Not for Sale 
URYIYAL 
ON LAND AND SEA 
Prepared for 
The United States Navy 
by the 
Ethnogcographic Board 
and the Staff of 
The Smithsonian Institution 
with contributions by the Bureau of Aeronautics 
and Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, 
United States Navy 
Publications Branch 
Tice of Naval Intelligence • Lniled States Navy 
s 1944 CONTENTS 
Sections Page 
I Introduction 1 
II “Men Against tRe Sea” 3 
Abandoning ship 3 
Procedure in rescue craft 6 
Exposure at sea 7 
Drinking water at sea 9 
Food at sea 10 
Fishing 10 
Making your own fishing kit 11 
Making fish line 12 
Making a grapple hook 12 
Making fishhooks i 13 
Sharks 17 
Navigation without instruments 17 
Wind and currents „ 18 
Direction at sea 20 
The sun 20 
Stars 22 
Planets 22 
Constellations 23 
Belt of Orion 24 
The Dipper 25 
Polaris—The North Star 25 
Southern Cross 28 
Orientation 30 
I II 
CONTENTS 
Sections Page 
III Landfall and Island Survival 31 
Protection from the sun 32 
Quenching thirst 32 
The coconut 36 
Island sea food 40 
Hints on spearing and preparing fish. _ 47 
Fish with poisonous flesh 48 
Fish with venomous or poisonous spines. 49 
Handling dangerous fish 52 
IV Natives 63 
V Tropical Forests 58 
Water 59 
Getting out of the woods 61 
Firemaking 65 
Forest dangers 71 
Snakes and crocodiles, i 75 
Blood worms 77 
VI Food in the Tropics 79 
Animals, birds, etc 79 
Food plants 83 
Plants along seashores 84 
Clearings and abandoned fields 93 
Open grassland, thin woods, and 
thickets 105 
River and stream margins 105 
Swamps 108 
Forests and jungles 112 
Particular regions 116 
Poisonous plants 119 
Polluted plant foods 130 CONTENTS 
III 
Sections Page 
VII The Arctic 132 
Signal fire 133 
Emergency firemaking 136 
Shelter 138 
Carbon monoxide poisoning 139 
Cooking 140 
Water 141 
Food 141 
On the seashore 142 
Fish 144 
Land animals 145 
Sea animals 147 
Birds 148 
Plant Foods 149 
Greens 155 
Roots 157 
Edible fungi and lichens 164 
Arctic ailments 164 
VIII The Deserts 169 
Water 170 
Food 171 
Dust 172 
Clothes 172 
How to travel 173 
Signals 173 
Desert ailments 174 
IX The United States 175 SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
I 
INTRODUCTION 
Since this war began thousands of men whose ships have 
been sunk or whose planes have come down in uncivilized areas 
of the world have made their way back to friendly territory. 
This booklet, which was written by men who have actually 
lived in jungles, deserts, and in arctic regions, tells the main 
things that a man should know about living in wild countries. 
Read this book. It may save your life. Keep it in your pocket 
when you are in a part of the world where you may need it. 
With it you may be able to help not only yourself but whoever 
may be with you. 
The greatest obstacle that will confront you in the wilderness 
or at sea is fear of the unknown. As you meet and solve each 
problem you will find that it was not half so bad as you thought 
it was going to be and that after all you are doing pretty well. 
Just remember that many men, and women too, have already 
undergone such experiences and have come through. What they 
did, you too can do. 
First stop and think things over. Size up the situation and 
plan your course of action. If you are adrift at sea you cannot 
hurry and there should be the emergency kit and set of instruc- 
1 2 
SURVIVAL. ON LAND AND SEA 
tions in the boat or raft to help you. On land, however, there 
will be the temptation to rush off immediately in some direction, 
any direction, and attempt everything at once, thus using up 
valuable energy and adding to your own confusion. If you are 
cast ashore on a beach—actually the best place to be—the 
problem, perhaps, will not seem so pressing as when you are 
lost in the interior, especially if it is bush or jungle country 
where it is difficult to see very far. On the other hand, if you 
are stranded on the desert, the fact that you can see so far and 
so little may make you want to start out at once in an effort 
to cover as much ground as possible in a short time. Regardless 
of the nature of the location in which you find yourself, take 
time to consider your plight and the best ways to go about im- 
proving it. In the following pages are numerous hints and 
suggestions on how to accomplish this. II 
“MEN AGAINST THE SEA” 
Survival at sea depends on three things, knowledge, equip- 
ment, and drill. With luck you may get along without one or 
the other of these, but the going will be tougher and the chances 
of telling your grandchildren about it not so good. The time to 
know all about emergency equipment—where it is and how to use 
it—is before you have to abandon ship, not after. Think as 
well as act while you go through “Abandon Ship” drill. Should 
the real thing come your chances will be 100 percent better! 
ABANDONING SHIP 
The most important factor in survival at sea is being pre- 
pared when the order to abandon ship comes, or if all communi- 
cations have been broken down, when your judgment tells you 
you must leave. To be prepared, first, always have a sheath 
knife on a lanyard in your belt, a police whistle around your 
neck, and a light pair of leather gloves in your hip pocket. 
Second, have a small knapsack or kit hag, with shoulder straps, 
prepared so that you can take it to your battle station. This 
should contain a filled canteen, a flashlight with a transparent 
rubber sheath tied over it (you can buy such a rubber sheath in 
a drug store in the States), a blanket, sweater, shirt, and socks 
(the latter also in a waterproof wrapper), first-aid packet, and 
3 4 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
dark glasses. If you get away with the first of these items on 
your person, it may save your life. If you have your emergency 
kit bag it may save other lives as well. Experience in the Pacific 
has indicated the desirability of men wearing their shoes when 
they abandon ship. Shoes are a great disadvantage when swim- 
ming without life jackets but their lack is painfully felt once 
you are ashore in a wilderness. This is also true if you are 
rescued by a naval vessel in a tropical area. The deck plates be- 
come so heated by <he sun’s rays that a man cannot walk on 
them with bare feet. 
In abandoning ship wait until the ship comes to a stop; try 
to get away in a lifeboat, and jump only when it is impossible to 
go down a hose, line, cargo net, or ladder. Remember to put on 
your gloves and go down hand-over-hand. Don’t slide and burn 
your hands ! You’ll need them later. If it is necessary to jump 
get rid of your helmet, fold your arms tight across your life 
jacket, and, selecting a clear area below, jump with legs ex- 
tended and feet together. 
If you have a cork life jacket, throw it over first and jump 
after it. Don't wear it when you jump or it may knock you out. 
If you have a pneumatic rubber jacket and are a good swimmer, 
jump in before you inflate it and swim as far away from the ship 
as seems safe before you do. If you are wearing a kapok life 
jacket, be sure the lower drawstring is drawn tight and tied 
securely before you jump. 
If you have to go overboard without lowering a boat or raft 
(in anything but a flat calm) go over the weather or windward 
side. The reason for not going over the lee side is that any 
wind will drive a drifting ship down on you. Take care not to 
be washed back aboard if a sea is running. To avoid this leave MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
5 
the ship by the bow or stern, whichever is lower in the water. 
If the propellers are still turning, leave by the bow. Swim hard 
to get away from the ship and around the bow or stern. When 
beyond concentrated oil or other dangers, relax and swim or 
paddle slowly toward the nearest floating object or mass of 
survivors. It is well to figure out where you want to go in a 
general way before you go into the water because you can see 
much more from the deck than you can when you are swimming. 
If fuel oil has been discharged, avoid it as much as you can by 
keeping head and eyes high and your mouth closed. Swallow- 
ing oil will make you sick and if it gets in your eyes will 
inflame them for a few days. However, serious effects have 
seldom resulted from contact with oil in the sea. Wounds which 
have come in contact with fuel oil have shown no delay in 
healing. 
Should you have to jump from the ship into burning oil, you 
may, if you are a good swimmer, avoid being burned by the 
following procedure. It has been tested and proved successful. 
Jump feet first through the flames. Swim as long as you can 
under water, then spring above the flames and breathe, taking 
a breast stroke to push the flames away; then sink and swim 
under the water again. Men have been able to get through 
200 yards of burning oil in this way. To do it, however, you 
will have to remove your life belt and other cumbersome clothing. 
Obviously a seagoing man should take every opportunity to 
learn to swim. However, not losing your head is apt to be as 
important as knowing how to swim. Your life jacket will float 
you and all your clothes. Many men have been drowned through 
losing their heads and thrashing about in the water. Do not 
exhaust your strength by shouting or swimming about uselessly. 6 
SURVIVAL. ON LAND AND SEA 
Swim or paddle slowly toward a lifeboat, raft, or any floating 
object that will support you. The danger of injury from under- 
ivator explosion is lessened by swimming or floating on your 
hack. When you reach a raft, if depth bombing is going on, 
sit or stand up on it; do not lie prone upon it. 
PROCEDURE IN RESCUE CRAFT 
Half the battle is won when you get safely aboard your rescue 
craft, whether it be a raft or lifeboat. Despite lurid newspaper 
accounts of exceptional cases, actual statistics show that of 
boats adrift for more than 24 hours nearly half have reached 
safety within 5 days. It is the exception for any lifeboat not 
to be picked up within 3 weeks. If you have foresight, knowl- 
edge, and initiative your chances are excellent. From now on, 
the way you act will affect not only your own physical com- 
fort and chances of survival but those of your companions as 
well. 
Do not exhaust yourself by getting excited. Do not sing or 
shout for it uses up strength and valuable moisture. If a mass 
of men are around a raft, hang on but don’t try to climb on it. 
Help get the wounded on. No matter how close-packed or un- 
comfortable you may be, do your best to be cheerful and, if you 
can't, be quiet. Make the best of it, for your survival depends 
on everyone carrying out routine cheerfully and promptly. It 
is highly important that everyone aboard a boat or raft should 
be allocated some job, however small. Only the badly wounded 
or very exhausted should be excused. Watches should be set 
on a definite routine. MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
7 
Exposure at Sea 
As soon as possible, if you are in a raft or boat, squeeze out 
all your wet clothing but do not take off all your clothes unless 
the weather is warm and dry, and the wind moderate. Undress 
and dry your clothes layer by layer. Pay special attention to 
your feet. If you have on boots and socks remove and dry 
them. If possible, put on dry socks. Carrying a pair of dry 
socks in waterproof wrappings while at sea would here yield 
big dividends. Your feet should be kept dry and covered if 
possible. If your rescue craft is wet, keep your shoes on, but if 
you notice your feet swelling remove your shoes. 
To protect yourself against cold winds, rain, spray, or, in the 
tropics, the sun, put up canvas or other screens, or rig up an 
awning with whatever is available. Do not take off too many 
clothes. They protect you against sunburn, which may occur 
even in cloudy weather. The experiences of men who have 
lived for weeks on rafts, to be rescued eventually, indicates that, 
for the tropics, systematically building up a resistance to sun- 
shine in advance of any emergency will lessen the hardships 
of exposure. Learning how to swim is a good way to do this 
and, as previously mentioned, is also a good form of life insur- 
ance. An all-over coat of tan is a great help, but clothing is 
essential against glare of the sun by day and cold by night. 
You can protect your eyes against the glare of the sun on the 
water by improvising some kind of eye shade or goggles with 
slits. A cloth tied over your nose will hide the horizon when 
you look straight forward, and this cuts off some of the glare. 
Wearing a shirt or vest, and some form of head gear, oc- 
casionally soaked in sea water, will help against the sun. 8 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Sitting for long periods with wet feet tends to result in pain 
or numbness of the feet, followed by swelling and later by the 
formation of blisters or ulcers (“immersion foot”). To prevent 
this the following precautions have been found helpful: (1) 
Keep the craft bailed out and as dry as possible. (2) Keep 
your feet as dry as you can. (3) Loosen your shoe laces, 
remove garters, and avoid all constriction of clothing which 
would interfere in any way with circulation of blood from the 
legs. (4) Exercise your toes, move frequently, place the feet 
for a time at the level of the hips, lie on your back and hold 
your feet in the air for a few minutes at a time. If your feet 
and legs become numb and swollen, do not apply massage or 
heat but keep them elevated and as dry as possible. Remove 
your shoes if the swelling is at all severe. 
As a result of the very limited ration of food and water, 
your stools will tend to become hard and dry and the urine 
scanty and concentrated. Though every encouragement should 
be given the bowels to move, constipation is to be expected. 
The experience of most shipwreck survivors is that few diffi- 
culties result from it later on. As the urine becomes more 
concentrated it may tend to burn as it is passed. It may be 
found wise under these circumstances to empty the bladder only 
once or twice a day as the burning will probably last no longer 
after passing a large quantity of urine than after passing a 
small quantity. 
Remember that alcohol has no thirst-quenching value and is 
dangerous to drink under these circumstances. Heavy smokers 
find tobacco soothing, particularly during the long night 
watches, but it has no other virtue and increases thirst. MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
9 
Drinking Water at Sea 
Drinkable water will be your most essential need. If your 
emergency craft is equipped with a still or chemical apparatus 
for removing salt from sea water, learn in advance how to as- 
semble and operate it. There will probably be some water in 
the craft, and you should rig gear to catch rain water. Use the 
sea anchor, boat or sail cover, or any piece of canvas. Try to 
estimate how long you may be adrift and ration your water 
accordingly. A man needs about a pint a day to keep fit, but 
he can survive on two to eight ounces. A man in good health 
can live from 8 to 12 days without water. Water will go farther 
if you hold it in your mouth a long time—rinse, gargle, and 
swallow. If you have no water, do not eat, since digestion uses 
up body moisture. 
Preserving the water already in the body is almost as impor- 
tant as having water to drink. To avoid excessive perspiration, 
x’efrain from unnecessary exertion. If it is warm, remove (but 
do not discard) all clothing except headgear, shirt, trousers, and 
socks, which are necessary to prevent sunburn. Rig an awning 
which will protect you from the sun but which will not interrupt 
any breeze. Keep your clothing wet with sea water, so that the 
evaporation will cool the body, but discontinue this if you feel 
chilly. Rinse clothing in the sea at least once a day to prevent 
accumulation of salt. Dry it in the late afternoon to prevent 
over-cooling at night. In cool weather keep your clothing dry. 
In the Arctic and Antarctic, pools of water from ice melted 
in the sun and ice on floes over a year old are drinkable if not 
made brackish by salt water spray. (For more details on this, 
see section on water in The Arctic.) Your water ration should 10 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
be based on careful estimates of your chances of being picked up 
and the probability of catching rain water. 
Do not drink sea water. It will increase your thirst and 
make you violently sick. However, you can obtain some relief 
by moistening the lips and rinsing out the mouth with sea 
wnter, also by soaking sea biscuits in small quantities of it. 
But remember that sea water taken into the body in any fashion 
in larger quantities is very dangerous. Do not drink urine. It 
contains poisonous waste products that will greatly increase 
your thirst. 
Food at Sea 
Food is not as important as water. A man with water can 
survive several weeks without food. However, the more food 
you have, the better are your chances. So check up on your 
emergency rations in advance and learn how best to divide 
and use them. Issue food and water at regular intervals. If 
you don’t have a watch to gauge the time, issue the rations at 
sunrise, noon, and sunset. A strict watch should be kept over 
food and water at all times. A trustworthy man should be 
delegated to take charge of the preservation and rationing of 
food and water. 
FISHING 
If fish can be caught they will provide you with both food 
and water. Be sure your can of fishing gear is in the raft. 
It has full instructions, but some of these will bear repetition. 
If you can catch fish, you will not die of hunger or thirst. 
The flesh of fish caught in the open sea is good to eat. cooked 
or raw. It is healthy and nourishing. Many tribes and some 
nations commonly eat fish raw and like it. MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
11 
If and when you have caught more fish than you can eat, 
chew out the juice from the flesh. To do this, put a piece of 
fish in your mouth. Chew it small. Suck out the juice and 
swallow it, and then spit out the pulp that is left. Keep it up 
as long as you are thirsty and have fish. 
Fish juice tastes much like the juice of raw oysters or 
clams. It has been tested and found safe. A suggested method 
for squeezing out juice is to take a piece of the flesh without 
bones or skin. Cut it up fine. Wrap it in some kind of cloth, 
leaving long ends, and let two men twist the ends hard. Some 
juice will drip out. This has been tried with varying success 
under different conditions and is not wholly dependable, but 
since you will have plenty of time it will do no harm to 
experiment. 
In case you find that your lifeboat or raft does not have a 
fishing kit or if by chance you lose it through accident, you 
probably will be able to fashion equipment that will be service- 
able out of materials that you have at hand. Have everyone 
empty his pockets and contribute whatever he may have in 
the way of stickpins, safety pins, campaign bars, collar and 
other insignia to a pool where it may be inspected for useful 
articles. Include moisture-proof tobacco pouches, cigarette 
lighters, nail files, bobby-pins, etc. Anything that may not be 
of immediate use should be returned to the owners, subject 
to future call should the need arise. 
MAKING YOUR OWN FISHING KIT 12 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Making Fish Line 
Take a square of canvas and cut carefully with a sharp knife 
along the weave of the fabric so that strands about a yard long 
can be drawn. When 8 or 10 have been obtained, fasten them at 
one end or have someone hold them. Then, taking an equal 
number of strands in each hand, grasp them between the thumb 
and forefinger of each hand and roll or twist each strand clock- 
wise, at the same time passing those held in the right hand 
counterclockwise around those held in the left. It is important 
that each strand be twisted tightly and the two wound firmly to- 
gether, so that the completed line will not unravel. This will 
form a small line with a breaking point well over 100 pounds. 
When about 18 inches of line have been made, cut off the strands 
at intervals of about 2 inches so that each will be progressively 
longer. This will facilitate splicing. About an inch before the 
ends of the strand are reached, while twisting the line, feed in 
a new strand to take the place of the one just ended. Continue 
the operation until 50 or more feet of line have been made. This 
line is good for heavy work with grapple hooks, but one of two 
or four strands is better for use as a general flshline on small 
hooks. The small line will have a breaking point of about 20 
pounds. Unraveled rope or the ravelings from a trouser leg 
may be used if you have no canvas. 
Making a Grapple Hook 
With a strong knife or other tool, split off four heavy 
splinters 6" or more long from the benches, or portions of 
your raft, care being taken not to weaken any one seat too much, MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
13 
as they act as braces or struts between the beams or gunwales, 
or try to salvage a piece of floating wood for the purpose. Take 
the heaviest piece and cut three notches near its end. These 
notches are to seat the three remaining pieces. These should 
be lashed firmly in position forming an angle of about 45 de- 
grees with the long line of the shaft. (Fig. 1, upper left.) The 
completed line can be fastened tightly to the shaft by cutting 
three or four notches near the end of the shaft and lashing 
the line to it with threads from the canvas. The grapple thus 
made is then ready for use and may be cast astern. The line, 
of course, should be held firmly or be made fast to the boat 
or raft. After you have rowed or drifted some distance pull 
in the grapple. You may find that all you have caught is a 
clump of seaweed. If so, don’t be disappointed. Carefully 
lift the seaweed into the boat or onto the raft and shake it. 
Usually small fish and crabs will fall out. They may be 
eaten and will also make good bait. Even the thick, fleshy 
weeds floating in the sea may be chewed and some moisture 
and nourishment obtained from them. Whether you have to 
fashion your own fishing kit or have one, don’t overlook the 
possibilities of seaweed and the small forms of sea life that 
can be obtained from it. 
Making Fishhooks 
Very efficient fishhooks can be made from wood, preferably 
hardwood. First shape the shaft and cut a notch near the 
end in which to seat the point. Shape the point and sharpen 
it so that the hardest part of the grain will form the extreme 
tip as well as the barb. Seat the point in the notch on the 
570603°—44 2 14 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
shaft. This section should form an angle of about 30 degrees 
with the long axis of the shaft and should be firmly lashed 
in position, using single strands from the canvas, to prevent 
slipping. A good point also can be made by using a nail from' 
the rubber heel of your shoe. Drive it through the shaft at the 
desired angle, and lash to prevent splitting of the wood. As in 
the case of the heavy line on the grapple, make the smaller line 
fast to the end of the shaft of the hook with single ravelings for 
binding. Very efficient substitutes for the barbed or bearded 
fishhooks may be made of wood by using a latch barb. (Fig. 1, 
lower left and right.) Excellent hooks may be fashioned 
from pins of all kinds. A safety pin may be used, or a bobby pin 
may be hammered to a flat point and cut diagonally using a 
knife blade as a cold chisel, and then shaped into a hook. A pin 
from a campaign bar, marksman bar, collar insignia, or other 
military insignia may be used. A pocket knife concealed with a 
split fish may boat a large sea bass. In making a hook from a 
knife be sure to block the blade about a quarter open with a 
small piece of wood (Fig. 1, upper right), lashing both firmly 
in place so the blade won’t open fully when the fish takes it. 
Lures are often more successful than live bait and should 
be tried frequently. If gamefish are in the neighborhood they 
will take lures without hesitation. Lures can be made from 
clothing or such trinkets as are at hand. (Fig. 1, lower 
center.) 
When a fish having strong spines in the vertical fins has been 
taken these spines should be saved as very good hooks; use- 
ful needles, and excellent gigs can also be made with them. 
By cutting away the muscles at the base of the fin and slipping 
the spine backward it can be detached from the base of the MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
15 
Figuke 1.—Fish hooks and lures. 16 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
fin ray thus leaving a perfect “eye” for the accommodation of 
thread. 
A light at night will often attract fish. Flying fish are edible 
and may be netted. If a piece of cloth is held over the boat 
and light is thrown on it flying fish often jump toward it and 
will land in the boat. Shark flesh may be eaten, although it may 
taste somewhat oily. It is safe to eat flesh of fish and of birds 
which has a phosphorescent glow. Extra fish can be cleaned and 
dried so they will last several days. If large, cut them into 
small thin strips, wash with salt water and hang up the strips 
to dry. Some kinds of fish are poisonous or venomous. For 
information on them see the discussion of fishing under “Is- 
land Survival.” 
All birds are good to eat. There are numerous cases of men 
in lifeboats and on rafts catching birds, so if any come near 
make every effort to catch them. Some kinds can be caught 
on a baited hook and line. Their blood is both nourishing and 
thirst quenching. The intestines make good bait, and bird skins 
and feathers may be used for improvised hats or garments. 
Turtles are also good to eat and their blood is suitable for 
drinking. Eels are edible, but certain types resemble sea snakes 
which are found in the tropical parts of the Pacific and Indian 
Oceans. Sea snakes do not attack swimmers but are poisonous, 
and should be left alone. Their flesh is edible but you might 
be bitten trying to land one. They are easily distinguished 
from eels because they have bony plates or scales covering 
their heads and bodies and have compressed flattened tails, 
while eels do not. In swimming, eels glide easily through the 
water, while sea snakes tend to wriggle as snakes do on land. 
Most sea snakes, however, stay close to the coast in shallow MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
17 
waters, especially near river mouths, and are not likely to be 
found far from laud. 
SHARKS 
Several species of shark have been known to attack a swim- 
ming man. Your chances of encountering one of these are not 
great. Care, however, should be taken to avoid unnecessary 
risks such as trailing hands or feet from the side of a boat 
or raft, or going into the water when sharks are near. Sharks 
sometimes rub against lifeboats or rafts. This is done to 
scratch off sea lice rather than as an attempt to overturn the 
boat. The nose is their most sensitive spot and a blow here 
may drive them away. Kicking, slapping the water, and shout- 
ing may also have the same effect. Shark repellents should be 
used if available. Shark yarns are usually exaggerated, but 
there are enough authentic records of shark attacks to justify 
all precautions. Whales are practically never dangerous to 
men. If their proximity becomes uncomfortable two pieces of 
metal struck together under water may drive them away. 
Splashing or beating on the surface of the water, however, is 
likely to attract them. 
NAVIGATION WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS 
Navigation in a rubber life raft is of necessity most elemen- 
tary. As a survival factor its role is generally a minor one. 
Fine distinctions as to courses, bearings, speeds, etc., have little 
value due to the extremely limited maneuverability of a raft. 
However, a general knowledge as to one’s approximate where- 
abouts is surely a matter of interest in any case and under 18 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
certain circumstances can be of tremendous importance to sur- 
vivors. 
Prior to abandoning surface ships, a slip giving course and 
distance to the nearest land is supplied to each boat officer. 
In case of a plane crash or forced landing, occupants of each 
raft (if there is more than one) should be given the same in- 
formation—if only in approximate terms. This is the respon- 
sibility of the navigator, first or second pilot, or of whoever 
may have the information. 
