ARCTIC, DESERTJROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
THE ARCTIC (THREE LECTURES) 
A_i. LECTURE J_-—general conditions 
PAGE 
I. INTRODUCTION 1 
Adjustment Requires Preparation 
What the Arctic Is Not 
H. THE ARCTIC DEFINED 2 
III. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE LANDS 3 
Topography 
Drainagej Frosted Ground, Glaciers 
IV. THE ARCTIC SEAS AND SEA ICE 6 
The Polar Sea 
Gulf Stream., Pack Ice, Passages 
Pressure Ridges., Drifts., Bergs, Tides 
V. CLIMATE AND WEATHER 10 
Extremes of Cold and Heat 
Winds, Fogs, Precipitation 
VI. LIFE IN THE ARCTIC 12 
The Zone Theory and the "Lifeless North" 
Vegetation 
Animals of Sea, Pack ice. Land, Forest 
Insects 
VII. HUMAN LIFE AND SETTLEMENT 18 
Eskimos and Indians 
Shelter; the Comforts of Life 
VIII. THE MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH 21 
Infections; Snowblindness 
Poisonous Foods; Frost and Snow 
IX. ON LIKING THE ARCTIC WINTER 24 
Prepared by 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF, INTELLIGENCE 
25 BROAD STREET, NEW YORK 4, N. Y. ARCTIC, DIVERT, AID TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
ARMY. AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
THE ARCTIC 
Lecture I: 
General Conditions 
I. INTRODUCTION 
Of the three extreme areas to be discussed in this series of 
lectures, probably the most healthful for adequately equipped soldiers 
is the Far North, There is .least danger of infection in normal opera- 
tions, either from food, or wounds.,or water, although of course wounds 
squire quick attention in the cold. There is probably less likelihood 
>f neurosis and mental breakdown among ground crews from life in the 
arctic than there is from military duty in tropical or desert regions. 
Life in the arctic is not easy, for two obvious reasons: the rigors 
of climate and the difficulty of moving supplies. But intelligent, 
well-trained soldiers can maintain a high level of personal and mili- 
tary efficiency, once they have mastered a fairly, limited body of 
knowledge. 
A, Adjustment Requires Preparation 
. One general suggestion about duty in strange areas of the earth 
applies here: people have lived there for a long time, have mastered 
their surroundings, and would not want to live anyplace else. This 
does not mean that you have to think of settling down for good where 
you are assigned; but it does mean that you can adjust quite*success- 
fully to the area, if you make certain preparations—of clothing, 
food, health habits, and mental.attitudes. 
You can learn a certain amount by giving these lectures a fair 
hearing. Of course you cannot assimilate everything said here. But 
you can get an idea of the outlines of the subject/and learn more 
by getting more material and even by hearing the lectures over again. 
Learning never stops. Even if you think you know it all, you have 
to keep reviewing what you know, so you will not forget. And then, 
most important: practice what you have learned, so it becomes habit. 
Habit is the basis of any training, especially military. Surely you 
should train yourselves in habits that may save your life. 
3. VJhat the Arctic Is Not 
Before outlining the general characteristics of the arctic 
regions, it is necessary to clear up what the. arctic is not. Please 
A—I-.(Rev.) do not consider that your intelligence is being insulted if you 
hear- what you already know. In the Army we can take no chances. 
1, "Dead Ice". What ideas might some soldiers have about 
the arctic that are not so? One general notion, not so widespread 
as it used to be, is that the polar regions are one solid mass of 
deep ice, supporting no life. Well, the only substantial area of 
solid, permanent northern ice is in Greenland, The North Pole is 
covered by the sea, of which the ice is continually moving, and 
cracking, and drifting. The Soviet expedition which set itself 
adrift right near the pole saw plenty of animal life in water and 
on the ice. 
2, "Terrific Gold". A second idea is that the Far North is 
an area of terrific, unrelenting cold. It is time here to point . 
out a general principle. Water serves as a conservative or sta- 
bilizing agent, holding heat. Thus, temperatures on or near the 
water undergo much less variation than they do inland. For 
instance, the coldest spot in Siberia is about 200 miles south of 
the Arctic Circle, and far inland. The sea itself, and the coasts 
of Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands, are 'warmer in winter than the 
inland areas, and cooler in summer. 
3* "Dismal Dark". "The winter is a period of unrelieved 
darkness, when the .sun goes away and you think it will never come 
back"—that is what many think. It is true that you do not see 
the sun for a time, and that there is danger of mental depression. 
But there is plenty of light from reflection, especially on moonlit 
nights; and vigorous, active soldiers can cook up ways to keep 
cheerful and occupied. They will not be snowed in; they will be busy. 
4. "Remember the Summer", Do not forget northern summers. Con- 
tinual sunlight causes an accumulation of warmth during, the short 
summer .season, bringing a quick upsurge of vegetation—and insects. 
Even if the ground is frozen one or two feet—or inches—below the 
surface, there is enough soft soil to support plant life, .Much of 
this plant life remains under the snow available for food through 
the winter, for both animals and men, * So remember there is plenty 
of life around—animals and plants on land, animals and fish and 
■plants in the sea, both summer and winter. 
II. THE ARCTIC DEFINED 
"Arktos”, the Greek word bear, the Big Dipper, and the North, 
or Pole 6tar, combine to name the northern regions of the earth, 
. The Great Bear is another name for the Dipper, with its conformation 
always aiming at the Pole Star. The "Arctic" is the region under 
the Great pear (Ursa hia.ior in Latin), 
A, Arctic 
The arctic can be defined mathematically, although this is no 
clear guide to living conditions. The common definition is that it 
A-I (Rev,) is bounded by the Arctic Circle at 66° 331 North Latitude. However, 
it is more accurately delimited on a temperature basis. It is the 
region within which the mean temperature for the warmest month is 
less than 50° F, 
Another practical way of determining arctic regions is to 
consider that area north of timber line as arctic. But along 
certain Siberian rivers forests grow to even 400 miles north of 
the Arctic Circle; in Alaska and on the Canadian Mackenzie River, 
almost 125 miles north of the circle. But along the west shore of 
Hudson Bay, the treeline is 400 miles south of the Circle, The 
determining factor in tree growth is not distance from the pole, 
or nearness to warm ocean currents, but summer temperature. Dis- 
tance or protection from summer sea winds permits warmth in summer, 
and growth of trees. 
B, Sub-Arctic 
» The Sub-Arctic is a belt of variable width south of the 
Arctic Region, Within it the mean temperature of the warmest sum-r 
mer month is higher than 50° F. It includes islands which, because 
of coolness in simmer, do not grow trees, but which do not reach 
temperatures as low as the lowest in Kansas or Pennsylvania, It 
is agreed to include most of the mainland of America and Eurasia 
which drains northward into the Polar Sea or into -other waters 
which have ice in winter. In Canada, the Yukon and 'the Northwest 
Territories are called sub-arctic, and the land north of Lake 
'Winnipeg in Manitoba and north of the divide in Ontario and Quebec, 
All of Labrador, and all of Alaska, except perhaps the panhandle and 
southern coast, can be considered sub-Arctic, In Siberia, most of 
the area north of the Trans-Siberian Railway, and in Europe, Nor- 
wegian, Finnish, and Swedish Lapland, and Russia north of Leningrad 
are called sub-arctic, The terms must bo used flexibly, end we 
certainly should not be frightened by them. 
III. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE LANDS 
■ Within limits, certain general statements can be made about the 
entire northern area. Factors of topography, drainage, ground 
frost, and ice development can be broadly suramariaed# 
A, Topography 
The arctic and sub-arctic lands are generally low. The 
rivers are not very deep, but arc navigable some distance from the 
mouth by flat-draft bocats. Exceptions to the general flatness are 
the /Aleutians, Greenland, Iceland, iALaska, and the Yukon, 
The Aleutian Islands are largely mountainous, with some 
active volcanoes. The pictures we saw of action on Attu give a fair 
idea of the difficult terrain, Rain and snow are heavy, but the 
islands are not large enough to develop rivers of any size* The 
mountains are not-high enough to preserve snow, so there are no glaciers# 
A-I (Rev.) The south coast of Alaska has magnificent scenery, with 
fjords running between mountains close to shore. Mount McKinley 
is North inerica’s highest peak (20,300 ft,), Otner high mountains 
in the region are especially imposing because they stand on lowland 
near the water. 
Alaska, mountainous over almost its entire area, is drained 
by the Yukon, the peninsula’s largest river, and the Kuskokwim. 
The iHaskan mountains ...re an extension of the high Yukon structures, 
which extend east into part of.the Canadian Northwest Territories, 
The great.Mackenzie River, second to the Mississippi in North America, 
drains the Northwest Territories and the eastern part of the Yukon 
highlcind. 
Greenland has mountain ranges running north and south along 
the cast and west coasts; but next to nothing is known about the 
land of the interior because it is submerged by a great ice cap which 
covers more than 80% of the whole island. The highest mountains 
of Greenland are near the east coast, a few going above 10,000 feet, 
while the mountains on the west coast average about 2000 or 3000 
feet lower. 
.Iceland’s mountains, which are not much higher then 5000 
feet, rise sharply from the ocean, giving an impression of rugged- 
ness and grandeur, The.water around Iceland is so warm that there 
is much precipitation, forming,inland glaciers which molt too soon 
to reach the sea. 
B, Water and,Drainage, and Frosted Ground 
Several interesting problems in geography are closely related. 
What effect have rain and snow on the soil? What effect have moun- 
tains on precipitation? What relation is there between amount of 
precipitation, and freezing of the ground? What effect have glaciers 
on ground-froet, end what causes glaciers? Finding the answer to 
one of these problems helps round up the answers to all. 
1. Rain and Snow. Throughout both arctic and;sub-arctic, 
precipitation is heaviest in summer. Sections, away from the coast 
have very little precipitation from December to March, The Aleutians, 
of course, being surrounded by water which is never frozen, have 
much snow, rain, end fog all year round. The annual precipitation 
is more than 60 inches. The snow melts in the summer, forming swift 
streams from the mountains. But what of the lowlands, especially 
those farther from the.sea? Where do the rain and snow go, no 
matter how slight? The moisture cannot sink far,into.the ground, 
because the ground is frozen, even in summer. . In many places the 
frost comes within an inch or two of the surface. Even where the 
summers are warm enough to grow trees and wheat, the ground in a 
forest may be frozen a couple of inches below the .surface; trees 
have to send out successive strata.of, roots as new soil and muck 
gather, .causing the layer below, in which the tree first took root, 
to freeze, ' As a result of this inability to sink, water either 
A-I (Rev.) causes swollen streams, or else gathers into innumerable lakes. 
Where the terrain is flat, the shallow lakes may cover as much as 
60/d of the ground surface, The bottom of these lakes is' usually 
soft mud, for a couple of inches, and then, the hard frost. In 
the mountains this lake-forming effect of ground frost is not 
conspicuous. 
The Yukon and Mackenzie ranges cut off a great deal of 
the moisture in the Pacific Ocean winds; this is one reason why 
half of Canada has permanently frozen sub-soil. Areas with plenti- 
ful and regular rain and snow are likely to have a more even climate, 
with less temperature variation between seasons. Frozen soil is 
caused by a combination of extremely cold winters (occurring in the 
inland regions) and a thin blanket of snow. 
2, Frost and Glaciers, Contrary to the old theory that 
ground freezes under glaciers, and that frozen ground is a relic 
of the old glacial period, when ice is supposed to have covered the 
earth down to about Kansas City, it is now believed that land under- 
neath a glacier is seldom if ever permanently frozen. In the heavily 
glaciated region of southern .MLaska there, is very little permanently 
frozen ground, and underground drainage functions normally. 
5. of Frost. Groundfrost begins approximately on lines 
going northwest and northeast of Lake Superior; northwest' to the 
southern Yukon, northeast to mid-Quebec and Labrador, Islands1 of 
permanent frost become more numerous as one goes northward, until 
they meet in a vast underground sheet. In Greenland, the northern 
area has frozen sub-soil, except those parts emerging from beneath 
a retreating glacier. No permanent ground frost has ever been 
found in Iceland: winters ere not cold, and the blanketing snow- * 
fall is heavy. 
Near the southern limit of permanent frost, the ground 
will thaw down to about 7-9 feet by the end of summer,- As one 
proceeds north, this depth decreases, In forest regions keeping 
out the sun, 'the ground will thaw hardly at all. North of the 
forest, where the sea wind prevents the growth of spruce but not 
the growth of sedges, grasses and bushes, summer thaw is deeper, 
maybe as much as a foot, and even deeper in sandy soil. Still 
farther north, and in the Canadian islands, the thaw again grows 
slight, * 
C, Lakes and Rivers 
out of the Northwest Territories is covered with water; 
in some sections, as between the Mackenzie and the Rivers, 
the figure is 60%, Two lakes in this territory, the Great Bear and- 
the Great,Slave, are fourth and fifth in size in North America; the 
first three. are Superior, Michigan and Huron, 
The sub-arctic around Hudson Bay is drained by a large num- 
ber of smc.ll rivers, which are shallow end full'of rapids and falls. 
a-I (Rev,) The Mackenzie itself is navigable for about 1300 miles, for boats 
drawing six feat north of a set of rapids, and four feet south of 
them ("north” means "below" in arctic end sub-arctic rivers).- The 
Mackenzie valley, in several respects much like the Mississippi, 
is much more uniformly forested, and the level lend is thickly 
dotted with lakes. 
D• Glaciers 
There are two major kinds of glaciers—ice caps such as 
the great mass of ice which covers most of Greenland, and valley 
glaciers. The picture of the latter type is the more common: - a 
band of white filling a valley with ice and snow, slowly melting 
and moving toward lower levels—usually the sea. Icebergs result 
from glacier ice which breaks off and floats down to the sea. The 
glacier-bearing areas of the western hemisphere are found in the 
eastern end northern tier of islands north of Canada—Heiberg, 
Ellesmere, Devon, the rough eastern coast of Baffin; and greatest 
of all—Greenland, From the east coast of Greenland come most of 
the icebergs which roam down to the north Atlantic, sometimes as 
far south as the Newfoundland Banks, although most glaciers move 
on the order of inches in a week, there have been records of 123 
feet in 24 hours by certain Greenland glaciers, near the sea, 
Southern ilia ska, where the mountains arc close to the sea, 
has a great many glaciers, but elsewhere on the iJLaskan coast there 
are few. The Aleutians, which do not collect ice, have no glaciers. 
On the mainland of Canada are no glaciers east of the Rocky 
Mountains, 
IV, THE iiRCTIC SIRS .11) SEn ICE 
You have to look at a globe to get a good picture of the so- 
called iirctic Ocean, Probably the first fact to strike you is 
how small it is, compared to the other oceans of the world, 
Stefansson, the'famous explorer and writer on the arctic, uses 
the term Arctic Mediterranean Sea as more fitting a body, of water 
that can be flown across with no diameter exceeding 2000 miles,* 
The importance of the routes for air travel from America to 
Europe or Asia is made apparent by such figures. 
Am Ice on the Polar Sea 
Do not think of the polar sea as a solid mass of ice, even 
in winter. Substantially all the ice in the northern sea moves 
around in a slow, clockwise eddy, with smaller eddies here and 
there on the margin. Not even near’ the "ice center", and not even 
in February or March, the coldest months, are there any very large 
individual stretches of ice. This "ice pole" is also called the 
Ice Center and the Pole, of Inaccessibility, being the center of 
the region of ice which cannot be entered by ships under their own 
power. Because of the movement of the ice, there are always leads 
and lanes of water. It is rare that you travel more than twenty 
or thirty miles before coining to a crack, which may be anything 
a-1 (Rev.) from a few inches to a few miles in width. This crack may be -open 
water, or may have an ice film from some inches to some feet in 
depth, depending on the recency of the opening. 
Some open water is caused by the grinding of floe on floe, 
with the heaping up of one floe on another, forming a pressure 
ridge. Leads that open in winter in this and other ways are quickly 
cemented by the frost, producing areas of level ice favorable to the 
sledge traveler, and, of increasing importance, to aviators for 
landings and takeoffs. 
B, Gulf Stream and the Pack Ice 
The ice-covered area is not uniform around the pole, but is 
lop-sided. The Gulf Stream, that amazing body of sun-warmed water 
that flows north and east from the Gulf of Mexico, still has enough 
calories in it after passing between Iceland and Norway to -prevent 
ice from forming there, and thus it in effect pushes the pack ice 
toward the Alaskan side of the arctic basin. The center-of the 
ice-covered area is about 400 miles to the Alaska side of the North 
Pole, 
In winter the ice of the northern sea comes flush up against 
most of the northern coasts—Greenland, Canada, Alaska, Siberia, 
But from Norwegian soil no one has ever seen drifting salt water 
ice, because the pack is always kept back by the comparatively 
warm water. And at Iceland, coastwise mail steamers seldom have 
difficulty in circumnavigating the island at any time. 
C, The "Passages” 
Most of the channels between the Canadian islands open up 
in summer every year, except those between the second tier of islands, 
north of Melville Island, By June, decreased chill in the air and 
increased blankets of snow combine to prevent the formation of new 
ice, even at the ice pole. The southern edges of the ice cap dis- 
integrate and recede, the famous waterways or "Passages’1, called 
Northeast and Northwest with respect to England, open up. With 
improved airplane scouting and weather reporting by radio, as demon- 
strated by Soviet navigators in recent years, those passages may 
enter a period of increased usefulness. 
In September and early October the -freezing is hampered by 
blankets of soft snow. But snowfall decreases, and during the 
period from December to March there are no- fogs and few clouds over 
the main body of the ice pack. Freezing -goes on so speedily that 
in three days sledge travelers can pass over what was open water; 
airplanes can land in another three days. 
D. Pressure Ridges 
But movement of the pack ice goes on all the time. Although 
ordinarily ice would got to be only about seven feet thick in a 
A-I (Rev.) winter of ordinary freezing, the grinding and heaping movement 
may cause thicknesses of 100 feet, as one floe slides under another. 
Such parts of the floe are comparatively stable, although in 'constant 
sluggish motion; you can set up residence on them through the winter 
with almost the solidity of a residence on land. The Russian expe- 
dition headed by Papanin spent nine months, from May, 1937, to 
February, 1938, on the ice, fully equipped with scientific instru- 
ments. 
The blocks arid piles of ice are called pressure ridges. 
They are angular upon formation. But it rains at the North Pole, 
as well as at every other point in the Arctic Mediterranean, and 
this rain, with raid-summer sun, thaws the-ice and snow. By the 
second year the blocks of ice have been toned down and rounded; 
by the fourth year, all appearance of the block structure has been 
lost, and the ice looks like a rolling prairie, with hummocks seldom 
more than 15 or 20 feet high. 
E, The Ice Drifts 
We know that the ice moves, and we can also plot roughly 
the currents which move it, as a result of the paths covered by 
ships, occupied or abandoned, drifting along with the ice which 
beset them. We also have the routes plotted by men who camped 
upon moving floes. Stefansson believes that there is a basic 
clockwise current around the ice pole, with a number of minor eddies 
on the outskirts of the main drift, especially off the Siberian 
coast. An ice floe at the North Pole, such as the one on which 
the Papanin expedition was landed by plane, would gradually drift 
to the North Atlantic, in the vicinity of Iceland, The North Pole 
is itself a way-sta,tion on the migration of ice, and not the center. 
The Main Drift. If you choose an ice floe which is fairly 
close to shore, it will start on a long journey all around the 
Arctic Mediterranean before it finds itself over the North Atlantic, 
Let us pick a piece of ice off Point Barrow, North Alaska, In 
successive years it will be west of Wrangel Island north of Siberia; 
farther west the next year, north of Franz Joseph Land; the next, 
it drifts westward and southward, past Spitsbergen, into the gap 
between Norway and Greenland. 
This plan of the drift is supported by the experiences of 
several iced-in ships* The Karluk of the third Stefansson expedi- 
tion was beset about 25 miles north of Alaska and drifted westward 
until she was crushed, less than four months later, 50 miles north- 
east of Wrangel Island, which is near the northeastern tip of Siberia, 
De Long’s Jeannette started to drift'in 1879 near the same Wrangel 
Island, went in the same western direction along the coast, and 
was crushed a yean and a half later north of the New Siberian Islands, 
Nansen’s and Sverdrup’s Fram was beset near these islands in 1893, 
and after almost three years of drifting, passed the top of Europe 
and came free of the ice near Spitsbergen, 
A-X (Rev.) 2, The Eddies. But that there are great eddies to compli- 
cate this drift is proved by the paths of throe ships, the Navarch, 
the Baychimo, arid the Maud, which kept reappearing in the same 
regions in which they had been beset. One such eddy is north of 
Point Barrow, Alaska, and several others north of Asia, 
After getting past Spitsbergen on the way south, the ice 
will melt within a few weeks if it passes east of Icelcnd—that is, 
into the Gulf current. But if it passes west of Iceland, south 
along the eastern coast of Greenland, and then maybe west around 
the southern tip of Greenland, then south again, it may last about 
six months more. 
This discussion of the drift of the polar ice will help 
dispel any notion of a solid, still expanse, devoid of life and' 
movement. There is much change going on, rand, as we shall see 
later, much animal .and plant life made possible by the movement. 
F, Icebergs 
The berg that sank the Titanic probably came from western 
Greenland, or the east coasts of the Canadian Islands, Ellesmere, 
Devon, and Baffin. There are. no icebergs in the Arctic Mediter- 
ranean. The difference between an iceberg and an ice floe is that 
bergs come from formations of lend ice, forced down to the coast 
and into the sea. Some few small bergs come from the edges of the 
arctic Mediterranean, from Northern Land, the Franz Joseph Islands, 
end Spitsbergen or Svalbard, These start moving west and south 
immediately. 
G, Arctic Tides 
In the Arctic Mediterranean, lunar tides are negligible. 
Regular tides of two or three feet considered high anywhere 
in the arctic. But there are also ’'storm11 tides', preceding a strong 
wind. On the north coast of idaska, for example, east of Barrow, 
a rise of as much as 5 or 6 feat may precede a westerly gale, giving 
warning of its approach about S or 12 hours beforehand. These storm 
tides go up the Mackenzie River as much as 200 miles; they are also 
felt in other rivers of America and Siberia which empty north. But 
the strongest tides, of 6 feet, may not occur more than once in 
three years, a "low tide" may be caused by an easterly wind. This 
drop in water level is usually less pronounced than the westerly 
wind’s lift , 
The low arctic lunar tides, like those of the Mediterranean 
between Europe and Africa, result from the enclosure of the sea 
between land masses. The two seas are effectively cut off from 
the great world ocean. But in the main bodies of the Atlantic and 
Pacific, the sub-arctic may have tremendous tides—33 feet in South 
Alaska, 55 feet in Frobisher Bay, Baffin Island, 
A-I (Rev,) V. CLIMATE AID WEATHER 
It may seem hard at first to accept the fact that the arctic 
zone has much less variation in-temperature than many sections of 
the temperate zone. But a single natural factor clears up the 
problem: water, with its ability to retain heat, acts as a stabi- 
lizing medium. The natural tendency of temperatures to decrease 
with the increase in latitude—that is, the farther north you go 
(and the farther south in the antarctic)—is offset in the arctic 
by the existence of the sea around the pole. Water acts as a radi- 
ator in winter, preventing temperatures from falling extremely low, 
and as a refrigerator in summer, keeping temperatures from getting 
very high. 
A, Extremes of Cold and Heat 
Thus, to find great extremes of temperature in the northern 
regions, we must find a combination of high latitude, distance from 
the sea, and low elevation. We find that the lowest recorded .tem- 
peratures are found at those places which fulfill these require- 
ments. The coldest spot in the world is around Oimekon, in Siberia, 
inland about 200 miles south of the Arctic Circle. Temperatures 
there drop to 90° below zero, which is more than 1,20° below freez- 
ing. The coldest record in Alaska and Canada is 79° below, a„t Fort 
Good Hope, 20 miles south of the Arctic Circle, and about 280 miles 
south of the coast. An explanation of greater cold is that 
land extends farther north there; thus a place can be pretty far 
north, and. still far enough away from the warming effects of the sea. 
Correspondingly, to be hot in summer, a spot must be far from 
the moderating influence of the water. The Aleutians, surrounded 
by water, get neither extremely cold in winter, nor warm'in summer. 
The warm ocean currents might; have, some-effect on helping warm the 
land, if they did not create fogs in summer, which keep the sun 
from exerting its full effect. In. summer, several hundred miles 
north of the Matanuska colony, which is near the coast and the fog- 
causing Japanese Current, is the land-locked Tanana valley near 
Fairbanks. Here tomatoes and wheat ripen bettor than, they do at 
Matanuska. The extreme heat record'for Alaska, 100° in the shade, 
was observed just north of the Arctic Circle lit Fort Yukon, near 
the center of Alaska. Fairbanks, 100 miles south of Fort Yukon, 
h'as recorded 99° * Days with 90° are not uncommon." The-same high 
temperatures are found inland along the Mackenzie River in Canada, 
and along the north-flowing rivers of Siberia, The "believe-it-or- 
notn fact that wheat grows regularly north of the Arctic Circle 
becomes easy to understand when we realize that low land areas far 
from the cooling sea become excellent whedt territory in the summer. 
In Canada, wheat is grown near Thunder River, IS miles north of the 
Circle; in Siberia, wheat grows 100 miles nortly of its limit in 
Canada, but equally far from the sea, and also in a river valley. 
Counterbalancing the cooling effect of the sea in summer, is 
the warming effect in midwinter. This comparative warmth comes 
both from the two currents, the Japanese and the Gulf, and from the 
A-I (Rev.) radiation of some heat from the arctic -waters themselves, even through 
a film of ice. For this reason, it is unlikely that the temperature 
could fall below -60° F, at the North Pole} 51° below zero is the 
lowest temperature ever recorded, on the north coast of Alaska* This 
is plenty cold, of course; but 250 miles south from the ocean in 
Canada it goes 30 degrees lower than on the shore; in Siberia, 600 
miles south from the coast, it gets 30 degrees colder than on the 
shore. 
B. Winds 
There are violent local gales in the arctic, but in general, 
according to Nansen who drifted through the ice for three years north 
of Siberia, the northern sea is one of the most placid areas in the . 
world. Near land, however, especially where there is a plateau de- 
scending to the ocean, there will be strong winds. There are strong . 
gales down the slopes of Greenland, especially on the oast coast, 
and fierce autumn and early winter gales from the north coast of 
Canada, around Franklin Bay and Horschel Island. The famous Aleutian 
"williwaw", springing up suddenly and changing direction quickly— 
’'blowing three ways at once," pilots say—-is a striking example of 
what our s oldiers contend with. 
C. Sea and Coastal Fogs 
Fogs of the Arctic Mediterranean are found over open water, 
and over the ice area near the ring of open water. During the win- 
ter months, December through March, you will find practically no 
fog at all, when you are more than 200 miles from the nearest exten- 
sive marginal open water, At the, meeting place of ice and water, 
the belt of scattered ice’, there is much fog throughout the whole ■ 
year. 
Fogs increase in frequency at the ice pole from April to July, 
in which month about every other day is foggy. Toward the end of 
August, and from September on, the fogs clear up. - ■ 
Along the coast, in both winter and summer, there is a great 
deal of fog, because of the differentials in temperature. In sum* 
mer you may have temperatures of 90° above zero twenty miles inland, 
while the water is, actually 2 or 3 degrees below the freezing point 
of fresh water—the sea freezes at 27° F., fresh water at 32°, 
Winds from the south pica up a great deal of ,moisture over the warm 
land, spotted with lakes, but begin to be chilled immediately they 
pass over the water. Wisps of fog develop only 100 yards from shore 
and get thicker and higher as you get farther of/ shore. Five or 
ten miles off shore', the fog will be 200 or 300 feet deep. At about 
30 miles from shore, the fog disappears. 
Another type of fog occurs when cold wind blows in from the frozen sea 
over warm moist lend. The cold air is quickly saturated from below and 
dog forms a short distance onshore. This, fog is most dense several 
miles from the coast and may extend 30 miles, inland. In these two 
cases, strong winds dissipate fogs and produce low cloudiness instead. 
A-I (Rev.) Arctic fogs are generally lower than those of the North 
Temperate zone. Pilots can usually clear bad weather at 15,000 
feet. But farther south in the Bering Sea, and, as we all know, 
over the Aleutians, the fog is much harder to get over. In fact, 
pilots had to skim the'water on their raids over Kiska to sec any- 
thing at all. 
D, Precipitation 
In general, the Far North is a place of little snowfall and 
rainfall. In both arctic and sub-arctic, precipitation is heaviest 
in summer. Marginal areas, like the Bering Sea, the waters north 
of Iceland, and the Aleutians, Mhomo of the worst weather in the 
world", have a great deal of precipitation at any time of year. 
The continents, away from the coast, and the Arctic Mediterranean, 
near the center, have very little rain or snow from December to 
March. 
VI. LIFE IN TIE ARCTIC 
People in general, and indeed, many geographers, are just now 
accepting that there is a wealth of animal and plant life in the 
northern area, extending even up to the North Pole itself. The 
old myth of the lifeless North is pretty well shattered. Fish, 
seal, polar-bears carry on their subsistence cycles in the cracks 
of the polar ice just as they do farther south, and the Papanin 
expedition found by lowering sea-traps at different levels that the 
gradient of life, both of plants and animals, is similar to that 
of the North Atlantic. 
A, The Zone Theory and the "Lifeless North" 
The impression of the lifeless poles of the earth dates back 
to ancient times . The Greek philosophers had the theory of a sym- 
metrical sphere, the earth, with five zones. The inhabited world 
as they knew it was in the north temperate zone. There was probably 
another temperate zone in the lower hemisphere, but men could never 
know whether this zone was inhabited, because of the burning torrid 
zone which lay between than, a region of heat which no man could 
cross, and live. At each extreme of the globe were the frozen zones. 
These regions were cold because they were so far from the sun, and 
its rays were so slanting. The great philosopher Strabo, who lived 
about the time of Christ, knew about Scotland and the Orkneys, and 
supposed that the dead region began just a bit north of these islands. 
The doctrine of the forbidding middle and extreme zones lost support 
in the fifteenth, century, when navigators proved that the tropics 
need hold no terrors. Columbus, for example, was not afraid to sug- 
gest that it might be as easy to., reach China by sailing north as by 
sailing west,, 
Wien people found, however, that there was much ice on the 
northern sea, and that Greenland, the Arctic land nearest to Europe, 
was covered with snow, the old belief in the lifeless north gained 
A-I (Rev.) new support. Thus the demonstration of the .presence of animals and 
plants in the Far North was greeted with surprise. Explorers on 
Melville Island in 1B19 assumed that, the musk oxen they saw on the 
73th*parallel in summer migrated south to the forest in the fall. 
People thought that seals would not live far north in the sea3 the 
small beasts on which seals live could not exist under the ice, 
because plants, the food of seals' victims, require light, and 
could not get sun through the floes. It was thought that Stcfansson 
in 1913 was proposing suicide when his party went off to live by 
hunting in the Polar Sea, hundreds of miles north of land. When 
they returned safe, it was said that if they had gone farther north 
they would not have found seals to subsist on. 
In 1937 the final death blow to the theory of the frozen and 
lifeless North came from the Papaqin expedition. The party,'deposited 
practically on the North Pole by plane, saw seals swimming around 
gulping down shrimps floating near the surface. This occurred when 
the ice cracked near the camp. 
B, Vegetation of the Arctic 
Ono of the distinguishing features of the arctic landscape 
is the vast areas of treeless, often poorly drained, lands known 
as the "tundra", The term "tundra" moans a kind of plant cover. 
Between the great northern forests of North America and Eurasia 
and the cold deserts represented in the extreme by the Greenland 
Icc Cap, three imperfectly defined or irregular zones of tundra 
are recognized. Northward from the true forested areas is the 
bush tundra which consists of dwarfed or creeping forms of species 
that grow to larger size farther south. Beyond the bush tundra 
lie the large stretches of grass tundra which consist of a nearly 
complete vegetation cover of grasses with many other flowering 
plants mixed in. The third zone is the arctic desert tundra where 
the plant life exists only where there is adequate soil, water and 
shelter. The continuity of each of these zones is broken by the 
occurrence of the other types of tundra in localities too severe 
for the regional type. Thus arctic desert tundra occurs in the 
shrub.tundra zone in Canada; while grass tundra is so well devel- 
oped on the northern tip of Greenland that there is adequate pas- 
turage for musk ox and caribou. Therefore, although one type pre- 
dominates in a given region, the zones are broken up Into a patch- 
work of all three types of tundra. 
These varying belts of vegetation contain a much greater 
variety of plant types than is generally supposed. It is a great 
misconception to suppose that the most prevalent types are mosses 
and lichens. On the contrary, north of the Arctic Circle there 
arc 760 kinds of flowering plants (grasses are included) as against 
250 kinds of mosses and 330 kinds of lichens. One area where 
mosses and lichens predominate, around Churchill on western Hudson 
Bay, is several hundred miles south of the Arctic Circle, 
A-I (Rev.) C. Animals of .the Sea 
In the sea, the small animals eat the plants, and the large 
animals eat the small animals. The seal, for example, eats the 
shrimp, and now and then a fish; and. the polar bear eats the seal. 
The walrus lives almost entirely on small animals, mainly clams. 
An exception to the general rule is that the largest animal, the 
whale, lives’mainly on tiny animals and plants. 
Only recently, within the last fifteen years, have we begun 
to find out much about northern fishing. The Soviet Union!s explora- 
tory campaign has uncovered much material on resources of the north- 
ern sea, A general principle of ocean study seems to apply: there 
is on the average least animal.life in the ocean at the Equator, 
and, as you move away from the Equator, north or south, animal life 
increases until you have the greatest abundance in among the ice. 
around the edges of the antarctic continent of the Far South, and 
in the chill waters of the North, as in the Labrador Current sweep- 
ing down to the Newfoundland Banks, and in the Bering Sea. It is 
not known to what extent the fish go in under the ice of the "inac- 
cessible area" of the North; but it is likely that the Arctic 
Mediterranean will be found much richer in fish, per square mile, 
than the Old Lorld Mediterranean, 
D. Aquatic Mammals of the Pack Ice 
The seal is the ,only large mammal that is found all over the 
northern sea at all times of the year. The walrus, being unable to 
make a hole in the ice for breathing, as the seal does., never goes 
far in among the ice. There is evidence that whales, cross the 
Arctic Mediterranean in midsunmer, especially the beluga, or white 
whale. 
Polar bears have been reported in the water as much as fifty 
miles away from land, or the nearest floe; they can swim almost as 
fast as the average'man can run, and they float so high in the water 
that it is easy for them to rest. The bear lives mainly on the sea, 
and catches his food therq, practically all of which is seal. Both 
male and female bears go ashore occasionally to prowl up and down 
the beaches. As a rule the females go ashore to have their young. 
If hunting is good the bear will oat little except the fat 
of the seal. Ho sterns to eat as little of the muscle or protein 
as possible, or of anything except the blubber, and the skin that 
unavoidably goes.with it, 
The white fox always has its young on land, but perhaps two # 
thirds of the number of foxes leave the land for the ice in the 
autumn. The fox is dependent on the polar bear for food: the bear 
kills seal, leaving part of the blubber and all the rest of the 
carcass. This is enough for several foxes for some weeks. The bear 
is thought not ’to eat more than one meal from every kill; the foxes 
remain until the seal is all eaten, then go search for another polar 
bear to follow, or for other seal carcasses. 
A-I (Rev*) <E*" The Land Mammals 
• The land, mammals of the North are, in order of size,“the musk 
ox, the caribou, the white mountain sheep, the wolf, the fox’(white 
with its blue color,- phase), the arctic hare, the weasel, and the 
lemming. It is of course difficult to estimate the numbers of the 
various types, because of the broad uninhabited spaces, and the 
animal migrations. It has been estimated that there are in the 
northern Canadian islands and Greenland between 10 and’ 20 thousand 
musk oxen. There are in the North American area between 3 and 25 
million caribou, a few thousand wolves, somo tens of thousands of 
foxes, and only a "few thousand hares. 
1. The Musk Ox. Men. and these oxen will seldom be found in 
the same area, because the boasts have an inadequate defense against 
spears, arrows, or bull.etc. A stationary, thin-rod-line defense 
against wolves does not work against men. As a result the musk ox, 
which once inhabited land as far south as Kentucky, has been cut 
down with the northern advance of the forest Indian. Eskimos have 
exterminated the beast in North Siberia; and he has' been cut down 
from Alaska to the East, so that now there are probably very few 
musk oxen west of Coppermine. There are still a few thousands of 
the animals on the Canadian islands, on the eastern part of the 
mainland, on the northern coasts of Greenland end on the Thclon 
Game Sanctuary between Great Slave. Lake and Hudson Bay. 
2, Caribou. These animals, also called reindeer, .are found, 
as far north as there is land, except that they have been exterminated 
on the north and. east coasts of Greenland. There are vast caribou 
movements, some of which appear to bo seasonal migrations. On some 
islands there seem to be' more definite east-west movements than 
north-south. And in some sections the herds may move north in the 
colder months, south in the warmer. 
3. Feeding Habits of Musk Ox and Caribou. The two animals 
offer a striking contrast in the distances they cover in search’of 
food. The musk ox herds will move perhaps a couple of hundred yards 
a day, thoroughly grazing a grass area, resting when full, getting 
up to cat when hungry. It is said that a herd can usually be found 
within twenty miles of where it was the year before. 
The caribou are restless and mobile. They move at the 
rate of a.walk, two or throe' miles an hour, even while grazing. 
They a.re likely to stampede on the smell of a wolf, covering from 
a half mile to five miles before they stop to graze again. Husk 
oxen, usually so plodding, may'stampede five or ton miles before 
they stop, once they get going. 
4. Size of Caribou Herds 
There have been several reliable reports during the last 
century of herds amounting to several hundred thousands, even a 
million. It is true that there are that many caribou in existence, 
but it is not likely that an Eskimo or Indian who lives by caribou 
A-I (Rev.) hunting will see more than a couple such herds in his lifetime. 
The gathering into large herds seems to be merely a matter of chance; 
the terrain, the guiding direction of watercourses and lakes, causing 
smaller herds to merge. Even these tremendous herds do not eat up 
all vegetation in their path: they move too fast. 
F, The Life of the Forest 
The arctic animals we have been describing live also in the 
sub-arctic; and there are a great many other species. There is the 
moose in the willows; the sheep in the mountains; the grizzly bear, 
90% a vegetarian, living on roots; and the black bear. There are 
the flesh-eating animals that seldom go out to the tundra; the 
wolverine and lynx; there are the tree-climbing squirrels and chip- 
munks; commercial fur-bearers—beaver, fisher, marten, and mink. 
The bush rabbit supplants the northern hare. Most of these animals 
are not nuisances to man, though tho wolverine, and all the bears 
will rob caches; and wolves can do a groat deal of damage along the 
trap lino. 
G. Hunting in Prairie, Forest, and Seashore 
Do not make the mistake of considering the forest a surer place 
to find food than the tundra. For most animals that live on vege- 
tation, the grass tundra offers more sustenance than does the forest, 
since plants suitable for grazing animals will not grow in tho 
shadow of trees, and only few animals, such as rabbit and porcupine 
and moose, can live off trees alone. The grass tundra supports 
many more animals for the hunter than the forest. The denser 
the forest, the less abundant the animal life. This is one reason 
why famine among local populations is more frequent in the woods 
than on the tundra. Famine is least common on the sea coast, because 
there animal life is more dependable—fish, seals, the walrus in 
summer, even whales. 
H, Arctic Birds, Only three kinds of birds spend the winter in 
the really far north—the raven, tho snowy owl, and ptarmigan. 
Most ptarmigan move a little to the south in winter, but many 
remain in the Far North, On the northern edge of the forest there 
is an influx of ptarmigan in fall and early winter from higher 
latitudes. 
The rest of the northern birds migrate like clockwork* Most 
numberous of these are the waterfowl—swans, geese, and ducks. Eski- 
mos kill geese by the hundreds when they are moulting, driving them 
over the tundra right into the village, and killing them there. There 
arc rather few ducks and geese in the northern tier of the Canadian 
islands, those north of Banks, Victoria, and Baffin, 
I, Insects of the North 
A good illustration of people’s lack of knowledge about the 
north is their surprise at learning of the variety and size of 
A-I (Rev.) insect life there. Somehow, insects are supposed to be killed off by 
the cold,'or at least to be stunted by it. Northern summers are hot, 
and there is plenty of moisture around, in which insects can breed. 
1, Mosquitoes. The only mild thing that can be said about the 
northern mosquito is that it does not transmit diseases. Its main menace 
is its bite and its numbers. Down the Mackenzie River, 100 miles north 
of Edmonton, you will bo mot by more mosquitoes per square yard than you 
have ever seen, except farther north. As you go north, the numbers in- 
crease. In the lake region north of the Great Slave Lake, toward the 
Great Bear Lake, the numbers are unbelievable. One writer, Ernest 
Thompson Seton, declared that ho tested the numbers by holding his bare 
hand out for five seconds, killing the mosquitoes that began to drill it, 
and counting. On several counts he numbered between 100 and 125* 
Mosquitoes bite at all times of night and day, and they do not 
seem to mind a reasonable chill. On the north shore of the Great Bear 
Lake, on the edge of the Arctic Circle, they start biting about the be- 
ginning of May, and are at their worst a month later. They are not bad 
in the remote north, becoming less numerous in the second tier of islands, 
such as Melville — not much worse than,in New Jersey, as Stefansson 
says. Also, they aro seldom bad within 300 or 400 yards of an ocean b 
beach in the Arctic, • 
2, Sandflies, These pests, also called no-see-ums and punkics, 
arc so small that they can get within the mesh of an ordinary mosquito 
net; they will get inside clothes and move around like fleas. Thus it 
is important to have knitted underwear that grips tightly at wrist and 
ankle. The sandfly docs not bite at night, or on a cool day; but it is 
hardly ever dark enough during the summer to convince the flies -that it 
is night. 
3* Other Insects. Besides the sandfly, there is the so-called 
bulldog fly, which looks like an oversize house fly and. stings like a 
needle, and draws blood at each bite. This fly is bad about a month or 
six weeks in midsummer. There are other biting flics, about the size 
of house flicsf 
There are also butterflies, dragon flies, beetles and a number 
of other insects. Peary reported bumblebees within a few yards of the 
most northerly land in the world, named after him, the tip of Greenland. 
4, Protection. Clothing, netting, and insect repellent are the 
ordinary requirements to protect against bites and stings. Because of the 
smallness of the sandflies and the drill of the mosquitoes, it is neces- 
sary to wear outer clothing thick enough to foil the most ambitious mos- 
quito, and underclothing tight enough at wrist and ankle to keep out flies. 
Also necessary are gauntlet gloves to protect hand and wrist, and leggings 
for the ankle. Broadbrimmed hats are necessary, with netting kept close 
around the crown with elastic, and tucked in around the collar. All in 
all, in some parts of the North you are likely to suffer from the heat as 
much as anywhere else in the world, because insects will not let you 
dress lightly or.go swimming, and because the Midnight Sun prevents the . 
coining of night in which to cool off. 
A-I (Rev.) There are several kinds of insect repellent, both G,I. and 
commercial. They are undergoing continual improvement, for effectiveness 
and, staying power. A good application to face or hands will last a 
couple of hours. 
It is. believed that men and dogs develop a kind of immunity to 
mosquito bites. The first summer of exposure to bites, there will be 
extreme swelling. -Bites around the eyes of dogs may swell so that the 
eyes are closed; dogs have been stung to death by mosquitoes. The second 
year of exposure, the swelling is slight. The third year, there is prac- 
tically no swelling, But the pests keep on biting and drawing blood. 
VII. Human Life and Settlement 
The'Great North is sparsely settled. The Eskimos and Indians, the 
two types of native populations, never '.'ere numerous, and since their con- 
tact with the incoming white man, havo decreased in numbers. First, intro- 
duction of white men’s ways of living has caused a loss in independence and 
in the natives’ mechanical proficiency in coping with nature. They have 
lost some of their hunting skill, as, for example, in the ability to kill 
whales; and in accepting white man’s dress and types of dwelling,■they 
do not always change for the better. Second, contact with white men has 
brought disease which the natives are ill-equipped to fight. An illness 
like measles, comparatively minor for whites, was at first a deadly scourge 
for the Eskimos. This weakness, incidentally, is also encountered among 
natives in the tropics, where as many as half or three-quarters of a vil- 
lage might be wiped out by the first measles epidemic. And of course the 
white man’s alcoholic liquors have a weakening effect on many of -the na- 
tives, who seem not to be able to take it or leave it alone. 
A. The Eskimos. These Mongoloid peoples probably first came to the 
Western hemisphere from Siberia, They moved across the narrow Bering 
Strait in their skin boats sometime between A000 and 2000 years ago. From 
Alaska they moved oast. There wrere probably no Eskimos in Greenland more 
than 2000 years ago. All wo can know of this is that when the Icelanders 
(of mixed Irish and Norwegian descent) started colonizing west Greenland 
after 9B2, the Eskimos had been there before them; none were seen by the 
colonists, but the sagas describe remains which are clearly of the Eskimo 
typo. The first Eskimos actually seen and reported by Europeans were met 
by the Icelandic Greenlanders when they sailed to Labrador, just after 
1000. 
It is likely that at the time of Columbus there were in North 
America, from Alaska to Greenland, from 100,000 to 200,000 Eskimos. To- 
day there are .about 50,000, About 18,000 of these are in Greenland, loss 
than 10,000 in Canada and Labrador, somewhat more than 20,000 in Alaska, 
and 1000 or 1500 in the extreme northeast of Siberia. (These Siberian 
Eskimos probably migrated back to the continent of their distant ances- 
tors, having left Alaska within the last few hundred years.) 
In Alaska there are now more whites than Eskimos and Indians to- 
gether—just before the war there were 40,000 whites, 11,000 forest 
Indians, and 20,000 Eskimos, But this is the only part of tho Ngw World 
in which whites are more numerous.' The ratio of whites to Eskimos is 
A-I (Rev.) smallest in Greenland—400 to 18,000, where most of the whites are govern- 
ment officials. The,whites in the rest of the Eskimo world are mission- 
aries, traders, trappers, prospectors, and some government employees, 
such as the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 
Until fairly recently, the Eskimos had only a small number of per- 
manent , settlements, and these chiefly where there was good whaling, as at 
Point Hope or Point Barrow in Aleska. There were, however, some localities 
where the Eskimos could be expected to turn up at certain times of the 
year; people went down to the fer winter hunting of seals and spring 
whaling, and inland for summer end autumn hunting of caribou and other 
land animals. But recently this nomadic independent existence has changed, 
Eskimo's gather around the trading posts on the Mackenzie, when summer 
river steamers start moving soon after the ice goes away. Many of them, 
devout Christians, ‘gathep around mission stations to'attend church, at 
any time of year, and -ar*b rewarded by gifts of food by the missionaries. 
This has led to the "pauperization" of a great many natives, who have come 
to depend on charitjr, ■ 
Hunting and fishing are still the main occupations of the Eskimos, 
except near certain mining towns in Ala ska. Greenland Eskimos live mainly 
by sealing, but well north along the west coast they get walrus and polar 
bear. In some localities white whales are hunted; in a few places birds 
and their eggs are important foods. 
All the islands of the first tier north of the Canadian mainland 
are inhabited, while there,are very few Eskimos north of Victoria, Banks, 
%nd Baffin. The northern islands were at one time inhabited more thickly; 
ruins' discovered by Stefanssoh on Melville Island were probably a number 
of centuries old, Eskimos can be expected to gather, in addition to,.their 
regular hunting grounds, wherever there are Hudson's Bay Company posts. 
The means of subsistence vary with the terrain'-and wealth of ani- 
mal life, and the time of year. Sealing, fishing, whaling, caribou, and 
mountain sheep hunting all supply life, but there is,also a growing de- 
pendence on white man's foodstuffs. 
B, The Indians, 
Up the Yukon in Alaska, and Mackenzie in Canada, and in the sur- 
rounding forest, live the Indians of the Athabasca stock. Their method 
of life has been changed less than that of the Eskimos by contact with 
the white man, mainly because the inland region had less to attract white 
men than the northern tundra. In the forest are trading posts and mis- 
sions around which the people gather, especially in summer. In winter 
most of the people go off to hunt and trap. 
In former times there was less security of food in the woods than 
farther north. Forest famines wore of two kinds; simple lack of food, 
and lack of sufficient variety. nRabbit is a term applied to 
the. food situation in which there is plenty of lean meat available, as in 
hares and skinny moose, but not enough fat to maintain health in the body- 
heat-consuming north. 
A-I (Rev.) C. Attitude of the People 
Any traveler can expect assistance from either Eskimos or Indians. 
Indeed, they are much more hospitable than the'average white, Eskimos 
ane usually more generous and*outgiving than the Indians, but this is be- 
cause the latter arc less likely to have food to spare, living just about 
on a subsistence level. With increasing relations with whites, both races, 
Eskimo and Indian, are learning to be more calculating about their hospi- 
tality, and more selfish. 
D. Eskimo Shelter and the Snowhouse 
Although the dome snowhouse, or igloo, is an Eskimo invention, 
many Eskimos heave never seen one. The snowhouse has been used to good 
effect by several American explorers—Hall, Peary, Stefansson, MacMillan. 
.It has the advantage of being fairly easy to build, and easy to keep 
warm. The snowhouse is used mainly by natives of northern Canada and 
the islands off the coast. In northern Alaska, when snow houses are used, 
they are likely to bo makeshift rectangles, with snow walls, and snow 
roofs supported by rafters. In the Aleutian Islands, houses arc of earth 
and wood. Other localities have rude shanties; or frames of wood and 
whale-bone heaped over with earth; or, in the forest, willow frames spread 
over,with skins, with moss or grass as insulation between the layers of 
skin. 
Tents are made of skin in all Eskimo sections. In some places 
they are topoe shaped, in others A-shaped. The inland Alaskans also have 
tents with an inverted willow basket frame. The forest Indians have both 
houses of the willow frame type, covered with skins, and the tepee, used 
both, summer and winter. 
E. The Comforts of Life 
In their own native styles, the Eskimos arc much better protected 
from cold than the Indians. The Eskimo snow house or earth hut is much 
better fitted to keep out cold than the Indian tepoo. The Indians noed a 
great many blankets to keep moderately warm, while the Eskimos farther 
north can take off all their clothing and still swea't, with a blubber 
lamp furnishing both light and heat. The secret seems to be in insula- 
tion and the placing of the entrance in the floor, so that warm air can- 
not escape without specific intention of the residents. The tendency of 
the Indians has been to adopt blanketing and woolens, which alone are 
not sufficient to withstand extremely cold weather, while the Eskimos re- 
tain their reindeer skins. Indians have benefited from the introduction 
of the white man's stove and cabin, but the Eskimo, desiring to be .fash- 
ionable, with a wooden .cabin and a door in the side, loses by the exchange 
of his own for the white man*3 type oi dwelling. 
On the other hand the Eskimo has, benefited b3r white man's tech- 
nique, of dealing with summer. Canvas tents are better than skin tents— 
lighter, mere compact, and not* liable to decay when wet. Knitted under- 
wear helps keep out sand flies, which used to crawl, about under the loose 
skin clothing. A mosquito head not protects the f-co during the day; a 
bed net permits sound sleep at night, 
A-I (Rov.) VIII. THE MAINTENANCE .OF HEALTH 
In several ways maintaining physical efficiency is simpler in the 
North than elsewhere. Depending on the region, infection is less likely 
to set in from cuts or scratches. In most of- the open spaces, inhabited 
rarely by groups of men, such dangers as tetanus are negligible, simply 
because the germs do not exist there,’ Mosquitoes may suck blood, but do 
not transmit malaria or yellow fever, While wounds may not become infected 
so readily as in tropic or desert, there is danger, as we know from 
reports of Russian winter fighting, of freezing of wounds. 
A* Infections 
Diseases which depend on the human body for transmission, 
such as tuberculosis and. typhoid and measles, have the same effect as 
anywhere else. Even in the cold north, water taken from near human 
habitations should be purified. Colds occur in about the same . 
proportions as under similar conditions in the United States, 
B, Snowblindness 
This is probably the only physical ill which is more dangerous 
in the arctic than anywhere else. There is no such thing as developing 
immunity to this affliction. Once you have sustained snowblindness, your 
eyes will be more sensitive ..to the white glare. To prevent an attack, 
the important thing is to limit the amount of light that enters the eye, 
or else to filter the light. Painting the nose or blackening the face 
may be of a little value in keeping down reflection, but the important 
thing is to wear glasses. Green or amber colored glasses help distinguish 
between high and low places on a snow surface on an overcast day, a dis- 
tinction that is hard to make without glasses or with other lenses. 
C, Poisonous Foods 
There are not nearly so many sources of poisonous food in the 
arctic as in other regions of the earth. There are almost no poisonous 
plants, for example, apart from some toadstools> and no poisonous fish. 
Two possible foods are considered poisonous, but not without reservation. 
First, some mussels have caused illness, in southwestern Alaska, on 
Hudson Bay, end in southern Greenland. But the danger is by no means 
universal, and perhaps exists.only at certain times of the year," 
Second, polar bear livers are poisonous if eaten in appreciable 
queuitities and should therefore not-bo eaten at all. 
There is a similar doubt about the exact cause of illness and 
death from eating whale merit, Stefansson thinks the trouble may come 
from fresh muscle, meat, insufficiently cooked, rather than rotten meat. 
The deadly agent is not weakened by freezing. 
D, Frost and Snow 
The most important warning in this connection is to analyze 
"Common notions", which %iy very well turn out to be superstitions. For 
A-l (Rev,) example, the notion that "like cures like", cold cures the effects of colo; 
has probably caused the loss of .more noses and ears and toes than the 
frost itself. When a part of your face is frozen, putting cold snow to 
it usually means making the part still colder,, since the snow may be 
colder than the air. And rubbing with snow means irritating frozen tissue^' 
To treat frostbite, the main thing is to raise the temperature of 
the frozen part, slowly. Usually the most convenient warm thing is the 
palm of a hand. If such warmth is held to a frozen .part which is as yet 
no larger than a dime, and no deeper, the skin of the face will not even 
peel. If'the spot is the size and thickness of a nickel, there may be 
peeling, as from a mild sunburn. Only if the spot is bigger than a quartet 
will there be a blister; and there is no excuse for letting it get that 
big. Even if there .is no one to warn you, you can make yourself aware of 
frozen spots by continually making faces, A stiffness of the skin will 
make itself felt immediately. 
Another mistaken theory, in contrast with the snow treatment, is 
that the frozen part should be thawed with water so hot that it is just 
below the scalding stage. This is utter nonsense, based on the false 
notion that the longer the flesh remains solidified, the broader the 
injury. It is true that a section of flesh frozen for an hour is more 
likely to die than the same part frozen for five minutes, but small areas 
of tissue can be frozen for some time, without spreading gangrene, once 
the freezing is brought under control. And the difference of time 
involved in bringing up the temperature gradually is so slight that the 
flesh remains stiff for only a slightly longer period, and with loss 
danger from too sudden thawing. 
Another bit of folk nonsense is that anything which docs not 
harden with cold is not really cold, and will draw the cold out of a 
frozen part. Thus unwarmed kerosene has been used to "thaw" frozen 
feet, usucally with the result that the whole limb is lost, rather than 
at most a toe or two. Liquid air is not solid, but it is awfully coldi 
Grease on the skin, for similar reasons, should not be used to 
keep cold air away. It may make the face colder.. Another'reason is that 
the grease may be transferred to the clothing, and -where the grease 
touches fur or wool, it penetrates into the air chambers, fand solidifies 
the material. This breaks up the insulation; a greased area of clothing 
is a good conductor of heat, or cold. 
Another quaint notion, about which the Eskimos have more sense, 
is that you should not eat snow. It should, in fact, be nibbled at the 
first sign of thirst, or better, before thirst sets in. It must be taken 
in small bits, or licked from the hand, like sugar or salt, after you 
have breathed or blown on it, to warm it a bit. Better still, if you 
are well dressed and your body is warm, take off your mitten long enough 
to roll up snow in your hand, so that it becomes slushy and soft. You 
will get more of it at a time, rand it will be warmer when you-swallow it,. 
Do not lick things in cold weather. The tongue will stick to 
anything larger then a small piece of ice. The object will draw heat 
rapidly from your tongue, and make it freeze to whatever it touches. If 
A-1 (Rev.) the tongue sticks to a small piece of ice, try to take-the''Whole piece 
into the mouth,, to melt it and release the tongue. If. you make the 
mistake, of touching something larger with the tongue, then you need 
the courage to pull your tongue away and lose a piece of, skin. , So 
chop ice fine before you start, to eat it. Not only the tongue, but 
the skin of your hands or any part of your body will freeze to cold 
objects, such, as metal tools, ’ 
1 Do not wait until you are really thirsty before you start 
eating snow;, , then are likely to -gulp it too fast, or try. to eat 
tpo',large, a'’piece,, of snow or ice, thus chilling your stomach. 
7,. Do not; be afraid to expose your, body to extreme cold, even 50 
or 6(3.below.,1 in calm .weather for a minute or two. The skin retains 
enough heat about it to prevent chill. Eskimo women put, naked babies 
on a skin In.-the snow for as, much as half a minute before the baby 
begins io" notice that the; .air is, cold, and starts to cry.. 
Another exploded theory, probably the. cause of the deaths of 
many white men, is that if you get lost in cold, weather, you..must not 
go to' sleep, lest you freeze to death. It is true that a man can 
freeze while unconscious in,the snow, but only after he has so tired 
himself' by struggling to keep awake and moving that his body cannot 
receive the warning that it is cold. Another danger of trying 
strenuously to keep awake is that you are likely to perspire; this 
perspiration will condense, and freeze. 
The Eskimo simply sits down with his back to the wand, hunches 
forward, and goes to sleep. Sleep helps pass the time, and economizes 
body energy. You will feel chilled soon enough, even while sleeping, 
just as you will at home on a cold night with insufficient covering. At 
that time you do not simply freeze to death; you just get up and get more 
blankets, or close the window. When you awake after a short nap in the 
snow, even only five or ten minutes of it, you will feel refreshed; to get 
warm, start moving around moderately, but not so quickly as to raise 
perspiration, 
You cannot harden yourself to the cold; that is, the body does 
not build up resistance to cold. As a matter of fact, the idea has been 
proposed that dwellers in cold regions adapt themselves to the cold by 
feeling it sooner, and developing colder skins, rather than developing 
a resistance to the sensation of cold. This adjustment of course 
permits a quicker adjustment of clothing, and a protection against too 
great loss of body heat. 
There is no racial difference, so far as is known, in the 
ability to stand cold, ilatthew Hc?nson, a Negro, was Peary’s best 
traveling companion; and old New England whalers used to say that those 
of their crews who were southern Negroes or South Sea Islanders might 
dislike the first winter of a three year voyage more than the whites; 
but .after a second winter, as a group these men had no more difficulty 
than any other national or racial group* This is just another indi- 
cation of the adaptability of man; with the right will and understanding 
of a situation, he can master almost mly physical condition. 
A-I (Rev.) IX. ON LIKING THE ARCTIC WINTER 
It might be said that most people dislike the arctic during their 
first winter, and that few dislike it after their third winter. A simpler 
statement to accept is that those'who were born in the far north, or who 
have 'lived there some time, will complain no more about the climate than 
do people elsewhere. Further, more than half of any large group of 
whites, and probably 90/6 of Eskimos, will declare that they like the 
winter better than the summer. Some years ago a judge in the Nome 
district in Alaska took a vote of Nome schoolchildren, and found that 
about two-thirds of the children preferred winter to summer, ' In 
November, 1940, the question was asked of Fairbanks schoolchildren 
which they preferred, January or July, July in Fairbanks is much the 
same as in New York or Minneapolis—the highest Weather Bureau record 
is 99° in the shade'. In winter the lowest temperature is 70 belovv zero. 
The tabulation of votes shows a clear preference for winter over summer# 
In the elementary grades January was preferred by the boys 105 to 57; 
by the girls, 86 to 58. In high school 34 boys preferred July, 21 
January; but the girls restored the balance for winter, 32 to 23, On 
home discussion, it turned out that’ the parents of the children shared 
their preference for winter, women more pronouncedly than men. 
The conclusion seems sound: adjustment to new physical surroundings 
may be not only a military necessity, but also an actual source of 
pleasure. 
A-I (Rev.) ARCTIC. DESERTJROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT, AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
THE ARCTIC (THREE LECTURES) 
A II. 
LECTURE I I—MAINTENANCE AND OPERATIONS 
PAGE 
PART I —ARCTIC MAINTENANCE 1 
I. .Win teri zat i on and Modi fication 2 
Elements of Winterization; Personal Factors 
II. Factors of Personal Pi scomfort 4 
III. Neutrali zing Nature 6 
Parking andMooring; Removal of Snow, 
ice. Frost 
IV. Maintenance Checks 9 
Oil Lines; Struts and Hydraulics;Controls 
Propellers; Anti-Icing Equipment; Instruments 
V. Start ing the Engine 14 
Preliminaries; Battery; Primer; Oil 
VI. Oil Pilut i on 15 
Operation of the System; Precautions 
VII. Immersion Heaters 19 
VIII- External Heat 19 
Types; Conditions for Use 
IX. Emergency Procedures 21 
Continuous Operation; Praining Oil 
X. Coolant 22 
XI. Lay-Over Instructions 22 
PART II—ARCTIC OPERATIONS 
I. Pref1i ght 23 
11. Taxi in g 24 
III. .The Takeoff t, 24 
IV._Fli ght; Carburetor Ice 26 
V. Letting pown and Landing 32 
VI. Navi gat i on 33 
Prepared by 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF, INTELLIGENCE 
25 BROAD ST., NEW YORK 4, N. Y. ARCTIC, DESERT, AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
ARMY AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
THE ARCTIC 
Lecture II 
Maintenance and Operation 
No longer is it & secret that in 1940 the Army knew very little about 
fitting planes for arctic flying. Yet today our flyers drop bombs on 
Paramushro, Japan's northern base: and the Aleutian Islands shape up 
more clearly every week as the dagger toward the heart of. Japan, as flying 
goes on both summer and winter. Our flyers and grqund crews have learned 
to overcome the extreme cold of continental Canada, Alaska, Labrador, and 
Greenland on the .routes to the combat areas, and the vicious winds, fogs, 
and rain of the Aleutians, which are less cold than the mainland but more 
dangerous for flying. 
This striking change in situation is the result of magnificent energy 
and plain hard labor. The fact that planes get off the ground at all in 
arctic and sub-arctic cold is a tribute to the ingenuity of aircraft designers 
and the perseverance of Army Air Force ground crews. Where all maintenance 
work .must be done through gloves, where touching a tool with bare hands 
for even an instant may mean loss of skin, whore engines may have to be 
heated for an hour before they can .even be turned over, the planes are 
nevertheless ready to take off when they are needed, and pilots trust their 
ships. 
Maintenance and operation of aircraft in cold regions are not easy, 
but neither are they hopeless tasks. Procedures have been worked out for 
getting a plane into the air and keeping it flying, so no longer is cold 
alone a factor in preventing operations. It requires a combination of 
bad visibility, storm, and icing to ground a plane. As far as human effort 
can go, our men will "be prepared to go. Therefore, to make this effort 
fully efficient, it is necessary to learn now what some of the problems are, 
and to get an idea of some of the. methods used to-solve these problems. 
This material is not intended as a substitute for a T. 0. Nor can it 
do your work for you. It can help give you an idea of what to expect, and 
a degree of confidence, if you are called upon to work in the north. We must 
not blame failure of equipment on gremlins or some mysterious alchemy in- 
duced by cold. Most arctic flying difficulties can be traced to a failure 
to follow maintenance and operation instructions. 
