish the Nature 
of those things which first were. As the mingling of
White and Black, abolishing the colour of Excre- 
ments breedeth another colour which is dark and 
dun, which is none at all of the Extreams. There- 
fore the ingendering quality is abolished, and the 
aptness of receiving form. 
129. Why such as are deaf, by Nature dumb? 
Because they cannot speak and express that which 
they never heard, some Physicians do say, that 
there is one knitting find uniting of Sinews belong- 
ing to the like disposition. But such as are dumb 
by an Accidence, are not deaf at all, for then there 
ariseth a local Passion. 
130. Why are some stiff after Meat which are fasting?
Because they abound with Choler, and so do heap 
up a lower sharp Humour. Therefore the parts of 
the body being nourished after Meat, drive away 
from them the Choler, of the skin, and so that stiff- 
ness doth arise, that is, Choler gnawing and biting 
those parts, and stirring them up to pursue them. 
G3 131. 


150 The PROBLEMS 
131. Why do not Swine cry when they are carried 
with their Snouts downwards? 
Because that above all other Beasts, they bend 
more than other to the Earth. They delight in fil h, 
and that they seek, and therefore in the sudden 
change of their Face they be as it were Strangers, 
and being amazed with so much light, do keep that 
Silence, some say the Wind pipe doth close together 
by reason of the straitness of it. 
132. Why do Swine delight with Dirt? 
As the Physicians do say, they are naturally de-  
lighted with it, because they have a great Liver, in 
which Desire is, as Aristotle saith the wildness of his 
snout is the cause, for he hath smelling which doth 
dissolve itself, and as it were strive with stench.
133. Why doth itching arise when an Ulcer doth wax 
whole, and Flegm cease? 
Because the part which is healed and made sound 
doth pursue the Relick of the Humours which re- 
maineth there against Nature, and which was the 
cause of the Bile, and so going out through the skin, 
and dissolving itself, doth original cause the Itch. 
134. Why are those diseases and accidents longest and
most grievous, which do molest one Eye and not both? 
For two reasons, first, because a running Fluxion  
is heap’d up at one Eye only, for whatsoever is di- 
vided into many, is weaker than when entire, and 
of a lesser force; secondly, because when the whole 
Eye doth make any motion, it often obliges the ail- 
ing Eye to move too, and the help for any diseased 
part consists in Quietude. 
135. How comes a Man to sneeze oftener and more
vehemently than a Beast? 
Because he uses more Meats and Drinks, and of 
more different Sorts, and that more than is requisite
the which when he cannot digest as he would, he 
doth gather together much Air and Spirit, by reason 
of much humidity, the Spirits being then very sub- 
tile,

151 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
tile, ascending into the Head, often forces a Man 
to void it, and so provokes sneezing. The Noise 
caused thereby proceeds from a vehement Spirit or 
Breath passing through the conduits of the Nostrils, 
as belching does by the stomach, or farting by the 
Fundament, the Voice by the Threat, and a sound 
by the Ears. 
136. How comes the Hair and Nails of dead People 
to grow? 
Because the Flesh rotting, withering and falling 
away that which was hidden about the root of the 
Hair doth now appear, and causes an imagination 
that the Hair doth grow, some say it grows indeed, 
because the dead carcases are dissolved in the begin- 
ing to many excrements and superfluities, by reason 
of the put efaction which comes to them. These go- 
ing out at the uppermost parts of the body by some 
passages do increase the growth of the Hair. 
137. Why have children, as well as grown persons, 
white Spots in the Nails of their Fingers, rather than 
in their Feet? 
Because they are bred of Flegm, and Children 
abound in flegm more than grown Persons, as be- 
ing fleshy, and great eaters. And the Feet by rea- 
son of walking and Motion, diverse superfluities 
more than the Hands, and therefore those spots do 
not appear in the Nails of the Feet. 
138. Why don't the Hair of the Feet presently grow
gray?  
For the same reason, because that through great 
Motion they disperse and dissolve the Superfluous 
Flegm that breed Greyness. The Hair of the Se- 
crets does grow grey very late, because of the heat 
of that place, and because that in carnal Copula- 
tion it does dissolve the Flegm also. 
139. Why do many Beasts wag their Tails when 
they see their Friends, and a Lion and a Bull beat 
their Sides when they are angry? 
Because