Wind and Currents 
For the greatest part, the movement of a raft will be governed 
by prevailing winds and currents. These, of course, cannot be 
altered by survivors. However, they sometimes can be intelli- 
gently utilized if the survivor knows the direction he desires 
to go. 
Wind and current do not necessarily move in the same direc- 
tion in a given area. One may be favorable, the other unfavor- 
able. 
The lower the raft rides in the water and the lower its oc- 
cupants remain, the greater will be the effect of current. This 
effect can be increased by the use of a sea anchor or drag if the 
current is setting toward land or toward an area in which your 
patrols are operating. 
On the other hand, if the wind should be favorable, the raft 
should be lightened as much as practical. Survivors should sit 
erect to offer wind resistance. Any sort of makeshift sail would 
be of help. MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
19 
To use wind or current advantageously, two things are re- 
quired : 
(a) Knowledge of the direction you wish to go. 
(b) Knowledge of the direction of wind and current. 
Certain types of life rafts are now being equipped with charts 
printed on water-resistant paper. They show the direction of 
prevailing winds and currents at different periods of the year as 
well as land and water areas. To use them it will be necessary 
to have a general idea of your position at the time you hit the 
water. In the case of aircraft, as has been said, it is the respon- 
sibility of the officers to give out this information in the event 
of a forced landing. But just in case they might be unlucky 
in the landing it is a good idea to carry a rough—necessarily 
very rough—log of over-water flights in your mind, whatever 
your duty in a plane crew may be. 
For example, suppose you were en route from Pearl Harbor 
to San Francisco. If your departure time was 1500 one day and 
you expected to reach the mainland about 1000 the next, but 
were forced down about daybreak, which would be the best way 
to head? You should be closer to the mainland, and even 
if there were no one to tell you exactly where you were, it 
would be easy to figure that your best bet would be to work over 
toward the east where there would be plenty of land. 
The wind and current map may not have reached your outfit 
on the date you need it most. Or the plane captain may have 
it stuck in his bunk instead of the raft you find yourself in. 
Therefore, form the habit of studying maps and charts of the 
area in which you are operating. Get a general picture in your 
mind of the locations of lands and islands in the vicinity. We 
hope the information will never come in handy, but it might. 20 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Direction at Sea 
Now, suppose you are alone in a life raft. You have studied 
maps every chance you have had. You have a fair idea of 
the position where you crashed. You know there is a lot of 
Jand over to the west—none to the north, south, or east. There 
is a fair breeze blowing. Do you want to spread your parachute 
to make a sail, or don’t you? 
It all depends, of course, on which way the wind is blowing. 
The ocean looks just the same in all directions, and it isn’t 
labeled north, south, east, and west. 
This is where it is handy to have a little knowledge about the 
stars, sun, and moon—not a lot of technical knowledge which 
requires bubble octants, etc., but some simple landmarks in the 
heavens like those the ancient Polynesians used in sailing all 
around the South Pacific in their dug-out, outrigger canoes, 
centuries ago. 
The Sun 
We all know that the sun rises in the east and sets in the 
west, and that, therefore, it travels from east to west. If you 
are north of latitude 23°27' N. the sun will invariably pass to 
the south of you on its daily trip across the sky. 
Latitude 23°27' N. is an imaginary line passing approximately 
through the Marcus Islands, Formosa, the tip of Lower Califor- 
nia, along the northern shore of Cuba, and through the north 
part of the Arabian Sea. (See fig. 2.) 
The sun follows the upper path at abornt the 21st of June each 
year before starting slowly south. MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
21 
If yon are south of latitude 22°27' S. the sun will always 
pass to the north of you on its daily trip from east to west. 
Lat. 28°27' S. passes roughly through Noumea, Rio de Janeiro, 
and the southern part of Madagascar. This line is shown as the 
SUN IS SOUTH 
OF YOU 
FROM HERE 
SUN’S PATH 
ON JUNE 21 ST- 
LAT. 23°27/N. 
■jQlMTQR 
SUN’S PATH i 
ON 
DECEMBER 21 ST 
SUN IS NORTH 
OF YOU 
FROM HERE 
Figure 2.—Sun’s path around earth. 
lower one in figure 2 and marks the path of the sun on about 
December 21 of each year before starting slowly north again. 
About March 21 and September 21 of each year the sun travels 
across the sky directly along the Equator. If you should be a 
few miles north of New Guinea or in the center of the Macassar 22 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Strait, or around the northern Galapagos Islands on those dates 
tiie sun would pass directly overhead. 
Stars 
The stars also move across the sky from east to west. Their 
position relative to one another remains fixed. This is a con- 
venience in locating them, once you learn the relationship of 
stars and groups of stars to one another. Upon locating one or 
more stars or constellations in the sky you can use them as 
markers or landmarks, telling you where to look for others 
whose direction from the first you know. 
You won’t find the same stars in the same part of the heavens 
every night. This is because the sun, which is responsible for 
our days and nights, moves westward around the earth at a 
slightly greater speed than do the stars. 
Consequently stars which may be just appearing over the 
horizon at midnight, one month, may be high in the heavens at 
midnight another month. Or they may not appear at all. The 
latter happens when they travel across the sky within a few 
hours of the sun, which, of course, would be during daylight. 
For the stars travel across the sky in daylight just as they do at 
night. During the day the sky is so light that the stars cannot 
be seen. 
Planets 
Planets such as Mars, Jupiter, and Venus closely resemble 
stars—except that they do not twinkle as do stars, or change 
their apparent brightness. Planets are known as wanderers, 
since they move about among the stars. Because of their vagrant 
habits they are not much help to the survivor in determining MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
23 
directions. Bnt it is well to know that some bright “star” is 
probably a wandering planet, and not a sign that you are seeing 
things. 
Constellations 
Groups of stars are known as constellations. Some of the 
most prominent and easily identifiable constellations, and single 
stars, are described in the following pages. Tonight would be 
as good a night as any to get outside and begin training yourself 
N. 
Belt of 
Orion 
s. 
Figure 3.—Belt of Orion. 24 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
to recognize them as easily as you do familiar buildings, streets, 
and parks of your home town. 
Belt of Orion 
The constellation of Orion consists of seven stars. The three 
close together (see fig. 3) are the brightest and most distinctive. 
If you hold this page above you and look up at it you will see 
Orion as it would appear when directly overhead or in the 
heavens to the south of you. Now turn the page around until 
the top is toward your chin. You will then see Orion as it 
would appear if you faced the north to view it. 
Orion, whenever it can be seen, rises above a point on the hori- 
zon due east of you. It will set due west of you wherever you 
may be. 
It will pass directly overhead if you are on the Equator. It 
will pass north of the point directly overhead if you are in 
south latitude and south of you if you are in north latitude. 
Rising in 
the East 
Due North 
( Facing North ) 
Setting in 
the West 
Rising in 
the East 
Due South 
( Facing South ) 
Setting in 
the West 
Figure 4.—Positions of Orion. MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
25 
If you could face south and watch Orion’s Belt climb up from 
the eastern horizon, reach its highest point, and drop down to- 
ward the western horizon, it would occupy the positions shown 
in figure 4. (Face south and hold this overhead to read.) 
Now turn the page upside down. 
Held above your head this way the figure shows the way 
Orion would move across the sky if you faced north to see it. 
The Dipper 
The Dipper is a distinctive constellation containing seven stars. 
If you are in northern latitudes it will be the most important 
constellation in the heaven for you to identify. 
The reason for its name is clearly shown in figure 5. The two 
stars indicated are called pointers. In a moment we shall see 
their use. 
Polaris—The North Star 
As the Dipper is the most important constellation in northern 
latitudes, Polaris is the most important star. Since it is almost 
directly over the North Pole it can for practical purposes be 
considered to be due north of you wherever you may be. It can 
also help you to estimate your latitude as we shall explain in a 
moment. 
The unfortunate thing about Polaris is that it is not very 
bright and is sometimes hard to locate if the sky is hazy. With- 
out the Dipper it would be very hard to find. But the two 
“pointers” of the Dipper, whatever its position, invariably 
“point” to Polaris. 26 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
As shown in figure 5, the Dipper moves slowly around Po- 
laris—occupying in turn the positions shown. 
Hold the page above you—and face north to view it. That 
should give you an idea of the way the Dipper and Polaris will 
appear. 
April I 
Jan. I 
North 
Star 
July I 
Dipper 
POlHTtRs' 
Oct. I 
Figure 5.—North Star and Dipper, showing “pointers.” MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
27 
Now that you know how to locate Polaris—if you are north 
of the Equator (if you are south of the Equator you won’t 
be able to see it)—remember this rule. The number of degrees 
Polaris is above your horizon will always be nearly equal to 
your latitude. 
This means, if Polaris is 30° above the horizon, you are in 
latitude 30° N.; if it is 50° above the horizon you are in 50° N.; 
if it is 90° above your horizon you are at the North Pole and 
that is no place to be in a rubber boat! 
Figure 6 is a diagrammatic sketch of what has just been 
described. 
Directly 
Overhead 
Polaris 
Latitude 
45 N. 
HORIZON 
Figure 6.—Estimating latitude by Polaris. 
To estimate the angular distance of Polaris above the horizon 
you must first estimate the point in the heavens which is exactly 28 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
overhead. From the horizon to that point is 90°. Halfway 
from the horizon to the zenith (the point overhead) would be 
45°, one-sixth (or one-third of half-way) would be 15°, and 
so on. 
Of course, 1 degree of latitude is 60 miles, so if you are 10 
degrees off in estimating the altitude of Polaris you will be 600 
miles off in your estimate of latitude. If you ever have to use 
this, measure the star’s altitude as exactly as you can—and then 
don’t place too much confidence in the accuracy of your estimate. 
Southern Cross 
In the Southern Hemisphere Polaris is not visible. There the 
Southern Cross is the most distinctive constellation. As you 
True Cross 
False Cross 
E. 
W. 
Point 
Directly Over 
South Pole 
Dark Pocket 
Figcbe 7.—Southern Cross, MEN AGAINST THE SEA 
29 
fly south the Southern Cross appears shortly before Polaris 
drops from sight astern. An imaginary line through the long 
axis of the Southern Cross or True Cross points toward the 
South Pole. (See fig. 7.) The True Cross should not be confused 
with a larger cross nearby known as the False Cross. The lat- 
ter, though the stars are more widely spaced, is less bright. It 
has a star in the center, making five stars in all, while the True 
Cross has only four. Two of these are two of the brightest 
stars in the heavens. These are the stars on the southern and 
eastern arms. Those on the northern and western arms, while 
bright, are smaller. 
There is no star above the South Pole to correspond to Polaris 
above the North Pole. In fact the point where such a star 
would be, if one existed, lies in a region devoid of stars. This 
point is so dark in comparison with the rest of the sky that it 
is known as the Coal Sack. 
Figure 7 shows not only the True Cross but to the west 
of it the False Cross. Note, just to the east of the True 
Cross (hold the page above your head to make it realistic) 
two very bright stars. By using them and the True Cross 
as guides you can pretty accurately locate the spot within 
the “Coal Sack” which is exactly above the South Pole. 
First extend an imaginary line along the long axis of the 
Cross to the south. Join the two bright stars to the east 
of the Cross with an imaginary line. Bisect this line with 
one at right angles. Where this east line intersects the one 
through the Cross is (approximately) the point above the 
South Pole. 
570603°—44 3 30 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
This point can be used to estimate latitude in the same 
manner as is Polaris in northern latitudes—by its height 
above the horizon. 
Orientation 
We have, therefore, indications of north, south, east, and 
west by day or night. If you can determine any of the 
cardinal directions you can easily determine the others. 
Well out to sea the prevailing winds from about 8°-10° N. 
to about 40° N. (look this up on a map or globe and see 
where it is) are from the northeast—blowing toward the south- 
west. They are called the northeast trades. They will carry 
you in a southwesterly direction. 
North of 40° N. and south of 40° S. the winds are usually from 
the west and will tend to carry you eastward. 
These are only general rules. There are many local and 
some seasonal exceptions. Learn as much as you can by 
observations and questions about the winds and sea currents 
in the areas in which you operate. 
Learn to pick out the stars that have been mentioned and 
many more. Learn where to look for them in the heavens. 
That is how the first navigators found their way, and without 
navigational instruments it is still the best. Ill 
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
In looking for land remember that cumulus clouds in an other- 
wise clear sky are likely to have been formed over land. Since 
they may have drifted from their original position steer to the 
windward rather than to the leeward of them. “Lagoon Glare,” 
a greenish tint in the sky caused by the reflection of sunlight 
from coral reefs, may often be seen from a long distance. It is 
often more easily noted by looking slightly to one side of the 
point rather than directly at it. Driftwood and floating plants 
are a good indication of land. Coral reefs often cause difficulty 
in landing and should be approached cautiously. The siirf is not 
so great if you make your landing on the lee side of an island. 
Breaks in the reef are indicated by calm gaps in the long line 
of breakers. If the pass is deep the color will be clear blue. 
If shallow it will be uniformly or blotchy brown. For navigation 
in shoal coral waters it is always desirable to have the sun 
anywhere except dead ahead. The ideal condition is to have 
the sun over one’s shoulder or even directly overhead. 
Men adrift, especially in northern latitudes, sometimes imagine 
they can see things which are not there, such as smoke, sails, 
ships, or land. This is a form of mirage, the same phenomenon 
that occurs in the desert, and if you experience it, it does not 
mean that you are out of your mind or even light-headed. 
If you land on an island which is not in enemy territory and 
has natives on it, the worst of your troubles are over; they 
31 32 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
know what to do and will help you. For more information on 
natives see the section on that subject. 
Footgear is important here, for cuts made by live coral are 
always painful and slow to heal. Your main needs will again 
be water, food, and shelter. 
PROTECTION FROM THE SUN 
On most islands in the tropics some protection from the sun 
is necessary to prevent sunstroke and severe sunburn. Should 
you lack normal clothing or equipment there are several expe- 
dients which will minimize these dangers. Keep out of the sun 
as much as possible during the middle of the day. If green leaves 
are available tie them on to protect your head from the sun. 
Coconut oil smeared over exposed portions of the body also helps. 
See following discussion of the coconut. 
QUENCHING THIRST 
Many Islands in the Pacific have a good water supply; others 
do not. In this regard it is interesting to note that many native 
peoples live permanently on islands that lack streams, springs, 
wells, or even coconuts. They get their water in a number of 
ways. In some cases there are holes and hollows in the rocks 
that collect rain water; always look for these. Shallow pits or 
holes are also dug to catch rain or the seepage of water after 
rains, or water is obtained by digging holes along the shore at 
low tide. If you are forced to dig such a well, in the absence 
of better tools a laj*ge shell lashed to a stick makes a serviceable 
implement. Do not go deeper than the first water found. Fresh LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
33 
water, being lighter than sea water, has a tendency to remain 
on the surface of salty water and that seeping through the sand 
may be a bit fresher than the sea water. 
A little salt is good for you in the tropics where excessive 
perspiration robs the body of natural salts, but remember that 
too much salt is bad. Very limited quantities of the brackish 
water should be taken the first day or sickness will result. 
This is equally true of any other water drunk after a long pe- 
riod of thirst. Sip it up slowly or you will throw it up. In 
some cases it is possible to obtain slightly better water than 
that from the holes along the beach. There are some of the 
low sand islands in the Pacific area that rise from the beach to 
an elevation of 30 to 40 feet and from this high point slope 
toward a central basin which may or may not contain a lagoon 
of salt water. By digging near the foot of the inner slope, 
water may be found at a depth of from 3 to 5 feet, especially 
if there have been relatively recent rains. As in the case of 
the wells along the beach, do not dig too deep or it will fill with 
salt water. Stop at the first water found and after the bottom 
of the hole has filled skim the water off the top to get the 
fresher part of it. Care should be taken not to stir up all 
of the water at the bottom of such a well or it may be as salty 
as that along the beach. The water thus obtained may be dis- 
colored and somewhat brackish but it can be used. 
Upon atolls or coral islands which do not have enough rain- 
fall to support trees, you will find a weed known as pigweed, or 
purslane. To alleviate thirst, chew the fleshy, reddish-green 
leaves and stems. The weed stands 8 inches high and covers 
the ground in patches. No other atoll plant is like it. (Fig. 
8.) On islands covered with jungle there are often air plants 34 
SURVIVAL OX LAND AXD SEA 
Figure 8.—Pigweed, or Purslane. See pp. 33 and 91. LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
35 
■EDIBLE 
TIPS 
SEACOASTS a 
SWAMPS 
TREE TO 20 FT. 
PROMINENT- 
iGREEN 
EDIBLE PULP ' 
a SEEDS 
Figure 9.—Pandanus, or Screw Pine. See pp. 36 and 87. 36 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
in the trees. The bases of the leaves of these air plants hold 
water for a long time. It is necessary to strain out bugs, wrig- 
glers or an occasional frog but the water is good. The tips of 
the aerial roots of the pandanus tree (Fig. 9) may also be 
chewed for their moisture content. On islands where cactus 
grows, moisture may be obtained from the pulp of that plant. 
THE COCONUT 
Where there are coconuts your problem is much simpler. 
That the coconut is a valuable source of food and drink is well 
known. It also provides coconut oil, strong fibers which can 
be used in an emergency to manufacture cordage, and fronds 
or leaves for sandals, baskets, and building shelters. The coco- 
nut grows wild along the coast of many tropical countries and 
islands. The great importance of the coconut justifies a brief 
description of its qualities together with directions as to how 
the nut can be collected, husked, and opened. For other plant 
foods, see section on Tropical Foods. 
The coconut grows in clusters on a tall palm. (Fig. 10). 
The first problem in the use of the coconut is to get it down 
from' the tree. You may find yourself badly in need of a 
coconut for food or drink, but unable to climb the tree. Some 
coconut palms are very difficult to climb unless you have 
had considerable practice, but there is a simple device known 
as “the climbing bandage.” It consists of a belt or rope which 
is a little larger around than the circumference of the tree. 
If you have a belt or rope or even a piece of cloth put it 
around the trunk of the palm tying it so as to leave enough 
room for your feet, and step on it with both feet. The loop 
will catch on the other side of the trunk and will support your 
weight. Reach up with your arms and grasp the trunk with 37 
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
MILK 
NUT 
HUSK 
FLESH 
TALL TREE 
FRUITS ALL YEAR 
Figure 10.—Coconut Palm. See p. 36. 38 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
both hands. Pull yourself up, doubling your knees 'and sliding 
the “bandage” up to a higher position with your feet. Straighten 
up, resting your weight on the “bandage” to get a new position. 
By repeating this process you can climb to any height. You will 
note that this permits free use of your hands when you reach the 
top, so that you can pick the nuts. Let them drop. They won’t 
be hurt, but don’t lie under a coconut tree or they may hurt 
you! 
On any single palm, the nuts will be in different stages of 
maturity. In general, the immature nuts are smaller and 
greener than the ripe ones. 
The three main stages of the coconut’s development and their 
uses should be recognized : 
(1) The husk of the half-grown coconut is green or light 
yellow. The jelly-like flesh can be scooped out and consumed 
in sufficient quantities to satisfy hunger, and balanced with fish, 
will sustain life indefinitely. It is at this stage that the water 
or milk is best for drinking. It rates next to water and is 
better than beer as a thirst quencher. 
(2) The hard meat of the mature coconut (the stage at which 
the nut is sold commercially in the United States) is too rich 
in oil to be eaten in quantity. At this stage the nut has fallen 
from the tree and the husk is brown. The milk is still good. The 
meat may be grated with a piece of coral or the edge of a shell 
and the grated meat squeezed in the hand to produce a thick 
cream which can be used as a sauce for fish, pandanus or other 
available food. 
(3) The sprouted nut (the shoot of a new tree has begun to 
grow and roots appear) has a spongy growth within at the 
stem end. The growth gradually absorbs all of the milk and LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
39 
meat. It is excellent food and a welcome variation from coco- 
nut meat. 
If a tree can be felled (not a recommended procedure, 
obviously, where trees are sparse), a large amount of edible 
celery-like material known as the heart of the coconut, or “cab- 
bage,” may be obtained from the center of the trunk at its junc- 
ture with the sprouting leaves. 
The nut is encased in a husk consisting of a smooth exterior 
and a matting of tough fibers. If you have a heavy knife or an 
axe, you need not remove the husk of the green coconut in order 
to get at the liquid. You can whittle off the husk at the free 
end (not the stem end) to a crude point and then cut off the 
end and the top of the nut inside, thus obtaining the liquid. If, 
however, you do not have a machete, which incidentally is the 
most valuable single thing a man can have in the tropics, you 
can follow this procedure: drive a stake, 3 or 4 feet long, into 
the ground so that it slants away from you at a slight angle. 
The top of the stake should be given a crude edge so that it 
will pierce the longitudinal fibers of the husk. Stand about a 
foot away from the stake, judging the point of entry so that 
the stake will clear the nut within the husk. Then push down 
with your hands giving the coconut a twisting motion to pry off 
a small portion of the husk. By repeating this process, you 
can entirely remove the husk from the nut. You can husk 
green or mature nuts in the same manner. 
Once the nut has been removed from the husk, your problem 
is to break through the hard shell of the nut. To open a young 
nut, hold it in one hand so that the eyes, which are at the stem 
end, are uppermost. Strike the nut sharply with a stone, or the 
point of a mature nut, just below each of the eyes. This will 40 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
crack the shell and the top of the nut can be picked off without 
spilling the liquid. If the nut is mature, poke out the eyes and 
drink the water. To break it open place it on its side on the palm 
of your hand. In your other hand grasp a stone and strike the 
middle of the nut with it. Revolve the nut a quarter turn and 
strike it again. Continue to turn the nut, striking it each time, 
until the nut cracks in half. 
Coconut oil is a good preventive for sunburn, as well as an 
aid to keeping off small mites, sometimes called chiggers, and 
other insects. You can get coconut oil quite easily by exposing 
the meat of the coconut to the sun. The oil will run more 
quickly if you grate or pound it before placing it in the sun. 
You can also get coconut oil by heating coconut meat over a 
slow fire. If you have any kind of cooking pot or a section cut 
from a bamboo tree (see p. 41, under Sea Food) you can boil 
coconut meat in water; when the mixture cools the oil will rise 
to the top. If you apply even a thin coating of coconut oil to 
your skin you need have little fear of sunburn. 
The natives of Oceania have discovered that coconut oil is a 
good preventive against salt water sores and bloating. Before 
going fishing on the reef they are careful to smear their legs and 
feet with this oil. By this means, they are able to keep their 
skin in good condition, despite the fact that they have to stand 
in salt water many hours at a time. 
ISLAND SEA FOOD 
Anyone stranded on a beach or shore should have little diffi- 
culty in maintaining himself for an indefinite period on shellfish 
or mollusks. These are an abundant source of food much appre- LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
41 
ciated by all native peoples. All you need to do is work along 
the beach when the tide is out and gather a supply. There will 
be no difficulty in finding mollusks by turning over blocks of 
coral rock or picking them up in exposed situations. If you 
do not see anything but empty shells walk slowly along the beach 
and watch for bubbles in the sand—like those seen in the bot- 
tom of springs. When you see them dig down and you will find 
your mollusks. Shellfish can be eaten raw, as we eat oysters, 
and the juice coming from clams is not only nutritious but serves 
to quench thirst as well. The shells can be crushed with a 
rock or a piece of wood and the animal be extracted. Shellfish 
can be cooked by covering them with sand or earth and building 
a fire over the pile. (For fire-making methods when you have 
no matches see section under Tropical Forests p. 65.) When 
this is done they steam in their own juices. They can also be 
cooked by being dropped in a container of boiling water. Sec- 
tions of bamboo can serve this purpose. Cut a section from a 
large bamboo stem, preserving one of the joints to form the bot- 
tom. The green shell is so durable that water can be boiled in 
it before the bamboo burns. If the container is held over the 
fire on a slant rather than straight up and down, the water 
heats faster. A hole lined with canvas or other material which 
will hold water can also be used for cooking. In the latter 
case hot rocks moved from the fire by improvised wooden tongs 
are dropped into the water until boiling is complete. Mollusks 
are found on reefs and beaches everywhere in this vast south- 
ern area. Similar forms appear in other tropical seas such as 
the Caribbean and parts of the South Atlantic. 
There are two groups of tropical mollusks, fortunately not 
common, that should be avoided. These are the cones, so named SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
from cone-like shape of their shells (see figs. 11 and 12) and the 
spindle-shaped terebras. Because of their characteristic form 
they are easily recognized. They have poison glands at the 
aase of their hollow teeth and their bite is similar to that of 
venomous snakes. They should be left alone. 