Part I--MAINTENANCE 
Three broad principles lie at the basis of proper arctic maintenance 
--as, of course, at the basis of all maintenance. First is a knowledge 
A-II (Rev.) of the problems that exist * peculiar to the clilntfete and "location. Second 
is a knowledge of the devices and measures required to solve these prob- 
lems . Third is the determinationto take proper precautions, and to put 
knowledge to use. This last factor'requires qualities of spirit and de- 
votion without which all knowledge is useless for accomplishment of a. 
tough and vital mission* 
1• VflMTERIZATIOK AND MODIFICATION 
Aircraft are ordinarily constructed to operate at moderate tempera- 
tures, and materials tysed are adequate,for these conditions. But as soon 
as operations are undertaken at unusual temperatures, such as in the. ex- 
treme cold encountered in the far north, or at great altitudes, some . ■ 
changes must, be made,. One way of meeting the new problems would be .to 
introduce ’ cpijipletely new.' equipment,, diffe,r ent kinds of structural.material, 
perhaps, for new lubricants, hew fuels,, and new engines. But not ,all such 
departures'*have been found necessary. Once the basic principles.of opera- 
‘tions ;ip untisual conditions; are 'understood,, if i? found that- certain- ."modi- 
'fiication^'of the basic'aircraft will be sufficient tp fit it. for its.upw 
duties, 
’ : The fundamental problem in cold weather operation and maintenance,of 
aircraft,,just as it is.for human life, is to. conserve heat. In the trop- 
ics and in the temperate zone the problem is to get rid of the.products 
of Combustion,''duch'as engine heat and body heat, without interfering 
Wiih the functioning of th® organism. In the north, or at great'alti-r- 
tude, where temperatures are extremely low, something must be'done to save 
this' heat and put 'it to use. Human beings use Well-irisulated clothing/, 
‘that "holds in body heat. Corresponding practices applied to aircraft /' 
utilize engine heat to combat the cold. Also, in other ways, craft must 
be fitted to operate at a level of temperature as much as 100°F, below 
temperate - zone• conditions, , ' ' >V' T ,h - ' V f 
•The- methods arid - devices employed in MmddifyingM craft for nphthern 
operafionrafe summed'up: in the term '’winterization’’, • ’’Winterization’’/// 
involves Such processes- as keeping-oil in a fluid state; combating ice- 
fbrmatloh'bn surfaces,' '-and in the ■ carburetor; preserving mobility oil'c'bn- 
trbls 'Snd prop-feathering apparatus; arranging batteries to meet increased 
olectnical pofer d'emarids; and preserving efficiency and comfort of person- 
nel, Specifically, winterization prepares planes to function between 
-65pF.:and'' + i6a°F, ; ’ ' - ' 
V ■ The more work'do-he on planes before' they get to the tactical .squad- 
ron, obviously'the-'i'ess'romains- for the crew'chief to worry about; ; The 
.best- place to- prepare' matbhiel‘‘for specialized operations is the factory 
itself, whore, by some •modification of the basic'•design, resistance to 
climate is built in. This winterization can also be carried on at "modi- 
fication centers", of which.'there'.are.-a-in continental United States, 
and at air depots. At northern stations winterization kits should be 
requisitioned'well before the approach of extreme bold, and T, 0. instruc- 
tions rigidly complied .with, k, --'ri 1 
A, Elements of Winterization 
1, De-Icing and Anti-Icing; Equipment for this important phase of 
winterization includes pneumatic boots for wings, vertical fin, and stabiliz®3 
A-II (Rev.) propeller anti-icing plumbing and slinger rings, and electrically heated 
propellers, etc. The compartments of pilots and bombardiers are equipped 
with windshield vipers and heaters, and some haye'alcohol sprays.* There■ 
is also available a heating system lor the- carburetor;- Modification of 
the induction system may include^alcohol de-icing: and the heating of 
scoop inlet air. :V ’ :1 \ - . 
2, Heating; Modification*of aircraft will emphasize this impor- 
tant detail. It is to be expected that some new craft will be "hot wing" 
jobs, with wings, empennage,, and cabins using a’unified heating systpm, 
adding greatly to comfort and safety, , There will be’ cockpit, cabin, and , 
turret heating for ail planes.. Carburetors will be equipped for heat 
application and provided with carburetor air thermometers. 
A recommendation for bombers and transports is the double panel- 
heated windshield. Available for pilots, bombardiers, and turret gunners 
will be blast tube heat. Special heating will be,provided for some .engine 
accessories, for automatic pilot, bomb sight, camera, guns, instrument 
panel,' and pitot head. Immersibn heaters for the preheating of engine 
oil in the tank have been provided for-some planes, and sockets for plugging 
in 110-volt external current source; but current practice favors flexible 
electrical heaters as ground equipment, and ground heater accessory doors 
on each engine nacelle. Protection by lagging may be necessary for long 
lines, propeller governors, and external scavenger lines. 
3* Mechanical: The control system will have provision for differ- 
ential contraction and expansion. ‘Gear-type pumps will be installed 
with adequate clearance to compensate for the case shrinkage, Other 
installments will be surge valves or self-thawing tanks, condensation 
traps and drains in oil and gas tanks, standpipes in tanks, safety vents 
protected from outside temperatures, and large oil drain plugs. Fuel and 
oil tank drain cocks must be accessible, and must permit a,positive lock 
without safety wire. Oil lines"will be installed to enable complete 
drainage• ... Hazardous screens must be removed from the carburetor ram. 
Other positive'necessities are a clear vision window for the pilot,, nose . 
shutters, spoiler•rings and -oil shutters on some transport craft, oil*and 
coolant shutters with full-closing cowl shutters on most craft; and full- 
closing intercoolers for turbo-supercharged craft. There must also be 
provision for diluting oil. 
4. Electrical load, increased by night flying and heating require- 
ments, will be carried by larger batteries. As much as possible of the 
current needed while the ship is on the ground will bo supplied by ex- 
ternal battery cart. Plugs will be arranged for this with a ‘spring- 
loaded door to permit removal of the power line without subjecting line- 
man to prop blast. Plugs for wired flying suits will be in accordance 
with T. 0. instructions. There w5.ll be a high capacity ignition system 
and booster coils; turret motor output will be increased. 
5. Hydraulics: All hydraulic fluid must be changed to cold weather 
specification grade. Hydraulic packing, hose connections, diaphragms, 
cups, and seals must be of materials which Will not become brittle and 
must remain pliant and resilient, and will not rupture. Pneumatic 
hydraulic shock absorber struts ’Will have a combination 6f leather and 
synthetic rubber packing rings, installed 'with-' metal -adapters, Wheel 
brakes will be 'equipped with low temperature synthetic' rubber seals'or 
expander tubes. 
A-II (Rev.) 6i Lubrication: Engine oil must be cold weather specification 
grade. All lubricated surfaces must be cleaned and re-treated with 
approved;oils and greases. Non-channeling grease vail be. used whore 
prescribed for the elements of the control system* The propeller will 
be lubricated with special grease* Light oil will be worked into the 
oil pressure gauge line where direct-reading is employed* 
7. Miscellaneous: Fabric covers for engines, props/ wings, tail 
surfaces, windshields, turrets, and possibly carburetor air intakes 
should be available. Snow and ice surfaces demand special tiros to 
afford additional grip, and these require careful check of clearance in 
the stowage wells. Check-clearance also on retractable landing lights 
and undercarriage, flaps, and air brakes. Guncharger hose must be 
winterproof; gun bays will be insulated in some cases, heated, in others, 
and barrels will be closed with .Scotch masking tape, cleared by the 
guns firing; Circulation of warmer oil. will be induced in the breaker 
boxes and in the hydromatic propeller dome, by drilling oil passages 
where necessary. Openings will be carefully sealed against drafts, and 
the sealing strips oiled with a non-freezing.grease. An oil dilution 
system will be provided, and propane starting facilities may be 
installed. A.clear vision window will bo provided for.the pilot. 
Units of equipment which have been modified for operation at 
-65 to +160°F, (-54 to +?1°C,) will be marked with a yellow dot, not 
smaller than a. quarter inch in diameter. Lack of the dot does noi mean 
lack of approval, but merely that the material has not been thoroughly 
tested, A white dot indicates tentative approval. 
B. Personal Factors 
Modifications and winterizing procedures are only the beginning of 
the process of keeping planes flying in the north. Proper maintenance 
procedures and sensible personal care are equally important. Follow 
rigidly the ruler laid down for cold weather maintenance and operation. 
Get to be "cold-consciousr— learn the properties of cold, and its. 
effects on personnel and machines. Some fear of the unknown is 
inevitable; so know moretand fear less. 
► ... .... 
Aircraft can be and are successfully maintained in extreme cold* 
The job is tough, and downright uncomfortable much of the time. It 
takes some ingenuity, but the main need is common sense to' get the job 
done while avoiding the discomforts of cold and frostbite. The handi- 
caps may tempt you to fix all blame for mechanical failures on the 
cold. Such ideas cause bad work. 
II. FACTORS OF PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT 
Work in cold weather takes longer. Physical discomfort, difficulty 
of manipulation of tools, possible decreased visibility combine to demand 
patience and good nerves from crew men. Simple operations like applying 
safety wire or checking valve clearances may be heartbreaking experiences, 
because the choice is between two evils: either you risk metal-burned or 
frozen fingers, or you wrestle with awkward pliers in a,bulky glove. Yet 
such work must.be done, if our planes are to fly and fight in arctic 
weather. Proper clothing and simple common-sense precautions can reduce 
discomfort and inconveniences. 
A-II (Rev.) A. Clothing 
The problem in cold weather maintenance work is' to keep warm and yet be 
able to work efficiently. In a word, warmth without bulk. Heavy clothing for 
work on the line in bitter-cold weather is a handicap, exhausting physically 
and mentally. The importance of proper clothing cannot be too strongly 
emphasized; footgear and gloves, especially, require attention. 
1, Footgear: This cannot be both warm and waterproof..at the same time. 
Waterproof material both causes condensation of body moisture, and acts as 
a conductor of heat, rather than as an insulator. Yet the secret of 
effectiveness in the north is to keep both warm and dry. The mukluk issued 
is the most practical and serviceable footgear for extr’emely cold weather, 
in which the snow is dry. In warmer weather, of course, when slush is on 
the ground, rubber waterproofs are necessary. For complete protection, 
the arctic wardrobe should include at least 3 pairs of mukluks, and the 
several pairs of inner soles and socks which go with each* 
2, Body Clothing: At present, tw# outfits -are in process of issue; 
a quilted down-filled suit, wind resistant find buoyant,' for use in extreme 
cold; and a two-layer suit composed of an intermediate find outer suit 
made of wind-and-water-repellent cloth lined with alpaca, both layers of 
which should be worn in extreme cold. Underclothing should be worn 
loose; several layers of light underclothing, affording air spaces, are. 
warmer than a single, heavy weight layer. Outer clothing should be wind- 
resistant, but not waterproof. 
3. Handgear: Gloves are, of course, the most difficult order to 
satisfy. Warmth ordinarily requires bulk, and bulk prevents the appli- 
cation of nimble fingers necessary for work. A satisfactory compromise 
is to use basic light cotton, silk, or rayon gloves, plus the D-3 
mechanic’s glove. This latter consists of a horsehide outer shell with 
a removable knit-wool inner lining, hung around the neck by a thong, and 
used as a warming muff when required. 
4, Headgear: Any parka hood, correctly fitted and prtperly lined, 
will serve. It is important that the parka hood be snugly fitted, and 
that a strip of naturally oily fur, such as wolverine, be attached 
around the facial aperture. This will prevent the wind from entering 
at the sides; the frost which accumulates on the fur can be brushed off 
with ease. An important general requirement of headgear is that it 
cover the’ears, which are easily frozen. The woolen toque, and the ski- 
cap, are other kinds of headwear. 
B, Precautions 
1, Avoid Overexertion; With temperatures at -25* and below, there 
is danger of chilling the upper respiratory area through heavy breathing 
during overexertion. If you find yourself gasping large breaths of air, 
put your head down and breathe from inside your warm clothing, until you 
can breathe normally again. Overexertion also leads to depletion of. 
energy, and chill ®f the body. 
2, Avoid Sweating; Sweat' will condense within clothing, and freeze. 
Keep removing articles of clothing as body temperature goes up. Damp 
A-II (Rev.) portions of your body will freeze quickly* Take every opportunity to dry 
out your socks and underclothing. Always change as soon as you can*when 
your body gets wet. If you perspire indoors, dry your body or change and 
dry your clothes before you yenture out in severe cold weather. 
3, Gasoline spilled, on ,,'lhe.. hands or clothing in sub-zero temperatures 
has an effect similar. to~lTqnxd; a$T~v "It will freeze flesh a few seconds 
after contact. 
4, Don!t touch cold metal without gloves: The moisture of your skin 
will, freeze to the .metal surface, or the cold, metal will freeze the part 
of the hand in contact with it, . An attempt at forcible separation will 
rip off the If you should get stuck, warm up the metal before 
attempting to release yourself; an emergency method is to urinate on the 
point of contact. 
5* Insulate your tools with velour covers or wrap'the handles with 
twine. Choose*tbols which lend themselves to cold weather use; i.e,-, 
single-ended spanners and wrenches. Also cover all control handles in 
the plane itself, * ! . ...... 
; 6* Avoid prop wash; assist,each other if exposed to it, by checking 
for gray or white areas of frostbite bn facPe, Thaw by placing a hand pr T 
warm material over the frozen area until circulation is restored, DO NOT RUj 
7, Keep as clean as possible; Oil arid grease on your clothing will 
reduce the insulating qualities of the fabric; also remember that laundry 
facilities are limited. 
III, NEUTRALIZING NATURE 
Merely sitting idle and waiting for action, a ship can develop dan- 
gerous qualities. Its wheels can freeze to.the spot, frost can develop, 
snow can lie on the wings in wait to cause trouble. 
A, Parking and Mooring 
1, It is advisable that the parking area for wheel gear be sanded, 
or that grating, steel mat, fabric, grass, straw, green boughs, or other 
insulating material be placed under the wheels to prevent freezing to the 
surface. Failure to exercise such precautions frequently results in the 
tearing off of large chunks of rubber when the plane is moved. * 
2, When planes are parked, expander type brakes should be "OFF" for 
a half hour to prevent locking by ice formed by condensation, then placed 
ON. Other types should be left ON, Flat-based wooden chocks will hot 
hold on snow or ice surfaces. Metal tube chocks, preferably with spurs, 
are better. Block the wheels fore and aft, ’ - q 
3. Mooring arrows provided in the plane,' mooring * kit should ordinarily 
be used. Mooring is necessary because of the sudden winds which may 
spring up. If no fixed anchorage is- available, and the ground is frozen r 
too solid for use of mooring arrows, a variety of - "de£d-manM mooring is 
necessary. Dig holes in the ground below or adjacent to the mooring points 
of the plane, and freeze hanks of rope, or stakes in them*. The- ground may 
have to be heated to permit digging of holes-, - 
A-II (Rev.) 4« Mooting anchors of-other types may be improvised. For parking on 
ice, two holes can be dug a foot apart, and a hole drilled through the 
solid ice between the dug holes. The mooring lino can be carried through 
the connecting hole. On an ice-covered lake, if the ice is not too thick, 
chop a hole through, drop a log with the rope around its middle through 
the hole, then jam the stick crosswise under the ice, and keep it tight. 
• Mooring lines should be tight to prevent the craft from rocking 
in the wind. A slack line is of little value. At permanent stations, 
mooring bits should be installed during the summer. Controls are locked 
with surface control locks, rather than..with the looks ..of the control * 
cable system. 
• 5• Nose hangars facilitate greatly the maintenance of tactical craft 
in cold weather. These may range from small, improvised structures, 
patched up of frame and canvas, to large, elaborate installations, built 
on skids or permanently located. The permanent structures are floored, 
solid-framed, insulated, and heated, fitted with tool benches-and storage 
room, with one side composed-of canvas openings equipped with draw 
strings. Through these openings intrude the plane’s nose and engine 
nacelles. This arrangement makes an acceptable hangar for all normal 
cold-weather maintenance. Typos are available-to accommodate one, two, 
and four-enginod craft, A make-shift shelter of tarjSaulins • can be 
rigged. Lighting must be arranged. 
It is good practice to provide a rink; of glare ice near the nose 
hangar to facilitate moving the craft in and out. If tractors are not 
available, anchorages for block and tackle should be laid in the ice to 
permit moving by a small crow. 
6, Sweating;: For tactical craft operating in cold weathep, outside 
parking has been found desirable, even though hangar space is Available, 
Gold aircraft wheeled into a warmer hangar will sweat, as moisture con- 
denses on the cold plane surfaces. If not dried through a 
process requiring the better part of an hour, with all areas vented, the 
plane wall fog up upon -being returned to the outside -temperature, a-nd 
considerable takeoff delay will ensue. The necessity-for dispersion of 
craft in some areas makes outside parking mandatory, of course. 
* 7. Frosting: When a ship is parked for the night, either the emer- 
gency escape,hatch or some other opening should be left partly opened. 
This will permit circulation of air inside the cabin or cockpit, and so 
prevent the frosting up of the windows which is certain to occur in cold 
weather if air does not circulate and prevent moisture from settling. 
Beware of falling and drifting snow, however, 
8, Covers are essential to arctic operation, and. care-must ..be 
exercised in their use. There are covers-for engines, wings, tail surfaces, 
windshields, propellers, turrets, and air scoops. Putting covers on wings 
is fairly easy if they were folded properly when last removed. On fighter 
craft the covers can be installed by one man. Three or four men, however, 
are needed for bombers. Covers are tailored for each plane. Most of the 
work must be done on hands and knees, lest there be damage .to the wing 
surface, especially the wing tips, which are not designed to carry loads. 
A-II (Rev.) Care must also be taken(,vyith the .de-icer boots,, which are easily damaged. 
Cover tie-down ropes, should be fairly fight to prcv in the 
wind. The older-typo /wing covers require slip-knots for easy removal 
with gloves on, Newer.covers are easily installed and removed with a 
pulley and block arrangement,* 
On removal, before covers arc folded all snow must be removed. 
They are carried in the plane, and cabin heaters may melt the snow, which 
will freeze when the heat is turned off* Tears should be mended immediately. 
B, .Removal of Snow, Ice, and Frost 
Condensation anywhere on a plane can cause trouble, varying in 
seriousness with the part affected,, ;iYou can neutralize this dangerous 
factor by getting the habit of certain-check-ups, andMfc’y'"knowing how to 
pr.evcrit frosting, ... , R 
• ■ !• Frost will frequon.bly.be found covering {in aircraft. ,No matter 
how thin the layer may appear, it must be removed, especially in .the 
vicinity of the wing tips, where it can most seriously disturb the aero- 
dynamic qualities of the wing. The simplest method is., to sweep the 
surface with a stiff broom, prof cr ably ..one, with a long handle, hoar- 
frost will usually f#rm just as the sun is rising,pn mlrcraft which 
have been dispersed in the open overnight. Investigate for it before 
takeoff. And wo know that craft wheeled from a warm hangar will usually 
accumulate frost as soon as It gets outside. : Loss of lift-and treacher- 
ous stalling characteristics carl be caused by a very small amount of 
hoar-frost, which will seriously disturb thu airflow over a wing. 
Under some conditions, notably with ground haze, frost will fcTrm 
so rapidly•that it will be necessary to taxi out to take-off positions 
before removing covers. Mopping the wings with alcohol and'glycerine be- 
fore covering will delay frost long enough to permit takeoff when covers 
are removed,.;. R .. • , 
2. Snow or ice must also be removed. Snow will not blow away dur- 
ing the takeoff, and then, once it tya.s become frozen to a wing .surface, 
may be very difficult to remove. It can be swept off with: a stiff broom, 
or brushed off with ropes thrown over the wings and snapped and sewed 
back cuid forth. This is best done by,two men, but it can be managed by 
one man holding the rape behind the trailing edge of the wing. It is 
usually necessary to sweep the surface smooth afterwards, since the rope 
method does not achieve a - smooth finish, R-,. R . 
3. Ice can be removed by. using just .enough heat to loosen it. Too 
much heat will cause water to get into control surface bo {.rings and 
freeze. Alcohol spray can be used as ,a last resort to remove1 obstinate 
snow, or ice from localized areas. Frost on windows.can be. removed with 
alcohol, gasoline, copper.or steel vrocl, but metal,wool'must not be 
used on plastics. Icc on prop devices and blades can be removed by 
direct application of heat; likewise for shock struts., •, 
4» The wings and fuselage may c.ccumulate a quantity of light.blow- 
ing snow wherever openings remain uncovered* inspect for such, in-order 
to prevent tc.keoff with an overload of drifted snow, Condensation inside 
A-II (Rev,) wings fuselage, bs well as outside, will result froia sharp -changes 
from moderate to extruae cold. Careful inspection must be made.to insure 
the freedom of all controls and mechmiisms from such icing, ‘Removal of 
this ice is difficult, and con generally be accomplished only by the 
application-of heat, since chipping may cause damage. 
5. The undercarriage may collect ice end snow,- which may jam or 
prevent retraction of wheels, and hinder operation of-locking devices. 
Loose snow also tends to blow into the- engine nacelles on the takeoff, 
and then freeze on retraction so that it may be difficult.-.or impossible 
to lower the undercarriage. A liberal application of anti-freezing oil 
will permit the ice to break*off when power is applied to the hydraulic 
jacks. 
6. Bomb bay doors mid flap-operating gear may also lock through '■ 
accumulation of ice of frozen snow, and" should be treated in the same '*• 
manner as the undercarriage components. Those parts of oncum tic 
firing gear’ which are adjacent to the point at which the compressed air 
Is discharged should be similarly tre ted. 
7f Snow on the empennage may melt, run inside or ever hinges ar;d 
tabs mid thereafter freeze. Clew.ft it off. Inspect for ice all exposed. 
hinges on flaps, elevators, •;Herons, rudders, trim tabs, end bopb b: y 
doors. Remove snow packed in the carburetor intake, Carburetor screens 
should be removed for snow <aper.: tiofu Clema antennae of snow and ice 
before takeoff. 
*8, Operate all ailerons, elevators, rudders, and all < trim* tabs 
through their‘complete travels, noting the force required,' -Jf excessive, 
Investigate, This check also loosens grease, cr reveals-'the use of 
wrong groa.se if seizure of controls has occurred. Trim tabs are im- 
portant for sde operation, and since some incorporate a gear box filled 
with grease, the danger of frozen grease is obvious. 
9, If the aircraft is to remain on Alert, heat, when available, 
should be applied to those portions of the craft where instruments, 
engine accessories, batteries, etc, are located, •*• 
10• Turrets should be checked before-1 _.keoff, and operated through 
the full range of traverse, elevation, and depression, in order to remove 
congealing fluid from remote parts of the mechanism end to maintain the 
temperature of the working parts. This will prevent sluggieh operation, 
and in some extreme instances,* the*sticking of the turret, External 
power supply'must be used for ground checks. 
*V. MAINTENANCE CHECKS 
It can be seen from the number- of precautions listed above that 
eternal*vigilance is the price of continued operation, Only if the 
routine of cold weather maintenance becomes habit i nd second nature to 
line nfcn will the planes keep flying, Contain checks rnurt become routine. 
A-IX (Roy .a A. Sumps, Filters, -Oil Lines - , 
‘ 1. -Drain all fuel and oil tank sumps, .I-drains,- and filters, before: 
each.flight* ,If no oil comes out of the Y-cJrain and oil t.jnk ;sumps, the 
drains ar« probably clogged with ico or congealed oil; apply heat to 
thaw. The dr:_in must be locked immediately after the water is.;drainpd, 
or as soon as oil flow occurs, Safetying is necessary for drains not of 
the self-locking type. Hydraulic filters should be drained at fairly 
frequent intervals, . • 
m2. Fuel and oil tcJiks should be filled to full capacity immediately 
after flight,...If tanks require replenishment,after oil dilution is 
accomplished, add additional oil and dilute*, 
3. Fuel, oil tank, .nd engine crank-c~se vents must be free of ico. 
Condensation, may permit droplets of water to form in the vent lin§9 where 
they freeze and-cause stoppage; 'result,~ a collapsed or' burst'tenk, 
4, -Xn 'general linos in which oil moves slowly require greater pro- 
tection than these in which the flow is rapid; end lines, directly expose# 
to the flow of cold air require greater care than those in the 
leejyof the engine. Low pressure lines or those on the suction side of 
the- PU&P require greater attention tha* high pressure lines, as the flow 
can ’.restricted by only a moderate congealing of the ©il. _ 
"’"B, Struts "and Other Hydraulic Units 
1, Keep struts cleajj, This cannot be overemphasized. Immediately 
£jfter -dilution, wipe the shock piston tubes'.clean of oil dirt, snow, 
end,ice, using.u. rag soaked in the fluid used in the strut. .Kerosene .can 
be used to. remove h:rd dirt,and grit; then the piston must bp relubripated 
with .hydraulic fluid. Repeat the cleaning before takeoff,: Ice and grit 
:and spoil shock absorber-packing,.especially at low- 
temperature when it has last much, of its resilience, 
‘ 7 ' 
After cleaning, keep the struts wrapped in clean dry rags,until 
takeoff* Boots are now under 'development -which may eliminate this 
wrapping, but these must-be removed to-check strut height-, . 
In-spite of-precautions, leakage will- occur and struts wipl 
deflate, -Leakage is evidenced by fluid, on.the snow. Instructions, on 
the-plate fastened to the strut, itself govern correct inflation, „ 
;2:. Hydraujic- Units, such <-s braks cups, fuel pump and accumulator 
diaphragms, pressure lines ty brakesetc-, are likelyrtto s.uffer 
increased leakage in arctic cenditions, end the fluii level of the 
reservoir must be chocked regularly to maintain proper level. Check 
hydraulic units through their whcle range of operation,' Probably 
causes of trouble are br-. ken lines, ice in the lines, sheared 
hydraulic pumps,* ruptured:diaphragms, lyw, air pressure in the 
accumulator. and stfeking of selector and relief valves. If trcy>le- 
continueso the fault raay be in the £ype of packing used. Replaftp 
if •pecessary*according to T,0»- instructions f .r co.ld weather, , 
hydraulic Cunc, which c-llects most of the in the system, 
must be checked for ice; but ice also solleets in other parts c f tye 
system. 
A-IX (Rev.} Strut air valves frequently give trouble. If there is leakage, 
replace with high-pressure cores with seats which will give service at 
cold temperatures. 
G, Control Surfaces 
There are several hazards to fabric-covered control surfaces especially 
prevalent in the north. Running up the engines in deep snow and also taxi- 
ing through deep snow cause pieces of ice to be blown through the elevators, 
The removal and installation of wing covers frequently cause injury to con- 
trol surfaces. Heat is necessary, in repairing tears in the surfaces, to 
prevent the dope from blushing, and thus preventing the patch from adhering, 
A shelter is therefore necessary, but hot air should not be blasted at the 
patched surface in order to dry the dope. 
Never apply force to any fabric-covered control surface by leaning on 
it or gripping it in intense cold. Cracks or ’*ring worms" will develop on 
the hardened, dope-covered fabric. 
D. Propellers 
Propellers become nicked, and require sandpapering to keep them smooth, 
Aeroprops especially are subject to ’’wrinkling11 after taxiing through deep 
snow. The pilot valve of the Hamilton Standard constant-spoed governor may 
stick; the exterior of the electric head should be coated with airplane 
dope to prevent moisture from entering. In the Curtiss electricvgovernor 
rusting of the rack and pinion gear may occur. Sticking and rusting are 
indicated by fluctuating RFM in flight. One remedy is to drill a hole in 
the head of the governor and to install a vent at right angles to the direc- 
tion of flight, creating a constant vacuum inside the governor head. 
Propeller governors are a problem. Any congealed oil or condensation will 
cause unsatisfactory operation. 
E. Anti-Icing and De-Icing Equipment 
Make sure that the hose connections to the slinger rings are tight- 
fitting, and operate the prop anti-icing system. Check de-icing equipment 
during engine run-up when temperature is moderate or, in flight, when a 
warm layer is reached. All tanks for anti-icer fluid should be checked 
for proper level. De-icer boots are liable to tears and abrasions caused 
by wing covers, ladders, wear, etc. They should not be treated with de- 
icing oil. Sticking bf the de-icer distributor valve may occur, rendering 
the de-icer boots inoperative. When coating prop blades with anti-icing 
fluid, take care not to get oil in the rubber fluid feed shoes. Propeller 
governors are critical, and are impeded by any congealed oil or condensa- 
tion. 
Two types of windshield wipers are in use at present, electric and 
hydraulic, and each has its own maintenance problems. The electric wiper 
must be checked for a sheared flexible drive1' shaft, while hydraulic wipers 
must be checked for sufficient fluid and pressure delivery. Both typos 
of %iper should be checked with a wet windshield, . 
A-II (Rev.) F-. Electrical Equipment* 
Spark plugs, magnetos, harnesses, and leads are all subject to 
corrosion, caused by condensation. Inspection and cleaning are in 
order. At or below 23°F, (-50°C,), the aircraft battery should be 
removed if practicable, stewed and charged in room temperatures above 
freezing. Without such facilities, however, there is little object in 
removing the battery. Quick battery disconnects and accessible locations 
are currently being provided. Portable generators should be used when 
available to build up the battery. Vienever possible, use a battery cart 
to start an engine or to run electrical equipment. Do not operate 
electrically heated flying-suits, turrets, or other electrical devices 
unless a suitable generator is kept in operation. 
The battery must be replaced if the specific gravity of the 
electrolyte falls below 1,240, The battery charge decreases proportion- 
ately with the temperature, and freezing results quickly when specific 
gravity is low. 
G, Instruments 
Below -31CF. driven flight and turn indicators may 
function sluggishly. Prior to takeoff, ground heaters shrul-o be use'd 
to bring the temperature of instruments to at least this level; and the 
level must be maintained in flight with cabin heat. 
Condensate or moisture may collect in the manifold pressure gauge 
line and cause stoppage. Disconnect the gauge and force hot alcohol 
through the line to clear it. 
Electric tachometer indicators may occasionally fail to operate 
immediately at the start of the engine, but become self-heating whop 
the generator cuts in. Allow a five-to-fifteen-minute warmup period 
before condemning the instruments. 
Directly connected oil pressure gauges should have diaphragms 
mounted in front of the firewall, 'The oil line from diaphragm to 
instrument should be filled with compass fluid, Autosyn transmitters 
should likewise bu mounted forward o;f the firewall. 
The plug valves of the instrument vacuum systojps often become 
sticky at low temperatures. To ensure satisfactory operation, 
disassemble the valve without disconnecting the lines; clean the plug 
and the inside of the valve thoroughly, Lind apply a light film of low' 
temperature — 
Instrument field test sets utilize dry cells which have a very 
limited life (2-3 hours), especially when subjected to extreme cold, 
or when not in use'with tiie battery switches off, Keep the instruments 
in a warm place and expose them to low temperatures for only short 
periods; or keep them well-wrapped in insulating material when exposed 
for long periods at a time, and not in use. 
A-II (Rev.) H, Tires 
Approved snow and ice tires should be standard equipment for all 
craft operated in the arctic. One type of tire suitable-for this purpaee 
has metal inserts, called "bottle caps", molded intfc the tread. Another 
has lengths of coil springs molded int*> the tread. Tires and tubes must 
be mounted in a relatively warm place. Cactus proof tubes should n%t be 
used in the arctic. Tires must be properly inflated for the lowest 
operating temperatures anticipated, and with the full weight resting on 
the tire. Lew temperatures harden rubber, and lew pressure will cause 
the walls to crack and pinch. If tires are first inflated in a wan., hangar 
they will lose pressure after standing in the cold. They lose about 15k 
of their pressure for every 60°F. drop of temperature. 
Engine oil and hydraulic fluid cans# rapid deterioration of rubber. 
Keep the tires clean. They should also be inspected for cuts or cracks 
due to contraction from the cold, also, ice has a tendency to t#ar metal 
inserts from the tires during landing; if enough of these inserts are 
torn out, the tire becomes unsafe and must be replaced. 
I, Miscellaneous 
1. Various metals have different coefficients of ezqmnsion, and will 
therefore react differently to cold. It is necessary to im-.ke allowance 
for dissimilar contraction of control rods and cables. 
2, Cleaning aircraft at -40° is best done by wiping with gasoline, 
then with a dry cloth, gasoline is- extremely dangerous on bare skin, 
freezing it instantly, Windows and windshields can best be cleaned 
with alcohol. 
3* Lagging has been made ordinarily unnec essary by improved oil 
circulation, but long runs, particularly to coolers and reduction gear, 
may require lagging. This also refers to turbo-regulator balance lines, 
if not filled with hydraulic fluid, electronic regulators are now 
being installed on multi-engined ships. A typical lagging oousiats ®f 
Lapok .fait covering with waterproof and flame-resistant 'duck. 
4. Tools and small parts may sink out of sight if ■-..aid down oa the 
snow. Carry them in a belt kit, keep your box with you, rr lay down 
some canvas or cowling on which to place tools and parts. In making 
emergency repairs, or replacing cold equipment, do not use too much 
tension in tightening nuts, bolts, cables, etc. They will expand on 
warming, and may either "freeze" tight or snap. 
5* Solenoids may stick in cold weather, and must be tested. Other 
parts that must be checked regularly are boosters and fuol transfer 
motor; fuel shut-off valve; seating of dilution valve if the engine 
throws oil out the breathers, or if there is less of oil pressure: 
exhaust collector rings and exhaust stacks, which may crack because of 
rapid engine cooling immediately after engine shut-down; tightness of 
engine oil outlet connections; shimmy damper, and antenna shock mount. 
A-II (Rev.) V, STARTING THE ENGINE 
While-starting the engine of an aircraft is, strictly speaking, an 
aspect of operation, there are difficulties- and factors involved' in cold 
weather starting‘whifch properly belong in a discussion of maintenance. 
A <■- Preliminaries 
Alway turn a cold engine three or four revolutions by hand before en- 
gaging the starter. If there is resistance to this,hand turning,-do not 
exert force, since you may strip an accessory gear. The start should not 
be attempted until the engine is thoroughly free and will spring easily 
when pulled up on compression. With a liquid-cooled engine, particular 
care is necessary. The coolant pump might be frozen. Turn very gently, and 
if there is any suspicion of tightness, apply heat and thaw out ~the .pump. 
It i« important to turn an engine, over by hand before starting in cold 
weather because the capacity of a battery is materially reduced. It 
delivers less current at low temperatures because of increased internal 
resistance. Always use external battery, if possible. Army fields are 
equipped with C-10 generator carts. Starting without an external power 
source is likely to damage the battery. For starting, the generator should 
show a charge of 26 to 2S volts, r 
B. Spark and Battery 
To insure that an adequate spark is produced at the plug points-, make 
certain that they are clean and dry. Proper use of the idle cut-off will 
reduce accumulation of condensed moisture and the possibility of ice forma- 
tion on the points. The object of this procedure is to avoid leaving any 
products of combustion in the cylinders. 
Spark plug fouling from condensation is to be .expected if a cold engine 
fails to start readily, xDartial firing expands moisture laden air, which 
quickly condenses, leaving small beads of ice on the spark plug electrodes, 
;V?ore%ses with each unsuccessful start. After, at most, three or 
four unsuccessful attempts, you must remove at least one plug from each 
cylinder and heat to 66° or 7$°C, (150° to 16$°F,—comfortably warm in the 
hand) to. dry the points. Replace and attempt to start immediately. If the 
engine ,can be made to fire on this minimum of one dry plug from each cylin- 
der, the others .will become dry enough to operate properly. 
C. Primer Technique 
Extended priming is required to assure successful engine starts in 
extremely cold weather. A light priming should bo given before the starter 
is engaged and then, while the engine is being turned over, the primer should 
be operated with short sharp strokes until regularity of firing results. 
Do not prime -an engine unt.il -you are actually ready to engage the starter. 
Defective handling of the primer pump has frequently been a direct cans'3 
of the engine's failure to start. This is what happens: when a start is 
to be made, the pilot or crow chief will prime his engine, then proceed to 
A-II carry out a cockpit check, ail the while discussing affairs in general with 
the other occupants of the aircraft. This delay permits the fuel to con- 
dense, flow down into- the lower cylinder and fill up the combustion space, 
resulting in bent rods or broken pistons when the engine is turned over. 
Operate the primer, then, when you engage the starter, and operate it 
forcibly to insure that the fuel is at least partially atomized and 
sufficiently finely divided to burn satisfactorily. 
When starting from cold, it may be necessary to keep the engine run- 
ning with the primer before it will pick up on the jots. Anticipate this. 
Keep your primer operating until the engine is firing regularly. Remember, 
your first attempt at starting is your best. 
• An easier start may bo obtained if a hot air blast is directed into 
the carburetor air intake while the starter is engaged’. Warm-up is further 
facilitated if carburetor air is put on hot as soon as the engine is firing 
regularly. Apply heat slowly and only in the iimount the engine will take 
without backfiring. 
D. Regulating Oil in Starting 
The engine should be started in the normal manner, without regard to 
the oil dilution system. After the engine is started, heaviness and high 
viscosity of the oil arc- indicated by high oil pressure, or by oil pressure 
that fluctuates or falls back when the engine HH-I is increased. The vis- 
cosity of the oil can be decreased by pushing the dilution control momen- 
tarily several times. This procedure must bo used with caution, because 
if the oil is too viscous, or stopped'by ice so as not to flow, then supply- 
ing the engine pump with pure gasoline will cause an engine failure; the 
gasoline may cause the oil pressure gauge to indicate sufficient pressure, 
and give the impression that oil is flowing when actually it is not. Oil 
dilution after starting is suggested only if-time and extreme temperature 
conditions do not permit engine warm-up in the normal manner. 
If there is no oil pressure after the engine has been running for 30 
seconds, or if oil pressure drops after a few minutes of ground operation, 
the cause may bo: a_, blown lines or oil coolers; b. congealed oil or ice 
in the Y-drain; c, ice in the-oil tank sump drain: if no oil flows, heat 
must be applied and the water from the thawed ice drained; d, foreign ma- 
terial in the oil strainer, indicating that engine failure is the cause of 
low pressure. If the oil tank sump or Y-drain is frozen, or oil lines or 
coolers are blown, indications are that the pilot did not properly follow 
shut-down-instructions. 
Note; Cowl flaps must be kept open for all ground operations, and non- 
essential electrical units must be kept off until generator .cuts in. 
VI. OIL DILUTION 
The oil-dilution system is essentially a method of reducing the viscosity 
of the oil in the engine and in the tank, so that the oil 'flows freely 
enough to permit the easy starting of the engine at low temperature, The 
procedure consists of diluting the oil with gasoline obtained from the fuel 
system. This is done immediately before the engine is stopped, when a cold 
start is anticipated later. Inasmuch as the high cranking torque of a cold 
A-II (Rev.) engine is due to the high viscous drag of the cold sluggish oil, particularly 
between the pistons and the cylinder walls> it is evident that a thinning 
of this oil before the engine is stopped will greatly reduce the cranking 
torque and make for an easy start. 
Except for the installation of the hopper tank, oil dilution requires 
little change in any aircraft oiling system. A line is connected from the 
fuel pressure line to a special "Y" drain cock in which a spring-loaded 
poppet valve is installed. This valve is operated manually from the cock- 
pit, and before the engine is stopped in cold weather, a small amount of 
fuel is allowed to enter the oil-in line at this point by holding the 
dilution control open for a short time while the engine is operating. 
This permits the diluted oil to replace the heavy oil throughout the 
entire engine. The thinner oil facilitates starting in the cold later. 
Some of the diluted oil is returned to the hopper in the supply .tank 
during the last minutes of operation; this diluted oil will be the first oil 
to come into use at the next start, insuring a positive flow to the engine 
pump. 
A, Operation of the System 
Certain modifications of established techniques, and certain new 
techniques must be learned to insure proper dilution; 
1, Technique; Before stopping the engine, when a cold weather start is 
anticipated, hold the oil dilution-control in the "ON” position foS> the 
proper period of time, depending on probable air temperatures. When the oil 
temperature is above 50°G. (122°F,), oil dilution is not very effective, 
since fuel vaporizes at 70°G, (158°F.) and above. Furthermore, gas fumes 
from engine breathers are a serious fire hazard. If oil dilution is intended, 
and engine oil temperatures are too high, stop the engine and let the oil 
cool to below 40°C, (104°F.), then restart the engine and dilute. During sub- 
zero temperature, whore a long dilution period is required, the engine oil may 
go above the maximum 50°C. desirable. It may then be necessary to break up 
the dilution process into two or more short periods. This interruption works 
neither advantage nor detriment to the procedure. If the oil tank needs 
servicing, the dilution process must be divided, part to be accomplished be- 
fore, part after the oil tank is serviced. After dilution is accomplished, 
shut off the engine in the normal manner (except those engines which must be 
stopped by shutting off the fuel to prevent after-firing), but continue to 
hold the dilution valve "ON" until the engine stops, With an engine which 
must be stopped by shutting off the fuel, stop the engine first and allow 
it to cool, then start it and dilute the oil. After dilution, stop the engine 
by shutting off the switch, holding the valve "ON" until the engine stops. 
Note: Insufficient oil dilution results in broken oil lines and 
blown-out oil cooler cores, as well as difficult starts and possible engine 
failures due to poor lubrication* 
2, Figures; The tables below indicate (a.) the per cent of dilution 
by volume required to provide similar oil viscosities at each temperature 
given; and (b,) the amount of time needed for proper dilution at various 
temperatures: 
A-II (Rev.) (Grade 1100 oil) 
(a.) Air Temperature (-29°C) (-46°G) (-54°G) 
40°F 10°F -20°F -51°F -65°F 
Per cent dilution 0 10$ 20$ 30$ 35$ 
(b.) At each of the following temperatures, the dilution switch is hold on 
for the proper number of minutes, then the engine is stopped, and the 
switch released; 
Anticipated ground 4° to -12°C -12° to -29°G -29° to -46°G 
temperature: (40° to 10°F) (10° to -20°F) (-20° to -51°F) 
Hold switch "ON” 3 min, 6 min, 9 min. 
For anticipated ground temperatures below -46°C., add one minute to 
the indicated time for each 5°G. (9°F.) interval. Deviations from 
these dilution periods, if found to give satisfactory results, are 
authorized. 
B, Precautions 
Oil temperature must be maintained below 50°C. while diluting, If 
oil temperature continues to rise with the oil cooler shutters open, close 
the shutters, since the oil in the cooler may have congealed. Dilute at 
idling speed (1000-2000 RPM), Avoid spark plug fouling. A short accelera- 
tion period of 10 seconds at the end of a dilution run is usually satis- 
factory to clear spark plugs. Under all conditions release the dilution 
switch only after the’engine stops. 
Engine oil pressure must not be permitted to fall below 15 pounds per 
square inch. If necessary, stop engine, wait 15 minutes, and continue 
dilution. Operation of the dilution system is indicated by a substantial 
fuel pressure drop. If this drop is not obtained, investigate; the dilu- 
tion solenoid may be stuck, the line plugged, etc. 
On all airplanes equipped with Hamilton Standard hydromatic propellers, 
depress the propeller feathering button for a 2 to 4 second interval, or a 
maximum change of 400 RPM, and pull out. Do this near the end of a complete 
dilution minute. Repeat three times. This will displace the undiluted oil 
from the feathering lines which would otherwise congeal and prevent 
feathering; it also provides diluted oil from the hopper so that emergency 
feathering can be accomplished under extremely cold conditions• (Note; A 
slight amount of oil leakage through the blade packings is to be. expected.) 
Caution: Oil dilution as described above is not applicable to the 
V-1650 engine, which will not scavenge< satisfactorily with diluted oil. If 
oil dilution is used, the engine will be warmed up normally and tested at 
high RPM for 90 seconds to determine that loss of oi3. through the breathers 
will not occur. If oil discharge is noted, continue warm-up to evaporate 
the fuel in the oil If oil is expelled from the engine breathers 
during ground run-ups, check oil level in tank prior to release for takeoff. 
These precautions are necessary to avoid loss of oil in flight. 
A-II (Rev,) C, Other Considerations 
1. Turbosuporchargor Regulators. During dilution, turbosupercharger 
regulators operating on engine oil should be operated in order to expel all 
undiluted oil from the piston chambers. During the last two minutes of the 
last dilution period the regulator control should be repeatedly operated 
from low to high boost position, this to be accomplished in a minimum 
period of 8 seconds, -■ ' 
2, Dilution Controller, Some aircraft arc equipped with an automatic 
oil dilution controller switch in the cockpit. This device is designed to 
close the dilution valve when the dilution in the oil system reaches a pre- 
set percentage. The procedure: Set the desired dilution percentage on con- 
trol unit, operating engine at 1000 to 1400 RPM using lowest RPM. which will 
maintain 25 PSI or more oil pressure. The dilution switch is then turned on 
nAutomaticM, Fuel pressure will noticeably drop or a lamp will light to 
indicate dilution is taking place. When the desired dilution is reached, 
the control shuts off automatically. A placard in the cockpit bears in- 
structions. If the controller does not function, dilute manually in the 
method already described. 
3, Oil Scavenging System. Oil dilution may have an adverse effect on 
an engine oil scavenging arrangement which is inadequate or.critical,1 The 
term "overdilution" is used to indicate any amount of dilution which causes 
the engine scavenging system to break down and discharge oil through the 
engine breathers. This condition may result in the'complete loss of all 
engine oil in a short period. If the outlined procedure is exercised,with 
care and judgment, these difficulties will not normally occur. High per- 
centages of dilution have no serious effect on engine bearings if the oil 
temperatures remain normal. If oil discharge occurs at low temperature, it 
can be stopped by reducing power and RPM immediately. Satisfactory dilution 
should be based on experience with similar conditions of engines and antici- 
pated weather temperatures. Once the oil has been diluted, it should not 
be fully diluted again until after 30 minutes of operating time with oil 
temperature above 50°C., the conditions necessary for complete vaporization 
of the fuel in the oil. If a short ground run-up is made, and the plane 
not flown, then some dilution is necessary to replace the fuel vaporized 
in the run-up. The time of dilution required is in a simple proportion; 
Time in minutes of ground run is to 30 minutes as time of redilution 
required is to full dilution. If the run-up at above 50°G, took 10 minutes, 
redilute one-third. The dilution*period at shut-down should in no case be 
less than 30 seconds. 
On planes which have unsatisfactory scavenging systems, it may be 
necessary to ground run the engines to boil the gasoline out of the diluted 
engine oil before takeoff in order to avoid loss of engine oil in flight. 
Ordinarily, the procedure is to operate an aircraft engine at normal operating 
temperatures for about one half hour to permit the fuel in the oil-supply to 
evhporate and cause the oil to resume its normal viscosity. High tempera- 
f tures will reduce this time slightly. If necessary, immediate takeoff may be 
• made after oil dilution without the normal warm-up, provided there has been 
a rise in oil temperature and the oil pressure is steady. 
4. Oil Pressure. If an engine equipped for oil dilution suddenly shows 
a loss in ’oil pressure, or throws oil out of the breather during flight. 
A-II (Rev.) check it upon landing to insure that the oil dilution valve is in the "closed" 
position and fully seated. An electrically operated valve should be momen- 
tarily turned "ON" and "OFF" in an attempt to complete the seating of the 
valve. The fuel pressure gauge should drop when the switch is on. If dilu- 
tion causes a loss of oil pressure, satisfactory operation wall be resumed 
when the viscosity of the oil is restored by running the engine and evaporat- 
ing the gasoline in the oil. 
IMMERSION HEATERS 
Normally, immersion heaters are unnecessary for starting and need not be 
used unless difficulty is encountered with oil dilution. Oil tanks are pro- 
vided, however, with receptacles to permit the use of 110-volt AG immersion 
heaters, which are electrical resistance elements encased in a tube supplied 
with energy from an outside power source. Under no circumstances should the 
heater be connected with the airplane battery. If used, it should be con- 
nected to a C-10 battery cart, or generator. 
The oil level in the tank should be checked to insure that the heater is 
entirely -submerged. Immersion heaters should always be installed before 
the oil has cooled, and should not be relied upon to thaw congealed oil; 
such oil does not circulate, and will carbonize about the heater, and burn. 
All immersion heaters require a 110-volt powrer source. Two sizes have 
been standardized, 250 watt and 750 watt. Use the 250 watt size in self- 
sealing tanks. Oil immersion heaters are being made ground equipment as 
rapidly as possib3.e, (Certain types of planes will retain the heater 
permanently installed until altered to accommodate the filler neck, type.) 
Immersion heaters are inserted through the oil filler cap and plugged into 
the power source. They are removed just prior to starting, and must be 
thoroughly cleaned to prevent adhesion of particles, which will contaminate 
the oil when the heater is next used. 
Continual operation is not necessary. Two-to-four-hour periods of opera- 
tion, with similar off periods, will bo sufficient to keep the oil in the 
tank fluid. Note; Type L-2 oil servicing trucks will have a gasoline- 
burning oil heater installed beneath the oil tank in order to provide hot 
oil for servicing aircraft, — T.O. #00-60-3 
EXTERNAL -HEAT 
While oil dilution and immersion heaters pley an important part in cold 
weather starting, they must be supplemented below -20°F. with external heat. 
And it is desirable that such external heat bo applied at zero G, (32°F.) 
or below. With .a combination of external heat and either oil dilution or 
immersion heat, successful starts have been made in -65°F, temperatures. 
A. Types of Heaters 
A number of standard heaters are available, all of which burn a fuel- 
air mixture. The resultant hot gases are directed to an oven surrounded 
by copper fins which radiate heat. Air is then passed across these hot fins, 
becomes heated, and is directed against the part to be heated. There are 
three general classifications: spot heaters, spa.ee heaters, and pre-heaters. 
A-II (Rev.) Spot heaters are small compact units, chiefly used to -heat only a par- 
ticular localized object or spot, .such as armament, instruments, windshields 
personnel, etc. Space heaters are larger and produce much more heat* They 
.are provided with a duct system which carries the heated air to several 
different outlets. Preheaters are independent units having their own engine) 
blower, fan, heat exchanger, duct system, and fuel tank. They.may bo moved 
to the place whore heat is desired. This type is designed for any kind of 
heating job, but its chief use is to preheat aircraft engines and accesso- 
ries, Another, hand-operated preheater, called the Hand Crank, is used to 
preheat the engine of the largo preheater, to heat batteries, wheels, and 
parts where a quick application of heat is needed. Mote; Type L-2 oil 
trucks will have a gasoline-burning oil heater installed for servicing hot 
oil to aircraft. 
There arc two types of grpund preheaters used by the AAF, the Type D-l 
and the Typo F-la The D-l weighs 183 pounds, with a capacity of 80,000 BTU 
per hour, and an eight-hour,supply gasoline tank a It is mounted on.retract- 
able . wheels, and has auxiliary sledge runners. At temperatures down to 
-29°C, (-20°F*) one Type D-l heater will keep tv;o engines warm;..at -A0°C 
(-40°F.) or lower, one D-l heater is required for each engine. 
The F-l Heater is a large mobile ground typo with a capacity of 
250,000 BTU per hour. Although both heaters may be used for the same pur- 
pose, the Type P-1 is preferred for aircraft engines because of its higher 
heat rise at the duct its lighter weight, and greater mobility. On 
the other hand, the Type- F-l with its greater volume of heated air, is pre- 
ferable for the heating of portable maintenance shelters, temporary build- 
ings, or the interiors of aircraft. 
The hand-operated heater has a two-hour gasoline supply tank, weighs 
10 pounds, is ignited manually, and has an output of 25,000.,BTC per hour• 
It is useful for quick warming of .small mechanisms. At -29°C, (-20°F*) 
100 octane gasoline is necessary for it. This heater should not be used 
to heat shelters or occupied enclosures, since the heated air it delivers 
is not free from carbon monoxide. 
B* Conditions for Use of Heaters 
Heaters must bo kept sheltered and warm if they are to function when 
needed. As a last resort the hand-crank heater, or even open-flame fire 
pots used with go® and ingenuity, may be used to preheat both Type D-l and 
Type F-l, Two standard methods of keeping the heaters warm are now in de- 
velopment, One involves the use of a small shelter in which the heating 
units and their power units arc kept, the heat for the shelter being pro- 
vided by an Evans Stand-by heater. The other method utilizes a sledge on 
skis having an insulated cover, and also warmed by a Stand-by heater; this 
sledge will hold a Type D-l engine preheater and a Type C-13 auxiliary 
power plant. 
When neither of these methods is available, the heaters may be kept' 
warm by covering a number of them with a large tarpaulin fastened down to 
the ground at the edges, and then inserting‘the ducts of Stand-by heaters 
under the, tarpaulin. The number of heaters necessary depends on the 
of the weather, ; 
A-II (Rev.) Heat should be applied to engines, accessories, cabin and turrets. Bach 
large preheater has three ducts, and can heat several points simultaneously, 
A cowl door is situated in each engine so that sufficient heat is available 
to the accessories section; the instrument panel in the cockpit must also 
receive heat. In extremely low temperatures it may be necessary to direct 
the three ducts of a heater into one engine cover: at the forward lower 
section of the cowling, at the oil cooler, at the accessory section. 
Heat should be applied to both the front end of the engine and to the 
accessory section until cylinder head temperatures reach 20°C,.(6B°F,), 
(Standard engine covers of 7.9 ounce duck are provided with sleeves for 
attachment of heater hoses at the important points; correct covers, or tight- 
fighting makeshifts are essential for proper engine heating.) If sufficient 
heat is not available to warn the entire engine, concentrate on the rear 
accessory section, with second priority on the nose gearing and propeller hub. 
Caution; Do not permit hot air from heaters to blast against ignition 
harness, flexible hose, self-sealing tanks, or other rubberized or fabric 
materials unless the hand can be held without discomfort for at least one 
minute on the part. Do not apply heat directly to oil tanks having self- 
sealing liners since these liners will melt and cause the failure of the oil 
system. Because of the insulating qualities of such tanks, several days of 
above-freezing temperature are necessary to loosen congealed oil in the system. 
Below -21°C, (-6°F.) heat should be directed at the instrument section. 
If the craft is to be kept on alert, heat must be applied to bomb sights and 
AFCE batteries; a temperature of 2°C. (36°F,) is necessary to insure 
immediate operation. 
IX. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 
A* Continuous Operation 
In extreme cold, without adequate heating facilities on hand to assure 
engine starting, it may be necessary to keep the engines running throughout 
the lay-over period. This is practicable, of course, only if fuel is suf- 
ficient for the necessary time of ground running at 1000 RFM, and for flight 
to the next source 'of fuel, A crew member will have to remain on watch 
while the engine is running. Occasional running up to 1500 RFM is necessary 
to clear the engine, and oil pressure should bo maintained at normal even 
though it is necessary to operate the oil dilution periodically to reduce 
oil pressure. 
B. Draining Oil 
This should not be necessary when the proper dilution procedure has 
been accomplished, except when it will be expected that ground heating fa- 
cilities will not be available at starting, and that temperatures will be 
below -20°C. (-4°F,), Ground heating equipment and auxiliary power supply 
should be available where needed. With these two facilities and proper 
dilution, starts have -been made in outside air temperatures as low as -65°F, 
When outside heat will not be available for starting, or when dilution can- 
not be accomplished, all the oil must be drained into -clean containers and 
stored in a shelter above freezing. Where warm storage is not available, 
the drained oil must be heated on a stove or a flame pot until it flows 
freely, and then it must be poured into the oil tank immediately before start- 
ing the engine. The best temperature for the oil is 70° or 80°C. (158°-176°F.) 
A-II (Rev.) C, Starting without Oil Heating 
In extreme emergencies when it is known that containers and heating 
facilities are not available, the following procedure is sometimes success- 
ful if the temperature does not fall below -30°C,. ,(-22°F,); 
. 1, Use normal oil dilution procedure before stopping engine, 
2, After shutdown, drain sufficient oil from the system to bring the 
oil level to two-thirds of its total capacity. 
3* Restart the engine and run with covers over cooler if necessary, 
until oil temperature shows 50° to 60°C, (122° -140°F,), 
4, With engine still running at BOO-IOOO RPM, slowly add enough 
at the oil filler neck to fill the system. This gives a 2:1 ratio of oil 
to fuel and will produce some dilution of the oil adjacent to the tank hopped 
5, Restart after 20-30 minutes and give a second dilution, using only 
the normal dilution procedure, followed by final shutdown. 
Caution: This is strictly an emergency procedure to be used only 
when immersion heaters are not available and when equipment is lacking for 
draining and warming oil. Also, when the fuel evaporates, only two-thirds 
of the total oil capacity remains in the system; this must be sufficient 
for the flying that will be necessary to reach a new oil supply. 
X. COOLANT 
If proper glycol mixture is maintained, and particularly if ground heaters 
are utilized for starting,, draining should never be necessary. If it be- 
comes necessary, however, and if heating facilities and clean containers 
available, the coolant fluid may be drained, warmed, and replaced in the 
system just prior to starting the engine. Warm coolant materially assists 
in starting. The coolant should not be drained until its temperature drops 
to 5° or 10°G, (41° or 50°F,) in order to avoid sudden chilling of engine 
parts. Always leave drain cocks open until just before the heated coolant 
is returned to the system. 
XI. LAY-OVER INSTRUCTIONS 
When extreme cold makes an aircraft lay-over necessary, the normal oil 
dilution procedure may be revised to provide additional fluidity and safety* 
If the engine has been started and diluted several times during a lay-over 
of several days, it should be ground-run for at least one half hour at nor- 
mal temperatures, prior to takeoff. Also, check the oil .level, which may 
have fallen considerably because of the evaporation of the gasoline used in 
dilution. This warm-up and check will help eliminate any excessive dilutior 
which might cause oil discharge through the breathers, or loss in oil pres- 
sure during high power take-off or operation. 
In extreme cold, when the airplane must be kept on the alert ’without ade- 
quate heating facilities to assure engine starting,, it may be necessary to 
run the engines periodically through the lay-over period. The cylinder head 
temperature should be kept above zero C, (32°F,), 
For long lay-overs, the battery should be removed and stored in a warm 
place, and the oil and coolant systems may be drained. If, during the lay- 
over, the temperature rises above freezing (32°F.), drain all fuel systems 
and oil tank drains of condensate immediately, before the temperature drops 
and the condensed water freezes. 
A-II (Rev.) THE ARCTIC 
Lecture II; 
Maintenance and Operations 
PART II—ARCTIC OPERATIONS 
I. PKEFLIGHT 
Operations in the North require considerably more preflight prepa- 
ration than is necessary elsewhere, The relative importance of this part 
of flying technique cannot be overstressed, A mission may fail disas- 
trously because of improper attention before the plane leaves the ground. 
Many of the precautions outlined in the section on maintenance apply 
equally to air crews and to ground crews. These involve personal care 
and maintenance checks, including removal of frost, ice, and snow. 
A. Personal Precautions 
. Remember the effect of cold metal on your skin. You will wear 
gloves, of course, but just to make sure, wrap tape, cord, or cloth muffs 
around control sticks or wheels, throat or hand' mikes, and any other 
parts you might have to touch. 
Neglect of emergency equipment has caused death or misery to many 
flyers forced down in arctic wastes, Nowhere is survival equipment so 
important, lour plane should carry as much as possible of rations, extra 
clothing, sleeping bags, and heating equipment. This equipment should be 
checked before every trip. 
a personal precaution that requires cooperation is the care to be 
taken about running up engines to windward of other planes, personnel, 
or ground installations. Prop wash can cause quick frostbite, and a 
blast of snow or moisture-laden air can undo hours of maintenance work on 
other planes. 
li • j. j. OSU o-nU uiiQW 
Even a very thin layer of hoarfrost an eighth of an inch thick will 
alter takeoff characteristics. Loose snow will not blow off during take- 
off arid may result in refusal of the ship to leave the ground until a 
dangerously high speed has been reached; or worse still, in a stall dur- 
ing the initial climb. Remember, the thinnest film of ice forms a base 
upon which more ice can and will rapidly form. 
Frost v/ill usually form on the windows either while the engine is 
heating, or when the crew enters the machine. This should be removed with 
alcohol, copper, or steel wool. Light mist forming on the windows will 
usually disappear when circulation is established. 
A-II (Rev.) C, Checking Up 
When the plane is in the air it is too late to test instruments and 
controls. An obvious and vital part of preflight technique is to check 
all main and auxiliary control hix.gos and surfaces to find particles of 
ice or hard snow that might cause jams. Check all controls to insure free 
and easy movements, and operation to full travel without blockage. 
Another job is to check the pitot heat on, and to make certain that heat 
is available for the wind shield. 
In all of these operations the air crew should be on hand well in 
advance, in order to cooperate with the ground crew and to advise and 
assist preflight preparation. 
II. TAKIIIJG 
Some of the precautions that must be taken on the desert apply also 
to taxiing in snow. The same general warning applies against running up 
engines or taxiing to windward of other planes or personnel. 
When taxiing in loose snow, hold stick or wheel well back, and keep 
momentum. Avoid abrupt turns, but if you must make them, use a minimum 
of differential braking; otherwise the wheel will pivot and dig in. 
Tricycle gear equipment is particularly difficult to taxi in loose snow. 
The nose wheel has less tendency to trail properly as the depth of the 
tire-sink* increases. The smaller diameter of the nose wheel can cause 
it to dig in even while the main wheels move freely. Thus the nose wheel 
in deep snow takes the full thrust of the engines. Raising the elevators 
will relieve the pressure. Thoughtless gunning will result in the caving 
of the nose strut. A strut thus abused, even if it does not collapse, 
will be out of round at the packing gland, causing leaky packings. 
Damage can also occur to props and engines, if the props come down far 
enough to hit their tips on the snow. 
If you must stop, select a relatively hard standing. If no hard 
standing is available, taxi in a circle and stop in your tracks. 
Apply sufficient brake while taxiing to generate enough frictional 
heat to dissipate any ice or moisture. Use sufficient engine power to 
require use of .brakes. This will serve two purposes; to dry your-brakes, 
and to maintain engine temperature. 
♦ 
Obstacles may be hidden by fresh-fallen snow. Watch out. If frost- 
ing is severe, the plane can be kept free by taxiing to the takeoff with 
frost covers in place. Do not operate electrically heated units which are 
not absolutely required, until the generators cut -in. Storage batteries 
have little strength at sub-zero temperatures, and any attempt to use them 
may ruin the battery or electrical system. 
III. THE TAKEOFF 
Three main difficulties must be mastered in taking a plane off the 
ground in arctic conditions. Any one of these can be disastrous to the 
or unprepared pilot. 
A-II (Rev.) A. Vision 
Despite all the precautions taken by ground crew and air crew 
during maintenance and pre-flight periods, there can- still be windshield 
icing or frost formation if ground haze is present during the actual take- 
off, The pilot must be prepared for this., and be able to handle his craft 
during the time it takes for the windshield to clear up. 
On newly formed snow, or on a dull day, shadows are not visible. 
An effect somewhat similar to that of glassy water will prevail, and it 
will be impossible to judge height after leaving the ground. Pilots who 
thought themselves at a safe height of hundreds of feet found their planes 
plowing into the snow, or dragging a wing and wrecking the craft. This 
phenomenon requires the use, if possible, of some reference point or 
substitute for a horizon. Such reference points can be far to the side— 
trees at a distance, familiar knolls, hills, river banks. Any object, the 
size and characteristics of which are known, will indicate the approximate 
surface, although the runway ahead may be entirely blended in milky mist. 
Avoid staring ahead when there is nothing to focus on. In any event, the 
pilot should be prepared for instrument takeoff procedure, or to go on 
instruments, since instrument weather can develop at any time. 
B. The Takeoff Run 
In taking off heavily loaded aircraft from snow the run can be 
shortened by using the lift as early as possible to reduce the weight on 
the undercarriage and thereby cut down ground friction. It is a matter 
of depressing the tail slightly after Mstepping" until the best planing 
position is found. This position is indicated by an increased rate of 
acceleration, and can be easily sensed. 
On snow an optimum running attitude can generally be found for 
each set of conditions, and this will usually be with the tail somewhat 
lower than for normal takeoff on a hard surface, V.Tien snow is rough or 
sticky it may be desirable to pull the plane off with the tail well down, 
and then to pick up flying speed, holding the plane a foot or so off the 
ground. In heavily drifted snow, the pulled takeoff is practically 
essential in order to avoid damage. The aircraft will usually be thrown 
into the air, and just before it settles back the tail should be brought 
down as far as possible without stalling, and the craft held in the air 
if speed is sufficient. 
These procedures do not apply if emergency makes necessary a 
takeoff with frost or snow still on the wings. Under these conditions, 
the craft should be allowed to fly off in flying position, and on no 
account pulled off the ground or climbed steeply. The possibility of 
stall with iced wings has been made clear, and this stall is abrupt and 
dangerous. Takeoff should be attempted with snow or ice on wings only 
when there is no choice. 