152 The PROBLEMS 
Because they have the Marrow of their Backs 
reaching to the Tail, which hath the Force of mo- 
tion in it, the Imagination acknowledge that which 
is known to them as it were with a Hand (as hap- 
pens in Men) doth force them to move their Tail. 
This doth manifestly shew some secret Force to be 
within them, which doth acknowledge that which 
they ought. In the Anger of Lions and Bulls, Na- 
ture doth consent to the Mind, and causeth it to be 
greatly moved, as Men do sometimes when they are 
angry, beating their Hands on other Parts, when 
the Mind cannot be revenged on that which doth 
hurt, it presently seeks out some other Solace, and 
cures the Malady with a Stroke or Blow. 
140. Why if you put hot burnt Barley upon a Horse's 
Sore, is the Hair which grows upon the Sore not white 
but like the other hair? 
Because it hath the Force of expelling, and doth 
wipe away and dissolve the Excrements of Flegm, 
as likewise all unprofitable Matter that is gathered 
together thro' the weakness of the parts, or crudity 
of the Sore. 
141. Why doth hair never grow on an ulcer or a 
Bile? 
The reason is, a Man hath a thick Skin, as is 
seen by the thickness of the hair, and since the scar 
is thicker than the Skin itself, it stops the passages 
from whence the Hair should grow. Horses have 
thinner Skins, as is plain by the thick Hair, there- 
fore all Passages are not stopt in their Wounds and 
sores, and after the excrements which were gather- 
ed together have broke a passage thro' those small 
Pores, the Hair doth grow. 
142. What is the reason that such as are bitten with 
a Snake, if they are thirsty, quench it by drinking of 
Treatle, which is hot and dry? 
I say then, it doth not quench thirst solely by its 
own quality, but by same mutual sympathy and 
consent,

153 of Alexander Aphrodiseus. 
consent, and natural reason. It is a kind of Coun- 
ter poison, and a Preservative too, being composed 
of divers sorts of Herbs that have some kind of a- 
greement with all the parts of the body, as Dictam- 
num, Dittanger or Ginger, hath a proportionable con- 
servative of the Heart, Agrimony, or Liverwort with 
the Liver, Stonewort or Finger fern with the Spleen, 
Parsley with the mouth of the Belly, Hissop with the 
Lungs, Elicampane with the Reins of the Back, Rue 
with the Neck, Bitterworth with the brain, and Siler 
Montanum, with the Bladder. Every one of these 
drawn as ’twere with the sweetness of Honey, doth 
draw that which is best for his safety, among all of 
these the blood of some Vipers is mingled, which 
hath a certain natural disaffection which we call An- 
tiparium, a contrary of all natural qualities, against 
every venomous Beast and corruptible Creature. 
These being distributed into every part, they suffer 
nothing to work that effect which doth threaten cor- 
ruption, for they do resist like lawful Soldiers, who 
have taken Arms for the defence of their country. 
143. Why is fortune painted with a double Forehead 
one side bald, and the other hairy? 
The baldness signifies adversity, and hairiness 
prosperity, which we enjoy when it pleases her. 
144. Why have some commended Flattery? 
Because Flattery setteth forth before our Eyes
what we ought to be, tho' not that we be.
145. Wherefore should Virtue be painted girded? 
To shew that virtuous Men should not be sloth- 
ful but diligent, and always in Action. 
146. Why did the Ancients say ’twas better to fall 
into the Hands of a Raven than a Flatterer? 
Because Ravens don’t eat us till we be dead, but 
Flatterers devour us alive. 
147. Why have cholerick Men beards before others? 
Because they are hot, and their Pores large and 
wide. 
148. How