In addition to the mollusks, crabs and lobsters are to be found 
in the crevices and among rocks or reefs and rocky shores. 
Included among the crabs in the Pacific and Indian Oceans is a 
large swimming variety that is related to our Chesapeake Bay 
blue crab (they turn red on being cooked). This form is 
distinguished by the paddle-like shape of the last pair of legs. 
Figure 11.—Poisonous Terebras. Length %" to 8''. LANDFALL, AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
43 
Figuub 12.—Poisonous Cones. Length to 10". 
Crabs and lobsters can most easily be caught at night, as that 
is the time when they generally move about. They may be 
stunned with a stick or stone, caught in the hands, or trapped. 
They often can be taken on a line baited with dead fish or 
spoiled meat. Tie the bait on just above a sinker of some kind 
and pull in from time to time, not too hard or the crab will let 
go, to see if you have caught one. Traps baited with fish or 
animal flesh are commonly used by commercial crab and lobster- 
men but probably would not be practical, except for more or 44 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
less permanently established shore parties. A dip net fashioned 
by making a hoop from a shoot or small branch and interlacing 
strips of palm leaves or fibers or one made from an article of 
clothing, is most useful in taking these creatures. Spiny lob- 
sters or sea crawfish in the Tropics do not have large pincers 
on their front legs but do have “thorns” or spines on their 
backs. These can produce severe lacerations if seized by the 
bare hand. Hence the hand should be protected, if possible, 
by a stout glove or some equivalent. Spiny lobsters often may be 
caught by placing a dipnet behind them and with the foot 
touching their antennae, the long flexible processes projecting 
from their heads. This causes the creatures to move backward 
quickly into the net or bag, which must be yanked up immedi- 
ately. Crabs also may occur in fresh-water lakes and streams, 
both in the mountains and on the plains, and frequently travel 
about on dry land. Some, such as the purse-crab of the East 
Indies, may be found on the trunks of trees. 
As far as is known all crabs and lobsters, whether marine, 
fresh-water, or land forms, are fit for human consumption pro- 
vided they are fresh. Salt water forms can be eaten raw with 
little likelihood of bad effects, but all land crabs, particularly 
in Asia and the closely adjacent islands, should be thoroughly 
cooked, since they are infected with lung parasites that are 
often fatal to human beings if the animals are eaten raw. The 
best way to cook crabs and lobsters is to drop them alive 
into boiling water and keep them boiling for 20 minutes to half 
an hour. Thus there is no danger of decay before cooking and 
they become sterilized at the same time. The shells and pulpy 
gills are easily removed after cooking. Most people insist that 
the gills (sometimes called the “deadman’s fingers”) be re- LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
45 
moved immediately. Actually they are harmless and will 
cause no trouble if eaten. They have acquired a bad name 
because they are about the first spot to spoil. All danger of this 
is avoided by immediate cooking and eating. 
In addition to mollusks and fish, another source of food are 
the holothurians of sea-cucumbers (like fig. 49-G). These ani- 
mals are found on all tropical reefs, and almost everywhere on 
rocky shores. In the Indo-Pacific region, especially on the Aus- 
tralian reefs, they form the basis of an extensive and valuable 
fishery. They are also common in the West Indies. The kinds 
used as food are for the most part roughly cylindrical with a more 
or less corrugated or warty tough skin, usually from a foot to a 
foot and a half long when extended, and about half as long when 
contracted. The Australian commercial variety is even longer. 
The edible portion of a sea-cucumber consists of five long white 
muscles on the inside of the body. These can be stripped off 
and boiled, fried, or eaten raw. 
Still another source of sea food is sea urchins or sea eggs. 
Sea urchins are found on all tropical reefs and along all rocky 
shores and form an important source of food in many regions, 
especially in southern Europe, the West Indies, southern South 
America, parts of the Indo-Pacific region, and the Aleutian 
Islands. They are globular in shape, usually somewhat flat- 
tened, from 2 to 6 inches in diameter and are covered with 
spines (like fig. 49-H). The edible portion consists of the masses 
of eggs within their bodies. These eggs usually form five finger- 
like, more or less yellow colored processes on top of the body 
inside the shell. They may be eaten either raw or boiled. 
In temperate and arctic seas all the sea urchins present 
may be handled with impunity. But in the tropical seas there 
570603°—44 4 46 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
are two types that are more or less dangerous. These are the 
so-called needle-urchins and the soft-bodied urchins. 
The needle-urchins are from 2 or 3 to 6 inches in diameter, 
black or more or less reddish, with very long and slender needle- 
pointed spines which may reach 10 or even 15 inches in length. 
These spines are provided with whorls of minute barbs and are 
very brittle, breaking off after penetrating the flesh. One form 
of needle-urchin found throughout the Indo-Pacific region but 
not in the Atlantic has, in addition to the very long spines, 
numerous shorter, much more slender, and smooth spines which 
are connected with poison glands. These shorter spines are 
definitely dangerous even to touch, as they discharge an active 
and painful poison. 
The soft-bodied urchins occur in shallow water throughout 
the Indo-Pacific region, but not in the Atlantic or along the 
west coast of tropical America. They reach a diameter of nearly 
7 inches, and are much flattened. The usual size is between 3 
and 6 inches. They vary in color from dark purplish or greenish 
hues to white, and often are more or less extensively marked 
with red. Some are almost wholly red. Usually they show an 
iridescent blue tinge. The shell is flexible, feeling somewhat 
like parchment, and is not rigid like that in most sea urchins. 
The spines are short and fine, rather widely scattered, and are 
exceedingly sharp. Some of them, more slender than the others, 
are provided with glands that secrete a very powerful poison 
that produces effects similar to those caused by the poison from 
the bites of sea-snakes or cobras. To be certain whether a sea 
urchin is soft-bodied or not poke it with a stick or some other 
object before you touch it with your hand. LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
47 
Hints on Fishing and Preparing Fish 
Fish are one of the most abundant types of food available on 
the reefs, in the lagoons, and in the sea. At night some species 
of fish come close inshore and swim along the surface. By re- 
maining still, a person can hit them with sticks or spear them 
with a sharpened pole as they surface. 
The outer margins of reefs usually contain channels, while on 
the surfaces of reefs are pools among the rocks and coral blocks. 
Fish frequently swim into these places at high tide, leaving as 
the water recedes. It is possible to trap them at such times by 
blocking the opening with rocks, sticks, or leaves from palm 
trees. Stones also may be built into low walls extending out 
into the water and forming an angle with the shore. Fish can 
be driven into this neck or narrow channel and into a pool at its 
inner end, and there be confined in the manner mentioned above. 
In many cases, it may be advantageous to keep them alive until 
needed, a fresh supply without danger of spoilage thus being 
provided. In addition, the usual methods of hook and line fish- 
ing should be used. If you do not have regular equipment try 
making your own as suggested in the section on Food at Sea, 
page 10. 
When more fish are caught than are required to satisfy im- 
mediate needs, it is possible to preserve them for a time by cut- 
ting the flesh into small thin strips, washing with clean water, 
then hanging in the wind and sunlight to dry. Another method 
after the fish is properly cleaned, is to cut diagonal slits from 
one-half to one inch apart across the sides of the fish. The fish 
is then hung in the sun or placed on the surface of a rock with 
cuts exposed for drying. Such fish may also be salted or smoked. 48 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Under ordinary conditions, these methods should preserve the 
fish for a few days in the tropics. 
Fish caught in tropical waters spoil quickly. Immediately 
after landing a fish it should be bled by cutting out the gills and 
large blood vessels that supply them, and then gutted, being 
careful to remove the kidneys and blood vessels that lie next to 
the backbone. The fish should then be washed in clean water. 
If the fish have been feeding heavily and are not gutted, the 
digestive substances continue to act, even after death, on the 
food in the stomach and intestines so that the flesh spoils with 
great rapidity. The same fish, properly cleaned and hung up 
by the tail in the shade and breeze, will remain good for many 
hours. 
Never eat a fish that has slimy gills, sunken eyes, flabby 
flesh or skin, or an unpleasant odor. If, upon pressing the 
thumb against the fish it remains deeply dented, the fish prob- 
ably is stale. Do not use it. Good flesh should be firm and 
not slimy. 
Fish With Poisonous Flesh 
Most fish are edible, palatable, and wholesome. However, 
there are a few with flesh that is definitely poisonous and it is 
important that everyone recognize these. 
All of the important fish with poisonous flesh belong to 
one large group, the Plectognathi, of which there are many 
kinds in the tropics. All these fish lack ordinary scales such 
as occur on bass, grouper, and sea trout. Instead, these 
poisonous fish are covered with bristles or spiny scales, strong 
sharp thorns, or spines, or are encased in a bony box-like cover- LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
49 
ing. Some of them have naked skin, that is, no spines or scales. 
Never eat a fish that blows itself up like a balloon. 
The different kinds of poisonous fish can be easily recog- 
nized by the illustrations herein presented. The usual names 
given to these poisonous Plectognaths are; swell fish or puffer 
fish, porcupine fish, burr fish, cowfish, trunk fish, box fish, thorn 
fish. In addition, the filefish or fool fish and the trigger fish 
may be looked upon with suspicion for they too have been cred- 
ited with poisonous flesh, but in certain regions the filefish and 
trunk fish are regularly eaten. If the natives use them, they are 
all right. Unless you know, however, leave them alone. The 
flesh of the puffers, porcupine fish, and the related species is vio- 
lently poisonous. Cooking does not destroy the poisonous alka- 
loid in these fish. Obviously these known poisonous fish should 
never be eaten, as violent sickness and even death may result. 
Fish With Venomous or Poisonous Spines 
Certain other fish should be avoided for a different reason. 
They have sharp spines on their heads and in their fins. These 
spines may cause a burning or stinging, even an agonizing pain, 
that is out of all proportion to the apparent severity of the 
wound. This is the result of venom that is injected when the 
spines penetrate the flesh. The venom varies greatly in 
quantity and in power. In the most venomous varieties it is 
as deadly as that of the most dangerous snakes. 
The worst of the venemous fish are the Scorpaenidae. They 
are generally known by the following common names: scorpion 
fish, warty lumpfish or stonefish, toadflsh, zebra fish or tiger 
fish, and stinging fish. These are illustrated. (Fig. 13.) 50 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
A. Scorpion fish. 
B. Fileflsh (trigger fish similar). 
C. Sting ray (as seen from above). 
D. Zebra fish. 
E. Stonefish (sometimes called 
toadflsh). 
F. Toadflsh. 
G. Porcupine fish (puffer similar). 
Figure 13.—Poisonous and venomous fish. 
Stoneflsh do not swim about to any extent. They gener- 
ally lie quietly on the bottom, which they exactly resemble in LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 
51 
color. As a rule they are either yellowish gray or blackish 
in color, often having flecks or patches of red or orange that 
give them a mottled appearance like the floor of the sea. 
When wading on a reef you should keep careful watch for 
such fish. Make it a rule to carry a long sharp pole or bamboo 
stick and poke any suspicious looking object on the bottom. 
At the slightest touch each of the projecting spines on these 
fish injects venom and causes severe pain, A full charge of 
venom from the whole dorsal fin has been known to cause death. 
The next most dangerous after the scorpion fish are the 
sting rays. These occur in lagoons, shallow bays, estuaries, and 
far up many of the tropical rivers. They usually lie on the bot- 
tom concealed in the mud or sand. Sting rays are easily 
recognized when seen. (Fig. 13-C.) The tail may be long or 
very short, and is armed with one or two long, sharp-pointed 
spines with serrated edges. When stepped upon, the ray re- 
peatedly whips its tail upward with great force and fury and 
may drive the spine clear through one of the bones of the leg 
or foot as well as through the flesh. The pain is most severe 
and infection usually results. When walking in turbid or muddy 
water or over sandy or muddy bottom, poke ahead of you with 
your stick and do not pick your feet up and set them down in the 
usual manner. Slide them along in the mud. Should your feet 
touch a hidden sting ray it will swim away as fast as it can. 
If you set your foot squarely on one, however, your weight will 
anchor it down and give the tail the leverage needed to drive 
the spine into you. 
Some catfish have poison glands at the base of the spines 
on the breast fin. This venom is much like that of bees, caus- 
ing severe pain, but it is not deadly. Since some of the larger 
catfish have barbed spines, the wound made is jagged and 
secondary infection may occur. 52 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
All wounds made by fish spines should be thoroughly cleaned 
and disinfected at once. 
Handling Dangerous Fish 
Never attempt to pick up a scorpion fish of any kind with the 
lure hands. It makes no difference how the fish has been taken, 
with hook and line, poison or dynamite. If the fish has any life 
left, a slight movement may drive a spine into your finger, car- 
rying enough venom to cause excruciating agony. Always use 
a dip net, your spear, or some substitute, such as your machete or 
bayonet. Never poke your bare hands into holes or crevices in 
the corals or feel under rocks. To do so invites grave risk of 
serious wounds. A moray eel or wolf fish may be in such hid- 
ing places. Moray eels are brightly colored and many have 
strongly marked patterns. In the American tropics a common 
one is greenish black in color and 5 to 6 feet long. One form in 
the Mediterranean is golden yellow in front, purple toward the 
tail, and is beautifully banded and mottled. It attains a length 
of 4 feet or more. In the Pacific some of those around the coral 
reefs grow to a length of 10 feet or more, and commonly have a 
light-colored background with black spots or a network of black 
lines. Others have black or brownish over-all color and orange 
to yellow spots. The morays are always hungry and very savage. 
Their jaws have strong, knifelike teeth and can easily nip off a 
finger or two. They have even been known to bite through a 
heavy shoe. Like other eels, however, they are good to eat. 
Wolf fish are grayish or brownish in color and have an elongate 
body, 4 to 6 feet in length, tapering to a more or less rounded 
tail. They have strong, sharp teeth and are noted for their 
ferocity. Natives avoid such dangers almost instinctively. You 
must learn—but don’t learn the hard way. Death may be the 
result of carelessness. IY 
NATIVES 
If you are in a region inhabited by native peoples make every 
effort to get in touch with them and ask them for help. You run 
little danger if you approach them in a friendly manner. Never 
show fear, or threaten, or flourish a gun. As a rule it is fear 
on the part of natives that makes them attack strangers and 
if you do nothing to cause concern you will be perfectly safe. 
Go up to them as you would to individuals of your own race 
and color, smile, offer a cigarette if you have one, and make 
your wants known. You may need to use signs to show them 
what you want—food, water, or directions—but natives are 
accustomed to such procedure, as they often communicate in 
that fashion themselves and will understand. The important 
thing is to treat them with dignity. Most of them have a 
strong sense of self-respect and do not regard themselves as “na- 
tives” or primitive. They will appreciate being treated as human 
beings just like yourself, neither as inferiors nor as superiors. 
Should the natives be inclined to be shy or unapproachable do 
not rush matters by going right up to them. Stop where you 
are. Sit down and light up a smoke. If you know any tricks 
with string, take out, a piece and proceed to do things with it. 
Most natives have and are fond of an elaborate variety of string 
figures, such as the familiar cat’s cradle, which they make for 
their own amusement and on some occasions for ceremonial 
53 54 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
purposes. They also are very curious and in a short time some 
of them may not be able to hold back any longer and will come 
to see what you are doing. When they do, hand them the string 
and they will probably show you a few tricks. If you don’t 
have string take out some trinket and show interest in it. They 
will want to see, too. Once the ice is broken, you can go 
ahead and ask for what you need. This method of approach has 
been used many times in many parts of the world by those going 
to study native peoples and rarely has it failed to produce the 
desired results. 
Most native houses are small and crowded and more often 
than not are infested with fleas, lice, bedbugs, and other disease- 
carrying creatures. It is strongly advised that you do not stay 
in them unless compelled by extreme circumstances. If it is 
apparent that you are to be there for some time they can and 
probably will be willing to build you a shelter in short order. 
Of course, one should never enter a native house without being 
invited. They don’t like to have strangers come barging into 
their homes any more than you would. Without making it 
seem that you are doing so, it is advisable to avoid as much as 
possible all physical contacts with the natives. They often 
suffer from serious skin diseases, syphilis, tuberculosis, and 
other communicable ailments. If it can be done without giving 
offense, one should prepare his own food and drink in such 
surroundings. 
Should it be necessary for you to remain with a native group 
for any length of time you must be very observant and learn from 
experience what you can and can not do. Respect their customs 
and manners. They have an entirely different form of etiquette 
from ours, but one that they believe in as strongly as we do in. NATIVES 
55 
ours. In general you will find that the less civilized the natives 
are, the stronger the local taboos or restraints will he and the 
more you will be expected to conform to them. Respect for per- 
sonal property, as well as for privacy, is very important. Never 
pick fruits, kill pigs, or take other food without first ascertain- 
ing their ownership, gaining permission and paying for them. 
Remember that in isolated regions money has little value; paper 
money is actually worthless and coins only are a medium of ex- 
change insofar as they have trinket or jewelry value. Often- 
times matches, cigarettes, empty containers, or other odds and 
ends that you may have in your pockets are worth more to the 
native than any form of money. An exception, of course, would 
be a group that is living close to the outposts of civilization and 
white man’s stores. Under such conditions money may be the 
preferred medium of exchange, but unless it is, don’t try to force 
it on them. Be sure, however, that you make some form of pay- 
ment. Also, if you make a promise of any kind, keep it literally. 
You can’t pull a fast one on a native and get away with it. 
One thing above all to bear in mind is to leave the native wo- 
men alone. More white men have been killed by natives for 
trying to make some dusky dame than for any other reason. 
Even if the circumstances are favorable, which they may be 
under certain conditions with a father, brother, or husband 
offering a woman to you, it is better to skip the opportunity, as a 
case of venereal disease usually can be expected as a follow-up, 
this being one of the “benefits” of civilization bestowed by the 
white man wherever he has gone. If you must play with fire re- 
gardless of all considerations, do your dickering with the men 
and pay them first. Native women are often considered as 
chattels and do not have free say in such matters. Permission 56 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
in such cases must come from some male relative as well as the 
woman herself. Also remember that among native peoples there 
is frequently little secrecy about such affairs. They usually 
become a matter of common village gossip. 
When staying with natives there are certain things you can 
do that will help you to become accepted as a member of the 
group more quickly than if you hold aloof. Entertain them with 
match tricks, games, feats of skill, dances and songs. Unless 
you are unusually strong and proficient along that line, don’t 
try to impress them with plain bull strength, as the natives prob- 
ably are better equipped than you are in that respect and might 
show you a thing or two. They like to entertain too, so be a 
good audience and let them perform for you and be duly ap- 
preciative of their efforts. Show admiration for products of 
native handicraft, but don’t be too profuse in your praise or 
they may feel they should give the object to you. Most “primi- 
tive” peoples are rather fond of playing practical jokes and 
probably will do so at your expense. If you find yourself the 
victim of some native form of “hot-foot,” join them in their 
laughter; don’t lose your temper and show anger even though 
they have hurt you. Another thing that is of great help in 
winning favor is to learn as many words of the native language 
as you can pick up. They will take delight in teaching you 
if you show a willingness and desire to learn. Whatever you 
do, leave a good impression because other white men may come 
along later and need help. If you have abused your privileges 
or taken advantage of the people those who follow will suffer 
for it. 
Should you be stationed where you have time ashore and there 
are natives, make friends with some of them and have them NATIVES 
57 
show you the many useful tricks they know—how they fish, 
how they make snares and traps to catch birds and small 
animals, what plants are good for food, and how they cook 
their various dishes. This not only will help you pass the time, 
but it may give you a fund of knowledge that will some day 
save you. y 
TROPICAL FORESTS 
Most of us think of the “jungle” in terms of a Tarzan movie. 
The word originally meant a “track of uncultivated land,” but 
now it is used more specifically to mean a dense tropical thicket 
of bamboos and palms as in India, of brush and vines as in 
Australia, of gigantic tangled grasses as in Africa, or to indicate 
a parklike woodland of tropical trees, a forest choked with 
undergrowth, or a tangled and impenetrable swamp. 
The great tropical jungles of the present day are found in 
western Africa, northern South America, and southeastern Asia 
and its islands. The average seaman or Marine is not likely 
to be plopped down in the center of one of these places as are 
Marine and Naval aviators, but with the growing use of air 
transport for Naval personnel such a thing may happen. Fur- 
thermore, as a result of landing operations you may find yourself 
in such a location. Knowledge of how to conduct yourself in a 
tropical forest will serve in any one of these areas in spite of the 
fact that each one differs from the others. 
Remember that the tropical forest is just another woods on 
a grand scale and that the man who learns how to use it has 
more chance of survival in it, over a long period of time, than 
he probably would have in the forest areas of our own country. 
If it seems to have more alarming noises than you have ever 
heard before don’t get excited. Most of them are caused by 
58 TROPICAL FORESTS 
59 
frogs, monkeys, and insects, and other small creatures that 
exist there in greater numbers than you will ever find in the 
more northern countries. Even though the movies have taught 
you that life in the jungle is just one narrow escape after 
another from leopards, tigers, elephants, and other unpleasant 
creatures, you probably won’t see any of them at all because 
many places don’t have them, and where they are present they 
make every effort to avoid contact with man. The most you 
can expect to see in the way of animals will be birds, squirrels, 
hares, monkeys, and other small forms that are active during 
the day. None of them is dangerous, if left alone. 
WATER 
Water will not prove to be so much of a problem in most 
tropical forests as on small atolls and desert islands. In areas 
of heavy rainfall the earth is so soaked with moisture that a 
small hole dug in any low spot will yield water. Then there are 
streams, ponds, springs, and places where water collects from 
rain and seepage. The main problem is one of purity and no sur- 
face water should he drunk without being boiled or chemically 
treated. In higher portions of the mountains on large islands 
and the mainland the water from swiftly flowing streams and 
springs may be used without treatment if absolutely necessary, 
but even then you will be taking a chance. 
In forested areas there frequently are ferns and so-called air- 
plants in the trees. The bases of the leaves of these plants col- 
lect and hold water for a long time. When strained through 
a cloth the water is safe to drink; it contains no pollution from 
human sources. Dew can be collected by spreading a piece of 60 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
BEWARE 
EDIBLE TIP 
EDIBLE 
PULP 
WATER 
FROM 
STEM 
STARCH FROM 
LOWER PART 
OF STEM 
LONG 
JUNGLE 
VINE 
FKiDRE 14.—Rattan. See pp. 61, 66, and 112. TROPICAL FORESTS 
61 
canvas or rubber blanket under the branches of trees and shrubs 
and shaking the water off the leaves. 
The rattans, palms with long slender segmented stems that 
look like a bamboo vine (see fig. 14), and other large climbing 
vines carry water absorbed by their roots. Throughout tropical 
America the so-called “water vine” is well known from this use. 
To get water, make two cuts, the first a deep notch high up, the 
second near the ground, where the water will flow. As flow 
ceases, make further deep cuts down from the first. 
GETTING OUT OF THE WOODS 
Tropical forests are regions of heavy rainfall. In some cases 
this may be continual throughout the year; in others rains come 
only during certain seasons. In wet forests there usually is 
little undergrowth except along the banks of streams where it 
generally is very heavy, but in the so-called dry forests where 
the rainfall is seasonal the bush may be so thick that you have 
to hack your way through it wherever you go. In all of these 
forests, streams or their dry beds are plentiful. As in our own 
country, following a stream down is certain eventually to lead 
you to human settlements, and the larger the stream the sooner 
they will be reached. Streams also lead to the coast and that 
is where you want to go, arriving as soon as possible. If you are 
in the mountains, it is probably better to follow the ridges as the 
stream beds are often precipitous. 
If you follow a stream you will not only be provided with 
water, but with such edible creatures as crabs, shrimps, mollusks, 
and fish. If it is a large stream build a raft and float it down. 
Use soft woods, the lighter the better, for the raft. Lash the 
570603°—44 5 G2 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
pieces together with vines or fibrous strips of bark. Sections 
of bamboo, because of their hollow air-filled segments, make 
the best rafts if that type of growth is available. Fibrous 
woods, such asdhe palms, do not float well and will soon sink. 
While drifting'down stream on a raft keep your ears open for 
the roar of rapids or falls so that you don’t get caught and 
swept over them. You may have to abandon several rafts in 
the course of your journey and build new ones, but that is better 
than trying to ride out a bad stretch of water. 
If the stream is too small or too shallow to float a raft you 
may have to follow along it on foot. In many cases it is im- 
possible to travel through the heavy vegetation growing along the 
banks. On the ridge above, however, you will usually find the 
trees and bushes more open and may even strike a trail, although 
it probably won't be as sharp and clear cut as trails in your own 
woods. The forest people are great travelers within limited 
areas and follow the easiest routes. 