After takeoff from a field covered with snow or slush, the land- 
ing gear, flaps and bomb-bay doors should be operated through two or three 
complete cycles, to loosen ice and prevent freezing in the "up" position. 
A-II (Rev.) G. Carburetor Ice 
A potent source of trouble at takeoff and immediately afterward 
is carburetor ice. A thorough takeoff check and intelligent procedure at 
this point will minimize the possibility of such ice forming just after 
the plane has become airborne. The trouble is most frequently encountered 
during conditions of high humidity such as prevail during a fall of wet 
snow. High moisture content, incidentally, is indicated by large snow 
flakes; in cold dry air, the snow forms in small hard particles. 
Idling or taxiing with partial power at low temperature will allow 
the engine and carburetor heating devices to cool, A sudden attempt to 
take full power from the engine will simply result in coughing and spitting 
and may contribute to carburetor icing just after takeoff. 
The engine should be thoroughly warm, and opened to full power 
gradually. The initial rush,of air through the carburetor when takeoff 
power is applied results in the rapid lowering of carburetor temperature 
before either the. exhaust or oil heat have time to build up. 
Ice under these conditions usually occurs within 30 seconds after 
the takeoff run starts. When it is suspected that atmospheric conditions 
make icing likely, the pilot should be careful not only to warm the engine 
thoroughly, but also to get heat on the carb.uretor before takeoff and thus 
prevent ice formation, and assure that all ice is eliminated from the in- 
duction system. Then, immediately after takeoff, when power can be reduced, 
carburetor heat can be adjusted to maintain recommended temperatures. Car- 
buretor heat should not ordinarily-be used during takeoff, because of the 
definite power loss. A compromise may be necessary: if the heat is not 
applied, there is the risk of icing. Relevant factors are; degree of icing 
anticipated, length and condition of runway, loading of the aircraft. 
If the plane takes off, and then icing develops, the pilot must 
endeavor to remove the ice by rrmans which will be suggested later,' bearing 
in mind that sufficient power to maintain flight until a suitable landing 
is possible can often be obtained by running on a lean mixture. 
IV. FLIGHT 
Many of the natural hazards continue to cause difficulty after the 
plane leaves the ground. Visibility continues a problem with a low-lying 
sun and mist; carburetor ice may form during certain atmospheric conditions, 
and ice may form unexpectedly on the wings and control surfaces. The pilot 
must be extremely sensitive to his instruments, to catch any hint they may 
give of danger. 
A. Visibility 
A low midwinter sun in northern latitudes will not dissipate fog or 
low cloud. Layers of thin mist may start at 100 feet, and may remain dur- 
ing the day. This mist is generally quite thin and does not interfere with 
vertical visibility, although horizontal visibility is poor. The formation 
of ice or frost is good above mist or ground drift, although, as frequently 
A-II (Rev., in arctic flying, surface detail is obscured. Ground haze, or "fog", oftei 
hovers over airfields during low temperature weather, and also over towns 
or any cluster of .nouses. This smoke haze nay cause overflying the settle- 
ment in calm weather. 
kith high winds and low temperatures, fine drifting snow will fre- 
quently be encountered up to a height of 50-300 feet. This snow is ground 
drift and from above appears very much like uniform light fog. Vertical 
visibility generally remains good, but during landing and takeoff, hori- 
zontal visibility will be poor, and the pilot coming dovmi for a landing 
should expect a change for the worse. # , 
Mist or ground drift will often create a false horizon. A constant 
instrument check in flight attitude is therefore essential. The seat of 
the pants is notoriously deceptive in arctic flying. 
B. Carburetor Ice 
You will not see, hear, or feel carburetor ice forming until it is 
too late. Watch your instruments. They will enable you to detect icing 
conditions, itid remember, your1 carburetor can ice with the free air tem- 
perature as high as 95°F. (35°C.). 
1, Conditions, Prevention, Indications 
Conditions that permit icing of the induction system are,clouds, 
rain, fog, sleet, wet snow, supersaturated vapor, and high relative hu- 
midity, This ice may be of two kinds: a, atmospheric ice formed from 
water which originally existed in the atmosphere as snow, sleet, or super- 
cooled moisture, including ice formed by liquid water hitting surfaces 
that are colder than 32°F,; .and b, fuel evaporation icc formed by the 
cooling effect of the evaporation of the fuel after it has been introduced 
into the carburetor air stream. If the moisture content of the air is 
high, this type of ice can form, and has been known to form with free-air 
temperature up to V5°F. Icing is most likely to occur when the carburetor 
air is between -5°C. and 15°C. (23°F, to 59°F.). Try to maintain carbu- 
retor air temperature between 15°C. and A0°C. 
Do not wait for engine troubles to warn you of icc formation. 
Prevent it by using whatever carburetor heat is necessary, as indicated by 
conditions. Air intake ramming conditions may require use of the control 
nearly full on at first, to got adequate heat. Once this initial effect 
is noted, however, a small movement of the heater control will cause a large 
range of temperature changes. It is good practice to apply carburetor heat 
for one to two minutes every half hour during flight, and likewise, to in- 
crease prop speed about 200 PPM to assure governing at extremely low tem- 
peratures (return to cruising RPM as soon as the tachometer indicates that 
the cycle is completed). Vihcn flying with mixture control in "Cruising 
Lean", apply sufficient heat to maintain carburetor air temperature below 
-5°C. or above 15°C. When cruising under severe icing conditions, use at 
least 75/o engine power, with the mixture on rich side of best power. Apply 
carburetor heat to effect full vaporization. Carburetor air temperature 
of above 40°C. (104°F.) may cause the engine to detonate; therefore apply 
heat only until the engine operates smoothly. If icing is expected, move 
the throttle frequently to prevent freezing in one position (throttle ice). 
A-II (Rev.) Develop consciousness of moisture in the air. Check for moisture 
by applying heat; then note the effect in the operation of the engine. 
When applying carburetor heat under icing conditions, with precipitation 
near the freezing range, use full carburetor heat to make sure that any 
ice is eliminated; then maintain recommended temperatures. 
Normally the formation of ice in the induction system can be 
detected by a gradual loss of RPM with a fixed Ditch propeller. Another 
sign is a gradual loss of manifold pressure, not caused by change in 
throttle position or in attitude of flight. It is possible that a pilot 
off guard, assuming throttle creep, will keep advancing ids throttle 
gradually to maintain constant RPM or manifold pressure without realizing 
that carburetor ice is forming. Rare, local conditions may change these 
indications.somewhat, so be on tne alert. Under extreme conditions, ice 
may form so rapidly as to cause abrupt power loss. Aircraft equipped 
with automatic boost control will not provide warning by loss of manifold 
pressure until icing becomes serious. 
Where icing has progressed, the air intake channel is consider- 
ably reduced in section. Thus the quantity of air entering the engine is 
reduced and the mixture becomes rich. Your fuel-air analyzer will indi- 
cate tnis condition. If your mixture becomes rich for no apparent reason, 
or if the manifold pressure or RPM with a xixed pitch propeller begins to 
drop, then it is time to put cartureter hea~o full- on. There will be a 
slight loss of power when heat is applied. If she manifold pressure, or 
RPM, continues to drop—change to rich mixture. 
2. Technique 
Do not advance throttle while cruising until the effect of full 
heat applied to the carburetor is achieved. Act quickly. Ice accumulation 
is progressive and you may have only a minute or two in which to stop it. 
Turning on carburetor heat causes a slight loss of power, indi- 
cated by a drop in manifold pressure due to reduced air-intake pressure 
and the lower density of the warm-air. This loss of power involves n# 
sacrifice in engine efficiency when-operating with the carburetor mixture 
control in the automatic position, since an increase in carburetor air 
temperature does not enrich the mixture. On the other hand, under manual 
mixture control, any increase in carburetor air temperature will enrich 
the mixture; it will then be necessary to readjust the.manual control 
whenever the carburetor heater control setting is changed. 
Carburetor heat should not ordinarily be used during takeoff, 
dnder icing conditions, carburetor heat should be used immediately before 
takeoff, to insure that all ice is removed from the induction system. 
Then, immediately after takeoff, when power is reduced, carburetor heat 
should be adjusted to maintain the recommended temperatures when icing 
conditions are indicated. 
The carburetor heat control should be in the "hot" position 
when in a long glide before landing, but should be in the "cold" position 
immediately prior to the landing approach in order to have full power 
available. 
A-II (Rev.) 3. Emergencies 
As a last resort; Turn on the alcohol de-icing pump if the plane 
is equipped with one; or put the carburetor heat on full cold and lean the 
mixture until backfiring occurs. The backfire will loosen the ice and blow 
it clear of the intake'passages. Ice can sometimes be dislodged by closing 
the throttle. But both these procedures are hard on the engine and carbu- 
retor mechanism, and should be used only in extreme emergencies. 
On craft equipped with alcohol carburetor de-icing systems, the 
following additional operational instructions must be followed; When 
icing conditions are indicated, the alcohol pump should be turned on im- 
mediately before the take-off and the carburetor heat control should be 
placed in the full cold position. The richer carburetor mixture -caused 
by the alcohol will result in a slight loss in engine power, When a safe 
altitude has been reached, the carburetor air heater should be adjusted 
as outlined above, and the alcohol pump turned off. Except in emergencies, 
the alcohol system should not be used in flight. When'you do use the 
alcohol system, remember that the alcohol supply is limited to about one 
hour of continuous use. Attempts should be made periodically to adjust 
the carburetor temperature. Warning: The use of the alcohol do-icing 
system at a very low power and low engine idling speeds produces a rich 
mixture which may choke the engine. 
Possibly the simplest advice is to fly the ship to a more 
favorable altitude, or an area where precipitation can be avoided, and 
where the temperature is safe. Simply leaving a cloud bank, or climbing 
above fog may arrest ice formation by avoiding atmospheric humidity. 
C. Ice on Surfaces 
Icing of wings, tail surfaces, and propellers is likely to occur 
under the following conditions: visible moisture in the form of precipi- 
tation or a cloud; air or airplane surface temperatures of less than 36°F. 
The heaviest icing of wings, fuselage, and propeller usually occurs in the 
range between 15 and 32 degrees I', however, ice can form at any temperature 
below freezing, and has been known to form at temperatures as high as i+0°F. 
1, Conditions of Icing 
Icing is likely to occur; 
a. below a temperature inversion. This typical situation along 
a polar front is caused by the relatively warm air mass rising above sub- 
freezing polar air; moisture falling from the upper warm air through the 
lower cold air is cooled to sleet, freezing rain, or snow, and usually forms 
clear ice. This condition can be avoided by climbing into the warmer air. 
b. along fronts; ip warm fronts, the overrunning warm air may 
be above freezing in the. lower levels and thus prevent icing in that region. 
The upper portion of the cloud system, however, may 'be cold enough to cause 
severe icing, Stay in the lower levels. In cold fronts, the presence of 
cumuliform clouds and the upward air movements that cause them are likely 
to cause icu formation. Although the cold front formation is 
narrower than the warm front, icing is more severe because of the higher 
rate of accumulation. 
A-II (Rev.) c, over mountains; icing is most likely to be encountered'and is 
most dangerous here. - Mountain ranges cause upward motion of air capable 
of supporting large droplets of moisture. With low temperatures, clear 
ice results. The most severe icing will be encountered above the crest 
and to the windward side. Avoid turbulent areas. When you run into wet, 
sticky snow, climb above it where temperatures are colder, and the'snow 
will not adhere so readily. Fly through an icing area fast. 
2. Kinds and Effects 
Depending on conditions, ice may take any one of three forms; 
clear ice, or glaze; rime; or frost; or it might be a combination of the 
three. 
Clear ice or glaze is a hard dense ice which forms when the plane 
is flying through clouds.consisting of large moisture droplets, or through 
a freezing rain. Clear ice is the most dangerous form. It builds out from 
the leading edges in a mushroom shape that spoils the airfoil and therefore 
decreases lift. 
Rime is an opaque, whitish ice with a granular texture, formed 
by small droplets of water. Rime ice does not destroy the shape of the 
airfoil, and can be removed easily from leading edges with pneumatic de- 
icing boots. Rime, however, does have a tendency to stick just to the 
rear of the boot. Being rougn, rime increases the drag and increases the 
stalling speed of airplanes with high wing loading. 
Frost consists of small separate ice crystals. Although not 
particularly dangerous during flight, it can be dangerous in a takeoff 
and must be removed from wings and tail surfaces before takeoff. Under 
severe frosting conditions, it may be necessary to keep frost covers in 
place while taxiing, and even up to the moment of takeoff. And watch for 
frost formation during takeoff. 
The effects of icing, may be summarized as follows: 
a. Decrease in lift due to change in wing section. 
b. Increase in drag due to rough surface, and increase in stall 
speed. 
c. Decrease in prop efficiency due to alteration of the' blade 
profile and increased blade thickness. 
d. Vibration due to unbalanced prop if ice is thrown off irregu- 
larly. 
£, Loss of control due to prevention of movement of control 
surfaces. 
f. Increased wing loading due to weight of ice. 
_g. Loss of inherent stability due to displacement of the center 
of gravity caused by the weight of the ice. 
h. Improper functioning of air speed indicators, flight indi- 
cators, and other gyro instruments that are venturi operated, as a result 
of icing of the venturi throats and pitot tubes. 
Thu remedy: Turn on wing and tnil’de-icers, attempt to escape 
from icing conditions. Warning: Never land with de-icers on; they will 
act as spoilers, end seriously disturb airflow over the wing. 
A-II (Rev.) 3. Propeller, Pitot, Windshield 
Propeller icing may occur in any condition in which wings and 
control surfaces will ice. Such ice is especially dangerous, since it 
decreases propeller efficiency and creates an out-of-balance condition 
and excessive vibration. 
If flying must go on under icing conditions, formation on 
propellers, blades, and spinners may be prevented by anti-icing solution. 
To treat the blades, de-icer fluid is pumped to a slinger ring and thence 
distributed to the propeller blades. An electric pump controlled by a 
rheostat in the pilot’s compartment pumps the fluid from a supply tank. 
This tank must be filled prior to take-off on a flight in which icing 
conditions are expected. About two quarts of fluid an hour will be 
sufficient to keep blades free. 
Other-, aids to prop de-icing are; a heating unit for the lead- 
ing edge of the prop blade (a rubber sheathing with internal electric 
heating element); alcohol de-icing by means of rubber feed shoe; anti- 
icing spinners, usually rubber-covered; anti-icing solutions, applied to 
the dome, spinner, and blade. 
The air-speed pitot tube also collects ice. This causes false 
readings of the altimeter and rate-of-climb indicator, as well as the air- 
speed indicator.. Ice can be prevented by turning on the pitot tube heater. 
The electrical heater switch is connected through the airplane ignition 
system in such a way that the heater is ’’Off” whenever the ignition switch 
is off. 
In case of failure of the electrical air-speed heater during 
severe icing conditions, an .alternate source of static pressure for the 
operation of the altimeter and rate-of-climb indicator can be used by 
turning the static-pressure .selector switch to the "Alternate Source” 
position. This device, however, causes the altimeter to read too high, 
maybe as far off as 800 ft. Clearly, an instrument landing should not 
be attempted with the alternate source -in use for static pressure. 
Instructions for the operation of heaters, electric units, de- 
frosters, de-icers, and similar equipment are presented in Section I, 
"Pilot’s handbook”, for each type of aircraft, 
Windshield de-icers are equipment for certain airplanes. The 
system iDrovidos perforated tubes through which de-icer fluid may be sup- 
plied to coat the windshield. Fluid is supplied through an electric pump 
controlled by a rheostat in the pilot’s compartment. 
4. Flying Technique 
In general, the handling of an iced aircraft is essentially a 
matter of maintaining speed and a low angle of attack. The air-flow will 
continue to adhere to upper surfaces as long as the angle of incidence re- 
mains small, but there is generally a very abrupt and complete stall when 
the angle of incidence is increased, as in landing. So, bring it in fast, 
and hold it level a few feet off the ground until the stall occurs, making 
A-II (Rev.) no effort to achieve a three-point landing. Watch your air-speed. Do not 
try to climb too fast with a load of ice, because of the danger of stalling. 
Lake wide turns. Steep turns with iced wings and tail surfaces are suicide. 
V. LETTING down and landing 
Temperature inversions, in which ground air may be 15° to 30° colder 
• than at altitude, are common in the north. When letting down in cold 
weather, therefore, care must be exercised to keep engines warm during the 
descent. It is normal to descend with considerable power. This procedure 
should be the rule in cold weather, since throttle, carburetor, coolant, 
and cylinder head temperatures will fall rapidly and require excessive ad- 
justment of cowl flaps, oil and coolant shutters. Carburetor icing may 
occur when the engines are again opened up. Before making your final ap- 
proach insure that your engines will deliver power normally while you still 
have plenty of altitude. It is good practice to use oil dilution during a 
long descent, but this is not to be regarded as a substitute for keeping 
the engine warm. 
It may be found desirable to lower wheels and use partial flaps well 
in advance of the actual approach, in order to insure that they are func- 
tioning correctly, while sufficient altitude remains for emergency pro- 
cedure if necessary. This also allows use of more engine, which of course, 
tends to eliminate the probability of carburetor icing. • 
Attempt to maintain head temp features above 100°C. (212°F.), coolant 
temperatures above 60°C. (IZ+O0?.), and oil temperatures above 30°C.’ (S6°F.) 
during all let downs. Land with carburetor heat on or off depending on 
what is needed most, heat or engine power. The conflict is between possi- 
bility of icing and certainty of power loss. Remember, in addition to 
preventing ice formation, carburetor heat will insure proper fuel vaporiza- 
tion if it should be necessary to go around. Keep the carburetor heat be- 
low 40°C., to keep down power loss due to excessive h^at. 
Land with cowl flaps closed. Open them immediately on landing. Taxi 
to the line with carburetor heat on. . 
On a dull day, or when fresh new snow covers a broad expanse of the 
ground, it is practically impossible to judge height, without some refer- 
ence point such as shadows or markers. The tendency under these conditions 
is to fly into the ground rather than to flatten out high. Power landings 
should not be made until the pilot is familiar with snow surfaces, and 
thereafter whenever doubt as to the surface•exists. Bring it in well above 
stalling speed, flatten out well above the ground, and permit it to sink 
gently with engine on until contact is made. 
Go easy on the brakes. Application of brake increases friction be- 
tween tire and snow. The ice and snow melt, freeze into a glaze, and 
skidding results. -The more the aircraft skids, the more friction; the 
more friction, the more glaze, etc. 
Crosswind landings on clear ice require good timing and judgment. 
Compensate for drift before you touch, and use brakes sparingly. 
A-II (Rev.) VI. NAVIGATION 
Arctic weather, arctic terrain, and other factors complicate the 
problems of navigation, and make necessary additional study. Many areas 
are uncharted, and you will need to keep alert for latest information. 
While topographical features are important, their shapes may be 
disguised by snowfall. Along the coast a flat shore arm may be difficult 
to distinguish from sea ice. There is point in flying further inland 
where some ground relief is visible, or within sight of open wader farther 
out to sea. 
Despite common belief, relatively little snow falls in the north 
each winter; what appears to be a heavy blizzard is. frequently a strong 
wind blowing loose snow from one place to another. Therefore the snow 
will not be encountered above low altitude. Similarly, violent snowstorms 
are not common. High winds are almost always purely local, usually where 
high land faces the open sea. Finds of gale violence generally cover a 
strip extending not more than 15 miles inland and seaward. ■ Farther inland, 
strong winds seldom occur, and never.in combination with extreme cold. 
Coast lines are subject to heavy fog in the spring.and fall, with moderate 
fog in the summer. Winter fogs are infrequent.. 
Pitch darkness occurs in the polar circle only in wide areas of 
open sea. In the summer there is continual daylight or twilight; in the 
winter, when both direct and indirect sunlight are absent, the ground is 
lit up by the snow's reflection of any light that gets to it. Even under 
these conditions it is commonly possible to see dark objects the size of 
a person at 100 yards. Arctic moonlight is unusually bright, providing 
enough light for landing. The aurora oorealis (northern lights) cannot 
be depended on as a light source because of fluctuations in intensity, 
but it sight be of some assistance in travel. 
A. Phenomena Affecting Navigation 
B. Aids to Navigation 
Make your own additions to maps. bketch in and identify local 
features of terrain, i.e. the shape of woods and forest areas, marked 
changes in the geological, topographical, and vegetational character of the 
surface, iou do not have to be a geologist to remark these differences. 
In winter the sun is a valuable aid to navigation, and need not be 
visible to be used. Shadows indicate the direction of light, and can be 
readily distinguished on the snow. Bear in mind, however, that the sun is 
continually in motion, and that a heading by the sun must be corrected ap- 
proximately five degrees every 20 minutes. For flights of, .say, 300 miles, 
satisfactory results can be obtained by using local time and assuming that 
the sun is due east at 0600 hours, due south at noon, and due west at 1B00 
hours, and that it moves 13° an hour. 
Observe one precaution, however. Marked changes in density of cloud 
cover may result in production«of a false shadow when the greatest quantity 
of light comes through from a point to one side of the true sun position. 
A-II (Rev.) nSky maps” are useful indications of ground conditions. A uniform 
overcast with clouds at a high level reflects terrain. Over level ice 
uniformly covered with snow, the cloud area shows a uniform white. Broken 
surfaces, such as pressure regions, pack ice, or drifted snow, are indi- 
cated by mottled appearance of the under surfaces of the cloud. Blue or 
green ice is shown by grayish patches on the sky map; open water, timber, 
and snow-free terrain, by black cloud areas. Careful study of the sky 
map can help show the way to open water, snow-free areas, or heavy timber. 
Wind direction is usually easy to determine by streaks of light 
powdered snow blowing across the surface. These show up lighter in color 
than the solid snow beneath and react quickly to wind change. Snow drifts 
usually indicate prevailing wind. The smooth slope of the drift faces 
into the wind, and the steeper side of the drift lies downwind. 
"Lastrugi", or small, tightly packed snow drifts 10 to 20 inches deep, 
looking like ocean waves, are hazards to planes landing, and to ground 
travel. Landings are possible parallel to the drifts, but are likely to 
be dangerous. 
Be prepared for compass errors caused by areas of mineral attraction, 
seldom more' than 30 miles in extent, but able to render the compass useless 
or, worse, misleading. Therefore, until you know the country well, maintain 
constant check by sun and. wind directions, and use gyro instruments fully. 
Dead reckoning will require accurate compass courses and time intervals. 
In regions within a radius of approximately 500 miles of a magnetic 
pole, the navigator should be prepared for increasing sluggishness of the 
magnetic compass due to pronounced dip of the lines of magnetic force, 
Small defects causing pivot friction or weakness of the magnetic elements 
will have a greater effect in those regions than in the lower latitudes. 
The rapid change in variation along a flight route must also be kept 
in mind near magnetic poles. While the usual method of averaging the vari- 
ation along the route is satisfactory for changes of about five or ten 
degrees, it will lead to considerable error in the flight line where changes 
of greater magnitude occur. This difficulty is best overcome by breaking 
the route down into shorter stages and taking the mean variation for each. 
From this, compass headings may be calculated for each stage. 
Little is known authoritatively about magnetic variation in the higher 
latitudes. Geomagnetic conditions are unique, and compass directions are 
subject not only to uncertainties because of the low directive component of 
the earth's field acting on the needle, but also to large rates of daily 
change in variation under normal conditions, which may be a,matter of de- 
grees. Also, in periods of magnetic storms, fluctuations of 20° to 40° may 
be expected, . - 
Navigation at high latitudes is further complicated by the rapid 
convergence of meridians of longitude. For example, within 15° of the 
pole it is possible to pass through a whole degree of longitude in a few 
minutes, making it difficult, if no.t impossible, to arrive at a good dead 
reckoning longitude and local hour angle. 
A-II (Lev.) ARCTIC, DESERTeTROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
THE ARCTIC (THREE LECTURES) 
A- III 
LEC TURE 111—survival 
I. CENTRAL THEME (The Cold; & Some Principles i 
A. An Illustration 
B. Some Principles of Arctic Living 
C. It Isn't True (Some Misconceptions) 
PAGE 
II. PREPARATION FOR TROUBLE 5 
A. Clothing 
B. The Sleeping Bag 
0. Emergency Equipment 
III. THE FORCE-DOWN AND METHODS OF SIGNALING 12 
A. Stay with the Plane 
B. Signaling 
IV. HOUSEKEEPING 15 
A. Keeping Warm 
B. Keeping Alive 
C. Some Hints on Health 
V. TRAVEL 20 
A. Go Easy 
B. Precautions and Techniques 
VI. SURVIVAL IN SUMMER 22 
A* Clothing 
B. Insects 
C. Food 
VII. SUMMARY ON ARCTIC SURVIVAL 24 
Prepared by 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF. INTELLIGENCE 
25 BROAD STREET, NEW YORK 4, N. Y. ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
ARMY AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
THE ARCTIC 
Lecture III 
Survival 
I. CENTRAL THEME (THE COLD) AND SOME PRINCIPLES OF SUR.VIVAL 
Survival in the arctic presents a narrower, more intense problem 
than in any other area. There is one central factor—the cold:—and 
keeping warm and alive and effective depends on mastery of a small num- 
ber of principles springing out of this,factor. In the desert there 
are heat, dryness, cold, insects, sand; in the tropics there are heat, 
excess moisture, insects, disease. In the arctic there are the dangers 
of freezing, getting lost and exhausted because of snow and storm— 
all related to cold. 
Clearly, this central fact makes the problem of survival simpler, 
but of course not necessarily easier. It is not hard to learn and 
apply the lessons necessary for life in the arctic. The basic problem, 
how to combat the effects of climate, can be divided into a series of 
related principles and techniques’. Understand these first, and you 
can go on to learn specific details on what to do at any special time. 
The end result of this lecture should be that you know you can master 
the cold, and need have no undue fear of a force-down, or separation 
from your unit. Know' how, and come through. 
A, An Illustration 
One of the best* known stories of survival and rescue after a 
crash in the snow is the experience of the B-17 crew who lived through 
five months on the Greenland icecap. Wounded, frozen, suffering, fac- 
ing sudden death every day as cracks in the ice developed right under 
their crashed plane, their rescue thrilled the country when it was 
announced last spring. But without any intention of detracting from 
the men's courage, v/e must emphasize their own admission that if they 
had taken certain precautions, and known certain simple facts, they 
would have suffered less during their stay, and would have escaped some 
of the injuries they received. 
While helping search for a lost transport plane, their B-17, be- 
ing ferried to England, crashed on the Greenland cap near the west 
coast. The plane broke in two. One man was thrown clear, broke his 
forearm,.and because both his gloves were’lost as he lay in the.snow, 
A-IXI (Rev.) he froze both hands. While helping carry this man into the plane, one 
of the lieutenants of the plane got show in his boots, ru'd he did not dry 
them out. The men remained in th& plane that night, but were made miser- 
able by fierce wind and penetrating drift'snow. They were on short rations 
having lost two of their three TJ*;es of food, had packed no sleeping bags, 
no extra clothing, no stoves—noting but flying equipment; and that was 
winter, not arctic equipment. They had a jungle kit on the parachute, and 
first aid material, A couple of days later two officers went to look over 
the laid, and one fell into a deep crevasse, escaping death by the chance 
of hitting an ice ridge part way to the bottom. A parachute harness and 
shrouds, and a jungle knife helped get him up. On the third day, the lieu- 
tenant who had got snow in his shoes, took them off, thinking his feet 
might be frozen. They were* The plane commander took the frozen feet 
under his armpits and rubbed them for two or three hours. They began to 
soften up and turn all colors. 
On the eighth day the radio operator, a corporal, by great inge- 
nuity and perseverance, got the radio working* . They made a contact with 
outside.,. and on the fifteenth day a plane came over and dropped much 
needed sleeping bags and food*" About a week later two of the men were 
sent .out with a Coast Guard pilot who landed nearby; after another trip 
in, this pilot was killed, with the radio man of the B-l?. An officer, 
with much Greenland experience, was lost in a crevasse just as he was 
approacaing the crashed plane on a rescue motor sled. Another man of 
the crashed crew was killed when he fell into another crevasse on help- 
ing a second sled move out the lieutenant with the frozen feet. The 
sled party was marooned about four miles from the plane. At this time, 
after three weeks of freezing in the plane, the'men dug a hole.in.the 
snow under the plane wing, end lived there. After unsuccessful attempts 
to reach the men, and more than another month of dropping of supplies 
from the air, a FBI under the command of Col. Bernt Balchen, the famous 
arctic and antarctic explorer, was belly-landed on the snow near the 
sled and picked up the three men there. The plane could not return 
until April, almost two months later, when by amazing methods it was 
got off the snow with the men left at the wrecked B-l?. The lieutenant 
lost both frozen foot. 
We shall not point the various lessons of this story, but suggest 
that you try to think what, you would have done, #n the basis of what 
you hear in the rest of this lecture. 
B• Somp. Principles of Arctic Living 
These following basic principles of behavior in the arctic have 
application whether you are at your base camp, or'huddling in your 
crash-landed plane waiting to be found and rescued. Either way, be 
aware of your surroundings, and use what you know. 
1. Do nothing alone, If you can help it, have someone with you 
wherever you go. hn injury can put you,out of.commission faster in the 
cold than under other conditions. You need someone with you to 
help if you are hurt, to go for aid. Important too is the need to 
have someone repeatedly looking at your face.in the cold. Not to 
draw inspiration, or a laugh from it, but to inspect for frostbite. 
A-III (Rev.) 
-2- In extreme cold, flesh can freeze in a couple of minutes, without 
your knowing it. If it is treated quickly, tho freezing will leave 
no permanent harm. On ice-covered areas like Greenland, improvise 
skis or snowshoes until you are sure no crevasses exist underfoot. 
2, Train in Self-Control. Learn what is the right thing to do in 
any circumstance, and do it. Make yourself wear the right clothing. 
When the time comes, you will act on your knowledge that you should 
stick by your plane; that you should not fight against a storm, or 
travel when the weather is bad. Habit is as important as simple 
knowledge in preventing panic. 
3. Weather Is Changeable. This is especially true in the Aleutians, 
over which there will continue to be much traveling. Even in inland 
Alaska, where weather changes occur more) slowly, the temperature can fall 
ten or twenty degrees in an hour or two. Do not go out unprepared, with 
wrong or insufficient clothing, oven if you are only taking a.bus from 
camp into town for a date or a movie on a mild afternoon. Frostbite hits 
the careless. 
4. Frostbite Is Quiet, Freezing of the flesh can come fast, when 
you least expect it, and may lead, to the loss of an ear, a finger, or a 
foot. Or your nose* What happens is that an area of skin, and flesh 
beneath it, is frozen, so that blood does not circulate. When blood 
does not feed tissue, that tissue dies. Dead flesh-rots, and the rotted 
area may spread to live flesh next to it. This is the reason for pre- 
ventive amputation of decayed or gangrenous parts of the body. Keep 
the body warm and the blood circulating, find keep watching for frozen 
areas on the faces of those about you. Touching cold metal with bare 
skin,, or exposing the skin to propeller wash, will bring frostbite, 
because of the extremely rapid loss of heat from the skin. 
5* Chill Brings Illness. The lowering of temperature of the skin, 
even a part covered by clothing, may kill tissue, and it may also lead 
to broader danger. It can lower body resistance and leave you open to 
colds and pneumonia. Chill may come in several ways: insufficient 
clothing; clothing too tight, causing insufficient circulation of blood; 
accumulation, then condensation of body perspiration. Chill may also . 
result from exhaustion after too long exertion in the. cold, without rest. 
Body resistence goes down, end weakness results. 
6, Clothing.Is the Secret* You will soon learn that you must de- 
pend for warmth not on fuel and stoves, but on your clothing. Clothing 
must be correctly chosen, and properly worn. The principle of correct 
clothing is not thickness to keep out cold, but rather insulation, dead 
spaces of air between the body and the outside. Several, thicknesses, 
with air spaces, are preferable to single heavy garments. Tightly 
woven, wind-proof outer covering helps retain air spaces underneath. 
Wear your clothing properly, too. Beware of too much protection. 
Get used to a cold skin, because a cold skin will be dry. When you 
exercise, loosen garments, or remove some, lest you perspire. 
A-III (Rev.) C, It Isn’t True—Some ills conceptions 
These basic principles of life in the north listed above can be 
emphasized by the listing and analysis of a number of false ideas that' 
have dug into people’s minds. False knowledge is more dangerous than 
ignorance in time of emergency, because it may lead to more rapid 
disaster. * ; •- 
1, nThe North is Frozen! Nothing Lives ’ There.11 This idea is 
less vddely held than it used to "be, but still it is necessary to point 
out some facts. There is life—animal, vegetable, and human—all over 
the arctic areas, though sparsely distributed in some areas. Most of 
the,area is comparatively dry; snow does not keep falling in blizzard 
proportions 4 There is less rain and snowfall near the North Pole than 
• in,most parts of the"dnited States. In winter, storms seldom last more 
than a., couple of days, except in Greenland. There is a definite summer 
season; during August more than eighty per cent of the land north of 
the Arctic Circle, excluding Greenland, is free of snow. Inland temper- 
atures may go higher than 90° F. and in sub-arctic valleys a great deal 
of cultivation is possible. 
2* "Fall Asleep in the Snow and You Vi oh’t hake Up." This has been 
proved false again and again. Lskimos sleep in snow on the trail every 
night. Sometimes daring a strong storm they simply dig a hole in the 
snow and go to sleep* T..nen your sleeping body gets too cold, you will 
wake ,upi But if you are exhausted, and your regulating mechanism im- 
paired, you may be chilled and frozen. Moral: Take it easy, and rest, 
so that your body will be in condition to give warning. 
3, "Once It’s.Below -1$°, It* Doesn*t Matter How Cold It Gets.’’ .More 
nonsense. Explorers and travelers remark a definite difference between 
-20 and -30, shown in the increased difficulty of melting snow for water, 
the increased danger of frostbite, the greater speed of chill* 
4* "Rub Frostbite with Snow." This is a dangerous misconception, 
involving a double risk. The snow is likely to increase the freezing. 
And worse, rubbing damages the frozen tissues, thus opening the possi- 
bility of infection. The damaged tissues may even become gangrenous. 
Do not rub frostbite with snow—or with anything else. Proper treatment 
is to warm up the frostbitten part gradually. 
$, nl°u tan Always Get Later by Melting Snow.11 True, but not so 
easy as it sounds. The colder it gets, the harder snow is to melt; and 
you need a. lot of snow for a little water, , Use ice instead. Eat snow 
or ice slowly. 
6# Clothing'Should* Be Waterproof.11 A good ticket to the hospital. 
Waterproof clothing will act, even in the coldest weather, like a rubber 
raincoat—you may be as wot inside from body moisture as you are outside 
from rain. If clothing is not porous, body moisture will not evaporate, 
but will condense, and chill. 
With these principles and fallacies in mind, let us follow the 
program of what to do to survive in an emergency. Most dramatic of 
A-III (Rev.) difficulties is being forced down in a disabled plane in a cold waste, but 
there can also be the situation of the traveler who gets lost either near' 
or far from his camp. 
As in all cases of emergency, it is the man who keeps calm who 
has the greatest chance of getting through. And the man who has the 
greatest knowledge and the best training is the one who keeps his head. 
What you know about, you are less likely to fear. Right now, start 
studying and thinking; and when you get to your first station in the 
north, start practicing what you have learned. Then being lost, or 
simply living in the Far North, will approach being part of the day’s 
work for you. 
II. PREPARATION FOR TROUBLE 
In time of safety, prepare for trouble. The best time to start 
learning what to do when you are forced down or lost in an arctic waste, 
is now. The second best time is when you are at your Northern station. 
Further, 'what you learn now and in the North means little unless you 
practice it. Let us repeat until it is painful: .Knowledge is of small 
value without training. Somehow, knowledge alone dribbles away, deserts 
or evaporates when an emergency faces you; but training and habit cjihnot 
desert you. So what you hear, and what you read, must be tried out, :.nd 
on yourself, not on the buck private or the Pfc, who happens to be around. 
Proper preparation involves (l) choice of proper clothing,' and train- 
ing in its use; (2) gathering of, equipment to be used for ordinary life 
in the arctic, and also (3) emergency kits. Later sections will deal with 
what to do when forced down, how to signal, how to gat food, how to prepare 
it; how to keep warm end make shelter; and how, as a last resort, to travel, 
if travel is necessary, A separate section will deal with what modifica- 
tions of these procedures are necessary for summer existence. 
A. Clothing 
The principles of proper clothing for extreme cold have already- 
been stated; sufficient insulation, looseness, adjustability. The amount 
of clothing should be aimed at taking care of the body when it is at rest, 
without the added heat of body exertion. During exertion, such as work 
or movement, the clothing will have to be loosened, opened, or even some 
of it removed. 
1, Body Clothing. Some questions arise in the discussion of 
clothing to be worn by soldiers in cold climates. First, and most 
obvious, is: What is available? How much choice is there? Then how to 
choose? What combinations to wear—what underwear, what basic clothing, 
how many layers of outer clothing? 
Available clothing depends on several factors: supply pro- 
cedures, closeness to depots, and also the results of continual experi- 
mentation and revision of requirements. Both Air Force and Quartermaster 
Corps are at work on the problem of adequate clothing, and changes are to 
be expected. All we can do here is suggest the general types of clothing 
likely to be available, and how they cm be put to best use. 
A-III (Rev,) Underwear is of the usual two kinds, light summer, and woolen 
winter. Experts agree that for daily wear around the post either kind 
may be worn under ordinary uniforms, depending on the temperature of 
heated buildings. Usually the woolen underwear is worn, when there is 
no special arctic outside clothing. In field or flying work, when the 
heaviest outer garments' are necessary-. It is'advised'that light under- 
wear be worn, since sufficient Warmth is Supplied by the oUtside; 
clothing. . ' ‘ . ‘ ■ •’ ‘ ' ' 
Great variety has been found in the choice of basic clothing 
to be,.worn immediately under the heavy fiying. suit* The tendency arfong' 
flyers has been to' wear ordinary post uniform of slacks, and blouse, or 
leather jacket, or other unspecialized clothing. Special basic clothing 
is being provided, and specific recommendations are being made as to the 
best combinations, in order that the value of the heavier outer garments 
be not offset by improper clothing underneath. It is likely that no- * 
clothing at all will be found necessary between underwear raid speciaized 
arctic as distinct from’ winter flying clothing. 
Flying clothing is of several kinds; (l) quilted suits, 
filled with' down or cellulose acetate; (2) the arctic alpaca-pile parka; 
(3) wool-pile parka;. (4) electric-wired suits. There has been much 
variety of choice, not always wise, by individual pilots, both of outer 
clothing and that worn under the flying suits. Light underwear, and 
woolen shirt with warm trousers are recommended. 
For general wear in both extreme cold and temperatures .around 
zero, the most successful outer combination is the Alpaca Pile suit,' 
This is composed of six parts, three parkas arid three trousers. The 
inner section is an inner pile parka, with hair-side toward the skin. 
The middle section is the outer-pile parka, with hair-side facing out. 
The outermost or cover layer of coat and trousers is made of a tightly- 
woven, windproof and rip-resistant thin cloth. This layer is indis- 
pensable to maintain warmth of inner garments. The alpaca pile is a 
manufactured product, with closely-spaced fur-like hairs acting as an 
insulator. It is like the beaverette, or artificial thick fur,--used in 
civilian heavy overcoats. 
The suits are so constructed'that any combination of'parts can 
be used. The usual procedure is to remove either the inner or the middle 
unit during exertion, to prevent overheating of the body. 
Natural fleece suits, called shearling, are available'in small' 
numbers, but.are considered to give less warmth.than the alpaca pile 
combination. Each layer is fairly bulky. ■ A garment-popular -with' ground- 
crew men is the aipaCa-pile.lined overcoat, longer and fuller than the 
parka, . j" _ ‘ ‘ ‘ ’ 
It should be remembered that the maintenance of air insulation 
is the secret of 'warmth. Oneway of preventing overheating is to use 
this principle in reverse—circulation’of the air-spaces will cause cool- 
ing and the dissipation of body heat. Clothing should therefore have 
facilities for easy opening to allow air to circulate. The pile parkas 
are made with a drawstring at the bottom edge. The wearer tightens the 
A-III (Rev,) string when he is at rest, and loosens it, to allow circulation, when 
walking or working. Or in warmer weather he discards one or two garments 
completely, depending on the amount of body heat given off. 
A full treatment of standard winter clothing for northern 
service is found in Training Circular 37, March 19., 1943* 
2, Feet. incorrect footgear has probably been the cause of most 
freezing of the feet. Proper care of the feet is extremely difficult 
in cold climate, for two reasons: the weight of the body,'and the move- 
ment of the feet, make the maintenance of a dead air insulation space 
impossible; and moisture is almost unavoidable. Thus footwear presents 
a continuous problem. 
One common error is to have the footwear too tight, thus hamper- 
ing circulation and limiting air space. This is one reason why in ex- 
tremely cold weather ordinary G, I, shoes should not be worn at all; 
they do not permit wearing of a sufficient number of'layers'of’ socks. 
In temperatures much below zero the best footgear is the Eskimo mukluk, 
a non-waterproof, spacious high boot. It permits use of felt insole, 
and several pairs of socks. It is best in low temperatures, when snow 
does not melt and wet the boot through. Mukluks should not be' worn in- 
doors, or they should bt whisked clean of all snow and ice, lest snow 
melt, wet through the inside, not have time to dry out completely in 
the warmth' of indoors, and then freeze when worn out in the cold'air 
again. The mukluk’, either of skin or canvas, is ventile—that is, it 
"breathes*1, permitting the evaporation of perspiration. 
At higher temperatures, around freezing, the shoepac is ad- 
visable. This is a boot with rubber bottom and canvas or leather uppers. 
The bottom keeps out moisture from slush and wet snow, but of course 
keeps in some moisture from the feet. The wearer should dry out the feet, 
the inner soles, and the socks as often as possible. 
There are also felt overshoes, which can be worn with one or 
two pairs of socks under waterproof overshoes, in case of wet ground. 
As important as the kind of shoe are the socks and insoles. 
Insoles, usually of felt, are needed to furnish insulation under the 
foot. They must be kept dry and clean. The wearer must have an extra 
pair along, to wear while the first is being dried out. The drying 
can continue even while on the move—for even below zero, air and sun 
will dry damp articles, and a source of warmth is found beneath a parka, 
well ventilated to keep the moisture evaporating. Insoles should also 
be changed from foot to foot, to distribute pressure and the matting 
effect. 
A light weight woolen sock with double soles should be worn 
next to the skin. Depending on the temperature, one or two pairs of 
woolen ski socks should be worn over these. Then on the outside the 
jute or net sock should be worn. This is a hard-weave material, and is 
useful in helping condense moisture from the feet. The moisture freezes 
and gathers on the net, which can be shaken and the frost' knocked off. 
Another sock, used only in extreme cold, is the felt duffel sock, worn 
under the outside net sock. It is useless when wet. 
A-III (Rev.) One important precaution. Clothing, from socks to parka, loses 
warmth when dirty or'greasy. Socks lose their insulation as ‘dirt mats 
the wool fibers, and grease is a good conductor. So*keep’ clothing, 
especially socks, clean, bool should be washed in lukewarm water, and 
shaped. Make sure that all the soap is out. 
In summary; the best combination is a'ventile, loose high boot 
(high enough, and with a drawstring at the top, so that it will not fly 
off in case of a bail-out), with several j5airs’of socks underneath. Two 
pairs loosely worn are'-better than three tight pairs* Insoles are in- 
dispensable in cold weather. The top of the boot should not permit snow 
to enter. ‘ -i:' ' 
A good insulator has long been used by the Eskimos—grass. 
Tufts of dry grass are put in the shoe, outside the socks, and serve to 
keep air spaces working* 
3* Handgear. It is hard to hit on a-single specification for • 
glove's, because of the various kinds of demands, ranging from flyers to 
ground crew’to gunnersi The same basic principle applies in handgeah 
as’in other clothing: it must breathe, and allow escape of moisture. 
Completely waterproof gloves or Battens cause condensation, and maybe 
freezing. Mittens cause each finger to help warm the othersj while ’ • 
finger gloves, with less air space, are not so warm. Standard issue is 
a combination of heavy mitten and thin water-repellent shell, both1 with 
trigger fingers which can be drawn inside the mitten. ’ 
A good' combination is a thin, tightly woven woolen glove to 
furnish an insulated layer* and an outer loose mitten of windproof cloth, 
horsehide, or skin. Mechanics’ and ground crew’s mittens must be sturdier 
and oil resistant. In cold weather the wristlet, covering the wrist'and 
forearm, but leaving the fingers free, is useful, and should be worn at 
all times, * ; 
Great care must be taken to sew up any holes, no matter how 
small, in the material of the mitten. Even the smallest area of live 
tissue exposed to the cold can freeze, and the hands are especially 
liable to freezing. One authority on arctic clothing has suggested 
that at suitable' needle and thread be attached to each garment or set 
of garments, to assure quick;repair of holes. * 
Another precaution is to tie gloves and mittens to the outer 
clothing with strung, to prevent; their doss an the snow. ■ A- lost:mitten 
can cause the loss of a hand, and a useless hand in an emergency can 
Cciuso the loss of life’. 
4* Headgear. Several examples of frozen ears have been reported 
at Alaskan air bases, the result of wearing simply a garrison cap for 
even a short stay outdoors, it seems an obvious enough caution—keep 
your ears covered when the wind blows free. But momentary lack oi con- 
trol, a single careless decision, accompanied by a quick change of 
temperature, results in a disabling frostbite, with some days in the 
hospital, N.L.p, This is where habit and training come in—for so small 
a' decision as the choice of a hat. Woolen toques, or pull-over stocking 
A-IIX (Kev.) hats, are available. Our ears, with blood running close to the surface, 
: are in especial danger of freezing. Ski-hats, with ear flaps, can also 
be worn. 
Hoods are available to go with parkas for really cold weather. 
Some difficulty has been experienced with hoods that do not fit either 
the wearer or the parka itself, ' Hoods must be fitted to the individual 
and his garment. A fur fringe, to furnish a kind of insulation around 
the face, is useful in extremely cold weather to help prevent frosting 
of the face. But of course eternal vigilance is necessary, for those 
whitish-grey, dead areas of skin. 
B, The Sleeping Bag 
An indispensable part of field equipment is the sleeping bag. 
Several varieties are available. The Quartermaster Corps-model consists 
of a double bag-. During fairly mild weather only the inner bag is neces- 
sary. For extreme cold the outer bag is slipped over this, affording 
extra protection. The Air Forces bag is heavier and bulkier. 
The user must be careful that the bag has adequate closures, 
kind pushing its way into the bag through a slight opening can reduce 
body temperature to a point at which sleep is impossible. Another basic 
consideration is the need for keeping the bag dry and clean. Always be 
sure that you sleep so that your breath is exhaled outside- your bag. 
Body moisture and its condensation suggest the wisdom of sleeping 
in clothing. But never-sleep in clothing you have worn during the day. 
Put on fresh dry underwear and clothing if possible. The clothing absorbs 
moisture, and can be changed, while few bags come equipped with inter- 
changeable and cleanable linings. For this reason, reliance on the 
sleeping bag in a permanent camp will be quite unsanitary, if the bag is 
used for weeks without cleaning. 
C, Emergency Equipment 
* In considering kits and equipment, let us take the normal situ- 
ation first—that a plane in trouble will be crash-landed. 
1. Trie Plane Kit. The basic advice in an arctic emergency is to 
try to land the plane, in order to have the benefit of the shelter 
which the fuselage affords, plus the added equipment which the plane 
can carry. A combination of three airplane kits now available offers 
a good basis for a prolonged wait for rescue. 
The first, Emergency Sustenance Kit (Rations), Type E-l, pro- 
vides rations and miscellaneous equipment. It is packed in a fiberpax 
drum, and contains various rations and drinking water. It includes 2 
of each of the following; waterproof match box with matches; hunting 
knife with sheath; mess kit; mosquito headnet; pair of water repellent 
canvas gloves; mosquito repellent; fork; spoon; pair of mukluks; ice 
creepers; box of 24 heat tabs. Also a sewing kit; a grill for the heat 
tabs; and a copy of a survival manual. 
The second, Emergency Sustenance Kit (Implements) Type E-2, 
is carried in a metal container which will serve as a wood stove. Of 
A-III (Rev.) course Greenland and other areas without'wood offer little possibility of 
use for, this stove. Contents: -; combination .22. cal,; and .410 gage gun; 
ammunition; matches in match box; camphor; generator-operated flashlight; 
candles; stew pan; large spoons; machete or butcher knife; cooking oil; 
fishing kit; signal flares; axe;, gasoline-burning stove; first aid, kit. 
■The third is the Emergency Sustenance Kit (Cooking) Type E-4, 
an emergency cooking unit employing a pressure type gasoline stove 
burning 100 octane gasoline, and including two stew pans, a fry pan, and 
a fabric gasoline bag. 
It is apparent that there is overlapping among these kits, and 
when space is at a minimum, as in fighter planes, it.might be advisable 
to arrange a combination of contents. Addition of other items can be 
arranged, in accordance, with the experience of those who know the problems 
to be faced. The Airlines War Training Institute suggests the following 
items: axe; shovel; rockets; Very pistol; metal signaling mirror, with 
small hole, in center; V-K smoke signals.; candle; gasoline stove and con- 
tainer; gun; four ounces light flexible wire for snares; fishing kit— 
Pinchot-Lerner Ko. 5 light weight for rafts (Instructions, net knife, 
hogks, bait, and cloth gloves). Also a first aid kit: burn injury set 
containing sulfadiazine ointment (also useful in treating infection 
from frostbite); 3 packages small first-aid dressings; 1 wet eye dressing; 
100 halazone tablets; 2 ampoules of morphine; 1 pair scissors; 1 pkg. 
sulfadiazine, tablets (to be taken when wounded;) 1 pkg. sulfanilamide 
powder (to be sprinkled on wounds); 1 tourniquet; 1 large gauze adhesive 
bandage; .1 box iodine swabs. In addition, a Sevang kit (large safety 
pins, needles, cotton, darning wool, buttons). 
Individual equipment includes a pair of snowshoes,-a sleeping 
bag, and two pair of amber sunglasses with non-metallic shields at edge. 
A pocket compass is an important item, in case it becomes necessary to 
leave the plane and travel. 
A technical sergeant who walked 150 miles, to,safety after a 
forcedown, recommends many of the items above listed, and in addition, 
linen thread end curved fabric needles; six candles; colored signal 
panels; and.a rucksack. 
2, The Parachute Kit. The Basic Parachute Emergency Kit, Type 3-4, 
can be of real value under certain conditions, especially when rescue is 
to be expected in a short time-. It goes with the seat or back-type 
parachute, and is enclosed in a zipper-fastened canvas cover, usable as 
a knapsack after landing. Contents are signal flares;,signal panel; a 
machete; special parachute kit ration unit made uo of Field Ration X 
components; match case, with m< tches; cooking pan; compass; knife; fishing 
kit; can of solid fuel; first aid kit; mosquito hcadnet; goggles; and 
gloves. There is no sleeping bag or extra clothing, of course, and if 
extreme cold weather sets in, the only protection would be a snow-house, 
since a fire cannot make itself felt more than a foot or two -away. 
Fighters can stow little more .than this kit. 
There are also the personal kits, escape type, designed to be 
carried in the pocket or snapped on the chute harness. Type E-3 is 
A-III (Rev,) packed in a cloth bag, 12" by 6", which can be used as a water container. 
It contains matches, compass,-.hacksaw blade; halaione tablets; benzedrine 
tablets; Field Ration D; dextrose tablets; bouillon powder; chewing gum, 
• Type E-6 Individual Bail-out Ration contains two units of Field 
Ration K, which can be snapped on to the chute harness before bailing out, 
Type E-7, Individual Bail Out Hater provides two cans of drinking water. 
This is likely to be of least use in the arctic. 
Of course the components of all these kits are undergoing 
constant testing and experimentation. Some kits may be discontinued com- 
pletely, or revised. It is further obvious that only a United choice 
of kits might be available at any one time or post. Individual airmen 
will have to make up their kits from what is available. But the basic 
needs are clear*: matches, compass, basic rations,- some- container for 
melting water and cooking, a hunting knife and sewing kit, sun glasses, 
warm clothing. 
3* Rations. Ho plane-should start on a mission in the arctic with- 
out storing as great a quantity of rations as possible. You do not know, 
when you start out, how long it will be before you come back. It is' 
difficult to say ahead of time what should be taken. The standard kits 
have been found satisfactory: the five-in-one ration, intended to serve 
five men for one day; the Field Ration K, one box for each meal; and the 
C ration. It has been-found that these rations can be stretched without 
causing too great weakness. 
Certain basic principles should be followed in an arctic diet. 
Most striking is the need for fat, to furnish quick heat. A'diet of 
rabbits, affording only lean meat, is deficient in components other 
than protein. Sugar is an important item,, for energy, - Most northern 
explorers are emphatic in their approval of hot tea as a source of body 
warmth and as a stimulant. 
Pemmican, a concentrated combination of ground and pressed 
lean and fat meat, and cereal, has long been a popular form of emer- 
gency food. Bouillon cubes and dried fruit are also approved. 
Vitamin concentrates are favored by some men who have traveled 
in the arctic, but there is no clear proof that they are necessary for 
brief periods, or on permanent bases. 
You can expect to lose weight during an enforced stay in cold 
weather. Most of the loss of weight is due to loss of water. Besides, 
the difficulty of making a fire and thawing food, and the time consumed, 
will keep your food intake down. 'One of the rescuers who joined the 
Greenland 3-17 party actually gained weight during the months awaiting 
rescue. He was experienced in arctic living, and could make the best 
of his situation. 
A-IIX (Rev.) ‘III. THE FORCE-DOWN, AND METHODS OF SIGNALING 
.1 • - 
Let us assume that you have done your best to equip the plane with 
the proper equipment: sleeping bags, clothing, food, implements. Need- 
less to say, you also need training in how to use all this material. , A 
suggestion has been made that every pilot entering arctic operations 
should receive a week's training in living in the wild country, learning 
how to wear clothing, make fires, adjust his tempo of living to the 
weather, This may not be feasible; but officers can take it upon them- 
selves to learn as much as they can., and practice what they learn, about 
equipment and how to use it. Ground crew men rectivp special training in 
maintenance and living problems. 
A, itay with the Plane 
The first advice, in case of trouble, is, Stay witft the plane. 
Do not let go .of a prefabricated shelter. If it is at all possible, 
make a landing when the plane is in trouble. Or, if you have to bail 
out, try to find what is left of the plane. Besides the factor of shel- 
ter, there are other reasons for staying with the plane. First, it is 
easier to spot in a search than an individual. Several inhabitants of 
the far north, accustomed to travel, remember cases in which the empty . 
plane was discovered long before the person who had left it to try his 
luck cross country. This is a unanimous opinion. 
Second, your plane has important equipment that you cannot attach 
to your parachute. It has,or should have, sleeping bag, extra clothing 
stoves,, fuel, fopd. This does not apply to a fighter, of course. 
1, On Landing 
Well, the plane has been landed. Op, you have bailed out, and 
you have found your way to the crashed plane not far off. The first thing 
to do is to make sure there is no chance of fire. Look for escaped gaso- 
line, Move the equipment out of the plane until you are sure there will 
be no fire--fire can break out some time after the crash. 
Make .sure immediately that everyone in the party or crew is 
adequately dressed. A few minutes1 delay may cause dangerous freezing. 
But adjust your clothing to keep perspiration at a minimum. At the 
same time, render whatever first aid is necessary for injuries sustain- 
ed in the. landing. There is less danger of infection in the arctic 
than in other areas, but wounds are likely to freeze quickly,, stiffen, 
and cause trouble out of all proportion to what one would ordinarily 
expect; Bhock is especially dangerous. 
An important, job to attend to quickly is to moor the plane, 
Winds can spring up quickly and cause great trouble by blowing the 
plane around and wrecking your camp. If possible, use a "dead-man" 
mooring, Dig a hole in the snow, bury a log, or barrel, or chunk of ice, 
or anything to which you can attach the end of a rope, pour water over 
it, to freeze it, and then fill the hole; tie the other end of the rope 
to the plane, You will need several such moorings to hold the plane 
steady. Where no water is available cut two trenches in the ice parallel 
to each other, about six to ten inches apart and from one to two feet 
deep, Then chisel a hole through the bottom of the wall or segment of 
ice between them. The rope will go through this hole. 
A-III (Rev.) 2. Keep Feet Dry 
Do not try to travel too far away from the plane. You can 
easily lose your way. And above, all, if you do want to go to the top 
of a nearby hill to look around, do not make the mistake of one fighter 
pilot. His P-36 was forced dom, with very little damage. He was un- 
injured. He decided to walk around, inspect the nlane from the outside, 
and try to get a view of his surroundings. He returned to the plane, 
wrapped himself in his parachute (he had no emergency clothing along), 
and waited. He neglected to dry his shoes, or remove from them some .snow 
which had got in. After a while his feet felt cold. When he lit a fire 
and took his shoes off, he could not melt out the snow, which was frozen 
solid. 
1/ihen he was finally rescued, his feet were frozen to the ankle. 
He was lucky in that he lost only his toes; but the- Air Force lost a 
pilot. This trouble could have been avoided with the simplest knowledge. 
If you walk out in the snow, make sure none gets into your’ shoes. 
3* More on Frostbite 
The important thing, next to preventing frostbite, is to dis- 
cover it as soon as possible. Almost all stories of frost-bite reported 
to medical authorities in Army camps in the north have a similar element: 
the patient .did not know his feet were frozen, or his hands, or h’is ears, 
until hours later, there was insufficient, or too tight/ foot 
covering; or the patient lost a glove, or took his mitten off in extreme 
cold to do a small job, and left the mitten off too long. 
If you suspect a part of your body is frozen, act immediately. 
If your hand has been exposed to the cold for a couple of minute's, do not 
simply put the glove back on. Dig your hand deep into your clothing, 
next to your body. If you twitch your face, and feel that there is a 
dead area, without sensation, take your warm hand out of your glove and 
hold it against the critical spot. But put the hand under your clothing 
after a couple of minutes, and use the other hand to warm your- face, 
(Make sure meanwhile, of course, that your mittens are attached to your 
clothing with a string., so they will not be lost,) Ordinarily, when the 
freezing has just begun, body warmth is enough to restore sensation. 
There will probably be pain in the frozen area; this pain is an indica- 
tion that the operation has succeeded. There may be a discoloration, 
as in sunburn, a day or two later, end perhaps peeling. There, may be 
swelling, and blistering, if the freezing has been moderately severe, 
Above fill, avoid panic. The first thing not to do is to 
remember the old wives tales on how to treat frostbite. Do not rub it 
with anything, Neither snow, nor oil, nor kerosene.’ 'Somehow the quaint 
notion has grown up that i’f a liquid does not freeze solid, then it is 
really warmer than the surrounding air. This is dangerous nonsense. 
Once a trapper froze a couple of toes, Some one brought in a can of 
kerosene from outside, where it was at least 30° below, and put the 
man’s feet into the can. The feet froze solid above the cnkle, and had 
to be cut off. Body heat is enough to bring up the temperature ‘of the , 
frozen member. Or apply cold water, hater,, to exist as a liquid, must 
A-III (Rev.) be above freezing, find therefore probably higher than the frozen pext's 
temperature. Bring up the temperature gradually. Db not work too fast. 
Even if tne frozen area as dead, and requires amputation, do not hurry. 
It is not like infection, which quickly spreads and contaminates neigh- 
boring tissue. The surgeon can observe the area for days, to make sure 
that cutting is necessary. A clear' line of demarcation is observable 
between living ahd dead tissue. Do not act dramatically, with pictures 
of a life-or-death amputation of a frozen leg, by flickering candl'elight. 
Xou Will probably find, if you wait, that the part does not need cutting 
at all. After sensation is restored, treat the skin as for a burn—the 
quick removal of body heat from a part does the same thing to the skin 
that a burn would do, Sulfathiazole ointment is often usJed by northern 
physicians. 
B. Signaling 
An important reason for staying with your craft is that it helps 
bring rescuers. Even a pea-shooter makes a bigger blotch, oh the snoW 
than a man. And you can make it more obvious. 
1, Scrape off the paint, and make the skin shine. Take off the 
engine cowling, especially in a multi-engined plane, and lay it concave 
side up, so that, the shiny surface ref3,ects light, 
2, Keep the plane free of snow, especially the shiny and darker 
sections, 
3* A useful item in emergency equipment is orange paint, which 
can be seen from far off. Spread some of it on the wings. 
4, Wing covers are now available in two colors: one side is 
white, for camouflage against the snow. The reverse is orange or a 
similar bright color, to attract attention in an emergency, 
5, Use some of the engine oil for a smoke smudge. Sop it up 
in seat cushions, or in some cloth, and set fire to it* Alternating 
this smoke with steam made by dashing snow' oh a spray of water on your 
fire, will be a good signal. 
6, Use your feet to stamp out an 6.0,6, on the snow. Just a 
couple of inches depression in snow may at certain times' of the day 
and year cause a pronounced shadow outline. Of course this S.O.S, has 
to be large enough to be caught from the air, about 100 feet. If 
tiiere is enough brush or wood around, outline letters with this. Only 
be sure to keep the dead, light wood for your fire, 
7# Use your smoke bombs; only use them sparingly. Make sure 
you hear a plane coming before you let go. 
B. 6ome pianos are equipped with emergency rockets. They"make 
excellent signals. Flashlight batteries lose much effectiveness in 
great cold, 
9, Flat signal panels. Learn the various foldings for signals. 
10. Signal mirror. Learn how to direct the flash, 
11, Probably most important is the radio. It is worth all the 
effort you can’give it, to try to get it working. The B-17 crew which 
hit the Greenland ice-cap, and stayed there for several months, agree 
that their rescue was due to the radio operator, who finally coaxed the 
set into sending out feeble signals. Look for the Tech Order on the . 
plane set. It will help you make repairs. An emergency set, the life- 
raft Gibson Girl, is good to have around, because of the harid-operatod 
generator. Radio is important because visibility in the north may be 
bad for days at a time. 
A-1II (Rev.) IV. HOUSEKEEPING 
The next problem, after you have made your forced landing, and have 
adjusted clothing and arranged signal apparatus, is to set up house- 
keeping. You may have a long stay. The first thing' to do is adjust 
your minds to the new situation. You are in trouble, certainly. But 
with knowledge and common sense, it need not be serious trouble. You 
are not exposed to dangerous insects and germs, or to bad water. Your 
main enemy is the cold, and if ;you have prepared adequately, you can 
laugh at it, or at least face it steadily* Do not be discouraged. 
Even if the weather is bad, and you begin to wonder if you will ever be 
found, remember that bad weather seldom lasts more than a few days at a 
time in most of the arctic area. In the Aleutians, we all know, 
visibility may be bad for a long time, but the very element that make 
for fog—closeness to water—prevents the temperature from getting un- 
bearably low. 
A. Keeping Inarm 
1, Keep Dry, This warning cannot be repeated too often. Keep 
dry outside your clothing, and inside. Do not let the snow remain on 
your clothing when you move near the stove or the fire. Try not to 
work so fast that you will raise a sweat. It is the established prac- 
tice of Eskimos and experienced travelers to start moving fairly slowly, 
making constant adjustment of clothing, so that the air spaces in the 
clothing will not become saturated with moisture. If you have to work 
fast to move equipment, and if you do feel yourself sweating, try to 
change your clothing, and dry the moisture as soon as you can. 
You must be especially careful of your feet. They arc most 
likely to freeze without your knowing it. Take off your footgear, socks 
and all, before you go to sleep, and dry them out. Remove the insoles 
daily, if you have them. Dry them out, switch them in your shoes. Do 
not grease your boots; this will cause them to freeze and get stiff, 
and lose ventility. 
2* Using Snow for Warmth. It may seem strange- at first, but in 
extreme cold you are better off dug into the snow, than in the fuselage 
of the plane. It took the Greenland B-l? crew a long time to learn this. 
Extremely cold air penetrates any opening, and your plane- is hardly 
likely to be sealed. Thus the inside of - the plane is likely to be as 
cold as the outside, and it does not make sense to keep a stove or a fire 
going when you can keep warm without-it. The Eskimos learned long ago 
that snow is a good insulating material, since-it contains•much air. 