154 The PROBLEMS 
148. How comes it that such as have the hickup 
do ease themselves by holding their Breath? 
The Breath retained doth heat the interior parts 
of the Body, and the Hickup proceeds from no- 
thing but cold. 
149. How comes it that old Men remember well that 
which they have seen and done in their Youth, and for- 
get such things as they see and do in their Age? 
Things learnt in youth have taken root and habi- 
tude in the Person, but those learnt in Age are for- 
gotten, because the Senses are weaken’d in them. 
150. What kind of Covetousness is best? 
That of time, when ’tis employ’d as it ought to be. 
151. Why is our Life compared to a Stage Play? 
Because the dishonest do occupy the place of the 
honest, and the worst  sort the room of the good. 
152. Why do Dolphins, when they appear above the 
Water, denote some Storm or Tempest approaching? 
Because that at the beginning of the Tempest 
there do arise from the Bottom of the Sea certain 
hot Exhalations and Vapours which heat the Dol- 
phins, causing ’em to rise up and seek for cold. 
153. How comes thing more quiet in the Night than 
in the Day? 
The Motion of the Air, and the coldness of the 
Night, is the cause thereof, which coldness conti- 
nues and hinders the Motions. 
154. How comes the Romans to call Fabius Maxi- 
mus the Target of the People, and Marcellus the 
Sword? 
Because the one adapted himself to the service of 
the Common-wealth, and the other was very eager 
to revenge the Injuries of his Country and yet they 
were in the Senate joined together, because the 
gravity of the one would moderate the courage and 
boldness of the other. 
155. Why does the shining of the Moon hurt the 
Head?
Because

155 of Alexander Aphrodiseus.  
Because it moves the Humours of the Brain, and 
cannot afterwards resolve them. 
156. If Water doth not nourish, why do Men 
drink it? 
Water causes the Nutriment to spread through 
the Body. 
157. Why is Sneezing good? 
It purgeth the Brain, as the Milk is purged by 
the Cough. 
158. What is the Seat of the Affection of the Body? 
Joy dwelleth in the Spleen, Anger in the Gall, 
Fear in the Heart, and Lechery in the Liver. 
159. Why is hot Water lighter than cold? 
Because boiling Water hath less ventosity, and is 
more light and subtile, the earthy and heavy sub- 
stance, being seperated from it. 
160. How comes Marsh and Pond water evil? 
By reason they are flegmatick, and do corrupt 
in Summer time, the finess of Water is turned into 
Vapours, and the earthiness doth remain. 
161. Why be studious and learned Men soonest bald? 
It proceeds from a Weakness of the Spirits, or 
because want of digestion causes Flegm to abound 
in them. 
162. Why doth too much watching make the Brain 
feeble? 
Because it increases Choler, which dries and 
extenuate the Body. 
163. How comes Steel Glasses better for the Sight 
than others? 
Steel is hard, and doth present unto us more sub- 
stantially the Air that receiveth the Light. 
164. How doth Lome shew its greatest force, by make- 
ing the fool to become wise, or the wise become a fool? 
In attributing Wisdom to him that hath it not; 
for it is harder to build than to pull down, and 
ordinary Love and Folly are but an Alteration of 
the Mind. 
165 How

156 The PROBLEMS, &c. 
165. How comes too much Labour bad for the Sight? 
Because it dries the Blood too much. 
166. Why is Goats milk counted best for the Stomach? 
Because it is thick, not slimy, and they feed upon 
boughs and wood rather than Grass. 
167. Why do grief or vexation bring grey Hairs? 
Because it dries, and Age is nothing else. 
168. How comes be the most merry that hath the 
thickest Blood? 
The Blood which is fat and thick makes the 
Spirits firm and constant, wherein consists the force 
of all Creatures.
169. In your opinion, which is hardest to obtain, the 
Love of a person, or to keep it when obtain'd? 
To keep it, by reason of the Inconstancy of Man, 
who is quickly angry, and soon weary of a thing; 
hard to be got, and slippery to keep. 
170. Why do Serpents shun the Herb rue? 
Because they are cold, dry, and full of Sinews, 
but Herb Rue is of a contrary Nature. 
171. How comes a Capon better to eat than a Cock? 
The Capon loses not its moisture, because he 
does not tread the Hens, and therefore is better. 
172. Why do we smell a thing less in the Winter 
than in the Summer? 
Because the Air is thick, and less moveable. 
173. How comes hair to burn so quickly as it does? 
Because the Hair is dry and cold? 
174. Why is Love compared to a Labyrinth? 
Because the entry and coming in is easy, and 
the going out impossible, or very hard. 
FINIS.