Always remember to take your time. You will make better 
headway if you do. If you come to a bog or swamp, go around it; 
don’t try to fight your way through; you might get caught hip 
deep in muck. If a tree has fallen across a trail, travel around 
it, not through its branches. It will take longer and use up more 
energy than going around and you are less likely to become con- 
fused if you don’t get entangled in vegetation. At sunny clear- 
ings or openings in the main forest the scrubby second growth 
may almost or completely obliterate the path. In such cases cross 
the clearing and work along its edge until you again find the 
trail among the trees. If you come to a fork, take the path that 
seems to have had the most travel. Never follow one that is 
closed by a string, rope, grass mat, or some other obvious barrier. TROPICAL FORESTS 
63 
It may lead to the scene of native religious rites that are for- 
bidden to strangers, or you may fall into a pit or other dangerous 
trap set for large game. Smooth, well-traveled trails, particu- 
larly if they tend to be straight and rather broad, may be game 
trails and when following these it is well to be on the alert con- 
tinuously for places that seem to have been disturbed or that 
have a slightly different appearance from the rest of the ground 
as they may indicate the presence of a pitfall or trap of some 
kind. It is well to watch for possible game wThen traveling such 
a trail, although it would be a rare thing if you encountered any 
during daylight hours. Do not camp for the night on such a 
trail, as that is the time when traffic will be heavy. In tropical 
forests in Central and South America broad, straight paths may 
be made by wild pigs and droves of them may rush along such 
“highways” attacking and running over anything that may be 
in their way. Should you happen to be in such a situation and 
hear considerable noise in the offing, waste no time in climbing 
into a tree at one side of the trail. 
In the open sun, even on a cloudy day, wear something on your 
head. If you have lost your hat or helmet a layer of green leaves 
under a knotted handkerchief or piece of cloth will give you 
protection. Do not expose yourself to sunburn as it may seriously 
incapacitate you. During the hottest ho\irs of the day it is well 
to follow the example of the natives and rest quietly under a tree. 
Remember the old song “Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in 
the midday sun.” Stop travel well before nightfall so that 
you will have plenty of time to prepare a camp before dark- 
ness. Don’t forget that twilight is very short in the tropics 
and that the interval between sunset and dark is brief. Your (»4 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
♦•amp should be on rising ground, well back from the stream and 
away from swamps and bogs, where mosquitoes and sand flies 
and gnats will be less numerous. Should there be any breeze 
stirring put your camp where you will get full benefit from it. 
A crude lean-to or A-type shelter with a frame of sticks or 
bamboo with large leaves of leafy branches for walls and a roof 
will give protection from the cold dew of the tropics and also 
from prowling animals. Where there is any form of construction 
the latter will suspect a trap and keep away. In making a lean-to, 
sink uprights, preferably forked at the upper end, into the ground 
several feet apart. Then lash a ridge pole in the forks or at the 
top of the uprights and place inclined pieces from the forks and 
t he ridge pole, their opposite ends resting on the ground at what 
will he the rear of the shelter. Lash a series of cross pieces to 
the inclined timbers at intervals not too widely separated. Then, 
starting at the bottom as you would in shingling a house, thatch 
the framework with wide-leaved branches. These will hold their 
positions better if the branches are hooked onto the cross pieces. 
The bigger and broader the leaves the better the roof. A simpler 
form of construction, one probably sufficient for a single night, 
is to place a whole series of inclined pieces along the ridge pole, 
covering the framework with wide-leaved branches but not 
bothering to hook them to the framework. For the A-type struc- 
ture the same procedure may be followed except that the ridge 
pole needs to be higher and you make two sides to the roof instead 
of one. A variation may be made by using a series of inverted 
V-shaped frames for the main support instead of the upright 
sticks in the center to support the lashed ridge pole. The large 
leaves of coconut trees are particularly good for making shelters. 
The leaves themselves attain a length up to 12 feet and the center TROPICAL FORESTS 
65 
stem is strong enough to he used as the timbers for the frame- 
work of the structure. Several pairs of these stems lashed in 
the V-shape with another for the ridge pole make an ideal 
support for a covering of untrimmed leaves. A shelter of this 
type large enough to hold 6 men can be built in half an hour. 
Do not sleep on the bare ground; it will be cold and damp and 
you will be more susceptible to visits from various crawling bugs. 
Make a mat or bed of leaves on which to lie. If you are going 
to he in the same place for several nights and want to get com- 
pletely off the ground, make a framework of sticks supported on 
forked uprights embedded in the ground and pile your leaves 
on top of it. 
FIREMAKING 
A fire is advisable and should be built in front of the open side 
of your shelter. Starting a fire may be a problem; it will prove 
doubly so if you have no matches, and to avoid such a con- 
tingency you should always keep some matches about your per- 
son in a waterproof container. It is even better if the heads 
have been dipped in paraffin. The old-fashioned nonsafety 
matches are the best, but safety matches will serve the purpose 
if kept carefully wrapped in an oilskin tobacco pouch, or in 
the cellophane from a cigarette package so that the striking 
surface, as well as the matches, is kept dry. Remember to 
wrap your matches again as soon as you have used one, as the 
jungle dampness or perspiration acts on them very quickly. As 
a matter of fact, a lighter that works and that is kept filled 
with fluid is much better in moist climates than matches. To 
find something dry enough to burn in wet weather it will be 
necessary for you to strip the bark from dead trees or to cut 66 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
away the wet exterior from dead branches and get at the dry 
wood towards the center. Dead brandies pulled from a stand- 
ing tree may be drier than those lying on the ground. Start 
with a small fire, enlarging it as more pieces catch, and don’t 
try to use logs of any size until the blaze is well under way. 
Once the fire has a good start you can keep wood drying beside 
it so that it will burn readily when needed. It is well to lay 
in a big enough supply to last the night when you are gathering 
wood. In building the fire it helps if it is placed against several 
logs of large diameter lying on the ground. If you are in a 
clearing where there is a breeze, build the fire on the windward 
side of the logs. They will help to produce a draft and in time 
will start to burn themselves and help to throw off heat. When 
you have a good blaze going it is well to dry out your clothes. 
This is not only to make you feel more comfortable, but it will 
keep you from getting chilled in the cooler hours of the night. 
Green leaves thrown on the fire will make a smudge and help 
drive off the m'osquitoes and sandflies. 
When you don’t have matches or a lighter there are a number 
of ways of starting fires. Natives as a rule are quite adept in 
the matter, but the average white man needs considerable prac- 
tice and it may take you a long time to master the art. If you 
persist, however, you probably will succeed. Making fire by 
friction is not easy. Perhaps the method most likely to be pro- 
ductive, certainly the most efficient of the friction methods, is 
that of the fire thong. Its use has been widespread throughout 
southeastern Asia, the East Indies, and West Africa, and at one 
time it was employed in northern Europe. All that is needed in 
the way of equipment is a strip of dry rattan (Fig. 14), prefera- 
bly about one-quarter inch in diameter and about 2 feet long, and TROPICAL FORESTS 
a dry stick about three-fourths inch in diameter and long enough 
so that it can be held on a rock or another piece of wood with 
the foot, one end being off the ground. The latter end should 
be split, the split being held open by a piece of twig or a pebble, 
and a good sized pinch of tinder wedged snugly, but not too 
tightly into the open part of the split. The rattan is then held 
firmly, one end in each hand, and is looped under the split so that 
the contact will be directly beneath and with the tinder. The 
rattan is then drawn rapidly back and forth with as much pres- 
sure as can be applied, the stick being held firmly in place with 
the foot. Within a few seconds the tinder should start to 
smoke. When it is smoking well, withdraw it and blow on it 
until a red coal appears and finally a flame. Beforehand gather 
shavings, bits of bark, and small twigs that can be added until 
a blaze sufficient to start larger pieces of wood has been 
developed. 
Tinder may be made from fine, dry vegetable fibers, grass, 
moss, from lint from a piece of canvas, from a bandage from 
your first aid kit, or from a piece of your clothing. The fine 
down from the breasts of birds or from beneath their wings 
also makes good tinder. Whatever is used, however, must be 
completely dry. Natives who use this method generally carry 
their rattan thong with them, wrapped around one arm above 
the elbow where it can be kept dry and also serve as an orna- 
ment. This is particularly true of the tribes of the central 
mountains of New Guinea. They also carry tinder in a pouch 
where it can be kept dry. 
In the Polynesian area of the Pacific Islands the natives com- 
monly use what is called a fire. plow. They find a piece of 
soft wood to 3 inches in diameter and long enough so that 68 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
one end can be held down by the feet and the other by sitting 
on it. The stick of wood is split in half and placed on the 
ground with the rounded side down and the split side with the 
the pith groove up. The latter serves as the track in which a 
smaller, flat-pointed stick of the same kind of wood (in some 
cases a piece of harder wood is used) is rubbed rapidly back 
and forth. At the start it may be necessary to hold the rubbing 
stick at a low angle until a good groove is made, one about 5 
or 6 inches in length. As soon as the groove is formed the 
stick is tilted to a 40° to 45° angle and the rubbing continued 
with gradually increasing speed and a strong downward pres- 
sure. Wood dust collects at the point of the rubbing stick and 
as the backward and forward movement continues the dust 
chars, smoke appears, and a glowing spark develops. Care 
must be taken not to carry the stroke too far forward and 
scatter the pile of dust. Friction is the important factor and 
to obtain it rapid movement is essential. The faster you work 
the rubbing stick the greater the likelihood that you will get out 
of the groove and lose the accumulation of hot wood dust, hence 
the need to concentrate on the matter of stopping the forward 
stroke at the proper place. Once you have produced the 
smouldering spark or ember it is necessary to nurse the spark 
into flame with tinder as in the case of the fire thong. 
Another method of obtaining the first glowing ember is by 
means of a two-stick fire drill (Fig. 15). This system has been 
world-wide in its distribution, but is probably one of the most 
difficult to master. For a drill get a straight, seasoned stick or 
plant stalk from one-fourth to five-eights inch in diameter 
and 15 to 30 inches in length. Round off the ends; don’t make 
sharp points on them. Then find a dry, dead branch to make TROPICAL FORESTS 
69 
the hearth. Split the branch so that there will be a relatively 
flat surface and make a concave depression in it to receive 
the drill. Cut a narrow slot leading out from the side of this cup 
Figure 15.—Making fire with bow drill, and two-stick fire drill 
to receive the wood dust produced by the rubbing of the spindle or 
drill against the wood of the hearth; sometimes a very small 70 
SURVIVAL OK LAND AND SEA 
quantity of sand in the cup will increase the friction. Place the 
base or hearth board on the ground where you can hold it 
down with your knees, or have some one hold it down for you 
if there are others in the party, and place the drill so that it 
stands upright with its rounded end in the cup. Rotate the 
drill back and forth between the palms of your hands, exerting 
a strong downward pressure. The speed should be increased 
to the maximum as the hands reach the bottom of the stick. 
Because of the downward pressure the hands tend to work 
down the drill. When they are several inches above the hearth 
quickly grasp the drill with the fingers of the left hand to hold 
it firmly in position and grip the upper end between the thumb 
and finger of the right hand, shift the left hand quickly to the 
top opposite the other hand with the fingers extended so that 
you can turn the right hand downward, grasping the drill 
between the palms, and begin again the rotation movement. 
At no time should the end of the drill be permitted to slip 
from the cup. The stoppage of the drilling during the shifting 
of the hands should be as short as possible. As the drilling 
continues wood dust works into the slot and as it gets hotter 
and hotter, smoke appears and eventually a glowing ember 
which should be transferred to tinder. If you want to be 
more certain of catching the hot spark the tinder may be 
placed around the cup in the hearth at the start. When a 
bow is used with the drill the process is much simpler and 
more effective. With the latter, a block of wood is used at 
the upper end to hold the drill in place in the hearth and the 
drill, which may be shorter than that used between the palms 
of the hands, is rapidly rotated back and forth by means of 
a string wrapped once around it and fastened to the ends of TROPICAL FORESTS 
71 
a flexible stick like a bow used to shoot arrows (Fig. 15). The 
string from your shoes will do in making such a bow if you have 
no other cord. For the use of flint see firemaking in the 
Arctic, p. 136. 
Much easier, of course, is a burning glass if you have one and 
are where you can get enough sun to use it. In the absence of 
a regular glass, which is an excellent thing to carry in your 
pocket, a suitable substitute can be made if two of the members 
of the party have watches with crystals of approximately the 
same size. Take the two crystals, place them back to back and 
fill the space between with water. This will focus the sun to a 
point sharp enough to start a blaze. 
Once you get a fire the best thing to do, as far as future needs 
are concerned, is to follow the example of the natives and carry 
it with you from place to place. This is done by using a fire 
stick, a piece of dry, fibrous, soft wood that smolders like punk 
and can be blown into flame whenever needed. The dry husks 
from a coconut make good material for this purpose. 
FOREST DANGERS 
The creatures that are most dangerous to man are small and 
inconspicuous for the most part and belong to the insect world. 
Mosquitoes generally are the most prevalent kind of noxious 
insect and in many cases are the carriers of yellow fever and 
malaria. You don’t have to worry about yellow fever, as you 
have been inoculated against it, but there is no such protection 
against malaria. Hence you should guard against mosquito 
bites as much as possible. Since mosquitoes fly only in the 
evening and at night, the best way to escape infection is to get 72 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
under a net as soon as possible after sunset. This, of course, is 
not always possible, particularly if you have lost part of your 
equipment and have no nets. Under such conditions one should 
cover all exposed parts of the body as far as possible and build 
a smudge of heavy smoke to help drive off the mosquitoes. If 
you have salvaged your first-aid kit and are fortunate enough 
to have atabrine in it, take it. Take 0.1 gm. (1% grains) just 
before dinner six days a week. If your first-aid kit contains 
quinine instead of atabrine take 0.6 gm. (10 grains) each day 
after the evening meal. 
Seldom seen but often felt are the mites, commonly called red 
bugs, bicha colorada, coloradilla, bete rouge, jiggers or chiggers 
(although they are not true chiggers) that are widely distributed 
in the Americas, Europe, Asia, Australia, Japan, and the East 
Indies. They are bright red in color but are so small that they 
are scarcely visible without a magnifying glass. Their bites 
do not start to itch for several hours, but once they begin, the 
itching lasts for several days. It can be helped temporarily 
by painting the bites with iodine, proflavine, zephiran, or what- 
ever agent you may have. As far as you are able to avoid it, 
don’t scratch these places as you are likely to break the skin 
and start an infection that will produce an ulcer which is ex- 
tremely difficult to heal even when frequently and carefully 
dressed. This holds true for any kind of bug bite. One common 
rule in the tropics is, If you must scratch, keep your fingernails 
cut short. The only sure protection against these mites is to 
avoid going into long grass or other bushy vegetation—a thing 
practically impossible to do if you are trying to work your way 
out of a jungle—to dust finely powdered sulphur (if you have 
it) over your skin and into your underclothing and socks, to use TROPICAL FORESTS 
73 
the G. I. insecticide powder or coconut oil, to tie the bottoms of 
your trousers around your shoe tops, and after exposure to 
sponge yourself off with alcohol or some disinfectant not too 
irritating to the skin. A plain bath with soap helps if it is 
taken soon after you have been in the bush. The use of alcohol 
or similar solutions probably would depend on your arriving 
at a properly equipped base within a short time after exposure. 
The true chigger, which is abundant in the American tropics 
and in parts of West Africa and India, is a small kind of flea. 
In addition to a fondness for men this flea also attacks animals, 
both tame and wild, and has a particular affinity for pigs. 
Hence it is likely to be present around any native habitations 
in those areas where it is common and where pigs are a part 
of the domestic scene. Chiggers bite like other fleas, but the 
female has the further unpleasant habit of burrowing into the 
skin, usually of the feet under the toenails, where in the course 
of a few days it swells to the size of a small pea and can be 
recognized as a whitish spot with a dark brown spot in the 
center. Prompt removal with a sterile needle or knife point 
(one that has been held in the flame of a match) is advised, as 
neglect may result in poisoning the whole system. As soon 
as you have removed the chigger, paint the place with iodine and 
cover with a protective dressing. 
In the American tropics you may be bothered by wood ticks. 
They are small, dark red or brown and may be numerous in 
vegetation. They feed by burying the head and sucking blood. 
As a rule they do not take hold for several hours after getting 
on you and by carefully looking yourself over from time to time 
you can see and pick them off before they bite. You can remove 
them between your thumb and the point of a knife pressed 74 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
against the skin. If they have taken hold you may have to dig 
them out. Be sure to sterilize your needle or knife point before 
doing so and paint with iodine afterwards. In Asia, China, and 
the East Indies there are ticks of a different" variety that in- 
habit the crevices in the mud walls of native huts and rest- 
houses. These should be avoided, as they carry a form of 
fever. Staying out of native huts is a good way to keep from 
getting them on you. 
There are various kinds of scorpions and centipedes and they 
are common in most tropical countries. Their sting is painful 
but rarely is there any serious consequence if the bite does 
not become infected. Spider bites may cause local pain and 
swelling, yet they rarely have serious results. Wasps and 
bees may be abundant in some places but they seldom attack 
unless their nests are interfered with. In the case of stings, 
mud packs are very helpful in obtaining relief. In some areas 
there are tiny bees, called sweat bees, that may collect on 
exposed parts of the body in enormous numbers during dry 
weather, especially if one is perspiring profusely. They are 
stingless and, until one has stopped sweating, the only thing 
to do is to scrape them off with the hand. Ants are a possible 
source of danger to men lying on the ground, especially if they 
are injured and unable to move. Hence care should be taken 
to place such persons away from ant hills or nests. 
In some localities, particularly in the southeastern Asiatic 
area, certain butterflies collect to gather perspiration from the 
human body in dry weather. They are somewhat annoying, 
but quite harmless. The rice-borer moth in Indo-Chinese coun- 
tries during certain seasons of the year is attracted to lights 
and fires. It is a small, plain-colored moth with a pair of TROPICAL FORESTS 
75 
tiny black spots on the wings. It should never be brushed 
off roughly as the minutely-barbed hairs of its body may be 
ground into the skin causing a sore much like a burn that 
often takes weeks to heal. 
Land leeches are common in the Asiatic tropics. They are 
not poisonous in themselves, yet their bites may become in- 
fected and if not properly cared for lead to tropical ulcers or 
“jungle sores.” One should watch for leeches on the body and 
brush them off before they have had time to bite. When they 
have taken hold they should not be pulled off forcibly. They 
can be made to release themselves and drop off by putting salt 
on them, by touching them with a moist cud of tobacco (this 
is especially effective if red pepper is mixed with the tobacco), 
by touching them lightly with the burning end of a cigarette 
or a coal from the fire, or by dropping some alcohol on them. 
Leeches try to reach mucous membranes and frequently enter 
the rectum or crawl up inside the penis without attracting 
attention until an itching sensation begins. Urination usually 
removes them immediately from the penis, but medical help 
may be needed to remove one from the rectum. After being 
satiated, however, leeches frequently leave the rectum with 
an evacuation. This produces a certain amount of blood flow 
that may be mistaken for beginning dysentery, but its short 
duration will remove fears on that score. 
Snakes and Crocodiles 
The thought of snakes usually is uppermost in the minds of 
most people at the mention of the word “jungle.” There is no 
need to be unduly concerned about them, however, as you may 76 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
go for months without seeing a snake even in areas where they 
may be abundant. If you do see one it will probably be a 
fleeting glimpse as the snake will be making every effort to get 
away from you and disappear in the vegetation. Your chances 
of being bitten by one are about on a par with those of being 
struck by lightning. That does not mean that you should be 
careless of the possibility of snake bites, but ordinary precau- 
tions against them are sufficient. Just be particularly watchful 
when clearing ground for a camp site, trail, or the like, and when 
roaming in the bush gathering fire wood. Many snakes are non- 
venomous, but the safest plan is to leave them all alone. If 
you should happen to be bitten don’t worry over what kind of 
a snake it was but go ahead and treat the bite as though it 
were from a venomous variety. 
There are three steps that should be taken. (1) Immediately 
apply a tourniquet above the wound, that is, between the bite 
and the heart. Release the pressure for 5 or 10 seconds out of 
every 10 or 15 minutes so as not to stop circulation completely. 
(2) Make 4 or 5 parallel incisions, each about 2 inches long, as 
close to the snake bite wound as possible, and extending through 
the skin and fat and into the muscle. These cuts should be 
made with a razor, a razor blade or sharp knife, and should 
run lengthwise rather than across the limb. If the incisions 
are boldly made, bleeding and seepage of serum will be 
free and much of the venom will thus be eliminated. Do not 
place permanganate crystals in the wound. (3) Keep quiet; 
take hot fluids such as tea and coffee if available. Do not take 
alcohol or morphine. Have your comrades get you to a doctor 
as quickly as possible. TROPICAL FORESTS 
77 
In some areas there are crocodiles in the streams. They can 
be avoided by not going into the water, or, when it is necessary 
to cross larger rivers, by doing so on improvised rafts. Authen- 
tic cases of crocodiles attacking human beings are practically 
impossible to find, so you don’t need to worry over that. If 
you should approach or attempt to kill one along the shore, 
however, be careful of the sweep of its tail. They can move 
very swiftly, and the powerful tail is strong enough to break a 
man’s leg. 
Some of the South American streams have fish called caribe, 
palometa, or piranha that will attack men or animals entering 
the water and inflict dangerous wounds. They are infuri- 
ated by blood or sores but often do not attack persons without 
these conditions. They, too, can be avoided by staying out of 
streams where natives say they occur and by crossing on rafts. 
Blood Worms 
It is advisable to stay out of fresh water, as far as possible, in 
certain areas because the lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, ponds, 
irrigation ditches, and flooded rice fields may contain the young 
forms of various blood-worms or flukes. They may enter the 
body through the skin of bathers or persons wading in such 
waters, or through contaminated drinking water that has not 
been boiled or sufficiently treated with chlorine. The young 
forms of these flukes are harbored by certain kinds of fresh- 
water snails. When they leave the snail and are discharged into 
the water they die within 48 hours unless another suitable vic- 
tim is found. Hence water that has been stored in a container 
that is free of snails will be safe for washing and bathing in from 
570603°—44 6 78 
SURVIVAL OK LAND AND SEA 
48 to 72 hours, hut it unit not he safe to drink unless boiled or 
chlorinated. The danger areas for these flukes are: The 
northern and western coastal areas of Africa, the Belgian Congo, 
French Equatorial Africa from Spanish Guinea south, the Gold 
and Ivory Coasts, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and north to Gambia, 
southern Spain, Palestine, and Syria, the northern half of the 
Arabian Red Sea coast, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Reunion 
islands, China, Japan, Celebes, the islands of Hainan, Formosa, 
and the Philippines, all of Ecuador and a portion of northern 
Peru, the northern coast of South America and down the east 
coast to below Rio de Janeiro, and the Caribbean islands. The 
waters of Puerto Rico are particularly bad in this respect and 
should be avoided. VI 
FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC. 
The matter of food is one that will be extremely important. 
If, as previously suggested, you have made contact with the 
natives you will have little to worry about. However, it may 
be some time before you come to a settlement or meet up with 
any of the local inhabitants, and in that case you may be forced 
to make out the best that you can. It may not be pleasant to 
contemplate, but in an emergency you will find that many un- 
conventional creatures are edible and are, as a matter of fact, 
eaten by the people of the country. Among them are lizards 
and snakes. The meat from the hind quarters and tail of the 
lizard is the best. It is somewhat dry and stringy but is very 
much like the white meat from chicken. No lizard is poisonous, 
except the North American Gila monster and the beaded lizard 
of Mexico, although the larger ones have good biting- teeth and 
a person should take care not to be bitten by them. All snakes 
are edible, but they are not found as frequently as might be 
expected. They also taste much like the white meat of chicken, 
although the flesh may be a bit stringy and slightly salty flavored. 
In using snakes be sure that the head is cut off immediately. It 
is dangerous to hold some species by the back of the head as they 
have the ability to throw their jaws out of joint and reach around 
79 80 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
to the hand. With both snakes and lizards, yon skin, remove 
the viscera, and cook like any other meat. 
All birds are edible, but some are not desirable. Carrion- 
eating birds, such as vultures should be used only in cases of 
last resort. They are in no way harmful, yet their usual source 
of food is such that it imparts an unpleasant taste to the flesh. 