They simply dig a hole in the snow arid go to sleep, when the weather is 
too bad for travel. Learn to sleep in the snow. However, do not lay 
your sleeping bag directly on the snow, for two-reasons. First, your 
body may heat the snow under you, causing it to melt slightly, and pene- 
trate the material, causing chill. Second, since the snow is colder 
than your- body, it will draw off lie at. Find some kind of vegetation- 
spruce boughs, or grass, or brush, to lay beneath your sleeping b?..g. A 
tarpaulin, or a parachute, or even your arctic suit, will furnish enough 
of an insulation beneath your bag, <• 
3. Metal Instruments. Keep your watch, compass, end other deli- 
cate machinery inside your clothing, preferably on a string around your 
neck, to keep them warm. Oil will freeze at low temperatures. Guns 
A-III (Rev,) -15- should be kept nearly free of oil. They must be clean, and whenever 
possible the barrel should.be cleaned with hot water and thoroughly 
dried* unce the oil has been, removed from a firearm,, the piece should, 
not be brought into a warm place, because it has no protection from 
moisture. As it is clean and cqld, it will not corrode. 
B* Keeping Alive 
You will ho.v,e to keep warm inside’ as well as outside. Your 
* ■ * 
body engine needs fuel* And ab no time is it so important to have hot •. 
food as in cold weather. The first requirement, then, is to make a • 
fire, and keep it going. 
1. Making a Fire 
The old primus stove, burning kerosene or such heavier fuel* 
is now being supplanted in emergency kits by gasoline stoves, which can 
burn the fuel.used by the airplane engines* This is usually 100 octane, 
for tactical pianos. Other stoves. do not burn leaded. gaSi , . 
But if you do not have a stove, do not think.you cannot uti- 
lize gasoline, A device used bpth in the,north and on the desert is - 
the sand-wick stove. Fill a tin can about half full of sand or earth, 
punch small holes for draught in the sides just.above the level of the 
sand; and pour the gasoline on,the sand. Then light the top of the 
sand, which will act as a wick. The stove burns evenly-.and cleanly* 
« ■ ’ 
Apart from gasoline, there are other kinds of fuel* We must 
consider these because running out of gas is a common reason for forced 
landings. ,. • ■ ■ 
In wooded country, such, as the sub-arctic, look for trees. 
Dead wood, dry, is the .best kind. Water-soaked and frozen wood, even 
if dead, cannot be got to thaw out and burn. A dead tree or branch is 
your best bet, because the wood probably has not been sopping up water 
during the summer. Finely split green wpod may burn.after some,coaxing. 
When the wood is snow covered, you can tell the difference between 
usable wood and worthless stuff, by rapping it with a knife.or another 
piece of wood. Good stuff is light, and gives a flat sound. Water- 
soaked wood is heavy, and rings when rapped, 
A fireplace for a wood.fire should have a reflector of logs, 
and a. platform of logs, to prevent the fire from, sinking into the snow* 
The fireplace is also necessary to confine the heat to cooking pots. 
In open country, where there are no trees, look for heath 
shrubs <ind lichens. There might also be free coal, and peat. If you 
are near the shore, search for drift-wood. As a last resort, and if 
you have enough food, use animal fats for fuel, 
A fireplace for fat burning could bo .a stove, or a pile of 
bones or sticks. If the fat is melted, and dropped slowly on the pil'e, 
it burns. 
A-III (Rev,) In wooded country, tinder can be made from birch bark, dry 
twigs, dry rotten wood. On open tundra, white heather or lichens can 
be used for kindling. A cloth impregnated with gasoline, or a scorched 
cloth will serve. 
In an emergency, if you have not equipped yourself with matches, 
or have not taken care of them, you might with difficulty strike a 
light with stone and steel. This requires patience, good lungs, and good 
kindling. You might also use a burning glass, taken from a gun sight or 
photographic lens, concentrating the of the sun, and gun powder, 
which can be ignited by a number of methods. Open a cartridge and use 
the powder.' But there is little excuse for not having matches in a water- 
proof box. 
2, Importance of Fuel Economy. Kindling is especially important. 
Recover unconsumed kindling immediately the fire is started. Keep the 
wood together in a compact fire, without air spaces. 
Do not make a practice of trying to warm yourself with a fire. 
In really cold weather, the heat is not felt more than a foot or two 
away; so that one side of you is hot, and your clothing scorches, while 
the other side is still frozen. Hoard your fuel for cooking. In case 
of a threatened food shortage, burn nothing that can be eaten, such as 
animal fat. 
3* Water 
There is water, water, everywhere, and practically all of it 
fit to drink. Bven if you ■come down on or near sea ice, you’can use it 
if it is more than a year old. The salt crystallizes out. 
Ordinarily you need not worry about polluted water in winter. 
Typhoid occurs occasionally in the north, but you are not likely to be 
forced down near any dwelling, and besides the snow certainly has not 
been contaminated. 
For cooking,and drinking, melt ice rather than snow. First, 
it is more concentrated; you get more for the heat expended. Second, 
unless you keep pressing snow down into the receptacle, the bottom layer 
will melt, then be burned off, while the top of the snow will not melt; 
your boiler may burn through. 
Do not gulp snow if it is very cold, or if your body is cold. 
It lowers body temperature, and may cause cramps or thirst. Take snow 
in small bits, and if the temperature is net too cold, warm it up in 
the hands before swallowing it. 
4, Cooking; Food must be thawed before it can be cooked. New- 
comers to the North are usually amazed at how difficult it is to thaw 
frozen food, or even to melt ice. Use "waste heat" to thaw food, by 
keeping the food suspended over the fire from the very beginning. While 
making tea, while melting snow or ice, while heating anything, always 
have food hanging right over the fire. 
A-III (Rev.) Undercook, rather than overcook. You .save heat, and you save 
vitamins. If you possibly, can/ eat'the food raw. . In fact, it qeems 
true that some animal food, such as bear meat, becomes tougher; and 
stringier with cooking. Boiling food is better than baking or frying 
it. Use cooking water to drink, unless the cooking, has been necessary 
to remove harmful substances, as from native plants. 
5. **oods; a. Rations; Vie can assume that your party is equipped 
with some supply of emergency rations. No plane takes off these days 
in northern operations without a couple of days’ full rations. These,, 
can normally be stretched; groups of men, doing some traveling, found 
that they did not consume a full set of three packages of "K"_ration 
per day; and a fairly quiet existence in or around the crashed plane will 
require less food than would normal operations, Start being stingy with 
'food immediately. And try to keep warm; your body will thus consume 
less of its*stored-up fat in the effort to keep warm internally, 
b, Animal Food: You had better start thinking immediately of 
‘adding to your prepared rations. Any animal which can be caught is 
edible, with the exceptions of polar bear's liver, some salt water 
mussels, and possibly fresh whale meat. Patience and some ingenuity 
are necessary in the hunting of some animals, but the alert hunter is 
likely'to get results. 
Two important staples of life in the north are the seal 
and the caribou, for both food and clothing, kith the ,22 cal,-,410 
combination gun in the emergency kit, firing at short range is necessary 
for results, There is the danger in shooting seals in or near.the water 
that the bodies will sink. It is wise to have a harpoon handy, or 
shoose a victim some distance from the water. Aim for head, neck, or 
shoulders, heals are likely to sun themselves on sand bars at a riv er 
jAouth in summer, and on the edge of ice floes in winter. On the pack 
in winter look for the-holes they have to make in the ice to breathe 
through. You can learn to eat the meat, and even the blubber, raw. 
The seal does not have to be skinned immediately, since its flesh, unlike 
other animals, does not freeze hard immediately. 
The caribou can be eaten raw. Their broad tracks are 
easily recognizable, and they may be found at some time all over the 
northland. Aim for shoulder or neck, rather than the iiead, which is , 
a difficult target. At nightfall there is a tendency for the animals 
to bunch up, and there is a greater chance then of getting more than 
one animal. 
Polar bears are pretty dangerous to play with. They have 
great vitality, and are fine swimmers. They are seldom found inland, 
Since the polar's main food is seal, caught on solid ice or on.shore, 
it might* be an idea to hunt a victim-seal's carcass, as the white foxes 
do, rather than the bear itself. There are several other kinds of 
bears in the north—-brown bears, grizzlies, and, in the wooded country, 
the small black bear. Most bears, except the male and unpregnant 
female polar, hibernate during the winter. 
A-III (Rev.) Rabbits can be shot or caught with snares, but should not 
be solely depended on for food, because of the leanness of their bodies. 
Ptarmigan can be caught easily by hand or snare, or hit with sling shots. 
Gulls are so hungry all the time that they are easy to catch. Do not 
consider it a miracle if a hungry one lights on your head. 
c, Plant food. If the ground is snow-covered, you must scrape 
down to the ground. Lichens (reindeer lichen arid rock tripe) are the 
best and most abundant sources of plant food. They should be soaked 
in water and, if possible, boiled. Vitamins can be found in the buds 
of birch, willow, or other woody plants which project above the snow, 
or>can be found by digging, J 
In general* then, do not assume that there is no life in 
the frozen north. Keep your eyes open, and know where to search, and 
you may well find enough to make the difference to you between starva- 
tion and subsistence. 
C. Some Hints on Health 
The best advice is, do not worry about your health. Naturally, 
you are likely to lose weight when living in emergency conditions on 
emergency rations. And do not start worrying now about the problem of 
defecation in a temperature of forty below. You will not have the 
natural urge as frequently as you would at a home base. Besides, you 
will be eating less food, and require less elimination. And there is 
no medical certainty that your body requires an elimination every day 
for health. Men have gone for a week in the arctic without a movement, 
without any ill results. Your urine will be thicker, and perhaps deeper 
colored than ordinary. It may even develop a pungent smell, after a 
couple of days of emergency rations. Do not let this worry you. You 
will run out of food, or be rescued, long before there is likely’to be 
the least danger from tills source. The game of seeking variety in your 
rations and stretching them will occupy your mind; do not let your spirit 
down. Similarly with vitamins. Do not worry about them. Your normal 
ration will contain enough to keep you going, and even if it does not, 
it will be weeks before vitamin lack begins to have any visible effect. 
Air out your clothing as much as you can. Try not to wear the 
same clothing day and night. If you change quickly in a sheltered spot, 
you need not worry about your body freezing. Cleanliness helps maintain 
warmth in your clothing. 
Many men have acquired a bit of dangerous small knowledge about 
"lung frosting", They may fear that moving in extreme cold may cause an 
inflammation of the lungs. It should be said .now that there is no clear 
record in medical circles of the north of any such'trouble experienced 
by human beings. It is true that animals, such as horses and dogs, have 
died from a condition that would fit the term "frosting of the lungs", 
but even in animals this can be avoided. It is' agreed that the important 
precaution, for both men and beasts, is to start work slowly, so that 
there will be no panting and rapid breathing. Eskimos are careful to hold 
their dogs back on beginning travel after a rest, despite the animals’ 
eagerness to be off. Too great exertion too soon will cause trouble. 
A-III (Rev.) ’Human beings can develop a pain in the chest region after great exertion 
in the cold, and trachial-bronchial infection is possible. But immedi- 
ate frosting of the lungs is not likely. To avoid all such trouble, go 
easy at first. 
Another general notion is that dwellers in the north are more 
susceptible to tuberculosis. This has received no support from the 
experience of Army physicians in the north. 
In general there is less likelihood of infection in the north. 
Tetanus and gas gangrene from infected earth are rare. Colds occur 
with only slightly greater frequency in northern army camps than those 
elsewhere, usually because of crowded conditions and difficulty of 
ventilation. Typhoid exists, as all over the world, from infected water, 
but in no greater proportion, 
"Sun-blindness’1 is not really blindness, but an intense pain in 
the eyeballs, resulting from glare, or even the continual attempt to 
adjust the eyeball to terrain which fails to offer contrast and shadow. 
Thus the ailment can be developed on days when the sun is hidden by 
haze, The remedy, of course, is rest in darkness; the prevention is 
an ordinary pair of sun goggles, without metal, and shielded on the 
sides. The lenses must be fairly dark for adequate protection. Amber 
or orange colored glasses are approved by some authorities because they 
afford greater perception of contrast, as of ground levels. 
These glasses are more useful on bright, hazy days of diffused 
light, than on days of direct sunlight. There are no shadows, and 
orientation is difficult, causing eyestrain. The sage-green Ions, used 
by the Array, affords maximum protection against harmful radiation with 
minimum color distortion, and is considered best for general conditions 
and bright sunlight. 
It is important to keep the face as free of hair as possible, 
.jtour breath will condense on your moustache or your beard, and your 
skin might freeze. Another symptom which might have an effect on beard- 
freezing is the normal tendency of the nose to drip freely. 
V. TRAVEL 
Although traveling is contrary to the advice of every authority on 
arctic winter conditions, it may be necessary ’under certain conditions. 
The plane may have fallen on shore ice which is likely to break up; 
one of the men of the crew is badly hurt, and it seems advisable to 
have others in the party attempt to bring help sooner than it might 
otherwise come; food has been exhausted, and hunting is bad; you might 
be pretty sure of your direction, and believe that you can make your 
goal handily with the equipment on hand, 
A. Go Easy 
If you decide to take off cross country, keep one warning in mind; 
do hot try to fight your environment. When you feel tired, rest; if 
you cannot see where you are going, stop; if the air gets very cold, end 
there is a wind that is hard to fight, dig into the snow, and wait for 
better weather, You are much more likely to freeze when your vitality is 
A-III (Rev.) down. The only time it is dangerous to sleep in the snow is when you are 
so tired that your body cannot respond to the warning of cold. Ordinari- 
ly, if you sleep in the snow, your body will feel the cold before it 
becomes dangerous. Then you can move about, and exercise moderately to 
warm up. 
As you start the trip, do not move too fast, farm up gradually, 
so that you do not sweat. Loosen clothing as your body warms. Then, 
after you have been traveling for a while and your body gets somewhat 
tired, close up your clothing, and put more on. 
Before starting, arrange an emergency bag, with extra mittens, 
parka, socks, underwear, rations. This should go on top of a sled. It 
is wise to make a sled, if you hope to take along change of clothing, 
sleeping bag, fuel. The sled C..-41 be made of boughs, strips of metal, 
made flat to glide over the snow, after an application of ice to the 
runners. 
Part of the equipment to be taken along on a trip should be a num- 
ber of rolled-up patches of burlap soaked in kerosene or oil, to be used 
for kindling to start fires. This will save time in fire-making. 
B, Precautions and Techniques 
Certain, precautions are necessary in pitching camp at night. Do 
not settle down under a bluff covered with snow. The wind alight blow 
some of the snow down on you, and you will be lucky if you escape un- 
smothered. Or the wind, coming from the opposite direction, might drift 
snow up against the bluff, and over you. Do not pitch camp on thin icc 
too far from shore. , Ice has a way of breaking off. 
If you have to ford a stream or a body of shallow water, prepare 
your non-waterproof footgear such as mukluks by dipping them quickly in 
the water, then withdrawing them, so that a thin film of ice develops 
as the water freezes. Dip repeatedly, so that the film gets thicker. 
This will prevent water from penetrating into your boots and socks while 
you are fording. When you get to the other side, you can try to chip 
off the ice, and dry out the, boots. 
It is important to know, your direction at all times. .Depend not 
only on your compass. If the wind sets in and you have to hole up, or 
even if you camp for the night, be careful to note from which direction 
the wind is coming. If you are unsure of the route to.follow when you 
start again, aim to move so that the wind hits in the same way that it 
did when you stopped. It is likely not to have veered too much. Or 
better, observe the ridges of drift snow piled up by the last storm 
when you camp for the night so that you can take off at the same angle 
to these ridges. 
A general reminder on all northern activities: avoid if possible 
doing anything alone. Company keeps up spirits; makes preparation of a 
camp or food easier; mid helps observe mid treat frostbite. 
A-1II (Rev.) VI. SURVIVAL IN SIMILE 
A, Clothing 
lour summer clothing will depend on where you are. You will need 
some kind of winter clothing available for operations near the coast, 
or to tide you through a storm* Ordinarily, however, all you need is- 
summer underwear and ordinary prescribed uniforms. 
One precaution to flyers is necessary. Those who will be flying 
over the Aleutians, with their constant fog and haze, will know that 
the greater portion of their operations will be over water. They will 
learn quickly that the water warms up- not very much in the summer; in 
August it is hardly ever over 50°F. In flying, therefore, it is neces- 
sary to wear heavy clothing, both because of the actual air temperature, 
and because of the greater protection in- case of a force-down on- the 
water. The greatest fear of flyers is immersion in the bitter cold v 
water. Death after about an hour in the water has been reported on 
several occasions. Heavy clothing will help retain body heat for a 
longer time until rescue. 
B, Insects 
The most important point about summer clothing is the need for 
complete protection against mosquitoes. They are innumerable and ubiq- 
uitous, A head net is necessary, to be attached to a wide-brimmed hat 
that keeps the netting away from the face, A complete bed net is de- 
sirable for sleeping, even over a sleeping bag, insect repellents or 
fly dopes have been found quite satisfactory. Some formulas, developed 
for the Army, are good for 4 hours. One device is to ’soak a handker- 
chief in the stuff, and rub your face and hands with it periodically. 
An encouraging news item reports that more and more satisfactory 
repellents are being discovered continually. Sprays, or an insecticide 
gas bomb, must be used in an airplane before taking off, and also in 
a tent or dwelling before going to sleep, or occupying it. 
Goggles are necessary not only in winter. They must be worn when 
on sea ice, glacier or snow-covered surfaces, and they will also be- 
found helpful near the coast or on the water, which throws off a bril- 
liant reflection. Goggles can be improvised if necessary by cutting out 
a piece of cardboard or wood the size of a lens, and making a narrow 
slit like a T, to squint, through. Ear pieces must be improvised out of 
string or wood or wire. It is better to have a spare ‘supply of ordinary 
drug-store goggles. 
Shelter in 'summer is necessary as a protection against insects, 
light rain and snow, and to provide darkness for better sleeping. Re- 
maining inside a plane will serve the purpose. 
C* Food 
Food arid water are more abundant and easily obtained in this 
season, There will be pools or streams of water over most of the north- 
ern region, because of slow evaporation. Pools of water on sea ice 
will be fresh, if they are far enough away from salt sea spray. 
A-III (Rev.) 1. Animal Food; It is obvious that all kinds of animal life will 
be more easily found in summer. Birds are nesting, mammals are moving 
around more, and fish are more easily caught. 
Birds’ eggs are easy to obtain, because of the tendency of 
some birds in the arctic to nest together in large numbers, -Some birds, 
such as ptarmigan, at this time of year can be caught with the bare 
hands. Shares and traps are easily constructed, • - 
Fish are abundant near shore, and there is less danger there 
from breaking ice, Salmon run up streams, most of which are shallow, 
in the spring, and they and other fish can be caught by building a 
partial dam of small stones across a stream, leaving a narrow sluice 
through which they must pass. Here they can be speared or shot, 
I 
2, Plant Food; a point definitely in the favor of the northland 
is that there are no poisonous species of native plants in the treeless 
section of the arctic, available foods are of various kinds, 
a. Greens; cowslip, dandelion, fireweed, ferns, and many 
other herbaceous plants can be used for salads, 
• b. Roots: bistort, wooly lousewort and sweet vetch have 
edible rootstocks. The kamchatka lily in the Aleutians is also edible, 
c* Seaweed: marine algae, like brown seaweed which has been 
washed ashore, are edible if they are fresh, and not dried or decayed, 
tney must be Washed, md ere best cooked. 
d, Berries; in both arctic and sub-arctic, there are blue- 
berries, bilberries, cloudberries, boarberries; and mountain cranberries 
are abundant during the short summer, and some can always be found in 
the spring, preserved from the previous winter. Limited to the sub- 
arctic are the northern gooseberry, red currant, red raspberry,-wild 
strawberry. 
A-XIX (Rev,) SUMMARY Oh /ECTIC SURVIVAL 
1* Prepare. Carry as much equipment as possible; kits and spare 
clothing. Make sure the clothing has insulation, and is yentile and 
adjustable, 
2, Do not take chances on -weather. Have clothing ready for sudden 
change, 
3. Outer garments should be windproof, 
4* Attach outer handgear to clothing. Mittens are bettor than gloves, 
5. Shoes should not be tight. Wear several layers of socks, and 
insoles, 
6. Sun glasses prevent sun blindness. Have more than one pair, 
7. In summer, long garments, tight at wrists and ankles, help foil 
insects, 
8. Do not wear same clothing during day and in sleeping bag, 
9. Keep clothing and sleeping bag clean and free from grease. Dirt 
and grease destroy insulation, help bring chill. 
10, Loosen clothing during exertion, to prevent perspiration. Dry 
body as soon as possible. 
11, hatch others'faces for frostbite, and twitch your own face, 
12, Do not touch cold metal or ice with bare hands. Stay out of 
propwash, 
13, Do not rub frostbitten parts. Cover with hand or put next to 
skin of body; bring up temperature slowly, 
14, Keep oars covered outdoors. They freeze easily. 
15, Keep snow out of shoes. Move toes often, hear ventile footgear. 
16, When traveling, know where you are going; make sure you know how 
to tell direction with or without compass, by sun and stars. 
17, In case of forcedown, stick with plane. Make shelter in snow 
under wing, 
18, Do not despair of finding food. Know the habits of animals, and 
the likely location of plants. All life is edible, 
19, Eat snow in small bits. Do not overcook food, 
20, Know how to use smoke, panel, and pyrotechnic signals. 
21, Take it easy; do not get yourself into a sweat, and you will 
last longer. 
A-III (Rev.) ARCTIC, DESERL TROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
THE DESERT (THREE LECTURES) 
LECTURE I—GENERAL CONDITIONS 
D-I 
INTRODUCTION 
PAGE 
1 
I. Physical Characteristics 2 
A. General Nature 2 
B, The Desert Pattern 3 
II. The Ndtives of North Africa 8 
A. The Peoples 8 
B. Rules and Customs 9 
III. Care of Personnel in the Desert 12 
A. Desert Heat and Body Cooling 12 
B. Sweat and the Salt Balance 13 
C. Heat Stroke 14 
D. Water 14 
E. Diseases Carried by Water 15 
F. Foods That are Unsafe 15 
G. Diseases Carried by Insects 16 
H. Stings and Bites 18 
I. Diseases from Human Contacts * 18 
J. On Morale and Recreation 19 
K. Summary of Rules on Desert 
Personal Care 20 
Prepared by 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF, INTELLIGENCE 
25 Broad Street, New York 4, N. Y. ARCTIC, DESERT, AND TRQPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
ARM AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
THE DESERT 
Lecture I: 
General Characteristics, Native Life, and Care of Personnel 
Introduction 
The British film masterpiece, Desert Victory, refers to only one 
kind of victory in a single desert. The mounting triumph from El Alamein 
through Tripoli to Tunisia, ending gloriously on the,beach at Cape Bon 
with the round-up of more than 200,000 Axis prisoners, does not mean that 
we can cross desert operations off pur Inst of inings to think about, 
bo long as there is an African army to be supplied; so long as there are 
African air bases; and indeed, so long as there is a European theatre of 
operations, with a European expeditionary force, supplied from the 
mediterranean, then the African desert will be a factor in our planning. 
There are other deserts too, that will enter our military thinking. 
There are important desert areas in India, in China, in Syria and 
Palestine, in Australia.. Our men are quite likely to find themselves 
operating from bases in or near one of these deserts, bo we might as 
well start learning now, talcing advantage of the hardships endured and 
lessons learned by our buddies y/ho got there a bit earlier. 
First, start unlearning, if necessary. The poet who vowed he would 
be faithful "til the desert sands grow cold" was not tying himself down 
for more than a couple of hours—the hot desert gets awfully cold at night, 
because the dry air and cloudless sky permit rapid loss of heat from the 
earth. 
Another false notion suggested by the poet is that the desert is 
mainly sand. Only a portion of the desert is covered with sand, and 
even this has a hard crust. Loose, shifting sand dunes are much rarer 
than the movies would have us think. 
And if you are in the desert and see a mirage—water shimmering, 
or an enticing oasis—do not tell your sergeant to put you out of your 
misery. You have not gone crazy with the heat, mirages are perfectly 
natural occurrences, resulting from refraction of light by air layers 
of different density. 
But on the whole war news reports have given us fairly realistic 
pictures of what desert operations are like. Unpleasant, monotonous, 
dangerous, there can be no denial. But American soldiers can make a 
D-I (Rev.) test of their surroundings, arid with proper knov ledge and care, can live 
quite successfully arid healthfully, at least ii. African bases we can 
expect there will be little or no actual combat hardship. But there 
will still be the climate to understand and mast r, and the populations 
to understand and keep friendly. 
I. PHYSICAL CHARACTLRISTICS 
A* General Nature of Deserts 
what is a desert?-- How does it differ from other land areas? What 
are its fundamental characteristics? 
1* Hot Deserts and "Cold Deserts" 
The .term "desert" is used for those lands which produce insuf- 
ficient vegetation to support a human population* There are "cold deserts” 
and "hot deserts". The term "cold desert" is applied to high latitudes, 
where comparative absence of vegetation is due to the prevailing low 
temperature and low precipitation. We are not concerned here with this 
type of land, but v/ith hot deserts which are caused by high temperature 
and deficient rainfall. 
2. Areas and Locations 
It is estimated that between one fifth find one seventh of the 
total land area of the globe is hot desert. Consider the vast expanse of 
such an area; it would be almost three times th: size of the United 
States rind almost 200 times the size of England, 
The Sahara desert with its 3i million square miles, including 
the Libyan Desert, is by far the largest. The S rian and Arabian deserts 
together total about 1,000,000 square miles. The Gobi desert is somewhat 
smaller, about 6 00,000 square miles. 
3* liiich of the hot desert land of the world is located in theatres 
of operations or in areas likely to be invaded. It is important that 
you learn as much as you can about deserts. Know where they are situ- 
ated; know their terrain and climatic characteristics, and become 
familiar with the animal, plant, and human life that exists on them. 
The most important deserts of the world are located as follows: 
a. A broad desert belt can be seen on the map of the Northern 
Hemisphere in an east and north direction across western Africa, Arabia, 
and northwestern India to the Gobi region of China, This belt is common- 
ly divided into the following regions, although the exact boundaries are 
hard to define. 
1. Sahara Desert (north Africa) 4. Syrian Desert (Syria, 
2. Libyan Desert (northeast Africa, Palestine, North Arabia) 
including Fayoum and Nubian Deserts) Iranian Desert (Iran, Irak) 
3. Arabian Desert (southern and" 6. Thor Desert (western Inula) 
Central Arabia) ?• Gobi Desert (China) 
D-I (Rev.) b. In the Southern Hemisphere 
1. Kalahari Desert, (south Africa) 
2. Australian Desert (west Australia) 
2,. Atacama (South America) 
B. The besert Pattern 
Regardless of their location, all deserts conform to the same 
general pattern and exhibit like fundamental characteristics. This should 
not be interpreted to mean that differences do not exist—that terrain, 
climate and life forms in the Kalahari Desert are identical with those in 
the Sahara or the Gobi deserts. There are many local differences, but in 
general all areas termed "desert" conform to the same environmental 
pattern. The characteristics of this pattern are as follows: 
1, Lack of Water 
The almost complete absence of water in any form (rivers, lakes, 
rainfall, snow, etc.) is characteristic of all hot deserts. Deserts are 
waste lands for want of it. They support but little animal life, plant 
life, and human life. Give a desert plenty of water on receptive soil 
and it will bloom like the tropics (note the desert oases) and support 
man and beast in large numbers. 
a. Rivers 
Although there are some rivers in deserts (e. g., the Nile 
of northern Africa and the Tigris and Euphrates of southwest Asia), a 
further fundamental characteristic of a desert area is that most river 
beds carry water only for short periods. There are stream beds (called 
wadis in Africa, arroyos in the American Southwest), which are dry most 
of the year. They are watersheds which collect surface water draining 
off rolling and mountainous terrain. Following a heavy fall of rain, the 
wadi becomes a raging torrent. For this reason, if you set up camp in 
a wadi or dry stream bed, be ready to make a quick escape after a rain. 
In its flow across sun scorched land, the water in a wadi usually dries 
up or goes underground before it reaches oceanic water, or a large 
permanent river. 
b. Rain and Snow 
The annual rainfall in deserts is less than 5 inches per 
year. Some sections of the Libyan, Saharan, and Syrian deserts have 
less than 2 inches, most of it coming during, the winter months. The 
deeper one goes into the Sahara the less the rainfall. Much of the rain 
that falls is in the form of infrequent heavy showers. This type of 
rainfall results in flash-floods and raging wadis, Certain sections of 
the Sahara and Libyan deserts are so dry that even the, heaviest rain 
amounts to less than half an inch. 
The coastal and plateau areas of North Africa which border 
the Sahara and Libyan deserts are more humid* The moistor parts of the 
D-I (Rev.] coast receive as much as A0 inches of rain annua ly, the drier parts less 
than 20 inches. The city Algiers receives about A? inches; Hone, 29 
inches; Tunis, 16 inches; Djidjelli, A5 inches; Dakar, 23; Marrakech, 13; 
and Alexandria, Baghdad, arid Teheran (the latter in Asia)’between 8 and 10, 
Snowfall is absent in the desert except in mountainous sections 
where the elevation is more than A,000 feet. The Gobi desert, because of 
its high altitude and latitude, experiences considerable snow during the 
winter months. The Atlas mountains which fringe the northern parts of the 
Sahara, in Algeria and Tunisia, are snow-capped above 7,000 feet from 
December to March. 
The relatively heavy precipitation (rain and snow) encounter- 
ed along the coastal regions of Algeria,, Tunisia and Libya may seriously 
affect air operations. In late fall landing strips and natural-surfaced 
airfields turn into treacherous bogs and quagmires. Likewise, in the 
desert the dust turns to mud during rains, and aircraft frequently bog 
down, 
The relative low humidity overdescro areas results in excel- 
lent visibility.when the air is free of dust and sand. Visibility is best 
during the summer, when humidity is lowest. 
2, Variable Physiography 
Deserts are not everywhere flat as a tat le and comoosed of Vc9st 
expanses of sand. Nor is the desert a rolling co mtry of sand dunes as 
depicted by Hollywood. Desert soil is composed c, defly of residual soil, 
known as doby and caliche, with rocky hummocks anc here and there ex- 
panses of sand dunes, mud flats, and salt flats. 
Desert altitudes range from sea level to 5000 feet, and the land 
is often mountainous and rough. This is particularly true in Morocco, 
Northern Algeria, and Northern Tunisia. Rugged hi3,ls are common in the 
Libyan and Arabian deserts. Yet there are wide stretches of fairly level 
land in all deserts, land that is suitable for air ciperations. It must 
be remembered, however, that the hard crust, once byoken or disturbed, 
creates a serious sand ana dust problem. 
The following descriptions briefly cover th ? most important ter- 
rain features of one desert area—that extending fron Morocco to Egypt; 
a. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia 
1, The Atlas Mountains (13,611 feet maximi in elevation) cover 
about one-half of the country. Beginning in western Lljprocco they have 
their terminus in northern Tunisia. The rugged Ahaggej.' Massif guards 
the southern approaches to Algeria. A plateau of about 3Q00 feet ele- 
vation, out of which the .mountain ranges rise, extends *Ln places to the 
mediterranean coast. This produces a coastline which bold and rocky 
with cliffs rising sheer from the sea. 
, ■' 2, The Sahara; Desert begins on the south edg*i of the Atlas 
range, about 100-200 miles inland from the Mediterranean, and covers all 
D-I (Rev.) of southern Algeria and portions of Morocco. Salt pans (chotts) and mud 
flats, which when hard can be used as emergency landing .fields, dot the 
desert and plateau tableland. One salt pan may cover several hundred 
square miles. During the rainy season they are impassable, .Planes should 
never attempt to land on them, wet or dry. They may be swamp under a salt 
crust, 
b. Lower Tunisia, Libya and Egypt 
1. This entire area may be said to conform to the layman's 
idea of what a desert looks like. It is a land containing little or 
nothing of use to man. Some of it is mountainous and some of it is flat. 
South of the mountains in Tunisia lies an area of sand dunes which gives 
way to an inland plateau of 500 feet elevation. Between the dunes and 
the plateau is an area of great salt pans, 
2, The coastal plain of Libya varies in width from 1-40 miles 
and is the only area, except for a few oases, that contains enough water 
to sustain human habitation. 
South of this narrow coastal strip is the Libyan Desert, 
an area which for the most part is devoid of water, and has large seas 
of barren shifting sands and boulder-strewn regions. Chotts (salt pans) 
are scattered widely and most frequently near the sea coast where rain- 
fall is heaviest. The Tibesti fountains (10,332 feet maximum) contribute 
the only major peaks in Libya and mark the southern boundary and the south 
limit of the desert. 
Egypt is largely flat desert country broken only by the 
wide alluvial plain formed by the Nile River and its delta. The flat 
Libyan plateau lies to the west while to the east, across the Red Sea, 
are the rugged hills of. the Arabian desert, some of which rise to an 
elevation of 7>500 feet. 
3, Temperatures: High with Extreme Range 
a. Remember that when you go into the desert you are going into 
an area that gets hotter than any place you have yet experienced. But 
because it is a dry heat you may not feel it nearly•so much as the summer 
heat of. Florida, The desert loses its :heat at night ; the low humidity is 
an inadequate insulator. Deserts get cold at night and you will experience 
changes of, 30-50 degrees from day temperatures. You vdll suffer from the 
cold unless you have adequate clothing and blankets. 
b. Temperatures vary vdth the altitude, the month of the year, 
and, the time of the day. Areas of high altitude have a lower temperature 
than do low areas. It is. much hotter in summer than in winter, and 
colder at night than during the day. 
c. In the Saharan and •Libyan Deserts you will experience summer 
day air temperatures of 100-127°!. At night it will drop to 73-78QF. The 
highest recorded air temperature in the Sahara is 133°E. Soil temperatures 
are even higher and your feet and-body vdll feel scorched on contact vdth 
175°F, of soil heat. Winter temperatures are 73-7&°F. during the day and 
drop to 41-£0°F* during the night. d. Temperatures are lower on the plateau and along the coast of 
•North -Africa than in ohe true desert. A typical summer day ranges between 
70°and 95°F. Freezing temperatures occur but arc not common. 
e. The weather of the Worth. African area may be divided into 
the same four seasons that,we.are accustomed to, with the same months in 
each season. 
f. Some deserts are extremely cold..during the winter months. 
The Gobi, because of its more northern latitude, has temperatures as low 
as 14-20°F. The summer temperature is B0-90°F, but can go higher. 
'Ui Sandstorms and Strong lands 
.In all deserts sandstorms occur periodically and without warning, 
and winds of cyclonic velocity .produce considerable turbulence.that may 
extend up to 7,000 feet. The Sirocco, a hot, dry, and dusty southwind, 
blows with considerable force in Morocco., Algeria and Tunisia. It may 
last for just a few hours or for days; it is least common in winter, and 
more prevalent in the east of the area than.the west. In Libya and Egypt 
winds similar to the Sirocco are found. Called the "Simooms" (Libya) 
and "Haboobs" (Egypt) they are hot, turbulent, and carry clouds of fine 
dust and sand. They are most active during the summer. 
5. Scarcity of Animal and Plant Life 
where there is no water there can be little or no life. It 
is only in the regions where waterholes exist or where the rainfall is 
above average that life forms are found. Animals are limited to gazelles 
(a form of antelope}, jackals, rats, lizards, '.and insects.. 
Except in the oases the only, vegetation in the Saharan and 
Libyan Deserts is low-growing shrub and camel grass. Shrub palm and 
grasslands border the desert tableland, and evergreen brush predominates 
along the coastal plain and in the valleys. Forests are found on the 
windward slopes of the mountains. : 
6, Low Density of Population 
Five persons per square mile would be a generous figure for popu- 
lation in deserts over the world. There are large areas of the Saharan 
end Libyan Deserts with fewer than two, or entirely devoid of human life— 
the reason being lack of water. The population of the Saharan and Libyan 
Deserts is less than one-tenth that of England, yet the land area is 
sixty times larger. 
Desert people are widely dispersed in the form of loosely organ- 
ized tribal groups. They are hunters and food-gatherers, and roam 
thousands of square miles of desert.land in search of food. Some peoples 
drive their flocks of sheep and goats with then. All desert peoples are 
nomadic and have a, simple material culture. The Bedouins of Arabia, the 
Tuareg of the Sahara, the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert and the Mongols 
of the Gobi Desqrt are good examples of desert nomads. Nomads traverse the 
desert by. means of trails and caravan routes. Six main caravan routes 
cross the Sahara. , There are several caravan routes .in the Gobi and : 
Arabian Deserts that have been in use .for thousands of years,- ■ ■ Permanent villages with a fixed and ready source of food (i.e, 
agriculture in some form) are found only at oases. Examples in the 
Sahara are Biskra, Touggourt and Insalah, £lso, springs, irrigation 
channels, and wells—wherever there is water—are other centers of 
population. 
7, Mirages 
The optical illusions called mirages are sometimes caused by 
two sets of light rays, one convex and one concave, which reflect the 
e&y’s image mailing it appear as a sheet of water, Bocks and trees can 
also be reflected. Similar mirages may be seen over smooth surfaces, 
such as tarred roads on calm hot days. 
It is most important not to be fooled by these mirages into 
expecting water, or being led off the course. 
8, The Desert and Its Relation to Air Operations 
The remarks and observations which follow pertain only to the 
plateau and desert areas of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya uni Egypt, 
a. The coastal areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia offer no 
serious hindrances to air operations. Visibility is good though over 
mountainous regions flight may be hampered by heavy cloud formations and 
bumpy air. 
b. Warm fronts of cyclones may bring fog, dust storms, gales, 
and low-level icing. The rainy season turns airfields and landing strips 
into mud, a factor which seriously deters air operations. 
c. Spring and early fall are the seasons best.adapted for air 
activity in the coastal areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. 
d. The flying problems are different in the inland desert areas, 
In summer, great heat, dust and bumpiness will present trying conditions, 
Landings on untreated surfaces which throw up huge clouds of dust will be 
a major problem of maintenance and operations (See Lecture P-Il), Visi- 
bility is generally good but works a tactical handicap on low-ceilinged 
aircraft. 
On the basis of tactical experience, spring and fall are the 
best seasons for the operations of aircraft in the desort section of 
lower Tunisia and Libya, In the Egyptian area, fall offers the fewest 
hindrances to air operations. 
e. Forced landings in the desert present a aeriQS of prsblemc. 
to aircraft personnel. What to avoid in landing the plane, what to do 
after landing, and how to survive in the desert and problems which mu$t 
be solved for success in desert warfare. (Note: What you should know 
and what you should do are covered in Lecture III--Desert Survival.) 
D-I (Rev.) ii. the Natives of north africa 
From the standpoint of personal advantage, 1 you need the friendship- 
of the peoples of the'desert, -The more you know about them, the better 
equipped you are to enlist- their cooperation in maintaining yourself-. * 
The time may come when their active help will be needed in your fight 
against the desert and the common enemy, while their animosity can make 
life difficult. 
In the'second **pTdce, each American soldier is a personal representa- 
tive of the United States, How well he understands the natives and how- 
well ho ’gets along with them, affects not only himself but his whole out- 
fit, His behavior' will give some north Africans their first deep 
impressions of America and Americans. Each man can help or hinder the 
present and future relationships between our land and theirs. Every 
blunder in dealing with the natives is a bodst for the Axis. 
Treat the-natives with respect and dignity. Avoid the narrow atti- 
tude of so many people about "foreigners". Remember, you are the 
foreigner in this case; it is their country you are staying in. It has 
been their land for several thousand years. They are as proud about 
their way of life.as we are about ours, and more sensitive. Do not 
demand things, but ask politely for what you need. Be free with your 
cigarettes, -if you need help. 
♦ * 
There is another reason, too, why you should know the natives. An 
intelligent effort to make friends among them, to understand and sympa- 
thize with their customs and beliefs, can result in a rich personal 
experience, one that can never be estimated in narrow terms,* You will 
find that other people's main problems of living are the same as ours,' 
but through thousands of years of living in a different kind of country 
and with a different background of culture, they have met these problems 
in different ways. Refrain from judging their ways as better or worse 
than ours; our standards do not always apply. 
In this section we discuss primarily the peoples of North Africa, 
but much applies to the Moslem inhabitants of other desert areas. ■* - ’ 
A* The 'Peoples 
1# Age of the People 
* ' The past history of the north Africans goes back into the Stone 
Age, The modern people,, undergoing continual mixture, are probably not 
much--different-from those who lived there before written history began. 
Their inheritance has derived from the rich stores of ancient Egypt, 
Phoenicia, Rome, and Arabia. They have maintained themselves under harsh 
desert conditions for thousands of years and they are still a rugged and 
intelligent people, 
2, The Races of North Africa "■ ' 
'y «. r • * ; 
One of the first things that will strike you is the variety of 
physical appearance. Traits range from dark skins, black eyes, and kinky 
D-I (Rev.) hair to blue eyes; blond hair, and fair complexion» Between these 
extremes are all manner of mixtures and combinations, though the majori- 
ty tend toward dark coloring. This is to be expected from their location, 
between the European whites and the tropical African blacks. The north 
Africans are the racial link between these two great areas; they are just 
a step removed from the dark-complexioned Latins of southern Spain, France, 
and Italy. This original population is often called Berber. The- Berbers 
vary a great deal, not only in physical appearance, but in customs and 
habits as well. 
3. The Islamic Influence 
There is, however, one great common bond shared by most north 
Africans: the Mohammedan faith, or, more correctly, Islam, More than 
a thousand years ago, Arabs began entering Africa from southwestern Asia 
and gradually they pushed across the African continent. The Arabs were 
Moslems, or Mohammedans, as we say, and they were enthusiastic- mission- 
aries. Today the religion of Islam has spread' west as far as Morocco, 
and the main north African language is Arabic. This Arabian influence is 
weaker in the west; in Morocco the Berber speech and culture are still 
dominant, 
4. The Arab and the Berber 
The Arabs and Berbers live different kinds of lives. You are 
more likely to meet the Arab and the Arabized Berber element in the desert 
and towns, but something should be known about the Berber as well, The 
Berber is first of all a farmer, deeply rooted to his native soil. If he 
leaves his land for business or other necessity, he is glad to return. 
His general outlook is democratic and,most of his leaders are elected, 
though individual strong men may acquire prestige through raiding and war. 
The Arab and the Arabized Berber, on the other hand, are no farmers. They 
roam about the desert with their herds. Their society is primarily aris- 
tocratic, and they are ruled by leaders who inherit their offices'. Unlike 
the more tolerant Berber, the Arab tends to disdain other religious sects 
of Islam, and for the non-Islam like yourself,, he often feels contempt. 
But the Arab will.not show his feelings of superiority;'he is too courte- 
ous and hospitable. You will not have any trouble with him if you keep 
in mind that the Moslem is sensitive and proud of his way of life. Respect 
this attitude as you would expect your own serious ideals to be respected. 
B* Rules and Customs 
1. Stick to the Native Rules 
Learn to show respect for the religious and social practices 
of the Arabs and the Arabized Berbers, no matter how odd they may seem; 
for example, their customs at-meal times, and the role played by women 
in Moslem life. Respect women’s privacy and strict modesty. You will 
run into formalities of social life that seem extremely strange, but 
stick to the native rules, not only in the cities and towns, but in the 
open desert as well. And try, to appear natural about it,1 
D-I (Rev,) There are a number of important practical rules that should" 
be learned right away. A great deal-more.'can be learned by personal 
experience, but find out as much as possible before-you start; it will 
help you get off on the light foot. : 
2, Rules about Their Religion . 
The Moslem is very touchy about outsiders going into his holy 
places. Keep away from mosques and shrines; do not go into one and do 
not even loiter near one, If you have to pads!a..mosque, just keep on 
going, and do not spit or smoke while you are passing it; that is a 
grave insult. Remember that to--a-Moslem there is no other religion than 
Islam, so you will do-well'to avoid dife-cussing the subject. Religious 
discussions are in this case downrigh%1:hisky. It is the Moslem oractice 
at certain times of- the day to stop1 whatever they may be doing, kneel on- 
the ground, and bow towards Mecca, their holy city, vThen you see this 
happen, it will, of course, seem curious, and it may strike you as funny. 
Never show' such curiosity or surprise. Do not stare or stile at such 
customs, and do not attempt to photograph them, - ■ 
A particularly sacred period for Moslems is their month of 
Ramadan. During this interval of twenty-eight days they .have nothing to 
eat, drink, or smoke from sunrise to sunset. Never offer any of these 
forbidden articles to a Moslem during the fast period, except after dark. 
3• Rules about their Women 
Behave toward Moslem women with extreme care. They are very 
much secluded, and excessive modesty is demanded of them. Do not' try to 
•attract their attention on the street or any other place. Even what you 
might consider a friendly smile is an offense to their modesty. It is 
only inviting trouble to talk to them, follow them, or make any kind of 
a pass. • Never enter a Moslem house'without knocking, and if a woman 
comes to the door, do not go in until she has had time to retire. The 
free and easy American social relationship between men and women is un- 
thinkable among arabs. It is a scandalous thing for a woman to even 
speak to a man who is not of.the‘family, even in the home. The women 
rarely oat or drink with their own men folk, and, on the street it is 
required that they walk well behind the men. It may be hard to sympa- 
thize with such practices, but never show any disapproval—it can only 
cause trouble. As far as you are concerned the women of respectable 
Moslem families just do not exist. Do not pay any attention to them, do 
not discuss them with the men, do not even inquire about them. 
4, Rules about Eating 
It is not likely,'but you may get a chance to eat in a Moslem 
home. You will probably sit on rugs or mats instead of chairs. And most 
Arabs eat with their fingers, often out of a common bowl. You will eat 
with men only because it is the law that women and children eat alone and 
after the men. Manners require that you repeat the word bis-mil-lah be- 
fore the meal is begun. Wait until your host starts eating. It is bad 
manners to cut bread with a knife; it should be broken with the fingers. 
D-I (Rev.) is held down. But if, through ignorance or carelessness, this evaporative 
cooling system is abused or neglected, the machine can be seriously 
damaged or burned out just as surely as any other combustion motor. There 
are a number of ways in which the motor can be kept humming at maximum 
efficiency. 
1, Food and Body Cooling 
First, there is the kind of fuel used in the engine. Foods 
should be favored that are easily converted into energy and which produce 
a minimum of waste. Do not clog the motor with slow burning fuel; it is 
like using low octane gas in a P-51,Sugary types of food are good quick- 
energy producers: starchy things, hard candy such as lemon drops and the 
like. Foods highly charged with vitamin B are more needed in hot deserts, 
e.g, liver, whole wheat and green vegetables. All kinds of fruit juices 
too, are good, particularly for their vitamin C content. Regular rations 
are set up to include these elements. Eat all the rations; do not pick 
and select. 
2. How Clothes can Help 
There are a number of helpful hints about clothing that will 
aid the body cooling apparatus. Remember, cooling is brought about by 
evaporation of water through sweating. Wear loose clothing. This allows 
more air movement at the body surfaces, which permits more rapid evapo- 
ration; and that means more efficient cooling,' So except, perhaps, for 
a snug-fitting cotton undershirt to absorb perspiration, wear clothes 
loosely and let the breezes play around your skin. The natives have 
taught us another trick of desert dress. They wrap themselves in heavy 
robes and gowns. They have learned that heavier clothes soak up the 
sweat. This prevents it from being wasted by running off the body, and 
keeps it near the body surface where it can gradually and evenly cool by 
evaporation. Clothing also prevents absorption of heat from the sun and 
the desert floor. 
Another habit of desert people can be imitated with profit. 
They do not hurry or exert themselves unnecessarily. They can move fast 
enough when they have to, but their ordinary pace is unhurried and 
deliberate. Physical exertion burns up energy, creates excess body heat 
and results in water loss through increased sweating. Reserve your' 
energy for the emergency. 
B. Sweat and the bait Balance 
In the’course of normal active duty on the desert, much per- 
spiring is to be expected; this loss of body moisture may not be apparent 
because of rapid evaporation in dry air. Sweat is salty, and the role 
of this salt is important. If too much salt is lost from the blood 
stream through excessive sweating it can lead to serious trouble. Learn 
to maintain a proper balance by using more salt. Sprinkle it liberally 
on food at meal times and make use of the regulation salt. tablets .j 
crumpled up, in water between meals. 
D-I (Rev.) 1. Cramps 
> When the salt balance in the blood runs too low, muscular 
cramps may result. They attack the muscles of the legs, arms, belly 
and chest. They are painful and temporarily disabling. Dizziness, 
general weakness, and vomiting may go with the cramps. Taking extra 
salt with drinking water is the best precaution against heat cramps, 
especially when you are sweating freely;. To treat an attack, rest in 
the shade and drink three or four canteens of water in the next ten Of 
twelve hour’s. Use two salt tablets to each canteen full. 
2. Heat Exhaustion 
A more serious result of too little salt in the blood is 
heat exhaustion. Frequently it comes on very rapidly, and it acts like, 
shock. The first signs are nausea, dizziness and weakness. The face 
turns sickly pale, there is profuse sweating and the pulse weakens. 
Sometimes the victim faints. The best way to avoid such danger is to 
avoid unnecessary exertion and keep the salt balance on your side. 
Treatment of heat exhaustion is the same as for cramps; rest in the 
shade and water with salt. 
C. Heat Stroke 
Another serious condition that results when the body thermostat 
quits is heat stroke. This happens when the cooling system breaks down; 
it can happen very quickly and with little warning. The first signs are 
headache and dizziness. -The face turns dull red and the skin becomes • 
dry; the eyes stare, breathing is in sharp, irregular gasp’s, and the 
pulse pounds. The brain may be affected' and the person may become 
irrational. Vomiting may occur and unconsciousness follows in a few 
hours. Heat stroke sends the body temperature soaring to 110 and 112 
degrees, and the treatment is aimed at bringing the temperature down 
before the body engine is burned out. The victim should be rested in 
the shade with his shoulders raised. Remove the outer clothing and soak 
the body with water. Keep fanning to increase the evaporation. Water 
with salt tablets may be given when the patient is conscious. 
Dv Viator 
Viator is not only the life of the desert but also the source of 
dangers and we need to know more about it. 
1,. Water Ration 
The amount of water necessary'for living on the desert depends 
on the supply, the weather at the time, the kind of work being done and ■ 
the food being eaten. Three or four quarts of water are a generous 
desert ration for all purposes; drinking, cooking, and washing. VJith 
careful Use, this amount per day is sufficient for an indefinite period. 
Under emergency conditions one quart a day will keep a man at nearly 
normal efficiency for about five days. 'A pint a day will just keep you 
going for several clays with the minimum of activity only at night and by 
lying up in the shade during the day. 
D-I (Rev,) 2. Water Conservation 
Personal habits must be changed to conserve water. Develop 
efficiency of movement and activity. Learn from the desert folk, human 
and animal, to avoid the sun when it is high. Work and travel as much 
as possible in the cooler hours of dusk and dawn. Remember the tips on 
clothing; wear garments that are not tight, but heavy enough to catch 
the sweat so it will not pour unused off the body. Drink slowly, in 
small sips, moistening the mouth. 
3, Water Precautions 
Never drink water from wells, springs, streams or any other 
source if it has not been boiled for at least five minutes or chemically 
purified. Equip yourself with halazone tablets for sterilizing water; 
they can make water drinkable even if it is muddy or scummy, if you 
filter it first through a handkerchief or shirt. A couple of drops of 
iodine to a quart of water are also effective in purifying it. Do not 
even rinse your mouth.with untreated water; a break in the lining of the 
mouth is an ideal port of entry for thousands of germs. 
E, Diseases Carried by Water 
The commonest diseases contracted from contaminated water are 
Dysentery, both bacillary and amebic, and Typhoid Fever. Do not expect 
complete protection from your typhoid shots. As for dysentery, there 
is no precaution except avoiding the source of infection; in this case, 
untreated water, Asiatic Cholera is also conveyed by unclean water, 
although cholera is rare in the African desert. 
Another disease that fresh water can transmit is Schistosomiasis, 
caused by a parasite that occurs in canals, pools, streams, and lakes. 
This "bug" can.enter the body through any slight break in the skin, or 
can make its own break,' It eventually finds its way to the bladder or 
rectum where it destroys the lining of those organs with serious effects. 
Bathing in the sea is to be encouraged but fresh bodies of water carry 
the danger of this infection. Makesure a pool or stream of water has 
been certified by the Medical Officer. 
F. Foods That Are Unsafe 
Dysentery and typhoid fever can also be introduced into the body 
by raw vegetables and fruits, particularly those that grow directly on 
or in the soil. Truck gardens in north Africa are commonly irrigated 
with disease-carrying water or fertilized with polluted human waste. No 
matter how fresh and tempting they may look, do not eat lettuce, radishes, 
celery, or any such vegetables, and fruits that grow near the soil, unless 
they have been cooked or otherwise sterilized. Fruits with thick skins 
like oranges and lemons are the only kinds that may be eaten raw with 
relative safety. Avoid melons, which natives fill with water to increase 
weight, or soak in water to increase their size. 
Milk, as well as water, is a. common carrier of disease, Typhoid, 
dysentery, and Malta Fever can all be contracted from raw milk. So never 
C-I (Rev.) drink it unless it has been boiled or pasteurized under' proper supervision. 
The fresh milk of the camel or ass is less risky and may be drunk provided 
the surroundings are clean. 
Any food, raw or cooked, that has been allowed to stand around, 
especially without a cover., is unsafe. Ices, ice cream, pop, cake, any 
of the many tit-bits that may look tempting at the bazaars are good 
sources of infection. Keep away from them. 
G. Diseases Carried by Insects 
In addition to water and food, several kinds oT insects are 
enthusiastic conveyors of diseases. Avoidance and control of these pests 
is absolutely imperative, •? 
1. Flies 
Common flies carry dysentery and typhoid fever and a lively 
offensive must be maintained againkt them at all times. Fight them in 
their favorite breeding places by carefully screening latrines and by 
digging deep privy pits. Do not let garbage stand around in the open; 
burn or bury it immediately. The dpehings of tents, especially those for 
food or mess, must be kept screened* Keep food containers and dishes 
covered at all times. And do not §pare the insect spray in; your quarters 
and in the mess tent. Flies abouhd where natives are living, so avoid 
living near them or> if that is impractical, keep to the windward as much 
as possible. 
2,. Mosquitoes 
Mosquitoes transmit malaria. Do not let yourself be bitten. 
The malaria mosquito can be recognized by the way it holds its body 
nearly perpendicular to the surface on which it sits or bites. These 
pests are more active around dusk, the early evening hours, and at dawn. 
The symptoms of malaria are unmistakable. It starts with a bone-rrattling 
chill that seems very much out of place in the hot desert. This is 
followed by an interval of burning fever. ■ Atabrine or quinine are the 
standard suppressives end treatments for malaria. They should bo used 
wherever mosquitoes are present, Atabrine should be taken by sedentary 
workers, one tablet a day, four days a week; by manual workers, one tablet 
daily. If ouinine is used, five grains should be taken each day. Mos- 
quitoes also cause a fever called Dengue. It racks the joints with pain 
and produces fever and headache, 
ho i.oo be 3 ax about mosquito control. They breed in stagnant 
water, so‘do aoo leu‘ib accumulate, even in small cans. If you cannot 
get-rid oj standing water, pour oil on it. Camp to the wirdward, of 
oases, ponds, and other.places where water may stagnate, Make careful 
use of mosquito netting over,the tent openings and bunk. When you go to 
bed examine the netting to see that it is securely tucked in around your 
mattress or blankets. Look toj sec if there are any mosquitoes inside the 
net, Use Aerosol spray in your quarters and the Army issue mosquito 
repellent lotion on your- skin,. Also dress in protective clothing in areas 
where-mosquitoe's are abundant;, wear long pants and shirts with full length 
sleeves. 3, Sand Flies 
The desert sand fly can be extremely annoying. It can get 
through the older, larger-spaced mosquito netting. Fortunately, it is 
easily killed with spray and can be kept off the skin with insect 
repellent lotion. Sand flies, aside from their nuisance qualities, can 
carry Sand Fly Fever, which is not•fatal.but causes fatigue; and-is a 
general time-waster. Another condition called Oriental Sorb is carried 
by the sand fly. This is-rare in the African desert, but occurs often 
in India, ' - - • '* ■■ ■ . „ • - 
4. Ticks 
The desert is also the home of ticks. These are small suck- 
ing parasites that bury their reads in the skin and cause infection. 
They are common in old houses, ;aves, and are easily picked up when u 
walk through brush and grass. The greatest dangers from ticks are 
Relapsing Fever-and Typhus, In removing a tick from the skin do not 
pull or squeeze it out; -if you do, it will probably leave its head behind 
*and cause-infection. And do net crush it, or tr e germs it carries may 
be forced further into the punctured epidermis* It will free itself if 
you cover it with spit, hold a lighted cigarette near it, or apply a drop 
or two of alcohol or iodine. If there are tick, around camp, examine your 
skin and clothes when you dress and undress. 
5. Lice 
Lice are.common in any part of the desert where there are 
permanent communities of people. The body louse is-small, about the, size 
of a pin head, and yellowish in color. It lives in the folds'-of clothing 
and breeds in the’ same places. Body lice transmit Typhus.and Relapsing 
Fever. Head lice are different in appearance and not so dangerous. The 
usual way to acquire lice is through bodily contact with other people, so 
in native quarters do not get any closer to people than you have to. Keep 
your person clean and inspect your clothing frequently. " If your clothes 
become lousy, ordinary washing is not,enough to get rid.of them. Treating 
clothes with hot steam is' usually effective,.or .they may; have to be,chemi- 
cally dealt, vdth. When you are bitten hy lice, do not scratch; scratching 
invites infection,- • , s ■ : 
6, Fleas. 
■ Fleas are especially numerous where-there are'animals; and, 
sheep and goats are an important part of desert people’s economy, Most 
* fleas are. merely unpleasant pests., but one type, the rat flea, transmits 
the dread.plague. This species is found almost entirely as a parasite 
of rats in the desert area. 
Fleas have also been prove 1 to bo the, carrier of a form of 
typhus. So fleas are not just something to joke, about. Keep cleanJ 
D-I (Rev.) 7. Diseases Carried by Doss and Cats 
Dogs and cats go mad on the desert as anywhere else and the 
danger of rabies is especially great because there is usually no kind of 
control for this disease,. Contact with these animals is also a source 
of ring worm. 
H, Btings and Bites 
1, Vt/asps and Bees 
Like the wasps and bees in America, those of north Africa are 
not a serious menace to health, but their stings can be very painful and 
can cause temporary disability. They are present in houses, underbrush, 
and in holes-; water and sweets are particularly attractive to them. 
2, Scorpions and Centipedes 
Be careful about poking around under stones, in small holes 
or an dark corners. These are favorite hideouts for scorpions and centi- 
pedes, The scorpion looks like a small crab except that his tail curls 
up and ends in a sharp stinger. Centipedes have long flattened bodies 
and are equipped with numerous paired legs. The stings of both of these 
animals are poisonous, but rarely seriously so; The native practice of 
smearing mud on the sting is effective, or, if you have it, apply ammonia 
water. 
3. Poisonous Snakes 
The desert is not thickly infeated with poisonous snakes, but 
they .should not be disregarded. Snakes do not like the heat so they are 
most active when the sun is low* Avoid reaching into holes, cracks, and 
other dark, shady spots; these are favorite resting places for snakes; 
As a rule snakes will avoid' people and give no trouble unless they are 
surprised or annoyed. In case of a bite, however, apply a tight bandage 
or tourniquet immediately above the wound. The snake bite kit has every 
part needed. Then with a sharp blade, make cross-incisions at each fang 
mark. Sterilize the knife before using it—holding a match to it will 
serve. Cut at least a quarter of an inch deep so bleeding vail be free. 
Then apply suction, A heated bottle held with its mouth firmly against 
the wound will create efficient suction. Sucking with the mouth is safe 
only if it is certain that the mucus lining of the mouth is unbroken. 
The tourniquet should be loosened every twenty minutes so that blood 
circulation is not completely shut off.. Medical care should be reached 
as soon as possible and if the variety of reptile is unknown, try to 
bring the dead snake with you to help the doctor in his treatment. 
Alcohol is not only ineffective, but harmful, in stimulating the distri- 
bution of the poison through the body. 
I* Diseases from Human Contact 
There are two lands of diseases that are commonly acquired by 
contact with other human beings: venereal infections and ring worm. 
D-I (Rev.) 1. Venereal Diseases 
The danger of venereal infection in north Africa from prosti- 
tutes is extreme. The profession is little cont'-oiled and exposure with- 
out adequate precaution is most hazardous. The ‘ommonest types are 
syphilis, gonorrhea and lymphogranuloma (this la./t has no effective, cure), 
Avoid contact, or make unfailing use of prophylactics. If you think you 
have been exposed to infection you will save much grief in the end by 
reporting immediately to your medical officer. 
2. Ring worm 
Direct contact with other humans can also cause ring worm 
infection of the skin. This affliction, which is the work of a micro- 
scopic fungus, is partial to the damp areas of the body: under the arms, 
the groin* and between the toes. Another fungus (epidermophytosis) 
causes athlete’s foot* Keep those parts clean, dry, and powdered to 
minimize the chances of infection. Direct contact with people is not 
necessary to acquire skin fungus. 
J. On Morale and Recreation 
Finally, if the camp is more or less permanent, the matter of 
recreation should be considered, Necessity will usually demand that the 
camp units be dispersed, so each unit will become a sort of social and 
recreational center. It is important to keep occupied during a good part 
of leisure hours. There is always opportunity for creative activity 
about camp: camouflage, dummy installations, repairs, etc. Each dis- 
persed unit can have its own PX. and canteen, the center of social 
activity. The promotion.of games and sports, and organized music should 
be encouraged. There are many and diverse observations and hobbies to 
be developed and shared in the desert: the natives, the wild life,, 
plants, minerals. Inter-canteen activities will add to the pleasure of 
relaxation. Rivalry between different units in sports, games and other 
projects will keep men interested. Effort and thought in this direction 
will pay big returns in physical and mental well being. 
■D-X (Rev.) K. Summary of Rules on Desert Personal Care 
.Here in summary, are some general.directions for personal care; 
1. Avoid the hot sun as much as possible. Wear a hat in;the daytime, 
Acquire a tan, but do it gradually, 
2. Protect the eyes from irritation in the sun and dusty air. Wear 
goggles or sun glasses. 
3. Use skin powder to prevent prickly heat. 
4. Watch your feet. Blisters and athlete’s foot can be serious. Keep 
your feet clean, dry, and powdered, 
5. Attend to every minor cut, scratch or other break in the skin. Use 
soap, iodine, or some other antiseptic .and cover'with gauze, 
6. Keep under cover in dust storms or, if you cannot, cover your mouth 
and nose with a respirator or a cloth. . 
7. Wear clothes cpmfortably loose and fairly heavy. Remember that 
temperature drops suddenly at night in the desert. ; 
Q. When flying in the desert, take along clothes that are comfortable 
to walk in. Keep check on your emergency kit. 
9. Use long clothes in mosquito areas. Wool socks are better than light 
cotton. High shoes are better than low ones, • . 
L0. Carry a neck cloth, and another to protect your nose and mouth when 
you go out any distance. 
LI. Change and wash .your underwear and s.ocks as often as possible. 
Here are some important points on shelter: 
1. In locating camp, chock the prevailing wqnd and keep out of the path 
of dust raised by field installations. Locate the kitchen to the wind- 
ward of the latrine, 
2. Disperse the tents widely. See that they are well anchored and 
adequately camouflaged. 
3. Before setting up tents, clean the ground surface of brush, stones, 
debris of all kinds. Avoid camping near native communities. 
4. Use screen and netting over tent openings. Spray tents liberally 
and often;double these precautions for the mess tent. 
5. Do not let refuse accumulate. Burn or bury garbage often. 
6. Locate latrine at least 100 yards from camp, at the lowest drainage 
point. Carefully observe rules of fly control. 
D-L (Rev.) ARCTIC, DESERL TROPIC 
IN FORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
D-II. 