This is often true of fish-eating birds. They are likely to have 
a definitely fishy flavor. Some birds, particularly parrots and 
hawks, are likely to be tough, but they can be stewed and used 
for soup. All birds’ eggs are good for food, although some may 
be more palatable than others. If you want to be certain of 
fresh eggs remove all but one from the nest and take the fresh 
ones as they are laid. Along the shores and particularly on 
the smaller islands where birds lay their eggs in great numbers 
a section of previously laid eggs can be cleared, the area marked, 
and those left there subsequently gathered and used. 
Animal life differs in its distribution. In some areas there is 
considerable variety and individuals are fairly numerous. Other 
places have only a few forms and not many of each. Too much 
reliance should not be placed on animals as a source of food 
because they are difficult to find and probably will be hard to 
kill with the equipment at hand. If you have a rifle or a 
revolver you may be able to shoot enough to keep going, but 
often it may not be desirable to use firearms. Most of the 
smaller animals can be killed with clubs, may be trapped by 
making noose snares, constructing deadfalls of logs, or by digging 
pits and covering them with light branches, twigs, and leaves. 
Natives generally thrust sharpened split-bamboo or other sticks 
in the bottom of such pits to impale the animals when they fall 
into the hole. Such pits, of course, are placed in game trails. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
81 
AH animals are good to eat; the flavor of some may not be °21 
that you would desire but they are edible. Monkeys ai*c good if 
you can shoot or catch them. 
Should you be fortunate enough to get a sizable animal and 
have more meat than you can use at one time, the extra may 
be preserved for future use by drying. One method of making 
this jerked meat is to cut the flesh into long, thin strips not more 
than an inch in width and a half an inch in thickness. Soak 
these strips in brine, if salt is available to make it, an hour or 
two. String the strips of salt-soaked meat on the limb from a 
small tree and hang over a smoking fire until thoroughly dry. 
Where sea water or salt is not available the meat can be dried 
by exposure to the sun. Under such conditions the strips may 
be tied to long cords and thrown over a branch or some other 
high support, such as a line tied between two trees, where they 
will receive the full sun. The higher they are from the ground 
the less danger there is that the meat will become fly-blown 
before it is cured. If it is not convenient to hang the meat, it 
is possible to dry it on flat rocks or hot sand. In such cases, 
however, it must be turned from time to time so as to cure 
evenly and must be protected from flies, ants, and other insects. 
There are other living things that also may be used as food. 
The white grubs of the palm weevils and other wood-infesting 
beetles are highly prized by many native people. Their larvae, 
often as big as your thumb, are found in rotting wood and 
around freshly cut places on palm trees. Split and broiled over 
the coals of a fire, they are quite palatable and have a flavor 
somewhat like that of oysters. Natives rarely bother to cook 
them, preferring to pop them into their mouths as they find 
them. Large grasshoppers and cicadas with the legs and wings 82 
SURVIVAL. ON LAND AND SEA 
removed may be toasted on the end of a stick. The pupae or 
eggs of an+s are edible but are difficult to collect in quantity. 
Winged termites, whihh migrate in great numbers during the 
rains, are also edible when the wings have been removed. 
There are two main kinds of shrimps, often called crawfish, 
and a host of smaller varieties averaging about an inch in length. 
They can be caught in various ways. Along the larger streams 
in the shallow places near the shore, where water is nearly 
stagnant, masses of small shrimps may be found swimming 
about and be taken with hand nets; if you don’t have one you 
can make one that will do by fashioning a hoop from a shoot or 
small branch and interlacing strips of leaves or fibers to make 
the mesh. Best results are obtained by people working in pairs 
and standing in the water. One drives the hosts of shrimps 
towards the other who dips them out with the net. In some 
areas the natives will dam a shallow narrow stream making a 
fairly watertight barrier of branches, sticks, large leaves, mud, 
and sand. As the section downstream runs dry, the shrimps 
stranded there or hiding among and beneath rotten pieces of 
wood, branches, leaves, in the crevices between the rocks, and 
among roots or other debris are collected. Fish and crabs are 
often obtained in the same manner at the same time. The best 
yield, however, comes from the bailing dry of many pools and 
puddles still remaining in the bottom of the stream bed. With 
larger pools build a mud dam across and scoop the water with 
your hands, if you have nothing else, out of one side until you 
can catch the shrimp or fish found in it. Then scoop the water 
back from the other side and get the rest of them. Anything that 
can be picked up to serve as a scoop is used to dip out the pools, 
or small dip nets are made on the spot for the purpose. Where FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
83 
bushes grow along the edge of a stream and the branches drooy 
down so that some of the twigs and leaves are in tlw water, 
large catches are sometimes made by lifting th° oranches out 
of the water and catching the shrimps they drop off the 
leaves. This produces better result® it it is done at night as the 
shrimps seem to leave the busies during the day when they are 
more active. All la«<i crabs, freshwater crabs, freshwater fish, 
and shrimp* should he cooked before eating. 
Shrimps are usually cooked by boiling. In the larger forms 
only the abdomen, the tail end, minus its shell, is eaten. The shell 
is easily removed after cooking. The small forms make good 
soups or stews when cooked whole, but if they form too great 
a part of the diet and are eaten continually over a period of 
time the shells may produce diarrhea. This can be avoided 
by straining the soups or stews before eating or by adding some 
other bulky food substance to it. Land and fresh-water crabs 
are cooked in the same way as the salt-water forms. See p. 42. 
FOOD PLANTS IN THE TROPICS 
Plants are one of the main sources of food in the tropics. The 
natives eat many wild and cultivated plants that are unknown 
to white men not familiar with the different areas where they 
grow. It is not possible to name and describe all of the forms 
suitable for emergency or general use but a few of the more 
common and obvious ones, those readily identified, are discussed 
in the following pages. One rule that can be relied upon is that 
whatever the monkeys eat is safe for human beings. Monkeys are 
not present everywhere, although they do occur in many of the 
places where you may go. Birds are more widely distributed but 84 
SURVIVAL OX LAND AND SEA 
tbpy are nof a S;lfo guide as they will occasionally feed on things 
harmful tf) man. 
Food plants ot-e more abundant in some localities than others 
and your chances oi finding them vary according to the nature 
of the place where you are forced to look for them. Seashores, 
abandoned clearings, margins ot »trPamS) and swamps are more 
likely places than deep tropical jungles or mountain tops. The 
best places to find food plants, of course, are those whore men 
are or have been growing them. In cultivated regions you can 
depend upon the natives for food, if you have made the proper 
contacts in the manner already described in the discussion of 
natives (chapter IV, p. 53). Where there are no natives you 
will have to fall back on your own resourcefulness. 
Plants Along Seashores 
In many cases the need for emergency food plants may arise 
along a seashore. As a general rule such places are better 
supplied in that respect than other locations. This is in part 
because of the fact that in less civilized regions the people tend 
to live near the sea and as a consequence there are numerous 
cultivated plants, although they actually may not longer be 
cared for, as well as various wild forms. Many of the sandy, 
tropical shores have plants which are found all over the world. 
Coconuts and other palms (Fig. 16) characteristically line many 
tropical coasts. The many uses of the coconut have already been 
described in the section on Island Survival (p. 31), and need 
not be repeated. Other kinds of palms are also a valuable source 
of food. The tender growing tips, usually found at the tops of 
the stems in the bases of the leaves, may be cut out and eaten FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
85 
TALL 
TREE 
FRUITS 
SMALL 
TREE 
MEDIUM 
TREE 
FRUITS 
Figure 16.—Types of palm trees. See p. 84, 86 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
"CABBAGE" 
EDIBLE 
(TIP OF TRUNK)! 
-FLOWER 
AND FRUIT 
TREE TO 
30 FEET 
PITH 
STARCHY 
SCALEY 
FRUIT 
(OLD) 
(YOUNG) 
Figure 17.—Sago palm. See p. 87. 
(MATURE) FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
87 
raw or roasted. These are what are commonly called palm 
“cabbages” (Fig. 17). To get at them' yon may have to use the 
“climbing bandage” described in connection with obtaining coco- 
nuts. You may find that some of these “cabbages” are too bitter 
to be eaten, but none of them is harmful. The tender, unopened 
flower clusters of palms may also be eaten and the immature 
seeds of the fruits of some forms are edible, although you will 
find most of them unpalatable. The juice which drips from the 
cut end of the flower or fruit cluster, or from the end of a small 
branch or from a gash in the trunk, will quench thirst if caught 
and drunk immediately. When permitted, it ferments. 
Several of the Old World palms, partictilarly the Sago (fig. 17), 
have a pithy center that contains starch which can be extracted 
for use as a substitute for rice or for the making of pastries. 
The process for obtaining this material is so involved, however, 
that one should depend on the natives for it or, if possible, have 
the natives show you how to prepare it. None of the New World 
palms provides this starch. 
Another tree commonly found is the screw pine or pandanus 
(Fig. 9). It is easily recognized by its stilt-like roots and the 
spiral arrangement of its long leaves. It has a large fruit di- 
vided into sections like a pineapple. These sections are cov- 
ered with a hard husk that encloses the fleshy, edible pulp 
and the seeds. The seeds may be roasted and eaten like 
chestnuts; the fleshy portion may be boiled or baked. Boiling 
is better for the young fruits, baking for the mature ones. 
In some cases the natives strip off the outer rind with the seeds 
and then pound the flesh of the fruits into a dust resembling 
snuff. This dust is exposed to the sun until a sweet juice exudes 
making the whole mass sticky. This mass is then rolled and 88 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
CULTIVATED 
TREE TO 
40 FEET TALL 
FRUIT 
GREEN 
LARGE 
(■SEEDS 
EDIBLE, 
EDIBLE 
Figueb 18.—Breadfruit, A. seedless, B. type with seeds. See p. 89. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
89 
patted into broad flat cakes which are rolled tip and tightly 
wrapped and tied in dry leaves. In this fashion the food may 
be kept for some time. Remember that water also can be ob- 
tained by tapping the tops of the roots of the screw pine. 
The breadfruit tree (Fig. 18), commonly planted by the Pacific 
Islanders and in tropical America, also may be found along or 
near the shore. The tree attains a moderate height, and has 
large glossy leaves. The fruit is attached to the small branches 
by a short thick stalk and hangs either singly or in clusters of 
two or three together. It is oval or spheroid in shape, is ap- 
proximately 6 inches in diameter, and has a rind with a -warty 
surface. There are many different varieties ripening at dif- 
ferent times of year providing an almost constant supply. The 
fruit usually is baked in hot embers, in pits filled with hot rocks 
and covered with palm leaves, or is boiled or cut into slices and 
fried like potatoes. Sometimes the natives cook the fruit and 
cut it into slices, dry them in the sun or in an oven, and keep 
them for future use. They can be eaten without further prep- 
aration, may be toasted, or be ground up and cooked in vari- 
ous ways with other substances. 
Throughout Polynesia and to some extent in Malaysia is a 
small or medium-sized tree growing from 8 to 10 or up to 20 
feet in height called the Polynesian chestnut (Fig. 19). It grows 
especially along the shores and bears pods which contain a single 
large seed that provides excellent food when boiled or roasted. 
It is even better than the chestnuts which we formerly obtained 
from Italy. It is necessary to boil or roast the nuts to remove 
the tannin which they contain. There are other trees similar 
to chestnuts with fruits varying from those with a hull as spiny 
as that of a chestnut to those wTith a hull that is merely rough 90 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
I REE 
Lto 20 ftNc 
\1 NEAR 
SEASHORE 
SEED 
POO WITH 
, I SEED 
'EDIBLE 
COOKED 
Figure 19.—Polynesian chestnut; must be cooked. See p. 89. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
91 
like that of a walnut. The nuts are obtained by breaking open 
this outer covering. In all cases they should be boiled or roasted. 
Vines bearing edible fruits occur along many shores. In- 
cluded in these are forms of the grape, gourd, and melon. One 
common example is the strainer vine which bears elongated 
green fruits that are edible when half ripe provided they 
are cooked. The tender shoots, leaves, and flowers of this vine 
also are edible. The so-called balsam vine has rough, yellow 
fruits about 6 inches long of varying form and with reddish 
pulp that may be eaten. 
The purslane, previously mentioned as a source of moisture 
in the discussion of water on Islands (p. 33), is also edible in 
the form of greens. 
Another plant found on or near the shore is the Polynesian 
arrowroot (Fig. 20), which has a potato-like underground tuber 
that can be eaten after it has been boiled or roasted but which 
must not ie consumed in its rate state as it contains poisonous 
elements that are destroyed by cooking. 
If you have the misfortune to land along a shore bordered 
by mangrove swamps do not waste your time trying to fight 
your way through or looking for food in them. Try and work 
your way along the coast to a better beach or more open type 
of vegetation. In some cases a few scre\v pines may be found 
growing in such swamps and there are ferns that may be eaten 
as greens, but otherwise mangrove swamps have little plant 
food. Of course, if you find yourself in such a place make the 
best of it and try to get to the coast as quickly as possible. 92 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
GROOVED 
STEM- 
HERB, 2-5 FEET 
SANDY SOIL NEAR 
SEASHORE 
GROUND- 
POTATO-LIKE TUBER, 
MUST BE COOKED 
Figure 20.—Polynesian arrowroot; must be cooked. See p. 91. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
93 
Clearings and Abandoned Fields 
These are the best places to find food plants because they 
generally have been cultivated at some time or other and culti- 
vated forms of plants will persist long after fields have been 
abandoned. These places may occur along the shore or be found 
in the interior of the country. Nearly all of the fruits found 
there can be eaten. It is not possible or practicable to list all 
that you might find under such circumstances but there usually 
will be bananas and plantains. Ripe bananas are rarely found 
because the birds, bats, insects, and other creatures usually 
get to them first, but the green ones are edible when cooked. 
They may be boiled, fried, or roasted. Of course, you can pick 
a green bunch and let the fruit ripen but that takes time. The 
plantains, which you probably can’t tell from bananas and it 
doesn’t really matter anyway, are generally dark green, brown, 
or orange in color and will seem like green bananas. They 
should always be cooked. The flower buds and the tender 
growing tip at the upper end of the stem of these trees are also 
edible. Ripe bananas may be preserved by slicing them and 
then drying the pieces in the sun. 
The papaya (Fig. 21) also occurs around clearings and former 
habitations in the tropics. This is a tree-like plant growing up 
to 20 feet in height with a single stem and a tuft of long-stalked 
leaves at the top. On the stem below or among the leaves grow 
large melon-like fruits resembling elongated cantaloupes or musk- 
melons. The fruits are green before ripening. On reaching 
maturity they become yellowish green or yellow and squash-like. 
The flesh is pepsin flavored and truly delicious. The milky juice 
of the unripe fruits contains a substance that is an aid to diges- 
570603°—44 7 94 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
MELON LIKE FRUITS 
GREEN OR 
YELLOWISH 
•SEEDS 
EDIBLE 
'yellow 
-FLESH 
FRUIT CUT LENGTH WISE 
Figurhi 21.—Papaya. Small tree. See p. 93. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
95 
tion and if rubbed onto a piece of tough meat it has the property 
of making it tender. If this milky juice oozes from the rind 
when it is cut the fruit is not ripe enough to eat. The juice 
should not be allowed to remain on the skin, because it will 
set up an irritation. Green fruit may be placed in the sun where 
it will ripen in a very short time. Do not attempt to climb 
a papaya as the wood in it is so brittle that it is liable to snap 
under a man's weight. The trunk can be severed by a single 
blow from a machete. You should be careful not to get any of 
the milky sap, either from the stem or the rind of the fruit, into 
your eyes as it will cause intense pain and temporary, sometimes 
even permanent, blindness. The flower, leaf steams, and young 
leaves may be eaten cooked as greens provided you cook them 
in several changes of water to remove the bitter taste and harm- 
ful substance from the sap. 
Mango trees are often found in abandoned clearings and 
around deserted village sites in the East Indies and southern 
Asia. The delicious fruit that they bear is somewhat larger 
than a baseball. It is elliptic or round and somewhat flattened 
in shape (Fig. 22). The leathery rind, yellow or greenish in 
color and somewhat spotted, encloses the edible pulp that clings 
closely around a single, large, and flattened seed. The fruits 
ripen from early summer through early autumn. 
A common tree found on abandoned plantations in South 
America, as well as in the Pacific area, is the cashew (Fig. 23), 
the nuts of which are popular in the United States. The 
nuts are not edible until boiled or roasted, and all of the oil 
must be heated out of them before they are eaten. When 
boiling or roasting, avoid the steam or smoke as it is very 
caustic. The greatly swollen base, reddish or yellowish in 96 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
FRUIT CUT 
LENGTHWISE 
HARD, DISKLIKE 
SEED 
EDIBLE 
. /PULP 
.FRUIT ABOUT 
\ 6 INCHES 
| LONG. 
El LEATHERY 
( RINO. 
Figure 22.—Mango. Medium to large tree. Cultivated or wild. 
See p. 1)5. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
97 
MEDIUM TO LARGE TREE 
SETTLED 
REGIONS 
ROADSIDES 
YELLOW 
OR ’ 
PURPLISH- 
-JUICY - EDIBLE RAW 
•NUT MUST BE ROASTED 
SAP DANGEROUS 
Figuke 23.—Cashew; nuts must be cooked. See p. 95. 98 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Figure 24.—Bamboo sprouts. Slit covering of husks lengthwise, remove 
tender center. See p. 99. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
99 
color, on which the nut grows, however, is juicy and refreshing 
when fresh. 
Bamboo and sugarcane are commonly present in formerly 
occupied areas. Young bamboo sprouts (Fig. 24), up to a foot 
or so in height, are stored with food substances and can either 
be eaten raw or be cooked by boiling. Sugarcane (Fig. 25) 
qrows &-?0 // h/qh «n c/ompj. 
c/roer* to redd/sh~ /eaves 
cjreenoften s/r/ped Jity/Cry - 
best to remove bore/ outer foyer I 
before cbe*v *n<f 
Fioohb 25.—Sugarcane. 100 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
roughly resembles corn with reddish stems, has its leaves near 
the top and has no “ears.” The outer layer of the stems may 
be peeled off and the inside pith chewed to get the refreshing 
and nourishing sweet sap. 
A coarse grass found in clearings, abandoned fields, and forest 
borders in Polynesia and Malaysia has seeds that may be boiled 
or roasted. The hearts from the young shoots of this grass may 
also be eaten. 
Vegetables are also found in these locations. They include 
the taro, sweet potatoes, yams and in tropical America wild 
tomatoes. The taro (Fig. 26) grows to a height of 2 or 3 
feet, has large heartshaped leaves and yellowish-green flowers. 
All parts of the plant may be eaten, but its roots are the main 
source of food and they are used throughout the Pacific Island 
area. The root is naturally bitter or pungent in taste; yet 
after roasting or boiling it is perfectly wholesome. After 
cooking the roots the natives usually peel them, pound them 
into a powder, then gradually add water, kneading the mass 
as they proceed, until it attains a dough-like consistency. It 
is then wrapped in leaves and eaten at will. 
Sweet potatoes are easily recognized as they look like morn- 
ing glory vines. When in bloom the blossoms are pink. The 
potatoes are better if cooked, although they may be eaten raw, 
and the tops of the plants make good greens when boiled. 
Many other morning-glory-like vines have edible shoots and 
leaves and may have edible roots. None is poisonous. Tams 
have climbing vines with a slender stem and simple leaves 
resembling an open human hand. They have small, incon- 
spicuous green flowers. Their tubers are usually long and 
spindle shaped, some attaining a length of from 2 to 4 feet. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
101 
HERBS ABOUT 
l£ FEET 
CULTIVATED, 
WET GROUND 
GROUND 
edible COOKED 
Pioukk 2(5.—Taro, roots must be cooked. See p. 100. 102 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
They may be baked or boiled. In baking these tubers the 
natives dig a pit, put in large hard rocks and build a fire. 
When the rocks are hot the food is placed in the pit, on 
green leaves, and the hole is covered with palm or other large 
leaves. Earth is sometimes heaped over the leaves. After 
half an hour or so, depending on the number of stones and 
how thoroughly they were heated, the food is ready to eat. 
SHRUB 
3-5 FEET HIGH 
CULTIVATED 
BITTER VARIETY 
POISONOUS 
UNLESS PREPARED 
EDIBLE 
COOKED 
Figure 27.—Cassava, or tapioca. See p. 103. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
103 
Another common vegetable is the cassava, manioc, or tapioca 
(Fig. 27). The large roots of these plants should be used 
with caution as there are two varieties, one sweet and the 
other bitter. They can only be distinguished by taste. The 
sweet form may be eaten raw but the bitter form is poisonous 
unless it is cooked. The natives remove this poisonous sub- 
stance by crushing the roots thoroughly, washing the starchy 
mass with several changes of water, and then cooking it. If 
yoii are in a region where you can learn how it should be 
prepared, do so, as the knowledge might prove helpful later on. 
Peanuts may oft?n be found in clearings as they are culti- 
vated in many tropical and semitropical areas by the natives. 
The fruits are borne below the surface of the ground and 
their seeds are very nourishing. They may be eaten raw or 
cooked. Pineapples also occur in abandoned fields. 
Many common temperate zone weeds are found in clearings in 
the tropics. They also are edible. Among these is the purslane 
previously mentioned (p. 91) and the pokeweed (Fig. 28). The 
tender, young shoots of the latter may be cooked as greens. The 
roots, however, are definitely poisonous. The ground cherry or 
Chinese lantern plant (Fig. 29) has escaped from cultivation 
and become a weed almost throughout the tropics. Its bladdery 
pods contain a single red tomato-like fruit that is edible. 
Raspberries, blackberries, and mulberries are sometimes found 
at higher elevations. They look sufficiently like the forms you 
are familiar with at home to be recognized. All are edible or at 
least harmless. Some of them may be too seedy to be palatable, 
but they won’t hurt you. 104 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SKA 
LARGE,WEED OF 
TEMPERATE AND 
TROPICAL 
REGIONS. 
FLOWER, 
SMALL. 
SECTION 
THRU 
FRUIT 
'SEEDS 
PURPLISH, JUICY PULP 
BITTER BUT HARMLESS 
Figukb 28.—Pokeweed. Tender shoots eaten as greens. Root 
poisonous. See i>. 103. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
105 
Open Grassland, Thin Woods, and Thickets 
There are large areas in the tropics which are only sparsely 
covered with vegetation consisting for the most part of grasses 
and a few scattered trees. Some of these areas are the result 
of the destruction of the original vegetation by cultivation or hy 
fires. They are often quite dry. Various grasses are found in 
these open spaces and as there are no poisonous grasses any 
that are found may be eaten without danger. In fact, most of 
man’s cultivated food comes from grasses such as wheat, rye, 
corn, sugarcane, etc. Real grasses can be recognized by their 
jointed stems, such as in a cornstalk, and by their character- 
istic flowers which are never conspicuously colored. Because 
their seeds fall off readily after ripening they are generally 
difficult to gather. Also their seeds usually need to be ground 
into some kind of flour and cooked before being eaten. One 
form of grass, however, has fairly large, usually white and shiny, 
beadlike “fruits” called Job’s Tears. These contain several seeds 
that can be eaten either boiled or roasted. This plant is some- 
times cultivated. 
A small tree—up to 20 feet in height—that grows in open and 
waste places, as well as in cultivated fields, in the Old World is 
the horseradish tree (Fig. 30). The leaves, shoots, and young 
pods of this tree may be eaten raw, or when cooked as greens. 
The seeds may be roasted. The roots of the tree taste like 
horseradish. 
River and Stream Margins 
Because of their variability, tropical streams are bordered by 
a large number of potential food plants. In the Far East the 106 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
FLOWERS WHITE 
OR YELLOW. 
/RED 
(EDIBLE 
BLADDERY POD 
CUT OPEN 
Figure 29.—Chinese lantern, or ground cherry; 2 to 3 feet high 
See p. 103. 10T 
FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
. WHITE 
- POOS EDIBLE 
WHEN YOUNG 
TREE TO 
20FEET HIGH 
MATURE 
SEEDS 
ROASTED 
Figure 30.—Horseradish tree. See p. 10S. 
lotus and various water lilies (Fig. 31) aud other plants with 
large, fleshy, edible roots are often found growing in water. 
Floating on the surface may be the water hyacinth, a plant that 108 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
is about one foot in height and has blue flowers and inflated 
leaf stems. The young leaves, leafy stalks, and the flowering 
parts may be eaten in an emergency, either steamed or boiled. 