THE DESERT (THREE LECTURES) 
LECTURE I 1—U\INTENANCE, OPERATIONS, AND CAMOUFLAGE 
I. MAINTENANCE 1 
A. Introduction 1 
B. General Maintenance Rules 2 
C. Vigilance Against Abrasives 2 
D. Care of Tools 3 
E. Working Precautions 3 
F. Special Problems 4 
G. Refueling 6 
PAGE 
II. OPERATIONS 7 
A. Preflight 7 
B. Flight 8 
C. Landing 11 
D. Mooring 11 
in. DISPERSION, CAMOUFLAGE, AND PROTECTION 11 
A. Dispersion 11 
B. Camouflage 13 
C. Protection of Personnel 16 
US' THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF. INTELLIGENCE 
25 BROAD STREET. NEW YORK 4, N. Y. 
Prepared hy ARCTIC, DESERT, AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
ARMY AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
The Desert 
Lecture II . 
maintenance. Operations, and Camouflage 
I. MALI ITERANCE 
A. introduction 
The desert'can be a greater destroyer of your aircraft, your arma- 
ment, your equipment and your supplies than the enemy himself. Sand and 
heat are your foes. Get to understand their effect on your equipment. 
Guard against their attack. It fakes eternal vigilance, endless in- 
spection, back-breaking'effort to keep your aircraft serviceable for 
combat. Look after your equipment and it will look after you. Learn 
the lessons of desert maintenance early. Your existence in the desert 
depends on it. 
The history of aircraft maintenance in the desert is the story of 
an endless fight against sand. Sand is the foremost foe of your equip- 
ment;—not only the sand on the terrain, but the dust found in suspension 
in the air. wherever the hard crust of the desert has been broken, there 
is dirty work afoot. There is the, deadly scratching, gouging action of 
quartz-hard grains and pebbles, and the terrific abrasive qualities of 
dust with the fine consistency of talcum powder. 
You cannot avoid the sand and dust,. It gets into everything—into 
engines, instruments, moving parts. "Every time an airplane takes off 
it creates its own sandstorm. Every minute an airplane is in the air it 
is roaming out its own cylinder walls,-ruining valves and, in fact, tear- 
ing down every moving part just as surely as if a saboteur had sprinkled 
emery dust liberally throughout the engine," The life of an airplane 
and its parts is unbelievably short once you let sand and dust get the 
upper hand. 
Remember that the abrasive power of sand depends on the size, 
shape and hardness of the particles. The smaller the grains, and the 
more angular and sharp-edged they are, the more damage they c\o. Grains 
between ,2 and 0,02 mm# are sub-angular, having both round and sharp 
edges. Deadliest of all are the grains smaller then 0,02 mm,, which are 
entirely angular and sharp-edged. Remember that a wind of 20 m.p.h, 
(higher velocities are common in the desert) is capable of moving grains 
up to ,2m. Remember that dust clouds may be found at.altitudes as high 
as 10,000 feet, and that every cubic yard of air drawn through the intake 
includes its quota of microscopically fine, abrasive sand, You cannot 
avoid the sand and dust, but you can win your fight against it by 
D-II (Rev.) constant vigilance, by observing some simple rules, by hard work and 
ceaseless inspection. Get to be sand-conscious. Fight it. You can 
start by observing these general rules; 
B. General Maintenance Rules 
1. Locate your maintenance sites on hard standings whenever 
possible, or on terrain where fine sand grains of high quartz content 
are at a minimum. The dispersed character of desert operations gives 
you plenty of location choice. Take advantage of all shielding 
topographical features. 
2, If you can, locate your maintenance site to the windward of 
abrasive, loose sand areas. Consider carefully the direction of pre- 
vailing winds and avoid location in the path of blown sand resulting 
from the breaking of the desert crust or its disturbance by other 
installations on the field. 
3,' Men conditions permit, improvise some sort of shelter which 
Vvill minimize sand interference with servicing. A canvas lean-to, a 
half-tent, an improvised nose hangar, or a sand-break around the air- 
plane, placed to windward, will prove effective, Small tents, erected 
on hard clean ground, should be provided for the purpose of cleaning 
parts under relatively sand-free conditions. 
A, Keep the maintenance site clean of sand and dust. 
5. During violent sand and dust storms, delay repairs and service 
(if there is no combat emergency) until the storm abates. Do only such 
work as cannot be injured by dust or sand. 
6, These general rules cover conditions peculiar to desert 
maintenance. Follow rigidly the detailed instructions in your 
Maintenance Handbooks for normal servicing. 
C, Vigilance Against Abrasives 
Remember that good maintenance on the desert calls for eternal 
vigilance against the abrasive, destructive presence of sand and dust. 
The desert may be a tactician's paradise but it is a maintenance man's 
hell. You can lessen your burden by remembering, by observing these 
further points: 
1. The most injurious action of sand and dust results from its 
adherence to oil-bearing surfaces.' Men mixed with oil, desert dust is 
an efficient grinding agent. Guard against it constantly, especially 
where it attacks close-fitting parts or parts that work against friction# 
Clean, inspect,* and lubricate regularly, frequently, continuously. 
This is a must. 
2, Lome surfaces must be lubricated and those surfaces should be 
cleaned of sand and dust, inspected and re-lubricated (lightly) much 
more frequently than in non-desert operations. Many surfaces (normally 
lubricated in non-desert areas) can be best operated dry in the desert, 
D-XI (Rev.) but they should be cleaned of sand and dust and inspected as frequently 
as possible, • Keep cleaning, keep inspecting—it is your responsibility, 
3, Lubricate sparingly and-only where absolutely necessary. 
Sacrifice lubrication rather than risk the grinding, abrasive action of 
sand- and dust. 
4, On landing, immediately the-engine ceases to fire, seal all 
engine and gun openings with dust-proof plugs and covers provided for 
the purpose, (There should always be two sets, one stored in the air- 
plane, the other available for immediate application on the ground,) 
Keep all seals on while the aircraft is on the ground. After servicing, 
replace seals immediately. This should become an automatic habit and 
second-nature with you. 
5, Do not lay tools or parts on the desert ground. Every article, 
large or small, is either lost or damaged or stolen when placed' on the 
ground in the desert. If you must lay tools or parts on the ground, 
place them on a strip of clean canvas or in 'a clean receptacle. 
6, Metal parts that are removed from service or salvaged should be 
carefully cleaned, covered with grease and either wrapped in burlap or 
stored in lockers and bins away from sand and dust, 
D, Care of Tools 
Tools are priceless possessions in the desert. Give them your 
best care. Observe these rules—they will make your job easier; 
1, Protect your tools against corrosion and damage. Clean them 
often. Do not use sand-incrusted tools on aircraft. Wrap infrequently- 
used tools in burlap, • Keep them in lockers in a sand-free place when- 
ever possible, 
2, Paint an identifying mark on your tools. It will make them 
easier to find, Mark your tools permanently. Give each tool-kit an 
alphabetical mark and each tool a serial number in that kit. It-will 
prevent arguments and time -wasted, 
3, Keep your tool lockers orderly. Keep each tool in its place. 
It will help- you to locate instantly the tool- you need, • It will also 
help you keep an easy check and inventory, 
E. Working Precautions 
Certain precautions should be tbserved when doing maintenance work 
under conditions of desert heat, While the heat is discagrecable and 
you will experience considerable discomfort, you will not meet any really 
tough problems if you knew what you are up against. Here are some 
important nheat facts" to keep in mind; 
1, Structural surface temperatures are dependent upon the heating 
effect of the sun and whatever cooling effect of the wind there may 
exist. Low-velocity wind, or absence of wind, will result in skin 
temperatures lf4 to 1,5 times free air temperatures, which may run over 
D-II (Rev.) i130°F, Improvised cover, such as canvas or native matting, will alleviate 
excessive temperatures. Interior temperatures will generally remain 
between free air mid skin temperatures. Wing empennage or fuselage 
interiors may rise to 1,1 times free air temperature. Therefore, it is 
important that lubrication, hydraulic packing equipment be checked. 
'Watch bungee cords, de-icer boots (which should be removed for desert 
operations), hatch seals, etc,, for-deterioration. Watch tires, for 
blisters. Check cable control tensions frequently, 
2, Metal surfaces become burning hot to the touch. Use mitts ©r 
gloves to grasp metal tools or metal surfaces that have been exposed to 
the sun. Use mats, pads, etc., to protect your knees from hot surfaces 
on which you may have to work. It is advisable also to wrap cord or 
heavy tape around the metal handles of tools. 
3, Keep the sun out of the cockpit by throwing canvas or matting 
over it. With windows, coupes and hatches open, interior temperatures 
may be 10° to 20° lower, but will permit entry of sand and dust. The 
latter is the greater evil: keep all enclosures closed, unless the 
wind is calm and the plane is attended by maintenance personnel; under 
such circumstances ventilation of pilot, bombardier, and navigator 
cockpits is desirable as a means of guarding against heat warping of 
delicate instruments, 
4, If possible, do all your services and repair during the early 
morning hours or in late afternoon, evening and night, when heat is 
less intense. 
F. Special Problems 
'While you will follow your maintenance Handbooks rigidly for all 
normal servicing, tnere are some special facts you will want to know 
about certain maintenance problems resulting from desert operating 
conditions. Remember these important facts: 
1. Rip-mies 
a. When the engine ceases to fire close all engine openings 
as soon as possible. This includes the plugging of all air intakes, 
exhaast stacks, breathers, vents, etc. hover supercharger. Install 
engine covers (covering the propeller hub and feathering domes and 
extending back ovt,r cowls and exhaust outlets) and point airplane into 
the wind. Covers should be tight-fitting and tailored to the job. 
Keep engine covers on engine at all times when it is hot being serviced 
or prepared for operational flights. 
b. Air cleaners, oil and gas filters are only as effective as 
the amount of care you give them. They should be checked, cleaned, and 
inspected on a rigid schedule. Desert sand and dust quickly choke 
cleaners and filters. Replace worn-out filters and cleaners immediately. 
An airplane with neglected, inoperative filters is a grounded airplane; 
so keep an ample reserve stock of cleaners and filters on hand at all 
times. 
D-II (Rev,) c. Wherever and whenever possible, test your engines on a suitable 
platform. Revving up on open desert ground results in sand-blasting 
which pits the prop, fuselage and tail surfaces. Suitable platforms may 
be improvised as follows; (l) Any hard natural surface, swept free of 
sand and dust, may be used. (2) Landing mats, if available, and of two 
or three thicknesses, are ideal. (3) An efficient mat may be constructed 
by digging a large pit about 6-8 inches deep; fill the pit with cobble- 
sized (over 4" diameter) or larger stones and rocks,' and bring the top 
of the rock mat about three inches above the ground level; the space 
between the rocks provides a trap for wind-blown sand and th’e prop will 
not suck it up into the blades; after several weeks of use, the rocks 
can be removed, the pit cleaned out, rocks replaced, and the mat is 
ready for use again. 
d. In spite of all precautions, the prop blades will become 
pitted on the takeoff and while taxiing. The pits in the prop blades 
should be very carefully smoothed up with a fine file and emery 
at frequent intervals. Be sure to remove all the rough burrs aind 
ragged edges around the pits. 
e. Check oil consumption carefully - keep a chart. Watch for 
a sharp rise - it is your first reliable indication of trouble. While 
the engine can still be operated at decreased efficiency, do not push 
it. Change the engine in time, so it can fight again another day. 
f. Jse a nigh press-ore spray gun filled with fluid to clean 
engines. It works faster and does a better job. 
2. Air Francs, Controls, Landing and Auxiliary Gear 
a. Clean and inspect regularly, thoroughly, and continuously 
such moving parts as flaps, control hinges, pulleys, bearings, worn 
gears, cowl slides, etc, Keep lubrication at an absolute minimum. 
b. Try to keep sand out of brake shoes; cover the wheels, oleo 
struts and retracting screws, while the plane is on the ground. You 
will also be protecting tires from the ection of hot sun and sand, 
c. Protect nose sections, cockpits, turrets and other enclosures 
by fitting them with tight canvas covers. Wind velocity is frequently 
strong enough to hurl sand and gravel against glass and plastic surfaces 
with sufficient force to frost and pit them, 
d. Protect with soft plugs intercooler air intakes and vents, 
e. Keep cleaning rail wheel assemblies and landing gear to 
prevent corrosive action of salts collected on desert terrain. 
f. band will collect in all dead air spaces in the wings, 
fuselage, and tail group. It may in such quantities as'to seri- 
ously change weight distribution and affect the balance and maneuvera- 
bility of the plane. The salt incrustation, too, is a serious corrosion 
hazard. Clean the sand out of these dead air spaces. Sand in the cockpit 
is a menace, too, as it will fly about on takeoff. Clean out this sand, 
A vacuum cleaner with flexible nose attachment will do the job well. 
D-II (Rev.] g. In spite of all protective measures, after each sand "blow" 
your ship will require a thorough cleaning. Bandstorms penetrate. 
,/ h. It is desirable to use a light portable blower to clean sand 
out of controls which become stiff and hard to move as a result of sand 
accumulation, in crevices. 
3• Electrical Equipment Instruments and Accessories 
a. Instruments will cause little trouble provided they are 
properly filtered. Instrument filters should be cleaned thoroughly on 
a rigid schedule and worn-out filters replaced promptly, 
b. Keep pitot heads covered to exclude sand and dust. 
c. Gyro instrument venturis should always be kept covered, 
. 1, Armaments 
a. Immediately the engine ceases to fire, cover or seal all guns 
and seal the chutes. Be certain to remove seals from chutes and covers 
from guns before.takeoff, Guns may be left sealed for maximum air speed. 
The first shot will clear the muzzle. 
4 
b. blean daily all guns, bomb racks and shackles. The sand and 
dust that gather on their lubricated surfaces may result in disastrous 
jams. Keep 'em firing.' 
c. Btore all ammunition where dust and sand are at a minimum, 
'mien re-arming be especially careful to avoid contact with sand-. 
d. Do not keep a. munition in the cartridge bins in wings over 
long .periods of time. Dust and sand will collect on the cartridge cases 
causing jams in the chamber after firing, 
e. Bombs should be loaded into bomb bays as quickly as possible 
to avoid sand entry. Make sure the release catches are free from sand, 
to insure electrical contact. 
G, Refueling 
1. Gasoline*delivery from cans should be made through a filter 
funnel that fits snugly into the tank opening. Gasoline delivery from 
drums calls for quick and efficient muffling with a chamois leather 
cloth of the point where the hose connection enters the fuel tank. Also 
use a strainer fitted with a chamois cloth. If gasoline or oil must be 
poured into the tanks during a sandstorm, take every precaution to 
exclude sand from the liquids, 
2. Extreme care should be taken with high octane fuel at tempera- 
tures of 120° or more in the shade. Watch out for sparks. Open the gas 
druiiS with bronze or other non-sparking tools. Make sure the plane is 
grounded, as well as the funnel and nozzle. Make sure there is a con- 
ductive connection between the chamois hoop and the funnel, and that the 
funnel is in constant contact with some metal parts of the snip. The 
tank rim will do. 
D-II (Rev*) 3. Do not handle or transfer gas unnecessarily; exposure to air 
dissipates the lighter fractions and reduces the octane rating. Some 
pilot may need that extra power, 
4. If possible, keep gasoline drums -covered and below 102°F, If 
you can, do your refueling at night. 
5. Oil delivery should be directly from the can to the oil tank 
opening without using an intermediate measuring can or open container. 
6. Clean oil and gas tanks periodically, because sand accumulates 
in the corners, seams and bottoms of the tanks. 
II. OPERATIONS 
The technique of desort operation presents no serious problem to 
the competent pilot. There are, however, unusual conditions involving 
sun,, sand, wind, heat and visibility, which are peculiar to the desert 
and which call for modifications in technique. Observe these desert 
practices: 
.A. Preflight 
1. starting and Running Engines 
a, Remember that all metal surfaces exposed to the sun are hot 
to the touch, hoar gloves to prevent burns, (Tape, cord or cloth muffs 
around control sticks and wheels, throat or hand mikes, etc. are advis- 
able .) . 
b, Make all possible ground checks before you start the engine. 
Check all main and auxiliary controls to ensure sand-free and easy move- 
ment . 
c, Do your own preflight. Never run up engines on the ground 
any longer than absolutely necessary. 
d, & platform or hard- standing to test engines whenever 
and wherever possible, 
e, Do not run up your engines-to windward of other planes, 
personnel, or ground installations, 
2. Taxiing 
a. Never taxi pianos under their own power when it is possible 
to tow them. 
b. Keep your taxi run as short as possible. Make this a habit. 
c. Match oil, head, and coolant temperatures carefully to avoid 
overheating. 
D-II (Rev.) d. Do not taxi to windward of other planes, personnel,, or ground 
installations. Also* keep your ship out of another’s prop.wash,. 
e. hhen taxiing in formation, keep good intervals. Taxi in 
echelon up, down, or crosswind. 
f. when taxiing in loose sand, hold stick or wheel well back; 
keep momentum; avoid abrupt turns, but if you must make them, use minimum 
of differential braking, otherwise wheel will pivot find dig in. Tricycle 
gear equipment is particularly difficult to taxi in loose sand. The nose 
wheel lias less tendency to trail properly as the depth of the tir;e sink 
increases. If the airplane is pivoted on one wheel, the nose wheel will 
attempt to reverse its position and will burrow so that it cannot move 
forward, thus severely straining the nose wheel strut and subjecting 
propellers and engines to damage by sudden stoppage on contact with 
surface of loose sand. If you must stop, select a relatively hard 
standing and turn into wind. 
g. Intelligent dispersal minimizes taxiing and overheating, 
Stagger your takeoff assembly and avoid overheating. Let downwind : 
flight-start and takeoff first, to prevent blowing sand on other planes, 
h. Do not taxi aownwind and turn back into a cloud of dust. 
Approach takeoff point on a wide arc, and if possible, to leeward. It 
is common practice to take off crosswind. Space is usually not at a 
premium in the desert. 
3• Takeoff 
a. Keep well-forward in formation. If you lag, you will catch 
leader's dust. Spread your "V" as much as practicable. Common practice 
is to take off in echelon crosswind. , 
. b. Shorten Sana takeoffs by obtaining maximum lift as quickly 
as possible. Fly the plane off the ground. It is easier on the under- 
carriage and it minimizes ground friction.. 
c. hatch for sand swirls arid whirlwinds. They occur only in 
the daytime, and they are easy to see. Avoid them. 
d. Take off and get your wheels up in a hurry. Start looking.' 
Ordinarily you will have a standing patrol over the field, but. every 
extra -pair of eyes helps. Maximum climb and quick assembly should be 
stressed. Do not get caught at intermediate altitude by a sneak attack. 
e. At temperatures of 170° in the sun, air close to the ground 
is thin and planes with full military load ordinarily require additional 
takeoff run. 
B, Flight 
1. Visibility is great and distances are deceptive. Multiply 
your estimates by three. 
D-II (Rev.) 2. Remember that the intense, glaring sunlight makes sudden 
surprise a constant possibility. Keep your eyes open. Develop a swivel 
neck. Use your rear-vision mirror. Use sunshades and sunglasses. And 
remember, a wingtip in the sun will enable you to observe the adjacent 
, sky free from- glare, 
y 
3. High visibility results in increased range of observation, and 
calls for extreme vigilance, nut do not overdo it—if careful scouting 
convinces you the sky is clear away from the sun, you need not check it 
as frequently as in other climes. Concentrate on the sun, 
4. Execute your attacks with the sun at your back. You will see 
objects plainly without shadow. Looking into the sun, you will not only 
be handicapped by the glare and ground reflection, but you will see all 
objects in shadow. However, remember that camouflaged objects sometimes 
reveal themselves only by the shadow tney cast, 
3. Dust often reduces visibility to less than 100 yards, from the 
ground up to an altitude of 8,000 feet. Such conditions facilitate 
surprise attacks; control and maneuver are, however, extremely difficult. 
Similarly,-such conditions afford concealment in withdrawal or evasive 
action. Intelligent use of a moving dust storm will often enable you to 
deliver a surprise attack on its heels. 
6. Visibility is generally good above a dust layer although surface 
.detail is obscured. Note that directly above a dust layer ydur silhouette 
stands out prominently, and that, while horizontal visibility is poor, 
vertical visibility is good, 
7, Cloud cover is rare in summer over desert terrain. Do not 
depend on it, 
8, Heat distortion creates deceptive ground impressions, 'Heat 
waves emulating from the superheated sand destroy all form for the eye 
and make recognition difficult, 
9. Mirage has an adverse effect on visibility and ground obser- 
vation, It is seen when facing the sun. Its effect generally is to 
magnify objects, particularly in their vertical dimension, and to create 
illusions, 
10. Rainstorms of cloud-burst intensity may be encountered; they 
generally originate from drifting thunderheads and are only rarely of 
widespread regional extent. They seldom offer any real hazard. 
11, Protracted flying close to the ground may run your temperatures 
dangerously high. Keep this fact in mind. 
12, Aveid whirlwinds at any altitude and especially close to the 
ground, leu cdi see them; stay out of them. 
13. Desert combat tactics vary from the normal only insofar as the 
natural chc.recteristics of the desert emphasize sun and surprise. Desert 
combat tactics are designed primarily to permit or prevent a surprise 
attack out of the sun. Altitude, of course, enables you to take full 
advantage of the son, to initiate the attack and drive it home with a performance advantage. Obviously, however, the position of the. sun with 
respect to the horizon determines the relative importance of the altitude 
advantage. 
a. Just remember that what you see won't hurt you. Often an 
occasional flash in the area of the sun will be all the indication ycu 
will have of the enemy's presence. As long as you see and know, exactly 
what your opponent is doing all the time, you can proceed to c:rry out 
your assignment, prepared to turn to meet him should he initiate the 
attack. The man wno goes out on a mission and sees nothing or only half 
of what is going on is destined for a short life in the desert. 
b. It should be noted that a properly camouflaged ship over 
desert terrain provides surprisingly, good concealment near the ground 
from a highflying enemy. 
c. In desert combat', it is plane for plane and man for man. 
You cannot rely on natural protective cover. 
d. In low-level attacks, take advantage of sun and surprise. 
Dawn and dusk are the best time for attack. Fly low and fast. . Spread 
your formation. Take advantage of the disposition of enemy columns, 
hangars, etc.. to avoid AA fire. Take other evasive action. Get away 
fast, 
e. Never repeat an attack once the. element of surprise is gone, 
unless the mission is to silence AA fire. 
f. Better conditions for high-level bombardment normally 
prevail in the desert than in any other terrain. Low-level attack is 
handicapped by lack of concealed approaches, but is aided by, the ability 
to locate targets from considerable distances. 
11, Here are the. facts to remember about desert navigation: 
a. There are few landmarks on the desert. Those that do exist 
are easy to identify. Get to know them quickly; appreciate their 
importance. 
b. lour dead-reckoning will require accurate compass courses 
and time intervals, 
c. 'dike your own additions to your maps; sketch in and identify 
local features of terrain, combat debris, craters, etc, Ouch details, 
if unusual, will help under conditions of reduced visibility* 
* 15. You will encounter sandstorms which will make return to- base 
diffipult. Watch for breaks and clear spots and get down through them 
quickly before they close. Sandstorm areas move. Appraise their 
direction and speed. Common sense will dictate whether it is best'to 
beat them into your field or to wait them out. Use your ground control 
and weather organizations intelligently and to the fullest extent possible# 
16. Always observe local practice with respect to recognition 
signals, use of corridors and set-approach patterns.to fields, * Never approach a field from out of the sun, but always come in'at an establish- 
ed altitude and from a standard direction. AA, whether it be hostile or 
friendly, is particularly effective in the desert, and due to their 
exposed position and the ever-present possibility of surprise out of the 
'sun, aA gunners are inordinately sensitive to unidentified planes dis- 
regarding local practice on recognition signals. 
17. Do not stop looking until landed and dispersed. 
C, Landing 
1, Heat distortion and mirage may affect depth perception. The 
tendency will be to level out high. Observation of shadows and other 
reference points will help counteract these conditions. If any doubt 
exists, always plan your approach to allow of a power landing, which 
will minimize the consequences of misjudgment, 
2, Avoid sand swirls and whirlwinds when landing, They are 
encountered only during the day and close to the ground. 
3, Cut throttle at earliest practicable moment after clearing 
the landing area. Do not taxi with engine« 
D, Mooring 
Sudden violent wind and sandstorms are common in the desert, 
when not in use, lock controls and moor all plane's with equipment] 
provided for the purpose. In tornadic winds, employ wooden 2 x U 
"spoilers" secured to the topside of the aircraft wings, immediately 
behind and parallel to the leading edges. This will break the airflow 
and nullify the normal lifting characteristic of the wing. 
m. DISPERSION, CAMOUFLAGE, AND PROTECTION 
The desert produces a feeling of nakedness. There is little or no 
natural concealment, and you are always open to easy observation from 
the air and to surprise attack(assuming, of course, that the. enemy is 
within striking distance). But you can do plenty to minimize the loss 
or damage of aircraft, equipment and supply, and the danger to 
personnel. Imagination, ingenuity, and intelligence will play a big 
part in the success of your desert operations. Learn the lessons of 
dispersal, camouflage and personal security right from the start. 
Practice it all the time, 'Make it a part of everything you do. 
A. Dispersion 
•Dispersion is the simplest and primary means of saving aircraft, 
vehicles, permanent installations, temporary structures, materiel, and 
personnel from destruction by air attack in the desert. It not only 
minimizes loss and damage, but it discourages enemy aerial action by 
offering insignificant targets. It must be remembered, however, that 
dispersion lays you open to attack by ground raiding patrols for which 
the desert offers an excellent "playground". Arrange your dispersal to 
balance up the two risks: 
D-II (Rev,) a. Disperse for protection against attack from the air. 
b. Concentrate for defense, against ground attack. 
Observe these vital .rules of dispersal governing aircraft, air- 
dr omes, personnel, \mobile equipment, buildings, runways, and supplies 
1. Aircraft. Immediately upon landing, got your aircraft well 
away from field installations and other aircraft, 
When airplanes are on the ground they should be dispersed,,not in 
a straight line, hut staggered, and 200-300 yards apart to form irregular 
patterns well away from the runways. It is important that adequate 
transportation be provided to carry.pilots to and from planes. .This not 
only saves time.but (a) eliminates the very human tendency of pilots to 
bunch their planes-at the point nearest to the operations tent to avoid 
excessive walking, and (h) avoids a long run to planes in a. “.scramble" 
upon an alert. 
2, airdromes,.Runways, and Facilities 
(a) In the desert, aircraft should operate from many.dispersed 
airdromes. This is practical,, as was shown by the British in Libya, 
because of extensive open areas and the relative ease of constructing 
runways, 
•(b) These airdromes may consist of one or more runways or 
flight strips depending on wind conditions. The runways should be 
dispersed or disconnected to avoid forming the geometrical patterns 
characteristic of peace-time airdromes, 
(c),Facilities at the airdrome must be dispersed in suitable 
camouflaged shelters. Only essential activities, such as operations and 
engineering, should be permitted near the airdrome. Bivouac areas, 
messing facilities, and truck dispersal areas should be about two miles 
or more from the runways. 
3. Vehicles 
(;.) In daylight, vehicles should be,dispersed 100-5300 yards 
apart to.take•advantage of,natural cover and to minimize losses. On, 
dark nights without moonlight, distances may be, reduced.. ■ When traveling 
on the roads in convoy, vehicles should be spaced at least 100 yards apart# 
(b) At command, posts,, rigid discipline must be maintained. 
Vehicles must not approach within" 300-400 yards of the command posts or 
similar installations. Do not let tracks give away important installations* 
4. Supply Dumps. In the concealment of supply dumps, disperse at 
least 300 yards apart. Keep reserve stocks of gas and oil in. small tins, 
dispersed and in shallow trenches to avoid bomb blast. It is far safer 
to%disperse 5-gallon tins of gasoline than to risk the complete loss of 
a single 50-gallon•drum. 
; • • , ... a. , - . V I 
5. Remember always tpat dispersal is the best means of,protecting 
aircraft and installations from enemy air attack. At,Pearl Harbor and 
D-Ijl (Rev.) Hickam Held, large installations, hangars, mess halls, planes, etc., all 
of which were arranged in an orderly pattern, were knocked out in the 
first attack. In comparison many airfields in North Africa came through 
repeated bombings undamaged, as installations were dispersed and had not 
been spotted. 
B, Camouflage 
Camouflage is any end every means of hiding or disguising yourself 
from your enemy; misleading him as to your position, strength, and 
intention; and confusing him so that ne wastes his blows and falls into 
your ambush. 
Do not underestimate the battle importance of camouflage! Your own 
personal safety, the safety of your men, supplies and equipment, and the 
successful accomplishment of your mission may be made secure by the commoi 
sense application of the ordinary camouflage principles, coupled with a 
little imagination. 
It is not a job for the specialist alone nor is it an affair of 
ingenious tricks by which.conspicuous objects can be made to disappear by 
magic. It is a vast problem because every single member of the Army con- 
tributes to it every day in the normal course of his work and life. Even 
though the enemy may eventually learn of your location through normal or 
unavoidable activities, and Intelligence reports, it does not mean that 
the value of the camouflage has been lost. The enemy pilot must still 
find the specific target with his eyes before he can successfully attack. 
Flying at 250 miles per hour at 10,000 feet the enemy must aim 5 miles 
before reaching the target and he must start dropping his bombs 3i miles 
away, Or a strafing fighter has to find,a target, aim and fire in a 
few seconds. 
1. Discipline. The fundamental prerequisite of all successful 
camouflage is camouflage discipline. Camouflage discipline is like 
sanitary discipline, gas discipline or any form of discipline. It con- 
sists of paying attention to details. A well-disciplined soldier would 
not be careless about displaying signs of activity in a position any 
more than he would be careless about his gas mask. Proper camouflage 
discipline is achieved by training the members to understand the 
necessity for prevention of any change in appearance of terrain and 
(b) the maintenance and renewal of camouflage material. 
Camouflage Principles. Remember that misused camouflage is 
worse than none at all. Here are some of the most important consider- 
ations to follow in hiding or disguising your presence from the enemy, 
(a) Location or selection .of position is of critical importance. 
Valley floors have sparse natural cover, yet dry washes (wadis) with a 
thicker growth of vegetation offer opportunities for natural concealment 
and defilade from oblique observation. In general, it will be necessary 
to hide "on the pattern" rather than 'under or behind it, because of the 
low cover. 
(b) Avoid regular shadows. Each object casts a typical shadow 
by which it can often be identified on an aerial photograph. By moans of camouflage break up or distort this shadow. Try to make it blend into 
the terrain and make maximum use of natural shadows. 
For camouflage materials use natural materials such as vegetation 
and debris wherever possible. Because of lack of vegetation in the desert 
natural materials wall be rare. You will have to use artificial materials 
such as camouflage nets, paints, etc. 
(c) Garnishing the nets. It is the garnishing of the net, not 
the net itself, which provides the concealment. The garnishing may be 
natural or artificial. Use natural materials where possible, but these 
are rare-in the desert. The most satisfactory types of artificial 
garnishing for mobile warfare are strips of colored cloth, osnaburg, 
burlap, feathers, etc. For the desert, a net garnished with 60-80% 
sand color, 10-20% light green color, and 10-20% olive drab color is 
satisfactory for general use. Coverage should bo 90% in center, thinning 
out to 10% at the edges. This permits light to pass through and prevents 
formation of fixed outline shadows. Tie the net in with some natural 
feature, such as brush or camel grass, to increase its effectiveness. 
Camouflage nets shrink when they get wet and expand as they dry out— 
adjust them with changes in weather conditions. 
(d) Reduce visibility by texturing, toning down and coloration. 
Rough surfaces photograph darker than smooth surfaces. Use adhesive, or 
protective painting of oil and grease to which sand will adhere. All 
reflecting surfaces should be textured or painted to photograph the same 
shade as the surrounding natural features, 
(e) decoys in the form of dummy aircraft, guns, airdromes 
and other installations to divert enemy pianos from real fields in the 
vicinity. Dummy installations deceive the enemy as to your strength, 
and make him waste his blows. But x-cmember that dummy installations 
must be carefully planned and must show the activity of a normal field 
and must themselves be camouflaged to a degree. 
3, what to Camouflage 
Which of these camouflage principles should be applied to the 
disguising or hiding of aircraft? Of trucks and vehicles? Of in- 
stallations? The answer is: use all that are necessary to hide your 
presence from the enemy. Here is how you can effectively camouflage 
aircraft, vehicles, airdromes, and other installations. 
(a) Aircraft 
1. Keep dispersed and use nets and natural materials to 
break up outlines and conceal regular shadows. Great care should be taken 
to draw the net tight and away from the plane allowing it to touch the 
plane, in as few places as possible. For planes on the alert, a light 
framework should be constructed to carry the nets with arrangement for 
the quick release of nets in front of the plane, 
2. .employ protective painting to tone down and texture 
surfaces which do not blend in with the natural surroundings. 
D-II (Rev.) (bj Airdrome s 
1. Keep airdromes and runways dispersed. 
2, Korn surfaces on a stabilized base should match the 
terrain in texture and color. 
2* Facilities must be dispersed and in camouflaged shelter. 
(c) Vehicles 
1. Avoid converging tracks disclosing the location of im- 
portant installations. It is impossible to conceal tracks except on 
rocky ground. Use existing roads wnerever possible. To the enemy new 
roads and paths are certain signs of unusual activity. Do not end the 
road abruptly at a position; continue it to a decoy installation or 
another road., 
2. Park vehicles head-on, never broadside to the sun. This 
will minimize the shadow. Best results can be obtained by having the 
shadow fall on low vegetation or rough ground. 
2- Employ natural materials and camouflage nets to break up 
vehicle outlines. See that your net is properly garnished. Cover the 
vehicles .with the net even if at halt for only a few minutes. Strive to 
get similarity to the desert floor by placing shrubs on and about the 
net. Break up the outline by placing props under the net so that it does 
not cling to the vehicle. 
4. Paint or texture reflecting parts of the vehicle. Never 
wash vehicles to the extent that the paint wears off. Do not clean 
surfaces that will reflect light—texture them instead, 'Paint them with 
a film of oil or grease to which sand will adhere. Windshields should 
be similarly treated to prevent glass-flash but leave clear a 2" by 8" 
rectangle for viewing. 
Maintain strict discipline with regard to lights at night, 
especially at maintenance and operation tents, 
(d) Supply Dumps * 
1. Stack boxes or tins in an irregular outline and add 
natural and artificial materials to blend in with the area. Debris, 
sandbags, nets, eic. will serve for covering. When practical, dig 
pits for tne dumps, 
2. Stack boxes in the'shape of a native hut or building or 
make them resemble an extension of such a structure, 
2* Supply trucks should halt and disperse at least two 
miles from the depot. Nets or drapes should be used at halts, 
(e) Decoys. The use of decoys is a job of display rather than 
of concealment. They should be realistic to be of value and their 
D-II (Rev.) environment must contain the activity and the associated features of real 
operations, blit trenches, tracks, vehicles, and debris should be present# 
Also there should be an operating crew designated to maintain it and give 
it life. 
C. Protection of Personnel 
The ground is your best friend in time of trouble. Learn how to 
dig in quickly. Learn how to size up the local terrain, to appreciate 
the cover; even the flattest ground offers some concealment and pro- 
tection. Observe the following which is based on practical experience; 
1. Slit trenches are an absolute necessity for protection against 
bombing, artillery fire and strpfing, They will afford safety and pro- 
tection against everything but a direct hit and will minimize injury 
and loss of personnel. You cannot have too-many slit trenches. Dig 
them in a dispersed and irregular pattern. 
2. Slit trenches are easy to prepare. Outline the trench, then 
pile the dirt and sand irregularly around the edge of the pit. 
3. When you move into an area that is at all liable to surprise 
air attack, dig slit trenches first, before camp is pitched. Dig them 
in all areas where personnel will live and work—adjacent to living 
quarters, messes, maintenance pits, installations, etc. ■ Where areas 
are subject -to constant attack, slit trenches should also be dug at 
■ intervals -along roads and paths; make then accesible for quick use 
wherever personnel may be caught by surprise attack. Learn the location 
of all slit trenches. Use all available concealment, 
A. If you are caught in a surprise attack and there is no slit 
trench available, dive for natural cover, if near. Otherwise lie flat 
on the ground. Familiarize yourself thoroughly with the local terrain— 
it may save your life some day, 
5. In the desert bomb-proof shelters are difficult to erect. Dig 
in only the most important installations and equipment. Generally, 
operations <md HQ tents should be made bombproof. Dig a hole and sa.nd- 
• bag the sides, \ 
6. All tents should be irregularly disnersed and dug in for pro- 
tection against strafing and bombing, 
7, Do not look up if you hear the roar of a plane overhead. 
Your face, being light, reflects light and attracts attention. Dab 
the fe.ee with mud or paint to tone it down, 
8, When under cover do not move. Camouflage against movement is 
practically impossible. Where nature has failed, man is hardly likely 
to succeed. The zebra Retains its camouflage property so long as it 
remains stationary. At the first movement, all illusion is lost. 
V. Success in protection of personnel requires constant vigilance 
■end well trained soldiers. If one truck or tent is seen it makes little 
difference that the rest of the installation is perfectly covered, 
Emphasize to all men the danger of vehicles parked in open along roads 
or near installations; the danger of needless telltale tracks around a 
position* {aid the clangor of insufficient dispersion. 
D-II (Rev.) ARCTIC, DESERT TROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
THE DESERT (THREE LECTURES) 
D- III 
LECTURE III—survival 
PAGE 
I. MASTERING THE DESERT 1 
II. PREFLIGHT PRECAUTIONS 1 
A. Check Equipment 2 
B. Local Populations 2 
III. FORCED LANDINGS 3 
IV. STICKING WITH THE PLANE 4 
A. Water 4 
Be Shelter and Personal Comfort 5 
C. Signaling and Fire Building 5 
V. THE TREK ACROSS COUNTRY 6 
A. On Abandoning Ship 6 
Bo Desert Travel 6 
VI. GUARDING YOUR HEALTH 11 
VII. SUMMARY ON DESERT SURVIVAL 12 
Prefared hy 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF, INTELLIGENCE 
25 BROAD STREET, NEW YORK 4, N. Y. ARCTIC, DESERT, AND TROPIC'INFORMATION CENTER 
ARMY AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
The Desert 
Lecture III 
Survival 
"To him who knows it, the desert can be a fortress; to'him 
who doe-s not, it can" be a d‘eath trap."—A British Commander 
I, MASTERING-THE DESERT 
The desert is a mortal enemy of the unprepared. Heat, sun glare, 
and limited supplies of water make life uncomfortable enough for units 
stationed in desert country,,'but for the man separated from his unit, 
or forced down,- the problem'is a matter of life or death. To survive 
in such a situation a man must be'well-informed, fit, and resourceful. 
He cannot depend on others to tell him t;hat to do. He must make' his' 
own decisions, and they must be correct, or he goes, under, . 
Every theatre of operations from Africa to the South Pacific has 
a certain amount of desert terrain. You must know how to fight, 
operate, and survive on arid land. Victory in Africa has not relieved 
Allied flyers of the responsibility of preparing for desert'emergency. 
The desert routes will still be flown, and new desert areas will become 
combat zones. 
II. PREFLIGHT PRECAUTIONS 
Before you fly over any desert region, make a study of'the par- 
ticular situation you will face. Anticipate problems And difficulties 
that are likely to arise. Perilous adventure is frequently’a mark of 
incompetence, a failure to observe carefully the situation to which one 
must adjust himself, and failure to make adequate preparation. Arm 
yourself with water and food, especially water, the weapons necessary 
to fight the desert. It is too late to prepare once- you are in the air. 
Here are some handy tips to follow, tips which have saved many a 
man who has had to fight for his life in the desert. Discipline your- 
self by these rules. 
A. Check Equipment 
Check your emergency equipment carefully before every takeoff, 
and become thoroughly familiar with every item. 
D-III (Rev,) In certain theatres special essentials will be issued by your 
Intelligence Officer in the form of Escape Aids; but what you take 
aloft in your flight over the desert rests, in the last analysis, with 
you and your crew. Do some worrying about your own life. Add to the 
standard kits whatever special stuff you think you will need, and 
according to the carrying capacity of your ship. You will find, for 
example, that the nights are colder in some deserts, or parts of 
deserts, than in others. A drop of 30° at night is normal, and as much 
as 50° in parts of the Sahara in spring and fall, and in the Arabian and 
Syrian deserts. That means you will need warmer clothing] But whether 
your mission is over the deserts of Africa or those of Asia and Australia, 
you will need, above all; 
1. Water. Take a tip from the camel—drink all you can before you 
start, and carry all you can with you. You should have along at least 
5 gallons of water per man, in bombers. An adequate ration is a quart 
a day per man, so this will last at least 20 days. In fighter planes, 
stow as much water as you have room for. The small emergency cans are 
well suited for fighters. 
2, ’Emergency 'ypod' Rations. The amount to take depends on the 
weight and space allowance of the aircraft. Rood is secondary to water, 
and must be chosen with water requirements in mind. Take carbohydrate 
foods, such as candy ana fruit, rather than meat and other protein foods 
which use up water'in digestion,. 
3. Kits- and Clothing. If your plane has space, here is what you 
will find useful: 
' a. Good sage-green colored goggles which cut out side glare. 
b. Sweater, long trousers, long-sleeved shirt, stout-soled 
walking shoes, : 
c. Sun helmet or hat, or improvised head covering, 
d. Compass, matches, and pocket knife. 
e. flashlight: 5-celled—or what you can get, or carry. 
f. Signaling equipment: smoke bombs, metal mirror, Very 
pistol and cartridges, 
g. First aid kit, including halazone or iodine for purifying 
water, sterile dressings, and'sulfa drugs, • . . _ • 
h. A map shoeing the ground travel routes and wells,',in the 
operations area. .. , 
• Much of this material is contained in the parachute pack. 
A. Escape Aids. Special information and equipment may be supplied 
by the Intelligence Officer to prepare the flyer for specific conditions 
in the local theatre. These may include maps, messages to local 
inhabitants, local currency,' ' ‘ ' 
b. Local Populations 
Another important preflight precaution is to find 'out all you 
can about the peoples of the region over which you will fly. You will 
have.to depend on them for food and guidance. Are they friendly, in- 
different, or hostile? ‘ 
D-III (Rev.) Learn all you can about their customs and manners, their language, 
their likes and dislikes, how best to develop their good will and 
cooperation, * 
This learning’ should start immediately. A'soldier fights with 
his head, and stays alive by using it at the right time. The right time 
to start is now, .. .. j. ,■ . • 
HI. PORCH) LANDINGS 
If you are compelled to bring your ship down in the desert because 
of enemy action, mechanical trouble, sandstorm,or because you are lost 
or running short of fuel, do not get panicky,. .Excitement uses,up energy 
and hinders good judgment. The desert offers plenty of suitable landing 
places, and, your ''chances of resuming flight are good. In deciding on a 
landing, keep in mind the following; 
A. If you are definitely lost, as in a sandstorm, do not waste gas 
in aimless flight. A precautionary landing with gear down has a good 
’chance of success, and makes possible later takeoff and' resumption of 
flight after the weather clears or after you are found by relief planes, 
h dead stick landing leaves little choice of terrain, and is hazardous 
under even the best conditions. 
B. You can determine ground wind conditions by observing dust clouds 
or sand dune formations as -you fly over them. Dunes, like ocean waves 
and snow drifts, usually run roughly at right angles to ’the direction of 
the prevailing wind. If there is a choice of landing parallel to the 
dunes or into tho wind, land crossvind, parallel to the dunes, and land 
uphill, not :down or across the slope. Avoid salt; pans and wadis; your 
wheels may break through the crust. 
C. Linds seldom if ever reach hurricane velocities in the desert. 
Velocities of 50 miles. an.'hour.are rare, but winds of 35 miles an hour 
are common enough. Rainstorms are infrequent, but may be of cloudburst 
intensity. If you make camp in a wadi or gully, be prepared to escape 
from rushing water in case of a sudden rain. 
D. Landings during a sandstorm are no more difficult than during 
a heavy rain. Ouch landings should be made into the face of a wind 
with velocity of 35 miles per hour or greater. Thus your actual land- 
ing speed will'be low, and the roll after landing will be short. Once 
on the ground, attend to several details immediately; 
1, Plug up and cover all engine openings. If the plane is 
flyable, or can be repaired, the mechanical parts of the ship must be 
protected against the blowing sand. Sand can be your worst enemy; 
fight it at the outset. 
2. Take personal cover and wait until‘the weather clears,’ Stay 
close to the ship. 
D-III (Rev.) E. If you are forced down by enemy action or mechanical.or structur- 
al failure, make the.best landing possible. It may or may not be advisa- 
ble to land with gear retracted. But try to stick with the. pl.ane-;and , 
bring it down. If as a last resort you have to bail out, watch the 
descent of the plane and try to reach the wreckage. The plane is butter 
spotted from.the -air than you are; and even a wrecked plane can supply 
useful signaling and emergency equipment. 
If you are forced down in enemy territory, burn all papers, 
smash and bury secret instruments, and burn the plane before striking 
out on foot. 
IV. STICKING WITH THE PLANE—WHAT TO DO 
If you are forced down in friendly territory, always stay with the 
plane and wait for rescue 'unless you are sure of your position and know 
that you can get back to your base on foot; or unless you know positive- 
ly where, to get water and, assistance, and feel you can-make it easily; 
or if you are sure you will not be found where you arp. Bear in mind, 
however, that while you may be ten minutes’ flying time from your base, 
this may mean a-couple of days’-walk on the ground. 
If you stay with the ship you have a good chance of being picked 
up by a rescue plane. lour ship will be clearly seen from the air; but 
if you leave it, your own chances of being seen from the air are.slim. 
You are just a tiny spot on the vast desert. Also, the plane may offer 
precious shade. 
Here is what you can do personally to combat the desert, to help 
bring about your own rescue, to survive ;as long as you can: 
A. Eater 
1. Ration your water and provisions carefully. If you have only 
a little water, dq not, eat. Do not worry.about starving. With the 
minimum of activity required in remaining.with a grounded plane, you 
will need little food; with.water, you can exist with little or no food 
for weeks. 
2, Do not gulp water. Follow, the practice of desert nomads: 
just moisten your lips and rinse your mouth with water before swallowing. 
Think of your water-supply as your invaluable bank,account, :standing 
between you and death. Conserve your liquid assets,; put yourself on a 
strict budget. 
3. Do not wash. You may use sand, as do the Arabs and Berbers, 
to cleanse yourself, . i-. 
4. Do not smoke. This applies especially during the day. 
Smoking .increases thirst, ; • . • . , . 
D-III (Rev.) 3, Shelter and Personal Comfort 
During your stay with a grounded plane get as comfortable as 
possible. • (a) Stay out of the sun. Parking in -the- shadow of the fuselage 
is the simplest way. (b) Rig up an awning, or make a tent out of the 
parachute, (c) Do not stay inside the plane; the heat is likely to be 
too great, (d) Do not work while the sun is up; wait until the cool of 
dawn or evening, (e) bear light clothing during''the day,' and warm 
clothing at night, (f) Keep shoes free of sand, and .take them off during 
the day while resting under the shelter, (g) Improvise wrap-leggings 
from strips of fabric torn from your parachute, and wear on upper ankles 
to keep the sand out of your shoes, (h) Make sure your head is covered, 
(i) Make sure you cover any part of your skin exposed to the sun. 
C. Signaling and Firebuilding 
Set up a system of signals immediately. Some of the more practi- 
cal methods are: ‘ • - 
1. Radio. The .radio is the most important rescue device. If you 
can get it.working, the-major part of the fight for survival is won. 
Erect a vertical aerial, which is more efficient than the horizprybal air- 
craft aerial. Compose.an S.O.S. message, giving your position if you 
know it. Transmit on prearranged frequency, and listen for a reply. If 
no reply is received, switch off and call again at fixed intervals. Con- 
serve your batteries. Listen out before transmitting; insure that 
frequency is reasonably constant and that target station is not trans- 
mitting. Be certain that circuits other than the radio, such as lights 
and gunsights, are switched off. If possible, run the engine charging 
the generator during both transmission and reception. This will bring 
better signals and lengthen battery life. Sufficient RPM’s.are. necessary 
to bring cut-out in so that the generator takes over the load. Inter- 
sperse with 15-second dashes to allow D/F station to take your bearing. 
2. Fire,. The best type of signal on the desert. Employ bright 
flamas at night, and smoke in the daytime. Look for scrubby desert 
bushes to use as fuel; camel dung also makes a fair fuel. If there is 
no natural fuel, use plane cushions, floor mats, etc., and vdeks of 
parachute clotn, and douse with-engine ail or gasoline. Ignite and, 
from time to_ time smother it with a little sand—this will make a cloud 
of smoke visible at a distance. Use a smoke or fare signal only in 
friendly territory. 
3, Reflecting mirror. Your signaling mirror, if you have it, 
or your rear-view mirror, or even a polished food tin will send a flash 
from the sun that.can be seen for miles. Learn how to use the mirror by 
practicing in advance. 
4. Reflections .from plane, S-cr-ape the- paint from the' surface of 
the wings and polish with sand or gravel. In daylight the flash can. be 
seen from the air. Polish the inside of the cowling and lay upside down 
on the wings, ' 
5. Very pistol. Firb> at periodic intervals. Do not use ,all 
D-III (Rev.) cartridges at one time. Save some for emergencies. Fire.them only when 
you see or hear an approaching plane. 
6. Rocket flares and smoke bombs. Keep these in readiness and set 
them off on seeing or hearing plane approaching. 
V. THE TREK ACROSS COUNTRY 
There are some exceptions to the rule that one should remain with 
the plane after a forced landing, (l) When you feel, after a-careful 
appraisal of the situation, that there is no hope of rescue; (2) When 
you are positive of your position and know that you can get back to your 
base on-foot, or know where to go for water and assistance; (3) It you 
come down in enemy territory, you must destroy your plane, papers,’and 
instruments, and leave. 
A. On Abandoning the Plane 
If you have decided that your best bet to survive is. to...travel out 
in hopes of finding an oasis or settlement, prepare carefully. 
1, Study your maps, determine your position, and have some idea 
where you should attempt to go. Do not start out without a specific 
destination. 
2. Consider your water supply, your -equipment, your physical con- 
dition, and the possibility of holding out until you reach safety; 
3. Salvage from the plane anything that might help you travel on 
foot or add to your personal comfort. Take a compass, maps, and a 10- 
foot square of silk from your parachute. 
4. Take along your entire water supply—sacrifice everything else 
for it, 
5. If in friendly territory, leaye a sign on your plane urging 
troops and others’ who may come along to refrain from souvenir-hunting, 
Say something like: "Don't touch, damage, or remove parts from this 
plane. It will be.salvaged soon and will.fly and fight again. It may 
some day help to save your life. Leave it alone." ' • 
Leave another note in the ship outlining your proposed route 
and the date and circumstances of your departure. It may.help speed 
rescue by searchers. Leave directional marks on the ground, such as a 
large arrow dug into the sand, or made of rocks or brush, to indicate 
to air searchers the route you are taking. 
B, Desert Travel—Water and Wits agains.t the Desert 
Interpret the following practical suggestions in a -flexible 
fashion, to fit the particular problems and circumstances that’may arise. 
Each man has his own peculiarities and physical requirements: some need 
more water than others, some can stand more heat. Know,yourself, dnd make 
allowances, 
D-III (Rev,) 1. Follow a definite plan of travel. Distances in the desert are 
deceptive. Once you have established your position, consult your maps 
and figure out the way.toward some known route of travel, some source of 
water, or an inhabited area. Trust your 'compass rather than your own 
conviction. You can check your compass by the sun. -Af midday the 
shadow of a vertical stake or improvised plumb line is shortest' and 
points either true north or true south, depending bn the latitude and 
time of year. To determine north or south, watch which way the shadow 
moves. It always moves east. 
If the shadow of the top of a stake is marked-on the ground 
some time before noon and again at the same time interval after midday, 
for example 1030 and 1330, a line.. connecting the afternoon and morning 
points will run due. east and west. The afternoon mark will be at the 
east end of the line, • ■ u < 
At night, there is another indication besides the Dipper and 
the Cross, bast and west can be .determined' from-,the.-.point, .in,.the horizon 
where the stars, rise and set■vertically.and, are moving most'rapidly. 
2..Follow the easiest route, possible. Avoid soft sand and terrain. 
It is easier to take the longer route around obstacles; Traverse ridges 
where practicable, to be more easily seen from the air. Keep a steady 
pace, and take a rest, or "break", for ten minutes every hour, * 
3. Travel light., Take along only the bare necessities. 
a, Water, it must be repeated, is tne key to survival. Five 
U, 6, gallons will weight about 40 pounds, without containers, A foot 
traveler should carry not much more than.20 pounds on his back. If you 
travel only at night, you can get on well with a quart a day. With a 
minimum of activity,, a pint a day will keep a man going for a number of 
days, 
. b. Food, Reduce it.to a minimum, especially if you are short 
on water. Carry carbohydrate foods which are easily digestible. 
Protein foods, such as meats and milk products, leave digestion wastes 
which require water for elimination in urine; therefore proteins should 
be avoided when water is. short. 
c. Carry a compass, knife and small whetstone, maps, sun glasses, 
salt tablets, matches, halazone tablets. Because wild life is hard to 
get, a gun is not so important as in other areas. Have a hat, long 
sleeves and pants. 
c\. Do not take salt tablets if you have less than a quart *of 
water per day. Cut out cigarettes during the day and eat food only at 
night and during the early hours of the morning. ■ • 
4, Night travel. You will last longer if you travel only at 
night. Take ijb easy in the day time:during the summer. Stay in the 
shade of your plane or your-parachute, • Certainly, if your water is low, 
and if you can maintain direction, night travel is mandatory. At night 
D-III (Rev.) a flashlight may be used in friendly territory. For direction, use your 
compass and the stars. The North, or Pole Star, is the''best indicator 
of direction in. the northern hemisphere. . If you cannot identify the Big 
Dipper,; then learn how tonight. Follow the ©utline of the. stars in the 
constellation, away from, the handle; the two stars on the far edge, 
from the bottom to the rim, point toward the Pole btar, which is at an 
apparent distance from- the Dipper equal to about, five times the distance 
between the two pointer stars, The Pole Star is also the end of the 
handle of the Little Dipper. . .... 
... ■ In the southern hemisphere, the problem is complicated by the 
absence of any bright star over the south pole. The long axis of the 
Southern Gross points in the direction of the south pole, .The south . 
pole can be assumed to be in a dark .area of the sky, about midway be- 
tween the Cross and archernar, a first-magnitude .star that is the end 
of the constellation Lridanus, the river. 
$. Figging in during the day. If your program .calls for night 
travel, rest during the day. If you are traveling in enemy territory, 
you will have to dig in and camouflage your position. Another reason to 
dig in is to escape from the. sun. Cover your, trench with a piece of 
parachute, or with desert grass. Leave air space beneath the cover. 
6„ Guard attainst.the sun. Keep jour head.covered when.in the sun. 
Wear jour glasses for protection against glare and blown sand. Follow 
the custom of the Tuareg people of the Sahara; veil the face .to protect 
against blowing sand. If jou are without glasses or should break them, 
improvise goggles out of wood or canvas, Lrake eje-slits onlj large 
enough for jou to peer through. You will then be protected from.the 
more dangerous rajs of.the sun. 
7. Seek native help whenever and wherever you can.■ If you are 
lost in a desert area the natives offer you your best chance of reach- 
ing an oasis and surviving. Be on watch for caravan routes, the rail- 
.roads of the desert* Lheu meeting natives, be pleasant and courteous. 
Do nof- display firearms, and hip not act as if you demand assistance. 
In the Sahara, the Tuareg, Berber, and Arab :tribes will be 
friendly* In March, 1943, three American fliers-were forced down in 
the southern Sahara and cuter traveling for four days over send dunes 
and desert wasteland, spotted a caravan in the distance. They were 
picked up, given food and water, told by signs that a settlement was 
four days away, and then were hoisted on camels as the. caravan moved 
off in that direction. Two of the natives rode on through the night and 
the following day and night to bring help from French soldiers at the 
post. These natives had. had no rest in two and one-half days. 
In the barren wastelands of Australia, the natives have an un- 
canny ability to follow tracks. A crewman who bailed out of a B-24 in 
a blinding storm and wandered in the wild bush country for 111 days was 
tracked down by an Australian blackfellow within 48 hours. The.natives 
are friendly to white men, and take a low view of the Japanese. 
D-III (Kev.) S. Finding food in an . emergency. Game'‘animals" and food plants are 
neither abundant nor uniformly distributed'1'in'’the desert. ’In the'im- 
mediate vicinity of a' water hole, or''Where there is' a light growth of 
brush, rabbits, other rodents, and small birds may be found. Rabbits 
and large'lizards arc common.in the deserts of Australia. Also, roots 
of the eucalyptus (gum tree or bailee) in Australia'provide water find 
food. 
The'gazelle is common to the African, Middle Eastern,'and. 
Gobi deserts. They travel in herds, and can run short distances’at a 
speed of 50 miles per hour. They can, bo,approached only on the' lee ‘side 
of the wind, keeping out of sight. Only a good shot with a high-powered 
rifle will bring one,down.. They are fond,of tobacco but will not 
approach tobacco that has come in contact with the human body. 
In rocky sections of the Sahara—and much of the Sahara is 
rocky—edible snails about an inch long’are found in rock crevices. 
Empty shells are sometimes filled with honey deposited by the honey-bee. 
Such shells Cfji be spotted because of the wax' covering which seals the 
opening. In southern Algeria, the ierabs and the Berbers' search for 
these honey-filled shells. They are not common but you may find 20 or 
30 of them in the course of a morning, . Live snails ‘are’ best prepared 
by roasting over a fire. Make an opening in one side of the shell and 
thrust a prong through to emerge at the natural opening, to keep the 
snail from escaping, 
Palms' are found at streams" and water holes, :arid are. a good 
source of food. The trees are the precious property of the natives,', 
and must not be injured, Where there' are water arid trees, you are 
likely to find natives; look'for people before eating. In' an emergency, 
eat the fruit of the tree (dates, dr coconuts)‘or even'the palm cabbage., 
a tender shoot which, extends up from the"point’where the leaves spread 
out. It can be eaten raw' or cooked. ' ‘ ’ ■ , 
Near swfiiaps in Middle Eastern deserts, wild pig is common. The 
female when with her young, or when wounded, will attack. Avoid her. 
If you arfe a good'shot with a rifle, aim between the eyes, or downwind 
toward the heart at the back of the neck. 
The dingo or wild dog is widely distributed in Australia and 
may be considered a source of food, if you can bring one down. Often 
its presence is an indication you are approaching a native settlement. 
In any desert, if there is green vegetation there, is bird and 
animal life, but you may have to look for it at night or'dig it out of 
the ground. Rodents can be attracted with a torch at night, 
9. Finding water, 
a. Gome deserts become very humid at’ night. Utilise this 
humidity by collecting dew. Scoop'a shallow basin in the ground, about 
three feet in diameter. Cover the basin with a piece of your parachute. 
Over this build a pyramid of s.tohes at least three feet high. During 
the night dew will collect in the chinks between the stones, and trickle 
D-lII (Rev,) down through the inside of the pyramid onto the chute. ..The ..chute will 
sag with water,' Place a vessel of some kind beneath the cloth so that 
the water will not drip into the ground and be lost,: 
■ : . b, \diere there are leafy bushes, you can Collect dew off the 
leaves.during theaearly morning hours. One flyer kept'himself alive for 
days in this manner. 
c. If you find damp sand, especially at a low point, dig a hole 
and wait, hater may percolate into-the well. If you do not find'damp 
sand, pick the lowest point between sand dunes and dig-3 to 6 feet. If 
the .sand becomes damp, continue to dig until you find wet sand. The top 
of the hole will have to have a gentle slope.- When wet sand is reached, 
keep the hole -covered to prevent evaporation, and wait for the water to 
come in. In the stony desert, pick a wadi. Dig down in the gravel at 
the point of maximum curvature of the outside bend of the dry wadi 
channel. ,0n the desert surface away from a wadi, pick the lowest point 
which may be the center of a mud flat. During much of the year, wet mud 
can be. secured which, if collected and wrung out in a piece of parachute, 
will give a few drops of,water. • • • 
d, .'bellow the tracks of animals and the flight of birds. They 
may be going toward water. Look for green vegetation. It means that 
water is underneath or close by. •• 
e, Search for water holes and wells along caravan routes which 
are shown on your map. Determine from the intelligence officer or some 
others familiar with your region the types of water sources in the 
district,iand inark them on your map. Some are open cisterns which hold 
.considerable water, in the winter after a rain but are dry-in the summer* 
.Some are mud flats, the. larger of which will hold water for a month or so 
after a. heavy rain in the winter. Others are wells; others are permanent 
springs (oases), but most are water holes in wadi beds or in low places, 
which the Aro.bs cover and hide after using. 
. f,. Remember that all water from wells must be boiled or steri- 
lized, It may. be polluted with urine from sheep, goats, camels, and 
other animals brought there by .the-nomad. It may contain germs of 
typhoid, dysentery, or other diseases. Purify the water either by boil- 
ing for about .3 minutes, or by dissolving one halazone tablet in each 
quart. .Lore, than one tablet may be necessary. Let the water stand 30 
rniriutes. If there is no slight odor of chlorine, the water is not safe; 
add another tablet. Iodine can also be used, two droos for each quart 
of water, When water is murky, three or ‘four drops of iodine per quart 
may be necessary. ’ • 
g, Later from desert plants. Some desert plants store water in 
their trunks, branches, or roots the way camels store water.in their 
stomachs, Cc ctus grows on some deserts. In Australia, besides the 
eucalyptus already mentioned, there is the oleosa, an evergreen bush 
about 15 feet high. The roots lie from two to' nine inches below the 
ground and may be 50 feet in length. Cut the root into pieces about a 
foot long, hold a piece vertically, andlet the water drip into a'con- 
tainer. lou. can make a water bottle out of - a root-by plugging up the 
cut end. 
D-III (Rev.) Pains yield water from trunks-and branches, but it is apparent 
from the nature of their growth that one need not try to extract water 
from the plant. For palms grow only where there is plenty of ground ' 
water. Look for a spring, or dig. By all means try to avoid harming 
the trees themselves, since they are precious to the natives. 
VI, GUARDIIIG YOUR HEALTH: HEAT, SUN, AND SICKNESS. 
There is nothing in the rays of the sun which is mysteriously 
dangerous to human beings, or affects their brains. People collapse in 
the sun because their bodies absorb more heat than they can throw off, 
and not because sun penetrates through the skull to the brain. There’ 
are three kinds of heat collapse, and each requires special treatment. 
A. Heat Cramps. These occur in the muscles of the legs or abdomen 
and are usually a warning of approaching heat exhaustion, resulting from 
insufficient salt in the body. Treatment: Massage the sore muscles 
gently; apply moderate heat; take salt in water; get plenty of rest. 
B, Heat Exhaustion. This may occur from direct exposure to the sun, 
from staying in the hot interior of the plane too long, or from lack of 
salt brought on by excessive perspiration. The face turns red, then 
pale; there is a great deal of sweating; the skin is moist and cool. 
Body temperature sinks below normal (98.6). The victim feels faint but 
does not become unconscious. If he does pass put, it is only for a few 
seconds or minutes. Treatment: Place the patient flat on his back and 
lower his head. Since he is cool, apply warmth. Give the patient salt— 
about one teaspoonful in enough water to dissolve it. This should be’ 
repeated three times a day. 
,8. Heat Stroke. The face becomes beet-red; there is severe headache; 
the skin becomes hot and dry; all sweating stops. The pulse is fast,’full, 
and strong; body temperature sodrs above normal. The victim becomes 
unconscious or semi-conscious, .Treatment: Shelter the patient from the 
sun.-' Lay him down flat. Apply cool sponges made of clothes or rags to 
the body. Get the body temperature down. Do not give whiskey, tea, or 
coffee* 
MTS AND LATER—USE ONE, SAVE THE OTHER, .AND yOU'IJL GET ALONG IN 
THE DESERT. ’ ‘ SUMMARY ON-DESERT '.SURVIVAL 
1, Start learning and preparing immediately. 
2. Know what emergency equipment is available-; check it before every 
mission. 
3. Carry as much water as possible per man. Five gallons weigh 40 lb. 
You can manage well on 2 quarts a day for all purposes, and on 1 quart a 
day if you travel only at night, • • 
4. food is secondary to water. Do not take food;which induces thirst. 