In the soft mud along the banks of streams, along the edges 
of ditches, and also in abandoned rice fields, is a plant called 
the arrowhead, which has an underground stem or tuber that 
is edible when cooked. Other water plants also grow in such 
places and all parts of them can be eaten when cooked as 
greens. Ferns growing in such places also may be used as 
food. The young shoots are better and may be eaten raw or 
when cooked as greens. (See fig. 32.) Of course, many of the 
trees and other forms of plants already described, bamboos, 
bananas, palms, etc. may be found along the streams as well as 
in the other locations mentioned. 
Rice sometimes escapes from cultivation and may be found 
growing wild along the banks of streams and ditches. 
Swamps 
Swamps often occur along rivers and smaller streams, as 
well as along the coasts, and some food plants are to be found 
there. Edible ferns occur in fresh water swamps. The wild 
form of the Chinese water chestnut (Fig. 33) is often found in 
the open fresh-water swamps of the Old World. Its nearly 
round, hard tubers are produced underground. They are ex- 
cellent when boiled or roasted. Another plant that grows in 
fresh-water swamps and swampy places more or less in the 
open has very large leaves and stalks more or less covered 
with short spines (Fig. 34). It has a large underground part 
that is rich in starch, but it should he eaten only after it is FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
109 
PINK FLOWER 
WRAPPING MATERIAL 
ROOTS 
EDIBLE 
FOUND IN 
LAKES AND 
SLOW STREAMS 
SEEDS 
EDIBLE 
GREEN - 
ROOTS EDIBLE 
WHITE OR 
'PINK FLOWERS 
570603°—44 8 
Figure 31.—Lotus ; water lily lower right. See p. 107. 110 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
EDIBLE COOKED 
ALONG SWIFT 
STREAMS, 
RIVERS, 
SWAMPS. 
UP TO 
2 FEET 
HIGH 
Piques 32.—Paco fern. See p. 108. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
111 
GREEN 
COARSE, 
RUSH-UKE 
2-4 FEET 
EDIBLE COOKED 
Figure 33.—Chinese water chestnut. See p. 108. 112 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
thoroughly cooked, either by boiling or roasting. A vine re- 
sembling the morning glory or the sweet potato frequently may 
be found in fresh-water swamps and ponds. The stems and 
young leaves of this plant make good greens when cooked. 
Salt water or brackish swamps are very extensive in the 
tropics along rivers near the sea and along the coasts. As 
previously mentioned, relatively few kinds of edible plants are 
to be found in such locations. The swamps along the rivers, 
however, do have nipa palms—a tree that has no trunk, its 
leaves rising in tufts around the “cabbage” just above the sur- 
face of the swamp—that produce dense clusters of erect fruits, 
the immature seeds of which are edible. Nipa palm swamps 
often occur on the inland side of mangrove swamps. A climb- 
ing fern and a coarse tufted fern may be found in both kinds of 
swamps. These ferns are edible. 
Forests and Jungles 
Edible plants are generally less abundant in deep forests and 
jungles than in the locations discussed in the preceding pages. 
Those that are present often bear their fruits and other edible 
portions high out of reach. Palms are common but you may 
have to climb to reach the “cabbage.” Tree ferns with tender, 
coiled, young leaves and edible terminal buds may be found. 
The climbing palms or rattans (Fig. 14) have edible terminal 
shoots, although they may be high in the tree tops. 
The Durian (Fig. 35) is a large forest tree that bears excellent 
fruits about the size of a coconut. They are readily recognized 
by their odor which is very strong and fetid, and has been 
likened to that coming from decayed onions. The fruit is round FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
113 
Figure 34.—Palau; root must be cooked. See p. 108 114 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Figure 35.—Durian fruit, found on a large, tropical-forest tree. 
See p. 112 115 
FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
or slightly oval, green in color, and is covered with short, stout, 
sharp spines that make it difficult to pick up if the stem is 
broken off. The outer rind is so thick and tough that it never 
breaks when it falls. It can be opened with a heavy knife by 
cutting along the five grooves which run from end to end beneath 
the spines. The cream-colored yellow pulp surrounding the few 
seeds is best when the fruits first fall from the tree. It is eaten 
raw, especially when ripe, but when unripe may be cooked as a 
vegetable. Despite its foul odor, the fruit is very nourishing. 
These trees can often be located by following the odor radiated 
in all directions from the fruit lying on the ground. The seeds 
from the fruit may be roasted and eaten like nuts. Because 
the fruits are so large and so covered with spines they might 
kill a man if they fell on him. Consequently one should not 
lie under a durian tree. 
There are many kinds of fig trees, shrubs, or vines in jungles. 
They are recognizable by their milky juice and fig-like fruits. 
These fruits are generally smaller than domestic dried figs. 
They usually are round with a more or less hollow center con- 
taining numerous small “seeds” and a small opening at the end. 
This opening may be pressed shut when the fruit is ripe. Most 
of these fruits contain small insects but they are edible unless 
decayed. When infested with insect larvae it probably would 
be better to boil them before eating. There are other forest 
trees with edible fruits but they are difficult to identify even 
if they can be reached. The fruit can be tested by eating a 
small sample and then waiting some hours to see if harmful 
results develop before trying larger amounts. If it tastes 
bitter or produces a burning sensation in the mouth don’t eat it. 116 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Particular Regions 
Most of the information in preceding pages applies more spe- 
cifically to Polynesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines than to other 
areas. Over so vast an area the various plants differ from place 
to place, but nowhere is there any need to suffer from hunger if 
a person will keep his eyes open and do a little experimenting. 
In the mountains of New Guinea, Java, and the Philippines the 
vegetation is less tropical than in other parts of the area, hence 
the food plants will be less tropical in character. In these 
regions, however, one can learn readily from the natives. 
Throughout Siam and Indo-China, countries sometimes in- 
cluded in Malaysia, there are the usual tropical plants and in 
addition true spine-covered chestnuts, some oaks with edible 
acorns, and a few wild apples and peaches. The common bracken 
fern of temperate regions, with tender uncoiling edible leaves, 
occurs there and the same kind of mulberries found in North 
America are present. In addition there is a forest tree called 
the longan (Fig. 36) which bears clusters of yellowish or yellow- 
ish-brown, smooth fruits that are delicious. The Chinese lychee 
or “China Nut” tree (Pig. 37) grows wild in the area. Wild rela- 
tives of the orange and grapefruit are also found. 
In tropical America there are many kinds of types of plants 
similar to those in Malaysia. These include palms, figs, papayas, 
bamboo, and bananas. Cashews abound along the roadsides and 
in overgrown fields. Wild tomatoes with small edible fruits 
grow nearly everywhere. In northern South America the cow 
or milk tree yields a drinkable sap when the bark is cut. The 
cassava or tapioca is abundant but the bitter form is more 
common and must be prepared as previously suggested FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
117 
Figure 86.—Longan tree. Large cultivated or forest tree. See p. 116. 
|IN CENTER, 
PULP 
YELLOWISH 
SEED 
FRUITS 
BROWN.. 
SMALL 
FLOWERS 118 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
SMALL 
FRUIT 
TREES 
CLUSTER 
OF 
FLOWERS 
RESEMBLE 
STRAWBERRIES 
WITH THIN 
OUTER RIND, 
PULP EDIBLE. 
FLOWERS 
VERY 
SMALL 
Figure 37.-—Lychee, or “China Nut.” See p. 116. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
119 
before eating. In the drier places there are various kinds of 
cactus plants. Their fruits and fleshy stem segments are edible 
raw or cooked provided the numerous spines are carefully re- 
moved. Some of the larger, rounder forms have stored water use- 
ful in quenching thirst. The mango grows wild in Central Amer- 
ica and parts of the West Indies and their fruits are available 
from May to August or somewhat later. 
In tropical Africa there are dense, lowland jungles and drier 
plateaus with more open vegetation. The same types of plants, 
although different forms, occur here as elsewhere in the tropics 
and are prepared* and eaten in about the same manner. There 
is no lack of emergency food plants in that area. 
POISONOUS PLANTS 
There is no reason to fear the poisonous plants in the Tropics 
any more than in temperate regions. The best general rule is to 
avoid all those with a milky sap, with the exception of the 
numerous varieties of the wild fig, and all those whose taste is 
disagreeable, or that have brightly colored shiny seeds. 
(1) those which poison a person internally when eaten; 
(2) those with sap that irritates the skin in the manner of 
poison ivy; 
(3) those with minute needles or spines that penetrate the 
skin and cause irritation. 
Poisonous plants fall into three general classes: 
Identification of such plants by persons not familiar with 
tropical vegetation is difficult. If one has an opportunity to do 
so it is best to learn the various kinds that are to be avoided 
from the natives. Otherwise just be careful about touching or 120 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
OF HEDGES 
SHRUB 
AND FENCE 
\ ROWS. 
POD SPLIT 
OPEN 
PODS 
SEED 
Figuuk 38.—Physic nut; seeds poisonous to eat. See p. 122. FOOD IN THE TEOPTCS 
121 
SEED 
MOTTLEDj 
LARGE 
LEAVES 
FRUITS 
' LARGE HERB 
OR SHRUB 8-15 
FEET TALL. 
Figure 39.—Castor bean ; seeds poisonous to eat. Cannot be substituted 
for castor oil. See p. 122. 122 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
grabbing plants at random. Testing unknown plants by small 
samples usually will reveal the harmless ones without causing 
serious injury. 
Widespread throughout most of the Tropics are the physic nut 
(Fig. 38) and the castor oil plant (Fig. 39). The seeds of both 
are poisonous to eat and cooking will not make them harmless. 
Strychnine comes from the seeds of an orange-like shrub (fig. 40) 
that grows in both the New and Old World tropics. The fruit 
may be eaten but not the seed. The fruit is so bitter, however, 
that you probably wouldn’t eat it even if you found it. 
Juices causing skin irritation are more common. Throughout 
Malaysia are the rengas trees (Fig. 41). They are avoided by 
the natives as carefully as we avoid poison ivy. The affliction 
produced by the sap of these trees is similar to that produced 
by poison ivy and the treatment it is the same. A few of 
the wild or semi-wild forms of mango also have poisonous sap, 
although the common mango does not, but the fruits from these 
trees can be eaten with safety. In the New World tropics the 
Mancineel or Manzanillo (Fig. 42), a small tree that occurs in 
dense thickets along sea beaches, is avoided for the same reason. 
The poisonous sandbox tree (Fig. 43) occurs at low altitudes 
throughout most of tropical America. It is a small tree with 
short, sharp grater-like spines and a melon-like fruit. A com- 
mon American plant with a poisonous milky sap is the Dumb 
Cane (Fig. 44) which is found in low ground and on moist hills. 
Its soft juicy stems are as large as a man’s arm and have a 
skunk-like odor when cut. Smoke and steam from the burning 
wood or leaves of any of these plants is dangerous and is as 
likely to affect the skin as the actual sap or juice. 123 
FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
SEED 
FLOWER 
SEED, SIDE 
AND EDGE 
VIEWS. 
SECTION OF 
FRUIT 
TREES,SHRUBS 
OR VINES 
FRUITS LIKE 
SMALL ORANGES 
SHELL-LIKE RIND 
Figure 40.—Strychnine ; seeds poisonous to eat. See p. 122. 124 
SURVIVAL, ON LAND AND SEA 
FRUIT- 
FLOWERS, 
SMALL 
ENLARGED 
’DETAIL OF 
FLOWER 
Figure 41.—Rengas tree; poisonous to touch. See p. 122. FOOD IX THE TROPICS 
125 
oar/: smooth, 
\ pate bro wn . 
fruit tjreen, poisonous' 
Masses efreen, smooth 
y* reef a/or j/ze 
Figure 42.—Manzanillo; sap poisonous to skin. Small seashore tree 
See p. 122. 
If you get the juice from any of these plants on your skin, wash 
it off as quickly as possible, gently but thoroughly, with soap 
and warm water. Thereafter wash the affected part as seldom 
as possible and apply vaseline or olive oil twice daily and keep 126 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
/eaves 
//qhf (preen 
prows os a /nee 
/<90 /fee/ hi<fhl 
fro)!/ y>/~<fes7. 
Aran's7 
/ron / <T j/de. witw 
Jecd 
/f// />or/s- /x>/s-ortous- 
Figure 43.—Sandbox tree ; sap poisonous to skin. See p. 122. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
127 
plant qrows 3-4 feet 
htqh - the sop m contact' 
with the skin causes 
serious inflammation 
/eaves ore smooth, I. 
thick, dark preen, (. 
sometimes blotched 
with white 
Figure 44.—Dumb Cane, milk poisonous to skin. See. p. 122. 128 
SURVIVAL OK LAND AND SEA 
Figure 45.—Various forms of coivhage, dangerous to touch. All 
temporarily irritating. See p. 130. FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
129 
LEAVES AND STEMS 
. COVERED WITH 
STINGING 
\ HAIRS. 
ls|TlNGING 
SHRUB 1 
v OR 
. 'SMALL 
* TREE. 
ENLARGE!} 
Figure 46.—Nettle tree, dangerous to touch. See p. 130. 130 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
the place covered with a thin layer of cloth. Care should be 
taken not to infect such places, as ulcers may result. 
The third group comprises the nettles and plants with stinging 
hairs on their flowers and fruits. An examble of the latter is 
the cowhage (Fig. 45) that occurs in most tropical areas growing 
as a vine in thickets and wooded districts but not in the jungles. 
The stinging nettles are widespread but are little worse than 
those in temperate climates. There are nettle trees (Fig. 46) 
that are found in thickets, clearing and open woods. They 
should be avoided whenever possible. Treatment of irrita- 
tion caused by these plants is similar to that for the plants 
with the poisonous sap or juices. 
POLLUTED PLANT FOODS 
Far more dangerous than any of the poisonous tropical plants 
are those which—although in themselves perfectly harmless— 
carry the germs of disease. In all inhabited areas in the Tropics 
the danger of contracting disease through the eating of con- 
taminated food is ever present. Germs are left on fruits 
and vegetables when they are handled. Vegetables frequently 
are contaminated by the earth in which they are grown because 
in many countries the fields and garden plots are fertilized with 
human dung which, of course, carries the germs of the ailments 
from which the natives suffer and provides a ready source of 
reinfection. Fruits and vegetables should be eaten raw only 
when they are peeled or the outer surface is cut off with a knife 
by the person eating them. Even then care must be taken not 
to reinfect the freshly exposed portions. Vegetables and plants 
found in abandoned clearings may be contaminated from the FOOD IN THE TROPICS 
131 
soil. Even though appearances suggest that the place has not 
been occupied for some time, you should be on your guard and 
prepare your food as carefully as though people were actually 
living there. Thorough cooking kills all disease germs; hence 
to be safe you should cook all vegetables. This is good pro- 
tection against dysentery, cholera, and diarrhea. If flies are 
present the food should be protected from them, as they can 
reinfect it after it is cooked. YII 
THE ARCTIC 
There are no large sections of the American Arctic in which 
Eskimos, Indians, or white men have not lived. These people 
have not been stranded or forced there, but have lived there by 
choice, and usually without hardship. Though you need not 
be an expert woodsman or know all the tricks an Eskimo knows, 
some knowledge of how others have lived in these regions will 
be of great assistance to you in an emergency. 
There are three principal requirements for survival in the 
Arctic: (1) knowledge of the country, (2) suitable clothing and 
equipment, (8) calm judgment and knowledge of what to do. 
Learn in advance all you can from maps, descriptions, or the 
experience of others about the region you are in or are likely 
to visit. Familiarize yourself with the exact location of settle- 
ments or camps in relation to coasts, rivers, lakes, or other 
prominent landmarks. Obtain all the information you can about 
foot travel and living conditions in winter and summer in the 
regions where you might some day be stranded. Learn what food 
resources—animals, fish, birds, plants—you are likely to find 
along the coasts, in the forested sections, or on the tundra. 
When stranded in unfamiliar territory, whether forced down 
in a plane or shijnvrecked, your first thought will be for the care 
and comfort of any who may be injured. You should next 
consider what action on your part will lead to rescue in the 
132 TTIK ARCTIC 
133 
shortest time. If you have been forced down from an airplane 
in the interior, stay by the plane unless you have definite knowl- 
edge of the location of a camp or settlement and know that you 
can reach it in a short time. If you start off at random you will 
be in much greater danger than if you stay where you are. 
Searching planes will not be able to see you and almost certainly 
you will become hopelessly lost. On the other hand, the grounded 
plane will be easily visible from the air and if you establish a 
camp nearby and build a fire as a signal, your chances of rescue 
are good. If there is not too much wind, the smoke from a good 
fire will be visible for ten miles or more. As an additional means 
of attracting the attention of planes, spruce branches should be 
arranged on the snow to form letters a hundred feet across or 
more. Fire your signal pistol only when planes are heard 
approaching. 
In the north, native villages and camps as well as white settle- 
ments are generally found along the coasts. Therefore, if you are 
stranded on a beach your chances of rescue are good. However, 
if there are rivers that cannot be crossed or if for any other 
reason it is not practicable to set out on foot along the coast, the 
best procedure will be to select a suitable camping place, build 
a smudge fire and await rescue. Wood for the fire—driftwood or 
growing timber—will almost certainly be available, and the 
chances are that food also can be obtained with little difficulty. 
For winter travel back from the coast, snowshoes of some 
sort are usually essential. These can be improvised after a 
fashion from flat airplane or boat parts. The natives, in a 
pinch, use flat spruce boughs lashed onto their feet. Stick to the 
ridges or streams where the wind blown snow is thin, wherever 134 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
possible. In the spring and fall the snow may be soft in the 
daytime but form a crust at night which will permit easier travel. 
SIGNAL FIRE 
Several packages of matches in waterproof containers, a 
lighter, and candles are among the most necessary items of your 
equipment; some should be carried in your pockets and some in 
the emergency kit. It is much better to take this simple precau- 
tion than to be forced later to the difficult and uncertain expedient 
of making fire by primitive methods. This warning is partic- 
ularly applicable to those who may be lost in the Arctic where 
snow in winter and rain and mist in summer may make it difficult 
to obtain suitable dry materials for producing fire. 
In order to conserve your supply of matches, light a candle 
to start the fire. Dry birch bark shredded into strips makes 
excellent kindling. Use this with wood shavings or dead twigs 
from standing trees to start the fire. In wet weather dry fuel 
can be obtained by cutting into the inner wood of a standing 
dead tree or the under surface of a fallen dead tree not resting 
entirely on the ground. When the fire is burning well put on 
green spruce boughs to make a dense smoke. 
Outside the forested areas the best fuel is driftwood. This 
is usually abundant on northern beaches, though it is scarce 
in some localities in the central Canadian Arctic and in the west- 
ern Aleutians. It may also be found, though in smaller quanti- 
ties, along lake shores and rivers in the interior, even in the so- 
called Barren Grounds. If driftwood is not to be had, dwarf or 
ground willow (Fig. 48) will provide an acceptable substitute. THE ARCTIC 
135 
'SCALELIKE 
LEAVES, VERY 
SMALL. 
Fiodkh 47.—Cassiope, and evergreenlike plant good for fuel. See p. 136. 136 
SURVIVAL OX LAND AND SEA 
It grows in protected spots in most parts of the Arctic. In winter 
it is sometimes found exposed on bare windswept hills or in 
gullies. The roots will burn as well as the branches. In some 
varieties of ground willow the roots are more extensive than 
the branches, and when dead and exposed on the surface of the 
ground make very good fuel. In the Barren Grounds west of 
Hudson Bay where there is no driftwood and little willow, the 
Eskimos depend almost entirely on Cassiope, a kind of heather, 
for fuel. This is a low, spreading, evergreen plant with tiny 
leaves and white bell-shaped flowers (Fig. 47). It grows from 
4 to 12 inches high and contains so much resin that it will burn 
even when green or wet. To get it burning well, however, some 
dry kindling such as wood shavings or moss and a good breeze are 
required. Dry moss and lichen (plants that grow on the rocks 
or bark of trees) can also be used as fuel. All these fuels— 
moss, lichen, heather, and willow—can be dug from beneath 
the snow if necessary. 
EMERGENCY FIRE MAKING 
If matches or a lighter are not available and there is no dry 
wood suitable for making a bow drill such as is described and 
illustrated on page 69, fire can be made by the strike-a-light 
method with flint and steel. Better than flint is iron pyrites, 
known as “fool’s gold,” a yellowish mineral found in lumps 
along Arctic stream beds. A piece of pyrites and steel or flint, 
or two pieces of pyrites, when struck together will give a good 
shower of sparks; this method of fire making is employed by 
most of the interior Eskimos and northern Indians. The flint 
or steel should be struck against the pyrites, not violently but 
with a sharp scraping motion. For making fire in this way a THE ARCTIC 
137 
CLUSTER 
OF FLOWERS 
SINGLE 
FLOWER 
Figure 48.—Arctic or dwarf willow. Low shrub. See pp. 134, 
138, and 155. 138 
SURVIVAL OX LAND AND SEA 
soft, dry, powdery tinder must be used. In an emergency cloth 
can be unravelled and shredded. Very dry dead grass, cedar 
or birch bark, or moss may be used, but it must be finely shred- 
ded or pulverized. The best tinder—the kind used by the Barren 
Ground and Arctic coast Eskimos—is the fluffy down of the 
“cotton grass” that grows on the tundra in summer, or the fuzz 
from the drooping flowers or buds of the Arctic w’illow (Fig. 48). 
When a spark has ignited the tinder it must be blown gently to 
produce a flame. To make the tinder more inflammable, the Eski- 
mos sprinkle on it a small amount of gunpowder or powdered 
charcoal from charred sticks. 
SHELTER 
If stranded in deep snow without equipment, a trench can be 
dug to a depth of several feet and the floor packed down by 
stamping until it is solid. The top of the trench can then be 
covered with a parachute or whatever may be available. Such 
a shelter breaks the wind for its occupants. Northern Indians 
when unable to get back to their camp or village often burrow 
a sleeping hole into the side of a snow bank. A breathing hole 
should be left open and one should be on the watch and ready 
to move if deep drifts form. The Indians also make a snow 
house by piling up a heap of snow about the size of a small 
haystack, patting down the surface with their snowshoes. 
After standing for about 30 minutes, in very cold weather, the 
outer surface freezes into a thin crust which makes a good roof 
when the pile of snow is hollowed out. To do this they tunnel 
into one side of the heap, one man passing the snow out to the 
others, until only a shell some 6 or so inches thick is left. The 
snow floor is packed and, when possible covered with spruce 
boughs. It is important to have an air hole at the top and at THE ARCTIC 
139 
least a small crack where the door is covered by a block of snow’, 
ice, or other object. Otherwise those inside might suffocate. 
Such a shelter, if properly made, will hold several people comfort- 
ably. The Eskimos make a more elaborate snow-block house, 
hut this calls for considerable skill and the method of construc- 
tion should be learned from the natives themselves. 
In timbered country it is easy to make a comfortable shelter 
in the form of the lean-to described for the tropics (p. 64). 
Only instead of coconut or similar leaves you will have spruce 
boughs. Cover the three sides of the framework with overlap- 
ping rows of flat spruce boughs, beginning at the bottom and laid 
with their tips downward. Place several layers of spruce boughs 
inside the shelter to form a floor. Have the open side of the 
shelter face the fire and away from the prevailing wind. 
If timber is not available a wall of snow can be made for a 
windbreak. If a tent is used in open country it should not be 
placed under a cliff or in the lee of any large sheltering object, 
for snow may drift down and bury it. It will be well, however, 
to build a snow wall on the windward side to protect the tent 
from wind and drifting snow. If the wall is built close to the 
tent there will be no danger from snow drifts. 
In pitching the tent the snow should be removed from the 
inside and replaced by a layer of grass, moss, or boughs to 
prevent the sleeping bags or other bedding from becoming wet. 
Where the snow is deep it can be stamped down to make a firm 
floor which can be covered with boughs or whatever materials 
are available. Sleeping bags should not rest against the tent 
walls. 
CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING 
If a tent or other closed shelter is used, it must be carefully 
ventilated. A fire of any kind burning in a closed and poorly 
ventilated space may produce carbon monoxide, a deadly poison- 140 
SURVIVAL OX LAND AXD SEA 
ous gas. This gas has no odor and can kill a person before its 
presence is suspected. A slight headache or feeling of pressure 
at the temples is the only warning of carbon monoxide poisoning, 
but even this may not be felt. To prevent the gas from forming, 
make certain that the tent or hut has a hole at the apex and that 
some air can come in from below. If partly overcome by the 
gas, one should get into the open air immediately, keep warm, and 
avoid all exercise or exertion for some time afterwards. 