5.' Other valuable equipment: compass; salt and halazone tablets; sun- 
glasses; signaling equipment—flares, meta-l mirror; first aid kit; high 
pocket knife, - 
6, Learn as much as you can about the natives: their location, re- 
ligious beliefs, social customs, language. 
7. Take along messages in Arabic, requesting natives’ cooperation. 
8. Memorize the principal features of the map of the area over which 
you are to fly. You may have to. walk out without a map. 
9, Do not boil out; try to land the plane; avoid dead-stick landing* 
10, If plane if fly able, plug up openings, and, try to keep it blo'an, 
11. Stay with the plane end await rescue. Have signals ready. 
12. Ration water end food for a long stay. Sip water; do not' gulp it. 
Do not wash; do not smoke if water is low, ■ J . 
13. Stay out of plane by day; stuy out of sun,.- and keep, head ;covered,• • 
Keep shoes free of sand; wear heavy clothes at night. ?. . ... 
14. If convinced of necessity to abandon ship, have a destination and a 
route laid out. 
15. Know hot* to tell direction, day or night, with or without compass. 
16. Take all the water you cm carry. 
17. Leave a note in the plane, with dute of departure, and direction. 
18. Do not take tablets if your water supply is low. 
19. Travel at night, unless well-equipped and sure of destination. 
20, hater from wells must be boiled, or purified with halazone, hater 
may be found as do;; on plsnts, or in stems or roots. 
21, Avoid sunburn, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke. 
22, Use year wits, and save water, ARCTIC. DESERTJROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. ANO TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
THE TROPICS (THREE LECTURES) 
T-I. 
LECTURE J_ CTNFP.AL CONDITIONS 
PAGE 
I. ADAPTATION 1 
A. Adjustment for Efficiency 1 
B. Misconceptions 2 
C. Need for Knowledge 2 
II. CLIMATE AND LIVING CONDITIONS 3 
A. General Characteristics 3 
B. Adjustment to Conditions 4 
C. Food Habits 4 
D. Hazards to Health 5 
E. Need for Discipline and Training 6 
III. THE NATIVES IN GENERAL 7 
A. Their Right to Respect 7 
B. Differences among Native Groups 8 
IV. POLYNESIA 8 
V. MELANESIA 10 
VI. MICRONESIA 12 
VII. MALAYSIA . 12 
VIII. AUSTRALIA 14 
IX. HOW TO DEAL WITH NATIVES 15 
A. Attitude of Curiosity 15 
B. Making Contacts 15 
C. Money and Objects of Value 16 
X. DO’S AND DON’T'S 1 17 
Prepared by 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF, ■ INTELLIGENCE 
25 BROAD STREET, NEW YORK 4, N. Y. ARCTIC, DESERT, AND TROPIC, INFORMATION CENTER 
ARMY AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
THE TROPICS 
Lecture I: 
General Conditions 
I. ADAPTATION 
We have all read inspiring stories of the brave airman who, 
haggard and sick, staggers into a mission compound or native village, 
having survived a month of hell in the jungle after a force-down or 
bail-out. Such adventures have been tributes to the courage and 
stamina of our men, and their will to come back and fight again. But 
it must be admitted that some of the suffering could’have been.avoided, 
Many of these men have declared that if they knew at the time of their 
ordeal what they later learned about tropical food, diseases, and 
travel, they would have had little trouble. When Air Force men take 
advantage of the knowledge which is available, the time may come Then 
flyers who bail-out unwounded, but then turn up bitten, starved, and 
sick, may lose prestige, rather than gain it, among their fellows. 
A. .Adjustment for Efficiency 
The time of adventure and heroics is corning to a close, 
whatever happens in Europe, whatever happens in Alaska and China, 
it is clear that our forces, and especially our Air Forces, face 
a long struggle in the Pacific and Malaysia, on tropical islands 
and over great tropical,areas of forest and plain. Me must get 
used to the idea of an extended period of operations, in which 
everyday efficiency alone can carry us through. We should actively 
avoid risks and adventure, in order to achieve results. We must 
make proper adjustments to life in non-temperate climates. Wo must 
adjust our mind‘and body to the conditions of wet and dry seasons, to 
strange fruits and plants an4 to populations who are bettor adapted 
than we to their environment. 
Tropical lands are rich, and support all kinds of life 
abundantly, both plant and animal, large living things and small. 
But we need special knowledge in order to survive. Knowledge will 
make us aware of the different kinds of jungle land, of the different 
kinds of native populations, of various natural resources, of the 
things to avoid and the things to seek in the rich environment. Your 
efficiency and maybe your life will depend on knowing how to live and 
carry out everyday operations under unusual conditions. 
T-T 'Rev,' B. Misconceptions to Debunk 
A first step in learning how to live in the tropics is to unlearn 
wrong impressions. We must correct ideas retained from tall tales about 
man-eating snakes, poisonous trees which reach down and capture their 
victims, head-hunting or cannibalistic natives who exterminate all 
outsiders. We laugh at foreigners who fear a trip to Chicago because of 
stories of "pineapples" and tommy-,gun typists and trigger-men. The 
informed person on tropical regions would laugh at fears of the "jungle," 
Both kinds of legends come from sensational fiction, moving pictures, and 
so-called "explorers" who exaggerate their accomplishments by magnifying 
the dangers they encountered. There are, certainly poisonous animals, 
fish, and plants, but they are not many, and one can learn to avoid them. 
Cannibals still exist in the rugged hills of interior New Guinea, But 
most natives have been found to be naive, curious, and almost always 
friendly to Allied soldiers. Some explorers claim that the jungle is 
safer than .a.big city. More people per 1000 are killed in normal New York 
traffic than by the snakes and wild animals of the tropics. We must learn 
the rules of living in the jungle, just as we learn traffic rules, When 
we have knowledge, we need not fear, • 
C* Need for Knowledge 
How do natives live in their tropical environments? Certain 
phases of physical adaptation we cannot hope to achieve entirely, 
Me cannot acquire a black skin pigmentation to protect us from sunburn, 
but we .can gradually acquire a heavy tan that will do much to prevent 
a burn. Adjustments of temperature regulation, metabolic rate, and 
resistance to some diseases, which have been developed by natives over 
centuries as a safeguard against extreme conditions of heat and moisture, 
cannot be acquired in a short time. But we can learn and put to use the 
results of scientific study. We can learn what foods to eat, how best 
to prepare them, how to safeguard food and water against infective organisms. 
Our scientists have been gathering information for years to help us face 
just such problems as those before us. Individual soldiers do not have 
to make their own experimentation, testing theories with their lives. 
The facts are proved and waiting to be learned. Furthermore, equipment 
and emergency kit’s have been’ carefully 'worked out, and all we need is 
common sense to take* advantage of this equipment, to keep it ready for 
use at all times and to follow instructions for use. Again, there will 
soon be small excuse for hardship after a safe force-down. 
What are some of the general conditions we shall have to 
face from day to day in the tropics, conditions of climate, vegetation, 
animal life, and social custom, the understanding of which will make 
life easier, or indeed possible, whether at the air base, or in the 
vastness of a tropical forest? 
T-I (Rev.) II* CLIMATE AND LIVING CONDITIONS 
First. climate. Most of the area in which there will be fighting— 
until we get near Japan itself—is tropical. Northern Australia, New 
Guinea, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Malaya, Thailand, Indo-China, Burma, • 
and the multitude of small islands not yet put on the active war-map, 
as the Solomons have been — all these are located between the Tropic 
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, 23* 0 north and south of the 
Equator, This is the great tropical belt of the earth. There is not 
as great differentiation between winter and summer as in the temperate 
cones; the significant seasonal rhythm is not from hot to cold, but 
from wet to dry. The dry months because of lower humidity are likely 
to be more comfortable than the wot months. The extent of contrast 
between wot and dry, and the months which are wet or dry, differ from 
region to region and vary north and south of the Equator, Days and 
nights remain about the .same length throughout the year. Dawn and 
darkness come quickly, without the long periods of twilight normal 
in north and south temperate zones. A factor to consider is the 
monotony of tropical climate — one day will be like the next in 
temperature and moisture. 
A, General Characteristics 
The thick tropical rain forests in most of the lowlands of 
the Indies, Burma., Malaya, or Sumatra are the result of rich soil 
and heavy rainfall. Me must immediately stop to remind ourselves 
that the word "jungle” itself is a broad, loose term. The 
vegetation of tropical areas may consist of dense tropical rain 
forests, heavy bush, thick tall grass, mangrove swamp, open prairie- 
like land or intensively cultivated areas. 
1, -'feather 
On the mainland of southeast Asia the and dry seasons 
arc dominated by the monsoons, or seasonal winds. The northwest mc 
monsoon winds blow from the north out of the great land mass of Asia, 
from November to March. These winds are cooler and dryer than the 
air over the southern ocean. From May to September southerly winds 
blow up from the ocean, bearing much rain. The islands of the 
Pacific are dominated not primarily by the monsoon, but by the 
trade winds, and differ from the mainland and from each other in 
prevailing temperatures and exact periods of wot and dry. Even on 
the same island factors which affect seasons are; distance from 
source of the monsoon; mountain ranges which intercept moisture; cl 
closeness to the sea; altitude of the area, or height of mountains; 
The atmosphere of the tropics is usually humid and uncomfortable 
for white people recently arrived from temperate climates,. .Certain 
factors do promote comfort, such as: protection from the sun; 
evaporation of moisture from skin surfaces; air movement aiding 
evaporation; bathing; etc. 
T-I (Rev.) The year-round average of almost 60° in a. large portion of ,v 
Netherland Indies, coupled with a continual humidity of 85 to 90, 
contrasts with Nev.r York City's mean annual temperature of 53* The 
difficulty of getting used to the climate is obvious. . 
2, Variety in Geography and Vegetation 
The islands range from Java, the most intensely -cultivated 
and densely populated area in the Indies, and Sumatra, which is the 
largest, to tiny coral reefs, barren and uncharted. Maps of a large 
part of the island area are incomplete or inaccurate, although this 
information is rapidly being filled in. It is necessary for our 
forces to map many regions by aerial photography. Parts of Borneo 
and New Guinea and Sumatra are unexplored, especially in the 
interior mountainous sections. In the uncultivated lowlands, 
vegetation is lush, quick-growing, and often fed by over-flowing 
rivers. On the highlands or plateaus the forests are of a different 
kind. Even though these regions in the mountains are clear of rain 
forests, travel over them may be difficult because of thick tall 
grass, bushes, and volcanic rock surfaces. Steep hills add to the 
difficulty. 
B. Adjustment to Conditions 
Different physical conditions will demand changes in living 
habits. Clothing should be light, loose, and porous, to allow 
cooling of the body by evaporation and by circulation of air. It 
must be adequate for protecting the skin from injury and from sun. 
Finally, it must also protect us against mosquitoes, flies, ticks 
and leeches. The nation’s science is providing the best clothing 
for this variety of demands. 
There are some interesting scientific -findings on the effects 
of tropical climate on men. The physiology of white persons from 
temperate climates shows the following changes: 1, a lowering of 
the respiration rate; 2. a slight rise in normal body temperature; 
3. a possible increase in lung capacity; A, increased sweating to help 
cool body; 5* lowering of the amount of urine passed; 6, lessened 
appetite, especially for proteins and fats; 7# slight rise in blood 
pressure; 8. increase in pulse rate for a time, followed after a 
stay of some length by a decrease" in pulse rate; 9. reduced blood 
volume, and increased concentration of blood. 
There are certain conscious changes which may be observed: 
increased feeling of tiredness; need for more sleep, or lack of 
ability to sleep; marked change in appetite; increased thirst; 
varying degrees of heat discomfort; !,night-blindness"from over- 
exposure to bright sun. 
C. Food Habits 
Our food habits vd.ll have to be changed. No matter how 
strenuous the efforts of the Quartermaster, there will inevitably 
be shortages of some foods to which we have become accustomed. Mess 
personnel will need to learn about the possibilities of using local 
T-I (Rev.) plant and animal foods, although even a small army, post Is likely to* 
exhaust native supplies and food plants. Thus thee© can never be 
more than a supplement to regular army rations, American soldiers 
will need to learn to like many strange but really tasteful native 
foods. Native diets may be deficient in some vitamins, which can 
be supplied by combination with proper.army rations. Deficiency 
in the vitamin-B group, and protein, has been noted. Efforts 
should be made to supply red meats, liver or liver paste, bean s-r 
sprouts, or condiments used locally which are known to tontain 
the B complex. 
1. Care against Contamination 
While recognizing the need to vary and enrich our diet 
from native sources, we must be constantly on our guard. Fruits 
and vegetables are likely to be contaminated. Great care- should 
be exercised to see that fruits and vegetables are harvested, 
transported, and stored under sanitary conditions. Peeled, fruits 
with undamaged skins are fairly safe; even so, the army can take no 
chances. Many of the native plants may have been cultivated with 
"night soil," or human waste. The Chinese and other peoples of the 
Orient sprinkle this on leafy vegetables and by this means nay 
contaminate them with human disease, germs. Most natives have little- 
understanding of the likelihood that their produce will be exposed 
to every kind of digestive disease existing in the village. 
The same kind of care must be applied to- fresh-water fish 
and shell-fish, and those salt water species which feed in shallows 
close to shore. Fresh via ter is a dangerous carrier of parasite' 
organisms. Salt-water fish are safe from disease germs, but a-few 
may be poisonous or venomous. A point to be stressed: fish spoil 
quickly. They must be cooked and consumed immediately, or they 
become dangerous. Some kinds' of fish, although not poisonous, 
have the reputation of being so because they become,tainted quickly. 
2. Water 
V/hon in the tropics soldiers will feel like drinking much 
greater quantities of rater. The increase in water intake is not 
only desirable, but necessary, When good water is available drink 
it. Under some conditions soldiers will have to learn to do with 
reduced rations of water. An old Marine gunnery sergeant on 
Guadalcanal said: "This 1942 model recruit we are getting can 
drink more water than six old-timers. We have to stress water 
discipline all the time," It is more true than ever that water must 
be con side-red contaminated and unfit for drinking until approved by 
a medical officer or purified, preferably by boiling. Halasone 
tablets are now considered a standard article in the jungle soldier's 
kit, to serve as an emergency measure when there is not sufficient 
time or facility for thorough boiling of water. In emergencies 
water from mountain streams in uninhabited regions may be used. 
Water can bo had from coconuts and fruits. Some types of vines 
when cut yield water for-drinking. D. Hazards to Health 
There are other hazards to living in tropical regions. 
Number 1 and most important is the mosquito. The tropical mosquito 
does not always make so much noise, or drill so deep, as the kind 
back home, but he may carry malaria, this war's greatest cause of 
casualties, or filariasis. Those diseases have serious consequences; 
they are disabling and may cause death or permanent injury. Dengue, 
or "breakbone fever", is more temporary in effect. Since the mosquito 
is so wide-spread, it is hard to avoid; but trained, intelligent troops 
can greatly reduce the risk of disease. 
The Number 2 hazard is found in other insects—flies, which 
carry most gastro-intestinal disease, and ticks and mites, which arc 
responsible for other diseases and which cause much annoyance. Number 3 
hazard is careless travel; thorns, nettle pricks, grassblade cuts, rock 
bruises, in fact anything that breaks the skin, can be the beginning of 
infection. The, Number 4 hazard may be leeches, fiukeworms, and other 
parasites. So it is clear that the soldier in. the tropics must be 
eternally on guard. The health problem is treated more fully in lecture 
II of this series. 
E. Need for Discipline and Training 
Experiences of the past show that many white men in the tropics 
go to seed, lose their nerve, give up trying to fight illness, bad food, 
and alcohol. They "rot". But all this need not, and is not likely to 
happen to any American soldier. Many white men have lived long and 
useful liyds in the tropics, having made proper adjustments. They were 
busy, active men. Soldiers will be busy and active. Unusual 
irritability, lack of exercise, moral let-down—these will be prevented 
in great part by contact with the enemy and vigorous first sergeants. 
One can live healthily and energetically in the tropics, but the key- 
work is discipline, discipline with knowledge which should be the basis 
of discipline. The discipline must fit the tropics. 
And behind this discipline is training. The men may have heard 
again and again the reasons for not drinking out of clear bubbling streams, 
but they will need to act on the knowledge. Quinine or atabrine must be 
taken according to instructions. Proper safeguards against mosquitoes 
must be arranged. Proper arrangements for the elimination of waste must 
be part of the daily routine behavior of each soldier. You cannot leave 
such things to the sanitary corps when you are in fox holes in Sumatra, 
in Malaya, or in Burma. The situation reported by a master gunnery 
sergeant in Guadalcanal must not be repeated: "Some lousy undisciplined 
recruits defecated in fox-holes, which caused trouble in the dark,” 
"Trouble" is a mild bit of language from a sergeant, but each of us 
can imagine the situation. 
The training program for soldiers must be started long before 
the men reach tropical climate. The consensus of opinion of commanders 
on Guadalcanal,•both Marine and Infantry, is that three months of 
bivouacking, scouting, jungle marching, maneuvering, are necessary 
before troops can be considered ready for active tropic duty. One 
reason why the Japs could put up so tenacious a resistance on 
T-I (Rev.) Guadalcanal and New Guinea is that they had gone through long prelimi- 
nary training; our men lacked time and opportunity for this experience. 
But now our men are getting this training, and they are more than a 
match for the enemy. 
111• THE natives in general 
Many of us still believe that native peoples of tropical regions 
are wild, ‘suspicious, and hostile to white people. This is largely 
false. First, white people are no new experience to most natives. 
Missionaries, traders, scientists, and more recently Army and Navy 
personnel have given natives a fairly clear idea of the white man and 
his ways. Second, a rapidly increasing number of reports from our own 
Air Force personnel make it clear that natives, far from being hostile, 
can be considered the most important single factor in the safety of 
forced-down or marooned military personnel, "Then you find the natives, 
or when they find you, your big. worries are usually over. In preparation 
for either daily operations in the tropics, or emergency survival pro- 
cedures, the greatest emphasis must be placed on learning the ways of 
the natives, how to approach, how to please, how to communicate, how to 
pay, how to show respect for them. 
A, Their Right to Respect 
We must be prepared, then, to treat the local inhabitants not 
as ’’natives11, but as people. We must try to know what they think, what 
they want, how they are likely'to react to us. If in the past they have 
had reasons to mistrust the white man, we. must in our daily relations 
with them strive to overcome their prejudices and build-up a bank account 
of good will. We know that the Japs have antagonized the natives in 
many areas by arrogance and exploitation. We must take advantage of this 
fact by establishing a clear contrast between Allied and Axis procedures. 
Some of us, to accomplish this, may have to readjust our ideas, about 
other races. 
We cannot of course ever know completely "how” the natives 
think, just as our mental processes must seem strange to them. (Always 
remember, if you think the natives are queer, that you seem much more 
so to them.). But we can assume that there can be a general kind of 
meeting of minds. They want respect, they want to be treated fairly; 
indeed, they want to We treated like human beings. They have a highly 
developed sense of dignity and hospitality, and, an important factor, 
they usually have a sense of humor, crude though it may seem to us. If 
we are not tense, fearful, or arrogant in our dealings with them, they 
are likely to respond with help and guidance. Above all, we must keep 
our word, once a promise or agreement is raa.de. 
Remember this; through generations of time, the rative populations 
have become well adapted to their surroundings, and consider their way 
of life to be the only good one. They are not "savages." In fact, they 
can put up a good claim that they have made a better adjustment to life 
than the "civilized" races have. There is less mental disease among 
them, because they are not subjected to the many strains and pressures 
of "civilization". There is no fear of insecurity; when they do have 
wars Cand war is not universal among the island populations), only minor 
devastation and death result, , , / • 
T-I (Revf B. Differences among Native Groups 
The above remarks run the danger of being easy generalizations. 
Over so broad an area as the Pacific Islands and Southeast Asia, there 
are peoples as varied in appearance and manner of life as exist in the 
temperate zones. On the basis of physical appearance, manner of life, 
and language, scientists usually class the peoples of that part of the, 
world as Polynesians, Melanesians, Micronesians, and Malaysians. Within 
each principal group many subdivisions may be recognized, and it is often 
difficult to place individuals accurately in their racial group. 
"But one common word can be stressed for all: unless the soldier 
has particular warning about specific tribes, he can expect assistance 
from natives in time of emergency. They are inclined to be helpful, 
either out of courtesy, or fear, or hope of Reward—more so since the 
tide has turned to the side of the Allies. Some have had sufficient 
comparative experience with Japanese and Americans to have a specific 
preference. Some can be expected to give help to soldiers of either side. 
Very few are expected to act solely’for the Japanese; some may refuse 
out of fear to help Americans, if they are too close to Japanese 
installations (although an American flyer forced down within ten miles 
of Jap-held Rekata Bay was gladly escorted to safety by natives). 
Native attitudes are further complicated-by the extent of Japanese 
penetration. Many Japanese colonists were sent to the mandated 
Micronesian islands, such as the Caroline and Palau Islands. There- 
is little recent information available on the attitudes of peoples 
formerly considered friendly. 
It is true that in the Malay peninsula compaign and in Burma 
many of the local people gave aid to the invading Japanese, probably out 
of a dislike of the British, and also, fear. Reports seem reliable that ' 
these same natives would now prefer the Allies to their new "Collaborators" 
in the co-prosperity sphere, and, if treated properly, would help Allied 
soldiers in trouble. 
IV. POLYNESIA 
This area (the name means "many islands") contains the eastern 
portion of the Pacific islands. It includes the Society Islands-(the 
most famous is Tahiti), the Samoan group (the town Pago Pago is on the 
island Tutuila) the Line Islands, the Cook Islands, the Tuamotus,, t£e 
Australs, the Marquesas, and, at the meeting point of Polynesia, 
Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Ellice Islands.New Zealand, far 
to the south, has as the native population the Maoris, a Polynesian 
people. The Hawaiian Islands, although north of the smaller islands, 
are considered part of the Polynesian group, although the Polynesian ' 
inhabitants are by now considerably outnumbered ,by mixtures of Japanese, 
Chinese, native Hawaiians, and'others. 
A. Development and Appearance 
The inhabitants of those groups are universally friendly to 
Allied interests, hiving been for some time in the sphere of Allied 
control;- the French Society Islands repudiated. Vichy quickly. The 
Polynesians are as a group the farthest advanced of all Pacific peoples. 
T-I (Rev.) They are the most a venturous and ingenious, having navigated farthest 
to reach their final homes. Their exploits in traveling thousands of 
miles in open boats, with families and possessions, are part of a proud 
tradition. Their attitude toward white visitors is to take them at face 
value, as equals, and to condemn equally arrogance and servility. They 
are fully acquainted with white ways, and have assimilated many European 
and American habits. 
In physical, characteristics, they are the tallest and probably 
the healthiest of the South Sea islanders. They are fairly lightskinned, 
with a yellowish tinge. Their eyes are large, brown, and straight, 
without the eye-fold on the inner corner which is the distinguishing 
mark of the '’yellow'' race. Their hair is black and straight or wavy. 
They have a tendency toward corpulence with increasing ago. In general 
their appearance is closest to that of the white race. 
B. Learn from Them 
Soldiers stationed on a Polynesian island shopld take advantage 
of the opportunity of learning as much as they can from the cooperative 
and friendly natives. There is much of value in the fields of fishing 
and hunting, making shelters, using native plants for food, that can be 
more easily picked up from Polynesians than from more backward groups. 
There is always the chance that soldiers will be sent to a more advanced 
base. 
Most of the natives are likely to have an acquaintance with 
either French or English in addition to their own language. Soldiers 
are encouraged to learn as much as they can about the native language, 
because, despite the variety in dialect idthin the Polynesian tongue, 
there is a good chance that many basic expressions wall be understood 
throughout the Polynesian area. English is understood widely in the 
Cook, Samoan, Tongan, and New Zealand groups, and French in the 
Marquesas, Society group, and Tuamotus. 
C. Details on Polynesian Manner of Living' 
1. Subsistence: Yams, taroj breadfruit, bananas, and the sago 
palm are important. Fishing and some hunting. Pig and dog are the 
only domestic animals, 
2, Stimulants: Kava is widely drunk. Betel nut chewing with lime 
is a common practice in the western Polynesian islands; the habit stains 
the teeth a coal black and colors the spit bright red. 
3« Crafts: Pottery, wood carving, wooden dishes; no metals in 
native crafts; bark cloth; bamboo tools; mats, baskets. Clubs and spears 
are elaborately carved, Warfare is surrounded with elaborate religious 
observances• 
4. Clothing: Mon wear the loin cloth; women wear knee length 
skirt. Tapa bark cloth is highly decorated, and more widely ’us-ed than 
in other island ardas. Elaborate body and face tattooing, as indication 
of social status, is dying out. Little scarification. 
5. Ornaments: Less common than in other island groups. Wide use 
of fans, 
6. Trans portat ion; Poles carried on shoulders, dugout canoes, 
single and double outrigger canoes, and canoes equipped with sails. 
Multiple canoes with platforms to carry weight. 
T-I (Rev.) 7. Religion: Normally Christian, but many traces of old religion 
based on concepts of Mana and tapu (tabu) underlie religious and social 
organization. Priesthood and reverence for ancestors highly developed, 
8. Government: Chief, with tendency to absolute power. Also 
village council. Often dual chieftainship; one rules, another considered 
sacred, 
9. Houses: Both dwellings and religious buildings of wood, with 
thatch or matting roofs and sides. Stono ra.rcly used. Stone "maraes" 
or small pyramids used in religious ceremonies, 
10. Rank; Based on descent and seniority of birth. Divisions 
into sacred chiefs, ruling chiefs, priests, commoners, and slaves. Rank 
has religious sanction, based on ancestor 'worship. 
V. MELANESIA 
This is the theatre of present fighting in the Pacific. The Solomons,, 
New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, New Hebrides, and the hundreds of 
smaller islands, which keep breaking into print as the Australians and 
Americans advance, are inhabited by peoples less socially advanced than 
the Polynesians. The term Melanesia means "black island area”, in 
reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants. The skin is not black, 
but rather a chocolate brown. The degree of negroid characteristics 
differs in various arms: broad nose, thick lips, curly or woolly hair. 
There is no uniform physical type. 
A. New Guinea Types 
There are three general types in New Guinea: the ’’true" Melanesians, 
the Papuans, and the pygmies, or Negrites. The first group is found in 
the area wjiere pur soldiers are now fighting: north and east coastal New 
Guinea, and the Salomons, The people are evidently greatly mixed, but 
the same general tendency in all the Pacific obtains: natives farther 
north and east have longer and less woolly hair, narrower nose, and lighter 
skin. The body might be decorated by tattooing, scarring, or punching 
holes through nose and ears for rings and pins. The "Melanesians" are 
in the main longer-headed than the Papuans, have smaller noses, and are 
likely to have less pronounced brow-ridges. 
The Papuans ("woolly hair") are likely to have Negro features, but 
there are strains that suggest immigration from southern Asia and India. 
Western Now Guinea, the homo of the Papuans, lies on the migration road. 
Hair in this section is shorter than in the east. The men pierce their 
nostrils and cars, but scarring the body is usually limited to 'women. 
The interior of New Guinea is inhabited by Papuans, Melanesians, 
and Negritos. Some hostility to strangers is still evidenced by the 
inland tribes. The pygmies are especially shy, as would be expected from 
a marginal race hanging on to existence in less desirable land areas, but 
they are usually amenable to a fair .and friendly approach. 
B, Important Melanesian Areas 
New 'Guinea, with its tough ridges of mountains and its steaming 
jungle, is well known to us through the accounts of the Australian- 
T-I (Rev.) American task force advance across the Owen Stanley range, and the 
slow advance through Gona, Buna, Salamaua and Lae. All these operations 
took place in the southeastern peninsula, part of the area called Papua 
(notice that the people called Papuans live both in this section, and 
in the west). The northern and eastern portion of the island is the 
British territory, while the Western half of the island, with its "bird- 
head" peninsula, the Vogelkop, is Dutch. The Japanese have a thin hold 
on the coast, but the main territory is untouched by war, except possibly 
by planes coming down. The natives are likely, then, to be of aid to 
soldiers who come among them, without fear of Jap reprisal, 
Rabaul, the main Japanese shipping and bombing base, and the main 
target of Army Air Force heavy' bombers, is.a town on the northeast corner 
of New Britain, a long island east of British New Guinea, in the Bismarck 
Archipelago. He shall hear more of this island, and its natives, as 
operations increase with the approach of Allied soldiers up the New Guinea 
coast and through the Solomons. 
New Caledonia is a way-station for personnel in the Southwestern. 
Pacific theatre, and was the jumping-off place for our attack on Guadal- 
canal, being equally south of the Solomons and east of Australia. The 
native population, completely accustomed to outside influence, had been 
before the war reduced to less than half of the total inhabitants, who 
include whites, Japanese, and Indo-Chinese, 
The Solomons, including Guadalcanal, Net/ Georgia, Choisenl, and 
Bougainville, have a climate that is not considered healthful for 
Europeans. Humidity and heat are excessive, and malaria is everywhere, 
as our men have found out. Dysentery is also common. The natives are 
Melanesians, much intermixed. On Bougainville, the northernmost of the 
group, they arc very black. The coastal natives are inclined to bo f 
friendly to our side, and have proved their dislike of the Japanese. 
Until recently cannibalism was common in the islands, and may still 
exist on a small scale, along with head-hunting. Pidgin English is .v 
widely understood. 
C. Details on Manner of Living 
1. Subsistence: Much like Polynesians, 
2. Stimulants: Kava and betel, nut, 
3. Crafts; Pottery, woodcarving. Wooden dishes, drums. Twirling stick 
to produce fire. No metals. Bark cloth. Bamboo tools. Mats, baskets, 
4. Clothing: Men wear loin cloth; women wear knee-length skirt. 
Tattooing and scarification. 
$. Ornaments: Shell, bone, teeth pendants. Elaborate combs and other 
hair ornaments. 
6, Weapons: Clubs, spears, bows and arrows, slings. 
7. Transportation; Polos carried on shoulders, dugout canoes, single and 
double outrigger canoes. "Lakatoi" canoe—four or more dugouts lashed 
together and platform placed on top. Will carry tons of weight. 
8, Religion; "Maria," a mystical force which is source of all power. 
Belief in friendly and hostile spirits. 
9. Government: No tribal chief but control in each village is in hands 
of a local chief and old men. 
10. Houses: Rectangular and circular thatch houses. Some tree houses, 
sacred houses and communal houses over 400 feet long. 
T-I (Rev,) VI. MICRONESIA 
Most of these islands, of which the largest is only 12 by 15 miles, 
have received the benefits of Japanese guidance since 1920, the 
inception of the League mandate. They are scattered over a wide area 
north of the Melanesian string. Japan jealously kept other nations 
from contact with these islands. From west to East are the Palau 
cluster, the Caroline string, and the Marshall group. Southeast of 
the Marshalls, and near the imaginary juncture of Melanesia, Polynesia, 
and Micronesia, are the Gilbert Islands, formerly owned by Britain, but 
since taken by the Japs, Our task forces and bombers have attacked 
Tarawa and Makin in this group. 
We can be sure that the Japanese have extensive naval, air, and 
military bases in these islands. Truk, in the Carolines, is supposed 
to be the strongest naval base in the Pacific outside of Pearl Harbor. 
It is really a cluster of small islands huddled within a barrier reef 
about 40 miles in diameter. Yap, about a thousand miles west of Truk, 
is a base of the San Francisco-Shanghai cable, which has a branch from 
Yap to the Netherland Indies. Ponape, 400 miles east of Truk, is the 
largest island in the mandate. Unlike most of the islands, it is 
rugged and mountainous. On its north side there is a cluster of small 
islands affording anchorage to the Jap fleet. Guam, east of the 
Philippines and south of Tokyo, was under S» mandate before its 
capture, 
Most of the islands are low, of coral structure,.and very small. 
Many are uninhabited.. The people are Micronesian hybrids, with 
Melanesian mixture, especially in the wrest, as in Palau. They are 
good agriculturists, canoe-builders, and navigators. Throughout the 
islands the natives have in the- past been friendly. But we cannot 
know v-'hat effect the Japanese may have had on them. Further, we can 
assume that the number of Japs themselves in the islands has greatly 
increased; the process started before the war. Pidgin English is 
understood in the Carolines, Gilberts, and Marshalls* The survival 
procedures outlined in another lecture will apply to these islands, 
except, of course, the advice to throw oneself into the hands of the 
natives. 
VII. MALAYSIA 
Malaysia extends from the Malay peninsula to the borders of New 
Guinea and from the southern coasts of Sumatra -and Java to the northern 
part of Formosa. It includes the following; 
Malay peninsula Borneo 
Andaman Islands Philippines 
Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa Formosa and smaller adjacent islands 
and Timor 
The Celebes group 
The physiography is largely volcanic. In late glacial times the 
area was connected to the Asiatic mainland by .a series of land bridges 
which allowed for the movement of plants, animals and man. The climate is tropical, vegetation is luxuriant, and annual rainfall averages more 
than 100 inches, as compared with 38 at Key West, Florida, and 43 in New 
York City, 
Malaysia was the theatre of the first Japanese campaigns and today 
the Japs are in more or less firm control of the entire area. Although 
the natives of the islands are likely to be friendly there is constant 
danger of encountering enemy soldiers. 
A. Malaysian Types 
The population of the region consists of various groups of 
Malays, Indonesians, and Negritos. The l&lay is the most recent iirani-* 
grant to the islands and is by far the most numerous, most advanced, 
and most widespread. Typical Malay peoples are the Sakai of the Malay 
Peninsula, the Batak and Menang Kabau of Sumatra, Bontoc, Igorot and 
Tinguan of the Philippines, and the Filipino. In physical appearance 
the Malay is short, of slight build, round headed, with straight black 
hair and yellow-brown skin. 
The Indonesian, or Proto-Malay type, is found in every part of 
the archipelago thoroughly fused with the typical Malay, Typical peoples 
are the Jakun of the Malay Peninsula and the Dyak of Borneo, Features 
like long heads, wavy and curly hair, stocky body build, broader noses, 
and darker skin help to distinguish them from the Malay, but this must 
not be interpreted to mean that there are any true "Indonesian1’ tribes. 
The Negrito, the earliest immigrant to the islands, is widely 
distributed but is the least numerous of the physical types. They are 
characterized by very short stature, an average of only 4 ft, 10 in. 
for adult men. Pressure from the more numerous Malay have-driven them 
into the interior regions of the Andaman Islands, Malay Peninsula and 
the Philippines. Typical Negrito people are the Semang of the Malay 
Peninsula, the Andaman Islanders, and the Negrito of the Philippines, 
They live in scattered bands usually in the forested mountains and in 
their living make use of many items borrowed from the surrounding Malay, 
Their mode of life is exceedingly primitive and they are antagonistic 
to outsiders. 
B. Details on Malaysian Mariner of Living 
The modes of living, customs, mannerisms and habits, differ from 
island to island and-no general pattern of life can be said to hold for 
the entire area. Upon an underlying Malaysian core there have been 
pyramided items borrowed from a multitude of sources, including India, 
and China, with influences from Mohammedanism, Spanish-Catholic, Dutch, 
British and American policies, and Japanese migration and policy. 
Customs and habits most widespread among the Malay, the people the . 
American soldier is most likely to meet with, are as follows: 
1. Cultivation of rice. This is the staple food. Look for rice terraces 
2. Houses are of thatch, gabled and raised from ground. Houses built in 
trees are common. Long houses prominent. 
T-I (Rev.) 3. Tattooing common throughout Malaysia, In the Philippines it is 
connected with head-hunting. Blackening of teeth from betel nut 
chewing is widespread. 
4. Iron working is universal. Cylindrical bellows and native forge 
permit the making of highly tempered axes and knives, 
5. Typical weapons are the kris, iron-pointed spear and blow-gun, 
6. Vestiges of headhunting are found on some of the islands; it is, 
combined with ceremonial cannibalism, in which parte of the 
enemy*g: body are eaten, to gain his power. 
7. Religion consists of a cult of ancestral spirits. People talk 
to spirits through mediums, spirit houses arc built, and many 
ceremonies are connected with the mediums, 
8. Government is for the most part local. Each village selects one 
of its old men to act as its head but he has little actual power. 
Custom is the law, 
Malay is the common language of most of the islands. It is an easy 
language, and a minimum vocabulary should be learned by every soldier 
stationed in the area. In ordinary times most natives preferred Dutch 
money; the soldier should also remember that they are particularly fond 
of cotton cloth, combs and wrist ornaments, \ 
Vin. AUSTRALIA 
The island-continent is off the beaten path of migration, and as 
a result there is less mixture in the native population. The character- 
istics of the Australian bushman are coarse features, heavy brows, well 
developed beards with straight or wavy hair. Only in northern Australia, 
around Port Darwin, are natives likely to be met by American soldiers 
in any numbers. Pictures in Yank have shown air crews hobnobbing with 
the bushmen. The natives are friendly, and under the control of local 
authorities • 
’The bmshman’s life is simple, with few material possessions, but 
he has a complex religious and social life. Happiness and contentment 
are measured in terns of family life and religious observances, rather 
than in material things. The number of natives is small, and .they are 
scattered over immense areas in arid central Australia, They eat what 
the soil has to offer of roots, berries, plants, insects, animal and bird 
life. Vegetation and animal life are scanty; this necessitates constant 
moving about. Little or no clothing is worn. The only domesticated 
animal is the dingo, a kind of wild dog. Crude windbreaks, rather than 
houses, are used as shelter against rain, wind, and cold. Tools and 
implements are mainly of stone; and the only weapons are the boomerang 
and a crude spear. Baskets are used, but there are no metal or clay 
containers, 
An important thing'to remember about the Australian bushman is his 
remarkable knowledge of animals, plants, sources or water, and the lay 
of the land in which he lives. He is likely to be the safest guide in 
an emergency. 
T-I (Rev.) IX. H0_T TO DEAL UITH NATIVES 
You have been hearing repeated sermons on the need to treat the 
natives right. Your question in return night be, MBut exactly how is 
this managed? How can we know what they expect?” 
A, Attitude of Curiosity 
First and most important is the matter of attitude. If you are 
stationed anywhere in the Pacific area, you are likely to have some 
contact with local populations. You must try to find out what their c 
customs are, what their general feeling towards things is. Don’t be 
like the New York boy who decided Chicago was a hick town because it 
didn’t have a subway. He judged everything by his own narrow standards. 
Some day your life may depend on the proper approach to natives. It . 
would be wise to start learning about them as soon as possible. 
* 
As soon as you reach your station,'start learning. First, learn 
a few of the spoken words and phrases of the local tribe. It may be 
akin to the tongue spoken in another area, where you might need help; 
it is a way of showing respect to the people, and they mil respond; 
it will give you a key to how the people think;;.it is a step toward 
learning other things, 
Then, take little escorted trips over the country. Have a native 
give you names of various plants and trees, Visit the gardens and culti- 
vated patches, so that you cajn recognize food plants, and ask for them 
by name. Learn some of the characteristics of the local forest from the 
natives; other jungle may not be similar," but there 23 a good c'hance that 
what you know about one area can be applied elsewhere. Do not forget to 
pay your guide. Learn, locally, the current established- rate of payment. 
B. Making Contact 
If you ever have to ask help from the mtives, you must get yourself 
into the frame of mind that shows neither fear, nor superiority. Ask for 
help the way you would ask an independent garage owner for help with your 
tire—as if it were a cooperative venture you are to work out together, 
even though he will do the major part of the work. 
Do not jforco physical contact upon the natives. They do not like 
to be pushed around any more than you do. If they offer a handshake, 
good; but do not take the liberty of patting them condescendingly on head 
or shoulder. The best thing is a cordial smile, a welcoming gesture of 
the hand. You must not bo reserved and subtle in your gestures. Communi- 
cation is the important thing. One pilot got hiding natives to converse 
with him by holding out. a large branch, breaking it in two, and placing 
it on the ground. There is no established way of making contact, however. 
Once natives tried to find the allegiance of a pilot who asked for help. 
They showed him a Japanese flag; he held his nose and motioned it away. 
They showed him a picture of Churchill; he smiled, but shook his head. 
They showed him a picture of Roosevelt; ho smiled vigorously and motioned 
to himself. They were delighted. Of course, not all natives are likely 
to have such stage props. But is would be a good idea to carry a small 
American flag along on missions. 
T-I (Rev.) C, Money and Objects of Value 
In some areas the people are sufficiently acquainted with vrtiite 
people to be able to differentiate between national currencies. Hard 
money is generally more valued than paper money—as one would' expect. 
Some natives will even accept a note, or chit, from an airman they help, 
expecting the note to bo honored when they run into an American camp. 
But most would prefer to be paid in their own medium of exchange. In 
New Guinea, especially inland, a sea-shell called the cowrie is valued. 
Acceptance of these shells is surprisingly wide-spread. Their value 
increases with the distance from the coast. It would be good to collect 
a number of them, and tuck them away in a pocket of the flying suit. 
They are flattish, oval, usually white and glossy, but certain orange 
species are highly prized, in the Fijis, for example. Another valuable 
commodity is salt. Carry a couple of ounces in a waterproof container, 
both for your own use and as a gift for natives. 
The*usefulness of a sharp cutting surface is apparent. There 
seems to be universal appreciation of the gift of a razorblade, the 
shinier the better. Soldiers are advised to have some blades along with 
them at all times—in a moisture proof packet, of course. One should 
never take any fruit or vegetables from a cultivated patch—if you have 
to—without leaving some payment. A blade left in a conspicuous spot is 
advised by veterans of jungle operations. 
Of course, knives, daggers, and other metal will be appreciated. 
For primitive peoples still in a stone age culture, as mrny + rib os are 
in the New Guinea hinterland, metal is wonderful. One of the few 
dangerous tribes in New Guinea, the Knkukuku, are supposed to have killed 
prospectors, taken their shovels, and in some way managed to cut these 
into narrow strips for knives. 
Other natives value shiny tin cans . One can understand how these 
will be prized as cooking utensils. Do not throw out your ration C tins. 
Keep them around: you may have to cook out of them yourselves, or be able 
to use them in trade with natives. 
One officer found his way into the approval of natives by offering 
them his collar insignia of bar and wings. Jewelry seems to have a natural 
attraction for most people; and recently a magazine carried a full-page 
picture of a pile of cheap jewelry, G. I., for use in dealing with Pacific 
natives. There is no way to know ahead of time what might meet the fancy 
of the people you run into. This must be learned on the spot. 
But the important thing is to consider the ways of the natives 
and adapt yourself to them. If they want to take their time about doing 
a job; if they travel more slowly than you would like; if they laugh at 
something you do not think funny—there is little you can do about it. 
You can indicate impatience, and that might hustle them along; but swear- 
ing or, vrorst of all, physical force, might be dangerous. And again, 
the, more you know about the natives, and the earlier, the better. 
T-I (Rev.) X. DO’S AND DON'TS IN RELATIONS TOTH NATIVES 
1, DON’T take a superior attitude. The natives have an intense 
psrsohaT"and group pride, and, think well of themselves and their 
way of living. A Polynesian can trace his ancestry back for 600 
years and more, and could with justice scorn our BAR’S, FFV’S, and 
Mayflower descendants. 
2, DON’T consider the native ’’funny." You seem a good deal funnier 
to him, Nut he my be too polite to show it. 
3* DON * T be aloof and superior, but on the other hand don't try 
to intimate. Most natives have an intense personal dignity, 
and maintain reserve. Do not slap people on the back, 
4* DON'T ever laugh at the natives; laugh with them at the mistakes 
you make* 
5. DON’T be loud-mouthed and noisy; that is bad manners anywhere, 
6. DON’T intrude on dances, rituals, or other ceremonies unless 
you are invited. 
7. DON'T intrude in temples or sacred areas. 
8. DON’T take sides in native disputes, or show favoritism to one 
group over another. 
9. DON’T be destructive of plants, animals, or any other property. 
They belong either to a person or to the community, 
10, DON’T make advances to the native women. They may not wear 
much clothing, but they have a code of modesty at least as rigid 
as that of the girls back home; and they belong to someone else, 
11. DON'T appear afraid or suspicious, even if you believe there 
is good reason to be. Be polite and dignified, and smile. 
1, Take it easy; go slow in your relations with natives. You can 
tell from their reactions whether you have made a mistake, 
2, Learn the rules of etiquette for greetings and table manners. 
Natives may eat with their hands, but they have codes and ceremonies 
just the same. 
3. Keep your word if you make a promise, 
4. Pay for things and services you use, either in money or with 
presents. 
5. Remember that you appear as curious to the natives as they do 
to you. They are interested in knowing what things are like whore 
you come from. Show them pictures and illustrated magazines of 
life in America. 
6, Show respect and politeness to all natives, and especially to 
chiefs, old people, and local leaders. ARCTIC, DESERTeTROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
THE TROPICS (THREE LECTURES) 
T- II LECTURE I I—PERSONAL care, aircraft maintenance, and 
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 
PAGE 
PART I—PERSONAL CARE 
L TRAINING AND PERSONAL EFFICIENCY 
II. RULES AND PRECAUTIONS 
1 
2 
3 
III. THREE PROBLEMS 
Mosquito-Borne Disease; Water and Food Disease; 
Other Insects and Pests; the Medical Kit 
IV. HEAT AND ACCLIMATIZATION 7 
V. CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT 8 
PART II—AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE 
I. CLIMATE AND WORKING CONDITIONS 9 
II. FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT 10 
III. MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS 10 
IV. SHELTER AND HEAT 11 
V. CORROSION 12 
VI. DUST 13 
VII. THE PROBLEM OF LUBRICATION 14 
VIII. CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE CHECKS - 14 
IX. TIRES, ARMAMENT, INSTRUMENTS, etc, 
X. CAMOUFLAGE v/16 
PART ill—ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 
I. EFFECTS OF MOISTURE, AND COUNTERMEASURES 17 
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 18 
Drying; Wax and Pitch; Varnish; Other Elements; 
Insect and Fungus Proofing; Soldering 
GENERAL SUMMARY 23 
Prepared by 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF. INTELLIGENCE 
25 Broad street, New York 4, N. Y. ARCTIC,. DISERT, AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
ARMY AIR FORCES 
School Lectures 
THE TROPICS 
Lecture II: •• • - . . 
Personal Care, Aircraft Maintenance, and Electronic Equipment 
Part I—PERSONAL CARE 
I. TRAINING :aND PERSONAL EFFICIENCY 
■ ■•The Japanese trained for months on Hainan Island back in 1911 for 
their attack on Malaya, Sumatra, Java, New Guinea, and the other tropical 
areas they swallowed so .quickly. They practiced Scamping, living,bivouack- 
ing, marching, infiltrating. They rehearsed landing ‘operations over and 
over, Tho.se men who proved unequal to jungle work were weeded out. No one 
can deny that this training was effective, It was so’ effective that our 
own leaders realised the Japanese could not be pushed back and routed out 
if our own soldiers were not just,as well trained and hardened to "the tough- 
est fighting in the world”. Schools and training camps were set up behind 
the lines in India, Burma, New Guinea and other islands, and proof that our 
men are responding magnificently to their schooling appears in the battle 
reports every day. Our men are now beating the Japanese at their own game. 
Importance of Individual Health 
All this personal and tactical training is also'operational and main- 
tenance training. The Japanese based their training on a correct principle: 
tropical operation depends not primarily on equipment, not even primarily 
on personal courage; but on physical preparedness, and personal1 maintenance. 
If the men are in condition, the machines will be in condition. If the men 
are ill and weary; if they have diarrhea and malaria and leech sores and 
fungus parasites, they cannot take care of the machines, and they'cannot 
fight jungle warfare, either on the ground or from the air. 
1. Physical Conditions 
The initiation of a military plan may depend on how many men are 
”effective1.1 for active operations; the number of men may depend on the cor- 
rect use of mosquito nets or atabrine or water purifier. 
■The Japanese knew that the danger of mechanical breakdown lay not 
primarily in natural factors, such as engine starting temperatures, as in 
the arctic, or abrasion,and short life of vital parts, as in the desert. 
They knew that 'weapon and airplane"maintenance depend on maintenance of 
health and spirit. 
T-II (Rev.) Not that the tropics, apart from the problem of personal health, 
are a pilot's or a crew chief's paradise. .. There is the problem of humidity* 
which penetrates and rots; corrodes metal equipment; makes fields and land- 
ing strips difficult to keep drained; creates bogs and slippery, treacher- 
ous surfaces; and encourages the jungle to grow back at appalling speed. 
Troops have to dry and oil every part of their weapons every day. Line cr^s 
have to be alert for rust and rot. Radio operators have to worry about bat" 
teries, semi-enclosed connections, and all the parts that can be harmed by 
moisture, fungus growths, and insects. This will be discussed later. 
2. Mental Health 
The broad picture is of the struggle against deterioration in men, 
and in the implements of daily living. This picture includes not only de- 
tails of physical health, and care of equipment. It involves also a psy- 
chological preparation for the peculiar nature of jungle war: small units 
stalking each other; narrow trails; ambush; night attacks; surprise and 
sudden death. The British fought bravely on the agonizing retreat down 
the Malayan peninsula—when they could fight. But they just did not know 
the tricks; they, stumbled backward blindly, not quite demoralized, but 
unprepared to meet the Japanese in the .new tactics, it is no secret that 
many of our men on Guadalcanal broke down under the night attacks, inter- 
ruption of sleep, bad sanitation, and illness; many developed, "combat 
neurosis". They were fine lads, but they.were not prepared for what they 
had to face. More recently the picture is completely different: our men 
and the Australians have been infiltrating masterfully behind. Japanese 
positions, .and are pushing the Japanese back in the tense jungle stalking* 
Their training, both hygienic and tactical, .has "taken". 
Does, all this, apply to Air Force men—pilots, air crews,, ground 
crews?- Yes, In the jungle, everyone fights, not merely with planes, but 
with rifles and pistols and tommy guns. Even in those parts of the tropic5 
which are not jungle, and behind the lines, there is still the need for 
rigorous health precautions. How much each man will be responsible for 
depends on the station: ’ third echelon personnel will, not.normally have 
to Worry about the supply and the purity of their food.and water, but may 
still have' to keep alert for fly and mosquito infection. In a front line 
combat unit, each man will have great individual responsibilities. 
II, RULES AND PRECAUTIONS 
The problem is; how can the human machine be made to work efficiently 
undur tropical conditions and the conditions of modern warfare?. Certain 
simple rules must be followed with the same regularity and habitual ease 
with which one puts on pants and necktie in civilian life, (l) VJe must 
protect ourselves against malarial mosquitoes, (2) We must not drink bad 
water. (3) We .must care for insect bites and skin wounds. 
Other more general warnings are; (l). We must eat properly, or the 
best we can; (2) we must try to rest adequately; (3) we must stay clean 
and obey strictly all sanitary rules; (U) we.must avoid undue fear and 
worry; (5) we must keep in mind the objective, and maintain an enthusiasm 
for the job; (6) we must have and use breaks and longer periods of 
relaxation. 
T-II (Rev.) These cautions bring in the important matter of personal equipment; 
(l) be must use mosquito netting; (2) we must know what to use to purify 
water; (3) we must have and use the right clothing. This must not be left 
to officers and non-coms, any more than you would leave to them your deci- 
sions when to urinate, Mosquitoes and clothing are your own personal 
affair# It is your life which is at stake, and also the lives of the men 
in your unit. If you become ill you are useless, and other men have to 
protect and "wait upon you. 
This preparedness and training is closely related to survival in an 
emergency—in case you are lost during a march, or after a force-down or 
bail-out. These matters will be discussed more fully in the next lecture, 
but you must realize now that you save yourself in an emergency by the 
training you have every day, until the acquired skills are needed. If 
you know how to avoid being bitten in camp or on maneuvers you will do 
pretty well in the wild alone. 
III. THP.EE problems 
A, Avoiding liosguito-Borne Diseases 
Why mosquito netting? Rear Admiral Ross Mclntire, Chief of the 
Bureau of Medicine and Burgery, and other authorities say malaria is the 
most serious medical problem of the .war; in fact, the No. 1 source of 
casualties. Wherever the Navy or Marine Corps lands, there are CB units 
assigned the task of mosquito-proofing the area, if the task is at all 
possible. They help choose sites for the camp, they disinfect or oil up 
patches of still water, they enforce mosquito discipline. The best sites 
are on high and ©pen ground, at least one-half mile, if possible, from water, 
with the wind toward the water, to discourage flight of mosquitoes to the 
camp.. Mosquitoes can breed and live at least a mile above sea-level, if 
water xs available, so troops away from the lowlands should not think they 
are free from danger. Also, different kinds of mosquitoes breed differently 
—some in fresh, some in brackish, some in still, some in moving water. 
1. Protection by Cover 
Men should try to get under cover—behind screening—by nightfall. 
The main flight of the anopheles mosquito is from shortly after sundown to 
about three or four hours later; also about sunrise. They may also attack 
by day inside houses and in the dim, thick forest. If we are required to 
walk in the open after dark, especially during this period, we should be sure 
to cover up with headnet, long sleeves and trousers, and gloves. Marines who 
fought on Guadalcanal believe that flannel gloves for protection against 
insects while sleeping would have been useful equipment. Gloves are now G.I, 
Native habitations may be curious, and soldiers may desire to 
show their friendliness toward the people by visiting them, but this may be 
fatal. Btay away from native huts at night, especially during early evening. 
Anonholcs mosquitoes are not malaria carriers until they have bitten an in- 
fected human being—and most native peoples arc pretty sure to carry the in- 
fection. Therefore the proportion of disease-carrying mosquitoes is likely 
to be highest within a settlement and for a radius of a mile around. Other 
T-II (Rev.) kinds of mosquitoes carry diseases, too, Tie co.lox mosquito, related to 
the kind we encounter at \die;. e it usually does no more damage ihan a 
buzz and a bump, can cause a painful and unpleasant disease, filariasis. 
Its bite injects larvae of minute worms, which cause a -swelling of ahe scrr' 
turn and legs, or block circulation in oti>er parts of the V ody, The aedes 
mosquito can cause dengue (breakbone) or yellow fever. So yoi‘~Karre 
to beware of more than the smail malarial mosquito, cm anopheles, which 
bites you from a slanting position. Avoid them all. Kill all. They 
are more dangerous than Hips. 
Use mosquito spray, or an insecticide bomb, generously in any 
shelter. That includes a sj.it trench5 also spray the inside of airplanes3 
both to prevent infection and to prevent transfer of disease-bearing 
mosquitoes to other areas. 
Be sure tnat your sleeping net or head net does not touch your 
skin, there the net hugs, so c<m a mosquito. Tuck the net well in ’under 
your roll or blanket. If you have no protection, stay near a smoke fire.* 
There are new mosquito-repellent lotions issued to troops. The50 
should be used in the quantity and at the tines directed. But they are erdf 
partial measures, and cannot be depended on to prevent all bites. * Do not 
depend on any fancied aversion you vhink mosquitoes have toward your sicin* 
Tropical mosquitoes are much less particular than the Jersey breed. 
2. jjllef£ 
Quinine and atabrme tablets do not prevent malarial 
but they may reduce the effect, and keep do?mant the symptoms for a number 
of days, and allow men to carry on their mission adequately without time 
out for chills and fever. A flyer took his atabrine tablets regularly whiTe 
being carried back to camp with a wounded leg, sustained while bailing out 
of a burning p.i.ane, J-he .full effects of malaria, hit him three weeks later * 
when he was under expert medical care. If malaria had been added to his 
other disabilities while making his way back, he would probably not have 
been alive more than a week. A lieutenant colonel of Marines declared "$c 
did not start taking quinine and atabrine soon enough when we hit 
be are paying for this now." These medicines are indispensable. 
B, pt-d.nlrfng eater, food and Disease 
Rain water directly” caught* in clean containers is likely to be 
Artesian well water from below rock strata is safe until delivery to the 
surface, unless the well is contaminated. But water from streams water 
from shallow wells, water taken anywhere near native houses should be con- 
sidered Aangci ous. ine soream may be f ast—^lowing and clear * but 11 may 
still abound in flukes and other parasite worms, or germs carried down frofl1 
an upstream native village. Rater found anywhere near where natives live 
is mikuly to be polluted, ihey have few ideas of sanitation, and if 
it wore explained, it would take time for so new a sot of principles to si 
. For one thing, their lumunity is greater to 10cm. diseases than that 
of white men; if they do become ill, it is likely to be less seriously t.ha*1 
if we were to contract the disease, ihose individuals who might have been 
highly susceptible to intestinal disease have been killed off long since; 
they were the "unfit1*—the "fit" have survived. 
T-II (Rev.) The simplest treatment Tor water is boiling* About five, minutes 
is. a safe length of time for boiling at sea level,., In the field there may 
not be enough time to boil water properly. In this.event halazone tablets 
can be expected to take care of about pine-tenths of possibly dangerous 
organisms in water. If’the’solution of a single tablet per quart does not 
cause the water to smell and taste slightly of chlorine, after standing 
30 minutes, another tablet is needed. The tablets do "hot kill the eggs and 
larvae of round worms and flukes; therefore the water must be carefully 
filtered before purification. In a pinch, a drop or two of iodine may be 
used’to purify water, but you need not be told that iodine water requires 
much getting used to. I 
Dysentery, typhoid, para-typhoid, and cholera germs all come-from 
the intestines of some person.who has had the disease, and spread by the 
careless disposal of body waste.. Heavy rain washes contaminated poll into 
streams, which are used for drinking, and,the disease spreads* 
Vaccination cannot be depended on to protect fully against large 
numbers of typhoid, para-typhoid and'cholera germs, hater and food precau- 
tions are the absolute requirement to protect against these diseases, Avoid 
unsterilized water, raw vegetables, such as salad greens, radishes, etc, 
Flies breed in filth and garbage, and spread germs wherever they 
walk*. It has been.proved in hundreds of army camps: dysentery goes down 
when screens go up. Screen mess halls, kitchens, latrines, and keep food 
covered. 
C. Avoiding and’ Controiling other Insects.and Posts 
The greatest annoyance and, next to malaria, the most serious danger 
in the tropics is the attack of insects or other small organisms, jhe body 
surface should be examined periodically, at least once a day, for various 
kinds of preatures* Avoid infection from bites, cuts, and scratches by 
prompt and proper’action. 
1. Ticks 
Ticks can transmit relapsing fever and typhus, and can cause 
skin infection even if they are not germ carriers. The''several kinds of 
ticks all suck blood by burrowing the head into the skin. They may be 
present in the clothing for hours before they attach themselves to the skin* 
During this time they are very annoying .as,they crawl over the skin; thence 
the need for frequent inspection. If they have caught hold of the skin, 
they should not be squashed, A covering of saliva or iodine, or a lit 
cigarette, held near, without touching them, may cause them to let go, and 
then they can be gently lifted off. Iodine or alcohol will prevent,skin 
infection from the bite. If removed early after attachment, the head does 
not become deeply imbedded, A tick, once’infected by sucking the blood of 
a diseased person, can carry relapsing fever throughout its life. 
2, Other Insects 
Sand flies, fleas,* and"lice can cause various diseases, including 
several kinds of fever and plague. Do not rub or scratch a bite; this cither 
T-II (Rev.) irritates the skin, causing a slow-healing sore, or actually rubs the poison1 
ous feces of the insect into the skin. To reduce danger of infection from 
scratching during'sleep, keep nails trimmed and clean. The general rules 
are: (1) Do not scratchJ (2) Swab with alcohol or iodine. (3) Stay away 
from native huts and shops,*and pets and cattle owned'by•natives * (4) If 
possible, locate camp away from where there are number’s of animals. 
3, Leeches 
Leeches iere another possibility. They have a way of working 
through small, openings' in the clothing—rips, buttonholes, fly openings— 
and attaching themselves to the body'without being1noticed. They Cause no 
pain while attaching their suckers and drawing blood, but -exude an ‘enzyme 
which prevents blood from clotting, so it flows freely, Again, do not pull 
them off; their sucking apparatus will take bits of skin along, and leave 
an opening- for probable infection, A drop of iodine, a pinch of salt, to- 
bacco juice, a 3-it cigarette, or a hot stone will make them let -go. Apply 
iodine 'or another antiseptic, and do not scratch. Cover with a band-aid. 
Whenever you have brushed past a wet tree or bush, take a quick glance over 
your clothing or make inspections'during breaks. * 
4*. Flukeworm Parasites 
Quiet jungle pools will look inviting after a sweaty march, but 
do not take' a dip in fresh water which has not been ’inspected, or about 
which you have no general instructions. The probability is that the water 
is harmless for bathing, but wait for the Trend of’the medical'officer. 
Round worms and flukes, tiny, almost invisible parasites, have a way of 
finding body cavities and making themselves at home. They may produce 
either urinary or intestinal 'schistosomiasis,- also...called.kilharziasis, 
loung forms of these flukes can enter the body through the unbroken skin, 
as well as. in contaminated drinking' water • Later along theEast and South 
Asiatic coast, in Southwest Pacific and Lest Indies islands, contains organ" 
isms of these parasitic types;' They are-harbored 'during1 one stage-of their 
life cycle by certain"species'of fresh water snails, -'When' the flukes leave 
the snail, they die in forty-eight hours if‘they do not:find another host. 
Therefore, water can be used for bathing if it has been set aside in a 
clean container for a couple of days, be. • 
3. Fungus 
a special affliction for the unclean and lazy, although not 
restricted to them, is fungus, a plant growth that attacks and thrives on 
trie skin. Dnoble’s itch’(dr trichosporosis) ■ gets in your hair; athlete1 s 
foot in the tropics is like nothing* you ever get playing tennis. The body 
must be’ kept as clean and as dry as possible. If there is not enough clean 
water available for a complete, bath, at least those parts -where sweating 
occurs—-armpits,, groin, and. feet-’-musf be washed-with’ soap and water, 
rinsed, 'and carefully dried, ’ Foot-powder, a* drying agent, is helpful. 
Some soldiers, consider if indispensable. * Socks should be changed" and 
washed as often as possible; arid at least every dayl Light wool ’socks have 
been found best for use in hot climates. Cotton socks have caused infection 
It is helpful to add to the water bath the right::Length .of sun-bathing, 
followed by a rubdown with a clean cloth. 
T-II (Rev.) D. Medical Kit 
The contents of one's personal medical kit become important when 
viewed in connection with the above mentioned possibilities. Of course, 
in an existence centered around a stable camp, where there is not likely 
to be much moving off on one's own, the central dispensary will be the 
station for some of this material. But it is wise for every soldier to 
know the use of the following ordinary components of the individual 
tropical medical kit, as listed in the Basic Field Manual, FM 31-20: a 
jungle food bag, rubber-lined; athlete's foot solution; water purification 
tablets; 2)6 tincture of iodine; sulfadiazine; atabrine; first-aid packet; 
adhesive tape; insect repellent; salt tablets; aspirin; adhesive gauze band- 
age; foot powder; all in a waterproof duck roll. Notice, these items are 
not considered only as part of an emergency kit. They may be necessary for 
so short and so ordinary an operation as an easy day’s march away from camp. 
IV. HEAT AND ACCLIMATIZATION 
The body has the never-ending job of keeping its temperature down. 
Evaporation of sweat is the most important means of getting rid of excess 
heat. Humid air, therefore, already containing a great deal of water, 
slows down evaporation of sweat, causing discomfort. 
Men must get used to being warm, with little relief, "Acclimatization" 
is the process of getting used to working and sleeping under new climatic 
conditions. This should be done gradually: men must rest more than ordi- 
narily, and drink more water at first. Later the body can adjust to a nor- 
mal working and resting schedule. The process may take from a week to a 
month, depending on the individual. 
Heat accumulation can result in mere loss of efficiency or alertness, 
or, if the disturbance of the balance between neat production and heat loss 
is sudden, as the effect of working in hot sun, the result may be heat 
stroke. In this case the body must be cooled quickly, with cold water, 
wet clotning, ice, and fanning. 
Heat cramps and heat exhaustion both result from another cause, the 
lack of enough salt in the body,. Sweating removes salt from the body; the 
salt must be replaced. If not enough salt is taken in food or in water, 
the body may experience sharp pains, or worse, a condition resembling shock- 
chills, cold sweat, fainting. The treatment is the giving of salt in water. 
Some rules on protection against the heat: 
a. Keep in the shade as much as possible, and protect the head from 
hot sun. 
b. Try to find a breeze; at least wear loose clothing. 
c. Do heavy work smoothly, avoiding sudden strain. 
d. Drink as much water as possible, to induce sweating in great heat, 
e. Take extra salt; it is better in food or water than in tablet 
form, which is hard for some men to take, 
f. Get as much rest as possible. 
g. Regular exercise keeps the body toned up. 
T-II (Rev.) V • ili-'L1 pj T r»: ; 1 
What to wccT in tno tropics? A discussion of what to wear, and when, 
must be governed by the facts on protection against d‘sense, minor scratches 
and bruises, etc. It is important to have clothing available which will 
help guard 'against insects, and injuries, besides being comfortable. We 
have seen many*pictures of our boys in the Solomons'-and New Guinea stripped 
to the waist 'and--finely tanned. But we must notice' that these are daylight 
pictures and-the boys were'at rest, -soaking uo sunshine. They were in a 
clearing, either on an airfield or an open road. During jungle movements, 
and at night, the men ..keep .-the Ir shirts on and they keep well buttoned up 
at waists and ankles.- This helps keep out ticks and leeches, as well as 
protect against mosquitoes and scratches. High shoes with bellows tongues 
are advisable against leeches. But no protection in itself is sufficient; 
there must also be inspection and cleansing. 
’ A, Shoes 
Leather becomes moldy pretty quickly, ana there seems to be an agree- 
ment that strong canvas tops with rubber soles are one good type of shoo. 
IheG.I. shoe with combination rubber arid cordage bottom is good too. If 
a leather sole is used, hob hails should be put in and extra ones carried. 
The Japanese use canvas sneakers* ;- 
B, Knife and Other Items 
An important piece of equipment, so necessary as to be considered a 
part of the clothing, is some kind of knife. A machete, IB inches long, 
is- listed as standard equipment in Appendix IT (added) of FM 31-r20. The 
bolo -and the Dutch klawang are good knives, ' In rain forest or grass 
jungle, a machete-type knife is absolutely necessary to, cut a path. Make 
sure you nave at least a strong pocket knife, for general use. 
Fighters back from the jungle have stressed'the need of such obvious 
items‘as a cheap watch in waterproof cover, and rubber''-bands> to- keep 
sleeves and pants legs closed at wrist and ankle. A compass-is*an important 
item. An automatic lighter is another;* old-fashioned, natural.flint is 
necessary for those, since artificial flints decompose in contact with salt 
air or water. ' • ' ‘ • •; 
C. ‘Individual m - -epor/: 
Jun-3c boeriiiuhs acl individual operations* And-in a contest of 
individuali , evervt-'dy fr.its. When small units are the basis of both tac- 
tics and \rategy, and I a-. - :ic? moan rrb-ufh and swift aevack, there are no 
behind-•thf.--line areas, r.v mere •‘service11 troops. Big:.mors fight, cocks 
fight, air force ground crows .light; on Guadalcanal the lard no band swung 
into action and prevented a surprise breakthrough. The point is that, xir 
Force personnel have to worry•about the maintenance nob only of their plane 
trucks, and tools:- They have to worry-also about theiir individual weapons. 
‘mall arms-in the' viopic-s-rcqvirfe- considerable’ euro. Dampness pene- 
trate.- overnor o, Fung-is growbns attack whatever is vvinoratle, or human* 
No long or is the old army rule enough> H clean the- barrel of your piece 
every using11. In the jungle, clean,- dry, and Cal every metal surface e^ery 
T-il (Lev.) THE TROPICS 
Lecture II; 
Personal Care, Aircraft Maintenance, and Electronic Equipment 
Part II—AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE 
It is impossible to prescribe for every condition that Air Force men 
are likely to run into in the tropics. Many varied regions, with varying 
weather, vegetation, and hygienic problems, besides changing operational 
and tactical situations, make necessary a broad treatment of the subject of 
aircraft maintenance. A reasonable approach is to treat the problem at its 
most difficult—on the line with a combat squadron, where equipment is short, 
and weather and terrain pretty bad. If a line man can keep planes flying in 
such a set-up—and such is the set-up likely to exist at the beginning of a 
new strategic operation, because of the mobility of Air Force action—then 
he should find a more "normal” situation so much velvet. 
This minimum approach is necessary because of the nature of air fight- 
ing. No matter how much supply has been improved to the larger tropical 
bases, and living conditions have developed, the advance combat units will 
probably continue to work from strips chopped and blown out of the jungle, 
with few necessities available and no comforts. By the time such fields 
are developed, the fighting will have gone further and the unit will 
■occupy a new advanced base. If you are at a better equipped station than 
such as these, so much the better. But it is wise to be prepared for 
pretty heroic hardships. 
I. CLIMATE AND WORKING CONDITIONS 
We can do nothing about the climate itself, but we can make prepara- 
tions for' tropical life, -Again, it is dangerous to generalize. The picture 
of hot Steaming jungle, with' forbidding marsh and malaria, is true, but 
only in certain places at certain times. Though ordinarily near the equator 
there is not much change in temperature throughout the year, night or day, 
there are many specific localities where nights in the dry season are cold. 
Many parts of the tropics are pleasant during the dry season. But in pre- 
paring themselves for the worst, men must be ready for a monotony of climate 
such as they have never experienced. If they find themselves at a fairly 
inactive station (less likely for Air Force men than for some other arms), 
they must have devices and methods to counteract boredom and staleness. 
There can be no overstressing the need for personal health precautions, 
especially in the rainy season, Wien humidity makes keeping dry and clean a 
hard job, Working 'conditions are likely to be conspicuous for their un- 
pleasantness. In revetments in the open, the sun will be beating down 
directly on a hot fuselage, with the heat reflected from steel matting. 
The humidity will be consistently high, increasing discomfort and reducing 
efficiency, Hours will not be regular; much work will have to be done at 
night, to prepare ships for daylight missions. Men will work with a 
lingering touch of malaria or dysentery. But the -planes will fly, because 
the men will use their brains and guts. 
T-II (Rev.) H. FACILITIES AMD EQUIPMENT 
In preparing for minimum conditions, forget you ever saw a hangar or 
permanent structure. Of course many of the longer established fields, 
such as Henderson on Guadalcanal, are by now comparatively sumptuous 
institutions. But the most important part of a successful, swiftly moving 
attack is•the-advanced air -strip,'where an improvised" thatch shed or mat 
awning will provide all the shelter there is likely to be. Hoists, jacks, 
specialized tools may be on hand, but more likely they will have to be 
improvised. Equipment, tools, repair' and maintenance parts will be 
precious, and once lost,almost impossible to replace in time for use. 
Technical supply will Have a tough job keeping up witn a moving front, 
even'with the most energetic and efficient efforts. 
"Cannibalism" is frowned upon by technical supply officers., but under 
the stress of combat conditions with a minimum or absence,of replacement 
parts, the process‘has been developed to a fine, art. It is the practice of 
making two or three flyable planes out of three,or four wrecked or grounded 
planes. The theory is that one ship in the air is worth any number of dead 
ducks on the ground.. Of course cannibalism, if ever justified, should be 
used only as an extreme last resort, when replacements are impossible, 
.American standardization and interchangeability of parts make cannibalism 
possible, A ship comes back from a mission with a wing damaged beyond 
quick repair, and a couple of instruments shot up,, The wing is taken from 
a.grounded ship, the instruments from still another, if necessary, and the 
first, ship is ready for flight, 
Strict salvage, is another necessity where, replacements are slow. Long 
treks have been made into the forest,,on foot, light planes have been landed 
in nearby clearings, and boats have'been employed for a water approach to 
cracked-up planes, so that they could be stripped of desperately needed part5* 
Spares will be needed in greater abundance than back hornoj bat they 
be,harder to get. •. Therefore an estimate should bo made far ahead, with an 
analysis of the, kinds of combat conditions, climate, and terrain, and also 
the 'availability of spares through cannibalism and salvage, la order to 
judge a minimum requisition. 
Nowhere is the advice truer' than at an advanced base: "Save it;, it 
might come in handy." From,what some returned pilots have said, even the 
proverbial, piece of string or wire has come into use to patch old crates 
tp.go.ther to get them into the air. Bolts and screws, distributor points, 
’insulator tips, some'tubing—these may make tlie difference between a. 
grounded and a fighting plane. In the combat area, far from a depot,., it 
is usually an insignificant item that grounds a plane. With small parts 
that have been saved, and some ingenuity, proper repairs are possible. 
The first men oh the Solomons even used copper coins filed down, to various 
degrees of thickness for shims and breaker points. 
III. FuONTKNaNGE PLOBLIclS 
Airfields generally consist of a single strip, either in a clearing 
or a patch cut out of the forest. The base may be anything from plain 
soil to, crushed coral, with a paying of one of several typos of perforated 
T-II (Rev.) steel mats. Shoulders and aprons will be a problem varying with the 
season, or from day to day, between mud and dust. Drainage is a serious 
engineering problem, to keep the strips usable in wet weather. 
Maintenance sites must be located on natural hard standings, or else 
such standings must be constructed. Conditions of mud and dust must be 
kept in mind, will there be drainage in case of a sudden downpour? Rhich 
way will.prevailing winas blow dust? Take advantage of shielding vegeta- 
tion and otner topographical features. Another factor is the nearness of 
native settlements with, tneir .possibilities of disease, and mosquito- 
bearing water. 
Tools, like spares, are priceless possessions* Protect then against 
corrosion, the prime jungle hazard. Clean and oil them often; cover with 
grease tiie tools not much used, and wrap them in burlap. If possible, keep 
tools in lockers in.a dry place, or, best of all, in a "dry closet". Do 
not lay tools or parts on the ground. They can get lost in mud or dust or 
vegetation, and it would be especially embarrassing to try to explain how 
tools got lost on ground, over which steel mat was later placed, Uhile in 
use, tools should be laid down on a strip of canvas or in a suitable 
receptacle. Metal parts that are salvaged or removed from service should 
be carefully cleaned, covered with cosmolene or similar grease, wrapped in 
burlap, and stored in dry lockers or bins. 
An inventory and record system will have special need for accuracy 
because of the requirement of dispersing aircraft for safety; the system 
will also be made more complicated by this requirement. Assuming that 
there will be a minimum of parts, the supply man will need to have a 
rigorous check-up to be able to lay his hands on any available part as 
soon as it is needed. 
Transportation is another problem created by the tactical need for 
dispersal. To be effective, the dispersal plan must leave ample space 
between craft. But this would work hardship on pilots and crews, and be 
impractical for quick alerts, if there were insufficient means to get from 
living quarters and operations headquarters to the dispersal areas. It is 
easy to say "get transportation", but the problem has only to be stated to 
be appreciated. A jeep is worth its weight in gold (which is useless at 
advanced bases, anyway) and local beasts of burden may suddenly seem to be 
the noblest of animals. 
IV. SHLLTLR AlTD THL HRAT 
Dome kind of shelter from the sun and rain is necessary for mainten- 
ance work, but it must be consistent with camouflage requirements, A 
canvas, thatch, or matting lean-to, or a shelter-half stretched as an 
awning; an improvised nose-hangar; a maintenance staid—these are easily 
constructed, and are wortn the effort. 
Very short experience will teach the danger of touching metal tools 
or surfaces which have been exposed to the hot sun. Wrap cord or heavy 
tape around the metal handles of tools. Use mats and pads to protect the 
T-II (Rev*) knees from hot surfaces, then working inside a ship, you can put the 
motor generator to use by rigging up a fen or blower system, to create 
circulation, increase evaporation, and equalize inside and Outside'■ 
temperatures, . - • - • 
Keep the sun out of cockpits, turrets, and nose sections by throwing 
canvas or plant matting over them. Interior temperatures may be 10 to 20 
degrees cooler with windows,, canopies,- and. hatches open, than with them 
closed, but there is the danger of dust and moisture entering,- If the 
weather is clear and there are maintenance personnel to. watch and. clean 
the plane, then ventilation of, pilot, bombardier.and navigator compart- 
ments, is desirable as a means of guarding against heat warping of delicate 
instruments. Under other conditions, keep them closed-, 
. Structural surface temperatures are dependent on the. heating effect 
of •■the- sun, and the cooling effect, of whatever wind and humidity, there may 
be. Skin temperatures will run 1,4 to 1,5 times those of free•air;temper- 
atures.,.- Interior temperatores will be somewhere between free, air and 
surface skin .temperatures, ting, ..empennage, and fuselage interiors, how- 
ever, may rise to 1.4 free air temperature. High temperature is not in 
itself Harmful, but combined with nigh humidity it is extremely destructive 
to certain aircraft materials. 
v. COKRuSION 
Corrosion, particularly by salt water, is a major problem. It is a 
chemical process by which metals.exposed to air or water or salt solutions 
.combine with oxygen, as if to return to the natural state.of tne. ore from 
which they were refined by the removal of oxygen and otner substances. 
The-not, humid climate of tne tropics, particularly where the moisture in 
the air contains salt, induces quick corrosion.- Another factor in cor- 
rosion is mechanical stress: metal parts which take the most punishment 
are those which offer least resistance to corrosion. The metal components 
of landing gear that take a beating on landing strips will corrode' faster 
than tne other metal parts. Corrosion is worst under the abnormal stress 
of violent tropical weather and rough landing strips. 
Corrosion is easy to recognize in the spots on the surface of metal. 
It appears as brown-red rust on iron and steel, white- -specks on aluminum, 
whitish powder on magnesium, blue or green on copper, black tarnish on 
silver, etc. It may penetrate so deep that such mechanical properties as 
tensile and fatigue strength are seriously impaired. Akin to corrosion is 
corrosion fatigue, the result of the action of humic acids working along 
the grain of metals and weakening them. 
Different metals show different rates of corrosion. But if two or 
more dissimilar metals tire exposed together, corrosion by electrolytic 
process, or the reaction between the metals, will proceed faster than the 
rate-.at which the more active metal would corrode when exposed by itself# 
For this reason, whenever making repairs* use the same metal that was 
originally used; if this is impossible, provide some insulation between 
the two metals. 
T-II (Rev,) Metals are protected by finishes. Protect the finish, and the metal 
is safe. Finishes are platings, enamels, dopes, varnishes, lacquers, 
paints* Finishes serve as shields; more stable chemically'-than the metals 
they: cover, they resist corrosion.• The finish can bo removed by an erosive 
influence such as sand abrasion, dr other mechanical agency, and also by 
the action of bacteria, laicrosedpic animals, or fungus. So, keep surfaces 
clean: wipe off foreign particles and imbedded dirt; avoid scratches, 
gouges, dents, chipping; touch up all-damaged spots and weak places in the 
finish, so that corrosion cannot start on the base metal. The service life 
of much equipment depends on how much care is given to the protective coat- 
ing. Pitting, an especially harmful form of corrosion, .is usually started 
by foreign metal particles, imbedded dirt, or excessive strains that damage 
surfaces. 
VI. DJCT ■ 
Dust is a hazard to aircraft not only in the desert. Not only in 
hot dry regions, but also in wet areas during a spell of sun, dust will 
blow around or wait to be blown up by prop wash. 
Induction, fuel, and oil systems must be -protected. An engine breathes 
dusty air a part of the time in some tropical areas, and all of the time 
in others. This dust, mixed with oil, has terrific abrasive action, es- 
pecially if it is volcanic ash or‘coral dust, Some airfields are located 
on islands composed almost entirely of one of these two substances. The 
result is rapid wear of pistons, rings, cylinder walls, and valve mecha- 
nisms. All this means excessive gas and oil consumption,loss of com- 
pression, and plenty of trouble for some pilot in a jam who will heed every 
bit of power he can squeeze. Engines will last only a fraction of their 
rated life when ground to death by dust. Watch for a sharp rise in oil 
consumption, as an indication of trouble* : 
Filters ore necessary, especially for ground operations. Air cleaners, 
oil and gas filters, by their very nature arid function clog up and-decrease 
in effectiveness as they are used; therefore they must be-checked, cleaned, 
and inspected on a rigid schedule, •horn out filters-ahd cleaners must be 
replaced immediately, so keep an ample reserve stock ready. TWo types of 
inauction system filters are used, The wet filter consists of 'a'wire mesh, 
finer and more closely woven where the air leaves the filter. The dust is 
caught by a film of oil adhering to the filter. -The dry filter is made of 
felt framed by wire screen, bent in-accordion shape and mounted obliquely, 
to present greater surface to the incoming air. The air is slowed down, 
and the dust lightly strikes the filter surface and falls'away. The wet 
-filter-requires more care, but is considered more effective. 
Covers serve a double purpose in tropical maintenance. They help 
keep down trouble from tropical rains, and from dust. -Engine and cockpit 
covers should be installed when aircraft is parked. They should be tight- 
fitting and tailored to the job, else they will be of little use' ina 
tropical downpour. Rain can drown out and shorten the life of electrical 
equipment and promote corrosion elsewhere. Dust will start trouble mainly 
in engines. Keep engine covers on the ship at all times when it is not 
being serviced or prepared for flight. After servicing, replace the covers. 
This is another habit that should be automatic. 
T-II (Rev.) VII. THE PROBLEM OF LUBRICATION 
Any- flat statement about Rubrication in the tropics, will run into a 
.contradiction; ordinarily., .when .humidity ,-is high and corrosion is a threat, 
liberal and frequent lubrication is required; but. when there is plenty of 
dust aroupd,. despite the, hiuticlity, the dust.will mix with the lubricant 
and form.a murderous abrasive. The occasion will have to be. based on 
experience in ,tne specific. nrea in which you are working. Anticipate con- 
ditions of wetness and dryness—the first calling for-plenty of lubrication* 
the second requiring.a minimum. , ■ • 
VIII. CLLANIijG .M) i-iAlNTaJAHCk CHLCKS 
A ship clean of mud and dirt has two advantages: its speed is . 
appreciably increased, and its landing gear is more likely to retract, 
extend, lock, and unlock properly. In most tropical areas mud is thrown 
all over an aircraft, washing and cleaning must be regular chores. 
The plane must .be k,ept,clean inside as well as outside; a pile-up 
of dirt„may bounce around and hit the pilot’s eye at_just the wrong . 
moment. Landing gear assemblies must be kept free of corrosive action. 
Also check control cables for dirt, particularly where they pass through 
fair leads and pulleys, t 
, -Rater will condense or-gather in dead air,spaces in.the-wings, fuse- 
lage,'and tail group, Sometimes it gathers,in .such quantities as to 
seriously affect the weight distribution, and thus .the balance.and maneu- 
verability of. the plane,,.The .water is also a corrosipn hazard. Provide 
drain holes.where-they will help, and use scotch -tape to seal miscellaneous 
small openings through which moisture may condense. Land likewise can 
collect and disturb balance.' 
In any routine check, ploying parts must be gone over with especial 
care. Landing gear, bomb door, tail wheel, flap screws and worm gears, 
anti-friction bearings-, plain bushings, gear boxes, control bearings, cowl 
slidesetc., must be cleaned., inspected for corrosion, and relubricated 
frequently. -'The- extreme .violence of tropical storms may cause- leaking 
tanks, .loose, rivets,.etc.. Cloth, fiber, rubber and other-materials 
disintegrate fast-,in the-.,tropics, further, they are attacked and damaged 
by fungus,and insect posts.. Check,fabric surfaces- often by tapping 
lightly.with your knuckles, ' - If the hope .shows signs of cracking, sand 
the entire surface lightly with fine sandpaper and apply new dope. If 
the fabric is too worn to repair, replace^it. 
< -. * • * -- ... 
Tii'os, hatch seals,-; self-sealing fuel tanks, plexi-glass, bungee 
cords, boots, safety,belts, chutes, life rafts, vests, covers, upholstery, 
navigation and medical kits, all require constant inspection. At the first 
signs,of disintegration, either repair or replace the article. De-icing 
equipment should be removed for tropical'operations, hatch'.fuel and oil 
linos; they disintegrate rapidly, blowing put especially around the fitting5' 
Lubrication and hydraulic system;packing must.receive special care,- 
T-II (Rev,.) Flaps nay require reinforcement to prevent damage by flying mud or 
coral, n slippery steel mat causes.excessive wear and strain on main 
strut links and bolts.. Abnormal, side loadings, are imposed on bracing by 
the slippage side to side, ’.here conditions permit, grow grass as a 
cushion, or cover mats with dirt and coral. A gravel base will improve 
drainage. 
i.X« i xii-iX 3 jJuiAxvilXi , xi XTi <. LL i£l>!TS » XXC-» 
Tires will be cut down fast by steel mat or dry crushed coral. Water 
and mud covering the strips are also nard on tires, since sliding on take- 
off and landing cannot be avoided, and sliding wipes the steel dry; tire 
temperatures will rise and rubber will burn, leaving a flat spot on the 
tire* At milne Bay at one time.the average life of front tires was five 
landings* This is an extrema case, but. it does illustrate the problem. 
Diamond tread tire is best for steel runways. On a coral runway, smooth 
tires throw up fewer pebbles against elevators and props-. Check tire in- 
flation; tire pressures vary 15% for each, 60° variation in temperature. 
Armament is quickly attacked by tropical corrosion. When a ship 
lands, cover or seal all guns, and seal the chutes immediately. Be sure 
to remove seals, from chutes and covers before takeoff. Guns may be left, 
scaled for maximum airspeed; the first shot will clear the muzzle. 
Ammunition must be stripped, cleaned, and oiled frequently. Clean daily 
all guns, bomb racks, find shackles. Store ammunition in a dry place. 
Ammunition should not bo kept in the plane any period of time, since cor- 
rosion may cause disastrous jams. Moisture may affect electric turret 
operation. : Bomb sights and reflector sights arc particularly susceptible 
to fungus growths which will cloud and etch the lenses, . 
Instrument- .maintenance- is a continuous job. Not only arc the instru- 
ments affected by condensation, but humid climate will, also encourage 
mildew, mold,'and other, growths. Clean,: dry, air, and oil continually. 
Llectrical equipment is subject to harm by moisture. Wires and 
cables will tend to corrode and short-circuit; wire; sheathing, plugs and 
jacks, ,and ignition harness are especially susceptible to moisture> 
praps are affected by condensation arid moisture. Pitch- 
changing mechanisms require constant inspection, especially governors, 
relays, and solenoids. Prop blades will become pitted, and must be 
smoothed carefully. Wipe the blades daily with light engine oil, to 
save the plating. 
Generator brusiies and distributor fingers must be kept dry. .Mag- 
netos should be sealed against moisture, Itartors may short out. 
Condensation in • conduit boxes and elsewhere may be forestalled by 
drilling drain holes. Generally drains will prevent condensation, but 
they must be carefully placed to prevent weakening structure or altering 
characteristics. 
Battery terminals and cable connections must be cleaned frequently. 
Vaseline applied to the terminals will minimize’ corrosion. Check the 
specific gravity of battery electrolyte frequently, and do not permit the 
battery to become overcharged. While there may not be much evaporation, 
there will be active chemical reactions in the battery. 
T-II (Rev.) Carburetors are especially susceptible to internal corrosion. They 
should be removed, disassembled into major parts without disturbing 
critical :adjustments, inspected, and cleaned. " •* ■ ; 
High humidity causes excessive condensation'in fuel tanks. Potassium 
dichromate is effective in holding back corrosion in fuel tanks. 
Prestone expands under extreme heat; drain and flush the coolant 
system at least every 50 hours. 
X. CAAIOUFLAGE 
Protective measures .must be adjusted to the varieties of terrain and 
vegetational features, ranging from level plains to hills,- and ouen grass 
lands or savannas,to dense rain forest. Dispersal, for example,-is more 
practicable on-level ground than in hilly■terrain. Danger*of enemy 
infiltration increases with the density’of'vegetation. It may be necessary 
to cut openings in the jungle to afford'fields of fire for-defensive machine 
guns. Flat tops will be necessary in op'en savannas, but of course with 
tree concealment, natural means are sufficient. 
It is obvious that camouflage methods must be changed with.the seasons 
Harked changes in the color of vegetations will occur from -Wet to dry sea- 
son. During the late dry season many trees' will; lose their leaves, and 
others will turn brown. After the rains start, the 'many!.yiew 'leaves and 
buds-may'cause a predominance of yellow-green- coloring, with.flower hues 
thrown in. Tropical grasslands also uhairgo changes in -dolor..... In the 
latter part of the .dry season, much grassland may be-burned over, . After 
the rains start, fresh green grass grows quickly. . .. 
A first principle of the use of natural materials is that branches, 
vines, and-, grass will wilt, and must be replaced 'often!Lf-Further, much 
tropical foliage has a dark upper side and is lighter Underneath; care 
must be exercised to place the materials' in' their natural position. 
Caves and rice .fields have been the '-'ecehesi-of ’fitting;,; and offer 
both advantages -and disadvantages to the concealment worker, Air Force 
nmn are more likely to find themselves in Such sections:as rubber planta- 
tions, where -landing-,strips can be set down among trees. 
The Japanese had an advantage over our soldiers at first through the 
use of sound effects in fighting. They could reproduce natural sounds, 
and time their attacks or fire so as to coincide with blanketing sounds. 
The--usd of sound both to deceive and to detect the enemy comes under the 
definition of. camouflage♦ * ‘-’1 n. 
Snipers’ suits, and other camouflage devices are useful, but may be 
offset by movement, .Animals which .are adapted to their environment ”frecze 
when they.hoar a strange noise, or suspect danger. In-the- present fighting; 
many a man has lost a single-combat duel because he moved first, betraying 
his position. When you have to move, proceed along a line of stationary 
objects, rather than across the line: move along a fallen tree, not over 
it. All the color blending in the world cannot conceal silhouettes moving* 
Further, camouflage suits must be adjusted to fit the season and background' 
T-II (Rev-,) THE TROPICS ' 
Lecture II: 
Personal Care, Aircraft maintenance, and Electronic Equipment 
PART III —EiAlNTENANCE OF 
ELECTRONIC EQUIPiJiiT IN THE TROPICS ' 
Aircraft have a serious problem, besides those just described, a 
problem shared by the Signal Corps and all other units using electronic 
equipment. This problem is the combating of the effects of moisture on 
radio and other electronic instruments, a problem especially pronounced 
in aircraft because of sudden changes of temperature and pressure in 
ascent and descent, and long exposure to high humidity conditions. 
Special materials must be used and special processing performed on the 
component parts of the electronic equipment, 
I. EFFECTS OF MOISTURE, AND CQUNTIRMEASURES 
The jungle and tropical weather have certain common effects on radio 
operation, The range of radio transmitters on the ground is greatly re- 
duced by thick forest, and sets are of almost no use at night, probably 
because the high humidity acts as kind of "ground*1. Transmitters re- 
liable for fifty Lilies in fairly open country may not be •satisfactory for 
even five miles in thick rain forest. If antennae are lifted higher than 
surrounding trees, however, range is extended. / 
The greatest danger to efficient radio and electronic operation, and 
to normal life of parts and instruments, is moisture. This affects vari- 
ous parts in various ways; it causes leakage in condensers, jacks, and 
plugs, corrosion and short-circuiting of wires and cables. In detail, the 
breakdowns of electronic equipment include: open circuits in transformer 
windings, chokes, relays, wire-wound resistors, and molded resistors; the 
development of leakage in mica condensers molded in bakelite, paper con- 
densers of the tubular type, bakelite terminal blocks, switches, jacks, and 
plugs; the breakdown of insulation between individual windings and between 
the windings, and cases of transformers; leakage due to fungus growth in 
critical parts of the circuit; the multiplying of bacteria; the attacks 
of insects; the warping and disintegration of insulating material; and the 
collapse of woodwork. 
Several methods, devices, and materials have been used’to thwait the 
effects of humidity. It is apparent that the very heat of a piece of radio 
equipment in operation will help rePp it dry. The heat that is developed 
by resistance and the dissipation of electric power keeps the apparatus 
warmer than the surrounding air, or "ambient", as it is called, and above 
the dew point, that temperature at which moisture condenses from the air on 
a surface. For this reason, some authorities suggest that receiving sets 
be kept turned on continuously, so that a current is always running, and 
keeping the temperature up. In some sets such as transmitters, continuous 
operation is not feasible, and heat’must be applied from outside. This is 
usually accomplished by keeping an ordinary light bulb lit near the set, 
maintaining a sufficiently high temperature to keep moisture from condensing. 
T-II (Rev.) Another method of keeping working parts dry, even when not in use, 
is the application of water-proof or water-repellent coatings. Several 
of these nave been used. The most common type is wax or pitch, applied 
in liquid form at fairly high temperatures, and then permitted to cool 
and solidify. ' A'drawback is that wax will run at high operating temper- 
atures, Other compounds, less widely used until recently,•are special 
chemical preparations like Dogardite and varnishes such as Glyptol. Vapors 
of methyl chlorsilane substances have been used as coatings, but may form 
corrosive acids. An auxiliary drying method employs packets of a de- 
hydrating agent,, such as calcium chloride or silica gels, placed close to 
the apparatus. These absorb water, but must be replaced and renewed. 
* 
Somewhat the same problem ap'lies to wires and cables. Some types of 
insulation, such as certain compounds of rubber, or cellulose products, 
are likely to deteriorate under constant humidity, finally allowing pene- 
tration of water and short-circuiting. Either special material must be 
used for the insulation, or standard wiring must be specially protected. 
Other sources of trouble are fungus growths, which attack glass and 
plastic instruments and lenses; bacteria, which are likely to grow any- 
where; and insects, the very presence of which, dead or alive, can cause 
disintegration of material, short-circuiting, and leakage. Special 
preparations, such as camphor gum, .and precautions in cleansing will pre- 
vent the growth of fungus and mold. Shields can be devised that will 
prevent the entrance of insects* 
II. MATERIALS AND AiLTHODS 
The sarne principle applies in the care of electronic equipment that 
is so important in the care of small arms; daily care, especially cleaning 
and drying. Recently, with increasing awareness.of the need for specially 
prepared equipment, and moisture-proofing at the point of manufacture, the 
troubles of the radio operator and maintenance worker in the field have 
been lightened. It is still essential, however, that every one who will 
have contact with radio, and who will depend on it for safety and the suc- 
cess of a mission, understand the problems and solutions connected with 
tropical operation, men in the field may be supplied with moisture proof- 
ing kits to protect their equipment; or they may find it necessary to 
improvise their own forms of protection with materials on hand, to prevent 
breakdown and quick deterioration,of equipment, with limited supplies at ah 
advanced base, the need for insui ng longest life for every part is obvious* 
Another reason for understanding how tropical conditions affect equip" 
rnent is that such knowledge will give an inkling of where to look in case 
of failure. The operator will know beforehand where to expect trouble be- 
cause of insufficiently protected coils, resistances, or wiring, and also 
what replacements he should have on hand, 
A, Drying and Keeping Dry 
A first stop in preserving equipment, or preparing it for moisture- 
proofing treatment, is to dry it thoroughly. Equipment without any special 
treatment will have a reasonable life of service, if it is kept at a temper" 
•aturo higher than its surroundings. Equipment that is to be moisture- 
proofed according to Signal Corps recommendations must be baked or dried at 
fairly high temperatures for several hours, but this process is less likely 
to be done in the field than in the factory. 
T-II (Rev.) 1. Raised Temperatures 
If no material for protective treatment is available, the operator 
will have to maintain moisture-repellent temperatures. Usually the heat of 
normal operation is sufficient to keep the apparatus above the dew-point. 
For this reason many units mploying electronic equipment in ironical areas 
have partly solved the problem by keeping the filaments on continuously; or 
else they have rigged up a bulb which burns always inside the set. This 
bulb might fee hooked up to the gasoline-motor-driven battery charger. Many 
tropical installations, and even homes, have the institution of the dry- 
closet, near the bottom of which a lamp or heater is kept going continuously; 
electronic equipment, certain packaged foods, leather, and metal material 
are deposited there overnight, or when not in use. Lven if the set is suf- 
ficiently protected without a dry-closet, spare equipment and parts should 
be kept there, 
2, Dehydration 
Chemical dehydrators arc useful in shipment or storage of equip- 
ment, and can help keep apparatus dry, but should not be used alone. 
According to a Signal Corps investigator, there is some danger in the use • 
of these materials, such as calcium chloride and silica gel, since they give 
‘off a fine dust which attaches itself to circuit elements and encourages 
bacteria growth. If they must be used, the absorbing agents should be placed 
in a bag within a bag. The main drawback is that unless the part to be dried 
is itself closed off from the air, the drying property of the dehydrator is 
soon exhausted. 
3, Night Condensation 
Special care must bo taken to keep the apparatus dry at night. 
Temperature falls rapidly after sundown in some tropical areas, and water 
condenses immediately out of the air. Some operators have attempted to 
solve this problem by making the set container airtight, and shutting it up 
while it is still warm. The danger here is that while the air in the set 
may have been dryer than the air outside while it was in operation, at 
night, when the air within the container cools rapidly, there may still be 
some moisture imprisoned, which precipitates as the surfaces "breathe”. 
B, Bax and Pitch 
After moisture is once driven out by heating, it can be kept out more 
or less permanently by a "water-tight coating. One such type of coating in- 
cludes special waxes, greases, and pitch preparations. There are many such 
products oh the commercial market, but of course the individual radio oper- 
ator or maintenance man will have no choice in the field of operations. It 
is advisable, however, that he follow carefully the directions for applica- 
tion of* the compounds that may be supplied him, with special reference to 
the temperature of pro-heating, and the drying time prescribed, 
1, Transformers have been found to break down because of breaks in 
the windings, the result of electrolytic corrosion. Cracks in impregnating 
waxes permit moist air to enter the windings, causing corrosion. One 
source of information on experience with audio-transformers in tropical areas 
T-IX (Rev,) points out the frequent failures traced to the use of Scotch tape in the 
construction of the coils, ’'Invariably where this taoe is used, failure 
results from electrolytic action on the copper wire. It seems to matter 
little whether the coil is well impregnated with varnish or not. Even when 
the coil has been well impregnated and then sealed in pitch or wax, failures 
have occurred ,' Gummed paper tape us also found dangerous, and any 
handling of the wire with bare hands is to be .avoided, because of the 
corrosive effects of perspiration. Other authorities repeat the 
caution against using paper as insulation in transformers. There is some 
disa’grcement whether both a basis of wax and a covering of varnish should 
be used, or simply a good varnish, 
iuore than one observer points out that trouble frequently results 
■ from coil windings whicn are at a positive potential with respect to their 
metallic case or core. This condition, with the aid of moisture, .causes 
electrolytic action to take place, resulting eventually in open circuits, 
2. Coils suffer from tne use of cellulose products such as paper, 
cotton, vvood cellophane, etc. Careful covering of the- coil surface is im- 
portant. Sometimes frequency drift may be encountered because of the impreg" 
nation wax "flowing" under extremes of temperature, A precaution that should 
be* taken is that ft.F. and I.F. coils be closed so that insects cannot enter* 
An insect may take a fancy to the wax in which the coils have been dipped; 
it dies, and after*a while, its body causes corrosion of tne coil wire, 
3. Condensers for nigh impedance circuits, it is generally agreed, 
should be of the mica type, if possible, and made impervious to moisture by 
■ means of a wax or varnish coating. ?aper tubular condensers, unless given 
special treatment, are likely to develop leakage and caUse trouble. Paper 
condensers in hermetically sealed tins are satisfactory for use in high im- 
pedance circuits. For paper tubular condensers in these circuits, a simple 
precaution is to place the tubular condenser inside a wax-impregnated tube 
* of larger diameter and seal off the ends with a soft, .>dgh-jtielting-point 
petting compound. The aluminum can appears to be the most satisfactory con- 
tainer for electrolytic condenser's. 
4. resistors should have' ceramic or glas’s tube insulators. The cera- 
mic materials should be treated with an impregnating substance to, prevent 
the absorption *of moisture. If wire-wound resistors are used, they should 
•be properly protected from moisture, and tne Potential removed when the 
equipment is not in use. 
Cf Varnish 
A special list of requirements for varnish impregnation of coils 
(transformer, choke, and owner; nas been- set up by the Camp Evans Signal 
Laboratory. Specification ho. CESL-44 calls for a synthetic resinous phenol 
aldehyde. This material is superior to waxes ordinarily used, because it 
can withstand a higher operational temperature without flowing—as high as 
250 degrees F, Every precaution is taken in the varnishing process to pre- 
vent air bubbles and other flaws. 
The Signal Corps recommends tne use of varnish as moisture-proofing 
whenever possible, in preference to wax and pitch materials. It is clear 
that the best precautions are those taken at the point of manufacture, wit] 
T-II (Kev.) every component carefully chosen and treated v/ith tropical use in mind. 
However, for those sets not so manufactured, the Signal Corps has worked 
out specifications for material, a kit with the. necessary spraying equipment 
and moisture-proofing agent, and an approved method of field application. 
No one material is exclusively recommended, although Moisture-Proofing Kit 
No, 6B-Q-A is built around Glyptol, a varnish product of General Electric, 
which has been widely successful, A redesign of the kit, built around infra- 
red drying lamps instead of an electric blower, uses the same varnish. 
In general, the procedure for proofing with varnish is as follows; 
a. The equipment is first cleansed of all foreign matter—dust, 
grease, fungi, insects. 
b. The equipment is dried, by portable oven, field-kitchen, elec- 
tric blower lamp, or infra-red lamp, to a temperature not exceeding the 
melting point of the impregnating waxes incorporated in the set. The time 
of the drying process depends on the degree of moisture in the components, 
and the need to get the set back into operation, 
c. Immediately after the drying, all conducting parts, such as 
sockets, relay contacts, variable condensers, and moving parts, are 
covered with masking tape. 
d. Ail circuit elements and wiring are sprayed thoroughly with 
marine lacquer or varnish containing a fungicide. As the temperature drops, 
the varnish will be drawn into the insulation on wires, coils, etc. There- 
fore, two or three coats must be applied, and all condenser and resistor 
ends touched up. V.here resistors or condensers are replaced in the field, 
the new elements will be treated with a brush. 
One suggestion has been made that Fourth or Fifth Echelon depots be 
equipped with sufficient moisture-proofing equipment to treat all sets in 
stock. These sets would be sent to replace sets in the field,, and the 
turned-in sets would then be moisture-proofed. 
D, Dogardite 
Another preparation that has met the approval of Signal Corps in- 
vestigators is Dogardite, Since the application requires considerable 
apparatus and technique, the process is primarily intended for the point of 
manufacture, or for large depots. It is applicable to rigid insulating 
materials having high porosity. Dogardite is an "extremely light impregnat- 
ing .liquid, and it acts by low viscosity penetration during which highly 
water-repellent solids are deposited in the pores and capillaries of a 
structures. The deposited solids tend to bulk, on drying, out of all 
proportion to their weight." 
The insulating material to be treated is first baked for a period of 
two or three hours at 200 to 2.1‘j degrees t,, in order to drive out moisture* 
Then in order to cool without absorption of moisture, the piece is trans- 
ferred immediately to a calcium chloride chamber. The Dogardite solution 
is kept in an air-tight, clean.container, with several inches of air space- 
above the level of the fluid. The piece to be treated is placed in the 
solution, and then a vacuum drawn above the solution. This helps draw air 
T-II IRev.) out of the pores of the insulation. Rhen the piece stops babbling, in 
probably a half hour at most,, the vacuum.is released. The piece is left in 
the solution about five minut( s .so'tnat atmospheric pressur'd Will force the 
solution into the ..pores, "it'Is then hung up’to ary. 
It is advisable to use different tanks, one for bakelite and other 
. phenolic pieces, another for ceramic pieces. Sprie of the varnish used in 
making bakelite is dissolved by the solvent of the Dogardite, 
Ordinary Dogardite has no fungus-resisting qualities, but a special 
variety, Dogardite "I", kills fungus molds. 
■E* Other hiaments 
1. Riring and Gable. One opinion that is universally shared among 
those with experience in the tropics is that hook-up wire having low-grade 
rubber insulation should not be us ;d. Synthetic rubber, such as neoprene, 
has met with approval. General Eli ctric Flamenol insulation has also been 
widely approved. 
«■ ■ 
The outer jacket and insulation on cables should be made of 60- 
pur cent-rubber or of neoprene. Cables employing an inner shtathing or re- 
inforcing core of hemp or cotton are to be avoided; the cellulose material 
exposed at the openings in the cable serves as a wick, allowing moisture to 
permeate the entire length of the cable, resulting in deterioration of the 
insulation. 
2, Plugs and Connectors. Semi-enclosed electrical connections such 
as plugs and jacks are subject to resistance breakdown within a few days un- 
less they are taken apart and cleaned daily. Sore dissatisfaction has been 
expressed against plugs that are cadmium-plated, because of oxidation, es- 
pecially in salt sea air. Stainless steel contests have gained general ap- 
proval. 
3* Batteries. Constant care is necessary to keep batteries from 
losing a good part of their lif expectancy. Especially’in the'tropics, 
where corrosion and oxidation are so quick to set in, contacts and terminal 
posts must be kept clean. "B" batteries will give better service if both 
the inner and outer cases are well impregnated with wax. This applies to 
light-and heavy-duty types of "B" batteries as well as small "C” batteries. 
nA" batteries function best when the specific gravity of the liquid is 
maintained at the recommended level of 1275 to 1300, 
Borne MBn batteries have been found to fail prematurely because 
of corrosion of internal connecting leads, without damage to colls. Use of 
paper or cloth insulators between cells and batteries is to be avoided. A 
common practice is to wrap "B" batteries in wax paper before shipment, 
F. Insect and Fungus Proofing 
The damage that insects and mildew can accomplish in a short time h&5 
been mentioned in the above discussion of various parts to be protected. 
Constant cleaning is the most obvious counter-action to both -sources of 
trouble, but there are further measures. Ants can, be kept away from sets 
T-II (Rev,) at ground bases by providing an oil barrier between equipment and earth; 
the table legs can be placed in oil cups. Flying insects must be watched 
for and cleaned off. 
moisture, with attendant fungus and mildew, can be kept off by heat, 
but a further precaution in the form of camphor gum, which gives off pene- 
trating vapors, is necessary to stop fungus. Varnish, of course, keeps 
fungus from doing damage to most parts, but it cannot be used on glass 
lenses, which are etched by mold. The same applies to glass inspection 
windows, and photographic negatives. Camphor gum will prevent the be- 
ginning of fungus mold, and will stop its spread, but cannot be depended 
on to remove growth already started. The special Dogardite variety, "F", 
must be used to prevent fungus growth, where that 'preparation is used for 
moisture-proofing. 
G, Soldering Precautions 
An important caution in the core and maintenance of electrical 
equipment is the scrupulous avoidance of the use of acid core solder and 
other corrosive fluxes in making repairs and replacements. Only resin 
core solder should be used in making wiring repairs and replacements. 
GENERAL S 
Certain broad principles become clear in the maintenance of electronic 
equipment in humid regions, whetuer in airplanes or on the ground; 
1. Ordinary equipment, perfectly serviceable in the United States, 
will fail in a short time in the wet tropics. 
2. It is recognized that the best way to handle this problem is to 
have special treatment for sets intended for tropical operation. This 
treatment is best accomplished at the point of origin—that is, with the 
original manufacturer. Specifications for such manufacture are being 
set forth by the Signal Corps, 
3. For sets sent to operations areas without special treatment, treat- 
ment must be arranged, either at supply bases, or at point of use. 
4. Treatment involves application of a water-tight coating on radio com- 
ponents, This is likely to be a heat-resistant varnish, or a wax or grease. 
It is important that operators and maintenance men know all kinds of proofing, 
3, In applying water-proofing, whether wax, varnish, or special chemical 
preparation, care must be taken in preliminary preparation by baking the com- 
ponents, to drive out all moistui ; and in subsequent drying of the treated 
components, to prevent air-bubbles and open spots. Instructions for the use 
of various compounds must be followed, 
6. A uniform principle appears in operation of parts like batteries, 
wires, and plugs, that cannot be treated in the ordinary way: keep parts 
clean, make sure they are not deteriorating from moisture, and replace if 
undependable. Heat during storage is a good preventative, 
7. As with all equipment in the tropics, the key-word is constant care 
and cleaning. 
T-II (Rev.) ARCTIC, DESERTJROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC. DESERT. AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
T-III THE TROPICS (THREE LECTURES) 
LECTURE III—SURVIVAL 
PAGE 
I. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION 1 
A. Attitudes 1 
B. Equipment 2 
C. Natives: Know what to Expect 3 
D. What to Wear on Mission 4 
II. CRASH-LAND OR BAIL-OUT? 4 
A. Difficulty of Salvage 5 
B. In Case of Bail-Out 5 
III. CROSS COUNTRY HIKES 5 
A. Which Way To Go? 6 
B. Animals and Snakes 7 
C. Reminder on Mosquitoes and Water 8 
D. Sun, Heat, and Body Temperatures 8 
IV. JUNGLE HOUSEKEEPING 9 
A. Fire and Water 10 
B. Forest Fare 11 
C. Animal Food 12 
D. Fish 13 
V. SUMMARY ON TROPIC SURVIVAL 14 
Prepared By 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF, INTELLIGENCE 
25 BROAD STREET, NEW YORK 4, N. Y. ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
ARM AIR FORCES 
-)(- -)r 
School Lectures 
THE TROPICS 
Lecture III: - 
Survival 
I. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION 
"How to come through alive after a crash-landing" is a subject 
which requires little specialized information and training, if there 
has been considerable thougit and good basic training beforehand. 
Most of the job of self-preservation should be done before the take- 
off, before the plane starts on its last mission. 
A. Attitudes 
You can start preparing right now for the solitary hike, you may 
take through the jungle months from now—in fact, you started your 
training for survival when you began receiving this information on 
living in the tropics. It is largely a matter of psychological pre- 
paration: knowledge about the areas will give you confidence, and 
confidence and control will make it easier for you to put to .good use 
what you have learned. If you have mastered the facts about simple 
existence in the tropics, you are prepared to take care qf an emer- 
gency. The basic facts remain the same, whether in camp or on your 
own; Rhat hours to work or travel; when to rest; when to eat; how 
to cook food; what foods to cook; what clothing to wear, and when; 
how to recognize local plants, and local animals. 
Start learning this material at first hand as soon as you hit 
your tropical station: where is the water supply, and what must be 
done to make it safe; what native foods are used in the mess, and how 
are they prepared; what wild foods are good to eat; who are the tribes 
in.the neighborhood; what languages do they speak; what are certain 
key words; wiiat &rie the religious customs and superstitions you must 
not insult; what are some general religious ideas and taboos that are 
likely to exist wherever you will have to call on natives for 
assistance; how do the natives tell direction; how mucR do they under- 
stand of the present conflict; what are their attitudes toward 
Americans, toward Japanese? 
A word of caution about all this information you will gather. 
Hold it flexibly. Each time you change stations, and move closer to 
Japan, do all this over again. Realize that not all natives are 
T-III (Rev.) alike; not all jungle-land is alike; languages and customs and 
mediums of exchange may differ greatly from valley to valley; 
animals or snakes may exist on one island but not on another. The 
important thing is to develop.-an attitude of willingness to learn 
and to adjust oneself to wherever one turns up, or falls into, 
B, Equipment 
Start thinking about equipment now, while you are still where ■ 
you can buy things, A standard list of jungle clothing and equipment 
is presented in Appendix IX (added) of FM 31-20, In addition, a 
variety of emergency kits for Army Air Force personnel is available. 
But each member of a crew might desire to make his personal variations 
and combinations from the material available. Make sure now of certain 
important items: (l) a rugged watch; (2) a dependable compass; (3) a 
large knife; and.(4) a sheath which can be strapped to the body, not 
merely to the web belt; (3) rubber bands to help keep sleeves and 
trouser legs closed; (6) a cigarette lighter; (7) handkerchiefs; 
(&) waterproof matchbox; (9) a waterproof, plastic pouch for cigarette 
lighter, compass, and watch. 
1. Check It Yourself 
When you have these things and the G. I, kits, you may 
desire to. arrange the contents to suit your own tastes, and your 
knowledge of the country you will be flying over. But make one resolve 
right now: inspect your emergency kit before every take-off, to make 
sure it is in shape and all there. The old fraternity-house habit of 
borrowing clothes without permission might extend to articles in these 
kits. Do not trust anybody. Check your emergency kits yourself. 
2. Contents of Kits 
The standard jungle • clothing and equipment list contains 
■the following items intended primarily for ground forces; 
elastic camouflage liner for IB-inch individual machete 
helmet liner kip sheath for machete 
jungle boots (rubber sole, jungle pack (waterproof rucksack) 
high uppers) waterproof clothing bag 
cushion sole socks - jungle hammock 
jungle uniform (zipper> matchbox, v/aterproof, with compass 
inseetproof) - flotation bladder 
Come of these items are repeated, or approximated, by other 
items in A.A.F, kits. For example, the Basic Parachute Emergency Kit, 
Type B-4, consists of a seat-pad kit, about 15" by 13", with a felt 
inset with cutouts for holding components, and encased in a zipper- 
fastened canvas cover. A one-inch-thick pad serves as a cushion. The 
carrier may be used as a knapsack after landing,- Contents: 
T-IXI (Rev.) signal flares fishing kit cooking pan 
machete can of solid fuel compass 
signal panel first-aid, kit gloves 
. match case with matches mosquito headnet . goggles 
special parachute kit ration unit ; ' 
made up of Field Ration "K" components 
Personal kits, to be carried on the body, rather than in the 
parachute harness, are available. The "Emergency Sustenance Kit 
(Escape), Type E-3" is designed to be carried in the pocket. It is 
packed in a cloth bag, 12” by 6", which can be used as a water con- 
tainer. It contains: . 
matches halazone tablets dextrose tablets 
compass benzedrine tablets bouillon powder 
hacksaw blade field ration "D" chewing gum- 
There are also two "Emergency Sustenance Kits", One, an 
"individual bail-out ration. Type E-6", contains two units of Field 
Ration "K" and can be .snapped on the chute harness before bailing 
out. The1 other, "individual bail-out water, Type.E-7", provides 
two cans of drinking water, pasteurized, which can be snapped on 
the chute harness. 
Another kit, intended for carrying in airplanes, is the 
"Emergency Sustenance Kit (Desert and Tropic Implements, Type E-8)". 
It is intended for desert and jungle use, and contains a combination 
of ,22 cal. and .410 gage gun; ammunition; generator flashlight; 
machete and sheath; flares; paulin; mirror; first-aid kit; sewing 
kit; soap; and sunburn ointment. 
There are other types of kits available—for individual 
carrying, for airplane stowing, for dropping to personnel from res- 
cuing airplanes. But you get the idea. Make sure there are supplies, 
kits, personal equipment, etc., which will be suitable for use in 
territory you may be forced down on. Get your supply officer to look 
them up and try to procure them. Consider where your mission will 
lead: you, whether over jungle, or water, or desert islands, and vary 
your equipment accordingly. You may find it wise to change the kit 
you have along for each mission. Or better, hit on a compromise 
that is likely to suit the broadest variety of contingencies, and 
then make sure you have the items before every trip. 
C. Native Attitudes: Know What to Expect 
There are other factors to be considered before the takeoff. 
Because of the importance of natives in helping airmen get out of 
trouble, you must give thought to them before beginning any opera- 
tions, Tl'iere is a limit to how specifically we can prepare for any 
mission, since we cannot be sure in which area we may have to call 
upon natives for aid, and the characteristics and attitudes of the 
native population vary from place-to place.. But what we can do is 
T-IXI (Rev.) have an idea whether the inhabitants, of the area the flight will 
cover arc friendly, or .shy, or hostile, he shall thus know whether 
there is some, immediate reason why we should avoid them as we 'would 
the enemy. From our sources of information in the United States we 
can get a general notion of how natives will react in any area, but 
we must remember that war,is a flowing and changing thing and natives 
shift their allegiance; therefore, you must depend on the S-2 in 
your group or squadron who can supplement general intelligence re- 
ports with specific knowledge more recently acquired. The Japanese, 
with threats and promises of rev/and, may have turned inhabitants for- 
merly bur friends, to' our enemies. Or the thoughtless actions of our 
own men may have antagonized a formerly friendly tribe. In.this con- 
nection you do a service for other airmen, who will follow you, if you 
act well with natives. 
D, What to Wear on Mission •, 
Another consideration before .the-:takeoff; what clothes will 
we wear? The usual advice is nWrear the shoes you * 11 have to walk-- 
home inn, and lace them tight so they will .stay on when your 
parachute opens. Several pilots declare, that loose or low shoes 
kept going down fast when the pilot was pulled up short,by the 
parachute. It is true that some.fighter pilots over Java and 
Australia preferred to remain practically naked when flying, on the 
theory that spouting gasoline from a punctured tank is absorbed by 
.clothing and shed by skin. But the recorded number of flash burns 
‘ on bare skin argues for covering the body. For high altitude • 
flights, of course, there is no choice—heavy clothing is necessary,. 
The problem is .how to keep from roasting in high-altitude clothing, 
before1the plane takes off. In large bombers, some crews put on 
their clothing after the plane reaches a cool height. But this is 
harder for smaller planes. Wool clothing, by absorbing body 
moisture, dots away with some of the.danger of a sweat-drenched 
body suffering from chill when the body suddenly cools at high 
altitude. 
It is a good idea to start developing resistance to the sun 
right now'. Even though you are not going to go around in nudist 
fashion at midday, the more tanned the skin, the loss quickly you 
will be sunburned if you have to be exposed in open clearings. 
And you cannot start''getting your tan gradually after you find 
yourself downed in the rain forest where there may be too little 
sun, or on a life raft in the ocean where there certainly will be 
too much sun. , . ■ , , 
II. CRASH-LAND OR BalL-OUT? , , 
The decision whether to attempt to save the plane and its 
equipment by landing it in an emergency, or to abandon the shj,p and 
take to parachutes, must of course be made on the basis of facts 
different for each situation, The commander must think fast, and , 
once the order is given to bail-out, the men must jump fast. But 
not -sc# fast as to forget the equipment which should have been care- 
fully prepared and put handy for just such an order. 
T-IIX (Rev.) a. Difficulty of Salvage 
Specific methods of crash-landing or bailing out will be 
handled better by other authorities, but some comment would not be 
out of order here. Salvage is difficult for most planes forced 
down in combat: the plane might land in enemy territory, in dense 
tropical rain-forest, on the water. Crash-landing seems advisable 
only when it can be accomplished on a broad open space, such as a 
beach or large clearing, within easy traveling distance of a 
friendly base, or when there are wounded personnel who cannot be 
expected to take to a parachute. 
B, In Case of Bail-out 
If bailing out is required, take time if at all possible to 
attach to the chute the equipment which you may need. Some kits are 
of course built into the chute; but if these are not available, make 
sure the stuff is right at hand. Be careful how much equipment-you 
try to strap around your waist, or to your web belt. Several pilots 
report that their Army ,45's snapped off their belt at the jolt of 
the chute opening. One suggests that a smaller pistol jammed into 
the top of an army boot is more likely to stay with you, without 
causing injury. Shoulder and back holster arrangements are advisable. 
A general rule in case of crash-landing or bail-out is to stay 
with, or find the plane, if at all possible. It may furnish shelter, 
materials for living, and, if in friendly territory, it can more 
easily attract help than an individual could. Of course, it may be 
wise-to leave the plane. You may be in enemy territory, and your, 
landing might have been observed. Or the plane might have hit in 
deep jungle where it cannot be seen, and where signal flares and 
smoke are swallowed by tall trees. Or there may be no food available, 
and you may have to strike out across country, 
III. CROSS COUNTRY HIKLS 
If- no help seems probable in friendly territory, try to fix the 
location of the plane with relation to local landmarks, decide the 
direction you should follow, and get ready. One alert flyer on 
landing took a bearing with his compass on the direction of a native 
village he had seen while parachuting down. Getting ready involves 
making sure you have what you need, and then getting a goodnight’s 
sleep, if possible. You do not think straight when you are tired. 
Above all, do-not start traveling immediately on hitting the ground. 
Sit and think; take it easy, work out your probable location, and then 
sit some more and try to remember everything you ever learned about 
the tropics—vegetation, people, weather, animals. Then pin it down 
to the area you are now located in. Take an inventory of equipment 
on hand. Consider the question: is it better to remain here and 
await rescue, or to try to walk out? Get used to the situation in 
which you find yourself. Then, if possible, go to sleep. Never 
start traveling if you land in the afternoon, unless you are sure the 
T-III (Rev.) enemy is after you. Remember, it will be pretty hard for him to find 
you, and by traveling too soon you may take the road right toward him. 
If the plane lands in enemy territory, and capture is to be, 
feared, you must be sure before leaving the plane to destroy or hide 
the instruments and everything else that might he useful. Do not 
start a large fire that might start a jungle fire, if there is dry 
brush and wood around. 
A, Which Way to Go? 
The answer will depend, of course,-ph where you are. Are you 
on a small island; on a large mainland; near' the enemy; near your own 
base; lost? All other factors being equal, it makes sense to try to 
get to the coast. You are more likely there to run into natives or 
other settlers; there you will find more food. Coconut palms are 
more likely to be found along streams or near the coast, and fish and 
shellfish alone would be sufficient to support life. In many jungle 
areas it is hard to.find any edible plants growing wild. Cultivated 
areas to be along the coast area, and near streams. 
1. Toward the Coast 
how to get to the coast? Go downhill, A good guide will 
be the watershed. Find a small stream, follow it till it meets a 
larger stream, and keep it up until you get there. There arc compli- 
cations, of course: t,he banks of the streams may be marshy and 
swampy, or badly overhung with ‘jungle growth. Vegetation grows most 
richly in watered lowlands. So do mosquitoes. So simply following 
the bank of a stream may turn out to be a strenuous and complicated 
business. You may have to cut across higher ground in the general 
direction of the current. 
2, River Travel 
. One way to travel is by raft. - Tie stems or saplings to- 
gether either with rope or with vines (note: not all wood floats 
equally well; some wood#is very heavy; and all wood, especially palm, 
loses some buoyancy as it absorbs water. A double layer of logs may 
be necessary to make the raft ride high). There are dangers to raft 
travel. Most important is the need to listen for rapids ahead. Get 
to shore-as soon as you hear the sound of water on rocks. Keep near 
shore, or walk on shore pulling the raft with a rope. Do not travel 
at night. Malaria mosquitoes breed in pools at the edge of the 
river. Get to shore, and find a camping spot about half a mile from 
the river, if possible, in an open clearing, with the wind toward 
the water, This is a large order, of course, but it is good to under- 
stand what the principles are. Keep your rubber emergency raft, if 
you can, 
3• Crocodiles 
A question comes up here: Aren’t there flocks and herds 
of man-eating crocodiles in jungle waters? The answer is,Very few, 
T-III (Revt) if any. A greatly overstressed peril of the jungle is the crocodile. 
His mouth is not built for mastication- What he eats he swallows 
whole* "But I don’t want to be swallowed in any manner I" The answer 
is that a croc generally will not try to eat what he cannot manage 
at one sitting, and there are really very few fifteen- or twenty- 
foot beasts large enough to manage a man. Besides, they have become 
used to their regular food, and are not likely to experiment with new 
and strange fare. They will not bother you unless you are right in 
among them. This is not to deny that crocodiles can be dangerous: 
they do bite, their tails are powerful, and can move fast. But crocs 
are not ordinarily man-killers. In a whole year there was only one 
definite instance of a person's being killed by a crocodile in Central 
America, where crocodiles abound. In Sumatra, however, there are 
authentic reports of crocodiles attacking men. Play it safe, but 
when you see one on the other side of the river, do not get panicky. 
B. Animals and Snakes 
what are some other dangers of jangle travel? Do not worry 
about animals. You probably will not see a single one in weeks in 
the jungle. There are no tigers cast of Malaya or Sumatra, where 
men have been picked off by tigers. Some areas do not have any 
beasts larger than pigs. Animals are more afraid of you than you 
should be of them. Snakes? Many south sea islands just do not 
have any; no dangerous snakes are known to exist in the following 
groups: Carolines, Ellice, Gilbert, Hawaii, Ladrones, Loyalty, 
Marshalls, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, New Zealand, Friendly, and 
Samoan. Sea snakes, all of them venomous, may occur along the 
shores of these islands, but are not dangerous unless handled. In 
those areas where there are dangerous snakes, you are not likely to 
see any. And the chance of stepping near enough to a poisonous 
snake to irritate it is very slight. But just in case; venomous 
snakes all inject venom through tubular fangs, which can be 
recognized. Do not tr.vel at night where there are snakes. If you 
must, and are not in combat territory, use a flashlight. Snakes 
move at night. 
On ordinary, prepared trips through the jungle areas, it is 
wise to wear boots, high shoes or canvas leggings, with the trouser 
legs tucked in to offer greater protection against snake bites, and 
insects and leeches. But on an emergency trio, this may not be 
feasible. If you are‘bitten, you may have to take forceful measures. 
If possible, kill the snake, so you can get a good look at itT If 
you arc near camp, try to take the snake along, for the medical 
officer to see so that he can decide on the proper treatment. If 
you are alone, the treatment requires courage. If the bite is on 
the arm or leg, apply a tight bandage, not as tight as a tourniquet, 
above the wound. Make crisscross incisions at each fang mark, one- 
half inch long and one-half inch deep. Induce bleeding. It is 
important to apply suction, but sucking the wound with the mouth is 
dangerous, because the venom might enter small sores or scratches in 
the mouth cavity. If possible have a flat, thin piece of rubber 
T-IXI (Rev.) between tiie mouth and the wound, A small heated bottle can be applied 
to the bite; as the bottle' cools the air inside it contracts and 
creates suction, if the swelling spreads, make new cuts at the 
advancing edge. Cauterizing serves no good purpose. A standard snake- 
bite kit is available. 
Important warnings; the idea in treatment is not to hasten 
circulation, which gets the poison to the heart sooner. So try to 
remain still; try not to get yo\ir heart palpitating with excitement. 
Do not drink alcohol. If you must move, move slowly. 
C, Reminder on Mosquitoes and Water 
You have already heard a full discussion of the greatest 
dangers of the tropics; mosquitoes and bad water. Let us repeat: 
methods of dealing with these dangers should have been mastered be- 
fore you leave your base. Caring for yourself when alone should be 
merely a continuance of procedures already a habit through practice. 
The combination of mosquito netting and quinine or atabrine tablets 
will lessen the danger of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. 
Anopheles mosquitoes attack mainly at dusk and at dawn’. They are 
most abundant in lowlands. That is why it is wise to seek high 
ground for a night camp, and to pitch the camp while if is still 
daylight. Night comes on fast in the tropics. If you do not have 
netting along, the parachute can be cut into a good body shelter. 
Sometimes the best (and only) protection against mosquitoes, if no 
nets are available, is to keep moving, especially if you can travel 
along a beach or open region where the wind is blowing, 
The simplest rule for the fight against micro-organisms is— 
boil all water. Running water, we must repeat, is not pure water; 
it might be running direct from a native village, with a dangerous 
content of sewage and human waste. Clear water is not pure water— 
deadly- germs may be too small to show; whereas some•colored water 
may be safe to drink. The safe time for boiling water, it is gener- 
ally agreed, is at least five minutes, as stated in*FM 31-20, If 
for any reason boiling the water is undesirable or impractical, then 
you must use your halazone tablets, ordinarily one to a quart of water. 
Filtering may help remove small parasite eggs and larvae which might 
be able to resist the chlorination process caused by the tablets. 
For this a doubled handkerchief can be used. 
D,, Sun, Heat, and Body Temperatures 
1. Sunburn 
Other dangers you must consider arc sunstroke and sunburn. 
The British in the tropics used to believe that the head must always 
be covered by a sun-helmet,* with a cloth extension for the back of 
the neck, and maybe a spine pad. These precautions are advisable for 
burning desert conditions, but not necessary in wet tropical areas. 
Many white residents try to go about hatlcss for' as long as possible. 
T-III (Rev.) although in bright light this is dangerous because of heat stroke, and 
eye damage leading to night blindness, a moderate amount of sunlight 
is healthful, and should be sought. There is a ’’too much" degree for 
everyone, of course, no matter how well acclimated. Try to get as 
much tan as your skin can take, in preparation for the time when you 
may have to suffer exposure. Sun-tan oil, which can be squeezed from 
mature coconuts, would be good to have around, but proper clothing, 
serving as both insect and sunlight repellent, is the best protection. 
If without proper covering, remember the experience of the flyer who 
was being burned cruelly on an open beach, there being no.protection. 
Natives came along, dug a hole, put him in it, and covered him with 
brush. He realized that he should have thought of this expedient 
himself. 