COOKING 
For cooking, the fire should not be too large. If possible it 
should be built between two logs or stones, on which the cooking 
utensils may rest. Another method is to suspend the pot over 
the fire from a pole, the lower end of which is stuck into the 
ground. 
Boiling is the simplest and most practical method of cooking. 
Long boiling is not necessary. If meat is cut into small pieces 
and put in cold water it will be cooked sufficiently by the time 
the water has boiled a couple of minutes. Drink the water in 
which the meat is cooked. 
If snow is used for cooking, place a small amount of it in the 
pot at first, adding more as it melts. If the pot is crammed 
full of soft, spongy snow this may act as a blotter, absorbing 
the first water that melts and allowing the bottom of the pot to 
burn. This may be avoided by tipping the pot. 
If you have no pot the simplest method of cooking meat is to 
broil thin strips over hot coals, holding them on the forked end 
of a long stick. Larger pieces can be stuck on a stick and 
suspended over the fire, turning them from time to time. THE ARCTIC 
141 
WATER 
Drinking water is not a fundamental problem in tbe North. 
In summer water can be obtained from streams, lakes, or ponds. 
On the tundra pond water may have the color of tea because of 
stain from grass roots and other plants, but it is good to drink. 
In winter, snow and ice are melted for drinking. Whenever 
possible avoid eating snow or ice directly for it lowers body 
temperature and cuts down endurance. 
On the sea you can obtain good drinking water from old sea 
ice. Young seai ice is salty, like the water from which it was 
formed, but after a year it loses its salt and becomes fresh. 
Old sea ice can be distinguished by its smooth rounded corners 
and bluish color. Young sea ice is rougher and milky gray in 
color. In summer drinking water can be obtained from pools in 
the old sea ice. Avoid pools near the edge of the floe where 
saltwater spray may have blown in. 
FOOD 
Living off the country is not difficult in the North if one has 
or can make the necessary weapons or other means for killing 
or capturing land animals and fish. In the summer, shellfish 
can be collected along the shore. Fish are abundant in fresh 
water lakes, streams, and in the sea. Caribou and other land 
mammals may be found, and millions of ducks, geese and smaller 
birds come to breed on the tundra or the sea-cliffs. Since the 
sea freezes over in the winter and most of the birds go south, 
food resources then are more limited, and specialized hunting 
techniques are necessary. 142 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
G 
G. Sea cucumber. 
H. Sea urchin. 
H 
K 
[ 
J 
O 
N 
M. 
L 
p 
Figure 49.—Edible marine life : 
I-P-Edible shellfish. 
(I. is sometimes poisonous south of the Aleutians.) 
On the Seashore 
In figure 49 are shown a few of the many edible varieties of 
clams, mussels and other shellfish found in the far North. THE ARCTIC 
143 
Most of them live in fairly shallow water. Edible shellfish are 
relatively abundant on the Arctic and Bering Sea coasts of 
America, but are scarce in the Arctic regions of Europe and 
Asia. In regions where there is great variation in water level 
between high and low tides, shellfish can usually be obtained 
easily at low water, either by digging them with a stick on the 
tide flats or by collecting them from exposed pools and off-shore 
reefs. On open sandy beaches with a low tide range, shellfish 
are often cast up by storm waves. Before eating them, how- 
ever, make sure they are not spoiled. Generally speaking, the 
bivalves, such as clams and mussels (Fig. 49-1, J, L, M, N) are 
more palatable than those with spiral shells, like snails, though 
all are edible. 
One of the most common edible mollusks of the Far North 
is the small blackish-purple mussel (Fig. 49-1). In North Pacific 
waters this mussel is poisonous at certain times of the year 
and in regions south of the Aleutian Islands should not be 
eaten. In the Arctic and on the shores of the Bering Sea, 
however, they may be eaten safely. 
Chitons (Fig. 49-K) attach themselves to rocks and have to be 
pried off. They are oval in shape and have the shell divided 
into eight separate overlapping plates. 
The eggs of the spiny sea urchins (Fig. 49-H) are excellent 
food. In early days enormous quantities were consumed by 
the natives of the Aleutian Islands and South Alaska. Sea 
urchins are easily collected among the rocks and in tide pools 
at low water. The bright yellow eggs or roe are obtained by 
breaking the shell between two stones. One adult may contain 
as much as a tablespoonful of eggs. 144 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Another sea animal that provides good food is the sea cu- 
cumber (fig. 49>-G). Inside the body are five long white muscles 
that taste much like clam meat. 
In early summer it is sometimes possible to scoop up smelt 
when they come to the edge of the beach to spawn in the surf. 
Whenever available the Eskimos and northern Indians eat 
kelp, the long ribbon-like seaweed, as well as the smaller branch- 
ing variety that grows among the off-shore rocks. It is eaten 
raw. In mid-summer many of the seaweeds are covered with 
herring eggs and these are eagerly eaten by the Eskimos. 
Fish 
Salmon, cod, sculpin, trout, whiteflsh, herring, flounder, and 
other salt water fish are abundant in the Arctic and along 
northern Atlantic and Pacific shores. Some of these can be 
caught by surf casting from the beach with a long hand line. 
In spring and summer salmon enter many of the northern 
streams to spawn—often in such numbers that they can be 
speared from the bank. An improvised gig or spear—a long 
pole with two or three sharp wooden barbs lashed to the end— 
can be used effectively in shallow water. 
Small trout, grayling, and other fresh water fish will take 
any kind of bait—worm, bug or piece of meat—and can be 
caught with the simplest of makeshift tackle, such as a bent 
pin or a small sharp wooden hook attached to a thread or 
raveling. 
The simplest form of hook, one used by primitive peoples in 
many parts of the world, is the gorge. This is a straight sliver 
of wood or bone sharpened at both ends and with the line THE ARCTIC 
145 
attached at the middle. It is entirely covered with bait and 
is swallowed lengthwise by the fish. A pull on the line then 
turns it crosswise in the gullet. 
In winter fish can be caught at open leads or through holes 
cut in the ice. The hook should be barbless so that the fish 
can flop off as soon as it is hauled out, for in cold weather 
it is difficult to remove a barbed hook with bare fingers. 
Tom-cod and sculpin are the principal salt water fish that 
can be caught in winter. Bait is not necessary. A white stone 
used for a sinker, or a bit of shiny metal or brightly colored 
cloth tied just above the hook will attract the fish, which can 
then be caught by jigging the line up and down. 
In fishing through the ice for lake trout or salmon the hook 
should be lowered to the bottom, then raised a few inches and 
kept constantly jigging. The best bait is a strip cut from the 
belly of a fish. 
Land Animals 
The caribou is the best all-round food animal on land In the 
American Arctic. Some caribou move south to forested country 
in the fall, but many remain on the northern islands and Barren 
Grounds throughout the winter. Approach them carefully, 
taking advantage of any cover, and try to get within 200 yards 
before firing. Be certain that you are down wind from them 
so that they cannot get your scent. 
Wolves, foxes, snow-shoe rabbits, lemmings, weasels, and field 
mice remain the year round and may be shot or trapped for food. 
Ground squirrels are found in summer but hibernate in winter. 
Musk-ox provide excellent food but are now found in only a few 
remote localities in the Far North. 146 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Rabbits and ground squirrels can be caught with a spring pole 
snare (Fig. 50). A light pole about 5 feet long (A) is stuck in 
the ground or a growing sapling can be bent over. Over the 
runway or the entrance of the burrow is placed a bent-over limb 
(B), both ends of which are stuck firmly in the ground. A 
strong cord or light pliable wire is fastened securely to the end 
Figuhe 50.—Pole snare, 
of the spring pole, the longer end forming a noose and the 
shorter end hanging free (upper left). The free end and the line 
leading to the noose are looped (not tied) into a simple “catch 
loop” (upper right) on the under side of the bent over limb 
(B). This catch loop holds down the end of the spring pole. 
After the animal’s head goes through the noose the slightest 
pull by his shoulders will release the catch loop thus freeing the 
spring pole and drawing the noose tight. THE ARCTIC 
147 
If the snare is set to catch rabbits on a runway, the bent 
limb (B) should be about 1 foot 3 inches high at the middle. The 
bottom of the noose should be about 6 inches off the ground. 
Brush or limbs should be placed under it and on either side to 
prevent the animal from going under or around. 
For catching ground squirrels the noose should be placed 
directly in front of the burrow and be slightly smaller than the 
opening. 
If a spring pole is not available a simple hanging noose can be 
attached to a fixed limb or other immovable object and suspended 
over the runway or burrow entrance. 
Sea Animals 
Polar bears live on the ice floes and feed on seals. They can be 
shot without much trouble but it takes a bullet in the heart or 
brain to kill them. Polar bear liver is poisonous and should not 
be eaten. 
Seals are hard to approach but every effort should be made to 
get them for they provide the best meat. In spring seals come 
up to bask on the ice beside their breathing holes. They sleep 
restlessly, raising their heads about every 30 seconds to look 
around for their enemy, the polar bear. In approaching the 
seal, the Eskimo hunter crawls forward cautiously while the 
seal is sleeping, being careful to keep downwind of it. When 
the seal moves the hunter stops and imitates its movements, lying 
flat on the ice, raising his head up and down and wriggling his 
body slightly. In order to look as much like a seal as possible 
the hunter approaches the seal sideways instead of head on and 
keeps his arms close to his body. Since the seal is lying on 148 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
smooth ice and usually at an incline near the edge of the breath- 
ing hole, it must be killed instantly by a shot through the brain, 
for with the least movement of its body it will slide into the 
water. Therefore, it should be shot shrough the head at close 
range, 25 to 50 yards, so that the hunter can dash up and seize 
it before it reaches the water and sinks. 
Seals can also be shot in open water, and in winter they will 
usually float, blit the problem is to retrieve them. To accomplish 
this the Eskimos use a seal hook, a short wooden club or ball 
about the size of a grapefruit, with four sharp upcurved iron 
hooks at the center. This is attached to a long line and is thrown 
over the seal which is hooked and pulled in. The wooden 
grapple described in the section on making your own fishing kit 
(p. 12) would serve this purpose if it were heavy enough and 
the barbs sharp and strong enough to penetrate the seal’s hide. 
Walruses are found on moving ice floes or at leads not far from 
shore where they can feed on clams. They should be shot 
through the neck, just below the head. 
Birds 
The only birds that remain in the Arctic over the winter are 
ptarmigan, owls and ravens. Even these are likely to be scarce 
north of the timber line, especially in the interior. Havens are 
thin and of little use as food but owls and ptarmigan equal any 
game bird in taste. Ptarmigan can be caught with noose snares 
or even knocked down with a stick or stone. 
In summer countless numbers of birds come north to breed. 
Ducks, geese, loons, and many other kinds of land birds build 
their nests near ponds on the low tundra and their eggs can be THE ARCTIC 
149 
collected for food. Millions of sea birds nest on rocky shore 
cliffs but are usually hard to reach. 
The Eskimos catch many birds with simple noose snares. To 
catch nesting birds they place the noose in the nest to catch the 
bird’s feet The noose is attached to a stake driven in the ground 
nearby. Sometimes long lines with many small nooses attached 
are set out on beaches and ponds where birds gather. 
Sea gulls can be caught with a gorge made of a sharp sliver 
of bone or wood about 3% inches long with a long line attached 
at the middle. The bait is a piece of fish or meat completely 
covering the stick or bone, which when swallowed will turn 
crosswise in the gull’s throat. 
Plant Foods 
Though plant food is not abundant in the Arctic it is by no 
means absent. In the summer there are numerous varieties of 
edible berries, greens, roots, and lichens that can be collected 
along the seacoasts and in the interior if one knows where to 
look. A few varieties of berries may be found even in winter 
under the snow. There is no need to worry about poisonous 
plants, for with the exception of a single variety of mushroom 
(Fig. 51), none grows in the Arctic. The only problem is to be 
able to distinguish the more palatable and nutritious plants from 
those that hfive no value as food. Brief descriptions of the 
principal Arctic food plants are given below: 
The salmonberry (Fig. 52), also known as the cloudberry, 
is a low creeping plant, rarely more than 3 inches high. It is 
widely distributed in the Arctic, growing on mossy, peaty soil. 
The leaves are large and wide, with five lobes, and the flowers 150 
SURVIVAL, ON LAND AND SEA 
WHITE GILLS 
Fiockh 51.—Poisonous mushroom, about 3%" broad, 7%" high. 
See p. 149. THE ARCTIC 
151 
SALMON-COLORED 
BERRY 
FLOWER 
? WHITE 
WIRY 
| STEMS 
Figure 52.—Salmonberry. 3” to 10" high. See p. 149. 152 
SURVIVAL. ON LAND AND SEA 
are white, about % of an inch in diameter. The berries are 
about the size of raspberries, very juicy with a pleasant taste. 
When immature they are red, changing to yellow as they ripen 
in July or August. The mountain cranberry (Fig. 53) is a low, 
creeping evergreen shrub from 2 to 8 inches high. It has small, 
shiny, dark green leaves and clusters of white or pink bell- 
shaped flowers. The berries are dark red, about % to Vz 
inch in diameter. They ripen in August and September, but 
remain on the bush all winter and can be gathered the next 
spring when they taste even better than in the fall. The plant 
is widely distributed in the Arctic but usually does not bear 
fruit north of the tree line. It is found in greatest abundance 
in open birch and willow thickets. When stewed and sweet- 
ened the mountain cranberry is even better than the southern 
variety. 
The black crowberry (Fig. 54) is a low evergreen plant with 
spreading branches and small narrow leaves resembling those 
of a fir or spruce. The flowers are inconspicuous. The small, 
black shiny berries are sweet and juicy. The crowberry is 
found in many parts of the Arctic, growing best in sandy or 
rocky soil, especially along the seacoasts. The Eskimos are 
very fond of the berries and collect them from under the snow, 
since they remain on the bush through the winter. 
Two varieties of bilberry, closely resembling our blueberry, 
grow in abundance on the mossy hillsides and tundra. They 
produce delicious bluish-black berries. Somewhat resembling 
the bilberries are the Alpine and red bearberry, low plants with 
small red or black berries. They are rather mealy, and taste 
better stewed. THE ARCTIC 
153 
FLOWERS 
) PINKISH 
FRUITS 
RED 
LEAVES 
THICK 
Pigokk 53.—Mountain cranberry. Low, creeping. See p. 152. 154 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Figure 54.—Black crowberry. See p. 152. THE ARCTIC 
155 
In the forested interior there are several other varieties of 
edible berries, the most important being the Northern goose- 
berry, the red currant, and the wild raspberry. 
GREENS 
Mountain sorrel (Fig. 55) is a low plant with round or kidney- 
shaped leaves and stalks of small red or green flowers that 
grows on shady hillslopes and ravines. The leaves have a pleas- 
ant, slightly acid taste and may be eaten raw or boiled. 
The willow herb or northern fireweed is an erect plant with 
dark green, narrow, pointed leaves and large purple flowers that 
reaches a height of 18 inches. It grows on shady or gravelly 
soil, especially along creeks and river banks. When cooked, 
ihe leaves taste something like spinach. 
Wild rhubarb (Fig. 56) is a large plant, 3 to 6 feet high, with 
reddish stems, large pointed leaves and clusters of small flowers. 
It is common in the Yukon and Mackenzie valleys but absent 
to the east. The young juicy stems that appear in the spring 
may be stewed or boiled like rhubarb. 
The tender young leaves of the dwarf willow (Fig. 48) and also 
the inner bark of willow roots, may be boiled and eaten. These 
are among the favorite vegetable foods of the Eskimos in some 
parts of Alaska. 
Another favorite food plant of the Bering Sea Eskimos and 
Aleuts is the wild celery or wild parsnip (Fig. 57). On the main- 
land usually it is less than 2 feet tall, but on the Aleutian Islands 
it reaches a height of 6 feet or more. It has a straight thick 
stalk, large leaves with deeply indented margins, and numerous 
clusters of small flowers branching out at the top of the stalk. 156 
survival on land and sea 
Figure 55.—Mountain sorrel, a low herb. See n. 155. 1ST 
The tender inner portions of the main stalk and the leaf stalks 
have a somewhat sweetish taste and may be eaten raw after 
stripping off the outer covering. It grows in protected spots 
where the soil is rich, especially around old village sites, and 
is well known as a food plant in the sub-Arctic sections of Green- 
land, Kamchatka, and Europe. 
THE ARCTIC 
Kelp and other seaweeds are also eaten by the Eskimos, either 
raw or boiled. 
ROOTS 
Four kinds of edible roots are shown in figures 58 to 61. Lico- 
rice root (Fig. 58) grows from 1 to 2 feet high and has stalks 
of pink flowers that develop into seed pods. It has a flexible 
root, about as thick as a man’s finger. When cooked it tastes 
like carrots. 
The woolly louse wort (Fig. 59) is 5 to 8 inches high with 
several stems of rose colored flowers, and has a yellow tap root 
which tastes like carrots. It is found mostly in dry tundra 
country. 
Snakeroot (Fig. 60) from 5 to 10 inches high with large oblong 
leaves, spikes of white or pink flowers and an edible root about 
the size of a pecan, grows on dry tundra. 
There is a small plant belonging to the lily family (Fig,. 61) 
that is common on the Aleutian Islands and along the Alaskan 
coast to Bering Strait and the opposite shores of Asia, but is 
not found in the high Arctic. It has greenish purple flowers, 
long pointed leaves and an edible root like a small onion. The 
roots taste bitter when raw but can be boiled into a starch paste 
and eaten. Eskimos and Aleuts are fond of the bulbs, often 
boiling them with their meat. 158 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Figure 56. Wild rhubarb, a large edible herb, 3-6 feet high. See p. 155. THE ARCTIC 
159 
FLOWERS 
WHITE 
YOUNG STEMS 
EDIBLE RAW 
OR COOKED 
Figure 57.—Wild celery or parsnip. Herb, 2—6 feet high. See p. 155. 160 
SURVIVAL. ON LAND AND SEA 
FRUIT 
PODS 
FLOWERS 
PINK 
ROOTS EDIBLE 
Figure 58.—Licorice root, height up to 2 feet. See p. 157. THE ABCTIO 
161 
Figure 59.—Woolly lousewort, height up to 8 inches. See p. 157. 162 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Exgoke 00.—Snakeroot, height up to 10 inches. See p. 157. THE ARCTIC 
163 
FLOWERS GREENISH 
PURPLE. 
Figure 61.—Fritillaria, lilylike herb. Root parts onionlike, edible 
when boiled. See p. 157. 1G4 
SURVIVAL OX LAND AND SEA 
EDIBLE FUNGI AND LICHENS 
Many edible mushrooms occur in the wooded sections, but 
one kind is poisonous (Fig. 51). This is white or greenish or 
grayish brown, is smooth on top, has white gills, and a bulbous 
base. To be on the safe side avoid any mushroom with white 
gills and a swollen base. All others may be eaten. 
Among the edible lichens of the North are reindeer moss 
(Fig. 62) and Iceland moss (Fig. 63) which resembles it. These 
are low, moss-like plants with a network of branching stems in- 
stead of leaves. To be eaten they must first be soaked in water, 
then dried, ground into a powder, and again placed in water for 
several hours before being boiled. This will produce a sticky 
porridge-like mixture which though somewhat insipid to taste, 
has considerable food value. 
Another edible lichen that may be prepared in the same way 
is rock tripe (Fig. 64) a black or brown leathery lichen that 
grows abundantly on rocks all through the Arctic. It has broad 
fronds, 1 to 3 inches in diameter, folded or crinkled at the edges 
and attached to the rock at the center. Rock tripe is commonly 
used in the North as an emergency food. Sir John Franklin, 
Richardson and other early Arctic explorers lived for weeks on 
it with hardly any other food. 
Arctic Ailments 
Snowblindness is caused by the glare from snow and ice, not 
only from light reflected directly by the sun, but also from dif- 
fused light when the sky is dark and overcast. Though actual 
blindness does not result, the condition is painful and serious. THE ARCTIC 
165 
GREENISH 
GRAY. 
ON OPEN 
TUNDRA. 
Figdke 62.—Reindeer moss. See p. 164. 
Rubbing the eyes will increase the burning and stinging sensa- 
tion. The only treatment is complete rest for the eyes by wear- 
ing dark glasses or, in severe cases, by bandaging the eyes. 166 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
PALE GREEN 
ON OPEN TUNDRA 
Figure 63.—Iceland moss. See p. 164. 
To prevent snowblindness dark glasses should be worn at all 
times. They should have shields to prevent glare from entering 
at the sides. The rims should not be of metal as they might 
stick to the skin. If dark glasses are not available, improvised 
goggles can be made from pieces of canvas or other heavy cloth, 
cardboard, or even pieces of wood, with narrow slits for the eyes. 
Blackening the cheeks and nose with soot is helpful. 
For warmth, clothing should be kept as dry as possible. 
Before going inside the tent or shelter, brush the snow from your 
clothes. It is extremely important to avoid overheating for THE ARCTIC 
167 
LIKE 
LEATHERY 
LEAVES ON 
ROCKS. 
BROWN 
GREENISH 
Figure 64.—Rock tripe. See p. 164. 1G'8 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
freezing may result from excessive perspiration. With the heavy 
clothes that you have to wear in the Arctic you will naturally 
sweat if you are very active. As soon as you are conscious of 
overheating, loosen your clothing or remove the outer layers 
entirely. If you are doing hard work or hiking you will not need 
as much clothing as when you are inactive. The guiding rule is 
to avoid heavy sweating at all costs, wearing just enough clothes 
to keep warm and comfortable, and removing outer garments as 
soon as you begin to perspire. 
Socks, inner soles, and boots should be dried at night. If 
possible, stuff wet shoes with dry grass or other material to 
absorb the moisture; do not put them too near the fire or they 
will harden and crack. 
You must be on guard against frostbite and freezing of the 
fingers, toes, ears, face or other parts. Keep your face and ears 
covered as much as possible and wiggle your fingers and toes 
frequently to keep up circulation. Should a white spot appear 
on the skin, or the toes or fingers begin to feel numb, treatment 
should be begun immediately. If the white patch can be covered 
with a warm, ungloved hand circulation may be quickly restored 
to it. Frosted fingers may be treated by contact with the warm 
body under the clothing. A frosted foot is best warmed by 
removal of the shoe and sock and the placing of the bare foot 
inside the shirt and against the body of a companion. Gentle 
massage may aid in restoring circulation. Do not rub roughly or 
apply snow or ice to the part. The application of heat at tem- 
peratures greater than that of the body (98.6° F.) will do more 
harm than good. If circulation cannot be restored promptly and 
the part returned to its normal color, it should be wrapped (in 
a sterile bandage if possible), be covered warmly and kept at rest. YIII 
THE DESERTS 
Deserts are usually large, barren, dry, hot in the daytime, 
cool at night, and relatively free from dangerous large animals. 
Being too large to walk out of easily, deserts force you to plan 
carefully and to conserve your strength and supplies to the ut- 
most. Being barren, deserts cannot be expected to supply you 
with vegetable food; you cannot count on any growing thing to 
eat. Being dry, deserts deplete rather than replenish your 
precious water supply. Being hot in the daytime, and cooler at 
night, deserts force you to lie quietly during the sunlight hours 
and to travel at night. Being fairly free of large dangerous 
animals, deserts relieve you of the necessity of carrying heavy 
weapons, which would otherwise add to your load. Be sure to 
keep light arms in case you are lucky enough to find birds or 
other small game. 
The two most important things to remember are: 
(1) Save your water supply. Do not swallow large mouthfuls 
but merely moisten your lips and throat with a small sip now 
and then. 
(2) Conserve your strength by staying quietly under cover dur- 
ing the heat of mid-day. Walk during the early evening, night, 
and early morning, when it is more comfortable and when you 
can avoid the risk of sunstroke or heat prostration and get along 
on less water. 
169 170 
SURVIVAL OX LAND AND SEA 
WATER 
If yon have more equipment than you can carry, sacrifice 
anything but water. The amount of water you carry is the 
amount of insurance you have against desert disaster. Use 
what water you have for drinking. You can wash when you 
are safe again. Of course, if you have any wounds, scratches 
or sores you must keep them clean even at the expense of your 
precious drinking supply. If you have any salt tablets with 
you, take them from time to time, the interval depending on 
how many tablets you have and how far from help you estimate 
you may be. They will help combat fatigue and heatstroke, and 
also enable you to get along on less water. Do not smoke. Smok- 
ing increases thirst. Carrying a smooth pebble in the mouth 
will reduce thirst by stimulating the flow of saliva. 