2, Heat Exhaustion 
Heat exhaustion is not directly due to the hot sun, but to 
the loss of salt from the body, Sweat is salty, and the more you 
sweat, the more salt your body loses. After a certain point you feel 
dizzy, weary, sick. Continuing the struggle is not a matter of will 
power. It 'is a matter of simple physiology. Even if salt tablets in 
your water make you feel somewhat sick, take them anyhow; they can be 
crumbled and dissolved in water. You will feel better quickly. Here 
is a clOar statement on salt, from a colonel of infantry on Guadalcanal: 
It is hot here, as you can see. men struggle; they get heat 
exhaustion. They come out vomiting and throwing away equip- 
ment, , . The men have been taught to take salt tablets, but 
the leaders don’t see to this. Result, heat exhaustion. . , 
C.O. Company L reports he had only 35 men; that the rest had 
heat exhaustion. He did not have sense enough to rest his 
men, make them,take salt, etc. 
You will have to be your own C.O. and make yourself be careful. The 
salt tablet is a simple remedy for a difficult condition. You need 
the equivalent of a tablet for each hour 'of heavy work. 
3• Change of Temperature 
A serious health hazard to white visitors to the tropics is 
change of temperature. It seems that the body heat-regulating 
mechanism becomes less efficient in the tropics, and rapid chilling 
brings susceptibility to colds, pneumonia, and other respiratory 
diseases, as well as diarrhoea and other intestinal trouble. Avoid 
sitting in a current of strong cool wind following exertion, 
IV. JUNGLE HOUSEKEEPING 
Let us turn away from the listing of hazards and deal with 
finding and preparing food and water, and avoiding what we should 
not have. 
T-III (Rev.) A. Fire and Water 
1. Making Fire 
Your jungle kit should provide you with water container 
and cooking pan. You will probably have along a knife and matches or 
automatic lighter, frothing can take'the place of a knife, although 
poor substitutes can be found in a sliver of seasoned bamboo, sharp, 
seasoned hardwood spikes prepared by natives, flakes of flint rock 
or perhaps coral. If your matches are wet or absent, and your 
lighter out of fuel, or absent, then you will have to use a variation 
on rubbing two Boy'Scouts together. You may not find enough dry wood 
in the wet forest. Standing dead wood is more likely to bhrn than 
fallen wood, which may be rotten. If you can find a dry log, hold it 
steady on the ground with your feet or knees, and with a hardwood 
twig force a furrow in it, about four inches long, the point of the 
twig on about a 15 degree angle away from your body. Keep up sharp 
strokes away from your body until the tinder wood which collects in 
’ the furrow ignites. (There is no guarantee that it will]) Blow on 
it vigorously, and add small bits of dry kindling. Another method is 
the old arnerxcan Indian fire-bow, used by Boy Scouts, Also, the use 
of lenses, as of binoculars or gun sights,'to concentrate sun rays on 
finder;' or steel and flint or oth£r,hard rock, might succeed in getting 
a' fire started. 
2. 11 riding hater 
a • hells 
Where do we get the water to fill the container? On 
the larger islands there is likely to' be an abundance of 'flowing water, 
or even stagnant pools, in the wet season, Lhat of the small volcanic 
or coral islands where there is no thick forest, and where the rain 
is immediately absorbed into the ground? Digging will get, you to it. 
Naturally, the lower the ground, the nearer you are to water. Try 
digging a shallow well. If you are.close to the ocean's edge, water 
can be found on the shore, a few feet down. There is some disagreement 
as to whether you should dig at the low-tide or the high-tide mark, 
but the nearer the high-tide mark, the- less brackish the water will be, 
b, Coconuts. Vines, Bamboo 
V.'atcr, can also be found in green coconuts (almost a 
pint per fair-sized nut). This water is refreshing, harmless and in 
fact healthful. Large quantities, taken over a period of time, may 
cause a slight looseness of the bowels. Do not bother removing the 
entire husk of the coconut. Cut off the top of the husk and then chip 
out the blossom end. This can best be done by holding the nut with 
the husk cut away, and striking the shell on all sides with a machete. 
Or poke a hole through one of the eyes. 
Some largej ropy vines contain water. The vine must be 
notched or cut in two places, a couple of feub apart, to release 
tension and permit the water to flow. Cut a three-or-four foot section 
off the vine, and let it drain. Beware of vines with milky sfp. They 
will be poisonous. 
T-III (Rev.) Gome growing bamboo stems will gurgle when shaken. A 
notch will release the water, 
A container for water can be made by cutting out a 
segment of green bamboo, as wide as you can find. The segments are 
hollow. Gut off the top of one cylindrical segment and use it for a 
stopper. This container can also be used for boiling or cooking. 
The wood will char but will probably hold the water. 
B. Forest Fare 
Gince one would not ordinarily expect to take up housekeeping 
in the wild, but would hope merely to keep alive until rescued, a 
great variety of foodstuffs need not be sought. But it is important 
to know, before one starts on a mission, about a good variety of use- 
ful tropical plants and animals, because only one or two types of 
edible might be at hand in any one section, 
1. The Coconut 
If there are coconuts around (and they are another reason 
to try to get to the coast, where they are most abundant), you are 
likely to depend on them for water, meat, salad, and oil—to garnish 
your food and also yourself, as protection from the sun. 
First, how to get them? Gome may be lying around at the 
foot of the tree, but these are likely to be too mature, without much 
water, and too rich for regular food, fou may have to climb a tree, 
if your aim with a stone or another coconut is wild, and the fruit 
stubborn. Pick a small tree, growing bent over. Use a climbing cloth 
or strap, either around the body or as a base for the feet. It should 
be a couple of inches longer in circumference than the girth of the 
tree. The weight of your boay will keep it taut, and after you have 
lifted yourself a way, pull the strap up with the'feet for another 
’’step”. Toss the nuts down to the ground—the husks will prevent 
breaking, 
flow to get the husks off? The native husking stick will 
serve: it is a sharpened nardwood pole, about two inches in diameter, 
about three feet long, fixed in the ground with sharp end up and 
pointing away from the body. The nut is brought down sharply on the 
point, and some of the husk wrenched, off at each blow. 
The rich meat of the mature nut can be grated with a piece 
of dead coral, then squeezed for the oil. Other edible parts of the 
plant are the fresh shoot of the germinating nut, and the cclery-like 
heart of the tree, called ‘’millionaire 1 s salad”, 
Guile we are counting the blessings of the coconut, we 
should not forget the usefulness of the leaves as thatch material; of 
the large frond-branches as cross-bea$s for a lean-to; of the cloth- 
like bark covering as a source of rope or head coveringf 
T-III (Rev.) 2, Other Food Plants 
There are dozens of other plants that cou3.d supplement or 
take of ,the coconut, .‘And .of course,, on higher ground, 
.where .coconut, palm does not .grow, other foodstuffs must be found. 
It would,be pointless here to go unto a full description of .each of 
these plants, with methods of preparation. ,But a mention.of.those 
plants you should be .able to recognize might direct your attention 
to one of the numerous manuals on tropical plants now available. 
Papaya: palm-like tree; fruit like cantaloupe,‘yellowish' green. 
Avoid the milky sap from tree or rind. Green,fruit must be cooked. 
Mango: trees 30-40 feet high,, broad spread. Reddish yellow -fruit, 
bigger than baseball, Gome have turpentine taste; some people are 
allergic to the fruit. 
Cassava (tapioca, manioc): cultivated; plant shrubby, up to 7 feet 
high. Tuberous roots; two kinds, bitter and sweet, hard,to tell 
apart. Bitter must be cooked. Mash roots, squeeze out juice, bake 
thin patties, . . • 
Breadfruit; 'some wild,; tree 20-40 feet nigh. Fruit spheroid, rough 
and warty, 6-10 indies diameter, Yellowish green. Bake, 
Yams: ■ .cultivated;- like sweet potato, but c.an be larger. Grows on 
leafy vine. White to purplish flesh. Avoid spiny yam with three 
leaflets. 
Sweet potato: does not occur wild. Snoots and greens make good 
greens when boiled. • ■ 
Taro (elephant ears)? must be cooked. Looks like oversize rhubarb. 
Tuberous- roots. ■ . 
LiId figs: ripe at certain seasons. May be several colors, several 
sizes. Fleshy sac with seeds inside. 
Bamboo shoots are a good source-of nourishment. 
There are several other kinds of plants which can be, used 
for food, but these are the best known and most easily recognized. 
Another point: a patch of these plants is an indication of native 
habitations in the vicinity, frequently. 
Not all of the various edible jungle plants can be found 
in any one area. Troops will have to search fop clearings planted 
with sweet potatoes or maize. Some fruits and vegetables, while not 
poisonous, are so bitter that eating tRem is impossible. Some edible 
fruits growing wild have poisonous seeds. ,In general, eat anything 
that looks edible; take a small quantity of. food you do not.,know, and 
wait eight nours to see whether it causes trouble on reaching the, 
intestines. Seeds and nuts and roots are more likely to be poisonous 
than fleshy or juicy fruits, or green vegetables. If you discard 
whatever has a nasty taste, and.seeds ana nuts, then th,e. danger from 
fleshy fruits, or green vegetables, is practically nil. 
T-III (Rev.) C, Animal Food 
All animals are edible—if you can catch them. Young monkeys 
are as tasty as rabbits. It is wise to cook the flesh of all animals 
killed, even if you are so hungry that you are willing to eat them raw. 
Parasitic infection of animals is common. Snakes are edible too—if 
you can catch them. Snake farmers in Florida make a good living canning 
rattlesnake meat. If in hunting you follow animal trails, beware lest 
you youiself fall into a native trap-pit, fitted with sharp spikes. 
Surplus meat can be preserved by cutting into long thin strips, soaking 
in salt water, and smoking it over a fire. It must be soaked and 
boiled before eating. Grubs and termites are considered delicacies by 
natives, and therefore should not be scorned as emergency foods. 
D. Fish 
Fish and shellfish are another important source of food. Fish 
Ceil be caught with line end hook from the kit, or in shallow water, 
gigged with a large thorn attached to a stick. Natives use large spears, 
perhaps with three prongs of sharp bamboo cut out of or attached to 
the long handle, Night fishing with a torch or flashlight attracts the 
victims, which seem stupefied by the light. 
,1. Poisonous or Safe 
Most fish are edible, except the families related to the 
parrot fish, the puffer fish, and the porcupine fish. Most poisonous 
fish do not have scales on the skin, but a leathery or spiny outside. 
If the one you catch looks simply like a fish with which you are ac- 
quainted, with nothing unusual about it, it is most probably-safe. 
It is possible, however, that many of the reef and lagoon fish may be 
poisonous for part of the year, because of poisonous substances they 
eat at the time. There is a standard test for any kind of food. Eat 
a bit; if it makes you sick, induce vomiting by swallowing salt 
water, and try something else to eat. No fresh water fish are poison- 
ous, but they should be cooked because of parasites. Salt-water fish 
may be eaten raw, • But in all cases, removed the insides as soon as 
possible. Intestine rot first. 
2, Shellfish and Turtles 
fSmall mollusks or shellfish, such as clams, oysters, and 
mussels, are the most easily obtained of tropical seafoods. Only 
those shellfish which grow in the shape of a cone are to be avoided. 
They bite. They are easily identified. 
. Shellfish can be gathered on the beach at low tide, or by- 
digging where small air-holes are apparent in the hard sand. Since 
some varieties bite, or clamp their shells, it is wise to dig with a 
stick. Some of the larger clams, for example, can cause a dangerous 
wound; they may be two -feet in diameter. Boil all fresh-water shellfish, 
because of parasites. One method would be to cover with sen-weed and 
a picnic clam bake. Snails may be considered a delicacy, but certain 
varieties are the carriers of young flukes, the cause of schistosomiasis 
in man. 
T-III (Rev,) Turtles and their eggs are good eating. Follow the turtle 
trail out of the water to the place where the eggs have been deposited 
in the sand, .and dig about two feet. The turtle has powerful jaws, 
which can bite even after the head is severed from the body. Consider 
this just another test of your eommonsense and alertness. 
V. SUMMARY ON TROPIC SURVIVAL 
Let us go over the general principles of tropical survival. 
Think of them‘-again and again, and you will realize tnat they amount 
to the same lessons you .have heard again and again in military train- 
ing; caution, commonsense, analysis, and patience. 
1. Lhen you have to crash-land or bail out, have equipment at 
hand, so you can act fast without forgetting anything in the.scramble. 
, 2. Keep your head.- Do not rush madly into the. jungle. Do not 
, rush anywhere. Sit down where you are, unless it is on an ant-hill, 
and figure out where you are, where you want to be, what chances 
there are of rescue right where you are, 
3, Depend on the natives, unless there is very definite reason 
why you dare not. Treat them as equals; make the first advances, 
explaining clearly what you want, in English or in sign language. 
Keep every promise you make. 
A, If you have to leave your plane, try to get to the coast. 
.Follow water courses to sea-level. 
5* Do not worry about-animals and- snakes. Ten to pne you will 
never see either. . 
6, Eat any plant you see monkeys eat, except for certain seeds, 
which they either swallow whole without digesting or spit out. Other 
animals and birds may eat stuff poisonous to man. 
7, Salt-water fish are edible raw; fresh water fish must be cooked, 
8. Beware of mosquitoes, ticks, leeches. Do not scratch sores or 
bites. Get under cover before dusk, 
9. Beware of polluted water. Boil or purify all water. 
10. Take salt tablets. Heat exhaustion may hit you suddenly. You 
may sweat out as much as a,pint of water an'hour, with its.salt content* 
11. Try to keep yourself clean and dry. A tough job, we know, but 
worth .trying. 
...--TV ■ 
12. This will be hard to take, but try to regard a jungle trip as 
simply another kind of military assignment, to be taken in stride 
after proper preparation and adjustment. Then you are more likely 
to be set and less likely to lose your head and your life. 
T-III (Rev.) ARCTIC, DESERTe TROPIC 
INFORMATION CENTER 
PERTINENT DATA ON AIR FORCES ACTIVITIES 
IN ARCTIC, DESERT, AND TROPIC AREAS 
NINE SCHOOL LECTURES 
APPENDIX 
I. General Introduction to the Nine-lecture Course 
II. Incidents Illustrating Survival 
A. Survival in the Arctic 
Forced Landing in a Clearing App.-r-Aj p. 1 
Crash Among Trees ' App.—Aj p. 2 
Fourteen Days on Greenland App.—Aj p. 4 
Landing on a Frozen Lake App.—Aj p. 6 
B. Survival in the Desert 
Forced Landing in the 
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan App.—Dj p. i 
Eleven Men Died—Why? App.—Dj p, 2 
C. Survival in the Tropics 
Bail-out off Australia App.—Tj p. i 
Bail-out ove-r Buna App.—-T, p. 3 
Bail-out over New Guinea App.—Tj p. 4 
THE ARCTIC, DESERT AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
OFFICE OF ASSISTANT CHIEF OF AIR STAFF, INTELLIGENCE 
25 Broad Street, New York 4, N. Y. GENERAL. INTRODUCTION 
Nine-Lecture Course on Arctic, Desert, and Tropics 
(Headquarters, Army'Air Forces 
ARCTIC, DELERT, AND TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER 
Office of the Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Intelligence) 
The increasing success of American. arms is a direct outcome of ex- 
perience and improved training. The best training for combat is combat 
itself, but this is also the most-expensive. The greater the knowledge 
which soldiers take with them to theatres of operation, the less costly 
will be their initiation. 
The obvious rule, applied to any emergency, of "keep cool and have 
confidence” is easy advice to give, but it must be backed by something 
solid. This course on now to live and survive in the arctic, desert, or 
tropics is intended to give a background of information, based on scien- 
tific study and the experiences of Air Force flyers and crews, that will 
serve in both day-to-day operations and periods of emergency. 
If this information is to be. of any use, it,must be made the basis 
of training. lien properly trained will do the right thing the first time, 
and will not have to suffer the consequences of the trial and error method. 
Knowledge in books, or even in-the hoad, is of small value unless it can 
be used at the right time. Training and preparation begun immediately 
will save much trouble, and many lives, under combat conditions. 
The first general point to be mastered, in order that training be 
of greatest benefit, is that one should got used to the idea of living 
in these extreme areas. In all sections where American soldiers will find 
themselves for the first time, there are perfectly normal people who have 
spent their whole lives—fairly comfortable lives, too—without any more 
anxiety than most of us have in making a living in our own environment« 
These ’’natives”—Eskimos, desert nomads, bushmen—grow into the knowledge 
of how to live v/here they are. -We do not come by this knowledge of their 
environment naturally, as they do, but we can learn it. The natives are 
adapted by background and lore to their surroundings, We can take ad- 
vantage of their knowledge, and apply it to ourselves. Vie can be almost 
as intelligent as the "ignorant” aborigines, if intelligence means 
ability to adjust to circumstances and environment. 
Knowledge, then, makes for confidence. First we must be aware of 
what we have to unlearn. Let us immediately rid ourselves of fear of the 
unknown, the same fear an old country woman may have of tall buildings 
and subways and escalators. And we must also rid ourselves of false 
notions about these areas of the world where we may shortly find our- 
selves. Is it really true that the jungles abound with poisonous snakes 
and man-eating wild beasts; that a mirage in the desert is a sign of 
approaching loss of sanity; that falling asleep in the snow means eternal 
sleep, or that frostbite should be rubbed briskly with snow? Living and 
surviving, whether in one’s outpost base, or after a bail-out or forced 
landing, depend on the proper answers to questions like these. This nine-hour course will take up the three areas: arctic, desert, 
and tropic. Under each section will be treated, in about three hours, 
the general living conditions a; 1 necessary adaptations to the environ- 
ment; maintenance and operational problems of aircraft; and behavior for 
survival of personnel lost'or forced down. Always the key word will be 
adaptability—it is the flexible, man, alive to changing circumstances, 
who turns up for another battle. 
The instructor is not expected to present these lectures exactly as 
they are written. They must >e adapted -to the time allowed, the state of 
training of the men, and the closeness to combat theatres. In some lec- 
tures, more material is presented than can be comfortably treated in an 
hour. The instructor must julge what should be condensed or omitted. 
In anticipation of variois training aids now in preparation, instruc- 
tors can find illustrative material to accompany these lectures by refer- 
ring to other publications of the Arctic, Desert, and Tropic Information 
Center, Several of the Center’s Informational Bulletins are illustrated 
with drawings which can serve as the basis of blackboard or chart sketches. 
Because of the recognised shortcomings of the unassisted lecture as 
a teaching method (F. M, 21->, par, ?2), should seek to 
make the material vivid by student participation. Some activity can be 
arranged for the classroom; other experimentation can be done after hours. 
In class, the instructor can review, and the class practice, the use of 
the compass, and the telling of direction by watch and sun; the instructor 
can demonstrate the purification of water with halazone tablets or iodine, 
and he can obtain and display the various emergency kits and their contents* 
Outside of class the instructor can arrange several fruitful projects. 
He can assign teams of students to tost some of the devices in the lec- 
tures; mailing dead-man moorings in soil; building fire with the fire-bow 
or fire-plow methods; smudging a fire with engine oil for a signal; digging 
in beach-side, if available, for water; making a raft with logs, using 
vines as binders; making snares for birds, and spears for fish; tolling 
direction by stars; camouflaging installations. 
There are some sections which arc perhaps better not included in 
their present form; for example, the various lists of contents of 
emergency Idts, and the lists of native foods available in tropic and 
arctic areas. The instructor should use his own judgment on the degree 
of interest his own class will find in such material. 
The instructor can easily prepare sketch or outline maps for the 
various areas. Most useful would be the Southwest Pacific, showing the 
relations of the various island groups and land masses; the location of 
deserts; a projection of the North Pole area, to show comparative . 
distances; and the situation of combat theatres and the stations of 
various Air Forces. Survival in the Arctic 
FORCED LANI)-XNG-1N -A -CLEARING 
OutlineA fighter plane makes a forced landing in a clearing, 
the pilot unharmed, He Walks out in foot-deep snow, goes to 
sleep in the plane. Next day, after more walking, he lights a 
fire, 'but cannot thaw his shoes or dry his socks. He goes to 
sleep again. Next morning rescue planes appear, drop supplies; 
he is picked up in the afternoon. Later, at a hospital, part of 
his toes must be amputated. • 
The pilot was without emergency equipment and rations. Even so, 
there was little danger, because he was not far from an airfield. He had 
woolen underwear, woolen shirt and pink trousers, light woolen socks, 
leather shoes and winter flight boots, a summer flight suit and a shear- 
ling winter flying jacket. The- weather Was about 15 or‘20 below. 
After landing with engine trouble he decided to look around, and 
get to the top of a nearby hill. The terrain was difficult, and he could 
not make it. After walking three or four hours, he returned to the plane. 
He went to sleep in the baggage compartment of the P-36.• 
(Comment: The pilot should have made a camp in the timber, rather than 
trying to sleep in the plane. He should have kept a fire going for 
warmth and as an aid to searchers. He should not have- kept hia leather 
shoes on under the flying shoe while- walking around in the: snow. The 
leather shoe, being tight, is cold, and it also destroys the shearling 
lining of the winter boot. After his walk, he should have got his- 
shoes and socks off, to dry them, and dried his body after the exertion. 
He could have replaced his leather shoes with a cloth wrapping.) 
Next day he made another unsuccessful attempt to climb the hill, re- 
turning to .the plane in'the afternoon. He started a fire With some dead 
trees. He .felt comfortable except for his cold feet. He removed flying 
boots and leather shoes, and tried to dry them, but could not. Cakes of 
ice were frozen in the boots, and would not melt. He could not dry the 
socks on his feet, either. He went to'sleep again.- Next day he was dis- 
covered, and planes dropped him bed-rolls and rations. In the afternoon 
he was picked up by a ski'plane. He was tired, but only his-feet hurt. 
His shoes‘held to be cut from his .feet . It was -estimated that his feet 
had been frozen for forty and the'pilot was suffering from mild 
shock. He recovered v/ithout incident, but■several toes had"to be ampu- 
tated, despite the excellent and immediate care he received, 
(Comment: The snow could have been kept out of the shoes by a wrapping 
of part of the parachute as a kind of legging. His inability to dry 
his clothing indicates an inadequate fire and shelter. A good item of 
equipment would have been a light ax for chopping wood.) 
AFP.—A. p. 1, CRASH AMONG TREES 
Outline-: A large transport comes down for an instrument; landing at 
night- and crashes among trees. Both pilots are killed. A flying 
staff sergeant and a civilian passenger are hurt. There are enough 
rations and various coverings to keep them fed and warm. But after 
two weeks they fear they may hot be found, and decide to crawl in to 
the field. They keep going for four days, and are finally picked up 
and carried in. Despite lack of proper training, they got through. 
The cargo plane, flying at 8000 feet, got over .the field on which it 
was to land for' the night and circled for an instrument landing. Below 
1000 feet, it lost speed fast, and stalled, was pulled back, then began 
to clip off trees, • One big tree did not break off, and crashed the plane. 
The staff sergeant and the passenger, a civilian, seeing there would be 
trouble, lay down in the companionway, and braced themselves. Both es- 
caped, the sergeant with a broken leg, the passenger with a broken foot. 
Both pilots were killed instantly. 
The sergeant let himself fall about three feet from the plane to the 
ground, and hurt his shoulder. He heard gasoline leaking, and in fear of 
fire dragged himself off a couple of yards. Then he heard the passenger 
calling for help. He crawled back to the plane in the blackness, afraid 
to strike a light. After deciding there would be no fire, they crept back 
into the plane for the night. They did not sleep because they were afraid 
of freezing to death while sleeping. They called to each other every 
fifteen minutes. 
The sergeant had had no first aid training of any sort, nor did he 
know beforehand of first aid kits or emergency equipment in the ship. He 
could find no material for splints, and had no information how to impro- 
vise any, although there was wood in the plane, 
(Comment: Although without specific instructions or training, they 
saved their lives by lying down and bracing themselves. The sergeant 
was correct in trying to get away from the plane when he heard the 
gasoline leaking. A fire could have broken out, even after a delay. 
They made the old mistake, of course, in fearing freezing if they fell 
asleep. The lack of first aid training, in a person who was going to 
do much arctic flying, was, to say the least, unfortunate. And every 
man on the pPtane should have been informed of the existence and use of 
whatever emergency equipment was available.) 
They found Arrny emergency rations, which kept them alive for the nine- 
teen days that passed before they were found. They ate snow for water, 
scooping it off the wing through the emergency window. There was a little 
stove in the plane. They had a single bed-roll, which they used as a 
mattress; they covered themselves with canvas wing-covers and mail bags, 
which kept them from freezing, although the second night the temperature 
went down to 10 below, 
(Comment; They should have avoided, if possible, camping in the plane, 
on account of the cold, the danger of starting a gasoline fire,- and the 
lack of signaling opportunities.) 
They figured that they were about six miles from the airfield. They 
could hear planes revving up and passing overhead. But new snow covered up 
the plane, and the right wing was broken off, so that the wreck did not lock much like a plane, even if it could be seen from above. It was up against 
a 60-foot spruce tree and so*closely surrounded by trees that at night, when 
the men lit warning signals and held them out the window on hearing a plane 
overhead, the signals could not be seen through the trees. Also, when later 
they built fires outside, the smoke could not be seen above the forest. 
During the second week they built a fire whenever it was clear. Dry 
wood was hard to find, but they used crates from the plane. 
(Comment: A good fire probably would have been seen from the air. They 
could have used gasoline to help keep the fire going, even with poor 
wood. An ax would have helped.) 
On the eleventh day they decided that the sergeant, the younger man, 
should try to crawl to the airfield. On the thirteenth day he started out, 
his bad leg strapped to the little toboggan sled carried by planes, and his 
right foot strapped to a ski. If he fell down, it would take twenty minutes 
to untangle the broken leg, and get up. This happened three times. A 
quarter of a mile out he heard a plane straight ahead, but when the plane 
took off it appeared from the rear, so he knew he had been thrown off by 
the echo, he had been out three hours in the wrong direction. Although 
the trip back was uphill, he made it back to the plane after dark. It was 
a warm day, and he was wringing wet with sweat. He undressed and got dry, 
at the insistence of the passenger. 
(Comment: They were lucky that the plane carried rations, There 
certainly should have been more than one sleeping bag on the plane. 
They were wise to use it as insulation beneath them, since they had 
other covering. Their injuries and the thick forest prevented their 
making a definite smudge fire. Leaving the plane was probably a mistake, 
but the impatience resulting from almost two weeks of vain waiting, with 
planes all around, can be understood. The warm weather should have 
caused the sergeant to take off his clothing, but his exertion and his 
fcalling made getting wet inevitable. The civilian was wise in causing 
him to undress.) 
Next day, the fourteenth, both men set out in the right direction, 
about 1300. They put some meager rations on the sled: 4 packages of dried 
noodle soup, 7 bouillon cubes, 3 inches of sausage; also, matches, hunting 
knife, a pistol, and an extra parka and leather jacket. By crawling, using 
hands, knees, and elbows, and pushing and pulling the sled, they kept going. 
This went on for four days, 
(Comment: It might have been wise to wait until the next morning, to 
try to insure as few nights out in the open as possible. But their 
food was running low; their most abundant article of equipment seems 
to have been courage.) 
On the fifth morning,, having pulled themselves along 100 feet, they 
heard a shout. A Canadian Mountie came through the brush. They were saved. 
The policeman, with an Army lieutenant, had found the trail of the false 
start, traced it back to the plane, then followed the double train to where 
the men were. They had crawled four miles in four' days. The Mountie went 
for help, A plane soon dropped a mailbag full of rations, A rescue party 
with toboggan and sled took them to a ski plane, then to the field, 
(Comment: It appears likely that the ground soarbh would have found 
them, if they had not moved, since on the eighteenth day it got within 
a quarter mile of the plane, to pick up the first trail.) 
APP.—A. p. 3. FOURTEEN DAIS ON (&EENLAND 
Outline: Three flyers ferrying a bomber to England run into fog 
and crash-land safely in Greenland* After 6 days they start toward 
the coast* A plane, searching, sees their,signal, and drops sup- 
plies and a note to keep going, then they get to the coast the 
patrol boat waiting for them is ready to give up hope, and is sail- 
ing off. They set fire to their parkas, are noticed, and are picked 
up. They came through despite a number of almost fatal mistakes. 
Two pilots and a navigator took off from Newfoundland and ran into 
heavy fog. Their radio went dead. After flying blind for six hours, and 
with half an hour’s gas left, they had to seek a landing. They went down 
to 500 feet, over a snow-covered plateau sloping to the sea from Jagged 
mountains. The'plane landed easily, wheels up. 
The pilot stepped out, sank into snow to his crotch. The other two 
pulled him back in. It was getting dark, and the thermometer showed 34 be- 
low zero. Sandwiches and coffee were frozen solid. They sucked and chewed 
th.e.ifood, and smoked. They pounded each other and kicked their feet against 
the floor and sides of the plane to keep warm. The air-speed indicator in 
the cockpit showed a wind of 62 miles an hour, which could be felt right 
through the plane. The navigator thought of ripping the parachutes into 
strips and wrapping them around bodies and feet. This helped, but by mid- 
night the temperature .was 41 below. They huddled on top of each other. 
They got no sleep, 
(Comment: The most striking fact is that they had no sleeping bags, 
no stove, no proper rations, no extra clothing, no special arctic 
clothing and only one package of paper matches, and one lighter, low in 
, fupl. Next, they could have fought the cold better by .digging into the 
snow, and keeping their parachutes, as insulation between them and the 
snow. The plane cut the wind somewhat, but not the-cold. A light 
tarpaulin would have been useful for shelter, and for lining a snow hole, 
for insulation. 
(They might have improvised a stove, for airplane engine fuel or 
. 1 .anti-icing fluid. A tin can or metal cylinder, of small diameter and 
with closed bottom, can be packed with non-inflammable insulation at the 
bottom, with a hole for draft just above the level of this insulation, 
'On the desert, such a-stove is packed with sand as a wick.) 
< . ' 
They rationed their single box of iron biscuits to one apiece,each 24 
hours. The blizzard 'continued through the second day. Their''feet'froze 
solid, and they feared gangrene, but did nothing. The third night the wind 
died down, and the navigator took their position, just within the Arctic 
Circle, 1*> miles from the Atlantic, They decided to inflate the rubber 
dinghy, drag it over the snow to the open water, and paddle 110 miles to 
the nearest inhabited place on their map. They would need snowshoes, and 
made them out of plywood box tops, and a cushion. They also collected com* 
pass, marine distress signals, and Very pistol, 
(Comment: The decision was a long chance. They did not know the 
terrain, the dinghy might scrape apart or be blown away in transit, 
they had no' supplies, the ocean water might be rough, and certainly 
would be cold,) 
APP.-A. p. 4.* The wind rose-again, and they could not leave. Fooling with the radio, 
one got it working and picked up a Canadian airport, weakly, and broke in 
with an SOS and' their position, and got an acknowledgement just as the bat- 
teries cut out. ‘ 
(Comment: This wan the factor in their salvation. Clearly the 
radio is the most important factor in such a situation. The moment 
they made contact, they should have decided to stay where they were.) 
There was no let-up in wind and cold. Ice covered the inside of the 
plane. They still had not slept, but seemed no longer tired or hungry. 
Chthe,sixth morning the weather cleared and they inflated the dinghy, de- 
stroyed bombsight and papers, and started. The way was hard, and the wind 
started again. They went back to the plane. 
Next day the temperature went up 54 degrees, and rain started; the , . 
snow was slushy. They set out and kept going til dark. That night their 
flying suits and boots froze like armor. They crouched beside the propped 
up dinghy for 17 hours of darkness. 
(Comment: Their setting out at all, after the previous day’s ex- 
perience, and in such slush, seems’incomprehensible. Their getting 
wet outside and inside'might well have been fatal.) 
When light came, they started again. They had to go off course to 
avoid a crevasse. Then they heard the sound of a plane. Only one of the 
marine signals worked, but that'was enough. The plane circled and,dropped 
small parachutes vjith food, clothing, sleeping bags, ropes, snowshoes, and 
a note of instructions. They put on dry clothes and started to eat, the 
equivalent of three meals. Then they got into the sleeping bags and fell 
asleep, the first time in nine days. They woke up, sick, an hour later. 
That night rain and sleet soaked and froze everything; they stood for 17 
hours, holding die sleeping bags above them to keep the rain off. 
The next day, because of fog and the fear of crevasses, they stayed 
put. They massaged their swollen feet with some of the Scotch which had 
been dropped to them, in the afternoon the fog lifted and they went on, 
following dropped instructions to rope themselves together and head to 
the coast, where a patrol boat would pick them up. They were weak, and 
discarded the sleeping bags. 
That night they huddled together with arms around each other. After 
an hour they froze together, and they used much of their remaining strength 
to pry themselves apart. The ice-cap was heaving. They sang, with bleed- 
ing cracked lips, to keep their courage up. The next day was clear, but 
there were more crevasses as they neared the coast. In the afternoon they 
saw a boat in the distance, and gave everything they had to get to the 
coast, /lien there, they tried to burn their parkas, but these were too 
damp. Later the ship shot flares and sent a search light over the coast, 
but missed the men. At daylight a piano took off near the ship, but did 
not spot the men. Toward dark the ship began to head out to sea, til lost 
in the dark. As a last chance, they tore a parka into strips, and after 
much sparking with the lighter, got a fire going. There was a burst of 
flares from the ship in return. They were picked up later. The 
doctor said they were in a condition between sanity and insanity, and would 
APP, — A p. 5. have cracked in another night. Two months, later the men still could not 
get themselves warm, even in a heated room, and could not sleep more than 
an hour or two at a time. 
(Comment: 'The great wonder is the young men’s stamina, and that they 
lasted as long as they did. They made the most serious mistakes: fly- 
ing without equipment, staying in the cold, plane, getting wet, outside 
and inside, leaving the plane in changeable weather. Yet they came 
through. Once they made radio contact, it is' clear they should have 
stayed v/ith the plane: the patrol plane which found them would surely 
. have found their crashed plane a few miles away, even if they had not 
known how to make their plane more apparent. They evidently made no 
attempt to prepare oil and rags for a smudge fire, or to arrange the 
snow into a signal. They could have taken along rags soaked in engine 
oil, to which they could have set fire on the coast when their parkas 
failed to ’burn. They had the most extreme luck in not running into a 
filmed-over crevasse. We must give credit to their endurance and 
courage, but use the incident as a warning.) 
LANDING m A FROZEN LAKE 
Outline: A C-87, carrying 20 military and civilian personnel from 
Greenland to Presque Isle, runs into icing conditions and has to land 
in northeastern Quebec, near Labrador. They have little food or 
equipment, but their radio attracts help before it dies. Next day 
they are seen, and supplies are dropped. Four days later more sup- 
plies are dropped, and a C-49 lands, with a live radio, to help. 
Equipment is dropped for better shelter. Later the passengers in need 
of medical attention are taken out*.by a: bush pilot .with., a ski-plane. 
• The C-49 takes off on a double, wheel-track dug in the snow. Later the 
remaining passengers are taken out. Finally,’two months after lending, 
the C-87 flies out, using a long run-way constructed by a small tractor 
flown in on a C-47, after attempts to flood and freeze a runway fail. 
The saving of both passengers and plane is a tribute to cooperation, 
resourcefulness, • and improvisation of rescue methods. 
Carrying a crew of five, seven civilian patients released for medical 
treatment, and eight military personnel under orders, a G-87 (transport 
version of the B-24 bomber), became lost on a night flight from Greenland 
to Presque Isle, Maine. Missing the Labrador radio range, the pilot began 
to look for a landing. *A smooth landing was made on a snow-covered un- 
identified lake, not far from the Quebec-Labrador border. Before landing, 
the plane had sent an approximate position, which was picked up by various 
diraction-finding stations. 
Next day, Feb. 5, while making contact with searching planes, the 
radio batteries were exhausted. Next evening a plane returning from an- 
other mission but on the lookout for the lost plane,, saw emergency flares, 
circled, and requested bearings from various D/F stations, to help fix the 
position. Bedrolls and food were dropped. Before this, the grounded^C-8? 
had very little: two small cans of chicken, two cans of tuna fish, six 
pounds of bandy, some biscuits, and some sugar. 
(Comment: The effectiveness of the growing signal system in U.8. and 
Canada is proved by the promptness of search and discovery. A defect 
in preparedness is apparent in the meager supply of food carried. 
APP.—A. p. 6. . Certain elements of good fortune should be observed: 
1. The craft was landed-without injury to personnel. 
2. The radio functioned before the landing, and drift was not excessive 
—-that is, they were not so far off course as to make rescue im- 
probable. 
3. They were found in far less time than is usual in such cases, and 
thus some casualties were probably prevented.) 
After four days of disappointment, due to insufficient navigation in- 
formation, bad weather, and the confusing sameness of the landscape, with 
hundreds of dotted lakes,* a search plane located the C-87. Dropped kits of 
emergency equipment were collected in. an inflated life raft used as a sled. 
There were medicine, blankets, heavy clothing, sleeping bags, food. Mean- 
while, the circling plane broadcast, on its strongest frequency to assure a 
more definite fix. As a result there, developed a regular Shuttle supply 
system. Later that day a 0-49 landed to observe and report conditions with 
its radio. It made a short run and stopped short, but without harm, in 
fifteen inches of snow. The men on the ground had marked out a space with 
the words "Landing Area". It was apparent that takeoffs were impossible 
without a cleared runway. The C-49.requested snow shovels by radio. 
The C-B7 party were in bad shape. The weather was cold, and shelter 
inadequate: a half open hut in the spruce woods, and the fuselage of the 
piano, They needed food and camp equipment, and suffered from frostbite, 
exposure, inflamed eyes from wood smoke, besides the civilians'original 
ailments. 
Attempts were made both.to clear off a runway, and to stamp down the 
snow, heither process seemed likely to succeed, and besides, fresh snow 
wiped out the work. 
The five men of the 0-49 slept in their plane. They were very cold, 
with both clothing and sleeping bags inadequate, A substantial- camp was 
necessary. A request for material got through before the C-49’s radio 
.batteries ran down in the cold. This YJas parachuted down on'February 13« 
A hut 12’ by 12’, previously framed with snow walls, was roofed with wing 
covers, and two pyramidal tents set up, with drum stoves. A fireplace of 
rocks and a cooking shelter were also constructed. Much continual effort 
was necessary to gather wood. 
It was decided to dig two ten-foot wide wheel tracks for the C-49. 
With the personnel in improved condition, this work went on steadily. On 
Feb. 22 a small passenger pla.no on skis landed, and three days later took 
out seven passengers who needed medical attention. On Feb. 26 the parallel- 
track runway was completed, 1237 feet long, and the C-49 made a dangerous 
but successful take-off. Next day the ski-plane returned with three experts 
entrusted with the job of getting the C-B? up, and two pumps which were 
intended to freeze a runway with water from the lake. 
On March 6 and B im AT-7 made two trips and took off most of the remain- 
ing men. Finally the freezing job was abandoned because the-deep snow ab- 
sorbed the water and formed slush. The men remaining called for a-C-47* 
This was fitted with special large skis and made a landing, carrying a small 
tractor and a great deal of gasoline. This tractor cleared a 2050 foot run- 
way, and on April B the big C-B7 made a take-off with only 50 feet to spare, 
and flew to p’resque Isle, 
APP.—A, p. 7* (Comment: This story is more than an illustration of survival procedures. 
It is a precursor of what is likely to be a large scale program of signal - 
.and emergency rescue stations in the north.- It is clear-that an organ- 
ized system of supply and equipment is necessary to take care of in- 
creasing operations all over the north. The flexibility of ..the rescue 
airplane has been proved repeatedly. Special types of planes may have to 
be designed for this work. Out of this lake incident several recommenda- 
tions for navigation instruments and equipment have already resulted. 
Some of the conclusions of the men involved follow: 
Mukluks with inner soles.and several pairs of heavy wool socks are 
best footgear. Mukluks must be dried over fire each night with inner 
soles removed. Best head covering is the toque. 
Kersey-lined trousers are good. Fur-lined flying trousers, are good, 
but too'heavy. ■ ' , 
Light down-filled sleeping bags are good. Breath-frqst must be 
removed before stowage. Bags should be kept from ground by another bag, 
and spruce boughs. 
Chances of frostbite seem greater in the morning, when body heat is 
lower. A part once frozen Will freeze more readily1in future. 
Clipping the beard, rather than shaving, seemed best. 
The captain of the G-3? suggests the following equipment to be 
carried aboard ship*. 
2 rolls of safety wire. • " 
2 sets of snowshoes and 2 sets of skis, with shoes. 
A master emergency kit, consisting of sleeping bags, compasses, 
rations, a pot-bellied tent stove- (unassembled), for the crew. 
Bach passenger should be issued a portable kit, to be turned in at 
destination. Contents: . sleeping bag, rations, small first aid kit, 
tent for each 4 men, ax and 2 hatchets, a . gun, with ammunition; 
and at least one bucket for cooking. 
Because of the inadequate supplies carried by the C-£? on its 
first take-off, there was danger of physical breakdown among some of 
the men. Their condition improved after the plane was found.) 
Another reminder of the'use of planes in arctic emergencies appears in 
the story of the B-l? on the Greenland ice cap. All, through the long wait, 
the crew were kept in the fight by another B-17, which'kept coming over t© 
drop supplies whenever the weather at all permitted. The supply plane had 
nothing spectacular happen to it. It functioned perfectly, and.kept on the 
job. It dropped not only material, but also news, messages, and, at one 
crucial time, extremely beneficial letters from home. This plane should be 
remembered by those who, reading of accidents and force-downs, forget that 
proper caution and efficient maintenance and operation can keep craft flying' 
Another incident of the ice-cap saga proves the value of experience 
and good equipment, A light plane piloted by an expert northern “bush pilot" 
with an experienced navigator tried to get to the marooned .crew. It ran Into 
bad weather and headwinds. An hour from the goal, the pilot brought the 
ski-plane down on a stretch of smooth, snow-covered ice in a fjord. But, 
flying in the “milk'1 of mist and drifting snow, the pilot misjudged distance 
and crashed. Unhurt, the two- men struggled across a mile of broken ice to 
shore. Then they struggled along the coast, fighting driving, sand-like 
snow. By luck they fell in with Eskimo hunters, who sheltered them, then g 
them by dog sled to a base. Even then it was four months before communica- 
tions and weather permitted the two men to get back to the continent. 
AFP.—A. p. 8. Survival in the Desert 
FORCED LANDING IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 
Outline: A B-25* being ferried, is asked to help look for nine 
planes missing for three days in desert country. Planes and crews 
are found on the fifth day, out of gas. All are alive, none seri- 
ously hurt despite belly landings. They have food and water, and 
more supplies have been brought by two transports. The incident 
is an example of proper procedures defeating the desert. 
Nine planes, on the way to the British in North Africa (8 P-40’s and 
a lead plane, a B-25) were last heard from west of'Khartoum, in a radio 
message that their position was unknown and the fighters’ tanks almost 
empty. Another B-25, being ferried from Dakar, was asked by an RAF Control 
Officer to keep an eye out for the lost planes, now missing three days. 
The searching B-25, after seeing, one crashed Hurricane on the way, 
spotted the lost planes some distance south of the regular ferry route. 
They were spread over three miles of desert flat as a tennis court. But 
there were eleven, instead of nine planes. The fighters were in various 
positions of sprawling wreckage, having landed with gear retracted. The 
B-25 lead plane had made a good normal landing. The other two ships were 
identified as Douglas transports, which, it turned out, had found the 
marooned flyers only two hours uarlier. The circling B-25 got this radio 
story from the ships below; The lead plane of the flock had become lost, 
and when the P-lO’s began to run oiit of gas, they all landed. It was 
almost dark, so they had to land up to prevent nose-over, 
(Comment: The absence of landmarks in the desert makes expert navi- 
gation and dead reckoning essential. If these fail, getting lost is 
likely. The pilots should have landed while it was still light enough 
to make a good landing, so that they could take off and continue the 
search next morning. They could also have landed and pooled their gas, 
so that one plane could do the searching. Some men were cut and bruised 
during the landings, but there were first aid kits in all planes, and 
there would be ho ill results. The presence of first-aid kits shows 
some preparedness. It is important also to learn to land in desert 
dusk, if necessary.) i 
There were sufficient supplies-. The transports had brought enough, 
the grounded pilots had shot a gazelle the day before, and an Arab passing 
on one of the nearby caravan routes the night before had given some water 
from a goat skin. Before that the men had recognized the danger of their 
position, and had rationed their supplies. The Arab rode on his mule to 
the nearest RAF officer, 30 miles away, to tell where the planes were, 
(Comment: The, rationing shows a proper respect for the desert, and an 
awareness, of emergency, even though the men had reason to believe they were 
no great distance from rescue. The cooperation of the Arab is further 
proof that local inhabitants, if treated properly, can give invaluable aid.) 
The circling B-25 was asked to report to Khartoum the exact position 
of the grounded planes, so that mechanics and parts could be sent. 
APP,—D, p. 1, On the way across Africa prior to finding the planes, the B-25 spotted 
a crashed Hurricane, its nose deep in the sand, its tail straight up. The 
cockpit was empty. Dragging over the crash at as low a speed as possible, 
the pilot could see no messages in the sand, no arrows formed by pieces of 
parachute or other objects from the plane to indicate the direction the 
pilot had taken on foot. The B-2$ radioed the nearest British station, and 
was- actually greeted by.the Hurricane’s pilot. He had "walked for three 
bloody days" before a caravan found him and took him to El Genina, an air 
station. 
(Comment: Although information for judgment is meager, it seems fair 
to say that if the pilot had enough supplies and stamina to last at 
least three days of traveling in the desert, he might have been wiser 
to remain with the plane, holed up in its shadow during the day, await- 
ing rescue. The crash was on a well-traveled ferry route-, as its 
observation by the H-25 proves. The crashed pilot took an awful chance 
in breaking .across country. He was lucky to be in caravan country. At 
very least, he should have Indicated by scarring the sand, or otherwise, 
the direction of his travel# He apparently had not made his way to the 
crash after bailing out*) 
Another incident is related by the B-25 pilot. A ferry pilot had 
crashed en route north to Cairo, 200 miles north of Khartoum, 40 miles west 
of the Nile.. Other pilots found the plane, with a penciled note on the 
wing: "Walking in easterly direction towards Nile. Water container crush- 
ed in cockpit.. Leg injured. Breckinridge." A few miles east his body 
was found,, Buzzards had got to him first. 
(Comment; The lost pilot probably did right in trying to make it to 
water, and human habitation, since his own water was gone. His wound 
must have been fatal interference. It seems likely that he started 
walking during the day. Under the conditions, he should have waited 
until the cool of evening before undertaking the exertion.) 
ELEVEN MEN DIED—WHY? 
Outline; Three British Blenheims leave their base., are lost, land, 
send-out one plane to search, unsuccessfully. They do not ration 
water; when it gives out, they drink alcohol from compasses. All the 
men but one .are dead by the eighth day, when they are found. Terrain 
and weather are bad, and the search does not begin until the fourth 
day. Failure of discipline and proper procedure was disastrous. 
The three British Blenheim light bombers, each with a crew of four, 
carried out a patrol, successfully, and returned to their base at the Kufra 
Oasis in the Libyan desert. But instead of landing, the planes for some 
reason flew away again. * 
(Comment; The Flight• Commander disobeyed standing orders in talcing 
off on a completely unauthorized flight instead of landing. This bad 
leadership offers a key to the entire'disaster.) * 
A half hour from the field, one plane made a .forced landing. ' The 
other two followed. Discussion showed they were lost. One pilot took off 
to search for the base, came back in half an hour, and took off again in 
APP.— D. p. 2. the afternoon, in a different direction, again unsuccessfully, During this 
time all three aircraft were transmitting by radio, but got no answer, 
(Comment: It is apparent that faulty navigation got the planes into 
this fix, and helped keep them there. It turned out that none of the 
three navigators had kept a proper log.) 
During the second day another pilot took off in a third direction, 
and on the third day another pilot went off west, the only direction not 
searched. This plane did net return. 
According to the only survivor pf the twelve, they had been so con- 
fident of being picked up soon that they did npt ration their water. 
They had used twenty gallons by the second day, when it occurred to them 
to start rationing. The water gave out on the third morning. In the 
afternoon they broke open th# compasses and drank the alcohol. They also 
used the fire-extinguishers to keep themselves cool, jaey fell into ter- 
rible torture, breaking out into blisters and sores, 
(Comment: Almost unnecessary. It Is hard to believe such a proof 
•f bad training, weak discipline, and downright ignorance,) 
On the fourth morning the first man died. During the following four 
days, all the other men died except the lone a^jrvivor. One man shot him- 
self, On the eighth day tho twp regaining missing craft were located. 
The search had been hampered, first, by lack of accurate information. 
Failure of navigators to keep a log made it h$rd for them to know in which 
direction help lay. The wireless transmission was weak, and the direction- 
finding procedure of the operators-gunners was faulty. They were evidently 
not aware of D/F procedure at Kufra, 
(Comment: Bad preparation is obvious. The men were badly trained in 
general, and they had not mastered procedures at their own base,) 
Bad terrain was another hindrance to search, Sandstorms obscured the 
ground, Searching aircraft did not start operating until the fourth day, 
and then were haphazard, not following a properly coordinated plan. The 
first proper navigationally-planned search found the planes within five 
hours. 
(Comment; A tragedy of errors. Even with faulty navigation, and bad 
wireless technique, the men could easily have survived. They had at 
least two gallons of water per man, and were only half an hour from 
their base. If rationing had been put into effect immediately, they 
could easily have survived until found. They failed to lay out any 
strips or make smudge fires, which might have guided searching air- 
craft, An ignorant and inept flight commander has to be given the 
major blame for the event. But behind this, there was an obvious lack 
of a training program for all the men,) 
(Material from RAF magazine, Tee Emm) 
APP. -—p_, p, 3. Survival in the Tropics 
BAIL-OUT OFF AUSTRALIA 
Outline: A pilot’s P-AO is shot up, and he bails out over water. 
Swimming in he lets go of kit and clothing. , He finds the island 
barren. Burned and hungry, he is found by natives, whom he fears, 
but -who feed him and take him to a missionary on the Australian 
mainland. The pilot realizes that, his behavior increased, his 
difficulty, and that he should have managed more, easily. 
After shooting down two Zeros, in a mixup of four P-AO’s ani twelve 
Zeros and ten Jap bombers, the lieutenant had to bail out as his battered 
ship went out of gas. It was about 1700, He was carrying only his jungle 
pack. , 
He slipped out of his chute about fifteen fee.t before he, hit the 
water. But his Mae West failed to inflate. He got rid of it, and then 
felt he had to lighten his load. He discarded his shirt, shoes, and socks. 
The jungle kit quickly became waterlogged and he had to discard that, 
salvaging only the machete. This too impeded his swimming, and he had to 
let it go. He made the three mile swim to shore, landed exhausted, and 
fainted, .... 
(C "viiment: The failure of the life-preserver is probably to be blamed . 
on the pilot himself. Equipment, including CO2 bottles, should be 
checked before every mission. He followed correct procedure in getting 
out of the parachute before it hit water, thus avoiding entanglement. 
After this, some practical training would have helped him greatly. He 
should not have discarded clothing. Every soldier should know how to 
use shirt and trousers to catch air bubbles, which act as life pre- 
servers. With such knowledge he could have kept his kit afloat, and 
saved himself much trouble later.) 
When he came to, things locked bad. He was on a sandy, small barren 
island, with nothing to sustain life. He fell asleep, and awoke next day 
in a burning sun. He found some shrub roots'which were edible, and he 
nibbled some leaves. He dug a hole several hundred feet from shore, and 
drinkable water seeped up into it. He estimated the temperature to be 
about 125°, and there was no shade. He began to burn painfully, and 
developed some symptoms of sunstroke. Late that afternoon, he lost 
consciousness. 
(Comment: His way of obtaining food and water was correct, so far as 
it went. He could also have avoided the effects of the sun, as he 
found later.) 
He was awakened by the presence of three natives, one of whom held a 
spear*. This one asked, "You Jap?" They did not seem to know what "American" 
was, but seeing a religious medallion around his neck they asked, "Jesus?" 
and were satisfied by the pilot’s assurance. After a powwow, they,carried 
him away from the beach, dug a hole in the sand, and covered him with leaves 
and branches. Then they brought him turtle eggs to suck, and they cooked 
APP.—T. p. 1. fi-sh which they speared in the surf. They made fire with a wood-spindle, 
In his upset state, the lieutenant had feverish visions of a cannibal 
feast, "He could see the waiting po'tv" • 
(Comment; The natives of that section'were aware of the war. Observe 
the effectiveness of their survival procedures, which a little training 
and calm would have made available to the pilot himself. He need not 
‘ have been burned, nor did he have to fear starvation. Also, their 
knowledge and sympathy with Christianity should have dispelled all fears 
of cannibalism, Even apart from this, if the pilot had learned some- 
thing in the characteristics of natives of the areas he would fly over, 
he would have known that Australian natives are not cannibals by custom.) 
In the morning the natives pointed to the mainland, and said "Mis- 
sionary". With blistering bare f-ect he walked with them to a dugout canoe 
at the end of the island. After waiting for the tide, late in the after- 
noon they set out. On reaching shore they started walking again, the 
pilot tortured by sunburn. 
The next day one of the natives ripped up iiis loin cloth and vdth 
this tied some green bark into moccasins for the flyer. They ate more 
turtle eggs and raw fish. The pilot was still fearful, and armed himself 
with a jagged piece of coral. The spearman took it away from him, then 
the three natives broke into a hymn, as if to reassure him. 
(Comment: His rapidly deteriorating physical condition prevented him 
from thinking straight. Even if he could not trust, the natives, the 
worst thing he could do was to antagonize them, since he was completely 
in their power.) 
The pilot gave out completely after Z+5 miles of walking. He was 
carried five miles to the mission station. He was put to bed with jaun-* 
dice, fever, sunburn, and shock. The natives were rewarded with tobacco 
and cloth, and gained much prestige for saving him. They had learned ■ 
about the war and white men through their, mission training, and they hated 
the Japs. ' 
After a week and a half, the lieutenant was transferred by mission 
boat 350 mi3.es up the coast to another station, where his condition grew 
worse. The missionary radioed to Darwin, 'and a plane flew out and picked 
him up. The pilot now declares that if he had known then what he knows 
today, much of his suffering could have been avoided, and he might have 
been able to survive for months on the island, 
(Comment; Certain facts stand out. Know the kind of natives you are 
likely to meet. Try to keep as much equipment with you as possible. 
Know the simple details of getting water and food on the seashore, and 
how to protect yourself from the sun. Above all, do not let your 
imagination run away.) ... 
APP,—T. p. 2. BAIL-OUT OVER BUNA 
Outline: Wounded and tossed out of his exploding plane, a 
pilot lands safely near a clearing. He attracts natives, gains 
their confidence, and they help him, first to the wreckage of 
his plane, then to a mission. He decides to push on across the 
Owen Stanley Range, He picks up one of his gunners on the way, 
and finally, after great pain and trouble, is carried all the 
way to Port Moresby, 
During a raid from Port Moresby "to New Britain, five B-2$’s were 
intercepted by 20 Zeros. One pilot felt his bomber shiver, and a shell 
fragment ripped into his left foot. His plane went out of control, and 
he ordered the crew to jump. Two gunners got out, but pilot and co-pilot 
were trapped. Then an explosion, and the pilot found himself clear of 
the ship at about 300 feet. He remembered, to pull the chute ring, and 
he floated down. 
In the distance he saw the wreckage of the plane, and below him a 
stream and a native clearing-garden. He landed in a young tree and slid 
down, wrenching his back. His right knee had been gashed somehow in the 
explosion which knocked him out of the plane. 
Machetes lying around told him natives were near. He waited, and 
checked his jungle kit and himself. All in fair shape, considering. He 
began to shout. First children came out of the bush. Then the adults. 
He held out his insignia, his wings and captain’s bars. They were ac- 
cepted, and a leader came forward, who knew some English. The pilot used 
some Motuan, some English. They understood. They took him first to the 
plane, where he found the bodies of the bombardier and engineer, .killfcd 
by the hit in the air. The pilot gave instructions for the burial. Be- 
fore they went on, he ground his sulfanilamide tablets into a powder and 
dusted it into his wounds, and used gauze bandages from his kit. 
(Comment: The captain’s actions were a model of proper survival 
procedure. He got his bearings while descending, did not lose his 
head, waited for the natives to come to him, then made their friend- 
ship. His knowledge of Motuan indicates preliminary preparation. 
His use of his kit, including the sulfa drug, shows further ability 
in self-care.) 
Because his knee was bad, the natives carried him to a nearby mission. 
The people there were afraid of Jap patrols, and, he knew he had to hide 
or leave. The missionaries' told him one of his gunners had passed through, 
to join an Englishman who knew the country and the language, and then to 
head for the mountains and Port Moresby on the other side. 
In a litter carried and guided by eight natives, he started in pur- 
suit. The caravan grew as other natives joined the procession. That 
night they caught up with the Englishman and the sergeant gunner. The 
natives were paid off by the Englishman with tobacco. 
APP.—T. p. 3. (Comment: The pilot gave himself completely into the hands of the 
natives, -who evidently were used to such arrangements. Their expec- 
tation of reward was not disappointed, fortunately for future casta- 
ways,) 
Then the terrible three week trek through swamp and over the rugged 
mountains, ninety miles, started, A relay system sprang up, from village 
to village, with a new sot of bearers each day. The party detoured around 
Kokoda, where Japs were reported. They averaged about 5 miles a day. The 
natives fed the helpless pilot. He did not like the food—stewed pumpkins, 
bananas, birds, coconuts—but it kept him alive. He took water from 
mountain streams and purified it witk iodine til he had to save the drug 
for his wounds. His right knee had become infected. Meanwhile the natives 
went on in their own way, cleverly living off the land, taking their time, 
singing, laughing, enjoying themselves. In his pain and illness he almost 
lost his temper with them, and felt like doing some violence, but he held 
on. He knew he could not drive them, or show anger with them. 
From the moment he hit the ground, he kept taking his anti-malaria 
tablets, because he knew ids chances of escaping infection were small. The 
symptoms of the disease lay dormant through his trip, and thus he avoided 
added suffering, which under the conditions might have been fatal. The 
malaria hit him after he reached Port Moresby. 
Finally the ordeal came to an end, after the captain lost 60 pounds. 
He was hospitalized in Australia for three months, then was returned to the 
States, 
(Comment: It is obvious that without native help he would have lasted 
a short time. Even in his pain he realized this, and controlled himself 
and let them run things,) 
A BAIL-OUT OVER NEW GUINEA 
Outline: After a bombing mission over Lae, one of five B-25’s is 
hit by a cannon shell from a Zero. The pilot orders Abandon Ship, 
then bails out himself. He finds natives, makes friends, is help- 
ed to a white settlement, and eventually makes his way out to 
Australia, An illustration of calm, proper survival procedures. 
After the Lae bombing, and a fight with Zeros, in which one B-25 was 
forced to crash-land on the water, the flight started toward the Owen 
Stanley mountains, back to Port Moresby, A lone Zero attacked, sending 
a shell into the cockpit of one plane, and killing the co-pilot and the 
engineer, A shell fragment hit the arm of the pilot. Another shell si- 
lenced the left engine. 
The pilot, a captain, ordered the crew to bail out. Then, after 
trying to keep the plane going, he left the plane at 4000 feet. As he . 
floated down, he kept his head. He looked for signs of human life. In 
APP.—T, p. 4. one direction he saw a clump of palm trees and a clearing. He decided 
to head in that direction. He kept Ids eyes fixed on that point, and as 
soon as he hit ground he opened the jungle kit in his parachute pack, 
got out the compass and took a bearing toward where he had last seen the 
palm trees, 
(Comment; Correct decisions all the way. With Japs around, there 
was no point in crash-landing. The pilot remained cool, despite 
deaths of crewmates, and Ids own wound. His alertness even while 
floating down probably saved his life, because he thus got to natives. 
They alone could get him to safety.) 
He took what he wanted from the jungle kit, sticking the big ■ 
knife in his belt, and matches, halazone tablets, quinine, water bag, 
mosquito headnet, iodine, chocolate, fishing tackle, and compass into his 
pockets. Then he started through the jungle to the clearing. It was hard 
going; water came up to his hips, and the brush was thick and brambly. 
With his machete he made some progress, going quietly and slowly. 
He found a foot-path in half an hour, and in another half hour, he 
came to a clearing, borne natives stood about. The pilot raised his good 
arm and shouted "HelloJ" to them. They answered, but seemed fearful and 
kept backing away. 
(Comment; He was somewhat overanxious. He should have given then 
time to adjust to his presence, and to approach him.).. 
He kept going toward them, and finally shook hands with one; then 
they all wanted to shake hands with him. More came. One could speak a 
few words of English. 
. The pilot found he was a few miles from Buna. He was told it was 
too late to get to Buna that day. After putting iodine on his arm and 
tying it with a handkerchief, he was.led to the native village nearby. 
. There, a woman heated water to wash his wound, and he was cleaned up. 
The natives made fire with a wood drill and sparks from stones. They 
gave him oranges, coconuts, cooked yams, and taro. He gave them choco- 
late bars in return, then.ate a bit, and went peacefully to sleep on the 
verandah of one of the huts. 
The next day the natives accompanied him to Gena mission, where he 
sent a native runner to Buna, with a message to be radioed to Port Moresby, 
He remained at the mission until a boat arrived and took him down the 
coast to Milne Bay. There his arm was properly treated, and he went off 
to Australia. 
On his way down the coast in the mission boat, he picked up the 
bombardier of his plane, who had been brought in by natives to one of the 
missionary way-stations. The man had done just about everything wrong, 
and for four days had had a bad time. He had been careless about his 
equipment, having lost his compass. Then he got lost himself. He did 
not like the rations in his jungle kit, and threw them awayI He knew 
nothing of how to take c,,re of himself, and groped around aimlessly, til 
APP.--T. p, 5. he was weak and ill. mosquitoes were a torture. He spent the nights in 
trees, and the days wandering feverishly. He was afraid of the natives; 
when the blacks who finally rescued him approached, he was in terror, and 
only his weariness permitted them to take him in charge, without resistance. 
(Comment: The contrast between the pilot’s actions and those of the 
bombardier are obvious. The pilot started planning and conserving 
material and energy from the beginning. The bombardier, by panic, 
weakened himself in a short time,. Both stories illustrate the im- 
portance of native aid, and the need to keep local populations 
friendly,) 
An expression by the pilot, afterward returned to duty in America, 
will point up some of the lessons: ’’The key to rescue in the Nov; Guinea 
jungle, and in my opinion, in any jungle, is the native. You’ve got to 
have a guide;to walk your way out all in one piece. To travel alone is 
difficult if not impossible, The natives know their jungle, know how to 
find and travel its paths, how to use canoes and improvised rafts on the 
streams. They know what foods can or cannot be safely eaten. 
’’During my stay with the natives, I noticed they were eager to help 
our men when in trouble and for very little compensation. Any part of 
your jungle kit will be considered full payment for whatever a native does 
for you. The jungle kit knife seemed to be the thing they cherished most 
in my case. It would more than have repaid them for anything I might have 
asked them to do. They prized the silk of my 'chute, too. The surest 
way of winning natives over is to look friendly and to be friendly and to 
give them something. 
”1 can’t emphasize too strongly the necessity for learning all you 
can about the area in which you. operate. Get to 3uiow all you can about 
the natives, especially their habits. Try to learn a few words of their 
language, at least the native words for food, water, guide, etc. You can 
memorize them easily and they may help to save your life some day. The 
same holds for prior knowledge of edible plants and animals in a given area. 
"From observation and experience, I think most men forced down in 
northeast New Guinea or in any malarious jungle, are likely to get malaria. 
Take your quinine or atabrine regularly—it's a must, bulfa powder is a 
life-saver, too. You'll keep your machete on your person all the time if 
you're smart; little as I had to travel on my own, I found it indispensable 
in the first phase of my rescue. Uhat I want particularly to emphasize is 
the absolute necessity for propening yourself to meet an emergency, to know 
something about the area in which you will operate, to prepare for a forced 
landing or bailout by carrying the right equipment, and chocking in advance 
to see that it’s all there end in the right condition. And last—stay 
cool; keep your head; use it,'" 
APP.—T. p. 6.