There are several aids to finding water that may be present 
in some desert areas. If there are any dried-up stream beds, 
which look like long, fairly narrow and rather shallow ditches, 
choose the lowest place in the bottom of the ditch and dig. If 
there is any water within a few feet of the surface you will 
soon feel that the sand is slightly damp. If you find this to be 
so, dig further and you may find water. The same is true for 
dried-up lake beds. These are usually pond-shaped fairly level 
areas, called “pans” in some deserts, around the edges of which 
are slightly raised ridges. Again find the lowest spot and dig. 
Remember that water runs down hill and that it seeks the lowest 
place it can reach either on or under the surface. 
Plants are good indicators of water. As a rule the denser the 
growth of such desert grasses as salt grass and reed-like grasses, 
the closer to the surface the water probably is. In those deserts THE DESERTS 
171 
of the western United States where the desert palm is found, its 
presence is a sure indicator of water, usually not more than a foot 
or two away from its base. Other palms in other deserts are also 
good water indicators (see desert plants, p. 119). 
In deserts where there are appreciable numbers of animals, 
you may find water by following their trails. The water to 
which they go may be on the surface or slightly beneath it. 
You will see where they have pawed or dug the sand to get 
at the water. 
If you find surface water that is polluted or briny, dig a 
hole in the sand close to it and downhill from it (or deeper 
than it). Do not attempt to connect the two holes. The wall 
of sand between them should act as a filter and the water as 
it soaks through into the hole you have made will be relatively 
free from salt and pollution. Presence of briny surface water 
may mean pure water deeper down. Dig a deeper hole nearby 
to get the pure water. 
Do not drink all your water when you see a lake or stream. 
Wait until you get to it. It may be a mirage and leave you 
in a far worse plight than before. 
If you come to a water hole or small oasis you can replenish 
your supplies of water and food. Boil all the water before 
using it or storing it in your canteens for the next trek. Cook 
any food you may get from natives at an oasis. Do not trust 
ready-cooked food or raw fruits and vegetables. (See Polluted 
Foods, p. 130.) 
FOOD 
Go over what food you have and decide on a daily ration. 
Eat as little as possible. The more you eat the more water 172 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
you will want, and the sooner you will be out of both food 
and water. The heat of the desert will tend to reduce your 
appetite. Food spoils rapidly when once it is opened, so make 
your meals of one can or package at a time. As much as possible 
use foods that require less water to wash them down—such 
as packaged meats and dried fruits; avoid thirst producers like 
crackers and mealy foods. If you have a chance to shoot or 
capture any game, the meat when cooked will supply some 
moisture as well as nourishment. 
DUST 
If the wind causes a dust storm, cover your nose and mouth 
with any cloth you may have to act as a filter for the air you 
inhale. Keep your hack to the wind; it helps protect your eyes 
and your breathing. 
CLOTHES 
Be sure to keep your head and body covered from the sun 
during the day. The nights are apt to be cool ,and you should 
have warm enough clothing. Remember this if you have to 
decide how much of your clothing you can afford to discard 
to lighten your load. In the daytime always wear a woolen 
cloth around your abdomen to prevent chills, especially when 
it is very hot and there is rapid evaporation of perspiration. 
Chilling of the abdomen may bring on diarrhea and other 
complaints. 
Wear clothing as loose as possible. Any flapping as you 
move helps create a little breeze which aids in evaporation THE DESERTS 
173 
of your perspiration. This, in turn, helps maintain your normal 
body temperature, and helps to keep you from overheating. 
Your feet are your only means of reaching safety, so take care 
of them. Keep sand out of your shoes, even if it means frequent 
stops. Spiral puttees overlapping the top of the shoes help to 
keep sand out. If your shoes are thin wear two pairs of socks 
if possible. 
HOW TO TRAVEL 
If you think you may be found where you are, stay there. 
Otherwise travel at night and do not try for too great speed. 
Remember the marathon runner. He conserves his strength 
for distance and does not try to sprint. In the daytime rest 
quietly, covered from the sun by shade, if any, or by a make- 
shift blanket. If you have a compass, trust it rather than 
yourself. If you do not have one, never forget the importance 
of keeping on a straight path. When resting, always sit facing 
the direction you want to go. When lying down have your head 
in that direction, so that you won’t forget which way you were 
going. Or arrange a stick or a line of pebbles as a pointer. 
SIGNALS 
If you have matches and any burnable material, make a bright 
fire as a signal at night, or a smoky smudge as a signal in the 
daytime. If you have gasoline, you can scratch large letters 
in the sand, fill these trench-like lines with gasoline and ignite 
when planes pass overhead. 174 
SURVIVAL. ON LAND AND SEA 
DESERT AILMENTS 
There are three chief desert illnesses (other than thirst). 
They are: 
(1) Heatstroke or sunstroke. Symptoms—headache, spots be- 
fore the eyes, dizziness, vomiting, sometimes even unconscious- 
ness; skin is hot and dry; face -flushed. Treatment—place vic- 
tim on his back in shade and remove all outer clothing. Raise 
his head ; cool his body with water and by fanning; rub his arms, 
legs, and trunk; if conscious give him two salt tablets with a 
canteen of water. 
(2) Heat exhaustion. Symptoms—nausea, dizziness, weak- 
ness ; face is pale and skin is cold and sweating. Treatment— 
place victim on his back in shade and give three to five canteens 
full of cool water, 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls of salt to the gallon, during 
the next 12 hours. 
(3) Heat cramps. Symptoms—shallow breathing, vomiting, 
dizziness. Treatment—same as for heat exhaustion. 
Under conditions where supplies are available and there is 
no shortage of water, heat exhaustion and cramps can be 
guarded against by alloting at least 2 gallons of drinking water 
per day per man, and by salting the water with 2 to 3 tea- 
spoonsful of salt to the gallon. When possible all food should 
be heavily salted. Avoid alcoholic beverages and meat in large 
quantities. 
Desert sores may develop whenever a break occurs in the 
skin under desert conditions. Prompt disinfection of all 
wounds, no matter how trivial, with 2 percent tincture of 
iodine, proflavine, zephiran or other agent, and covering with 
sterile gauze to prevent contamination by flies will be helpful. IX 
THE UNITED STATES 
Finally, for the benefit of those who have successfully adapted 
themselves to all the strange environments herein discussed, 
there is attached a final word concerning that welcome time when 
you return to the United States with victories and strange expe- 
riences behind you. Lest you unwittingly violate local taboos, 
we include the following advice for visitors to the United 
States by Weare Holbrook in This Week magazine* : 
“Americans usually open a conversation by asking, ‘Well, 
what’s new?’ It is not necessary to reply to this except by 
saying, ‘Well, what’s new with you?’ 
“The monetary system is rather confusing. Regardless of 
their denomination, five, ten, and twenty-dollar bills are all the 
same size. A nickel (worth only five cents) is almost twice as 
large as a dime (worth ten cents). Two dollar bills are tabu 
and the natives are extremely superstitious about them. 
“Listen patiently when veterans of the first World War tell 
you how much tougher things were in their day. Remember 
they had to listen to the Spanish-American War veterans, who in 
turn had to listen to the Civil War veterans. 
“In some parts of the United States, eggs in powdered form 
are unobtainable, and you will have no choice but to eat them 
directly from the shell. However, it is always advisable to 
‘Through an unfortunate error, these excerpts were erroneously 
ascribed to another author in the first edition of Survival on Land and 
Sea. 
175 176 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
boil them first. In the rural districts it is also difficult to get 
dried vegetables owing to a lack of dehydrating equipment. 
“You may be shocked to see beets, turnips, and potatoes dis- 
played in their natural state, with bits of garden soil still cling- 
ing to them. Yet when mashed and properly prepared, these 
vegetables can be quite palatable. The natives seem to thrive 
on them. 
“In churches and auditoriums and other public places you will 
often see women surreptitiously slipping their feet out of their 
shoes and wiggling their toes. This is strictly a feminine pre- 
rogative, and has no religious significance. Do not attempt 
to imitate them. Always be tactful. If, for example, you notice 
that your Aunt Beulah has had her extra chin removed by plastic 
surgery, don’t congratulate her. This operation is known as 
‘losing face’ and the natives are very sensitive about it. 
“But after all, the best way to understand the Americans is 
to settle down and actually live with them. They are really a 
very friendly people despite the apparent ferocity of their hand- 
shakes and their violent back-slapping. They mean well. 
Remember their civilization is much younger than that of Europe 
and Asia. They are just great big overgrown children at heart 
and should be treated as such.” INDEX 
A 
Pago 
Abandoning ship 3 
Acorns 116 
Africa, plants of 119 
Air plants as thirst quenchers 33,59 
Alcohol, danger of drinking.. 8,76.174 
America, tropical plants of 119 
Animals in the Arctic 141,146,147 
Animals in the tropics 59, 79 
Ants 74 
Arctic: 
animals of 141,145,147 
plants of... 149 
survival in 132 
Atabrine, dosage as malaria preventive 72 
Bait for fish 13,14,16, 43,144 
Balsam vine i 91 
Bamboo: 
shoots as food - - - 99 
use of, for rafts 62 
use of, for shelter 64 
Bananas, kinds of 93 
Bearberries 152 
Bears, polar 147 
Bees - 74 
Beetles, as food 81 
Berries, as food 103,149 
Bilberries 152 
Birds, edible; 
ducks 141,148 
geese 141,148 
loons 148 
owls 148 
parrots —1 80 
ptarmigans 148 
ravens - 148 
seagulls - —- 149 
B ird eggs 148 
Blood worms 77 
Box fish 49 
Breadfruit tree 89 
Burning glass for starting fire... 71 
Burr fish 49 
Butterflies and moths 74 
B 
177 178 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
C 
Page 
Cacti. 119 
Carbon-monoxide poisoning, avoidance of 139 
Caribe (South American fish) 77 
Caribou.. 141,145 
Cashew nuts 95 
Cassava.. 103,116 
Cassiope 134 
Castor oil plant 122 
Catfish 51 
Celery, wild 155 
Centipede, sting of 74 
Central America, plants of 119 
Ceremony, native religious 63 
Chart, waterproof- 19 
Cherry, ground.. j. 103 
Chigger bites, how to recognize and treat 72 
China nut or lychee 116 
Cicadas, as food 81 
“Climbing bandage” for climbing coconut tree 36 
Clothing: 
in the Arctic 166 
in the desert 172 
Clouds, as indication of land 31 
Coconut: 
as source of food and drink 36 
fiber for cordage 36 
how to open 39 
how to reach by climbing 36 
leaves for shelter 64 
oil as skin protector and mite repellent. 32,40,73 
Codfish 144 
Coloradilla 72 
Cones, tyiie of poisonous mollusk 41 
Constellations 23 
Constipation 8 
C ooking intheArctic 140 
Coral reefs, dangers from 31 
Cowormilk tree 116 
Cowfish - - 49 
Cowhage 130 
Crabs, how to catch and cook 42 
Cramps, heat - 174 
Cranberry, mountain 152 
Crawfish (shrimp), how to catch and cook 82 
Crocodiles- 77 
Cross, Southern 29 
Currents and wind 18 
Desert country, survival in 169 
Desert sores 174 
D INDEX 
179 
Dew, collection of 59 
Dip net, how to make... 44,82 
Dipper, the, how to locate... 25 
Direction, determining. , 20 
Disease from natives 54 
Disinfection of wounds 52 
Driftwood as signal-fire material 134 
Drill, fire, how to make 68 
Drinking water (see: Water, drinking). 
Ducks and geese 141,148 
Dumb Cane 122 
Durian tree, fruit of 112 
Dust storms 172 
Eggs, birds’... .80,148 
Exposure at sea 7 
Eyes and glare. 7,164 
E 
Feet, care of 168,173 
Ferns, edible kinds of _ 108,112,116 
Field mice 145 
Figs 115,119 
Fig tree. 115 
Fileflsh 49 
Firemaking 65,134,136 
Fire plow, how to make and use 67 
First aid.. 72, 164,174 
Fish: 
Arctic 141,144 
atsea_. l 10 
attracting at sea... 14 
cooking 41 
eggs 47,144 
hooks, bait, nets and lines for... 12 
island sea food 40 
poisonous varieties of 43 
precautions 48 
preservation of 47 
trapping of 47 
with poisonous flesh 48 
with poisonous spines 49 
Flukes or blood worms, danger areas for 77 
Flying fish 16 
Food; 
animal: 
Arctic. 141,145,147 
land mammals 141,145 
sea mammals 147 
tropical and jungle ; 79,83 
birds and birds’ eggs.. 80.148 
fish and fish eggs 47.144 
F 180 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Food—Continued. Page 
fruits (see: Fruits, edible). 
fungi and lichen 164 
insects 74,81,82 
nuts (see: Nuts, edible), 
plants (see: Plants, edible), 
reptiles (see: Reptiles, edible). 
roots.. 149,157 
sea animals . 147 
shellfish (see: Shellfish, edible). 
Food at sea, how to issue . 10 
Food, preservation and care of 47,81,93 
Food, where to locate: 
Arctic 141 
clearings and abandoned fields 93,105 
river and stream margins 106 
seashores 84,142 
swamps 91,108 
tropical forests and jungles... .• ... 79,83,112 
woods and thickets 105 
Forests, wet and dry 58 
Foxes 145 
Freezing, treatment for 164 
Frostbite, treatment for 164 
Fruits: 
apples, wild 116 
balsam vine 91 
bananas 93 
berries 103,149 
breadfruit...... 89 
cherries, ground 103 
durian. 112 
figs 115,119 
gourds 91 
grapes 91 
longan.. 116 
mango 95,119,122 
melons ../ 91 
papaya . 93 
peaches. 116 
pineapples.. 103 
plantains 93 
Fuel, kinds of 65,134,136 
Fungi, edible 164 
Game, where to watch for 62 
Gas, carbon-monoxide, poisoning. 139 
Geese.. - 141,148 
Glass, burning, for starting fire 71 
Gourds 91 
G INDEX 
181 
Grapevines 91 
Grasshoppers, as food 81 
Greens, edible, of the Arctic.. : 149,155 
Ground cherry 103 
Ground squirrels 145 
Grubs, as food 81 
Gulls, sea, how to catch * 149 
Page 
H 
Heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and cramps 174 
Herring and herring eggs , 144 
Hooks, fish. 12 
Horseradish tree 105 
Husk, removal of, from green coconut 39 
Iceland moss 164 
Immersion foot - 8 
Indications of land 31 
Indo-China and Siam, plants of 116 
Infection, plant 119 
Insect bites, treatment of 72 
Insects, edible: 
ants - 74 
beetles 81 
cicadas - - 81 
grasshoppers - 81 
palm weevils 81 
termites - — 82 
Iron pyrites - - — 136 
Island seafoods, kinds of. 40 
Island survival. 31 
1 
J 
Jiggers or chiggers - 72 
Job’s tears, . 105 
Jungle: 
animals 59 
dangers - 59,71 
foods 112 
how to conduct yourself in 58 
insects 71 
reptiles... — - 75 
Kelp - - 144,157 
Kindling or tinder - .. 67,134,136 
“Lagoon Glare”, definition of 31 
Landfall on inhabited or uninhabited island 31 
K 182 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
L 
Page 
Land, indications of 31 
Landings, instructions for 31 
Land leeches, dangers from 75 
Land mammals. 63,141,145 
Lean-to, how to build 64,139 
Leeches, ways of removing 75 
Lemmings .. 145 
Lichens, edible, Arctic 149,164 
Licorice root... . 157 
Life boat, conduct in. 6 
Lizards, as food 79 
Lobsters, how to catch.. . 42 
Log, over-water flight.. 19 
Longan - 116 
Loons, as food 148 
Lotus ■ 107 
Lump fish 50 
Lyehee, or China nut... 116 
Malaria, precautions against 72 
Malaysia, Polynesia, and the Philippines, plants of 89,100,116 
Mammals, land ; 63,141,145 
Mammals, sea 147 
Mancineel or manzanillo tree 122 
Mango , 95,119,122 
Maps, value of - 19 
Matches, care of 65 
Meat, how to preserve 47,81 
Medical treatment 72,164,174 
Melons 91 
Mice, field 1- - 145 
Milk tree 116 
Mirages 31,171 
Mite-borne diseases .■ 72 
Mites, protection against 40,72 
Mollusks, edible, varieties of 41,142 
Mollusks, poisonous, varieties of 41,143 
Monkeys as food.. 80 
Mosquitoes, protection against , 71 
Moss, Arctic - 136,164 
Moths and butterflies - 74 
Mulberries 103,116 
Mushrooms, Arctic, edible. - 149,164 
Mushrooms, Arctic, poisonous 149,164 
Musk-ox 145 
M 
N 
Natives - 53 
N avigation: 
by stars, sun, etc 21 
general 17 
nf i-pfts ... - . . 18 INDEX 
183 
Page 
Needle-urchins, description of 46 
Net, dip, how to make 44,82 
Nettles I 130 
Nettle tree 130 
Nipapalm 112 
North Star (Polaris), how to locate. 25 
Nuts, edible: 
acoms 116 
cashew 95 
chestnut, water 108 
lychee, or China nut.. 116 
peanuts 103 
Oases, safety rules for food at. 171 
Oil: 
bums, how to avoic}, when abandoning ship 5 
coconut, direction for extraction of 39 
coconut, use of 32,40,73 
Orientation 30 
Orion, Belt of, how to locate 24 
Owls, as food us 
o 
p 
Palms, coconut (see: Coconut) 
Palms, edible parts of 84( 112 
Palm weevil, as food - - . 81 
Pandanus, or screw pine, as food ... . 87 
Pandanus, as thirst quencher. . ,. 36 
Papaya 93 
Parrot, as food 80 
Paths to follow or avoid 62 
Peaches 116 
Peanuts .. 103 
Philippines, Polynesia, and Malaysia, plants of 89,100,116 
Physic nut .'. ’ 122 
Pigs, wild 63 
Pigweed, as thirst quencher 33 
Pine (screw) as food, and where found 87 
Pineapples 103 
Piranha, South American fish .. 77 
Plantains 93 
Plants, edible: 
arrowroot, Polynesian 91 
bamboo shoots 99 
cacti 119 
cassava 103,116 
celery, wild .. 155 
chestnut, Polynesian . .. 89 
coconuts 36 
ferns... 108,112,117 184 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Plants, edible—Continued. Page 
fungi andliehen ._. 164 
grasses 105 
horseradish 105 
lotus 107 
mountain sorrel 155 
palms 84,112 
pandanus, screw pine 87 
pokeweed 103 
purslane 33,91 
rhubarb, wild ... 155 
rice . 108 
seaweed 144,157 
sugarcane 99 
sweet potato 100 
tapioca 103,116 
taro 100 
tomatoes, wild 100,116 
water lily 107 
Plants, poisonous kinds :. 119 
Plants for shelter... 64 
Plants, tropical... 83 
Plants for water. 33, 59 
Poisonous animals and plants. 119 
Pokeweed - 103 
Polar boars.. . 147 
Polaris (North Star), how to locate. 25 
Polluted water, how to purify. 59,171 
Polynesian arrowroot 91 
Polynesian chestnut 89 
Polynesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, plants of 89,100,116 
Porcupine fish '.. . , 49 
Ptarmigan 148 
Puffer, or swell fish 49 
Purslane, as thirst quencher 33 
Purslane, as food. 91 
Pyrites.. 136 
Quinine, use of 72 
Q 
R 
Rabbits 145 
Rafts, navigation of , 18 
Rafts, wood for building 62 
Rain water, how to collect.. 9 
Rattan. 61,66,112 
Red bug (see; Mites). 
Reindeer moss, Arctic 164 
Religious rites, respect for 62 
Rengas tree. 122 
Reptiles, poisonous kinds of 16, 75 
Rescue craft, procedure in. 6 INDEX 
185 
Reptiles as food: Page 
lizards 79 
snakes I. ” 79 
turtles .-. I.””””””””.I 16 
Reptiles of jungle ””””””””””” 75 
Rhubarb, wild ”””””””.1 155 
Rice, wild I”””””””” 108 
Rock tripe, edible lichen, Arctic I””””” 164 
Roots, edible, of the Arctic I.”””” 149,157 
Salmon 144 
Salmonberry.. . 149 
Salt tablets .. ”1111.11 174 
Salt water, dangers of drinking 10,32 
Salt-water sores, prevention of ’ 40 
Sandbox tree 122 
Sandstorms 172 
Scorpion, sting of 74 
Scorpion fish . 49,52 
Screw pines. Pacific region _ 36,87 
Sculpln.. 144,145 
Sea-cucumbers, as food 45,144 
Sea-cucumbers, where to find. 45 
Seafood, varieties of 40 
Sea gulls, how to catch.. ’ ' 149 
Seals... 147 
Sea snakes, poisonous 18 
Sea-urchins or sea-eggs_. 45,143 
Seaweed, as food 144,157 
Sharks.. 16,17 
Shellfish, moliusks. etc.; 
cooking of 4X 
edible kinds of: 
dams. 41,143 
crabs... 42 
lobsters 42 
mussels ' 142 
shrimps g2 
snails... 143 
how and where to find.. 41 
Shelters: 
Arctic. 138 
building. — 64,139 
coconut leaves for building.. 64 
Shrimp, how to catch and cook g2 
Siam and Indo-Ohina, plants of 116 
Sickness. 72,164,174 
Signal fires.. - 133,173 
Sorrel, mountain 155 
Smudge fire, how to make. 134 
s 186 
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA 
Snakes: Page 
as food 79 
sea, poisonous 16 
treatmentofbitesfrom 76 
Snakeroot. 157 
Snowblindness 164 
Snow shelter 138 
Soft-bodied urchins, description of 46 
Sores, salt-water, coconut oil to prevent 40 
Sores, desert 174 
South America, plants of 95,116 
South American stream fish 77 
Southern Cross, how to locate . 29 
Spiders, bites of 74 
Spiny toadfish 50 
Squirrels, ground 145 
Stars, navigation by 22 
Stings, care of . 52,130 
Stinging fish 50 
Stinging nettle 130 
Stingrays 51 
Stonefish. 50 
Streams, as highways to rescue 61 
Strychnine 122 
Sugarcane, as food 99 
Sun, navigation by the 20 
Sunburn, prevention of 7,32,40, 63 
Sunstroke, prevention and treatment of 32,40,174 
Swamps and bogs, avoidance of 62,91 
Swamps and bogs, food from 91 
Sweet potatoes, as food 100 
T 
Tapioca 103,116 
Taro, as food 100 
Terebras, type of poisonous mollusk. 41 
Termites, winged, as food 82 
Thirst, quenching of: (see also; Water) 
at sea. 9 
by use of pebbles 170 
palm juice 61 
plants 33 
Thirst, effects of alcohol and tobacco on 8 
Thornfish 49 
Ticks, wood.. , 73 
Tiger fish.. 50 
Tinder 67,136 
Toadfish 50 
Toadstools 149 
Tobacco, effect upon thirst 8,170 
Tomatoes, wild.. 100,116 
Trails, to follow or avoid.. 63 
Trapping animals 80.146 
Trapping fish 47,82 
Trigger fish.. .-. 49 
Aroim 1A/1 IXDEX 
18T 
Tropical American foods *.. ' 110 
Tropical plants, as food R, 
Trout, salt-water ,T; 
Trank fish 1111111131 40 
Turtles, for food and drink . 
Two-stick fire drill for fire by friction 3111 68 
Urination, painful g 
u 
Vegetables, edible R, 
Venomous fish 3111 “* 
Vines, source of water... 3 3 ai 
V 
\V 
Walras, how to hunt and kill . 
Warty lump fish . _ 
wasps .311133333 
Water, drinking: 
at sea Q 
from dew " 
from fish, 311111. 313 3 ?? 
from plants ' ,, 
in the Arctic Qd’,T; 
in the desert " ’ 
on islands ‘ ‘ 
polluted, purification of„ -Q ,7, 
rainwater o qo 
salt, dangers of... — y’ 
Water chestnut *_ 
Water hyacinth 31 in? 
Water lilies 3. 
Water vine '3 ci 
Weasels 311111 
Weeds, pokeweed and purslane... 3III ,,'Q1 
Wells, dangers of digging too deep 3 ’ ok,. 
Wells, tools for digging . 
Whitefish 3III ,?? 
Wild apples. llllllllll iir 
Willow loaves and roots 3—' 1,, 
Wind and currents. ■ 
wolves ..33333333 
Woods, getting out of. 3”!* 61 
Wood ticks, how to remove 33 7, 
Wooly lousewort llllllllll is? 
Wounds, disinfection of 31 52 
33, 59 
9,141 
Yams 100 
Y 
Zebra fish g. 
z 
_U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1944